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RoT^ised Edition 
 
 )^' 
 
 w 
 
 arrens 
 
 Common-School 
 Geography 
 
 E. H. Butler & Co 
 Philadelphia 
 
s^ 
 
 Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by COWPERTHWAIT &> CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 Cofyright, 1877, by COWPERTHWAIT &' CO. Copyright, 1887, by COWPERTHWAIT &= CO. 
 
 .^-V 
 
 A- 4-7.^31 
 
 WARREN'S k. LIBRARY 
 
 I S te S fc ■■■'»'■ 
 
 Series of Geographies 
 
 I. Warren's Primary Geography 
 II Warren's Common-Soliool G-eography; or, Warren's Brief Course in Geography 
 
 in. Warren's Physical Geography 
 
 f\ l-UiS SERIES is now thoroughly revised, giving full accounts of the recent changes and discoveries. It presents a com- 
 I plate Geographical Course, adapted to all grades of Schools, and is the most Compact and Economical Series published. 
 
 Warren's Primary Geography Is now presented in a new 
 dress, with new type, new electrotype plates, new Illustrations, 
 and a complete set of new maps, and a larger page. Part I. 
 presents the elementary principles of Geography In a series 
 of oral lessons adapted to the capacity of young beginners ; 
 while in Part 11. a brief general description of all the coun- 
 tries upon the globe is given. 
 
 Warren's Common-School Geography is in itself a com- 
 plete manual upon the subject, and is intended for use in 
 cities and graded schools. Two important features in which 
 this work excels all others are: 
 
 1. The Philosophic System, in which physical geography 
 is made the basis of political geography. The dependent 
 relation of these two branches of the science is kept con- 
 stantly in view, developing an arrangement that is uniform 
 and consistent throughout. 
 
 The masses of land and water; their relations to one 
 another, and the variations and influences of climate, vege- 
 tation, etc., are carefully considered, in order that it may 
 appear to what extent the phenomena of nature control the 
 affairs of man. 
 
 2. The General Presentation, at the outset, of the Physi- 
 cal Features of each Country— its mountain and river systems, 
 its plateaus, slopes and climate— and the constant application 
 of these facts to illustrate the details that follow. 
 
 Warren's Physical Geography is designed for advanced 
 classes in Academies, Seminaries, Normal and High Schools. 
 This book has met with the cordial approval of instructors 
 eversrwhere, and is in general use throughout the country. 
 The latest edition contains a chapter upon the System of 
 Weather Reports and "Probabilities." 
 
 Warren's Brief Course in Geography is intended as a 
 shorter course for those who have not time for a more 
 extended study of the subject. Its peculiar feature of pro- 
 viding maps relieved of all unnecessary detail, and contain- 
 ing only what is needed for a comprehensive survey of geog- 
 raphy, has given it such great popularity that successive 
 editions have made the preparation of a new set of plates a 
 necessity. Advantage has been taken of this opportunity to 
 make a complete set of new maps containing all the latest 
 discoveries and changes. 
 
 The Maps in the body of the work are designed only for 
 use in schools; therefore none but the leading towns and 
 most important features are given, and nothing is represented 
 on the Maps which is not referred to either in text or question 
 in some part of the booh. 
 
 A set of valuable Reference Maps is given in the last part 
 of the book. These are carefully engraved on copper, and 
 contain much more detail than would be suitable for the 
 study-maps. 
 
 A special feature of these Geographies is a Vocabulary at the end of each cock giving the meaning, or 
 derivation, of many of the names, and the pronunciation of the more difficult words. 
 
 These Geographies have been introduced and are now used in many of th ^ best public and private schools 
 in all parts of the country— receiving the warm approval of those teachers who have made themselves 
 acquainted vplth their merits. Teachers and school officers are respectfully requested to examine these works 
 before determining on the text-books on the subject of Geography to be used in the schools Tinder their charge. 
 
 l(j 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In no department of school literature has more activity been 
 manifested during the past few years than in the preparation of 
 text-books in geography, yet, notwithstanding the numerous compet- 
 itors for public favor that have appeared, the popularity of this work 
 remains unabated. 
 
 Many of the plates from which the book is printed having become 
 worn by constant use, the publishers decided to prepare an entirely 
 new set, introducing many fresh illustrations and embodying the 
 latest improvements in typography. 
 
 Advantage has also been taken of this opportunity to thoroughly 
 revise both the text and maps ; to compare them with the latest au- 
 thorities both at home and abroad ; and to make such alterations 
 and additions as were needed to make the book as nearly perfect as 
 possible in every respect. 
 
 Carefully prepared and beautifully engraved physical maps of the 
 Grand Divisions and of the United States have been added, which show 
 the relief and structure of the country, its mineral resources, its 
 various forms of animal and vegetable life, and the depths of the 
 bodies of water which it includes, or by which it is surrounded. 
 Appropriate explanatory text and systematic questions upon physical 
 and commercial geography accompany these maps. 
 
 The book consists of two parts : 
 
 In Part I. a General View of the Globe is first given, — ^its Form, 
 its Motions, its Divisions by Circles, Day and Night, and 
 Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 Next the subjects of Physical Geography are presented in the fol- 
 lowing order : 1. Outline and Belief of the Land-Masses : — 
 2. Water-Masses of the Earth, Oceans, Rivers, &c.; — 3. The 
 Atmosphere and Climate ; — 4. Productions, Minerals, Vege- 
 tation, Animals, Men. 
 
 The Outlines of the Continental Masses determine the shape of 
 the Oceans and their Divisions, and the character of their surface di- 
 rects the course of the rivers : hence the study of the land immedi- 
 ately precedes that of the water. 
 
 Then follows the study of the Atmosphere and Climate, since the 
 latter is largely governed by the position and relief of the land, and 
 the contiguity of the water. 
 
 The character of the Productions, is next considered, as the Vege- 
 tation and Animals are dependent upon the climate, and man, re- 
 ceiving influences from all the phenomena of nature, occupies the last 
 and most important place. 
 
 Last in order are treated the Political Principles that exercise con- 
 trol in the government of man, the Eehgion that regulates his life, 
 and the different occupations in which he is engaged. 
 
 These general principles form the basis of Geographical study ; 
 and the pupil is expected to thoroughly master them and understand 
 their connection before proceeding to Part II. 
 
 In Part II. the general principles that have been established in 
 Part I. are applied, so as to give uniformity of arrangement to the 
 
 text and to the grouping of the Map Questions ': thus, in the descrip- 
 tion of a country, the outline and surface of the land, its lakes and 
 rivers, climate, vegetation, and inhabitants, are presented in succession. 
 
 The pupil is also led, by means of carefully arranged questions, to 
 apply the principles he has learned in Part I. to the special Phenomena 
 of each country. 
 
 Tlius an arrangement is obtained throughout the work, which is 
 not only convenient for memorizing, but one which also binds the 
 whole together in a unity of idea and orderly succession of parts. 
 
 The physical map of a country, invariably precedes the text, while 
 the political map always follows it. The map questions, in every case, 
 face the map, so that no turning of the leaves is necessary in finding 
 the answers. By this arrangement, the final page of questions is 
 maxie to combine a review of the physical features and of the text 
 with the study of the map. The pupil is thus enabled to understand 
 the Commerce of the Country while studying the political map, since 
 he has previously learned the character of its productions and manu- 
 factures from the physical map and text. 
 
 Interspersed with numerous direct questions upon the text and 
 maps, are many inductive and highly suggestive questions, which 
 require the pupil to apply the general principles previously learned 
 to the phenomena of each succeeding country. Thus thought is 
 awakened and tne imagination quickened, reheving the study of Geog- 
 raphy of that parrot-hke memorizing which prevails in many Geo- 
 graphical works. 
 
 The Style of the Text is concise, clear and familiar, but not child- 
 ish. The leading statements to be memorized are printed in large 
 open type, while much matter that may be carefully studied by the 
 pupil, and used as the basis of oral instruction by the teacher, is 
 given in smaller type: thus obviating the objection made to most 
 text-books on this subject, that they contain too much matter to be 
 committed to memory. 
 
 Two Commercial Maps are given, with accompanying text and 
 questions, — one of the United States and one of the world, — explain- 
 ing the Inland and Coasting Trade of our own country, and showing 
 the Currents of the Oceans, the Prevailing Winds of the different 
 zones, and the leading exports of the various countries of the globe. 
 
 Miscellaneous Questions are introduced, at the close of the pages 
 of map questions, as partial reviews; and a page of carefully pre- 
 pared general review questions is given on page 118. 
 
 The Pronouncing and Explanatory Vocabulary; the Statistical 
 Tables ; and the Treatise on Map Drawing, in the last part of the 
 book, will be found more comprehensive and valuable than those 
 usually given in similar works. 
 
 Acknowledgments are due to many prominent educators for im- 
 portant suggestions ; especially to Prof. Wm. H. Brewer, of Yale 
 College, the late Miss Lucretia Crocker, Supervisor of Schools, Bos- 
 ton, and Miss C. E. Bush, of the Virginia State Normal School 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Pi^RT I 
 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Form op the Earth, . .... 
 
 Motions of the Earth, 
 
 Motions and Size op the Earth, 
 
 Division op the Earth by Circles, 
 
 Division of the Earth by Circles — (Continued), 
 
 Zones, 
 
 Days and Nights, 
 
 Maps, Globes, and Charts, 
 
 Questions on Latitude and Longitude, . 
 Questions on Zones, 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Forms of the Land, ... . . 
 
 Surface of the Land 
 
 Natural Divisions of the Water, . 
 
 Lakes and Rivers, 
 
 The Atmosphere, 
 
 Climate, 
 
 Productions, 
 
 Anijials, 
 
 Man, 
 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Occupations, 
 
 Occupations — (Continued), .... 
 OccuPAiTiONS— (Continued), .... 
 
 Government, 
 
 Religion, • . 
 
 Education, 
 
 States of Society, 
 
 States op Society — (Continued) 
 
 Page 
 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 13 
 
 14 
 14 
 15 
 15. 
 IG 
 16 
 17 
 17 
 
 FART II 
 DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES 
 
 The Hemispheres, 
 
 The Continents, 
 
 North America, 
 
 The United States, 
 
 The Eastern, or New England, States, . 
 
 The Middle Atlantic States, .... 
 
 The Southern States, 
 
 The East-Central States, 
 
 The West-Central States, .... 
 
 The Pacific States and the Territories, . 
 Commerce of the United States, 
 
 Standard Time, 
 
 The British Provinces of North America, . 
 Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies, 
 South America, . 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 
 Western Europe, 
 Central Europe, . 
 
 Asia, 
 
 Africa, 
 
 Oceanica, 
 
 Commerce of the World, . 
 
 Exports of Principal Commercial Centres, 
 Summary of Physical Features, 
 Questions for General Review, . 
 A Treatise on Map-Drawing, . 
 Pronouncing and Explanatory "N'ocaeulary, 
 Etymological Vocabulary, 
 Statistical Tables, . 
 
 Page 
 19 
 21 
 
 23 
 28 
 34 
 38 
 42 
 40 
 50 
 54 
 CO 
 G2 
 C3 
 C6 
 71 
 79 
 84 
 86 
 90 
 95 
 103 
 109 
 114 
 
 110 
 117 
 
 lis 
 
 119 
 124 
 129 
 130 
 
 INDEX TO THE MiAPS 
 
 1. Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 
 
 2. Western Hemisphere, . 
 
 3. Eastern Hemisphere, 
 
 4. North America (Physical), . 
 
 5. North America (Political), 
 
 6. The United States (Physical), . 
 
 7. The United States (Political), 
 
 8. New England, .... 
 
 9. Middle Atlantic States, 
 
 10. Southern States, .... 
 
 11. East-Central States, 
 
 12. West-Central States, .... 
 
 13. The Pacific States and the Territories, 
 
 14. Commercial Map op the United States, 
 
 15. The Dominion of Canada, 
 
 16. Mexico and Central America, . 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 . 26 
 
 28,29 
 
 32, 33 
 
 37 
 
 . 41 
 
 45 
 
 . 49 
 
 53 
 
 . 58 
 
 60,61 
 
 . 65 
 
 68 
 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 2G. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 
 The West Indies, . 
 South America (Physical), . 
 South America (Political), 
 Europe (Phy.«ical), 
 Europe (Political), . 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 
 Western' Europe, . 
 Central Europe, . 
 Asia (Physical), 
 Asia (Political), . 
 Africa (Physical), . 
 Africa (Political), 
 
 Oceanica (Physical) 
 
 Malaysia, Australasia, and Part of Polynesia, 
 Commercial Map of the World, . 
 Map-Drawino, 
 
 . 114, 
 121, 122, 
 
 Page 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 83 
 
 85 
 
 89 
 
 92 
 
 94 
 
 100 
 
 102 
 
 106 
 
 108 
 
 112 
 
 115 
 
 123 
 
The Common- School Geography 
 
 k 
 f 
 
 
 ll Tt 
 
 » If 
 
 aEOGRAPHY is a description of the earth. The term is derived from two Greek words, signifying " the earth," and " to 
 describe." Geography may be divided into three departments —Mathematical, Physical, and Political Geography. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 nV yr ATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY treats of the form, size, and motions of tlie earth ; of its division by circles for the purpose 
 JVL of determining the position of places on its surface; and of the representation of its surface upon globes, maps, and charts. 
 
 FORM OF THE EARTH. 
 
 THE EARTH is nearly round like a ball, a sphere, or a globe. 
 It is sometimes called The Globe. 
 
 The earth is not perfectly round, but, like an orange, is flattened on two of the 
 i,o«ite sides ; not nearly so much, however, in proportion to its size, as an orange. 
 In any representation of the earth, such as an artificial globe, the difference between 
 its real form and that of a globe would be too small to be seen. 
 
 2. Mountains and valleys do not perceptibly affect the form of 
 the earth. The highest mountain in the world is not so large, in 
 proportion to the size of the earth, as a grain of sand upon the sur- 
 face of an ordinary globe. 
 
 3. The earth does not appear to us like a globe. When we are 
 upon the ocean, or upon an extensive plain, where there are no 
 mountains and valleys, it seems flat, like the top of a round table. 
 
 5 
 
6 
 
 MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 This is because we see so little of it at a time. To an ant crawling over an 
 artificial globe the surface probably appears perfectly level ; but we see so much 
 of the wooden globe at once that we kfiow its true shape. 
 
 So a tall man standing in the centre of an extensive plain sees only about 
 three miles around him, and is therefore in a condition similar to that of the little 
 ant upon the wooden globe. If he could at one time see as much of the earth 
 proportionally as he can of the wooden globe, it would appear to him to be what 
 it really is, a great globe. 
 
 4. Proofs that the Earth is round. — 1. The tops of the masts or 
 sails of a vessel at sea are always seen at a greater distance than 
 the hull, and when vessels approach the land, the mountains, hills, 
 or highest portions near the shore are first seen from the vessel. — 
 2. It has often been circumnavigated, or sailed around. — 3. The 
 shadow of the earth when cast on the moon is always circular. 
 
 
 ILLUSTRATION OF ONE OF THE PROOFS THAT THE EARTH IS NEARLY ROUND. 
 
 The gradual appearance of the ship above the horizon (or line where the sea and 
 sky seem to meet), proves that the surface over which she is sailing is curved, — as in 
 the following representation : 
 
 A man standing on the ground sees the whole of the first ship, tbp masts of the 
 second, and the top of the main-mast of the third; the fourth is out of sight. As 
 the curve is found to be nearly the same in all parts of the world, whether sailing 
 north or south, east or west, we conclude that the earth is shaped like' a globe. 
 
 [Note. — Nations claim jurisdiction at sea to the extent of one league, or three miles 
 from land, that being the distance a man can see the water from the shore.] 
 
 Questions. — What is Geography? From what is the term derived? Into what 
 three departments is Geography divided ? What is Mathematical Geography ? What 
 is the form of the earth? Is it perfectly round? Why are not artificial globes 
 flattened at the top and bottom, if such is the shape of our earth ? If you were to 
 scatter a few grains of sand on a wooden globe, would it still appear round ? Why 
 then do not mountains affect the form of the earth ? What distance can a tall man, 
 on a level plain, see around him? Is the plain on which he stands perfectly level, 
 or slightly curved ? Does it appear to him to be curved ? State one of the proofs 
 that the earth is round. 
 
 MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 THE EAETH has' two motions ; a daily rotation (or turning 
 around) upon its Axis, and a yearly revolution around the sun.* 
 
 The axis of anything is that upon which it turns, or may turn. Thus, the axle- 
 tree is the axis of a wheel. Pass a wire through the centre of an orange, from the 
 
 * Astronomers take account of several other comparatively slight motions of the earth, 
 hut these two are all that are usually considered by geographers. 
 
 stem to the opposite point, and then make the orange revolve on the wire : the wiro 
 is the axis of the orange. 
 
 So the earth revolves or " rotates " upon its axis. Yet the axis of the earth is 
 not a reality, it is only au imaginary line, passing through the centre of the earth. 
 The ends of this line are called the Pules of the earth. One is called the Iforih 
 Pole; the other, the South Pole. 
 
 2. The Daily IVIotion. — The earth is constantly turning on its 
 axis from west to east, and this movement is called the notation 
 upon its Axis. It takes twenty-four hours, or one day, for each 
 complete rotation. 
 
 It seems to us, however, as if the earth were stationary, and as if the sun, moon, 
 and stars were moving around towards the west. This delusion arises from the fact 
 that the motion of the earth is so steady and uniform that we do not perceive it. 
 
 3. Some parts of the earth, in its daily rotation, move at the 
 
 rate of more than a thousand miles an hour. 
 
 At the Poles the motion is very slow ; but midway between the Poles, the velocity 
 is so great that if we could be lifted up far above the earth at that place, and sus- 
 pended there, the mountains, seas, and islands below, would be rushing by us with 
 siich amazing rapidity, that we should not be able to distinguish one object from 
 another. But as we are now moving with the earth and at the same rate, we do 
 not perceive its motion. 
 
 4. The rotation of the earth upon its axis produces the succes- 
 sion of Day and Higlit — every place upon its surface being, alter- 
 nately, in sunlight and in darkness. 
 
 Questions. — How many motions has the earth? What is an axis? Has the 
 earth a real axis, like a wheel ? What are the Poles ? Are they real or imaginary 
 points? What is the daily motion of the earth? How many hours does it take 
 for the earth to rotate upon its own axis? Does this motion ever cease? Whv does 
 it seem to us that the earth is stationary, and that the sun moves around it towards 
 the^west? How many miles nn hour do some parts of the earth move in its daily 
 rotation ? What parts are they ? What causes the succession of day and night ? 
 
 MOTJONS AND SIZE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 THE daily rotation of the earth determines the points East, 
 West, North, and South, 
 
 The earth is constantly turning round from west to east, towards the sun. The 
 direction from which the sun appears to rise is called Masts where it sets. West. 
 
 If you stand with your right arm extended towards the East, and your left hand 
 towards the West, the Xorth will be before you, and the Smith behind yon. 
 
 2. These directions are called the Points of the Compass. 
 
 The compass is an instrument which has a magnetic 
 needle attached to it. This always points to the north, or 
 nearly to ..he north. The compass is used by surveyors, 
 and by mariners to tell the direction in which their 
 vessels are sailing. Beside the four principal points, 
 there are four other important ones, North-east, North- 
 west, South-east, and South-west. N. stands for North, 
 N. E. for North-east, N. W. for North-west, S. E. for 
 South-oast, and S. W. for South-west. 
 
 3. IVIotion of the Earth around the Sun.— The earth moves 
 around the sun in a nearly circular path, called its Orbit, in 365| 
 days, or one year. This is called the Annual, or Yearly Motion. 
 
 Over this course, a length of upwards of 567 millions of miles, the earth moves 
 with o, velocity of more than a thousand miles in a minute. 
 
 4. The annual revolution of the earth around the sun is one of 
 the causes of the change of seasons, known as Spring, Summer 
 Autumn, and Winter. 
 
DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES. 
 
 6. The Circumference of the earth is the distance around it. 
 The Diameter is the distance in a straight line through its centre, 
 between any two opposite points on the surface. 
 
 6. The circumference and diameter vary in length, in different 
 
 parts of the globe. 
 
 Since the earth is flattened at the Poles, and expanded in the middle, its circum- 
 ference and diameter are greater, midway between the Poles, than anywhere else. 
 
 7. The greatest circumference of the earth is about 25,000 
 miles, and the greatest diameter about 8000 miles. The diameter 
 of the earth, from Pole to Pole, is 26 miles less than midway 
 between the Poles. 
 
 Questions. — How is sunrise caused? Does the sun reoHy rise? What is that 
 point called at which the sun appears to rise ? What are the other principal points 
 of the compass ? How long does it take the earth to make its annual revolntion 
 around the sun ? Does it stop after having completed its yearly course ? What is 
 the form of the earth's orbit ? How fast does the earth move around the sun ? Which 
 is the more rapid ; the motion of the earth around the sun, or its revolution upon its 
 own axis? What is caused by the annual revolution of the earth? What do you 
 understand by the circumference of the earth ? By its diameter ? Where is the cir- 
 cumference greatest ? How long is the greatest diameter ? The shortest? 
 
 DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES. 
 
 FOE CONA^EXIENCE in fixing and describing the location of 
 places upon the earth, its surface is divided by imaginary 
 circles. They are the Equator, Parallels of Latitude, Meridian 
 Circles, and the Tropical and Polar Circles. 
 
 2. A Circle is a curved line every point of which is equally 
 distant from the centre. Every circle is divided into 360 equal 
 parts, called degrees. 
 
 [Note. — The term circle, as used in Geography, meant, strictly speaKng, the 
 Hreumference of a circZe.] 
 
 3. A Great Circle is one that divides the surface of the globe 
 into two eqiud parts, each of which is called a Hemisphere, — that 
 is, half a sphere or globe. 
 
 Each degree of a great circle is equal to 60 geographi- 
 cal miles, or about 69^ English miles. 
 
 ^OBTHPOtt 
 
 4. A Small Circle is one that divides the 
 surface of the globe into two uneqtud parts. 
 
 The length of a degree of a small circle varies with 
 the size of the circle. 
 
 5. The Equator is a great circle extending 
 round the globe half-way between the Poles. 
 
 6. Parallels of Latitude are small circles drawn round the globe 
 parallel to the Equator. 
 
 The Equator and the parallels are represented on maps by lines running across 
 them from east to west. 
 
 7. The Horizon is the boundary-line of oux circle of vision, 
 where the earth and sky seem to meet. 
 
 8. The Zenith is the point in the heavens directly overhead. 
 
 9. Latitude is distance from the Equator, either north or south. 
 
 Latitude is reckoned in degrees instead of in miles, and is measured on great circles ; 
 hence the length of a degree of latitude is nearly the same in all parts of the earth. 
 Ninety degrees are north, and ninety south, of the Equator. AH places north of the 
 Equator are said to be in North Latitude ; all south of it. in South Latitude. 
 
 Places near the Equator are said to be in Low Latitudes ; those near the Poles in 
 High Latitudes. Degrees are numbered on the sides of maps. The numbers in- 
 crease from the Equator towards the Poles, from to 90°. If the numbers increase 
 from the bottom towards the top of the map, the section represented b in Xorth 
 Latitude ; if from the top towards the bottom, the section is in South Latitude. 
 
 PEARL 
 
 
 Lm 
 
 
 WABHINCTON 
 
 ■ i ^ i- — ' 
 
 Suppose a city, with streets crossing each other at right angles, like the lines in 
 the above representation : — 
 
 Ash Street runs north and south ; Willow Street runs east and west. Now, if a 
 stranger should ask you to direct him to the Court House (marked C. H.), all you 
 have to do is to say it is on the third street north of Willow Street, and on the fifth 
 street west of Ash. The stranger could find it at once, and thus you might direct 
 him to any part of the city. 
 
 Tell me, in the same way, where the State House is (S.); the Market (M.); the 
 Public Library (L.) ; the City Hall (H.) ; the Savings Bank (B.). In what direction 
 is the State House from the Market ? The Market from the Library ? The City 
 Hall from the State House? The Savings Bank from the City HaU? The Markel 
 from the State House ? 
 
 Thus, if you could draw a set of lines on the earth's surface, running east and 
 west, and another set running north and south, you could fix the position of places 
 without any difficulty, and ascertain their direction from each other. This is pre- 
 cisely what is done by the lines of latitude and longitude ; although they are not 
 real, but imaginary lines. 
 
 Questions. — J^ame the circles which divide the surface of the globe ? What is a 
 Circle? How is every Circle divided? What is a Great Circle? What is a 
 Hemisphere ? How long is a degree of a great circle ? What is a Small Cfrcle ? 
 What is the Equator? Define Parallels of Latitude. What is the Horizon? What 
 is the Zenith? What is Latitude? On what cfrcles is it measured ? How many 
 degrees of North Latitude are there ? How many of South ? K a place is said to 
 be in ten degrees of ilsorth Latitude, on which side of the Equator is it? If you 
 are told that a place is in the thirty-thfrd degree of South Latitude, how far, and in 
 what direction, is it from the Equator? 
 
 DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES. 
 
 MEEIDIAN CIRCLES are great circles, encircling the earth 
 from north to south, and passing through both Poles. 
 
 2. A Meridian is half of a meridian circle, or a line extending 
 half round the earth from the North to the South Pole. 
 
 The meridians are represented on maps by lines running across them from north 
 to south. 
 
 3. Longitude is distance, east or west, from a given meridian, 
 which is called the First Meridian. 
 
 Longitude, like latitude, is reckoned in degrees, but being measured on the 
 Equator and on parallels, the degrees vary in length, growing smaller as we ap- 
 proach the poles. The length of a degree on the Equator is nearly the same as that 
 of a degree of latitude. On the 20th parallel it is 65 miles ; on the 40th parallel 
 it is 53 miles ; on the 60th parallel it is 34 miles ; and on the 80th parallel it is 12 
 miles. 
 
 The Equator is the line universaliy agreed upon from which to reckon latitude : 
 but no such line has been agreed upon by dmerent conntries from which to 
 
8 
 
 ZONES-DAYS AND NIGHTS. 
 
 compute longitude. The English reckon from the meridian of Greenwich, near 
 London ; the French, from that of Paris. In the United States we commonly adopt 
 the meridian of Greenwich ; though longitude is often computed from tliat of Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 The meridian which passes through Greenwich is marked with a cipher (0). 
 There are 180 degrees of East, and 180 degrees of West Longitude. All places east 
 of the meridian of Greenwich are in East Longitude ; all places west of it, in West 
 Longitude. 
 
 These degrees are numbered on the top and bottom of maps, or upon the Equator. 
 If the numbers increase from the left towards the right of the map, the section 
 represented is in East Longitude ; if from the right towards the left, it is in West 
 Longitude. On globes and maps, the meridians and parallels are generally either 
 curved or slanting. In finding the direction, therefore, of one place from another, 
 you must follow the course of the line of longitude or latitude. 
 
 4. Parallels of Latitude and Meridian Circles. — These circles 
 enable us to ascertain the position of places, and their distance 
 and direction from each other. 
 
 5. Those who live on the same meridian have their noon or 
 midnight at the same moment. Those who live on the same par- 
 allel have the same length of day, and the same length of night. 
 
 6. Antipodes are those who live on exactly opposite sides of 
 the globe. 
 
 Questions. — What are meridian circles ? What is a meridian ? How are meri- 
 dians marked on maps ? What is longitude ? On what is it measured ? How does 
 the length of degrees of longitude vary? What do you mean by first meridian? 
 Do all nations reckon longitude from the same meridian? What meridian is 
 generally adopted in the United States ? How can you tell whether a place is in 
 East or West Longitude ? 
 
 • How is the meridian of Greenwich marked on the map? Suppose you should 
 follow that meridian from the Equator to the South Pole : in what direction would 
 you go ? In following the same meridian to the North Pole, in what direction 
 would you go ? Of what use are parallels and meridians ? What places have noon 
 at the same time ? What places have the same length of day and of night ? Define 
 antipodes. 
 
 ZONES. 
 
 THE hottest part of the earth is in the vicinity of the Equator, 
 for the sun is more nearly overhead there, throughout the 
 entire year, than in any other part of the globe. Going from the 
 Equator toward the Poles, the climate constantly grows colder. 
 On account of these differences in temperature, the surface of the 
 earth is divided into five distinct Zones or Belts. 
 
 The Torrid Zone extends about 23J degrees of latitude on each side of the 
 Equator. The Frigid Zones extend around each Pole for nearly 23.} degrees from 
 it: one is the North Frigid — the other the South Frigid Zone. The Temperate Zones 
 are between the Torrid and Frigid Zones : one is the North Temperate — the other, 
 the South Temperate Zone. The Temperate Zones are each a little more than 43 
 degrees wide. 
 
 2. The Tropical Circles are those parallels of latitude which 
 mark the boundaries, of the Torrid Zone. The northern is the 
 Tropic of Cancer; the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn.. The 
 countries between these circles are called tropical countries. The 
 Polar Circles are those parallels of latitude which mark the 
 boundaries of the Frigid Zones. The northern is the Arctic: the 
 southern the Antarctic Circle, 
 
 3. The Seasons. — During the earth's annual course around the 
 sun, the seasons change, in the Temperate Zones, from winter to 
 spring, from spring to summer, from summer to autumn, and 
 
 from autumn to winter. The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere 
 occur at opposite periods to those in the Southern. 
 
 4. The Frigid Zones have but two seasons — a long, cold 
 
 winter, and a short summer. 
 
 Winter and summer succeed each other so rapidly that spring and autumn are 
 hardly perceptible. While it is summer in the North Frigid, it is winter in the 
 South Frigid Zone. 
 
 5o The Torrid Zone has two seasons — the wet, and the dry. 
 
 It lias no winter and summer, properly speaking. The dry season, in the northern 
 half of the Torrid Zone, continues from October to April. During this time it is the 
 wet season in the southern half. The wet season of the northern part continues 
 from April to October; during this period it is the dry season in the southern portion. 
 The wet season corresponds to summer and the dry season to winter. 
 
 6. The Temperate Zones have four seasons — Spring, Summer, 
 Autumn, and Winter. 
 
 While it is spring in the North Temperate, it is autumn in the South Temperate 
 Zone ; and when it is summer in the North Temperate, it is winter in the South 
 Temperate Zone. _ 
 
 Questions. — Where do we find the hottest part of the earth? Why is the heat so 
 great in that vicinity? What change is observed in passing from the Equator to the 
 Poles ? How many zones are there ? How many seasons have the Frigid Zones ? 
 How many the Temperate ? The Torrid ? When it is summer in the North Frigid 
 Zone, what season is it in the South Frigid ? When it is winter in the North Tem- 
 perate Zone, what season is it in the South Temperate ? When it is the dry season 
 in the southern half of the Torrid Zone, what season is it in the northern half? 
 
 In what months is the dry season in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? The 
 wet season ? What are the months of. the wet season in the northern half ? In the 
 southern ? What season is it now in the North Temperate Zone ? In the South 
 Temperate? 
 
 DAYS AND NIGHTS. 
 
 THE length of the days and nights is not the same in all parts 
 of the world. 
 
 2. In the Torrid Zone, the days and nights are of nearly equal 
 
 length throughout the year — that is, about twelve hours each. 
 
 At the Equator they are more nearly equal than anywhere else throughout the 
 year. Leaving the Equator, the length of the days and of the nights becomes more 
 unequal ; and this inequality increases as we advance towards the Poles. 
 
 3. In the Temperate Zones they are of very unequal length — 
 the days in summer being more, and the nights less, than twelve 
 hours; while in winter the days are shorter, and the nights 
 longer, than twelve hours. 
 
 This inequality increases towards the Polar Circles, which are the limits of the 
 Temperate Zones. On June 21st at the Arctic Circle and on December 21st at the 
 Antarctic Circle the longest day is twenty-four hours — that is, the sun does not set 
 on that day. 
 
 4. In the Frigid Zones, the days and nights are still more 
 unequal in length than in the Temperate. 
 
 At the Polar Circles the longest day is twenty-four hours, and its length increases 
 towards the Poles — the sun frequently being above or below the horizon for days 
 and weeks together. At the Poles, the days and nights are each six months long. 
 
 Questions. — Are the days or nights, at the Equator, ever more than twelve hours 
 long? Does the inequality increase or diminish as we go towards the Poles? When 
 are the days longest in the Temperate Zones: in summer, or in winter? When are 
 the nights longest ? At what part of the Temperate Zones are the summer days 
 longest ; near the Tropics, or the Polar Circles ? How long is the longest day at the 
 Polar Circles ? Does the length of the days, in summer, increase or diminish from 
 the Polar Circles to the Poles ? How long is the day at the Poles ? The night? in 
 the Day, at the Poles, summer or winter ? 
 
MAPS AND GLOBES. 
 
 9 
 
 NT)RTH POLF, 
 
 SOUTH POLK 
 
 SOUTH POLE 
 
 MAPS, GLOBES, AND CHARTS. 
 
 A MAP is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's 
 _ZrA_ surface on a plane, or flat surface. 
 
 Maps exhibit the lines of latitude and longitude ; the Equator; the tropical and 
 polar circles ; and the position of continents, islands, oceans, mountains, rivers, 
 countries, and towns. 
 
 Maps enable us to see at once the form of the various bodies of land and water, and 
 their direction from each other. They assist us in comparing the sizes of different 
 countries, and in estimating the distance from one place to another. 
 
 2. North is towards the top of the map ; South is towards the 
 bottom ; East is towards the right hand ; and West is towards the 
 left hand. 
 
 3. The best representation of the whole earth is by an Artificial 
 Globe, which is a ball on which arc drawn the various objects, as 
 on a map. On a globe we see only one hemisphere at a time. 
 
 If we should cut a globe into halves, and place them side by side, with the curved 
 sides towards us, we should have nearly the same view of the earth's surface, as that 
 presented^by a map of the hemispheres — such as the one above. 
 
 4. The Scale of a map is useful in measuring the distances between 
 
 different places. 
 
 The maps in this book are so drawn that one inch on the map represents a certain 
 number of miles on the corresponding part of the Earth. By measuring on the map, 
 it is easy to calculate the distance between any two points on the Earth's surface. 
 
 5. A Chart difiers from a map in always having the meridians 
 and parallels drawn as straight lines. (See Page 114.) For this 
 reason charts are chiefly used by navigators. 
 
 Questions. — What is a map? What do maps exhibit ? 'WTiat is the use of maps ? 
 Towards what part of the map is North ? South ? East? West? What is the best 
 representation of the whole earth ? What kind of a view of the earth is presented by 
 a map of the hemispheres ? Of what use is the scale of a map ? Suppose on a map, 
 the scale of which is 50 miles to the inch, two places are three inches apart : what 
 distance are they from each other ? What is a Chart ? 
 
 Questions on Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 [Note. — These queetions may be answered from the map at the top of the page.'] 
 
 Is North America in North or South Latitude? Why? Europe? 'ttTiy? 
 Australia ? Why ? In what latitude is the greater part of South America ? Is any 
 part of Asia in South Latitude? Is any part of Africa in North Latitude? In 
 South Latitude? Is any part of South America in North Latitude? 
 
 In what longitude (from the meridian of Greenwich) is South America? Australia? 
 Asia? North America ? Is any part of Aiirica in West Longitude ? In what longi- 
 tude is the greater part of Europe? Why? 
 
 On a certain day, the ship " Flying Ooud" was in 20° of North Latitude: can you 
 teU me whether she was in the Atlantic, or in the Pacific Ocean ? Suppose I also say 
 that she was in 140° of West Longitude : can you now tell me in what ocean she was ? 
 In what direction was she from North America ? From South America ? How many 
 degrees from the Equator ? From the South Pole ? The North Pole? 
 
 The ship " Storm King " was lost in a hurricane in 20° South Latitude, and 80° 
 East Longitude : in what ocean was this vessel wrecked? In what direction from 
 Africa was this ship? From Asia? From Australia? How far was it from the 
 Equator ? From the South Pole ? 
 
 Suppose two ships are at the Equator — one in 180°, the other in 40°, of West 
 Longitude : how many degrees apart are they ? How many miles ? Suppose they 
 each sail directly north to 60° of North Latitude : are they any nearer to each other 
 than before ? How far north would they have to go, in order to meet ? 
 
 Questions on Zones. 
 
 How many degrees on each side of the Equator does the Torrid Zone extend? 
 IIow many degrees wide, then, is the Torrid Zone? How many degrees wide are 
 the Frigid Zones ? The Temperate Zones ? How many mQes wide is each of these 
 zones, reckoning 70 miles to a degree ? How many degrees from the Equator are the 
 Tropical Circles ? 
 
 How many degrees from the Poles are the Polar Circles? Between what circles 
 is the Torrid Zone included? The North Temperate? The South Temperate? 
 At what latitude would a ship enter the North Temperate Zone, in sailing from the 
 Equator? 
 
 Whatis the meaning of Torrid? Frigid? Arctic? Antarctic? Australia? 
 
 [Note. — Questions of this hind, which will be found in many of the succeeding leesom, 
 are answered in the Pronouncing Vocabulary at the end of tfie book.] 
 
!0 
 
 FORMS AND SURFACE OF THE LAND. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY treats of the land and water into which the earth's surface is divided ; of the atmosphere 
 which surrounds the earth ; and of the animals and plants which live upon it. 
 
 FORMS OF THE LAND. 
 
 THE surface of the earth consists of land and water, — about 
 one-fourth being land, and three-fourths water. 
 
 2. The land surface of the earth is divided into continents and 
 islands. 
 
 Various parts of these divisions receive different names, according to their size, 
 shape, or some other circumstance. The principal of them are peninsulas, capes, 
 and isthmnses. 
 
 Such divisions as continents, islands, and peninsulas are called natural, to distin- 
 guish them from divisions formed by man, such as States and Countries. 
 
 3. A Continent is a great body of land, containing many 
 
 countries. 
 
 There are two continents — the Eastern and the Western. Australia is sometimes 
 considered a continent, but in this book it is classed among islands. A tract of 
 uninhabited land, south of Australia, first discovered in 1840, is known as the 
 Antarctic Continent. It is not however, strictly speaking, a continent. 
 
 4. An Island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. 
 
 A number of islands, closely clustered together, form an Archipelago. This tern^ 
 is also applied to a sea interspersed with islands. Islands difi'er from continents only 
 in size — both being surrounded by water. 
 
 5. A Peninsula is a body of land nearly surrounded by water. 
 Africa and Scsith America are the largest peninsulas. 
 
 6. A Cape is a point of land extending into the water. 
 
 If the land of tho cape is elevated, it is called a Promontory, Headland or Head. 
 
 7. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land which connects two 
 larger bodies of land. The Isthmus of Panama connects North 
 and South America. 
 
 8. A Coast or Shore is the land bordering on the water. 
 
 Questions. — What is Physical Geography ? When you are learning about islands, 
 are you studying Mathematical or Physical Geography? In what division of 
 geography do you learn the movements of the earth ? Of what does the surface of 
 the earth consist? How much greater portion of it is water than land? What is 
 the difference between a continent and an island? Why are such divisions as 
 continents and islands called natural divisions ? 
 
 What is an island? An archipelago ? What is a peninsula? A cape? A prom- 
 ontory or headland ? An isthmus? A coast? What do you mean by the coast of 
 North America? Spell the following words: Physical, Archipelago, Peninsula, 
 Isthmus, Darien. 
 
 SURFACE OF THE LAND. 
 
 r'piHB land surface of the earth is diversified by plains, moun- 
 _I_ tains, hills, table-lands or plateaus, and valleys. 
 
 2. A Plain is a tract of land nearly level. 
 
 Some plains appear perfectly flat, while others have a rolling surface, like many 
 of our western prairies. 
 
 3. A Mountain is an elevation of land which rises considerably 
 above the general surface. 
 
 4. Elevations of less than fifteen hundred or two thousand feet, 
 are usually called Hills. 
 
 The Base of a mountain, or hill, is that upon which it rests. We reckon the 
 height of mountains not from the base, but from the level of the ocean ; which is the 
 same in all parts of the world, and therefore forms a fixed standard for comparing 
 the heights of mountains. 
 
 Mountains are seldom found single, but are generally in groups or chains. A 
 mountain-chain is an irregular mass of elevated land, which is sometimes several 
 thousand miles long, and more than a hundred wide. A chain of mountains is also 
 called a Ridge, or Range. A number of chains, extending in the same general direc- 
 tion, constitute what is called a Mountain-system. 
 
 ^-'V 
 
 
 
 
 MOUNTAIN SCENERY. 
 
 Mountains do nol often rise abruptly from the level surface of a plain ; the ground, 
 for some distance around the base, is usually broken into hills. 
 
 5. A Volcano is a mountain which casts out fire, smoke, melted 
 lava, or other substances, from an opening called a Crater. 
 
 Volcanoes are usually mountains, but not always. Sometimes the opening is in a 
 plain, and sometimes even under the sea. It is supposed that the interior of the earth 
 is a heated mass, to which the volcanoes serve as chimneys. There are more than 
 four hundred volcanoes upon the globe, most of which are in the Torrid Zone. 
 
 G. A Table-land, or Plateau, is an elevated plain, rising some- 
 what abruptly from the surrounding surface. Plateaus are gen- 
 erally crossed and bordered by mountain-chains. 
 
 7. A Valley is a tract of country between mountains or hills. 
 
 A valley may be a narrow space between the sides of mountains, or it may be 
 a broad and level plain, thousands of miles in extent. 
 
 8. A Desert is a tract of land which is nearly or wholly barren. 
 
 A fertile spot in the midst of a desert is called an Oasis. Deserts are generally 
 composed of sand hr gravol. They sometimes contain tracts of clay and of salt 
 marsh, and occasionally produce a scanty growth of coarse grass. They may be 
 either table-lands or plains. 
 
 Questions. — How is the land surface of the earth diversified ? What is a plain? 
 Is there a plain in your neighborhood ? What is the difference between a mountain 
 and a hill ? What is the base of a mountain ? Why is the height of mountains 
 reckoned from the level of the sea? Are mountains commonly found single? 
 Describe the formation of a monntain-chain. Do mountains rise abruptly from a 
 level surface? What is a volcano? What is the use of volcanoes? What is the 
 difference between a plateau and a plain ? By what are plateaus generally crossed i' 
 What is a valley ? Can a valley be a plain ? Are deserts always perfectly barren 7 
 Of what are they composed? Are they always low plains? What is an Oasis i 
 Spell Plateau ; Volcano. 
 
WATER. -LAKES AND RIVERS. 
 
 11 
 
 WATER. 
 
 THE waters of the earth consist of the ocean and its various 
 divisions ; and of lakes and rivers. 
 
 2. The Ocean, or Sea, is that great body of salt water, which 
 covers nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth. 
 
 The Ocean is divided into five principal parts, which are also called oceans, — the 
 J*aciflCf Atlantic, IndiaUf Arctic, and Antarctic. 
 
 3. Parts of the ocean near the land, or extending into it, are 
 called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, harbors, straits, or channels. 
 
 4. A Sea, Gulf, Bay, or Bight is a body of water nearly sur- 
 rounded by land ; as the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, 
 Hudson Bay, the Bight of Benin. 
 
 In a few cases, however, they are more open to the ocean ; as the Arabian Sea, 
 the Bay of Bengal, and the Bay of Biscay. There is but little difference between a 
 Bea, a gulf, and a bay ; though most bays are smaller than seas or gulis. 
 
 6. A Sound is a passage of water so shallow that its depth may 
 be easily sounded or measxired. 
 
 6. A Harbor is a small inlet, so sheltered from the open sea as 
 
 to afford safety to vessels. 
 
 A harbor, in order to be good, must be nearly surrounded by land ; it should have 
 deep water, and be easy of entrance. Where the coast is low and sandy, the harbors 
 are not very good, for the water is shallow, and the entrance obstructed by sand- 
 bars. A sand-bar or shoal is a bank of sand, rising to within a few feet of the sur- 
 face. A line of rocks similarly situated is called a ledge. If a vessel draws so many 
 feet of water (that is, sinks so many feet deep in floating) as to strike against the bar 
 or ledge, she cannot enter the harbor. 
 
 7. A Strait or Channel is a narrow passage connecting two larger 
 bodies of water. 
 
 In harbors and rivers the line of deepest water which affords a passage for vessels 
 IB called the channel. 
 
 Questions. — Of what do the waters of the earth consist?' What is the ocean? 
 What are its principal divisions ? What are those parts of the ocean called which 
 a-e near the land ? What is a sea, gulf, or bay ? Is there much difference between 
 them? What is a sound? A harbor? Can a, harbor be good which has very 
 shallow water? What danger would there be in having sunken rooks near the 
 entrance ? What disadvantage in having a sand-bar at the entrance ? 
 
 If a vessel draws ten feet of water, can she cross a sand-bar which is within eight 
 feet of the surface ? What do you mean by saying that a vessel draws ten feet of 
 water? Siippose a harbor is not well protected by the laud, what danger would 
 there be to vessels lying within it? What is a strait ? 
 
 LAKES AND RIVERS. 
 
 A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The Foot of 
 a lake is the part near its outlet, and the Head is the 
 part opposite. 
 
 Lakes are formed by rivers flowing into hollow places in the land, by the overflow 
 of springs, or by the melting of snow or ice. The greater number of lakes have rivers 
 flowing into them, and &om them. Lakes which have no outlet are generally salt; 
 these, if large, are sometimes called Seas, Small lakes are called Ponds. 
 
 2. A River is a stream of fresh water which ilows into the sea, 
 or into some other body of water. 
 
 Small rivers are called Brooks or Creeks. A River System is a collection of 
 rivers flowing into the same ocean, sea, bay, gulf, or other large river. 
 
 3. The Source of a river is the place where it rises. Its Mouth 
 is the place where it flows into some other body of water. 
 
 Rivers are usually formed of small 
 streams flowing from springs among the 
 mountains and hills. Some, however, 
 flow directly from lakes ; while others 
 have their source from the melting of 
 great masses of ice culled Glaciers, which 
 are found in many mountain valleys. 
 
 Most great rivers flow into the sea by 
 several mouths. The space included be- 
 tween the two outside streams is called 
 a Delta, because it is shaped somewhat 
 like a letter of the Greek alphabet, \ 
 called delta. A very wide mouth, like 
 that of the Amazon, is called an Mstuary, Firth, FrUh, or Fiord. 
 
 4. Elvers generally rise among mountains or hills. Their 
 course depends upon the slope of the land. 
 
 The land generally slopes from the interior towards the sea. Where the moun- 
 tains are near the coast, the slope towards the sea is steep and abrupt ; the rivers on 
 that side, therefore, are short and rapid. If the mountains are far from the sea, the 
 slope is gradual ; the rivers then are long, and have a gentle current. 
 
 6. The Bed of a river is the channel within which its waters 
 are confined, and which is bordered by its Banks. 
 
 The rtgM and left banUa are those on the right and left sides in going dmim the 
 stream — that is, from the source to the mouth. The Current of a river is the 
 onward flow of its waters towards the mouth. 
 
 When the bed slopes considerably, the river flows with great speed and violence, 
 forming a Ttapid. If the descent is steep and sudden, a, Water-faU is formed. A 
 small water-fall is a Cascade; a great one is a Cataract. Where the river flows 
 through a level country, there are neither rapids nor water-falls. 
 
 6. The Basin, or Valley, of a river, is the extent of country 
 which is drained by the river with all its tributaries. 
 
 If you draw a line on the map, passing through the source of a river, and of every 
 river and stream which flows into it, the line will form the boundary of its Basin. 
 
 7. A Water-shed or " Divide " is the line or ridge of elevated 
 land which separates two rivers, or series of rivers; one series 
 flowing down one slops, and the other flowing down another slope 
 in a different direction. 
 
 8. Elvers generally afford an easy means of reaching the 
 interior of a country. 
 
 When men begin to settle a new country, they generally select a place near a 
 river ; because they can more readily communicate with other settlements by way 
 of the river, than by travelling on land, where there are at first no roads. The 
 soil, too, is commonly more fertile. In this way, villages, towns, and cities spring 
 up on the banks of navigable rivers. Most of the great cities in the world are situ- 
 ated upon rivers. 
 
 A navigable river is one on which vessels can navigate, or sail. Rapids and falls 
 obstruct the navigation of a river, hut a, channel, or canal, is sometimes made 
 around them. 
 
 Questions. — What is a lake ? Do rivers ever flow into lakes ? Do they ever flow 
 from them ? What lakes are generally salt ? What is a river ? What is the source 
 of a river? What is its mouth ? What is the delta of a river ? What is an estuary ? 
 Where do rivers generally rise ? Upon what does their course depend ? 
 
 What is the bed of a river? In sailing towards the mouth, which bank is on 
 your right hand? In sailing up a river, which bank is on your left hand? 
 What produces a rapid? A cataract? Would there be any difficulty in sailing 
 up a rapid ? Why ? Which is most likely to have rapids and falls : a level or a 
 hilly country ? What is a river-basin ? How can you mark out the limits of a 
 river-basin? What is a water-shed? Why do men, in settling a new country, 
 select a place near a river ? Where are most of the great cities of the world situated I 
 What is a navigable river ? 
 
12 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE, PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 a^ HE ATMOSPHERE, or the air, is an invisible fluid or gas which 
 _ surrounds the earth, and which we breathe. It.-i most important 
 physical properties are weight, motion, moisture, and temperatui-e. 
 
 2. Wind is air in motion. It is caused by the unequal distribu- 
 tion of heat from the sun, and by the motion of the earth on its axis. 
 
 When the air at any place becomes warmer than that by which it is surrounded, 
 it expands, becomes lighter, and is forced upward by the cooler and heavier .lir 
 which flows from all sides towards that center, creating currents called winds. 
 
 Winds receive their general name from the direction from which they blow ; they 
 thus differ from currents of water, which are named from the direction toward which 
 they flow. A northeast wind is one comm^ /rom the northeast ; a northeast current 
 is one going toward the northeast. Winds have also received special names, such as 
 trade winds, monsoons, cyclones, &c. 
 
 3. Trade Winds are constant currents within the Tropics. Those 
 north of the equator are N. E. Trades, those south of the equator are 
 S. E. Trades. Cyclones are violent winds having a whirling motion. 
 They are also sometimes called hurricanes, typhoons and tornadoes. 
 
 Winds agitate the air, and keep it from becoming stagnant and impure ; they 
 carry moisture from the sea to the land to fertilize the earth ; they exchange the heat of 
 the Trojiics for the cold of the Frigid Zones, and thus help to equalize the temper- 
 ature of the earth ; they distribute the seeds of plants, and speed vessels on the water. 
 
 4. The Moisture of the atmosphere is the vapor diffused through 
 it. The hot sun shining upon water is continually changing the 
 water into vapor, which rises in the air. 
 
 Vapor is moisture suspended in the air. Dew is vapor condensed on the surface 
 of bodies colder than the air. A Cloud is visible, or partly condensed, vapor. Fog is 
 a cloud resting on the earth. Rain is vapor condensed and falling to the earth. 
 Snow is frozen vapor. Hail is frozen rain. Frost is frozen dew. 
 
 Questions. — What is the atmosphere? Name its properties. What is wind, and 
 how is it formed ? What name would be given to a wind blowing toward the north- 
 east? To an oceanic current flowing toward the northeast? What are the Trade 
 winds ? What are the names given to violent whirlwinds ? What causes the moisture 
 of the atmosphere-? What is vapor ? Give the names of its different forms. 
 
 CLIiVIATE. 
 
 CLIMATE is the condition of the atmosphere as regards motion, 
 moisture and temperature. 
 
 2. The principal causes affecting climate are latitude, elevation, slope, 
 soil, nearness to ocean, ocean currents, and prevailing winds. 
 
 3. Latitude, or distance from the equator, determines the general 
 climate of a country. A low latitude makes a warm climate ; a 
 high latitude, a cold climate. 
 
 Places between the Tropics have a hot climate with usually two seasons — a wet 
 and a dry season, though some sections have four seasons — two wet and two dry each 
 year. Those between the Poles and the Polar Circles have a cold climate, with two 
 seasons — a long severe winter and a short summer. Countries between the Tropics 
 and the Polar Circles have a mild climate and four seasons. The summers are not 
 so hot as in the Tropics, nor so cold as in the Polar Regions. [See Zones, p. 8.] 
 
 4. A Great Elevation makes the climate colder. 
 
 The higher you ascend above the general surface, the colder the air becomes. The 
 efiTects of this are strikingly shown in tropical countries, where, in ascending a moun- 
 tain only three or four miles high, you pass through as many changes of climate as 
 in traveling from the equator to the poles. Even at the equator, the summits of 
 lofty mountains are perpetually covered with snow. 
 
 5. Slopes that He toward the sun have a warmer climate than those 
 that are turned away from the sun. 
 
 Slopes that lie toward the sun receive its rays more directly. In the Northern 
 Hemisphere the southern slopes are toward the sun ; in the Southern Hemisphere 
 the northern slopes. East and west slopes are equally heated by the sun. 
 
 6. Soil. — A light, sandy soil makes the climate warmer. 
 
 The air over a great desert, if it be in a low latitude, becomes intensely hot by day, 
 though it cools rapidly at night. This is partly because the light color of the soil 
 reflects the rays of the sun ; a black soil absorbs the rays. 
 
 7. Nearness to Ocean. — Places near the ocean have a more uniform 
 temperature ; those in the interior of a continent, a more extreme cli- 
 mate. The former is called an oceanic, the latter a continental, climate. 
 
 Large bodies of water are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than the land. 
 Places near the ocean are therefore cooler in summer and warmer in winter than 
 other places of the same latitude in the interior of a country. 
 
 8. Ocean Currents are either colder or warmer than the surround- 
 ing ocean, and make the countries near which they flow colder or 
 warmer accordingly. The Prevailing Winds, whether warmer cold, 
 moist or dry, affect the climate of the countries over which they blow. 
 
 9. The Seasons. — The change of climate in the different seasons de- 
 pends on the position of the earth in its orbit. At different points the 
 direct rays of the sun fall at different places within the Tropics. 
 When the direct rays fall north of the equator, the Northern Hemis- 
 phere has summer ; when south, winter. 
 
 Rainy and dry seasons within the Tropics are caused by the great evaporation that 
 takes place under the direct rays of the sun. As the hot, saturated currents of air rise 
 to greater elevations, the moisture is precipitated,usually during violent thunder storms. 
 
 10. The Weather. — The constant changes in the weather are not 
 
 accidental, but follow certain laws, many of which are known. 
 
 The study of the weather is now practically reduced to a science, so that it is possi- 
 ble to predict the approach of storms, gales, cold or warm temperature, or fair weather, 
 several hours or even days in advance. The bulletins and cautionary signals of 
 the United Stales Signal Service are of great value to the farmer, the sailor, and the 
 community in general. 
 
 Questions. — What is climate ? What causes affect it ? What determines the gene- 
 ral character of the climate of any locality ? What effect has elevation on climate ? 
 How does the nature of the soil affect climate? What is the difference between an 
 oceanic and a continental climate? Describe the effect of winds and ocean-currents. 
 What causes change of climate in the seasons ? Are changes in the weather accidental ? 
 
 PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 THE PRODUCTIONS of the earth are minerals, plants and 
 animals. Animals feed either directly or indirectly upon plants, 
 while plants feed upon minerals. 
 
 2. Minerals form the main part of the earth's crust. The rocks, the 
 water, most of the soil, the metals and stones, are all mineral. 
 
 In speaking of mineral productions, we usually refer to such as are dug from 
 mines. These minerals — except coal, which is found in many places — are generally 
 distributed along the lines of mountains. The most useful minerals are iron, coal, 
 lead, tin, zinc and petroleum ; the moat valuable, gold, silver, and precious stones. 
 
 3. The vegetable productions of the earth vary with the climate. 
 
 The term vegetation, or vegetable productions, includes trees, flowers, fruits, grains, 
 grasses, and all other plants. 
 
 4. Vegetation is most luxuriant in tropical countries. The exces- 
 sive moisture and heat produce trees of enormous size, flowers of the 
 most brilliant colors, and climbing plants in great number and variety. 
 
 The most important tropical food productions are yams, bananas, plantains, bread- 
 fruit, cassava (from which tapioca is made), sago, cocoa-nuts, and the cacao tree (from 
 the seeds of the fruit of which chocolate and cocoa are prepared). Many delicious 
 fruits are also produced in the Torrid Zone— such as pine-apples, oranges, lemons, etc. 
 
 Spices — such as pepper, cloves, and nutmegs — come from tropical countries ■ and 
 many kinds of beautiful wood, as mahogany and rosewood, grow there in sreat 
 abundance. The vegetation of the Torrid Zone continues green throughout the vear • 
 while the plants of other regions more generally s]jed their leaves in winter 
 
ANIMALS. -MAN. 
 
 13 
 
 5. On leaving the Torrid Zone, tropical plants gradually dis- 
 appear. Instead of the palm and banana trees, we find the beech, 
 oak, maple, and pine. The Temperate Zones are the regions of 
 the grape-vine, the potato, and of various grains — such as wheat, 
 Indian corn, barley, oats, and rye. Hemp and flax thrive best in 
 these zones. 
 
 Many of the most important vegetable productions grow both in the Torrid and 
 in the warmer parts of the Temperate Zones. Among these are rice, cotton, coffee, 
 tobacco, and tho sugar-cane. Tea is principally produced in the Temperate Zone. 
 
 6. In the Frigid Zones, trees dwindle into mere shrubs ; and in 
 the regions of perpetual snow, no vegetation exists, except a few 
 minute plants that grow upon the surface of the snow. 
 
 But as the sun, within the Polar Circles, remains above tho horizon for days or 
 weeks together in summer, this season becomes very warm in » large part of the 
 Frigid Zone, producing grass and beautiful flowers. Mosses in abundance are also 
 found in these cold countries, affording subsistence to reindeer and other animals. 
 
 7. In ascending from the base of mountains and table-lands, the 
 same changes in the character of vegetation are found as in going 
 towards the Poles ; so that a tropical mountain, of great elevation, 
 possesses the climate and many of the productions of every zone. 
 
 Questions. — What three classes include all productions of the earth ? Of what is 
 the greater part of the earth's crust composed ? What is generally meant by the term 
 mineral productions ? What does the term vegetation include ? Where is vegetation 
 most luxuriant? Name some of the fruits and spices of the Torrid Zone. What fruits 
 are raised in your vicinity ? What trees grow in the Temperate Zones ? What kinds 
 of grain ? What is the vegetation of the Frigid Zones ? From what plant is tapioca 
 made? Sugar? Chocolate? Cocoa? 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 THE character of the animals which inhabit the earth varies 
 with the climate and vegetation. 
 
 The distribution of animals is also affected by population ; in thickly peopled 
 countries domestic animals are fostered and wild animals are gradually exterminated. 
 
 2. In the Torrid Zone we find the largest, strongest, and most 
 ferocious land animals. A great variety of birds, and vast 
 numbers of dangerous reptiles and troublesome insects, are also 
 found in this zone. The birds, fishes, insects, serpents, and many 
 of the wild beasts, are adorned with tho most brilliant and 
 beautifal colors. 
 
 Among the most remarkable animals living within or near the Tropics, are the 
 elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, camel, lion, tiger, jackal, leopard, and 
 tyena. These animals, however, are not found in the Western Continent. ' The 
 monkey is confined almost entirely to tropical regions. The boa constrictor, crocodile, 
 and alligator are among the most formidable reptUes. 
 
 3. In the Temperate regions we find the buffalo, bear, deer, 
 wolf, fox, and wild-cat. Eeptiles and insects become fewer, 
 smaller, and less troublesome. The birds have not so gorgeous 
 a plumage, but they are more melodious. 
 
 4. In the Polar regions, the animals have a less brilliant color. 
 There are no reptiles, and but few insects. 
 
 The variety of animals is not so great in the Arctic regions as elsewhere, but the 
 number, especially of birds and fishes, is immense. The principal land animals are 
 reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, sables, and ermine. Whales, seals, narwhals, walruses, 
 and vast shoals of fishes, are found in the Polar Seas. Great flocks of ducks, geese, 
 and other birds, hover in countless numbers over the islands and along the shores. 
 
 5. In ascending from the base of tropical mountains, we find 
 the same changes of animal life that are observed in passing from 
 the Equator to the Poles. 
 
 6. Most animals can exist only in the climate for which they 
 are by nature adapted. The reindeer and polar bear cannot endure 
 the warmth of the Temperate and Torrid Zones ; nor could the 
 lion and tiger long survive the rigors of an Arctic winter. 
 
 On this account, a lofty chain of mountains forms an impassable barrier for the 
 animals living on opposite sides ; for in crossing the mountains, they would have to 
 enter a different climate from that in which they are formed to live. 
 
 Many of the most useful domestic animals, however, such as the ox, horse, sheep, 
 goat, hog, and dog, are found in almost every part of the world which is inhabited 
 by man. 
 
 Questions, — ^Where do we find the largest and fiercest animals? The greatest 
 number of serpents and insects? Mention the most remarkable animals of the 
 Torrid Zone. Mention all the tropical animals that you have seen. Which of the 
 tropical animals are not found in the Western Continent ? What are the principal 
 animals of the Temperate Zones ? Name the principal animals of the Frigid Zones. 
 Can the animals of one zone generally live in another ? Why does a chain of high 
 mountains usually form a barrier to animals on each cide ? What useful animalfe 
 can live in almost any part of tho world ? 
 
 MAN. 
 
 THE Earth was made for Man ; hence, he is found in nearly 
 every country and climate. 
 
 Men can adapt the warmth or lightness of their clothing to the climate in which 
 they live. They can also derive nourishment from various kinds of food. If it 
 were not so, they could not occupy, and have dominion over, the whole earth. 
 
 In tho Frigid Zone, where thero is little or no vegetable food, men subsist almost 
 wholly on animals. In the Torrid Zone, they live almost entirely on vegetable food, 
 which is best suited to health in a hot climate. In the Temperate Zones, where 
 animal and vegetable food are both abundant, men partake of both. 
 
 2. The most intelligent and highly civilized nations live in the 
 Temperate Zones. The inhabitants of the Torrid Zone are languid 
 and indolent from the excessive heat ; while in the barren regions 
 
 near the Poles, the energies of the inhabitants are so fuUy devoted 
 to procuring the mere necessities of life that they have httle oppor- 
 tunity for improvement. 
 
 3. Mankind is divided into five varieties, or races, differing 
 from each other by certain characteristic features. 
 
 1. The Caucasian, or White race. — Most of the nations of Europe and Americb 
 belong to this race. The Caucasian race is superior to all others in intelligence^ 
 energy, and courage. 
 
 2. The Mongolian, or Yellow race, is found chiefly in Asia. The Chinese and 
 Japanese belonging to the Mongolian race. 
 
 3. The Ethiopian, or Black race, includes all the natives of Afnc&, except those 
 of the northern part ; the natives of Australia, and some of the neighboring islands, 
 and the negroes of America. 
 
 4. The Malay, or Brown race, inhabit most of the islands cf the Pacific Oceaiv, 
 the Malay Peninsula (in Asia), and many of the adjacent islands. 
 
 5. The American, or Red race, includes all the InJinns of the Western Contineni, 
 except the Eskimos, in the extreme north, who belong to the Mongolian race. 
 
 Questions. — Are men confined to any one country or climate? Why are men 
 able to accommodate themselves to various degrees of heat and cold ? Are they 
 confined to any one kind of food ? If they were, what would be the effect ? Upon 
 what kind of food do men live in the Frigid Zones? In the Torrid Zone? In the 
 Temperate Zones ? In what zones do the most intelligent nations live ? 
 
 Into how many races is mankind divided ? Do they all look alike ? Which is the 
 most intelligent race ? Which are the most important branches of this race ? Where 
 is the Mongolian race chiefly found ? The Ethiopian ? The Malay ? The American 'r 
 To what race do the Chinese and Japanese belong ? The American Indians ? The 
 Eskimos ? Most of the Africans ? The Australians ? The natives of the islands of 
 the Pacific? The natives of the Malay Peninsula? Most of the European nations' 
 
14 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 P 
 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lOLITICAL GEOGRAPHY treats of the division of the world into various countries or States ; and of the occupations 
 of the inhabitants, of government, of religion, and of the state of society. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS are the different kinds of work in which 
 people are engaged. The principal occupations are agri- 
 culture, hunting, fishing, mining, manufacturing, commerce, and 
 the professions. 
 
 2. Agriculture is the most important of all the occupations, since 
 the world is fed from the fields. Stock-raising and dairying are 
 branches of agriculture. 
 
 In very warm countries agriculture is not conducted with mucli skill ; for the 
 fruits grow wild, in great abundance, and little care is required to procure food, 
 shelter, and clothing. Thus, it is said that three of the Bread-Fruit trees will afford 
 one person a constant supply of food. 
 
 On the other hand, in very cold countries, where the ground is covered with snow 
 the greater part of the year, the soil will not yield a sufficient support, and the 
 people must gain a subsistence by hunting and fishing. 
 
 A temperate climate is favorable to the highest skill in agriculture. In such a 
 climate, few useful plants grow without cultivation ; yet, by cultivation, a great 
 abundance may be produced. For the production of wheat, corn, and other grains 
 common to the Temperate Zones, much labor is required, but such labor is well 
 rewarded. 
 
 The raising of live-stock is an important industry in countries where good pas- 
 turage is abundant. The term live-stock includes cattle, horses, sheep, goats, etc. 
 The principal articles obtained from them are, hides, skins, horns, tallow, hair, wool, 
 beef and pork, and the products of the dairy : milk, butter, and cheese. 
 
 3. Hunting supplies a large part of the food in thinly peopled 
 countries ; it also furnishes the fur used for winter clothing. 
 
 4. Fishing. — The products of the fisheries are of great value to 
 man. Oil and whale-bone are obtained from the whale ; seal-skin 
 and oil, from the seal ; and vast numbers of cod, salmon, mackerel, 
 herring, and other fish, are salted, or otherwise preserved, for food. 
 
 6. Mining is the business of obtaining mineral productions. The 
 places where they are obtained are called mines. The place from 
 which building-stone is taken is termed a quarry. 
 
 Mineral productions consist principally of jewels or precious stones; of precious 
 metals, such as gold, silver, and platinum ; of useful metals, as iron, tin, lead, copper, 
 zinc, and quicksilver ; of various kinds of stone, such as marble, granite, sandstone, 
 limestone — useful for building purposes ; of coal, salt, and many other minerals. 
 
 Questions. — What is Political Geography ? What department of Geography are 
 you learning when you study the government of a country ? Its plains, mountains, 
 and rivers ? When you are studying about Latitude and Longitude ? 
 
 What are the principal occupations ? Which is the most important occupation ? 
 Why ? Why is not agriculture conducted with much skill in very warm countries ? 
 In very cold climates ? Why is a temperate climate favorable to agricultural skill ? 
 In what countries is agricultural skill unnecessary ? Where is it both necessary and 
 successful? What does live stock mean? From what animals are hides obtained? 
 Horns? Tallow? Wool? Beef? Pork? Milk, butter and cheese ? 
 
 What occupation supplies much of the food in thinly settled countries? How are 
 furs obtained? What are some of the important products of the fisheries? What is 
 mining? What is a mine? What is a quarry ? Let each scholar name some jewel 
 or precious stone. Name the principal precious metals. The useful metals. The 
 various kinds of stone. Which are the most necessary to comfort and convenience : 
 gold, silver, and diamonds, or iron, lead, coal, and salt ? 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. — Continued, 
 
 MANUFACTUEING is the art of adapting natural productions 
 to the uses of man. 
 
 Very few productions are used in their natural state by men ; they must undergo 
 some change to suit their necessity or pleasure. Even the savage, whose wants are 
 few and simple, pounds his corn into meal with a heavy stone, and fashions his rude 
 war-hatchet and spear. 
 
 2. In civihzed society many different articles are manufactured 
 from animal, vegetable, and mineral productions. Such articles are 
 called manufactures. Thus, leather is made from the skins of ani- 
 mals; cloth from cotton, hemp, and flax; agricultural and house- 
 hold implements from iron, copper, and tin. 
 
 It will thus be seen that there are two classes of productions : those which are in 
 a natural state, and those which are manufactured. 
 
 3. Among the most necessary manufactures are those which are 
 used for food, clothing, and shelter. 
 
 From grain, milk, and the sugar-cane, various kinds of food and drink are made 
 — some of them wholesome, others very injurious. Thus, grain is made not only 
 into flour and meal, but into ale, beer, whiskey, and other intoxicating drinks. 
 From the sugar-cane are manufactured not only sugar and molasses, but rxun. Vast 
 quantities of wine are made from the grape. 
 
 Among the substances most used for clothing are wool, cotton, leather, flax, and 
 hemp (from which linen is made), and silk. Silk is made from the web of the silk 
 worm. The silk worm is fed with the leaves of the mulberry tree, which grows 
 luxuriantly in Southern Europe, China, and India. 
 
 For building-purposes, wood, stone, clay (for bricks) and iron, are chiefly employed. 
 The principal material used for making glass is sand. 
 
 4. The ingenious and costly machinery of our great manufactu- 
 ring establishments requires wealth and a high state of civihzation. 
 On that account we must not look for extensive manufactures in a 
 thinly settled country, or among an indolent people. 
 
 Machinery is usually driven by steam. In large cities, steam is almost the only 
 power employed. In country districts, especially in the vicinity of waterfalls or 
 rapids, water power is extensively used. The mill or factory is situated on the bank 
 of the stream, and the water falling upon a large wheel turns it around. The revo- 
 lution of the wheel drives the machinery which manufactures the goods. Sometimes the 
 machinery is driven by the power of the wind. The mill is then called a wind-mill. 
 
 Questions. — What is manufacturing ? Do men commonly use the productions of 
 the earth in a natural state ? Does the savage manufacture as great a variety of 
 articles as the civilized man ? From what three classes of substances are manufactures 
 derived ? What two classes of productions are there ? What are the most necessary 
 manufactures ? Name some of the substances which are manufactured for food. From 
 what are ale, beer, and whiskey made ? Wine ? Eum ? Flour ? Butter and cheese ? 
 Sugar and molasses ? Which of these articles are the most valuable ? 
 
 Name some of the substances manufactured for clothing. From what substance 
 are shoes principally made ? Coats? Hats and Caps? Bonnets? Stockings? To 
 which class— animal, vegetable, or mineral— does leather belong ? Wool ? Straw ? 
 Cotton ? Hemp and Flax ? From what is linen made ? From what silk ? On what 
 is the silk-worm fed? From what countries do we obtain silk? Name the sub- 
 stances most used for building. 
 
 Where would you expect to find extensive manufacturing establishments, in a 
 highly civilized community, or in a thinly settled district ? What power is most gen- 
 erally employed in driving machinery ? How is water-power used in mauufacturiao ? 
 What is a wind-mill ? 
 
OCCUPATIONS-GOVERNMENT. 
 
 15 
 
 OCCUPATIONS.— Continued. 
 
 COMMERCE is the exchange of goods. "When a farmer raises 
 more grain than he wants, he sells the remainder (called 
 the surplus), for something which he does not himself produce. 
 This is the case, too, with the miner, the manufacturer, the fisher- 
 man, and every other producer. 
 
 Suppose the farmers of an extensive district raise an .abundance of grain and live- 
 stock — they wish to sell the surplus in order to procure other articles, such as sugar, 
 tea, coffee, furniture, and books. They cannot dispose of their grain and live-stock 
 to each other, for each man raises more than he needs for his own use. They cannot 
 spare the time to carry their produce to a distant region : they therefore take it to 
 some neighboring town. 
 
 The merchants of that town buy the produce thus furnished by the surrounding 
 country, and export it (send it away) to other places. They also import (bring in) 
 a variety of articles, of which the people stand in need. 
 
 2. Commercial Towns. — In a prosperous country there are many 
 large commercial towns in the interior and upon the coast, each 
 forming the centre of trade for the surrounding district. 
 
 A sea-coast town cannot have an extensive foreign commerce, unless the harbor is 
 deep enough to admit large ships — for the commerce with distant countries is not 
 often carried on in small vessels. The interior commercial towns are generally 
 situated upon some large river, or lake, which communicates with the coast. Where 
 these are wanting, a railroad sometimes supplies the deficiency. 
 
 3. Our own country, so well supplied with noble lakes, rivers, 
 and harbors, contains many great commercial cities which exhibit 
 the advantages of a fortunate position. 
 
 Thus, if we examine the map of the United States (pp. 60-61), we shall find on the 
 chain of Great Lakes, Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo. 
 The wheat, corn, and other products of the Great West are forwarded through these 
 cities, along the lakes and by various railroads and canals, to the great Atlantic 
 cities — New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. 
 
 These latter cities pay for the produce thus received by goods manufactured in 
 their vicinity, or by merchandise imported from foreign countries. In like manner, 
 New Orleans carries on trade with St. Louis, and other places in the interior. 
 
 4. The Professions are occupations in which the work is done main- 
 ly with the mind, as in law, medicine, the ministry, teaching, etc. 
 
 Questions. — What is commerce' How do the farmer, miner, fisherman, and 
 manufacturer dispose of the surplus products? What do the merchants in a 
 commercial town do with the productions of the surrounding country ? What do 
 they import? A certain country has no iron mines, but manufactures a great 
 amount of cotton goods : which would the people be likely to export? To import? 
 
 Why must a large commercial seaport have a deep harbor? How are the commer- 
 cial towns of the interior connected with the coast ? Is our own country well supplied 
 with favorable sites for commercial towns ? Give an example of the way in which 
 commerce is carried on between cities on the coast, and those in the interior. 
 
 Name some of the principal professions. How do they differ from other occupa- 
 tions ? 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 aOVERNMENT is that system by which the laws of a coun- 
 try are made, approved, and executed. 
 Among savage and barbarous nations there are few established forms of law. The 
 lives and property of the people are generally at the disposal of the chief 
 
 2. A government has three departments, the Legislative, the 
 Judiciary, and the Executive. 
 
 3. The leo-islatiTC maltes the laws; the judiciary expounds them, 
 and the executive enforces them. 
 
 4. There are two principal forms of government, a Monarchy and 
 a Popular Government. 
 
 There are many other names of governments : as, the Patriarchal, which existed 
 in the early history of the Jews, and is now found among the tribes of American 
 Indians, and among some of the tribes of Arabs ; and the Aristocracy and Democracy 
 of the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
 
 5. A Monarchy is government by a Monarch. 
 
 A Monarch is a ruler who inherits his power and holds it for life. Monarchs have 
 different titles. Thus, the monarch of an Empire is called an Emperor, Czar, 
 Sultan, Shah, Mikado, etc.; of a Kingdom, a King; of a Principality, a Prince; of 
 a Duchy, a Duke ; of an Electorate, an Elector. The monarch, when a woman, is 
 called a Queen, or Empress. 
 
 6. There are two forms of monarchy, Imperial and Constitutional. 
 
 7. In an Imperial Monarchy the ruler may himself exercise aU 
 three of the powers of government, legislative, judicial and execa- 
 tive. He has almost uncontrolled power over the Hves and property 
 of his subjects. 
 
 China, Persia, Morocco, and most of the half civilized countries of the Eastern 
 Continent are Imperial Monarchies. 
 
 8. In a Constitutional Monarchy, the ruler is himself bound to 
 obey the Constitution. A constitution is a written instrument in 
 which the rights of the people are stated. 
 
 Great Britain is an example of a Constitutional Monarchy. 
 
 9. A Popular Government is one in which the people govern 
 themselves. There are two kinds of popular government, jDemoe- 
 racies and Rep^iblics. 
 
 10. In a Democracy the people govern themselves directly. In a 
 
 Republic they are ruled by representatives elected by popular vote 
 
 for a term of years. 
 
 Most of the States and Countries of the Western Continent are Republics. The 
 United States forms the best example of a Republican government. 
 
 11. In the United States the power belonging to each of the three 
 departments of government is vested respectively in Congress, 
 the Courts, and the President. 
 
 The Legislative power belongs to Congress. Congress is composed of two branches, 
 a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two members 
 from each State, chosen for six years. The House of Representatives is composed of 
 members from each State, chosen for two years, the number of Representatives de- 
 pending on the population. 
 
 The Judicial power determines all questions of law and equity arising under the 
 Constitution and laws. It consists of a Supreme Court, and a number of Circuit 
 and District Courts. 
 
 The Executive power is lodged in the President, who is elected for four years by 
 electors chosen by the people. 
 
 12. The character of a government depends, in a great degree, on 
 the intelligence of the people. Despotism can exist only among the 
 ignorant and barbarous. Civilized communities understand their 
 rights, and require their rulers to observe and respect them. 
 
 Questions. — What is government? Would you expect to find well regulated gov 
 ernment among savages ? What are the three departments of government ? Name 
 the function of each? What are the principal forms of government? Name some 
 of the other forms. What is a Monarchy ? What is the d fference between an Im- 
 perial and a Constitutional Monarchy? What is a Monarch? Name some of the titles 
 of Monarchs. 
 
 What is a popular govprnment? What is the difference between a Democracy and 
 a Republic? What country best illustrates the republican form of government? 
 What is Congress ? By whom is the judicial power exercised in the United States ? 
 What is the length of the Presidential term of office ? Upon v.'hat does the character 
 of a government depend ? 
 
16 
 
 RELIGION -EDUCATION. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 RELIGION is the worship of a Supreme Being. Nearly all 
 people have some form of religion. The different ideas of 
 the Being worshiped and the different modes of worship constitute 
 various forms of religion which prevail in the world. 
 
 2. The chief religions of the world are the Christian, the Jewish, 
 the Mohammedan, the Buddhist, the Brahman, and tlie Heathen. 
 
 3. Christians believe in one God, in Jesus Christ, his Son, as the 
 Saviour of mankind, and in the Bible as the Word of God. 
 
 The Christian religion is professed by the most enhghteneii nations of the earth. 
 The three great classes of its followers are Eoman Catholics, Protestants, and 
 adherents of the Greek Church. The French, Irish, Spaniards, Italians, many of 
 the Germans, and the principal part of the inhabitants of Mexico and South 
 America are Catliolics. The inhabitants of the United States, England, Scotland, 
 and some countries of Northern Europe are chiefly Protestants. The Russians and 
 Greeks belong to the Greek Church. 
 
 4. Jews believe in the Old Testament a,s the Word of God. 
 They reject Christ and his Gospel, and expect a Messiah, or 
 Saviour, yet to come. 
 
 The Jews once inhabited the Holy Land. They are now scattered throughout 
 nearly all parts of the world. 
 
 6. IVIohammedans are followers of Mohammed, who lived in 
 Arabia about 600 years after Christ. 
 
 They believe in one God, and that Mohammed is his prophet. They consider 
 Moses and Christ as true prophets, but Mohammed as the greatest and the last. The 
 Mohammedans are found in Turkey, Northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, Hindustan, 
 and many other parts of Asia. 
 
 6. Buddhism, founded in India during the seventh century b. c. 
 by Buddha (" the Awakened "), has more followers than any other 
 religion on the globe. Almost all the inhabitants of the Mongolian 
 nations are Buddhists. 
 
 7. Brahmanism is the religion of the great mass of the Hindus. 
 It creates castes, or classes of society, of which the most exclusive 
 are the Brahmans, or Priests. 
 
 8. Heathens believe in false gods. Their religion, among the 
 more intelligent heathen nations, consists of codes of morals inter- 
 woven with extravagant myths. Among the ignorant classes, and 
 savage tribes, it degenerates into the worship of idols, beasts, and 
 serpents. 
 
 Many of the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, nearly all of the native tribes of the 
 islands of the Paciric, together with the Indians of America, are Heatliens. Amonn 
 some heathen tribes, as in Africa, India, and the islands of Die Pacific Ocean, the 
 horrid practice of human sacrifice is connected with their religious worship. 
 
 9. About one-half of the people upon the globe are Heathens ; 
 about one-third are Christians ; nearly one-sixth are Mohammed- 
 ans ; and there are about four millions of Jews. 
 
 Christian nations are more powerful, and much more advanced in knowledge, 
 than any others. Their power also is continually increasing. They have colonies 
 in many Heathen countries. They send raissiorfaries to the remotest parts of the 
 earth. They establish schools, and other useful institutions; and there is little 
 doubt that in the course of a few generations, the Christian religion will be 
 spread over the greater part of the earth. 
 
 Questions. — What are the principal forms of religion upon the globe? What do 
 Christians believe? How does their belief differ from that of the Jews? Name the 
 three classes of Christians. What is the character of Christian nations ? Where do 
 the Jews live? Who was Mohammed? How long ago did he live ? 
 
 Where are Mohammedans found? What do they believe? What is said of 
 Buddhism ? Of Brahmanism ? Describe the religion of the Heathens. What do the 
 ignorant classes worship ? What part of the inhabitants of the globe are Heathens ? 
 Christians? Mohammedans? Jews? What nations are the most powerful? 
 
 A PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 E 
 
 DUCATION is carried on by means of schools, public, private, 
 and endowed. 
 
 2. Public Schools are supported by the State ; they are usually 
 of three grades — primary, intermediate, and high. 
 
 Wlien pupild may attend without expense for tuition, the school is a free public 
 school. When children are required by law to attend school, education is said to 
 be compvhory. Public schools are supervised by an officer or by officers appointed 
 by the State. 
 
 3. Private Schools are in charge of private persons. They are 
 supported by their patrons only, and are not supervised by anv 
 officer of the State. 
 
 4. Endowed Schools are such as possess a fund upon which they 
 may draw for support. Public schools may al?o have such a fund, 
 but the endowed schools are generally universities, colleges, and 
 academies. 
 
 Endowed schools are of more ancient origin than public schools. Centuries before 
 there were a.ny free public schools in existence great and good men bequeathed 
 fortunes for the establishment of schools. 
 
 6. The education of a people is very largely influenced by the 
 physical conditions of the country which it inhabits, such as climate 
 and geographical position. 
 
 The heat of the tropics is unfavorable to educational progress, as the peoide 
 become indolent and mental effort is retarded. The severe cold of the frigid zone 
 is also unfavorable, as the energies of the people are almost entirely expended in 
 procuring the necessities of life. A temperate climate affords the best opportunities 
 for educational development, as it incites to activity of body and mind, and men 
 have sufficient opportunity, after providing for material necessities, to cultivate the 
 mental faculties. 
 
 Questions.— How is education carried on? How m.any kinds of schools aw. 
 there? How are public schools supported? What are the usual grades of public 
 schools? What is a free public school? What is meant by compulsory education ? 
 How are public schools supervised? How are private schools supported? 
 
 What is an endowed school ? In which class of schools would you place colleges, 
 universities, and academies? Which are older — public schools or endowed schools? 
 Is the educational development of a people affected by surroundings? How ? In 
 what zones would you expect to find the best schools ' 
 
STATES OF SOCIETY. 
 
 17 
 
 STATES OF SOCIETY. 
 
 STATES of Society are the conditions of people as regards 
 political divisions, occupations, government, religion, educa- 
 tion, etc. The various nations and tribes of men are classed as 
 ravage, barbarous, half-civUized, and civilized. 
 
 2. Savages are the lowest and 
 
 most degraded class. They have 
 
 no political divisions or towns, few 
 
 and rude occupations, cruel or weak 
 
 government, degrading religion, and 
 
 no "education. 
 
 ®^''*'^^- Very few savages cultivate the soil. The 
 
 greater part subsist on roots and wild fruit, or by hunting and fishing. Some tribes 
 are ignorant of the use of fire, and eat their food raw. 
 
 The American Indians, many of the negro tribes of Africa, and all the native 
 tribes of Australia are savages. 
 
 3. In the Barbarous State men are somewhat more 
 than in the savage. They have indefinite political 
 patria,rchal or tribal government, 
 nomadic occupations, Pagan or Mo- 
 hammedan religion, and meager ed- 
 ucation. They pay little attention 
 to agriculture, but generally derive 
 their support from their flocks and 
 herds, and from hunting and fishing. 
 
 advanced 
 divisions, 
 
 BARBAROUS. 
 
 The wandering tribes who inhabit the great plateaus of Central Asia, tjie Bedooins 
 of Arabia, and the Tuaricks and some of the Moorish tribes of Northern Africa 
 belong to this class. 
 
 4. Savage and barbarous nations have very imperfect ideas of good 
 and evil and very little aptitude for labor. They are almost always 
 engaged in war. They are addicted to plunder and robbery, are cruel 
 and revengeful, and generally treat their women as inferior beings. 
 
 Questions. — What is meant by States of Society? Into what classes are the 
 nations and tribes divided? Which is the lowest class? Upon what do savages 
 live? Are there farmers and mechanics among savage tribes? Do savages have 
 large towns and cities ? If a tribe be ignorant of the use of fire, how must they 
 eat their food? To what class do the American Indians belong? The natives of 
 Africa and Australia' 
 
 Which is more advanced — the savage state or the barbarous state ? Do barbarous 
 tribes have large towns? What kind of government do they have? Are they 
 skilled in agriculture? What is meant by nomadic occupations? What is the pre- 
 v-ailin" religion among barbsu-ous tribes ? What examples of barbarous tribes can 
 you mention? Are savages and barbarous nations of a peaceful character? Are 
 they fond of labor ? What can you say of their ideas of good and evil ? How are 
 women treated by them ? 
 
 STATES OF SOCIETY.— Continued. 
 
 HALF-CIVILIZED nations have definite political divisions 
 and large towns. They practice the manual occupations 
 with great skill, but have only a limited knowledge of the profes- 
 sions. They have Mohammedan, Buddhif^t, or Brahman religions 
 and narrow education. They are 
 jealous of strangers, and have very 
 little communication with foreign 
 countries. For this reason they make 
 but little progress, and continue for 
 centuries in the same condition. 
 
 HALF-CIVILIZED. 
 
 Most of the half civilized nations inhabit the Eastern Continent. 
 Turks, Hindus, and Chinese are half-civilized. 
 
 The Persians, 
 
 2. Civilized Nations have many political divisions for the purpose 
 of local self-government, and many cities and villages. They prac- 
 tice all the manual and professional occupations, have constitutional 
 governments. Christian or Jewish religion, and many public schools 
 and schools of higher education. 
 
 The civilized man can measure the size and 
 distance of the heavenly bodies, which the 
 savage ignorantly worships as gods. Civilized 
 nations rapidly advance in knowledge, for they 
 maintain a constant communication with each 
 other, and with the remotest parts of the earth. 
 They have colleges, churches, hospitals, and 
 many other useful institutions. 
 
 Some nations belong to more than one of these classes. Most of the civilized 
 nations belong to the Caucasian race. Nearly all the inhabitants of Europe, and 
 their descendants in America and other parts of the world, belong to this class. 
 
 Civilization has made comparatively little progress among the four colored races. 
 The Chinese and Japanese are the only nations of the Mongolian race that possess 
 any civilization. The Ethiopian race has never produced a civilized nation. The 
 inhabitants of Java are the only representatives of the Malay race who have 
 reached a position above the barbarous state, and the Spanish conquerors in Mexico 
 and Peru destroyed the only efforts at civilization by the American Indians. 
 
 Questions. — What is the next state of society after the barbarous? With what 
 arts are half-civilized nations acquainted ? Why do half-civilized nations make 
 hut little progress ? What are the chief nations of this class ? What striking points 
 of difference exist between the savage man and the civilized man ? What advan- 
 tages may a people derive from » communication with foreign nations? Do the 
 half-civilized nations avail themselves of this advantage? Do the civilized? What 
 religions prevail among half-civilized nations ? Among civilized nations? 
 
 What savage tribes are there in America? To which of the five races do they 
 belong? Are there any civilized nations in America? To what class of society do 
 most of the nations of Europe belong? Suppose each nation were to cut off all 
 communication with other countries : would its progress be advanced, or retarded ? 
 Are there any nations which adopt this course? To what race do the civilised 
 nations belong? What is said of civilization among the other races? 
 
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 FA.TIT II. 
 
 DESCEIPTIONS OF COUNTEIES. 
 
 THE HEMISPHERES. 
 
 THE entire surface of the globe is represented by the maps of 
 the two hemispheres : — the Eastern, and the Western. 
 
 The meridian of 20 degrees west from Greenwich is usually chosen for the dividing 
 line between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, though any other meridian 
 would answer equally well. 
 
 This line was adopted because it was supposed to be the meridian of Ferro, one of 
 the Canary Islands. Ferro was the most western land known to the ancients ; the 
 region beyond being to them one of doubt and darkness. This island is now known 
 to be a little east of 20°. 
 
 2. The Western Hemisphere comprises the "Western Continent, 
 a small part of the Eastern Continent, a portion of the Antarctic 
 Land, and numerous islands ; besides a part of the Pacific, Atlantic, 
 Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. There is much more water than 
 land in this hemisphere. 
 
 3. The Eastern Hemisphere comprises the Eastern Continent 
 (except the north-eastern extremity), a portion of the Antarctic 
 Land, and numerous islands ; besides the Indian Ocean, and a part 
 of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. There is 
 also more water than land in this hemisphere. 
 
 4. Except the Antarctic Land, and a few small islands far out 
 at sea, every tract of land now known is included within one of 
 the six Grand Divisions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, 
 South America, and Oceanica. 
 
 5. The globe may also be divided into a Northern and a Southern 
 
 Hemisphere; of which the former contains the greater proportion 
 of land — the latter, of water. 
 
 6. In the Southern Hemisphere there are various tracts of land 
 lying within the Antarctic Ocean, which may be included in the 
 general name of Antarctic Land. 
 
 Until the year 1819, no land was known to exist south of the 60th degree of South 
 Latitude. Since that time, navigators have discovered numerous islands and bodies 
 of land, among which are the South Shetland Islands, Graham's Land, Victoria 
 Land, and Enderby's Land. 
 
 The most extensive tract yet known, in that part of the world, is called the Ant- 
 arctic Continent, situated about 2000 miles south of Australia. It was discovered in 
 1840, by Captain Wilkes, of the American Navy. He sailed along the coast a, dis- 
 tance of 1700 miles east and west. 
 
 Ic 1841, Captain Boss, of the British Navy, explored a line of coast (Victoria 
 Land), extending southward to within 830 miles of the South Pole ; being the near- 
 est approach yet made to that point. He discovered, in these frozen regions, an 
 active volcano, 12,400 feet high, which he named Mount Erebus. A little farther 
 Mfifc, he saw an extinct volcano, which he named Mount Terror. 
 
 All these regions are barren and desolate. The land is perpetually covered with 
 ice and snow, and the coasts are for the most part bordered by vast masses of ice. 
 There are no inhabitants, and but few land animals ; and some tracts are wholly 
 destitute of vegetation. It has been ascertained that the ice of the Antarctic 
 regions extends 10 degrees nearer the Equator than that of the Arctic. 
 
 Questions. — What proportion of the surface of the globe is represented by the map 
 of the Eastern Hemisphere ? By that of the Western ? By both ? What meridian 
 is usually chosen for the division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres ? Could 
 any other line be adopted ? Suppose some other meridian were used for this pur- 
 pose: would the map of each hemisphere contain the same portions of land and 
 water as it does now ? 
 
 Suppose the meridian of 100° of West Longitude were selected for the dividing 
 line : in which hemisphere would South America be ? Why is the meridian of 20° 
 commonly adopt-ed ? In which hemisphere is the Island of Ferro ? Why ? 
 
 What bodies of land are included in the Western Hemisphere ? What oceans lie 
 partly within this hemisphere ? What bodies of land are included in the Eastern 
 Hemisphere ? What ocean is entirely within it ? What other oceans are partly 
 within it? What contains the greater proportion of land: the Northern, or the 
 Southern Hemisphere ? Which contains the more water 7 
 
 What is included in the term Antarctic Land ? In what year did the Recovery 
 of these regions commence? Where is Victoria Land? The South Shetland Isles? 
 Graham's Land ? Vfhat is the character of these regions ? Why are there no 
 inhabitants ? In which region, the Arctic or Antarctic, does the ice extend farthest 
 towards the Equator ? 
 
 Questions on the Map. 
 
 Which is the largest division of land in the Western Hemisphere ? What ocean 
 is north of this division ? What ocean ia East ? West ? 
 
 What is that portion of the Atlantic Ocean north of the Equator called ? What 
 is the portion south called ? What is that part of the Pacific Ocean north of the 
 Equator called ? What is the part south called ? 
 
 Through what strait would you sail, to go from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean? 
 What narrow isthmus separates the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans? 
 The Antarctic Ocean is south of the Antarctic Circle : what land is in this ocean ? 
 
 What sea and gulf lie between North and South Amenca ? Of what ocean do 
 these bodies of water form a part ? What sea is north of the Aleutian Islands ? 
 Of what ocean is it a part ? 
 
 A vessel is reported to have been wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude 
 30° West : in what ocean did it occur ? Near what land ? 
 
 A United States vessel of war is ordered to cruise among the islands situated 
 between Latitude 10° and 30° North, and Longitude 60° and 90° West : what islands 
 are meant ? 
 
 A whaling-vessel is reported in Latitude 30° South, and Longitude 80° West 
 in what ocean is this vessel ? Near what group of islands ? What main-land ? 
 
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THE CONTINENTS. 
 
 21 
 
 T 
 
 The Continents. 
 
 IHE most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the 
 earth are the Eastern and the Western Continents. 
 
 2. The Eastern Continent, and the islands immediately adjacent, 
 form three grand divisions : Europe, Asia, and Africa. This con- 
 tinent is more than twice as large as the "Western. 
 
 The Grand Division of Oceanica (which is nearly all in the Eastern Hemisphere) 
 includes Australia and nearly all the islands of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 3. The Western Continent (sometimes called The New World;, with 
 
 the neighboring islands, forms two grand divisions : North America 
 
 and South America, which are connected by the Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 The Eastern and Western Continents approach nearest each other at Behring 
 Strait, which, at the narrowest part, is only 36 miles wide. A partial connection 
 is established by the Aleutian Islands, which extend from the Peninsula of Aliaska, 
 in North America, to Kamchatka, in Asia. 
 
 4. Position. — The greatest extent of land in the two continents 
 is north of the Equator, and in the North Temperate Zone. Only 
 a small part is in the South Temperate, and none extends to the 
 South Frigid Zone. 
 
 6. Climate. — The position of the continents determines, in a 
 great measure, the climate of the five sections of which they are 
 composed. 
 
 The three northern sections (Asia, Europe, and North America) are prmcipally 
 in the Temperate Zone, and extend beyond the Arctic Circle — forming almost a 
 connected line around the North Pole. They are, therefore, colder than the two 
 southern sections (Africa and South America), which lie chiefly within the Tropics, 
 and are far removed from the Frigid Zone. 
 
 6. Outline. — The outline of the two continents presents some 
 points of resemblance, and some of contrast. 
 
 1. The southern section of each continent is a peninsula, connected with the main 
 body by a narrow isthmus. Each of these peninsulas terminates in a pointed pro- 
 jection towards the south. 
 
 2. An island, or group of islands, is found east of the southern part of each conti- 
 nent : as Madagascar, east of Africa ; and the Falkland Islands, east of South 
 America. 
 
 3. The three northern sections are deeply indented by large seas and gulfe; 
 while in the two southern, the coast is unbroken by any large arms of the ocean. 
 It is partly owing to this circumstance that South America and Africa have not been 
 more thoroughly explored by Europeans. 
 
 4. The greatest length of the Western Continent is from north-west to south-east ; 
 while that of the Eastern is from north-east to south-west. 
 
 7. Surface. — The Western Continent is traversed throughout 
 its entire length by a great mountain-system, which accompanies 
 the line of its western shores. 
 
 8. East of this great chain is a vast plain, stretching through- 
 out the entire length of the continent, interrupted only by the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The eastern limits of this plain are formed by 
 inferior mountain-systems. 
 
 9. The Eastern Continent also contains an immense mountain- 
 system, traversing the greatest length of the main body (Asia and 
 Europe), from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Southward from this system extend a number of peninsulas: Farther India, 
 Hindustan, and Arabia, in Asia; and Greece, Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, in 
 Europe. These peninsulas are penetrated by mountain-chains — branches of the 
 principal system. [Note. — The mountain-si/stems of the two omtineTtts wiU he 
 daenbed in connection vnth the Orajid Divisioni.] 
 
 10. Northward from this great aountain band, a vast plain 
 extends to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. It stretches east and 
 west, from Behring Strait to the Atlantic Ocean — about one-third 
 the circumference of the globe. 
 
 Questions. — What are the most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the 
 earth ? Which is the larger of the two ? Of what three sections does it consist ? 
 Of what two sections is the Western Continent composed 1 Where do the continents 
 apprown nearest to each other? What is the shortest distance between them? 
 How is a partial connection established between them ? 
 
 On which side of the Equator is the greater extent of land in the two continents ? 
 In what zone ? Which contains the greater extent of their surface : the Torrid or 
 the South Temperate Zone ? Does any part of these continents extend beyond the 
 Arctic Circle ? The Antarctic ? 
 
 What determines the climate of the continents? Why are Asia, Europe, and 
 North America colder than Africa and South America ? 
 
 Which sections of the continents are most deeply indented : the three northern, or 
 the two southern 1 Why has the unbroken outline of South America and Africa, in 
 some measure, prevented Europeans from exploring them more thoroughly ? 
 
 In what direction does the chief mountain-system of the Western Continent extend? 
 What is the character of the surface east of this system ? 
 
 In what direction does the principal mountain-system of the Eastern Continent 
 extend ? What grand divisions does it cross ? Name the peninsulas which extend 
 southward from this central system. By what mountain-chains are they pene- 
 trated? 
 
 In what dii'ection does the great plain, north of this system, slope ? What is ita 
 extent ? In what direction does the greatest length of this plain extend ? In what 
 direction does the greatest length of the plain in the Western Continent extend ? 
 
 Questions on the Map. 
 
 Which is the largest grand division in the Eastern Hemisphere ? What ocean 
 is north of it ? What ocean is east ? What ocean south ? 
 
 Which are the two northern divisions of the Eastern Continent ? Which division 
 is a great peninsula ? What isthmus connects it with the main-land ? 
 
 What great sea and bay are south of Asia? Of what ocean are they a part? 
 Of what ocean are the seas south and west of Europe a part ? Name the four great 
 seas east of Asia. Of what ocean are they a part ? 
 
 Which is the largest island of the Eastern Hemisphere ? To what grand division 
 does it belong ? Name two other islands belonging to the same grand division. 
 
 In what zone is the greater part of Asia ? Is any part of Europe in the Torrid 
 Zone ? Is any part of Asia south of the Equator ? Is any part of Africa in the 
 South Temperate Zone ? In what zones is Australia ? 
 
 To what grand division does Madagascar belong ? The Japan Islands ? Borneo ? 
 Tasmania ? What extensive tract of land is south of Australia ? Is the Antarctic 
 Continent inhabited or uninhabited ? 
 
 A bottle containing the following paper was picked up at sea, in Latitude 10° 
 South, and Longitude 50° East: "Thrown overboard from the wreck of the ship 
 Valparaiso, in Latitude 30° South, and Longitude 110° East ; " near what islands 
 and main-land was the bottle found ? Where was it thrown overboard ? Across 
 what ocean had it drifted ? 
 
 A British cruiser captured a Portuguese brig engaged in the slave-trade, in Lat- 
 itude 10° South, and Longitude 10° East : in what ocean did this capture occur ? 
 Near what land ? 
 
 On what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest route from Africa to the 
 island of St. Helena ? Across what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest 
 course from Madagascar to Australia ? 
 
 A vessel was captured by Malay pirates near the Equator, in Longitude 105° East: 
 between what two great islands was this ? 
 
 A vessel is wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude 150° East ; in what 
 ocean is this ? The passengers and crew are saved, and escape to the nearest 
 land : what is it J 
 
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 PHYSICAL MAP 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 SCALE, 520 MILES TO AN INCH. 
 
 
 
 , Vii/9 
 '■^....""fiai'i'fM^^"" 
 
 ■i^. 
 
 J^leiiattua in 
 
 feet. 
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 107 
 
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 B T'trj/ hw Pluina 
 
 lAiwtr Plateaus 
 
 Highest Plateaus 
 Tm Currents 
 
 to COO 1,-B 
 
 000 to 12,000 L ^ S 
 le.OOO w 18.000 [ K !__■- 
 Over 18.000 ^ S"- 
 
 ^. r,,/-/ CVr/Mi'.v lt»rofca7.w« 
 
 V.dc Cqh^ Popovcttcpi-tit A Mt.Orizaba 
 
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 ~ J^'y OULf OV 
 
 6,000 '■ "-' ■■ I 
 
 JsiLasL^ 
 
 I 
 
 ^f n y I c '- 
 
 SECTION ON PARALLELTS'TfanTHr"'^ 
 
 I.oncltiido West 87 
 
 , p,;«!ioli 
 
 J,N 
 
 0.000 PACIFIO/^ col*"" "a7i«' 
 
 ir..i,;'.s fVf. 
 
 PACiriC HIGHLAND 
 
 Ma Tiivcr nocKVA Mxa. 
 
 ATLANTIC H 
 
 I C H L A N D 
 
 .APPALACHIAN M T S . . 
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 GREAT 
 A L P 
 
 i.'/i/i; l'c"<."/.,l/;rf,,-,,,in l,z/„n,„ 
 
 E A N 
 
 SECTION ACROSS THE CONTINENT ON PARALLEL 45° NOBTH^ 
 
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NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 23 
 
 Physical Features. 
 
 POSITION. — North America lies in the Western Hemisphere, 
 in the North Frigid, North Temperate, and Torrid 'Zones. 
 
 It extends from 8° to 72° N. latitude and from 55° to 168° W. longitude, and is 
 bounded by the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 2. Size. — In extent it is third among the Grand Divisions, Asia 
 
 and Africa being larger. Its area is about 9,000,000 square miles. 
 
 It is more than twice as large a.s Europe, and more than half as large as Asia. 
 Its greatest breadth from ea-st to west is 3200 miles, and its greatest length from 
 north-west to south-east is 4800 miles. It has a coast-line of about 30,000 miles. 
 
 3. Outline. — The outline is irregular ; the coast-line, particularly 
 on the east and the north, is broken by large gulfs and bays. 
 
 The general form of North America is that of a triangle. Groups and chains 
 of islands liel near the shores, and numerous capes and peninsulas project into the 
 surrounding oceans. 
 
 4. Surface. — The surface consists mainly of three forms of relief — 
 the Pacific Highland, in the west; the Atlardio Highland, in the 
 east; and the Great Central Plain. There are three great moun- 
 tain-systems — the Rocky Mountain System, the Sierra Nevada, 
 and the Appalachian S3'stem. 
 
 Some geographers regard the western ranges from the Arctic region to Cape Horn 
 as one continuous mountain -system, the various chains of which are called 
 Cordilleras. The name "Cordilleras of North America" is given to all mountain- 
 chains west of the Great Central Plain, and "Cordilleras of the Andes" to chains 
 along the Pacific coast of South America. 
 
 The Atlantic Slopej the I'acJfic Slope, and the Arctic BighUind are additional 
 and minor relief- forms. {Mountains, plateaus, and plains are called forms of relief.) 
 
 5. The Pacific Hiahland extends over the entire length of North 
 America, and about one- third of its breadth. It includes the Plains of 
 the Columbia, the Great Interior Basin, and the Mexican Plateau. 
 
 Questions. — Through how many degrees of latitude and longitu<le does Korlh 
 America extend ? How does it compare in size with Europe ? With Asia? What 
 is its area? Define forms of relief. What is the extent of the Pacific Highland ? 
 
 Its elevation varies from 800 feet (near the Arctic shores) to 8000 feet (in Mexico). 
 The volcanoes of Mt. St. Elias and Popocatepetl are thehighestpeaks in North America. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains, an immense chain 5700 miles long, are on the eastern 
 border of this Highland; and the Sierra Nevada, the Cascade, and the Coast 
 Mountains are on its western border. Between the Pacific Highland and the 
 Pacific Ocean is the narrow belt of lowland known as the Vaclflc Slope. 
 
 6. The Atlantic Hifjhland extends from Labrador nearly to the 
 Gulf of Mexico. It includes the Ltibrador Plateau and the ranges 
 of the Appalachian System. It has an elevation of about 3000 feet. 
 
 The Atlantic Slope lies between this Highland and the Atlantic Ocean. In the 
 south it widens, and where there are no mountains to continue the division, it unites 
 with the aulf Plain, which is the most southern part of the Great Central Plain. 
 
 7. The Great Central Plain lies between the Atlantic Highland 
 and the Pacific Highland, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to 
 the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 It is crossed about midway by a very gradual swell of ground called The Beight 
 of iMnd,, which forms the divide between the rivers of the Arctic and the Hudson 
 Bay Systems and those of the St. Lawrence and Gulf of Mexico Systems. The 
 Uiilf /'lain and the Arctic Plain are the lowest parts of the Great Central Plain. 
 
 The Arctic Uigliland is in the northern part of North America, occupying 
 parts of the mainland and of islands in the Arctic regions. 
 
 8. Drainage. — The Rocky Mountains are the chief divide of North 
 America. They are also the great condensers of moisture, and 
 their supply of rain and snow forms the vast reservoir from which 
 the largest rivers are fed. 
 
 9. There are three great systems of lakes and rivers — the 
 Atlantic System, the Pacific System, and the Arctic Si/stem. 
 
 Besides these, there are the waters of the Great Interior Basin, 
 which have no outlet to the sea. 
 
 Questions. — What is the extent of the Atlantic Highland? What does each in- 
 clude ? Where is the Great Central Plain ? Name the three great systems of lakes 
 and rivers. What waters have no outlet to the sea? 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text. 
 
 Position. — In what direction is North America from Europe? From Africa? 
 From Asia? From Australia? Wliere does it approach nearest to Asia? How 
 many degrees of latitude are there between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole? 
 Between Point Barrow (72° N.) and the North Pole? What does Davis Strait 
 connect, and what does it separate? Hudson Strait? What does the Isthmus of 
 Panama connect, and what waters does it separate? When it is noon in Washington 
 (77° W.), what time is it in Philadelphia (75° W.) ? In San Francisco (122J° W.) ? 
 In New Orleans (90° W.) ? (See Standard Time, Page 62, \ 5, 6, 7.) 
 
 Size. — Which Grand Divisions are smaller than North America? What is its 
 breadth on parallel 60° N. Its length from north-west to south-east ? {Measure 
 ort map, using the Scale.) 
 
 Outline. — Name and locate five large peninsulas. Five important islands. If 
 you wisb to show that North America resembles a triangle in form, where will you 
 fix the points of the angles of the figure? What marine currents follow the coast 
 of North America? Which of them are warm currents ? Which is deeper 50 miles 
 from shore on parallel 30° N. — the Atlantic Ocean or the Pacific? Where is the 
 Atlantic deeper 600 miles out — off Cape Hatteras or off Cape Sable (Florida)? 
 Off Cape Cod or off Cape Sable (Nova Scotia) ? 
 
 Surface. Of what three forms of relief does North America mainly consist? 
 
 Locate" each. Name the three minor relief-forms. Locate the most elevated 
 points of the Pacific Highland ? In what part of the Highland is the Rocky Moun- 
 tain System? What mountains are on the western border of the Pacific High- 
 land? What lowland is west of it? What plateau is in the Atlantic Highland? 
 What mountain-system? Where is the Atlantic Slope? The Height of Land? 
 The Arctic Highland ? Of what two great slopes^ does the Central Plain consist ? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. — Into what waters do the rivers of the Great Central Plain 
 flow ? Which is the greatest of these rivers ? Where is the land lower— at the 
 northern end of Lake Winnipeg, or at the southern part of Hudson Bay ? How 
 can you tell ? Locate the largest salt-water lake in North America. Locate the 
 lakes north of parallel 50° N., and name the outlet of each. 
 
 Climate. — What current affect* the climate of the north- west coast? Of Labrador ? 
 Of the Atlantic coasts? Is Labrador colder or warmer than Sitka? Why? How 
 far is the Gulf Stream from Cape Hatteras? From Cape Cod? To which is the 
 Japan current (Knro Siwo) nearer — Alaska or San Francisco? Vancouver Island 
 or the mouth of the Columbia River ? 
 
 Productions and Animals. — Name the most important vegetable productions. 
 The most important minerals. {Let each scholar name a vegetable or a mineral 
 prodn-ction, and tell where it is obtained.) Name the principal grazing-products. 
 Wliere are the fur-bearing animals found? Name the most important. 
 
 Are wild animals more numerous in the Eastern or in the Western part of 
 North America ? Why ? {Let each scholar name an animal of North America, end 
 tell where it is found.) Why are certain animals hunted ? ( Qive various reasons, 
 according to the kind of animal named.) Name the most useful domestic animals. 
 
 [Note to TeXchers. — A map modeled to show the relief of North America, or of any 
 other Grand Division of which the lesson treats, would give a proper idea of the surface of 
 the country, its elevations, and its depressions. The teacher can readily model such a map 
 with molder's sand, which, when slightly dampened, is very easily worked. The position 
 and the relative height and extent of the mountains and their highest points should be indi- 
 cated, and the scholars should make relief-maps, so that their ideas of forms of relief may 
 be as clear as possible, and their geographical knowledge a system of thonght and com- 
 parison, not merely a repetition of words that have little or no meaning] 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The subdivisions of the Atlantic System are the Hudson Bay, the St. Lawrence, 
 and the Gulf of Mexico Systems. The last-named includes the Mississippi System. 
 
 The Mississippi, with its numerous tributaries, is the most important river of 
 North America. The northern part of the Great Central Plain abounds in la^es 
 of the St. Lawrence System, the Hudson Bay System, and the Arctic System. The 
 five great lakes of the St. Tawrence contnin about one-fourth of all the fresh water 
 on the glohe. Great Salt Lake is the largest salt lake in North America. 
 
 10. Climate.— As North America lies in the Torrid, Temperate, 
 and Frigid Zones, it has every variety of climate. 
 
 The climate of the Pacific Slope is milder and has ■-■ more uniform temperature 
 than that of the Atlantic Slope in the same latitude, owing to the influence of the warm 
 Japan current (Kuro Siwo, or Black Water) and of warm winds from the Pacific. 
 
 In many sections the temperate regions of North America present peculiar varia- 
 tions of temperature ; the winters are very cold, the summers very hot, and the 
 changes sudden, so that the climate is unusually severe for the Temperate Zone. 
 
 The Pacific Highland has, in general, a very dry climate, with little rain at any 
 season. The rainfall on the Pacific Slope, on the Atlantic Highland, and on the 
 Atlantic Slope is abundant;. There are certain nearly rainless tracts on the table- 
 lands of Mexico and Central America and in the Great Basin. 
 
 11. Productions and Animals. — The most important regetahle 
 Products are those of the various lowland plains, incliiding grain, 
 coffee, cotton, fruits, lumber, rice, sugar, and tobacco. The richest 
 Mines of ore are, as a rule, in the mountainous regions ; those of 
 coal and other useful minerals are partly in the plains and plateaus. 
 
 12. The larger wild animals of North America are now found 
 chiefly in the north and in the west. Live-stock, furs, and grazing- 
 oroducts are the principal Animal Productions. 
 
 All the domestic animals, except the turkey, were originally of European stock, 
 brought to America by the white settlers. 
 
 Questions. — Name the subdivisions of the Atlantic System. What ia said of the 
 Mississippi and the St. Lawrence? Of the five great lakes? What is the climate 
 of the Pacific Slope? Of the Pacific Highland? What is said of the rainfall? 
 Of the vegetable productions? The minerals? Of the wild animals of North 
 America? Of the domestic animals? What is the population of North America? 
 
 13. inhabitants.— The population of North America is over 
 88,000,000. It is composed of Indians, descendants of European 
 settlers, European emigrants, freedmen and others of African 
 descent, Eskimos, Chinese, and persons of mixed races. 
 
 The Indians number about 5,000,000; the negroes, about 8,000.000; the Chinese, 
 about 105.000 ; and the wliitcs, over 75,000,000. The Indians belong to the Amer- 
 ican, or Red, race ; the whites, to the Caucasian, or White, race ; the negroes, to the 
 African, or Black, race ; and the Chinese and the Eskimos, to the Mongolian, or 
 Yellow, race. 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 14. North America consists of the following divisions: the 
 United States (including Alaska), Britiah America, Danish Amer- 
 ica, Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. 
 
 BRITISH AND DANISH AWERICA, AND ALASKA. 
 
 15. These three divisions constitute one-half of North America. 
 The regions bordering upon the Arctic Ocean are among the most .dreary and 
 
 desolate on the face of the earth. The shores are covered with eternal snows, and 
 the entire surface of the sea with large fields and huge masse? of floating ice. 
 
 16. Notwithstanding the fearful dangers encountered in these 
 frozen regions, the Arctic Ocean has been perseveringly explored 
 for 300 years, partly because of the hope of finding a passage from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, and partly for scientific discovery. 
 
 The voyage to India and China, from any Atlantic port, is now made by way 
 of Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, or the Suez Canal. The distance by way 
 of the Arctic Ocean is only about half as great; hence these repeated attempts to 
 find a "North-west Passage.'' That such a passage exists was proved by Capt. 
 McChire, of the British Navy, who in 1852 forced his way through it; but so peril- 
 ous and difiicult is its navigation that it can never be of any commercial value. ■ 
 
 Questions.— What four races in North America ? Which is the aboriginal race? 
 How many negroes are there in North America? Indians? Chinese? Caucasians? 
 Name the Political Divisions of North America. Which of them border on the 
 Arctic Ocean ? Describe the Arctic regions. Why has the Arctic Ocean been so per- 
 eeVeringly explored ? What results have followed these explorations ? 
 
iSIORTH AMERICA. 
 
 2r> 
 
 17. Discoveries in the Arctic Ocean, — Most of the discoveries 
 have been made by British and American navigators. 
 
 Grinnell Land was discovered in 1850, by the Expedition under command of Lieut. 
 De Haven, sent out in search of Sir John Franklia. In 1852, Dr. Kane, of the U. 
 8. Navy, penetrated as far as 82° 30' North Latitude, where he claims to have dis- 
 covered an open Polar Sea, tee from ice. In 1861, Dr. Hayes reached a point still 
 farther north. 
 
 Since then several expeditions, mostly by way of Behring Sea, have been under- 
 taken, but, so far, with no important or practical results either in a scientific or 
 commercial point of view. 
 
 18. Climate. — It was formerly supposed that the climate of 
 nearly all this territory was so severe that the coimtry must 
 forever remain a desolate waste. 
 
 The Valley of the St. Lawrence, and part of the Basin of the Saskatchewan, were 
 regarded as the only cultivable regions. It is found, however, that the country south- 
 west of Hudson Bay is well adapted for agriculture, and is capable of sustaming a 
 considerable population. The climate at and near Sitka is also mild. 
 
 19. Vegetation . — There is scarcely any vegetation, in the north, 
 capable of supporting man. In the cultivable districts of the south, 
 wheat and other grains common to the Temperate Zones are raised. 
 
 Quantities of mosses, lichens, berries, willows, and shrubs, grow in the cold dis- 
 tricts of the north, upon which the numerous birds and land-animals subsist. 
 
 In Greenland, a very small red plant grows upon the surface of the snow. When 
 first seen it was thought to be red snow, and is now generally called by that name. 
 
 20. Animals. — These frozen regions of the north, though thinly 
 peopled, abound with animal life, both on land and in the sea. 
 Their chief value, indeed, to the European governments, by which 
 some of them are held, is in the trade in oil, whalebone, and 
 skins, which are thus supplied. 
 
 Within the Tropics, land-animals attain the greatest size; but the largest sea- 
 animals are found in or near the Polar waters. The Great Eorqual (a species of 
 whale found in the Northern Atlantic,) is the largest of living animals, being some- 
 times from 80 to 100 feet long. 
 
 The lakes and seas abound with fish, and myriads ol water-fowl hover upon the 
 coast. The principal amphibious animals are the seal and walrus. The walrus is 
 sometimes eighteen feet long, with tusks three feet in length. 
 
 The grizzly bear, the largest and most dangerous of the bear tribe, is found among 
 the Eocky Mountains, in the southern districts. The white, or Polar bear, inhabits 
 the northern coasts. 
 
 The buffalo, moose, elk, deer, and reindeer, are numerous ; and immense numbers 
 of the smaller fur-bearing animals-as the fox, wolf, raccoon, otter, marten, and 
 beaver — are yearly taken by the trappers. 
 
 21. Inhabitants.— Except in Iceland and the British Provinces, 
 the inhabitants are chiefly Indians and Eskimos. The few Euro- 
 peans are mostly government officers, or persons employed in the 
 fur trade. 
 
 The Eskimos inhabit the northern districts near the coast. They belong to the 
 Mongolian race, and are of low stature and filthy appearance. They derive their 
 support principally from the sea. 
 
 Th»y eat the flesh of the bear and reindeer, and clothe themselves with the skins 
 The oil of the whale, seal, and walrus, affords them light during the long night of 
 •winter- and they consume the hlvhher (or fat) for food. 
 
 The Eskimo frames his canoe with the bones of the whale, and covers it with the 
 skin of the seal. Instead of the reindeer, he harnesses a team of dogs to his sledge, 
 by which he is rapidly drawn over the fields of ice and snow. The hardy native 
 does not hesitate to attack the walrus and the formidable Polar bear, which are 
 encountered on the fields of ice. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 22. British America comprises aU of North America north of 
 the United States, except Alaska, Greenland, and Iceland. It 
 consists of eight States or provinces, five districts, and two exten- 
 sive territories. One of these States — Newfoundland — is a 
 separate province. The rest of British America is united under 
 the name Dominion of Canada. 
 
 [See description of these provinces, pages 63 and 64.] 
 
 The districts and territories comprise about three-fourths of the Dominion m extent. 
 They were formerly all included under the name North-west Territory, but this 
 extensive tract has since been divided into five districts and two territories, each 
 with a separate name. 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 23. This country was purchased by the government of the 
 United States from Eussia in 1867. It has an area of about 
 577,000 square miles, or more than ten times that of the Slate 
 of Illinois, and has hitherto been but partially explored. 
 
 North of the Peninsula of Alaska the coast is low and marshy, but south of this 
 Peninsula it is bold and mountainous, often consisting of precipitous cliffs which 
 descend abruptly to the sea. Groups of volcanic islands skirt this part of the coast, 
 and between them and the main land is a remarkable interior channel, safe for 
 steamboat navigation at all times. The Yukon Eiver is navigable for 1500 miles, 
 and is nearly as large as the Mississippi. 
 
 Extensive forests of pine, cypress, spruce, poplar, and willow cover much of the 
 country. Deposits of valuable minerals exist in the mountain ranges. 
 
 An astonishing quantity of animal life is supported in the forests, the streams, 
 and the island passages of the sea The otter, beaver, seal, ermine, sable; — foxes, 
 bears, wolves, and other fur-bearing animals, are found in great numbers. Myriads 
 of birds fill the woods in summer, while the waters swarm with cod. halibut, salmon, 
 and many other varieties of fish. 
 
 About five hundred whites and seventy thousand Indians and Eskimos con- 
 stitute the population. — The latter are filthy and degraded, and live in huts wholly 
 or partly under ground. Sitka, on Baranoff Island, is the seat of government. 
 
 DANISH AMERICA. 
 
 24. Danish America includes Greenland and Iceland. 
 
 25. Greenland. — It is not yet known whether Greenland is an 
 island, or a cluster of islands joined together by ice. 
 
 The coast is high and rocky, and the more elevated portions are covered with 
 perpetual snow and ice. But recent explorers have found in summer, even at the far 
 north, grassy meadows inhabited by reindeer and the musk-ox, by bees and butterflies. 
 
 The Danish Governor resides at Lichtenfels on the west coast. The Moravian 
 missionaries have also settlements on this coast and on the opposite coast of Labra- 
 dor, and many of the natives have been converted to C!hristianity. 
 
 26. Iceland. — This island is of volcanic formation. Ranges of 
 high and rugged mountains border the coast, while the interior is 
 a dreary desert of volcanoes, ice-clad mountains, or fields of lava. 
 
 The most famous of the volcanoes is Mount Hecla. There are also boiling springs 
 (called Geysers) which throw up water, steam, and even large stones to a great height. 
 
 The settlements are all near the coast. Eeikiavik is the principal town. The Ice- 
 landers are of European origin, and are generally well educated. 
 
 Notwithstanding its name, Iceland is not so cold a country as Greenland. It was 
 called Iceland by a Norwegian pirate, who, on his first visit, saw a bay filled with 
 ice which had floated there from Greenland. 
 
 Greenland was so named by an Icelandic chief, who, for some crime, was obliged 
 to flee from his native land. To induce his countrymen to follow him to Greenland 
 he falsely represented it as superior in fertility to Iceland. 
 
 Questions -By whom have most of the discoveries in the Arctic regions been 
 mS Mention sLe of the results of American explorations mat is the climate 
 Tf th se gions' What is the character of the vegetation? What animals are 
 fumer us? Name some of the principal land animals. Why is this country valu- 
 ablTto Europeans? Who inhabit these regions ? Describe the Eskimos^ 
 
 Questions. — What does British America comprise? What province is not in- 
 cluded in the Dominion of Canada ? What is said of Alaska ? Describe the coast. 
 Mention some of the animals. By whom is it inhabited? What does Danish 
 America include? Describe Greenland. Where have the Moravian missionaries set- 
 tlements ? Describe Iceland. Which is the colder country. Iceland or Greenland? 
 
Questions on the Map and Text of North America. 
 
 27 
 
 Outline. 
 
 Which has the more irregular outline; North or South America? By what 
 oceans is North America surrounded? Which of these is on the north? By what 
 strait is it connected with the Pacific? Is there any communication with the 
 Atlantic ? 
 
 What land is east of Baffin Bay ? Is Greenland attached to the main-land of the 
 Continent ? In what direction does Greenland extend ? What cape at the southern 
 extremity ? In what direction is Iceland from that cape ? 
 
 On the eastern coast of North America there are five great branches of the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean : which of these are called gulfs ? Which one is called a sea ? Which 
 are called bays ? Do you perceive any reason why some of them should be called 
 bays, and others gulfs and seas ? Name the only large branch of the ocean on the 
 western coast. 
 
 By what strait is Baffin Bay entered from the Atlantic? By what strait is Hud- 
 son Bay ? By what land is that bay surrounded ? By what island and peninsula 
 is the Gulf of St. Lawrence partly enclosed? What cape at the south-eastern 
 extremity of Newfoundland ? At the south-western extremity of Nova Scotia ? 
 What waters surround Newfoundland ? 
 
 By what two peninsulas is the Gulf of Mexico partly enclosed ? In what direc- 
 tion does the Peninsula of Yucatan extend ? By what islands is the Carribbean Sea 
 separated from the Atlantic ? What land separates it from the Pacific ? 
 
 What two peninsulas on the western coast of North America ? In what direction 
 do they extend ? What cape at the southern extremity of California? What chain 
 of islands extends from the Peninsula of Aliaska to that of Kamchatka ? (See map 
 of the Western Hemisphere.) ^Name the principal islands on the western coast of 
 firitish America and Alaska. To what country does Vancouver Island belong? 
 Where is the Gulf of Georgia ? What strait connects it with the Pacific Ocean ? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 What three mountain-systems are there in North America ? Do they follow the 
 general direction of the neighboring coast? In what direction, then, does the 
 Rocky Mountain System extend ? The' Appalachian System ? Which of the three 
 systems is the longest? What mountain - system extends from the ^thmus of 
 Panama to the Arctic Ocean? What name is given to the southern part of the 
 principal chain? To the northern part? What system follows the coast, from 
 Cape St. Lucas to, Alaska? What two lofty peaks in Alaska does it contain? 
 Between what two gulfe does the Appalachian System extend ? In what range is 
 Mount Brown ? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 Into what three sections is North America divided by the mountain-systems? 
 Which section is the most extensive? Which, then, contains the largest rivers? 
 From what mountains do the rivers of the Atlantic Slope flow ? In what direction ? 
 
 From what mountains do the largest rivers of the Pacific Slope flow ? In what 
 general direction? Why? Into what ocean? Which of them is in Alaska? 
 Which flows into the Gulf of California? Into the Gplf of Georgia? 
 
 Do the rivers of the Central Plain all flow in the same general direction ? Why ? 
 Where is this plain divided ? Towards what great gulf does the southern half 
 slope 7 Name the principal river of this southern slope. What other large river 
 flows between Mexico and the United States ? Into what gulf do these rivers flow ? 
 
 What great river, in the northern half of the Central Plain, flows into the Arctic 
 Ocean ? In what mountains does it rise ? What name does it bear in the upper 
 part of its course? Name three large lakes with which it is connected. Does any 
 part of this river rise on the west side of the Rocky Mountains ? Name the tribu- 
 taries of the Mississippi River. 
 
 What is there on the map which would make you think that the land around 
 Hudson Bay slopes towards it ? What rivers flow into Hudson Bay ? What lake 
 empties into Hudson Bay through Nelson River ? What great river flows into that 
 lake ? What great river and chain of lakes flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? 
 
 The following rivers rise in the Rocky Mountains — name the waters into which 
 they flow: the Columbia, Fraser, Colorado, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, Missouri, 
 Rio Grande. Can you reach the Appalachian Mountains by following a tributary 
 of the Mississippi ? Can you also reach the Rocky Mountains by following some of 
 its tributaries ? 
 
 Climate and Vegetation. 
 
 [Note. — These questions require a thorough understanding of the principles stated in 
 the lessons on Climate and Vegetation, page 12.] 
 
 On which side of the Equator does North America lie ? Does the climat«, then, 
 become warmer or colder, as you go north ? In what zones is North America situ- 
 ated ? In which zone is the greatest extent included ? Are the climate and pro- 
 ductions of North America, then, generally those of the Torrid or Temperate Zone ? 
 
 In what part of the country would you expect to find tropical productions ? In 
 advancing towards the north, would you find the vegetation becoming more or less 
 luxuriant? In what regions would you expect to find the vegetation almost entirely 
 cease ? Where would you expect to find grain most extensively produced ? 
 
 Are the summers generally hotter or colder in the interior of a country than on 
 the coast? Where are the winters usually more severe: upon the coast, or in the 
 interior? Where, then, would you expect to find the hotter summer: on the 
 Atlantic coast, or upon the banks of the Mississippi River, in the same latitude t 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 What three divisions occupy the northern half of the country? What great 
 country lies south of British America ? What one between the Pacific Ocean and 
 Gulf of Mexico ? Between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean ? 
 
 What group of islands between North and South America ? Name the two princi- 
 pal political divisions of North America. Which of these is the more valuable coun- 
 try ? Why ? What divisions are in the Torrid Zone ? Are all of the West India 
 Islands in the Torrid Zone ? In what part of British America is Bntish Columbia ? 
 Labrador ? Manitoba ? Keewatin ? 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 What proportion of North America is occupied by British and Danish America 
 and Alaska? Why is this not, generally, a habitable region? What parts are 
 capable of supporting a numerous population? 
 
 What is the chief value of these countries to the governments by which they are 
 held? If there is not vegetation enough to support man, how do the animals live? 
 Name the principal land animals. What animals are amphibious? What is an 
 amphibious animal? 
 
 Where is Reikiavik? Sitka? Would you find any white people living in these 
 towns ? As the vegetation is scanty, upon what do they subsist ? Is Iceland in the 
 Frigid or North Temperate Zone ? Is any part of Greenland in the Temperate Zone ? 
 
 Which is the colder country : Iceland, or Greenland ? How, then, came they to 
 receive such erroneous names? Where is Lichteniels? Where are there any 
 Moravian settlements ? Where are the settlements in Greenland and Iceland ; in the 
 interior, or on the coast ? Why ? What can you say of the animal life of Alaska ? 
 
 Why have not the various bodies of land in the Arctic Ocean been more thor- 
 oughly explored ? For what purpose have most of the expeditions been sent 
 into these seas ? Has the North-west passage ever been made ? Does such a passage 
 exist? Who claims to have discovered the open Polar Sea? Where is Grinnell 
 Land? Why is it so called? What other ocean has <i similar character to that 
 of the Arctic ? 
 
 Who inhabit the northern coasts of North America ? How do they live ? Are 
 tliey of the same race as the Indians? As the inhabitants of Iceland? What 
 valuable articles do we obtain from these regions? Where is Nain? Mount 
 Hecla? Disco Island? Washington Land ? Upernavik? On what island is Victoria? 
 
 What mountains would you cross, in going from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, 
 on the 40th parallel of latitude ? What lakes and bay, going from the Gulf of 
 Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of 10° West Longitude from Washing- 
 ton ? Following the same meridian south, what peninsula and country would you 
 cross ? What ocean would you reach ? Would you cross a level or mountainous 
 country, in going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of 
 20° west from Washington ? 
 
 Bound each political division of North America. Sketch a map of North America, 
 locating the principal mountain-chains and rivers. {See Map Dratuing, page 121.) 
 
28 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Physical Features. 
 
 POSITION.— The United States (excluding Alas- 
 ka) occupies the middle part of North America, 
 and thus has a favorable position, being equally re- 
 moved from the blighting cold of the Frigid Zone 
 and the enfeebling heat of the Torrid Zone. 
 
 It extends from 24° 30' to 49° N. latitude, and from 67° to 
 124° W. longitude. 
 
 2. Size. — It is nearly as large as Europe, and 
 about three-eighths as large as the whole of North 
 America. In point of size it ranks fourth among 
 the great powers of the world, only the Russian, 
 the British, and the Chinese Empires being larger. 
 
 Its extent east and west is about 2700 miles, and north and 
 south about 1600 miles. It has an area of 3,000,000 square 
 miles and a coast-line of about 14,000 miles. 
 
 3. Outline. — The Atlantic coast is very irregular, 
 with numerous indentations ; the Gulf coast is more 
 regular ; while the Pacific coast is comparatively un- 
 broken. The fine harbors and the great lakes and riv- 
 ers compensate for the want of extensive inland seas. 
 
 There are numerous islands along the coasts, and their struc- 
 ture and position indicate that they were once parts of the 
 mainland, and that they have been detached from it either by 
 changes of level or by the action of the surrounding waters. 
 
 4. Surface. — The principal forms of relief are the 
 three main forms of North America — the Pacific 
 Highland, the Atlantic Highland, and the Great 
 Central Plain. The three great mountain-systems 
 of North America cross the United States north 
 and south. 
 
 The minor relief-form? are the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific 
 Slope, and the Gulf Plain. 
 
 The United States includes the widest and highest portion of 
 the Pacific Highland, the greater part of the Atlantic Highland, 
 the southern slope of the Great Central Plain, and the whole of 
 the Atlantic Slope. 
 
 5. In the United States, the Pacific Highland 
 
 includes the Sierra Nevada and the Eocky Moun- 
 tains, and the great plateau surmounted by them. 
 
 It varies from 400 to 1000 miles in breadth, and has an average 
 elevation of 5000 feet. It includes numerous mountain-chains, 
 mostly running north and south, and the intervening table-lands 
 and valleys. M.any of its sections are famous for the great 
 variety and beauty of their scenery. 
 
 It is naturally divided into three regions — the Plains of the 
 Colu-nbia (average elevation, 2000 feet), the Colorado Plateau 
 (8000 feet), and the Great Interior Basin (4500 feet). 
 
 The Great Interior Bitsin lies between the Wahsatch Moun- 
 tains and the Sierra Nevada, and extends also to the southern ex- 
 tremity of California, where it is, in some places, below sea- 
 level. It has many fertile valleys, but its general character is 
 that of a desert. 
 
 The Plains of the Columbia are north of the Great Basin. They 
 are characterized by volcanic table-lands, but some regions con- 
 tain beautiful, verdant valleys. 
 
 East of the P.,ocky Mountains, the Pacific Highland slopes so 
 gradually, and seems so nearly level, that this eastern section is 
 knovra as TJte Great Plains. {See page 30.) 
 
 I.xjngitu(le jj 
 
 Questions on the iVIap and Text. 
 
 Position. — Name the natural boundaries of the United 
 States. In which hemisphere is it situated? In which 
 zone ? Which is farther north, the extreme north-eastern 
 or the extreme north-western part? When it is noon in 
 San Francisco (122.^° W.), what time is it in Philadelphia ? 
 In New Orleans (90° W.) ? In Boston (71° W.)? In 
 Washington (77° W.) ? In what direction from the mouth 
 of the Columbia is the source of the Mississippi ? How 
 many degrees from .the North Pole is the extreme north- 
 
 esrn limit of the United States (excluding Aljw 
 many degrees from the Arctic Circle ? Ho\vii»!% 
 from the Tropic of Cancer is the southern to- 
 
 Size.— What is the length of the t'ni;--^ 
 parallel 40° N. ? The breadth on the mert'^'^ 
 from Greenwich? (Measure by Scale.) Whai-*" 
 Its length of coast-line ? J 
 
 Outline. — Which is the more irregular bi".^ ? 
 — the northern or the southern? Which li'* 
 irregular coast-line — the Atlantic or the Pa*'' . 
 . — _^_-_^_~ _^ . 
 
J D S N n . 
 
 Page «> 
 
 Hf 
 
 N 
 
 "S~R 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN "j;^'' -^" 
 
 waters does the Strait of Juan de Fuca connect ? Locate 
 the most western cape of the United States. The most 
 eastern. The most southern. Locate three peninsulas. 
 Which IS deeper 700 miles out from the coast in 40° N. 
 latitude— the Atlantic Ocean or the Pacific Ocean? 
 
 Surface. — Which is lower — Lake Erie or Lake Ontario ? 
 Lake Michigan or Lake Huron? How can you tell? 
 Name the forms of relief. Is the Mississippi Basin highland 
 or lowland ? In what direction does it slope from the 
 Rocky Mountains ? From the Alleghany Mountains ? 
 
 Drainage. — Into what waters do the rivers of the 
 Central Plain flow? In what mountain-range do trib- 
 utaries of the Mississippi, Columbia, and Colorado rise? 
 Name five rivers of the St. Lawrence System. Five of 
 the Sulf of Mexico System. Five of the Atlantic System 
 (not in the Hudson Bay, St. Lawrence, or Gulf of Mexico 
 Systems). Four of the Pacific System. Which is the 
 largest of the five great lakes ? The smallest ? Which is 
 the right bank of the Mississippi^^the eastern or the west- 
 ern ? Where is the head of Lake Champlaiu ? Of Lake 
 Ontario ? Where i.s the Gulf Plain ? 
 
 Climate.— In what respect has the United States a 
 favorable position? How is the climate of the Pacific 
 Slope modified ? What current is in the Atlantic Ocean ? 
 
 Productions and Animals.— Name the most important 
 vegetable productions. The most important minerals. 
 (Let each scholar name a vegetable or a mineral produc- 
 tion, or an animal, and tell where it is fijund.) Where 
 is the great cotton region ? The mining region? The 
 lumber region ? The pasture region ? Name five gold 
 regions. Five silver regions. Ten coal regions. 
 
30 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE FALLS OF NIAGARA. 
 
 6. The Pacific Slope, in the United States, includes especially 
 the low valleys and parks of California, Oregon, and Washington, 
 and, in popular description, the whole area which is drained into 
 the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Much of the country west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains is exceed- 
 ingly fertile, and is capable of sustaining a dense population. 
 
 7. The Atlantic Highland, south of the St. Lawrence, consists 
 of the Appalachian System and adjacent plateaus. 
 
 It has an average elevation of about 2000 feet, and its breadth varies from 150 
 to 200 miles. It descends very gradually to the plain on the west, more ab;:uptly 
 to the Atlantic on the east, on which side it is bordered by a continuous line of 
 rock called the Granite Ledge. 
 
 8. The Atlantic Slope proper has a lowland and an upland region. 
 
 For about 100 or 150 miles from the base of the mountains, the land has a general 
 elevation of about 1000 feet, with a hilly and broken surface. The coast district, or 
 " tide-water region," is low and flat, rarely rising more than 200 feet above the 
 ocean. South of the Hudson River, this district has an average width of from 30 
 to 150 miles. North-east of the Hudson River (in New England), the hilly country 
 extends nearly to the ocean ; so that the flat district is an unimportant feature. 
 
 9. The Bocky Mountain, System stretches nearly across the 
 country, at an average distance of 800 miles from the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The loftiest peaks (in the United States) are Mount Harvard (14,452 feet), Uncom- 
 pahgre Peak (14,408 feet), Gray's Peak (14,341 feet), Long's Peak (14,271 feet), and 
 Pike's Peak (14,147 feet). The surrounding plateau is so high that they rise only 
 about 8000 feet above it. There are thirty-seven peaks in Colorado alone more than 
 14,000 feet above the sea-level. 
 
 10. The Sierra Nevada System also extends across the coun- 
 try, near the Pacific coast. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade 
 Mountains are essentially one chain. 
 
 The highest peak. Mount Whitney (14,898 feet), and the most massive portions 
 of this chain lie south of Lake Tahoe (latitude 39° N.) ; all the higher peaks (in 
 the United States) which lie north of this point are sharp volcanic cones, the highest 
 
 Questions. — Name the principal forms of relief into which' the surface of the 
 United States is divided. The minor relief-forms. What does the Pacific High- 
 land include? Into what three regions is it naturally divided? Describe the Great 
 Interior Basin. What does the Pacific Slope include? Describe the Atlantic High- 
 land. The Atlantic Slope. Name the three principal mountain-syBtems. 
 
 of which are Mount Shasta (14,442 feet) and Mount Rainier (14,444 feet). Lava covers 
 more than 150,000 square miles. These volcanoes are now all apparently extinct. 
 
 There are numerous volcanoes in Alaska, the highest of which is Mount St. Elias 
 (19,500 feet). Those on the continent are believed to be extinct. The Aleutian 
 Islands are but the summits of a great chain of volcanoes which rise from the 
 ocean's bed. Several of these are now active. 
 
 Between the Sierra Nevada System and the ocean are numerous lower chains, 
 known as the Coast Ranges; the higher peaks are from 4000 to 8000 feet. Their 
 western slopes are mostly clothed with very dense forests, and among them are some 
 of the most beautiful and fertile valleys in the country. 
 
 The western slope of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is clothed with ever- 
 green forests, which, in regard to their density and the height and size of their trees, 
 are the grandest forests on the globe. The eastern slope is very much drier and 
 with scantier vegetation. 
 
 Between the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains are numerous mountain-chains, 
 more or less detached from each other, and rising from the plateaus. Some have 
 scanty forests; others are nearly treeless. 
 
 11. The Appalachian System is almost wholly confined to the 
 United States. It extends from the north-eastern border nearly 
 to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 It consists of several parallel ranges, of which the Alleghany Mountains are the 
 highest. The average width of the sy..4em is 60 miles, and the average elevation 
 from 2000 to 3000 feet. The highest peaks are Mitchell's Peak (6711 feet), in North 
 Carolina, and Mount Washington (6286 feet), in New Hampshire. 
 
 These mountains are in general clothed to their summits with forests containing 
 a greater variety of trees than any other forests of temperate climates. 
 
 12. The Central Plain is a part of the Great Central Plain of 
 
 North America (see page 23), and embraces the lowlands of the 
 
 Mississippi Basin, or Valley, a part of the Basins of the St. Lawrence 
 
 and the Bed River of the North, and the Gulf Plain. 
 
 The srissixsippi liasin extends from the summits of the Rocky Mountains to 
 those of the Alleghanies, and occupies nearly one-half the area of the United 
 States. It includes a large part of the Atlantic and the Pacific Highlands and of 
 the Great Central Plain. It slopes eastward from the Rocky Mountains, westward 
 from the Alleghanies, and southward from The Height of Land. 
 
 Questions. — In which system are the highest summits or peaks? Name five of 
 the highest peaks of the Rocky Mountain System. Five of the Sierra Nevnd.i. 
 Two of the Alleghanies. What is said of the volcanoes of the United States? 
 Describe the vegetation of the various mountain-systems. What does the Centra) 
 Plain comprise? Describe the Mississippi Basin. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 31 
 
 The soil of tbe Mississippi Basin is, in general, very rich. The most important 
 sxception to the fertility of this region is a dry plateau along the base of the 
 Rocky Mouutains, stretching eastward 400 miles, with an elevation of 4000 feel. 
 
 Illinois, the southern part of Wisconsin, and the country west of the Mississippi 
 Kiver as far ae the Great Plains, consist mostly of prairie land. 
 
 The Prairies are the great grassy plains of the Central States. They are treeless 
 except near the rivers, where they are well wooded. They have a rich soil, with a 
 thick growth of grass. In some parts the surface is level; in others, rolling. 
 
 The St. Lawrence Kasin is a well-wooded. fertile region, from 300 to 500 feet in 
 elevation. The Valley oftJie Red River of tlie North is included in the Saskatch- 
 ewan Basin, and its waters flow into Hudson Bay. The Gulf Plain is the extreme 
 southern part of the Central Plain. 
 
 13. Drainage. — The lakes and the rivers belong to two great 
 systems — the Pacific System and the Atlantic System. The waters 
 of the great Interior Basin have no outlet to the sea. 
 
 The most important rivers of the Pacific System are the Yukon, the Columbia, 
 and the Colorado. As the Rocky Mountains — which are the main watershed, or 
 divide, of the United States — are nearer to the Pacific Ocean than to the Atlantic, 
 the longest rivers of the country flow into the Atlantic. 
 
 The Mississippi and its tributaries form the most extensive uninterrupted river- 
 navigation in the world : small steamboats can pass from the Great Falls of the 
 Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 3000 miles. 
 
 The St. Lawrence is the only outlet of the five great lakes. The Basin of the 
 Mississippi is more than twice as large as the Basin of the St. Lawrence, yet the 
 latter river discharges into the sea twice as much water as the former. 
 
 The rivers of the Atlantic Slope are swift in the North, and slow in the South on 
 account of the increasing width of the Slope toward the south. They are usually 
 navigable to the edge of the upland country. This point, therefore, determines the 
 position of many important towns. 
 
 14. Climate. — The climate is such as belongs to the middle 
 and the southern parts of the North Temperate Zone. 
 
 The South has hot summers and mild winters. Farther north, the contrast between 
 the seasons is greater ; the winters are very cold, and the summers very warm , although 
 not so warm as those of tbe South. The Atlantic Highland and Slope have winters 
 much colder than those of the Pacific Slope in the same latitude. 
 
 Tbe Pacific Highland has a very dry climate, the south-west winds from the 
 Pacific having lost their moisture before reaching the great plateaus of the West. 
 On the Pacific Slope, owing to the influence of the Japan Current and warm westerly 
 winds, tbe climate is mild and equable This region has a rainy season, including 
 winter and spring, and a dry season, lasting the rest of the year. 
 
 The Great Plain? are so far inland that they receive little moisture from ocean- 
 winds, and have, therefore, a deficient rainfall. Tbe Atlantic Highland and Slope 
 and the Central Plain are well supjilied from tbe Atlantic Ocean, the Great Lakes, 
 and the Gulf of Mexico, and their rains are frequent and copious, and are dis- 
 tributed throughout the year. {See page 13.) 
 
 16. Productions and Animals. — The vegetable productions include 
 many serai-tropical plants, in addition to all the varied vegetation 
 of the Temperate Zones. 
 
 The Mississippi Valley is the great agricultural region of the United States; but 
 wheat, Indian corn, rye. oat.-!, and barley are raised in all parts of the country. 
 The while potato succeeds best in the North. Its place is supplied in tbe South 
 by the sweet potato. Bice grows in great abundance in the South, in tbe marshy 
 tracts along the coast. In the extreme South, sugar is an important production ; 
 and oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits are raised in abundance. 
 
 Tobacco is raised in most of the States east of the Rocky Mountains, but prin- 
 cipally in Kentucky and Virginia. Much, if not most, of the cotton used by man- 
 kind is raised in tbe Southern States. Hemp and flax thrive in various sections. 
 
 The mineral resources of the United Stales are extraordinary. The deposits of 
 gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, and petroleum are of enormous value, and coal, 
 and iron are so extensively found that the supply seems inexhaustible. 
 
 Questions. Describe tbe Prairies. Name tbe two principal systems of lakes and 
 
 rivers. Which rivers have no outlet to the sea ? Name tbe principal rivers of the 
 Pacific System. What is said of the navigation of the Mississippi and its trib- 
 utaries? Describe the St. Lawrence. What is said of the rivers of the Atlantic 
 Slope ? What is said of the climate of each section ? Of the rainfall ? 
 
 Large wild animals— wild-cats, wolves, bears, bisons, and deer — are still found in 
 some thinly-settled regions, but they are fast disappearing. Great numbers of 
 domestic animals are reared, and grazing is one of tbe most important industries. 
 
 16. Inhabitants. — ^In population, the United States ranks fifth 
 among the Nations of the world, being surpa.ssed only by the Chinese, 
 British, and Eussian Empires, and by France and her Colonies. 
 
 The population has increased more rapidly than that of any other country in the 
 world. The principal cause of this increase is the arrival of European emigrants, 
 who seek in America advantages denied to them at home. Besides the white 
 population, there are. numbers of negroes, Indians, and Chinese. 
 
 17. Political Divisions. — The United States consists of forty- 
 four States, six Territories, and the District of Columbia. 
 
 For convenience of description these States and Territories are divided into six 
 sections : New England, the iliJille Atlantic States, the Southern States, the £aet 
 Central States, tbe West Central States, and the Pacific Stales and Territories. 
 
 18. Government. — ^The United States is a Federal Eepublic. 
 Each of the forty -four States has its own local government, but 
 all are united under the Federal Government, whose seat is in the 
 City of Washington. 
 
 19. Religion. — The government supports no particular form of 
 religion. The greater part of the inhabitants are Protestants. 
 
 20. Education is general. Colleges and academies are numerous, 
 and nearly every State has its system of free schools. The 
 United States maintains a Military Academy (at West Point), a 
 Naval School (at Annapolis), and a Burean of Education. 
 
 21. History. — The first settlements on the Western Continent 
 were made principally by the Spanish, the French, and the English. 
 
 The Spaniards occupied the sections bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and a large 
 part of South America. Their settlements (except in United States territory) are 
 still occupied by their descendants, who speak the Spanish language. The Portuguese 
 settled Brazil, and their language is still the language of that country. 
 
 The French originally claimed and partly settled the Basin of the St. Lawrence 
 and the Valley of the Mississippi. But the only part of this vast territory now in 
 their possession consists of two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 Tbe English made settlements in the Atlantic Slope, between Maine and Florida. 
 Conquest extended their possessions, and at one time they owned British America 
 and all tbe country east of the Mississippi River. 
 
 22. In 1607 the first permanent English settlement in America 
 was made, at Jamestown, in Virginia. Other colonies were settled 
 from time to time, and in 1733 there were thirteen English col- 
 onies within the present limits of the United States. 
 
 They remained attached to England until her tyranny induced them to rebel. 
 This led to tbe war of the Revolution. The first battle was fought at Lexington, in 
 1775. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, in 1781, put an end to hostilities. On 
 the 4th of July, 1776, the colonies declared themselves a separate nation. In 1783, 
 the British Government acknowledged their independence. In 1788 a written Con- 
 stitution was adopted, and in 1789 the first President was chosen and inaugurated. 
 
 23. At the close of the Eevolutionary War, the area of tbe 
 
 United States was about 800,000 square miles, and the population, 
 
 3,000,000. The area of the country (including Alaska) is now 
 
 about 3,600,000 square miles, and the population, 63,000,000. 
 
 The progress of the country has been remarkable; and the great mass of the 
 people are happier and more prosperous than those of any other country. 
 
 Questions. — What do the vegetable productions include ? Name some of the 
 principal staples, and tell where they are raised. What is said of the mineral 
 resources? Of the animals? Of the population? What is the form of govern- 
 ment? By whom were tbe early settlements made in the New World? Wh^t 
 sections were settled by the Spaniards ? By the French ? The English ? 
 
Questions on the Map. 
 
 DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 F^8w England States. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Connectieut. 
 
 Middle Atlantic States. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Nevv Jersey. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 
 Southern States. 
 
 North Carolina- 
 South Carolina. 
 Georgia. 
 Florida. 
 Alabama. 
 Louisiana. 
 Mississippi. 
 Tennessee. 
 Arkansas. 
 Texas. 
 
 East Central States. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 West Central States. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 lo^va. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Pacific States. 
 
 California. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 Territories. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 Ne^A/ Mexico. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 Position and Area. 
 
 What country i3 situated upon the north of 
 the United States? Upon the south-west? 
 What ocean upon the east? On the west? 
 What gulf on the south? What part of North 
 America does the United States occupy ? 
 
 Outline. 
 
 In what general direction does the Atlantic 
 coast of the United States extend ? The Pacific 
 coast? Where is Penobscot Bay? Delaware Bay 
 Chesapeake Bay? Albemarle Sound? What 
 Bay upon the Pacific coast? Which coast haa 
 the most inlets : the Atlantic or the Pacific ? 
 
 Between what bodies of water is' the Penin- 
 sula of Florida? Where is Cape Cod? Cape 
 Hatteras? Cape Sable? Cape Flattery? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 By what three mountain-systems is the United 
 States crossed ? Which of these commences near 
 the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? 
 
 What mountain-system skirts the Pacific coast? 
 Which chain of this system is nearest the coast? 
 What chain in California lies east of the Coast 
 Mountains ? In what direction does the Eocky 
 Mountain-system extend? What part of this 
 system is called the Sierra Madre? Where are 
 the Wahsatch Mountains? 
 
 Into what four sections is the United States 
 divided by these mountain-systems? What part 
 of the Atlantic Slope is generally level ? What 
 mountain-system forms the eastern boun- 
 dary of the Pacific Slope ? Describe the country 
 between the Bocky Mountains and the Sierra Ne- 
 vada and Cascade Ranges. The country west of the Sierra Nevada. 
 Between what mountains is the Great Interior Basin situated? 
 
 Between what mountains does the Central Plain of the United 
 States lie? What are the different divisions of this plain? What 
 can you say about the size of the Mississippi Valley? What part 
 of it is a barren tract? Describe the prairies. What part of the 
 Central Plain is occupied by the St. Lawrence Basin and Valley of 
 the Red River of the North ? Where is the Gulf Plain ? 
 
 and Lakes. 
 
 what mountains do most of the rivers of the Atlantic Slope 
 Into what ocean and gulf do they flow ? In what direction, 
 
 Rivers 
 
 In 
 rise? 
 
 and into what gulf, doi/s the Mississippi flow ? In what mountains 
 do many of the tributaries of the Mississippi rise? 
 
 In what direction, and into what lake, does the Red River of the 
 North flow? By what rivor are the Great Lakes drained? Into 
 
 what gulf, and in what ditectn 
 Great Lakes, beginning with A 
 and into what gulf, do the W 
 does the Mississippi River tisi' 
 What rivor of the United Sti 
 In what mountains does tks 
 into what body of water, doS 
 the goiiin-al direction of Ihali' 
 
es this river flow? Name tiie 
 t westerly. In what direction, 
 f Texas flow ? In what State 
 ough what State does it flow ? 
 ws into the Gulf of California ? 
 rise ? In what direction, and 
 olumbia River flow ? What is 
 the Pacific Slope ? 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 In what zone is the United States situated ? Are the summers hot- 
 ter near the Gulf of Mexico, or near the Great Lakes ? Name the 
 principal grains raised in the United States. Where is most wheat 
 produced? Corn? Rice? Cotton? Tobacco? Sugar? Potatoes? 
 
 Name in order, beginning with the most northerly, the thirteen States 
 bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. The five on the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 
 three States bordering on the Pacific. Name the eight States border- 
 ing on the Great Lakes. What State has theiit. Lawrence Kiver for a 
 part of its boundary ? Of what State is the Rio Grande the south- 
 western boundary? What Territory borders on British America? 
 
 What two border on Mexico ? Name the States bordering on 
 the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. The five on the western 
 bank. Between what parallels of latitude is the United States situ- 
 ated ? Between what meridians ? What is the capital ? 
 
34 
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 New England. 
 
 nVTEW ENGLAND occupies tlie north-eastern portion of the 
 
 1 >1 United States, and is composed of six States : — Maine, New 
 
 Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
 
 2. Coast. — The coast is generally bold and rocky, hut the New 
 Hampshire and Cape Cod shores, and portions of the Rhode Island 
 and Connecticut coasts, axe low and sandy. 
 
 3. Surface. — The Green Mountains, by which the western part 
 
 of New England is crossed, belong to the Appalachian System. 
 
 The general appearance of the country is hilly and picturesque. 
 
 The White Mountains, in New Hampshire, are an offshoot from the Green Moun- 
 tain chain. Mount Washington, the highest of the group, is one of the loftiest 
 peaks in the Appalachian System. 
 
 Another branch of tliis system crosses Maine in a north-easterly direction. It 
 consists of a ridge of liigh lands, of which Mount Katahdin and Mount Abraham 
 are the principal elevations, 
 
 4. The Lakes and Rivers belong to two systems — the Atlantic, 
 and St. Lawrence — ■ which are separated by the Green Mountains. 
 
 The rivers of New England, like most of those which belong to the Atlantic! Slope, 
 flow tlirough a hilly country, and afford great water-power for manufactures. The 
 Penobscot, Kennebec, and Connecticut, are the only ones which are navigable to any 
 con.^iderable distance. 
 
 6. New England, and especially Maine, abounds with lakes of 
 clear, bright water, which lie sheltered among the hills, giving 
 ^fe and beauty to the landscape. 
 
 Jhe largest lake entirely within the limits of New England is Moosehead Lake, 
 in Maine. It is navigable for steamboats. Lake Wmnipiseogee, in New Hampshire, 
 is the most picturesque and beautiful. 
 
 6. Productions. — Manufactures, commerce, the forests, and 
 fisheries, form the principal sources of wealth in New England. 
 
 The agricultural products are not important, except for home consumption ; 'they 
 consist chiefly of Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, and tobacco. The only mineral pro- 
 ductions of much value are various kinds of building-stone. 
 
 The forests are most extensive in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The 
 latter State is the only one which is not much engaged in manufactures. 
 
 The fisheries employ more men in New England than in any other section of the 
 Union. Massachusetts and Maine are the only States which have an extensive for- 
 eign commerce, though the others, except Vermont, have a coast trade with our 
 Atlantic sea-ports. 
 
 7. Inhabitants. — The New Englanders are mostly of English 
 descent, and are noted for their enterprise and industry. 
 
 They are a moral and religious people ; and, from the earliest settlement of the 
 country, have given great attention to the subject of education. Many of them have 
 emigrated to the Western States of the Union. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 8. The coast of Maine is indented by numerous inlets, and is 
 lined with islands. Maine has a greater number of good harbors 
 than any other State in the Union. 
 
 9. Productions. — The forests cover the northern part of the 
 State, and form one of the ]-)rincipal sources of its wealth : but 
 the manufacture of cotton goods is now the leading industry. 
 
 Questions. — Which are the New England States ? What i« th« character of the 
 coast? Describe the surface. To what two systems do the lakes and rivers belong? 
 Name the principal navigable rivers. Of what value are those not navigable? 
 Which is the largest lake? What form the principal sources of wealth in New 
 England? Which of these are most important? Of what descent are most of the 
 •nhabitants ? For what are they noted f Describe them. 
 
 In winter, great numbers of men are engaged in cutting down the trees, which are 
 then drawn over the hard and deep snow to the rivers. In the spring, the logs are 
 floated down to the saw-mills, where they are converted into timber, boards, planks, 
 shingles and other kinds of lumber 
 
 SHIP-BUIL'DING. 
 
 Maine is one of the leading States in ship-building and in the production of sawed 
 lumber. The other chief exports are cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, 
 leather, paper, granite, marble, lime, ice, potatoes, and fish. 
 
 10. Most of the Towns are in the southern part of the State ; 
 the north being but little settled. Augusta is the capital. 
 
 Portland, the largest city, has one of the best harbors in the Union. Bangor is 
 the principal place for the shipment of lumber. Bath, and many other towns on tlio- 
 coast, are engaged in ship-building. Great quantities of lime are exported from 
 Kockland. 
 
 Lewiston, Saco, and Biddeford (on the opposite side of the river from Saco), have 
 extensive cotton factories. Waterville and Brunswick each contains a college. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 11. New Hampshire is often called the Granite State, on ac- 
 count of the abundance of that mineral. From the magnificent 
 scenery of the White Mountains, it is also styled the Switzerland 
 of America. 
 
 12. Productions 
 
 The inanufactuies 
 of cotton and wool 
 forna the princi 
 pal wealth of the 
 State. Lumber, 
 potatoes, cattle, 
 wool, and dairy 
 products are albo 
 important. 
 
 13. Towns. — 
 
 Concord is the'cap- 
 ital. Tlie largest 
 m a n u f a c t u r i n o; 
 towns are M.in- 
 rliester, Nashua, 
 Dovpi-, Iveene, 
 and Great Falls. 
 
 RAILROAD UP MOUNT WASHINGTON. 
 
 Portsmouth, on the Piscitaqua River, is the only sea-port, and has a good harbor. 
 Opposite the city, on an island in the river, in Maine, is a United States Navy Yard. 
 Hanover contains Dartiiioulh Collefie, 
 
 Questions. — What advantage does Maine derive from the character of its coast f 
 What form the principal sources of its wealth? In what other industries is Miiina 
 one of the leading States ? Name some of the exporta. In what part of the State ai n 
 the towns? Name the capital. The other principal cities and towns. What is New 
 Hampshire often called ? Why? What are the principal productions ? Name he 
 capital. The other important towns. Which is the only sea-port ? 
 
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 35 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 14. Vermont ("green mountain") derives its name from the 
 mountains wHch traverse tlie State, and which are clothed with, 
 evergreen pines, firs, and hemlocks. 
 
 15. Productions. — The people are principally engaged in manu- 
 facturing, farming, and grazing. The valleys have a rich soil ; and 
 upon the mountain-sides are pastured great numbers of cattle, horses, 
 and sheep. Live-stock, wool, and dairy products are largely exported. 
 
 The lumber-trade is valuable, and great quantities of maple-sugar are made. 
 Vast beds of the most beautiful marble are found in various parts of the State. 
 
 16. Towns. — Montpelier is the capital. Eutland is the largest 
 town. Burlington contains the University of Vermont. 
 
 Rutland and Middlebury have an extensive trade in marble. Middlebury- and 
 Burlington each contains a college. Brattleboro is a noted summer resori. At 
 Bennington, the "Green Mountain Boys defeated a detachment of Hessians from 
 Burgoyne's army, in 1777. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 17. Massacliusetts borders on Massachusetts Bay: whence it is 
 often called the Bay State. It is one of the wealthiest and most 
 populous of tbe United States. 
 
 18. Productions. — Massacliusetts surpasses every other State 
 in ihe manufacture of boots and shoes, cotton and woolen goods, 
 and in the fisheries. These, witb commerce, are the prmcipal 
 sources of her wealth. 
 
 The commerce of the State is second only to that of New York. The exports con- 
 sist principally of manufactured goods, whale oil, salt-fii^h, granite, and ice. 
 
 19. Towns. — Boston is the cap- 
 • ital, and is the largest city in New 
 England. It is exceeded only by 
 Now York city in the extent of its foreign commerce. 
 
 Salem is also a commercial town. New Bedford, once the most important whaling- 
 port in the world, is largeh' engaged in maiuifacturing. Gloucester, Marblehead, 
 Newburvport, and Barnstable are noted for extensive cod and mackerel fisheries. 
 
 Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River are the principal seats of the cotton arid woolen 
 manufactures. Fall River has also extensive iron works. Lynn and Haverhill are 
 well known for the manufacture of boots and shoes, and Taunton for its locomotives 
 and other machinery. 
 
 Questions, — From what does Vermont derive its name? In what are most 
 of the people engaged? Name the capital. The other principal towns. 'Why is 
 Jtassachusetta often called the Bay State? In what does it surpass every other 
 State ? What is the commercial rank of Massachusetts ? What is said of Boston ? 
 
 Quincy is well-known for its granite. Worcester is growing rapidly, and is a 
 great railroad centre. It contains a State Lunatic Asylum, and numerous manufac- 
 tories. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University. 
 
 Springfield contains a United States Arsenal. Charlestown, which wa.s annexed to 
 Boston in 1874, contains Bunker Hill Monument and a United States Navy Yard. 
 
 20. Several of the towns' in this State are celebrated in the 
 early history of our country. Plymouth is the place where the 
 Pilgrim Fathers landed in 1620 ; and the first battles of the Revo- 
 lution were fought at Concord, Lexington, and Charlestown. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 21. Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States. In pro- 
 portion to its size, it is the most populous State in the Union. 
 
 22. Productions. — 
 
 Cotton and woolen 
 manufactures and machinery are the most valuable productions. 
 
 The small streams are lined with manufacturing villages, which, however, are not 
 so large as those on the Merrimac River. 
 
 23. Towns. — Rhode Island is the oaJ,y State in the Union having 
 two capitals. These are Providence and Newport. Pawtucket and 
 Woonsocket are the only other cities. 
 
 Providence, the largest city in the State, and the second in size in New England, 
 has considerable foreign commerce and coast-trade, and a great variety of manufac- 
 tures. It contains Brown University. 
 
 Newport is one of the finest watering-places, and has one of the best harbors in 
 the world. Pawtucket, like Providence, is noted for the variety of its manufactures. 
 Bristol, Warren, Lincoln, Warwick, Cumberland, Westerly, and East Greenwich 
 are thriving manufacturing towns. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 24. Owing to tbe sobriety and industry of the inhabitants, this 
 State is known as the " Land of Steady Habits." Its principal 
 wealth is derived from manufactures. 
 
 Connecticut is noted for the great variety of her manufactures — such as cotton 
 and woolen goods, farmers' and mechanics' tools, saddlery, coaches, paper, buttons, 
 combs, clocks, and firearms. 
 
 25. Towns. — Hartford is the capital of the State. New Haven 
 is the largest city. 
 
 New Haven, the " City of Elms," is a beautiful place, and the seat of Yale College. 
 Hartford contains Trinity College, a Deaf and Dumb Asylum, and a Retreat for the 
 Insane. Its manufactures are extensive, and large steamboats ascend the Connecticut 
 River to this point. 
 
 New London and Stonington send a few vessels to the whale-fishery. Norwich is 
 beautifully situated at the head of the Thames River. Middletown contains the 
 Wesleyan University. Bridgeport, Waterbury, and Meriden are important places. 
 
 Questions. — Name the other most important places in Massachusetts. Which of them 
 are celebrated in history ? How does Rhode Island compare in size with the other 
 State?? What are the most important productions? Name the capitals. What are the 
 principal productions of Connecticut? Name the capital. The other principal places, 
 
36 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text of the New England States. 
 
 Position. 
 
 What British Province lies north of >'ew England? What Province east of 
 Maine ? What ocean washes the shores of these States ? What State and Province 
 are upon the western borders ? 
 
 Area. 
 
 [Note. — For the answers to the folloiiiing questions, refer to the Statistical Tables, 
 page 133.] Which of the United States is nearly the same size as all of the Eastern 
 States ? Which is the smallest State in the Union ? The next in size 1 Name the 
 Eastern States in the order of their size, commencing with the largest. Which one 
 ia larger in extent than the other five ? Which is the larger : Vermont or New 
 Hampshire ? 
 
 Outline. 
 
 What part of the coast of the Eastern States is rocky ? What part is low and 
 landy ? Which State has the most numerous bays and inlets ? Which of these bays 
 lies between Maine and New Brunswick ? What large bay receives the waters of 
 Penobscot River? Upon what bay is Portland situated? 
 
 What two bays are east of Masisachusetts ? What bay is south of the eastern part 
 of Massachusetts ? What islands south of the peninsula of Cape Cod ? What cape 
 on the north-eastern shore of Massachusetts ? 
 
 What bay within Rhode Island ? What island south of tlie State ? What is the 
 general character of the coast of Connecticut? What sound on the coast? What 
 Island IS south of Connecticut ? What Point at the eastern extremity of Long Island ? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 What mountains cross the western part of the Eastern States ? To what system 
 do they belong ? What part of the boundary of New Hampshire do they lorm ? 
 Of Maine ? 
 
 Where are the White Mountains ? Name the highest peak. Where is Mt. Katah- 
 din? Mars Hill? Mt. Monadnock ? Wachusett? Holyoke? Tom? Saddle 
 Mountain ? To what system do all these belong ? 
 
 To what Slope does most of New England belong ? What is the character of it : 
 hilly, or level ? Is the flat coast-district an important feature in New England, as 
 it 13 in the rest of the Atlantic Slope ? Why ? [See description of the Atlantic Slope, 
 in the chapter on the United Slates, page 30.] 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 In what mountain-chain do most of the rivers of the New England States rise? 
 To what system do most of the lakes and rivers belong ? How are the Atlantic 
 rivers separated from the St. Lawrence System ? 
 
 To what system does Lake Champlain belong ? By what river does it flow into 
 the St. Lawrence ? Name the four rivers in Vermont which flow into Lake Cham- 
 )ilain. To what system do they belong? 
 
 To which system do all tliose lakes and rivers of the Eastern States belong which 
 flow southward into the Atlantic Ocean? What river partly separates Maine from 
 New Brunswick? Maine from Canada? Through what lake does the Penobscot 
 first flow ? Into what does the Aroostook River flow ? 
 
 What river receives the waters of Grand Lake, and the Schoodic Lakes ? Into 
 what bay does the river flow? What lake does Kennebec River drain? In what 
 State does the Androscoggin River rise? What mountains turn its course eastward? 
 
 In what mountains does the Saco River rise ? What tributary does the Merrimac 
 receive from Lake Winnipiseogee ? Through what States does llie Merrimac flow? 
 What important manufacturing places are situated upon it ? 
 
 What river flows into the head of Narragansetl Bay ? What three rivers flow 
 into Long Island Sound? What lake forms the source of the Connecticut River? 
 What States does that river separate, and through what States does it flow? 
 
 Let each scholar describe some river in the Eastern States : stating the system to 
 which it belongs, what is its source, what lakes it receives, what States it separates 
 or crosBBB. in what direction, and into what waters it flows 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 [Note. — Hefer to Climate and Vegetation, in the chapter on the United Statet.] 
 Describe the climate of New England. How does it differ from that of the Southern 
 States? In what part are the winters most severe: on the coast, or in the interior? 
 In the three most northern, or the three most southern States ? 
 
 Is the vegetation of New England of a temperate, or of a tropical character? 
 What grains are raised there ? Is tobacco extensively grown ? Is cotton raised 
 there? Rice? The sugar-cane ? Wheaft? 
 
 What form the principal sources of wealth in the Eastern States ? Are the agri- 
 cultural products raised in sufficient quantities for exportation ? What minerals are 
 found there ? Which would be most likely to be engaged in the fisheries : Vermont, 
 or the States on the coast? Why? Which States have a foreign commerce, or coast- 
 trade ? Which are tho principal manufacturing States ? Where are the forests most 
 extensive ? 
 
 Which State is most engaged in tho lumber-trade, and in ship-building? Which is 
 most engaged in commerce ? In the fisheries ' What are the principal sources of 
 wealth in Maine ? New Hampshire ? Vermont? Massachusetts?- Rhode Island? 
 Connecticut ? 
 
 Towns. 
 
 On what river is the capital of Maine? On what bay is the largest city? Od 
 what river is the principal place for the shipment of lumber ? Where is Bath ? 
 Hockland? In what are the people of these places engaged? Where is Lewiston? 
 Saco? Biddeford? What important business is done in these towns? In what 
 part of Maine are most of the towns situated 
 
 What is the capital of New Hampshire ? On what river is it situated ? On what 
 river is Portsmouth? Keene' Dover and Great Falls? What i? the principal 
 business of the two latter towns? AVhat manufacturing towns in New Hflmpsliiie 
 upon the Merrimac River? In what part of the State are the largest towns? 
 
 What is the capital of Vermont? On what river is it situated? What town near 
 the mouth of that river ? On what river are Rutland and Middlebury ? What 
 trade is carried on in the two latter towns ? On what river are Brattleboro and 
 Norwich ? What can you tell about Bennington ? Where is it situated ? 
 
 What is the capital and largest city of Massachusetts ? Where is it situated ? 
 Which is the principal city engaged in the whale-fishery ? What cities are noted 
 for cod and mackerel fisheries? For cotton and woollen manufactures ? Where is 
 Lynn? Taunton? What is the leading business in each of these places. 
 
 In what direction from Boston is Quincy? Salem? Cambridge? Springfield? 
 Worcester? Plymouth? Concord? Lexington? For what are these places noted? 
 Where is Newburyport? Pittsfield ? Fitchburg? Northampton? 
 
 Name the capitals of Rhode Island. Which of them is at the head of Narraganselt 
 Bay? Which is a fashionable watering-place? Is it on an island, or on the main- 
 land? Where is Bristol ? Woonsocket? Pawtucket? Westerly? 
 
 Name the capital of Connecticut? On what river is Hartford? Where is New 
 Haven situated ? New London? Stonington? Norwich? Middletown? Bridge- 
 port? Waterbury? Norwalk? Which of these places contain colleges? Which 
 of them are on or near the coast ? 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 What is tho scale of the map of New England ? Of what use is the scale of a map? 
 What is the distance across the State of Vermont, from its northern to its southern 
 boundary ? What is the distance, in a direct line, from Portland to Boston ? 
 
 On what waters would you sail, to go from Hartford to New York ? From Provi- 
 dence to Boston? From Bangor to Portland? From Burlington to Plattsbnrg? 
 If a boat were set adrift in the Connecticut River, in what direction, and into what 
 water would it float? What two important rivers would you cross in going from 
 Boston to Albany? 
 
 Bound each of the New England States. Name three important towns in each. 
 Mention the principal rivers and mountains in each State. Spell the name of each 
 State. Spell Passamaquoddy. Nantucket. Narragansett. Montauk. Katahdin. 
 Monadnock. Wachusett. Richelieu. Missisque. Lamoille. Chesuncook. Schoo- 
 dic. Kennebec. Androscoggin. Saco. Thames. Housatonic. Biddeford. Mont- 
 celier Gloucester Watorville Winnipiseogee. Give themeaning of the last name 
 
72 
 
 7fl r,.h,-ii,i„m.-h-l.X._^^ 8,9 
 
 &biclmraska 5B 
 
 Longitude West fi'om Grewiwirh 
 
 '^V, *> / 
 
 LitjisMs-i- 
 
 piiiniiUL).. ^iV^ 
 
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 STATUTE MILES G;^,'2 TO .VDECtREE 
 5 10 JO :'.0 K ' .^0 «:■" "' ! 
 
 aO ■:)lt lO " 
 
 ;T''''BROOKJ.'ra 
 
 :>J3^'^' 
 
 Scale -15 miles lo an. inch. 
 
 — — o R — 
 
 EASTERN STATE S 
 
iib 
 
 THIS section comprises the States of New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Vir- 
 ginia, and the District of Columbia. 
 
 The first four were formerly called the Middle States, because when the Union was 
 formed they were in the middle of the thirteen States of which it was composed. 
 Now the true Middle or Central States are those which lie near the Mississippi River. 
 
 2. The agricultural, grazing, and mining products of this sec- 
 tion are very important, and it possesses great advantages for 
 manufactures and commerce. 
 
 More coal and iron are produced than in any other section. Manufacturing is 
 promoted by the abundance of coal, and by the water-power of the rivers. 
 
 The commerce is immense. Numerous railroads and canals connect the Ohio 
 River and the Great Lakes with the Atlantic coast, and bring hither the products 
 of the Central States, which are exported through the great commercial cities of 
 New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. 
 
 Commerce is also promoted by the Atlantic rivers, nearly all of which are navi- 
 gable ; and by Chesapeake and Delaware bays, which penetrate far into the interior. 
 
 3. Surface. — This region is crossed by the Appalachian Moun- 
 tain System, which here attains its greatest breadth. The Cats- 
 kill and Adirondack mountains are parts of the system. 
 
 4. West of the mountains the surface is hilly, with the excep- 
 tion of some level tracts in New York. The country between the 
 mountains and the sea consists of two regions : a low and gen- 
 erally sandy tract upon the coast, and a hilly district in the interior. 
 
 The boundary between the hilly and level country would be marked by a line 
 drawn from New York city, through Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, Washington, 
 Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Petersburg, to Weldon, in North Carolina; for 
 these places are near the rapids or falls at the head of tide-water. 
 
 5. Lakes and Rivers. — These belong to three diiferent systems : 
 the Atlantic, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence. 
 
 6. Owing to the hilly nature of the country, the rivers and 
 lakes present many striking scenes of natural beauty. 
 
 Questions.— -Which States were formerly called Middle States? Why? What 
 are the chief resources of this section ? How is commerce promoted ? Describe the 
 surface. To what systems do the lakes and rivers belong? 
 
 The Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac rivers force their way through narrow gorges 
 in the eastern ridge of the Appalachian Mountains, which sometimes rise perpendic- 
 ularly to the height of 1000 feet. The Highlands on the Hudson, the Delaware 
 Water-Gap, and the passage of the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, are thus produced. 
 
 The Great Lakes pour their immense volume of water over a precipice 165 feet 
 high, forming the unrivalled Cataract of Niagara. The Genesee River flows into 
 Lake Ontario, over a series of magnificent falls: one of them, at Rochester, having 
 a perpendicular descent of 97 feet. The Mohawk River and its tributaries have 
 several beautiful cascades, of which Trenton Falls are the most celebrated. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 7. In wealth, population, manufactures, and commercial impor- 
 tance. New York holds the first rank in the Union, and is there- 
 fore called the Empire State. 
 
 8. Productions. — The agricultural and grazing products, the 
 minerals and manufactures, of New York, are all very important, 
 but commerce is the leading interest. 
 
 Salt is the most valuable mineral. Iron and building-stone are abundant. 
 Petroleum is also obtained in large quantities. 
 
 The manufactures of New York now exceed in value those of any other State. 
 The principal articles, are cotton and woolen goods, and iron. Great quantities of 
 flour are made. 
 
 9. Towns. — Albany is the capital. No other State contains so 
 many large towns and cities. 
 
 The city of New York is the largest on the Western Continent, and is next to 
 London and Liverpool in commercial importance. Brooklyn is, next to New York, 
 the largest city in the State. 
 
 The other important cities are situated on the lakes, or on the great routes of 
 travel which centre towards the chief city. Immense quantities of produce from 
 the Western States and Canada are received at Buff'alo, Oswego, and Ogdensburg, 
 and forwarded thence to the sea-coast. Troy, Utica, and Poughkeepsie are impor- 
 tant places. 
 
 Rochester has extensive flour-mills, and Syracuse important salt-works. West 
 Point is well-known as the seat of the United States Military Academy, and Saratoga 
 as a fashionable watering-place. 
 
 Questions. — ■ Mention some of the scenes of natural beauty found here. AVhal 
 rank does New York hold? What is the leading interest of this State? Name 
 the principal cities and towns. Which of them is most important ? 
 
THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 
 
 39 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 10. Pennsylvania, the " Keystone State," is one of the wealthiest 
 and most populous States in the Union. 
 
 11. Productions. — Pennsylvania is principally a mining and manu- 
 facturing State ; but it is also rich in grain and live stock. Large 
 quantities of corn, oats, wheat and rye are raised. 
 
 New York and Pennsylvania are among the leading States in the production of 
 hay, potatoes, butter and cheese. They are also the leading States in manufactures. 
 
 Pennsylvania produces more coal than any other State. The iron mines are also 
 among the most productive in the country. The anthracite coal is found between 
 the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers ; the bituminous coal in the western part of 
 the State. Petroleum, or coal oil, abounds in the northwestern part of the State. 
 
 Pennsylvania is the first State in the amount of iron manufactures. The other 
 leading manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, flour and lumber. 
 
 12. Towns. — Harrisburg is the capital. Philadelphia, the prin- 
 cipal city, is the greatest manufacturing city in the Union. It 
 has an extensive commerce, and it is the greatest coal-market in the 
 country. 
 
 Pittsburgh and Allegheny are also great manufacturing cities. They are sur- 
 rounded by rich mines of coal and iron ore, and their mills and dwellings are sup- 
 plied from numerous natiiral gas wells with the most economical fuel in the world. 
 
 Other important places are Scranton, Residing, Erie, Wilkes- Barre, Lancaster, 
 Altoona, Williamsport, AUentown, Johnstown, York, Chester, and Nornstown. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 13. Productions. — New Jersey is an agricultural and mamifac- 
 
 turing State. It supplies New York and Philadelphia with fruits 
 
 and garden vegetables. 
 
 The potteries are the most noted in the United States, and the manufactures of 
 cotton, wool, silk, leather, machinery, and India-rubber goods, are important. The 
 principal manufacturing towns are in the northern part of the State. 
 
 14. Towns. — Trenton, the capital, is celebrated for the capture 
 
 of the Hessians, by "Washington, in 1776. 
 
 Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, New Brunswick, Trenton, and Camden are the 
 principal manufacturing places. Princeton, the seat of Princeton College, was tlie 
 scene of a victory gained by the Americans over tlie British during the Revolution. 
 
 SEA-BATHING. 
 
 Cape May, Long Branch, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, and Atlantic City are well- 
 known resorts for sea-bathing. Elizabeth and Hoboken are important places. 
 
 Questions. — Is Pennsylvania a commercial or a mining and manufacturing State? 
 What kinds of grain are raised in this State ? What is said of the mines of iron and 
 coal ? Where is the anthracite coal found ? The bituminous ? What are the leading 
 manufactures? Which is the principal city? What advantages of position has 
 Pittsburgh? What are the chief productions of New Jersey? Name the large 
 towns. The principal summer resorts ? 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 15. Delaware is, next to Ehode Island, the smallest State in the 
 Union. This is the only State, the whole of which is included 
 within the low district of the Atlantic '"Slope. 
 
 16. Productions. — Wheat, corn, oats, and fruit are the principal 
 
 productions. Peach-raising is one of the principal industries. 
 
 17. Towns. — Dover is the capital. "Wilmington is the largest 
 city. Many steamboats and other vessels are built at "Wilming- 
 ton ; and in the vicinity there are important flour, powder, and 
 paper mills. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 18. Maryland is divided by Chesapeake Bay into two sections; 
 the portion east of the bay is called the Eastern Shore. 
 
 19. Productions. — ^"Wheat, com, and tobacco, are the chief pro- 
 ductions. Iron and coal are abundant in the western districts. 
 The manufactures of iron, cotton, and wool, are important. 
 
 20. Towns. — Annapolis is the capital, and contains a Naval 
 School. Baltimore is a great compiercial and manufacturing 
 city. It is one of the largest markets in the world for tobacco, 
 flour, and oysters. 
 
 Cumberland is noted for its coal-trade. Frederick and Hagerstown are flourishing 
 places. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 21. The District of Columbia is the seat of the government of 
 the United States. 
 
 It is situated on the north bank of the Potomac River, between Maryland and 
 Virginia, and has an area of about sixty square miles. It contains the cities of 
 Washington and Georgetown, the former of which is the capital of the United States. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall have power to 
 exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever,over the seat of the government. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 22. Virginia was settled in 1607, and being the earliest of the 
 English Colonies, was styled the "Ancient Dominion." 
 
 23. Productions. — Tobacco, corn, oats, and wheat, are the most 
 important productions. Iron and coal are the principal minerals. 
 
 24. Towns. — Richmond is the capital, and the principal com- 
 mercial city. It has numerous flour-mills, and tobacco factories. 
 
 Norfolk has one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. Yorktown is famous for 
 the surrender of the British army to General AVashington in the year 1781. Mount 
 Vernon was the residence of Washington. Petersburg, Lynchburg, Roanoke, and 
 Alexandria are important places. -'■ 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 25. West Virginia comprises about a third part of the old State 
 of Virginia. 
 
 26. Productions. — Coal, iron, and salt abound. Petroleum 
 erxists in large quantities in the region adjacent to the Ohio Eiver. 
 
 27. Towns. — Charleston, the capital, is noted for its extensive 
 salt works. Wheeling is the principal city. 
 
 Huntington, Parkersburg, and Martinsburg are smaller towns. Harper's Ferry, 
 at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers, is a well-known place. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of Delaware? Name the productions. The towns. 
 By what Bay is Maryland divided? Wliat are the principal productions? Name 
 the important towns. What is said of the situation and government of the District 
 of Columbia? What cities does it contain? Why is Virginia called the Ancient 
 Dominion ? What are the most important productions ? Name the capital and largest 
 towns. What does West Virginia comprise ? Name the productions and towns. 
 
40 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text of the Middle Atlantic states. 
 
 Position. 
 
 What conntry lies north of this section ? What three States and ocean upon the 
 east? What State upon the south? ' What two States on the west? 
 
 Area. 
 
 Name the largest three of these States. The smallest three. Which is the largest 
 State in this section ? The smallest? How many States of the size of Massachusetts 
 would Virginia make? How do New York and Pennsylvania compare in area? 
 
 Outline. 
 
 What ocean washes the shores of this section ? What two bays mdent the coast ? 
 What island is south of Long Island Sound ? Where is Staten Island ? What two 
 capes at the entrance of Delaware Bay ? Of Chesapeake Bay ? What two States 
 have no sea-coast? What States border upon the lakes? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 What mountain-system crosses this region? In what direction does it extend? 
 What part of New Jersey does it cross ? What part of New York ? In what part 
 of New York does it cross the Hudson River, and thence extend into New England ? 
 
 Is the name of Alleghany Mountains applied to the whole system, or to a separate 
 range ? What is the most eastern range called ? Name the chains in Pennsylvania, 
 beginning at the east. In Virginia. Name the chains in New York. 
 
 Describe the surface of this section, west of the mountains. Between the moun- 
 tains and the sea. Draw the boundary line between the hilly and the low country. 
 Where is the Valley of Virginia ? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 To what three systems do the lakes and rivers of this section belong ? In what 
 mountains do most of the rivers rise 1 Why do the rivers present so many pictu- 
 resque scenes ? 
 
 To what system does the Ohio, with its tributaries, belong? What gulf do its 
 waters finally reach? What two rivers unite to form the Ohio? Describe the 
 course of the Alleghany River. Of the Monongahela. Name the tributaries of 
 the Ohio in West Virginia. 
 
 Into what gulf do the waters of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries flow ? By 
 what river does Lake Erie flow into Lake Ontario '' Over what Falls ? What can 
 you tell about this cataract? In what direction does the Niagara River flow? 
 
 What three rivers flow into Lake Ontario ? What is there interesting connected 
 with the Genesee River? The Oswego River drains a chain of lakes: name the three 
 principal ones. By what river does Lake Champlain flow into the St. Lawrence ? 
 Into what lake does Lake George flow ? What river flows into Lake Champlain ? 
 
 In what general direction do most of the rivers of the Atlantic System flow? 
 Through what mountains do many of them pass? In what mountains does the 
 Hudson Biver rise? In what direction does it flow? What tributary does it re- 
 ceive ? What States does the Hudson separate, in the lower part of its course ? 
 
 Where are the Raritan and Passaic rivers? By what river is Pennsylvania sepa- 
 rated from New Jersey, and partially from New York ? In what State does it rise ? 
 Into what bay does it flow ? What tributaries does it receive in Pennsylvania ? 
 
 What river flows into the head of Chesapeake Bay ? In what State does its north 
 branch rise? The west branch? What tributary does the Susquehanna receive? 
 
 Describe the Potomac River. In what direction do its two largest branches flow ? 
 On which side of the Blue Ridge do the York and Rappahannock rise ? The James 
 River ? What two rivers of Virginia flow through North Carolina into Albemarle 
 Sound ? ,^, 
 
 Where are the Falls of Niagara ? At what city is one of the Falls of the Gen- 
 esee? On what river are Trenton Falls? Where are the Highlands of the Hud- 
 son? Where is the Delaware Water-Gap? Harper's Ferry? The Genesee and 
 Alleghany rivers rise very near each other : if a log were thrown into the Genesee, 
 mto what gulf would it drift? If into the Alleghany River? 
 
 What rivers of this section does Lake Ontario receive ? Delaware Bay ? Chesa- 
 peake Bay? Let each scholar describe some river, in the manner proposed in the 
 questions on the New England States — mentioning, also, whatever scene of natural 
 beantv may be connected with it. 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 Does New England, or this section, lie farther south ? Which, then, has the warmer 
 climate? Which has the warmer climate: New York, or Virginia? Why? 
 
 Where are the winters colder : on the mountains, or low-lands ? In the interior, 
 or near the coast? Which State is in the same latitude as New England? Which, 
 then, has a climate most nearly resembling that of New England ? 
 
 Are the farming and grazing products more, or less, important in this section, 
 than in New England ? These States lie in the northern and middle parts of oui 
 country, what, then, are the principal agricultural productions ? [Refer to Vegeta- 
 tion, in the chapter on the United States.^ 
 
 How do these States compare with other sections in the amount of coal and iron 
 obtained? B«tween what rivers is the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania? In 
 what part of the State is the bituminous coal region ? In what part of .Maryland is 
 the coal-field of that State ? 
 
 What are the principal productions of New York? What is the leading interest? 
 What are the principal productions of Pennsylvania? Of New Jersey? Delaware? 
 Maryland ? Virginia ? 
 
 Which is the first commercial State in the Union ? Why is New York called the 
 Empire State ? Which is the first State in the Union in its mines of coal ? In the 
 amount of iron manufactures ? What State supplies New York and Philadelphia 
 with garden vegetables ? What minerals are found in West Virginia ? 
 
 Towns. 
 
 What State contains the greatest number of large towns ? Where is the capital 
 of New York ? The principal city ? The next in size ? Where are the other impor- 
 tant cities of this State situated ? What can you say of the city of New York ? To 
 what do Buffalo, Oswego, and Ogdenaburg owe their prosperity ? Where are they 
 situated ? Where is Rochester ? Syracuse ? West Point ? Saratoga ? For what 
 are they noted? Where is Troy? Utica? Poughkeepsie ? 
 
 Where is the capital of Pennsylvania ? The principal city ? Pittsburgh ? Alle- 
 gheny ? Lancaster ? Reading ? Scranton ? Erie ? Allentown ? What is said of 
 Philadelphia ? 
 
 Where is Trenton? Newark? Patereon? New Brunswick? Jersey City! 
 Camden? Princeton? Cape Island? Atlantic City? Elizabeth? Hohokenf 
 Which of these are noted for battles in the Revolutionary War ? Which of them are 
 manufacturing towns? 
 
 Where is Dover? Wilmington? Annapolis? Baltimore? Georgetown? Wash- 
 ington? Richmond? Norfolk? Petersburg? Alexandria? Yorktown? Mount 
 Vernon? Wheeling? Charleston? What is said of each of these places ? 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 From what city would you ship a cargo of coal to Boston ? Of tohacco ? At what 
 ports may a New England merchant purchase a cargo of grain ? Of flour ? Of iron 
 manufactures ? Why does he leave his own section to obtain these articles ? 
 
 What is the scale of this map ? What is the distance in a direct line of Richmond 
 from Philadelphia ? Of Wheeling from New York ? Of Syracuse from Washington? 
 To which of the three Atlantic cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, is 
 Buffalo nearest, measuring the distance in a direct line ? 
 
 On which bank of the Delaware is Philadelphia: the right or left? Is Washing- 
 ton on the right or left bank of the Potomac ? In going from Washington to Mt. 
 Vernon, would you cross the river? On which bank, then, is Mt. Vernon? 
 
 On what waters would a vessel sail, to go from New York to Philadelphia? From 
 Philadelphia to Richmond? From Baltimore to Washington? On what river 
 would you sail, to go from Pittsburgh to Wheeling ? What lake would you cross, in 
 going from Oswego to Toronto ? 
 
 Bound each State of this section? Name three important towns in each. Give iW 
 principal rivers and mountains in each State. Spell Philadelphia. Pennpylvanin. 
 Chesapeake. Catskill. Adirondack. Genesee. Annapolis. Monongahela. Alle- 
 ghany {nver and mountains). Allegheny {city). Seneca. Shenandoah. Oneid* 
 Passaic. Susquehanna. Schuylkill. 
 
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THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 The Southern States. 
 
 THE section described in this chapter includes North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Lou- 
 isiana, Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas, and the Indian Territory. 
 
 2. The Coast is low and, in general, sandy or marshy. It is lined 
 with low, sandy islands, and contains few good harbors. 
 
 3. Surface. — A part of this section belongs to the Atlantic 
 
 Slope; the remainder, to the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 The only liilly regions of any importance are in Tennessee and Alabama, near 
 the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountain System. 
 
 4. The Rivers belong to the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico 
 Systems. They afford extensive navigation for steamboats. 
 
 The Valley of the Mississippi includes the most extensive system of navigated 
 rivers in the world. The river rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, and, after a 
 course of 2800 miles, flows into the Gulf of Mexico by several mouths. It is nav- 
 igable to the Falls of St. Anthony, a distance of 2200 miles. 
 
 In Louisiana and Mississippi, embankments, called levees, are built on both sides 
 of the river, to prevent the wnters from overflowing the land. Yet the river some- 
 times breaks through these defences, causing immense damage to the country. 
 
 5. Climate. — The summers are hot. The far South has a sub- 
 tropical temperature, and therefore, as a rule, has no winter. In 
 the northern and the mountainous parts of this section the winters 
 are mild. The rain-fall is abundant where the moist winds from 
 the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico prevail. 
 
 6. Productions and Occupations. — This is chiefly an agricultural 
 region. Cotton is the great production and the principal export. 
 
 The climate and the soil are particularly favorable to the cultivation of cotton. 
 Corn is raised in all the States. Kice is produced in the marshy districts of the 
 coast, especially in South Carolina and Georgia. Oranges, lemons, and other trop- 
 ical frnits are largely cultivated in Florida and Louisiana. 
 
 Tobacco is an important product in Tennessee and North Carolina ; and eunar, in 
 Louisiana. The forests of this section furnish pine, cedar, live-oak, cypress, and 
 other valuable woods; and, in addition, naval stores, which consist of turpentine, 
 rosin, tar, and pitch, made from the sap of the pine. 
 
 Eich deposits of gold are found in North Carolina and Georgia. Vnluable mines 
 of coal, iron, and other minerals, and extensive quarries of granite, limestone, and 
 marble, add to the wealth of this section. Salt, sulphur, and gypsurn abound. 
 
 Agriculture is the leading industry. Grazing, lumbering, and mining are next in 
 importance, and some parts of this section are extensively engaged in manufacturing. 
 
 RICE-FIELO. 
 
 FLORIDA SWAMP. 
 
 Questions. — What States form the section described in this chapter? Depcribe 
 the coast. The surface. To what two systems do the lakes and rivers belonn? 
 Describe the climate. What is the principal production of this refion? Name 
 some of the other productions. What are naval stores ? What minerals are fonnd ? 
 Name the leading industry. 
 
 7. The Commerce is extensive, and is carried on mainly through 
 New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, and Wilmington. 
 
 8. The Inhabitants are chiefly of English descent, except in 
 Louisiana, where there are many French, and in Texas, whose 
 vast resources have drawn emigrants from various countries. 
 
 Negroes are numerous, and perform most of the labor. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 9. Productions. — North Carolina derives great wealth from her 
 
 pine forests, lumber and naval stores being the principal exports. 
 
 The amount of naval stores produced is more than double the yield of all the 
 other States combined. Cotton, corn, tobacco, rice, and sweet potatoes are also 
 important productions. The mountains are rich in mineral deposits. 
 
 10. Towns. — Raleigh is the capital. Wilmington is the principal 
 city. Beaufort has the best harbor in the State. New Berne, 
 Fayetteville, Charlotte, and Asheville are flourishing places. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 11. South Carolina is the smallest of the Southern States. 
 
 On account of the abundance of palmetto trees growing in this State, it is often 
 called the Palmetto State. 
 
 12. Productions. — More rice is raised in South Carolina than 
 in any other State, and the celebrated sea-i^sland cotton is exten- 
 sively grown on the islands along the coast. 
 
 These articles, with lumber, phosphates, and naval stores, are the principal ex- 
 ports. Corn and wheat, and early fruits and vegetables for the Northern markets, 
 are raised in abundance. 
 
 13. Towns. — Columbia is the capital. Charleston, the largest 
 city, is the most important seaport of the South Atlantic coast. 
 More rice is exported from Charleston than from any other city 
 in the Union. Beaufort and Port Eoyal have good harbors. 
 
 Questions. — Through what cities is most of the foreign commerce carried on? 
 or what descent are thr inlia1)itants? By whom is the labor cliiefly performed' 
 What important articles arc obtained from the pine forests? Name the capital of 
 Nortli Carolina. Otlicr important places. What is South Carolina often called? 
 Wliy? What are the principal productions? Name the capital. The largest city. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 43 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 14. Georgia is more largely engaged in manufacturing than any 
 other Southern State. The manufacturing towns are in the hilly sec- 
 tion. Agriculture, lumbering, and quarrying are leading industries. 
 
 15. Productions. — Georgia produces abundantly cotton, corn, rice, 
 and sweet potatoes. Her pine and live-oak timber are unrivaled. 
 
 The principal exports are cotton, rice, lumber, naval stores, iron, and marble. 
 
 16. Towns. — Atlanta is the capital. Savannah is the principal 
 city. Augusta, Columbus, and Macon are next in importance. 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 17. Productions. — Cotton, rice, sugar, lumber and naval stores, 
 grapes, and tropical fruits, are the principal productions. The forests 
 are rich in pine, mahogany, cedar, and live-oak. The raising of 
 early vegetables for the Northern markets is an important industry. 
 
 18. Towns. — Tallahassee is the capital. Key "West is the largest 
 town. Jacksonville has extensive manufactures and commerce. 
 
 Key West is situated upon » coral island. It is the most southern town in the 
 United States, has an excellent harbor, and is extensively enp;aged in wrecking, 
 sponge-fishing, and cigar-making. Pensacola contains a United States navy-yard. 
 St. Augustine is the oldest town in the United States, except Santa Fe. 
 
 Florida is celebrated for its mild climate, and many of its towns, especially those 
 on and near the St. John River, are favorite places of resort for invalids. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 19. Productions. — Alabama is one of the leading cotton-growing 
 States. Indian corn, sweet potatoes, rice, naval stores, and lumber 
 are produced in abundance. Iron, coal, and limestone abound. 
 
 Alabama is largely engaged in manufacturing, lumbering, and mining. 
 
 20. Towns. — Montgomery is the capital ; Mobile, the largest 
 city, is one of the most important Gulf ports. 
 
 SHIPPING COTTON. 
 
 COTTON-PICKING. 
 
 Mobile is largely engaged in the ship- 
 ment of cotton and other productions of 
 Alabama and Mississippi. Selma and 
 Huntsville are important towns. Bir- 
 mingham has special advantages for 
 manufacturing, owing to its supply ot 
 natural gas, which furnishes cheap fuel. Tuscaloosa contains the State University. 
 
 Questions. — What rank does Georgia hold among the Southern States in manu- 
 factures ? Where are the manufacturing towns situated ? Name the most important 
 productions. The principal exports. The capital. What are the principal pro- 
 ductions of Florida? Name the capital. Other important towns. What rank has 
 Alabama as a cotton-growing State? Name the capital. The largest city. 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 21. Louisiana was originally settled by the French, and was 
 purchased of them by the United States in 1803. 
 
 Louisiana is more nearly level than any other State in the Union. There are no 
 hills more than 2o0 feet high, and about one-fifth of the whole State is below the 
 surface of the rivers at high water. 
 
 Productions.— The chief productions are sugar, rice, and cotton. 
 Nearly all the sugar made from the sugar-cane in the United States 
 is produced in Louisiana. Tropical fruits grow in great luxuri- 
 ance. The pine, the cypress, and the live-oak furnish valuable 
 timber, which is largely exported. 
 
 22. Towns. — Baton Rouge is the capital. New Orleans, the 
 largest city in the South, is situated on the Mississippi, about one 
 hundred miles from the mouth of that river. 
 
 New Orleans is the greatest cotton-mart in the world, and exports not only the 
 productions of Louisiana, but of a considerable part of the Mississippi Valley. The 
 city is built upon a bend in the river, and is therefore called the Crescent City. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 23. Productions. — Cotton, corn, rice, and sweet potatoes are 
 the principal productions. Missi.=sippi is one of the leading States 
 in the production of cotton. Coiton-seed oil, lumber, and naval 
 stores are among the exports. 
 
 Mississippi has no seaport, and the productions of this State are therefore chiefly 
 forwarded for export to New Orleans and Mobile. 
 
 24. Towns. — Jackson is the capital. The other principal towns 
 are Vicksburg, Meridian, Natchez, Greenville, and Columbus. 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 25. Productions. — The productions are tobacco, cotton, rice, 
 hemp, grain, and live-stock. Oak, black walnut, poplar, and other 
 varieties of valuable timber are largely exported. 
 
 Limestone, oil-stone, zinc, coal, iron, and other minerals are found, but the mines 
 are not extensively worked, and agriculture is, as yet, the chief industry. 
 
 26. Towns. — Little Rock is the capita], and the largest town 
 in the State. Helena, on the Mississippi, is an important cotton- 
 mart. Fort Smith is the centre of trade with Indian Territory. 
 
 The Hot Springs of Arkansas are a great natura". curios^ity. They are about eighty 
 in number, fifty miles south-west of Little Rock, an-i are much resorted to by invalids. 
 Eureka Springs, famous for its mineral waters, is ihe second town in the State. 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 27. The Cumberland Mountains and the Tennessee River divide 
 the State into East, Middle, and West Tennessee. 
 
 28. Productions. — Corn, wheat, cotton, hemp, tobacco, and live- 
 stock are the leading productions. The iron mines are of great 
 value. The marbles of Tennessee are famous for their beauty. 
 
 Agriculture is the chief industry ; but stock-raising, manufacturing, the mining 
 of iron and coal, and the quarrying of marble and various building-stones are ex- 
 tensively carried on. The forests furnish very valuable timber. 
 
 29. Towns. — Nashville, the largest city of Tennessee, is the cap- 
 ital. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is one of the greatest 
 cotton-marts in the country. Chattanooga is the third town in the 
 State. Knoxville and Jackson are next in importance. 
 
 Questions. — By whom was Louisiana settled? What are the most important 
 productions? Name the capital. Why is New Orleans called the Crescent City? 
 What are the productions of Mississippi? Through what cities are they chiefly ex- 
 ported? Name the capital. The other important places. What are the productions 
 of Arkansas? Name the capital. What natural curiosity in this State? Name the 
 three divisions of Tennessee. The chief productions. The capital, and other towns. 
 
44 
 
 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 
 
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THE EAST-CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 LUMBERING. 
 
 East-Central States. 
 
 THE section described in this chapter comprises Kentucky, 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 
 
 2. Surface. — This section lies wholly in the Great Central Plain 
 of the United States, and has, in general, a level or undulating 
 surface, with a gradual ascent from the Mississippi Elver. The 
 only mountains are the Cumberland Mountains, in Kentucky. 
 
 Many of the streams have worn deep channels in the land, so that the high steep 
 banks (called hlnffs) have the appearance of hills, when seen from the river. 
 
 3. Among the striking features of this region are the prairies, 
 or treeless plains, in Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 
 
 The soil of the prairies is of remarkable fertilitj', and yields a luxuriant growth 
 of grass and gniin. The banks of the streams are well wooded, and trees grow well 
 wherever a sufficient extent of territory to prevent the ravages of prairie-fires is placed 
 under cultivation. Some of the prairies are level, others have an undulating surface. 
 
 4. The Lakes and the Rivers belong to the basins of the Missis- 
 sippi and the St. Lawrence, the most important and extensive 
 water-courses in the country. 
 
 The facilities which they afford for manufactures and commerce are unsurpassed. 
 Lake Superior is the largest fresh-water lake in the world. 
 
 5. The Climate, though pleasant and generally healthful, is 
 marked by extremes — the summers being hot, and the winters, 
 in all the States except Kentucky, exceedingly cold. 
 
 6. The Soil is fertile, especially on the prairies. 
 
 7. Productions and Occupations. — Agriculture and grazing are 
 the chief sources of wealth. Mining, however, is very important, 
 and manufactures are growing rapidly. Illinois and Ohio are 
 among the leading manufacturing States of the Union. 
 
 Quastions.— Describe the surface. Toward what river does the land slope? 
 Where are the mountains? What are the bluffs? What lias caused them? In 
 what States are the prairies? Is Kentucky a prairie State? Ohio? Describe the 
 prairies. To what river-systems do the lakes and the rivers belong? Of what use 
 are they? Describe the climate. Where are the winters mildest? Most severe? 
 Why? Whore is the richest soil? What are the leading industries? 
 
 The Commerce is immense. Besides the natural advantages afforded by lake and 
 river, there are numerons canals. Trade is carried on chiefly by means of the Great 
 Lakes, and by the railways which cross the country in every direction. Most of 
 the commerce is domestic, but the foreign trade is increasing. 
 
 The main Agricultural Prodiirfs are corn, wheat, and oats, hay and potatoes, 
 flax, hemp, and tobacco. The Gmzlng J'rodtie/s are live-stock, beef and pork, 
 wool, and the products of the dairy. The fisheries along the Great Lakes give 
 employment to numbers of people. 
 
 FiirestH. — Most of the states are well wooded ; but the principal timber region 
 is in Michigan and Wisconsin. 
 
 The Milii-riils are coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, salt, and building-stone. The 
 richest iron and copper mines are in the northern peninsula of Michigan. The 
 lead and zinc come chiefly from Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. 
 
 The principal laamifncHires are flour-mill products, liquors, lumber, farming im- 
 plements, carriages and wagons, furniture, leather, ropes, bagging, and clothing. 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 8. Surface. — In the south-east are the Cumberland Mountains, 
 with their foot-hills; north and west of them, occupying more than 
 half the area of the State, lies an undulating upland, in which is 
 the fertile "Blue Grass" country, famous for its horses and cattle. 
 West of this section the land is low and level. 
 
 The most remarkable natural curiosity is tlie Mammoth Cave, the largest in the 
 world. In this State are found swamps known as "licks," so called because animals 
 resort to them to lick up the salt incrustations. 
 
 The rivers of Kentucky afford a more extensive water communication than those 
 of any other interior Siate. 
 
 9. Productions and Occupations. — There are extensive forests of 
 
 oak, walnut, maple, and other deciduous trees, in various parts of 
 
 the commonwealth. Kentucky ranks high as a grain and grazing 
 
 State, and is first in the production of hemp, flax, and to.bacco. 
 
 Coal, iron, salt, and building-stone abound. Agriculture and stock-raising are 
 the chief industries. Large numbers of the people are engaged in mining, manu- 
 facturing, and commerce. 
 
 10. Towns.— Louisville is the largest city in the State, and ranks 
 next to Cincinnati among the towns of the Ohio valley. It has a 
 large commerce and extensive manufactures, and is the greatest 
 tobacco market in the world. The rapids in the Ohio at this place 
 are avoided by a canal. 
 
 Frankfort is the capital; Lexington is the largest inland town. Covington, New- 
 port, Paducah, Maysville, and Henderson are important towns on the Ohio River. 
 Covington and Newport are opposite Cincinnati. 
 
 Questions.— Name the principal agricultural products. The grazing products. 
 What IS said of the forests? Name the principal minerals. Where is the coal found? 
 The iron? Lead? Copper? Name the leading manufactures. Which two States 
 are most engaged in manufacturing? How is the commerce carried on? Describe 
 the surface of Kentucky. The Urammoth Cave. The licks. Name the produc- 
 tions. Describe Louisville. Frankfort. Lexington. Covington and Newport. 
 
THE EAST-CENTRAL STATES 
 
 47 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 il. Surface. — Ohio is a low plateau, sloping from the centre of 
 the State toward Lake Erie and the Ohio Eiver. 
 
 13. Productions and Occupations.— Ohio is one of the leading 
 States of the Union in agriculture, grazing, mining, manufacturing, 
 and in domestic commerce. Forests of oak, chestnut, and maple 
 furnish valuable lumber. Coal and iron are found in abundance. 
 
 Grain, hay, flax, tobacco, and fruit are the chief agricultural staples. Grapes 
 are cultivated with success, and Ohio is next to California in the production of wine. 
 
 The valuable coal-mines and the many swift streams give Ohio great advantages 
 for manufacturing. The leading articles are flour-mill products, iron products, 
 packed meats, agricultural implements, liquors, clothing, lumber, furniture, ma- 
 chinery, saddlery, carriages, and wagons. 
 
 The Great Lakes and the navigable rivers, and the numerous railroads, connecting 
 Ohio with all parts of the country, make the State rank among the first in com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 13. Towns. — Cincinnati is the chief city in the Ohio valley. 
 The main part of the town lies on a broad terrace surrounded by 
 an amphitheatre of hills ; and no large city of our country com- 
 mands more varied and beautiful scenery. 
 
 Its central situation, extensive connections by railway and steamboat, and ready 
 Bupply of iron and coal, give the place great advantages for commerce and manu- 
 factures. Pork-packing is one of the leading industries. 
 
 t» 14. Cleveland is the second city in the State in size and im- 
 portance. It commands a fine view of Lake Erie, and from the 
 abundance of its shade trees is called the Forest City. 
 
 The commerce and the manufactures of iron and coal oil are very important. 
 Cleveland is famous for her petroleum-refineries. 
 
 Next in importance are Columbus, Toledo, Dayton, Youngstown, and Springfield. 
 
 Columbus, the capital, is remarkable for the number and architectural beauty of 
 its public buildings and institutions of learning and benevolence. 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 15. Surface. — Eiver hills extend along the Ohio and other 
 streams. Back of these a table-land spreads out and forms the 
 interior, presenting a most diversified landscape — groves of black 
 walnut, oak, maple, and ash, interspersed with vast level prairies. 
 The greater part of the State is undulating or level. 
 
 16. Productions and Occupations. — Grain, flour-mill products, 
 and grazing products are the staples. Coal is the principal min- 
 eral. Iron, limestone, and kaolin are found in abundance. Agricul- 
 ture, grazing, mining, and manufacturing are the leading industries. 
 
 Among the principal manufactures are lumber, iron and wooden ware, woolen 
 goods, machinery, furniture, farming implements, wagons, and carriages. 
 
 17. Towns. — Indianapolis, the capital and principal city, is the 
 chief centre of trade in the State. It is growing very rapidly, and 
 is one of the largest cities of the Central States. 
 
 Evansville, the second city, has extensive manufactures and a large trade. Next 
 in importance are Fort Wayne, Terre Haute, New Albany, Lafayette, Madison, and 
 South Bend. Michigan City, the only lake-port, has an excellent harbor. 
 
 Questions. Describe the surface of Ohio. Name the leading industries. The 
 
 vegetable productions. The grazing products. The chief mineral. What is said of 
 manufacturing? How is commerce carried on? Name the chief town in the Ohio 
 valley. Describe its situation. Its advantages for commerce and manufactures. 
 Name its manufactures. Bank in pork-packing. Describe Cleveland. Name the 
 other important towns of Ohio. Describe the surface of Indiana. 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 18. Surface. — Illinois occupies an inclined plane, which slopes 
 from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River. The greater part 
 of the State consists of level or gently undulating prairies. 
 
 The lake-coast gives a small part of the Stat« 
 to the St. Lawrence Basin ; the rest of Illinois 
 is in the Basin of the Mississippi, many of its streams reaching that river directly, 
 others by means of the Wabash and the Ohio. 
 
 19. Productions and Occupations. — Agriculture and grazing, 
 m.ining, manufacturing, and commerce, are the leading industries. 
 Illinois is chiefly a prairie State, but the southern and the central 
 districts are well supplied with timber. 
 
 The soil is of unsurpassed fertility. The prairie lands produce, in the greatest 
 abundance and with comparatively little labor, corn, wheat, oata, and hay. The 
 lighter soil in the timber lands is well adapted to the growth of wheat and other 
 small grains. The deep, rich loam of the river lands produces, wit'nout fertilizing, 
 luxuriant vegetation of great variety. Its crops of corn cannot be .surpassed. 
 
 This State holds the first rank as a grain-growing State, and produces in abun- 
 dance garden vegetables and fruits, flax, wool, and live-stock. Coal underlies two- 
 thirds of the surface. The lead mines are in the north-west. 
 
 Illinois has remarkable facilities for trade, by lake, river, canal, and railroad. It 
 has more miles of railway than any other State of the Union. 
 
 20. Towns. — Chicago, the largest inland city in the Union, is 
 the great commercial centre of the North-west, and one of the lead- 
 ing manufacturing and commercial cities of the United States. It 
 is the greatest grain and lumber market in the world, and its trade 
 in lumber, live-stock, packed beef and pork exceeds that of every 
 other town in the country. 
 
 Chicago is a great railroad centre, and, besides its immense domestic commerce, 
 has a large trade with Canada. It has also a large trade direct with Europe by way 
 of the Great Lakes, the Welland Canal, and the St. Lawrence River. 
 
 Next in size and importance are Peoria and Quincy, large and prosperous cities 
 with extensive commerce and manufactures. Peoria is on Peoria Lake, which is 
 merely a widening of the Illinois River. Quincy stands on a high limestone bluff 
 by the Mississippi Biver. Galena, in the lead region, is the emporium for lead. 
 The Illinois University is located at Champaign. 
 
 Springfield, the capital, is on a beauti^jil prairie. It was the home of Abraham 
 Lincoln, and contains a monument erected to his memory. The State-house at 
 Springfield is massive and beautiful. 
 
 Questions. — Name the leading products and manufactures of Indiana. The 
 chief centre of trade. The second city. The next in importance. The lake-port. 
 Describe the surface of Illinois. Name the leading industries. The agricultural 
 and grazing products. The minerals. The advantages for commerce. The rank in 
 manufactures. Describe Chicago. Its commerce. Ho w is the city drained ? Describe 
 Springfield. Other chief towns. 
 
48 
 
 THE EAST-CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 21. Michigan is almost wholly surrounded by water> and com- 
 prises two peninsulas. The Northern peninsula is rugged and 
 mountainous, with sandy plains stretching toward Lake Superior. 
 It contains most of the mineral wealth of the State, and parts of 
 it are covered with forests of pine, maple, and other trees, but the 
 soil is generally sterile. 
 
 Ricli deposits of copper and iron are found in this peninsula. The copper mines 
 are among the most productive in the world, nnd the iron mines, which rank with 
 the most valuable in the country, are now being rapidly developed. 
 
 The famous Pictured Rocks, on the southern shore of Lake Superior, are sandstone 
 rooks of various colors, worn by the frost and waves into many strange forms — 
 arches, columns, gateways, etc. — which, seen from the lake, resemble castles. 
 
 23. The Southern peninsula is generally level or undulating, with 
 a very rich soil. There are extensive forests of white pine and 
 other trees. 
 
 Wheat is the staple product. There are rich deposits of coal, salt, and gypsum. 
 
 The leading industries of the State are agriculture, grazing, lumbering, fishing, 
 mining, manufacturing, and commerce. The principal manufactures are lumber, 
 flour, machinery, wagons, and furniture. Live-stock, dairy products, salt, iron, 
 and copper are largely exported. 
 
 23. Towns. — Detroit, the largest city in Michigan, has the best 
 harbor of all the cities on the great lakes. The domestic trade and 
 the commerce with Canada are very large. The manufactures are 
 extensive, and are rapidly increasing. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the northern peninsula of Michigan. What is said of the 
 mines of Michigan? Of the Pictured Rocks? Of the southern peninsula? What 
 is the staple product? Name the leading industries. Minerals. Manufactures. 
 Exports. Describe Detroit. Name the other chief towns. 
 
 Grand Rapids (at the rapids of Grand River), Saginaw, Jackson, Bay City, Kala- 
 mazoo, and Muskegon are prosperous places. Lansing is the capital. Ann Arbor 
 is the seat of Michigan University. 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 24. The Surface of Wisconsin consists, in general, of a high rolling, 
 plain crossed by ridges of hills, from which the rivers flow toward 
 the Great Lakes or the Mississippi. There are many clear, deep 
 lakes, and the numerous swift, sparkling streams abound with 
 rapids and falls, presenting scenes of great natural beauty. 
 
 The lakes and the rivers of the State are valuable not only for the commercial 
 facilities that they afi'ord, but also for the abundant water-power that they furnish, 
 giving great advantage to manufacturing. 
 
 25. Productions and Occupations. — "Wisconsin produces a great 
 amount of lumber, grain, lead, zinc, and iron. Agriculture and 
 grazing are the leading industries. Lumbering, mining, and 
 manufacturing are next in importance. There is an extensive 
 commerce in bread-stuffs, provisions, and lumber. 
 
 The northern half of the State is covered with forests of white pine. An exceedingly 
 rich belt of valuable iron ore extends from near Ashland, eastward, into Michigan. 
 
 26. Towns. — Milwaukee, the largest city, is the principal lake- 
 port. It is a great wheat market, and has a very large trade and 
 important manufactures. 
 
 Madison, the capital, and the seat of the State University, is a heautiful city. La 
 Cro?se, Oihkosh, Racine, Eau Claire, Sheboygan, Fond dn Lac, and Superior are 
 important commercial and manufacturing towns. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of Wisconsin. Why is the scenery so pictu- 
 resque? Name the chief productions. Occupations. Where are the forests? 
 Describe Milwaukee. Name the capital. The other chief towns. In what basin 
 is Michigan? In what basins is Wisconsin? How can you tell? 
 
 Questions on the Map of the East-Central States. 
 
 Position and Outline. 
 
 This section lies east of what great river ? South of what lakes ? Name the most 
 southern of these States. Which extends farthest north? Farthest west? Farthest 
 east? Bound each State. Describe each of the Michigan peninsulas. Which 
 States horder on the Great Lakes? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 What States are on the east bank of the Mississippi? On the banks of the Ohio? 
 What rivers of Wisconsin flow into the Mississippi? What rivers of Illinois? 
 Name the northern branches of the Ohio. The southern. 
 
 What river in Wisconsin flows into Lake Superior ? What lake and rivers into 
 Green Bay ? Of what lake is that bay an inlet ? Into what two lakes do the rivers 
 of the northern peninsula of Michigan flow? The southern peninsula? Into what 
 lake do the rivers in the northern part of Ohio flow? Name the largest. 
 
 In what basin does Kentucky lie? Michigan? What part of Wisconsin is in the 
 St. Lawrence Basin? Of Illinois? Indiana? Ohio? 
 
 How do the waters of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan flow into Lake Huron ? 
 Name the two bays of Lake Michigan. What rivers flow into it? By what river 
 and lake does Huron discharge into Erie? What two bays of this lake in 
 Michigan? What river empties into Thunder Bay? Into Saginaw Bay? 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Describe the situation of the following towns : — 
 
 Kentucky.— LoniBYiHe, Covington, Newport, Henderson, Paduoah, Mays- 
 ville, Lexington, Frankfort, Bowling Green. 
 
 Ohio. — Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Toledo, Sandusky, 
 Springfield, Hamilton, Akron, i'ortsmoutn, Zanesville, Mansfield, Chilli- 
 cothe, Xenia, St«ubenville, Youngstown. 
 
 Indiana. — Indianapolis, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Logansport, 
 Madison, New Albany, Terre Haute, Richmond, Michigan City, South Bend. 
 
 Illinois. — Chicago, Springfield, Peoria, Quincy, Bloominglon, Rockford, 
 Galeshurg, Aurora, Freeport, Jacksonville, Galena, Alton, Ottawa, Decatur, 
 Danville, Book Island, Elgin, Joliet, Kankakee, Cairo. 
 
 Michigan. — Detroit, Grand Rapids, Saginaw, Bay City, Muskegon, Jackson, 
 Kalamazoo, Port Huron, Battle Creek, Lansing, Manistee, Alpena, Ann Arbor. 
 
 Wisconsin. — Milwaukee, Fond du Lao, Oshkosh, Racine, Madison, Prairie 
 du Chien, La Crosse, Janesville, Eau Claire, Green Bay, Beloit, Sheboygan. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Name the towns on the Mississippi. On its branches (except the Ohio). On the 
 northern .bank of the Ohio. The southern. On the northern branches. The 
 southern. On the Great Lakes, including inlets. On the rivers flowing into the 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 In what larger basin is the basin of the Ohio included ? What States are wholly 
 or partly in the Mississippi Basin? Wholly or partly in the St. Lawrence Basin? 
 In which basin is Cliicago? Toledo? Detroit? Load a brig with grain and flour 
 at Chicago for Montreal : by what waters would she go? At Montreal tlie cargo 
 is transferred to a large steamer: follow the route to Liverpool. 
 
 Name the leading manufactures of this section. The principal agricultural prod- 
 ucts. Grazing products. What articles are made here from grain? What are the 
 animal products? Which is the warmest State ? The coldest ? 
 
 The largest cities of this section are Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, Milwaukee, 
 Louisville, Cleveland, and Indianapolis : describe the situation of each, and tell all 
 you know about it. 
 
 Spell the following words : Milwaukee, Sault de Ste Marie, Mackinaw, Saginaw, 
 Wabash, Cincinnati, Marquette, Terre Haute, Eau Claire. 
 

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THE WEST-CENTRAL STATES 
 
 West-Central States 
 
 THIS section comprises the States of Missouri, Iowa 
 Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska ; also North Dakota 
 and South Dakota, which formerly constituted Dakota Territory. 
 
 2. The Surface is generally level or undulating, and the land 
 
 rises gradually from the Mississippi to the height of 2500 or 3000 
 
 feet on the western border. 
 
 The only mountains are the Black Hills, in South Dakota, whose highest sum- 
 mits are 5000 feet above the sea. They are a branch of the Rocky Mountains. 
 The Ozark Mountains, in Missouri, are a series of hills, extending into Arkansas. 
 
 The banks of the streams in this section, as in the East-Central States, are often 
 high and bold, rising into bluffs two or three hundred feet above the river. 
 
 3. The Lakes and Rivers belong to two systems : — The Missis- 
 sippi and Hudson Bay. They are separated from each other by 
 low hills or plateaus. 
 
 4c. The Mississippi and the Missouri are the principal natural 
 highways for commerce in these States. Steamboats ascend the 
 Mis.5issippi to St. Paul, in Minnesota. The Missouri is navigable 
 fro:n its mouth to the Great Falls, in Montana, but its tributaries 
 are too shallow to be of nmch use for commerce. 
 
 6. The Basin of the Mississippi covers nearly the whole of the 
 
 Central Plain of the United States, and is second in importance 
 
 only to that of the Amazon. 
 
 The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, although a small lake called Elk Lake, which 
 empties into Lake Itasca, is sometimes considered the source. From this lake to the 
 Gulf of Mexico the length of the river is 2800 miles. If we reckon its length from the 
 source of the Missouri, it is 4100 miles long. There is uninterrupted river navigation 
 from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Falls of the Missouri — a dist.ince of 3000 miles. 
 
 " Missouri " means " muddy water." The Mississippi is comparatively clear until 
 it receives the turbid waters of the Missouri. Below that point it is discolored. 
 
 6. Climate. — The winters are mild, except in the far north, 
 where the cold is very severe. Though the summer days are hot, 
 the summer nights are cool. 
 
 7. The western part of this section is in the Great Plains — the 
 high, barren region which slopes eastward from the Eocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 Questions. — What is the general character of the surface of this section ? Where 
 are the mountains? The bluffs? To what systems do the waters belong? How far 
 are the two principal rivers navigable? What is said of the tributaries of the 
 Mi.osouri ? How large is the basin of the Mississippi ? Describe that river. Where 
 does it become muddy? Why? What is said of the Missouri? Describe the 
 climate. Which State has the colder winters — Missouri, or Minnesota? Why? 
 
 ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 8. The unproductiveness of the Great Plains is owing to their 
 extreme dryness. The ocean breezes lo.se their moisture by the 
 time they reach places so far inland ; and there is, therefore, 
 hardly any rain. But the country lying east of the Plains is 
 well watered by moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
 No distinct boundary can be given between the prairies, and the plains, thougk 
 the meridian of 100° is often used for that purpose. 
 
 9. Productions and Occupations. — Agriculture and grazing are 
 the leading pursuits ; for the soil is generally very rich, and the 
 pasturage almost everywhere abundant. Grain and live-stock are 
 the- staple products. 
 
 10. Although the Plains are too dry for agriculture, they yield 
 a very nutritious kind of grass called "buffalo grass," which dries 
 into hay without being cut, and affords excellent pasturage all the 
 year, supporting herds which require no housing. 
 
 There are belts of valuable timber along the streams, and in Minnesota there are 
 extensive forests, as in Michigan and Wisconsin. 
 
 Mining is a profitable and important occupation. Coal and iron are abundant in 
 this section. The iron mines of Missouri are among the richest in the world. 
 Missouri, Kansas, and Iowa are rich in lead deposits. Copper, zinc, and salt 
 abound in certain districts. South Dakota has valuable gold-mines. 
 
 Manufacturing is fast growing in importance, and is, in many districts, a leading 
 interest, owing to the abundant water-power and extensive coal-fields in the section. 
 Flour-mill products, sawed lumber, packed beef and pork, are among the chief 
 manufactures. 
 
 11. The commerce is mostly domestic, and is carried on by the 
 Mississippi and Missouri Elvers, and by many railroads connected 
 with all parts of the country. 
 
 The exports are grain, live-stock, flour, liquors, packed pork, hams, wool, lumber, 
 lead, iron, hemp, and tobacco. The principal imports are the manufactures of the 
 Eastern and Middle States, cotton from the South, and a variety of goods from 
 foreign countries. 
 
 Questions.— Where are the Great Plains? Why are they sterile? Why dry? 
 Why is the country east of them moist? What are the staple products? Why? 
 What furnishes pasturage on the Plains? Where is the timber? Wliere are the 
 minerals? What is said of manufacturing? Which State of this section is 
 largely engaged in this business? What are the chief manufactures? How is 
 the commerce carried on? Name the exports. The imports. 
 
THE WEST-CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 51 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 12. Surface. — North of the Osage 
 and Missouri Rivers the country is an undulating or a level prairie, 
 with woodlands along the streams. South of this, the surface is 
 undulating or hilly, and, in some parts, rugged and broken. 
 
 13. Productions and Occupations. — The chief industries are agri- 
 culture, grazing, manufacturing, mining, and commerce. 
 
 Grain, hemp, tobacco, live-stock, and wool, are the principal farming products; 
 lumber, flour-mill products, and packed meats, the leading manufactures. 
 
 A large part of the State is adapted lo vine-growing, and quantities of wine are 
 made. Cotton, hemp, and flax grow well in the southern counties. 
 
 The coal-fields are extensive, and the mines of iron and of lead are among the 
 richest in the world. Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob are masses of valuable iron- 
 ore. Copper, tin, zinc, nickel, kaolin, and building-stone add to the mineral wealth 
 of the State. 
 
 14. Towns. — St. Louis is the commercial centre of the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, and one of the largest cities in the country. 
 Although its commerce is immense, the prosperity of the city is 
 mainly due to manufactures. The leading manufactures are flour, 
 packed beef and pork, iron and leather goods. 
 
 15. The commerce is chiefly in grain and flour, live-stock and 
 provisions, cotton, lead, and iron. A magnificent steel bridge 
 across the Mississippi greatly increases the commercial advan- 
 taores of St. Louis. 
 
 o 
 
 Kansas City is the center of trade for the Missouri Basin ; St. Joseph, for the 
 north-western part of the State. 
 
 Springfield is in the midst of a rich lead region Jefferson City is the capital. 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 16. Surface. — This is chiefly a land of rolling prairies, with 
 abundant timber in the southern half of the State and along the 
 rivers. The forests consist almost wholly of deciduous trees. 
 
 The deep soil of the prairies is highly productive, and the rich alluvial l.nnds of 
 the Missouri Valley need little, if any, fertilizing to make them a source of profit 
 to the husbandman. There is scarcely any marsh or waste land in Iowa. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of Missouri. Name the products of agri^'ul- 
 ture. Of grazing. Mining. Manufacturing. What are the leading industries' 
 Describe Iron Mountain. Pilot Knob. What position does St. Louis hold in 
 regard to commerce ? In manufactures? Name the leading manufactures. What 
 is said of Kansas City ? Of St. Joseph? Springfield? Jefferson City ? 
 
 17. Productions and Occupations. — Iowa owes its prosperity 
 chiefly to its grain-fields, pastures, and mines. A great coal-field 
 underlies the middle districts, and the lead region of Wisconsin and 
 Illinois spreads into the eastern part of the State. There are inex- 
 haustible quantities of the finest building stone and valuable clays. 
 
 Iowa is a leading State in the production of cereals and live-stock. The dairy- 
 products are of great value, owing to the pure waters and the fine pasturage in 
 many districts. The commerce is extensive ; the chief exports are corn, oat-s, wheat, 
 and grazing products, lumber, farming implements, iron, lead, machinery, bricks, 
 and pottery. 
 
 18. Towns. — Des Moines, the capital, is the largest city and the 
 most important railroad center in the State. Sioux City is next in 
 .«ize. Dubuque is an important lead-market. 
 
 Dnvonport and Burlington hnve extensive commerce and manufactures. Council 
 Blu(&, Cedar Rapids, and Keokuk are important places. 
 
 IVIINNESOTA. 
 
 19. Surface. — Minnesota is a high, rolling plain, consisting of 
 small prairies varied by wooded hills. The northern part of the 
 State is covered with forests of deciduous trees. 
 
 20. Minnesota is distinguished for the number and the. beauty 
 of its lakes, of which there are about seven thousand. 
 
 The State is remarkable for its picturesque scenery. The Mississippi is studded 
 with islands and bordered by high bluffs. St. Anthony's Falls, in the Mississippi, 
 and the famous Falls of the Minnehalia are exceptionally romantic and beautiful. 
 
 21. The Climate is drj' and healthful. The winters are cold, but 
 the fall of snow is light ; the summers have warm days, with cool, 
 breezy nights ; spring and autumn are mild, delightful seasons. 
 
 22. Productions and Occupations. — Grain and the pine forests are 
 the chief sources of wealth. Wheat, flour, and lumber are largely 
 exported. 
 
 23. Towns.— St Paul, the 
 capital, is at the head of 
 steam navigation 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Minneapolis, at the Falls of St. 
 Anthony, is the largest city. It is 
 surrounded by a country remark- 
 able for the beauty of its scenery. falls of st. anthony. 
 The falls afford immense water-power for numerous flour-mills and saw-mills. The 
 flour-mills of Minneapolis are the most extensive in the world. 
 
 Duluth is the most western port of Lake Superior, and is the eastern end of the 
 Northern Pacilic Railroad. Winona, Stillwater, Mankato, .?aint Cloud, Faribault, 
 and Red Wing are important towns. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of Iowa. Tlie productions. What is said of 
 Des Moines ? Sioux City ? Dubuque? Davenport? Burlington? Other towns' 
 Describe the surface of Minnesota. The scenerj'. The climate. Name the pro- 
 ductions. Where are the forests? What is said of St. Paul? Of Minneapolis? 
 Of Duluth? Name the other principal towns. In what basins is Minnesota? 
 
52 
 
 THE WEST-CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 24. Surface. — The greater part of Kansas is a plain which rises 
 
 to the height of 2500 or 3000 feet upon the north-western border. 
 
 The western part in the Great Plains is too dry for agriculture. The rest of the 
 country is well watered by numerous streams, which are lined with timber. 
 
 25. Productions and Occupations. — The rich pasturage of the 
 
 State and the naturally-produced hay of the Plains are peculiarly 
 
 suitable for grazing, as the cattle need no housing in winter. 
 
 Vast herds of cattle are raised, and form the chief wealth of the people. Fine 
 crops of grain, hemp, flax, fruits, and vegetables are produced. Coal, lead, zinc, 
 salt, clays, and building-stone abound in certain parts. 
 
 26. Towns. — Topeka, the capital, is one of the largest towns in 
 
 the State. Most of the towns are on the great rivers, and are 
 
 rapidly increasing in population and importance. 
 
 Kansas City, Wichita, Leavenworth, Atchison, and Fort Scott are among the 
 most flourishing towns, and are rapidly growing in importance. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 27. Surface. — Like Kansas, this State consists chiefly of an 
 elevated undulating plain. There are no mountains except in the 
 northern part, where the foot-hills of the Rockies appear. 
 
 28. The Climate has extremes of temperature, but its dryness 
 serves to modify these extremes and to make the climate healthful. 
 
 29. Productions and Occupations. — Corn, wheat, and oats are 
 the great staples. Tobacco and garden fruits and vegetables are 
 cultivated with great success. The grazing products are among 
 the most valuable exports. Coal, salt, and building-stone are 
 found in the State. Manufacturing is increasing in importance. 
 
 30. Towns. — Omaha is the largest town. Lincoln, the capital, 
 Beatrice, Hastings, and Nebraska City are flourishing manufac- 
 iiirinu; and commercial centers. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of Kansas. Why is grazing tbe leading bus- 
 iness? Name the principal productions. Occupations. What is the capital? Where 
 are most of llie towns? Name the principal town. The other towns. Describe 
 til e surface of Nebraska. The climate. Name the chief productions. Occupations. 
 Which is the largest town in the State ? Name the capital. Name some of the 
 important manufacturing towns. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA. 
 
 31. Surface. — The greater part of the State is level prairie-land. 
 The only high land is the Plateau of the Missouri Hills,which traverses 
 the State from north-west to south-east, continuing into South Dakota. 
 
 Along the eastern slope of the plateau are a number of salt lakes, the largest of 
 which is Lake Minnewakan. 
 
 32. The Climate is noted for its extremes. 
 
 Most of the great storms which prevail throughout the northern and eastern part 
 of the United States have their origin in the section which includes this State and 
 those immediately surrounding it. 
 
 33. Productions and Occupations. — The alluvial lands along the 
 Missouri and its branches are exceedingly fertile, and produce grain 
 in abundance. Agriculture and grazing are the principal pursuits. 
 
 34. Towns. — Bismarck, the capital, is situated on the Mi.3Souri 
 River. Fargo, near the head of navigation on the Red River of the 
 North, is the largest town and a railroad and commercial center. 
 Pembina is the oldest town. 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA. 
 
 35. Surface. — The character of the country is like that of North 
 Dakota. In the south-west are elevations known as the Black 
 Hills and a desert tract called the " Bad Lands," which extends 
 into Nebraska. 
 
 36. The Climate and the seasons resemble tho.se of Minnesota. 
 
 37. Productions and Occupations. — Farming and stock-raising 
 are the principal industries. Rich deposits of gold are found in 
 the Black Hills, and mining is profitably conducted in that region. 
 
 38. Towns. — The population of the State is rapidly increasing. 
 The most important towns are Pierre, the capital, Yankton, Sioux 
 Falls, Huron, and Deadwood — the center of the mining interests. 
 
 In the Western part of the State a tract of land is reserved as a home for the 
 various tribes of the Sioux Indians. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of North Dakota ? What high land crosses this 
 State? AVhat is said of the climate? Of the storms? What are the principal pro- 
 ducts and occupations ? Where are the lakes situated ? Name the capital of North 
 Dakota? The largest town ? Whicli is the oldest town? What elevations of land 
 are found in South Dakota? What are the principal industries of the State? 
 Name the most important towns. 
 
 Questions on the Map of the West-Central States. 
 
 Position and Outline. 
 
 What country is north of this section? What States and lake are east? What 
 State and Territory on the south ? Bound Missouri. (For this and some other ques- 
 tions, see the Map of the United States, page SS.) Bound Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota. 
 
 Surface, Lakes, and Rivers. 
 
 Where are the Black Hills? The Ozark Mountains? What great river rises in 
 Minnesota? Between what States does it flow? What branch flows between 
 Minnesota and Wisconsin ? What great river empties into the Mississippi above 
 St. Louis? 
 
 Name the principal branches of the Mississippi in this section. The principal 
 branches of the Missouri. To what great river system do all these rivers belong? 
 
 What river is between Dakota and Minne-^ota? Into what lake does it flow ? [See 
 Map of North America.) Into what bay does this lake discharge its waters? By 
 what river? Where is the Lake of the AVoods? What three lakes empty into 
 Lake of the Woods by Rainy River? Into what large lake does Lake of the 
 Woods, with its tributaries, flow? 
 
 To what river svstem does the Red River of the North belong? In what direc- 
 tion does it flow? To what system do the Lake of the Woods an*l its tributaries 
 belong? What great lake is on the eastern border of Minnesotn? What river 
 flows into it at Duluth ? To what river system do this lake and river belong? 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Describe the situation of the following towns : — 
 
 Missouri. — St. Louis, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Hannibal, Springfield, St. Charles, 
 Jefferson City, Sedalia. 
 
 Iowa. — Dubuque, Davenport, Burlington, Des Moines, Sioux City, Council Bluffs. 
 
 Minnesota. — St. Paul, Minneapolis, Winona, Duluth, Red Wing, Mankato, Fari- 
 bault, Stillwater, St. Cloud. 
 
 Kansats. — Kansas City, Leavenworth, Atchison, Fort Scott, Topeka, Wichita. 
 
 Nebraska. — Omaha, Lincoln, Beatrice, Hastings, Nebraska City, 
 
 North Dakota. — Bismarck, Fargo, Pembina, Grand Rapids. 
 
 South Dakota. — Yankton, Deadwood, Huron, Sioux Falls, Pierre. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Which of the foregoing towns are on the Mississippi River ? On the Missouri ? 
 Trace the passage of a vessel from Duluth or Chicago to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 referring to the Maps of the East Centnil States, and the Map of the British Prov- 
 inces. How would she pass the rapids of the Sault de Ste M;irie? From Liike Erie 
 to Lake Ontario? Ans. By the Welland Canal. Vessels may d-escend tlie nipids in 
 tlie St. Lawrence, but in ascending the river they must take the canal at Montreal 
 Describe the return of the vessel from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Duluth' By 
 what railroad will a party of travelers proceed, from Omaha to San Fran<'i«i'o? 
 What river in Nebraska does that railroad follow ? What goods are received Inin 
 the South at St. Louis? 
 
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-54 
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 SALMON-FlSHlNfl 
 
 The Pacific States 
 
 AND Territories. 
 
 rpHIS section comprises the States of California, Oregon, 
 -L Nevada, Colorado, Washington, Montana, Idaho, and 
 Wyoming, and the Territories of Alaska, Utah, Arizona, and 
 New Mexico. All of them are wholly or partly upon the Pacific 
 Highlands or the Pacific Slope, and are therefore called the Pacific 
 States and Territories. 
 
 2. Surface.— Most of this section is occupied by the Western 
 Plateau of North America, -which hero attains its greatest width,— 
 about 800 miles,— and is from 2000 to 9000 feet above the sea. 
 The Plateau is bordered by the Eocky Mountains and the Sierra 
 Nevada, and is crossed by many lower and shorter chains. 
 
 The Eocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada are lofty ranges, whose snow-capped 
 summits rise from 5000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. The Sierra Nevada and Cas- 
 cade Mountains form one continuous range, but the Eocky Mountains are com- 
 posed of several parallel chains connected by cross ranges which form separate' 
 basins or plateaus. 
 
 3. East of the Eocky Mountains the land gradually descends 
 from a height of about 6000 feet to the Mississippi Eiver. The 
 western part of this slope is called the Great Plains. 
 
 4. Low ranges called the Coast Mountains skirt the Pacific 
 coast. The country between them and the Sierra Nevada and 
 Cascade Eange consists chiefly of broad and fertile valleys. 
 
 Thus we see that the Pacific States and Territories form tliree natural divisions — 
 1. The Great Plateau, with its mountain-chains; 2. The Great Plains on the east- 
 3. The low valleys and the Coast Mountains on the west. 
 
 5. Rivers.— Most of the rivers rise in the Eocky Mountains, and 
 their waters finally reach the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico. 
 The principal rivers are the Missouri and the Arkansas, the Colum- 
 bia and the Colorado. 
 
 Many of the streams flow through gorges called canons, whose sides often rise to 
 a great height. In the Grand Canon of the Oolo.-ado, in Arizona the deep and 
 narrow current flows between massive walls that in some places rise to a hei-ht 
 of more than 6000 feet above the river. ^ 
 
 6. The Missouri is navigable for small steamboats from the 
 
 WINTER SCENE ON 
 
 THE PACIFIC R. k. 
 
 Questions.— What three divisions does this section form? Describe the Plateau 
 The Rocky Mountains. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains The Great 
 Plains. The coast ranges and the valleys. Is most of this section high land or low 
 and. Where is the low land? Is the l-d east of the Rocky MouS.L h I, 7, 
 ow? Name four large nvers. Where do they rise ? Into what water does"ench 
 flow? Describe the Grand Caiion. coo.un 
 
 Gulf of Mexico to the Great Falls. 
 Many of the rivers of this section 
 are so obstructed by rapids, or lie 
 so far below the level of the sur- 
 rounding country, that they are of little com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 Large steamboats ascend the Columbia to the rapids, where it breaks through the 
 Cascade Range, and the river is also navigable for a great distance above that point. 
 The Colorado is navigable for steamboats to Callville, 600 miles from its mouth. 
 
 7. Lakes.— The Yellowstone, the Klamath, and the Pend 
 d'Oreille are among the largest of the fresh-water lakes. There 
 are many salt lakes, which have -no outlet. They occur chiefly 
 in the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada. 
 
 The Great Salt Lake, in Utah, is the largest of this class. The water of Utah 
 Lake, which flows into it by the Jordan Eiver, is perfectly fresh and pure. 
 
 •?; ^)^^ ^'''"'*^ °^ *^'" '^''*'°"' ^' ^ ^^°^^' '" ^^y' eqiiable, and 
 mild. The wmters are warmer than in the country farther east 
 and the diff'erence between summer and winter is not so great.' 
 
 The climate of the Highlands presents greater extremes of temperature than that 
 01 the Coast Region. 
 
 9. The Coast Eegion receives abimdant moisture from the Pacific 
 Ocean. This is especially trite of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. 
 California is drier. 
 
 the'' wefand'tl^'d'"""' °"^°."-' "' ^^-'^'"8^-. - '^-'ided into two seasons,- 
 
 the we and the dry, corresponding, in a measure, to summer and winter The 
 
 ins fall between November and April. The snow-fall is very light el ept anion. 
 
 the mountains. Indeed, there ,s no snow at all on the lowlan'ds ff CalZia ' 
 
 10. The Plateau and the Great Plains are very dry ■ for the 
 moisture from t^.e Pacific is cooled in crossing the snow . p 
 Sierras and the Eocky Mountains, and descends^pon their slopes 
 in the form of rain or snow. The fall of snow or rain is, therefore 
 very light on the Plateau and the Plains. 
 
 terely cold and h/T' '? '''''"'''''' "P^"''^"^ at the north, the winter is in- 
 tensely^old^^^ temperature are often very great and sttdden. 
 
 rad??''whv'~^°" '"■'' *'^' '^^^^^°«^^^^-^ib^^ 
 
 th]?'''rJ''' ^"''"' "''"''"^'' °f "^« «"'"^'« "f *is section' Describe that of 
 Oreat J l.uns ! What is said of the winter and summer on these hi<.h lands? 
 
THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 55 
 
 11. Vegetation. — In the Coast Region, the mountain sides and 
 a large part of the valleys are densely wooded with the grandest 
 cone-bearing evergreens in the world. Some of them are 35 feet 
 in diameter, and nearly 400 feet high. 
 
 12. Grass grows luxuriantly, and grain and fruit are raised in 
 abundance. The nights are so cool, however, throughout the 
 Pacific States and Territories, that corn does not ripen well. 
 
 Sonthern California is not so well timbered as the rest of the Coast Region, and 
 produces very little grass. But there is an abundance of clover, wild-oats, and 
 other pasturage, and hay is made from wheat, oats, and barley. 
 
 13. The Plateau and the Great Plains are the driest and least 
 fertile parts of the United States. A large part of the region 
 is a desert ; but where the land can be irrigated, the soil is gen- 
 erally found to be highly productive. 
 
 On the mountain sides are forests of pine, cedar, and other cone-bearing ever- 
 green? ; and along the streams are groves of cotton-wood, willow, etc. Some of the 
 land near the base of the mountains, and in the valleys, and along the larger streams, 
 can be cultivated, but it is better adapted to stock-raising than to tillage. 
 
 The sage-brush, sand-grass, bunch-grass, and buffalo-grass, afford excellent pas- 
 turage all the year ; and the cattle require no housing in winter. 
 
 14. Animals. — Among the wild animals of the Pacific States and 
 Territories, are the grizzly, the brown, and the black bear; the 
 panther, the wolf, and the coyote ; the bison (or buffalo), the elk, 
 the common deer, the antelope, the prairie-dog. 
 
 The buffaloes, which used to roam in such vast herds over the plains, are now less 
 numerous, and, before long, will be extinct. 
 
 The prairie-dog is a little animal, somewhat like a woodchuck, and having a bark 
 like a .omall dog. He lives in a hole which he digs in the ground, throwing up the 
 earth in a mound, and sharing his habitation with the owl and rattlesnake. The 
 prairie-dog settlements sometimes cover a great extent of country. 
 
 15. Inhabitants. — The greater part of this ser-tion is still thinly 
 settled, but its varied resources have so encouraged immigration 
 that the population is rapidly increasing. ChiuerC are found in 
 nearly all parts of the section. 
 
 Most of the uncivilized Indians in our country are found in this section. They 
 subsist by hunting. Some of the tribes are very fierce and cruel, as the frequent 
 wars with the whites prove. In Arizona and New Mexico the half-i'ivllized Indiana 
 are friendly to the whites. They build stone or adobe houses, raise cotton, grain, 
 and cattle, and weave their own garments. 
 
 16. Productions and Occupations. — On the Plateau, stock-raising 
 antl milling are the most important pursuits. Gold and silver are the 
 leading minerals; but copper, lead, iron, tin, quicksilver, coal, salt, 
 and other useful minerals are abundant. In the Coast Region, agri- 
 culture, stock-raising, and lumbering are the principal occupations. 
 California is also largely engaged in mining and manufacturing. 
 
 17. The Commerce with the States east of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, is carried on by the Pacific railroads, and by steamers which 
 connect with the Panama Railway. 
 
 Gold and silver are largely exported from this section ; wheat, wine, and fruit 
 from California, and lumber from Washington, California, and Oregon. 
 
 Questions. — Where are the forests in the Coast Region? Describe them. What 
 other vegetation in this division? Why does not maize ripen well? What is said 
 of the forests of California? Of the pasturage? 
 
 Describe the soil and vegetation of the Plateau and Plains. Where do the cone- 
 bearing trees grow? The willow and cotton-wood ? What land can be cultivated 
 without irrigation? What is the effect of irrigation ? What advantages are there 
 for stock-raising? Name the wild animals. Describe the prairie-dog. Why is this 
 section thinly settled ? What Asiatics are there ? Describe the savages. Describe 
 the half-civilized Indians. 
 
 SCENERY IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 18. Productions and Occupations. — California, formerly the most 
 
 noted gold-field of the world, is surpassed now only by Montana in the 
 
 value of its gold product. It ranks among the leading States in the 
 
 production of wine, wheat, barley, and wool. 
 
 The fruits of northern countries grow here in great perfection ; and the southern 
 half of the State produces a variety of semi-tropical plants, among them the orange, 
 the lemon, the olive, the fig, the almond, and the mulberry. 
 
 The redwood, the gigantic sequoia, and many other varieties of evergreen trees 
 furnish valuable lumber. 
 
 The famous gold-fields are on the western base of (lie Sierras. The quicksilver 
 mines of New Almaden are the richest in the world. Valuable deposits of tin, copper, 
 iron, coal, sulphur, borax, salt, etc., add to the great mineral wealth of California. 
 
 The manufactures are fast increasing, and consist chiefly of flour-mill products 
 wine, liquors, sawed lumber, molasses and refined syrup, leather, and iron-work. 
 Agriculture, stock-raising, farming, and manufacturing are the principal pursuits. 
 
 Questions. — What is the leading business in the Plateau' Name the principal 
 minerals. The others. Name the leading pursuits in the Coast Region. How is 
 commerce carried on? Name the exports. Name the productions of California. 
 Mention the semi-tropical plants. Where are the gold fields? The quicksilver 
 mines? Name the other minerals. The manufactures. 
 
56 
 
 THE PACIFIC STATES. AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 19. Climate. — California has a dry climate, particularly in the 
 San Joaquin Valley and the southern part of the State. 
 
 In the winter and the spring, — when the rain occurs,— the landscape is green and 
 /eautiful. In summer and autumn, — the dry season,— the ground is baked hard to 
 the depth of several inches, and the whole country is dry and brown. 
 
 20. California has really several climates, depending less upon 
 latitude than upon elevation and distance from the sea. The settler 
 can find almost any climate that he likes. 
 
 West of the Coast Mountains, the summer is cooler and the winter warmer than 
 in the interior. Probably no other part of the world has winters so warm and 
 summers so cool as those of the coast region hozn San Francisco northward. 
 
 East of the Coast Range, the summer is intensely hot; thus, when San Francisco 
 has a delightful temperature, the interior, shut off from the cool sea-breezes, glows 
 with tropical heat. 
 
 21. Among the many natural curiosities of the State, are the 
 groves of Big Trees, the famous Yosemite Valley, and the hot 
 springs called the Geysers. 
 
 The Big Trees are in a belt extending along the Sierra Nevada southward from 
 the Yosemite region, and some of them are supposed to be 2000 years old. 
 
 The Yosemite Valley is formed by a cleft in the Sierra Nevada, and is drained 
 by the Merced River. The walls rise abruptly to the height of 4500 feet; and 
 down these precipices many beautiful cascades descend to the green and level floor 
 of the valley. 
 
 22. Towns. — San Francisco is the largest city on the Pacific 
 coast of America, and has the best harbor. It is connected with 
 the cities of the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic seaboard by 
 the Pacific railroads and the Panama route, and has lines of 
 steamships to the Sandwich Islands, Australia, China, Japan, 
 and to South American ports,. 
 
 The leading exports are quicksilver, gold, wheat, fruit, flour, barley, and wine. 
 
 Sacramento, the capital, is the commercial center of the Sacramento Valley, and 
 Stockton of the San Jnaquin Valley. The other principal towns are Oakland, San 
 Jose, Los Angeles, San Diego, Stockton, and Alameda. 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 23. The Cascade Eange divides the State into two parts, called 
 Eastern and Western Oregon, which differ greatly in climate and 
 productions. 
 
 24. Western Oregon is abundantly watered by winds from the 
 Pacific, and has a moist, mild, and equable climate. 
 
 The summers are cool ; yet, except in the valleys, there is very little snow or ice 
 in winter, though the country lies in the latitude of New England. 
 
 Grain, fruit, forests of pine, fir, and cedar, and the richest grass, abound. 
 
 25. Eastern Oregon belongs to the dry plateau region, and is 
 better adapted to stock-raising than to tillage. The summers 
 are hotter and the winters colder than in the western division. 
 
 Wheat, lumber, and salmon are the principal exports of the State. Gold and 
 coal are mined to a considerable extent. 
 
 26. Towns. — Most of the population is in Western Oregon. 
 Portland is the principal city. Salem is the capital. 
 
 Que8tion8.— Describe the climate of California. Where is irrigation necessary? 
 Wliy? When is the country green? Brown? Upon what do the difl-erences in 
 climate chiefly dejiend ? What difference between the sea-coast and the interior? 
 Why ? What is there remarkable about the coast northward from San Francisco ? 
 
 Name the natural curiosities. How old are some of the great trees? Describe 
 the Yosemite Valley. Describe San Francisco. Sacramento. Stockton. Name the 
 other chief towns. What are the exports of San Francisco? 
 
 THE BUTTE " EL MORO 
 
 (Buttes are single peaks rising abruptly from the plain to the height of from 1000 to 2500 
 feet. They are found in the Coast Region and on the Plateau.) 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 27. Jn surface, climate, and productions, this State resembles 
 Oregon, though, being farther north, it is somewhat colder. The 
 western division is moist, fertile, and heavily timbered. The east- 
 ern part, or plateau region, is dry, but well fitted for grazing. 
 
 The coal-mines of Washington are very valuable. The fisheries employ numbers 
 of people. Wheat, lumber, live-stock, and fish are the chief exports. 
 
 28. Towns.— Olympia is the capital. Seattle, Tacoma, Spo- 
 kane Falls, and Walla Walla are the largest towns. 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 29. The interior has a climate of great extremes r the winters 
 being dreadfully cold, and the summers hot. The coast district, 
 between the mountains and the sea, is very moist and equable. 
 
 At Fort Yukon the mercury lias been known to rise as high as 112° At Sitka 
 the summers are very cool, and the winters are warmer than those of Philadelphia; 
 yet Sitka la farther north than Nain, in Labrador. 
 
 30. The warm Japan current, which sweeps around from the 
 coast of Asia to the shm^es of Alaska, is the cause of the moisture 
 and the uniform temperature on the western coast of Alaska. 
 
 31. Alaska is valuable for its furs, fisheries, and mineral wealth. 
 Sitka IS the seat of government. Juneau is the principal settlement, 
 
 The furs are from the sea-otter, the beavor, the seal, the ermine, the marten, and 
 the tox. 
 
 Questions.-How is Oregon divided? Describe Western Oi'eson. Eastern. 
 Name the chief exports of the State. The towns. What are the climate and pro- 
 ductions of Wash.n^ton? What part is adapted to agriculture? To grazing! 
 Name the productions. The capital. Largest town. 
 
 Describe the climate of Alaska. What is the cause of the moisture and equability 
 of the coast? Name the productions. What is said of the fura? Where is the, 
 seat of government? Describe the climate of Sitka. Where is Fort Yukon? 
 
THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 57 
 
 * FIGHT BETWEtN INDJANS AND UNITED STATES TROOPS. 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 32. The greater part of this State is too dry to be cultivated 
 without irrigation ; but the mountain sides are clothed with forests, 
 and there is an abundance of good pasturage. 
 
 The country is ricb in gold, silver, quicksilver, and tin. Mining and grazing are 
 the principal industries ; and farming is made successful by means of irrigation. 
 
 33. Towns. — Boise City is the capital and principal town. 
 
 WYOMING. 
 
 34. Wyoming, like Idaho, is a table-land, crossed by many 
 chains of the Rocky Mountains. Gold, silver, and useful min- 
 erals are found, and pasturage and timber are abundant. The 
 numerous streams furnish every facility for irrigation. 
 
 The Union Pacific Railway is rapidly developing the resources of the southern 
 part of the Territory, and the rich coal-mines are extensively worked. 
 , The Black Hills extend from the Platte River into Montana and Dakota. They 
 receive their name from the dark color of the rock, which, in some places, is almost 
 black. 
 
 35. In the north-western part of Wyoming a tract of land, about 
 3600 miles in extent, has been set aside by Congress as a National 
 Park. In natural curiosities it is unrivaled by any other district 
 of equal size on the globe. 
 
 Among the most wonderful of the attractive features of this Park are Yellowstone 
 Lake, the hot springs, the geysers, the waterfalls, and canons. There are probably 
 50 geysers that throw columns of water from 50 to 200 feet high. 
 
 36. Towns. — Cheyenne is the capital and largest town. 
 
 MONTANA. 
 
 37. The western part of this State is a mountainous table-land. 
 The eastern belongs to the Great Plains. Montana is now the great- 
 est gold-producing region in the world. Silver, copper, iron, lead, 
 coal, and fine building-stone are also found in great abundance. 
 
 There is good grazing, and timber is abundant among the mountains ; but, except 
 in the rich lands along the streams, irrigation is generally necessary for tillage. 
 
 There are two important railroads, and recent immigration has added largely to 
 the population of the State. 
 
 38. Towns. — Helena is the capital and principal town. 
 
 Questions.— Is Idaho better adapted to grazing, or to tillage ? Why ' Where are 
 the forests ? Name the minerals. Why is the population small ? Describe the sur- 
 face of Wyoming. The productions. What pasturage is there ? Where are the coal- 
 fields? Describe the National Park. Name the principal towns. Describe the 
 surface of Montana. Name the productions. Where are the forests? Is grazing 
 or agriculture the most profitable ? Why ? Name the chief town. 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 39. The larger part of Nevada belongs to the Great Basin — 
 which is a barren table-land 4500 feet high, crossed by parallel 
 mountain-chains, extending north and south. 
 
 Most of the State is a desert; but the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada are 
 covered with forests, and the sand-grass and sage-brush afford excellent pasturage. 
 
 40. The great wealth of Nevada is in its silver mines, which are 
 the richest in the world. Gold, copper, iron, lead, borax, salt, and 
 sulphur, are found in abundance. 
 
 The deposits of soda and salt are really marvelous. In the south-east there are 
 " salt bluffs " 500 feet high, forming a mass of rock-salt two miles long and one 
 and a half miles wide. On one lake in Nevada, soda forms in a state almost pure. 
 
 41. Towns. 
 
 the capital. 
 
 -Virginia City is the largest town. Carson City is 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 42. The Wahsatch Mountains divide Utah into two parts, the 
 eastern part belonging to the Colorado Basin, and the western to 
 the Great Interior Ba-sin. 
 
 Gold, silver, and lead are mined. There is timber upon the mountains, and sand- 
 grass and bunch-grass grow upon the plains ; but the country is, naturally, a desert. 
 However, where the streams have made irrigation comparatively easy, the soil has 
 yielded bountiful crops, and agriculture is a leading industry. 
 
 43. Many of the people are Mormons, a religious sect. Their 
 settlements are principally around Great Salt Lake, along the 
 western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, and in the Eio Virgen 
 
 Valley. 
 
 By means of extensive irrigation and great industry the Mormons have fine crops 
 of grain in their districts. The other white inhabitants, whom the Mormons call 
 Gentiles, are engaged in mining. Stock-raising is a growing industry. 
 
 44. Towns. — Salt Lake City is the principal town, and one of 
 the largest upon the Great Plateau. Ogden and Provo are flourLsh- 
 insr towns on the railroad. 
 
 o 
 
 Questions. — Describe the surface of Nevada. The soil. The vegetation. Name 
 the principal mineral. The others. What is said of the salt and soda? Of the 
 towns ? Describe the surface of Utah. What is the character of the soil ? Where 
 has irrigation been extensively practiced? Who are mostly engaged in mining? 
 In farming? Who are the Mormons? Where are their settlements? Who are the 
 Gentiles ? Describe the principal town. 
 
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THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 59 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 45. Colorado is crossed by the Rocky Mountains, which enclose 
 beautiful valleys, called Parks. The highest of these is about 9000 
 feet above the sea. East of the mountains are the Plains. 
 
 The insufficient rain-fall is a hindrance to agriculture, but irrigation has devel- 
 oped the resources of a naturally fertile country, and amply repaid the husbandman. 
 The parks have a rich soil, and are clothed with luxuriant grasses ; and their hills 
 are covered with fine forests abounding in game. 
 
 46. Productions and Occupations. — Gold, silver, lead, coal, iron, 
 copper, salt, soda, marble and other building-stones, grain, grazing 
 products, and timber, are the chief productions. Mining is the 
 principal pursuit, but agriculture, stock-raising, and wool-growing 
 afford employment to great numbers of the people. 
 
 47. Towns. — Denver, the capital and largest city, is on the 
 Plains, more than 5000 feet above the sea. Pueblo, Colorado 
 Springs, Leadville, and Trinidad are thriving towns. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 -48. Mountain chains cross the Territory from north-west to 
 south-east. East and north of the mountains lies a high table- 
 land, with forests of pine and a rich growth of grass. 
 
 The greater part of the Territory is too dry for tillage. The cultivated lands 
 irrigated from the neighboring streanra produce grain, fruits, and vegetables. The 
 
 Questions. — Describe the Parks of Colorado. Where are the Plains ? What is 
 said of the soil ? Name the chief products. Principal pursuit. Describe Denver. 
 Name other important towns. Describe the surface of Arizona. What are the 
 principal minerals of Arizona' 
 
 valleys and the mountain-slopes afford excellent pasture, and stock-raising is an 
 important industry. 
 
 49. Immense quantities of gold, silver, copper, coal, and salt 
 have been found in Arizona. The hostile Apaches have been sub- 
 dued, and immigrants are coming into the country in large numbers. 
 
 The new railroad connecting the Territory with San Francisco will help to de 
 velop the resources of the country. 
 
 60. Towns. — PhcBuix is the capital, Prescott is the principal 
 trading point, and Tucson is the largest town. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 61. The centre of the Territory is crossed by mountain ranges, 
 between which and Sierra Madre lies the great valley of the Rio 
 Grande. The Great Plains east of the mountains are called, in 
 New Mexico and Texas, the Llano Estacado. 
 
 The Llano Estacado is a desert, and a great part of the Territory is unfit for 
 tillage ; but the river-lands yield abundant crops, and the mountains are covered 
 with evergreen forests. As a grazing country. New Mexico is unsurpassed. The 
 stock are never housed, and are raised at very little expense. 
 
 Mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal are part of the great mineral wealth 
 of the Territory. A large part of the population of New Mexico are Mexicans. 
 
 62. Towns.— Santa Fe is the capital and principal town. Albu- 
 querque is next in importance. 
 
 Questions, — What will help to develop the resources of Arizona ? What is the 
 capital? Describe the surface of New Mexico. What is said of the Llano 
 Estacado? Of the mines? Of the population. What is the capital of New 
 Mexico ? What is said of Albuquerque ? 
 
 Questions on the Map of the Pacific States and Territories. 
 
 Position and Outline. 
 
 What country is on the north ? On the south ? What ocean on the west? Bound 
 Alaska. (See U. S. Map.) What States on the Pacific coast? Name the three on the 
 northern border. Name States or Territories on the eastern border. The southern. 
 The remaining two. Locale the Santa Barbara Islands. Point Concepcion. Cape 
 Mendocino. Cape Blanco. Cape Foulweather. Cape Flattery. San Francisco Bay. 
 Puget Sound. Strait of Juan de Fuca. Name the islands on the coast of Alaska. 
 
 S u r f a c e. 
 
 In what direction do the Bocky Mountains extend ? The Sierra Nevada and 
 Cascade Mountains? The Coast Mountains? 
 
 Locate the following : — Sierra Madre, Guadalupe Mountains, San Juan, Black 
 Hills, Big Horn, Sweet Water, Wind River, Bitter Root. Where are the follow- 
 ing peaks : — Spanish Peak, Pike's, long's, Laramie, Fremont? 
 
 In the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, find the following: — Mount Pinos 
 (uniting the Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains), Mount Whitney, Tyndall, Lyell, 
 Cathedral, Castle, Lassen, Shasta (uniting the Coast Mountains and Sierra Nevada 
 at the north). In what State are they ? Where are Mounts Hood and Baker, in 
 the Cascade Range? Mount Olympus, in the Coast Mountains? 
 
 Find the following chains which cross the great plateau :— the Blue Mountains, 
 the Wahsatch Mountains. In what State and Territory is the Great Interior Basin? 
 Where is the Mohave Basin, in California? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 The Columbia rises in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia ; describe its 
 course in this section. In what mountains do its principal branches, Clark's Fork 
 and Snake River, rise ? In what direction does its tributary, the Willamette, flow ? 
 
 Tlie Sacramento and San Joaquin, in California, drain a valley 500 miles long : into 
 what bay and in what direction does each flow? Describe the Colorado. V/here 
 is the Grand Canon ? The Gila ? 
 
 Where does the Missouri rise? What branch issues from Yellowstone Lake? 
 Name all the main branches of the Missouri that rise in the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Where does the Arkansas rise? The Rio Grande and its tributary, the Pecos? 
 
 In the mountains in the north-western parts of Wyoming rise the headwaters of 
 three great rivers — the Snake, the Yellowstone, and the Green. Describe each. 
 
 What lakes are wholly or partly in California? Where is the largest salt lake in 
 the Great Basin ? What lake flows into it ? Where is Yellowstone Lake ? Through 
 what lake in Idaho does Clark's Fork flow ? 
 
 San 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Where are the following towns? — 
 
 California.— San Francisco, Sacramento, Alameda, Stockton, Oakland, 
 Jose, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, San Diego, New Almaden. 
 iVa'aAi.— Virginia City, Carson City. 
 Ka/i.— Salt Lake City, Ogden, Provo. 
 
 Colorado.— Denver, Pueblo, Colorado Springs, Leadville, Trinidad. 
 Washington. — Olympia, Seattle, Tacoma, Walla Walla, Spokane Falls. 
 Oregon. — Portland, Salem. I Montana. — Helena, Butte City. 
 
 Alaska. — Sitka, Juneau. | Arizona. — Tucson, Prescott. Phoenix. 
 
 Idaho. — Bois6 City. Ne^v Mexico. — Santa Fe, Albuquerque. 
 
 Wyoming. — Cheyenne, Laramie. : ■-<» 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 What change in climate would you find in crossing this section from south to 
 north? From west to east ? What winds cool the coast in summer ? What moun- 
 tains shut off these cool winds from the interior? What parts of this section are 
 intensely cold in winter? Which is hotter in summer : Tucson, or Helena? Why? 
 Sacramento, or San Francisco ? Why? Why has not Sitka colder winters? 
 
 By what route would a San Francisco merchant ship a cargo of fruit to New 
 York ? This railroad is called the Central Pacific, from San Francisco to Ogden ; 
 thence to Omaha it is called the Union Pacific : where is Ogden ? On which sec- 
 tion is Cheyenne ? How does a Denver merchant go to St. Louis ? 
 
 How could a traveler go from Chicago to Great Salt Lake ? Thence to San Fran- 
 cisco? Thence to Los Angeles? Thence to Arizona? Could he go to New Mexico 
 by rail? How would a coal-merchant at Seattle ship coal to San Francisco? How 
 would a San Francisco merchant send wheat to England ? Why not by the Panama 
 route ? Why not by rail ? Why is not fruit sent around Cane Horn ? 
 
60 
 
 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 COMMERCE Is carried on in all parts of 
 tlie Union. Tlie towns of tlie interior 
 send tlieir productions to tlie great cities 
 on the coast, which send hack home manti- 
 factures and foreign commodities. 
 
 The foreign commerce is, therefore, carried on by 
 the sea-port to^wns, or by towns near the sea. The 
 commerce that is carried on hy vessels between differ- 
 ent ports of the country Is called the coasting, or 
 coastwise, trade. 
 
 All the interior commercial towns are situated 
 upon navigable rivers or lakes or upon railways and 
 canals, communicating with the principal sea-ports. 
 There are nearly as many miles of railway in the 
 United States as in all the rest of the world. 
 
 If CLuick despatch Is not required, water-routes are 
 preferred to railwa3-s, because they are cheaper, espe- 
 cially for very heavj^ or bulky merchandise. 
 
 3. Our great . staples, which are ex- 
 changed among different parts of the 
 country and are sent ahroad, are the pro- 
 ductions of our leading industries— agri- 
 culture and grazing, mining, manufactur- 
 ing, and lumbering. 
 
 Agriculture.— The most important products of the 
 United States are grain, grass, cotton, rice, sugar, to- 
 bacco, fruits, and vegetables for the table. 
 
 Most of our grain and hay is produced in the 
 North, while the cultivation of cotton, rice, and sugar- 
 cane is confined to the South. 
 
 Tobacco is raised chiefly in a middle belt of land 
 extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River, 
 and including Virginia and North Carolina, Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, with parts of adjoining States. 
 
 Grazing is an Important industry in the Middle 
 Atlantic and Central States, in the Pacific States and 
 Territories, and in Texas. It is the principal occupa- 
 tion on the Great Plains, lying east of the Eocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 The Central States supply fresh and salt meat. 
 Dairy products are most abtindant in the Middle At- 
 lantic and in the East Central States. Wool is an im- 
 portant 'jjroduct in all the grazing districts. 
 
 Mining.— Coal, iron, building-stones, and other val- 
 uable minerals, are distributed throughout the country. 
 
 In the production of coal and iron Pennsylvania 
 leads all the other States, though much of the iron- 
 ore used In her furnaces Is supplied by the Central 
 States, in which section coal Is also abundant. Lead 
 comes chiefly from the Central States, copper from 
 Michigan and Montana, and gold and sliver from 
 the Pacific States and Territories. 
 
 IWanufacturing Is most important in New Eng- 
 land, in tho Middle Atlantic States, and in Ohio. 
 
 Lumbering.— The eastern half of the country still 
 contains immense forests of valuable trees, both ever- 
 green and deciduous, and on the Pacific Coast there 
 are great tracts of magnificent cedars and pines. But 
 the West is, in general, scantily supplied with timber. 
 
 Lumbering is a leading industry in Michigan. Wis- 
 consin, and Minnesota ; in Northern New England ; In 
 the Southern Atlantic States ; and on the Pacific Coast 
 
 Scale, 200 Statute Miles to an Inch 
 
 no loo 
 COMPARATIVE 
 
 .3. Distribution of tine Gi-eat Staples.- ; 4. Exports.-(lur principal foreign ex 
 For f<jr(4gn or domestic commerce each j ports aiv txvMn, flour, and pork from tli 
 section supplies its own leading products: | Nortlici'u ports, and from Southern port 
 
 ifiiv Etiniiinii. manufactured goods. [cottdu, Which is seiit clilefly to England- 
 
 Middle Atlnntie .sintrs, manufactures, coal, iron. I Among the minor exports are our manufaotui'es 
 
 and petroleum. , ^^.,,^,,i ,^^.p ^^^^ ^^ England and to other countries. 
 
 S„„tl,pn, Stntrs. cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco. ! " 
 
 (>„t,;,i st„tr..,. ijreadstutts and meat, luTuber, i 5. Imports.— Our chief imports are silic^ 
 copper, and iron ore. ' woolciis, and linens, tea, collee. and sugar 
 
 P..c;/Jc s/rrf,.., and IVrritori,..,. gold, silver, and I More than one-half of our foreign trade is carri« 
 cattle; from the Pacific Coast, lumljcr and wheat, j on by way of the port of New York. 
 
lag Lcagitudc- West 97 from Greenwich 92 
 
 Pa^e 61 
 
 102 Longitude 
 
 West 97 
 
 Greenwict 92 
 
 
 Questions. — is the oominerce of the interior 
 towns foreign or domestic ? Where is the foreign 
 commerce carried on? Name four leading commer- 
 cial cities of the Atlantic coast. The principal city 
 in the Gulf States. On the Pacific Coast. 
 
 How are the Interior commercial cities situated? 
 What country is best supplied with railroads? 
 Would a Portland merchant he likely to send hay 
 to Charleston hy rail or by water? What name is 
 given to the water-traflQc between these two ports? 
 
 Name our leading industries. Principal vegetable 
 products. Where is most of the grain produced? 
 
 Hay? Cotton? Sugar? Rice? Tobacco? Where is 
 grazing principally carried on ? Which States supply 
 most of the meat? Dairy products? Wool? What 
 State produces most coal and iron? Where else are 
 they obtained? Lead and copper? Gold and silver? 
 Xame the principal manufacturing districts. 
 
 Which half of our country is more heai'lly 
 wooded— the eastern, or the western? Wliere, in the 
 western half, will you find great forests? In what 
 part of the Central States? Of New England? Of the 
 Southern States? Where are naval stores produced? 
 [See Chapter on Southern Stales.} 
 
 Name the leading commercial products of eaeti 
 section. The principal foreign exports from North- 
 em ports. Prom Southern. The chief imports. 
 
 What States and towTis would you pass in going 
 by water from Pittsburgh to New Orleans ? Send by 
 rail a load of oranges from Jacksonville (Pla.) to New- 
 York; what States would you cross? Wliat rivers? 
 
 Lumber is sometimes shipped directly from Mich- 
 igan to Europe; follow the route from Detroit to 
 London. Send copper b3' water from Lake Superior 
 to Buffalo; describe the route. What States would you 
 cross in going by rail from Boston to Chicago ? 
 
NOON AT GREENWICH. 
 
 S T -A. 3xr ID ^a. 
 
 1. We have seen that tbe earth turns upon its axis, from west to east, once In 
 24 hours, and that this motion causes the alternation of day and niglit. 
 
 2. By means of tliis rotation, places upon the surface of the earth come 
 dally in sight of the sun, or, in other words, have their sunrise. 
 
 "VThen, In the course of the daily motion, a place is (in ordinary langnage) 
 direclly under the siin^ It Is noon at that place and at all other places on the 
 same meridian. Finally, each place passes out of sight of the sun, or, In other 
 words, has its sunset. 
 
 3. It is really the motion of the earth that produces these changes, yet we 
 usually speak of the sun as risinff in the morning, crossing the meridian at noon, 
 and going down in the evening ; because it is the sun that appears to move. 
 
 4. The earth turns from west to east; hence, when It is noon at any place, it 
 is past noon at places east of it, and before noon at places west of it. 
 
 Thus, Pekin has its noon before Constantinople; Constantinople, before 
 London ; London, before New York ; and New York, before San Franoisoo. 
 
 5. As the earth makes one rotation of 360° in 24 hours, in 1 hour it will 
 move 15°; and if a place is 15° east of another, it will have its sunrise, its 
 noon, and its sunset 1 hour sooner than the other; if it is 30° east of the other, 
 it will have its noon 2 hours sooner; if E5° east, 35 hours sooner, and so on. 
 
 C. St. Petersburg is 30° east of Greenwich ; therefore, when it is noon at 
 Oreenvi^ioh it is 2 hours ]?ast noon (2 P. M.) in St. Petersburg. In Philadelphia, 
 75° "west of G-reen"wich, it is 5 hours before noon (7 A. M.) ; and in San Francisco, 
 122J° west of Greenwich, it is 8 hours and 10 minutes before noon (3.50 A. M.). 
 
 7. "We find, therefore, that each place has its o'wn time, different from that of 
 places east or west of it. This is called its local or astronomical time. 
 
 The difference in local time between two places can be easily ascertained 
 if their difference In longitude is knovrn; 15°, east or west, make a difference 
 of 1 hour, and 1° makes a difference of ,'5 of 1 hour, which equals 4 minutes. 
 
 8. On the great lines of railway which cross our country and Europe from 
 east to west, this difference in time has been the source of great confusion and 
 annoyance to travelers and to men employed upon the roads; moreover, it 
 has sometimes led to fatal accidents; for watches set by the clocks in one 
 place will be "too slow" in places east of it, and "too fast" in places west of It. 
 
 9. It was therefore decided by the railroad companies of the United States and 
 Canada to adopt a new plan, and instead of running their trains, as heretofore. 
 
 ■rXIVEXI. 
 
 by the local time at their principal stations, to have but one standard time 
 for each 15° of longitude, making only five standards of time necessary for 
 the whole extent of our country from east to west. 
 
 10. Bjr this new system, called the Standard Time System, the United 
 States and Canada, are divided into Ave sections, or Time Belts; the Inter- 
 colonial, the Eastern, the Central, the Mountain, and the Pacific. Each 
 of these is 15° wide; that is, it extends throttgh 15° of longitude, 7J°. of whioti 
 are east and 7J° west of the meridian adopted as the central line of the belt. 
 
 11. The central line of the Intercolonial Belt is the meridian 60° west of 
 Greenwich; of the Eastern Belt, the mei-idiau 75° west; of the Central Belt, 
 the meridian 90° west; of the Mountain Belt, the meridian 105° west; and of 
 the Pacific Belt, the meridian 120° west. According to the new System, aU 
 places in each belt, disregarding their own local time, adopt the Standard Time, 
 which is the local time of the central meridian of their particular belt. 
 
 13. Since 15° of longitude make 1 hour's difference in time, 60° make a differ- 
 ence of 4 hours ; 75°, a difference of 5 hours; 90°, a difference of 6 hours, etc. 
 Hence, when it is noon at Greenwich, the Standard Time at all places in the 
 Intercolonial Belt is 4 hours before noon, or 8 A. M. ; at all places In 
 the Eastern Belt, 7 A. M. ; in the Central, 6 A.M.; in the Mountain, 5 A.M.; 
 in the Pacific, 4 A. M.; and the clocks which keep Standard Time correctly 
 all strike at the same instant, each the hour of Its own time-belt. 
 
 Between the hours, the minute hands of such clocks point to the same place 
 on the clock dials. When It is 25 minutes past the hour In one place, it Is 25 
 minutes past some hotir in every other, and so on. 
 
 13. Standard Time is the same as local time at all places on the central 
 meridian of each belt. It varies most from local time at the boundaries of the 
 belts, where the difference is 30 minutes. 
 
 14. This change to Standard Time was proposed in 1878 by Prof. Abbe of the 
 Signal Service at Washington. The present plan was presented to the Interna- 
 tional Congress at Liverpool, in 1882. by Pres. Barnard, of Columbia College, New 
 York. It was adopted by the Railway Time Convention in Chicago in Oct., 1883, 
 and put into operation upon the railroads of the United States and Canada, 
 Nov. 18, 1883. Upon the same day many cities and towns set their clocks to 
 conform to it, and nearly all places In the country have since adopted it. 
 
 Some of the railroads which have Important stations jttst beyond the limit 
 of a belt, do not change their time until those stations are reached. 
 
THE BRITISI^PROViNCES OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 63 
 
 The British Provinces. 
 
 THE British Provinces occupy all the northern part of North 
 America except Greenland, Iceland, and Alaska. They for- 
 merly consisted of eight independent provinces, and the exten- 
 sive region called the North-west Territory. All of these, except 
 Newfoundland, are now united under the general name' of Do- 
 minion of Canada. 
 
 2. Surface. — Most of the country east of the Eocky Mountains 
 is a part of the Great Central Plain, and is generally level. 
 
 The Appalachian Mountain-System extends into Canada, and terminates in low 
 hills on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A gradual swell of ground, called The Heiaht of 
 Land, separates the Basin of the St. Lawrence from that of Hudson Bay 
 
 3. Rivers and Lakes. — The Eiver St. Lawrence drains the 
 
 waters of the five great lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, 
 
 and Ontario. They are supposed to contain more than one-fourth 
 
 the fresh water upon the globe. 
 
 The other rivers and lakes are large and numerous. The Saskatchewan River 
 and its branches are navigable for nearly 2000 miles. 
 
 ICEBERGS OFF THE COASr OF LABRADOR. 
 
 The Basin of the St. Lawrence is famous for the grandeur and beauty of its nat- 
 ural scenery. Niagara Falls, the Thousand Isles and Bapids of the St. Lawrence, 
 the Falls of Montmorenci (near Quebec), and the grand scenery of the Saguenay 
 Biver, are the admiration of thousands of tourists. 
 
 The St. Lawrence and the Lakes form the great natural highway of the country. 
 By means of canals, they have been made navigable throughout their entire length. 
 In winter, however, the water-communication is frozen up. 
 
 The river admits ships from the Gulf to Montreal. Between that point and Lake 
 Ontario there are rapids. These are avoided, in ascending the river, by canals on 
 the left bank ; but the downward passage, though perilous, is made by the river 
 itself. Lake Ontario is also connected with the Ottawa Eiver by the Rideau Canal. 
 
 The Falls of Niagara are avoided by the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes 
 Erie and Ontario. The Falls in the River St. Mary are the only other natural 
 obstruction, and are passed in a ship canal. 
 
 4. Climate. — The northern portions are intensely cold ; the 
 southern are like the adjoining parts of the United States in cli- 
 mate and vegetation, but the climate is subject to great extremes. 
 
 The summers in the South are very hot, while the winters are long and exceed- 
 ingly cold. The interior has a dry and clear atmosphere, but the coast is often 
 visited by thick fogs. In those districts which border upon the sea or the great 
 lakes, the winters are much milder, and the heat of summer is less intense. 
 
 Questions. — Where are the British Provinces situated ? Under what government 
 are all of them except Newfoundland united ? Describe the surface of the country. 
 The mountain systems. What lakes are drained by the St. Lawrence ? For what 
 is the Basin of the St. Lawrence famous ? How far is the river navigable for ships ? 
 What are the obstacles to navigation above Montreal ? How are they overcome 1 
 What obstacle is there to the winter navigation of the St. Lawrence ? 
 
 6. Government. — The legislature of the Dominion consists of 
 
 a Senate appointed by the Governor-General, and a House of Com- 
 mons elected by the people. The sovereign appoints the Governor- 
 General, who is also governor of all British America. 
 
 Each province has also its separate-legislature elected by the people, and a Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor appointed by the Governor-General. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 6. The Dominion of Canada comprises the provinces of Quebec, 
 Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, British Columbia, 
 and Prince Edward Island. In addition to these are the districts 
 of Keewatin, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca; 
 and the North-east and North-wesji Territories. 
 
 7. QUEBEC. — Quebec, formerly called Canada Ea.st, contains 
 many descendants of the early French settlers. They ppeak the 
 French language, are a people of industrious habits, and maintain 
 the politeness and gayety of their race. 
 
 This section was first settled by the French, who built Quebec, Montreal, and 
 other towns in the lower part of the province. In the years 1759 and 1760 it was 
 conquered by the British. 
 
 8. ONTARIO . — Ontario, formerly called Canada West, has been 
 settled chiefly since the American Revolution. The inhabitants 
 are principally of British origin, and profess the Protestant relig- 
 ion ; while in Quebec, the majority of the people are Catholics. 
 
 9. Productions. — Besides immense wealth in forests, these prov- 
 inces have the same vegetable productions as the neighboring 
 States of our own country : grain, hemp, flax, and potatoes. 
 
 Toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence the climate if too severe and the land too 
 poor to admit of much cultivation ; but in the south-western districts the soil is very 
 rich, and produces great crops of wheat and other grains. 
 
 10. Towns. — The principal towns of the province of Quebec 
 are Q.uebec and Montreal ; of the province of Ontario, Toronto, 
 Hamilton, Kingston, Ottawa, and London. 
 
 Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, contains a magnificent Parliament House. 
 This city is the residence of the Governor-General, and the place where the Do- 
 minion Parliament meets. 
 
 Quebec, the capital of the province of Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion, 
 and consists of an upper and a lower town. The upper town is built upon a bold 
 promontory which rises abruptly from the river. It is the only walled town in 
 America, and is one of the strongest fortresses in the world. The lower town lies 
 at the foot of this steep rock, and is the seat of commerce. 
 
 Montreal, the largest city of British America, is built upon the island of Montreal 
 in the Biver St. Lawrence. Toronto is the capital and largest city of Ontario. 
 
 11. NEW BRUNSWICK . — New Brunswick is north-east of the 
 United States. Its shores are washed by the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence and the Bay of Fundy. The latter bay is remarkable for 
 having the highest tides in the world. 
 
 The people of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the other provinces bordering 
 upon the Gulf, are extensively engaged in the fisheries, which form one of their 
 principal sources of wealth. 
 
 12. Towns. — Fredericton, the capital, is on the Eiver St. John, 
 80 miles from its mouth. The City of St. John, at the mouth of 
 the river, is the largest and most important town. 
 
 Questions. — What is the climate of the Provinces? Describe the Govermnent. 
 Of what does the Dominion of Canada consist? What is the character of the de- 
 scendants of the French settlers? Where are they found: in Quebec, or Ontario? 
 By whom was Ontario principally settled? Name some of the productions of 
 Canada. Which are the principal towns? Name the capital. Describe Quebec. 
 Where is Montreal ? Where is New Brunswick ? What is said of the Bay of Fundy 1 
 
64 
 
 THE BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 13. NOVA SCOTIA and CAPE BRETON 1 S L A N D.— These 
 form together a single province. The coast contains a great 
 number of fine harbors, promoting the extensive commerce and 
 fisheries, which form the chief business of the people. 
 
 14. Towns. — Halifax, the capital, has 'a fine harbor, and is the 
 principal British naval station in this part of the world. 
 
 The chief exports of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are lumber, fish, coal, 
 grindstones, gypsum (or plaster), grain, potatoes, and hay. 
 
 16. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND was first settled by the 
 
 French, but was afterwards ceded to Great Britain. 
 
 Like all the other regions in or upon the Gulf, this province has valuable fisher- 
 ies. Farming and grazing, however, form the chief occupation of the people. 
 Charlottetown is the capital. 
 
 16. BRITISH COLUMBIA . — The coast region is densely wood- 
 ed, and has a moist and rather mild climate. The plateau east of the 
 Cascade Range is dry, and better for grazing than for agriculture. 
 
 The leading exports are gold, coal, furs, lumber, and fish. Fraser Kiver is tlie 
 principal stream, upon whose banks, and those of its tributaries, gold abounds. 
 Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands are a part of British Columbia. 
 
 17. Towns. — Victoria, the capital and principal town, is on 
 Vancouver Island. New Westminster is next in importance. 
 
 18. M A N I TO B A is situated in the Red River valley, and is 
 
 nearly in the centre of North America. The surface consists 
 
 mostly of level prairie land, with but little timber. 
 
 The soil is very fertile, and produces large crops, especially of wheat. The climate 
 is cold and dry, and the population is rapidly increasing. Winnipeg is the capital. 
 
 19. DISTRICTS AND TERRITORIES. — The five districts 
 which have recently been organized and the three territories com- 
 prise all of British America not included in the eight provinces. 
 
 They have few towns, and are inhabited chiefly by Indians, Eskimos, and fur 
 traders. Battleford is the principal town. [Note. — For boundaries and general 
 description of British Columbia, Manitoba, and the Territories, seepages 25 and 26.] 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 20. The Surface is generally rocky and barren. The coast is 
 bold, and indented by deep inlets, which form many excellent 
 harbors. St. John's is the capital, and the only town of any note. 
 
 21. Climate.— The winters are very cold, but the summers are 
 hot. Dense fogs hang over the coast during a large part of the year 
 
 22. Productions. — The fisheries form almost the sole wealth of 
 Newfoundland. The exports are fish, oil, and seal-skins. 
 
 The fiiih are taken along the shores of the island, and upon shallow places in the 
 sea, called the Banks of Newfoundland. The Grand Bank, which lies farthest to 
 the eastward, is more than 600 miles long, and 250 miles broad. 
 
 Zabradin: — The coast of Labrador is attached to the Government of Newfound- 
 land. Its fisheries are very extensive and valuable. 
 
 THE FRENCH ISLANDS. 
 
 23. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, south of New- 
 foundland, belong to France, and serve for fishing stations. 
 
 These islands, a part of Guiana (in South America), and a few small islands 
 among the West Indips, are all that remain to France of the immense territory 
 which she once possessed in America. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island ? What is the 
 capital? What are the chief exports? By whom was Prince Edward Island first 
 settled? What is the chief occupation of the people? Describe British Columbia. 
 Name the capital. Describe Manitoba. The territories. Describe Newfound- 
 land. Name the climate and exports. What is said of the French Isl.Tnds? 
 
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66 
 
 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 Mexico, Central America, 
 
 AND THE West Indies. 
 
 THESE countries are included witMn Spanisli America, or 
 that part of the American Continent wkicli was first settled 
 by tlie Spaniards, and is still occupied by their descendants. 
 
 [Note. — The extent of Spanish America, and the character of the people, are 
 described in the History of the United States, page 31.] 
 
 2. The greater part of Spanish America lies within or near the 
 Torrid Zone. All that portion which borders upon the Pacific 
 contains mountains and table-lands, and therefore exhibits an ex- 
 traordinary variety of vegetable products. The mineral wealth, 
 particularly in gold and silver, is also very great. 
 
 Yet such is the indolence of the people, that agriculture ie almost wholly neg- 
 lected, and the mines are imperfectly worked. The rearing of live-stock better suits 
 the idle habits of the people, and many horned cattle, horses, and mules are raised. 
 The cattle are slaughtered principally for their hides, horns, and tallow. 
 
 3. The only portions of Spanish America now in possession of 
 the mother country are Cuba and Porto Eico. The other colo- 
 nies threw off the yoke in the first quarter of the present cen- 
 tury, and established themselves as independent republics. 
 
 Most of them, however, are wretchedly governed; one revolution following 
 .another, in endless succession. 
 
 4. Mexico, Central America, and the Isthmus of Panama, 
 occupy the narrowest portion of the "Western Continent, and 
 afford convenient routes between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 Three routes across this section were originally projected : one by the Isthmus of 
 Tehuantepec, in Mexico ; another by the way of the river San Juan and Lake Nica- 
 ragua, in Central America ; the third across the Isthmus of Panama. The latter wasi 
 for many years, the principal channel of communication between the oceans by 
 means of the Panama Eailroad. 
 
 The great railroads to the Pacific coast which have been constructed in late years 
 have, however, diverted much of the travel as well as commerce from this route. 
 A ship canal, across the Isthmus of Panama, about 46 miles in length has been 
 projected and is now in process of construction by DeLesseps, the French engineer 
 and successful projector of the Suez Canal. 
 
 6. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants of Spanish America are 
 whites, blacks, Indians, and the mixed races. By far the greater 
 part of the population of Mexico and Central America belong to 
 the Indian and mixed races. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 6. Coast. — Upon the Gulf of Mexico (as we have seen in the 
 United States), the coast is flat and sandy, and theiefore deficient 
 in good harbors. The shores of the Pacific, however, are more 
 abrupt, and abound with fine harbors, which admit ships of the 
 largest size. 
 
 7. Surface. — The interior consists of table-lands, from 4000 to 
 9000 feet high. They rise abruptly from the Pacific coast, but 
 there is a considerable interval of low land between them and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 From the Gulf, the table-lands were formerly only accessible by a few carriage- 
 roads: one by Jalapa, from Vera Cruz, and another by Saltillo, from Matamoras 
 and Monterey, were made lines of attn-ck by the United States Army in the war 
 between the two countries. Railroads now connect the coast with the interior. 
 
 Questions. — What do you understand by Spanish America? Within what zone 
 does it principally lie ? What, then, is its climate ? What are some of the produc- 
 tions ? What part of Spanish America is still in possession of Spain ? What three 
 routes were projected from the Atlantic to the Pacific ? What is said of that across 
 the Isthmus of Panama? Who inhabit this country' 
 
 The Sierra Madre crosses the table-land from north to south, and forms a continu- 
 ation of the Rocky Mountains. The highest mountains in Mexico are a line o{ 
 single peaks (many of them volcanoes), which cross the southern part of the plateau 
 from east to west. 
 
 8. Climate. — The rainy season continues from May till October; 
 the dry season from October to May. Like all tropical countries 
 which contain high and low lands, Mexico exhibits a great va- 
 riety of climate. 
 
 In ascending from the coast to the surface of the plateau, we find three regions in 
 succession: — the hot, swampy, and pestilential lowlands; the temperate regions, 
 which enjoy a healthful and delightful climate ; and the cold, desolate plains above. 
 
 9. Productions. — The vegetable productions vary with the 
 climate — passing through gradual changes, from the lowlands to 
 the surface of the plateau. 
 
 Thus, Mexico possesses, in the same latitude, the vegetation of all the zones. The 
 oak and pine are found here, as well as the mahogany, ebony, and palm. Wheat 
 and barley are produced in the cooler regions ; and cotton, tobacco, the sugar-cane, 
 and many fruits and spices, in the plains and valleys below. Indian corn grows 
 both on the high and low lands. 
 
 The Maguey plant furnishes an intoxicating drink, called pulque, of which the 
 Mexicans consume a great quantity. One plant often yields 150 gallons. 
 
 The mines of Mexico once yielded immense quantities of gold and silver, but they 
 are now less productive. Iron, copper, and other useful metals have since been dis- 
 covered, and are mined to a limited extent. 
 
 10. Towns. — Mexico, the capital, is situated upon a table-land, 
 7000 feet above the sea. The capture of this city by General Scott, 
 in 1847, was the closing event of the war with the United States. 
 
 VIEW OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
 [This view represents, in the foreground, one of the magnificent aqueducts which 
 supply the city with water. On the left of the centre is the Cathedral, and on the 
 right the two convents of San Augustine and San Francisco. In the distance are 
 represented the volcanoes of Popocatapetl (" Smoking-mountain") and Iztaccihuatl 
 (" White Lady ").] 
 
 Most of the towns in the interior are situated on the table-lands, where the 
 climate is much more healthful than on the swampy regions of the coast. Gua- 
 naxuato and Zacatecas, on the highlands, are rich in mines of gold and silver. 
 
 Vera Cruz and Tampico are the principal ports on the Gulf of Mexico ; Acapulco, 
 San Bias, Mazatlan, and Gnaymas, are the principal ones on the Pacific coast. 
 
 Questions. — What is the character of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico? Which 
 is the principal mountMn-chain ? Describe the climate. Name some of the produc- 
 tions. Are they of more than one climate ? \YhiLt is pulque f How does the present 
 productiveness of the mines compare with that of the past? Describe the city oi 
 Mexico. Which are the principal mining towns? Name the principal porta. 
 
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 67 
 
 11. Commerce. — Though Mexico is so rich in 
 natural productions, every branch of industry is neg- 
 lected. Commerce is, therefore, very limited, and 
 the exports consist of the simplest productions: 
 gold, silver, cattle, hides, and cochineal. 
 
 The cochineal is an insect which feeds on a species of cactus. 
 When killed, and dried in the sun, it yields a brilliant crimson dye. 
 
 12. History. — Fernando Cortez, a Spanish adven- 
 turer, conquered the country in 1521. 
 
 He found there an extensive kingdom, with regular laws, and 
 with cities, temples, public roads, and many of the arts of civilized 
 life. After the conquest, the cruelty of the Spaniards drove the 
 Indians back into a state of barbarism. 
 
 In 1821, Mexico became independent of Spain, and established 
 first an empire, then a republican form of government. By the war 
 with the United States, which ceased in 1848, she lost Upper Califor- 
 nia and New Mexico. Mexico now comprises twenty-seveu States, 
 two Territories, and one federal district. 
 
 13. The Peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower Califor- 
 nia are parts of Mexico but little known. The former 
 is noted for its ruins of ancient temples and cities. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 14. Central America comprises the five States of Guatemala, 
 Ilonduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica, together with 
 
 « the small British colony of Balize or British Honduras. In sur- 
 face, climate, and productions, the country bears a general resem- 
 blance to Mexico. 
 
 The height of the table-lands gradually decreases towards the Isthmus of Panama, 
 where the surface is varied by a chain of low hills. Along the south-western edge 
 of the plateau is a line of volcanoes, which form a part of the great volcanic chain on 
 the Pacific coast of America. 
 
 15. Towns. — The largest city in Central America is New 
 Guatemala, the capital of the State of Guatemala. 
 
 Tegucigalpa is the capital of Honduras ; San Salvador, of Salvador ; Managua, of 
 Nicaragua ; and San Job6, of Costa Eica. 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 16. The West India Islands consist of three principal groups: 
 the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. 
 
 The Greater jtntilles consist of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Eico. The I^easer 
 Antilles include the chain of islands which extend from Porto Eico to South America. 
 The Antilles are mountainous, and are supposed to be the remains of a mountain- 
 chain, which, at some remote period, connected North and South America. 
 
 The Bahamns are low islands, of coral formation. Guanahani, one of the Bahama 
 Islands, was the first land, of the New World, discovered by Columbus. 
 
 17. Climate and Productions. — The climate and productions 
 of the West Indies are tropical. 
 
 The climate is generally healthful, except in the rainy season. The islands are 
 subject to terrific hurricanes. Sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, tobacco, mahogany, 
 spices, and tropical fruits, form the chief exports. 
 
 18. Inhabitants. — The population of the West Indies consists 
 
 principally of whites and free negroes. 
 
 About one-third of the inhabitants are white. The negroes were once all slaves, 
 but are now free. A considerable number of Chinese, called Coolies, have been 
 taken to some of the islands, to labor upon the plantations. 
 
 RUINS OF CHICHEN, YUCATAN. 
 
 Questions. —What are the exports of Mexico ? What is cochineal ? Who first con- 
 quered Mexico? When did it become independent? For what is Yucatan noted? 
 Where is Balize? To what country does it belong? Name the Political Divisions 
 of Central America. The capital of each. Which is the largest city of Central 
 America? Of what do the West India Islands consist? 
 
 19. Most of the West India Islands are in possession of 
 European nations. 
 
 Cuba and Porto Eico belong to Spain; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the 
 Lesser Antilles, to Great Britain ; Hayti is independent ; and the remaining islands 
 are owned by France, Denmark, The Netherlands, Sweden, and Venezuela. 
 
 20. Cuba, the " Queen of the Antilles," is the richest of Spain's 
 possessions. It is about as large as the State of Tennessee, and 
 nearly equal in area to all the rest of the West Indies. The 
 extensive foreign commerce of the island is chiefly carried on 
 through Havana and Matanzas. 
 
 21. Jamaica is a very beautiful and fertile island; but, like 
 the rest of the British West Indies, the amount of her produc- 
 tions and commerce has of late years greatly decreased. Kingston 
 is the largest town. 
 
 22. Hayti embraces two distinct States: the Eepublic of 
 Dominica or San Domingo, and the Eepublic of Hayti. 
 
 The island once belonged to France and Spain. In 1791, the slaves in the western, 
 or French division, rose against their masters, and, after a bloody and cruel war, suc- 
 ceeded in establishing themselves, first as an empire, then as an independent republic. 
 
 In 1849, Soulouque (who was then President) proclaimed himself Emperor, with 
 the title of Faustin I. After a reign of ten years, Soulouque was deposed, and, in 
 1859, a republican form of government was again adopted. 
 
 In 1821 ,the eastern division revolted from Spain, and formed a republican government. 
 
 The island is noted for its beautiful scenery and for the fertility of its soil, which b 
 capable of producing every variety of tropical vegetation. 
 
 23. The Bermuda Islands are situated in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 north of the West Indies. They belong to Great Britain. 
 
 There are about 400 of these islands. Most of them are so small and barren that 
 they have neither name nor inhabitants. \^For location, see map of jyorlli America.] 
 
 Questions. — Which are the Greater Antilles? The Lesser Antilles ? Are they 
 level or mountainous ? Are the Bahama Islands high or low lands ? Name some 
 of the productions of the West Indies. In whose possession are most of the islands ? 
 Which belong to Spain ? Great Britain ? Which is independent? Where are the 
 Bermuda Islands? To whom do they belong? 
 
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Questions on the Map of Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. 
 
 69 
 
 Statistical. 
 
 Which of these divisions are parts of the mainland of North America? Which 
 one consists entirely of islands? How many States of the size of Missouri would 
 Mexico make ? What Southern State has ahout the same area as Hayti ? Which 
 is the larger : Cuha, or Kentucky ? Jamaica, or Connecticut ? 
 
 IVIEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 Outline. 
 
 Between what gulf and ocean is Mexico ? What country hounds it on the north? 
 What gulf indents its western coast ? Name the peninsula hetween this guK and 
 the Pacific Ocean. Between what two bays is the peninsula of Yucatan ? 
 
 Between what sea and ocean is Central America ? What channel separates Yu- 
 catan from Cuba? Where is the Mosquito Coast? Between what two bodies of 
 water is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ? Is it in Mexico or Central America ? 
 
 What cape at the southern extremity of the peninsula of California ? What one 
 on the eastern coast ? Where is Cape Gracios a Dios ? Cape Roxo ? Cape Tetas ? 
 Cape Corrientes ? Which coast of these countries has the better harbors : the Par 
 ciflc, or that of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Of what does the interior of Mexico and Central America consist ? WTiat is the 
 general height of these table-lands? Does the elevation increase, or diminish, 
 towards the Isthmus of Panama? On which coast do the table-lands rise most 
 abruptly from the sea? 
 
 Near which coast is there most low land ? How was the Mexican plateau for- 
 merly accessible from the Gulf of Mexico ? What use was made of these roads by 
 the United States army during the war between the two countries ? What mountain- 
 chain crosses the Mexican plateau from north to south ? Where is the volcano of 
 Popocatapetl ? JoruUo ? Where are the volcanoes of Central America? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. 
 
 What river partly separates Mexico from the United States ? What large river 
 of the United States flows into the head of the Gulf of California ? What large 
 lake in Central America? What river flows from it into the Caribbean Sea? What 
 lake in Mexico near the parallel of 20° ? 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 In what zones is Mexico? In what zone is Central America? Why do these 
 rouutries exhibit such a variety of climate and vegetation ? 
 
 In what part of these countries is the climate hot and unhealthful ? What are 
 the productions of the low lands? Describe the climate of the more elevated 
 regions. Name the productions raised there. 
 
 Does Indian corn grow on the high or low lands ? Where do the fruits and spices 
 grow? Wheat and barley ? The sugar-cane ? What intoxicating drink is made in 
 Mexico? What dye from the cochineal insect? 
 
 What precious metals are found in Mexico and Central America? How does the 
 present productiveness of the mines compare with that of the past? What useful 
 minerals are found in Mexico ? 
 
 Political Divisions and Towns. 
 
 To what division do the peninsulas of California and Yucatan belong? Name 
 the five States of Central America. Which is the most northern of these States ? 
 The most Bouthem? The most eastern? Where is the Balize? To what country 
 does it belong 7 
 
 Why are the towns of the interior of Mexico more healthful than those on the 
 coast ? What is the capital ? Name the principal seaports upon the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Near the mouth of what river is Matamoras? What town in the United States is 
 on the opposite bank of the river? Name some of the largest towns of the mining 
 diBtricta. Where is T-»mpico ? Which is farther north : Tampico, or Vera Cruz ? 
 
 Name the principal ports on the Pacific coast. Which two of them are situated 
 on the Gulf of Cahfornia ? Where is the town of Balize ? Where is Greytown ? 
 Of what State of Central America is San Jose the capital ? Tegucigalpa ? Managua? 
 New Guatemala ? 
 
 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 Name the three divisions of the West India Islands. Which are the Greater An- 
 tilles? Where are the Lesser Antilles? How do the Bahama Islands differ in 
 surface from the Antilles? 
 
 Name the bodies of water by which the West Indies are surrounded. Which group 
 extends farthest to the north? To the east and south? What island is farthest 
 west? Name the largest one of the West India Islands. Which is next in size? 
 
 Which of the West India Islands is independent? Which of them belong to 
 Spain ? To Great Britain ? To what European and South American countries do 
 the others belong ? 
 
 In what zone are most of these islands? What, then, is the climate? Is it 
 generally healthful? What are the principal exports? What proportion of the 
 inhabitants are whites? 
 
 Which of the West Indies was first discovered by Columbus ? In what direction 
 is this island from Cuba? Where is Havana? Kingston? Matanzas? St. Do- 
 mingo? St. John? Port-au-Prince? Where are the Bermuda Islands? To 
 what country do they belong ? What are the two divisions of the island of Hayti ? 
 
 What passage between Cuba and Hayti ? What one between Hayti and Porto 
 Rico ? Name three of the Leeward Islands. Name three of the Windward Islands. 
 What does Florida Strait connect? What does it separate? In what direction from 
 South America are the Greater Antilles? From the United States? 
 
 What cape at the western extremity of Cuba ? What cape at its eastern extremity ? 
 What large island south of the western part of Cuba ? What cape on the eastern 
 coast of Hayti ? What large town in eastern central Cuba ? Where is Cienfuegos ? 
 Aux Cayes ? Cape Hay tien ? In what part of Cuba are the Copper Mountains ? 
 
 Cuba imports from the United States fish, butter, cheese, pork, lard, lumber, 
 machinery, Indian corn, ice, flour, &c. Mention some of the articles the United 
 States receives in return. 
 
 l\1iscellaneous. 
 
 What do you understand by Spanish America ? What parte of Spanish America 
 are now in possession of Spain ? When did the other colonies become free ? What 
 is their present condition? Which do you think the more prosperous countries: 
 those settled by the Spaniards, or by the English ? What reasons can you assign 
 for this difference ? 
 
 Name the islands, two peninsulas, and divisions of the mainland, which form the 
 principal boundaries of the Gulf of Mexico? What bay forms the southern part 
 of this gulf? Which division of the West Indies is north of the Caribbean Sea ? 
 -Which is east? What land bounds this sea on the south ? On the west? 
 
 Name some articles with which you would freight a vessel at Havana for New York. 
 What would you ship from New York in return ? Between what islands would you 
 sail, to go by the windward passage from the Caribbean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean ? 
 
 Give the history of Mexico? What can yon say of Yucatan and California? 
 To which division of the West Indies does the first land discovered by Columbus 
 belong? Is it a mountainous or a low island? What two important cities of the 
 West Indies are very nearly on the Tropic of Cancer ? 
 
 What three regions do you find in Mexico, in ascending from the coast to the sur- 
 face of the plateau ? Why are there so many varieties of vegetation in the same 
 latitude? What vegetable producte grow in the cooler or upland region ? What 
 in the valleys ? 
 
 Which do you think is the healthier city, Vera Cmz, or Mexico? Why? Does 
 the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific coast present the best harbors? Why? Bound 
 Mexico ; Central America. Name the principal mountain-chains, rivers, and towns. 
 Sketch a map of the West Indies. 
 
Paoc 70 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 71 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 Physical Features. 
 
 POSITION.— South America is the southern part of the Western 
 Continent. It is in the Torrid and South Temperate Zones. 
 It extends from Cape Gallinas, about 12° N., to the Strait of Magellan, 54° S. 
 latitude, and from Cape St. Boque, 35° W., to Cape Parina, 81° W. longitude. 
 
 2. Size. — It ranks fourth in size among the Grand Divisions. 
 Its area is nearly 7,000,000 square miles. 
 
 It is about three-fourths as large as North America, and contains nearly one- 
 seventh of the land-surface of the globe. Its length from north to south is about 
 4700 miles, and its breadth from- east to west is 3200 miles. It has a coast-line of 
 about 17,000 miles. 
 
 3. Outline. — The outline is regular, no large gulfs or inland seas 
 
 indenting the coast. 
 
 Like North America, it is triangular in form, with its greatest length toward the 
 Pacific coast. 
 
 4. Surface. — The forms of relief are the Pacific Highland, or 
 the Highland of The Andes, the Atlantic Highlands, and the Great 
 Central Plain. There are three principal mountain-systems — the 
 Andes, the Guiana, and the Brazilian systems. 
 
 6. The Highland of The Andes extends from the Isthmus of 
 Panama to Cape Horn. It is a continuation of the Pacific High- 
 land of North America. 
 
 It is of great height, the average elevation being 6000 feet. The broadest and 
 higliest section is the Plateau of Bolivia, which averages 12,000 feet in height. 
 
 6. The Atlantic Highlands are the Brazilian Highland and the 
 Guiana Highland. 
 
 Questions. — Give the latitude and the longitude of South America. What is its 
 area? What is said of the outline and form of South America? Name the forms 
 of relief. The principal mountain-systems. Describe the Highland of The Andes. 
 Whiit constitute the Atlantic Highlands? 
 
 7. The Brazilian Highland is a broad plateau region crossed 
 by mountain-ranges of moderate elevation approximately parallel. 
 
 It occupies nearly one-fourth of South America, and has an average elevation of 
 2500 feet. The loftiest peaks are in the coast ranges, and are froin 5000 to 10,000 
 feet high. 
 
 8. The Guiana Highland is a plateau traversed by short, broad 
 mountain-ranges of medium height. It forms the divide between 
 the basins of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. 
 
 Its most remarkable summit is Mount Roraima, a broad, flat-topped mountain, 
 about 8000 feet high, surrounded by perpendicular precipices; so that it is almost 
 impossible to ascend to the top. 
 
 9. The Great Central Plain extends eastward from the Pacific 
 Highland to the Atlantic Ocean, except where it is interrupted by 
 the Atlantic Highlands. 
 
 It occupies about one-half of South America, and comprises the basins of the 
 Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata. It is chiefly an alluvial region. 
 
 Its divisions are the Llanos, or treeless plains, of the Orinoco; the Selvas, or 
 forest plains, of the Amazon; and the Pampas, or grassy plains, of the La Plata. 
 
 The Llanog, at the close of the wet season, are covered with rich grass ; but in 
 the dry season the lakes and the pools are dried up, the vegetation is withered, and 
 hot winds sweep clouds of dust over the parched and desolate plains. 
 
 The Selvns are copiously watered throughout the year, and are nearly covered 
 with forests, which are among the largest and densest in the world. The soil of 
 the Selvas is exceedingly rich, and the vegetation is remarkable for its variety as 
 well as for its luxuriance. 
 
 The Pnmpns are covered with thistles, coarse grass, and a scattered growth of 
 trees. South of the Pampas is the unexplored region of Patagonia. This includes 
 all the country east of the Andes and south of the River Negro. 
 
 Questions. —Describe the Brazilian Highland. The Guiana Highland. What 
 is the extent of the Great Central Plain ? What portion of South America does it 
 occupy? What are its divisions? Describe the Llanos. The Selvas. The Pam- 
 
 pas. 
 
 What river-basins are in the Great Central Plain? 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text. 
 
 Position. — In what hemisphere is South America? In what zones? In what 
 direction is it from North America ? From Europe? From Asia? From Africa? 
 What countries are crossed by the meridian of Washington ? By the Equator ? 
 By the Tropic of Capricorn ? How many degrees from the South Pole is Cape 
 Horn ? From the Tropic of Capricorn ? How many degrees of latitude does South 
 America include ? In what country of South America is that point which has no 
 latitude, and no longitude from Washington ? When it is noon in Washington, what 
 time is it at Cape St. Roque (35° W.)? At Santiago (71° W.)? At Cape Parina 
 (81° W.) ? What does the Strait of Magellan connect? What does it separate? 
 
 Size.— What Grand Divisions are larger than South America? How wide is it 
 at the Equator ? At the Tropic of Capricorn ? How long is it from Cape Gallinas 
 to the Strait of Magellan ? (Measure by Scale.) How many degrees of the Equator 
 does South America include ? Of the Tropic of Capricorn ? How many degrees of 
 latitude does the Torrid Zone include in South America ? The South Temperate Zone ? 
 
 Outline.— Which is the more regular in outline— South America or North America? 
 Locate the most northern cape. The most southern. The most eastern. The most 
 western. Cape Frio. Cape Blanco. In what direction from the mouth of the 
 Amazon is the mouth of the La Plata? Which countries of South America have 
 no sea-coast? Which ocean is deeper 100 miles from the shore, on the Equator— 
 the Atlantic or the Pacific? 
 
 Surface.— Locate the Highland of The Andes. The Atlantic Highlands. The 
 Great Central Plain. Five volcanoes. In what countries are the Llanos? The 
 Selvas ? The Pampas ? Where is the Desert of Atacama ? The Despoblado region ? 
 What countries are partly in the Brazilian Highland? In the Pacific Highland? 
 In the Guiana Highland? Locate the mountain-ranges of the Guiana Highland. 
 Of the Brazilian Highland. What highland is between the Selvas and the Llanos ? 
 Between the Selvas and the Pampas ? 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. — Name all the countries drained by the Amazon. By the La 
 Plata. By the Orinoco. What lake is the source of the Amazon ? Ans. Lake Reyes. 
 Which countries of South America are not drained by any of the three great 
 rivers? Does Lake Titicaca flow into the Desaguadere River or from it? How 
 can you tell ? Name five of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. Two of the 
 La Plata. Two of the Orinoco. 
 
 Name three rivers not tributary to any of the three great rivers. Is Paraguay 
 on the right bank or on the left hank of the Parana? How do you know? Trace 
 the passage of a boat from the mouth of the Orinoco up that river and thence to 
 the mouth of the La Plata. What country of South America has no important 
 river within its limits? Why? In what Highlands do the tributaries of the 
 Amazon rfse? Of the Orinoco? Of the La Plata? 
 
 Climate. — Why is Quito cooler than a town on the Equator at the mouth of the 
 Amazon? What currents affect the. temperature in various regions? Why is it 
 warmer in Rio Janeiro than on the Pacific coast in the same latitude? What 
 winds prevail at Cape Horn, and what ocean-current flows near it? Which; then, 
 is more difficult — to sail around Cape Horn from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or to 
 double the cape in a contrary direction? Does the Peruvian current aid or retard 
 the passage of a vessel from the Lobos Islands to the coast of Chili ? How do you 
 know? Locate the western rainless tract. Why is this region rainless? 
 
 Productions and Animals. — Name the most important food-plants. Medicinal 
 plants. Metals. Precious stones. Other minerals. What minerals are found in 
 the desert regions? (Let each scholar name a vegetable production, and tell where 
 it is found and why it is valuable. Let the mineral productions and the animals 
 be considered in like manner.) Name any animal of South Amierica that is not 
 found also in North America. 
 
72 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 10. The Andes are a part of the great mountain-system of the 
 "Western Continent. With the exception of the Himalaya in 
 Asia, they are the highest mountains in the world. 
 
 They commence in low hills on the Isthmus of Panama, and terminate in the 
 island of Cape Horn, which is a bleak and naked rock rising 3500 feet from the 
 sea. In Patagonia they rise abruptly from the shore; but farther north they 
 retreat to the distance of 60 or 100 miles from the coast. 
 
 In the south they consist of a single chain ; in the central part, of two chains, 
 nearly parallel; and in the north, of three. The system is 4800 miles long, and 
 from 30 to 400 miles wide, and it includes all the volcanoes of South America. 
 
 The region of the Andes is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Many 
 splendid cities have been laid in ruins by these convulsions of nature. 
 
 The table-lands of the Andes are surmounted by snow-capped summits (called 
 Nevados) and smoking volcanoes. The highest peaks of the different parts of the 
 system are Chimborazo (20,696 feet) in the north, Nevado de Sorata (23,281 feet) 
 in the central part, and Aconcagua (23,'869 feet) in the south. 
 
 The southern part of the Plateau of Bolivia is a desert called DespoUado 
 ("uninhabited"). 
 
 11. The Ouiana System, including the Sierra Parima and the. 
 Acaray Mountains, comprises several ranges, extending from east 
 to west, between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. 
 
 These ranges have an average elevation of 3000 or 4000 feet. The highest peak 
 is Maraguaca (8220 feet). 
 
 12. The Brasillan System includes all the mountains of the 
 Brazilian Highland. 
 
 The most easterly ranges run nearly parallel to the Atlantic coast. Their average 
 elevation is from 4000 to 6000 feet, and the loftiest peak is Mount Itatiaia Assu 
 (E-tah-tee-yah'yah As'soo), 10,040 feet high. 
 
 13. Drainage. — The Andes are the great condensers of moisture 
 and the reservoirs for the supply of rivers, and among the streams 
 that flow from their summit to the Atlantic are some of the longest 
 and largest rivers in the world. 
 
 The most important rivers of South America are the Amazon, the La Plata, and 
 tlie Orinoco, all of which belong to the Atlantic System. 
 
 Questions.— What are the three mountain-systems? Give the length and the 
 breadth of the Andes System. Name its highest peaks. Which mountains are 
 blither than the Andes? Of what system in North America are the Amies a con- 
 tinuation? Describe the Guiana System. The Brazilian System. Name the three 
 great rivers of South America. In what mountain-system do they rise ? Into 
 wliat ocean do they flow? 
 
 '^^^WCX^ 
 
 So nearly level is the Great Plain of South America that, in the rainy season, 
 some of the tributaries of the three great rivers rise higher than their divide, and 
 the waters of the Amazon mingle with those of the Orinoco and the La Plata. 
 
 The river Cassiquiare connects the Orinoco with the Rio Negro, a tributary of 
 the Amazon, and the head-waters of the Paraguay, in the La Plata System, unite 
 with those of the Madeira, in the Amazon System; so "that the Amazon, La Plata, 
 and Orinoco basins may be regarded as forming one great basin. 
 
 The Valley of the Amazon is the largest river-basin in the world; it is three- 
 quarters as large as the United States. The mouth of the river is so wide that it is 
 like a sea of fresh water. The tides sometimes rise to a height of 12 or 15 feet. 
 The Madeira, a tributary of the Amazon, is longer than any river in Europe. 
 
 Among American rivers, the Rio de la Plata ranks next to the Amazon and the 
 Mississippi in the extent of its basin. Only a few rivers of the Eastern Continent 
 have larger basins than the La Plata. 
 
 Many of the tributaries of the La Plata are navigahle nearly to their sources, 
 and the country drained by them is of remarkable fertility. 
 
 Besides the three great rivers in South America, there are the Magdalena, the San 
 Francisco, the Rio Negro (of the Argentine Republic), the rivers of Guiana, and 
 many other important streams, all of which add largely to the commercial and 
 agricultural resources of the countries through which they flow. 
 
 The western slope of South America is steep and narrow, and only small moun- 
 tain-torrents flow into the Pacific. A desert region fringes the coast north of 26° 
 
 S. laiitude. 
 
 14. There are but few permanent lakes of large size in South 
 America. "With the exception of Lake Titicaca and Lake Mar- 
 acaybo, they are more like vast morasses than like lakes. 
 
 Lake Titicaca is about half as large as Lake Erie, and is, with the exception of 
 Sir-i-Kul (a small lake in Asia), the highest lake in the world. Its waters flow 
 into a river which discharges into a smaller lake, but has no outlet to the sea. 
 Lake Maracaybo is, properly speaking, a gulf or bay, being an inlet of the Carib- 
 bean Sea. 
 
 Many of the South American lakes are mere marshes or pools during the dry 
 season ; but in the rainy season they spread out into vast shallow sheets of water, 
 flooding the surrounding country and adding to its fertility. 
 
 Questions, — How do the waters of some of the tributaries of the Amazon mingle 
 with those of the Orinoco and the La Plata? Describe the Valley of the Amazon. 
 Which river-basins are larger than the Basin of the La Plata? Why are the rivers 
 west of the Andes shorter than those east of that system ? Name the largest lakes. 
 What is said of the lakes in the rainy season? In the dry season? Of Lake 
 Titicaca? Of Lake Maracaybo? 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 73 
 
 16. Climate. — South America lies chiefly in the Torrid Zone, 
 and, in about three-fourths of its area, it has a tropical climate. 
 
 The lowlands within the Tropics are hot, and the easterly trade- winds, laden with 
 moisture from the Atlantic, supply abundant rain, which, added to the evaporation 
 from the vast river-surface, makes the climate damp and unhealthful. 
 
 The climate of the highlands depends partly upon their latitude and partly upon 
 their altitude. The high ta'ble-lands of the Andes have a cool and delightful tem- 
 perature at all seasons, and, for this reason, there are many large cities in the 
 elevated valleys. In like manner, all the plateaus have their climate modified by 
 their elevation. 
 
 South of the Tropic, the climate is that of the Temperate Zone. In the extreme 
 south the Antarctic currents and the winds from the icy summits of the Andes 
 make the country very cold. Cape Horn is a bleak region of fogs, rains, and 
 storms; and, in the Strait of Magellan, snow falls almost every, day. 
 
 The rainfall of South America is regulated, to a great degree, by the Ande.s. 
 They condense upon their ea.stern slopes the moisture of the prevailing winds from 
 the Atlantic ; hence, on the Pacific side there is an extensive rainless tract. 
 
 South of 30° S. latitude, westerly winds prevail, and their moisture is precipitated 
 on the western elope of the Andes, leaving the eastern slope comparatively dry. 
 
 The coast-ranges of Brazil partly intercept the moisture of the easterly winds, 
 and in the interior the Brazilian Highland has less copious rains than its coast 
 regions have. 
 
 16. Productions and Animals. — In luxuriance and variety of 
 vegetation. South America is not surpassed by any country in 
 the world. This is due to the great heat and abundant moisture. 
 
 The forests abound in gigantic palms, tree-ferns, and bananas ; in rosewood, 
 mahogany, logwood, Brazil-wood, and caoutchouc (from whose sap India rubber 
 is made) ; and in many other valuable trees useful for the timber Or for the dye- 
 stuffs that they yield. 
 
 Coca, sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona (from which quinine is obtained), and 
 other medicinal plants of great value are found in various regions. Coffee and 
 sugar are exported in great quantities. There is an inexhaustible supply of food- 
 plants and tropical fruits, and of resins, spices, gums, and perfumes. 
 
 Immense Iierds of cattle, horses, and sheep are pastured on the great plains, and 
 stock-raising is an important industry. 
 
 The most important metals are gold, silver, platinum, copper, iron, and tin. Coal, 
 sulphur, nitrate of soda, and saltpetre abound in various localities. Valuable 
 deposits of gnano are found on the islands near the Pacific coast. Brazil is rich 
 in diamonds, rubies, emeralds, topazes, sapphires, and other precious stones. 
 
 The animals of South America include the puma, the jaguar, the ocelot, the 
 tapir, the monkey, the boa, the alligator, the iguana, the basilisk, the armadillo, 
 the sloth, the alpaca, and the llama. In the mountain regions the llama is used 
 as a beast of burden. The lowlands are infested with reptiles and insects of great 
 variety, and venomous snakes, scorpions, centipedes, and spiders make some regions 
 uninhabitable. 
 
 The beasts of prey, though numerous and formidable, are inferior, in size, strength, 
 and ferocity, to those of Asia and Africa. 
 
 Many of the birds and insects of South America are remarkable for their brilliant 
 coloring. Parrots, humming-birds, and butterflies of large size and great beauty 
 abound in the forests. On the Andes the condor, the largest of all flying birds, is 
 found. The nandu, or American ostrich, roams on the treeless southern plains. 
 
 The domestic animals, except the alpaca, llama, and dog, were originally of 
 European stock, brought into the country by the Spanish settlers. 
 
 17. Inhabitants. — The population is over 33,000,000, and con- 
 sists of whites, Indians, negroes, and mixed races. 
 
 The whites, who form but a small proportion of the population, are chiefly the 
 descendants of Spanish and Portuguese settlers. The negroes were brought into 
 the country for slaves, but all of them have been freed. 
 
 Questions.— Is South America, in general, a hot or a cold country ? Describe the 
 climate of the lowlands within the Tropics. The climate of the highlands. What 
 is the climate of the extreme south? What is said of the rainfall in South Amer- 
 ica? What are the principal productions? Name some of the animals of South 
 America. How. do they compare with those of the tropical regions of the Old 
 World ? What is said of the reptiles and insects 7 
 
 SCENE IN A BRAZILIAN FOREST. 
 
 The Indians of the settled states are an inoffensive people, and in some places 
 perform most of the labor of the country. In the interior, however, there are many 
 fierce and savage tribes. 
 
 18. History. — Columbus landed at the mouth of the Orinoco 
 River, in 1498. European nations soon took possession of South 
 America. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese ; Guiana, by the 
 Dutch and French; and the rest of the country, by the Spanish. 
 
 In the first quarter of the present century the Spanish colonies, after a long and 
 severe struggle, threw off the yoke of Spain, and established themselves as inde- 
 pendent republics. Brazil, in 1822, effected a peaceable separation from Portugal, 
 and the son of the king of Portugal was made emperor of Brazil. In 1889 the reign- 
 ing emperor was deposed, and the form of government was changed to that of a 
 republic. 
 
 19. Religion. — The people of South America are chiefly Roman 
 Catholics, except in British and Dutch Guiana, where the Prot- 
 estant religion prevails. 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 20. South America includes ten Republics : The United States 
 of Brazil, Venezuela, United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, 
 Bolivia, Chili, Uruguay, Paraguay, and the Argentine Republic; 
 also the colonies of British, Dutch, and French Guiana. 
 
 Questions. — What classes does the population .comprise? What is said of the 
 negroes ? Of the Indians ? By whom were the various countries of South Amer- 
 ica first settled ? Which country still belongs to European powers ? To what relig- 
 ion are the principal part of the inhabitants of South America attached? Name 
 the Political Divisions of South America. Into what colonies is Guiana divided ? 
 
74 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 VENEZUELA, UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA, 
 ECUADOR, AND PERU. 
 
 21. These States are mucla alike in the character of their sur- 
 face, climate, and productions. Each of them is divided into 
 three distinct regions: the narrow plain on the coast; the moun- 
 tains and plateaus in the centre; and the great plains which 
 stretch from the Andes into the interior. 
 
 The climate on the coast of Venezuela, Ecuador, and tho United States of Colom- 
 bia is hot, moist, and exceedingly- unhealthful. 
 
 The coast of Peru is dry and barren, for the prevailing winds blow from the south- 
 east, and the lofty mountains in this State intercept the rain-clouds in their passage 
 from the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 22. The largest towns in this region are in the interior, and are 
 generally situated on the table-lands, where the climate is cool and 
 healthful. 
 
 Owing to the mountainous character of the country, communication between' the 
 towns of the coast and of the interior is difficult, and commerce very limited. 
 Traveling among the mountains is often extremely dificult and dangerous. 
 
 TRAVELING AMONG THE ANDES. 
 
 There are scarcely any carriage-roads ; travelers and goods are carried by mules, 
 or on the backs of men. The traveler sits in a chair which is. slung upon the back 
 of the Indian porter ; and in this manner they cross the most frightful chasms, often 
 upon the slippery trunk of a tree, where a single false step would be fatal. 
 
 23. Venezuela. — The greater part of this State is included 
 yithin the Llanos,. or plains of the Orinoco. 
 
 No white man has ever reached the source of this great river, which flows through 
 « wilderness of forests and plains. Upon the banks dwell a tribe of savages, who 
 partially subsist upon balls of clay. They are called the " dirt-eaters of the Orinoco." 
 
 La Guayra is the principal sea-port. Caracas, the capital, is among the moun- 
 tains. Margarita, a small island of the West Indies, near the coast, belongs to Ven- 
 ezuela. Margarita (which means "a pearl") was once famous for its pearl fisheries. 
 
 Questions. — Which of the States resemble one another in surface, climate, and 
 productions? Into what regions is each divided? What is the character of the 
 coast of Venezuela, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia? Of Peru? 
 Where are the principal towns situated? Where is Venezuela? What kind of 
 people live on the banks of the Orinoco ? Name the principal sea-port of Venezuela. 
 What is the capital ? 
 
 24. United States of Colombia. — The Andes are divided, in 
 this Eepublic, into three chains. Down the valleys between them 
 flow the Magdalena and Cauca, the principal rivers of th.e country, 
 
 Cartagena is the principal sea-port. Aspinwall and Panama, on opposite shores 
 of the Isthmus of Panama, are connected by a railroad. Bogota (the capital) and 
 Popayan are on lofty table-lands in the interior, several thousand feet above the sea. 
 
 25. Ecuador is crossed by the Equator, and derives its nr.rae 
 from that circumstance. It contains Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and 
 several more of the most famous volcanoes of the Andes. 
 
 Quito, the capital, and largest city, is situated on an elevated plain, almost directly 
 under the Equator. Guayaquil, on the gulf of that name, is the principal sea-port. 
 
 26. Peru, though now of little importance among nations, is 
 remarkable for its history. 
 
 At the time of the discovery of the New World, Peru, like Mexico, was inhabited 
 by Indians, who were considerably advanced in civilization. They were governed 
 by a race of princes, called Incas, whose empire extended along the Andes, from the 
 United States of Colombia to the southern boundary of Chili. 
 
 Pizarro, a bold Spanish adventurer, had heard of the wealth of Peru, and the 
 great abundance of its gold and silver. With a small band of fierce and brave fol- 
 lowers, he entered the country, took possession of the empire and treasure of ihe 
 lucas, and Peru thus became a part of the Spanish possessions. 
 
 The Lobos and Guanape Islands, which lie on the coast, belong to Pern. They 
 are of great value for the immense quantity of guano found upon them. It is 
 exported to Europe and the United States, for manure. 
 
 Lima, the capital of Peru, and one of the largest cities west of the Andes, is situ- 
 ated in a fine river valley. Callao is the principal sea-port. Among the mountain- 
 towns are Cerro Pasco, famous for its silver mines; Cuzco, the capital of the ancient 
 Peruvian monarchy ; Areqnipa, and Huamanga. 
 
 27. The exports of this section of South America are made 
 principally from Ln Guayra and Cartagena on the Caribbean Sea, 
 and Guayaquil and Callao on the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 From La Guayra are shipped cofFee, cotton, sugar, cocoa, indigo and hides; from 
 the other ports, gold and silver, hides, pome tobacco, cotton and Peruvian bark. 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 28. Bolivia was named in honor of General Bolivar, under 
 whose guidance the people threw off the yoke of Spain. 
 
 The foreign trade is carried on principally through Peru and the Argentine 
 Eepublic, but communication is so difiicult, that few of the products will pay 
 the cost of transportation to the coast. 
 
 Potosi stands on the side of a mountain, at tho height of 13,350 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and is said to be the highest city in the world. The silver mines of 
 Potosi are estimated to have yielded the value of sixteen hundred millions of dollars 
 since their discovery ; but though they are nearly as rich as ever, they are not 
 now worked for want of proper enterprise. 
 
 La Paz, the nominal capital and largest town, Sucre, at which place the 
 Legislature frequently meets, and Cochabamba, the second town in size, are on 
 the high table-lands of the interior. 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 29. Chili lies wholly upon the western side of the Andes. 
 The greater part of the country is covered with hills, which 
 branch off from that great chain, and diminish in height as they 
 approach the coast. 
 
 The most fertile districts of Chili are in the central part of the country. Towards 
 the north, the hills become more naked and barren, and finally merge into the 
 Desert of Atacama. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the United States of Colombia. What is the capital? 
 From what does Ecuador derive its name? What is the capital? For what is 
 Peru remarkable? Name the capital. In honor of whom was Bolivia named/ 
 Through what countries does it carry on its foreign trade ? For what is Potosi 
 noted? What is the capital and largest town of Bolivia? Where is Chili? What 
 is the character of the surface ? 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 75 
 
 30. One of the Juan Fernandez Islands, 400 miles from Chili, 
 is famous for having been the solitary residence of Alexander 
 Selkirk, a Scotch sailor. His life and adventures in this lonely spot 
 are supposed to have given rise to the story of Eobinson Crusoe. 
 
 31. The Climate of Chili is temperate, except in the extreme 
 Douthern part, and remarkably healthful. The rains fall in the 
 wmter months, from June to September, and the country is soon 
 covered with wild flowers and verdure. 
 
 32. The Chilians are more active and intelligent than the other 
 mhabitants of Spanish America, and are making considerable ad- 
 vancement in their state of society. They have already built about 
 600 miles of railroad. 
 
 The Arauoanians are a bold and warlike tribe of savages, inhabiting a distinct 
 territory in the central part of Chili. They are a noble race ; and, by their singular 
 valor, have always maintained their independence of Spanish rule. 
 
 Santiago is the capital of Chili. Valparaiso is the principal sea-port, and the 
 most important city on the western coast of South America. Copper and other 
 metals are exported in considerable quantities from Copiapo and Tongoy. Wheat 
 IS also an important article of export. Punta Arenas is a noted port. 
 
 THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 33. The Argentine Eepublic consists of a number of States 
 united under a government modelled after that of the United States. 
 
 The people are mtelligeut and progressive, and have built more miles of railroad 
 than any other South American country. 
 
 34. Except in the ^--. _ 
 north-east, the coun- ^, -~-_-~^f^^I^-^ 
 try is too dry for till- -^ _ _\_i_-i.3. 
 age, and is treeless ; 
 but is well adapted 
 for grazing, and sus- 
 tains vast herds of 
 horses and cattle. The 
 herdsmen, called gau- 
 ehos, are a wild, des- 
 perate class of men, 
 and are among the 
 best horsemen in the 
 world. 
 
 GAUCHOS LASSOING CATTLE ON THE PAMPAS 
 
 Buenos Ayres, the ca{)- 
 ital, is the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere, and one of the most important 
 commercial cities in South America. Parana is rapidly increasing in population. 
 Rusario has of late years become a commercial mart of much importance. Men- 
 doza is the centre of trade between the Argentine Eepublic and Chili. 
 
 35. Patagonia is a sterile country, inhabited only by native 
 tribes of Indians. The Patagonians are a tall and muscular peo- 
 ple, many of whom are more than six feet in height. They sub- 
 sist upon their herds of cattle, and by hunting. 
 
 The Argentine Republic established its clkim to jurisdiction over Patagonia and 
 a part of Tierra del FucgO in 1881. 
 
 Tierra del Faego is the most southern part of the inhabited world, and is peo- 
 pled by a race of miserable savages, who live chiefly by fishing. They are prob- 
 ably the lowest human creatures in the world. 
 
 The IHlUand Llanos, off Patagonia, belong to Great Britain. Great numbers 
 of wild cattle find pasturage there, and seals are hunted for their fur. 
 
 Questions -For whatis^one of the Juan Fernandez Islands famous ?_ What is 
 the climate of Chili? Who are the Araucanians? Name the j^o^' ^PJ^^"* 
 towns of Chili. What is said of the Argentine Republic ? Describe the surface 
 Sa is said of Buenos Ayres? Who inhabit Patagonia? Where is Tierra del 
 SgO To what country do the Falkland Islands belong? Where are they? 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 36. This republic occupies the southern part of the Brazihan 
 table-land, and consists of high, rolling plains, destitute of trees. 
 
 The rearing of cattle is almost the only occupation of the people. Montevideo ie 
 the capital, and the only town of importance. 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 37. This country, situated far in the interior, has hitherto had 
 but little communication with foreigners. It is the only country in 
 South America, except BoHvia, having no sea-coast. Asuncion is 
 the capital. 
 
 Mate {mah'tay), or Paraguay tea, is the dried leaf of an evergreen tree which 
 grows in great abundance in Paraguay. A beverage made from this tea is a 
 favorite drink in South American countries. 
 
 38. Paraguay is situated in the Torrid and South Temperate 
 
 Zones, and is naturally fitted for the production of the various 
 
 plants of those regions. 
 
 Agriculture, and other branches of industry, are, however, very backward, and mate 
 is almost the only export of importance. The exports of the countries occupying the 
 basin of the Rio de la Plata are principally made from the cities of Buenos AyreB 
 and Montevideo. They consist mainly of hides, boms, bones, tallow, and wool. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL. 
 
 39. The centra] and eastern regions of this immense country 
 form a low table-land, crossed by mountains, which seldom rise 
 more than two thousand feet above its level. 
 
 — - ^^_ The low lands of the in 
 
 ^^HBta.~ terior and on the coa«t are 
 
 '" ""' excessively moist and hot. 
 
 _ * The table-lands and the 
 
 provinces of the south 
 have a milder and drier 
 climate. 
 
 Brazil is one of the rich- 
 est countries in the world, 
 in its natural productions. 
 Its commerce le very ex- 
 tensive, especially with the 
 United States. The gold 
 mines arc productive, and 
 many of the diamonds now 
 in use came from Brazil. 
 
 The exports are coffee, 
 hides, sugar, nee, cotton, 
 rosewood, caoutchouc (or India-rubber), Peruvian bark, taTiioca, and many other 
 articles. Caoutchouc and Peruvian bark are brought down the Amazon, and are 
 shipped from Para. Brazil has about 4000 miles of railroad in operation, and several 
 new lines and extensions are in process of construction Ocean telegraph cables con- 
 nect Brazil with Portugal and the United States 
 
 Rio Janeiro, the capital, is one of the largest cities in South America. It is the 
 greatest coffee-market in the world, and has one of the finest harbors. Bahia, Per- 
 nambuco, Maranham, and Para, are also large and important commercial cities. 
 The towns in the interior are small, and of but little note. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 40. Guiana is a low and fertile region, with a climate and pro- 
 ductions wholly tropical. The heat is very great. 
 
 It IS divided into British, Dutch, and French Gniana. Georgetown is the capital 
 of the British ; Paramaribo, of the Dutch ; and Cayenne, of the French portion. 
 The exports are sugar, rum, coffee, cocoa, indigo, and tropical trnits. 
 
 Questions. — Describe Uruguay. Where is Paraguay ? What is 3ia/e'.» Through 
 what cities are the products of the La Plata countries exported? Describe the 
 surface of Brazil. Its climate. Name some of its productions What is the cap- 
 ital? What are the principal sea-ports? What are some of the exports? What 
 kind of country is Guiana? To what nations does it belong? What are the 
 exports ? 
 
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Questions on the Map and Text of South America. 
 
 77 
 
 Outline. 
 
 How does the outline of South America differ from that of North America? 
 Which has the greater number of large islands near the coast ? What ocean is east 
 of South America ? What ocean is west ? What sea is north ? Are the West India 
 Islands included in North or South America ? By what country in South America 
 is the island of Margarita owned ? By what strait is Tierra del Fuego separated 
 from Patagonia ? 
 
 Where are the Falkland Islands ? To what country do they belong ? Where are 
 the islands of Juan Fernandez ? For what are they famous ? To what country 
 does the island of Chiloo belong ? Where are the Lobos and Chincha Islands ? To 
 what country do they belong ? For what are they valuable ? 
 
 What is the most northern cape of South America? Where is Cape Parina? 
 Cape St. Eoque? Cape Horn? What is Cape Horn? What bay south of the 
 Isthmus of Panama? What gulf on the coast of Ecuador? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 What three mountain-systems in South America? Which of these skirts the 
 western coast ? Through how many degrees of latitude does it extend ? What is 
 the character of this system on the Isthmus of Panama ? 
 
 How far are the Andes from the Pacific coast ? Do they generally consist of one 
 or -of several chains ? What is the breadth of the system ? To what convulsions of 
 nature is the region of the Andes liable ? What effect have these upon the towns ? 
 
 How high is the loftiest summit of the Andes ' In what country is it situated ? 
 Where is Chimborazo ? Nevado de Sorata ' What is the meaning of " Nevado " ? 
 Where is Aconcagua ? Cotopaxi ? Potosi ? Which of these are volcanoes ? Is any 
 moi:ntain of North America as high as Aconcagua? 
 
 Where are the Brazilian Mountains ? Between what rivers do the Parime Moun- 
 tains lie ? What is the character of the surface of South America, east of the Andes, 
 with the exception of these two systems ? In what general direction does the land 
 slope ? 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. 
 
 Into what ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow ? Why are those 
 on the east aide of the Andes the largest? Name the three principal rivers. Why 
 do their waters sometimes mingle ? In what season does this occur? 
 
 Which is the largest river in South America? What is the area of its basin ? Has 
 any other river a larger basin ? In what three mountain-systems do the waters of this 
 basin rise? Which of these systems is on the west? On the north? The south-east? 
 
 The Amazon is formed by the union of the Maranon and TJcayale : in what moun- 
 tains do they rise? In what country? Over what kind of surface do they flow? 
 What is the length of the Amazon ? What kind of surface is drained by the 
 Amazon, east of the Andes ? What island at the mouth of the Amazon ? 
 
 What is the largest tributary of the Eiver Amazon on the north ? How is it con- 
 nected with the Orinoco? Name the largest tributary on the south. Which of the 
 southern tributaries discharges itself near the mouth of the Amazon? Name the 
 two tributaries between the Tocantins and the Madeira. 
 
 Between what two mountain-chains is the Basin of the Orinoco situated? What 
 are the plains of the Orinoco called ? In what general direction does this river 
 flow? Between what two mountain-systems is the La Plata Basin situated? Which 
 of these partly separates it from the Basin of the Amazon? 
 
 Which has the most numerous lakes: North or South America? What is the 
 general character of the South American lakes ? In what countries is Lake Titicaca 
 situated? How high is it located? Do its waters flow into the sea? Where is 
 Lake Maracaybo? 
 
 In what country is the Magdalena Eiver? What is its principal tributary? 
 Name the bodies of water through which you would pass, sailing from the mouth 
 of the Cauca to that of the Madeira. In what country is the Essequibo Eiver? 
 Into what does it flow ? 
 
 Down what nvers would you float from Lake Eeyes to reach the Ocean ? In 
 what mountain-systems do the Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, and San Francisco 
 rivers rise? Why does the San Francisco flow in an opposite direction from the 
 others 7 
 
 Climate. 
 
 On which Eirle of the Equator is the greater part of South America situated 1 
 Would you find the climate growing warmer or colder, in going southward from tlie 
 Equator ? How does the elevation of a place affect its climate ? 
 
 Which zone contains the greatest extent of South America ? What, then, is the 
 prevailing character of the climate : temperate or tropical ? Where will you find 
 (in the tropical portion of the country) a mild and temperate climate ? 
 
 How many seasons are there in the tropical region ? In what months is the wet 
 season, in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? In the southern half? If you 
 should cross the Llanos of the Orinoco in July, would you find them clothed with 
 verdure, or parched with heat ? 
 
 What is the season, in Eio Janeiro, in July ? Is December one of the rainy or 
 dry months at that place ? Do the seasons in the South Temperate Zone occur in 
 the same months as in the North Temperate ? (See lesson on Zones, page 8.) What 
 is the season in Chili, then, in July and August ? In December and January ? 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 Name the countries bordering on the Pacific, beginning at the north. Which of 
 these are in the Torrid Zone ? In the Temperate ? What unsettled territory at the 
 south ? Name the divisions on the northern coast. Name all those on the Atlantic 
 coast between Guiana and Cape Horn. 
 
 Which is the largest of the South American countries ? Which countries have no 
 sea-coast ? Describe the climate of the Peruvian coast ? Of the coast of Ecuador ? 
 United States of Colombia, and Venezuela. 
 
 What is the government of Brazil? To what nations does Guiana belong? What 
 is the government of the other countries ? From what European nation is the white 
 population of Brazil descended ? The whites of the Spanish republics ? By whom 
 is the interior of South America chiefly inhabited ? 
 
 What countries are partly included within the Basin of the La Plata ? Between 
 what two rivers is Paraguay situated ? 
 
 What was the extent of the empire of the Incas ? Where is Araucania ? Why 
 is it independent ? Where is the Desert of Atacama ? What kind of a country is 
 Patagonia? Describe the Fatagonians. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Why are many of the towns in South America situated among the mountains ? 
 Why are the towns on the coast of Venezuela, United States of Columbia, and 
 Ecuador, unhealthful ? Why is the coast of Peru so dry ? 
 
 Are the followiug towns on the coast, or among the mountains; La Guayra, 
 Bogota, Cayenne, Caracas, Aspinwall, Panama, Popayan. Quito, Guayaquil, Cuzco. 
 Potosi, Callao, Lima, Valparaiso, Sucre, Arequipa, Huamanga, Tongoy? Let each 
 scholar describe the situation of one of these towns. 
 
 Ship a cargo of goods from Para to New York : what articles would be sent, and 
 across what ocean ? From Eio Janiero to Baltimore ? From the Guanape, or Lobos, 
 Islands to Philadelphia ? From Valparaiso to San Francisco ? 
 
 From what ports would tin and copper be exported ? Diamonds ? Gold ? Hides ? 
 Coffee ? Cocoa ? Eum ? Sugar and molasses ? Peruvian bark ? From what 
 country is Mate obtained ? Where is it principally consumed ? 
 
 Bound each of the divisions of South America. Sketch a map of South America, 
 locating the principal mountains and rivers, and the chief towns. Spell the follow- 
 ing words: — Quito. Cassiquiare. Guiana. Maracaybo. Magellan. Venezuela 
 Eio Janeiro. Uruguay. Paraguay. La Guayra. Caracas. Chimborazo. Coto- 
 paxi. Guayaquil. Callao. Cuzco. Arequipa. Huamanga. Araucania. Monte- 
 video. Bahia. Paramaribo. Cayenne. Falkland. Chiloe. Aconcagua. Maranon. 
 Ucayale. Madeira. 
 
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80 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 9. The Alps are from 10,000 to 12,000 feet high ; the Cantabrians 
 and Pyrenees, 8000; the Carpathian Mountains, 7000; and the 
 Balkans, 5000. The loftiest peak of the Alps is Mont Blanc. 
 
 10. Drainage. — The Atlantic Ocean and its branches receive 
 most of the rivers of Europe. The Volga and the Ural flow into 
 the Caspian Sea, which has no outlet. The Dwina and the Petchora 
 belong to the Arctic System. 
 
 The Alps and the Valdai Hills are the sources of most of the rivers of Europe. 
 The former, with their snow-covered summits and great glaciers, are reservoirs for 
 many streams flowing in all directions. The largest of these are the Danube, the 
 Rhine, and tlie Rhone, which have their head-waters very near one another. The 
 Po drains the southern slopes of the Alps. Although the Valdai Hills are low, the 
 longest rivers of Europe, the Volga and the Don, rise among them. 
 
 The rivers of Europe are not so long as the rivers of America, but they are more 
 numerous, and, as many of them are navigable through the greater part of their 
 course, they are very important commercially. The Volga is connected by canals 
 with the White Sea, the Black Sea, and the Baltic, and its facilities as a com- 
 mercial route are thereby largely increased. 
 
 The largest lakes are in Russia and Sweden, in the region surrounding the Baltic 
 Sea. The Alpine lakes are comparatively small, but they are of great depth, and 
 are famous for the beauty of their scenery. The British Isles contain a number of 
 email and exceedingly picturesque lakes. 
 
 11. Climate. — Europe exhibits great variety of climate, from 
 semi-tropical warmth to Arctic cold. 
 
 Southern Europe, protected by mountain-chains from the cold winds of the north 
 and open to hot winds from the African desert, has an almost tropical climate, 
 except in the mountainous regions. The summers are long, the winters mild and 
 short, and the climate, in general, is delightful. Naples, with its orange groves and 
 luxuriance of evergreen vegetation, presents a marked contrast to New York with 
 its long icy winter, yet the two cities are in the same latitude. 
 
 In Eastern Europe the winters are very cold, even as far south as the Black Sea, 
 and the summers are very hot. On the western coasts, westerly winds and the 
 influence of the Gulf Stre.im render the climate milder and more uniform than 
 that of regions farther inland. In England the grass is green throughout the year, 
 and there are, as a rule, no extremes of temperature; while in Russia, in the same 
 latitude, the country is buried in snow in winter and parched in summer. 
 
 Questions. — What is the highest Alpine peak? To what system do most of the 
 rivers belong ? Name two rivers that have no outlet to the sea. What is said of the 
 Alps and the Valdai Hills in relation to the rivers of Europe? What is said of the 
 ? ? Compare thie climate of Eastern Europe with that of the western coast-regions. 
 
 The Atlantic coast of Europe is much warmer than that of America in correspond- 
 ing latitudes ; and, while dry, cold winds and the Arctic current render Labrador 
 treeless and frozen, warm winds from the ocean and the warm waters of the 6nlf 
 Stream make the British Isles moist and mild and fertile. Again, the harbor of 
 Hammerfest, the most northerly town in Europe, is never frozen, while Greenland, 
 in the same latitude, is a field of perpetual snow and ice. 
 
 The rainfall is abundant, particularly on the western coasts and in the warm 
 southel-n countries. The steppes (treeless plains) are dry and cold; the tundras 
 (mossy swamps) are frozen during the greater part of the year. 
 
 12. Productions and Animals. — Europe is rich in the productions 
 of the Temperate Zone, and is well supplied with useful minerals. 
 
 On the shores of tlie Mediterranean the olive, the almond, the orange, the lemon, 
 the fig, ^he walnut, the chestnut, and the mulberry (whose leaves feed the silk- 
 worms) grow in abundance. Rice, cotton, and beet-root (from which sugar is made) 
 are extensively cultivated. The cork-oak is indigenous to Southern Europe. 
 
 In Central and Southern Europe vine-culture is an important branch of agricul' 
 ture. Wheat and the other grains of the Temperate Zone are abundant. Bye, 
 oats, barley, and potatoes are raised even north of the Arctic Circle. Hemp and 
 flax are important productions in Russia and in parts of Central Europe. 
 
 The ilex, the myrtle, the laurel, and other evergreen plants are found in Southern 
 Europe; the deciduous trees of the Temperate Zone; in Southern and in Central 
 Europe ; and the pine, the fir, and the spruce, in Northern Europe and in all llie 
 higher mountain regions. 
 
 13. The met.<)ls are found chiefly in the mountainous regions. 
 Gold and silver occur in many places, but in comparatively limited 
 quantities. Iron, copper, tin, zinc, nickel,, lead, coal, and salt exist 
 extensively. The Ural Mountains yield platinum, and Spain has 
 rich mines of quicksilver. 
 
 Southern Europe is noted for the fineness and variety of its marbles, and Great 
 Britain for its slate and coal. Diamonds are found in the Ural Mountains, and 
 opals and garnets of great beauty, in Austria-Hungary. 
 
 14. Domestic animals are reared in all parts of Europe, and the 
 
 dairy products of various sections are of great value. 
 
 Several varieties of deer, hares, foxes, and wild boars are found in the forests, 
 and fur-bearing animals abound in the colder regions. The Alps and the Pyrenees 
 have the brown bear, the chamois, and the ibex ; Russia has the elk and the wolf ; 
 Northern Europe Jias the eider-duck, and Southern Europe raises the valuable silk- 
 worm. The cod, herring, mackerel, salmon, sardine, and sponge fisheries are famous. 
 
 Questions.— Compare the Atlantic coast of Europe with that of America. What 
 is said of the rainfall? What are tlie steppes? The tundras? Name the most 
 important productions of Southern Europe. What is said of the trees in the various 
 sections ? Why is the mulberry tree of importance in Southern Europe ? 
 
NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE. 
 
 81 
 
 15. Inhabitants. — ^Tlie population is over 360,000,000, which is 
 larger in proportion to the area than that of any other Grand Division. 
 
 Most of the people are of the Caucasian race. The Finns, the Laplanders, the Turks, 
 and the Magyars of Hungary, are a mixture of the Mongolian with other races. 
 
 16. Religion. — Christianity is the prevailing religion. The Turks 
 
 and some tribes of Southern Russia are Mohammedans; and in 
 
 many countries there are numbers of Jews. 
 
 The people of Russia and Greece helnng chiefly to the Greek Church. Most of the 
 inhabitants of Southern Euro[ie, .Austria, Belgium, and Ireland, and about one-tliird 
 of the people of Germany and Switzerland, are Roman Catholics. Protestan:.s are 
 most numerous in Great Britain The Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 17. Europe comprises four empires, Russia, Av^tria- Hungary, 
 Germany, and Turkey ; twelve kingdoms, Great Britain, Norway, 
 Sweden, Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Bortugal, 
 Italy, Greece, Servia, and JRoumania ; and two repubUcs, France 
 and Sioitzerland. 
 
 There are also the small republics of Andorra in the Pyrenees and San Marino on 
 the western coast of the Adriatic, and the principalities of Montenegro and Bulgaria, 
 the latter including Eastern Boumelia. The two last named, with Servia and Rou- 
 mania, nntil 1878 formed part of the Turkish Empire. There is also on the sea- 
 coast of France the small independent principality of Monaco. 
 
 Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, are the most 
 important countries of Europe. They are called the " Great Powers." The Nether- 
 lands is sometimes called Holland. 
 
 18. Europe may be divided into four sections : Northern and Eastern 
 Europe, The British Isles, Western Europe, and Central Europe. 
 
 Northern and Eastern Europe. 
 
 19. Northern and Eastern Europe comprise the Kingdom of 
 Sweden and Norway and the Russian Empire. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 20. Sweden and Norway occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula. 
 They form two distinct States, but are united under one king. 
 
 The islands of Gothland and Oeland, in the Baltic Sea, belong to Sweden. 
 
 21. Surface. — The western part of Sweden, and nearly the whole 
 of Norway, are mountainous. The southeastern part of Sweden is 
 a plain, like that on the opposite shores of the Baltic. 
 
 The mountains of the peninsula rise abruptly from the Atlantic coast, but they 
 descend more gradually towards the east. 
 
 22. Productions. — The chief wealth is in the iron and copper mines, 
 
 the forests, and the fisheries. The exports axe iron, lumber, and fish. 
 
 The greater part of the peninsula is too barren for cultivation, yet rye, oats, and 
 barley are raised in Norway, 1400 miles further north than on the coast of America. 
 
 2"i. Towns.— Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is the chief com- 
 mercial city. Christiania is the capital of Norway. Bergen is a 
 noted fishing port. Hammerfest is the most northern town of Europe. 
 
 24. LAPLAND. — The country north of the Arctic Circle, between 
 
 the White Sea and Atlantic Ocean, is called Lapland. It is divided 
 
 between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 The chief wealth of the Laplanders consists in their numerous herds of reindeer. 
 These supply them with food, clothing, and the means of traveling. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of the population of Europe ? What different forms of 
 religion do the inhabitants profess ? Name the great European powers ? Into what 
 four sections may Europe be divided ? Name the countries of Northern and Eastern 
 Europe. Describe the surface of Sweden and Norway. What islands belong to 
 Sweden? Name the chief productions. What is said of Lapland? 
 
 THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 25. The Eussian Empire includes the greatest continuous extent of 
 territory in the world. It comprises one half of Europe, and nearly 
 half of Asia, or about one-sixth of the Mitire land surface of the earth. 
 
 European Eussia is, for the most part, very level. The only mountainous section 
 is the region bordering upon the Caucasus and Ural Mountains. 
 
 26. Productions. — The principal wealth of Russia consists in its 
 forests, and in the products of agriculture and grazing. Iron, gold, 
 and platinum, are found in abundance in the Ural Mountains, prin- 
 cipally on the Asiatic side. 
 
 The forests cover two-fifths of the country. Great quantities of wheat are raised 
 in the central and southwestern regions, and exported to Western Europe. Hemp, 
 flax, tallow, hides, leather, and timber, are also important articles of export. 
 
 27. Inhabitants. — The people are divided into four classes : — 1. the 
 nobles ; 2. the clergy ; 3. the merchants ; 4. the lately emancipated 
 serfs. The government is an absolute monarchy. 
 
 On the outskirts of Russia there are many tribes of mixed races, such as the Finns 
 and Laplanders, the Samoyedes, and the Cosaacks. The Cossacks inhabit the Steppes, 
 or treeless plains in the southeast, and are of great service in the Russian army as 
 light cavalry. The Circassians, a bold and hardy people who long resisted the Rus- 
 sians, belong to the Caucasian race. 
 
 28. Towns.— St. Peters- 
 burg, the capital of the Rus- 
 sian Empire, is built on sev- 
 eral islands at the mouth of 
 the River Neva. 
 
 Cronstadt, the sea-port of St. Pe- 
 tersburg, is the principal naval sta- 
 tion of Russia. Moscow, the ancient 
 capital, was burnt by the inhab- 
 itants, to prevent its falling into the 
 hands of Napoleon, during his inva- 
 sion in 1812. Warsaw was the cap- ""., 
 ital of Poland. Sebastopol is famous 
 for the siege which it sustained for a 
 year, against the English, French 
 Turkish, and Sardinian armies. 
 
 The principal ports engaged in foreign 
 commerce are St. Petersburg, Cronstadt, 
 Riga, Archangel, Odessa, and Astrak- 
 han. The principal centers of trade in 
 the interior are Moscow, Nijni Nov- 
 gorod, and Kazan. 
 
 At Nijni Novgorod a great fair is 
 held every year, which is attended by 
 many thoasands of people, who come 
 from different parts of Europe ami 
 Asia to buy and sell goods. 
 
 Questions. — Is there any empire larger -than the Russian? Describe the surface 
 of European Russia. Name the principal productions. What are the principal ex 
 ports ? Into what classes are the peo[)le divided ? Name some of the tribes who live 
 on the outskirts of Russia. To what race do the Circassians belong ? ^Tiat is the 
 capital of Prussia ? Which are the principal ports for commerce ? 
 
82 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
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84 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 THE Britisli Islands comprise Great Britain, Ireland, and 
 many smaller adjacent islands. 
 
 The island of Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales. The mon- 
 archy is styled " The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." The entire 
 kingdom, with its colonies, constitutes the British Empire, which is generally called 
 Great Britain. 
 
 3. Coast. — The sea-coast is very irregular, and abounds in fine 
 harbors and roadsteads. 
 
 3. Surface. — Scotland, Wales, and the north and west of Eng- 
 land, are mountainous. The rest of England is undulating or 
 level. Ireland is bordered by hills or low mountains, while the 
 interior is like a basin, with a low and flat surface. 
 
 The surface of Scotland is divided by the Grampian Mountains into the High- 
 lands and Lowlands, — the Highlands lying north, and the Lowlands south, of the 
 mountains. 
 
 4. Climate. — The climate is moist and mild. The winters even 
 
 of Scotland are rarely severe. The soil of England and Ireland, 
 
 by careful culture, has been rendered fertile and productive. 
 
 The moisture of the climate gives the fields a fresh and verdant appearance ; 
 but it sometimes prevents the ripening of the crops. Ireland contains over 3,000,000 
 acres of turf bog, from which peat, the chief article of fuel, is obtained. 
 
 6. Productions. — The chief wealth of Great Britain consists in 
 her commerce and manufactures, and in products of her mines. 
 
 Great Britain surpasses every other country in the world in the amount of her 
 manufactures ; of which the most important are those of cotton, wool, and iron. 
 
 The tin mines of Cornwall have been famous from remote antiquity. Rich mines 
 of coal, copper, iron, and slate are found in Wales. 
 
 A considerable part of the tin and coal used by mankind are produced in Great 
 Britain. This country is also extremely rich in iron, lead, and other useful minerals. 
 
 6. Commerce. — In the extent and importance of her com- 
 merce. Great Britain holds the first rank among nations. She 
 imports from other countries such materials as her own soil or 
 mines do not furnish, and, in return, sends her manufactured 
 products to every market in the world. 
 
 Questions, — What do the British Islands comprise ? What is the British Empire ? 
 Describe the surface. Climate and soil. What are the chief productions? What 
 can you say of the commerce of Great Britain ? Of the navy ? Of the minerals ? 
 
 The trade with the United States exceeds that with any other nation, the amount 
 of exports to this country being nearly double that which she sends to any other. 
 
 Great Britain requires a large navy to protect her extensive commerce and dis- 
 tant colonies. She accordingly ranks among the first naval powers m the world, 
 She has also established lines of steam packets to all the principal, ports of the world. 
 
 7. Towns. — London, the capital of the British Empire, is the 
 largest city in the world, and the first in commercial importance. 
 It is situated on the Thames, has a population of nearly 5,000,000 
 (including suburbs), and covers an area of about 122 square miles. 
 
 Liverpool is the great port of the manufacturing districts. It is the city through 
 which most of the commerce with the United States is carried on. Its fine docks 
 cover more than four hundred acres. 
 
 Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham are the three principal naval stations. Man- 
 chester is noted for its cotton manufactures — the most extensive in the world ; Leeds 
 and Bradford, for their manufactures of wool; Birmingham, for hardware; Sheffield, 
 tor cutlery and plated ware. 
 
 Edinburgh is the metropolis of Scotland. Glasgow is the largest city, and the 
 chief seat of commerce and manufactures. Dundee and Aberdeen are noted for 
 manufactures and ship-building. 
 
 Dublin is the capital and largest city in Ireland. Belfast is the first commercial 
 city, and the seat of the linen manufacture. Cork is the third city in Ireland, and 
 has an extensive commerce. Limerick is noted for the manufacture of gloves, lace, 
 and fish-hooks. Galway is the principal seaport on tho western coast. 
 
 Merthyr Tydfil, the largest town in Wales, is noted for its iron-works. Swansea 
 is the principal seat of the copper trade, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. 
 
 8. Great Britain has colonies in every quarter of the globe, 
 and unites under one sovereign a greater number of people than 
 are ruled by any other government, except the Chinese. 
 
 Foreign Possessions. — The principal foreign possessions are as follows : — 
 
 In Europe. —Gibraltar, in Spain ; Malta, Gozo, and Cyprus, in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In Asia. — British India, including Ceylon, Hindustan, a part of Indo-China, and 
 Singapore; the island of Hong-Kong (China); Aden (Arabia). 
 
 Ill Africa. — Sierra Leone, and other settlements on the western coast; Cape 
 Colony, Natal, and otlier countries in South Africa; St. Helena and Ascension 
 Islands ; Mauritius, Amirante, and Seyohelle Islands ; Socotra Island. 
 
 In Oceanica. — Part of Borneo, and the island of Labuau; Australia; Tasmania; 
 Norfolk Island ; New Zealand. 
 
 In America. — The Dominion of Canada; Newfoundland; the Bermuda Islands; 
 Balize ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and other islands in the West Indies ; British 
 Guiana; the Falkland Islands. 
 
 Questions. — Describe London. Liverpool. Name and describe the principal 
 towns in Scotland. In Ireland. In Wales. Let each scholar name one of the 
 foreign colonies of Great Britain and tell what he knows about it. 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text. 
 
 In what direction from the mainland of Europe are the British Isles ? In what 
 direction from the United States? What branches of the Atlantic separate them 
 from the mainland? What sea between England and Ireland? By what channel 
 may it be entered from the south ? From the north ? What strait separates Eng- 
 land from France ? The island of Anglesea from Wales ? What does the island 
 of Great Britain comprise ? What groups of small islands near it ? Where is the 
 Isle of Wight? The Isle of Man? 
 
 Where are the Grampian Hills ? What is the portion of Scotland north of these 
 hills called ? South of them ? What hills separate England and Scotland ? Mount 
 Snowdon (3571 ft. high) is the highest land in England and Wales: where is it? 
 
 Name three principal rivers flowing into the North Sea. Which of them is most 
 important? Where is the Severn? The Mersey? The Sol way? The Clyde? 
 The Liffey? The Shannon? Name two of the Channel Islands. 
 
 Which IS farther north, Great Britain or New England ? Which of these coun- 
 tries has the milder winters? Why? Which has the warmer summer, London or 
 St. Petersburg ? Why ? How does Great Britain compare with other countries in 
 the amount of her manufactures ? What is commerce ? Does Great Britain export 
 or import cotton ' Broadcloth ? Tea ? Razors ? 
 
 With what country is she most extensively engaged in trade ? Which divisions have 
 a fertile soil? Where is peat found? Is it a vegetable or mineral product? Corn- 
 wall is the south-western county of "England: what celebrated mines there? What 
 mines in Wales? Are minerals generally found in mountainous or level districts? 
 
 To what city in England would you go to buy cotton goods ? Hardware? Wool- 
 lens? Cutlery? Which is the largest city in Scotland ? In Ireland? What town 
 in England opposite Calais in France ? From Dover to Calais is twenty-one miles : 
 across what strait ? What is the most south-western point of the island of Great 
 Britain? What is tho chief town in Wales? What channels separate Ireland 
 from Great Britain? 
 
 What is the latitude of London? Longitude? Where is Menai Strait? What 
 city has a population nearly equal to that of all New England ? Where is Valentia 
 Island? What is the scat of the linen manufacture in Ireland? Where is Cork? 
 What articles are manufactured at Limerick ? Which is farther west, Ireland or the 
 Spanish Peninsula? On what river is Dublin? Give the boundary, and name two 
 important towns, of eaoh division of the British Isles. Name, also, the principal 
 rivers and mountains. 
 
 Draw a map of each division, locating the chief towns, mountains, and rivers. 
 
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86 
 
 WESTERN EUROPE. 
 
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 MONT BLANC. 
 
 Western Europe. 
 
 WESTEEN EUEOPE comprises Denmark, Belgium, The 
 Netherlands, France, Spain, and Portugal. 
 
 2. Surface. — With the exception of the Spanish Peninsula, 
 these countries are mostly included in Lowland Europe, and have, 
 therefore, a level surface. 
 
 3. Climate. — The climate is much more mild and moist than 
 that of the Atlantic coast of America in the same latitudes. The 
 winter is warmer, and the heat of summer less intense. 
 
 This IS owing chiefly to the influence of the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean-current, 
 which, crossing the Atlantic from the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico, bathes the west- 
 ern shores of Europe, cooling the air in summer and warming it in winter 
 
 Thus, Copenhagen has a wanner winter than Washington, though the latter place 
 is about eleven hundred miles farther south; yet the summer of Denmark is much 
 cooler than that of Canada, 
 
 In the Spanish Peninsula, the summers are dry and hot, but the winters on the 
 table lands are cold. 
 
 4. Coast. — The coast-line is much indented, thus furnishing 
 excellent advantages for commerce. 
 
 6. The greater part of this section belongs to the Atlantic 
 declivity, and is drained by several large rivers, the principal of 
 which are the Ehine, the Scheldt, the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, 
 the Douro, the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir. 
 
 The Ehor.e, " one of the most beautiful of rivers," drains the 
 
 south-eastern part of France and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 The rivers of France, Belgium, and The Netherlands, are navigable the greater 
 part of their course. They are connected with one another by numerous canals. The 
 Languedoc Canal, one hundred and fifty miles long, joins the Garonne to the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, furnishing an inland passage from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. 
 
 Questions. — What does Western Europe comprise ? Describe the surface. How 
 does the climate compare with that of the Atlantic coast of the United States? 
 What is the cause of this difference ? Give an example to illustrate this. Describe 
 the coast-line. Name the chief rivers which drain this section. Describe the 
 Languedoc Canal. What is said of agriculture ? Of manufactures ? Of commerce' 
 
 6. Productions. — Agriculture is the chief occupation of much 
 the larger portion of the inhabitants of these countries. The 
 manufactures, those of France and Belgium especially, are of 
 great value, and celebrated for their delicacy and beauty. The 
 commerce, both foreign and domestic, is extensive. 
 
 Spain and Portugal, though among the most fertile countries of Europe, have, 
 until within a few years, given but little attention to commerce. Their agriculture 
 and manufactures are also comparatively unimportant. 
 
 7. Minerals. — Western Europe abounds in valuable minerals. 
 Belgium, next to England, furnishes more coal than any other 
 country in Europe. Over eight hundred iron-works are in 
 operation in France. The quicksilver mines of Almaden, in 
 Spain, are among the richest in the world. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 8. This kingdom comprises the northern part of the peninsula 
 of Jutland and several islands near the entrance of the Baltic Sea, 
 
 The Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, and three small islands of the 
 West Indies, also belong to Denmark. 
 
 9. The Surface of the country is very low and flat ; some por- 
 tions of the northern coast are below the level of the sea, from 
 which they are defended by dikes. 
 
 10. The Climate is moist, and milder than that of the northern 
 German States. The soil is suitable for agriculture, and affords 
 excellent pasturage. 
 
 11. Productions. — Cattle-raising and dairy products, agricul- 
 ture, commerce, and the fisheries, are the sources of wealth.. 
 There are no mines, nor forests, and but few manufactures. 
 
 13. Towns. — Copenhagen is the capital, and one of the finest 
 
 cities in Northern Europe. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM. 
 
 13. Surface. — The coast is so low that, in many places, dikes are 
 necessary to prevent the land from being overflowed. 
 
 14. Productions. — The wealth of the Netherlands is derived from 
 her dairy products, her fisheries, manufactures (especially of linen 
 and distilled liquors), and commerce. 
 
 The commerce is very large, particularly with the East Indies. Belgium is rich 
 from her agriculture, her mines and manufactures, and is the most densely populated 
 country in the world 
 
 Among the most celebrated manufactures of Belgium are the carpets and the 
 laces of Brussels and Mechlin 
 
 15. Commerce. — The position of these countries, and their 
 
 numerous navigable rivers, give them remarkable facilities for 
 
 commerce, in which they are second only to Great Britain. 
 
 Internal communication is promoted by numerous canals. In The Netherlands, 
 especially, the canals run through the streets of the towns, and form a complete 
 network over the country. 
 
 16. Inhabitants.— The people of the Netherlands, usually called 
 Dutch, are very industrious, and are generally better educated than 
 the inhabitants of any other part of Europe, except Prussia and 
 some of the smaller German States. The Belgians are not less 
 industrious, but education is not so general. 
 
 Questions.— What minerals are found in Western Europe ? What does Denmark 
 comprise? Describe the surface. Climate. Productions. What is the surface of 
 The Netherlands and Belgium ? Describe the productions of The Netheriands. Of 
 Belgium. Of what use are canals in The Netherlands ? What commercial advan- 
 tages have these CQURtrie.a? ^Vhat is the character of the Dutch ? Of the BelEian,s' 
 
WESTERN EUROPE. 
 
 8; 
 
 17. Towns.— The Hague is the capital of The Netherlands. 
 Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is noted for its manufactures of 
 carpets and laces. Amsterdam, Antwerp and Rotterdam are the 
 chief commercial cities of the two countries. 
 
 A SCENE IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 ^ The m>reiffn. Possessions of The NetHerlands are, next to those of Great Britain, 
 the most important and valuable belonging to any nation. They include most of the 
 East India Islands (excepting the Philippine group); the western half of Papua; 
 and a part of Guiana, and some of the smaller "West India Islands, in America. 
 Belgium has no foreign po.ssessions. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 18o France is one of the richest and most powerful countries 
 in the world. The position of the country and the fertility of 
 its soil give it great commercial and agricultural advantages, 
 
 19. Surface. — France is separated from Spain on the south by 
 the Pyrenees ; from Italy and Switzerland on the east by the Alps 
 and the Jura Mountains. 
 
 The Cevennps and the Auvorgne Mountains form the Western part of the Central 
 plateau. The Vosges Mountains lie at the north-eastern extremity of the plateau. 
 ■Th« rest of the surface belongs to Lowland Europe. In the south-west are the 
 li,i;i,ies, extensive plains of shifting sands, which the mhabitants cross on stilts. 
 
 20. Climate and Soil. — No country in Europe possesses a more 
 favorable climate than France, and no one surpasses it in the value 
 and variety of its vegetable products. 
 
 21. Productions. — Agriculture, manufactures, mining, and com- 
 merce are the principal branches of industry. 
 
 The olive, the mulberry-tree, and the orange are cultivated in the provinces 
 bordering on the Mediterranean : grain, hemp, and flax are raised in the middle and 
 northern provinces. Iron, coal, lead, and other useful minerals are abundant. 
 
 The vineyard products are the most celebrated of any in the world. Beet-root 
 sugar is very extensively manufactured. 
 
 Questions. — What is the capital of The Netherlands ? Of Belgium ? Name the 
 principal qommercial cities. What foreign possessions has The Netherlands in Asia ? 
 In Africa? In America? What can you say of the position of France ? Describe the 
 Burface of France. The climate and soil. What are the chief branches of industry ? 
 
 France exports more wine, brandy, and silk goods, than any other country. The 
 French are noted for their manufactures of jewelry, gloves, toys, perfumery, and 
 other articles of finery, many of which are brought to the United States. 
 
 22. Inhabitants. — The French are noted for their literary and scien- 
 tific attainments, and for their pohteness, and love of military glory. 
 
 23. Towns. — Paris, the capital of France, and the largest city on 
 the continent of Europe, is the most splendid city in the world, and 
 is a great center of refinement and civilization. 
 
 The French language is spoken by the upper classes of Europe, and the influence 
 of Paris is felt throughout the civilized world, in all that concerns taste and fashion. 
 
 Havre is the port of Paris. Marseilles, St. Nazaire, and Bordeaux are the prin- 
 cipal sea-ports. Most of the wine is exported from Bordeaux. Versailles contains 
 one of the most magnificent palaces in the world. Rouen is the great seat of the 
 cotton, and Lyons, of the silk manufactures. 
 
 The Island of Corsica, celebrated as the birthplace of Napoleon, belongs to France. 
 
 The ForeUjn Possessions of France are Algeria, in Northern, and Senegal, in 
 Western Africa, the Island of E^union, and some smaller islands in the Indian 
 Ocean ; Pondicherry, and a few other places in Hindustan ; Lower Cochin China and 
 Tongking, in Indo-China ; New Caledonia, Tahiti, and the Marquesas Islands, in 
 Oceanica . and French Guiana, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Mar- 
 tinique, Guadeloupe, and a few other small islands of the West Indies in America. 
 France has also a protectorate over Tunis and Madagascar in Africa, and Cambodia 
 and Annam in Asia. 
 
 24. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 The Spanish Peninsula comprises the two countries of 
 
 Spair. and Portugal. 
 
 These were once very powerful nations, but their importance and the extent of 
 iheir possessions are now greatly reduced. 
 
 25. Surface. — The interior consists of mountains and table- 
 lands ; approaching the coast, the country is undulating and level. 
 
 26c Productions. — The most important of these are the vine, 
 olive, mulberry, and orange. Immense flocks of sheep are raised 
 on the table-lands of the interior, and great quantities of wool, 
 wine, and silk are exported. 
 
 27. Inhabitants. — The Spanish and Portuguese are a reserved, 
 dignified, and indolent people. The lower classes are very ignorant. 
 
 28. Towns. — Madrid, the capital of Spain, is noted for its 
 palaces and paintings ; Lisbon is the capital of Portugal and the 
 chief commercial city. 
 
 Barcelona, Valencia, Cadiz, and Malaga, are the most important commercial cities 
 of Spain ; Lisbon and Oporto, of Portugal. We obtain sherry wine from Cadiz, port 
 wine from Oporto, grapes and raisins from Malaga, and oranges from Valencia. 
 
 Gibraltar, the strongest fortress m the world, belongs to Great Britain. Palos 
 is the port from which Columbus sailed on his first voyage to America. 
 
 'I'lio Fm-eian Possessions of Spain are Cuba and Porto Rico, in the West Indies ; 
 the Philippine, Sulu, Ladrone, and Caroline Islands, in Oceanica ; and the Canary 
 Islands, west of Africa. 
 
 The Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and Ceuta, a fortress in Africa 
 on the Straits of Gibraltar, also belong to Spam. 
 
 The Foreign Possessions of Portugal are the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd 
 Islands, west of Africa ; Angola and Benguela on the western, and Mozambique, on 
 the eastern coast of Africa ; Goa and Macao, in Asia ; and part of the island of 
 Timor, in Oceanica. 
 
 29. Andorra. — This little republic occupies a valley south of 
 the Pjrrenees. The population is only 5000 or 6000, but the 
 country has been independent for more than a thousand years. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the French people. Name the capital of France, and 
 other principal cities. The foreign possessions. For what is Corsica noted ? What 
 countries occupy the Spanish Peninsula ? Describe the surface. The inhabitants. 
 What are the principal productions ? Name the capitals, and important towns. 
 
88 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text of Western Europe, 
 
 Position. 
 
 Name the political divisions that compose this section. What important division, 
 composed of islands, is still farther west ? What sea, strait, and channel separate 
 the British Isles from the mainland? 
 
 What ocean with its branches washes the coast of Western Europe 7 What sea 
 south of France and east of Spain? What strait separates Europe from Africa?. 
 What strait connects the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea? 
 
 Where is the Bay of Biscay? The English Channel? The Gulf of Lions? 
 Which is the most northern division of Western Europe? What sea west of it? 
 Name the branches of this sea on the east of it. 
 
 What is the continental part of Denmark called ? Where are the Balearic Islands ? 
 To what country do they belong ? Name two islands which form part of Denmark- 
 Where is Corsica? To what power does it belong ? For what is it celebrated ? 
 
 On what sea do The Netherlands and Belgium border ? What countries form the 
 eastern boundary of this section ? Where is Cape Finisterre ? Cape St. Vincent ? 
 Cape Ortegal ? Cape de la Hague ? The Skaw ? What two capes at the entrance 
 of the Strait of Gibraltar ? Where is Cape Nao ? Cape de Gata ? 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Three of the mountain-chains of this sectioil are considered a part of the great 
 mountaip-system of Europe: which of theni is in Spain? Which is in France? 
 Which of them forms the boundary between France and Spain? What part of 
 France is mountainous? What mountains separate France from Italy? Franc's 
 from Switzerland? What part of Spain and Portugal consists of mountains and 
 table-landn ? 
 
 What countries of this section form a part of Lowland Europe? What, then. 
 is the surface of Belgium and the Netherlands ? Of the northern and western 
 parts of France ? Of Denmark? Where are the Auvergne Mountains ? The Sierra 
 Kevada Mountains ? The Cevennes. Mountains? The Vosges Mountains ? 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 What large river of Central Europe flows through The Netherlands ? What two 
 rivers flow from Belgium through The Netherlands? {The river Meuse of France 
 assumes the name of Maese in Belgium, and of Mads in The Netherlands.) Into what 
 sea do all these rivers flow ? 
 
 The Seine, Loire, Gironde, and Rhone are the principal rivers of France : name 
 the body of water into which each flows. The Ebro, Guadalquivir, Guadiana, Tagus, 
 and Douro are the principal rivers of the Spanish Peninsula: name the body of 
 water into which each of these rivers flows. Which of them have a part of their 
 course in Portugal ? What branch of the Rhine in France ? Of the Rhone ? 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 How does the climate of Western Europe contrast with that of the opposite 
 shores of the Atlantic ? What is the chief cause of this difference ? What can you 
 say of the climate of the Spanish Peninsula ? 
 
 From what countries of Western Europe do we obtain the products of the vine ? 
 Of what country is wool an important export ? From what country are the pro- 
 ducts of the dairy largely exported? 
 
 In what countries are silk goods made ? From what country do we obtain gloves, 
 perfumery, jewelry, and other fancy articles? 
 
 In which of these countries is coal found? Iron? Which has rich mines of 
 quicksilver? In what country is beet-root sugar made? In what part of this 
 section are the olive and mulberry successfully grown? Of what does France 
 export more than any other country? 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Of what does this kingdom consist ? Describe the surface. The climate. What 
 are the principal productions? Describe Copenhagen. Name the foreign possessions 
 of Denmark. What passage between the island of Zealand and Sweden? What 
 bodies of water does it connect? Where are the Great Belt and the Little Belt? 
 What do they separate ? Name three small islands at the entrance of the Baltic, 
 belonging to Denmark. On what island is Elsinore? What are the exports of 
 Denmark ? 
 
 The Netherlands and Belgium. 
 
 What is a dike ? Of what use are dikes to these countries ? What term is used 
 to signify the same thing in Louiijiana? How is internal communication promoted 
 in these countries? Would canals be as numerous if the surface were mountainous? 
 
 Where is the capital of The Netherlands? Of Belgium? Where is Amsterdam? 
 Antwerp? Rotterdam? What foreign possessions has The Netherlands? Where 
 is the Zuyder Zee? Leyden, Utrecht and Groningen have famous universities; 
 where are these places ? Where is Liege ? Ghent ? Where is Waterloo ? Can you 
 tell for what it is famous ? 
 
 France. 
 
 In what do the agricultural and commercial advantages of France consist ? On 
 what river is the capital ? On what sea is Marseilles ? Where is Lyons ? Rouen ? 
 Bordeaux ? Havre ? From what city is most of the wine exported ? What city 
 is the great seat of the silk manufacture ? Of that of cotton goods ? 
 
 Brest and Toulon are important naval stations : where are they ? Cherbourg is 
 famous for its breakwater and fine docks: where is it? In what direction from 
 Paris is Versailles? For what is it famous? Where are the Landes? Let each 
 scholar describe the situation of one. of the colonies of France. 
 
 The Spanish Peninsula. 
 
 Of what two countries does this peninsula consist? How does their present 
 importance compare with that of former times? Where is the capital of Spain? 
 Of Portugal? Where is Barcelona? Cadiz? Oporto? Malaga? What can yon 
 say of Gibraltar? To what power does it belong? What fortress of Spain in 
 Africa, nearly opposite to Gibraltar? 
 
 Where is Palos? From what place in Spain is sherry wine exported? Grapes 
 and raisins ? Oranges ? From what place in Portugal do we obtain port wine ? 
 On what river are Seville and Cordova ? Where is Valencia? Granada? Where 
 are sheep raised ? What valuable mines at Almaden ? Where is the republic of 
 Andorra? Let each scholar describe the situation of one of the Spanish colonies. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 On what waters would a vessel sail in going from Barcelona to Cherbourg? 
 From Paris to London ? Describe the voyage in a sailing-vessel from Rotterdam 
 to Lisbon. What mountains would you cross in travelling in a straight line from 
 Bordeaux to Turin ? From Saragossa to Toulouse? 
 
 Freight a vessel at Marseilles with the products of the South of France : what 
 articles would form her cargo? On what bodies of water would this vessel sail to 
 go to Bremen ? To which of the two cities of France, Rouen or Lyons, would' you 
 go to purchase silk goods ? Cotton goods ? Columbus sailed from Palos the 3d of 
 August, 1492, on his first voyage of discovery; across what ocean did he sail? 
 On which of the West Indies did he first land? Was his course direcUy west? 
 
 What metal is extensively worked in Prance? Of what do the French make 
 sugar? Name all the mountain-chains you would cross, proceeding in a direct 
 line from Malaga to Madrid. From Madrid to the shores of the Bay of Biscay. 
 On what waters will a vessel sail in going from Amsterdam to Lyons? 
 
 Give the boundaries of each of the divisions of Western Europe, and the three 
 principal towns, rivers, and mountains in each division. Sketch a map (from 
 memory, if you can) of the Spanish Peninsula, and locate the principal mountains, 
 rivers, and four of the chief towns. In the same manner sketch a man of France. 
 
90 
 
 CENTRAL Europe: 
 
 ,j!'w iraTill 
 
 SCENE IN VENICE. 
 
 Central Europe. 
 
 CENTEAL EUEOPE comprises Germany, Austria-Hungary, 
 Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, Bulgaria and Eastern Koumelia, 
 Servia, Eoumania, Montenegro, and Greece. 
 
 2. Surface. — The northern part of Germany, including the greater 
 portion of Prussia, and the province of Galicia (in Austria-Hun- 
 gary), are parts of Lowland Europe. 
 
 The country near the Baltic Sea is very low. The Great Plains of Hungary and 
 Turkey are parts of the Basin of the Danube. The Plain of Lombardy, in Northern 
 Italy, is drained by the River Po. The remainder of Central Europe is mountainous, 
 
 3. Rivers. — The most important commercial rivers of this sec- 
 tion are the Danube, the Rhine, and the Po. Next to the Volga, 
 the Danube is the largest river in Europe. 
 
 The Rhine is famous for its grand and romantic scenery. Pldasant towns and 
 villages lie nestled at the foot of lofty liills and graceful slopes clothed with vines ; 
 while the castles of feudal times frown from precipices apparently inaccessible. The 
 Rhine, the Danube, the Po, and the Rhone rise very near one another. 
 
 4. Climate. — The climate of Central Europe is not generally 
 so moist and warm as in the same latitudes of "Western Europe. 
 
 5. Productions. — The agricultural productions vary with the 
 climate. Minerals are abundant in the mountainous regions. 
 The manufactures are more noted for variety than for the great 
 amount of any one particular kind. 
 
 In the north, grain is the chief production. The vine is extensively cultivated 
 in the central and southern regions, and the mulberry and olive are raised in the 
 south. Great harvests of wheat are also produced on the plains which form the 
 lower basin of the Danube. Oranges and lemons aro raised in Sicily 
 
 "Woolen, cotton, and linen goods, are among the most important manufactures. 
 Bohemia is celebrated for glass ware; Switzerland, for watches and jewelry; Italy, 
 for braided straw, of which hats and bonnets are made. 
 
 6. The Commerce is conducted, on the north, through Bremen, 
 Altona, Hamburg, and Dantzic ; on the south, through Genoa, 
 Leghorn, Brindisi, Trieste, Venice, and Constantinople. 
 
 Questions. — -What does Central Europe comprise? Describe the surface. Which 
 are the most important rivers ? How does the climate of Central compare with that 
 of Western Europe ? Name the chief productions of the different sections. Through 
 what cities is the commerce conducted on the north ? On the south ? 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 7. The empire of Germany is formed by the union of Prussia, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg, Baden, and a number of smaller 
 States which formerly had independent governments: 
 
 8. Before their union under one government, the various 
 States of the empire were ranged under two groups known as the 
 North-German Confederation and South Germany. The former 
 consisted of twenty-two States, of which Prussia was the largest 
 and most important, while South Germany numbered four States. 
 
 In 1871, all the States of Germany were formed into one empire, and the king 
 of Prussia was made emperor. At the same time the provinces of Alsace and Lor- 
 raine, which had long belonged to France, were annexed to Germany, making it the 
 second State of Europe as regards population. 
 
 9. Surface. — Germany has a fortunate position. The northern 
 
 portion lies chiefly in the basins of the Baltic and North Seas, is 
 
 drained by large rivers, and has a long lino of sea-coast, and 
 
 good harbors. 
 
 East of the river Weser, the country is generally level, but in the southern portion, 
 and especially near the river Rhine, it is mountainous and abounds in beautiful scenery. 
 
 10. Inhabitants. — The Germans are an industrious, intelligent, 
 and well educated people, a person being rarely found who cannot 
 read and write. In Prussia, Saxony, and most of the other States, 
 every child above the age of six is obliged to attend school. 
 
 Great attention is paid to military education in Germany, and every subject is 
 compelled to serve a certain number of years in the army. 
 
 11. Productions. — The most important productions are grain, 
 tobacco, hemp, and flax; potatoes and beet-root (for making sugar); 
 wool, manufactures (including wine), and the useful minerals. 
 
 13. Towns. — Berlin is the capital of Germany and also of 
 Prussia. It is a beautiful city, and is the largest in the empire. 
 
 Munich, Dresden, Breslaa, Cologne, and Btrasburg are among the chief cities of 
 Germany Hamburg, Bremen, Konigsberg, and Dantzic are the principal commer- 
 cial cities. Tiie latter is one of the greatest grain-shipping ports m Europe. 
 
 Many other towns in Germany are of large size ; some are noted for remarkable 
 events in history ; others for magnificent churches or palaces ; and others for iheir 
 universities. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 13. Next to Eussia, Austria-Hungary lias larger possessions in 
 Europe than any other country. 
 
 14. Inhabitants. — The people are of different races, and ppeak 
 many diit'erent languages. The Germans, Hungarians, Italians, 
 and Poles are the most numerous. 
 
 15. Productions. — Large quantities of silver, iron, coal, and salt 
 are mined. Grain, flax, wine, and manufactures are among the 
 chief productions and exports. 
 
 16. Towns.— Vienna is the capital, and one of the largest and 
 finest cities of Central Europe. 
 
 Prague is the commercial centre of Bohemia, and Buda-Pesth is the chief city of 
 Hungary. Trieste is the only important seaport of the empire. 
 
 17. POLAND was formerly an important kingdom of Central 
 Europe, but, after suffering many reverses, it is now divided among 
 Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Questions.— How is the Empire of Germany formed ? How was it formerly divided ' 
 Describe the surface. The inhabitants. The productions. What is the capital? N.ime 
 some of the chief cities. What is said of the size of Austria-Hungary ? Describe the 
 inhabitants. What tpinerals are found r Between what nations was Poland divided ^ 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 18. Switzerland is a republic, consisting of twenty-two States, or 
 Cantons. It is the highest part of Europe. 
 
 The scenery of Switzerland is on the grandest icale ; beautiful lakes lie embosomed 
 among the mountains, which tower above the limits of perpetual snow ; immense 
 glaciers glisten upon the mountain sides, and romantic valleys form the channels of 
 impetuous streams. 
 
 19. Inhabitants. — The Swiss are noted for their love of liberty 
 and attachment to their native country. 
 
 Manufacturing small articles, such as watches, jewelry, and toys, is the leading 
 business, and these articles are the principal exports. 
 
 Most of the population speak the German language. Italian is spoken in the 
 Cantons adjoining Italy, and French in those adjoining France. 
 
 20. Towns. — Berne is the capital. Geneva is the principal seat 
 of the manufacture of watches and jewelry. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 21. Italy is one of the most celebrated countries on the globe. 
 In ancient times it was the central part of the Roman Empire, 
 which ruled all the known world. 
 
 22. Many important political changes have taken place in Italy. 
 It waff formerly divided into a number of States, which, in 1870, 
 were united under one government. The Islands of Sicily, Sardinia 
 and Elba form a part of this kingdom. 
 
 Italy has many merchant vessels, a strong navy, and extensive commerce. It is 
 connected with Central Europe by railroads passing through the celebrated Mount 
 Cenis and St. Gothard Tunnels. 
 
 23. Inhabitants. — The Italians are descended from the race that 
 once conquered the world, and are noted for their love of music 
 and of art. 
 
 21:. Productions. — Eaw and manufactured silks are the most im- 
 portant productions. Velvets, straw goods, macaroni, fruits, sardines, 
 marble, sulphur, and borax, are exported. 
 
 Agriculture and the fisheries are important industries, and the people of northern 
 Italy are largely engaged in manufacturing. 
 
 25. Towns. — Italy contains many towns and cities which are 
 renowned in history or in art ; almost every place is connected with 
 some remarkable event. 
 
 Rome, the capital and chief city, has been famous for many centuries, and pos- 
 sesses great historic interest. It contains a large number of churches, among which 
 is the celebrated cathedral of St. Peter. Rome is the residence of the head of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, which has a greater number of members than any other 
 Christian denomination. 
 
 Florence was the former capital of the kingdom of Italy. Naples, the largest 
 city, is famous for its beautiful bay ; Genoa, for its early maritime power and enter- 
 prise. Venice is built upon nearly a hundred small islands. In most parts of the 
 town canals take the place of streets. Leghorn, Venice, Genoa, Naples, Palermo, 
 Messina, and Brindisi, are the principal commercial citie.s. 
 
 EUROPEAN TURKEY. 
 
 26. European Turkey forms part of the Turkish or Ottoman 
 
 Empire. The government of the empire is styled the Sublime 
 
 Porte, and the sovereign is called the Sultan. 
 
 Tlie Turhish Empire also includes Asiatic Turkey, Tripoli, in Africa, and the 
 island of Candia in the Mediterranean. Egypt is also nominally subject to Turkey. 
 
 27. Inhabitants. — The Turks are Mohammedans. They are grave 
 and solemn, ignorant, bigoted, and indolent, but very courageous. 
 
 Agriculture and the raising of cattle are the chief occupations, although carpets, 
 silk goods and leather are manufactured to a considerable extent. 
 
 Questions. — Of what does Switzerland consist? Describe the country. The inhabi- 
 tants. What is said of Italy ? What political changes have taken place ? Describe 
 the inhabitants. For what are many of the cities and towns famous ? Name the 
 diost important commercial places. What does the Turkish Empire comprise ? 
 
 STREET IN CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 28. Towns. — Constantinople, the capital of the empire, is situated 
 upon the Bosporus, or Channel of Constantinople. 
 
 Constantinople is admirably situated for commerce, and exports the products not 
 only of European and Asiatic Turkey, but also of other parts of Western Asia. 
 Adrianople and Salouica are next in size and importance. 
 
 29. BULGARIA and EASTERN ROUMELIA formed a part of 
 the Turkish Empire until 1878, when, by the Treaty of Berlin, 
 they were made practically independent. 
 
 Bulgaria became at that time an independent Principality, ruled by a Christian 
 Prince, who was elected by the people. With the exception of an annual tribute 
 to the Porte, tlie government is entirely independent. 
 
 Eastern Roumelia at the same time was created a separate State, but has since 
 been practically united to Bulgaria. 
 
 Sophia is the capital of Bulgaria, and Philippopolis of Eastern Roumelia. 
 
 30. S E R V I A and R U M A N I A , also parts of the Turkish Em- 
 pire until 1878, are independent monarchies. MONTENEGRO 
 is an independent j)rincipality. 
 
 Bucharest and Jassy in Roumania, and Belgrade in Servia, are the principal cities 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 31. Greece in ancient times was in advance of all other nations 
 in civilization and learning. ' In the fifteenth century it was con- 
 quered by the Turks, but the Greeks revolted in 1821, and achieved 
 their independence. The government is a limited monarchy. 
 
 Almost every part of the country is rendered interesting by some historical event, 
 or by the remains of ancient temples and other structures. 
 
 Most of the islands of tlie Archipelago belong to Greece ; of these Negropont is 
 the largest, but Syra is the most important. 
 
 32. Inhabitants. — The modern Greeks are a handsome people, but 
 they are indolent and insincere. Education, of late years, has 
 received considerable attention. 
 
 The Greeks are skilful sailors, and carry on most of the commerce of the Levant. 
 The leading articles exported are dried fruits, olives, olive oil, and silk. 
 
 33. Towns. — Athens is the capital and most important city of 
 Greece. It was one of the most celebrated cities of ancient times, 
 the birthplace of many renowned philosophers and orators, and the 
 centre of art and learning. 
 
 Syra is the center of steam navigation in the Eastern Mediterranean. Zante and 
 Corfu are important ports. These three cities are situated on islands of the same name. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the inhabitants of Turkey. How is Constantinople situated ? 
 What is said of Bulgaria? Of Eastern Roumelia? Describe Servia, Roumania, 
 and Montenegro. Name the principal cities. What is said of Ancient Greece? 
 Of the modern Greeks ? Describe Athens. Name the leading exports. 
 

 
 
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Questions on the Map and Text of Central Europe. 
 
 93 
 
 Outline. 
 
 What sea north of this section ? What sea north-west of it ? What gulf on the 
 northern coast of Germany? What bay? What gulf on the south-western coast 
 of Italy? What gulf on the south-eastern coast? Where is the island of Rilgen? 
 Heligoland? Where is the island of Sardinia? What strait separates it from 
 Corsica ? 
 
 What extensive country forms a part of the eastern boundary of this section ? 
 What great sea on the south? What three countries on the west? What large 
 eea on the eastern coast of Turkey ? What body of water on the south ? What 
 name is given to the strait which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Mar- 
 mora? On what two straits and sea would you sail, from the Black Sea to the 
 Archipelago ? 
 
 What two countries constitute the Turkish Peninsula? Name all the bodies of 
 water you would traverse, in sailing along its coasts. What islands on the western 
 coast of Greece? Where are the Cyclades? Where is Candia? What part of 
 Greece is called the Morea? Name its southern cape. What gulf north of the 
 Morea ? 
 
 Between what two seas is the Italian Peninsula? Where is the Gulf of Taranto? 
 Of Genoa? What strait between Sicily and Italy? Between Turkey and Italy? 
 Where are Malta and Gozo? The Lipari Islands? Where is the Island of Elba? 
 What islands in the Adriatic upon the western coast of Austria-Hungary ? Name 
 the gulfs upon the coast of Greece. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 What two mountain-ranges in this section form a part of the great central system 
 of Europe and Asia ? Which of them encloses, on three sides, the valley of the 
 River Po? From what countries do they separate Italy? What peninsula do the 
 Apennines traverse ? Are the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, mountainous 
 or level ? 
 
 Along what sea do the Alps extend in a south-easterly direction? By what 
 mountains in Turkey are they continued ? In what direction ? Near what strait 
 do the Balkan Mountains terminate? What mountains extend through Greece, 
 south from this chain ? What is the general surface of the Turkish Peninsula -. 
 mountainous or level? 
 
 What mountains form a great part of the boundary of Hungary ? Where are the 
 Erz Gebirge (Ore Mountains) ? The Riesen Gebirge (Giant Mountains) ? The Hartz 
 Mountains? The Black Forest Mountains? What province of Austria- Hungary 
 is surrounded by mountains ? 
 
 What parts of this section are included within Lowland Europe? Describe the 
 general surface of the country north of the Carpathian Mountains and the chains in 
 the central part of Germany. To what river-valley do the Plains of Hungary and 
 Roumania belong ? The Plain of Lombardy ? 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. 
 
 Name the most important rivers of this section. The Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder, 
 and Vistula, drain the northern slope of Central Europe : in what general direction 
 do they flow ? Which of them empty into the North Sea ? Into the Baltie Sea ? 
 
 What great river of this section flows into the Black Sea? Name some of the 
 countries principally drained by this river. Which of its tributaries forms a part 
 of the boundary between Roumania and Russia ? 
 
 What part of Italy is drained by the River Po ? Into what does this river flow ? 
 In the region of the Alps there are numerous beautiful lakes ; in what country are 
 those north of the Alps situated ? South ? What important rivers rise in these lakes ? 
 
 Climate and Productions. 
 
 How does the climate of this section differ from that of Western Europe? Where 
 is it warmest : north or south of the Alps and Balkan Mountains ? Name the chief 
 vegetable production in the northern part of this section. Where is the vine most 
 extensively raised ? The mulberry and olive ? 
 
 What grain is raised in the lower basin of the Danube ? Name the principal 
 manufactures ? For what manufactures is Bohemia celebrated ? Switzerland ? 
 Italy? Where are oranges and lemons principally raised? In what region are 
 minerals piQst abundant 1 
 
 Germany and Austria- Hungary. 
 
 Name some of the States of which the Empire of Germany is composed. Which 
 of them is the most important? Upon what two seas does it border? In what 
 part of Germany, the northern, central, or southern, are the following divisions? 
 Bavaria? Saxony? Wurtemberg? Baden? 
 
 Between what two seas is Sleswick? What can you say of the situation of Ger- 
 many? What mountains separate it from Austria-Hungary? What important 
 river flows across the western part ? Describe the surface of Germany. Mention 
 some of the principal agricultural productions. What can you say of the general 
 character of the people? Of their education? What large river flows into the 
 Baltic Sea ? What into the North Sea ? Name the capital Upon what river is it > 
 Upon what river is Hamburg ? Bremen ? Cologne ? 
 
 Name some other commercial cities? What can you say about Dantzic? Where 
 is Strasburg ? Metz ? To what country did the last two cities formerly belong ? 
 
 What can you say of the size of Austria-Hungary? In what part of the empire 
 are Hungary and Transylvania ? By what mountains are they partially surrounded ? 
 Where is Galicia ? Bohemia ? 
 
 From what country do the rivers Danube and Save separate Austria-Hungary? 
 Where is the capital of Austria ? On what sea is Trieste ? On what river is Prague ? 
 Innspruck? Buda-Pesth? 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 What is the form of government in Switzerland ? What languages are spoken in 
 that country ? By what mountains is one-half of the surface occupied ? Are they 
 in the northern or southern part of the country ? Where is the capital ? On what 
 lake is Geneva ? . 
 
 Italy. 
 
 What islands form a part of the kingdom of Italy ? To whom does the island of 
 Corsica belong ? What republic is there on the Adriatic Sea ? What can you say of 
 the commerce and navy of Italy ? 
 
 What is the capital and chief city of Italy? Of whom is it the residence? 
 Which is the largest city ? Name some of the principal commercial cities. Name 
 those situated on the Mediterranean Sea. The one on the Adriatic. The one on the 
 Gulf of Genoa. The two on the Island of Sicily. On what river is Florence? 
 Rome? Turin? 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 What constitutes the Ottoman or Turkish Empire ? Where is the capital ? Adri- 
 anople ? Salonica ? What large island belonging to Turkey south of the Archipelago ? 
 What principalities are only partially under the control of the Turkish government ? 
 Where is Sophia ? Philippopolis ? 
 
 Servla, Roumania, and Montenegro. 
 
 Of what empire were Servia and Roumania formerly a part? Bound each. 
 Where is Jassy ? Bucharest ? Belgrade ? Cetinje ? 
 
 Greece. 
 
 What part of Greece forms the peninsula called the Morea? To what country do 
 most of the islands of the Archipelago belong? Which of these is the largest? 
 Which is the most important ? Where is the capital of Greece ? Where are the 
 Ionian Islands ? 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 To what ports in this section, those on the Baltic or Mediterranean Seas, would a 
 merchant go to purchase sweet-oil, silk, and fruit ? Freight a vessel with wine and 
 grain at Trieste for London : through what waters will she pass ? A party of Ger- 
 man vine-growers wish to emigrate to Ohio, and agree to meet at Hamburg ; describe 
 their entire route thence to Cincinnati. Where is Mt. Vesuvius ? Mt. Etna ? 
 
 Bound Austria-Hungary. Italy. Turkey. Greece. Spell Bavaria. Wiirtemberg. 
 Bohemia. Altona. Adriatic. Zealand. Appenine. Bosporus. Dardanelles. Mol- 
 davia. Wallachia. Marmora. Vesuvius. Sicily. Trieste. Constantinople. Den- 
 mark. Frankfort. Copenhagen. Konigsberg. Dantzic. Cologne. Austria-Hungary. 
 
1-JOt 94 
 
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 ASIA. 
 
 The niinaldya have an average elevation of 20,000 feet. At least forty of their 
 peaks are higher than the loftiest summit of the Andes. North of the Himalaya 
 lie cold, sterile plateaus, while south of them spread the rich, fertile plains of India. 
 
 The Karakorum and the Kuen T^un ranges are scarcely inferior to the Himalaya 
 in elevation. The Kueu Lun chain, the northern border of the Plateau of Thibet, is 
 continued to the Pacific coast by the Chinese mountains. 
 
 9. The Hindu Kush, the Thian Shan, the Khingan, and the 
 
 Altai Mountains are lower than the Kuen Lun, yet they are of great 
 
 height, and many of their peaks are covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, Japan, Formosa, and the Philippine Islands abound 
 ill volcanoes ; while Asia Minor, Persia, and India bear traces of volcanic action. 
 
 10. Drainage. — The rivers of Asia belong to the Indian Ocean 
 System, the Paaifio System, and the Arctic System. There are also 
 numerous lakes and rivers that have no outlet to the sea. 
 
 The most important rivers are the Euphrates and Tigris, the Indus, the Ganges, 
 the Brahmaputra, and the Irrawaddy; the Cambodia (or Mecon), the Yang-tse- 
 Kiang. the Hoang-Ho, and the Amoor ; the Lena, the Yenisei, and the Obe. 
 
 Among the rivers that have no outlet to the sea are the Tarim, the Jordan, the 
 Amu (or Oxus) the Sihon, and the Hi. 
 
 The Yenisei is the longest river of Asia. The Gnnges springs from the glaciers 
 of the Himalaya, 14,000 feet above eea-level. It forms an extensive delta, through 
 which the Brahmaputra also reaches the sea. The annual overflow of the Indian 
 rivers makes India a land of great fertility. 
 
 11. There are few fresh-water lakes in Asia, hut the Aralo-Caspian 
 Basin and the interior plateaus abound in salt lakes. 
 
 The Caspian Sea, the Sea of Aral, the Dead Sea, and Lake Balkash are the most 
 important salt lakes. The Caspian Sea, which is the largest salt lake in the world, 
 is about five times as large as Lake Superior. Its surface is 84 feet below the level 
 of the ocean. The Sea of Aral is a little larger than Lake Michigan. The surface 
 of the Dead Sea (the lowest depression known) is 1300 feet below the level of the 
 ocean. Lake Balkash is a shallow body of water about as large as Lake Ontario. 
 
 Lake Baikal is the most extensive fresh-water lake. It is the largest mountain- 
 lake known, and is about half as large as Lake Superior. Sir-i-Kul, a small, deep 
 lake on the Plateau of Pamir, is said to he the highest lake on the globe. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of the Himalaya ? Of the Karakorum and the Kuen 
 Lun Mountains? Of the Hindu Kush, the Thian Shan, the Khingan, and the 
 Altai? To what systems do the principal rivers belong? What is said of the 
 Ganges? Of the Caspian Sea? Uf the Dead Sea? Of Lake Sir-i-Kul ? 
 
 12. Climate. — As Asia extends from 2° N. of the Equator to a 
 latitude- midway between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole, 
 and presents, besides, unequaled diversity of surface and soil, it 
 has every variety of climate. 
 
 The Plain of Siberia has long severe winters, and short summers with days of 
 intense heat. Central Asia, between the Altai and the Himalaya Mountains, has 
 the climate of the Temperate Zone, and is subject to extremes of heat and cold. In 
 Thibet the great elevation makes the country so cold a.s to be almost uninhabitsiLle. 
 The southern peninsulas and the western plateaus have, in general, a tropical climate. 
 
 The plateaus of Arabia, Iran, Thibet, The Deccan and the Great Central High 
 Plain are, in general, rainless. The mountains south and west of these regions rob 
 the sea-breezes of their moisture, and render the country dry and sterile. 
 
 The southern part of China, India, and the south-east coast of Arabia lie in the 
 region of the south-west monsoons, and have abundant periodical rains. The Kha-si 
 Hills (100 miles N. E. of Calcutta) have the greatest rainfall in the world. 
 
 Eastern China, Pamir, the Thian Shan, the Caucasus, .-Vsia Minor, and other 
 western regions ha.ve variable rains according to the variable winds of the Tem- 
 perate Zone. Taken as a whole, Asia has less rain than Europe or America. 
 
 13. Productions and Animals. — The great variety of climate 
 produces a corresponding variety of vegetation, and most of the 
 food-plants and fruits of the world are natives of Asia. 
 
 Here originated wheat, rye, rice, barley, oats, buckwheat, and the sugar-cane; 
 and here is the home of the grape, the peach, the melon, the apricot, the apple, 
 the pear, the plum, the orange, the date, the fig, the olive, the cherry, the almond, 
 the bread-fruit, the cocoa-nut, the banana, the sweet potato, and the yam. 
 
 Tea, cotton, hemp, flax, and jute also are natives of Asia. Palms, bamboos, 
 and banyans, teak, ebony, and sandal-wood, abound in the tropical forests ; and 
 camphor, gum-arabic, and india-rubber, with the greatest variety of spices, gums, 
 resins, and medicinal plants, are among the most valuable productions. 
 
 Gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, mercury, nickel, coal, petroleum, salt, and sulphur 
 are found in abundance, while diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes, and pearls of 
 great beauty make Asia unrivaled among the Grand Divisions in natural wealth. 
 
 The camel, the Cashmere goat, and the yak are natives of Asia. The elephant, 
 the lion, the tiger, the leopard, the panther, the rhinoceros, the hyena, the buffalo, 
 the zebu, the peacock, the ostrich, and the golden pheasant are found in various parts. 
 
 Questions.— Why has Asia such variety of climate? What is said of the cli- 
 mate of the various sections ? Of the rainfall ? What effect on vegetation has the 
 variety of climate? What plants are natives of Asia? What minerals abound? 
 What precious stones? Wliat -animals are -natives of Asia? 
 
ASIA. 
 
 97 
 
 14. Inhabitants. — Of all the Grand Divisions, Asia has the largest 
 population, and presents the greatest diversity of race, religion, man- 
 ners, and civilization. The inhabitants number about 823,000,000. 
 
 Asia 13 regarded as the cradle of the human nice, and its civilization is the oldest 
 in the world. Within its limits the principal religions of the world originated. 
 Buddhism, Brahminism, and Mohammedanism are now the jirevailing forms of 
 belief. A majority of the people belong to the Mongolian race ; but a large number, 
 including the Hindus, the Arabs, the Persians, and the Afghans, are CaucaBians. 
 Malays inhabit the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 15. Asia includes within its boundaries a large part of the 
 Turkish and Russian Empires, the capitals of which are in Europe; 
 the Chinese Empire and its Dependencies; the Empire of Japan; 
 Corea; the several States of India and Indo-China, some of which 
 are independent and the others more or less under the control or 
 protection of European powers ; the confederation of Beluchistan, 
 Afghanistan, Persia, and the several powers of Arabia. 
 
 ASIATIC TURKEY. 
 
 16. Asiatic Tuikey is a part of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 On account of its prominence in history, it is one of the most interesting countries 
 on the globe. It contains the ruins of many of the most powerful cities of ancient 
 times, and is full of places which are connected with important events. 
 
 17. Towns. — The principal commercial city is Smyrna, from 
 wliic:h fruits, rags, and various other articles are exported. Mocha 
 exports large quantities of coffee. 
 
 THE MOSOUE OF OMAR AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 18. SYRIA (one of the provinces) includes Palestine, or the Holy 
 Land, in which most of the events recorded in Scripture took place. 
 
 Jerusalem is the holy city of the .Tews, and, to the Christian, is one of the most 
 interesting places in the world. Mecca is the holy city of the Mohammedans. 
 
 ASIATIC RUSSIA. 
 
 19. Asiatic Eussia comprises more than one-third of Asia. The 
 jiriiicipal divisions are Siberia, Trans-Caucasia, and the Trans- 
 Caspian Territory. 
 
 The island of Sagbalin belongs to Eussia, and the Russian possessions in Asia 
 Iiave greatly increased in extent during the past few years. The Kirghis country, 
 the northern part of the Amoor Basin, a small part of Sungaria, and the Trans- 
 Caspian Territory h;\ve lately come under Russian control. 
 
 Questions.— What is said of the inhabitants of Asia? Of the religions?^ Name 
 l!ie political divisions. Of what empire is Asiatic Turkey a part? Which of its 
 provinces includes Palestine? What is said of Jerusalem ? Mecca? What are the 
 principal divisions of Asiatic Russia? What is said of the increase in its extent? 
 
 20. SIBERIA occupies the entire northern part of Asia. Owing to 
 the severity of the climate, much of this immense region is unfit 
 for extensive settlement ; yet its mines of gold and silver, and its 
 fur-bearing animals, render it of great value to Russia. 
 
 21. Inhabitants. — About three-fourths of the population are 
 
 Russians. The remainder consists of native tribes. 
 
 Siberia has long been used by the government as a pl.ace of bani.ehment for exiles 
 and criminals, and these and their descendants form most of the population. 
 
 22. Towns. — Tashkend, Tomsk, Tobolsk, and Irkutsk are the 
 largest towns. 
 
 Kiachta, in Siberia, and Maimatchin, in l^hina, are places where an immense 
 inland trade is carried on between China and Russia. 
 
 23. TRANS-CAUCASIA is south of the Caucasus Mountains. 
 Titiis, the capital, has a large caravan trade. The inhabitants, 
 a vigorous, handsome race, are principally engaged in agriculture. 
 
 24. THE TRANS-CASPIAN TERRITORY includes the Turko- 
 man country, or West Turkestan (Khiva, Bokhara, Merv), and a 
 small part of Sungaria. 
 
 The various States of West Turkestan are called Khanates, each of which has a 
 native ruler, or Khan. All of ilicse Smtes are more or less subject to Russia, and 
 Russian influence is supreme thronglicmt most of Central Asia. 
 
 In the south, the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture; but the wandering 
 tribes, in the north and west, subsist by war and the chase, and their chief wealth 
 is in their immense numbers of camels, horses, sheep, and goats. 
 
 25. Towns. — Bokhara, Khokan, and Khiva are each the capital 
 of a State, or Khanate, of the same name. 
 
 THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 26. The Chinese Empire includes China proper, Manchuria, and 
 the subject countries Thibet, Mongolia, and Eastern Turkestan, 
 in which is included the greater part of Sungaria. 
 
 China proper has nineteen-twentieths of the whole population of the empire. 
 Manchuria is called " Crown-Land," as it is the birthplace of the imperial family 
 and of the dominant race. 
 
 So dense is the population in some districts that great numbers of the inhabit- 
 ants dwell constantly upon boats on the rivers, or on rafts on the lakes, which 
 they convert into gardens by covering them with earth. 
 
 The Chinese are a very industrious people, and, to improve their condition, great 
 numbers emigrate to other countries. Thus, they are very numerous in Farther 
 India, in the islands of Malaysia and Australasia, and considerable numbers of them 
 have even found their way to California, and other pans of our Pacific Slope. 
 
 Great attention is given to education, and learning is rewarded by honorary titles 
 and by lucrative government offices. Nearly every man can read and write, and 
 no one can hold public office without first passing a creditable examination. 
 
 27. T H I B ET is only under the supervision of the Chinese govern- 
 ment. Lassa is the capital and the residence of the Grand Lama, 
 who is worshiped as the representative of the Supreme Being. 
 
 28. MONGOLIA is occupied by pastoral tribes, whose chiefs, in 
 most cases, own only a nominal subjection to China. 
 
 29. EASTERN TURKESTAN was a province of China until 
 
 1865, when it established an independent government. It was 
 
 reconquered by China in 1877, and now forms a part of the empire, 
 
 with a special political organization. 
 
 Sungaria, lying between the Thian Shan and Altai Mountains, is important on 
 account of being the gateway of the caravan trade between Eastern and Western Asia. 
 About one-tenth of this country has lately been added to the Russian possessions. 
 
 Questions. — Describe Siberia. Name theprincipal towns. Where isTrans-Caneasia? 
 Name the capital. Of what does the Trans-Caspian Territory consist? Name the 
 divisions of the Chinese Empire. What is said of the population ? Of the character and 
 education of the Chinese? Of Thibet? OfMongolia? Eastern Turkestan ? Snng*ri»T 
 
98 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 30. Productions. — The most important productions are rice, 
 millet, tea, and silk. 
 
 Rice and millet are the chief articles of food for the entire population. Tea, silk, 
 and porcelain are the principal exports. There are valuable mines of irpn, coal, 
 copper, and gold. The Chinese work with exquisite skill in ivorj', wood, and pearl, 
 and make the most beautiful porcelain and silk. 
 
 31. Government. — The government is an absolute monarchy. 
 The emperor possesses unlimited power over all beneath him, and 
 claims the title of " Son of Heaven." 
 
 The officers of government are styled mandarins. The laws are severe ; for trifling 
 offences, punishment with the bamboo is inflicted, while serious crimes are almost 
 always punished by death. 
 
 32. Towns. — China contains many great cities, most of which, 
 however, are known to Europeans only by name. Pekin is the 
 capital and the largest city. 
 
 Shanghai and Canton are the chief centres of the foreign trade. Ningpo, Foo- 
 chow, Nankin, and Amoy are the other most important ports. Until very recently, 
 these were the only seaport? open to foreign trade. By late treaties, however, all 
 of China is open to the intercourse of foreign nations. 
 
 Hainan and Formosa are Chinese islands. Hong Kong belongs to the British, to 
 whom It was ceded in 1843. Macao belongs to the Portuguese. It was granted to 
 them 250 years ago, for assistance in clearing the coast of pir.ites. 
 
 33. CORE A is a kingdom which was tributary to China before 
 1876, but is now entirely independent, having its own sovereign 
 and its own laws. Seoul, or King-ki-tao, is the capital. 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN. 
 
 34. The Empire of Japan embraces the islands of Hondo or 
 Nippon, Kiushiu, Shikoku, Yezo, the Kurile Islands, and nearly 
 four thousand smaller islands. 
 
 A JAPANESE JUNK. 
 
 All these islands are mountainous and subject to frequent earthquakes. The 
 Liu Kiu Islands also belong to Japan. The Japanese call their empire Dai Nippon 
 ("Great Japan"), and their emperor "the Mikado. Great attention has recently been 
 given to education, and many Japanese young men are educated at the expense of 
 their government in the United States and in Europe. 
 
 35. Productions. — The principal productions are rice, tea, silk, 
 wheat, barley, tobacco, camphor, and copper. 
 
 The country is rich in minerals, gold, silver, copper, and iron being abundant. 
 "Japanning'' (or covering metals with varnish) derives its name from this empire. 
 
 Questions. — What are the most, important productions of China? What is the 
 government? Name the capital. The principal seaports. To whom does Hong 
 Kong belong? Macao? Describe Corea. Which are the principal islands of 
 Japan? What other ieland.=i belong to Japan?' What are the chief produotions ? 
 
 36. Towns. — Tokio is the capital and largest city. Ozaka, 
 Kioto, and Nagoya are populous cities. Yokohama, Kagoshima, 
 Nagasaki, and Hakodate are the principal ports for foreign trade. 
 Yokohama is a splendid city, at which several lines of steamers call. 
 
 The Japanese were formerly very jealous of foreigners, and the government per- 
 mitted but little intercourse with other nations. The United States and sixteen 
 other nations now have treaties with Japan, and several thousands of their citizens 
 live in the various ports of the Empire. 
 
 INDIA AND INDO-CHINA. 
 
 37. India consists of two peninsulas : Hindustan, with the Deccan, 
 
 and Indo-China, or Farther India. 
 
 Both peninsulas are remarkable for the fertility of the soil, and yield, in great 
 abundance, the products of the tropical regions in which they are situated. 
 
 38. Climate. — The climate of India is greatly influenced by the 
 monsoons, or periodical winds which prevail in the Indian Ocean. 
 
 These winds blow from the north-east from October to April, and from the south- 
 west during the remaining months of the year. On the western coast, the south- 
 west monsoon brings the rainy season, and the north-east, the dry season. On the 
 eastern coast, on the contrary, the rains occur during the north-east monsoon, and 
 the dry season during the south-west, the winds in each case bringing the rain from 
 the neighboring bodies of water. 
 
 39. Productions. — The most, important productions are rice, cot- 
 ton, and wheat. Eice forms the principal food of the natives, and 
 almost their entire clothing is made from cotton. 
 
 The other chief exports are tea, indigo, opium, sugar, .shawls, carpets, silk, and vari- 
 ous drugs, spices, and perfumes. The tea trade is important, and is rapidly increasing. 
 
 40. Animals. — The most remarkable animals are the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, tiger, and a huge serpent called the python. 
 
 The Eoyal Bengal tiger is t"he largest, fiercest, and most beautiful of the tiger 
 species. Elephants are used in tiger-hunting, which is a favorite amusement in India. 
 
 41. The Hindus are divided into four castes or classes, accord- 
 ing to their occupation ; as the priest, soldier, merchant, or laborer. 
 The pariahs are the outcasts of these classes. 
 
 The son inherits the occupation of liis father from one generation to another. 
 The male members of one caste ma^' legally marry into a caste below' their own, hut 
 not into one above. There is no distinction of caste in the countries of Farther 
 India, and in British India it is not so rigidly observed as formerly. 
 
 42. BRITISH I N D I A.— Nearly the whole of the western penin- 
 sula (Hindustan and the Deccan) and the north-western part of 
 Indo-China belong to, or are tributary to, Great Britain. 
 
 These countries were long subject to the East India Company, but, in 1858, their 
 territories were transferred to the Crown. The British, however, who rule this vast 
 region, form but a small part of the population. The French and Portuguese have 
 some small settlements upon the coast. 
 
 43. In Indo-China, the British possessions include Lower Bur- 
 mah and the protectorate established over some small Malay 
 Slates, which, with the islands of Penang and Singapore, consti- 
 tute the territory called The Straits Settlements. 
 
 The kingdom of Upper Burmah is now partially conquered by the British, who 
 claim entire possession of the country. They also possess Ceylon, a fine, populous, 
 fertile island, and the Laccadive and Maldive Islands, which are of coral forma- 
 tion and but thinly inhabited, 
 
 These territories, in both Hindustan and Farther India, are known under the gen 
 eral name of liriiish Imiin. They have a government similar, in some respects, to 
 that of the Dominion of Canada, and are under the control of the Governor-Gen 
 eral, who resides at Calcutta. The Queen of England is also " Empress of India." 
 
 Questions.— Name the capital of Japan. '"The~principal ports for foreign trade. 
 Name the two peninsulas of India. What are the monsoons? What efi'ect have they 
 upon the climate ? Name the chief productions of India. The exports. Some of 
 the animals. What is caste? What does British India include ? 
 
ASIA. 
 
 99 
 
 44. Towns. — India contains many important cities. Calcutta, the 
 capital, is a very large city, and the seat of an extensive trade. 
 
 Bombay and Madras are next in commercial importance. Benares is the seat of 
 Hindu learning. Pondicherry is the capital of the French possessions in Hindu- 
 stan, and Goa of those belonging to Portugal. The larger cities of India are con- 
 nected by railroads, which have greatly increased and developed the inland trade. 
 
 Eanfoon is the most important town of Lower Burmah, and famous for its golden 
 paooda. Singapore, at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, is remark- 
 able for its situation and its trade. Mandalay was formerly the capital of Bur- 
 mah, but is now controlled by the British. 
 
 45. INDEPENDENT STATES . — Among the mountains forming 
 the northern boundary of India are several States which are not 
 under the control of European Powers. 
 
 Kafii-iatan is a very mountainous country lying north of Afghanistan, between 
 the Russian and the English possessions. This State, in connection with a part of 
 Pamir, is independent, and inhabited by the Siah Posh, a remarkable race resem- 
 bling the inhabitants of Europe. The Mohammedans have many times invaded, 
 but never conquered, these countries. 
 
 Knshmir, Nepiil, Jihotan, and Sikhlm, on the northern slope of the Himalaya 
 Mountains, are independent States. Kaslimir is the most important, and is an 
 exceedingly fertile country. Sirinagar is the capital. 
 
 Many of the States of Hindustan, such as Hyderabad, Mysore, etc., are nearly 
 independent. They pay an annual tribute to Great Britain under guarantee of 
 protection. Many other State."!, besides paying tribute, place a force of natives at 
 the disposal of the British to resist a common enemy. 
 
 46. Besides Burmah and the other British possessions, Indo- 
 China comprises the Kingdom of Sinm, with its tributaries, and the 
 French Possessions, which include Lower Cochin- China, Tongking, 
 and the protected kingdoms of Cambodia and Annam. 
 
 Little is known about Siam except that it is a rich and fertile country, to which 
 are tributary some States of the Malay renUiaiUa and part of the Shan Tribes, 
 who live in Central Indo-China. Bangkok, the capital, is a floating city ; for many 
 of the houses are built upon rafts, which line boifi banks of the great river Meinam 
 ()nay-e-nahm') for several miles. 
 
 The most important cities of the French possessions are Hanoi or Ke.'ho. in 
 Tongking, and Saigon, in Lower Cochin-China. The latter is an important, well- 
 built, and populous city, and one of the principal seaports of the Indies. Udong 
 is capital of Cambodia, and Hue of Annam. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN AND BELUCHISTAN. 
 
 47. The greater part "of this region is mountainous and barren, 
 though there are many fertile valleys. 
 
 The inhabitants of the barren regions generally lead a nomadic life, and are rude, 
 turbulent, and warlike. The fertile portions are occupied by a settled population, 
 and contain several large cities. 
 
 48. Towns.— Cabul is the capital of Afghanistan, and Herat is 
 the principal city. Kelat is the capital and largest city of Belu- 
 chistan, which is a confederation of Khanates. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 49. The table-land which forms the greater part of Persia is 
 dry and barren, and subject to great extremes of heat and cold ; 
 but the mountain-valleys, and other well-watered tracts, are 
 exceedingly fertile. 
 
 50. Productions.— The natural productions are fruits, grain, rice, 
 cotton, assafcetida, and the vine. 
 
 The people are very skillful in the making of various silk and cotton fabrics, 
 shawls, carpets, leather, and perfumery. 
 
 Questions.-Name the principal cities in British India. Describe the Inde- 
 pendent States. Those which are partially independent. What is said of Siam? 
 Of the French Possessions ? Name the important cities. Describe Afghanistan and 
 Belnchistan. Of what does the latter consist ? What is said of Persia ? 
 
 51. The government of Persia is a despotic monarchy. The 
 
 sovereign is called the Shah. 
 
 The chiefs of the warlike mountain-tribes, and other unsettled portions of the 
 population, are but little dependent on the royal authority. 
 
 52. Towns.— Teheran is the capital. Tabreez, Meshid, and Ispa- 
 han are important cities. Bender-Bushire is the principal seaport. 
 
 Tlie British government, as the result of hostilities with Persia in 1Sj6 and 1¥57, 
 may be said to have the control of the Persian Gulf, having gained a station at 
 Bender-Bushire and several other places on the coast. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 53. The greater part of Arabia is a desert plateau. In the 
 interior, however, are ranges of low mountains and many fertile 
 valleys. There is also a fertile belt of low plains along the coiist. 
 
 The principal productions are dates, figs, and other fruits, spices, coffee, and aro- 
 matic gums. Pearls are obtained in great numbers in the Persian Gulf. 
 
 The camel, which affords almost the only conveyance for goods and passengers 
 across the desert, is the most important animal. The Arabian horses are celebrated 
 for their beauty and speed, and are regarded by their owners with great affection. 
 
 54. Arabia has never been subject to one sovereign, but the 
 Turkish Empire has a religious and semi-political power along the 
 western coast in Hedjez and Yemen, where Mecca and Medina, the 
 sacred cities of the Mohammedans, are situated. 
 
 Arabia includes three principal powers— Shomer and Nejed, which have a fer- 
 tile soil, a, settled population, and some well-built towns and cities, and the Sul- 
 tanate of Oman, which includes the eastern and southern part, of the peninsula, 
 portions of the Persian Gulf coast, and some districts on the coast of Beluchistan. 
 
 A BEDOUIN ENCAMPMENT. 
 
 55. Inhabitants.— A large part of the population are inhabitants 
 of the deseri, styled Bedouins, who look with contempt upon the 
 dwellers in the towns. 
 
 The Bedouins are a wandering people, devoting themselves to the care of their 
 camels, horses, goats, and sheep. They are generous and hospitable, but quarrel- 
 some, revengeful, and addicted to plunder. 
 
 56. Towns. — Muscat is the largest and most important city. 
 Hayel and Eiad are the principal inland towns. Eiad is the cap- 
 ital of Nejed. 
 
 T^Iuscat is a walled city, and has a good harbor well protected by forts. It is the 
 commercial emporium for Persia and Arabia, and is the center of the pearl trade. 
 Aden belongs to Great Britain. 
 
 Questions.— What is the government of Persia? Name the capital. The other 
 important places. What parts of Arabia are fertile? What are some of the pro- 
 ductions? What is said of the government? Of the inhabitants? Of the 
 Bedouins? Name the most important towns. To whom does Aden belong? 
 
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104 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Q!<^5^<?f^^ 
 
 8. The largest lakes in Africa are Victoria Nyanza, Alliert Nyanza, 
 and Albert Edwarrl Nyanza (sources of the Nile), Lakes Tchad, Tan- 
 ganyika, Nyassa, Moero, Bangweolo, Tzana (Dembea), and Ngami. 
 
 Victoria Nyanza is, with the exception of Lake Superior, the largeist fresh-water 
 lake in the world. Lake Tchad, which is larger than Lake Erie, has no known 
 outlet, although it is a fresh-water lake. Lake Tanganyika flows into the Congo 
 through the Lukuga River. Lake Nyassa, discovered by Dr. Livingstone in 1859, 
 is larger than Lake Ontario. Lake Tzana, on the Abyssinian Plateau, at the head 
 of the Blue Nile, is the highest lake, and Lake Tchad is the lowest. 
 
 9. Climate. — Africa is the hottest and driest of the Grand Di- 
 visions. The cliiiiale of the coast regions is, in general, unhealthful. 
 
 In the country between 15° N. and 20° S. latitude, there are copious rains during 
 six months in the year. The rest of Africa is rainless, except on the Mediterranean 
 shores, on the mountains, and in areas supplied with moisture by ofcean-breezea. 
 Snow seldom falls on the lowlands. 
 
 The Sahara is the largest rainless region of the globe. The north-east winds 
 that blow over it have left their moisture on the highlands of Asia, and the winds 
 from the Indian Ocean have left their moisture on the Abyssinian Plateau. 
 
 The absence of vapor contributes to extremes of temperature, and a day of in- 
 tense heat in the desert may be followed by a night whote temperature is at the 
 freezing-point Hot, parching winds from the Sahara prevail, at times, in Egypt, 
 Guinea, and Southern Europe. 
 
 10. Productions and Animals. — In the region of periodical rains 
 Africa has a luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 The more noted trees are the baobab, the acacia, the date-palm, the sago-palm, the 
 oil-palm, the mangrove, the tamarind, and a Hpecies of bread-fruit tree. Evergreen 
 oaks, pines, myrtles, and laurels grow in the North. Ebony is an important product 
 of Madagascar and the Portuguese Possessions. OofFee is a native of Abyssinia. 
 The "travelers' tree," whose stalks yield water pure enough to drink, is peculiar 
 to Madagascar. The papyrus and the lotus belong to the Nile. 
 
 The banana, the yam, and the manioc are among the valuable food-plants. 
 Itiue, wheat, maize, and barley grow abundantly in Egypt Rud other countries. 
 Figs, oranges, grapes and wine ; grain, dates, and almonds ; coffee, sugar, and 
 molasses ; olives and olive-oil ; spices, palm-oil, gums, wax, tobacco, indigo and other 
 dyes ; senna, myrrh, and aloes ; wool, skins, leather, ivory, tortoise-shell, and ostrich- 
 feathers ; cotton, hemp, and flax ; and gold-dust and diamonds are the chief exports. 
 Copper, iron, lead, and salt are widely diffused. Coal is found in the extreme South. 
 
 Questions. — Name the largest lakes. What is said of Victoria Nyanza? Of 
 Albert Nyanza? Of Lake Tchad? Into what large river does Lake Tanganyika 
 flow? Which is the highest lake in Africa? The lowest? What is said of the 
 climate? What parts of Africa are unhealthful? What is said of the rainfall? 
 Name some of the noted trees. Some of the important food-plants. The minerals. 
 
 '9 ^^tv^ 
 
 11. Among the animals peculiar to Africa are the African 
 elephant, the hippopotamus, the African rhinoceros, the giraffe, the 
 zebra, and thequagga; the mandrill, the gorilla, and the chim- 
 panzee ; and the gazelle, the gnu, and other antelopes. 
 
 Other native anim.als are the lion, the jackal, the hyena, the leopard, and the 
 panther; the zebu, the camel, and the buffalo ; the crocodile and the i>ython ; the 
 ostrich, the secretary-bird, the ibis, and the guinea-fowl ; monkeys and apes of great 
 variety ; and sheep and goats of peculiarly valuable kinds. 
 
 12. Inhabitants.— The population of xifrica is about 168,500,000, 
 le.ss than one-half of the population of Europe. The people belong 
 chiefly to two races — the Ethiopian and the Caucasian. 
 
 The negroes — who constitute four-fifths of the population — live in the central 
 and the southern parts. -The white race occupy Northern Africa, the Sahara, Abys- 
 sinia, and settlements on the coasts. The inhabitants of Madagascar are Malays. 
 
 Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion of the white people of the North. In 
 Abyssinia and in the European colonies, Christianity is the prevailing religion. 
 The negroes, in general, are pagans or fetich worshippers. 
 
 13. 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 For convenience of description, Africa may be divided into 
 NorUiern, Eastern, Southern, Western, and Central Africa. 
 
 NORTHERN AFRICA. 
 
 14. Northern Africa comprises Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli; the Sahara; and the Nile Countries. 
 
 The most important food-plants in this region are millet and the date-palm tree. 
 The southern part of Algeria is called Beled el Jerid ("Land of Dates"). Rice, 
 wheat, tobacco, sugar, and cotton are raised in Egypt. Grain, olive-oil, dates, 
 almonds, wax, and leather are the chief exports. 
 
 15. IVlarocco is an independent empire. Algeria and Tunis 
 belong to France. Tripoli is nominally subject to Turkey. Fezzan 
 is tributary to Tripoli. 
 
 The inhabitants carry on an extensive trade with the negro tribes, south of the 
 Great Desert, and they export wool, goat-skins, leather, olive oil, and various fruits. 
 Fez, Mequinez, Marocco, Algiers, and Tunis are the chief cities. 
 
 Questions.— Name some of the animals peculiar to Africa. Give the population. 
 What is said of the people? Of their religion ? How may Africa be divided ? What 
 does Northern Africa comprise? What are the principal productions? Which of 
 the states bordering on the Mediterranean is independent? To what nation do 
 Algeria and Tunis belong ? Name the chief cities. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 105 
 
 16. The Sahara consists largely of sandy and stony tracts, but 
 contains many oases, or fertile spots. Although it can only be crossed 
 by the aid of camels, an extensive caravan trade is carried on be- 
 tween the interior and the sea-port towns. 
 
 The numerous inhabitants of the oases dwell in walled towns and cultivate estc-n- 
 sive plantations. The people in the weptern portion of the desert are Moors in the 
 central portion Tuaricks, and in the eastern Tibboos. The Tuaricks frequently 
 plunder the caravans. The Tibboos are not a nomadic race, but cultivate the soil 
 and tend their flocks. S.ilt is found in the desert in large quantities. 
 
 17. The Nile Countries are Egypt, Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, and 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 18. Egypt, celebrated for its pyramids, and its ruins of ancient 
 cities and temples, is the most important and interesting country in 
 Africa. It is the oldest civilized nation known to iistory. 
 
 Though nominally subject to Turkey, Egypt is practically inHependent, having 
 its own ruler (styled the Khedive), but paying tribute to the Turkish Government. 
 
 The Suez Canal, across the Isthmus from Port Said to. Suez, is one of the greatest 
 engineering works of modern times. It is about 100 miles long, 72 feet wide at 
 the bottom, and 24 feet deep. Vessels by passing through this canal can make 
 much shorter voyages between European ports and those of Southern Asia. 
 
 19. Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur.— Nubia is nominally subject to 
 Egypt. Kordofan and Darfur, formerly claimed by Egypt, are now 
 part of the British Possessions in Africa. 
 
 Although it rarely or never rains in Middle or Lower Egypt, the land is watered 
 by the annual overflow of the river NUe, making the country extremely fertile. 
 
 Alexandria is the chief sea-port of Egypt. Cairo, the capital, is the largest city 
 in Africa. Khartoom is the only city of any considerable size in Nubia. 
 
 20. Abyssinia consisted until lately ofthree separate State.'. Tliey 
 are now united under the government of a Negus or emperor, 
 and nominally under the protection of Italy. 
 
 Gondar is the capital of Abyssinia. Most of the people profess the Christian 
 religion, but their faith is obscured by many barbarous and superstitious ceremonies. 
 
 EASTERN AFRICA. 
 
 21. Eastern Africa includes the countries upon the coast, from the 
 Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb to the Tropic of Capricorn. The principal 
 divisions are British East Africa, German East Africa, and the 
 Portuguese Possessions. The country north of British East Africa 
 is occupied by a people called the Somalies. 
 
 Zanzibar City is on the Island of Zanzibar. 
 
 SOUTHERN AFRICA. 
 
 22. Southern Africa comprises Cape Colony, Natal, Caffraria, Zulu- 
 laud, Biisotulaiid, and Griqualand, which are British possessions ; 
 the South African Republic and Orange Free State,-also Bechuana- 
 land which is under the protection of Great Britain. 
 
 The South African Republic and Orange Free State are inhabited by negro tribes 
 and Dntch boers, or farmers ; the latter being the ruling class. The Western Coast, 
 including 2Jamaqua and Damara Land, belongs to Germany. 
 
 23. Cape Colony is the most important division of Southern 
 Africa. About one-half of the inhabitants are Dutch and English. 
 
 Cape Town, the chief city, carries on an extensive trade with Great Britain and 
 other foreign countries. Wool is the principal article of export. 
 
 Questions. — Describe the Sahara ? Which are the Nile countries? For what is 
 Egypt celebrated? Describe the Suez Canal? By whom is Nubia claimed? To 
 whom does Kordofan and Darfur belong? What is said of Abyssinia? What are 
 the principal divisions of Eastern Africa? Where is Zanzibar City' Mozambique? 
 What does Southern Africa comprise? What divisions belong to tlie British? 
 Describe Orange Free State. South African Republic. Cape Colony. 
 
 WESTERN AFRICA. 
 
 24. Western Africa includes the countries along the coast from the 
 Great Desert to the Tropic of Capricorn. The principal divisions 
 are the British, French, German and Portuguese Possessions, Liberia 
 and Sierra Leone. 
 
 Ziberia is a negro republic, with a government modelled after that of the United 
 States. It was founded in 1821 by the American Colonization Society as a place 
 of refuge for free blacks and liberated slaves. Monrovia, the capital and chief 
 town, is a place of considerable trade, and contains many schools and churches. 
 
 Sierra Leone is a British Colony, and was founded in 1787 as a refuge for liberated 
 slaves. Free Town is the chief town. 
 
 Guinea was the name formerly given to the coast region extending from Liberia 
 to Cape Frio, now occupied by Great Britain, France, Germany and Portugal. 
 
 CENTRAL AFRICA. 
 
 25. Central Africa comprises Soudan, the Congo Free State, and 
 the rest of the plateau as far as Southern Africa. 
 
 Smidar \, % plain of great fertility, and embraces the basin of Lake Tchad and 
 the greater part of that of the river Niger. It is well peopled by various tribes 
 and nations, consisting principally of Moors, Berbers, and negroes. The people, as 
 a whole, are superior to the inhabitants of the coast. Some of them work skilfully 
 in gold, iron, and leather, and weave and dye substantial cotton fabrics. 
 
 South of Soudan the country was, until recently, but little known, and some of 
 it is still unexplored. In 1876 and '77, Henry M. Stanley made a long and peril- 
 ous journey across Africa, through almost impenetrable forests, exposed to continual 
 attacks from hostile natives. After exploring Lake Tanganyika, he followed the 
 course of the Lualaba River from Nyangwe to the Atlantic Ocean, finding it to be 
 the main stream of the Congo. This important discovery, and the previous explora- 
 tions south of Nyangwe, by Commander Cameron, prove that the source of the 
 Congo is Lake Bangweolo, or Bemba. 
 
 Congo Free State. — These discoveries led Leopold II., King of Belgium, to organ- 
 ize the International Association of the Congo, and the services of Stanlev were 
 secured to execute the plans of the Association. His triumph over the dangers 
 encountered, and the successful establishment of stations along the river, resulted 
 in the formation of the Congo Free State, which has a civilized government and is 
 pledged to free trade, freedom of religion, and the suppression of the slave trade. 
 
 In 1887, Stanley undertook anotlier journey across the continent for the purpo.«e 
 of rescuing Einin Pasha, a noted explorer, who was supposed to be held a prisoner 
 by the inhabitants of the Upper Nile region. Starting from the mouth of the 
 Congo River with a numerous force, but little intelligence concerning him reached 
 the civilized world until the latter part of 1889, when he appeared on the eastern 
 coast, near Zanzibar, having accomplished the object of his journey and made many 
 important geographical discoveries. 
 
 The productions of Eastern, Western, and Central Africa, are such as belong to 
 the Torrid Zone. Palm oil, ivory, gold-dust. India-rubber, cotton, and the variotu 
 nuts and fruits with which the country abounds are collected by the natives and 
 exported from the towns along the coast. 
 
 Savage and powerful animals, such as the lion, elephant, rMnoceros, hippopotamus; 
 and the gorilla, a gigantic species of ape, abound in this portion of Africa. 
 
 THE AFRICAN ISLANDS. 
 26. Madagascar, the largest island of Africa, is a mountainous 
 but fertile kingdom. Antananarivo is the capital and largest city, 
 and Tamatave is the most important seaport. 
 
 B6unioo and Mauritius Islands are east of Madagascar. The former belongs to 
 France, the latter, to England. The Amirante and Seychelle Islands are depen- 
 dencies of Mauritius. Socotra belongs to England. 
 
 The Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd Islands belong to Portugal ; the Canaries, to 
 Spain. Fruit, sugar, coffee, cochineal, and salt are the chief exports. 
 
 St. Helena and Ascension are British islands. The former is notea as having 
 been the place of exile of the Emperor Napoleon, who died there in 1821. 
 
 Questions. — What are the principal divisions of Western Africa? What Euro- 
 pean governments have settlements upon the coast ? What is said of Liberia 'r 
 Describe Soudan. ^Vhat is said of the inhabitants? What important discovery 
 was made by Stanley in 1S77? What is the Congo Free State? What is said of 
 its government' Describe Stanley's Infer journey. Xame some of the exports of 
 Africa. The principal animals. Describe the largest African island. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
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110 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 o 
 
 General Divisions. 
 
 OEANIOA consists entirely of islands, which belong to the 
 following divisions : Malaysia, Australasia, and Polynesia. 
 
 MALAYSIA. 
 
 16. Malaysia — sometimes called the Eastern or Malay Archipelago 
 — is peopled chiefly by the Malay race. It is divided into four 
 groups — the Philippine Islands; the Borneo Group; the Celebes 
 Group (including the Spice Islands); and the Sunda Islands. 
 
 This Archipelago lies in the Torrid Zone, under or near the Equator, which passes 
 through Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and Gilolo. The principal entrances to Malaj-sia 
 from the south are by way of Sunda and Bally Straits, and through the Strait of 
 Malacca (commonly called "The Straits ") from the west. 
 
 17. Climate. — The climate, especially in the central groups, is very 
 hot. These islands were formerly considered unhealtbful, but, except 
 in some small marshy districts, the climate is as salubrious as that 
 of any tropical country, and at the altitude of 500 feet there exists 
 a remarkably healthful region of perpetual spring. 
 
 18. Surface and Vegetable Productions. — No part of the world is 
 richer in its vegetable productions than Malaysia, but these vary 
 with each of the four groups above named. 
 
 19. The Sanila Islands are traversed throughout their entire 
 length by a chain of high volcanic peaks covered with dense forests 
 and remarkable for their frequent eruptions. 
 
 In 1883 more than 100,000 people perished in Java from an earthquake which 
 resulted from the eruption of Krakatoa, a little volcanic island in the Stniit of 
 Sunda. Native traditions state that Sumatra, Java, and Bally once constituted a 
 single island, which was torn asunder by earthquakes and volcanic disturbances. 
 
 The soil is very fertile. Eice is cultivated in most of the islands. Coffee, cotton, 
 sugar, and indigo are exported in immense quantities. Cochineal, tobacco, and tea 
 are raised with great success. All the tropical fruits grow here luxuriantly. 
 
 20. The Celebes Group. — The great island of Celebes, with 
 
 Gilolo and the numerous other islands forming the group called 
 
 the Spice Islands, lies almost directly under the Equator. 
 
 The Climate is warmer and drier than that of the Sunda Islands. Bice is not so 
 abundant as in the Sunda Islands, and sago supplies its place. The superior quality of 
 spices which are especially characteristic of these islands gives them great importance. 
 
 21. The Borneo Oroup has the same productions as the Spice 
 Islands in the south, but resembles the Celebes Group in the pro- 
 ductions of the northern and eastern parts. 
 
 22. The Philippine Islands are mountainous and volcanic, and 
 have a luxuriant vegetation combining the productions of Malaysia 
 with some of the characteristic products of China. 
 
 Questions. — Into what groups is Malaysia divided? Which group is volcanic? 
 What remarkable eruption occurred in 1885? Describe the climate. What is said 
 of the vegetation ? How does it vary in the different groups ? 
 
 The soil is very fertile and the climate moist. Rice, sugar, cotton, silk, tobacco, 
 coffee, hemp, some spices, and a great varietj' of fruits are the principal products. 
 
 23. Malaysia is remarkable for its dense forests, containing a great 
 variety of palm trees (some species of which are the largest known), 
 upas, teak (valuable for timber), bamboo, sandal-wood, ebony, etc. 
 
 It is also noted for the bread-fruit, orange, lemon, mangousteen, mango, banana, 
 cocoanut, melon, etc. Sweet potatoes are also found here. Great quantities of 
 timber, gutta-percha, and camphor are exported from Sumatra and Borneo. 
 
 24. Animals. — The orang-outang is found in Borneo. Some other 
 species of large apes are found in Sumatra. The Asiatic elepl ant, 
 the one-horned rhinoceros, and the tapir also live in this island. 
 
 The tiger, leopard, tiger-cat, hippopotamus, a great variety of small-sized monkey.", 
 the wild boar, wild ox, buffalo, deer, babironssa, numerous insects, and enormon.s 
 serpents are found in all the islands. The black panther lives in Java, and croco- 
 diles aTe plenty in the rivers. Domestic animals, such as hogs, cattle, goats, and 
 sheep, are abundant. The birds are remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. 
 
 25. Minerals. — The mineral resources of Malaysia are very great, 
 but have not been fully developed. 
 
 Java furnishes only salt, naphtha, asphaltum, and lignite. Sumatra and Borneo 
 are among the richest countries in the world in minerals. Tin, gold, copper, iron, 
 petroleum, lignite, sulphur, and saltpeter are obtained from Sumatra. Banca and 
 Billiton fuf-nish great quantities of tin. Coal is found in Labuan Island. Gold, 
 diamonds, coal, antimony, mercury, etc., exist in Borneo, but the mines are not 
 worked. Good coal, gold, iron, and sulphur are exported from the Philippine Islands. 
 
 26. Inhabitants. — The ruling people of the Archipelago are the 
 Malays. They are much engaged in agricultural pursuits. In tie 
 northern part of Borneo, the Sulu Islands, and the southern part 
 of Mindanao many of them are pirates. 
 
 The population of Malaysia is §bout 38,000,000. In the interior of the larger 
 islands .are tribes of savages, some of whom, in Sumatra, are cannibals. There are 
 also many Chinese and, in the commercial towns, a few Europeans. 
 
 The greater part of Malaysia is owned and controlled by the Dutch. Among 
 their possessions are included two-thirds of Sumatra, the southern part of Borneo, 
 Celebes, Gilolo, and the other Spice Islands, the, southern part of Timor, Sumbawa, 
 Lombock, Bally, Java, and Madura. 
 
 Java contains more than half the population of Oceanica, and in proportion to 
 its area ranks second among the thickly-populated countries of the world, having 
 446 inhabitants to the square mile, while Belgium has 535 and tlie Bntisli Isles 312. 
 
 The Philippine and Sulu Islands belong to Spain. The Portuguese possess tiie 
 northern part of Timor. Sarawak (Borneo) is controlled, and the island of Labuan 
 is owned, by the English. 
 
 27. Towns.— Batavia, the capital of the Dutch possessions, Soura- 
 baya, and Samarang, in Java, Benculen and Palembang, in Sumatra, 
 Manilla, the capital of the Spanish possessions, are the most import- 
 ant towns and the chief commercial ports of Malaysia. 
 
 Questions.— What is said of the trees? Of the animals ? Of the minerals? Who 
 are the ruling people of Malaysia? What is the population? Which island if 
 mofet densely populated ? What European powers have possession in Malaysia? 
 
OCEANICA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 28. Australasia is the largest division of Oceanica. It comprises 
 Australia, Papua, or New Gkiinea, Tasmania, Neio Zealand New 
 Caledonia, and many other islands of less importance. 
 
 The natives (except in New Zealand) belong to different varieties of the Papuan 
 family, a negroid (" negro-like ") race. Their color varies from chocolate to black. 
 Many of the tribes are cannibals, and nearly all are savages. 
 
 29. AUSTRALIA is about as large as the United States without 
 Alaska. It is the largest island in the world, and on that account 
 is sometimes regarded as a continent. 
 
 30. Surface and Climate.— Near the coast almost the entire island 
 seems to be guarded by mountain-ranges, but only along the south- 
 eastern coast are there any high chains. 
 
 The Australian Alps and the Blue Mountains (2000 to 6000 feet) are the highest. 
 The general altitude of the Australian table-land is from 500 lo 600 feet. Most 
 of the interior is a desert with some salt or marshy lakes, the most important of 
 which are Lake Eyre, Lake Torrens, Lake Gairdner, and Lake Amadeus. 
 
 The Murray, the largest river, is about 1000 miles long. The plain drained by 
 it and its tributary, the Darling, is generally hot and barren, rising gradually to 
 the mountains on the co.ist; during the rainy season these rivers are flooded. 
 
 The northern half of the country is tropical. The southern part has a mild, 
 sub-tropical temperature. Midsummer conies at Christmas. 
 
 31. The northern and eastern slopes are well watered, and the 
 
 interior, near the mountains, is moist enough for grazing or tillage. 
 
 Upon the vast hot plains of the desert rain does not fall for many months ; but 
 when, at last, the heavy clouds succeed in passing the mountain-barriers, the' rain 
 falls in torrents, filling the dry beds of the rivers and flooding the thirsty plains. 
 
 32. Vegetable Productions. — Wheat, maize, and other grains, the 
 vine, the mulberry, the olive, the orange, and the lemon, have been 
 introduced by European settlers. 
 
 The natural vegetation is different from that of any other part of the world. 
 The forests are usually light and open, for the leaves of the trees are narrow and 
 upright; so that they do not shut out the sunlight. The gigantic eucalyptus,, or 
 gum tree, is a native of Australia. When it grows in wet lands, it absorbs a 
 very great quantity of moisture, and thus prevents the exhalation of poisonous 
 vapors. It sheds its bark instead of its leaves. 
 
 The grass is of superior quality, and sustains numerous flocks of sheep and 
 immense herds of c.ittle in the western and south-eastern parts of the island, 
 
 33. Animals. — The native animals are very diflFerent from those 
 of other countries. The domestic animals have all been brought 
 into the country by the early settlers. 
 
 The kangaroo and many other animals of Australia carry their young in pouches. 
 The platypus has the bill and the webbed feet of a duck, a body like that of an 
 otter, and lays eggs. There are many singular and beautiful birds in this country. 
 
 34. Minerals. — Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, iron, manganese, 
 
 antimony, coal, and diamonds are found in abundance. 
 
 Gold, the most important of the mineral productions, was first discovered in 
 1851. Its product since that time has been greater than that of all the rest of the 
 world except the gold districts of the United States. 
 
 35. Inhabitants. — The present inhabitants are chiefly Europeans 
 and their descendants. The indolent natives are fast dying out. 
 
 36. Government. — Australia consists of several British colonies, 
 which govern themselves and are independent of one another. 
 
 These colonies are New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, West Australia, 
 and Queensland. North Australia and Alexandra Land are thinly-settled districts. 
 
 Australia produces more wool than any other country, and the rich gold-fields 
 of New South Wales and Victoria place these colonies among the most important 
 divisions of Oceanica. The leading exports are wool and gold. 
 
 Questions. — To what race do the most of the natives of Australasia belong? 
 What is the height of the Australian table-land? What is said of the climate? The 
 productions? The forests? The animals? The minerals? Who are the present 
 inhabitants? Name the colonies. To what power are they subject ? 
 
 37. Towns.— Melbourne and Sydney are the principal commercial 
 cities. Adelaide is the capital of South Australia. Brisbane is the 
 most important city of Queensland, and Perth of West Australia. 
 
 38. TASMANIA is a mountainous island lying south-east of 
 Australia, and separated from it by Bass Strait. 
 
 It has a mild climate, a fertile soil, and an abundance of timber. Gold, copper, 
 iron, lead, coal, and tin are found here. Wool is the chief export. 
 
 39. NEW ZEALAND consists of two large and several small 
 islands, which lie 1500 miles south-east of Australia. 
 
 These islands are elevated, and traversed from north to south by a chain of high 
 volcanic mountains. The country is well wooded, and has a mild, rainy, and 
 equable cUmate. The exports are gold, flax, wool, and gum. 
 
 The natives (called Maons) are of the Malay stock, and are a well-formed, bold, 
 and intelligent race They were once ferocious cannibals, but by kind and just 
 treatment they are becoming peaceable and friendly to the whites. 
 
 Tasmania and New Zealand belong to Great Britain. 
 
 40. NEW CALEDONIA is a mountainous island belonging to 
 France. It is enclosed by coral reefs, is well wooded, and is rich 
 in coal, copper, and tin. 
 
 41. PAPUA or NEW GUINEA is the longest island in the world 
 except Australia. It is nominally possessed by the Dutch, Ger- 
 man, and English nations. 
 
 Little is known about this island. In the south-eastern peninsula is a chain of 
 high mountains. The Fly River drains the southern part of the island. The interior 
 is covered with dense tropical forests and inhabited by numerous tribes of savages. 
 
 Papua is remarkable for the great variety and beauty of its birds. The bird of 
 paradise is found only in this island and in Australia. 
 
 The name Melanesia — meaning " Islands of the Blacks " — is applied to Papua 
 and the islands east of the Coral Sea. 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 42. The principal groups of Polynesia are the Sandwich (or 
 Hawaiian), Ladrone (or Mariana), Caroline, Society (Tahiti), Mai-- 
 quesas, Samoan, and Feejee Islands. 
 
 43. Climate and Productions. — Nearly the whole of Polynesia is 
 in the Torrid Zone, but, modified by the ocean-breezes, the climate 
 is mild and delightful, though unhealthful for Europeans. 
 
 The Sandwicli Islands are high and volcanic, and the most important group of 
 Polynesia. Hawaii, the largest island, contains Mount Mauna Kea, the highest 
 peak of Oceanica. 
 
 Oranges, pine-apples, plantains, and bananas, the yam, the bread-fruit, and the 
 cocoa-nut, grow abundantly in the volcanic islands. Cotton and the sugar-cane are 
 raised in some of the islands. 
 
 Most of the coral islands are atolls — that is, narrow strips of land rising but a few 
 feet out of the water and enclosing a lagoon. They have a scanty vegetation, because, 
 having no highlands to condense the rain-clouds, they are subject to droughts. 
 
 When first discovered, these islands contained no animal larger than a hog; but 
 many of the domestic animals of Europe have been taken to Polynesia by white 
 settlers. Birds and insects are numerous. 
 
 44. Inhabitants. — The Polynesians are akin to the Malays. They 
 are a tall, finely-formed race. In the Sandwich Islands they have 
 been converted to Christianity. 
 
 The native inhabitants of the islands of Oceanica, especially those of the Hawaiian 
 Kingdom, are rapidly passing away before the white man, and, like the Indians 
 of North America, will doubtless at no distant day become extinct. 
 
 45. Towns. — Honolulu; on Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands, 
 is the only important town in Polynesia. 
 
 The Marquesas Group and Tahiti are owned by the Frencn. The TMdrone and 
 
 the Caroline Islands belong to Spain, and the Samoan Islands are under the pro- 
 tection of the United States. 
 
 Questions. — Name the principal towns of Australia. What is said of Tasmania? 
 Describe New Zealand. Its native inhabitants. What is said of New Caledonia? 
 Of Papua? What are the principal groups of Polynesia? Describe the climate 
 and productions. The inhabitants. 
 
OCEANICA. 
 
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114 
 
 COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MOST of tlie commerce between distant 
 nations Is carried on by sailing ves- 
 sels or by ocean steamers. Steamers can 
 usually follow a direct course, but sailing 
 vessels are often obliged to go many liun- 
 dred miles out of their way in order to 
 find favorable winds and currents. 
 
 Winds. —On the ocean the winds In the 
 Torrid Zone blow steadily from the east all 
 the year round. They are so useful to com- 
 merce that they are called Trade-Winds. 
 
 The trade--winas really extend "beyond the Torrid Zone 
 to about the thirtieth degree of latitude on each side 
 
 In the Indian Ocean, north of the Equator, the winds 
 blow constantly from Africa to Asia befween April and 
 October, and from Asia to Africa between October and 
 April. These winds are called Monsoons. 
 
 In the Temperate Zones the winds blow generally 
 from the we.st— that is, during the greater part of the 
 time they are from the west, north-west, or south-west. 
 
 Currents.— In many parts of the ocean 
 tlie water moves constantly in one direc- 
 tion, flowing like a great river through the 
 sea. These ocean-rivers are called Marine 
 Currents. Their velocity varies from 20 to 
 120 miles a day. 
 
 It is important for the navigator to know where to 
 find favorable winds and currents, and how to avoid 
 those which will oppose his course. 
 
 Questions on the Map and Text. 
 
 How is commerce between distant nations generally 
 carried on? Which class of vessels is the more dependent 
 upon winds and currents? Which class, therefore, can 
 make the shorter voyages? What sometimes prevents 
 a sailing vessel from making a direct course? 
 
 Where Is the region of the trade-winds? Why are 
 they so called? In what direction do they blow? Are 
 they east Tvinds, or wiest "winds ? What are the monsoons ? 
 What is the general direction of the winds in the 
 Temperate Zones? Which winds blow more steadily— 
 those of the Temperate or those of the Torrid Zone? 
 
 What are marine currents like? What Is their ve- 
 locity? ITrom "svhat gulf does the Gulf Stream issue? 
 What ocean does it cross? What current in the Pacific 
 Ocean corresponds to it? IIo"W do these two currents 
 affect the climate of the north-western shores of Eu- 
 rope and North America? Why should a sea-captain 
 know the locality and the direction of winds and 
 currents? 
 
 A Voyage from the Atlantic Ports of the United 
 States to Europe.— In what zone? What winds gene- 
 rally blo"w? Can the ship-captain "be sure at having 
 "westerly winds ? What favorable current may be fol- 
 lo'wed in this voyage? Which is usually the quicker 
 passage— from New York to Liverpool, or from Liver- 
 pool to New York? Why? 
 
 From the Atlantic Ports of Europe and the 
 United States to Asia and Australia.— Through 
 what belt of winds must the ship first pass? What 
 belt follows? What belt south of the trade-"winds? 
 Around what African cape will the vessel sail? "Why 
 does she not go around Cape Horn? 
 
 Across the Indian Ocean.— Suppose a vessel 
 bound from Portland, Maine, to Calcutta, arrives In 
 the Indian Ocean in December; will she find the 
 monsoons favorable, or unfavorable? If she is to go 
 from Calcutta to Cape Town, in what months will she 
 make the quickest passage? 
 
 Longitude 100 ..-• East 130 from 110 Greenwi/" 
 
 From the Atlantic Ports to San Francisco.— 
 
 Through what watei's and ai'ouud what capes would 
 a vessel sail in going from Philadelphia to San Prau- 
 cisco? What belts of winds would she cross? Through 
 what strait could a steamer pass, instead of going 
 around Cape Horn? 
 
 Send a cargo from Bo.ston to San Francisco via the 
 Isthmus of Panama; where would the Boston vessel 
 transfer the cargo, and where would it be reshipped? 
 
 From England to India there are several routes. 
 In going via the Cape of Good Hoiie, what winds are 
 found? In making a voyage from London to Calcutta 
 via the Suez Canal, what waters would you ui'oss ? 
 
 The overland or mail route to India is by way <; 
 France or Germany to the Mediterranean, and them"*' 
 by steamer ; trace this passage from London to Bon " 
 bay. From Hamburg to Calcutta. 
 
 A Voyage Around the World.— ASanFranclsi 
 
 merchant crosses the United States by railroad , 
 New York ; through what great cities may he pass"*' 
 He brings with him some car-loads of California pr."-' 
 ductlons ; name them. He seUs them in New Yor 
 and loads a ship for Ha"vre; what is the cargo? Ho ' 
 can he go to Marseilles via Paris ? In Paris and Lyoi 
 he selects goods for Calcutta; what are they? Trar 
 his route by steamer to Calcutta. "^^ 
 
Page Hi 
 
 MAP SHOWING 
 
 WIND ZONES, 
 
 ASD THE 
 
 COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ■ / -■ y- 
 
 Cold Current s -^ 
 Wami Currenf'a^z^-Z^ 
 JSxports in red 
 Caravan Houtes 
 
 ICO Longitude 110 AVest 120 from 100 Greenwicli 80 
 
 He sells Ills cargo in Calcutta, and sails to Canton, 
 ouchlng at Singapore: tlirougli what waters and 
 3lanas does he pass? He loads his ship at Canton; 
 i'ith what goods? Arriving at San Francisco, ile has 
 ompleted the Voyage Around the World. 
 
 Trade of the Principal Cities.— What articles 
 '"ould be exported from St. Petersburg to New Tork ? 
 ■'hy would not grain be among them ? Prom "what cities 
 1 our Southern States would New York Import cotton ? 
 i'hy not from Calcutta and Alexandria (Egypt)? 
 
 Why does London import grain ? From what port 
 n the Black Sea? Which does Liverpool import 
 liefly— raw or manufactured cotton? Which does 
 
 she export? What great city in South America ex- 
 ports coffee? What town in the West Indies? In 
 Java? In Arabia? 
 
 Is rice shipped from Calcutta to Canton? How 
 are furs sent from Kiachta to Pekin? What is re- 
 ceived in return? How is tea sent from Kiachta to 
 St. Petersburg? Wliat port in South America exports 
 copper and wheat? Is any of this wheat sent to San 
 Francisco? Does Rio Janeiro export, or import, hard- 
 w^are ? 
 
 Leading Productions.— Let the scholars name 
 some of the countries that produce each of the fol- 
 lo'wing articles: 
 
 Tea, 
 
 Cocoa, 
 
 Indigo, 
 
 Figs, 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 Opium, 
 
 Silk, 
 
 Spices. 
 
 Lemons, 
 
 Coal, 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Oranges, 
 
 Rice, 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cordage, 
 
 Sago, 
 
 Linen, 
 
 Tapioca, 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Ivory, 
 
 Salt flsh, 
 
 Furs, 
 
 Dates, 
 
 Bananas, 
 
 Flax, 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Almonds, 
 
 Wine, 
 
 Maize, 
 
 Cochineal, 
 
 Hemp, 
 
 Olives, 
 
 Chestnuts, 
 
 Hides, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Cocoanuts 
 
 Mahogany, 
 Petroleum, 
 Pine-apples, 
 Gum arahic, 
 Fancy-goods, 
 Naval stores, 
 Sarsaparllla, 
 India-rubber, 
 Attar of roses, 
 Peruvian bark, 
 Whale products. 
 Beet-root sugar. 
 Ostrich-feathers. 
 
Leading Exports from the Principal Commercial Centers. 
 
 Aberdeen.— Malt and Spirituous Liquors, Oatmeal, Salmon, StooMngs, Yarn. 
 
 Abomey.— Dyes, Gold, Ivory, Palm-oil. 
 
 Acapulco.— Cacao, Cattle-products, CocMneal, Copper, Drugs, Dyestuflfs, Fruits, 
 
 Grain, Indigo, Mahogany, Silver. 
 Alexandria.— Coffee, Cotton, Dates, Drugs, Grain, Bice, Sugar. 
 Algiers.- Cattle-products, Copper, Cork, Cotton, Dates, Grain, Indigo, 
 
 Leather, Olive-oil, Sugar. 
 Amsterdam.— Dairy-products, Fish, Manufactures, Spirituous Liquors. 
 Archangel.— Cattle-products, Flax, Forest-products, Oats, Bye. 
 Astrafeban.— Fish, Furs, Leather, Oil. 
 
 Anckland.— Cattle-products, Goal, Flax, Gold, Lumber, Wheat. 
 Bahia.— Brazil-wood, Coffee, Cotton, Diamonds, Drugs, Bice, Eubies, Sippbires, 
 
 Sugar, Tobacco. 
 Baltimore.— Canned Fruit, Coal, Flour, Grain, Oysters, Petroleum, Tobacco. 
 Ban gfeok.— Indigo, Opium, Bice, Spices, Sugar. 
 
 Barcelona ^Almonds, Cork, Fruits, Iron, Laces, Leather, Olive-oil, Quick- 
 silver, Silk, Tobacco, Wine, "Wool. 
 Batavia.— Cochineal, Coffee, Indigo, Bice, Spices, Sugar, Tin, Tobacco. 
 Belfast.— Dairy-products, Flax, Hemp, Linen, Malt and Spirituous Liquors. 
 Bergen.— Copper', Fish, Furs, Ice, Iron, Lumber, Tallow, Train-oil. 
 Bombay.— Coffee, Cotton, Cotton Manufactures, Indigo, Jute, Opium, Precious 
 
 Stones, Eice, Silk, Silk Manufactures, Spices, Sugar. 
 Bordeaux.- Brandy, Cotton Goods, Fruits, Silks, "Wine. 
 Boston.— Canned Provisions, Fish, Ice, New England Manufactures. 
 Bremen.— Flax, Glass, Grain, Hemp, Iron, Linen Goods, Malt and Spirituous 
 
 Liquors, "Woolen Goods, Yarn. Zinc. 
 Buenos Ayres.— Cattle-products, "Wool. 
 Bashirc.— Carpets, Cotton Goods, Drugs, Fruits, Perfumes, Shawls, Silks, 
 
 "Wool, "Woolen Goods. 
 Cadiz.— Fruits, Olive-oil, Sa'-o, Tobacco, "Wines, "Wool. 
 Calcutta.— Cotton, Cotton Goods, Indigo, Jute, Opium, Eaw Silk, Eice, Shawls, 
 
 Silks, Spices, Sugar, Tea. 
 Callao.— Cinchona Bark, Coca, Guano, Saltpetre, "Wool. 
 Canary Islands.— Archil, Coffee, Fruits, Honey, Sugar, "Wax, "Wine. 
 Canton.— Fans, Matting, Porcelain, Silk, Silk Goods, Tea. 
 
 Cape Town.— Cattle-products, Coffee, Copper, Diainonds, Ivory, Ostrich- 
 feathers, "Wheat, "Wine, "Wool. 
 Cartagena.— Cinchona Bark, Coffee, Cotton, Tobacco. 
 Cayenne.— Cacao, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Spices, Sugar. 
 Charleston.— Cotton, Naval Stores, Eice. 
 Chicago.- Beef, Grain, Live-stock, Lumber, Pork. 
 Cincinnati.- Beef, Flax, Grain, Live-stock, Pork, Tobacco. 
 Constantinople.- Carpets, Cotton, Drugs, Fruits, Grain, Leather, Olive-oil, 
 
 Perfumes, Silks, Tobacco, "Wine, "Wool. 
 Cork.— Laces, Linens, Liquors, Silk and "Woolen Manufactures. 
 Dantzic— Beer, Cotton Goods, Flax, Grain, Linen, "Wine, "Wool. 
 Galveston.- Cattle, Corn, Cotton, Fruits, Hides, Eice, Sugar, Tobacco, "Wool. 
 tJenoa.- Brandy, Fruits, Marble, Olive-oil, Silks, "Velvets, "Wines. 
 Georgetown (Guiana).— Cacao, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Molasses, Bum, Spices, 
 
 Sugar, Tobacco, Vanilla. 
 Glasgow.— Chemicals, Cotton, Iron, and "Woolen Manufactures, Fish, Ships. 
 Gottenburg.— Copper, Graih, Gunpowder, Iron, Leather, Lumber, Naval 
 
 Stores, Skins, Tallow. 
 Guayaquil.- Cacao, Cinchona Bark, Coffee, Cotton, Honey, "Wax. 
 Halifax.— Coal, Fish, Grindstones, Gypsum, Lumber, Potatoes, Sheep. 
 Hamburg.- Cotton, Linen, and "Woolen Manufactures, Glass, Grain, Malt 
 
 Liquors, Eibbons, Velvets, Yarn. 
 Havana.- Cacao, Cocoa-nut, Coffee, Fruits, Mahogany, Molasses, Bum, Spices, 
 
 Sugar, Tobacco, "Wax. 
 Havre.- Brandy, Chemicals, Clothing, Cork, Cotton, Linen, Silk, and "Woolen 
 
 Manufactures, Fruits, Glass, Gloves, Jewelry, Laces, Leather, Olive-oil, 
 
 Perfumes, Porcelain, Toys, "Various Objects of Art, "Wines. 
 Honolulu.— Cocoa-nut Oil, Coffee, Cotton, Sugar, Tallow, Wool. 
 IrUutsU.- Cotton, Fruits, Porcelain, Bice, Silk, Sugar, Tea (received from 
 
 China via Klachta). 
 Jamaica.— Cacao, Cocoa-nut, Coffee, Drugs, Fruits, Molasses, Eum, Spices, 
 
 Sugar. 
 Iia Guayra.— Cacao, Cattle-produots, Coffee, Fruits, Indigo, Sugar, Tobacco, 
 lilsbon.- Cork, Fruits, OUve-oll, Salt, Silk, Wine, Wool. 
 I.lverpool.— Carpets, Chemicals, Coal, Cotton Goods, Cutlery, £arthea-ware, 
 
 Glass, Iron-ware, Linen, Liuuors. Woolou Goods. 
 U6 
 
 london.— Manufactures and Productions of the British Empire. 
 
 I^yons Corn, Gold and Silver Stuffs, Eibbons, Silks, Velvets, Wines. 
 
 Madeira Islands.— Coffee, Fruits, Nuts, Sugar, Wine. 
 
 Malaga.— Almonds, Grapes, Lemons, Oranges, Baisins, Wines. 
 
 Manilla.— Cigars, Coffee, Cordage, Hemp, Indigo, Bice, Spices, Straw Hais, 
 
 Sugar, Tobacco. 
 Marocco.— Almonds, Hides, Leather, Olive-oil, Wheat, Wool. 
 Marseilles.- Anchovies, Brandy, Cork, Cotton Goods, Fruits, Olive-oil, Sardines, 
 
 Silks, Wine. 
 Mauritius.- Indigo, Sugar, "Vanilla. 
 
 Melbourne.— Copper, Cotton, Gold, Hides, Tallow, Wheat, Wool. 
 Mobile.— Cotton, Naval Stores. 
 
 Mocha.— Coffee, Dates, Gum Arabic, Myrrh, Pearls. 
 Monrovia.— Coffee, Gums, Palm-oil, Spices, Sugar, Wax. 
 Montevideo.- Beef, Hides, Horns, Tallow, Wool. 
 Montreal.— Dairy-products, Grain. Lumber. 
 Jfew Orleans.— Breadstuffs, Cotton, Sugar, Tobacco. 
 New "yorli.- Beef, Cotton, Grain, Iron and Iron Manufactures, Petroleum, 
 
 Pork, Tobacco. 
 Odessa.— Chemicals, Flax, Hemp, Leather, Linen Manufactures, Salt, Tallow 
 
 Timber, Tobacco, Wheat. 
 Oporto.— Cork, Fruits, Olive-Oil, Wine, Wool. 
 Panama.— Cinchona Bark, Coffee, Cotton, Hats, Tobacco. 
 Para.— Cacao, Coffee, Cotton, Diamonds, Drugs, Dyestuffs, Ebony, Hides, 
 
 Horns, India-rubber, Mahogany, Nuts, Bice, Bosewood, Spices, Sugar, 
 
 Tallow, Tapioca, Wax, Wool. 
 Paris.— French Manufactures and Productions, Objects of Art. 
 Pernambuco.— Coffee, Cotton, Dyestuffs, Sugar. 
 Philadelphia.- Coal, Iron, Machinery, Manufactures, Petroleum. 
 Portland (Me.).— Ice, Lumber. 
 Portland (Or.).— Fish, Flour, Lumber, Wheat. 
 Quebec— Fish, Grain, Lumber. 
 Rangoon.— Bamboo, Cotton, Indigo, Opium, Bice, Sugar, Teak-wood. 
 
 Riga.— Chemicals, Flax, Grain, Hemp, Iron, Leather, Linen Manufactures. 
 Malachite, Tallow, Timber. 
 
 Rio Janeiro.- Cacao, Cattle-products, Cotton, Coffee, Diamonds, Drugs, Dye- 
 stuffs, Gold, Pepper, Bice, Tobacco, "Wheat. 
 
 Rome.— Objects of Art of great variety. 
 
 San Trancisco.- Almonds, . Fruits, Gold, Grain, Lumber, Olives, Platinum, 
 
 Quicksilver, Silver, Wine, Wool. 
 Savannah.— Cotton, Naval Stores, Timber. 
 Shanghai.— Cotton, Porcelain, Silk, Tea. 
 Sierra liCone.- Coffee, Ivory, Palm-oil, Spices, Wax. 
 Singapore.— Cotton Goods, Indigo, Opium, Battan, Spices, Sugar, Tin. 
 Smyrna.- Carpets, Chemicals, Drugs, Fruits, Perfumes, Silks, Sponges. 
 Spice Islands.— Dates, Opium, Sago, Spices. 
 St. Johns (N. F.).— Fish, Oil, Seal-skins. 
 St. Ijouis.- Breadstuffs, Cattle-products, Machinery, Manufactures. 
 
 St. Paul de liOanda.— Diamonds, Gold, Gums, Ivory, Ostrich-feathers, Palm- 
 oil, Spices, Sugar, Wax. 
 
 St. Petersburg.— Chemicals, Drugs, Flax, Furs, Hemp, Leather, Linen Manu- 
 factures, Malachite, Tallow, Wool. 
 Sydney.- Cattle-products, Copper, Cotton, Gold, Tin, Wheat, Wool. 
 Syra.- Fruits, Honey, Olive-oil, Wax, Wine. 
 Tamatave.— Cattle, Coffee, Hides, India-rubber, Wax. 
 Tobolsk.— Copper, Fossil Ivory, Furs, Gold, Iron, Platinum. 
 
 Trieste.— Almonds, Breadstuffs, Cotton, Glass, Linen and Woolen Manufac- 
 tures, Lumber, Oil, Salt, Wine, Wool. 
 
 "Valparaiso.— Copper, Grain, Hides, Silver, Tin, Wool. 
 
 Vera Cruz.— Cattle-products, Cochineal, Cocoa, Coffee, Dj-e-woods, Fruits, 
 Indigo, Tobacco, "Vanilla. 
 
 Victoria (B. C.).— Coal, Fish, Purs, Gold, Timber. 
 Victoria (Hong Kong). -Cottons, Porcelain, Silks, Tea. 
 
 Vienna.— Cottons, Garnets, Glass, Leather Goods, Linen Goods, Musical Instru- 
 ments, Opals, Salt, Wlieat, Wine, Wool, Woolen Goods. 
 
 YoUohama.-Bronzes, Pans, Lacquer-ware, Matting, Paper Goods, Porcelain, 
 Eaw Silk, Eice, Silk Goods, Tea. 
 
Summary or Review of Physical Features, etc. 
 
 117 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Position.— "Western Hemisphere. North Prigld, North Temperate, and Tor- 
 rid Zones. 
 
 Siie.— Third among the Grand Divisions. 
 
 Outline.— Irregular ; eoast-llne penetrated by large gulfs and bays. 
 
 Surface.— Lofty monntains and plateaus in the west from the Arctic Ocean 
 to the Isthmus of Panama, high and largest plateau supporting high 
 mountains (Rocty Mountains and Sierra Madre) in the west across the 
 continent from the north to the south; lower mountains in the east; 
 and great plain between the eastern and the western highlands. 
 
 I.aUes and Klvers.— The lakes and the rivers are numerous and imports 
 ant, affording great facilities for agriculture, manufacturing, and com- 
 merce. 
 
 Climate.— Very cold In the north; less severe, but variable, in the central 
 parts, except on Pacific slope, where it is mild and equable; and hot 
 In the south. 
 
 Productions.- Barley, cacao, cocoa-nut, coffee, cotton, drugs, dyestuffs, 
 fruits, hay, Indian corn, lumber, manufactures, oats, rice, sugar, to- 
 bacco, wheat; coal, copper, gold, iron, lead, nickel, petroleum, quick- 
 silver, salt, silver, tin, zinc; furs, grazlng-products. 
 
 Animals.— Alligator, beaver, bison (or buffalo), black bear, cougar, deer, duck, 
 eagle, elk (or moose), fox, grizzly bear, nionkey, musk-ox, polar bear, 
 puma, prairie-dog, seal, tapir, turkey, walrus, whale, wild goose, wolf. 
 
 People.— American Indians; descendants of European settlers; European 
 emigrants; freedmen and others of African descent; Eskimos iln the 
 north); Chinese emigrants; and people of mixed races. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Position.- "Western Hemisphere. Torrid and South Temperate Zones. 
 
 Size.— Fourth among the Grand Divisions. 
 
 Outline.— "Very regular; eoast-llne comparatively unbroken. 
 
 Snrface. — "V"ery high mountains and plateau in the west along the coast; 
 lower ranges and very low plateaus in Brazil and Guiana; and a 
 vast Interior plain or river-basin. 
 
 Lalies and Illvers.— There are few lakes of importance, but the rivers are 
 large and numerous; the Anaazon is the largest river in the world. 
 -The rivers of the Pacific slope are short mountain-torrents. 
 
 Climate.— Tropical in the greater part; mild on the lower plateaus and in 
 the regions toward the south ; very cold in the extreme south. 
 
 Productions.— Cacao, cocoa-nut, coffee, cotton, drugs, dyestuffs, ebony, 
 fruits, grain, india-rubber, mahogany, rosewood, spices, sugar, tobacco; 
 copper, diamonds, gold, iron, lead, platinum, quicksilver, rubles, sago, 
 salt, silver; beef, hair, hides, horns, tallow, wool. 
 
 Animals.- Alligator, alpaca, armadillo, boa-constrictor, condor, cougar (or 
 puma), humming-birds, jaguar, llama, many species of monkeys, nandu 
 (American ostrich), parrots, sloth, tapir, vicuna. 
 
 People.- Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese settlers; Indians, negroes, 
 and people of mixed races. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Position Eastern Hemisphere. North Frigid and North Temperate Zones. 
 
 Size.- Fifth and smallest of the Grand Divisions. 
 
 Outline.- Irregular ; coast-line broken by Inland seas and numerous Inlets 
 of the ocean. 
 
 Surface.- Eastern Europe is a plain. Southern and "Western Europe are, in 
 general, mountainous (Alps, Central Plateau), with many valleys and 
 plateaus, the mountain chains running easterly and westerly. 
 
 rakes and UIvers.-Kivers not so long as those of America, but numerous, 
 and important to various branches of industry. The lake-regions are 
 among the Alps and- around the Baltic Sea. 
 
 Climate.— In the western parts, mild and equable, tempered by warm 
 winds and currents; in the north, very cold; around Mediterranean, 
 warm. The Great Plain has extremes of temperature. 
 
 Prodnctlons.— Drugs, flax, fiTilts, grain, hemp ; coal, copper, flsh, gold, iron, 
 lead, lumber, manganese, manufactures, opals, platinum, quicksilver, 
 salt, silver, sulphur, tin, zinc; furs, grazlng-products, silk, wine and 
 other liquors, wool. 
 
 Animals.— Bear, chamois, deer, eagle, fox, reindeer, stag, wild boar, wolf. 
 
 People.— Majority of Inhabitants are of Caucasian race; Finns, Lapps, 
 Magyars (in Hungary), Tartars (in Russia), and Turks proper are of 
 Mongolian descent. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Position.— Extreme north-east in "Western Hemisphere, rest In Eastern. 
 North Frigid, North Temperate, and Torrid Zones. 
 
 Size.- Largest of the Grand Divisions. 
 
 Outline.— Irregular, large seas and gulfs breaking the coast-line. 
 
 Surface.- Great plain in Asiatic Biissla; lofty mountains and vast plateaus 
 in central and south-western regions; highest plateau of the world 
 in Thibet; lower mountains and plateaus in southern peninsulas; 
 largest depression of the world (Aralo-Caspian Basin); mountain 
 chains run easterly and we.sterly. 
 
 I.abes and Rivers.- The largest lakes are salt. There are many import- 
 ant rivers, watering the most fertile and most populous countries in 
 the w^orld. 
 
 Climate.- Southern Asia is very hot ; Northern Asia, very cold ; and Central 
 Asia, temperate. The plateaus and interior plains have, in general, a 
 dry climate, with extremes of heat and cold. 
 
 Productions.— Bamboo, cocoa, coffee, cotton, drugs, ebony, flax, fruits, 
 grain, gums, hemp, indigo, opium, rice, spices, sandal-wood, sugar, 
 tea, teak; copper, iron, nickel, platinum, tin, precioiis metals and 
 precious stones, salt, sulphur; furs, ivory, silk. 
 
 Animals.— Bear, buffalo, camel, cobra de capello, crocodile, elephant, er- 
 mine, fox, goat, sheep, horse, hyena, jackal, leopard, lion, ox, rein- 
 deer, rhinoceros, sable, tapir, tiger, wolf, yak. 
 
 People.— The people of India, Arabia, Asiatic Turkey, Trans-Caucasia, Per- 
 sia, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan are of the Cavicasian race; in Indo- 
 China, Japan, Turkestan, and Chinese Empire, the people are of the 
 Mongolian race; there are Malays in Malacca. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Position.— Eastern Hemisphere. North Temperate, Torrid, and South Tem- 
 perate Zones. 
 Size.— Second of the Grand Divisions. 
 Outline.— Regular ; no seas, gulfs, or bays extend into the interior. 
 
 Surface.— Chiefly broad plateau bordered by mountain chains (very high 
 in the east); vast deserts in the north, smaller desert tracts in the 
 south. Little is known to us of the central regions. 
 
 liakcs and Rivers.— There are numerous fresh-water lakes, and some 
 very large salt lakes. The rivers are chiefly south and east of the 
 Great Desert. The overflow of the Nile makes Egypt fertile and 
 habitable. 
 
 Climate.— Africa is the hottest and driest of the Grand Divisions. The 
 extreme south has a temperate climate; the desert w^inds give the 
 northern countries a, sub-tropical temperature; and the central re- 
 gions, so far as they are known, are hot and unhealthful. 
 
 Productions.- Cotton, coffee, dates, drugs, fruits, grain, gums, ivory, 
 palm-products, spices, sugar; diamonds, gold; cattle-products, ostrich- 
 feathers. 
 
 Animals.— Antelope, baboon, buffalo, camel, chimpanzee, crocodile, ele- 
 phant, giraffe, gnu, gorilla, hippopotamus, hyena, ibis, jackal, lion, 
 manatus, ostrich, python, rhinoceros, zebra. 
 
 People.— North of Soudan, people of Caucasian race; south of it, except In 
 European colonies, negro tribes; in Soudan, negroes and mixed races. 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 Position.— Eastern Hemisphere. Torrid and South Temperate Zones. 
 
 Size.— Larger than Europe. Australia alone is nearly as large as TT. S., 
 excluding Alaska. 
 
 Outline.— Consists entirely of Islands. Australia, the largest, has a regular 
 outline; no seas, gulfs, or bays penetrate very far into the Interior. 
 
 Surface.— The Malaysian Islands and Papua are very mountainous, but 
 Australia is an Immense barren plain rising gradually to the low 
 coast mountain ranges. 
 
 Liabcs and Rivers.— Short rivers In Malaysia. Tn Australia nearly all of 
 the rivers disappear in dry season, and lakes (most of which are salt) 
 become reedy marshes. 
 
 Climate.— Northern and western part, tropical; southern part, mild, but 
 variable, with extremes of temperature and destructive floods and 
 droughts. 
 
 Productions.— Cotton, coffee, fruits, grain, indigo, sugar; coal, copper, dia- 
 monds, gold, tin; hides, wool, raw silk. 
 
 Animals.— All animals of Asia In Malaysia; apteryx in New Zealand; 
 emu, kangaroo, lyre-bird, platypus, wild dog, wombat, in Australia. 
 
118 
 
 Questions for Review, 
 
 1. 
 
 What seas, gulfs, and bays lie east and south of Asia? What are the 
 principal exports of France? Of Russia? Which has the milder climate, 
 Paris or Quehec? Why? Name four of the largest rivers of Europe, and 
 describe the Danube. What does the Dominion of Canada comprise? Why 
 are great- cities usually situated upon rivers ? Name the largest six cities 
 in the United States. In Europe. Where are the principal coal, iron, and 
 gold mines in Europe ? How would you go by water from Philadelphia to 
 Vienna? What Is a desert? Name some of the most celebrated deserts. 
 Trace two different routes used by travelers, in going from England to 
 India. 
 
 2. 
 
 Name the principal rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean. Name in 
 order the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. Name the islands 
 in the Indian Ocean. Where are the following lakes, and by what rivers 
 are they drained ? St. Clair; Onega; Chesuncook; Albert Nyanza; Itasca; 
 Champlaln. What does the British Empire comprise? What four large 
 rivers rise in the Alps? Describe each of them. Mention some of the 
 principal deltas on the globe. Define a Great Circle. Where is the Dead 
 Sea? Where is the Peak of Tenerlffe? For what are the following places 
 noted? Lyons; Canton; Genoa; Malaga; Mobile; Jerusalem. Which of 
 these are sea-ports? 
 
 3. 
 
 What is government? What meridian divides the hemispheres? Name 
 the highest mountain on the globe; the largest fresh-water lake; the 
 longest river. When does the rainy season occur in tropical countries 
 north of the Bq.uator? How does a lofty mountain in the Torrid Zone 
 Illustrate the differences of climate and vegetation? To Tvhat race do 
 most of the Inhabitants of Northern Africa belong? In what directions 
 do the slopes in North America lie? In Asia? Which produce a more 
 ecLuable climate? Where is the principal petroleum region in the United 
 States? In Europe? 
 
 4. 
 
 Why are large commercial cities generally found on the sea-coast? 
 What is the Gulf Stream? Name the great powers of Europe. Name four 
 branches of the Amazon Elver. Name six remarkable volcanoes, and lo- 
 cate them. What names are given to the various chains in the great 
 mountain-system extending across the Eastern Hemisphere from Spain 
 to the China Sea? What is the most important town in South Africa? 
 When it is summer at Chicago, w^hat is the season at Valparaiso? Where 
 do the Mongolians chiefly live? What is a degree? 
 
 6. 
 
 What country produces the best tea? Where is Aleppo? Surat? Astra- 
 khan? Ghent? Where are the Atlas Mountains? Where is Roumania? 
 What are the two chief commercial towns of Australia? Name the rivers 
 that drain Siberia. What is the capital of British India? In what coun- 
 tries does Mohammedanism prevail? What country is the most exten- 
 sively engaged in manufacturing? How does a chart differ from a naap? 
 Describe the surface of the Sahara. In what direction do most peninsulas 
 extend ? 
 
 6. 
 
 What waters does the Isthmus of Suez separate? What lands does it 
 connect? Where is the Tukon River? Name the Greater Antilles. Into 
 what does the Euphrates flow? Mention t^wo lakes in South America. 
 Name the principal rivers flowing into the Black Sea. Into the Baltic 
 Sea. Wbere are the Snow Mountains? Locate Singapore; Smsi-rna; Para; 
 Leipsic; Madras; Odessa. Which is better watered— the interior of North 
 America or of Africa? How does the climate of the two compare? 
 
 7. 
 
 Where is the island of Malta? To what government does It belong? 
 What do you mean by the Ottoman Empire? From w^hat Islands are 
 spices chiefly imported? In what portions of Europe is wheat abundantly 
 produced? The olive and mulberry tree? Name all the principal rivers 
 on the western coast of Europe, between the Strait of Gibraltar and the 
 Strait of Dover. Between the Strait of Dover and Denmark. What strait 
 connects the Red Sea with the Arabian Sea? What two straits connect 
 the Indian Ocean with the China Sea? 
 
 8. 
 
 On what waters will a vessel sail in going from New York, round the 
 Cape of Good Hope, to Bombay, thence to Canton, thence to San Fran- 
 cisco, and thence, by way of Cape Horn, to New York again? At what 
 towns on the borders of the Chinese Empire and Siberia do the Russians 
 and the Chinese carry on an extensive trade? What town In Russia is 
 noted for its great fairs? Which zone contains the most highly civilized 
 nations ? What is the effect of the climate of the Torrid Zone on its in- 
 habitants? What division of South America has no towns? How many 
 empires are there on the Western Continent? Which is the oldest-settled 
 town in New England? In the United States? 
 
 9. 
 
 The course of the Mississippi River Is from north to south; the course 
 of the Amazon is from west to east: which river, do you think, Is the 
 more favorable to -^rade and commerce? Why are there no large rivers 
 on the western coast of South America? Which is the largest empire in 
 the world? Which one has the largest number of subjects? On what 
 does the length of a river depend ? Its direction ? Rapidity ? Volume ? 
 
 10. 
 
 Which of the United States is most extensively engaged in manufactures? 
 Which in commerce? Between what degrees of latitude and longitude are 
 the United States situated? Which State produces the most corn? (For 
 this and similar questions see " Statistical" pages at end of book). Which one 
 has the greatest number of square miles ? Which one has the largest pop- 
 ulation? Which State produces the most wheat? What State and what 
 Territory are intersected by the iOth parallel ? What lands and what waters 
 on the map of the Western Hemisphere are intersected by the meridian 
 of Boston? Name the principal mountain-ranges pf North America, and 
 the general direction of each. Give some of the proofs that the earth is 
 round. Name the great circles of the earth. Where are the principal coal 
 and Iron mines in the United States? 
 
 11. 
 
 Name some of the principal exports of the United States. Some of the 
 principal imports. What is the horizon? Name the circles which bound 
 the zones. Can you go farther north than the North Pole? Why is the 
 length of a degree of longitude on the 40th parallel less than the length 
 of a degree on the equator? What is the width of the North Temperate 
 Zone in degrees? In miles? On what circumstances does the climate 
 of a. place depend ? What is one cause of the change of seasons ? What 
 proportion of the earth's surface is covered w^ith \rater? Of how many 
 States and Territories does the United States consist? What is the lati- 
 tude of the North Pole ? Of the Equator? 
 
 12. 
 
 Where is the Bay of Fundy, and for what is it remarkable? What Is 
 the right bank of a river? Of what States does the Mississippi River 
 form the boundary ? Has the north-west passage from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific Ocean ever been made? To what race do the Eskimos belong? 
 How wide is Behring Strait? What were the area and population of the 
 United States at the time of the Revolutionary War? What are they 
 now? Why do rivers rise in mountains? What is an ocean-current? 
 
 13. 
 
 What Islands in the Atlantic are in about the same latitude as Charles- 
 ton? What is the largest grain-pprt in the world? What lake in Central 
 America? What lake in California? Are despotic governments found 
 among savage or among civilized people? How many seasons are there 
 in California? Give the latitude and longitude of New Orleans. What Is 
 the largest city west of the Rocky Mountains? Name four rivers which 
 fiow into Hudson Bay. How naany miles is it from the centre of the 
 earth to the surface ? Name three branches of the Missouri River. 
 
 14. 
 
 Into how many departments is Geography divided ? Define each depart- 
 ment. In what direction does the earth rotate on its axis? Which is 
 longer, the polar or the equatorial diameter of the earth? How many 
 miles longer? What point on the earth has neither latitude nor longi- 
 tude? What is a plateau? A watershed or divide? What are the three 
 departments of the government of the United States? Name the principal 
 rivers of North America flowing into the Pacific Ocean. What are the 
 most important occupations? 
 
 IS. 
 
 In what direction is Quito, in South America, from Charleston, South 
 Carolina? In what direction, then, is South America from North Ameiv 
 lea? Name the principal commercial cities in the United States. What 
 is the difference between domestic commerce and foreign commerce ? Into 
 what physical sections is North America divided? Which is farther west, 
 Havana or Buffalo? Where do the largest rivers of North America have 
 their source? Of South America? Of Europe? Of Africa? Of Asia? 
 
 16. 
 
 Where are the settlements in Greenland? Where are the Wind River 
 Mountains? What celebrated pass near these mountains? What active 
 VQlcano near the South Pole? What Is an active volcano? What group 
 of islands connect the continent of America with Asia? What is the 
 largest city on the Western Continent? What is a first meridian? Are 
 mines usually found in fertile plains or in mountainous, rugged places? 
 What conditions affect the distribution of plants? Of animals? Which 
 continent has the most useful system of rivers? 
 
 17. 
 
 What is the distance in a straight line from Lake of the Woods to 
 Galveston? From Cape Mendocino to the mouth of the Hudson River? 
 What climate Is the most favorable for agriculture? What peninsulas 
 on the east coast of North America? On the west coast? Tell where you 
 lind the following mountain-peaks : Mitchell's Peak; Mount Baker; Mount 
 San Bernardino; Mount Whitney. What parts of the earth move at the 
 rate of a thousand miles an hour? What motion is uniform in all jjarts? 
 Name the rivers flowing into Hudson Bay on the east. 
 
 18. 
 
 What bodies of land are found near the South Pole? In what direc- 
 tion does the great mountain-system of the Western Continent extend? 
 In what direction does that of the Eastern Continent extend? WhHt 
 town at the head of Winnebago Lake? At the head of Lake Superior? 
 What are Geysers? Where are the Tortugas Islands? Where Is Gettys- 
 burg? Chattanooga? Fortress Monroe? Harper's Ferry? Vieksburg? 
 Fort Sumter? What Is the chief staple of the States bordering on the 
 Gulf of Mexico? What strait separates Florida from the West Indies? 
 How wide is the Equator? 
 
System of Map-Drawing. 
 
 BY E. A. A]Vr> A. C. APGAR. 
 
 This system of Map-Drawing is substantially the same as that originally prepared by the authors and published in 1865. Such improvements have been 
 
 introduced, however, as the practical workings of the system have shown to be important. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 THE study of geography consists largely in a study 
 of the form and locality of the features of the earth's 
 surface. Maps give a much better idea of the form and 
 locality of geographical features than can be obtained 
 from descriptions o;ily ; hence, maps should be among the 
 principal objects of study in geography. 
 
 The pupil commits his lesson in text to memory, and 
 for a recitation, he repeats it to the teacher as given by 
 the author. In studying maps the same rule should be 
 observed; that is, the maps should be committed to 
 memory, and for a recitation they should be reproduced 
 as given in the book. 
 
 That form is easiest remembered which the hand is 
 taught to trace. The exercise of the mind, needed to 
 teach the hand to trace a form, impresses that form upon 
 the mind. As the study of maps is a study of form, the 
 manner of studying them should be by map-drawing. 
 
 In learning to draw maps, the pupil needs some rule or 
 guide to assist him in drawing them correctly, and also 
 to enable him to judge of their accuracy when drawn. 
 This assistance is best afforded by the use of geometrical 
 figures or diagrams. The diagram used in each case, 
 in order to answer the purpose intended, should be 
 so constructed as to coincide as nearly as possible in its 
 outline with the boundaries of the map to be drawn. By 
 the relative lengths of the lines of which it is composed, 
 it should express the general laws of form of the map it 
 IS intended to accompany, and, 'by its angles and division 
 marks, the position of prominent features should be deter- 
 mined. However complex and irregular the map may 
 be, the diagram should be so simple that it can be readily 
 constructed and easily remembered by the pupils. 
 
 In the construction of the diagrams used for drawing 
 the Continents, the first line in each caseserves as a measure 
 for determining the lengths of the other lines. For the 
 States no additional diagram is used, because the bounding 
 lines are generally straight, and they themselves when 
 taken together form a geometrical figure. In drawing the 
 States, therefore, it is only necessary to select one of the 
 straight lines forming the boundary for a measuring unit. 
 The line selected should be a convenient measure or mul- 
 tiple of the other lines. 
 
 In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class 
 should be practiced,— ^«/ in drawing upon the black- 
 board, under the immediate direction of the teacher; 
 second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be sub- 
 mitted to the teacher; and third, in executing maps upon 
 paper, to be presented for the criticism of both the teacher 
 and the class. 
 
 Either the teacher or one of the more skillful pupils 
 should execute a well-finished and accurate map upon 
 the blackboard. From this drawing— which is much to 
 be preferred to any printed outline map — the class may 
 recite their lesson, and upon it each of the new features, 
 as they are learned from day to day, may be represented. 
 It is well to accompany every lesson in map-drawing 
 
 with more or less practice in rapid sketching. In order 
 to excite emulation for quick work, the lesson may 
 be drawn on the board, and the exercise timed by 
 the teacher. Pupils, by practice, will soon be able to 
 draw a diagram in half a minute, a State in from 
 half a minute to two minutes, and a Continent in from 
 three to five minutes. Concert recitation should frequently 
 accompany rapid sketching. 
 
 An exercise called talking and chalking will be found 
 both interesting and valuable. The pupil, while he is 
 drawing a map, briefly and in a lively manner, describes 
 the features as he represents them ; his verbal explana- 
 tions all the while keeping pace with his illustrations 
 made with the chalk. 
 
 AH directions and exercises in map-drawing should be 
 such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, accurately, 
 and without. the copy. 
 
 After the pupils have learned to draw a map with 
 sufficient accuracy, and are able to describe satisfactorily 
 the features it contains, they may, with the use of colors 
 and India ink, be taught to draw and embellish one for 
 preservation. Not much time, however, should be spent 
 in producing highly ornamented maps. A slate-pencil and 
 slate, lead-pencil and paper, white crayon and blackboard, 
 are all the materials usually needed in map-drawing exer- 
 cises. Rapid work and much of it should be the motto. 
 
 Special attention should be directed to the method 
 employed for representing the population of cities and 
 the heights of elevations. The symbols used will greatly 
 assist the memory in retaining these facts. Special lessons 
 may be given to teach their meaning. Their use should 
 be required in all map-drawing exercises. 
 
 In drawing a Continent, the pupils should be taught,— ^^r^/, to 
 construct the diagram accurately ; second, to draw the coast line, 
 and to describe all the features formed by it, such as peninsulas, capes, 
 bays, gulfs, &c. ; and third, to draw and describe the internal 
 features, such as mountains, lakes, rivers and cities. It is all impor- 
 tant that the pupils should be able to draw the outline of a Continent 
 readily and accurately, before they attempt to represent the internal 
 features ; for upon an imperfect drawing of the outline, the details 
 must necessarily be imperfect. 
 
 In describing the features of a map, observe the following order 
 and directions : — 
 
 Diagram. — Explain in full the manner of its construction. 
 
 Points of Coincidence. — Name in order the angles and division 
 marks upon the diagram, and the features upon the map, the 
 location of which they determine. 
 
 Peninsutas. — State from what portion of the Continent they pro- 
 ject, and by what waters they are embraced. 
 
 Capes.— State from what portion of the Continent they project, 
 and into what waters. 
 
 Bays. — Give their location, and the names of the bodies of water 
 to which they are tributary. 
 
 islands. — State where situated, and name the waters by which 
 they are surrounded. 
 
 Mountains. — Give their height, the general direction in which 
 they extend, and the part of the Continent where they are located. 
 
 Lakes. — State where located, and name the river which forms the 
 outlet. 
 
 Rivers. — State where they rise, in what direction they flow, and 
 into what waters. 
 
 Political Divisions. — Bound the country, and name, bound, 
 and give the capital of each of the divisions. 
 
 Cities. — Give location and population. 
 
 EXPLANATION OP THE SIGNS 
 
 USED TO EEPEESENT THE POPULATION OF THE 
 
 CITIES AND TOWlSrS. 
 
 FIKST CLASS. 
 
 In the First Claas only one Sign is nsed viz. a round dot. 
 • represents under 10.000 Inhabitaats. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 
 THIED CLASS. 
 
 Each Line of the Swond Oaaa 
 represents a population of 10.000. 
 
 The marking of the Third Class 
 have a Dot in the centre. Eath 
 Lino upon this Dot represents 
 100.000 population. 
 
 a- -. .10,000 
 
 
 ®. JOO.OOO 
 
 ■t 20,000 
 
 
 +_ 200,000 
 
 * 30,000 
 
 
 #. 300,000 
 
 * ....40,000 
 
 
 * <«0,000 
 
 4ft 50,000 
 
 
 W 500,000 
 
 S-— — Jo.noo 
 
 
 M- 600,000 
 
 * 70,000 
 
 
 ^.. _ joo.ooo 
 
 ^_ so.ooo 
 
 
 ^. a»,ooo 
 
 ^. i)00,000 
 
 FOUETH CLASS. 
 The markings of the Fourth Class have a Dot and Circle ( ® ) in 
 the cen re. Each Line upon this Dot and Circle repredeuta 1,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 _1,000,000 
 ..2,000.000 
 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS 
 
 USED TO EEPEESENT THE 
 
 ELEVATION OF THE MOUNTAIN'S. 
 
 EANGES. 
 Hill and Mountain Ranges, Like the Cities, are divided Into Four 
 classes. TheFirstisrepresentedbyaserieaofFarallel Curves; the Se- 
 cond by a series of Interlocking Curves; the Third by a "Waved Line; 
 and the Fourth by a Zigzag Line ; as follows: 
 
 )))))JW)))J))))))» lirat t'fa«»orJ/iii»,—TCid8r 2000 ft. Trig!. 
 
 .-^-^^^--^kA'SS, SfcoiidCTajw,— Between 2000 4 8000 ft. 11^11, 
 ^~' ^^^^^''JiiflJ'iS ""^ Between. ^ and.1^ miles high. 
 
 MirS «as»,— Between 8000 416,000 ft. high, 
 WS or Between lis and 3 miles high. 
 
 ^^js,f,,^>J^^^^ Fourth Clots, -OTec 16,000 leet high, 
 ||MI|l' 'li||il-(|if' jl' "r over 3 miles high. 
 
 PEAKS. 
 
 For Peaks under one mile high each Curve npon the rightrepresents 
 
 One-Fourth of a mile Elevation; for those one mile high or more, each 
 
 L'ne upon the right represents One Mile in Elevation and the Dash 
 
 underneath One Haifa Mile. 
 
 fl ii o£ a mile high. 
 
 /T\ 5i „ „ 
 
 m }i, .. ,. 
 
 A 1 „ .. 
 
 ■A Ui mUos high. 
 
 A 2 „ .. 
 
 ^ 2}jmUeiliigh. 
 
 As,, 
 
 A m „ 
 
 A i .. 
 A Hi „ 
 As.. 
 
 Si/stem JPuteiUeji October 16 a., 1366. 
 
 Entered, according to Ad of Cerigress, in the year l8?^, by E. A. &> A. C. AFGAR, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at IVashin^on. 
 
 119 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Diagram, — 1. Draw a quadrant, and divide it into four 
 equal parts, as represented in the figure. Through the 
 first division at i, and the right angle, draw the first line 
 of the diagram the length desired for the map. 
 
 2. From the centre of this line, draw the line C D at 
 right angles with it, and one-half its length. Connect 
 i. D and B D. 
 
 3. Extend the line C D toward E, making the whole 
 length D E, equal to A D or B D, and draw the lines A E 
 and E B. 
 
 4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from 
 the upper division-point at 0, draw the line G H at right 
 angles to A E, and equal to E C in length. Coimect 
 A and n. 
 
 6. Divide the line E B into two equal parts, and firom 
 its centre, and at right angles with it, draw the line I 3 
 one-half the length of E C, and connect E and J, and J 
 and B. 
 
 6. Divide the lines C D and C B each into two equal 
 parts, and the lines A D and D B each into six equal 
 part.;. 
 
 7. Sub-divide the lower division of the line D B into 
 three equal parts, and firom the division-point at L draw 
 I M, and from SI draw 31 N, and from N draw N 0, — 
 making the length of each line equal to two thirds of the 
 distance from B to K, or equal to the distance from 
 L to E. 
 
 It will be observed that if the diagram is correctly 
 drawn, the lines A, It E and D B are equal in length, 
 and the line A E is vertical. 
 
 Position. — North America is situated North of the 
 E |uator, and is joined to South America by the Isthmus 
 of Panama. 
 
 Extent. — The length of the Continent, extending firom 
 Point Barrow, on the North, to the Port of Guatemala on 
 the South, is 4,800 miles. 
 
 General Form. — -The general form of North America 
 is triangular. It is wide toward the North, and narrow 
 toward the South. The Arctic and Atlantic coast-lines 
 are nearly straight in their general direction, while the 
 Pacific coast-line is curved. 
 
 Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- 
 row is determined by the northern angle of the diagram; 
 Cape Charles by the eastern angle; Port of Guatemala by 
 the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western 
 angle ; and the western extremity cf Alaska Peninsula 
 by the north-western angle. 
 
 * Drawing the Map. — Arctic Coast. — Commence at 
 Point Barrow. Make the mouth of the Mackenzie River 
 opposite the first division ; Victoria Land on the second ; 
 the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, 
 and Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. 
 The southern extremity of Hudson Bay touches the line 
 C D near its centre. 
 
 Atlantic Coast. — Make the Pena. of Nova Scotia oppo- 
 site the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and 
 Cape Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida 
 crosses at the fourth division; the mouth of the Gulf of Mexi- 
 co is between the fourth and fifth, and Yucatan Pena. ex- 
 tends as far north as the fifth. The shore of the Gulf of 
 Mexico crosses the line C B near its centre, and touches the 
 line E B. The shore of Central America, and the Isthmus 
 of Panama follows closely the zigzag line from K to 0. 
 
 2'aclflc Coast. — California Peninsula extends nearly as 
 far south as the angle at 3, and the eastern shore of the 
 Gulf of California crosses the line I J near its centre. 
 
 Note. — It will be observed that the Lake of the Woods is on the 
 line C D, midway between its centre and C : also, that Lake Jlrie is 
 midway between the centres of the lines c D and B D. 
 
 • In these directions for drawing, some features are referred to 
 which are not found upon the accompanying maps. In such cases 
 It is expected that the pupil will refer to the other maps in the book. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Diagram. — 1. Draw the vertical line A B the length 
 desired for the map, and divide it into four equal parts. 
 From the upper division-point, draw a horizontal line to 
 the right, one-half the length of the first line, and divide 
 it into three equal parts. Extend this horizontal line 
 one-third of its length to the left. 
 
 2. Draw straight lines from C to P, from F to A, from 
 A to E, and from E to B, and divide the lines F A, A E, 
 and E B, each into three equal parts. 
 
 General Form. — South America in its general form is wedge- 
 shaped— being wide toward the north and narrow toward the south. 
 Its coast-line is simple, and deviates but little from the lines of the dia- 
 gram. The length of the Continent from north to south is 4,500 miles. 
 
 Points of Coincidence.— The position of the Peninsula of Para- 
 guana is determined by the northern angle of the figure ; Cape St. 
 Roque by the eastern angle ; Cape Pillar by the southern, and Cape 
 Parina by the western. Opposite the second division-point, on the 
 line F A, is the Isthmus of Panama ; and opposite the second, on the 
 line A E, is the mouth of the Amazon. Opposite the first division on 
 the line E B is Cape Frio, and opposite the second is the mouth of 
 the Rio de la Plata. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AFRICA. 
 
 Diagram. — 1- By means of a quadrant divided into six 
 equal parts, as represented in the figure, draw the first line 
 of the diagram the length desired for the map. 
 
 2. Divide this line into two equal parts at C, and the 
 upper half in four equal parts. 
 
 3. With the points A and B as centres, and with a 
 radius equal to three-fourths of the first line, draw two 
 arcs to intersect D, and draw the lines A D and B D. In 
 the same manner with the points A and C as centres, and 
 with a radius equal to three-fourths of the line A C, deter- 
 mine the point E, and draw A E and C E. 
 
 4. Divide the line A D into two equal parts, and draw 
 the perpendicular F H equal to one-eighth of the first line. 
 Divide the part F D into two equal parts, and draw the 
 lines A H and n G. Trisect each of the lines A H, D B, 
 B C and G E. 
 
 General Form. — Africa resembles both North America and South 
 America in its general form, being wide at the north and narrow 
 toward the south. Its coast is very regular, like that of South 
 America. Its length, from Cape Spartel to Cape Agulhas. is 5,000 
 miles. Like South America, it is situated on both sides of the 
 Equator. 
 
 Points of Coincidence. — The position of Cape Spartel is deter- 
 mined by the northern angle of the diagram : the Isthmus of Suez by 
 the north-eastern angle ; Cape Guardafui by the eastern angle ; Cape 
 Agulhas by the southern, and Cape Roxo by the western. 
 
 Outline.— Commence at Cape Spartel, and draw the northern and 
 eastern coasts ; then, from the same point, draw the western coast. 
 The coast from Cape Spartel to Cape Bon is without the line of the 
 diagram ; then it crosses the line, and forms the Gulf of Sidra, oppo- 
 site the second division-point. The western shore of the Red Sea 
 follows the line n G, and makes an inward curve between and D. 
 The eastern shore first makes a small outward curve ; touches the 
 line at the first division-point, and then makes a murh lai^er bend 
 without the line, touching again at Cape Agulhas. From this point 
 it deviates but little from the diagram till it reaches Cape Lopez. 
 Between this point and the first division on the line c E, there is a 
 large inward bend forming the Gulf of Guinea. It then bends with- 
 out the line till we reach Cape Roxo. iFrom Cape Roxo to Cape 
 Spartel the coast is wholly without the line. 
 
 Figure i represents a convenient Ruler for pupils to use in drawing 
 maps upon the blackboard. It is twenty inches long, and dtvidea 
 into halves, thirds, fourths and sixths. A similar one, six inches 
 long, may be used for drawing on slate or paper. 
 
 Figure 2 represents an easy 
 method for drawing a quadrant. 
 
 f^£-- 3- 
 Figure 3 represents an easy 
 method fur trisecting a line. 
 
 Note. — In the construction of diagrams, and in the division ot 
 lines, the pupils should at first be allowed to use a ruler, such as the 
 one represented in figure i. After some practice, however, the ruler 
 should be dispensed with, and the figure should be drawn by hand, 
 guided only by the eye. 
 
 In drawing a quadrant, a piece of crayon held between the thumb 
 and first finger may be made to describe the arc around the end of 
 the fourth finger, as represented in figure 2. A vertical and a hori- 
 zontal line drawn from the centre to the arc will complete the 
 quadrant. Instead of the'hand, a short string with a piece of crayon 
 tied to the end of it may be used ; or, each pupil may be furnished 
 with a quarter of a circle, cut out of a piece of writing paper, having 
 the divisions of quarters and sixths marked upon it. 
 
 In dividing a line into three equal parts, use the finger of one hand 
 and a crayon in the other, and place them so that the three parts ap- 
 pear equal, as represented in figure 3. 
 
 In dividing a line into four or six parts, first bisect it, and then 
 bisect or trisect each half. 
 
 It will be observed that the different lines of the diagrams are 
 drawn in the order they are lettered, and that the divisions are made 
 in the order they are numbered. 
 
 In drawing upon paper or slate, the diagram should be in very 
 light lines. For blackboard work, the figure should be drawn with 
 a slate-pencil. 
 
 MODEL LESSON IN MAP-DRAWING. 
 
 In Map-drawing Exercisra, the pupils may either be required to 
 describe their work in full, without the assistance of questions ; or, 
 the lessons may consist of a series of questions and answers similar 
 to the following model :— 
 
 North America. — After the diagram is made, the class is pre- 
 pared to draw the map, — first, with the atlas in hand, and afterwards 
 from memory. Every order given by the teacher should be executed 
 by the class simultaneously, and with military promptness and pre- 
 cision. The execution should commence immediately after the last 
 word of the order is given. Each pupil is supposed to have his own 
 diagram on the board upon which he draws his map. 
 
 Outline : Teacher. — ^What is the most northern point of North 
 America? 
 
 Scholars. — Point Barrow. 
 
 7".- Show where Point Barrow is located. In what direction from 
 it is Cape Charles } 
 
 5.— South-east, 
 
 T. — Point where Cape Charles is located. (Scholars point.) 
 
 Now make a dot showing the location of each of the following 
 places between these two Capes: — ist. For Cape Bathurst. (Scholars 
 made the dot with the crayon.) 2d. For Victoria Land. 3d. For 
 the northern extremity of Melville Pena. 4th. For Hudson Strait. 
 What large bay between Melville Peninsula and Hudson Strait? 
 
 S. — Hudson Bay. 
 
 T. — 5th. For the southern extremity of Hudson Bay. (Dot.) 6tb. 
 For Cape Chidley. What bay south-west from Cape Chidley ? 
 
 S. — Ungava Bay. 
 
 T. — Draw the coast-line from Point Barrow to Cape Bathurst. 
 (Scholars draw.) From Cape Bathurst to Victoria Land. From 
 Victoria Land to Melville Peninsula. Draw Hudson Bay and James 
 Bay. Draw the line from Hudson Strait to Cape Charles. 
 
 The teacher should now make a brief inspection of the work domv 
 and point out and correct all the faults made. 
 
 In this manner the outline of North America should be completed. 
 
 Mountains: T- — How far do the Rocky Mountains extend? 
 
 5. — Thiough the entire length of North America. 
 
 T".— What is their elevation? 
 
 v.— Between 8,000 and 16,000 feet, except the northern porti(»i, 
 which ts only between 2,000 and 8,000 feet 
 
 T'.- Draw the Rocky Mountains nearly parallel with, and at a pro* 
 per distance from the Pacific CoasL What range in the eastern part 
 of the Continent? 
 
 5.— The Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 T. — What IS the elevation of this range ? 
 
 A*.~About 2,000 feet. 
 
 T. — Draw it. The teacher should now inspect the drawing of tho 
 mountains and correct mistakes 
 
 Lakes: 7'.— What three lakes have their outlet through the Mac* 
 kenzie River? 
 
 .S. — Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, and Athabasca Lake. 
 
 T. — Point where the first is located ; the second ; the third. Draw 
 the first ; the second , the third. 
 
 In this manner completfe the, drawing of the lakes. 
 
 Rivers: 7*.— Describe the Vukon River. 
 
 5. —It rises near the Pacific Coast and west of the Great Slave 
 Lake ; flows, first, in a north-westerly direction, then westerly through 
 the country of Alaska, and empties into Behring Sea. 
 
 7.— Draw it Follow in the same manner with the Mackenzie: 
 Nelson. Albany; St. Lawrence; Ottawa; Savannah, and Alabama, 
 
 7— Describe the Mississippi River. 
 
 S. — It rises in a small lake west of Lake Superior, and south of the 
 Lake of the Woods, flows a southerly course through the United 
 States, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 T. — Draw It, Draw the tributanes. and describe them. 
 
 Complete the rivers in this way, and inspect the work. 
 
 Cities: 7'.— Locate the cities as I name them, taking paini to show 
 the population ot each as it is done m the book. 
 
A 8 I\A 
 
 6*^ 
 
 .jy* Victorii 
 Laud 
 
 Pngc in 
 
 
 [aellaatluu ul' 
 F'lrat Due 
 
 MAP OP 
 
 KORTH AMERICA 
 
 By E. A, 4 A. 0. ApgttT. 
 
 I 1 
 
 Scale 1000 Miles to an IiuOi 
 
 SOUTH 
 A M B K I C A 
 
 MAP OF 
 
 SOrTHT AMERICA 
 ByE. A. i A, C. Apgar. 
 
 I 1 
 
 Scale lOUO Milts to an Inch. 
 
 rwx 
 
 
 MAP OP 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 AND 
 
 W NEW ZEALAND 
 
 . ( Tropic o f Cap ricorn '-^ 
 
 ilelbourne *>/tJ 
 
 C. Howe 
 
 I lasmania 
 
 Scale lOUO ililtjh to an IncU 
 
 MAP OF 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 By E. A . & A. C. Apgar. 
 
 acale 1020 Miles to an IncU. 
 
 C.of Good Hope' 
 
 '*>"ha: 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Diagram. — 1, Draw the horizontal line i B the length desired for the map, 
 and bisect it at C . 
 
 2, Through the centre C draw the line D E at right angles to A B , making 
 C D and C E each one-third the length of A B. 
 
 3, Draw D F at right angles to D E , and one-fourth the length of A B, and 
 connect F and B . 
 
 4, Draw H at right angles to D E , making G E and E H each equal to F B 
 in length, and bisect the lines C E and E H. 
 
 Points of Coincidence. — North-west Cape coincides with the angle at i; Sandy Cape, 
 with the angle at B: Cape Howe, with the angle at II: and Cape Leeuwin, with the angle at 
 (j . Cape York is a little north of the angle at F . 
 
 Map. — From the coast extends toward the centre of the line C E, and from this point it 
 extends toward and crosses near the bisecting point of the line E H. 
 
 The Gulf of Carpentaria is situated between D and F. and extends toward the south nearly 
 lialf way to the line A B . 
 
Paoe M2 
 
 EUKOPE 
 
 By E. A. & A. C. Apgar, 
 
 Soale C\)0 !Mil«s to an Inch. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING EUROPE. 
 
 Diagram. — Draw the horizontal line A B the 
 length desired for the map. This line connects 
 the mouth of the Douro River with Cape Ap^ 
 sheron. Its length is 3,000 miles. With A and B 
 as centres, and with a radius equal to three-fourths 
 of A D, draws arcs to intersect at C, and connect 
 A and C, and B and C. Divide A C into four, 
 C B into six, and A B into eight equal parts. 
 From the first division to the right of G, and from 
 the angle A draw vertical lines, as shown in the 
 figure, each one-eighth the length of A B. Con- 
 nect H and I, and divide the right-hand half of 
 this line into four equal parts. From D draw a 
 perpendicular line equal to two and one-half 
 divisions on the line A B, and bisect it. Connect 
 C and F, and E and B. From K draw a line in 
 the direction of the centre of C B until it meets a 
 vertical line drawn from the angle C. 
 
 Mop. — In drawing the map commence at C, on the 
 coast of Norway, and draw, in order, the northern and 
 eastern boundaries ; then commence again at C and draw 
 the western and southern boundaries. The coast of Nor- 
 way follows the line C A, and extends south to a point about 
 midway between C and K. The lines C I and L E will 
 assist in drawing the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea, and 
 the north-western shores of Germany and France, The 
 head of the Bay of Biscay is near the first division to the 
 right of A, on the line A B. The Gulfs of Lions and Genoa 
 are on opposite sides of the second division, and the head 
 of the Adriatic Sea embraces the third division. The fifth 
 division marks the western extremity of the Black Sea; 
 the Sea of Azov is north of the sixth division, and the 
 eastern extremity of the Black Sea is near the seventh. 
 Italy resembles in outline the shape of a boot. The 
 southern extremity is between the first and second divisions 
 to the right of J on the line H I. The Peninsula of Greece 
 is situated between the second and third divisions, and 
 extends south of this line equal to one division. The Sea 
 of Marmora is a litde north of L 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING ASIA. 
 
 Diagram. — Draw the vertical line A B a little 
 more than one-half the length desired for the map, 
 north and south. Divide it into three equal parts, 
 and the upper third into two parts. From the 
 point B draw the horizontal line B C one and one- 
 sixth times the length of A B. Bisect it, and con- 
 nect A and C. Trisect A C, then bisect the middle 
 division and trisect the upper. With the points 
 A and C as centres, and with a radius equal to one 
 and two-thirds times the first line, draw arcs to 
 intersect at D, and connect A and D, and C and D. 
 Trisect A D and bisect the middle division. 
 Divide the line € D into four equal parts, and 
 bisect both of the extreme divisions. Draw the 
 lines E P and N L and bisect them ; also one from 
 to K and trisect it. From the lower trisecting 
 point on the line K draw a line toward J till it 
 meets tlie line N L. The distance measured by 
 the line A C is 5,300 miles, 
 
 Afap. — In drawing the map commence at East Cape and 
 draw in order the eastern, southern, and western boun- 
 daries, including the Black Sea; then commence again at 
 East Cape and finish the outline. The shore of Kam- 
 chatka crosses at the first division on the line D C ; the 
 southern shore of t~he Sea of Ochotsk is at G ; the Yellow 
 Sea is near the centre of the line at H ; the Gulf of Tonquin 
 is at 1 ; and the Gulf of Siam is near the last division. If 
 we suppose a line drawn from this division-point parallel 
 with the line A C, it will assist in determining the position 
 of the Gulr of Siam and the Bay of Bengal. Cape 
 Romania coincides with the angle at C, and' Cape Como- 
 rin with the lower division on the line K. The head of 
 the Persian Gulf is near the centre of the triangle A S I. 
 The Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb is at N ; the Isthmus of Suez 
 between A and IB ; and the Strait of Bosphorus, at A. The 
 Black Sea extends as far east as the first division on the 
 line A C, and the Caspian Sea touches this line at the 
 second division. The position of the Caspian Sea, the Ural 
 River, an 1 Ural Mountains is determined by the line B 
 
Pageia 
 
124 
 
 Pronouncing and Explanatory Vocabulary. 
 
 ay as a in fate; 
 ah as a in far ; 
 aw as a in fall; 
 
 S as a in fat; 
 
 e or ee as e in meet ; 
 
 a as e in inet ; 
 
 KEY TO THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS. 
 
 I as iin pine; 6 asoinmo*; u asumpwre; ar zsarinfar; 
 
 I as iin pin; do as oo in pool; it as u in tun; g as gin get; 
 
 as in note; 66 as coin good; ai as a in fare; J as gin gem; 
 
 I as sm sum; 
 « as s in has; 
 ch as ch in church; 
 
 th as th in thin; 
 TH as th in then; 
 zh as 2; in glazier. 
 
 a, e, i, 0, u. obscure sound, as in organ, term, virgin, otlier, cwr ; ■» as French n, similar to ng through the nose. 
 
 Aalborg, awl'bSrg. (Eel 
 castle.) 
 
 Aar, ar. (A river.) 
 
 Aaszy, ah'see. (The rebel- 
 lious.) 
 
 Abaco, ah'bah-ko. 
 
 Abeokuta, ah-be-o-koo'tah. 
 
 Aberdeen'. (Mouth of the 
 Dee.) 
 
 Aberystwith, Sb-er-lst'with. 
 
 Abiquiu, db-e-kii'. 
 
 Abomey, Ub-o-may'. 
 
 Abreojos, dh-braxi'o-hos. 
 
 Abrolhos, ah-brdl'yds. (Port. 
 "Open your eyes" — i. e., 
 " breakers ahead." So 
 named from, the danger- 
 ous coast of the islands.) 
 
 Abydos, ah-bi-d6s'. 
 
 Abyssinia, Sib-'is-sWi-a. 
 
 (Mixed people. So named 
 because the population 
 was composed of many 
 different races.) 
 
 Acapulco, ah-kah-pool'ko. 
 
 Acaray, ah-hah-rV. 
 
 Accomack, Hk-ko-mSk' . (Ind. 
 Land on the other side, or 
 beyond [the water].) 
 
 Acheen, &t-cheen'. 
 
 Achill, atll. 
 
 Aconcagua, ah-kSn-kah'- 
 gwah. 
 
 Acre, ay'ker or ah'ker. 
 
 Adana, ah'dah-nah or ah- 
 dah'nah. 
 
 Aden, ah'den or ay'den. 
 
 Adije, d,d'\-jee or ah'de-jay. 
 
 Adirondack, dd-l^rSn'dHk. 
 (Ind. He eats bark.) 
 
 Adour, ahd-oor'. 
 
 Adrianople, dd-ri-an-o'p'l. 
 (City of Adrian.) 
 
 Adriatic, Hd-re-iit'ik. (Named 
 from " Adria," formerly 
 an important city on the 
 Gulf of Venice.) 
 
 Afghanistan, ahf-g&nAs- 
 tahn'. (Country of the 
 Afghans.) 
 
 Africa, dfrl-ka. 
 
 Agra, ah'grah. 
 
 Agulhas, ahrgboVyahs. (Cape 
 Agulhas, "Cape Needles.") 
 
 Aisne, ayn. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, ayla-lah- 
 shah-piV. (Waters of the 
 chapel.) 
 
 Ajaccio, ah-yaht'cho. 
 
 Ajan, ah-zaifm'. 
 
 Akaba, ah'kah-bah. 
 
 Akita, ah-ke'tah. 
 
 Alabama, Hl-a-bah'Tna. (A 
 place of rest.) 
 
 Alamo, SZ'&^nw. (A poplar 
 tree.) 
 
 Aland, aw'land. 
 
 Alapaha, tU-&p'a-haw. 
 
 Alaska, ay-l&s'ka. (Great 
 country.) 
 
 Albany, awl'ba-ni. 
 
 Albemarle, Hl'be-marl. 
 
 Albuquerque, ahl-boo-keer' - 
 kay or SX'boo-kerk. (White 
 oak.) 
 
 Alcoy, ahl-ko'ee. 
 
 Alderney, awl'der-ni. 
 
 Alenpon, ah-Kn-sos' . 
 
 Aleppo, ay-Up'po. (Milk.) 
 
 Aleutian,ay-lii,'sM-an. (From 
 aleut, "a bold rock.") 
 
 Alexandria, Sl-Sgs-Hn'dr'l-a. 
 (Named from its founder, 
 Alexander the Great.) 
 
 Alexandrowsk, ah-Ugs-ahn- 
 drffv'. 
 
 Algeria, Ul-jee'ri-a. 
 
 Algiers, Hl-jeer^. 
 
 Alicante, ah-le-kahn'tay. 
 
 Allegany (N. Y.), ai-le- 
 gay'rm. 
 
 Alleghany, d,l-le-gay'nl. 
 
 (River of the Allegewi.) 
 
 Allegheny (city), tU-le- 
 gay'nl. 
 
 Ailer, ahl'ler. 
 
 AUier, ahl-U-ay'. 
 
 Almaden (Spain), ahl-mah- 
 THen'. (The mines.) 
 
 Almaden (U. S.), ahl-mah- 
 din'. 
 
 Almansa, ahl-mah)i'sah. 
 
 Almeria, ahl-may-re'ah. 
 
 Alnwick, dn'tilk. 
 
 Alp. (White; a mountain 
 high enough to be capped 
 with snow. Hence also 
 Height.) 
 
 Alsace, ahl-sahs'. 
 
 Altai, ahl-W. (Gold moun- 
 tains.) 
 
 Altamaha, awl-ta-ma-haw' . 
 (Place of the village.) 
 
 Alton, awl'ton. 
 
 Altona. ahl'to-nah. 
 
 Altoona, Ul-tod'na. 
 
 Alvarado, ahl-vah-rah' tbo. 
 
 Amarapura, ah7n-ah-ra-poo' - 
 ra. 
 
 Amazon, S/m'd^zSn. (Ind. 
 Aviassona, "boat-destroy- 
 er;" so named because of 
 the destructive tide called 
 the bore.) 
 
 Amboyna, Hm-boi'na. 
 
 America, h-rair'Vka. (From 
 Americus Vespuoius.) 
 
 Amherst, Sm'erst. 
 
 Amiens, ah'mH-dx. 
 
 Amirante, ttm^e-rant'. 
 
 Amoo (or Amu), ah-rmb'. 
 
 Amoor (or Amur), ah-moor'. 
 
 Amoskeag, im^ds-kig' . 
 
 Amoy, ah-moi'. 
 
 Am'sterdam. (From Amstel- 
 dam, " dam [or dike] of 
 Amstel.") 
 
 Anadir, ahn-a-deer". 
 
 Ancona, ahn-kb'ndh. 
 
 Andaman, Hn-da-mdn' . 
 
 Andes, dn'deez. (Copper.) 
 
 Andorra, ahn^dor'rah. 
 
 Andros, iln'drSs. 
 
 Androscoggin, tt.n-drSs-ki)g'- 
 gin. (Originally Amaskohe- 
 gan, " fish-spearing.") 
 
 Andujar, ahn-doo'char. 
 
 Angara, ahng-gah-rah' . 
 
 Angers, Wzhay. 
 
 Anglesea, Qng' g'l-see. 
 
 Angola, ang-go'la. 
 
 Angostura (ahn-gSs-tdo'rah). 
 
 Angouleme, Bs-goo-laym' . 
 
 Anguilla, &ng-gll'la. 
 
 Annam, Hn-n&m' or dn- 
 nahm'. 
 
 Annap'olis. (Anne City.) 
 
 Antananarivo, ahn'tah-nah'- 
 nah-re-voo'. 
 
 Antarctic, dnt-ark'Uk. (Op- 
 posite the Arctic.) 
 
 Antequera, ahn-tdy-kay'rah. 
 
 Anticosti, dn-U-kSs'Vl. 
 
 Antigua, ahn-te'ga. 
 
 Antilles, Ss-teeV or ahn-tW- 
 leez. 
 
 Antioch, dn'tl-Sk. 
 
 Antioquia, ahn-te-o-Jx! a. 
 
 Antongil, ahn-tBn' zKel. 
 
 Ant'werp. (Added. So 
 called because built upon 
 successive deposits of the 
 river Scheklt.) 
 
 Apache, ah-pah'chay. 
 
 Apennines, dp'en-nmz. 
 
 Appalachee, dp-pa-ldch'ee. 
 
 Appalachian, dp-parlay'eh'ir 
 
 Appalachicola, dp-pa-ldch-'i- 
 ko'la. (Town of the Apa- 
 lachites.) 
 
 Appomattox, dp-po-mdt'toks. 
 
 Arabia, a-ray'bl-a. (West; 
 also Merchandise.) 
 
 Araguay, ah-rah-gwV. 
 
 Aral, dr'al. (Sea of Aral, 
 "sea of islands.") 
 
 Aranjuez, ah-rahn-chwith' . 
 
 Ararat, dr-a-rdt'. 
 
 Araucania, d-raw-kah'ne-ah. 
 
 Archangel, ark-ayn'jB. 
 
 Archipelago, ar-kl-piVa-go. 
 
 Arctic, ark/ftk. (From arctos, 
 " a bear." It signifies 
 "northern," because the 
 constellation called the 
 Great Bear lies toward 
 the North Pole.) 
 
 Ardennes,a)--£ZSre'. (Heights.) 
 
 Arequipa, ah-ray-ke'pah. 
 
 Argentine, ar'jin-tin. (Sil- 
 ver.) 
 
 Arica, ah-re'kah. 
 
 Arizona, dr-l-zo'na. (Sand 
 hills.) 
 
 Arkansas, ar-hdn'zds or ar'- 
 kdn-saw. (From the 
 French arc, " a bow," and 
 the Indian fanaas, "smoky 
 water.") 
 
 Armagh, ar-mah'. 
 
 Armenia, ar-nie'nVa. 
 
 Arnhem, arn'him. 
 
 Aroostook, a-robs/tSik. (Ind. 
 Good river.) 
 
 Arras, ar-rahs'. 
 
 Ascension, as-sSn'shUn. (As- 
 cension Island ; so named 
 because it was discovered 
 on Ascencion day, 1501.) 
 
 Ascutney, ds-kiit'ni. (Ind. 
 Fire mountain.) 
 
 Ashantee, d-shdn'tee or ahsh- 
 dn-tee'. 
 
 Asia, ay'sKl-a. (Land of the 
 dawn.) 
 
 Assam, ds-sdm'. 
 
 Assiniboia, ds-s\n-\-boi'ya. 
 (Country of the "Stone 
 Sioux," a wandering In- 
 dian tribe.) 
 
 Assouan, ahs-soo-ahn' or ahs- 
 swahn'. 
 
 Astrakhan, ahs-trah-kahn' . 
 
 Asuncion, ah-soon'sl-on. 
 
 Atacama, ah-tah-kah'mah. 
 
 Atbara, aht-bdh'rah. 
 
 Atchafalaya, atch-df-a-Wa. 
 (Lost water,or Long river. ) 
 
 Athabasca, dth-a-bds'ka. 
 (Swampy.) 
 
 Athens, dth'Snz. (From 
 Athene, the goddess of 
 wisdom.) 
 
 Atlan'tic. (The sea beyond 
 Mt. Atlas.) 
 
 At'las. (The Atlas Moun- 
 tains were named from 
 Atlas, an ancient king 
 who was said to have 
 borne the world on his 
 shoulders.) 
 
 Auburn, aw'bum. (Old 
 brook.) 
 
 Auch, osh. 
 
 Auckland, awk'land. 
 
 Angela, aw-ji'lah or 8w-Je'- 
 lah. 
 
 Aiigsburg, owgs'boorg. 
 
 Augusta, aw-gUs'ta. (Noble.) 
 
 Aurillae, o-rl-yahk'. 
 
 Au Sable, aw-sah'bl. 
 
 Australasia,a'ws-tral-ay'sh1-a. 
 (Southern Asia.) 
 
 Australia, awn-tray'tl-a. 
 
 (Southern land.) 
 
 Austria, aws'trVa- (Eastern 
 empire.) 
 
 Auvergne, b^aym'. 
 
 Aux Cayes, o-kay'. 
 
 Auxerre, o-sayr'. 
 
 Ava, ah'vah. 
 
 Avignon, ah-ven^yos'. 
 
 Avon (Bng.), ay'von, (A 
 river.) 
 
 Axum, ahk-soom'. 
 
 Azores, a-zorz'. (Port, afor, 
 "ahawk." Hawks are nu- 
 merous on these islands.) 
 
 Azov, dz'dv or ah-zdi/. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baalbec, bahl-biW. 
 
 Bab el Mandeb, bdb-3- 
 mahn'dSb. (The gate of 
 tears; so called on ac- 
 count of the numerous 
 shipwrecks in this strait.) 
 
 Badajos, bahd-a-hos'. (Arab. 
 Laud of life, or health.) 
 
 Baden, bah'd'n or bdd'n. 
 (The baths.) 
 
 Baeza, bah-ay'thah. 
 
 Bagdad, bahg-dahd'. 
 
 Bagur, bah-goor. 
 
 Bahamas, ba-hay'maz. 
 
 Bahia, bah-e'ah. (The har- 
 bor.) 
 
 Baikal, IVkahl. (Rich lake.) 
 
 Balearic, bdl-e-dr%k. (From 
 Gr. ballein, "to throw," 
 because the inhabitants 
 were noted slingers.) 
 
 Balize, bah-leez'. (A corrup- 
 tion of Waliz, which the 
 Spaniards called this 
 place because it was the 
 resort of Wallace, a noted 
 pirate.) 
 
 Balkan, bahl-kahn'. 
 
 Balkash, bdhl-kahsh'. 
 
 Ballarat, b&l-la-rdt'. 
 
 Balmoral, bdl-mor-dV. 
 
 Balsas, b'ahl'sahs. 
 
 Baltic, bawl'ak. (Full of belts 
 or straits.) 
 
 Baltimore, bawl'd-mdr. 
 
 Banca, bdngk'a. 
 
 Banff, bdmf. 
 
 Bangkok, bdng-kdk'. 
 
 Bangor, bdng'gdr. (High 
 choir.) 
 
 Bangweolo, bdng-we-o'lo. 
 
 Banialuka, bahn-yah-loo'kah. 
 
 Baracoa, bah-rah-ko' ah. 
 
 Baranoff, bah-rahn'dff. 
 
 Barbadoes, har-bay'doz. 
 
 Barbary, bar'ba-ri. (A desert, 
 or barbarian.) 
 
 Barbuda, bar-boo'da. 
 
 Barcelona, bar-se-lo'nah. 
 
 Barfleur, bar-flur' 
 
 Bari, bah'ree. 
 
 Barilochi, bar-e-K' chee. 
 
 Barquisimeto, bar-kay-se- 
 may'to. 
 
 Basle, bahl. (Queen.) 
 
 Batabano, ba.h-tah-bah-nd' . 
 
 Batavia, ba-tay'vl-a or bah- 
 tah'iA-ah. 
 
 Bathurst, bahth'urst. 
 
 Batiscan, bah-tes-kdx' . 
 
 Baton Rouge, bdt-Hn-rddzh' . 
 (Red stick.) 
 
 Bavaria, ba-vay'rVa. (Lat. 
 Land of tlia Boli.) 
 
 Baylen, bl-Un'. 
 
 Bayona, bah-yo'nah. 
 
 Bayonne, bay-ySn'. 
 
 Bayou La Pourohe, bVoo- 
 lahfoorsh. 
 
 BajTeuth, bl'ruth. 
 
 Beaufort (IT. S.), bii'fiirt. 
 
 Beauharnois, bo-ahr-nwah' . 
 
 Beaumaris, bo^may'ris. 
 
 Beauvais, bo'vay'. 
 
 Bechuanaa, bU-chob-ah'naz. 
 
 Bedouin, bSd'oo-ln. (Inhab- 
 itant of the open land.) 
 
 Begharmi, ba-gar'mee. 
 
 Behring, Wring. 
 
 Beirout, bay'root. 
 
 Beia, bay'zhah. 
 
 Beled el Jerid, bB'ed-&rjir- 
 eed'. (Land of dates.) 
 
 Belem, bay-US'. 
 
 Belfast, bSl-fahst'. (Town 
 by the sand-bank in the 
 river.) 
 
 Belgium, bil'fl-Hm. (Lat. 
 Country of the Belgie, who 
 dwelt along the Bolga or 
 Volga.) 
 
 Belgrade, bU-grayd'. (White 
 city.) 
 
 Belle Isle, 5SJ-M'. (Beautiful 
 island.) 
 
 Belmonte, bil-mSn'tay. 
 
 Beloit, be-loit'. 
 
 Beluchistan, bB-ob-clAs- 
 tahn'. (The country of 
 the Beluchees.) 
 
 Bemini, bay-me'nee. 
 
 Benares, bSn-ah'rSz. 
 
 Bengal, bln^gawl'. 
 
 Benguela, b&n-gay'lah. 
 
 Benicia, be-n^h"irah. 
 
 Benin, Mn-een'. 
 
 Benisouef, bSn-e-sw^f. 
 
 Benjarmassin,6fe-i/ar-mafo'- 
 sln. 
 
 Ben Lomond, bln-lo'm'nd. 
 (Beacon mountain.) 
 
 Ben MacDhui, b&n-m&k- 
 dob'ee. 
 
 BenNevis, bbi-nW\s.(aon&- 
 capped mountain.) 
 
 Benue, bXn-oo-e'. 
 
 Ben Wyvis, bin-m'iAs. 
 
 Bergen (XT. S.), berg'en. 
 
 Bergen (Norway), bSrg'en. 
 (Mountains.) 
 
 Berlin (Prus.), bh'-leen'. (Un- 
 cultivated land.) 
 
 Bermudas, bSr-mU'duz. 
 
 (Named after Bermudez, 
 their discoverer, 1522.) 
 
 Berne, bem. (A bear.) 
 
 Besanfon, Vz-bn'sos. 
 
 Bhotan, boo-tahn'. 
 
 Biafra, be-dfra. 
 
 Biddeford, bid'deford. 
 
 Bilbao, bll-bah'o. 
 
 Binghamton, blng'am-ton. 
 
 Bir, beer. 
 
 Birmingham, ber'mlng-tim. 
 (Broom-place-dwelling.) 
 
 Bis'cay. (A forest.) 
 
 Bismarck, biz' mark. 
 
 Bistineau, b\s-tln-d'. 
 
 Blanco, bldn'kd. (White.) 
 
 Blenheim, bl&n'tm. 
 
 Blois, blwah. 
 
 Boavista, bo-ah-ves'tah. 
 
 Bochnia, bSk'ne-ah. 
 
 Boers, bo'erz. 
 
 Bogota, bo-go-tah'. 
 
 Bohemia, bd-he'm\-ah. 
 
 Bohmerwald, ber'mer-vahlt. 
 (Bohemian forest.) 
 
 Bois4, boi'ze or bwah'zay. 
 (Woody.) 
 
 Bojador, bid-jah-dm-' . 
 
 Bokhara, bdk-ah'rah. (Treas- 
 ury of sciences.) 
 
 Bolivia, bo-tlv'l-a. (Named 
 from General Bolivar.) 
 
 Bologna, bd-Kn'yah. 
 
 Bolor, bo-lDr'. Bolor Tagh 
 [mountains]. (The roof of 
 the world.) 
 
 Bombay'. (Good bay.) 
 
 Bonifacio, bo-rie-fah' cho. 
 
 Boninj bb-nen'. 
 
 Boothia, boo'tM-a. 
 
 Bordeaux, bdr-do'. (Border 
 of the waters.) 
 
 Borgne, bUm. 
 
 Borneo, bUr'ne-o. 
 
 Bom'holm. (Island of the 
 Burgundians.) 
 
 Bosnia, bdz'rHl-ah. 
 
 Bosporus, bds'po-rtis. (Ox- 
 ford.) 
 
 Bos'ton. (St. Botolph's 
 town.) 
 
 Bothnia, bSth'nI-a. (Deep 
 sea.) 
 
 Bougainville, boo-gdn-veeV. 
 
 Boulogne, bod-Ion'. 
 
 Bourbon, boor'b'dn or boor 
 box". 
 
 Bourges, boorzh. 
 
 Bowdoinham, bo'den-ham. 
 
 Braganza, brah-gahn'sah. 
 
 Brahm or Brah'ma. (The 
 Hindu deity.) 
 
 Brahmaputra, brdh'mah- 
 poot'rah. (Son of the 
 Creator.) 
 
 Brazil'. (So named from the 
 color of Brazil wood, 
 which was thought to re- 
 semble the color of glow- 
 ing coals in a brazier.) 
 
 Brazos, brah'zBs. 
 
 Breede, bray'de or breed. 
 
 Bremen, brSm'en or bray'- 
 men. 
 
 Breslau, bris'lavi or bris'low, 
 
 Brest. (Great port.) 
 
 Bruges, bru'jez or brOzh, 
 (Bridges.) 
 
 Briinn, breen. 
 
 Bmsa, broo'sah. 
 
 Brussels, brils'selz. 
 
 Bucharest, bO/ka-rist. (City 
 of enjoyment.) 
 
 Buda Pesth, boo'dS-pisht. 
 
 Buddha, bBBd'da. 
 
 Buddhism, bBSd'lzm. 
 
 Budweis, bodd'ms. 
 
 Buena Esperanza, bway'nah- 
 is-pay-rahn' zah. 
 
 Buen Ayre, bwin^Vray. 
 
 Buenos A.yres.bway'ribs-'i-ris. 
 (Good air.) 
 
 Bug, bibg. 
 
 Bulgaria, bBBl-gay'rl-a. 
 
 (Country of the Volgari- 
 ans or Huns.) 
 
 Burgas, bbbr'gds. 
 
 Burgos, bbbr'gos. 
 
 Bushire, boo-sher'. 
 
 Butte, bate. 
 
 Cabriel, kah-bre-il'. 
 
 Cabul, kah-bool'. 
 
 Cacao, ka-kay'o. 
 
 Caceres, kah'thay-ris. 
 
 Cachoeira, kalisho-ay'e-rah. 
 
 Cadiz, kay'diz. (Shut in.) 
 
 Caen, kdir. 
 
 Caernarvon, ker-nar'von. 
 
 Caflfraria, kaf-fray'fl-a. 
 
 (Country of the CaiJBrs or 
 Infidels, a name given by 
 the Arabs to all who did 
 not accept the Moham- 
 medan religion.) 
 
 Cagliari, kahl'yah-ree. 
 
 Cahawba, ka-haw'ba. 
 
 Cahors, kah-or'. 
 
 Cairo (IT. S.), kay'ro. 
 
 Cairo (Egypt), la'ro. (The 
 victorious.) 
 
 Calais (U. S.), kM%s. 
 
 Calais (France), kdh-lay'. 
 
 Calcasieu, kahl'kashii. 
 
 Calcutta, kdl-kiU'ta. (Thk 
 temple of the goddess of 
 Time.) 
 
 Caldera, kahl-day'rah. 
 
 Callao, kaM-lah'6 at h!H> 
 yah'o. 
 
PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY. 
 
 125 
 
 Cambay'. (Caverns.) 
 
 Cambodia, k&m-bo'dja. 
 
 Cambridge, hiym'hrij. 
 
 (Bridge over the Cam.) 
 
 Cameroon, kStm-er-oon' . 
 
 Cameta, kah-may'tah. 
 
 Campeche, klim-pe'chee or 
 kahm-paji'clmy. 
 
 Canada, kdn'a-da. (Ind. A 
 village.) 
 
 Canandaigua, k&n-an-day'- 
 gwa. (Ind. A town set 
 off or separated.) 
 
 Canaries, ka-nay'riz. 
 
 Canav'eral. 
 
 Can'cer. (A crab. When 
 the sun reaches the Tropic 
 of Cancer, It moves back- 
 ward, like a crab, to Cap- 
 ricorn.) 
 
 Candahar, kahn-dah-har' . 
 
 Cailon, kAn'ySn or kahn-yon'. 
 
 Cantabrian, kahn-tay'hrl-an. 
 
 Canton (U. S.), kSn'tan. 
 
 Canton (China), kdn-tSn'. 
 (Large east citv.) 
 
 Cape Breton, hrit't'n. 
 
 Cape Verd. (Green cape.) 
 
 Cap'ricorn. (Goat's horn. 
 The Tropic of Capricorn 
 is the point at which the 
 snn appears to turn " and 
 climb like a goat " to Can- 
 cer.) 
 
 Caqueta, kah-kav'tah. 
 
 Caracas, kah-rnh'kahs. 
 
 Carbonaro, car-bo-nah'ro . 
 
 Carcassonne, hir-k6s-s1lnn' . 
 
 Cardenas, kar'day-nahs. 
 
 Cardigan, kar'di-gan. 
 
 Caribbean, kSr-'^h-he' an. 
 • Carlsbad, karls'had or karls'- 
 haht. 
 
 Carlscrona, kark kroo'vi. 
 
 Carlsruhe, karls'rdo. 
 
 (Charles's rest.l 
 
 Carolina,Mr-o-E'ni,. (Named 
 after Charles II. of Eng- 
 land.) 
 
 Caroline, kS,r'd-Un. 
 
 Carpathian, kar-pay'tht-an. 
 
 Carpenta'ria. (Named from 
 Captain Carpenter.) 
 
 Carrara, kcur-rah'rah. 
 
 Cartagena,S;ar-to-ye'«(i. (New 
 Carthage.) 
 
 Carvoeiro, kar-vo-ay'e-ro. 
 
 Casale, kah-sah'lay. 
 
 Casco, k&s'ko. (A crane.) 
 
 Caspian, kds'p^^an. 
 
 Cassava, kiis'sil-va. 
 
 Ca-ssiquiare, kah-se-ke-ah'ree. 
 
 Castellon de la Plana, knhs- 
 til-ydn'day-lah-'nlah'nah. 
 
 Castelnau, kds-tgl-nd' . 
 
 Castine, kSs-teen'. 
 
 Catahoula, kiU-a-hoo'la. 
 
 Catania, kah-tah'ne-ah. 
 
 Catoche, kah-to'chay. 
 
 Cats'kill. fSo named because 
 the mountains were in- 
 fested with wildcats and 
 panthers.) 
 
 Cattaro, knht'tnh-ro. 
 
 Cattegat, kOt'te-frHt. 'Ga^e or 
 strait of the Caff-', an 
 ancient people of that 
 region.) 
 
 Cauca, kow'kih. 
 
 Caucasian, kaw-knji' sM-yi. 
 
 Caucasus, kaw'kn-sUs. (White 
 mountains.) 
 
 Caxias, kah-ahe'nlis. 
 
 Caximba.=;. k/lcks-'im/bSs. 
 
 Caycos, H'kos. 
 
 Cayenne, kay-yPn' or H-Sn'. 
 
 Cayman, Wmahn. 
 
 Cayos, lA'oce. 
 
 Cayuga, kay-yoo'ga. (Long 
 lake.) 
 
 Celano, chay-lah'tw. 
 
 Celebes, aSl'k-hlz. 
 
 Centoce, s&n'to-say. 
 
 Cephalonia. Mf-ah-lo'ne-ah. 
 
 Oeram, se-rltm'. 
 
 Ceredo, se-'re'do. 
 
 Cerigo, ckfr'e-go. 
 
 Cetinje, cliB-teen'yay. 
 
 Cette, sm. 
 
 Ceuta, su'ta. 
 
 Cevennes, s»i-in.' or say- 
 
 Ceylon, see-ldn' or M-on'. 
 
 (The island of lions.) 
 Chafes, chah'gres. 
 Chalons, sluih-ldif'. 
 Champlain, shdm-playn' . 
 Chandeleur, sMn-de-loor' . 
 Charente, shah^rOM'. 
 Chariton, chOr'Vton. 
 Chartres, sharfr. 
 Chascomiis, chUs-ko-moos' . 
 Chateangay, shah-to-gay'. 
 Chattahoochee, chJU-ta-hoo'- 
 
 che. (Painted stone.) 
 Chattanooga, chiU-ta-noo'ga. 
 Chaudiere, aho-de-ayr'. 
 Chaumont, sho-mos'. (Bald 
 
 mountain.) 
 Chautauqua, sha-taw'kwa. 
 
 (Ind. Foggy place.) 
 Chelmsford, ch&mz'furd. 
 Cheltenham, chUVnUm. 
 Chelyuskin, cMl-ySs'kin. 
 Chemnitz, klhnfiMs. 
 Cheops, ke'dps. 
 Cher, shayr. 
 Cherhourg,«Acr'?>tfr(7 nrshayr- 
 
 bodr'. (Cffisar's town.) 
 Cherokee'. 
 Chesapeake, chis'a-peek. 
 
 (Ind. Mother of waters.) 
 Chesuncook, che-sHn'kUdk. 
 
 (Ind. Great goose lake.) 
 Chetunal, chay-too'nahl. 
 Cheviot, chWe-itt or chiv'e-itt. 
 Cheyenne, sh%-in'. 
 Chicago, she-kaWgo. (Ind. A 
 
 wild onion.) 
 Chic'akoff. 
 
 Chichester, Mch'es-ter. 
 Chick'asaw. 
 Chicopee, chWo-pee. (Cedar 
 
 tree. ) 
 Chihuahua, cKe-wih'wnh. 
 Chili.c/iWtee. (Land of«mw.) 
 Chillicothe, cMl-H-kdth'e. 
 Chiloe, che-lo-ay'. 
 Chimborazo, chlm-bo-rah'zo. 
 
 (A chimney.) 
 Chi'na. (Chinese Chon-koo, 
 
 The middle nation.) 
 Chincha, chtn'cha or chm'- 
 
 chah. 
 Chippewa, chWne-wah. 
 Chiriqui, chf-re-kee'. 
 Chonos. cfm'nos. 
 Chowan, clw-wnhn'. 
 Christiania, kr1s-CI-a!i'M-a. 
 Christiansand, k>%s'Cl-ahn- 
 
 sahnrV. 
 Chudleigh, cMd'le. 
 Chuquibamba, chdo-ke- 
 
 bahm'bah. 
 Cibao, se-bah'o. 
 Cienfuegos. si-in-fwaif gos. 
 
 (Hundred fires.) _ 
 Cimarron, sl-mah-ron' . 
 Cinchona, ^n-ko'na. 
 Cincinnati, sXn-stn-nah'tl. 
 
 (Named from Cincinnatus, 
 
 the Roman dictator.) 
 Ciudad Real. the-oo-TirltTB'- 
 
 ray-ahl'. (Royal citv.1 
 Civita Vecchia, che-ve-tah- 
 
 vWKe-ah. (Old town.) 
 Cleveland, kliv'land. 
 Coanza, co-ahn'za. 
 Coatzacoalcos, kd-aht-sah-ko- 
 
 ahl'kos. 
 Cobija, co-beefhah. 
 Cochahamba, ko-chaU-bahm'- 
 
 bah. 
 Cochin China, io'cMre-cK'jio. 
 Cocliineal, kBch'^-neel. 
 Cockburn, ko'bUm,. 
 Coco, ko'ko. 
 Cocoa, kffko. 
 Coepang, koo-pSng'. 
 echoes, ko-hoz'. 
 Coiba, koi'ba. 
 Coimbra, ko-em'brah. 
 Crtlima, ko-le'mah. 
 Cologne, ko-lm'. (From co- 
 
 Ionia, a "colony.") 
 Colorado,iW«-o-raA'do. (Red.) 
 Comayagua, ko-ml-ah'gwak. 
 Comohur, ko-rm-noor' . 
 Comorin, cSm'o-rin. 
 Concepcion, kSn-sSp'shiln or 
 
 kSn-th^-the-on'. 
 Copcord, kUng'kurd. 
 Conecuh, ko^iie'ka. 
 Conesus, ko-ne'isits. 
 
 Congaree, kSiig-ga-ree' . 
 Conhocton, ktln-h6k/ton. 
 Conneautville, kdn-ne-awt'- 
 
 M. 
 Connecticut, kdn-nH'i-k&t. 
 
 (Long river.) 
 Constantinople, kSn-stHnM- 
 
 no'p'l. (City of Constan 
 
 tine.) 
 Coustitucion, kSn-sd-tdo-thi- 
 
 on'. 
 Coomassie, kod-mtis'see. 
 Copenhagen, ko-pin-hay' gin. 
 
 (Merchant's haven.) 
 Copiapo, ko-pe-ah-pb' . 
 Coquimbo, ko-kem'bo. 
 Cordil'lera. (A rope ; hence 
 
 a mountain chain.) 
 Cordova, kXr'dib-vah. 
 Corea, ko-re'a. 
 Corentyn, ko-rin-Rn'. 
 Corrientes, k/ir-rf-Sn'tSs. (A 
 
 current. There is a strong 
 
 current in Mozambique 
 
 Channel off Cape Cor- 
 rientes.) 
 Corunna, kd-rdn'na. 
 Cos'ta Rica, kds-tah-ree'kah. 
 
 (Rich coast.) 
 Cote d'Or, kdt-dor'. (Coast or 
 
 hill of gold.) 
 Cotopaxi, kd-to-pSk.i'ee. 
 Coudersport, kow' derz-port. 
 Coxsackie, kUdk-saw'ke. 
 Cozumel, ko-zod-mM'. 
 Cracow, kray'ko. 
 Crete, kreet. 
 Creuse, kruz. 
 Crenx, kruh. 
 Crimea, fcrt-me'ii. 
 Cronstadt,fo-om'stoAt. (Crown 
 
 city.) 
 Cuenca, kwSn'kah. 
 Cumana, koo^mah-nah' . 
 Curaijoa, ku-ra-so' or ku-ra- 
 
 so'ah. 
 Cuyaba, koo-yah-bah' . 
 Cuvahora. l^a-ho'ga. 
 Cuzco, koos'ko. 
 CycladKi, sik'la-deez. (From 
 
 "the Gr. kuUos, " a circle.") 
 Czar, zahr. (From the Lat. 
 
 Caisar.) 
 
 Dahlonecra, dah-lm-e'ga. 
 
 find. Place of gold.) 
 Dahomey, dah-hd'mav. 
 Dako'ta. (Ind. Allied.) 
 Damara, dah-mah'rah. 
 Damascus, da-mlis'kas. 
 Damietta, d&m-^Wta. 
 Dant'zic. (Danish town.) 
 Danube, d&n'yoob. (Deep.) 
 Dardanelles, dar-da-nMz' . 
 Darfur, dar-fobr'. (Country 
 
 of the Foorians.) 
 Darien, day'ri-Sn. 
 Darmstadt, darm'stnht. 
 Debretzin, day-brH'xin. 
 T)eccan,dgk'kan.(The 'iouth.) 
 Decierta, day-se-air'tah. 
 Deir, dayr. (A mona.«tp^v.^ 
 Deir el Kammer, dayr-li- 
 
 kahm'er. 
 Delaware,ffe/'a-«mir.(Nampd 
 
 in honor of Thomas West, 
 
 Lord de la Ware, who vis- 
 ited the bay in 1610.) 
 Delgado, dH-gah'dd. (Cape 
 
 Delgado. Fine cape.) 
 'De\h\,dei'le. (A quicksand.) 
 Denbigh, dSn'bi. (Dwelling 
 
 in the vale.) 
 Den'mark. (Alow country.) 
 Derne, der'ne. 
 Desaguadero, dH-nh-invah- 
 
 rnay'ro. (The outlet.) _ 
 Des Moines, de-inoin'. (City 
 
 of the monks.) 
 Detroit'. (A strait.) 
 Dhawalashiri, dayw/H-a-gh'- 
 
 re. (White mount.nin.) 
 Diamantina, de-ak-mahn-te'- 
 
 nah. 
 Diarbekir. dee-ar'bee-keer' . 
 Dieppe, de-l>p'. (Deep.) 
 Digne, den'va. 
 Dijon, de-zMs'. 
 Dinario, di-ndr'tk. 
 Dnieper, ne'per. (The upper 
 
 river.) 
 
 Dniester, nees'ter. (The 
 lower river.) 
 
 Don. (Deep.) 
 
 Donegal, d&a-e-gawV . 
 
 Dongola, dUng'go-la. 
 
 Dordogne, ddr-don'. 
 
 Douro, dod'ro. 
 
 Dovrefield, do'vre-fl-ild' . 
 ( From Dome, the name of a 
 village, and;SeW, a "moun- 
 tain ridge.") 
 
 Draguignan, drah^gerir-yBii'. 
 
 Drave, drayv. 
 
 Dub'lin. (Black pool.) 
 
 Dubuque, du-buk'. 
 
 Duero, doo-ay'ro. 
 
 Dulce, dool'say or dool'thay. 
 
 Duluth, doo-looth'. 
 
 Dumfries, dtim-fres'. 
 
 Duna, du'nah. 
 
 Dundalk, dUn-dawk'. 
 
 Dundee'. (Corruption of 
 Dun Tay, hill or fort on 
 the Tay.) 
 
 Dunedin, dUn-Sd'In. 
 
 Dunfermline, diim^fer'tln. 
 
 Durango, doo^ahn'go. 
 
 Durazzo, doo-raht'so. 
 
 Durham, dur'am. (Home 
 by the river.) 
 
 Diisseldorf, dues' sel-diSrf. 
 (Village on the Diissel.) 
 
 Dwina, duil'na or dwe'na. 
 (Double river.) 
 
 Eau Claire, o-klair'. (Clear 
 water.) 
 
 E'bro. (Foaming water.) 
 
 Ecija, ay'the-hah. 
 
 YjCXsaAor,ih-wdh-dJ6r' . (Equa- 
 tor. So named from its 
 situation — undertheline.) 
 
 Edinburgh, id'in-bUr-rd. 
 (Edwin's castle.) 
 
 Egina, e-ji^na. 
 
 Eider, I'der. 
 
 Ekaterinburg, aykah-tay- 
 ren'boorg. (Catherine's 
 borough.) 
 
 Elbe, ilb. 
 
 Elborz, il-bSrz'. (Peaked 
 mountains.) 
 
 Elbruz, B-brmz'. 
 
 Eleuthera, e-la'ther-ah. 
 
 Elgin, H'glii. 
 
 El Gran Chaco, B-grdhn- 
 chah'ko. 
 
 El Paso, il-pah'sd. (The pass.) 
 
 Elsiiiore, fl-si-ndr'. 
 
 Emilia, ay-mel'e-ah. 
 
 Engano, in-gah'no. 
 
 England, \ng'gland. (Land 
 of the Engles or Angles.) 
 
 Enikale, hi-e-kah'lay. 
 
 Equator, e-kway'tor. (Lat. 
 Equally dividing the 
 earth.) 
 
 Erebus, &r'e-hiis. 
 
 Erfurth, ir'fddrt. 
 
 Erie, e'rl. (Wildcat.) 
 
 Erlau, ir-low. 
 
 Erz Gehirge, airts'ge-bSr'ge. 
 (Ore mountains.) 
 
 Escnrial, is-kdo-re-ahP . 
 
 Eskimo, is'H-mo. (Raw-flesh 
 eater.) 
 
 Espiritu Santo, is-pe're-too- 
 sahn'to. (Holy Spirit.) 
 
 Essequibo, is-say-ke'bo. 
 
 Ethio'pian. f Burnt face; 
 hence black.) 
 
 Et'na. (Mountain of fire.) 
 
 Eufaula, yoo-fnw'law. 
 
 Euphrates, yod-fray'teez. fTo 
 make glad. This river, 
 like the Nile, annually 
 overflows its banks, ther'e- 
 \>y fertilizing the adjacent 
 country.) 
 
 Eureka, yod^e'ka. (A dis- 
 covery.) . 
 
 Europe," yoo'riip. 
 
 Butaw, u'taw. 
 
 Evora, hfo-ra. 
 
 Evreux, iv-ru'. 
 
 Ex'mouth. (Mouth of the 
 Exe.) 
 
 Eylau, I'low. 
 
 Eyre, air. 
 
 Falkirk, fahl'kerk. 
 
 Falkland, fawkfland. 
 
 Falmouth, fSl'miUh. 
 
 Falster, fahl'ater. 
 
 Farallones, fah-rahlryd'nSs. 
 (Pointed islets.) 
 
 Faribault, fair-^bo'. 
 
 Faro, fah'ro. 
 
 Faroe, fay'ro or fay'rer-e. 
 (Sheep islands.) 
 
 Fayetteville, fay'et-iAl. 
 
 Feilatahs, fil-lah'tahz. 
 
 Fernandina, fir^nahn-de'- 
 nah. 
 
 Fen'ol, fir-roV. 
 
 Fezzan, flz-zahn'. 
 
 Finisterre, flnAs-tayr' . 
 
 (Land's end.) 
 
 Fiord, fe-Srd'. 
 
 Fittre, fWtray. 
 
 Flume, fe-oo'may. 
 
 Flandreau, flSn'dro. 
 
 Flensburg, flins'bdSrg. 
 
 Florence, flOr'im. (From 
 Flora, "goddess of flow- 
 ers.") 
 
 Florida(U.S.),^'l-rfa. (Dis- 
 covered on Easter Sunday, 
 " Pascua Florida.") ' 
 
 Foggia, fdd'jah. 
 
 Foix, fwah. 
 
 Fond-du-Lac, fSn'du-l&k. 
 (Head of the lake.) 
 
 Pontainebleau,y52ir-toi^-6H'. 
 (Fountain of beautiful 
 water.) 
 
 Foochow, foo-choo'. (Large 
 city of the second class.) 
 
 Formentera, fSr-^mM'tay'ra. 
 
 FoTTaosa.,f6r-md'saw. (Beau- 
 tiful.) 
 
 Fortaleza, fdr-tah-lay'zah. 
 
 Foveaux, /5-«o'. 
 
 France,/r3?!«. (Named froni 
 the Franks, its ancient in- 
 habitants.) 
 
 FranQOis, frbs-swah'. 
 
 Frankfort., Mnk'/SOH. (Ford 
 of the Franks, or Free pas- 
 sage.) 
 
 Presnillo, .frSs-nel'yo. 
 
 Frigid, fkfid. (Latfrigm, 
 "cold.") 
 
 Frijol, .fre-MV. 
 
 Frio, freefo. (Cape Frio, 
 Cold cape.) 
 
 Fronteras, ,frSn-taifrahs. 
 
 Fuerteventura, fw^-tay^in- 
 tno'rah. 
 
 Fuji, fdo-jee^. 
 
 Pukui, foo-koo'ee. 
 
 Funen, foo'nen. 
 
 Fiinfkirchen, fuenf-kir'ken. 
 (Five churches.) 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaeta, gah-ay'tah. 
 
 Gairdner, gdhrd'ner. 
 
 Galapagos, g&l-a-^ay'gos. 
 (Island of" land-turtles.") 
 
 Galatz, gah'lahts. 
 
 Galena, ga-le'na. (Silver or 
 lead ore.) 
 
 Galicia, ga-lish'l-ah. 
 
 Galla, gahZ'lah. 
 
 Gal lego, gahl-yay'go. 
 
 Gallinas (S. A.), gahl-ye'nahs. 
 (From goMna, a " hen.") 
 
 (jallipoli, g&l-Up'b-tl. (Beau- 
 tiful city.) 
 
 Galveston, g&Vvh-tnn. 
 
 Gal way, gawl'way. (Western 
 wav.) 
 
 Gambia, gdm'bl-a. 
 
 Ganges, g&n'jez. (Great 
 river.) 
 
 Garonne, gah-rbn'. (Rapid 
 or turbid river.) 
 
 Gasconade, gSs-ko-nayd' . 
 
 Gatun, gaMion'. 
 
 Geelong^, ge-Kng'. 
 
 Genargentu,yay-nar;/&i-«oo'. 
 
 Genesee, jin-e-see'^ 
 
 Geneseo, j&n-e-se'd. 
 
 Geneva, je-ne'va. 
 
 Genii, hay-nlV. 
 
 Genoa, jin'o-a. 
 
 Georgia, jSr'jUi. (Named 
 after Gieorge II. of Eng- 
 land.) 
 
 Gteral, zhay-rahl'. 
 
 Germany, jer'ma-nl. (Lat. 
 Germania, from "Wehr- 
 nian " — i. e.," war man " — 
 was changed by the Ro- 
 mans Into German ; hence 
 the name of Germany.) 
 
 Gettysburg, gWRz-burg. 
 
 Geyser, ffi'tir. 
 
 Ghauts, gawts. (Gates or 
 passes.) 
 
 Ghent, ghnt. 
 
 Gibraltar, fl-brawl'tar. (In 
 the eiglith century Tarif, 
 with an array of Saracens, 
 landed here and built a 
 castle on the rock, which 
 was called Gib el Tarif, 
 " the Mountain of Tarif," 
 whence the present name.) 
 
 Gila, Ke'lah. 
 
 Gilolo, he-lo'lo. 
 
 Girgeh, jifr'je. 
 
 Gironde. zhe-rond'. 
 
 Glacier, glay'seer. 
 
 Glasgow, glas'gd. (Dark 
 ravine.) 
 
 Glogau, glo'gma. 
 
 Gloucester, glSs'ler. (Fair 
 city.) 
 
 Gliickstadt, gluek'ntuht. 
 
 Gobi, go'bee. (Sea of sand.) 
 
 Godavery, go-dah'ver-l. 
 
 Godhaven, gSd'hovm. (Good 
 haven.) 
 
 Godthaab, gSd'tahb. (Good 
 hope.) 
 
 Goliad, gd-tl-6id'. 
 
 Gonaives, go-nah-ei/. 
 
 Gondokorro, gSn-do-ko'ro. 
 
 Gotha, go'lah. 
 
 Goth'land. (Land of the 
 Goths or Good land.) 
 
 Gottenburg, goCen-burg. 
 
 Gottingen, giftlng-en. 
 
 Gouvemeur, goov-er^wor'. 
 
 Gozo, gBt'so. 
 
 Gracias, grah'se-ahs. 
 
 (Thanks.) 
 
 Gracias a Dios, grah'se-aha- 
 ah-de'ds. (ThankstoGod!) 
 
 Granada, grah^nah'dah. 
 
 Great Britain, brit't'n. 
 
 Greenwich (U. S.), gren'wlch. 
 
 Greenwich (Eng.l, grWy. 
 
 Grenoble, gre-no'bl. (City 
 of Gratian.) 
 
 Griqua, gre'kwa. 
 
 Groningen, hro'ning-hen. 
 
 Grosswardein, gros-var'tMn. 
 
 Guadalaxara, gwah-dah-ldh- 
 hah'rah. 
 
 Guadalquivir, gwah-dahJ-ke- 
 veer'. (The great river.) 
 
 Guadalupe, gaw-da-loop' or 
 gwdh-dah-Ko'pay. 
 
 Guadeloupe, gwah-dah-lob'- 
 pay or gaw-da-loop' . (Wolf 
 river.) 
 
 Guadiana, gaw-de-ah'nah. 
 (River of joy.) 
 
 Guanaco, gwah^nah'ko. 
 
 Guanahani, gwa-nah-hah'- 
 nee. 
 
 Guafiape, gwahn-yah'pay. 
 
 Guanaxuato, gwah-nah- 
 
 hwah'to. 
 
 Guardafui, gwahr-da-fwe' . 
 
 Guardia, gwar'de-ah. 
 Gnatemaia, gvidh-tay^maV- 
 
 lah or gaw-te-mah'la. 
 Guaviare, gwah-ve-ah're. 
 Guayama, gwl-ah'mah. 
 Guayaquil, gwi-ah-keel' . 
 Guaymas, grn'mahs. 
 Guernsey, gem'ze. 
 Guiana, ge-ah'na. 
 Guinea, gWe. 
 Guyandotte, gi-an-dbtf. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haarlem, har'lem. 
 Hachijo, Mch-e-jo'. 
 Hadramant, Aoft-dro h -maxoV. 
 Hague, fta;/g'.(Cflunt's wood.) 
 Hainan, h\-nahn'. (South of 
 
 the sea.) 
 Hakodate, hah-kd-dah'te. 
 Halle, hahl'le. 
 Hamah, hah'nuih. 
 Hammerfest, kahm'mer-fltt. 
 
126 
 
 PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY. 
 
 Harran, har-rahn'. 
 
 Hartz, harts. (Forest.) 
 
 Havana, Iia-vdn'a. 
 
 Haverhill, hay'verAl. 
 
 Havre, hahv'r. (A harbor or 
 haven.) 
 
 Havre de Grace, h&i/er-de- 
 grahs. (Harborof grace or 
 safety.) 
 
 Hawaii, hah-vn'ee. 
 
 Hayel, hah-ySl'. 
 
 Hayti, hay'tl. (Mountain- 
 ous.) 
 
 Hebrides, Mb' rl-deez. 
 
 Hecla, Mk'la. 
 
 Hejaz, hij-ahz'. (Land of 
 pilgrimage.) 
 
 Hel'ena (U. S.). 
 
 Helena (St.), hil-e'na. 
 
 Heligoland, hH'Vgd-lahnd. 
 (Holy land.) 
 
 Helvel'lyn. 
 
 Henlo'pen. (To run in.) 
 
 Herat, her-aht'. 
 
 Herculaneura, her-ku-lay'- 
 ne-Hm. 
 
 Hereford, Mr'e-ford. (Army 
 ford.) 
 
 Hermanstadt, Mr'Tnahn- 
 staht. 
 
 Hertberg, Mri'bSrg. 
 
 Herzegovina, hairt-se-go-vee!- 
 nah. 
 
 Hesse, hiss. 
 
 Hiawassee, hi-a-wds'see. 
 
 Hieres, e-ayr'. 
 
 Himalaya, him-ah-lay'ya. 
 (Abode of snow.) 
 
 Hindu Kush, hln'ddo-kdosh. 
 (Black mountains.) 
 
 Hindustan, hXn-ddo-stnhn' or 
 Mn-do-stahn' . (In Persian 
 the word signifies the 
 " country of the Hindus." 
 It may be derived from 
 Indus, a "river.") 
 
 Hizen, he-zin'. 
 
 Hoang Ho, ho-ahng-ho' . 
 (Yellow river.) 
 
 Hol'land. (Muddy or 
 
 marshy land. Originally 
 Ollant. A large portion 
 of Holland lies below the 
 level of the sea ; hence the 
 name Netherlands.) 
 
 Holstein, hdl'sfin. 
 
 Holston, hol'sion. 
 
 Holyhead, hUn-Md. 
 
 Holyoke, hol'yok. 
 
 Homs, homz. 
 
 Hondo, hon'do. (The main- 
 land.) 
 
 Honduras, hUn-doo'ras. 
 
 Hong Kong'. (Fragrant 
 streams.) 
 
 Honolulu, ho-no-loo'loo. 
 
 Hoogly, hoog'tl. 
 
 Houghton, ho'ton. 
 
 Houlton, hbl'ton. 
 
 Housatonic, hoo-sa-tlin'lk. 
 (Ind. Streami beyond the 
 mountains.) 
 
 Houssa, how'sah. 
 
 Houston, hydos'ton. 
 
 Huallaga, wahl-yah'gah. 
 
 Huamanga, hwah-mahn'gah. 
 
 Hue, hdd''ay or hway. 
 
 Huesca, wis'kah. 
 
 Hungary, hUng'ga-rt. (Name 
 derived from the"Hunni," 
 or " Huns," who took pos- 
 session of this country to- 
 ward the close of the 
 fourth century.) 
 
 Huron, hu'ron. (A name ap- 
 plied by the French to the 
 Wyandot Indians.) 
 Hyderabad, hi-der-a-bahd' . 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibraila, e-brah-e' lah. 
 
 Ice'land. (Land of ice.) 
 
 Idaho, I'da-ho. 
 
 Ilheos, U-yay'os. 
 
 Hi, eelee. 
 
 Illimani, el-ye-mah'nee. 
 
 Illinois, tl-ttn-miz' or tl-Un- 
 
 oy.'. (Tribe of men.) 
 Indiana, \n-d!irS,n' a. (Prom 
 
 " Indian.") 
 
 Indianapolis, In-dl-Hn-tip'- 
 
 o-lii. 
 Indigliirka, In-de-glr'kah. 
 Indo-China, Wdo-chi'na. 
 In'dus. (The sea.) 
 Inhambane, en-yahm-bah'- 
 
 nay. 
 InnspTuckflns'prSSk. {Bridge 
 
 over the Inn.) 
 Inverness'. (Mouth of the 
 
 Ness.) 
 lona, e-b'na. 
 Ionian. l-o'nVan. 
 Iowa, Vo-wa. (Drowsy. The 
 
 meaning of the Sioux 
 
 name for the loway In- 
 dians.) 
 Iquique, e-ke'kay. 
 Iran, e-rahn'. 
 Irasu, e-rah-sod'. 
 Ireland, ir'land. 
 Irkutsk, ^r-kootsk'. 
 Irrawaddy, ^r-ra-wSd'dl or 
 
 \r-ra-whd'dX. (Great river.) 
 Irtysh, Ir'fisA. 
 Iser, e'zer. 
 Isere, e-zayr'. 
 Ishim, fs/i'lTO or Vih-eem'. 
 Islay, I'lay. 
 Ispahdn, ts-pa-hahn' . (A 
 
 soldier.) 
 Itasca, l-Ws'ka. 
 Ivipa, e-ve'sah. 
 Iztaccihuatl, es-tahk-se- 
 
 hwaht'l. (The white lady.) 
 
 Jacmel, zhahk-mlV. 
 
 Jaen, liah-ayn'. 
 
 Jaffa, jSffa or yahffah. 
 
 Jaguar, jhg-u-ar'. 
 
 Jalapa, hah-lah'pah. (The 
 
 medicinal herb jalap owes 
 
 its name to this town.) 
 Jalon, hah-lon'. 
 Jamaica, jormay'ka. (Land 
 
 of wood and water.) 
 Janina, yahn'ne-nah. 
 Jan Mayen, yahn-mVin. 
 Japan, ja-pSn'. (Called by j 
 
 the Japanese Nippon. Nip | 
 
 signifies "origin, "and pon, I 
 
 " sun " — i. e., " origin of 
 
 the sun," the east.) 
 Jaroslav, yah'ro-slahv. 
 Jassay, yahs'se. 
 Java, jah'va. (Rice.) 
 Javary, hah^ah-ree'. 
 .Teendana, jen-dah'nah. 
 .T^r^mie, zhay-ray-7nee' . 
 Jersey, jlr'zl. (Island of j 
 
 Caesar.) 
 .Teru'salem. (Habitation of 
 
 peace.) 
 Jevpore, p-poor' . 
 Jijiginsk, je-je-ginskf . 
 Jiioco, he-lo'ko. 
 Joannes, zho-ahn'nMs, 
 Joliet, jb'fi-H. 
 Joliette, zhb-U-W. 
 Jor'dan. (The flowing.) 
 Jonillo, ho-rbbl'yb. 
 ,Tuan, hbb-awn' or hwahn. 
 Juan de Fuca, hJbb-ahn' dny- 
 
 fob'kah. 
 Juan Fernandez, ju'S/n-flr- 
 
 nd.n'dfz or hoo-ahn'fir- 
 
 nahn'dHh. 
 Juba, zhbb'bah. 
 Jujuy, hbb-hwee'. 
 .Tuniata, Jbb-til-Ht'a. 
 Jura, jbo'rah. 
 Jnrna, zhbb-rbb'ah. 
 Jutay, zhob-R'. 
 Jut'iand. (Land of giants.) 
 
 K. 
 
 Kadiak, kahd-yiik'. 
 Kagoshima, kali-gb-she'mah. 
 Kairwan, kir-wahn'. 
 Kalahari, kah-lah-hah'ree. 
 Kalamazoo, kS,Ua-ma^zbo' . 
 Kamchatka, Jcahm-chaht' ka. 
 Kanagawa, kah-nah-gah' - 
 
 wah. 
 Kanawha, ka-naw'wa. 
 Kankalcee, kdng-ka-kee' . 
 Kano, kah-nb'. 
 Kansas, k&n'zas. (Smoky 
 
 water.) 
 
 Kara, kah'rah. (Black.) 
 K ash gar'. 
 
 Kaslirair, Wsh-mer'. 
 Kaskaskia, k&s-k&s'M-a. 
 Katah'din. (The highest 
 
 place.) 
 Kazan, kah-zahn'. 
 Kearsarge, keer'sarj. (Pine 
 
 mountain.) 
 Keewatin, kee-wah'dn. 
 Kelat, kel-aht'. 
 Kenia, ke-ne'a. 
 Ken'nebec. (Ind. Long 
 
 water-place.) 
 Kenosha, ke-nb'sha. (Ind. 
 
 Pike river.) 
 Kentucky. k^i-tilk'\. (Ind. 
 
 Darlc and bloody ground, 
 
 or Head of a r'ver.) 
 Keokuk, ke'b-kik. 
 Kermadec, ker-ma-dW , 
 Ke'wecnaw 
 Khabur, knh-bobr'. 
 Khan, Icnwn. 
 Khanate, kawn'ayt. 
 Kharkov, kar-kdf. 
 Khartoom, knr-tbom'. 
 Khedive, kny-decv' or ke'dlv. 
 Khingan, kln-gahn'. 
 Khiva, ke'vah. 
 Kbokan, kb-kahn'. 
 Kiachta, ke-ahk'tah. 
 Kichinev, kish-i-nlf. 
 Kiev, ke-if. 
 Kilima Njaro, Hl-e-mahn- 
 
 jah-rb'. 
 Killarney, Hl-lar'rA. 
 Kingkitao, king-ke-tah'o. 
 Kinnaird'. (Head of the 
 
 heights.) 
 Kino, ke-nb'. 
 Kiolen, keer'len or cheer'len. 
 
 (The keel.) 
 Kioto, kee-b'tb. 
 Kirghis, klr-geez'. 
 Kittatiny, klt-ta-fln'r/l. 
 Kiusliiu, kee-bb'she-bb'. 
 Klagenfurth, klah'gen-fbbrt. 
 Klausonburg, klow'zen-bbbrg. 
 
 (Castle of the defile.) 
 Knoxville, nSks'vU. 
 Kobe, kb'bay. 
 Kochi, kbch'ee. 
 Koliraa, kb-le'mah. 
 Konieh, kb'ne-eh. 
 Koniggriitz, kSn'eg-rSts. 
 
 (King's town.) 
 Konigsburg, ker'nigz-berg. 
 
 (King's town.) 
 Kordoilm, kSr-db-fahn'. 
 Kouka, kbb'kah. 
 Kuen Lun, kw^-lbbn'. 
 Kunchinginga, kbbn-chin- 
 
 jing'gah. 
 Kuriie,ido'rt?. CDeri ved from 
 
 Kooroo mitsi — i. c, " the 
 
 road of sea- weeds." Kooroo 
 
 signifies "sea-weed.") 
 Kuro-Sivo, kbb-rb-se'vb. 
 
 (Black water.) 
 Kurrachee, kUr-a-chee' . 
 
 L. 
 
 Laaland, law'lahnd. (Low- 
 land.) 
 
 Labrador, lUVrordSr. [Lab- 
 rador signifies a " hus- 
 bandman " or " farmer." 
 This land was called t(^-- 
 ra labrador, " cultivable 
 land," to distinguish it 
 from Greenland.) 
 
 Labuan, lah-bbb-ahn' . 
 
 Laccadive, luk'ka-div. 
 
 (Lakara Islands.) 
 
 Laohlan, lahk'lan. 
 
 La Crosse, la-krOss'. 
 
 La Cumbre, la-kbbm'bray. 
 
 La'doga, lAd'b-ga. 
 
 Ladrone, la-drbn' or lahTB- 
 ro'ni. (Called also the 
 Marian'i Islands. These 
 were discovered in 1521 
 by Magellan, and called 
 Las Mas de Ins Ln drones — 
 i. e., " the islands of the 
 thieves.") 
 
 La Fayette, lahf-ay-W. 
 
 Lagos, lah'gbs. 
 
 La Guayra, lah-gwVrah. 
 
 Lahaina, lah-hVnah. 
 
 Lahore, lah-hbr' 
 Lahsa, lah'sah. 
 Lamoille, la-moW. 
 Lamurek, lah-mbb-rek' . 
 Lan caster, langk'as-ter. 
 Landes, ISxd. (Sterile plains.) 
 Laon, lah-bs'. 
 Laos, lah'bs. 
 La Paz, lah-pahz' or lah- 
 
 pahth'. (The peace.) 
 La Plata, Inh-plah'tah. (Sil- 
 ver. Rio de la Plata, river 
 of silver.) 
 Laramie, lOr'a-mee. 
 Laredo, la-ray'db. 
 Larissa, lar-ls'sah. 
 
 La Kochelle, lah-rb-sMl'. 
 
 Lassa, la/is'sah. (Land of the 
 divine intelligence. The 
 grand temple of Buddha 
 with its gilded dome is 
 here; also the residence 
 of the grand lama.) 
 
 Latakia, lah'ta-kee'a. 
 
 Lat'ltude. (From latitude, 
 "breadth." The ancients 
 believed that the globe 
 was aflat plain, and much 
 longer from east to west 
 than from north to south ; 
 consequently, they called 
 distance from nortli to 
 south latitude, as they 
 called distance from east 
 to west longitude — from 
 longitudo, "length.") 
 
 Lauenburg, lou'en-bddrg. 
 
 Lausanne, Ib-zahn'. 
 
 Laybach, li'bahk. 
 
 Lazaro, lah'zah-ro. 
 
 Lech, ISk. 
 
 Leeuwin, lay'U-wIn or leunn. 
 
 Leh, lay. 
 
 Leicester, ISs'ter, 
 
 Leipsic, Rp'slk. 
 
 liCiria, lay-re'ah. 
 
 Leith, leeth. 
 
 Le Mans, Itt-mSn'. 
 
 Le'na. (A sluggard. So 
 named on account of its 
 sluggish course.) 
 
 Leon, lay-bn' . 
 
 Lepanfo, le-pHn'tb or lay'- 
 pahn-tb. 
 
 Lerida, ISr'e-dah. 
 
 Levant'. (The east.) 
 
 Levee, IWee. 
 
 Lewes, IQ'es. 
 
 Liberia, U-be'r^-a. (From 
 Lat. liber, " free.") 
 
 Lichtenfels, Hk'ten-f^. 
 
 (Mountain of light.) 
 
 Liege, leej or le-aizh' . 
 
 Liim Fiord, Um-fi-Srd'. 
 
 Lille, leel. 
 
 Lima, le'mah. 
 
 Limoges, le-mbzh'. 
 
 Limpopo, Hm-pb'po, 
 
 Linnhe, Un'nee. 
 
 Lipari, Up'a-re or lee'pah-re. 
 
 Lippe, Up'pe. 
 
 Lisbon, hz'bon. (A corrup- 
 tion of Vlydppo, from 
 a tradition that Ulysses 
 laid the foundation of the 
 citv.) 
 
 Liu Kiu, lee-bb'kee-bo'. 
 
 Llama, lah'ma or lay'ma. 
 
 Llandaff, lUn-dSf. 
 
 Llano Estacado, lah'nb-^- 
 tah-kah'db. (Staked plain ; 
 so culled from the yucca 
 stems, which look like 
 stakes.) 
 
 Llanos, ryah'nbs. (Llanos, 
 "plains." A term applied 
 to the extensive plains of 
 South America— the same 
 as prairies in North Amer- 
 ica or steppes in Russia.) 
 
 Llerena, tlay-ray'nah. 
 
 Loango, lo-ang'gb. 
 
 Lobos, lo'bS,f. ' 
 
 Loffoden, ISf Jo-den or lof- 
 fb'den. 
 
 Logrofio, Ib-grbn'yb. 
 
 Loire, Iwar. 
 
 London, lUn'ditn. 
 
 JjondnriAevry, lUn-diln-der'ri. 
 
 Lopntka, Ib-paht'kah. 
 
 Lopez, Iffpiz or Ib'p&h. 
 
 Lorca, UW'kah. 
 
 Lorraine, lor-rayn'. 
 
 Los Angeles, lbs-iing'il-i.i. 
 
 (City of the angels.) 
 Lough Derg, Kk-dirg'. 
 Lough Erne, Idk-Sm'. 
 Lough Neagh, Ibk-nay'. 
 Louisiade, Ibb-e-ze-ahd' . 
 Louisiana, Ibb-e-ze-ah'na. 
 
 (Named after Louis XIV. 
 
 of France.) 
 Louisville, Ibb'U-M. 
 Lonvain, Ibb-vdn'. 
 Lubeck, lH'bSk. 
 Lucca, Ibbk'kah. 
 Lucerne, Ibb-sem'. 
 Lucknow, lUk'now. 
 Liineburg, lue'rte-bdSrg. 
 Lupata, lH-pah'tah. 
 Luxemburg, Mks-im'burg. 
 Luzon, Ibb-zbn'. 
 Lyons, R'ons. (Hill of the 
 
 raven.) 
 
 IW. 
 
 Maas, mahs. 
 
 Macao, mah-kah'b or ma- 
 kow'. (Seaport.) 
 
 Macassar, ma-kahs'sar. 
 
 Machias, ma-chVas. 
 
 Mackenzie, wak-Mn'zX 
 
 Mackinaw, wSK^-naw. 
 
 Macon (U. S.), may'kon. 
 
 Madagascar, w.Sd-a-gds'kar, 
 
 Madawaska, mtjd-a-wtts'ka. 
 
 Madeira, ma-dee'ra. {Madefra 
 signifies, in Portuguese, 
 "timber." These islands 
 were so named on ac- 
 count of their magnificent 
 forests. The Madeira 
 River flows through a 
 densely-wooded region.) 
 
 Madras, mA-drOy. (Univer- 
 sity town.) 
 
 Madre de Dios, mah'TBray- 
 day-de-bs' . 
 
 Madrid, mUd-rld'. 
 
 Maelstrom, mahl'strtlm. (A 
 mill-stream.) 
 
 Maese, mahs. 
 
 Maestricht, mahs'trikt. (Cor- 
 ruption of Ijat. Mosae Tra- 
 jectiis, ford of the Meuse.) 
 
 Magadoxa, mah-gah-db' shah. 
 
 Magdalena, mdg-da-le'na or 
 mahg-dah-lay'nah. 
 
 'Mapg\ore,7nahd-jb'ray. (Lago 
 Maggiore, " large lake.") 
 
 Magyar, mdd'Jdr. 
 
 Maimatchin, mi-mah-cheen' . 
 (The trading-place.) 
 
 Majorca, ma-jHr'ka. (Ma- 
 jorca and Minorca were 
 anciently named G^im- 
 nasix. 'The epithet major, 
 the " greater," was given 
 to one, whilethat of minor, 
 the " less," was applied to 
 the other.) 
 
 Makololos, mdk-b-lb'lbs. 
 
 Malacca, ma-ldk'ka. 
 
 Malaga, m,Cd'a-ga or mah'- 
 lah-gah. 
 
 Malar or Maelar, may'lar. 
 
 Malay, ma-lay'. 
 
 Malaysia, ma-lay'sM-a. 
 
 Maldive, mM'dJiv. (Thousand 
 isles.) 
 
 Malta, mawl'ta. 
 
 Mamore, mah-mb-ray'. 
 
 Manaar, mah-nar'. 
 
 Managua, mah-nah' gwah. 
 
 Manchuria, mSn-chob'rl-a. 
 
 Mandalay, mahn'dali-lay. 
 
 Manbeim, mahn'him. 
 
 Manilla, ma-nVla. 
 
 Manioc, may'ni-ok. 
 
 Manitoba, mdn-1-fb-bah' . 
 (Ind. Spirit straits.) 
 
 Manitoulin, miin-l-tod-Hln' . 
 (Ind. Spirit islands.) 
 
 Manitowoc, TnHn-Vtb-wSk' . 
 (Ind. Rlverof the spirits.) 
 
 Mankato, TnHn-kah'tb. 
 
 Mantua, mUn'tH-a. 
 
 Maracaybo, mah-rah-kVbo. 
 
 Marameo, mtlr'a-mfk. 
 
 Maranliam, mar-d.-ndm'. 
 
 Marafion, mah-rahn-yon' . 
 
 Marasb, maJi-rash'. 
 
 Margarita, mar-ga-ree'ta. (A 
 
 pearl. Pearls were for- 
 merly found in great 
 quantities on the coasts 
 of this island.) 
 Margate, mar'gat. 
 Marie Galante, mah-re-gH- 
 
 lost' . 
 Marmora, m&r'mo-ra. (Mar- 
 ble. One of the islands 
 of this sea has long been 
 celebrated for its marble- 
 quarries.) 
 Marocco, mah-rBk'kb. (Far- 
 thest west.) 
 Maroni, mah-rb-nce'. 
 Maros, mdr-Bsh'. 
 Marquesas, mar-kay'sahs. 
 Marquette, mar-kfi'. 
 Marseilles, mSr-saylz'. 
 Martaban, Tnar-ta-hahn'. 
 Maryland, mir'^-land or 
 
 may'ri-land. (Named after 
 
 the queen of Charles I.) 
 Massachusetts, mds-sa-chbb'- 
 
 s»s. (Ind. Blue hills.) 
 Massuah, mahs'sbb-ah. 
 Masulipatam, mah-sbb-le-pa- 
 
 tahm,'. 
 Matagorda, mist-a-gor'da. 
 Matamoras, mSt-a-mb'rns. 
 Mata n za s, «? a-<cin 'zos or raaA- 
 
 tahWflialis. 
 Matapan, mSt-a-p&n'. 
 Mate, mah'tay. 
 Jlatsumai, vialiis-mi'. 
 Jfattapony, mdt-ta-pb'ni. 
 Mattawamkeag, mSt-ta- 
 
 wf:m'kfg. 
 JTauch Ch\\nV,mawk-chilnk' , 
 Maui, mow'ee. 
 Maumee, maw-me^. 
 'Maur]a'Kea,mou''nah-kay'ah. 
 Mauritius, maw-rish'1-il^, 
 
 (Named after Maurice, 
 
 prince of Orange.) 
 Mayen. mi-fn'. 
 Mazatlan, mnh-saht-lahn' . 
 Mecca, mik'ka. 
 Mechlin, mik'Un. 
 Jf ecklenburg, mik'lfn-burg. 
 Medina, may-dee'nah. (The 
 
 city.) 
 Mediterranean, mfd-'^-th-- 
 
 ray'ne-an. i Midland.) 
 Meinam, may-e-nahm' or 
 
 may-nSm'. (Jlother of 
 
 waters.) 
 Meiningen, rm-vflng-gen' . 
 Melanesia, mH-n-ne'sM-a. 
 
 (Islands of the blacks.) 
 Melbourne, mH'bum. 
 Melville, mll'iAl. 
 Memphis, mfm'fls. (The 
 
 temple of the Good 
 
 God.) 
 Memphremagog, mhn-fre- 
 
 mny'g/lg. (Ind. Lake of 
 
 abundance.) 
 Menai, m?n'i or min'ay. 
 Menan, me-nS.n'. (Ind. 
 
 Island.) 
 Mende, m6sd. 
 Jlendocino, mhi-db-see'nb. 
 Mendoza, min-db'za or men- 
 
 do'thah. 
 Menomonee, me-nSm'o-nec. 
 Mequincz, mik'\-niz. 
 Mcrida, nier'\-da. 
 Meriden, mfr'1-den. 
 Jformenteau, mer-mfn-tb'. 
 Merrimack, mfr'rt-m&k. 
 
 (Swift water.) 
 Jlersey, mer'zX 
 Merthvr Tj'dfil, mcr-lher- 
 
 Cld'vU 
 Mesopotamia, mis-b-pb'tny- 
 
 ml-n. (The countrv be- 
 tween the rivers, — 'tigris 
 
 and Euphrates.) 
 Messina, mes-see'nnh. 
 Jlesurado, may-sbb-rah'do, 
 Meuse, miz. 
 Mexico, mKr^-ko. (Place of 
 
 Me.ritli, the Aztec god of 
 
 war. ) 
 Miami, ml-ahmH. 
 Michigan, ml^/i'l-wn. (Ind. 
 
 A weir for fish.) 
 Milan, mV'an or rnH-Vin' 
 
 (Harvest-full.) 
 ■Milledgeville, mW^-M. 
 Miltsin, mMt-seen'. 
 
PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY. 
 
 127 
 
 Milwaukci'.mtJ i«au)'Ae.(Ind. 
 Rich land.) 
 
 Miiiatitlan, mn-nahytit-lahn' . 
 
 Mindanao, rmn-dah-nah'd. 
 
 Minho, men'yo. 
 
 Minneapolis, mliv-ne-Sjp'o-VU. 
 
 Minnesota, mln-nl-sd'ta. 
 (Cloudy water.) 
 
 Minni Wakan, mln'e-wah- 
 kahn'. 
 
 Minorca, mt-nor'ka. (Lat. 
 minw, "less.") 
 
 Miquelon, ■me-kU-ldN'. 
 
 Miramiohi, mtr-a'iM-she. 
 
 Mi rim, rm-ren'. 
 
 Missisque, mVi-sis'kwe. 
 
 Mississippi, mls-sla-s'lp'jU. 
 (Ind. May-see-see'he, Fa- 
 ther of running waters.) 
 
 Missolonghi, mUs-so-lSng'- 
 gee. 
 
 Missouri, mis-sdd'ri. (Smoky 
 water, or Mud river.) 
 
 Mistissinny, mls-tts-sin'M. 
 {Ind. Big rock.) 
 
 Mito, mee'to. 
 
 Mitylene, mM-e-le'ne, 
 
 Mobile, mo-bed'. 
 
 Mocha, md'ka. 
 
 Modena, m6d' ay-nah. 
 
 Moero, mSe'ro. 
 
 Mo^adore, mBg-a-dor' . 
 
 Moli;inimedan, m8-hS,m'- 
 
 Moliave, mo-hah'v-iy. 
 
 M iliawk, mo' hawk. (Ind. 
 
 Men -eaters. I 
 Mnhilev, mS-hi'liv. 
 Moldau, TiwVdow. 
 Moldavia, mJil-day'vUa. 
 Mnlokai, tho-K-H'. 
 Molucca, m,d-lilk'ka. 
 Mombas, mSm'hahs. 
 Monaco, v)Mn'ah-ko. 
 Mon.'idnock, mi6-iiS,d'nok. 
 
 (Ind. The spirits' place.) 
 Mondego, rrwn-dmj'go. 
 Momngahela, m^-nln-gd- 
 
 tm'ln. (Ind. Falling-in 
 
 bank river.) 
 M')nrovia, mSre-ro'wt-n. 
 Montana, m/in-tah'na. 
 Montauban, mdn-to-b8«'. 
 Montauk, mSn-tawt. (Ind. 
 
 A manito tree.) 
 Mont Blanc, mSs-hlon'. 
 
 (White mountain.) 
 Monte Christo, mdn-tay- 
 
 kres'to. 
 Montenegro, mSn-tay-nay'- 
 
 gro. (Black mountain.) 
 Monterey, mJin-le-ray' . 
 Monteverde, mUn-tay-vSr'- 
 
 day. 
 Montevideo, mon-tay-ve'- 
 
 day-o. (Mount prospect. 
 
 It is situated on a slight 
 
 elevation.) 
 Montgomery, mSnt-gUm'Si'-'l. 
 Montmorenci, iHBnt-md-rin'- 
 
 «t. 
 Montpelier, m^nt-pe'tl^er. 
 
 (Ft. Mountain of the 
 
 young girls.) 
 Montreal, mSnt-re-awl' . 
 
 (Royal mount.) 
 Montserrat, mSnt-ser-rlil' . 
 
 (Jagged mountains.) 
 Moquegua, mo-kay' gwah. 
 Morant, mo-rfinf . 
 Morava, md-rah'vah. 
 Moravia, mi^ay'v'i-a. 
 Moray, mUr'ray. 
 Morea, mo-re' a. (From the 
 
 word mo-re, a " mulberry 
 
 tree." So called from ite 
 
 resemblance in shape to a 
 
 niulberrv-leaf, or on ac- 
 count of the quantity of 
 
 mulberry trees produced 
 
 here.) 
 Moreau, mo-rb'. 
 Morelia, mS-ray'U-a. 
 Morella, mo-rU'yah. 
 Moriato, m/>-r1-ah'ld. 
 Morioka, m^-re-b'kah. 
 Morlaix, mor-lay'. 
 Moscow, mJis'ko. 
 Moselle, tiw-zW. 
 Moskva, mSsk-vah'. 
 Mossamedes, mSs-sah-may'- 
 
 dfj. 
 
 Moulins, moo-las'. 
 
 Mount Desert, d^zert' or 
 
 ilH'ert. 
 Murziik, nwor-ebok', 
 Mozambique, mo-zHm-beek' . 
 Muhr, moor. 
 Mulahachen, mbo-lah-ah- 
 
 thiit'. 
 Miilhausen, muel-how'zen. 
 
 (Mill [housesj village.) 
 Munich, mu'nVc. (Monks.) 
 Munkacz, moon-kahtch' . 
 Miinster, muen'ster. (The 
 
 monastery. ) 
 Murcia, mur'shi-a. 
 Muscat, mUs-kat'. 
 Muscatine, mtts-ka-teen' . 
 Muskegon, miJi-ie'flrora. (Ind. 
 
 The place of cranberries.) 
 Muskingum, mUs-klng' gUvi. 
 
 (Moose-eye river.) 
 Muta Nzige, mu'tah-n'zi-gee' . 
 
 N. 
 
 Nacogdoches, n&k-o-do'chiz. 
 
 Nagasaki, nah-gah-sak' ke. 
 
 Nagoya, nah-goi' ah. 
 
 Namaqua, nah-mah'kwah. 
 
 Namur, nay'mur. 
 
 Nankin,KaA)i-&j'. (Southern 
 capital.) 
 
 Nan Ling, nahn'linij. (South- 
 em mountain-chain.) 
 
 Nantes, nants. (A brook.) 
 
 Naples, na?/'p73. (New city.) 
 
 Napoli (Greece), nah'po-h. 
 
 Narbonne, nar-bUn'. 
 
 Narew, nah-riv'. 
 
 Narragansett, n&r-ra-gdn'stt. 
 
 Narraguagus, n&r-ra-gway' - 
 giis. 
 
 Nashua, 7ifisA'u-«. (Ind. Be- 
 tween [the riversJ.J 
 
 Nassau, nlis'saw. 
 
 Nata, nah'tah. 
 
 Natal, nah-tahl'. (So named 
 by Vasco de Gama, be- 
 cause he discovered this 
 coast on Christmas day 
 [the day of the Nativity].) 
 
 Natchitoches, n&ch-t-tSch'ez ; 
 often pronounced n&k-e- 
 tUsh'. 
 
 Navarino, nah-vah-ri'no. 
 
 Naxia, nahks-i'd. 
 
 Naze, nah'ze. (Nose, cape.) 
 
 Nebraska, lie-brO^ka. (Flat 
 water.) 
 
 Neches, nlch'Sz. 
 
 Neckar, nlk'ar. 
 
 S^eembucu, n'yay-iin^boo- 
 koo'. 
 
 Negril, ne-grW. 
 
 Negropont, iiay'grd-pM. 
 
 Neugherry, nel'gSr-fi. 
 
 Neisse, nl'se. 
 
 Nejed, ngd'jed. 
 
 Neosho, jie-o'sho. 
 
 Nepal, TK-pawl'. 
 
 Nerbudda, n&-bild'da. 
 
 Nertschiusk, ner-ch\nsk! . 
 
 Netherlands, niTH' er-landz. 
 (The lower lands.) 
 
 Neufchatel, nik-shah-til'. 
 (New castle.) 
 
 Neuse, nace. 
 
 Neva, me'f a or nay'vah. 
 
 Nevada, ma?/-j'aA'(Za. (White 
 with snofir.) 
 
 Nevers, nu-vayr'. 
 
 Newfoundland, nu'fond- 
 land. 
 
 New Hampshire, hdmp'shir. 
 (Named after a county in 
 England.) 
 
 New Jersey, jer'zl. (Named 
 after the Island of Jersey.) 
 
 New Orleans, Or'le-ans. 
 
 New Tacoma, ta-ko'ma. 
 
 New Zealand, ze'land. 
 
 Ngami, ngah'mM. 
 
 Niagara, nl-ag'orra. (Thun- 
 der of waters.) 
 
 Nicaragua, tie-kah-rah' gwah. 
 
 Nice, nees. 
 
 Nicobar, n1k-d-bar'. (Nine 
 islands.) 
 
 Nicolaivsky, rilk-d-Rv'slA. 
 
 Nicoya, ne-kd'yah. 
 
 Niemen, nea'inen. 
 
 yigeT, nVJer, or Quor'ra, or 
 
 Jol'iba. (The great dark 
 
 river. ) 
 Niigata, ne-e-gah'tah. 
 Nijni Novgorod, nizh'ne-^nSv- 
 
 go-rdd'. (The lower new 
 
 city.) 
 Nikko, n£ek'ko. 
 Nile. (So named from Mto, 
 
 king of Thebes.) 
 Ningpo'. 
 
 Niobrara, m-b-brah'ra. 
 Niort, rii-br'. 
 Nishnebatona, nWi-ne-bUt'- 
 
 n-na. 
 Nismes, mem. 
 Noirnioutier, nwar-mSo-ie- 
 
 ay'. (The black mon- 
 astery.) 
 Norfolk, ii&r'fok. 
 Norway, nor' way. (North 
 
 way or countrj'.) 
 Norwich (U. S.), nir'wVch or 
 
 nSr'rltch. 
 Norwich (Eng.), niVry. 
 
 (North town.) 
 Nnurse, noors. 
 Nova Scotia, no'va-sko'sM-a. 
 
 (New Scotland. 
 Nova Zembla, lui'vu^ziin'bla. 
 
 (New land.) 
 Nubia, n'a'bl-a. 
 Nueces, nwiiy'sis. 
 Nuevitas, nway-vP laha. 
 Nunnivac, nbon-n1-vahk' . 
 Nuremberg, nU'rlm-bery. 
 NvaiigwCj nl-ahib' gwe. 
 Nvanza, nt-dv/za. (Lake.) 
 Nyassa, ne-aAi'aaA. (The sea.) 
 
 o. 
 
 Oahu, b-ah'hoo or wah'hbo. 
 
 Oaxaca, wah-hah'kah. 
 
 Obe, b'bee. 
 
 Obidos, b-be'dbs. 
 
 Ocean, b'shUn. (Derived from 
 Oceanus, god of tlie sea, 
 son of Ccjelus and Terra. 
 He is generally represent- 
 ed as an old man with a 
 long flowing beard, sitting 
 on the waves of the sea 
 with a pike in his hand.) 
 
 Oceanica, o-she-dn'e-ka. 
 
 Ochotsk, b-kBtsk'. 
 
 Ocmul/ee, bk-mUV gee. (Ind. 
 The rivers.) 
 
 Oconee, b-ko'nee. (Ind. Small 
 river.) 
 
 Odense, b'derv-se. 
 
 Odessa, b-dis'sa. 
 
 Oeiras, b-ay'e-rahs. 
 
 Oeland, er'lahnd. 
 
 Ogasima, b-gah-se'mah. 
 
 Ogeechee, b-gee'chee. 
 
 Ohio, b-hVb. (The beautiful 
 river.) 
 
 Oka, b'kah. 
 
 Okechobee, b-ke-chb'be. 
 
 Okefinokee, b-ke-fln-b'ke. 
 
 Oki, b'kee. 
 
 Okinagon, b-kln'a-gSn. 
 
 Olean, b-le-Hn'. 
 
 Olenek, b-lay-iiik'. 
 
 Olmutz, dI'miUs. 
 
 Olot, b-lbt'. 
 
 Olviopol, bl'Ve-b'pbl. 
 
 Olympia, b-tlm'pl^a. 
 
 Olympus, b-ttm'pHs. 
 
 Omaha, b'mO-haw. 
 
 Omoa, b-mb'ah. 
 
 Omsk. (Town on the Om.) 
 
 Onega, o-ne'ga. 
 
 Oneida, b-m'da. (Ind. Peo- 
 ple of the beacon-stone.) 
 
 Oneonta, b-ne-8n'ta. 
 
 Onondaga, Sn-on-daw'ga. 
 
 Ontario, Sn-tay'rt-b. (Ind. A 
 village on a mountain.) 
 
 Ontonagon, bn-tb-iiSg'Sn. 
 
 Oporto, b-pbr'to. (The har- 
 bor.) 
 
 Oran, b-rahn'. 
 
 Orchilla, Sr-chel'yah. 
 
 Oregon, Br'e-gon. (River of 
 the West.) 
 
 Orense, b-r^'say. 
 
 Orinoco, b-ri-no'kb. (The 
 coiled serpent.) 
 
 Oristano, d-i^taji'n.b. , 
 
 Orizaba, b-re-thah'vak. 
 
 Orkneys, Srtneez. (Isles of 
 
 whales.) 
 Ortegal, or-tay-gahV . 
 Osage, b-sayj'. (Ind. The 
 
 strong.) 
 Osceola, ds-se-b'la. 
 Osh'kosh. 
 Osmanlis, bz-m&n'Kz. (A 
 
 term derived from Osman, 
 
 the name of the founder 
 
 of the Ottoman Empire, 
 
 and now applied to the 
 
 Turks.) 
 Ossuiia, is-sbb'nah. 
 Oswegatchie, Bs-we-gllch"i. 
 Oswego, bs-we'gb. 
 Otranto, b-triln'tb or b-trahn'- 
 
 tb. 
 Otsego, St-se'gb. 
 Ottawa, Bt'ta-wa or bt'la- 
 
 way. (Ind. Traders.) 
 Ottoman, bt'tb-rrwin. (From 
 
 Otlurman, or Osinan, who 
 
 founded the empire of 
 
 Turkey.) 
 Ottumwa, bttHm'wa. 
 Ourique, bb-re-kay'. 
 Ouro Preto, bb-rb-pray'to. 
 Ouse, bbz. (Water.) 
 Oviedo, b-ve-ay' THo. 
 Owasco, b-wBs'ko. (Ind. A 
 
 bridge.) 
 Oyapok, oi-a-pBk'. 
 Ozaka, b-zah'kah. 
 Ozark, b-zark'. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacific. (Tranquil.) 
 
 Paducah, pa-di'kah. 
 
 Paisley, payz'U. (Moist pas- 
 ture-ground. ) 
 
 Palawan, pah-lah-wahn' . 
 
 Palembang, pah-lhn^bahng' . 
 
 Palermo, pa-ler'mb or pah- 
 ISr'mb. (Convenient har- 
 bor.) 
 
 Palestine, pBl'es-Rn. (Land 
 of wanderers.) 
 
 Palk, pawk. 
 
 Palmas, pahl'ma/is. 
 
 Palmyra, pSl^ii'ra. 
 
 Palos, pah'los. 
 
 Pamlico, p&m'll-kb. 
 
 Pampas, puhm'palis. (Tree- 
 less plains.) 
 
 Pampeluna, pahm-pay-lbb'- 
 nah. (Corruption of Pom- 
 peiopolis, " the city of 
 Porapey.") 
 
 Pamunky, pa-mUng'iH. 
 
 Panama, p&n-a-mah'. 
 
 Pantellaria, ■ pahn-til-lah- 
 re'ah. 
 
 Papua, pBp'bb-a or pah'pbb- 
 ah. (The inhabitants re- 
 ceived the name of papuas 
 from the Malays, in whose 
 language it signifies " friz- 
 zled hair.") 
 
 Para, pah-raN. (Father of 
 waters.) 
 
 Paraguay, pah-rah-gwV . 
 
 Parahyba, pah-rah-e'bah. 
 
 Paraiba, pah-rah-e'bah. 
 
 Paramaribo, pitr-ar-mttr'l-bb. 
 
 Paramatta, par-a-mOt'ta. 
 
 Parana, pa/M-aA-7M/t'. (The 
 sea.) 
 
 Paranagua, pahyrahyiuili' - 
 gwah. 
 
 Parime, pdh-re'may. 
 
 Parina, pah-re-nah'. 
 
 Paris, ptir%s. 
 
 Parnahyba, pah-nah-e'bah. 
 
 Parnaiba, par-nah-e'bah. 
 
 Pascagoula, p&s-ka-gbb'la. 
 (Nation of bread.) 
 
 Passaic, pBs-say'lk. (Valley.) 
 
 Passamaquoddv, p&s-sa.^ma- 
 hvSd'Ol. (Ind. Great place 
 for pollock.) 
 
 Passarb, pahs-sah'rb. 
 
 Passau, paha'sow. 
 
 Patagonia, p&t-a-gb'riira. 
 (Patagon means, in Span- 
 ish, " a man with large 
 feet." Magellan gave the 
 inhabitants of this coun- 
 try the name of Patagoni- 
 ans on account of the ap- 
 parently large size of their 
 
 feet, wnich, being wrapped 
 
 in skins, seemed much 
 
 larger than they really 
 
 were.) 
 Patapsco, pa-titps'kb. 
 Patras, pah-lrahs'. 
 Patuxent, pa^tUx'gnt. 
 Pau, pb. 
 Pawtucket, paw-tukfet. (Ind. 
 
 At the falls.) 
 Payta, jn'tah. 
 Pecos, pay'kot. 
 Pedee, pe-dee'. 
 Peipus, pay'e-pbbs. 
 Pekin, pe-kW. (Northern 
 
 capital. ) 
 Pelew, pe-lbb'. 
 Peling, pe-Ung'. (Northern 
 
 mountain chain.) 
 Pembina, plm'be-nn. 
 Pemigewasset, pf^m-V ge^wBi- 
 
 sH. (Ind. Crooked place 
 
 of pines.) 
 Penang'. 
 
 Pefla.s, pin'yahs. (Rocky.) 
 Pend Oroilles, posd-b-rayV . 
 
 (Earrings.) 
 Pcnjinsk'. 
 PennsylvJinia, phr-xV-nw'- 
 
 ??l-fi. (Ptnn's woodland.) 
 Penohpcot, pe-nfjh'scot. (Ind. 
 
 At the rock.) 
 Pensacola, phi-/"i-kn'la. 
 Penzance, pfn^zBtuf. 
 Peoria, pe-b'r^-a. 
 Perdido, per-dl'db. 
 Ptre JIarquette, payrmar- 
 
 kW. 
 Pdrigueiix, pay-re-gW. 
 Pemambuco. plr-nahitv-bbb'- 
 
 kb. 
 Perouse, pay-rbbz'. 
 Perpignan, ph--pjin-yBs' . 
 Persia, plr'shf-a. 
 Peru, pe-rbb'. 
 Perugia, pay-rbb'jah. 
 Pescara, pis-kah'rah. 
 Petchora, pit-chb'rah. 
 Petropanlovsky, pay-trb- 
 
 pow-lBv'skee. (Town of 
 
 ]?eter and Paul.) 
 Petrovitch, pay'trb-^tch. 
 Philadelphia. fU-a.-dM'fi-a. 
 
 (City of brotherly love.l 
 Philippine, fWlp-pln. 
 
 (Named after Philip II. 
 
 of Spain.) 
 Philippopolis, PH-ttp-pBp'b- 
 
 Hs. (Citv of Philip.) 
 Phoenix, fe'niks. 
 Piacenza, pe-ah-chin'zah. 
 Piacina, pe-ah-se'nah. 
 Pichinclia. pe-chen'cha. 
 Picolata, pik-b-lah'tah. 
 Pictou, pVc-ibb'. 
 Piedmont, ped'mdnt. (Foot 
 
 of the mountain.) 
 Pilcomayo, pll-kb-mVb. 
 Pinalena, pe-nah-lay'nah. 
 Piqua, pik'wa. 
 Pisa, pe'zah. 
 Piscataqua, pls-kSl'S-kwa. 
 
 (Ind. Great deer river.) 
 Piscataquis, pIs-kSt'a-kiMs. 
 Pisgah, plz'ga. 
 Pisuerga, pl-gwfr'gah. 
 Plaquemine, pWc^nien'. 
 Plymouth, pUm'Hth. (Town 
 
 atthemouth ofthePlym.) 
 Point de Galle, de-gahV. 
 Poitiers, pwB.-n-ay'. (City 
 
 of the Pictnnes.) 
 Po'land. (Flat land.) 
 Policastro, pb-li-kahs'trb. 
 Polynesia, pBlA-ne'sKi-a. 
 
 (Many islands.) 
 Pomerania, p&>n-e^ay'nH-a. 
 
 (Upon the sea.) 
 Pompeii, pOmpay'yee, _ 
 Ponce, pbn'thay. 
 PonAicheny.pbn-de-shay-reef 
 
 or pBy de-shay-re^ . (Near 
 
 town.) 
 Pontchartrain, pBnt-char- 
 
 trayn'. 
 Popayan, po-jnrohn' or pb- 
 
 pah-yahn'. 
 Popocatapetl. pb-pb'kiU-ay- 
 
 pay-U. 
 Portalegre, pbr-tah-lay'gray. 
 Port au Prince, pbri-b-prdxs'. 
 Port Mabon, pbrt-mah-hon' . 
 
 Porto Rico, pbr'tb-ree'kb. 
 
 (Rich harbor.; 
 Porto Vecchio, pbr-lb-vekf- 
 
 ke-b. (Old harbor.) 
 Port Said, pbrt-gaA-eed' . 
 Portugal, pbr'lu-gal. (The 
 
 harbor of Cal.) 
 Portuguese, pbr'tu-geez. 
 Posen, pb'zen. 
 Potomac, pb-tb'mak. (Ind. 
 
 Place of the burning 
 
 pine.) 
 Potosi, pb-to-sce' or po-tb'fee. 
 Pouglikeepsle, po-hji'-il. 
 
 (Shallow inlet, or >'^afe 
 
 harbor for small vessels.) 
 Poultney, pblt'nee. 
 Powhatan, pow-lui-lBn' . 
 Poyang, pb-yahng'. 
 Praga, jrrah'gah. 
 Prague,pm/;7. (AtIlrc^llold.) 
 Prairie, prny're. 
 Prairie du Ciiien, p-'<.v''«-d"- 
 
 sheen. (Dog prairie.) 
 Pregel, piay'gel. 
 Presidio del Norte, pray-se'- 
 
 de-o-dH-nor'tay. (Gnard- 
 
 hou.se or fort of the North 
 
 — 1. e. northern fort.) 
 Presque Isle, prisk-el'. (A 
 
 peninsula. ) 
 Primero, p-e-mot^ro. (First.) 
 Pripet, prlp'lt. 
 I'rivas, p/re-vQs'. 
 Prussia, prSsh'^-n. (Country 
 
 of the Borusse, or Kext to 
 
 Russia.) 
 Pruth, prbbth or prBBt. 
 
 (River.) 
 Pueblo, pipeb'lb. (Town or 
 
 city.) 
 Puerto Principe, pwir'tb- 
 
 preii'se-pah. (Prince's port, 
 
 or chief gate. ) 
 Punjab, pUn-jahb'. (Five 
 
 rivers.) 
 Punta Arenas, pbmi'tah-ah- 
 
 ray'nahs. (Point of sand.) 
 Purissima, purls' iH-ma. 
 Puros, pbb-rbbs'. 
 Putumayo, pbb-tbb'mi-b. 
 Pyrenees, plr'e-neez. 
 
 Quebec, kwe-bik'. (Ind. Take 
 
 care of the rock ! ) 
 Queretaro, kay-ray'tah-ro. 
 Quesaltenango, kay-sahl-tay- 
 
 nahn'gb. 
 Quiloa, ke'lb-ah. 
 Quimper, kS.s-par'. 
 Quincy, kuAn'zl. 
 Quinine, kwi'ynn or kvn-mn'. 
 Quinnebaug, kwln-ne-bawg' . 
 
 (Ind. Long pond.) 
 Quito, kee'tb. 
 
 Rabatt, rah-baht'. 
 Racine, ra-seen'. 
 Radack, rah'dahk. 
 Ragusa, rah-gbb'sah. 
 Rajah.ia/i'yaft. (King,royal.) 
 Ra'kkah, rahk'kah. 
 Raleigh, raw'la. (Named in 
 
 honor of Sir Walter 
 
 Raleigh.) 
 Ralick, rah'tlk. 
 Rangeley, raynj'lee. 
 Rangoon, rahng-gbbn'. 
 Rapidan'. (Rapid Ann. Said 
 
 to have been named in 
 
 honor of Queen Anne.) 
 Rappahannock, riippa-hlln'- 
 
 nok. (River of quick-rising 
 
 waters.) 
 Raritan, rair'M-an. 
 Ravenna, ra-vhi'iia. 
 Reading, rM'tng. 
 'Recife, ray-se' fay. (The reef.) 
 Refnaes, rifnls. 
 Reggio, rayd'jb. 
 Regina, ri-gi'na. 
 Reikiavik, rff a-!)li. (Steam« 
 
 town.) 
 Rendsburg, rhidz'bblirg. 
 Rennes, rinn. 
 Requena, ray-kayn'yah. 
 Reus, ray'bbs. 
 
128 
 
 PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY. 
 
 Eevillagigedo,)-a2/-t;e/'i/aA-Ac- 
 hm/TBo. 
 
 Reyes, ray'y^. 
 
 Rheiins, remz. 
 
 Rhine, rin. 
 
 Rhode Island, rod-Viand. 
 (So called from its sup- 
 posed resemblance to the 
 Island of Rhodes.) 
 
 Rhodope, rod'o-pee. 
 
 Rhone, ron. 
 
 Riad, re'Sd. 
 
 Ribe, re'be. 
 
 Richelien, re-she-loo'. 
 
 Rideau, re-do'. 
 
 Riesen Gebirge, ree'zen-ge- 
 bh'ge. (Giant mountains.) 
 
 Risa, n'ga or re'ga. 
 
 Riobamba, re-o-bn.hm.'h'ih. 
 
 Rio del Norte, re'o-dil-nor'- 
 tny. (River of the north.) 
 
 Rio Grande, rVd-grS.nd or 
 qrahn'day. (Great river.) 
 
 Rioja, re-o'hah. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, n'o-ja-ne'ro. 
 (The citv is situated on nn 
 arm of the sea ; called Rio 
 de Janeiro, " the River of 
 Januarv," because dis- 
 covered Januarv 1.) 
 
 Rio Negro, re'd-nay'gro. 
 (Black river.) 
 
 Roanoke, ro-a-nok'. (Tnd. 
 Sea-shell or wampum.) 
 
 Rochelle, ro-shfl'. 
 
 Romagna, ro-mahn-yah' . 
 
 Romania, ro-mnh'm-a. 
 
 Rosario, ro-sah're-o. 
 
 Rosetta, ro-zit'tt. 
 
 Rot'terdam. (On the dam 
 or dike of the Rotter.) 
 
 Rouen. roo-Hs'. 
 
 Eoumania, roo-mny'n\-a. 
 (Country of the Romans.) 
 
 Rouraelia, roo-mee'li-a. 
 
 (Turkish corruption of 
 Rnmania.) 
 
 Rovuma, rnvdo'mah. 
 
 Roxo, ro'ho. 
 
 Riigen, rue'c/en. 
 
 Ruska Poyana, roos'kopo- 
 yah'n9. 
 
 Russia, rUsh'i-a or roo'sht a. 
 
 Sabine, sa-heen'. 
 
 Sable, say'h'l. (Sand.) 
 
 Saco, saw'ko. 
 
 Sacramento, sSk-ra-m^n'ld. 
 
 Sadao, sah-dowa' . 
 
 Rado, sah'do. 
 
 Saga, xah'gah. 
 
 Saghalin, sah-gah-leen' . 
 
 Sag'inaw. 
 
 Sagua la Grande, sah'gwah- 
 
 Inh-grahn'dny. 
 Saguenay, sSg-e-nny' . 
 Sahara, m-haji'rah. (Desert.) 
 Said, sah-eed'. 
 Saigon, sl-gon'. 
 Saima, si'mah. 
 Salado, sah-lah'do. 
 Salem, sa'lem. (Peace.) 
 Salina (U. S.), sa-le'na. 
 Salinas, sa-li'nSs. (Salt 
 
 works.) 
 Sallee. sah'lay. 
 Salonica, sah-lo-ne'kah. 
 Saltillo, salil-lft'yo. 
 Saluda, sah-loo'dah. 
 Sal wen, snhVwPn. 
 Salzburg, mhlts'hIiSrg. 
 Samara, mh-mah-rah' . 
 Samarang. sah-mah-rahng' . 
 Samarcand, sohm-er-kSnd' . 
 Saraisat, sih-me-mht' . 
 Samoa, say'm>>s. (From Arab. 
 
 satna, " to project, to be 
 
 prominent.") 
 Snmovedes, snm-oyMz'. 
 San Antonio, snjm-rihn-to'- 
 
 ni-o. (St. Anthonv.) 
 R'm Diego, mhn-de-ny'go. 
 Sandomierz, sahn-do'me- 
 
 airzh. 
 San Domingo, mhn-db- 
 
 vilnn'qo. (Holv Sabbath.) 
 Sandus'kv. (Cold spring.) 
 San Felipe, sohn-fay-Wpay. 
 San Prancis'co. (St. Francis. ) 
 Sanganion, san^ga-mM. 
 
 Sangar, sahn-gar'. 
 
 San _ Joaquin, sahn-ho-ah- 
 
 keen' or sahn-waw-keen' . 
 San Jose, salm-ho-say^ . (St. 
 
 Joseph.) 
 San Juan, sahn-hoo-ahn' or 
 
 hwahn. (St. John.) 
 San Juan Bautista, sahn-hoo- 
 
 ahn'bow-tes-tah. 
 San Lucas, sahnrloo'kahs. (St. 
 
 Luke.) 
 San Luis de Potosi, sahn-loo- 
 
 es'day-po-td-see'. 
 San Marino, sahn-mah-re'nd. 
 San Miguel, sahn-me-gW. 
 
 (St. Michael.) 
 San Saba, sahn-sah'bah. 
 San Salvador, sahn-sahl-vah- 
 
 dar'. (Holy Savior.) 
 San Sebastian, saAn-sffli^-ftaAi- 
 
 te-ahn'. 
 Santa Barbara, sahn-ta-bar' - 
 
 bn-ra. (St. Barbara.) 
 Santa Cruz, unhn'tah-kroos. 
 
 (Holv cross.) 
 Santa Fe, s&n-ta-fe' or mhn- 
 
 tah-fo'i'. (Holy faith.) 
 Santa Maura, sahn'tah-mow'- 
 
 rnh, 
 Santander, sahn-tahn-dnyr' . 
 Santarem, sahn-tah-rin' . 
 Snntee'. 
 Santiago, sahn-te-ah'go. (St. 
 
 Tago — i. e., St. James.) 
 Santiago de Cuba, sahn-te- 
 
 ah' go-dah-koo'bah. 
 Santorini, sahn-to-re'nee. 
 Sao Felipe de Benguela, 
 
 sows - fay - le'pay - day-bln- 
 
 gmi'lah. 
 Sao Joao, sowN-zho-owti' . 
 Saone, son. (The placid 
 
 river.) 
 Sao Paulo, soww-vovi'lo. 
 Sapporo, sahp-po'ro. 
 Saranac, s&r-a-vSk'. (Ind. 
 
 River that flows under 
 
 rock.) 
 Saratoga, sHr-a-to'ga. (Tnd. 
 
 Place of miraculous waters 
 
 in a rock.) 
 Saratov, sHr-a-tdf. 
 Sarawack, sah-rah'wahk or 
 
 snh-rah-wahk' . 
 Sardinia, sar-dln'l-a. 
 Saskatchewan. sds-kdch'S- 
 
 wan. (Ind. Swift current.) 
 Sassari, sahs'sah-re. 
 Satsuma, saht-sod'mah. 
 Sangerties, saw'ger-tez. 
 Saut de Saint Marie, soo'de- 
 
 sPnt-wm/rt. (Falls of St. 
 
 Marv. ) 
 Savannah, sa-vSn'na. 
 Save, sahv or sayv. 
 Scandinavia, skdn-dl-nay'- 
 
 vl-a. 
 Scheldt, skm. 
 Schemnitz, shSm'nits. 
 Schenectady, ske-n&'ta-dl,. 
 
 (Ind. River- valley beyond 
 
 the pine trees.) 
 Schiedam, skee-dahm'. (On 
 
 the dam or dike of the 
 
 Schie.) 
 Schleswig, shlPs'vtg. (From 
 
 the river ScfUe, and wig, 
 
 "a bay.") 
 Schoodic, skoo'dlk. (Ind. 
 
 Burnt lands.) 
 Schuyler, sH'I^r. 
 Schuvlkill, skooVkU. (Dutch. 
 
 Hidden creek.) 
 Schwerin, shvay-ren'. 
 Scilly, sil'li. 
 Scind, sind. (A collection 
 
 of waters.) 
 Scio, sl'o. 
 Scioto, .n-o'to, 
 Scot'land. (Land of the 
 
 Scots.) 
 Scutari, skoo'tnh-ree. (From 
 
 Persian imhidnr, " messen- 
 ger." Scutari was for- 
 merly, and is now. a 
 
 post-station for Asiatic 
 
 couriers.) 
 Searcy, scr's'i. 
 Seattle, se-St't'l. 
 Sebago, se-hay'go. (Ind. 
 
 Region of river-lake.) 
 Sebastopol or Sevastopol, 
 
 se-vSs-to'pol or se-v&s'td.pdl. 
 (City of Augustus.) 
 
 Secundo, say-koon'do. (Sec- 
 ond.) 
 
 Segovia, say-go've-ah. 
 
 Segre, say'gray. 
 
 Segura, say-goo'rah, 
 
 Seine, sayn. 
 
 Se\vas, sil'vas, 
 
 Sena, say'nah. 
 
 Sendai, sin'dH. 
 
 Seneca, sin'e-ka. (Corruption 
 of sinnibar, " vermilion.") 
 
 Senegal, sSn-e-gawl' . 
 
 Senegambia, s^n-e-gSm'b1-a. 
 (Named from its situation 
 between the Senegal and 
 Gambia Rivers.) 
 
 Sennaar, sin-nar'. 
 
 Senne, sfn'ne. 
 
 Seres, sfr'is. 
 
 Sereth, say-rW. 
 
 Sergipe del Rey, sayr-zhe'- 
 poy-d?l-ray. 
 
 Serra Tabatinga, s&r'rah-tah- 
 bah-tin'gah. 
 
 Serro Frio, slr'ro-free'o. (Cold 
 mountains.) 
 
 Servia, ser'vl-a. 
 
 Sesheke. say-shay' kah. 
 
 Severo Vostochnoi, say-vay'- 
 ro-vSs-tSk'noi. (North-east.) 
 
 Sevier, sever', 
 
 Seville, sH'^l or se-vil'. (Cor- 
 ruption of the Latin name 
 Hispnlis.) 
 
 Seychelle, sny-shW, 
 
 Rhamo, shah-mo'. 
 
 Shanghai, shting'hi. 
 
 Shannon, shUn'non. (Old 
 river.) 
 
 Shenandoah, shfn-Hn-do'a. 
 
 Shikoku, she-ko'koo. 
 
 Shilluks, sMl-Iooks'. 
 
 Shiraz, she'rahz. 
 
 Shoya, sho'yah. 
 
 Shreveport, shreeo'port. 
 
 Shumla, shoom'lah. 
 
 Siam, si-dvi' or se-ahm'. 
 
 Siberia, st-fte'rt-a. 
 
 Sicily, s^.i'Vft. (Cut off.) 
 
 Sierra, se-hr'rah. (A " saw." 
 Hence a mountain range, 
 because at a distance it 
 presents a notched appear- 
 ance like the teeth of a 
 saw.) 
 
 Sierra Estrella, se-lr-rah-is- 
 trH'yah. 
 
 Sierra Guadarara a, se-ir'rah- 
 gwah-Tffah-rah'mah. 
 
 Sierra Leone, sl-h-'ra-le-o'ne 
 or se-er'rnh-lay-o' nay. {Lwn 
 mountains.) 
 
 Sierra Madre, mah'Tnray. 
 (Mother mountains.) 
 
 Sierra Morena, mo-ray'nah. 
 (Brown mountains.) 
 
 Sierra Nevada, ne-vah'da. 
 (Snowy mountain-ridge.) 
 
 Sierra Toledo, to-lay'do. 
 
 Sihon, si-hon' or si-hoon', 
 
 Silan, se-ldhn'. 
 
 Silesia, sl-lee'shi-a. 
 
 Silistria, st-Us'M-a. 
 
 Simferopol, sUm-fer-o'pSl. 
 
 Sinai, si'nay or si'nny-i. 
 
 Sinaloa, s\n-ah-ld'ah. 
 
 Singapore, sing-ga-por' . (City 
 of lions.) 
 
 Siout, se-oot', 
 
 Sioux, sbo. 
 
 Sirinagar, slr-^n-a-gar'. 
 
 Sirocco. s1r-r8k'ko. 
 
 Sisal, se-sahP. 
 
 Siwah, se'wah. 
 
 Skag'er Rack. (An isthmus 
 or promontory.) 
 
 Skid'daw. 
 
 Skowhegan, skow-he'gan, 
 
 Skye, «K. 
 
 Skyros, ske'rSs. 
 
 Sligo, sR'go. 
 
 Smyrna, smir'nn. (Mvrrh.) 
 
 Soconusco, so-ko-noos'ko. 
 
 Socorro, so-kdr'rd. 
 
 Socotra, lo-ko'trah or sSk'S- 
 trah. 
 
 Sofala, so-fah'lah or so'fah- 
 lah. 
 
 Sokoto, so-ko-to'. 
 
 Solano, so-lah'no. 
 
 Somali, so-mawl'ee. 
 Sombrerete, som-bray-ray' - 
 
 toy. 
 Sombrero, sSm-bray'ro. 
 Somme, somm. 
 Sonorq,, so-^io'ra. 
 Sooloo, sod-loo'. 
 Sophia, so-fl'a. 
 Sorata, so-rah'tah. 
 Sorel, so-riV. 
 Soria, so're-ah. 
 Soudan, soo-dahn'. (The land 
 
 of the blacks.) 
 Spezia, spM'ze-ah. 
 Spitzberg'en. (Mountain 
 
 with peaks.) 
 Spree, spray. 
 Squillace, skutl-lah'chay. 
 Staffa. 
 
 Stanovoi, stah-no-voi' . 
 St. Augustine, sgnl-aw-gits- 
 
 teen', 
 Staunton (U. S.), stahn'ton. 
 St. Bias, sint-blahs'. 
 St. Croix, sint-kroy'. (Holy 
 
 cross.) 
 Steilacoom, sRl'a-kdom or 
 
 ste'la-kUm. 
 Steppes, stSps. 
 St. Etienne, sSnt-ay-te-fnn'. 
 
 (St. Stephen.) 
 Stettin, stH-ten'. 
 Steubenville, siU'ben-vV. 
 St. Genevieve, laynl-Jin-e- 
 
 vev'. 
 St. Heliers, sint-hfl'yerz. 
 St. Malo, s&if-mS-lo' . 
 Stock'holm. (Island formed 
 
 by stocks or piles.) 
 Stolpemfinde, stol'pe-muen- 
 
 de. 
 St. Paul de Loan'da. 
 St. Pierre, sSs-pe-aj/r'. 
 St. Quentin, sUs-kiSs-t&if. 
 Strabane, stra-hdn'. 
 Stralsund, strahl'sSlind. 
 Strasburg, strOs'birg. (Castle 
 
 or town upon the [old 
 
 Roman] highway.) 
 Strelitz, slray'tUz. 
 Stromboli, alrSm'bo-lee. 
 St. Roque, shit-rok', 
 St. TIbes, sfni-Ubz'. 
 Suakin, swah'kin. 
 Sucre, soo-kray'. 
 Suez, soo'ez. 
 Suir, shoor. 
 
 Sumatra, soo-mah'trnh. 
 Sumbawa, sUm-baw'.wa. 
 Sumburgh, sUm'bHr-ro. 
 Sun'apee. 
 Sunda, sUn'dn. 
 Sungari, soon-gah-ree'. 
 Sungaria, sdong-pnh're-ah. 
 Superior, soo-pe'ri-or. 
 Surat, soo-raht'. 
 Surinam, soo-r\-nnhm' . 
 Susquehanna, stLs-kwe-h&n'- 
 
 na. 
 Sutlege, sUt-Pf. 
 Suwanee, su-iomo'iiee. 
 Swansea, swdn'se. 
 Swatow, sumh-tow'. 
 Sweden, swe'deti. (Country 
 
 of the Suevi.) 
 Sydney, sitl'nee. 
 Syra, se'rah. 
 Syracuse, sir'a-kOs. 
 Svria, sir'i-a. 
 Szamo."!, sIS-mKsh'. 
 Szegedin, sig-Men', 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabasco, tah-'mhs'ko. 
 
 Tabreez, tnh-f'rrez'. 
 
 Tacazze, tah-kahl'sny. (The 
 terrible ; from its numer- 
 ous cataracts.) 
 
 Taronic, tah-k>in'\k. 
 
 Tafilett, Mf-Um. 
 
 Tagns, tay'gtls. 
 
 Tahiti, tah-hee'a. 
 
 Tahlequah, tah-te-kwah' . 
 
 Taiba, tVbah. 
 
 Tai-yuen, d-yoo-Pn'. 
 
 Talavera, iah-lahvay'mh. 
 
 Talcahuana, tahl-kah-wah'- 
 nah. 
 
 Talladega, tSl-la-de' qa. 
 
 Tallahassee, tSX-ta-hHs'see. 
 (Ind. Old town.) 
 
 Tallapoosa, t&l-la-pdd'sa. 
 
 (Ind. Swift water.) 
 Tamatave, tah-mah-tahv' . 
 Tamaulipas, tah-mow-le'- 
 
 pahs. 
 Tampa, tahm'pa. 
 Tampico, tahm-pe'ko. 
 Tanganyika, tahn-gahn-yee'- 
 
 kah. 
 Tangier, tahn-jer'. 
 Taos, tah'os. 
 Tapajos, tah-pah'zhos or tah- 
 
 pah'hos. 
 Taranto, tah'rahn-to. 
 Tarazona, tah-rah-thb'nah. 
 Tarbes, tdrb. 
 Tarija, tah-re'hah. 
 Tarnopol, tar-no'pol. 
 Tarragona, tar-rah-go'nah. 
 Tartary, tar'ta-rl. 
 Tashkend, tahsh-kind'. 
 Tasmania, tSz-may'n^-a. 
 
 (Named after Tasman, its 
 
 discoverer.) 
 Taudeny, tow'de-nee. 
 Taunton (IT. S.\ iahn'ton. 
 Tau'rus. (Lat. From Arab. 
 
 tnvn; " a mountain.") 
 Tchad, chad. 
 Tcherkasi, chfr-kah'see. 
 Tchernigov, chfr-negdv'. 
 Trhernowitz, chfr'no-vits. 
 Tchin-tou. cBng-too'. 
 Tchoui, choo'ee. 
 Teentsin, tent-sen'. 
 Tegucigalpa, tatz-^'OO-se-jraW- 
 
 pah. 
 Teheran, te-hrahn'. 
 Tehuantepec, tay-wahn-tay- 
 
 pfK. 
 Teify, C\!vee. 
 Temesvar, thn-tsh-var' . 
 TenerifTe, tfn-er-\f . 
 Tennessee, thi-nH-see' . (Ind. 
 
 River of the Big Bend.) 
 Tepeleni, iny-pny-lay'nee. 
 Tepic, tay-jiek'. 
 Terceira. tir-say'e-rah. 
 Terre Haute, tfr'reh-hot. 
 
 (High land.) 
 Terra Nova, tir-rah-no'vah. 
 
 (New land.) 
 Tete, tay'tiiy. 
 Teulada, tf-bo-lnh' rnah . 
 Texas, ifks'as. (Named from 
 
 the Tfyns, or "Friendly," 
 
 Indians.) 
 Texel, Uks'H. 
 Thames, t^z. 
 Thebes, theebz. 
 Theiss, fi.'. 
 Thian Shan, tee-ahn'shahn. 
 
 (Celestial momitains.) 
 Thibet, ab'H or fi-bH'. 
 Thibodeaux, teb-o-do'. 
 Thorn, tlim. 
 Thur, toor. 
 
 Thuringian. thi-rXn'ji-an. 
 Tibboos, tlb-bbos'. 
 Tiber, Ci'ber. 
 Tibesty, te-bfs-tee'. 
 Tibnron, te-voo-ron'. 
 Ticino, te-che'no. 
 Ticonderoga, ti-kSn-der-o'ga. 
 Tierra del Fuego, te-fr'rak- 
 
 dfl-fit-e'go. (Land of fire.) 
 Tiete, te-ny'tay. 
 Tiflis, nf-tees'. 
 Timbuctoo, flm-bitk'tdo. 
 Timor, te-mor'. 
 Timorlaut,<e-mor7o«;(. (Sea- 
 ward Timor.) 
 Tioga, fi-o'ga. (Ind. Swift 
 
 current.) 
 Tippecanoe, tip-pe-ka-noo' . 
 
 (Ind. A kind of fish living 
 
 in this branch Of the 
 
 Wabash.) 
 Titicaca, tlt-e-kah'kah. 
 Tobago, to-bay'go. 
 Tobique, to-bek'. 
 Tobolsk'. (Town on the 
 
 Tobol.) 
 Tocantins, to-kahn-teens' . 
 Tokav, to-kay". 
 Tokio, to'ke-o. 
 Tolosa, tb-lb'sa. 
 Tombigbee, tUm-blg'bee. 
 Tomsk. (Town on the Tom.) 
 Tonawanda, tSn-n-wSn'da. 
 Tongking, tong-keen'. 
 Tongoy, lSn-gb'\. 
 
 Tooele, tob-il't. 
 Topeka, to-pe'ka, 
 Tormes, tdr'rnls. 
 Toronto, to-rBn'to. (Ind.Onv 
 trees rising from (he 
 lake.) 
 Torres, tSr'rfs. 
 Tor'rid. (From Lat. torrco, 
 
 "to roast.") 
 Tortugas, tSr-too'gdtx (Tor- 
 toises.) 
 Toulon, too-lox'. 
 Toulouse, tob-lobzf. 
 Tours, toor. 
 Towanda, to-wahn'da. 
 Towatsi, to-waht'see. 
 Trafalgar, trdf-Sl-gar' . 
 
 Trans Caucasia, trttni'kqw- 
 kay'sM-a. (Across the Cau- 
 casus Mountains.) 
 
 Trans Vaal, triins-vahl' . (Be- 
 yond the vaal, or river.) 
 
 Transylvania, trdn-sll-vn^*'' 
 rii-a. (Across the wood.i 
 
 Trebizond, tr&i'\-z6nd. (Said 
 to have been built in the 
 shape of a trapezium.) 
 
 Tres Montes, Irh-mdn'tls. 
 (Three mountains.) 
 
 Trieste, tre-lst' or tre-h'ttiy. 
 
 Trinidad, tr\n-\.dM'. (Trin- 
 ity.) 
 
 Tripoli, tr^p'o-tl. (Three 
 cities. Three large towns 
 formerly occupied the site 
 of the present Tripoli.) 
 
 Tripolizza, tre-po-hi' .mh . 
 
 Trop'ics. (Derived from the 
 Greek trepo, "to turn," 
 because the sun in his an- 
 nual course — the ecliptic 
 — turns when he reaches 
 the signs of Cancer and 
 Capricorn.) 
 
 Troyes, trwah. 
 
 Truxillo, troo-heel'yo, 
 
 Tsadda, fsSd'dnh. 
 
 TSugaru, soo-gah'roo. - 
 
 Tsumga, soo-roo'gah. 
 
 Tuaricks, tdd-ah-r\ks' . 
 
 Tuat, too-aht'. 
 
 Tubac, tbo-bSW. 
 
 Tucson, too-sOn' or tuk-slin'. 
 
 Tucuman, tbb-loo-mahn' . 
 
 •Tulare, tob-lah'ree. 
 
 Tule, tob'le. (A bulrush.) 
 
 Tundra, tUn'drd. 
 
 Tunguragua, toong-goo-rah'- 
 gwah. 
 
 Tunis, tii'iiis or tbo'ri^. 
 
 Turcoman, tbor-ko'man. 
 
 Turin, tu'rXn or tu-rin'. 
 
 Turkestan, tbor-kfs-tahn' . 
 (Country of the Turks.) 
 
 Tuscaloosa, tUs-kn-lob'sa. 
 (Ind. Black warrior.) 
 
 Tuscarora, tCs-ca-ro'ra. 
 
 Tuxpan, loos-pohn'. 
 
 Tyrol, Cir'ol or te-rol'. 
 
 u. 
 
 Uanpes, wow'pis. 
 
 XJbeda, do-vay'Tsah. 
 
 Ucayle, oo-H-ah'lay. 
 
 Uist, wist. 
 
 Ujiji, bo-je^jee. 
 
 Ulm, dWm. 
 
 Umbagog, Hm-bay'gSg. (Ind. 
 
 Clear lake.) 
 Umea, bb'rne-u. 
 Umpqua, Hvip'kwnh. 
 ITngava, Ung-gah'vn. 
 tTpernavik,"oo-pft-'na-tilifc. 
 Upsal, Up' sal. 
 
 VraX, ybo'rahl. (Girdle, belt.) 
 Urbana, ur-bitn'a. 
 TTres, oo'rfs. 
 Uruguay, u-roo-gway' or do- 
 
 rbb'gwV. 
 TStah.a'iah orH'tnw. (Named 
 
 from the Vte Indians.) 
 XTtica, u'n-ka. 
 Utrecht, u'trekt. (Beyond 
 
 "the passage" of the 
 
 Rhine.) 
 Utrera, 6o-tray'raK 
 
 V. 
 
 Vaigatch, lii'gahtch. 
 Valdai, vnhl'dR. 
 Valdivia,«;aAi-de'i«-aA. (Rict) 
 valley.) 
 
PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY. 
 
 129 
 
 Valence, vS-tSms'. 
 Valenciennes, vA-ViH-ae-Unn' . 
 Va,\entia,va)^lin'thi-a. ',Pow- 
 
 erful.) 
 Valetta, vah-kt'tah. 
 Valladolid, vahl-ydli-TBo- 
 
 leTB'. 
 Valparaiso, valil-pah-rl'so. 
 
 (Vale of paradise. ' 
 Valverde, vahl-vayr'ilriy. 
 Vancouver, vun-koo'ver. 
 Vannes, vin. 
 Vanua Levii, vah-nod'ah- 
 
 lai/voo. 
 Vmdreuil, vo-druV. 
 Veile, vl'le. 
 V'Miango, ve-nSng'go. 
 Vendee, vSs-day'. 
 Venetia, ve-ni' she-ah. 
 Venez'iela, vfn-e-zwee'la. 
 
 (Little Venice.) 
 Venice, vlhi'ts. (Foimerlv 
 
 part of the province of 
 
 Venetia.) 
 Vera Cruz, vay'rah-krooth. 
 
 (True cross.) 
 Vennejo, ver-may'ho. (Ver- 
 milion.) 
 V^niiont, ver-mSnt'. (Green 
 
 mountains.) 
 Vereailles, ver-saylz'. 
 Vssoul, ve-zool'. 
 Vesuvius, ve-su'7/Uii3. 
 Vjvay, ve-vay". 
 
 Vienna, ve-gn'na. (Abode of 
 the Vends.) 
 
 Vienne. re-inn'. 
 
 Vigo, ve'go or v't'go. 
 
 Vilaine, ve-layn'. 
 
 Villa del Fuerte, vel-yah-dfl- 
 fw&r'tay. (Town of the 
 fort.) 
 
 Villa Real, lieVyah-ray-ahV. 
 (Royal town.) 
 
 Villa Rica, vel-yah-re' kah. 
 (Rich town.) 
 
 Vincennes, vin-sin^s'. 
 
 Vjndhya, vlnd'yah. 
 
 Virgenes, ver-lMy'nls. 
 
 Virginia, ver-fln'^-a. (Named 
 in honor of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, the Virgin Queen.) 
 
 Visa, ve'zah. 
 
 Viseu, ve'say-oo. 
 
 Vistula, vXtt'yoo-la. 
 
 Viterbo, ve-ter'ho. 
 
 Vitoria, ve-to're-ah. 
 
 Volcano, vSl-iay'no. (Name 
 derived from Vulcanus, 
 " Vulcan," the pod of tire. 
 According to the ancients, 
 hi-! forges were under 
 Mo'int Etna, as well as 
 un ler every other bum- 
 in i mountain; hence the 
 name.) 
 
 Volga, vSl'ga or wSl'ga. 
 
 Vosges, vozh. 
 
 w. 
 
 Waag, vnhg. 
 
 Wabash, waw'bish. (Ind. A 
 
 cloud blown forward by 
 
 an equinoctial wind.) 
 Wabasliaw, wah'ha-sUaw. 
 Wachusett, waw-dii' sit. 
 
 (Ind. The mountain.) 
 Waco, way'ko. 
 Waday, vah'Jl. 
 Wahsatch, waw-sUtck'. 
 Wallachia, w>'il-lay'hlra. 
 
 (Oiuntrv of theWalfachs.) 
 Walla Walla, wdl'la-wSl'la. 
 Walloostook, wdl-loos'tdSk. 
 Walwisch, wahl'i/lsh. 
 
 (Whale.) 
 Warsaw, wnw'mw. 
 Wartlia. var'tali. 
 Warwick (U. S.), wSr'vnk or 
 
 wSr'rlk. 
 Wa.sh i ngton , wWi "! r!_(7-<oii . 
 Washita, wdsli'\-taw.' (Ind. 
 
 Male deer, i 
 Waterloo, waw-ief-ldo' . 
 Wauk^an, wnw-ki' gan. 
 Waukesha, waw'ki-shaw. 
 Weimar, vi'miir. 
 Wpner, vm/'Tter. 
 We-^'^r, we'zer or vay'zer. 
 
 (Western river.) 
 Westphalia, wM-fay'tl-a. 
 
 (Western country.) 
 
 Wetter, wH'ler or vWter. 
 
 Wetumpka, we-iimp'ka. 
 (Ind. Tumbling water.) 
 
 Weymouth, way'mHth. 
 
 (Town at the mouth of 
 the Wey.) 
 
 Wichita, w'ich%-taw. 
 
 Widin or WiJdin, vfldln or 
 vWln. 
 
 Wieliczka, tc-tlch'ka or 
 ifySAch'kah. 
 
 Wiesbaden, ves-bah'den. 
 
 Wight, vrU. (Island of the 
 Wyls or Jutes.) 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, wMks-h/tr'n. 
 (Named from John Wilkes 
 and C!ol. Isaac Barre. de- 
 fenders of colonial rights 
 in the British Parliament.) 
 
 Willamette, vAl-lah'mit. 
 
 Winnebigoshish, w'm-ni-bl- 
 go'slilsh. 
 
 Win'nipeg. (Ind. Turbid 
 water.) 
 
 Winnipegoos, w\n'n\pc-goos. 
 
 Winnipiseogee, vHn-ne-pe- 
 saw'ke. (Beautiful lake 
 among the highlands.) 
 
 Winona, we-no'na. (Ind. 
 First-bom daugliter.) 
 
 Winoo.ski, vii-norykl. (Ind. 
 Beautiful stone river.) 
 
 Wittenburg, vU'len-birg. 
 
 Woolwich, wOUl'lj. 
 
 Woonsooket, wddn-sSk'-et. 
 Wi ircester, w/iSs'ter. 
 WrdngeW, rahng'gtl. 
 Wurteniburg, vmr-thn'bSrg. 
 Wyandotte, m-an-dSt'. 
 AVyoming, wl-6' nilng. 
 
 Xarayes, shak-n'is. 
 Xenia, ze'n'i-a. 
 Xeres, Itay'ris. 
 Xingu, slten-goo', 
 Xucar, liid'kar. 
 
 Yablonoi, yah-blo-noi' . 
 
 (Mountain of apples.) 
 Yakutsk, tialt-kbotskf . 
 Yang tse Kiang, y&ng-tse-ke- 
 
 diig'. (Son of the ocean.) 
 Yaqui, yah-kee'. 
 Yarkand, yar-kand'. 
 Yarmouth, yar'miilh. (Town 
 
 at the mouth of the Yare.) 
 Yazoo, yah' 200 or ym/'zoo. 
 Yenesei, yfiv-e-sny'e or yin-e- 
 
 say'. (New river.) 
 Yeniseisk, y/'n-e-saji'tsk. 
 
 (Town on the Yenesei.) 
 Yezo, yay'zo. 
 Yokohama, yd-ko-hah'mah. 
 
 (Cross shore.) 
 Yonkers, yBnk'erz. 
 
 Yosemite, yd-shn'X-n. 
 
 Ypsilanti, \p-sl-!iin'n. 
 
 Yucatan, yod-ka-Ukn' or yoo- 
 kah-tuhn'. (Ind. Juca tan, 
 "What do yon say?" the 
 answer given to the Span- 
 iards who asked for the 
 name of the country.) 
 
 Yukon, yu'k&n. 
 
 Yuma, yod'mah. 
 
 Yuthia, yoo't'hi-ah. 
 
 z. 
 
 Zacatecas, zahk-a-tay'kax. 
 
 Zacatula, sah-kah-loo'lah. 
 
 Zaizan, zi-zahn'. 
 
 Zambesi, z&m-bay'iA. 
 
 Zamora, thcJi-mo'rah. 
 
 Zante, zahn'tay. 
 
 Zanzibar, z&n'^bar. (Sea- 
 coast of the Zangis, or 
 negroes.) 
 
 Zara, zah'rah. 
 
 Zealand, zee'land. (Sea land.) 
 
 Zliehol, zMy-hil'. 
 
 Zone, zm. (Belt.) 
 
 Zufii, zoon'yee or soon-yee'. 
 
 Zurich, tooo' rtt. 
 
 Zutphen, ztU'fen. 
 
 ZuyderZee, A' deT-zee.{SovMh 
 sea.) 
 
 Zwellendam, zwli'Ien-dHm. 
 
 Zwolle, zwRl'le. 
 
 Zytomir, zhit-o-Tner'. 
 
 Etymological Vocabulary. 
 
 Ab, ahb, anb, awb. (Per. A river ; PnnjoS, " five rivers.") 
 
 Abad, oA-ftaM'. (Per. Acity; AUahofiad, "city of AUali.") 
 
 ■ Aber, db-er'. ((^It. Mouth of a river ; Aberdeen, " mouth 
 
 of the Dee.") 
 
 Agoa, ah'go-ah (Port.), agua, ah'gwah (Sp.), aigue, aigues, 
 
 ayg,aix, ayks (Fr.). (Water, ^.^oa Fria, " cold water ;" 
 
 Agva Dulce, "fresli water;" Aigues Mortes, "stagnant 
 
 water;" jlii-la-Chapelle, " waters of the chapel.") 
 
 Alta, oW-teA. (Mon. Gold; Altai, " golden mountain.") 
 
 Anti,ant. (Gr. Opposite ; ^»i<afctic, "opposite the Arctic") 
 
 Ar. (Per. Warlike, brave. Common sutfix to names of 
 
 Eastern tribes, Bulgor, Tartar, Magyar.) 
 Ard. (Celt. Height, promontory ; ^rrfennes, " heights.") 
 Bab. (Arab. Gate or court; JSoAvlon, " court of Belus ;" 
 
 Ba6-el-Mandeb, "gate of tears.") 
 Bad, baht, plural baden. (Ger. Bath ; Carlsbad, " (!!harles'3 
 bath." The same word occurs in French as bagn or 
 bain; in Italian as bagni; Bagnoles, Banis-du-Mont- 
 d'Or, Bagni di Lucca. ) 
 Bahia (Sp.), bay (Eng.). (Bay or harbor. Bahia Honda, 
 
 "deep bay;" Bombay, "good harbor.") 
 Bait. (Gelt. Belt or strait; Baltic, sea of "belts.") 
 Bar. (Skr. Countrv ; Malaftar, " country of mountains.") 
 Bas, bah {Ft.), bat^ baht (Ger.). (Low"; Pays-Bos, "low 
 country" — i.e.. The Netherlands; Balavta. "low plain.") 
 Baton, bahtos'. (Fr. A staff or stick ; Baton Rouge, " red 
 
 stick.") 
 Beau, bo, belle, bU. (Fr. Beautiful ; Beaulien, "beautiful 
 
 place;" BeUe\s\e, "beautiful island.") 
 Beled, be-lfd'. (Arab. Cbuntrv ; Bel^xl el Jcred, " countrj' 
 
 of the date.") 
 Ben, pen, ven. (Celt. Mountain ; Ben Lommond, " beacon 
 
 mountain ;" Apennines, Ce^ewnes. 
 Blanc, biay (Fr.), bianco, blahn'ko (Sp.). (AVhite; Mont 
 Blanc, " white mountain ;" Cape Blanco. " white cape.") 
 Bon, bo/r, bonne, bdn (Fr.), b'lena, hway-nah, buenos, 
 bway-rws (Sp.). (Good; Capo /?oi/homme, "Cape Good- 
 man;" Bueiios Aj'res, "good air.") 
 Bruck (Ger.), brngge (Dutch), (A bridge; Innsbruck or 
 Innsjrruck, "bridge over the Inn:" Bruges, "bridges.") 
 B'ld, hood. (Ger. Dwelling ; Budweis^, " wliitedwelling.") 
 Bir?. (A. S. and Ger. A castle or town. This word has 
 many forms ; as, borg, bourg, borough, hiiiTOw, hunt, hern/ ; 
 Augsburg, "city of Augustus;" Edin'mr^A, "city of 
 Edwin or Odin;" CanterJitry, "citv of Kent.") 
 Burn. (A. S. Brook ; Tyburn, "the Ty brook ;" also bom, 
 
 bourne, bone, bronn, brunn.) 
 Bv. (A. S. Town; Kirkby. "church town.") 
 Caster. (A. S. Camp, fortress, town. Also center, Chester. 
 Lancaster, "fortress on the Lan ;" Glnnrciler. " fair city." ) 
 Chow. (Chin. A town of the second class ; Chang-C!6ow.) 
 Civita, che've-tah (It. ), Ciuia-l. the-do-TBnhrn' 'Sr>.). (From 
 Lat. eivitas, a city : Civita Vecchia, "old town ;" Ciudad 
 Real, "royal city.") 
 Cleve, clif. (A. S.' Cliff; ntrvrlnnd. C7mon.^ 
 Comb. (A. S. Vallev: Wyromhe. "valley of the Wy;" 
 
 Ckmberland, "land of hollows:") 
 Costa, kds'tah (Sp.), cote, kol (Fr.\ (Coast; Costa Rica; 
 
 " rich coast ;" Cote d'Or, " gold coast." ) 
 Cron kroji. (Ger. crown : Omistadt, "crown city.") 
 Cruz, krooz (Sp.), croix, krtvah (Fr.). (Cross; Vera Ovz, 
 "true cross;" Sainte Croix, " holy cross.") 
 
 I Dam, dahm. (Dutch. Dam or dike; Schiedom, " town on 
 I the dam of the Schie.") 
 Den. (A. S. Den or valley ; Walden, " woody den ;'' 
 
 Z>enbigh, " dwelling in the vale.") 
 Dhawala, da-wSl'a. (Skr. White; i)AawoZoghiri, "white 
 
 mountain.") 
 Dive. (Malay. Island; Maldives, "the thousand islands.") 
 Dor, dur. (Br. River; X>orchester, "camp by the river;" 
 
 Durham, " home by the river." ) 
 Dorf (Ger. Village, town ; Dusseldorf, " village on the 
 
 Diissel.") 
 Dover. (A. S. A ferry ; Andover, Wendover.) 
 Dub. (Celt. Black ; Ihiblm, " black pool.") 
 Dun, don. (Olt. Hill or fort; i>«ndee, "fort on the 
 
 Tay ;" Snowdcm, " snow hill.") 
 Ea, ey. (A. S. Island ; Anglesea, " isle of the Angles ;" 
 
 Jersey, "Caesar's island.") 
 Eaux, o. <Fr. Waters; Bordcaio;," border of the waters.") 
 Erz, a-fe. (Ger. Ore ; Erz Gebirge, " ore mountains.") 
 Field, ,fi-eid. (Dan. Mountain-range; Dovre/eirf, " range 
 
 of Dovie.") 
 Polk. (A. S. People; Suffolk, "south people.") 
 Pond. (Fr. Bottom; Fond du Lac, "end of the lake" 
 
 — i. e., the end farthest from tlie outlet.) 
 Fontaine, fon-tai/. (Fr. Fountain ; Fontenebleau = Fon- 
 taine Seile Eau, " fountain of beautiful water.") 
 Foo. (Chin. A city of the first class ; Tai-yuen-/oo.) 
 Ford (Eng.), furt' (Ger.). (A ford; Here/birf, "army 
 
 ford;" Frankfurt, "ford of the Franks.") 
 Gebirge, ge-bir'ge. (Ger. Mountains ; Erz Gebirge.) 
 Ghiri, g'ft--7-e. (Skr. Mountain; Dhawala.ijAiri.) 
 Gorod, go-rlid, grad, grnhd. (Slav. Town; Novgorod, "new 
 
 town;" BelgTorfe, "white city.") 
 Guad, .(7«iaA(i. (Sp. from Arab, warf, river; Gaadalquivir, 
 
 WW-al-kebeer. "the great river.") 
 Hai, hi. (Cliin. Port; Shang-Aai, "supreme port.") 
 Ham. (A. S. Home; WaltAam, " home in the wood.") 
 I Haven. (Eng. Haven, harbor ; New Haven, Fairhaven.) 
 Heilig, heMg. (A. S. Holy; JJdign\and, "holy land.") 
 Hima. iSkr. Snowy: J/i7nrtlaya, "abode of snow.") 
 Ho. (Cliin. River ;'Hoang-Bb, "yellow river.") 
 Hi, lia. (Turk. Country; RumiZi or RoumeZia, "country 
 
 of the Romans.") 
 Inver. (Irish. Mouth of a river; Inverness, "mouth of 
 
 the Ness.") 
 Kiang. (Chin. River; Yang-tse-.K'ianff, "sonof the ocean 
 
 river." ) 
 Kill. (Dntch. Creek ; SchuvlW?, " hidden creek.") 
 Kirche (Ger.), kirk (Scotch). (Church ; Funfi-ircAen, " five 
 
 churches;" KirBay, "church town.") 
 Line. (Chin. Mountains; 'San-ling, "southern monn- 
 
 tain.s.") 
 Lv. (A. S. Field ; Beveriy, " field of the heaver.") 
 Mark. (Scand. Territory; Denmark, "territory of the 
 
 Danes.") 
 Mer. (Pr. Sea ; Merton, " sea town ;" Mersey, " sea 
 
 i.sland." ) 
 Minster (A. S.\ munster (Ger.). (A monastery; West- 
 
 minsler, " wp«t from St. Paul's;" Axmin.'i/er, "monastery 
 
 on the Axe.") 
 Muhl. (Ger. Mill; JfuA/hausen, or Mulhausea, "miU 
 
 houses" — ». e., "null village.") 
 
 N^ro. (Sp. Black ; MonteTjejro, " black mountain.") 
 Nether. (A. S. Lower; Ae<Aerlands.) 
 Nevada. (Sp. White with snow ; Sierra Nevada, " snow- 
 clad mountain-chain.") 
 Nov. (New. In different languages this word assumes 
 
 various forms, as neu, nouveau, nova, ny, etc. ; A^osgorod, 
 
 New Zealand, Nova Scotia, A'ybourg.) 
 Oe, er'e. (Dan. Island ; Faroe, "sheep islands.") 
 Parajso. (Sp. Paradise ; \a\paraiso, " vale of paradise.") 
 Pe. (Chin. North; Peking, "northern capital.") 
 Phil. (Gr. Love; PAiiadelphia, "city of brotherly 
 
 love.") 
 PoUs, j>oI, poli. (Gr. City; ConstantinopZe, "city of Con- 
 
 stantine;" Tripoli, "three cities;" Sebastqpo?, " city of 
 
 Augustus.") 
 Pont, pos. (Ft. Bridge; N^rop<mi, "black bridge.") 
 Poor, pore. (HHnd. (Sty ; Cawn/ioor, "city of a khan.") 
 Punta. (Sp. Point ; Ptinta Arenas, "point of sand.") 
 Putra. (Skr. Son; BrahmajnUra, "son of Brahma.") 
 Real, ray-aW. (Fr. Royal; MontreaZ, " mount royal.") 
 Rico, ree'ko, rica, ree'kah. (Port. Rich ; Porto Rico, " rich 
 
 port;" Costa .Rica, "rich coast.") 
 Riesen, ree'zen. (Ger. Giant ; Riesen Gebirge, " giant moun- 
 tains.") 
 Rio, Tee's. (Sp. River; Rio Grande, " great river.") 
 Ruhe. (Ger. Rest; CiirlsraAe, "Charles's rest.") 
 Salz. (Ger. Salt ; Soizburg, " salt castle ;" Sahgrab, "salt- 
 mine.") 
 Saut. (Ft. WaterfaU; Saut St. Marie, "falls of St. 
 
 Mary.") _ 
 Sepe, sippi. (Ind. River, nmning water; Missisny>pt, 
 
 "father of running waters.") 
 Shire. (A. S. To shear or divide; a county; ChesAire, 
 
 " county of Cfitster.") 
 Sierra. (Sp. A saw ; mountain-range; Sierra Leone.) 
 Sk. (Russ. Town ; Tom.«A-, "town on the Tom River.") 
 Stan, stahn. (Per. Country; Hindustan, "country of the 
 
 Hindus ;" TurkestoM, " country of the Turks.")" 
 Stol. (A. S. Place ; Biisto?, '• bright or pleasant plaee.") 
 Tierra. (Sp. Land ; Tierra del Fu^o, "land of firt. ) 
 Ton. (Eng. Town; Norton, "nf)rth town.") 
 Tricht, trecht. (Danish, from Lat. trnjectus, a "passage;"' 
 
 Maestricht, " the passage of the Meuse ;" JJirecht [Lat. 
 
 UltraTrajectnml," beyond the passage" — of the Rhine.) 
 Tuck. (Ind. A river where the water is rough ; Nauga- 
 
 tuck.) 
 Ural. (Russ. Girdle ; belt ; Ural mountains.) 
 Vaal. (Dutch. River ; Transt-aoi, " across the river.") 
 Val. (Sp. Valley; Fo/paraiso, "vale of paradise.") 
 Vecchio, vecchia. (Port. Old ; Porto Vecchio, " old port ;" 
 
 Civita Vecchia, "old citv.") 
 Villa. (It. and Sp. To\pi ; Villa Nova, "new town.") 
 Wad or wady. (River. See Guad.) 
 Weiss, ms. (Ger. White ; Weisskirch, " white church ;" 
 
 Budwei.'ts, "white dwelling.") 
 Wich, wick. (A. S. Town; GreenwicA, "green village;" 
 
 Waru'ici-, "garrison town.") 
 Y'ang. ((Hiin. Male child; Yang-tse-Kiang, "son of the 
 
 ocean.") 
 Yar, gar. (Olt. Rapid or turbid; Tare, rarmonth, 
 
 ffnronne.) 
 Zuyder. (Ger. South; Zui/(iei- Zee, "south sea.") 
 
130 
 
 Geographical and Statistical Tables. 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH 
 
 {69.1 miles to 1° at Eqttator). Miles. 
 
 Polar Diameter 7.899 
 
 F-quatorial Diameter ... . ... . . 7,925 
 
 Equatorial Circumference . . 24,699 
 
 Area of the Land-Surface. sq.miies. 
 
 Eastern Continent . . . ... 
 
 Western Continent .... 
 
 Oceanica (including Malaysia) . ..-'.. 
 
 South Polar Lands . . . 
 
 Total .... ... 
 
 \ 
 
 Area of the Water-Surface. 
 
 Pacific Ocean . . . 
 
 Atlantic Ocean . . 
 
 Indian Ocean .■•... 
 Antarctic Ocean . 
 
 Arctic Ocean 
 
 Inland Wiiters 
 
 Total 
 
 Proportion of land- to water-surface, about i to 3. 
 
 Length of Coast-Line. 
 
 (/« round numbers^ not including islajids.) 
 
 75,000,000 
 35,000,000 
 23,000,000 
 
 7,000,000'v 
 
 4 ,000,000 
 
 739,000 
 
 144,739,000 
 
 
 Coast-line 
 ill miles. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles. 
 
 Area to one 
 mile of coast 
 in i,q. miles. 
 
 Europe ... 
 
 North America 
 
 South America . 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa. . . 
 
 Australia . . 
 
 20,000 
 30.000 
 17,000 
 35,500 
 16,200 
 8,760 
 
 3,900,000 
 9,300,000 
 6,900,000 
 16,000,000 
 11,503,000 
 2,900,000 
 
 195 
 310 
 400 
 
 450 
 710 
 340 
 
 ■:i 
 
 AREAS OF THE PRINCIPAL ISLANDS. 
 
 
 America 
 
 Greenland . 
 
 
 Cuba . 
 
 
 Iceland . . . 
 
 
 Newfoundland . 
 
 
 Hayti . . 
 
 
 Vancouver . . 
 
 
 Marajo 
 
 
 Jamaica . 
 
 
 Chiloe . . 
 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 Sicily . . 
 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 
 Corsica . 
 
 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Nippon or Hondo 
 
 
 Saghalin . ,' 
 
 
 Yezo . 
 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 
 Hainan 
 
 
 Formnsa 
 
 
 Kiushiu . ., . 
 
 
 Shikoku . 
 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Madagascar 'wilh siirrountiing islands) . 
 TeneriflTe 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 837,776 
 
 45,884 
 
 40,426 
 
 42,732 
 29,829 
 j8,937 
 5,160 
 4,193 
 3,980 
 3,53J 
 
 88,649 
 32,531 
 9,939 
 9,297 
 3,378 
 
 87,500 
 47,500 
 36,300 
 24,818 
 13,951 
 13,867 
 11,288 
 7,°34 
 
 229,328 
 88a 
 
 Australia {with Melvil 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Papua . 
 
 Sumatra . 
 
 Celebes 
 
 Luzon 
 
 New Zealand Group . 
 Java . . 
 Mindanao . 
 Tasmania . 
 
 Timor 
 
 New Caledonia 
 Hawaii 
 
 Oceanica. 
 
 :, Frazer and Kangaroo I.slands) . 2,945,229 
 
 278,100 
 
 . 223,100 
 
 180,407 
 
 77,274 
 
 ■ • 57,7°5 
 
 104,663 
 
 50,864 
 
 35,9<» 
 
 . . . 26,215 
 . . . 21,840 
 
 6,775 
 
 4,387 
 
 AREAS OF THE PRINCIPAL LAKES. 
 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 Caspian Sea . . . 
 
 169,700 
 
 Eyre 
 
 3,000 
 
 Lake Superior , . 
 
 31,4^ 
 
 Poyang 
 
 2,980 
 
 Victoria Nyanza . 
 
 2 6, 600 
 
 Torrens . . . 
 
 2,8oo 
 
 Aral Sea 
 
 Z5.9»3 
 
 Gairdner .... 
 
 2,400 
 
 Michigan ... 
 
 25,600 
 
 Wener . . . 
 
 2,300 
 
 Huron . 
 
 23,800 
 
 Kuku-Nor . . 
 
 2,040 
 
 Tchad ... 
 
 ?i3,ooo 
 
 Albert Nyanza . . 
 
 2,000 
 
 Baikal . . ... 
 
 12,500 
 
 Peipus 
 
 1,920 
 
 Erie 
 
 9,500 
 
 Urmiah . . . .' 
 
 1,700 
 
 Great Ue.ir Lake . 
 
 9.300 
 
 Moero . . . 
 
 ?i,7oo 
 
 Tanganyika .... 
 
 9,240 
 
 Van 
 
 . . . I.4M 
 
 Wiiniipeg , . . 
 
 8,900 
 
 ChapaT* . . . . \ 
 
 1,321 
 
 Great Slave Lake . 
 
 8,300 
 
 Saima 
 
 1 .200 
 
 Nya<isa . 
 
 8,200 
 
 Tzana or Dembea 
 
 1 ,050 
 
 Ontario . , 
 
 7-300 
 
 Albert Edward Nvar 
 
 za ?i ,oco 
 
 Balkash . 
 
 6,400 
 
 Wetter. . . . 
 
 800 
 
 Ladoga ... 
 
 6,190 
 
 Enara ... 
 
 689 
 
 Maracaybo 
 
 5,300 
 
 Dead Sea ... . 
 
 500 
 
 Onega ... 
 
 4.900 
 
 Lake of the Woods 
 
 500 
 
 Bangweolo . 
 
 U.450 
 
 Moeiar . 
 
 32q 
 
 Titicaca . 
 
 4,000 Npami . . . 
 
 300 
 
 Tengri-Nor 
 
 3.600 IiHlnton . . 
 
 255 
 
 Nicaragua ... 
 
 3.500 L^man or Geneva 
 
 240 
 
 Great Salt Lake 
 
 3,200 Constance 
 
 igo 
 
 Athaba.sca 
 
 3,200 
 
 Gitrda . . 
 
 140 
 
 HEIGHTS OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS. 
 
 North America. 
 
 Mount St. Elias, Alaska 
 
 Mount Wrangel, Alaska, V. {V. = Volcano) 
 
 Oriidba, Mexico, V 
 
 Popucatepetl, Mexico, V^ 
 
 Mount Hooker, British North America 
 
 Iztaccihuatl, Mexico, V 
 
 Mount Whitney, Calirornia . . ... 
 
 Mount Fairweather, Alaska 
 
 ,' Mount Rainier, Washington Territory . . 
 
 /Mount Shasta, California, V 
 
 /Long's Peak, Colorado 
 
 )|fUncompahgre Peak, Colorado . . 
 
 ^jPike's Peak, Colorado 
 
 njMount Brewer, California 
 
 Fiiego, Guatemala, V 
 
 Agua, Guatemala, V 
 
 sJSpanish Peaks, Colorado 
 
 Fremont's Peak, Wyoming Territory . . 
 
 Mount Hayden, Utah . . . 
 
 Colima, Mexico, V 
 
 Ilyanna, Alaska, V 
 
 ^| Mount Hood, Oregon 
 
 *Mouiit St. Helen's, Wa.shington Tcrritorj', 
 ^Mount St. John's, California ... 
 
 "Mount Victoria, Viincouver Island 
 
 ] Black Dome or Mount Mitchell (highest peak), N. Ca 
 JClingman's Uome, North Carolina and Tennessee . 
 "^lount Washington, New H>imp.-,hire . . 
 4Mount Katahdin, Maine 
 
 Mount Marcy, New York 
 
 jMount Mansfield, Vermont ... 
 
 Jorullo, Mexico, V 
 
 Mount Forbes, Britisli North Ami,rica . 
 
 South America. 
 
 Aconcagua, Chili, V. . . . ... 
 
 Nevado de Sorata, Bolivia . , 
 
 Nevado d'lllimani, Bolivia 
 
 Nevado d'lllampu, Bolivia ... . . 
 
 Sahama, Peru .... 
 
 Llullailaco, Chili 
 
 Chimborazo, Ecuador, V. . . 
 
 Arequipa, Peru, V 
 
 Supai'wasi or Huaina Potosi, Bolivia 
 Cotopaxi, Ecuador, V. . . 
 Cayanibe-Urcu, Ecuador, V. . 
 
 Antisan.i, Ecuador, V . . 
 
 Tolima, Columbia, V. . . 
 Pichinclia, Ecuador, V. . . . . 
 Itatiaia-Assu, Brazil ... 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Elbruz, Caucasus Mountains 
 
 Kasbeck, Caucasus Mountain^ .... .... 
 
 Mont Blanc, Alps Mountains 
 
 Monte Rosa, Alps Mountains ., 
 
 Finster-Aarhorn, Alps Mountains .... 
 
 Gross-Glockner, Alps Mountains 
 
 Mulahacen, Sierra Nevada, Spain 
 
 Pic de Nethou or Muladetta, Pyrenees Mountains . 
 
 Etna, Sicily, V 
 
 Gran Sas>o d'ltalia, Apennine Mountains . . . 
 
 Mount vJlympos, Balkan Peninsula 
 
 Mount Tatra, Carpathian Mountains 
 
 Ymesfield, Sc;indinaviari Alps 
 
 Mount Negoi, Tran'iylvanian Alps . . 
 
 The Psiloriii (Ida), Candia . ■ 
 
 Snoehaetten. Scandinavian Alps 
 
 Mount D'Or, Central Plateau, Frarce 
 
 Iremel, Ural Mountains ... . . 
 
 Hekia, Iceland, V. . . , 
 
 Ben Nevis. Grampian Mountains 
 
 Vesuvius, Italy, V 
 
 Stromboli, Lip.iri Islands, V 
 
 Asia. 
 
 ■S.SI9 f Mount Everest or Gaurisankar, Himalaya MtR. . 29,002 
 
 ^^ o Kunchinginga. Hin^laya Mountains . . . 28,158 
 
 .5»rtS ■ Dhawalagiri, Himalaya-Mountains . . 28,000 
 
 K 0.5 [ Mount Dapsang, Karakonun Mountains .... 27,200 
 
 Hindu Kush, Afghanistan, several peaks ... . 18.000 to 20,000 
 
 Demavend or Elboofz, Persia, V . 18,846 
 
 Tengri-Shan, Thian-Shan Mountains . 18,586 
 
 Ararat, Turkey . . 17,260 
 
 Bieluca, Altai Mountains ... 12,790 
 
 Mount Fuji or Fusiyama, Japan, V 12.450 
 
 Dhor el iChodib, Lebanon . . io,c6i 
 
 Sinai, Arabia . . $.304 
 
 Adam's Peak, Ceylon 7,420 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 19.500 
 
 ?i9,ooo 
 
 17,879 
 
 17.784 
 ? 16,750 
 15,708 
 14,898 
 14,708 
 H>444 
 14,442 
 14,271 
 14.23s 
 14.147 
 13,880 
 13,800 
 13.758 
 13,620 
 
 iS.570 
 13,500 
 12,750 
 12,060 
 11,225 
 9.750 
 8,000 
 
 7.434 
 6,688 
 6,660 
 6,288 
 5,200 
 5.403 
 4.430 
 4.265 
 3.451 
 
 23,869 
 23,281 
 21,150 
 21.043 
 20,970 
 2o,8oo 
 20,696 
 20,320 
 20,163 
 19,522 
 19,240 
 18,846 
 18,476 
 15,640 
 10,040 
 
 18,493 
 16,540 
 15,811 
 
 15,208 
 14,026 
 13,100 
 
 11,658 
 11,168 
 10,674 
 
 10,154 
 
 9.754 
 8,779 
 8.670 
 8,480 
 8,c6o 
 
 7.549 
 6,188 
 5,075 
 5,110 
 4,368 
 3.948 
 2,957 
 
 Kilima-Njaro, Eastern Africa . 
 
 Knwenzori 
 
 Wosho, Plateau of Abyssinia . ,■ 
 
 Kenia, Eastern Africa 
 
 Ras Dashan, Plateau of Abyssinia 
 Gambaragara, Central Africa . 
 
 Cameroon, Guinea, V 
 
 Teneriffe, Canary I.slands, V. . . . 
 Aiashin or Mount Miltsin, Marocco 
 Cathkin, Southern Africa , . 
 Tziafazanova, Madagascar . . . 
 
 Oceanica. 
 
 Mauna Kea, Sandwich Island 
 Mount Kini-Balu Borneo .... 
 Mauna Loa, Sandwich Islands, V. 
 Owen StankV, Papua : . . 
 
 Mount Korinji, Sumatra . . . 
 Scmeru, Java .... 
 Dcmpo, Sumatra, V. 
 
 Tjeriniai, Java, V 
 
 Mount Ophir, Sumatra . 
 Egmont, New Zealand, V. . 
 
 Maypn, Luzon, V 
 
 AJouiit Townsend. Australia. 
 Orpncpa, Tahiti ... 
 Knpciqsko, Aysiratia , . 
 Mount Hotham, Ausfralia . . 
 Kilauea, Sandwich IslanUs, V. . . 
 
 18,709 
 18,000 
 
 18,000 
 17,784 
 
 15.159 
 
 ? 1 5,000 
 
 . 13,126 
 
 12,182 
 
 ?I2,000 
 10,357 
 
 8,947 
 
 '3.953 
 13,694 
 >3.675 
 ?i3,205 
 12,240 
 12,120 
 10,490 
 10.069 
 
 9.623 
 8.270 
 7.163 
 7.351 
 7.339 
 7,176 
 6,414 
 3.870 
 
 DRAINAGE OF THE WORLD. 
 North America- 
 
 Principal Rivers. 
 
 Tributaries. 
 
 Approximate 
 Length Area of Basins 
 in mues. in sq. miles. 
 
 Mississippi River. 
 
 Mississippi proper, 
 
 2,600 m. 
 Missouri and Lower ' 
 Mississippi, 4,200 m. 
 
 Lower Mississippi . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Red 
 
 Small Tributaries . . 
 
 1,300 
 2,900 
 1,250 
 
 1,500 
 1,200 
 
 165,000 
 520,000 
 210,000 
 190,000 
 95,000 
 60,000 
 
 Entire Mississippi Basin . 
 
 Mackenzie 
 
 St. Lawrence .... 
 Saskatchewan . . 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Colorado (del Norte) . 
 Rio * Grande (del Norte 
 
 Yukon River 
 
 Rio Grande (Mexico) . 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 San Joaquin .... 
 
 Rio Brazos 
 
 Rio Colorado, Texas 
 Alabama ... 
 
 St. John 
 
 Susquehanna .... 
 
 Hudson 
 
 Connecticut . . 
 
 Great Interior Basin . 
 
 1,240,000 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,700 
 
 450 
 
 490 
 
 400 
 
 650 
 
 650 
 
 650 
 
 450 
 
 400 
 
 325 
 
 350 
 
 590,000 
 480,000 
 480,000 
 300,000 
 260,000 
 240,000 
 200,000 
 160,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 35,000 
 30,000 
 30,000 
 25,000 
 25,000 
 12,000 
 10,600 
 
 South America. 
 
 Madeira .... 
 Rio Negro . . 
 Tocantins .... 
 Amazon River. Tapajoz . . 
 
 Proper course, Ucaya,H . 
 
 3,750 miles. Purus 
 
 Xingu 
 
 Yapura 
 
 Small Tributaries 
 Entire Amazon River Basin . . . 2,360,000 
 
 Rio Parana [ Paraguay 1,400 
 
 and Uruguay 1,000 
 
 La Plata River. \ Pilcomayo 900 
 
 Proper course, Vermejo 600 
 
 2,300 miles. [ Small Tributaries 
 
 Entire Parana and La Plata Basin . 1,380,000 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,200 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 Rio San Francisco . . 
 
 Rio Vermejo, Salado, ) 
 or Colorado del Sur. J 
 
 Magdalena 
 
 Rio Negro del Sur. . . 
 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 
 750 
 750 
 
 360,000 
 290,000 
 280,000 
 160,000 
 150,000 
 140,000 
 140,000 
 95,000 
 745,000 
 
 570,000 
 160,000 
 90,000 
 60,000 
 
 350,000 
 260,000 
 
 90,000 
 50,000 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Danube River. 
 
 Danube proper, 
 
 1,725 miles. 
 
 Dnieper , 
 Don . . . 
 Dvina . , 
 Petchora . 
 
 Rhine . . 
 
 A istula . . 
 Ilbc . . 
 Bug . . 
 Loire . . 
 Duna . . . 
 Rhone . 
 P6 
 
 , Pruth 
 JThejss 
 IDrave 
 Save . 
 
 Ga ron n e-G i ron de 
 Seine. . . 
 Thames . . . 
 Tagus . . 
 Guadiana . . , 
 Douro . . . 
 Guidalquivir 
 Ebro . . . . , 
 
 ]■ Meusi 
 • \ Rhint 
 
 Aralo-Caspian Basin and other Interior 
 
 Volga { 
 
 Tarim 
 
 Amu-Daria * . 
 Ural . . 
 Syr-Daria . . . 
 
 Hilmend . . 
 
 Volga proper 
 Kama 
 
 Asia. 
 
 360 
 
 500 
 
 360 
 
 550 
 
 1,230 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 430 
 
 810 
 
 SSo 
 800 
 300 
 850 
 600 
 550 
 450 
 380 
 498 
 215 
 S50 
 500 
 450 
 400 
 350 
 
 315,000 
 
 185,000 
 170,000 
 130,000 
 100,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 69,000 
 60,000 
 57,000 
 52,000 
 44,000 
 37,000 
 31,000 
 27,000 
 23,000 
 6,200 
 
 170.000 
 
 Basins of Asia. 
 
 2,500 
 i 1,400 
 
 } 
 
 550,000 
 
 1, 100 
 
 
 230,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 
 220,000 
 
 950 
 
 
 105,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 800 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 Obe 
 
 Ycni.sei-Angara . . 
 Yang-Tse-Kiang* 
 Lena . 
 
 Obe proper . 
 Irtysh . . 
 
 Amoor 
 
 Hoang-Ho 
 
 Brahmaputra 
 
 Ganges . . ... 
 
 Indus 
 
 Mecon (Cambodia Riv.) 
 
 Shat el Arab ....-! 
 
 Euphrates . . . . 
 
 Tigris 
 
 Shat-el- Arab proper . 
 
 Africa. 
 
 3,000 
 1,900 
 3.400 
 3,320 
 2,700 
 2,650 
 2,800 
 2,300 
 1, 600 
 1,850 
 2,500 
 J. 750 
 1,150 
 
 X20 
 
 } 
 
 t ,050,000 
 950,000 
 750,000 
 730,000 
 700,000 
 450,000 
 420,000 
 400,000 
 400,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Nile . 
 
 Congo . 
 Niger. . 
 Zambezi 
 Orange . 
 
 Bahr*elAbiad&NiIe 
 Blue Nile 
 
 ?4,xoo 
 900 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 1,600 
 1,000 
 
 Oceanica. 
 
 ,400,00a 
 
 1,350,000 
 
 [,150,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 Murray 1 [ i^gp^ | 
 
 * Riot Daria, Kiting and Bukr mean " river.' 
 
AREA AND POPULATION OF THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 FROM THE BEVOLKEBOUO DEB ERDB FOR 1891, AND OTHER RECENT AUTHORITIES. 
 
 131 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Central 
 
 America 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 ETritish North America, omitting the Ber- 
 muda;; and the West Indies . . . 
 British Honduras . ... 
 Guatemala . .... 
 
 Salvador 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Honduras . 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Iceland and Greenland (Danish) , . . .' 
 
 Mexico 
 
 United States and Territories, 
 including the U. S. portion 
 of the Great Lakes 
 
 Alaska Territory 
 
 West Indies (including Miquelon and | 
 Bermuda, and omitting Trinidad. Cu- > 
 raqoa, etc., belonging to S. America) j 
 Total . 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Argentine Republic . . . 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil . . .... 
 
 Chili 
 
 Colombia (United States of) .... 
 Ecuador (with Galapagos Island) . 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Peru (without Tacna, etc.) , . 
 Uruguay . . . 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 ( Dutch, with Cura^oa, etc. 
 Guiana < Biiiish, with Trinidad, etc. 
 ( French 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Total . 
 
 Area in 
 sq. Diiles. 
 
 3.777,550 
 
 8,292 
 
 48,303 
 
 8,135 
 
 47,859 
 
 46,264 
 
 20,877 
 
 878,202 
 
 751,584 
 
 3,090,777 
 577.390 
 
 94,508 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Austria- Hungary 
 
 Bosnia, Herzegovina and Novi Bazar . 
 
 Liechtenstein 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark (with Faroe Islands) . 
 France (with Corsica) . . 
 
 German Empire 
 
 Great Britain, Ireland and Islands . 
 
 Malta, Gibraltar 
 
 Greece (with Islands and Thessaly) 
 Italy (.including Sicily and Sardinia) . . 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Monaco, San Marino and Andorra . . 
 Netherlands. . . . . . . 
 
 Luxemburg , . 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 Azore Islands . . . . , 
 
 Madt:ira Islands 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia in Europe (with Cis-Caucasia, 
 
 Nova Zembia and Sea of Azov) . . . 
 
 Servia .' 
 
 Spain (without the Canary Islands) . . 
 Sweden and f Sweden 
 
 Norway ( Norway 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Lalces Constance and Geneva ... , 
 Turkey (Possessions in Europe) 
 
 Bulgaria and Eastern Koumelia . . . 
 
 Spitzbergen, Franz- Josef Land, and Jan 
 
 Mayen . . .... 
 
 Total . . . . 
 
 ASIA (EXCLUDING MALAYSIA). 
 Afghanistan and fCafiristan . 
 
 Arabia Independent 
 
 " Turkish 
 
 Beloochistan . . , 
 
 British India . .... 
 
 Chinese Empire 
 
 Corea (Independent Kingdom of) . . . 
 Gj'prus, Aden, Hong-Kong. etc. (G. B.) 
 French Po.isessions, including Tonquin, 
 Anam, Cambodia, etc. . . . 
 
 Japan. ... 
 
 Khiva, Bokhara, Pamir .... 
 
 N"^al, Bhotan, etc. 
 
 ^P^rsia 
 
 PoFtuguese Hindostan and Macao . . 
 
 Russia in Asia 
 
 Siam 
 
 Turkey in Asia, excluding Turkish Arabia 
 
 Total 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Abyssinia (Italian Protectorate) . . 
 
 Algeria (to France) 
 
 British South Africa (other than Cape 
 
 Colony, etc.) 
 
 Cape Colony (British) ... .... 
 
 Congo State ... 
 
 Egypt (to Waday Halfa> 
 
 Egyptian Soudan and Nubia .... 
 German Possessions in South Africa 
 
 Marocco ... 
 
 Natal (British) ... 
 
 Orange Free State _ - 
 
 Portuguese Possessions in South Africa . 
 
 Sahara 
 
 Somriuli Land (including Sicotra) . . . 
 Soudan and Upper Guinea . . . 
 
 South African Rtjpublic . . . 
 
 Tripoli ... 
 
 Tunis (to France) . . . - • 
 
 1,077,032 
 
 515,156 
 
 3,228,452 
 
 299,626 
 
 46^,537 
 118,646 
 97,726 
 
 439,0^4 
 68,999 
 
 403,067 
 49,848 
 88,652 
 30,465 
 
 ; 6,574 
 
 , 6,887.794 
 
 261,318 
 
 22,572 
 
 61 
 
 ",374 
 
 15,295 
 
 207,116 
 
 209,995 
 
 121,483 
 
 127 
 
 25.143 
 
 110,657 
 
 3,506 
 
 206 
 
 12,742 
 
 999 
 
 34,508 
 
 922 
 
 315 
 
 50,589 
 
 2,198,487 
 
 18,576 
 
 191,994 
 
 173,974 
 
 125.598 
 
 15,761 
 
 431 
 
 105.234 
 
 37,3-^2 
 46,180 
 
 239,778 
 
 959,274 
 
 173,752 
 
 166,802 
 
 i,759,5M 
 
 4,291,93' 
 
 84,424 
 
 Ji,73i 
 
 147,629 
 
 127,805 
 
 84,173 
 
 635,161 
 
 1,417 
 
 6,465,339 
 
 308,893 
 
 535.6.^8 
 
 16,182,433 
 
 196,147 
 257,578 
 
 748,875 
 222,422 
 865,383 
 361,134 
 758,949 
 691,272 
 
 313,642 
 
 17,696 
 
 50,465 
 
 826,836 
 
 2,386,352 
 
 812,620 
 
 2,210,399 
 
 "3,634 
 
 399,012 
 
 44,906 
 
 Population. 
 
 5,027,698 
 
 27,668 
 
 1,460,017 
 
 663,613 
 
 312,845 
 
 331,917 
 
 214,264 
 
 79,445 
 
 11,395,7" 
 
 > 62,982,244 
 5,510,267 
 
 88,005,690 
 
 3,203,700 
 I,43^,8oo 
 14,600,000 
 3,165,300 
 3,321,052 
 1,214,604 
 
 330,000 
 2 ,980,000 
 
 711,700 
 
 2.238,900 
 
 66,037 
 
 282,066 
 
 25.797 
 1,926 
 
 33,565,8 
 
 42,630,650 
 1,489,091 
 
 9,593 
 
 6,093,798 
 
 2,185,159 
 
 38,218,903 
 
 49,424,135 
 
 37,888,153 
 
 199,317 
 
 2,217,000 
 
 30,158,408 
 
 200,000 
 
 27,224 
 
 4,558,095 
 
 211,088 
 
 4,306,554 
 
 269,401 
 
 133,955 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 98,840,489 
 
 2,157,477 
 17,246,688 
 
 4,774,409 
 1,999,176 
 2,993,334 
 
 8,907,375 
 3,154,375 
 
 360,580,788 
 
 4,600,000 
 2,142,000 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 1,020,000 
 
 292,382,000 
 
 361,500,000 
 
 10,519,000 
 
 534,201 
 
 19,197,000 
 
 40,072 ,020 
 
 1,780,000 
 
 3,260,000 
 
 7,5oo,oco 
 
 585,000 
 
 14,126,793 
 9,000,000 
 
 14,429,147 
 
 783,697.251 
 
 4,500,000 
 3,855,000 
 
 2,158,632 
 
 1,525,739 
 14,100,000 
 
 6,818,000 
 10,830,000 
 
 3,100,000 
 
 8,016,000 
 
 536,629 
 
 208,000 
 
 13,200,000 
 
 2 , 500,000 
 
 13,092,000 
 
 76,334,000 
 
 679,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 AFRICA (Continued), 
 
 Canary Islands . , 
 
 Cape Verde Islands 
 
 Madagascar and Comoro Islands . 
 Other Islands ... 
 
 Total , 
 
 OOEANIOA. 
 
 MALAYSIA. 
 
 Java and Madura .... 
 
 Sumatra Group 
 
 Borneo Group , 
 
 Celebes .Islands ... 
 J-m;iller Sunda Islands .... 
 Philippine and Sooloo Islands 
 
 Si'ice Islands 
 
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 
 Other Islands . , . 
 
 Total Malaysia 
 
 AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA, 
 
 Australia and Coast Islands 
 
 Tasmania . . 
 
 New Zealand Group 
 
 Papua or New Guinea Group 
 Sandwich Islands . . 
 
 Feejee Islands 
 
 Samoa and Tonga Islands , . 
 Other Islands . . ... 
 
 Total Australasia and Polynesia 
 Total Oceanica, inchidirig-Malaysii 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles. 
 
 2,944 
 
 1,487 
 
 229,328 
 
 3.903 
 
 11,514,985 
 
 Population. 
 
 287,728 
 
 1 10,926 
 
 3.582,600 
 
 562.8.^7 
 
 168,497,091 
 
 50,864 
 
 180,407 
 
 284,375 
 
 77,274 
 
 35,163 
 
 114,362 
 
 20,439 
 
 3,193 
 
 7>775 
 
 773,851 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 North America (with Greenland, etc.) 
 
 South America 
 
 Europe (with Nova Zembia, etc.) . 
 Asia (not includitig Malaysia) .... 
 Africa .... . . , 
 
 Oceanica 
 
 South Polar Regions . .... 
 Total 
 
 WEST INDIES IN DETAIL. 
 
 Hayti ■! S^y'.' 
 
 ■^ { Dommica 
 
 Cuba (with Dependencies) ... 
 
 Jamaica and Caymans . . . . . 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Antigua and Barbuda 
 
 Bahamas (Caicos, Turks, etc.) . . 
 
 Barbadoes . ...... 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Grenada and Grenadines . . . . 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Nevis, Redonda, Virgin Islands 
 
 St. Christopher and Anguilla . . . . 
 
 Sta, Lucia 
 
 St. Vincent . .... 
 
 Tobago . , . ... . . . , 
 
 Sta. Cruz ... 
 
 St. Thomas and St. John 
 
 Guadeloupe and Dependencies , . . 
 
 Martinique 
 
 St. Euslatius, St, Martin, etc 
 
 Cura<;oa, Buen Ayre, Trinidad, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE IN DETAIL. 
 
 IN EUROPE. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 England ....... 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland and Islands 
 
 Ireland . . 
 
 Isle of Man . . 
 
 Channel Islands . . . 
 Gibraltar and Malta 
 
 IN ASIA. 
 
 British India . 
 
 India Proper 
 
 Ceylon (including Maldive Is.) . 
 
 Burmah 
 
 Tributary Burmese States 
 
 Straits Settlements, etc 
 
 Cyprus, Aden, Hong-Kong, etc. . 
 
 IN AFRICA. 
 
 Cape Colony, Natal, etc 
 
 Other African Possessions, Protectorates, 
 etc.* 
 
 IN AMERICA. 
 
 Dominion of Canada 
 
 8uebec . . . .... 
 
 ntario . . . . .... 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 New Brunswick ... 
 Prince Edward Island . 
 Manitoba . . . 
 
 British Coliimltia 
 
 Assiniboia, Alberta. Saskatchewan . 
 Unorganized 'I'erritory . . . 
 
 Arciic Islands 
 
 Canadian Portion of the Great Lakes . 
 * Not including *' Spheres of Influence." 
 
 2,945,229 
 
 26,215 
 
 104,663 
 
 311,965 
 
 6,567 
 
 8,045 
 
 1,461 
 
 51,958 
 
 3,456,103 
 4.229,954 
 
 9,349.741 
 6,887,794 
 3,942,530 
 16,182,433 
 11,514,985 
 4,229,954 
 253,678 
 
 52,361,115 
 
 1,479,488,670 
 
 94.398 
 
 121,483 
 
 50,823 
 
 7*363 
 
 30,463 
 
 32,531 
 
 227 
 
 76 
 
 127 
 
 i,759.5M 
 1,411,536 
 24,818 
 160,220 
 128,190 
 34,750 
 ",731 
 
 240,118 
 
 748,876 
 
 3,6x4,813 
 
 193.367 
 
 223,001 
 
 20,907 
 
 27,960 
 
 2,133 
 
 65,988 
 
 384,996 
 
 301,557 
 
 1 ,865,442 
 
 502,368 
 
 27,094 
 
 22,818,000 
 
 3,783,000 
 
 1,740,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 375,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 114,000 
 
 39.458,c 
 
 3,073,000 
 156,622 
 673,500 
 837,000 
 92,050 
 124,919 
 62,000 
 664,877 
 5,68^68 
 
 45,141,968 
 
 88,005,690 
 
 33.565,882 
 360,580,788 
 783.697,251 
 168,497,091 
 
 45,141,968 
 
 9,266 
 
 1,001,000 
 
 20,563 
 
 376,000 
 
 45,884 
 
 1,521,700 
 
 4,418 
 
 641,900 
 
 3.531 
 
 806,700 
 
 170 
 
 34,321 
 
 S.OI5 
 
 48,301 
 
 166 
 
 171,860 
 
 "9 
 
 15,884 
 
 291 
 
 28,840 
 
 166 
 
 46,425 
 
 31 
 
 10,818 
 
 III 
 
 11,864 
 
 100 
 
 32,356 
 
 237 
 
 40,681 
 
 147 
 
 43,039 
 
 114 
 
 19,079 
 
 84 
 
 18,430 
 
 58 
 
 15,333 
 
 723 
 381 
 
 166,988 
 
 31 
 
 8,221 
 
 2,292 
 
 23°,744 
 
 5,488,400 
 
 37,888,153 
 
 27,482-,io4 
 1,518,914 
 4,033,103 
 4,706,162 
 
 55,598 
 92,272 
 199,317 
 
 292,382,000 
 278,582,000 
 3,038,000 
 7,554,000 
 2,050,000 
 1,158,000 
 534,291 
 
 2,062,368 
 2,158,652 
 
 4,830,366 
 
 1,488,586 
 
 2,112,989 
 
 450,523 
 
 321,294 
 
 109,088 
 
 154,442 
 
 92,767 
 
 67.554 
 
 32,168 
 
 955 
 
 BKITISH EMPIRE (Continned). 
 
 Newfoundland 
 East Labrador 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British West Indies and Bermuda Is. . 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Trinidad, Falkland, and S. Georgia Is. 
 
 IN OCEANICA. 
 
 Australia and Co^st Islands . . . 
 
 New South Waffes.. 
 
 Victoria ... . . 
 
 Queensland 
 
 South and North Australia , . 
 
 West Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 New Zealand and Norfolk .... 
 
 British Borneo .... .... 
 
 British New Guinea . . .... 
 
 Feejee Islands 
 
 Total .... 
 
 GERMAN EMPIRE IN DETAIL. 
 
 Kingdom of Prussia . ... 
 
 " " Bavaria 
 
 '* " Wurtemberg . . 
 " '* Saxony ... 
 Grand Duchy of Baden ... . , 
 " " " Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 
 ii ti t, Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 
 ti It tt Hesse ... . . 
 
 ft ti It Oldenburg 
 
 *' " '* Saxe- Weimar , . . 
 
 Duchy of Anhalt . 
 
 " '* Brunswick 
 
 *' " Saxe-AJtenburg 
 
 " " Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .... 
 
 " " Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 Principality of Lippe-Deimold , . . 
 ** " Lippe-Schaumburg . . 
 
 " " Reuss-Schleitz . . . 
 
 " " Rtus-Greitz 
 
 " " Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt 
 
 ** ** " -Bonders hausen 
 
 " " Waldeck . 
 
 City of Hamburg 
 
 " " Bremen . . 
 
 " " Lubeck 
 
 Province of Alsace and Lorraine .... 
 
 Possessions in Africa . . .... 
 
 '* " Oceanica ... 
 
 Total German Empire . . ... 
 
 FRANCE AND HER COLONIES. 
 
 France (including Corsica) 
 
 African Possessions — Algeria, Tunis, Sen- 
 egal, Madagascar, etc 
 
 Asiatic Possessions — Anam, Tonquin, 
 Cochin China, Cambodia, etc 
 
 American Possessions — French Guiana, 
 St.'Pierre, Miquelon, Martinique, etc. 
 
 Possessions in Oceanica — New Caledonia, 
 Loyalty, Marquesas and Gambler Is. . 
 Total 
 
 RUSSUN EMPIRE IN DETAIL. 
 
 Russia in Europe 
 
 Russia {including Poland and Finland) 
 
 Cis-Caucasia . . 
 
 Nova Zembia 
 
 Spitzbergen, Franz-Josef Land, etc. 
 
 Sea of Azov , , .... 
 
 Russia in Asia . . 
 
 Trans-Caucasia . . 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Russian Central Asia .... 
 
 Aral and Caspian Seas . , . . 
 
 Arctic Islands . . ... 
 
 Total . 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE IN DETAIL. 
 
 China Proper (with Formosa and Hainan) 
 
 Manchuria 
 
 Mongolia . 
 
 Sungaria and Eastern Turkestan . . 
 Thibet . . . . ... 
 
 Total 
 
 PRINCIPAL POWERS. 
 
 The Chinese Empire . ... 
 The British Empire . . ... 
 
 I'he Russian Empire 
 
 France and her Colonies . . 
 
 The United States , ... 
 
 The German Empire .... 
 
 The Austro-HungEtNa& Empire . 
 Netherlands and her Colonies . . 
 Turkish Empire (including Egypt 
 Tripoli) . . ...... 
 
 Italy and her Colonies ... 
 Spain and her Colonies . . . 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles. 
 
 42,732 
 120,005 
 8,292 
 J ',595 
 88,652 
 8,328 
 
 2,945,229 
 308,560 
 
 88,451 
 668,259 
 904,133 
 975,824 
 
 26,215 
 104,663 
 
 80,130 
 
 88.46a 
 8,045 
 
 9.989,0 
 
 207,116 
 
 2,326,050 
 
 189,202 
 
 31,535 
 9,300 
 
 2,763,203 
 
 2,198,487 
 
 2,045,712 
 
 102,810 
 
 35,545 
 
 46,180 
 
 14,520 
 
 6^465,339 
 
 79,651 
 
 4,821,951 
 
 >,353,3oi 
 
 195,532 
 
 14,904 
 
 8,663,826 
 
 1,546,260 
 363,721 
 
 ',093,094 
 550,602 
 7.38,254 
 
 4,29' ,93' 
 
 4,291,931 
 
 9,989,008 
 
 8,663,826 
 
 2,763,203 
 
 3,668,167 
 
 997,149 
 
 261,318 
 
 783,242 
 
 1,574,740 
 235,657 
 356,994 
 
 Fopulatton. 
 
 193,121 
 
 4,2ii 
 
 27,66^ 
 
 1,105,676 
 
 282,c66 
 
 168,554 
 
 3,073,000 
 
 1,134,207 
 
 1,140,405 
 
 393,938 
 
 320,006 
 
 49,835 
 
 156,622 
 
 673,500 
 
 576,01s 
 
 489,000 
 
 124.919 
 
 346,929.479 
 
 29,959,388 
 
 5,589,382 
 
 2.035,443 
 
 3,500,513 
 
 1,656,817 
 
 578,565 
 
 97,978 
 
 993,659 
 
 354,968 
 
 326,091 
 
 271.759 
 
 403,788 
 
 170,864 
 
 206,513 
 
 223,832 
 
 128,414 
 
 39.163 
 
 119,811 
 
 62,754 
 
 85,863 
 
 75,510 
 
 57,283 
 
 622,530 
 
 180,443 
 
 76,485 
 
 1,603,967 
 
 3,100,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 52,921,803 
 
 38,218,903 
 
 13,173,000 
 
 19,197,000 
 
 377,460 
 
 9S,8oo 
 
 71,062,163 
 
 98,840,489 
 
 96,041,735 
 
 2,798,754 
 
 14,126,793 
 
 4,485,793 
 4,314,000 
 5,327,00c 
 
 112,967,282 
 
 350,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 1,850,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,650,000 
 
 361,509,000 
 
 361,500,000 
 346,929,479 
 112,967,282 
 71,062,163 
 62,982,244 
 52,921,803 
 42,630,650 
 36,477,095 
 
 32,20,4,522 
 31,02^,408 
 26,651,088 
 
132 POPULATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 From the U]VITEI> STATES CE^TSUS of 1890, the AI-lfAMACH I>E GOTHA for 1893, and other late Authorities. 
 
 [The population of the larger cities is given in nearest Even Thousands, that of the smaller places (under 10,000) in nearest Even Hundreds.] 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Maine. (1890.} 
 
 Augusta 11,000 
 
 Portland 36,000 
 
 Lewiston 22,000 
 
 Bangor 19,000 
 
 Biddeford 14,000 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Concord 17,000 
 
 Manchester 44,000 
 
 Nashua 19,000 
 
 Dover 13,000 
 
 Portsmouth...... 10,000 
 
 Keene 7,400 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 MONTPHLIER.... 4,200 
 
 Burlington ^SjOoo 
 
 Rutland 12,000 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Boston 448,000 
 
 Worcester 85,000 
 
 Lowell 78,000 
 
 Fall River 74,000 
 
 Cambridge 70,000 
 
 Lynn 56,000 
 
 Lawrence 45,ooo 
 
 Springfield...,,.. 44,000 
 New Bedford.... 41,000 
 
 Somerville ,.. 40,000 
 
 Holyoke 36,000 
 
 Salem 31,000 
 
 Chelsea 28,000 
 
 Haverhill 27,000 
 
 Brockton 27,000 
 
 Taunton 25,000 
 
 Gloucester 25,000 
 
 Newton 24,000 
 
 Maiden 23,000 
 
 Fitchbui^ z2,ooo 
 
 Waltham ig,ooo 
 
 Pitisfield 17,000 
 
 Quincy 17,000 
 
 North Adams... 16,000 
 Northampton.... 15,000 
 Chicopee 14,000 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Providhncb 132,000 
 
 Newport 19,000 
 
 Pawtucket 28,003 
 
 Woonsocket 21,000 
 
 Lincoln 20,000 
 
 Warwick 18,000 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Hartford 53,ooo 
 
 New Haven 81,000 
 
 Bridgeport 49,000 
 
 Waierbury 29,000 
 
 Meriden 22,000 
 
 New Britain 19,000 
 
 Korwalk....* 18,000 
 
 Danbury 17,000 
 
 New York. 
 
 Albany 95,000 
 
 New York 1,515,000'! 
 
 Brooklyn 806,000! 
 
 Buffalo 256,000' 
 
 Rochester 134,000 
 
 Syracuse 88,000 
 
 Troy 61,000 
 
 Utica 44,000 
 
 Binghamton 35,000 
 
 Yonkers 32,000 
 
 LonglslandCity 31,000 
 
 Elmira 30,000 
 
 Auburn 26,000 
 
 Newburgh 23,000 
 
 Cohoes 23.000 
 
 Poiighkeepsie... 22,000 
 
 Oswego 22,000 
 
 Kingston 21,000 
 
 Schenectady 20,000 
 
 Amsterdam 17,000 
 
 New Brighton... 16,000 
 
 iame'^town 16,000 
 .ockport 16,000 
 
 Rome 15,000 
 
 Watertown 15,000 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 HaRRISBURG.... 39,000 
 
 Philadelphia...!, 047,000 
 
 Pittsburgh 239,000 
 
 Allegheny 105,000 
 
 Scranton 75,000 
 
 Readmg 59,000 
 
 Erie 41,000 
 
 WiIke-.-Barre.... 38,000 
 
 Lancaster 32,0- -o 
 
 Ahoona 30,000 
 
 Williamsport.... 27,000 
 
 Allentown 25,000 
 
 Johnstown 22,000 
 
 York 21,000 
 
 McKeesport 21,000 
 
 Chester 20.000 
 
 (1880.) 
 8,700 
 34,000 
 19,000 
 17,000 
 13,000 
 
 14,000 
 33,000 
 13,000 
 12,000 
 X 0,000 
 6,800 
 
 3,200 
 11,000 
 12,000 
 
 363,000; 
 58,000 j, 
 59,000 1 ; 
 49,000' I 
 
 53.000;' 
 38,000! 
 39,000 ^ 
 
 33»ooo'. 
 27,000 1 
 25,000 \ 
 22,000 1 1 
 28,000;! 
 
 22,OOo]i 
 l8,OOOj 
 I4,oOOj; 
 21,000 1 
 19,00011 
 17^000 1 1 
 
 12,000| 
 
 12,000 ij 
 
 I2,OOOil 
 
 13,000 I 
 
 11,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 New Jersey. (1890.} 
 
 Trenton.... 57,ooo 
 
 Newark 182,000 
 
 Jer.sey City 163,000 
 
 Paterson 78,000 
 
 Camden... 58,000 
 
 Hoboken 44,000 
 
 Elizabeth City 38,000 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Dover 3,000 
 
 Wilmington 61,000 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Annapolis 7,600 6,600 | 
 
 Baltimore 434,000 332,000 | 
 
 Cumberland 13,000 
 
 Frederick 8,200 8,700 ! 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 Washington 230,000 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Richmond 8i,oooJ 64,000 
 
 Norfolk .'. 35,000! 22,000 
 
 Petersburgh 23,000! 22,000 
 
 Lynchbui-g v. 20,000! i6,ooo| 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Ch.4rleston 6,700 1 4,200 
 
 Wheeling 35,0001 31,000 
 
 Huntington #.... 10,000 i 3,200 
 
 (1880.) 
 
 30,000 
 137,000 
 121,000 
 51,000 
 42,000 
 31,000 
 28,000 
 
 2,800 
 42,000 
 
 178,000 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Raleigh 13,000 
 
 Wilmington 20,000 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Columbia 15,000 
 
 Charlestdft 55,ooo 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Atlanta.... 
 Savannah... 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Macon , 
 
 66,000 
 43,000 
 33,000 
 23,000 
 
 105,000 
 16,000 
 ig,ooo 
 16,000 
 
 42,000 
 63,000 
 28 ,00 J 
 18,000 
 16,000 
 1 2, 000 
 14,000 
 12,000 
 
 91,000 
 ,206,000 
 567,000 
 155,000 
 
 89,000! 
 
 52,000' 
 
 57.000 i 
 34,000 
 17,000 
 ig,oooj 
 17,000! 
 
 21. 000 1 
 22 ,000 i 
 18,000 i 
 19,000 
 20,000! 
 2 J, 000 1 
 18,000! 
 14,000] 
 
 9.500, 
 13,000 ■ 
 
 9,400 
 14,000 
 1 2,000! 
 11,000; 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Tallahassee..... 
 
 Key West, 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 3,000 
 18,000 
 
 31,000 
 26,000 
 
 9,300 
 17,000 
 
 IO,QOO 
 50,000 
 
 37,000 
 31,000 
 22,000 
 13,000 
 
 2,500 
 9,900 
 7,650 
 
 17,000 
 29,000 
 3,100 
 
 5,200 
 12,000 
 4,000 
 7,100 
 
 7,200 
 
 216,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 3. 
 
 43,000 
 34,000 
 13,000 
 9,700 
 
 7,000 
 124,000 
 30,000 
 20,000 
 17,000 
 
 31,000! 
 847,000- 
 156,000^ 
 79,000. 
 46,000 ; 
 43, 000 j 
 28,0001 
 23,000' 
 26,000' 
 20,000! 
 19,000; 
 18.000 
 8,400 
 14,000! 
 8 ,200 ' 
 1 5 .'",00 
 
 i Mississippi. 
 
 i Jackson 6,000 
 
 ■ Vicksburg 13,000 
 
 ■ Meriden 11,000 
 
 ' Natchez 10,000 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 ; Raton Rouge 10,000 
 
 New Orleans 242,000 
 
 ] Shreveport '...'. 12,000 
 
 I Arkansas. 
 
 I Little Rock 26,000 
 
 Fort Smith 11,000 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 • Nashville 76,000 
 
 . Memphis 64,000 
 
 ' Chattanooga 29,000 
 
 j Knoxville 23,000 
 
 I Kentucky. 
 
 I Frankfort 7,800 
 
 I Louisville 161,000 
 
 ] Covington 37,000 
 
 i Newport 25,000 
 
 Lexington 22,000 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 j Columbus 88,000 52,000 
 
 j Cincinnati 297,000 255,000 
 
 Cleveland 261,000,160,000 
 
 Toledo 8i,ooo[ 50,00011 
 
 I Dayton 61,000! 39,oooi| 
 
 I Youngstown 33,000! 15,000;; 
 
 Springfield 32,000! 21,000 j 
 
 Akron 28,000! 17,000! 
 
 ■Canton 26,oc-oi 12,0001! 
 
 , Zanesville 21,0001 i8,oooi; 
 
 Findlay ig,ooo| 4,600 . 
 
 Sandusky 18,000; 16,000,! 
 
 Hamilton i8,ooo| 12,000]! 
 
 I Indiana. | || 
 
 : Indianapolis 105, 
 
 Evansviile 51, 
 
 Ft. Wayne 35, 
 
 Terre Haute 30, 
 
 South IJcnd 22, 
 
 lllmois. 
 
 Springfield 25, 
 
 Chicago 1,100, 
 
 Peoria 41 
 
 Quincy 3": 
 
 Kockford 24, 
 
 Rock Island 14, 
 
 Joliet 23, 
 
 Hloomington 20 
 
 Aurora... 20 
 
 ' 75,0001 
 ' 29,000, 
 27,0001 
 I 26,0001 
 ' 13,0001 
 
 20,000! 
 503,000 j 
 I 29,0001 
 27,000 
 13,000 
 
 12,000 
 12,000 
 17,000 
 12,000 
 
 Michigan. (1890.) 
 
 Lansing. 13,000 
 
 Detroit... 206,000 
 
 Grand Rapids 60,000 
 
 SaginawJ. 46,000 
 
 Bay City 28,000 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 Madisoi* 13,000 
 
 Milwaukee 204,000 
 
 La Crosse 25,000 
 
 Oshkosh'. 23,000 
 
 Racine,., 21,000 
 
 Eau Claire 17,000 
 
 Missouri. 
 JEFFERS9N City.. 6,700 
 
 St. Louisl 452,000 
 
 Kansas City 133,000 
 
 St. Joseph 52,000 
 
 Sprmgfield 22,000 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Des Moines 50,000 
 
 Dubuque. 30,000 
 
 Sioux City 38,000 
 
 Davenport 27,000 
 
 Burlington 23,000 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Saint Paul 133,000 
 
 Minneapolis 165,000 
 
 Duluth 33,000 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Austin 14,000 
 
 Dallas 38,000 
 
 San Antonio 385000 
 
 Galveston 29,000 
 
 Houston 28,000 
 
 California. 
 
 Sacramento 26,000 
 
 San Francisco 299,000 
 
 Los Angeles 50,000 
 
 Oakland .'-. 49,000 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Salem 7,800 
 
 Portland.. 46,000 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 TOPEKA 31,000 
 
 Kansas City 38,000 
 
 Wichita 24,000 
 
 Leavenworth 20,000 
 
 Nnvada, 
 
 Carson City 4,000 
 
 Virginia City 8,500 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Lincoln 5S,ooo 
 
 Omaha 140,000 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Denver 107,000 
 
 Pueblo 25,000 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Olympia, 4.700 
 
 Seattle....; 43,000 
 
 Tacoma 36,000 
 
 Spokane Falls 20,000 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Boise City 2,300 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Helena 14,000 
 
 Butte City 11,000 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 BiSMARK, 2,300 
 
 Fargo 5,600 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Pierre 3.250 
 
 Sioux Falls 10,000 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 Cheyenne 12,000 
 
 Laramie City 6,400 
 
 Utah. 
 
 SaltLakeCity.. 45,000 
 OgJen 15,000 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Santa Fe 6,000 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 PhCENIX 3j200 
 
 Indian Territory. 
 Tahlequah 
 
 Oklahoma Territory. 
 
 Guthrie 5,3°° 
 
 Oklahoma City.... 4,100 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 Sitka „ 1,188 
 
 (1880.) 
 
 8,300 
 116,000 
 32,000 
 30,000 
 
 21, 000 
 
 10,000 
 116,000 
 15,000 
 16,000 
 16,000 
 10,000 
 
 5,300 
 
 351,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 22,000 
 22,000 
 
 7,400 
 22,000 
 19,000 
 
 41,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 3.500 
 
 It, 000 
 10,000 
 21,000 
 22,000 
 17,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 234,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 35*000 
 
 5,000 
 18,000 
 
 15,000 
 3,200 
 4,900 
 
 17,000 
 
 4,200 
 14,000 
 
 13,000 
 31,000 
 
 36,000 
 3,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 3.500 
 
 1,100 
 
 350 
 
 3,600 
 3.400 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,200 
 3.500 
 
 21,000 
 6,100 
 
 6,600 
 
 British America, 
 
 (1891.1 
 Montreal,- Queb... 217,000 
 
 Toronto, Ont 181,000 
 
 Quebec, Queb 63,000 
 
 Hamilton, Ont 49,000 
 
 Ottawa, Ont 44,000 
 
 St, John, N. B 39,oco 
 
 Halifax, N. 3 39,000 
 
 London. Ont 32,000 
 
 St. John'.s,Newf d.29,000 
 Winnipeg 26,000 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 (1890.) 
 
 Mexico 330,000 
 
 Guadalaxara 95,000 
 
 Puebla 79,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi... 63,000 
 Zacatecas 60,000 
 
 Central America, 
 
 Guatemala (1891).. 70,000 
 
 San Jose (1890J.... 24,000 
 
 SanSalvadorCgi). 20,000 
 
 Managua (1888).,. 17,000 
 
 Tegucigalpa ('88). 12,000 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Havg,na (1877). ..200,000 
 Matanzas " ... 88,000 
 Santiago '* ... 71,000 
 Port-au-Prince('87)6o,ooo 
 Kingston (1881) ... 40,000 
 St. John, P.R.('77) 24,000 
 St. Domingo (i888j 20,000 
 
 SOUTH AMEBICA. 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Caracas (iSgi) 72,000 
 
 Valencia ('88). 39,000 
 Maracaybo " 34,000 
 Barquisimeto " 31,000 
 
 Colombia, 
 
 Bogota (1S85)... 96,000 
 Medellin " ... 37,000 
 Panama " ... 25,000 
 
 Ecuador, (isso.) 
 
 Quito 80,000 
 
 Guayaquil 40,000 
 
 Cuenca 30,000 
 
 Peru. (1890.) 
 
 Lima 101,000 
 
 Callao 35,000 
 
 Arequipa (1876)... 35,000 
 
 Bolivia. 
 
 La Paz (1889) 40,000 
 
 Sucre " 19,000 I 
 
 Cochabamba i5,ck>o I 
 
 Potosi 12,000 
 
 Chill. (1889.) 
 
 Santiago 237,000 
 
 Valparaiso 110,000 
 
 San Fernando 80,000 
 
 Rengo 76,000 
 
 Talca 70,000 
 
 Argentine Republic. 
 
 Buenos Ayres('9i)547,ooo 
 Cordova (1888).... 66,000 
 La Plata " .... 65,000 
 Tucuman '* .... 25,000 
 
 Urua:uay. 
 
 Montevideo ('89).. .175,000 
 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Asuncion {1886)... 24,000 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 Rio J.ineiro ('90).. 500 ,000 
 Pernambuco " ..190,000 
 Bahia 80,000 
 
 Guiana. 
 
 Georgetown ('81),. 55,000 
 Paramaribo ('891.. 29,000 
 Cayenne 15,000 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Norway, (i89o.i 
 
 Christiania 150,000 
 
 Bergen 53,ooo 
 
 Drontheim 25,000 
 
 Sweden, dsgo.) 
 
 Stockholm '.2^6,000 
 
 Gottenburg, 105.000 
 
 Malmo 49,000 
 
 Russia. 
 
 St.Peter.>ib'rg('9o)g56,ooo 
 Moscow (1885) ..?53,ooo 
 
 Warsaw (1890) 443,000 
 
 Odessa (1885)... ...240,000 
 
 Riga " 175,000 
 
 Kharkov " 171,000 
 
 Kiev " 166,000 
 
 Kasan " 140,000 
 
 Lodz (i8go) ,125,000 
 
 Saratov (1885) 123,000 
 
 Kichinev " .....120,000 
 
 Wilna " 103,000 
 
 Orel " 78,000 
 
 Berditchev" 77,000 
 
 Samara " 75,000 
 
 Astrakhan " 71,000 
 
 England and Wales. 
 
 (1891.) 
 
 London 4.211,000 
 
 (with suburbs)..5',6!^3,coo 
 
 Liverpool 518,000 
 
 Manchester 505,000 I 
 
 Birmingham .429,000 
 
 Leeds 368,000 
 
 Sheffield 324.000 ! 
 
 Bristol 222,000 ' 
 
 Bradford 216,000 j 
 
 Nottingham 212,000 
 
 Hull 200,000 
 
 Salfortl -.198,000 
 
 Newcastle i86,oco 
 
 Portsmouth 159,000 
 
 Leicester 142,000 
 
 Oldham 131,000 
 
 Sunderland 131,000 
 
 Cardiff. 129,000 
 
 Blackburn 120,000 
 
 Brighton 115,000 
 
 Bolton ,.115,000 
 
 Preston 108,000 
 
 Norwich lor.ooo 
 
 Birkenhead 99,000 
 
 Huddersfield 95,000 
 
 Derby 94,000 
 
 Swansea 90,000 
 
 Burnley 87,000 
 
 Gateshead 85,ooo 
 
 Plymouth 84,000 
 
 Halifax '83,000 
 
 Wolverhampton... 83,000 
 
 Scotland, cissi.) 
 
 Glasgow 566,000 
 
 (with suburbs). ...675,000 
 
 Edinburgh 261,000 
 
 Dundee 156,000 
 
 Aberdeen 122,000 
 
 Paisley 66,000 
 
 Greenock. 63,000 
 
 Ireland. (is9i.) 
 
 Dublin .....255,000 
 
 (with suburbs) ...352,000 
 
 Belfast 256,000 
 
 Cork 75.000 
 
 Limerick.... 37,000 
 
 Londonderry 33,000 
 
 Galway 25,000 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Copenhagen ('go). 312,000 
 
 Netherlands, a89o.) 
 
 Amsterdam 418,000 
 
 Rotterdam 209,000 
 
 The Hague i6i,ooo 
 
 Utrecht 86,000 
 
 Groningen 56,000 
 
 Haarlem 52,000 
 
 Arnhem 50,000 
 
 Leyden 44,000 
 
 Tilbourg 35,000 
 
 Belgium. [i89o.) 
 
 Antwerp ,227,000 
 
 Hrussels 182,000 
 
 (with suburbs). ..459,000 
 
 Ghent 154,000 
 
 Liege 150,000 
 
 Schaerbeek 54,ooo 
 
 Malines 51,000 
 
 France. (i88e.i 
 
 Paris 2,345,000 
 
 Lyons 402.000 
 
 Marseilles 376,000 
 
 Bordeauj? 241,000 
 
 Lille 188,000 
 
 Toulouse 148,000 
 
 Nantes 127,000 
 
 St. Eiienne 118,000 
 
 H;ivre --.. 112,000 
 
 Rnuen 107,000 
 
 Kouhaix i-o.ooo 
 
 Rheims. 98,000 
 
 Amiens 80,000 
 
 Nancy 79,000 
 
 Nice 77,000 
 
 Angers 7.1,000 
 
 Hre^'t — 71,000 
 
 Toulon 70,000 
 
 Nismes 70,000 
 
 I imoges 68.000 
 
 Rennes 66,000 
 
 Dijon 6i,(x>o 
 
 Spain, (1887.) 
 
 Madrid 470.000 
 
 Barcelona 272,000 
 
 Valencia 171,000 
 
 Seville 143,000 
 
 Malaga i3»i,ooo 
 
 Murcia 99,000 
 
 Saragossa 92,000 
 
 Granada 73,ooo 
 
 Cadiz 63,000 
 
 Valladolid 62,000 
 
 Portugal. (1878.) 
 
 Lisbon 242,000 
 
 Oporto 106,000 
 
 Germany, (iseoo 
 
 Berlin 1,579,000 
 
 Leipsic 353>oca 
 
 Munich 348,000 
 
 Breslau 335,000 
 
 Hamburg 324,000 
 
 Cologne 281,000 
 
 Dresden 276,000 
 
 Magdeburg 202,000 
 
 I''rankfort-on-the- 
 
 Main i8o,oco 
 
 Hanover 165.000 
 
 Koiiigsherg 162,000 
 
 Dusseldorf. 145,000 
 
 Altona 143,000 
 
 Nuremberg 142,000 
 
 Stuttgard 140,000 
 
 Chemnitz 139,000 
 
 Elberfeld 126,000 
 
 Austria-Huneary. 
 
 (1890.) ° •' 
 
 Vienna 1,365,000 
 
 Buda-Pesth 506,000 
 
 Prague 184,000 
 
 Trieste 158,000 
 
 Lemberg 128,000 
 
 Gratz 114,000 
 
 Brunn 95,000 
 
 Cracow 76,000 
 
 Switzerland. (I888.) 
 
 Zurich 90,000 
 
 Geneva 72,000 
 
 Basle 70,000 
 
 Berne 46,000 
 
 Lausanne 33,000 
 
 Lucerne 20,000 
 
 Italy, (1890.) 
 
 Naples 531,000 
 
 Rome 423,000 
 
 Milan 415,000 
 
 Turin 321,000 
 
 Palermo 267,000 
 
 Genoa 206,000 
 
 Florence 191,000 
 
 Venice 158,000 
 
 Bologna 144,000 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Constantinopie'85 874,000 
 
 Salonica 150,000 
 
 Adrianople 71,000 
 
 Roumania. 
 
 Bucharest (1885). ..221,000 
 
 Jassy(i885) 90,000 
 
 Galatz 80,000 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 ScphiEto'1890) 42,000 
 
 Pbilippopi,Iis('88) ^^,000 
 Rustchuk {1888)... 27.000 
 Varna 25,000 
 
 Servia. (i89o.) 
 
 Belgrade 54,000 
 
 Nissa 20,000 
 
 Greece. (i8S9.) 
 
 Athens 108,000 
 
 Piraeus 35,ooo 
 
 Patras 34,000 
 
 Corfu 28,000 
 
 Syra 22,000 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Turkey, 
 
 Smyrna 187,000 
 
 Damascus 150,000 
 
 Aleppo 110,000 
 
 liagdad 100,000 
 
 Heirout 85,000 
 
 Erzeroiim 60,000 
 
 Hrusa ,. 60,000 
 
 Mosul „ 57,000 
 
 Jerusalem (1887)... 43,000 
 
 Asiatic Russia. 
 
 Tashkeud (1885). 121,000 
 Tiflis " . 90,000 
 
 Khokan " . 54,000 
 
 Yekaterinodar" . 40,000 
 Irkutsk " . 39.000 
 
 Tomsk " . 37,000 
 
 China, (iseo.) 
 
 Pekin 1,650,000 
 
 Canton 1,600,000 
 
 Tien-tsin 950,000 
 
 Han-keou, 800,000 
 
 Foochow 636,000 
 
 Shanghai 380,000 
 
 Corea, 
 
 Seoul. 250,000 
 
 Japan. (i89o.) 
 
 Tokio 1,390,000 
 
 Ozaka 476,000 
 
 Kioto .280,000 
 
 Nagoya 163,000 
 
 Kobe 136,000 
 
 Yokohama 122,000 
 
 British India. (i89i.) 
 
 Calcutta 840,000 
 
 Bombay 804,000 
 
 Madras 450,000 
 
 Hyderabad 393,<^oo 
 
 Lucknow 273,000 
 
 Bennres 222,000 
 
 Delhi 194,000 
 
 Mandalay 188,000 
 
 Cawnpore 182,000 
 
 Rangoon 181,000 
 
 Bangalore 180,000 
 
 Alhthabad 177,000 
 
 Lahore 177,000 
 
 Agra 165,000 
 
 Singapore (1881), ..139,000 
 
 Indo-China. 
 
 Bangkok 400,000 
 
 Ha Noi (Kesho) ..150,000 
 
 Saigon 120,000 
 
 Hue „ 30,000 
 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Cabul 65,000 
 
 Candahar.. 50,000 
 
 Herat 50,000 
 
 Beluchistan. 
 
 Kelat 14,000 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Teheran 210,000 
 
 Tabreez 180,000 
 
 Ispahan... 90,000 
 
 Meshed 70,000 
 
 Kerman 45,000 
 
 Reshd .*..... 41,000 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 Aden (1881) 3"5,ooo 
 
 Muscat 20,000 
 
 Mocha 5,coo 
 
 Malay Islands, 
 
 Manilla (1880) 270,000 
 
 Surabaya " ....133,000 
 Batavia (1889) 100,000 
 
 Australasia, 
 
 Melbourne (i89i)..48g,coo 
 Sydney " ..386,000 
 
 Adelaide '* "133,000 
 Brisbane " .. 56,000 
 
 Dunediil (1881) 43,000 
 
 Hobart Town ('91) 25,000 
 Honolulu (1890)... 23,000 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Barbary States, 
 
 Fez 140,000 
 
 Tunis ,,.135,000 
 
 Mequinez ...,^.ibo,ooo 
 
 Algiers (1886) .,..,. 75,000 
 Morocco.............. 40,000 
 
 Tripoli ,f^^ 18,000 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Cairo,,, 375,000 
 
 Alexandria.. 227,000 
 
 Damittta 34,000 
 
 Tantah ., 34,000 
 
 Siout 32,o:x) 
 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Antananarivo 150,000 
 
 Cape Colony (I889.) 
 
 Cape Town 42,000 
 
 (with suburbs) ... 70,000 
 
 Kimberly 29,000 
 
 Beaconsneld 22,000 
 
 Zanzibar Island 
 
 Zanzibar loo.cjo 
 
AREA AND POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES IN 1890. 
 
 133 
 
 STATES AND TEEEITOEIES, 
 
 isa 
 
 Alabama 
 
 A'aska Territory 
 
 Arizona Territory 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas , 
 
 Kentucky , 
 
 Louisiana , 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts : 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota , 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri , 
 
 l^lontana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico Territory 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma Territory 
 
 (Jregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Vti^inia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia^ 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Delaware, Raritan, and Lower 
 
 New York Bays 
 
 American Portion of the Great 
 
 Lakes 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 Montgomery. 
 
 Sitka 
 
 Prescott , 
 
 Little Rock.... 
 
 Sacramento , 
 
 Denver , 
 
 Hartford 
 
 Dover , 
 
 Washington , 
 
 Tallahassee... , 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Bois6City , 
 
 Springfield , 
 
 Indianai^lis 
 
 Tahlequah 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Topeka 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Annapolis „ 
 
 Boston 
 
 Lnnsing 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Jefferson City 
 
 Helena 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Carson City 
 
 Concord 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 Albany 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Bismarck 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Guthrie 
 
 Salem 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 Providence and Newport.. 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Pierre 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Austin 
 
 Salt Lake City 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Madison 
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Totals 3,668,167 
 
 AREA IN SQUARE MILES. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 INCREASE FROM 
 1880 TO 1890. 
 
 INCREASE FROM 
 1870 TO 1880. 
 
 Gross 
 Area. 
 
 Land 
 Surlace. 
 
 Water 
 Surface. 
 
 1890. ! 
 
 1880. 
 
 1870. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Percent- 
 age. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Percent- 
 age. 
 
 52,250 
 
 51,540 
 577,390 
 112,920 
 
 710 
 
 '.513.017 
 3 '.795 
 59.620 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 996,992 
 
 250,512 
 
 19.84 
 
 265,513 
 
 26.63 
 
 113,020 
 
 100 
 
 40,440 
 
 9.658 
 
 19,180 
 
 47-43 
 
 30,782 
 
 318.72 
 
 53,850 
 
 53.045 
 
 805 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 802,325 
 
 484.471 
 
 325,654 
 
 40.58 
 
 318,054 
 
 65.65 
 
 158,360 
 
 155,980 
 
 2,380 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 864,694 
 
 560,247 
 
 343,436 
 
 39 72 
 
 304,447 
 
 54-34 
 
 103,925 
 
 103.645 
 
 280 
 
 41^2,198 
 
 194,327 
 
 39.86+ 
 
 217,871 
 
 112.12 
 
 154,463 
 
 387.47 
 
 4,990 
 
 4.845 
 
 145 
 
 746,258 
 
 622,700 
 
 537.434 
 
 123,558 
 
 19.84 
 
 85,246 
 
 15.86 
 
 2,050 
 
 1,960 
 
 90 
 
 163,493 
 
 146.608 
 
 125.015 
 
 21,885 
 
 14-93 
 
 21,593 
 
 17.27 
 
 J° 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 230,392 
 
 177,624 
 
 131.700 
 
 52,768 
 
 29.71 
 
 45,924 
 
 34-87 
 
 58,680 
 
 54,240 
 
 4.440 
 
 391.422 
 
 269,493 
 
 187.748 
 
 121,929 
 
 45-=4 
 
 81,743 
 
 43-54 
 
 1^1" 
 
 58,980 
 
 495 
 
 I.8J7.353 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 1,184,109 
 
 295,173 
 
 19.14 
 
 358,071 
 
 30.24 
 
 
 84.290 
 
 510 
 
 84,385 
 
 32,610 
 
 14.999 
 
 51,775 
 
 158.77 
 
 17,611 
 
 117.41 
 
 56,650 
 
 56,000 
 
 650 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 3.077.871 
 
 2.539.89' 
 
 748,480 
 
 24.32 
 
 537.980 
 
 21.18 
 
 36,350 
 
 33,910 
 
 440 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 1,680,637 
 
 214,103 
 
 10.82 
 
 297,664 
 
 17.71 
 
 
 31,' 00 
 55,475 
 
 400 
 550 
 
 186,490 
 1,911,896 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 56,025 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 1,194,020 
 
 287,281 
 
 17.68 
 
 430,595 
 
 3606 
 
 82,080 
 
 81,700 
 
 380 
 
 1,427,096 
 
 996,096 
 
 364,399 
 
 431,000 
 
 43-27 
 
 631,697 
 
 173-35 
 
 40,400 
 
 40,000 
 
 400 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 1.321,011 
 
 209,945 
 
 12.73 
 
 327,679 
 
 24.81 
 
 48,720 
 
 45,420 
 
 3,300 
 
 1. 1' 8,587 
 
 939.946 
 
 726,915 
 
 178,641 
 
 19.01 
 
 213,031 
 
 29.31 
 
 33,040 
 
 29,895 
 
 3.145 
 
 661 086 
 
 648,936 
 
 626,915 
 
 12,150 
 
 1.87 
 
 22,021 
 
 3-51 
 
 I2,2rO 
 
 9,860 
 
 2.350 
 
 1,042.390 
 
 934,943 
 
 780,894 
 
 107,447 
 
 11.49 
 
 154.049 
 
 19-73 
 
 8,3'5 
 
 8,040 
 
 275 
 
 2,238,943 
 
 1,783,085 
 
 1,457.351 
 
 455.838 
 
 2557 
 
 325,734 
 
 22.35 
 
 58,915 
 
 57.430 
 
 1.485 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 1,636,937 
 
 i.'84,<*S9 
 
 456,952 
 
 27.92 
 
 452,878 
 
 38.25 
 
 83,365 
 
 79,205 
 
 4,160 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 780,773 
 
 4.39.706 
 
 521,053 
 
 66.74 
 
 341.067 
 
 77-57 
 
 46,810 
 
 46,J4o 
 
 470 
 
 1,2^,600 
 
 I. 131,597 
 
 827,922 
 
 158,003 
 
 13.96 
 
 303,675 
 
 36.68 
 
 69,415 
 
 68,735 
 
 680 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 2,168,380 
 
 i.72i.'95 
 
 510,804 
 
 23- 56 
 
 447.063 
 
 23-97 
 
 146,080 
 
 145.310 
 
 770 
 
 132,159 
 
 39.159 
 
 20,595 
 
 93,000 
 
 23749 
 
 18,564 
 
 90.14 
 
 77.510 
 
 76,840 
 
 67^ 
 
 1.058,910 
 
 452.402 
 
 122,993 
 
 606,508 
 
 134.06 
 
 329.409 
 
 267.83 
 
 110,700 
 
 109,740 
 
 960 
 
 45.76' 
 
 62,266 
 
 42.49' 
 
 *i6,5o5 
 
 *26.5i 
 
 19.775 
 
 46.54 
 
 9.3°5 
 
 9.005 
 
 3« 
 
 376,530 
 
 346,99' 
 
 318,300 
 
 29.539 
 
 8.51 
 
 28,691 
 
 9.0X 
 
 7,8iS 
 
 7.455 
 
 36^ 
 
 1,4+4,933 
 
 1,131,116 
 
 906,096 
 
 313.817 
 
 'Vi 
 
 225,020 
 
 24.83 
 
 122,580 
 
 122,460 
 
 120 
 
 153.593 
 
 "9.565 
 
 9' .874 
 
 34,028 
 
 28.46 
 
 27,691 
 
 30.14 
 
 49.17° 
 
 47,620 
 
 1,530 
 
 5.997.833 
 
 5,082,871 
 
 4.382,759 
 
 914,982 
 
 18. 
 
 700,112 
 
 13-97 
 
 52,250 
 
 48,580 
 
 3.670 
 
 1.617.947 
 
 1.399.750 
 
 1,071.361 
 
 218,197 
 
 15.59 
 
 328,389 
 
 30.65 
 
 7° .795 
 41,060 
 
 70.195 
 40,760 
 
 
 182,719 
 3.672,316 
 
 36,909 
 3,198,062 
 
 
 145,810 
 474,254 
 
 39505 
 14.83 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 2,665,260 
 
 532,802 
 
 19.99 
 
 39.030 
 96,030 
 
 38,830 
 94.560 
 
 
 61,834 
 313,767 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,470 
 
 174,768 
 
 90,923 
 
 138,999 
 
 79-53 
 
 83.845 
 
 92.22 
 
 43,215 
 
 44.985 
 
 230 
 
 5,258,014 
 
 4,282,891 
 
 3.521.951 
 
 975,123 
 
 22.77 
 
 760,940 
 
 21.61 
 
 1,250 
 
 1,085 
 
 165 
 
 345.506 
 
 276.531 
 
 2'7.363 
 
 68,975 
 
 2494 
 
 59,178 
 
 27.23 
 
 30,570 
 
 30,170 
 
 400 
 
 1.151,149 
 
 995.577 
 
 705,606 
 
 155,572 
 
 15.63 
 
 289,971 
 
 41.10 
 
 77,650 
 42,050 
 
 76,850 
 41.750 
 
 
 328,808 
 1,767.518 
 
 98,268 
 1.542,359 
 
 
 230,540 
 225,159 
 
 234.60 
 14.60 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 1,258,520 
 
 283,839 
 
 22.55 
 
 265,780 
 
 262,290 
 
 3,490 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 1,591.749 
 
 8i8,sj9 
 
 643,774 
 
 40.44 
 
 773,170 
 
 %^-il 
 
 84,970 
 
 82,193 
 
 2,780 
 
 207,905 
 
 143,963 
 
 86,786 
 
 63.942 
 
 44.42 
 
 57,177 
 
 65.88 
 
 9.565 
 
 9. '33 
 
 430 
 
 332,422 
 
 332,286 
 
 330,551 
 
 136 
 
 .004 
 
 1.735 
 
 0.52 
 
 4-'.45o 
 
 40,125 
 
 2,325 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 1,512,565 
 
 1,225.163 
 
 143.415 
 
 9.48 
 
 287,402 
 
 23.46 
 
 69,180 
 
 66,880 
 
 2,300 
 
 349.390 
 
 75,116 
 
 =3.955 
 
 274,274 
 
 36513 
 
 51,161 
 
 21357 
 
 24,780 
 
 24,645 
 
 13s 
 
 762,794 
 
 618,457 
 
 442,014 
 
 144,337 
 
 23-34 
 
 176,443 
 
 39.92 
 
 56,040 
 
 54.450 
 
 1.590 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 1,315.497 
 
 1,054,670 
 
 371,383 
 
 28.23 
 
 260,827 
 
 24-73 
 
 97,890 
 
 97,573 
 
 315 
 
 720 
 
 65,177 
 
 60,705 
 
 20,789 
 
 9,118 
 
 39.9'6 
 
 192.01 
 
 11,671 
 
 128.00 
 
 
 
 ti4i.759 
 
 62,982,244 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,668,167 
 
 3,547,390 
 
 120,777 
 
 50,155,783 
 
 38,558,371 
 
 12,466,467 
 
 24.86 
 
 11,597,412 
 
 30.08 
 
 * Decrease. 
 
 t Number of Indians, not taxed, in the states and teiiitories other than Indian Territory and Alaska. The total number of Indians in the United States, exclusive of Alaska, hut including 32,567 
 counted in the general census of 1890, is 249,273. The Indians of Alaska number 23,274. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES-FROW REPORT OF DEPARTWIENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1890. 
 
 STATES AND TEEEITOEIES. 
 
 ISIaine 
 
 New Hampshire.. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina,.... 
 
 Geoi^ia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Tennc-see 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri.. 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Nebraska , 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Colorado 
 
 The Territories*... 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 99) 
 52, 
 84, 
 63, 
 10 
 SI 
 
 %\ 
 
 6.6, 
 23. 
 
 130, 
 
 259. 
 
 154, 
 70, 
 
 115 
 
 34: 
 
 134: 
 
 139: 
 124: 
 
 1.350, 
 
 187, 
 
 303. 
 
 146, 
 
 390, 
 771, 
 
 477: 
 
 667: 
 
 1,123, 
 437 
 394: 
 
 i,o95: 
 
 789: 
 
 726, 
 
 542, 
 372, 
 186, 
 51, 
 137. 
 
 i,'35, 
 
 ,657 
 ,402 
 
 353 
 ^838 
 ',258 
 i.376 
 .950 
 .294 
 
 :93I 
 
 ,000 
 
 .303 
 
 i3i? 
 .229 
 
 .303 
 ,629 
 737 
 ,805 
 ,468 
 ,650 
 344 
 ,'53 
 ,206 
 ,647 
 
 :S77 
 
 ,607 
 
 .407 
 
 .577 
 .973 
 ,820 
 ,783 
 ,3-° 
 ,769 
 ,3'8 
 
 1O36 
 ,084 
 ,841 
 ,523 
 ,835 
 
 .437 
 
 5,a88 
 9,50* 
 24,021 
 4,184 
 "3.761 
 36,083 
 
 79,269 
 155*700 
 
 13,000 
 143.258 
 196,436 
 
 94,785 
 213,146 
 129,866 
 229,246 
 6,867 
 155,858 
 
 24,472 
 6,095 
 
 53*827 
 
 109,947 
 
 7,066 
 
 I1,4ft2 
 
 42,316 
 
 230,097 
 
 94,714 
 45,792 
 
 42*803 
 
 3,315 
 
 2*369 
 
 8,000 
 
 42,238 
 
 Xotal 14,213,837 2,331,027 15,952,883 36,849,024 44 J36^_jg2i659^76i 
 
 Milch Cows. 
 
 '75,949 
 
 103,011 
 
 234,642 
 
 174,729 
 
 24,041 
 
 134.897 
 
 t,552,373 
 
 183,493 
 
 938,665 
 
 29*543 
 
 141,826 
 
 272,036 
 
 272,155 
 
 156,575 
 
 354,618 
 
 54,951 
 
 311.805 
 
 309,234 
 
 > 77,613 
 
 843,342 
 
 329,121 
 
 377,740 
 
 ' 179,939 
 
 317,^93 
 
 791,316 
 
 454,926 
 
 602,354 
 
 1,072,473 
 
 674,588 
 
 492,117 
 
 1,331,888 
 
 774,122 
 
 750,815 
 
 420,069 
 
 268,628 
 
 88,730 
 
 18,399 
 
 65,563 
 
 497,564 
 
 Oxen and 
 other Cattle. 
 
 157,386 
 
 116,169 
 
 169,053 
 
 98,774 
 
 12,194 
 
 102,143 
 
 783,634 
 
 67,856 
 
 852,267 
 
 26,866 
 
 127,335 
 
 419,523 
 
 398,414 
 
 210,396 
 
 580,8x6 
 
 565,201 
 
 454,042 
 
 441,862 
 
 295.731 
 
 7,167,853 
 
 587,212 
 
 484,578 
 
 286,538 
 
 523,728 
 
 986,601 
 
 547,716 
 
 957,843 
 
 1,713,966 
 
 805,170 
 
 617,256 
 
 2,577,161 
 
 1.515,935 
 
 1,829,42s 
 
 1,306,372 
 
 697,805 
 
 762,728 
 
 373.527 
 
 1,048,933 
 
 6,179,018 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 542,248 
 192,824 
 
 362,112 
 
 56,530" 
 20,231 
 
 46,759 
 
 1,548,426 
 
 103,170 
 
 945,002 
 
 22,294 
 
 153,763 
 
 444.563 
 
 414,819 
 
 102,031 
 
 411,846 
 
 110,351 
 
 286,238 
 
 240,148 
 
 115,082 
 
 4,752,640 
 
 269,484 
 
 511,118 
 
 508,654 
 
 805,978 
 
 3.943,589 
 
 2,240,841 
 
 1,278,000 
 
 688,387 
 
 809,069 
 
 327,375 
 
 475,816 
 
 1,198,200 
 
 438,313 
 
 239 .4«> 
 
 4,035,120 
 
 2,929,830 
 
 700,986 
 
 1,783,891 
 
 10,280,904 
 
 Swine. 
 
 79,043 
 
 52,713 
 
 " 77,888 
 
 68,580 
 
 13,796 
 
 55,598 
 
 686,321 
 
 204,669 
 
 1,193,41s 
 
 51,185 
 
 343,079 
 
 1,009,659 
 
 1,291,893 
 
 670,652 
 
 1,627,008 
 
 358,021 
 
 1,530.001 
 
 1,443,813 
 
 706,947 
 
 2,321,246 
 
 1,663,275 
 
 2,242,215 
 
 486,226 
 
 2,255 102 
 
 2,611,014 
 
 978,755 
 
 2,845,302 
 
 5,433,250 
 1,087,902 
 
 527,526 
 5,805,000 
 5,096,000 
 2,734,195 
 2,309,779 
 
 647,000 
 
 270,164 
 19,232 
 29,508 
 
 775,808 
 
 20,000 
 33,000 
 7S,ooo 
 
 213,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 348,000 
 
 2,724,000 
 
 1,098,000 
 
 4,458,000 
 
 8.000 
 
 326 000 
 
 375,000 
 
 365,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 151,000 
 
 31,000 
 6,000 
 
 57,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 293,000 
 
 148,000 
 
 834,000 
 
 623,000 
 
 279,000 
 
 468,000 
 
 4,098,000 
 
 3.738,000 
 
 426,000 
 
 1,647,000 
 
 550,000 
 
 2,668,000 
 
 1,570 000 
 
 334.000 
 
 17,000 
 
 29,000 
 293,000 
 
 1,008,000 
 
 1,259,000 
 
 1,839,000 
 
 1,868,000 
 
 402,000 
 
 2,014,000 
 
 17,101,000 
 
 11,185,000 
 
 38,043,000 
 
 4,128,000 
 
 16,333,000 
 
 36,922,000 
 
 36,264,000 
 
 16,078,000 
 
 31,306,000 
 
 4.570,000 
 
 25,390,000 
 
 24,396,000 
 
 16,079,000 
 
 63,802,000 
 
 33,443,000 
 
 67,692,000 
 
 13,435,000 
 
 63,645,000 
 
 65,876,000 
 
 26,580,000 
 
 89,025,000 
 
 187,446,000 
 
 33,061,000 
 
 21,286,000 
 
 232,439,000 
 
 175.345,000 
 
 55,269,000 
 
 55,310,000 
 
 4,396,000 
 
 173,000 
 
 767,000 
 13,895,000 
 
 415,000 1,498,970,000 
 
 2,847,000 
 
 862,000 
 
 2,793,000 
 
 598,000 
 
 15. ,000 
 
 780,000 
 
 23,913,000 
 
 2,449,000 
 
 21,972,000 
 
 298,000 
 
 1.357,000 
 
 6,587,000 
 
 'i, 198,000 
 
 4,168,000 
 
 5,45= 000 
 
 c73,ODo 
 
 4,864,000 
 
 4,778 000 
 
 567,000 
 
 11,059,000 
 
 3,967,000 
 
 6,486,000 
 
 1,506,000 
 
 3,954,000 
 
 20 ,004,000 
 
 25,033,000 
 
 17,800,000 
 
 70,821,000 
 
 38,919,000 
 
 38,402,000 
 
 71,397,000 
 
 24,579,000 
 
 31,269,000 
 
 22,430,000 
 
 1,943,000 
 
 6,658,000 
 
 2,498,000 
 33,684,000 
 
 Wheat. 
 Bushels. 
 
 S43.000 
 140,000 
 335,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 9,288,000 
 
 1,680,000 
 
 16,049,000 
 
 919,000 
 
 6,208,000 
 
 5,614,000 
 
 3,156,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 1,411,000 
 
 1,319,000 
 286,000 
 
 3i575,ooo 
 
 i,57S,ooo 
 
 7,B73,ooo 
 
 2,326,000 
 
 9,152,000 
 
 29,984,000 
 
 20,271,000 
 
 27,928,000 
 
 18,161,000 
 
 ■13,096,000 
 
 38,356,000 
 
 19,041,000 
 
 17,638,000 
 
 28,195,000 
 
 15,315,000 
 
 29,121,000 
 
 12,865,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 1,777,000 
 
 55,035,000 
 
 523,621,000 299,262,000 202,365,000 
 
 Potatoes, 
 Bushels. 
 
 7,882,000 
 
 3,072,000 
 
 3,876,000 
 
 3,632,000 
 
 668,000 
 
 2,677,000 
 
 29,688,000 
 
 3,599,000 
 
 16,305,000 
 
 317,000 
 
 1,654,000 
 
 2,346,000 
 
 1,377,000 
 
 274,000 
 
 638,000 
 
 155,000 
 
 601,000 
 
 674,000 
 
 511,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 864,000 
 
 2,407,000 
 
 1,849,000 
 
 3,228,000 
 
 11,925,000 
 
 8,611,000 
 
 5,749,000 
 
 11,700,000 
 
 11,006,000 
 
 7,587,000 
 
 16,909,000 
 
 6,044,000 
 
 9,063,000 
 
 6,321,000 
 
 4,442,000 
 
 2,092,000 
 
 383,000 
 
 2,717,000 
 
 7,816,000 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,292,791 
 644,729 
 
 1,038,303 
 674.365 
 104,829 
 574,419 
 
 5,426,757 
 586,386 
 
 2,997,068 
 66,363 
 376,239 
 387,936 
 154,332 
 33,810 
 47,995 
 
 51,383 
 
 58,968 
 
 78,331 
 
 189,795 
 
 56,235 
 
 321,071 
 
 397.345 
 
 345,534 
 
 2,960,066 
 
 1,545,317 
 1,812,500 
 4,625,482 
 
 2,165,391 
 2,112,500 
 
 5,272,783 
 
 1,802,494 
 
 1,935,450 
 
 1,441.440 
 
 1,539.454 
 
 621,314 
 
 220,078 
 
 370,013 
 
 2,318,928 
 
 3.893,000 
 
 9,603,000 
 
 6,488,000 
 
 24,180,000 
 
 14,017,000 
 63,034,000 
 25,755,000 
 
 1,156,000 
 45,641,000 
 
 4,496,000 
 
 283,306,000 
 
 35,195,000 
 
 16,153,000 
 2,947,000 
 12,846,000 
 
 13,109,000 
 
 2,967,000+ 
 
 46,643,094 565,795,000 
 
 *This includes the new States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Idaho and Wyoming. 
 
 f All other States and Territories, 
 
SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 1. Position and Area. — The State of JSTew York is situated be 
 tween 40° 29' 40" and 45° 42" nortli latitude, and between 71° 51 
 and 79° 47' 25" longitude west from Greenwich. The State con- 
 tains 47,620 square miles and is of medium size, there being 
 nineteen States smaller and twenty-four larger than New York. 
 
 The boundary line, which is very irregular, is 1420 miles long. It parses through 
 Long Island Sound midway between Connecticut, on one side and Long and Fisher's 
 Islands on the other, and through the middle of the border lakes and rivers. 
 
 New York has sole jurisdiction over the waters of Hudson River, New York Bay, 
 Kill von Kull, and the greater part of Staten Island Sound. 
 
 The population of New York is greater than that of any other State. On account 
 of this, and its commercial and political supremacy, it is called The Empire Slate. 
 
 2. Surface. — The greater part of the State is hilly or moun- 
 tainous. The hills and mountains belong to the Appalachian Sys- 
 tem. The districts which are decidedly mountainous are mainly 
 in the eastern and north-eastern parts of the State. The portion 
 which is most nearly level is in the north-western part, bordering 
 on Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence Ei\-er. 
 
 Through the counties of Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, and Allegany extend ranges 
 of hills, from south-west to north-east, from 500 feet to 1400 feet above the valleys 
 and from 1000 feet to 2500 feet above the sea. These hills diminish in height till the 
 surface in the counties Erie, Wyoming, Genesee, Niagara, Orleans, and Monroe, lying 
 north, is gently undulating or level. The descent to Lake Ontario is by a series of 
 terraces, separated by ridges or bluffs. 
 
 The counties of Steuben, Chemung, Tioga, and Broome, with the counties lying 
 north, are. crossed by hills and ridges, from SOO to 2000 feet above the sea, extending 
 from south to north to the valley of the Mohawk River. The western portion of 
 this section gradually descends to Lake Ontario ; the other portion, after being broken 
 by the Mohawk Valley, rises into hills and mountains, extending through all the 
 
 Questions. — Between what degrees of latitude and longitude is the State of New 
 York situated? Through how many degrees of each does it extend? How many 
 square miles in the State, and what is its relative size? 
 
 northern and north-eastern counties: these are called the Adirondack Mountains. 
 A range of hills, from 1000 to 2200 feet above tidewater, enters the counties of 
 Delaware and Sullivan from the south-west. . The lowest part of these counties is 
 600 feet above the sea. These hills extend through Ulster, Greene, and Schoharie 
 counties, and, across the Hudson, into the counties of Columbia and Rensselaer. 
 
 In this range are the Shawangunk, Catskill, Helderbergh, and Hellibark mountains. 
 In Orange and Rockland counties is another range of hiUs, extending into Putnam 
 and Dutchess counties; they are called Ramapo Mountains in Rockland County, 
 the Highlands, near the Hudson, and the Matteawan Mountains in Putnam County. 
 
 Questions. — What is the length of the boundary, and what remark in regard to 
 it? Why IS New York called " The Empire State"? Describe the surface. De- 
 scribe the four ranges of hills and mountains in the order named. 
 
 Oipyrighl hy COWPERTIIWAIT & CO., Philadelphia, ISSO. 
 
2 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
 
 3. Lakes. — The largest are Lake Erie, on the western border; 
 Lake Ontario, on the north-wesr, and Lake Champlain, on the 
 north-east. 
 
 In the central part of the State is a system of lakes having their outlet through 
 Oswego Eiver into Lake Ontario. The largest of these are Oneida, Onondaga, 
 Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka or Crooked, and Cauandaigua. Ly- 
 ing partly in Warren and partly in "Washington counties is Lake George, widely 
 
 known and greatly admired for the beauty 
 
 of its scenery. Chautauqua Lake, in the 
 
 r_j^__ county of the same name, is a beautiful 
 
 ' ^ sheet of water, nine miles south of 
 
 ^fe ^ Lake Erie. It is well known as 
 
 ^V the site of the famous "Sum- 
 
 ^^2l-Si mer School" and "Sunday 
 
 School Assembly." 
 
 ^ Lakes and ponds 
 
 1=;^ abound in all parts 
 
 ^SL^ of the State, and 
 
 ^B are especially nu- 
 
 iH^B^MMWi^^^^^^B^^'^^^^^ merouB in the 
 
 northern counties. 
 
 Lakes Erie, Onla- 
 
 ^^^Ma y ^^^^ g rio, and Champlain 
 
 '^^^^B are, commercially, 
 
 i^^'^ste ^^^^^ ■^^I'y important, 
 
 ' "' % being navigable for 
 
 J the largest vessels. 
 
 *lm\\ IP M^: Bi;.v>iDv vs The others named 
 
 are navigable for 
 
 ^P small steamboats 
 
 ^!jjyi^^ and sailing-vessels. 
 
 Klagars Falls— American Sldo. 
 
 
 Questions. — Name the largest lakes. What lakes in the central part of the State? 
 Where is Lake George ? For what is Chautauqua Lake celebrated ? What is said 
 of the commercial importance of the large lakes ? To what systems do the rivers 
 of the State belong? What river, with its tributaries, belongs to the Ohio system ? 
 Describe the Hudson River? Name its principal branches. How far is it navi- 
 gable? Wliat is said of its commercial importance? Its scenery? 
 
 4. Rivers.— The rivers of the State belong to the Atlantic and 
 St. Lawrence systems. Allegany Eiver, with its tributaries, which 
 flows through the soutli-western part and runs into the Ohio, is 
 the only exception. 
 
 6. Hudson River, which rises in the western part of Essex 
 County, flows south about twenty miles from the eastern border 
 of the State into New York Bay. 
 
 Its principal branches are, from the west, Sacondaga and Mohawk rivers, and 
 Catskill, Esopus, and Eondout creeks, and, from the east, Hoosick Biver. 
 
 It is navigable for ships about 120 miles, to the city of Hudson, and for steam- 
 boats to IVoy. In commercial importance it is scarcely exceeded by any river of 
 the same length, and in beauty of scenery it is not excelled by any. 
 
 6. The valley of the MoJmwk Biver lies across the State, from 
 Oneida County to Troy, on the Hudson. The most important 
 branch is Schoharie Creek, from the south. 
 
 7. Niagara River, about 30 miles long, flows from Lake Erie to 
 Lake Ontario, descending in this distance 326 feet. The cataract 
 of Niagara is the grandest and most famous waterfall in the world. 
 
 A series of rapids begins about two miles above the falls. A little above and at the 
 falls the river is divided by Goat Island. On the west side of the island, the edge 
 of the precipice, in the shape of a horse-shoe, is 2000 feet long and 154 feet high. 
 This is the Canadian fall. The American fall, on the east of Goat Island, is 900 
 feet long and 163 feet high. 
 
 Over these precipices plunge 
 immense quantities of water, 
 forming one of the most won- 
 derful natural objects in the 
 world. The river for some miles 
 below the falls is also very re- 
 markable, running furiously, 
 through a narrow chasm be- 
 tween rocky, precipitous lianks 
 200 feet high. 
 
 The principal rivers which 
 flow into Lake Ontario and the 
 St. Lawrence River are the Gen- 
 esee, which rises in Pennsyl- 
 vania and runs entirely across 
 the State; Oswego, Black, Oswe- 
 gatchie. Grass, Backet, St. Regis, 
 Malone, and Chateaugay. The 
 larger streams flowing into 
 Lake Champlain are Chazy, 
 Saranac, and Au Sable. Kan of Niasara FaUs. 
 
 8. The Susquehanna River, rising in Otsego Lake, rtins south- 
 westerly, with many turnings, to Binghamton, where it receives the 
 Chenango River, and flows thence to the south-west corner of 
 Tioga County, where it passes into Pennsylvania. 
 
 A short distance south of the border it receives the Chemung River, which runs 
 across the counties of Steuben and Chemung. 
 
 9. The Delaware River rises in Stamford, Delaware County, 
 runs south-west, and meets the Pennsylvania line at the forty- 
 second parallel of latitude; turns south-east, and, following the 
 boundary line, passes out of New York when it reaches the border 
 of New Jersey. 
 
 The rivers named, and hundreds of other streams, supply water-power for various 
 purposes, and fertilize, beautify and refresh all parts of the State. 
 
 Questions. — Where is the valley of the Mohawk Eiver? Name the most im- 
 portant branch of thit river. Describe Niagara River. What is said of the Falls? 
 Give the length and height of the Canadian fall. Of the American fall. Name the 
 principal rivers whicli flow into Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence Biver. Describe 
 the Susquehanna Eiver. Name some of its tributaries. Describe the Delaware 
 Biver. Of what use are the rivers and lakes? 
 
10. Islands. 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 purposes these and many 
 
 ■Long lalana, embracing the counties of Kings 
 Queens and Suffolk, is 120 miles long and from seven to fifteen 
 miles broad. It is mostly level, except along the north side, which 
 is hilly. 
 
 West of Long Island is Staten Island, forming Richmond County. It is four- 
 teen miles long by eight miles broad. 
 
 Many small islands near the city of New York have become important by reason 
 of their use by the national and city authorities. 
 
 11. Climate.— New York has great variety of climate. On 
 Long Island and in other southern parts of the State, the winters 
 are comparatively mild ; but in the northern parts the summers 
 are short and the winters are long and severe. 
 
 In no part, except, perhaps, in the larger cities, is the heat so oppressive as in the 
 States farther south. In general, all parts of the State are healthy ; and. in summer 
 many thousands from the cities and from other States resort to the Catskills the 
 Ad.rondacks, the shores and islands of the lakes and rivers, to the mineral springs 
 of Saratoga, Ballston, Sharon, Richfield, Avon, Clifton, and many other places 
 for rest and recreation, and to restore health, for which purposes these and n 
 other parts of the State are so 
 justly celebrated. 
 
 13. Animals. — Not 
 
 many wild animals 
 remain in the State, 
 though panthers, black 
 bears, wild-cats, and 
 deer are still found in 
 the wilderness of the 
 Adirondacks, and a few 
 among the Catskills and 
 in some other parts of 
 the State. 
 
 The lakes and streams 
 abound in fish. Large num- 
 bers of domestic animals, — 
 horses, cattle, sheep, swine, — 
 and all kinds of domestic fowls, 
 are found in the rural districts. 
 A great many horses are em- 
 ployed in the cities by railroad 
 companies and merchants. 
 
 View on the Delaware Klver at Narrowsburs. 
 
 13. Soil. — The soil varies in kind in different parts- of the 
 State, but the quality is generally good. The valleys of the cen- 
 tral and western parts are celebrated for their fertility, and many 
 of the high ranges of ridges and hills are cultivated to their 
 summits. In the counties bordering on Hudson River are great 
 numbers of highly-cultivated farms. 
 
 14. Population.— By the census of 1890, the population of the 
 State was 5,997,853. Of this number over one-half lived in cities. 
 About 24 per cent, were of foreign birth. 
 
 The proportion of foreigners is much greater in cities than in the rural districts. 
 On eight reservations there were about 4500 Indians, and besides these there were 
 about 65,000 persons in the State belonging to other colored races. 
 
 15. Productions and Occupations. — The productive industry of 
 the State is represented by about one-third of the whole popula- 
 
 Questions. — What is the extent and surface of Long Island? What counties on 
 Long Island ? Describe Staten Island. What is the climate of the State ? Why 
 is the climate more agreeable than in States further south? What places of summer 
 resort are named, and why do people go to them ? What is said of the animals ? 
 What proportion of the people live in cities ? What part of the people are of for- 
 eign birth ? Where do the greater part of these live ? 
 
 tion. Of these, about 350,000 are engaged in agricultural pursuits, 
 21,000 in the learned professions, 400,000 in the minor professions 
 and in unskilled and domestic labor, 265,000 in trade and trans- 
 portation, and 500,000 in manufacturing, mechanics and mining. 
 
 The number of persons engaged in the learned professions, and in official positions 
 under the national, State, and city governments, is very great. 
 
 One-sixth of those having a profession or a business calling are women. 
 
 16. Agriculture. — The usual farm productions of grain, veg- 
 etables, and fruits grow abundantly ; but some districts are better 
 adapted to producing a particular kind. 
 
 The counties taking the lead in producing Wheat are Monroe, Ontario, Cn^-uga, 
 Niagara, and Wayne; Jtye — Columbia, Rensselaer, Dutchess, Albany, and Ulster; 
 Varley — Ontario, Ciyuga, Jefferson, Wayne, and Monroe; Com — Cayuga, Wayne, 
 Monroe, Onondaga, and Ontario; Oau — Jefferson, St. Lawrence, Steuben, Erie, and 
 Onondaga; Potatoes — Washington, Rensselaer, Monroe, St. Lawrence, and Oneida; 
 Apples — Westchester, Wayne, Monroe, Niagara, Erie, and Genesee. Grapes are 
 extensively cultivated in Steuben, Yates, Ontario, Chautauqua, and Ulster. 
 
 In the neighborhood of cities, immense quantities of Qarden Vegetahles and Small 
 
 JPrtiits are raised. More than 
 100,000,000 pounds of Better 
 are made annually in the 
 State. The counties leading 
 in this are St. Lawrence, Dela- 
 ware, Chautauqua, Chenango, 
 and Jefferson. 
 
 About the same quantity 
 of Oieege is manufactured 
 annually ; Herkimer, Jeffer- 
 son, Chautauqua, Oneida, and 
 Onondaga leading. 
 
 About 60,000,000 gallons of 
 MUk are sent every year to 
 market, mainly from the coun- 
 ties of Orange, Westchester, 
 Dutchess, Queens, Rensselaer, 
 Monroe, and Onondaga. 
 
 17. Mining. — Valu- 
 able beds of iron - ore 
 of the best quality have 
 been found in various 
 parts of the State. The 
 
 mines have been worked to a considerable extent in the counties 
 
 of Clinton, Essex, Columbia, and Dutchess. 
 
 Mines of Zead have been opened in various places in the northern and eastern 
 counties, but not extensively worked. Quarries of Gypsum are found in the coun- 
 ties of Cayuga, Madison, Onondaga, Wayne, Orleans, and Genesee. Limestone is found 
 in nearly all parts of the State. Water-Zime, or Cement, is found in Erie, Jefferson, 
 Lewis, Madison, Montgomery. Niagara, Onondaga, and Ulster. Mngr/ing-stmie 
 quarries abound in Ulster and many southern counties, and Bnildinu-sume in 
 almost every section. 
 
 18. Mineral Springs are found in nearly every county of the 
 State. The most remarkable of these are the salt springs, near 
 Onondaga Lake, and medicinal springs, to which reference has 
 been made. 
 
 The salt springs of Onondaga are under the supervision of the State. In the year 
 1888, more than 11,000,000 bushels of .salt were made. A large portion of it is used 
 for dairy purposes. It is thought to be equal to the best foreign product. 
 
 Questions.— What are the occupations of the people ? What proportion in each ? 
 AVhat are the chief agricultural productions? Which counties lead in the products 
 named ? How many pounds of butter and cheese are produced yearly ' Where are 
 garden vegetables principally raised ? How much milk is sold"? Give an account 
 of the mining interests of the State. lu which counties are the minerals named 
 found? What mineral springs are there? Give an account of the salt springs. 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 19. Manvfactnre^ — In extent, variety and value of manufac 
 tares, New York is the leading State of tlie Union. Abundant 
 water-power and facility of transportation by railroads and canals 
 have induced capitalists to engage in this branch of industry. 
 
 The counties of New York, Kings, Erie, Monroe, Rensselaer, Albany, Onondaga, 
 and Oswego are most extensively engaged in manufacturing ; though many cities 
 and towns in other counties are noted for the manufacture of various articles. 
 
 20. Commerce. — Though the State of New York has but one 
 ocean harbor of importance, three-fourths of the foreign goods 
 brought into the United States enter the port of New York. 
 Nearly one-half of the exports of the whole country is shipped at 
 the city of New York. 
 
 These exports embrace every variety of produce and manufactured articles of the 
 country, and they are sent to all parts of the world. It is also the center of an im- 
 mense coastwise domestic trade. 
 
 21. Canals. — New York has abundant means of inland navi- 
 gation in the Hudson Eiver, in its border and interior lakes and 
 its sy.stem of canals. Nearly all the canals in the State have been 
 made by State direction, and they are now under the supervision 
 and management of a Superintendent of Public Works. 
 
 The Delaware and Hudson Canal, 110 miles long, connecting Kingston with the 
 coal regions of Pennsylvania, is owned by a private company. 
 
 22. The Erie Canal, which is the most important, connects the 
 Hudson Eiver at Albany with Lake Erie at Buftalo. It is 852 miles 
 long, seventy feet wide, and seven feet deep. It has seventy-two 
 locks, and a total lockage of 655 feet. The boats, which are usu- 
 ally about 220 tons burden, are drawn by horses or mules, though 
 steam-power is used to some extent. 
 
 This great work was planned'by De "Witt Clinton, when Governor of the State, 
 ' and its construction was authorized by the Legislature in 1817. It was completed 
 in 182.5. The enlargement, by which the capacity of the canal was nearly doubled, 
 was completed in 1862. The total cost of conetractioii was |50,000,000. 
 
 Questions. — What is the rank of New York as a manufacturing State? Why? 
 Which counties lead in manufacturing? What rank has New York in regard to 
 commerce? Give some account of this. What facilities has the State for inland 
 navigation? By whom are the canals owned and managed? Any exception? What 
 two bodies of water does the Erie Canal connect? Give its length, depth, and width. 
 By whom was the work planned? When completed, and at what cost? 
 
 The principal branches of the Erie Canal are the following: The Genesee Valley 
 Canal, extending from Rochester to Mill Grove, 125 miles. It has a lockage of 1045 
 feet. The Cayuga and Seneca Canals, extending from Montezuma to Geneva, 23 
 miles. The Oswego Canal, extending from Syracuse to Oswego, 38 miles. The £lack 
 Eiver Canal, extending from Rome to Carthage, 94 miles. It has a lockage of 1082 
 feet. The Champlain Canal, extending from Cohoes to Whiteliall, 60 miles. 
 
 The Chenango and the Chemung Canals have been abandoned. 
 
 23. Railroads.^ The Ifohaick and Hudson Railroad, s'eventcen 
 miles long, connecting Albany and Schenectady, was the first rail- 
 road built in the State. It was opened in 1831. The first mile of 
 the Harlem Railroad was finished in 1832. 
 
 The assessed valuation of railroads operated by steam is about $3,500,000,000. 
 The length of steam roads in the State is 7700 miles. Many are two, three and 
 (onr-track roads, making tlie length of single track very much greater. On these 
 roads as many as .'i", 000,000 passengers and 58,000,000 tons of freight are carried 
 every year. 
 
 A capital of 5'45,000,000 is invested in 600 miles of horse-railroads, employing 
 20,000 horses. More than 2 10,000,000 passengers are carried on these roads annually. 
 
 24. The main lines of steam -railroads in the State connect the 
 city of New York with the western part of the State. These are 
 the Neiu York, Lake Erie, and Western Railroad, 460 miles long, 
 connecting Jersey City, opposite the city of New York, with Dun- 
 kirk and Buffalo on Lake Eric; and the New York Central and 
 Hudson River Railroad, -I-IS miles long, connecting the city of 
 New York with Buff\ilo. 
 
 These main lines and the branch roads owned and leased by the same companies, 
 with other connecting roads, give u, means of easy and rapid transit through all 
 sections of the State scarcely equaled in any other part of the country. 
 
 Questions. — What are the principal branches of the Erie Canal? What is their 
 total length? When and where was the first railroad in the State built? What 
 amount of capital is now invested in steam-railroads? How many miles of steam- 
 roads in the State? IIow many passengers are carried annually? How many tons 
 of freight? How many miles of horse-railroads? How many passengers are carried 
 annually on them? Name and describe the iwo main lines of steam-railronds. 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 The length of the New York, Lake Brie, and Western EaUroad in New York State, 
 with its branches, owned or leased, is 74S miles. The length of the N.iv: York Cen- 
 tral and Hudson River Railroad, with its branches in the State, is 1000 miles. 
 
 The New York, Lake Erie, and Western road Lj remarkable for the engineering 
 and mechanical skill shown in locating and building a road through a country natu- 
 rally so difficult, and for the number, extent, and substantial character of its bridges 
 and embankments. The country along the line of this road presents many scenes 
 that are strikingly grand or picturesquely wild. These views will well repay the 
 traveler or tourist for a journey through that part of the State. The New York 
 Central and Hudson River road is well built and finely equipped. In some respects 
 it is one of the best roads in the United States. It has 225 miles of four-track road. 
 
 25. History. — The territory now knowB as the State of New 
 York was occupied, long before its discovery by white men, by a 
 very powerful confederacy of Indian tribes called the Iroquois, 
 afterwards named the Five Nations. The separate tribes of the 
 league were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and 
 Senecas. They subjected or expelled the neighboring tribes, and 
 made their influence felt from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. About a century after the whites settled in the State, 
 the Tuscaroras of North Carolina were added to the confederacy, 
 which was then known as the Six Nations. They numbered at 
 that time about 45,000. 
 
 They were friendly to the English settlers, but at the beginning of the Revolu- 
 tionary war they adhered to the British interests. The massacre of Cherry Valley, 
 and their depredations on the settlements in the Mohawk Valley and in other parts 
 of the State during that war. were fearful exhibitions of savage cruelty. 
 
 26. In July, 1609, Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, discovered 
 the lake which bears his name. Two months later, Henry Hud- 
 son, an Englishman in the service of the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany, entered New York bay. He explored Hudson Kiver as far 
 as Albany. 
 
 Trading-posts were established on the river a little below Albany, and on Man- 
 hattan Island, New York, in the year 1613, and permanent settlements were made 
 by the Dutch soon afterwards. In 1621 the States-General of Holland granted a 
 new charter to the Dutch West India Company, giving them the exclusive privi- 
 lege of planting colonies in New Netherlands and trading in America. In 1623 
 this company sent out emigrants, some of whom settled at Wallabout Bay in Brook- 
 lyn, and some at Albany. Many of these settlers were French Protestants. 
 
 Henry Hudson Exploring tlie Hudson River. 
 
 Questions.— What i-s remarkable in respect to the location of the New York, Lake 
 Erie, and Western Railroad ? What is said about the New York Central and Hudson 
 River Railroad? Give an account of the Indian tribes formerly living in the State. 
 What was their conduct towards the English settlers during the Revolutionary war? 
 Give an account of the discovery of the State by white men. When and by whom 
 were the first trading- posts established? 
 
 A British Prison-Ship. 
 
 The government of the colony was administered by a Director-general and council. 
 To persons founding settlements on certain conditions, large tracts of land and the 
 title of Patroou were granted. These were feudal lords, and they governed their 
 tenants and estates without interference by colonial authorities. 
 
 Slavery was introduced into the colony in the year 1629, and it was not entirely 
 abolished till July 4, 1827. 
 
 The English had always regarded the Dutch as intruders. In 1664, a British 
 squadron appeared in the harbor, and the city and government were surrendered to 
 the English. The name, New Amsterdam, was changed to New York. The city 
 was taken by the Dutch in 1673, held fifteen months, and then restored to the 
 English. 
 
 The government was administered by governors appointed by the Duke of York, 
 till he became King (James II.) of England. The colony then became a royal 
 province and the governors were appointed by the Crown. The governors were 
 assisted by a council, and afterwards by a general assembly, which had certain 
 legislative powers. 
 
 27. In the struggle of the Colonies for independence, New York 
 took an important part by contributing her full share of soldiers 
 and money, and by the heroic endurance and sufferings of her 
 citizens for the cause of freedom. The city of New York was 
 occupied by the British army from the summer of 1776 till No- 
 vember, 1783. Some of the most warmly- contested battles, the 
 most brilliant military movements, and the most important and 
 complete victories over the enemy during the war, took place in 
 this State. 
 
 The taking of Ticonderoga, the battles of Long Island, White Plains, Stillwater, 
 and Oriskany, the capture of Stony Point by General Wayne, and the surrender of 
 Burgoyne at Saratoga, are all memorable events in the war for independence. 
 
 The prison-ships in the harbor of New Y^ork, the jail, the old Sugar House, 
 and many churches used as prisons in the city, were crowded with patriotic prison- 
 ers, whose sufferings by starvation, pestilence, and inhuman treatment were intense 
 beyond description. 
 
 28. Among the most stirring and important events of the war 
 of 1812 with Great Britain were the attacks on Ogdensburg, 
 Sackett's Harbor, Black Eock, Buffalo, Oswego, the battle at 
 Plattsburgh, and the naval victory over the enemy on Lake Cham- 
 plain. 
 
 In the late ci^-il war. New York was among the foremost to sus- 
 tain the National Government. During the first 3"ear of the war, 
 her bankers and citizens advanced to the fnited States Govern- 
 ment more than two hundred millions of dollars, and during the 
 war the Stiite sent 438,000 soldiers to the field. 
 
 Questions, — How was the government of the colony administered under the 
 Dutch? What was a Patroon? What is said about slavery? What difficnlties 
 between the Dutch and English? How did they terminate ? What was the con- 
 duct of New York during the Revolutionary war? During what time was the city 
 of New York occupied by the British army? Mention some memorable events of 
 this war. Of the War of 1812. What action in regard to the civil war. 
 
6 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 29. Education. — No State in the Union lias a more efficient 
 scliool system, and none presents better opportunities for acquiring 
 primary, academic, collegiate and university education, than the 
 State of New York. 
 
 30. The Board of Regents of the University of the State of New 
 York, instituted in the year 1784, consists of nineteen men elected 
 for life by the Legislature, with the Governor, Lieutenant-Gov- 
 ernor, Secretary of State, and Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion, as ex officio members. 
 
 This board has under its supervision twent.y-three literary colleges, twelve medical 
 colleges, and two hundred and forty-three academies and academic departments of 
 the common schools. Of the literary colleges five are for women only, and students 
 of both sexes are admitted to four. 
 
 31. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has super- 
 vision of the Normal Schools, and the public or common schools, 
 Indian schools. State institutions for the deaf and dumb, and all 
 similar institutions in the State. He has judicial power in respect 
 to the school laws. 
 
 Other school officers are memhers of Boards of Education, and city Superintend- 
 ents of Public Instruction in cities. School Commissioners in assembly districts, and 
 trustees of school districts in the rural sections of the State. 
 
 There are in the State eleven Normal and Training Schools, and 12,000 Public 
 Schools, with an enrollment of ov.er 1,000,000 children, instructed by over 30,000 
 teachers, thirty -six weeks of the year. 
 
 Nearly $11,000,000 is annually expended for the support of the public or common 
 schools. This sum is raised from the income of the school fund of the State, and by 
 State and local taxation. 
 
 These schools were founded by the Legislature in 1795. Important improvements 
 were made in the school laws, in 1801, 1812, and in 1842. In 1867, the schools 
 were made free to all the children of the State. 
 
 There is also a large number of private schools in the cities and larger towns. 
 
 32. The Military Academy at West Point, founded in 1802 and 
 organized in 1812, is under the care and direction of the United 
 States Government. 
 
 Candidates for admission to this school must be between seventeen and twenty- 
 one years of age, and free from constitutional disease. They must have -a, good 
 common-school education, and an unblemished moral character. Candidates are 
 nominated by Members of Congress and by the President of the United States. 
 
 33. Benevolent and Penal Institutions. — There are five State 
 asylums for the insane, and one asylum for idiots. Besides these 
 there are in every section of the State, orphan asylums and alms- 
 houses, partly or wholly supported at public expense. 
 
 There are six State institution.' for the instruction of deaf and dumb pupils, and 
 one institution for the blind. The State prisons are at Sing Sing, Auburn, and 
 Dannemora. Besides these, there are several penitentiaries and reformatories in 
 different parts of the State; and in each county there is a jail. 
 
 34. Territorial Divisions and Government.— The territory of the 
 State is divided into sixty counties of irregular shape and various 
 extent. The counties are subdivided into towns. 
 
 A part or the whole of a town is sometimes incorporated as a village or city. 
 Cities are divided into wards. A ward of a city is like a town in some respects. 
 An alderman is elected in each ward for the city government. 
 
 The chief officer of a town is the Supervisor. The Supervisors of the several towns 
 of a county form a board, in which are vested certain legislative powers. 
 
 Questions. — What educational advantages has New York ? What is the " Board 
 of Regents " ? Of whom is it composed, and of what has it supervision ? What is 
 the jurisdiction of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction? Give an account 
 of the Normal and Common or Public Schools. When were the common schools 
 founded? What and where is the Military Academy? Terms of admission? 
 How many State prisons? Where? What other penal institutions? 
 
 bers chosen annually. 
 
 The Legiilature meetL ^^ ^^^ „.„.. ^^^^ 
 day in January every year. 
 
 The Executive power of the State is 
 vested in a Governor and Lieutenant- 
 Governor, who are elected for three years. The Secretary 
 of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney-General, and 
 State Engineer and Surveyor are elected for two years. 
 
 A Superintendent of State Prisons is appointed by the 
 Governor and Senate for five years, and a Superintendent 
 of Public Works is appointed in the same manner for 
 three years. 
 
 Tlie .Tudiciary consists of a Court of Appeals, com- 
 posed of one Chief Judge and six Associate Judges 
 elected for fourteen years, and a Supreme Court com- 
 posed of thirty-four judges, distributed among eight judi- 
 cial districts ; three justices of the Superior Court of 
 Buffalo ; six judges of the Superior Court of the city of 
 New York ; six judges of the Court of Common Pleas of 
 the city of New York, and three judges of the City Court 
 of Brooklyn, all elected for fourteen years. 
 
 Besides these there are County Courts, Police Courts, 
 Marine Courts, and others with less jurisdiction. 
 
 35. The first State Consfifnfiou was 
 
 formed and proclaimed in the year 1777. A 
 new Constitution was framed and adopted in the year 1822. This 
 was superseded in iS-tO by another Constitution which, as since 
 amended, is the supreme law of the State. 
 
 The Constitution of a State is usually framed by a convention, the members of 
 which ar? elected by thepeople for that purpose. The proposed Constitution does not 
 usually become the supremo law until it has been adopted by a vote of the peojile. 
 
 Questions.— How i.f the territory of the State divided? What is a connly? 
 town? city? village? ward? What is a Supervisor? An Alderman? In what 
 is the legislative power vested? Of how many members does the Senate consist? 
 The Assembly? For how long are each elected? In whom is the executive power 
 vested? Of what does the judiciary consist? Name different sorts of courts. 
 Give a history of the State Constitution. 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 on the 
 Island 
 
 Elevated Bailroad through the Streets of New York City. 
 
 36. Cities.— There are thirty-two cities in the State, which con- 
 tained, in 1890, 3,429,792 inhabitants, or over 57 per cent, of the 
 total population. 
 
 37. NEIF YORK is the most populous and the chief commer- 
 cial city in America, and ranks third in importance among the 
 cities of the world: The City Hall is in latitude 40° 41' 43" N. 
 and in longitude 74° 0' 3" W. 
 
 The city is sixteen miles in length by an average width of 
 two and three-fifth miles. It embraces Manhattan, Governor's, 
 Bedloe's, Ellis', Mackwell's, Randall's, and Ward's Islands, and 
 nineteen square miles annexed from Westchester County, Janu- 
 uary, 1874. 
 
 Tlie city is bounded on the north and north-east by Westchester County, 
 east and south by a narrow strait called East River, which connects Long 
 Sound and New York Bay, and on the west by Hudson River. 
 
 Spuyten Duyvil Creek and Harlem River separate Manhattan 
 fi-om the mainland. The territory of the city of New York is the 
 same as the county of the same name. Portions of the city still 
 retain the names of the towns or neighborhoods which they had 
 before they became parts of the city. Some of these on Manhat- 
 t.in Island are Yorkville, Harlem, Bloomingdate, ManhattamiVe, 
 WashimjUm Heights, and Oarmansville. The names of some on the 
 mainland are Kinysbridge, Mosholu, Miverdale, William's Bridge, 
 Furdham, Wesl Farms, Tremonl, Fairmount, Woodstock, Mor- 
 risania, Melrose, Port Morris, and Molt Haven. 
 
 Besides these places within the city limits, there are the large 
 cities of Brooklyn, on Long Island, Jersey City, and Newark, in New 
 Jersey, and scores of villages in Westchester County, in Connec- 
 ticut, on Long and Staten Islands, and in New Jersey, whose 
 business and social affairs are intimately connected with New 
 York, and many thousands of business men go to and from the 
 city daily by steamboats and cars. Horse-cars and stages run in 
 every part of (lie city; steam-cars run on four elevated roads 
 north and south through the city. 
 
 Tlie city abounds in large and substantial public buildings 
 and structures erected for business purposes, commodious and 
 sumptuous hotels, beautiful churches, and costly and elegant 
 private residences. 
 
 Questions. — What per cent, of the population of the State of New York resided 
 in the cities in 1875 ? What is said of the rank and importance of the city of New 
 York ? What does it embrace ? What are the boundaries of the city ? Give some 
 of the old names of neighborhoods on Manhattan Island ; on the mainland. What 
 other cities and villages are intimately connected with New York ? What means of 
 travel are named ? What is said of the streets ? The buildings ? 
 
 The lower part of Manhattan Island was irregularly laid out and many of the 
 streets are crooked. On the northern part of the island the avenues running north 
 and south are regularly crossed by streets running east and west. Broadway, extend- 
 ing from the Battery to Central Park, is a celebrated business street and a great 
 thoroughfare. 
 
 38. The Island of Manhattan was bought of the Indians, in 
 1626, for the value of twenty-four dollars in goods. The city, 
 then containing 1200 inhabitants, was first incorporated with muni- 
 cipal powers in 1652, by the Dutch Governor Stuyvesant. 
 
 The original English charter was granted by King James II., in 1686, when 
 Thomas Dongan was governor. The population was then 4000. 
 
 Another charter, which was in force one hundred years, was granted by King 
 George II., in 1730, under Governor John Montgomerie. The population had then 
 increased to 8200, and in 1825 the city numbered 166,086 people. In 1875 the 
 population was 1,041,886; and in 1880, 1,206,577. 
 
 New York was the capital of the United States from 1785 to 1790. Here Wash- 
 ington was inaugurated President, in 1789. 
 
 39. The Healthful Location and pleasant surroundings of the 
 city render New York a very desirable place of residence. Its 
 great extent of water front, its spacious and safe harbor, nearness 
 and easy access to the ocean, the Hudson Eiver connecting the 
 harbor with the canal system of the State and the great lakes, 
 and the railroads from all parts of our great country centering 
 here, give New York facilities for foreign commerce and domes- 
 tic trade unequaled in this country, and place it in the front rank 
 of the great commercial cities of the world. 
 
 During the year ending June 30, 1890, 10,354 American and foreign vessels en- 
 gaged in foreign commerce, and 3908 vessels engaged in coa.-iling trade, from the port of 
 New York. The vahie of the ex[iorts for the same; period wa< more tban S900,000,OcX); 
 the imports were valued at $823,000,000; upon winch tlie duties collected amounted 
 to $130,500,000. The city has twenty-five miles of water front suitable for docks. 
 
 During the busy seasons of trade, the wharves and streets filled with buyers and 
 sellers, boxes and bales of goods, workmen loading and unloading, packing and un- 
 packing, moving loads to and from stores, vessels, an 1 railroad depots, — jiresent 
 scenes of wonderful activity, scarcely conceivable by one who has not witnessed them. 
 
 
 New York City in 1627, then caUed New Amsicrdam 
 
 Questions.— What is said of the purchase of Manhattan Island ? Of its first in- 
 corporation? Of the first English Charter? Of the next? What is said of the 
 population ? When was New York the capital of the United States ? Why is New 
 York a desirable place of residence? Why among the first commercial cities of the 
 world? How many ves.sels cleared from this port in 1878? What was the value 
 of the exports ? The imports? The duties? 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Ocean Pier at Coney 
 
 40. The Defenses of the City. — These are Castle "William, Fort 
 Columbus and South Battery, on Governor's Island ; Fort Wood, 
 on Bedloe's Island; Fort Gibson, on Ellis Island; Fort Hamilton, 
 on the east side of The Narrows; and Forts Wadsworth and Tomp- 
 kins, opposite, on Staten Island. 
 
 Fort Schuyler, fifteen miles from the city, on Throgg's Neck, and Fort Taylor, oppo- 
 site, on Long Island, command the approach to the city by way of Long Island Sound. 
 
 Fort Lafayette, a castle surrounded by water in The Narrows, became famous 
 during the civil war as a military prison. 
 
 41. Central Park, the principal pleasure-ground of the city, 
 has many attractions. It contains 843 acres. In it are fifteen 
 miles of carriage-roads, eight miles of bridle-roads, twenty-five 
 miles of walks, a museum, a menagerie, and many curious and 
 wonderful works of art. 
 
 Though the Park has been laid out more than twenty-five years, kept and improved 
 at the cost of many millions of dollars, large sums are annually expended to beau- 
 tify and preserve it. There are twelve smaller parks in the city. 
 
 42. Croton Water. — Croton Aqueduct, by which the city is 
 supplied with water, built in 1842, at a cost of $25,000,000, is forty 
 miles long. It brings water from Croton Eiver and several natu- 
 ral and artificial ponds in Westchester County. The aqueduct 
 crosses Harlem River on a very handsome and substantial bridge 
 130 feet above the river. 
 
 43. Education. — There are in the city twenty-five colleges and 
 academies, embracing literary and medical colleges, law schools, 
 and theological seminaries. Columbia College is the oldest of the 
 higher institutions of learning. 
 
 There are more than 300 public schools and departments, 
 attended by about 135,000 pupils, instructed by 3400 teachers; 
 and a large number of private schools. 
 
 The College of the Oily of New York, for young men, the Normal College and 
 Training School, for young women, and a Nautical School are maintained at pub- 
 lic expense. About $3,500,000 is annually appropriated for educational purposes. 
 Eleven public libraries contain from 10,000 to 150,000 volumes each; twelve others 
 contain from 2500 to 8000 volumes each. 
 
 Island, 1160 feet long. 
 
 44. Benevolent and Correctional Institutions. — There arc, sup- 
 ported by the municipal government, ten hospitals, one almshouse, 
 one asylum for the blind, four asylums and a hospital for the 
 insane, a city prison, penitentiary, and a workhouse. 
 
 Many of these institutions are situated on Blackwell's, Randall's, and Ward's 
 Islands. The average number of inmates in these institutions is 11,000. 
 
 There are in the city about 500 churches and missions, and 80 asylums and homes 
 under the care of religious and benevolent societies. 
 
 45. The Manufactures are very valuable and embrace almost 
 every variety of mechanic arts. The printing and making of 
 books, and especially those manufactures which require difficult 
 and delicate mechanical operations, are extensively carried on in 
 the city. 
 
 The city has about seventy-ffve banks and thirty-five savings institutions and 
 trust companies. 
 
 New York is connected with Brooklyn, the various islands, and Jersey City by 
 twenty-eight ferries. 
 
 46. BROOKLYN, sometimes called the "City of Churches" and 
 the " City of Homes," is situated on the north side of the western 
 end of Long Island, opposite New York, from which it is separated 
 by the East Eiver. The boundary line is twenty-two miles long. 
 Tlie city is seven and three-quarters miles in length, and its aver- 
 age width is a little less than three miles. 
 
 The Heights, Wallaboul, Qowanus, South Bronklyn, Bedford, Williamsburg, 
 Oreenpoini, and Bushwick are the old names, still retained, of localities in the city. 
 
 The water front, more than eight miles long, on the East River and New York 
 Bay, is lined with wharves, which are mostly occupied by warehouses for storage 
 of tobacco, sugar, molasses, hides, grain, and other articles of commerce. 
 
 There are several ship-yards in the Eastei'n District. The Erie Basin, covering 
 100 acres, with a pier 1400 feet long, and the Atlantic Docks, occupj'ing forty acres, 
 have dock room for a great number of ships and storage for 12,000,000 bushels of 
 grain and vast quantities of merchandise. 
 
 These, with other warehouses and the Brooklyn Basin, make Brooklyn the great- 
 est depot for merchandise and grain in the United States. 
 
 Questions. — What are the principal defenses of the city? What and where is 
 Fort Lafayette? Describe Central Park, and name some of its attractions. What is 
 the Croton Aqueduct? When was it iiuilt? Give its length and cost. What means 
 of education has New York City? Give an accoant of the public schools and libra- 
 ries. What benevolent and correctional institutions are supported by thi' city ? How 
 many inmates have they ? What other institutions, religious and charitable, are named ? 
 
 Questions. — Wlmt kind of manufactures are most extensively carried on? How 
 many banks are there? How many ferries? What other names are given to 
 Brooklyn? How is tlie city located? What is its territorial extent? Give the 
 names appliicl to different parts of tlie city. What is said of the water front 
 of Brooklyn, and how occupied? Where are the ship-yards? Give a further 
 account ot the docks and warehouses. 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 9 
 
 47. The Commercial Interests of Brooklyn are inseparable 
 from those of New York. A very great number of merchants 
 and business men of New York have their homes in Brooklyn. 
 The manufactures of the city are of great value and importance. 
 
 Among the leading manufactures are hats, steel, brass, copper, printing-presses, 
 book-binding, sugar-refining, glue, and chemicals. 
 
 48. Prospect Park is a beautiful tract, containing 510 acres. 
 Many pleasing features have been added to its numerous natural 
 attractions, and it is now one of the finest parks in any American 
 city. Of the smaller parks, Washington Park, or "Fort Greene," 
 is best known. 
 
 49. United States Navy-Yard. — A large and important United 
 States navy-yard is located in Brooklyn, on Wallabout Bay. The 
 first purchase of land for this purpose was made in 1801. Several 
 additions have been made since, and the Government now owns 
 about 200 acres, on which are the navy-yard, the marine hospital, 
 marine barracks, and officers' residences. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War, the British prison-ships were anchored in Walla- 
 bout Bay. The " Old Jersey " was regarded as the worst. In these ships it is esti- 
 mated that more than 11,500 patriot prisoners died, the victims of starvation and 
 pestilence. They were buried in shallow graves on the shore. Their bones werecol- 
 lected and put into a sepulchre near the navy-yard in 1808, and were removed to the 
 " Martyrs' Tomb," in " Fort Greene " Park, in 1873. 
 
 The battle of Long Island, in which the Americans were defeated, was fought 
 within the present city limits, August 27, 1776. 
 
 50. The Suspension Bridge. — The suspension bridge which con- 
 nects Brooklyn with New York is one of the greatest works of its 
 kind in the world. 
 
 The bridge is suspended 135 feet above the water from four cables, which pass 
 over a tower, 278 feet high, on each side of the river, to an anchorage of iron and 
 heavy masonry. The river-span is 1595J feet long and each land-span 930 feet. 
 The whole length of the bridge is 5989 feet. The work, begun in 1870, was com- 
 pleted in 1883, at a cost of over $18,000,000. 
 
 SuspenBion Bridge eonneoting New York CSty and Brooklyn. 
 
 Questions.— What is said of the commerce of Brooklyn? Of the manufactures? 
 Describe Prospect Park. Give an account of the United States Navy- Yard; its 
 size, and what it contains. What is said of the British prison-ships? What of the 
 bones of the "Martyrs"? Of the battle of Long Island? What is the Brooklyn 
 Bridge, and what are its dimensions? What cemeteries are named? What and 
 where is Coney Island ? 
 
 Idttle Glen Iris Falls, near Portageville, "Wyoming Co. 
 
 Greenwood, Cypress SUlSj Evergreens, and Calvary are noted cemeteries on or near 
 the border of the city. 
 
 Coney Island, a famous and attractive seaside watering-place, connected with 
 Brooklyn by six railroads, is but a few miles distant. 
 
 Brooklyn contains 280 churches, 21 hospitals and dispensaries, and 5 orphan 
 asylums, and many other benevolent and charitable institutions are liberally sup- 
 ported. The academies and public and private schools are not excelled. 
 
 There are sixty public schools, with an average of 55,000 
 pupils instructed by 1400 teachers, and 100 private schools. 
 The town of Breucklen was incorporated in 1646; the village 
 of Brooklyn was incorporated in 1816, and a city charter was 
 granted in 1834. The population then was 24,000. The growth 
 of the city has been exceedingly rapid. 
 
 51. Buffalo, a port of entry, is situated on a 
 sloping plain, at the head of Niagara Kiver, on 
 Lake Erie. The Erie Canal and several impor- 
 tant railroads terminate here. The advantages 
 for trade have not been neglected, and the city 
 is rapidly increasing in wealth and importance. 
 It has an immense trade in grain, live-stock, and 
 coal. 
 
 Some of the principal manufactures are iron, engine-boilers, 
 furniture, carriages, leather, flour, and ship-building. The city 
 has eighty churches. It is well supplied with good public and 
 private schools and benevolent institutions. 
 
 A State Normal school and State asylum for the insane are 
 located here. Some of the public buildings are a State armory, 
 State arsenal, custom-house and post-office. 
 
 Questions. — What is said of the churches and charitable institutions of Brooklyn ? 
 What is the character of the educational institutions ? What more is said of schools ? 
 What are the dates of incorporation of town, village, and city ? What and where 
 is Buffalo ? What advantages does it possess ? What is said of its manufactures and 
 commerce ? What of its educational, religious, and benevolent institutions ? Name 
 some of its public buildings. 
 
10 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Watkins' Qlen, near south end of Seneca Xiake. 
 
 52. Albany, the capital of the State, is on the west bank of the 
 Hudson 145 miles from New York. The trade by the Erie Canal 
 and the several railroads which meet in the city is immense. 
 
 In Albany, Troy, and West Troy are the largest lumber markets in the State. 
 The manufactures are numerous and valuable. 
 
 53. The new capitol, containing the Senate and Assembly 
 chambers and other rooms for State offices, will be, when finished, 
 one of the most remarkable buildings in America. 
 
 The capitol covers more than three acres, and the top of the main tower will be 
 365 feet above the foundation, wbich is 200 feet above the river. Some of the other 
 public buildings are the State Hall, Geological and Agricultural Hall, Normal School, 
 and Dudley Observatory. The first State normal school was founded here, in 1844. 
 
 The city has a well-organized system of public schools and several very thorough 
 schools under private direction. The religious and benevolent institutions are nu- 
 merous and influential. 
 
 The Albany penitentiary has long had a reputation for wise management. Many 
 United States prisoners are confined there. 
 
 Questions. — What and where is Albany ? What is said of its manufactures and 
 trade ? What does the new capitol contain ? Describe it. What is said of the schools 
 and other institutions of Albany ? Where was the first State Normal School founded ? 
 Where is Eochester? Describe the falls. What remarks in regard to the city and 
 its institutions ? What is said about its manufactures and trade ? Where is Troy, 
 and for what specially noted ? What are the leading manufactures? 
 
 54. Rochester, the county-seat of Monroe County, is seven miles 
 from Lake Ontario, on Genesee Eiver, in the midst of a very fer- 
 tile region. In the central part of the city the river falls 96 feet, 
 and near the city limits are two falls of 25 feet and 84 feet. The 
 streets are wide, well-paved, and shaded. The city has several 
 public parks, sixty-five churches, good public schools, a free acad- 
 emy, and several higher institutions of learning. 
 
 Its manufactories include those for clothing, boots and shoes, steam-engines and 
 boilers, locomotives, and furniture. It is largely interested in trade by canal and 
 railroads. Near the city are some of the largest nurseries for fruit-trees and small 
 plants in the United States. 
 
 55. Troy, on the left bank of the Hudson, six miles above 
 Albany, is largely engaged in manufactures and trade. The iron 
 manufactures of the city are among the most extensive and valu- 
 able in America. 
 
 The leading articles made are pig-iron, iron and steel, steel rails, spikes, nails, 
 horse-shoes, stoves and hollow-ware, machinery, steel springs, agricultural imple- 
 ments, cars and carriages, mathematical instruments, bells, and linen and paper collars. 
 
 The city has excellent public schools, — including a high school, — institutions for 
 liberal education, fifty-five churches, and several asylums. From the railroad- depot 
 — one of the largest in the United States — are daily dispatched a great number of 
 trains to the north, south, east, and west. 
 
 56. Syracuse, at the head of Onondaga Lake, is in the midst of 
 a rich agricultural district, near the center of the State. The city 
 was incorporated in 1847. The Erie and Oswego canals, the Cen- 
 tral Eailroad, and several railroads which terminate here supply 
 the city with facilities for trade with all parts of the State. 
 
 An extensive business in trade and manufactures is carried on. The sales have 
 amounted to $50,000,000 a year. The leading manufactures are iron, steel, cutlery, 
 glass, plows, and salt. 
 
 The salt springs, owned by the State, are in the marsh bordering on Onondaga 
 Lake. There is an extensive trade in building-stone and lumber. 
 
 The principal educational institutions are the Syracuse University, — founded in 
 1870, — a system of public schools and a high school not excelled in any city, and a 
 public library. There are forty -two churches. The State asylum for idiots is located 
 near the city. 
 
 Syracuse has many substantial public buildings and elegant private residences, 
 and near the city are some of the finest country-seats in the State. 
 
 I 
 
 57. Utica, in Oneida County, ninety-five miles from Albany, is 
 
 a pleasant city, located in a rich farming district. It is a railroad- 
 center on the Erie Canal, and has manufactories of woolen and 
 cotton goods, shoes, and carriages. 
 
 The supervision, management, and instruction of the public schools are of a high 
 order. The people are noted for their interest in educational affairs and for their 
 hospitality. The New York State Lunatic Asylum is in the western part of the city. 
 
 58. Elmira, on Chemung River, is situated on a broad, fertile 
 plain, surrounded by cultivated and productive hills. Being an 
 important railroad center on the New York, Lake Erie, and West- 
 ern Railroad, it has a large trade. 
 
 Its leading business interests are iron, steam and fire engines, steel and rolling 
 mills, and the manufacture of cars. It is the depot of a large coal trade. 
 
 The public schools are well managed, the school buildings are substantial and 
 commodious, and the grounds surrounding them are unusually large. There is u, 
 free academy, and the Elmira Female College, which is one of the oldest and best 
 of its kind. A State Eeformatory is located near the city. 
 
 Questions. — Where is Syracuse located, and what advantages for trade has it? 
 What is the extent of the business of the city, and what are the leading articles of 
 manufacture and trade? Give an account of the schools and other institutions. 
 Where are the salt springs? How is Utica situated? What are the leading manu- 
 factures? What is said of the schools and people? What can you say of the situ- 
 ation and business of Elmira ? What of its educational institutions ? 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 11 
 
 59. Oswego, on Lake Ontario, at the mouth of the Oswego 
 Eiver, is one of the oldest-settled places in New York, and in 
 some respects it is one of the finest cities in the State. The streets 
 are wide, regular and well-shaded, and there are several handsome 
 parks. 
 
 The river, which divides the city into two nearly equal parts,— heing the outlet 
 of 80 many lakes and having sufficient fall, gives a constant, powerful and inex- 
 haustible supply to the mills and manufactories on its hanks. The city has an 
 excellent harbor guarded by a fort, and an extensive commerce in grain, lumber 
 and coal. 
 
 Oswego is the largest "barley market in the United States. There is storage for 
 2,000,000 bushels of grain, and its mills can manufacture 5500 barrels of flour in a 
 day. There are very large starch works, iron works and cotton factories. 
 
 The Oswego State Normal and Training School, a large institution, is considered 
 one of the most important in the State. The public schools have long been noted 
 throughout the country. There are twenty churches, many fine public buildings, 
 and beautiful residences. 
 
 60. Kingston, the county-seat of Ulster County, is on the west 
 bank of Hudson Eiver and north of Eondout Creek, ninety miles 
 from New York. 
 
 The Delaware & Hudson Canal, Walkill Valley Railroad, and Ulster & Delaware 
 Bailroad terminate here. 
 
 Kingston holds a prominent place in the history of the State. This city was the 
 first capital of the State, and here the first State constitution was proclaimed, in 
 1777. The village was nearly destroyed by the British, October 17, 1777. The 
 upper part of the city is on a plain 160 feet higher than the river. 
 
 It has a free academy and well-organized schools of the lower grades. At this 
 academy, founded in 1774, many eminent men have been educated. 
 
 61. Rondout, formerly a separate village, but now joined to 
 Kingston, is situated on the river and creek. 
 
 Eondout has a very active and extensive trade, by river, canal, and railroad, in 
 cement, coal, farm products, and general merchandise. There are several foundries 
 and cement factories. 
 
 Wilbur, two miles up the creek, is a large depot for flagging stones and lime. 
 
 62. Poughkeepsie is handsomely situated on a high bank of 
 Hudson Eiver, in Dutchess County, seventy-five miles from New 
 York. The many noted educational institutions, its refined social 
 influences, and the highly improved condition of the surrounding 
 country, make Poughkeepsie a very desirable place for sojourn or 
 residence. 
 
 Vassar College, the largest institution in the country for the education of young 
 women, is constantly increasing in influence and usefulness. 
 
 A large number of boarding and day schools have a high reputation. There is also 
 an excellent system of public schools, under a board of education. 
 
 The commercial advantages of the city are well improved. The manufactures are 
 principally iron, carriages, carpets, and furniture. 
 
 63. Auburn, the county-seat of Cayuga County, is on the outlet 
 of Owasco Lake, which supplies abundant water-power for the 
 mills and factories. The people are largely engaged in the manu- 
 facture of agricultural implements, woolen goods, carpets, and 
 buttons. 
 
 Here are a State prison, with 1200 inmates, an asylum for insane criminals, a 
 State armory, and the usual county buildings. 
 
 Questions.— How is Oswego located ? Describe the city ? What unusual advan- 
 tages for manufacturing does it possess ? Give an account of its manufactures. What 
 is the reputation of its Normal and public schools ? Where is Kingston ? What two 
 villages were united to form the city ? Describe Eondout. Its trade. What his- 
 torical events are mentioned ? How is Poughkeepsie situated ? What makes it an 
 agreeable place to live in ? What is said of its schools ? What is Vassar College ? 
 
 Neverainte VaUey, near Port Jervia. 
 
 Auburn has well-organized public schools, a theological seminary, young ladies' 
 seminary, orphan asylum, home for the friendless, and seventeen churches. The 
 number of poor people in the city is unusually small when compared with the whole 
 population. 
 
 64. Cohoes, in the north-eastern corner of Albany County, at the 
 falls of the Mohawk, has several large manufactories of cotton and 
 woolen goods. 
 
 It is especially noted for its manufactures of hosiery and other knitted goods. The 
 river here has a fall of seventy-eight feet, furnishing abundant water-power. 
 
 The Erie Canal passes through the city from the Hudson by eighteen locks. The 
 city has a high school and several grammar and primary schools. 
 
 65. Newburgh, on the slope and top of a steep bank on the west 
 side of the Hudson, presents a very pleasing appearance from the 
 river. The city is a very agreeable place of residence. It has an 
 important trade in agricultural products and manufactured articles. 
 
 The leading manufactures are machinery, castings, brass, carpets, cotton goods, 
 and paper. The city is well provided with educational, religious, and charitable 
 institutions. 
 
 Washington's headquarters, an old stone mansion in the southern part of the city, 
 owned and kept in order by the State, overlooks the river. A part of the house was 
 built in 1750. Additions made in 1760 and 1770. This was the last place occupied 
 by Washington as commander of the Revolutionary army. 
 
 In the house and grounds are many relics of Revolutionary times, and memen- 
 toes of the war of 1812 and the Mexican war. 
 
 66. Yonkers, "The City of Beautiful Eesidences," on a high 
 bank of the Hudson, is sixteen miles from the City Hall in New 
 York. It has excellent public and private schools and many 
 beautiful church edifices. 
 
 The Nepperhan, a stream of considerable local interest, enters the Hudson at this 
 place. A very large amount of capital is invested in manufacturing. There are hat 
 factories, silk factories, foundries, and one of the largest carpet factories in the country. 
 
 Questions. — Where is Auburn? In what are many of the people engaged? 
 What State institutions in Auburn ? What is said of other institutions ? What is 
 remarkable in the condition of the people ? What is said of Cohoes ? Tell how 
 Newburgh is situated, and what is said of it. What are the leading manufactures? 
 Give an account of Washington's headquarters at this place. What is Yonkers ? 
 In what does it excel ? Give some further account. 
 
12 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 67. Long Island City, on the East Eiver opposite 
 New York, and on Newtown Creek, opposite Brook- 
 lyn, is actively engaged in manufacturing and com- 
 mercial pursuits. 
 
 Here are large lumber-yards and various manufactories, and great 
 quantities of kerosene are stored, refined and shipped. 
 
 68. Binghamton is pleasantly situated at the junc- 
 tion of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers. Sev- 
 eral railroads meet here, giving the city direct com- 
 munication with nearly all parts of the State. 
 
 The city has a free academy and other public schools. There 
 are many fine residences and substantial public buildings. 
 
 69. Schenectady was incorporated in 1798. The 
 Mohawk Eiver, Erie Canal, and Central Railroad 
 pass through the city. Several other railroads end 
 here. 
 
 The place is well located for trade, but it is more noted for its 
 manufactures of various kinds. It is the seat of Union College, an 
 old and very respectable institution. The growth of the city has 
 been slow. 
 
 70. Lockport, twenty-five miles north-east of Buf- 
 falo, has splendid water-power and large manufactur- 
 ing interests. Here are located the famous Holly 
 Water -Works and Steam -Heating Company, several 
 large flouring-mills, and a great variety of other 
 manufactories. 
 
 Great quantities of agricultural produce and manufactured goods 
 are shipped by canal and railroad. The canal has ten locks at this 
 place. 
 
 71. Rome, on the site of Fort Stanwix of a hun- 
 dred years ago, is in Oneida County on the Mohawk 
 River. It is a pleasant city with wide, shady streets. 
 
 This is an important station on the Erie Canal and Central Rail- 
 road. The Black River Canal and the Rome, Watertown and 
 Ogdensburg Railroad extend north from this place. 
 
 Rome is provided with admirably graded public schools, includ- 
 ing a first-class academy, several private schools, and a flourishing 
 institution for the deaf and dumb. 
 
 The public buildings, churches, schools and court-house are 
 large, handsome and convenient. There are six banks, several 
 printing-offices, and manufactories of iron, brass, zinc and copper 
 goods. 
 
 72. Ogdensburg, at the junction of the Oswe- 
 gatchie and St. Lawrence Rivers, 210 miles west of 
 
 north from Albany, is the most important city on the northern 
 border. 
 
 It is at the foot of sloop navigation on the lakes and river, and has an active 
 trade in grain and lumber. It has excellent water-power and manufactories of flour, 
 shingles, staves, and lumber. 
 
 73. Watertown, the county-seat of Jefferson County, on the 
 Black River, in the midst of a fertile region, is a beautiful and 
 prosperous city and a leading town in northern New York. 
 
 As a manufacturing city, having special advantages, it ranks among the first of 
 its size in the State. Black River flows through the city in a series of rapids, sup- 
 plying abundant water-power. Its manufactures include flour, cotton and woolen 
 
 Questions. — What is said of Long Island city? Where is Binghamton, and 
 what advantages has it? What more is said of the city? Where is Schenectady, 
 and what is said of it ? How is Lockport situated ? For what noted ? What is 
 said of its trade ? How is Rome located ? What canals and railroads ? What 
 other features and advantages enumerated? 
 
 Manufaoturing Iron. 
 
 goods, machinery, leather and agricultural implements. The educational, religious, 
 benevolent and social institutions of Watertown have long held a high rank. 
 
 74. Hudson, on the east bank of Hudson River 116 miles from 
 New York, is at the head of ship navigation. The city was in- 
 corporated in 1785. 
 
 Its manufactures, which are extensive and valuable, are mainly iron, steam and 
 fire engines, and car- wheels. 
 
 75. Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, has a good harbor, and is rapidly 
 growing in its railroad and manufacturing interests. 
 
 It is the terminus of two railroads, and two others pass through it. It has a large 
 establishment for making locomotive engines. 
 
 Questions. — Where is Ogdensburg, and what is said of it? What is said of its 
 trade and manufactures? Tell how Watertown is situated, and what special advan- 
 tages it has. Name its principal manufactures. What more is said of it? How is 
 Hudson situated? What account is given of Dunkirk? 
 
THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 13 
 
 76. Amsterdam, on the Central Railroad, is an active business 
 place, having an extensive interest in carpet and other manufactures. 
 
 77. Jamestown, at the foot of Chautauqua Lake, is noted for its 
 excellent schools and prosperous manufacturing establishments. 
 
 78. Gloversville is noted for its extensive glove factories. 
 
 79. Middletown, on the New York, Lake Erie and Western and 
 the New York, Ontario and Western Railways, is an active and 
 growing place. The State Homoeopathic Asylum for the insane is at 
 this place. 
 
 80. Ithaca, pleasantly located at the head of Cayuga Lake, is the 
 seat of Cornell University, a large and flourishing institution. 
 
 81. Hornellsville and Corning are important places on the New 
 York, Lake Erie and Western Railroad. 
 
 82. Towns and Villages.— The following towns and villages, con- 
 taining over 10,000 inhabitants, are among the most important in 
 the State : 
 
 83. The town of Watervliet, containing West Troy and Oreen Island, manufactur- 
 ing villages, is on the Hudson, north of Albany. 
 
 84. Sempatead, in Queens County, contains fifteen villages and hamlets, includ- 
 ing Garden City with its cathedral and schools. 
 
 85. Fliishing, on a bay of the same name, was early settled. It has large inter- 
 ests in gardening, fruit-growing and flowers. 
 
 86. Caatleton, on Staten Island, with New Brighton and TompUnmlle, have silk- 
 printing and dyeing works, and many fine residences of New York business men. 
 
 87. Cortlandt, on the east side of Hudson Eiver, just below the Highlands, em- 
 braces PeeksHll, which has large foundries and iron works, and Verplan,ch's Point, 
 opposite Stony Point, noted for the manufacture of bricks. 
 
 88. Oyster Bay contains a village of the same name, and Qlen Cove, which has 
 large starch factories. 
 
 ■ 89. Broolchaven, in Sufi'olk County, embraces Port Jefferson, Patchogue, and many 
 other villages. 
 
 90. In the town of Beerpark is the village of Port Jervis, on Delaware River, an 
 important station on the Lake Erie and Western Railroad and Delaware and Hud- 
 son Canal. 
 
 91. Saratoga Springs, in Saratoga County, with its variety of mineral springs, 
 immense hotels, and throngs of summer visitors, is known throughout the land. 
 
 92. lansingburgh and HooaicU, containing Hoosich Falls, are manufacturing 
 towns in Rensselaer County. 
 
 93. The following towns and villages contain over 5000 inhabit- 
 ants: 
 
 94. Fishhill, on the Hudson, opposite Newburg, includes Fishkill Landing, 
 Malteawan and Wappinger Falls, noted manufacturing villages. 
 
 95. Saugerties, on the west bank of the Hudson, within a few miles of the Cats- 
 kill Mountains, has a lively river trade. 
 
 96. Xenoo!, in Madison County, contains the thriving villages of Oneida and 
 Canastota. 
 
 97. Jamaica, one of the old towns of Long Island, is favorably known to many 
 citizens of the metropolis. 
 
 98. Owego, on the Susquehanna Eiver, at the junction of several railroads, is 
 handsomely built on a plain near high hills. 
 
 99. GreenJhurgh, on the Hudson, twenty-five miles from New York, contains the 
 celebrated villages of Tarrytown (adjoining Beekmantown), Dobbs' Ferry, Hastings, 
 and Irvington. 
 
 100. Queensbury, in which is Olen's Falls, a substantially built and active busi- 
 ness place, is in Warren County. 
 
 101. Newtown, adjoining Brooklyn, has a large number of villages, a variety of 
 manufactures, and many homes of men who have business in the cities. 
 
 102. MidMetoum, with its village of Edgewater, and Northfleld, containing Port 
 Richmond and Mariner's Harbor, are on Staten Island. 
 
 103. Osaining, containing Sing Sing, on the Hudson, with the large State prison. 
 West Chester and East Chester, wealthy old towns, are all in Westchester County. 
 
 104. CatsMll, on the Hudson, in Greene County, noted in story, is a favorite 
 resort of summer seekers of health and rest. 
 
 105. Canandaigua, on a, lake of the same name, is a quiet, wealthy town, sur- 
 rounded by a rich agricultural country. 
 
 106. Flattabiirgh, a wealthy town in Clinton, is situated on a beautiful bay of 
 Lake Champlain. 
 
 107. Orangetotvn, embracing Nyack and Piermont, and Haverstraw, below Stony 
 Point, are on the Hudson in Rockland County. 
 
 108. Malone is a flourishing inland town in Franklin County. 
 
 109. Potsdam, the seat of a popular State normal school, and Canton, on Grass 
 
 River, are in St. Lawrence County. 
 
 110. The town of Niagara contains the villages of Niagara City and Niagara 
 Falls, on the river and in the county of the same name. 
 
 111. Geneva, at the foot of Seneca Lake, is the seat of Hobart College. 
 
 112. Southold, on Long Island, contains Greenport, a commercial village at the 
 eastern terminus of the Long Island Railroad, Mattituck, Cutchogite, and other well- 
 known places of resort. 
 
 113. Muntington is a pleasant old town and village on the north side of Long 
 Island. Southampton, in the same county, embraces the important villages of Sag 
 Harbor, Bridgehampton, and Riverhead. 
 
 114. Geddcs, adjoining Syracuse, is noted for its rapid growth. JHanJiMs, con- 
 taining the village of Fayettemlle, having foundries, flouring-mills, and other factories, 
 is in the same county. 
 
 115. Greenbush, town and village, and Bath, on the Hudson, opposite Albany, 
 with which they are connected by two bridges, have a large number of railroad 
 buildings and track-yards, and some important manufactories. 
 
 116. Seneca Falls, town and village, on Seneca River, has abundant water power, 
 a great variety of manufactures, and much wealth. 
 
 117. Zittle Falls, at the falls of the Mohawk, on the Central Railroad, and Olean, 
 in Cattaraugus County, are thriving towns of growing importance. 
 
 118. The following places are worthy of special mention : 
 
 119. Cold Spring, on the Hudson, noted for its extensive iron-works; Athens, 
 opposite the city of Hudson, the terminus of a railroad, for its trade in ice and bricks ; 
 New Lebanon, in Columbia County, for its thermal springs. 
 
 120. Fort Edward, for its educational interests ; Stillwater, on the Hudson, the 
 scene of battles in the Revolutionary war; Balhton Spa, for its mineral springs; 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point, for their present ruins and historic interest. 
 
 121. Keeseville, on the An Sable River, is noted for its iron manufactures and the 
 wonderful "Au Sable Chasm," which is near; Dannemora, west of Plattshurgh, for 
 the "Clinton" State prison; Trenton Falls, for the succession of falls of exceeding 
 beauty in West Canada Creek ; Cape Vincent and Sachett's Harbor, important ports, 
 on Lake Ontario, are noted in the history of the war of 1812. 
 
 122. Sharon, in Schoharie County, and Richfield, on Schuyler Lake, in Otsego 
 County, famous for their mineral springs; Clinton, Oneida County, as the seat of 
 Hamilton College. 
 
 123. Skaneateles, a handsome village at the foot of Skaneateles Lake, is remark- 
 able for the unrivalled beauty of its location; Wathins, at the head of Seneca Lake, 
 and Havana, three miles distant, for the singular and wonderful beauty of their glens. 
 
 124. Portageville, in Wyoming County, for its wild and beautiful scenery, the 
 succession of wonderful rapids and falls, and the high, perpendicular banks of the 
 Genesee River. 
 
 125. Penn Yan, a busy village at the outlet of Keuka Lake ; Fulton, on the 
 Oswego River, celebrated for flouring mills and other factories ; Clifton and Avon, 
 for mineral springs ; Brockport, Qeneseo, Fredonia, and Cortland, for State normal 
 schools ; Ovid, on Seneca Lake, for the Willard State Asylum for the Insane ; Coop- 
 erstown, for beauty of situation on Oteego Lake. 
 
 126. Cobleskill, in Schoharie, contains the famous " Howe's Cave," which extends 
 several miles under ground ; Shelter Island, near the eastern extremity of Long Island ; 
 Chautauqua, on Chautauqua Lake, in the western part of the State; and Alexandria 
 Bay and Thousand Islands, in the north, are well-known places of summer resort 
 
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 Lon^tude Kast from W^aahiiigtan 1° 
 
 POPULATION OF THE COUNTIES, CITIES, AND PRINCIPAL TOWNS IN 1890. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Albany . 
 Alleghany 
 Broome . . 
 Cattaraugus. 
 Cayiiga . , 
 Chautauqua 
 Chemung. . 
 Chenango. 
 Clinton. . 
 Columbia . 
 Cortland . 
 Delaware . 
 Dutchess . 
 Erie . . . 
 Essex . . 
 Franklin . 
 Fulton . . 
 Genesee . 
 Greene . 
 Hamilton 
 
 164,555 
 . 43.240 
 . 62,973 
 . 60,860 
 65,.302 
 75,202 
 48,265 
 . 37,776 
 . 46,437 
 . 46,172 
 . 28,6.57 
 . 45,496 
 . 77,879 
 322,981 
 . 33,052 
 . 38,110 
 . 37,650 
 . 3.3,265 
 . 31,598 
 . 4,762 
 
 Herkimer 
 Jefferson . 
 Kings . . 
 Lewis . . 
 Livingston 
 Madison . 
 Monroe . 
 Montgomery 45,699 
 New York 1,51 5,.30] 
 Niagara . . 62,491 
 Oneida. . 122,922 
 Onondaga 146,247 
 Ontarip . 
 
 . 45,608 
 . 68,806 
 838,547 
 . 29,800 
 . 37,801 
 . 42,892 
 189,586 
 
 Richmond . 51,693 
 Eockland . 35,162 
 St. Lawrence 85,048 
 Saratoga . . 57,663 
 Schenectady 29,797 
 Schoharie . 29,104 
 Schuyler 
 
 Orange 
 
 Orleans . 
 
 Oswego . 
 
 Otsego . . 
 
 Putnam . 
 
 Queens . 
 Rensselaer 
 
 48,453 
 . 97,859 
 . 30,803 
 . 71,883 
 . 50,861 
 . 14,849 
 128,059 
 124,511 
 
 Seneca 
 Steuben . 
 Suffolk. . 
 Sullivan . 
 Tiog;i . . 
 Tompkins 
 Ulster . . 
 Warren . 
 Washington 45,690 
 Wayne. . . 49,729 
 Westchester 146,772 
 A¥yoming . 31,193 
 Yates . . . 21,001 
 
 16,711 
 
 28,227 
 81,473 
 62,491 
 31,031 
 29,935 
 32,923 
 87,062 
 27,866 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 New York 1,515,.301 
 Brooklyn. 806,343 
 Buflalo . 
 Rochester 
 Albany . 
 Syracuse . 
 Troy . . 
 Utica . . 
 Binghamton 35,005 
 Yonkers . . 32,033 
 Long Is. City 30,606 
 
 255,664 
 133,896 
 . 94,923 
 . 88,143 
 . 60,956 
 . 44,007 
 
 Elmira. . . 
 Auburn . . 
 Newburg . . 
 Cohoes. . . 
 Po'keepsie . 
 Oswego . . 
 Kingston . . 
 Schenectady 
 Amsterdam . 
 Jamestown . 
 Lockport. . 
 
 29,708 
 25,858 
 23,087 
 22,509 
 22,206 
 21,842 
 21,261 
 19,902 
 17,336 
 16,038 
 16,038 
 
 Rome . . . 14,991 
 Watertown . 14,725 
 Gloversvillc 13,864 
 Middletown 11,977 
 Ogdensburg 11,662 
 Ithaca . . . 11,079 
 Hornellsville 10,596 
 Hudson . . 9,970 
 Dunkirk . . 9,416 
 Corning . . 8,550 
 
 3,429,792 
 
 Population of the State in 1880 5,082,871 
 
 Poriulalion of the State in 1890 5,997,853 
 
 Population of the Cities in 1880 2,519,915 
 
 Or 49J per cent, of population of the State. 
 Population of the Cities in 1890 3,429,792 
 
 Or 57| per cent, of llio population of the iState. 
 
 PRINCIPAL TOWNS. 
 
 Hempstead . 23,517 
 Newton . . 17,537 
 N. Brighton 16,423 
 Oyster^Bay . 13,788 
 Jamaica . . 
 West Troy , 
 Brookhaven 
 SaraloRa Springs , 
 Flushing . 
 Mt. Vernou 
 Lausingburt 
 Peekskill 
 Sing-Sing 
 Port Jervis 
 Little Falls 
 New Rochelle 8i318 
 Olean . . . 7,940 
 (-Jreenbusb . 7,287 
 Tonawanda . 7,135 
 t)neonta . . 6,2li8 
 
 13,646 
 
 12,967 
 
 12,572 
 
 11,975 
 
 10,868 
 
 10,677 
 
 ; 10,5.50 
 
 9,676 
 
 . 9,352 
 
 . 9,327 
 
 . 8,783 
 
 Babylon . . 
 Canandaigua 
 Port Chester 
 Green Island 
 Fulton . . . 
 Eiverhead . 
 Tarrytown . 
 N. Tarrytown 
 Salamanca . 
 Hoosic Falls 
 Sandy Hill . 
 Fredonia . . 
 Marcellus . 
 Keesville . . 
 Coopersto^vn 
 Port Henry . 
 East Ilampt'n 
 Balh-on-llud, 
 Sinitbtown . 
 Canajoluirie . 
 
 6,034 
 
 5,847 
 5,538 
 4,403 
 4,208 
 3,950 
 3,901 
 3,739 
 3,690 
 3,684 
 3,662 
 3,390 
 2,718 
 2,542 
 2,529 
 2,433 
 .2,426 
 2,398 
 2,317 
 2,086 
 
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16 
 
 THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NEW YORK. 
 
 Boundaries. — -How is New York bounded? Trace the boundary line, and tell- 
 wbat States and provinces are adjacent. What lakes are on the border? What 
 rivers ? What other waters on the border ? What parallel of latitude forms a part 
 of the boundary ? Where is it ? 
 
 Counties. — What seven counties on the east side of the Hudson River? What 
 three counties on the eastern border farther north ? What eleven counties on the 
 southern border, beginning with Rockland ? Which counties border on Lake Erie 
 and Niagara Eiver ? Which ten counties on the northern border, beginning at Ni- 
 agara River? What six counties border on the west side of Hudson River? What 
 twelve interior counties are next to the southern border counties before mentioned? 
 What eleven interior counties not already named? Where is Richmond County? 
 Which counties are on Long Island ? 
 
 Give the names and location of six of the larger counties. Six smaller counties. 
 What counties border on Vermont ? Name five counties that are wholly or partly 
 in the Mohawk Valley. 
 
 Rivers. — In what counties is the upper part of the Hudson River ? Describe the 
 Mohawk River. The Saranac. Where is Schoharie Greek ? Where is the Oswego 
 River? Describe the Black River. The Susquehanna. The Delaware. The Che- 
 mung. What river flows into Niagara River ? Where is Rondout Creek ? What 
 flows into it? Give the names and location of five other rivers. 
 
 Lalces. — Which are the border lakes of the State ? What are the immediate out- 
 lets of these lakes ? Give the names, in order, of seven of the lakes in the central 
 part of the State. What is the outlet of these lakes ? Give the names of six lakes 
 known to tourists in the north-eastern section of the State. Where is Chautauqua 
 Lake, and what is its outlet ? 
 
 Mountains. — In which counties are the Highlands? The Oatskill Mountains? 
 The Adirondack Mountains ? What other ranges of mountains in the State, and 
 where are they? Where is Mt. Overlook? How high is it? What is the location 
 and height of the following mountains : Mt. Marcy, Round Top Mt., Slide Mt., 
 White Face Mt.? 
 
 Islands and Bays. — Where is Shelter Island? Grand Island? Fisher's Island? 
 Staten Island ? Gull Island ? Coney Island ? Plum Island ? The Thousand, Islands ? 
 Gardiner's Island? Stony Island? Where is Long Island Sound? What is it? 
 Where is Gardiner's Bay ? Great South Bay ? Chaumont Bay ? Peconic Bay ? 
 Henderson Bay ? Great Sodus Bay ? Where is Great South Beach ? Three Mile 
 Bay ? Where is Montauk Point ? 
 
 Cities and Towns. — Where is the city of Albany located? What village in 
 the south-west corner of Tioga counW' ? What village on the West Branch of the 
 Delaware where the New York, Lake Erie, and Western Railroad crosses it? Where 
 is Wells ville? Salamanca? Alfred? Tonawanda? Albion? PennYan? Lyons? 
 Dansville? Waterloo? Norwich? Pulaski?' Herkimer? Champlain? Fort 
 Plain? Waterford? Canajoharie? Annandale? Delhi? Keeseville? Salem? 
 Monticello ? Rhinebeck ? Coxsackie ? Fonda ? Fort Ann ? 
 
 Questions on the Map of New York and Vicinity. 
 
 Give the names and location of six small islands near the city. In what part of 
 the city is Harlem ? Kingsbridge ? West Farms ? Port Morris ? Fordham ? Cen- 
 tral Park? The Battery ? 
 
 Where is East River ? Bronx River ? Hell Gate ? New York Bay ? Newark 
 Bay ? What separates these two bays ? Staten Island Sound ? Kill von KuU ? 
 The Narrows ? Ward's Point ? Which way from the Battery is Jersey City ? 
 Newark ? Paterson ? Bayonne ? What towns are on opposite sides of the Narrows ? 
 
 In what part of Brooklyn is the Navy Yard ? Greenwood Cemetery ? Prospect 
 Park ? Williamsburg ? Erie Basin ? Gowanus Bay ? Which way from Brooklyn 
 is Long Island City? Flushing? Jamaica? Canarsie Landing? Rockaway 
 Beach ? Coney Island ? Where is Graveseud Bay ? 
 
 General Questions on the Map and Text. 
 
 In what direction do the rivers run in the northern part of the State? In the 
 western part? In the eastern part? In the southern part? To what river system 
 does the Black Biver belong ? To what system does the West Canada Creek belong ? 
 The Conewango ? The Saoondaga River ? Which rivers have noted falls ? In what 
 direction does the Niagara River flow ? 
 
 In which directions is Lake Ontario longest ? How long is it ? How long is Lake 
 Champlain? Lake Erie? Lake George? Seneca Lake ? Oneida? Cayuga? In 
 which directions are the lakes in central New York longest ? State if there is any 
 exception to this. How can boats pass from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario ? From St. 
 Lawrence River to Lake Ontario ? How from Lake Champlain to New York Bay ? 
 Of what use are lakes ? 
 
 What is a canal lock? How does a mountain peak differ from a mountain range? 
 What is the general direction of the ranges of hills and mountains in the State ? 
 Give the names of ten towns on Hudson River not mentioned in the text. How 
 many square miles in the city of New York? How many on Manhattan.Island ? 
 How many square miles in Brooklyn? What are "duties," and on what are they 
 levied ? 
 
 In what year and month did Henry Hudson come to New York? What govern- 
 ment first had control of the province ? What other government claimed juris- 
 diction ? How many members of Congress has the State of New York 1 Ans. 
 Thirty-three representatives and two senators. How many wards in the city of New 
 York? Ans. Twenty-four. In Brooklyn? Ans. Twenty-five. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES. 
 
 The following are some of the highest Mountains in the State ; 
 
 Mt. Marcy, Essex Co., . . 
 
 FEET. 
 
 . 5,403 
 
 Mt. Pjsgah, Greene Co., . . 
 Utsyantha Mt., Delaware Co., 
 
 FKET. 
 
 . 3,400 
 
 Dix Peak, " . . 
 
 . 5,200 
 
 . 3,202* 
 
 Mt. Mclntyre, " . . 
 Mt. Seward, Franklin Co., . 
 
 . 5,183 
 
 Overlook Mt., Ulster Co., . . 
 
 . 3,150* 
 
 . 5,100 
 
 Rockland Mt., Sullivan Co.,. 
 
 . 2,400 
 
 Mt. MoMartin, Essex Co., . 
 
 . 5,000 
 
 Pompey Hill, Onondaga Co,, 
 
 . 1,743 
 
 Mt. Sandanoni, 
 
 . 5,000 
 
 Mt. Toppin, Cortland Co., . 
 Beacon Hill, Dutchess Co., . 
 
 . 1,700 
 
 Mt. White Face, " 
 
 . 4,900 
 
 . 1,685 
 
 Mt. Taylor, Hamilton Co., . 
 Slide Mt., Ulster Co., . . 
 
 . 4,500 
 
 Butter Hill, Orange Co., . . 
 
 . 1,529 
 
 . 4,205* 
 
 Crow's Nest, " . . 
 
 . 1,418 
 
 Hunter Mt., Greene Co., 
 
 . 4,040* 
 
 BearMt., " . . 
 
 . 1,350 
 
 Black Dome, " 
 
 . 4,003* 
 
 Anthony's Nose, Putnam Co., 
 
 . 1,228 
 
 Round Top, " 
 
 . 3,804 
 
 Break Neck, " 
 
 1,187 
 
 High Peak, " • 
 
 . 3,718 
 
 * Gayot. 
 
 
 Some of the largest Lakes. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 LENGTH, 
 
 NAME. 
 
 IMGTI. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 lENGTK. 
 
 
 UII.ES. 
 
 
 UILBS. 
 
 
 UlLES. 
 
 Erie 
 
 260 
 
 George 
 
 Oneida 
 
 36 
 
 Schroon, . . . 
 
 10 
 
 Ontario 
 
 190 
 
 30 
 
 Otsego 
 
 8 
 
 Champlain, . . . 
 
 120 
 
 Chautauqua, 
 
 18 
 
 Saratoga, . . . 
 
 &i 
 
 Cayuga 
 
 38 
 
 Keuka, . . 
 
 18 
 
 Onondaga, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 Seneca, .... 
 
 36 
 
 Skaneateles, . . 
 
 16 
 
 Placid 
 
 iV^ 
 
 Some of the most important Railroads. 
 
 NAME OF ROAD. 
 
 N. Y. Central and Hudson River, 
 New York, Lake Erie, and Western, 
 Rome, Watertown, and Ogdens- 
 
 burg, 
 
 New York, Ontario, and Western, 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal Co., 
 Delaware, Lackawanna.and West'n, 
 Bufialo, Rochester, and Pittsburgh, 
 
 Long Island, 
 
 Elmira, Cortland, and Northern, 
 
 Southern Central 
 
 West Shore, 
 
 CONNECTING— 
 
 New York and Buffalo, . . 
 New York and Dunkirk, . 
 Suspension Bridge and Masse- 
 
 na Springs, 
 
 Oswego and Cornwall, . . 
 
 Rochester and Walston Mines, 
 Brooklyn and Greenport, , 
 Elmira and Canastota, . . 
 N. Fairhav'n & Pa. State Line, 
 New York and Buffalo, . . 
 
 MAIN 
 IIKE. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 442 
 459 
 
 299 
 273 
 292 
 115 
 230 
 95 
 120 
 114 
 425 
 
 BR4NCI1S. 
 
 M11.ES. 
 
 1005 
 1150 
 
 .342 
 
 144 
 
 340 
 
 369 
 
 54 
 
 266 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 Principal Farm Products. 
 
 Corn, . . . 1890, 
 
 17,512,700 bu. 
 
 Horses, . . 1890, 
 
 673,950 
 
 Wheat, . . 
 
 9,288,000 " 
 
 Milch cows, " 
 
 1,552,373 
 
 Rye, ... 
 
 2,724,000 " 
 
 Other neat cattle, " 
 
 783,634 
 
 Oats, ... 
 
 2,391,300 " 
 
 Sheep, ..." 
 
 1,548,426 
 
 Barley, . . " 
 
 7,418,000 " 
 
 Swine, ..." 
 
 686,321 
 
 Buckwheat, . 
 
 4,514,000 " 
 
 Milk, . . 1880, 
 
 231,965,533 gals. 
 
 Potatoes, . . " 
 
 29,688,000 " 
 
 Butter, ..." 
 
 111,922,423 lbs. 
 
 Tobacco, . . " 
 
 6,488,000 lbs. 
 
 Cheese, ..." 
 
 8,362,950 " 
 
 Hay, ... 
 
 5,426,757 tons. 
 
 Hops, ..." 
 
 21,628,931 " 
 
 Principal Manufactured Products, 1880. 
 
 
 HANDS 
 
 VALDE IN 
 
 
 HANDS 
 
 YAMIE IN 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 
 
 
 EMPIOY'D. 
 
 MLIARS. 
 
 
 EMPIOTD. 
 
 DOLLARS. 
 
 Agricultural Imple- 
 
 
 
 Leather, tanned, . 
 
 5,090 
 
 23,652,366 
 
 ments, 
 
 6,462 
 
 10,707,766 
 
 Liquors, malt and 
 
 
 
 Boots and Shoes, . 
 
 13,414 
 
 18,979,259 
 
 distilled, .... 
 
 8,250 
 
 36,405,227 
 
 Bread, Craekers,etc. 
 
 5,670 
 
 19,937,9,53 
 
 Lumber, planed 
 
 
 
 Brooms and Brushes 
 
 2,954 
 
 3,705,127 
 
 and sawed, . . 
 
 14,743 
 
 22,430,676 
 
 Carriages and Wag- 
 
 
 
 Malt 
 
 1,252 
 
 9,874,098 
 
 ons, 
 
 6,428 
 
 8,888,479 
 
 Marble and Stone 
 
 
 
 Clothing, 
 
 106,713 
 
 101,447,918 
 
 work, ... 
 
 5,877 
 
 10,189,267 
 
 Confectionery, . . 
 
 2,571 
 
 6,686,389 
 
 Mixed Textiles, . 
 
 10,417 
 
 13,376,380 
 
 Cooperage, .... 
 
 4,874 
 
 6,765,719 
 
 Musical Instru- 
 
 
 
 Cotton Goods, . . . 
 
 9,990 
 
 9,723,527 
 
 ments, 
 
 3,966 
 
 8,084,154 
 
 Drugs and Chemi- 
 
 
 
 Paints, 
 
 1,683 
 
 9,455,900 
 
 cals, 
 
 2,090 
 
 9,991,259 
 
 Paper 
 
 3,914 
 
 8,524,879 
 
 Flouring and Grist 
 
 
 
 Printing and Pub- 
 
 
 
 Mill, 
 
 4,304 
 
 49,331,984 
 
 lishing, . . 
 
 14,417 
 
 27,885,376 
 
 Foundry and Ma- 
 
 
 
 Shirts, 
 
 13,791 
 
 11,014,820 
 
 chine Shop, . . . 
 
 31,261 
 
 44,714,915 
 
 Silk and Silk 
 
 
 
 Furnishing Goods, 
 
 
 
 Goods, 
 
 9,633 
 
 10,170,140 
 
 Men's, 
 
 8,046 
 
 7,147,443 
 
 Slaughtering and 
 Meat Packing, . 
 
 
 
 Furniture, .... 
 Gloves and llittens. 
 
 10,075 
 
 15,210,879 
 
 1,700 
 
 43,096,138 
 
 5,313 
 
 5,718,529 
 
 Sugar & Molasses, 
 
 2,639 
 
 71,237,051 
 
 Grease and Tallow, 
 
 332 
 
 7,322,970 
 
 Tin, Copper, and 
 
 
 
 Hats and Caps, . . 
 
 Hosiery ancf Knit 
 
 Goods, 
 
 4,526 
 
 6,464,058 
 
 Sheet Iron Ware, 
 
 5,296 
 
 9,858,768 
 
 
 
 Tobacco (all sorts), 
 
 22,226 
 
 33,675,241 
 
 7,8,58 
 
 9,899,540 
 
 Woolen Goods, . . 
 
 6,130 
 
 9,874,973 
 
 Iron and Steel, . . 
 
 11,444 
 
 22,219,219 
 
 Total Manu- 
 
 
 
 Jewelry, 
 
 2,490 
 
 5,340,806 
 
 PAOTUEKS F 
 
 
 
 Lard, 
 
 592 
 
 14,758,718 
 
 THE State, . . 
 
 531,800 
 
 1,080,696,596 
 

 WWN WWH- C W WW 
 
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