18113 imorArts and industries ■-, -^ 'fffSf/; BOUGHT WITH THE INCO FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT THE GIFT OF Henrg W. Sage 1891 ME f:und %?n?A^ Cornell Unlveraity Library arV18113 Drawing and designing in a series of les 3 1924 031 222 130 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031222130 Kensington Art Series. Drawing and Designing IN A SERIES OF LESSONS BY CHARLES G. LELAND, M.A., F.R.L.S. AUTHOR OP "PRACTICAL EDUCATION," "TWELVE MANUALS OF ART WORK," " INDUSTRIAL ART IN EDUCATION," Etc. chicago and new york: Rand, McNally & Company, Publishers. 1889. s Copyright, 1889, by RAND, McNALLY & CO. All rights reserved. Drawing, PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. Mr. Charles G. Leland, in his work on " Practical Education," distinctly insists on the utility, indeed the paramount importance, of a sound and practical rudimentary training, whether in connection with elementary or more advanced technical education. This is becoming daily and increasingly apparent to those who, in their care and training of the young of both sexes, are guided by reason and common sense. Failing such a basis, it is obvious that no process of later cramming is likely to produce equally successful and permanently beneficial results. This series of manuals on " The Minor Arts and Industries " is designed on the lines thus laid down. It will be found that each handbook presents the subject with which it deals in a thoroughly popular and practical manner; that the lessons carry the student on his road step by step from the simplest elements to the point where the most advanced works fitly find their place in his course of study; in short, the greatest pains have been taken to insure a thorough mastery of the rudiments of each subject, and so clearly to state each lesson, illustrating it where necessary by plans and drawings, that even very young children may be interested in and trained to practical work. On similar grounds the self-taught student will find these manuals an invaluable aid to his studies. The present volume on " Drawing and Designing," forms a fitting introduction to such a series. A boy or girl who realizes that he or vi Publishers Preface. she can design and draw, or, in other words, can think and under- stand, will easily be led to grasp the rudiments of almost any other kind of work. The reputation of the editor, who was the first in any country to make industrial art a branch of education in public sqhools, is a sufficient guarantee of the merit of this volume and its successors. The minor decorative arts have, during recent years, assumed great importance, not only as a means of livelihood to many, but as avocations for leisure hours to many more. The books of this series will treat in a simple and practical manner of the various decorative arts, inclusive of the better-known industries, such as wood-carving, leather-work, metal- work, modeling, etc., and many beautiful arts which have been lost or forgotten. Naturally, the first step to be made toward learning any art is to master the principles of design ; therefore, the present volume is in a manner introductory to the entire series. Mr. Leland asserts that anyone who can write can learn to draw, and without a knowledge of drawing it is impossible to attain satisfactory results with any ornamental art. The publishers offer this little volume as the simplest and most practical key to a working knowledge of any of the Minor Arts and Industries. CONTENTS. Introduction PAGE I PART I. CIRCLES, PARTS OF CIRCLES, VOLUTES OR SPIRALS, AND THEIR COMBINATIONS- THE VINE. Preparation for Drawing Lesson i. Drawing Circles „ 2. Drawing Double Lines „ 3. Parts of Circles branching on a Circle „ 4. The Line of Beauty. Making Vines „ 5. The Spiral or Volute . „ 6. Ornaments .... „ 7. The Substitution of Ornaments „ 8. Drawing Vines with Ornaments „ 9. . Adding Branches to Branches ,, 10. Spacing J, II. To Design a Border „ 12. How to Draw a Vase „ 13. Roots . „ 14. 'Roots continued . „ 15. The Composition of Patterns „ 16. Variation of Patterns ;, 1 7. Simple Geometrical Bases . > 3 7 9 II 12 13 17 20 20 22 25 27 29 33 34 35 40 43 PART II. STRAIGHT LINES AND THEIR COMBINATIONS. 18. Straight Lines ....„,.. 19. Patterns Based on Triangles . . . . , 20. Of Dififerent Polygons 21. To Design Complicated Arabesque Patterns , 49 S3 SS 57 via Contents. PART III. CIRCLES IN THEIR COMBINATION WITH STRAIGHT LINES. PAGE Lesson 22. Connecting Circles , . . 63 23. Intersecting Circles 63 24. Varying Monotony. Give-and-take Patterns ... 65 25. Zig-zags and other Lines 67 26. The Indian Leaf 69 27. Developing Patterns from Portions 71 28. Geometrical Base vi'ith Ornaments „ . , . -75 29. Adaptation to Objects . 77 Conclusion , 79 A MANUAL OF DRAWING AND DESIGNING. INTRODUCTION. The advantages offered by this system are as follows : — I. By means of it any person who is capable of learning to write may also learn not only to draw, but also to design or to invent original outline decorative designs. II. Designing as well as drawing, by it, go hand in hand from the first lesson. III. Every lesson is very easy, and forms a gradual advance from the preceding. All that is required is, that every one as it comes shall be perfectly mastered and practised. IV. The pupil who shall thoroughly master this system, will have learned all the lines and curves which occur in organic nature — that is to say, in vegetation, in animals, or the human form. V. It explaiiis very clearly how the most graceful and ap- parently capricious lines and ornaments result from only two or three very simple principles. And it also shows how the most apparently bewildering and complicated " Arabesque'' patterns may be evolved from easy beginnings. VI. It forms the alphabet of all the minor arts, such as modelling, embroidery, wood carving, leather work, inlaying, (1) 2 A Manual of Drawing' and Designing. ornamental and practical working in wood, metals, &c., since anyone who can design simple patterns may with perfect confi- dence attempt any of them. VII. It teaches spacing, or the adapting patterns to given surfaces, and clearly shows how to make designs for panels, round or square, vases, bellows, fans, borders, frames, wall- papers, carpets, book-covers, &c. VIII. It has been successfully taught by the author to nearly two thousand pupils. IX. The effort to design makes the pupil think and invent. It awakens interest and attention, and very soon developes an intelligence which not only makes of the pupil a better copyist, but a better student in all branches of education. It was found that in the public schools of Philadelphia, children who attended the classes in Industrial Art, and who learned design by the system here set forth, excelled in all other studies. (4) PREPARATION FOR DRAWING. By Design we mean the invention or composition of patterns, by Drawing the art of executing or setting them forth. Many persons confuse these terms ; in French there is but one word — dessiner — for both. And even among those who do not fall into this error comparatively few have reflected that there may be a very easy first stage of designing simple outline patterns, from which, if thoroughly mastered, the pupil may without difficulty advance to the execution of beautiful and original work. Any person who can learn to write can also learn to draw ; it is never too late to do either, but the earlier one attains proficiency the greater is the ease of execution. According to the system taught in this work, design and drawing are learned together. By means of it children of ten or eleven years of age, or even younger, have been able after a few weeks' practice to produce good working patterns fit to be put in hand, and worked out in wood, metal, mosaics, carpets, &c. It has always been usual to begin instruction in Drawing with straight lines and their combinations. But it is much better, and in the end very much easier, to commence with circles and curves. The proportion of pupils who could draw circles very well indeed if they began with them, as compared to those who ever learn at any time to do so, is very small. He who can make a circle can in a short time draw or design with far greater ease than from any other beginning, because all curves are for all practical purposes composed of parts of circles. By a very simple combination of the parts of a circle (5) 6 A Manual of Drawing and Designing. we can produce all the lines found in plants and animals. And for a beginning in Design it is best to bear in mind and perfectly understand the Vine, or Bine, or Creeper, because it forms the motive or principle of a great proportion of all the best decora- tive ornament known. Let the beginner be provided with a drawing-pencil, H B (or Medium) or Hard, a piece of fine sand-paper on which to sharpen the 4ead when it dulls, cartridge or drawing-paper, a piece of india-rubber, a pair of compasses, and a common foot- rule marked into divisions. To learn to draw lines accurately and with ease, and to obtain full command of the pencil and familiarity with it, the following rules should be observed : — I. In sitting, rest on the body, and do not throw all its weight on the arms or elbows. In case of weariness, it is better to learn to rest on the left fore-arm ; the right arm and hand should be trained to be free as possible, II. If the pupil rests his weight on the right fore-arm or right elbow, he cannot draw a circle or pattern of more than two or three inches in diameter. If — as most beginners do — he throws the weight of the body on the wrist, this circle cannot be larger than a penny. To increase its size the hand is rubbed along, which produces a cramped and petty style. Left to themselves beginners invariably design minute ornaments and diminutive leaves or flowers. III. Draw from the shoulder as much' as possible, and exer- cise freely at the black board with chalk. IV. Learn to draw large and full patterns. It is very easy when this can be done to descend to minute work. But it is very difficult for designers accustomed to petty work to execute bold, vigorous, and large sketches. V. Draw lightly — as lightly as possible — in making the first draught. Then it will be easy to erase with the india-rubber. A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 7 VI. Use the rubber freely. It is absurd and impossible to suppose that pupils can be taught to design so accurately as to hope to dispense with it. Those who constantly strive at an early stage for such accuracy, become cramped and timid in their design. The sketches of all great artists show that they altered and drew again and again. If the pupil exercises care and takes due pains, he will draw all the better and more con- fidently for knowing that inaccuracies may be corrected, and improvements be introduced. VII. Take the utmost pains to master the first lesson. The more the pupil works at it the easier will the next be, and if the first five or six are practised, reviewed, and understood to per- fection, he may be assured that in a very short time he will be able to produce beautiful examples of decorative design. LESSON FIRST. DRAWING CIRCLES. Take a pair of compasses with a lead pencil on one point, and draw a circle. Then reducing the sweep a little, make inside the outer circle another. (Fig. i.) This double line is supposed to be a vine with the ends joined. Draw it a number of times of different sizes, and with the utmost care and accuracy. Then ruling a square very lightly, draw within it and with- out compasses a circle, by freehand. (Fig. 2.) Yet again, rule two intersecting crossed lines of equal length at right angles, so as to form a cross or an x, and draw a circle touching the tips (Fig. 3). Finally, draw circles by freehand alone- of different sizes. If the pupil cannot by the second lesson draw a circle fairly well, then let the second be devoted to the same work, and even a third, for it is in the ability to do so that the real secret of all designing lies, and he who can Plate I. Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Circles. With and witliout the Compasses. (8) A Mamial of Drawing and Designing. execute it with confidence and ease will master design with no difficulty. It is a good practice to make a circle with compasses and to draw others near to and round it. It is generally supposed that to draw a circle accurately by freehand is a very difficult thiiig, and to prove it many tell the story that a great artist named Giotto once, instead of leaving a card or his name, drew one so perfectly that it was at once under- stood that he must have been the caller, since only a very great artist could have done it. Hence the saying, " Round as the O of Giotto." It is probable that Giotto had devoted soine days -or hours to perfecting himself in this work. And if the pupil will give his or her will or attention to it, and resolve earnestly that the skill to draw a good circle shall be acquired, it will be. And anyone who can draw an O or a spiral can draw anything. LESSON SECOND. DRAWING DOUBLE LINES. Assuming that the pupil can now make circles without diffi- culty, let him practise the drawing and doubling of semi-circles, and three-quarter circles. Then let him draw a three-quarter circle, three inches in diameter at least, and within this another line close to it, as in Fig. 4. This line gradually approaches the other so that when finished the two may be said to represent the stem of a water-lily, or a slender serpent from the middle to the tail, or a vine. Let the beginner practise this in three- quarter circles of different sizes, for the second lesson. And if he will take pains to practise drawing circles by freehand for a few days, at intervals, until he can execute them fairly well and easily, he will have mastered the greatest difficulty and got over the first step in Drawing. Plate I. Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig' 3- FJg- 4. Circles." With and without the Compasses. (8) A Manual of Drawing and Designing. execute it with confidence and ease will master design with no difficulty. It is a good practice to make a circle with compasses and to draw others near to and round it. It is generally supposed that to draw a circle accurately- by freehand is a very difficult thing, and to prove it many tell the story that a great artist named Giotto once, instead of leaving a card or his name, drew one so perfectly that it was at once under- stood that he must have been the caller, since only a very great artist could have done it. Hence the saying, " Round as the O of Giotto." It is probable that Giotto had devoted soine days -or hours to perfecting himself in this work. And if the pupil will give his or her will or attention to it, and resolve earnestly that the skill to draw a good circle shall be acquired, it will be. And anyone who can draw an O or a spiral can draw anything. r LESSON SECOND. DRAWING DOUBLE LINES. Assuming that the pupil can now make circles without diffi- culty, let him practise the drawing and doubling of semi-circles, and three-quarter circles. Then let him draw a three-quarter circle, three inches in diameter at least, and within this another line close to it, as in Fig. 4. This line gradually approaches the other so that when finished the two may be said to represent the stem of a water-lily, or a slender serpent from the middle to the tail, or a vine. Let the beginner practise this in three- quarter circles of different sizes, for the second lesson. And if he will take pains to practise drawing circles by freehand for a few days, at intervals, until he can execute them fairly well and easily, he will have mastered the greatest difficulty and got over the first step in Drawing. Plate II. Fig. 5- Fig. 6 (10) A Manual of Drawing and Designing. ii LESSON THIRD. PARTS OF CIRCLES BRANCHING ON A CIRCLE. Draw a circle, as in Fig. 5, and at four equi-distant points but- side, four smaller circles of half its diameter just touching it. Now, regarding the larger circle as a trunk or central vine, make of each of the four circles a branch or shoot growitig^'^v_/'^ might wind round and include them. Draw two parallel lines, or borders, Fig. 17 a, and then a third very lightly in the middle between them. Take the compasses and draw a semi-circle, which, if continued, would just touch, in a circle, the two other lines. From the other side inscribe another semi- circle just joining this. Continue till a wave line of the required length is formed. Double this line to make a vine. Fill it with spiral branches and ornaments growing in proper order (Fig. 17 b). The teacher should take great care that the pupils understand this, else they will be sure to make some grow up the vine and others down. By adding new spirals or parts of circles to the spiral branch inside every wave, and making them run over and curl round into the next semi-circle, beautiful and varied effects may be produced. Let the pupil, for an exercise, draw the circles on which Fig. \^ is based. In drawing a wave-line to surround a square frame, begin by dividing it into exact squares (Fig. 17), If the vine is to have a root, or a beginning, as in Fig. 15, the number of these squares on two sides of the frame should be unequal, and the root be placed in the centre square. Unless this is done there will be a different direction to the curves in the corners. From the root a growth is sent out to either side which may turn the corners and go down to the centre of the other sides. Fig. 171^. Fig. 18^. A Manual of Drawing and Designing: 29 All borders need not be drawn in this formal manner, but in this way a beginner may make a simple and correct pattern of one. It is something when one is ignorant to know how to go about anything by rule. Variations may be introduced after- • wards to any extent. In this lesson we may include circular borders. Draw two circles one within the other, two or three inches apart, the diameter of the outside circle being from twelve to fifteen inches. Divide' these with a ruler and pencil into equal sub- divisions or "squares." They may be longer, say a square and a half, construct the wave-line and fill up as before. As this is puzzling or difficult for young pupils, the teacher would do well to show them how to execute it (Fig. 18 b). LESSON TWELFTH. HOW TO DRAW A VASE. Take Fig. 19. With the compasses draw a circle, B, c, from A as a centre. Draw a line through it vertically or " up and down," continuing it downwards to H. This outside distance is half a diameter of the circle, or as far as from A to c. Then draw a line, u, E, which is also half a diameter in length. At the distance of one-eighth of the diameter draw F, G. This will make the base of the vase, or Dj E, F, G. Connect the ends with two small semi-circles. Draw lines from B to E, and fromc to D. Now take the compasses, and make a circle which can be exactly formed (or " inscribed ") within one-fourth of the large circle. This will be the centye line of the handle. The handle consists of two lines outside of this central line. It is the root or begin- ning of the vine. Continue it into circles, as in Fig. 1 1, forming the vine and its branches. Then affix the ornaments. Draw at Platk X. A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 3 1 the top two parallel lines corresponding to the base D, E, F, G. Make a handle on the other side, equal to the handle K. It is not to be understood that all vases are to be drawn or orna- mented in this manner, but it is a good beginning for a pupil to know how to draw one correctly.. It may be observed that the general shape of a vase corre- sponds to that of an egg.. This also gives a good rule of propor- tion for the type on the title-page of a book, or for a pair of bellows. The teacher may draw the outline of a pair of bellows by this figure, or copy the outline of any vase, pitcher, cup, plate, frame, panel {i.e. a square or double square, or brick), oval waiter or an artist's palette for paint, and require the pupil to space it with circles- of different sizes, and make them into an ornamented vine. There should be in the school a large port- folio in which any desfgns, ornaments, or outlines may be kept. By referring to these for suggestions, the pupils will be greatly aided. Those who are dull or slow in learning may be set from time to time to simply copying designs, and then be required to vary them by rubbing out the ornaments, and putting others in their place. They may also be trained in adding circles to vines, and converting them into spirals and ornaments. Some chil- dren develop skill in designing long before they can draw well, while others, on the contrary, can draw, but are slow in invention. But all are sure of success by application. Plate XL A Manual of Drawing and Desig7iing. 33 L&SSON- THIRTEENTH. ROOTS. When we draw a spiral and turn it into a vine, it follows that it must begin from a root, and it is often awkward or ungraceful to have this root, or " butt-end," or beginning in sight. To obviate this, artists have had recourse to many devices. Some- times they assume that the border, or frame, or edge, which fre- quently surrounds a pattern is a trunk, and make the vines or spirals grow out of it all in one direction. In Figs. 5, 6, 8 we have a round border, with branches growing from it. The pupil may now draw a square or six-sided border, with all the branches inside it. One exercise on this lesson may be to make one, or two, or three vines fill the space, with or without interlacing or crossing. Another way to treat the root is, as in Figs. 14 and 15, to draw in the centre of a circular design a small circle, or knob, which is assumed to be a root, and let the vines grow from this. Again this may be a face, the ears, horns, hair, mustachios and beard of which are prolonged and developed into crochets. (Fig. 20.) The pupil may also copy this, making the face three inches in diameter and substituting other crochets, or orna- ments, or leaves. Or the face may be omitted and the space filled in with something else. Notwithstanding the shading and its apparent elaboration, Fig. 20 will be found on examination to be quite as easy as regards composition as Figs. 5 or 6. It is constructed on a large central circle at each outer comer of which a smaller circle is drawn, as in Fig. 6, and to th^se at equal distances a few smaller rings are added. If the pupil objects that the general conception is the great difficulty, let him remember D 34 A. Manual of Drawing and Designing, that this general conception, with the lines of the beard and mustachios, &c., was repeated tens of thousands of times by the artists of the Renaissance period, and that if he can simply copy it, but substitute other ornaments, he will soon be able to originate an entire subject. These faces and patterns which seem so original to us were only types or models which were copied over and over again with variations, and if the pupil will execute this face several times and change it a little at every drawing, he will soon know how to make a bold design. This face may be changed to a Tortoise with its four paws and tail branching out into ornaments, or into a fish with branching fins, lizard with its legs and tail spreading into ornaments, or any other animal which will fill the space. Or the centre space may be occupied with initials, or a monogram, or a date, or armorial devices. LESSON FOURTEENTH. ROOTS continued Whenever it is possible it must be assumed that there is some idea in a design ; that it is a vine, or plant, or animal, lattice, or pillar, &c., for when an artist merely fills up a space in any way with loose ornament, it is very likely to be without strength or character. Now the root of a design must sometimes be shown, and nothing has taxed the ingenuity of designers more, all the world over, than to do this gracefully. For a root converted into a ball, or a vase from which vines grow, does not look well in vacant space. But when we give it a head with eyes and mouth, however slightly (or conventionally) it is indicated, the entire vine and ornaments become a flying animal. The ground may, be then assumed to be air, earth, or water. In all ages, A Mamial of Drawing and Designing. 3 5 and in most styles of design, this conversion of vines into animals has been done instinctively, not from a mere fondness for mon- sters, but to intimate a reason or give something like an idea to the design. In Fig. 21 we have a design of this character. As in all exercises, the pupil may draw it, varying the circles or spirals. Every semi-circle in a spiral means a full circle at first, When this is done, substitute other ornaments. LESSON FIFTEENTH. THE COMPOSITION OF PATTERNS. It is assumed that the pupil by this time understands how, from a given circle, part of a circle, or spiral curve, another part of a circle may grow, either from its side or from its end, turning to an S, and how additions of the same kind may be made to any extent, so as to fill up any given space with a vine, and how to ornament it. What we must now consider is the manner in which ornaments may be placed together so as to form harmonious designs. Firstly, the intelligent pupil, or teacher, should perfectly understand that simple repetition of anything in regular order is the basis of decorative art. This forms proportion or balance. Even a line or a band drawn round a cup is ornamental, because its every part reproduces or continues the rest of it. So it is with astringofbeadsorarowof dots or balls. (Fig. 22rt.) In architec- ture and in the decoration of buildings repetition is necessary to secure harmony and strength. But it becomes very monotonous when there is a great deal of it very apparent in ornament, and especially where there is much that is florid and in detail. In such cases an improved effect is produced by having every other division unlike, as when we see in a row first a face, then a wreath, . or first a diamond, and then a circle or . Fig. 26 a. A MantLal of Drawing and Designing. $l On the chess-board lines we can, by merely rubbing out, make and leave standing by themselves at regular distances, squares, crosses of different shapes, bricks, and other objects. Then we can draw lines between these, or make dots or circles in them at intervals. Or we may have squares and crosses alternate at intervals.' (Fig 30.) It may be observed that the patterns, as in Fig. 50, of lines formed on squares, have a Chinese appearance, and in fact most Chinese furniture and window lattices, &c., display them. This style of design, known as "long and short sticks," has a very curious origin, and a mythical or mysterious meaning. An early Chinese emperor having observed that the lines on the back of a tortoise formed such a design, imagined that the short, or broken, or half lines meant imperfection, darkness, death, evil, pain, &c,, while the double, or long, or whole ones meant the contrary. So he made a series of twelve groups of these lines, which his followers believe contains the key to all earthly wisdom. The twelve groups are generally inscribed on Chinese ijikstands. Every conceivable ornament which can be made of " longs and shorts," such as those in Fig. 30, are believed to have a meaning, and form, in fact, letters and a mystical writing. ' For more detailed and elaborate instruction in straight-line drawing and design , the teacher or student should obtain the invaluable little text book, "The Anatomy of Pattern," by Lewis F. Day, author of " Every Day Art;" I have been greatly indebted to it, as well as to Ferguson's great work on the " Alhambra," for suggestions in this later portion of my book. At this stage of invention it becomes absolutely necessary to have at hand or make some collection of designs, and to have recourse to different authorities to suggest motives or ideas. Plate XVI. Fig. 29 a. ol o o I o © j o o j « I I I I I o I ^ xtptpr Fig. 29 /'. Fig. 30. Longs and Shorts. (52) A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 5 3 LESSON NINETEENTH. PATTERNS BASED ON TRIANGLES. If we take a sheet of chess-board lines and draw other lines over it, but diagonally, right and left, the whole will be changed from squares to triangles. By rubbing out and supplying lines, or by filling in certain triangles at intervals with black, we can now produce an endless variety of diamonds, hexagons, or six-sided figures, octagons and stars, to say nothing of far more compli- cated and irregular ones. By studying Fig. 31 the pupil will understand this. The teacher and pupils should exert their ingenuity in en- deavouring to invent or discover new patterns both on chess- board lines, or squares, and on the triangles. These may be in lines or solid blocks, or both combined, and the blocks may be black or white. Hitherto the work has been confined to outline, but the first step is now made by using light and shade. Black squares, triangles, &c., are made by filling in the lines with India ink and a finely-pointed brush. Six equal-sided triangles set close together make a hexagon, or six-sided figure. This, like the triangle, may also be made the basis or beginning of a great variety of ornament. Let it be observed in the exercises on the square and triangle, that if we have the sheet ruled full of these, we can always pick out, let us say, two or three, four, five, or any number of the small sub- divisions lying together, and fill them in with black. This makes a figure of some kind, no matter what. Then leave a similar figure next to it in white lines, and then blacken the one next to this. Very large spaces of squares or triangles may be blacked over, or rubbed out to leave white spaces around the units of design or pieces retained. Plate XVII. Fig. 31 a. Fig. 31 b. Fig. 31 d. » ^ Br!iiiiB?ii'''i(S5ii?ira . » Fig. 31 c. Fig. 31 ^. A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 5 5 LESSON TWENTIETH. OF DIFFERENT POLYGONS. The pupil has now learned how to draw square, and triangular, and six-sided figures. The five-sided or pentagon, the seven and eight-sided, and other figures may be set at intervals, but they will not make a regular diaper pat tern ; that is to say, one which, like the square, can be made by merely drawing lines across one another at regular intervals, and by so doing produce figures all alike and all fitting together like the cells of a bee- hive, which are six-sided. We can make octagons or eight-sided figures, by marking out on the chess-board a cross, made of a square with another square set to each end, and fitting four equal-sided or equilateral triangles into each space between the curves. But if we set any number of hexagons made on squares together, it will be seen that a small square comes in between them. (Fig. 32.) For this lesson the pupil may draw hexagons, and as in the previous lessons on the square and triangle, vary and ornament them, or make them bases for lines. The pupil should, at this stage of instruction, be able to draw promptly from memory all the previous exercises, and to produce varia- tions on them. Fig. 33 « shows how to form, firstly, the three equi-distant points which make the corners of an equilateral triangle. These are got by making a circle, and then by marking off the inter- sections as indicated in Fig. 33 «. Two equal-sided triangles joined by any side, make a diamond, which is a figure frequently used in planning patterns. The diamond may be placed ver- tically, or up and down, horizontally or sideways, and also in combination. It is the favourite division, when set vertically with point up or angle-ways, for designing wall-papers and woven fabrics, Plate XVIII. .---■v.. ^^S 33 ^- How to form Equilateral Triangles. Fig. 33 6. Equilateral, or Equal-sided Diamonds, and Equal-sided Hexagons. E 'y' ^K T7 PR P^ ^ >^ / s 5^^ S^ m X ^B K X ^^^ K 1Z%1 X X >^ / NT/TSHfrT/ K /\ /^▼^ \/ ^ >#< jZ\/ /\ it ;|^ M >^ >TS m Fig. 32. Irregular Hexagons. (56) A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 57 LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. TO DESIGN COMPLICATED ARABESQUE PATTERNS. If we draw the lines of a chess-board " up and down and across " the paper before us, so that they are parallel with the top and sides, they form horizontal-vertical squares. But if we make them by drawing diagonally so that the squares appear with points up and down and to either side, then they are set angle-wise. (Fig. 32.) There are two entirely different methods of designing intricate and elaborate patterns of merely intersecting lines. One is to draw on a series of squares (chess-board) or triangles, or diamonds, a simple pattern, as in Fig. 34 a. With a httle practice any child can soon make a figure of this kind, since almost any conceivable combination of a few cross-lines on angles will serve. When it is formed, take the folding looking-glass, and adapt it to Fig. 34 a. Move it about till a suitable figure presents itself. Or else double the pattern by making it interlace with itself, as in Fig. 34 b. Double this once more with the glass, and Fig. 34 c will result. This process may be kept up with very remarkable results of intricacy and beauty, with this or with any other figure in the book. Another way to produce these Moorish or Arabic patterns is that which may be studied in Fig. 35, a beautiful design executed by Mr. A. DuNBAR Smith, of the Brighton School of Sciences and Arts. Having drawn the lines "just as they cross in a cane-seat chair " (L. F. Day), observe that we may mark out a large square or star at one point, whence the lines radiate from its corner. Taking this as a centre, make round it a star or a circle, and adapt them to the lines. A very little practice in thus Plate XIX. Fig. 34 a- Plate XX. 6o A Manual of Drawing and Designing. putting a very few octagons or other simple figures together, and placing. stars within many-sided circle-like figures, will enable the pupil to form an infinite number of such designs. By the very easy process of rounding or curving these enclosed spaces, we get the beautiful Gothic tracery of windows and ceilings. It will occur to the pupil that if large and small circles be placed at regular intervals on a diagram of straight lines {f.e., of squares and triangles), they may be changed to hexagons, by erasing those portions of the circle which surround the sides, the polygons, or several-sided figures, remaining. (61) (63) CIRCLES IN THEIR COMBINATION WITH STRAIGHT LfNES. LESSON, TWENTY-SECOND. CONNECTING CIRCLES. If We draw the chess-board either horizontally or set angle-wise witl^ points up and down, we can then fill each square with a circle, or make the corner of each square a centre for a circle of the same size. ' Then again we may make the circles smaller than the squares, and connect them sideways or up and down with bars or lines, single or double. (Fig. 36 b.) Or instead of circles we may place at intervals, in like manner, figures made of parts of circles combined, which may be cut, connected, or dis- connected. (Fig. 36^.) LESSON TWENTY-THIRD. INTERSECTING CIRCLES. Circles may be drawn intersecting one another on the lines of the chess-board. The circles may be doubled or ornamented, and the spaces formed filled in with block or pen-shading, or colour, or certain portions of the lines may be rubbed away, and other connecting lines drawn. ' A great variety of beautiful Plate XXI. Fig. 37 a. Fig. 36 a. Fig. 36 b. 'Fig. 37 ^. Fig. 36 i-. Vv^ o>o (^^^ M Fig. 36 <^. (64) Fig. 36 e. A Mamial of Drawing (ind Designing. 65 patterns may thus be produced with great ease with the com- passes and india-rubber. (Fig. 36 d and e) In all designs where there are vacant spaces these may be filled according to taste, with spiral ornaments, stars, hexagons, smaller circles, or other ornaments, or connected here and there with straight lines. LESSON TWENTY-FOURTH. VARYING MONOTONY. GIVE-AND-TAKE PATTERNS. It has been observed in Lesson Sixteenth, that, in designing for decoration-^as, for instance, wall-paperS, carpets, .dress patterns — there must be repetition, or the same thing over and over, and yet that a very little variation breaks this up and renders it more agreeable. We like certain general principles of uniformity in everything, but we are quite as much pleased with caprice, or originality, in small cjetails. One way to relieve monotony in design is to have every other panel or circle a little different If we draw a body of circles or diamonds all touching one another with the same 3piral ornamented in every one, it is still a great improvement to see them growing in different directions. (Fig. 37 «•) Again, if we draw,^ chess-board horizontally and fill every square with ornamehtr (then erasing the straight lines), it will appea,r very monotonous. But make the squares with the points up and down, or "set angle-ways," and draw the ornaments, then they wave up and down or run in diagonals, which is less uniform apparently, if not in reality. (Fig. 37 a and b.) This is so well understood that in South America the Indians (whose houses, on account of earthquakes, were often very long, but had only the grpund floor), relieved this wall-like appearance by covering them with diagonal bars of ornament. If the units of design be every other one different, and also running in F Ilate Xkll. -V V V" Fig. 38 c. Squares and "Volutes. A Manual of Drawing and Besigmng. 6f diagonal lines, there will be a still further relief from dull uni- formity. When the ground of a pattern is divided into regular spaces or compartments, such as squares, hexagons (or six-sides), circles, or diamonds (as in Fig. 37 a), the beginner generally keeps his pattern within the lines. To relieve the monotony of this there is what is called "give and take," made b.y every unit of design sending a part of itself into the next division, so that all in turn give and take a certain amount of space. See Fig. 37 6. Copy this and make~ variations, substituting other ornaments. The pupil must not forget to test every pattern with the fold- ing glasses. By doing this a very beautiful six-rayed star orna- ment may be made from Fig. 37 d. Place the root of the orna- ment or flower which fills the diamond in the corner of the glasses, each leaf of the glass being along or on two of the sides of the -^diamond. This is, of course, simply six repetitions of the dia- mond, with the foots of the ornament uniting in one. LESSON TWENTY-FIFTH. ZIG-ZAGS AND OTHER LINES. Patterns, or units of design (tliat is, the parts which are re- peated), may be spaced at regular intervals, or put into place ; therefore, /"/rj//;', with circles touching one another, this tends to produce a zig-sXg, or the rising of points into the small spaces between tlie circles. (Fig. 38 a and b^ Secondly, in horizontal squares or rectangles (i.e., any kind of squared figures, long or ^hort). Thirdly, in squares or diamonds, with the points up and down. (Fig. 37 a arid b.') Or desfgns such as vines may be made on the lines of these circles, squares, or diamonds, crossing two or more of them instead of being enclosed in them. (Fig. 1% c.) 6§ A Manual of Drawing and Designing. The beginner should very strictly observe that whenever lines, or boughs, or vines cross one another or interlace, they must absolutely do so alternately, or pass under and over, or in and out, just as threads do in a woven cloth. Copy as much as possible after having attained facility in design and in handling the pencil, as it trains the eye to accuracy. One must be able to copy well to preserve models and motives for study. But in most schools mere copying is the basis, and often the end of all art-training. When in a hurry, copies may be made by tracing. There is a so-called parchment note- paper, which is perfectly adapted for tracing. There is also tracing-paper — not oiled or greased — adapted for pen-drawing. Everyone who draws should copy or trace as many good designs as he can find, and make a collection of them, keeping them in volumes for reference. I have found leaves of note- papers, or half-sheet joined at the ends, pasted on one by one as they accumulate, the best form for ordinary notes of copying. When the pupil wishes to make a design, such a collection is very useful to suggest subjects or ornaments. It will be found to be well worth while to always have such leaves ready, and when a pattern occurs, say on a wall-paper, a book-cover, or in a book, to at onde trace or copy it for the collection. Every flower, leaf, or weed may yield something. How to conven- tionalize these and adapt them to ornament, may be learned from " Suggestions for Floral Design," by F. E. HuLME. A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 69 LESSON TWENTY-SIXTH. THE INDIAN LEAF. The Chinese have a figure or diagram which is commonly placed on their tombstones. It consists of a circle in which a line like an S divides it into two parts. One half is coloured red or gilt, and the other is black. This is explained as meaning Male and Female, Time and Eternity, Good and Evil, Light and Darkness, &c., the whole meaning the Universe. Each one of these divisions is shaped like a leaf. This leaf occurs as the commonest ornament on Indian shawls. It has passed to the Arabs and Moors, and is their principal decoration in details. By them it is very much varied, being sometimes made with two points or scolloped, as in Fig. 39 c and 24. It is of all orna- ments the easiest to draw (except the simple circle or ball), and its long flowing lines with tendrils, or stems, adapt it specially to sheet leather work. If we examine it we shall see (Fig. 39) that it is made by drawing two circles within another circle of twice their diameters, and rubbing out one half of each of the two thus enclosed. This figure of the semi-circle with an angle or tail attached to it, opens a wide field of decoration. For we can make it by not only putting circles into circles, as in Fig. 39 a, b, but by rounding off one of the corners of any triangle. (Fig. 40 b and c). This was very extensively used in Gothic architecture. When a double square or brick was divided by a diagonal line, and a leaf put into each, it was called perpendicular ; but when, as in Fig. 39 a, the leaf had a curve to one side or the other, it was termed flam- boyant, from flambe, or flamme, a flame, because it was supposed to be flame-formed. Fig. 40 shows a few of the infinite varieties As any square piece of looking-glass cut in two will answer Plate XXIII. Fig. 39 a. Fig. 39 b. Indian Leaf. •{ Fig. 39.^. Fig. 39 d. A Manual of Drawing and Designing, 71 of ornament which may be made with the leaf. Its end may be subdivided into scollops (Fig. 39 c), or it may be grouped in hearts. (Fig. 40 b). Or we may construct an Arab diagram as in Fig. 35, and put the leaf into all its spaces. It will be seen therefore that there are two ways by which these Gothic tracery patterns may be made, one by combining circles alone, and another by, arranging the circles in series of squares and triangles. The latter is most generally adopted for distribution. For an excellent and more elaborate analysis of this work, the pupil may consult " The Anatomy of Pattern," by Lewis F. Day. The leaf as made from circles within circles forms an important element in Old Celtic or Irish design. It occurs in the Tara Brooch, and frequently in the Book of Kells. It is also a royal symbol in Japan. The leaf doubled forms a heart, which is easily converted into a fan. This makes a very graceful ornament, and one which w>, s extensively usfed in the " fan-ceilings " of the fifteenth century. (Fig. 39 ^j 40 c). For this lesson the pupil may complete the six-sided figure containing the fans or compose a design from any of the leaf patterns. LESSON TWENTY-SEVENTH. DEVELOPING PATTERNS FROM PORTIONS, The object of this lesson is that the pupil shall test Fig. 40 a, b, c, with the folding glasses, and copy any of the designs thus sug- gested. It is extremely abundant in portions which may be repeated or varied into new devices. With such a glasfe, the illustrations in this book may be literally increased to hundreds ; all admirably adapted to being copied and then combined and multiplied again into hundreds of others all as original and beautiful, Plate XXIV. Fig. 40 a. Fig. 40 b. Leaf Pattern, Fig. 40 d. A Mamial of Drawing and Designing. 'j'^ As any square piece of looking-glass cut in two will ansvyer for this purpose, it is to be supposed that every pupil can obtain one. Those who, however, can not, may work as follows : Take any piece of stiff paper, or card-board, and cut an angle or wedge out of it. Put this on a pattern, and having selected a base, draw it and repeat it. But the glass is much, better. By examining 'Fig. 41 <^, it will be seen that the border of 41 a consists of five circles and two simple figures interlaced. The knot ornament in the centre is only three circles interlaced, and is anything but complex or difficult. The accompaniment of broad baqds with very narrow ones with small ornaments is very characteristic of both Moorish and Old Irish work. It is very effective, and generally easy enough when the geometrical frame is once made. It is to be strictly observed that when any pattern is tried with the glass it is sure to give some form, perhaps many, for an entirely new basis. When this is' copied and shaded, another, and larger series of far richer and more startling effects may be grasped, and also numbers of small patterns be picked out. Magnify the whole by three, four, or six, and a still larger series, with proportional amount of " bits " for motives, is again evolved, and this process may be kept up for ever. It is true that radically new ornaments cannot really be created by this means, but remarkable variations of those in use often appear. And while the whole design given by the glass is always a mere repetition of units, yet by means of it very remarkable, beautiful and bizarre units are constantly produced, by the constant dissection and combination anew of parts. Plate XXV. Fig. 41 a. Interlocked Patteri), A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 75 LESSON TWENTY-EIGHTH. GEOMETRICAL BASE WITH ORNAMENTS. It will be seen that Fig. 42 is constructed on a diamond, or double equilateral triangle, intersected by an x or a cross, which has been separated into two obtuse angles, with four circles. It might have as well been made on an x or cross. Or a single circle might have beep in the centre, or three or four Fig. 41 /'. circles interlocking have been put there. Almost any conceiv- able combination of from two to five simple geometrical figures will give such a frame, into and through which vines may flow, or to which ornaments in great variety may be attached. As in Fig. 41, the principal feature is the combination of broad bands with light ornamentation. It may be observed that this figure consists of four equal and similar- parts, and that it is three sqiKires in length and two in width. Plate XXVI. A Manual of Drawing and Designing. 77 LESSON TWENTY-NINTH. ADAPTATION TO OBJECTS. It is to be regarded as very important that pupils shall not merely learn to design patterns by themselves, or in an abstract fashion, but also from the beginning invent and draw them with a view to a definite purpose, or to filling a certain given space. There should be hung up in every class-room, or kept in the album of every pupil, a lisjt of objects which may be taken as subjects for lessons. As for example : — Chairs. — Ortiaments fnay be made for the leather seats and backs of chairs, i.e., in square panels. Also the whole chair may be designed for carving. Boxes. X — A box with the lid forms at an angle three panels. Boxes' large and small have in all ages been subjects for artists to ornameht. Plaques or Plates. — Design for repbuisse, or hammered metal- work. Also for china-painting. A salver is a large metal plaque. Cigiir-caskets. Ash-trays.— Yox cigar ashes. Vases.-^Ox\& of the best subjects to cover with designs. Casks, Small Barrels, or Kegs. — Useful for waste-paper boxes, or to contain umbrellas and canes. M9.y be carved or painted. Fans.., Frames f A. H. ABBOTT & CO. IMPORTEBS OP Artists' Materials and Draughtsmen's Supplies 50 Madison Street, Chicago. ■WiiFinrTTniiiiiiwii I I ^.-.-ajfc^ Par?!* OUTFITS FOR SMclimg, Crayon Drawing, * Wood Carriig, Clay loaeling, Rejottsse WorK, etc. Oil Painting, ¥ater color Painting, CMaa Painting, Lnstre Fainting. EEIBRANT & MtJMLLO WATER COLOR BOIES. All the Standard Art Works. Books and Studies of American and European Publication. Special Agency for, the sale of Leland's Art Books, published by Band, McNally & Co., Chicago. 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