mm&:^: hate (5oUege of J^gtitulture atlrata, 335:. ^. ffiihracg Cornell University Library BS 620.J25 Jahn's Biblical archaeology, tr. from the 3 1924 014 Oil 781 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014011781 JAHN'S BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN, WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. BY THOMAS C. UPHAM, rROFESSOK OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF THB HEBREW LANGUAGE IN BOWDOIN COLLEGE. FIFTH EDITION, STEREOTYPED. NEW YORK: IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN A CO. CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS & CO. 1866. Eutnod aocoTding to Act of CongiesB, In the yen 1839, tif GOULD & NEWMAN, tk tb> CInk'B Office of the District Court of Hiusachiuana. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. This Translation, of whicli a second edition is now ofiered to the public, was undertaken at the suggestion and desire of Professor Stuart of the Theological Seminary at Andover ; and was first published at that place in February of 1823. For the encouragement and aid, which Professor Stuart afforded him in this undertaking, and for the assistance, which he re- ceived in various ways from other gentlemen of the Theological Seminary, with which the Translator was at that time coimected as an assistant instructor, he embraces this opportunity to repeat his grateful acknowledgments. The author of the original work is Dr. John Jahn, who was formerly Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Vienna. It was first written in the German Language, and ex- tended through five octavo volumes. Being of such extent, and accompanied with numerous plates, it was found too expensive for common use, and after numerous sohcitations to that effect, was abridged by the author himself, translated into Latin, and printed in a single octavo volume. The Translation into English, which is now presented to the public, is made from the second edition of the Latin Abridgment, printed at Vienna in 1814. The Translator, in fulfilling his task, has constantly had before him the original German Edition, and it is proper for him to remark, that where he noticed an observation in the German which seemed to be important, and which promised to instruct and interest the English reader, but which, nevertheless, was not in the Latin, he has ventured in a considerable number of in- A* VI PREFACE. stances, to translate and inse"t it. In doing this, he has con- siderably increased the labor aud responsibility, which devolved upon him, but it is beheved the work has thereby been rendered more valuable. It is hardly necessary to remark that, in order to learn the additions and alterations, and the grounds on which they have been made, it wiU be found important to compare the translation with the German, as well as with the Latin. The NOTES, which have been occasionally inserted, and the EXTRACTS, which, in order to render some articles more complete than they otherwise wo\ild have been, it has been thought proper to insert, are distinguished from the test of Jahn, by being en- closed with brackets. Many errors in the references have been corrected ; and in the present edition the reader wiU find a full and valuable Index of the passages referred to. For this Index the translator here acknowledges his obhga- tions to the interest taken in this work by Mr. Smith Travers of the city of Washington. It was made out with much care and labor by Mr. Travers soon after the publication of the first edition, and is now with pleasure presented to the reader with only a few alterations from his copy. Other minor improve- ments will be found in this edition ; and it is confidently hoped that the work will be found in all respects a valuable assistant to the bibhcal student in acquiring a knowledge of the Holy Scrip- tures. THOMAS C. UPHAM. Uowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. November 30, 1837. CONTENTS. Section, 1. Biblical Archaeology. 2. Its importance to a Theologian. 3. The sources of Biblical Archaeology. PART I . CHAP. I. On Domestic Aiitiquities. 4. Biblical Geography. 5. Aramea. 6. Phcnicia. 7. Media. 8. Persia, Susiana, Elymais. 9. Babylonia, Chaldea. 10. Arabia. 11. Egypt. 12. Gessen or Goshen, and the river of Egypt. 1.3. Extent and boundaries of the He- brew territories. 14. Pace of the country, Mountains. 15. Plains. 16. Forests. 17. Deserts. 18. The Jordan, Lake Merom, and Gen- nesareth. 19. The Dead Sea. 20. Other Rivers. 21. On the climate of Palestine. 22. Fertility of the Soil. 23. Calamities to which Palestine is subject. 24. Division of Palestine among the Is- raelites. 25. Division of Palestine in the time of Chi-ist. CHAP. n. Of Dwellings. 26. The earliest shelters were shady trees and caves. 27. The more recent Troglody' ;s or dwellers in caves. 28. Tabernacles. 29. On Tents. 30. Formation of Tents. 31. Internal stmcture of Tents. Section, 32. Houses. 33. Size of Houses. 34. Form and roof of Houses. 35. The Gate, Porch, Area or open court, female apartments. 36. Chambers and other Apartments. 37. Doors, and methods of securing them. 38. Windows. 39. Materials for building. 40. Household furniture and utensils. 41. Villages, Towns, Cities. CHAP. m. Of the Nomades. 42. Antiquity, etc. of the Nomades. 43. Of Pastures. 44. Emigrations of the Nomades. 45. Fountains and Cisterns. 46. Flocks of the Nomades. 47. Animals of the Ox kind. 48. Of Asses and Mules. 49. Camels. 50. Horses. 51. Dogs. 52. Of Hunting. 53. Of robberies committed on Travel- lers. CHAP. IV. On Agkicultuke. 54. Its value and importance. 55. Laws of Moses in regard to Agri- culture. 56. Estimation in which Agriculture was held. 57. Means of increasing Fertility. 58. Different kinds of Grain. 59. Instruments of Agriculture. 60. Animals used in Agriculture. 61. Preparation of the Land. 62. Harvest. 63. Threshing Floor. 64. Threshing. 65. Ventilation. 66. Of Vines and Vineyards VUl CONTENTS. Section. 67. Situation find nrrangementof Yine- yiU'ds. 68. Culture of Vineyards. 69. Vintnpe and Winepress. 70. Gardens. 71. Of Olive-Trees. 72. The Fig-tree. 73. The Pomegranate. 74. The Balsam. 75. The Palm. 76. Terebinths a.nd Pistacia^. 77. Bees and Honey. 78. Fishing. 79. The fallow year. CHAP. V.^ Of the Arts. 80. On the Origin of the Arts. 81. State of the Arts from the Deluge till Moses. ~^-82. The Arts among the Hebrews in the time of Moses. 83. Arts among the Hebrews in Pales- tine. 84. State of the Arts after the Captivity. 85. Antiquity of the Art of Writing. 86. The extension of Alphabetical Writing. 87. Materials and Instruments of Writ- • ing. 88. Respecting Books. 89. Of Epistles. 90. On Poetry. 91. Character of the Hebrew Poetiy. 92. On Music. 93. Uses of Music among the Hebrews. 94. Stringed Instruments. 95. Wind Instruments. 96. Different sorts of Drums. 97. On Dancing. CHAP. VI. On the Sciences. 98. The origin of the Sciences. 99. Historj', Genealogy, and Chronol- , ogy. 100. Arithmetic, Mathematics, Astrono- my, and Astrology. 101. Division of Day and Night 102. Of Weeks. 103. Of the Months and the Year. 104. Surveying, Mechanic Arts, and Geography. 105. Medicine. .... 106. Physics, Natural History and Phi- losophy. Note. Academical Degree. Section CHAP. VII. Of Commercb. 107. Antiquity of Commerce. 108. Commerce of the Phenicians, Ara> Mans, and Egyptians. 109. Mercantile Routes. 110. Method of carrying goods by land. 111. Commerce of the Hebrews. 112. Weights and Measures. 113. Measures of length. 114. Hollow Measures. 115. Weights and Money. 116. Weights and Money before the Captivity. 117. Weights and Money after the Cap- tivity. CHAP. VIII. On Clothing. 118. Materials of which clollies wer.'B made. 119. Color of Cloths. 120. The Tunic. 121. The Girdle. 122. Of Upper Garments. 123. Sandals and Shoes. 124. Of the Beard. 125. Of the Hair. 126. Coverings for the Head. 127. Of the Veil. 128. Staff, Seal, and Rings. 129. Ladies' Rings and Pendants. 130. Necklaces, Bracelets, etc. 131. Amulets. 132. Mirrors. 133. Purse and Napkins. 134. Painting and Brandingor Sealing. 135. Dress at Festivals and on occasions of Mourning. CHAP. IX. Concerning Food and Feasib. 136. Of Food in general. 137. Preparation of Food by Fire. 138. Of Mills. 139. Grinding. 140. Baking bread in an Oven. 141. On the different kinds of Food. 142. Of Roasting. 143^ Interdicted Food. 144. Beverage. 145. Time and circumstances of taking Refreshment. 146. Table and method of Sitting. 147. Mode of Bating. 148. Of Feasts. 149. Hospitality of the Orientals. CONTENTS. Section. CHAP. X. On THE STATE OP Domestic Society. 150. Precaution against Pomication. 151. Polygamy. 152. The choice of a "Wife. 153. The Marriage Vow and Dowiy. 1 54. Celebration of Nuptials. 155. Concubines. 156. Fruitfuluess in the Marriage State. 157. Marriage of a Childless Brother's Widow. 158. Concerning Adultery. 159. The Suspected Wife. 160. Bill of Divorce. 161. Child-Birth. 162. Circumcision. 1 63. Antiquity of Circumcision. 164. On the Naming of Children. 165. Concerning the First-bom. 166. The Nurture of Childi-en. 167. The power of the Father. 168. Of the Testament or Will. 169. Respecting Slaves. 170. Ways in which men became Slaves. 171. Condition of slaves among the He- brews. 172. Condition of slaves among other Nations. CHAP. XI. Character AND Social iNTERConKSE OF THE HeBKEWS. 173. Character of the Hebrews. 1 74. Propriety and refinement of Man- ners. 1 75. Mode of Salutation. 176. On "Visiting. 177. Of Gifts. 178. Kinds of Presents and methods of bringing them. 179. Public Honors. 180. Conversation and Bathing. 181. Treatment of the Jews to Strangers. 182. The Poor and Beggars. 183. Levitical Defilements. CHAP. XII. Of Diseases. 184. Of Diseases generally. 185. Disease of the Philistines mention- ed in I Sam. 5: 6. 186. Disease of King Jehoram. 187. False Conceptions. 188. Countries where the Leprosy pre- » lils. Section. 189. Beginnings and progress of Leprosy Note I. On Bohak as distinct from infectious Leprosy, n. On the Leprosy of Guadar loupe. 190. On the Pestilence. 191. The disease of Saul and Nebuchad- nezzar. 192. Respecting Demoniacs. 1 93. Demoniacs were possessed with a devil. 194. General view of the opposite argu- ment. 195. Symptoms in Demoniacs, the same with those in diseased persons. 196. The Apostles, Evangelists, and Christ regarded Demoniacs as diseased persons. 197. Real possessions inconsistent with the doctrine of Jesus and his Apostles. 198. Pool near the Sheep-Market at Je- rusalem. 199. Concerning Paralytics. 200. The death of Judas Iscariot. 201. Blindness of the sorcerer Bar-Jesus. 202. Disease of Herod Agrippa. CHAP. xni. Concerning Death, Burials, and Mourning. 203. On Death. 204. Treatment of the Corpse, Embalm- ing. 205. Of Funerals. 206. Situation of Sepulchres. 207. Sepulchres. Note. I. Maundrell on the Sepul- chres of he Kings. II. Harmer on the "VVhite- washing of Sepulchres. 208. Articles, which were buried with the dead. 209. Sepulchral Monuments. 210. Burning of the Corpse. 211. Of Mourning. 212. Other causes of Mourning. PART II. ON POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. CHAP. I. On the Hebrew Commonvtealth. 213. Patriarchal Government. 214. The Fundamental Law of the Mo- saic Institutions. CONTENTS. \ Section. 215 Oonditicm of the Hebrews, aa re- spected other nations. 216. Principal Oficers in the Hebrew State. 217. Connection of the Tribes with each / other. 218. The Comiiia or Legislative Assem- blies. 219. Form of Goremment a mixed one. 2211 The Euler of the Israelitish Com- munity. 221. The Theocracy. 222. Historical Tables. CHAP. n. Or Kings, Officers of State, and OTHEE MaGISTHATES. 223. The Anointing of Kings. M 224. Royal Robe, Diadem, and Crown. 225. The Throne. 226. The Sceptre. 227. The Royal Table. 228. Seclusion of Kings, Journeys, etc. 229. Royal Palace and Gardens. 230. Veneration paid to Kings, and Ti- tles, which were bestowed upon them. 231. The duties of the Hebrew Mon- archs. 232 Extent of the Royal power and prerogatives. 233. Methods of promulgating Laws, etc. 234. On the Royal Revenue.?. 2.35. Magistrates under the Monarchy. 236. Officers of the Palace. 237. The King's Harem. 238. The method, in which the Officers and others held intercourse with the Ifing. 239. Magisti-ates during and after the Captivity. 240. Tetrarchs. 241. Roman Procurators. . 242. Of the Tribute and Half Shekel of the Temple. CHAP. III. Of Trials and Punishmentb. 243. Of Judges. 244. The Sanhedrin. Note. Of Ihe Sanhedrin instituted by Moses. 245. Other Tiibunals in tlie time of Christ. 246. The time of Trials. Section. i247. The Forum or place of Trials. 248. Form of Trial. 249. Prisons and Tortures. 250. Regulations, etc. in respect to Debtors. 251. On Usury. 252. The smallest Punishment. 253. Fines and Indemnifications. 254. Punishment of Theft. 255. Corporal Punishments. 256. On Retaliation. 257. Mosaic Punishments. 258. Excision from the people. Excom- munication. 259. Of punishments, which con.'sist of Posthumous insults. 260. Punishments, introduced from other Nations. 261. Crucifixion, as practised among the Romans. 262. The cruelties of Crucifixion. 263. The Public Executioner. 264. Of the Blood- Avenger, and cities of Refuge. 265. Of the unknown Murderer. CHAP. IX. On Military Affairs. 266. General View of Military Science 267. General Military Enrolment. 268. Of the Levy for Actual Service. 269. Divisions, etc. introduced into Ar- mies. 270. Military Reviews and Inspection'. 271. Of Shields. 272. The Helmet. 273. Cuirass, Breastplate, or Coat of Mail. 274. Greaves and Military Frock. 275. On Fortifications. 276. Arms, with which the soldiers fought hand to hand. 277. Of Javelins. 278. Of the Bow, An-ow, and Quiver. 279. Of the Sling. 280. Of Engines, used in war. 281. Battering Rams. 282. Respecting the Cavalry. 283. Of Chariots of War. 284. Sports and Exercises preparatory to War. 285. Gymnastic Sports. 286. Of Encan-pments. 287. On Militfry Marches. 288. Military Standards. 289. Respecting War. 290. Preparations for Battle. CONTENTS. Section, 291. Of the Battle. 292. On Sieges. 293. Circumvallation. 294. The Besieger's Mound. 295. Consequences of Victory. 296. Severities of ancient warfare. 297. Justice of the war against the Car naanites. Note. Eight of the Israelites to Pa- lestine. 298. On the division of the Spoils. 299. Respecting the Spoils, which the Hebrews took away from the Egyptians. 300. Periods, when there was a cessation from Hostilities. PART I II. ON SACRED ANTIQUITIES. CHAP. I. HiSTOEiCAL View of the Religion OP THE Bible. 301. Religion down to the Deluge. 302. from the Deluge to Abra- ham. 303. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 304. Respecting the religion of the Pa- triarchs. 305. Respecting Moses. 306. On the question, " Wliether Moses taught the existence of a merely national God V 307. On the question, " AA'liether the character of Jehovah, as repre- sented by Moses, is merely that of a being inexorably just 'V 308. Respecting the regulations, which were made in order to preserve the true Religion. 309. On the moral tendency of the in- structions and institutions of Mo- ses. 310. On tlie question, " Whether there are Types in the Laws of Mo- ses V 311. Sketch of Religion from Moses till after the Babylonish Captivity. 312 Perseverance of the Hebrews in their Religion after the Captivity. 313. Respecting the knowledf^e of God before the time of Christ, as de- veloped by Philosophy. 314. On the Condition of Man after Death. 316. Respecting the Propagation of Ju- daism. Section. 316. General state of Jewish affairs. 317. On the Antiqiiity of the Jewish Religious sects. 318. On the doctrine of the Pharisees. 319. Defects in the moral principles and practice of the Pharisees. 320. On the traditions of the Pharisees. 321. Galileans and Zealots. 322. Respecting the Sadducees. 323. Essenes and Therapeutae. 324. Concerning the Hellenists- 325. Concerning Proselytes. 326. Concerning the Samaritans. CHAP. II. Or Sacred Places. 327. Of Sacred Places in general. 328. Of the Tabernacle. 329. The Altar and the Brazen Laver. 330. The Golden Candlestick. 331. Of the Table of Shew-Bread. 332. The Altar of Incense. 333. Ark of the Covenant in the Holy of Holies. 334. Respecting the Holy Land. 335. Of Jerusalem, the Holy City. 336. Mount Moriah. 337. Of the Temple of Solomon. 338. The Sanctuary of Solomon's Tem- ple. 339. Of the Temple of ZerubbabeL 340. Of the Temple of Herod. 341. Of the gates of Herod's Temple. 342. Porches in the Temple of Herod. 343. Of the Sanctuary. 344. Origin of Synagogues. 345. Of the Structure, etc. of Syna- gogues. CHAP. in. Of Sacked Seasons. 346. On the Antiquity of the Sabbath. 347. On the design of the Sabbath. 348. Concerning those things, which were to be omitted on the Sab- bath. 349. Concerning those things, which were permitted to be done on the Sabbath. 350. Concerning the Sabbatic Year. 351. Of the Year of Jubilee. 352. New Moons and Feast of the New Year. 353. Of the great Festivals in general. 354. Of the Passover. 355. Of the Pentecost. xu CONTENTS. Section. 356. Of the Feast of Tabernacles. 357. On the Day of Propitiation. 858. Of other Fasts. 359. Of the Feast'of Purim. 360. On 'the Festival Encaenia, other- wise called the Festival of the Purification of the Temple. CHAP. IV. Or Sacked Persons. 361. Of the Jews, considered as a holy people. 362. Of persons officially employed in discharging religious duties. 363. Of the servants, who were allotted to the sanctuary. 364. Of the Consecration of the Levites. 365. Of the duties of the Levites. 366. Of the Priests. 367. The Consecration of the Priests and of the High-Priest. 368. Concerning the Dress of the Priests. 369. Of the Duties of the Priests. 370. Dress of the High-Priest. Some account of Urim and Thum- Note. Remarks of Michaelis on Urim and Thummim. 371. On the question, Whether Pries and Levites were Public Teach- ers? 373. Officers in the Synagogues, ts,* CHAP. V. Of Sacked Things. 373. On the question, What is a sacri- fice ? 374. On the Origin of Sacrifices. 375. On the division or kinds of Sacri- fices. 376. The place of Sacrifices. 377. Of Bloody Sacrifices. 378. Ceremonies at the offering of Sa- crifices. 379. Of Holocausts or whole Burnt-of- ferings. 380. Of Sin-Offerings. Section. 381. Of Trespass-Offerings. 382. Peace and Thank- Offerings. 383. Of Covenant-Sacrifices. 384. On the meaning of Sacrifices. 385. Of Bloodless Sacrifices. 386. Of the Purification of the Unclean. Of the Red Heifer. 387. Purification of Leprous Persons 388. Of the First-Born. 389. Of the First-Fruits. 390. OfTythes. 391. Of the Sacred Oil. 392. Of Oaths. 393. Of "Vows. 394. Of Affirmative Vows. Of the Vow called Cherem. 395. Of Negative Vows, the Nazariie, etc. 396. Of Prayers. 397. Of the Worship in the Synagogues 398. The language in which the service was performed in the Syna- gogues. 399. Mode of worship practised by the CHAP. VL Concerning Idolatky. 400. Of Idol Deities. 01. Altars, Statues, Temples, Groves 402. Sacrifices, Prayers, Festivals, Pu rifications, Mysteries. 403. Of Divinations, etc. 404. State of Idolatry in the time of Christ. 405. Of Images made for sacred pur- poses. 406. Of the Host or Army of Heaven. 407. Of the Sun, and the god Baal. 408. Of other Baals, or Baalim. 409. Of Astarte, Ashtaroth, or the Moon, as an object of worship. 410. Of Tammuz and Adonis. 411. Moloe, Molec, Malcom, Milcom. 412. Of Chiun and Remphan. 413. Of Teraphim. 414. OfDagon. 415. Of other Deities. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY PRELIMINAEY REMARKS. § 1. Biblical Aechaeology. Archaeology, aQXccwXoyla, considered subjectively or in refer- ence to the mind, is the knowledge of whatever in antiquity is worthy of remembrance, but objectively is that knowledge reduced to a system. In its widest sense, therefore, iU embraces achieve- ments of a historical nature, and everything else, important to be transmitted to subsequent ages ; but, in a limited sense, has special reference to religious and civil institutions and ceremonies, to opinions, manners and customs, and the like. As there are cir- cumstances, worthy of being noticed and remembered, not only in the religious and civil, but also in the domestic concerns of the ancients, so Archaeology may be divided into sacred, political, and domestic Biblical Archaeology embraces everything in the Bible worthy of notice and remembrance, whether it be merely alluded to, or treated ss -something well known. § 2. Its importance to a Theologian. I. It enables him to throw himself back more fully into the age, the country, and the situation of the sacred writers and their con- temporaries, and to understand and estimate the nature and the tendencies of the objects, which are there presented to him. II. 1 Z PEELUflNAEY KEMARKS. It puts him in a better situation to detect allusions to ceremonies, customs, laws, peculiarities in the face of the country, etc., and to make himself sure of the precise import of the passages, where such allusions occur. III. It proffers him new ability in answer- ing the objections of the opposers of Revelation, the greater part of whijh originate in ignorance of antiquity. IV. It presents to his view distinctly and impressively the adaptation of the different dispensations, the object of which was to preserve and transmit religion, to the character and situation of the age. V. It shows him, where to separate moral precept and religious truth from the drapery of the figurative language, in which they are clothed ; since language, considered as the medium of thought, takes its character in a measure from that of the times. VI. It enables him to enter into the nature and spirit of the arguments in favor of the authenticity of the sacred books. VII. That an acquaintance with Biblical Archaeology is of great importance is evident from this also, that all, who have undertaken to explain the Scriptures, while ignorant of it, have committed very great and very numerous mistakes. § 3. The soukces of Biblical Archaeology. It is necessary, in order that the student may derive real profit from a book of sacred antiquities, not only that he should make a right use of it by studying it in a proper manner, but that the book or system itself should be drawn from genuine and undoubted sources. These sources are, I. The Scriptures ; which are very weighty, because they are in fact the testimony of the people themselves in regard to events and customs, in which they were the agents. II. Ancient Monuments. These are in a manner living testi- monies. Such are, the triumphal arch of Titus, a representation of which has been given by Reland in his De spoUis iempU Jerosoly- mitani in arexi Titiano Romae consptcwis; the ruins of Persepolis; the subterranean vaults or sepulchres in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, countries where pyramids also, obelisks, and the ruins of various edifices bear testimony both to the perfection and the anti- quity of the arts ; and the ruins of Baalbec and Palmyra, engravings of which in copper have been furnished by Wood. They are of PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 3 a more recent age, but they illustrate what occurs in the Bible, rela- tive to the edifices of Herod, and the temple of Jerusalem in the time of our Saviour. ni. Ancient Greek, Phenician, Egyptian, and Eoman coins. Jewish coins with inscriptions in the old Samaritan character, and those of a few other nations. JV. The works of Philo the Jew and of Josephus, the former of whom resided in Egypt, the latter at first in Judea and subsequently at Rome ; both were contemporaries with the Apostles. V. Ancient Greek and Latin authors, who sometimes give a more full account of events and customs, which are merely mentioned or alluded to in the Bible, particularly Herodotus, also Xenophon, Ar- rian, Strabo, Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, and almost all the others. But it is the dictate of sound criticism, that the authority of the Bib- lical writers, who were indigenous, and for the most part contempo- rary with the events they relate, should supersede, when there is any disagreement, that of these profane writers, who were of another coun- try and a later age. VI. The Mishna or the text of the Talmud, which is a collection of traditions, made very nearly between the year 190 and 220, and was accompanied after a time by the explanations of the two Gema- ras ; the one of which, called the Jerusalem, was written about the year 280 ; the other, called the Babylonian, was begun in 427 and completed about the year 500. In making use of the information, which this work supplies, there is need of much caution, as there are many modern interpolations in it. VII. Certain ecclesiastical writers, who lived in Syria or other oriental countries, particularly Jerome and Ephraem Syrus; also some Syriac and Arabian books, especially the most ancient. Final- ly, the Journals of modern travellers, who have visited the East, marked the appearances of the country, and given an account of the manners and customs of the inhabitants. In making use of the last mentioned works, there is need of caution, lest we assign to antiquity what belongs to a more recent period, although it ought at the same time to be kept in mind, that the inhabitants of the East are not fond of innovations, and retain to this day customs, which throw light on many things mentioned in the Bible. The people who have retained with the most constancy and exactness their ancieijt habits, are the wandering Arabs, who live in the Arabian deserts ; next to 4 PEELIMlNAllY REMARKS. these are the itinerant shepherds of Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia or Erak, Egypt and the north part of Africa. Other na- tions come into the account, on the subject of biblical antiquities, in proportion to the nearness of their situation to the Hebrews. Fur- thermore, we should make a distinction between what these writers have seen and heard, and their conjectures and opinions ; for in the one case they are witnesses, and in the other they assume the func- tions of a judge, a part which may be sustained by any person, pro- vided he has the facts in the first place upon which he may build his judgment. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. PART FIRST. ON DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. CHAPTER I. § 4. Biblical Geography. As it seems necessary that something should be known respect- ing the theatre of the memorable events in the Bible, before proceeding further we shall give a concise view of biblical or sacred geography. Lest we should delay too long in the threshold, we shall not now discuss the situation of the countries, mentioned Gen. 10: 5 — 10, etc., shall say nothing respecting the origin of the Tigris and Euphrates, and shall omit the geography of Asia Minor and Greece. We proceed, therefore, to state in a few words the situation of those countries, which occur more frequently in the Bible. § 5. Aramba. The region, which in the Bible is denominated Aram, D'lS, is a vast tract, extending from Mount Taurus south as far as Dar mascus and Babylonia, and from the Mediterranean Sea in an 1* 6 § 5. ARAMEA. eastern direction beyond the Tigris into Assyria. Different parts of it are called by different names. I. Aram beth Rechob, ain") ni3 tnif. , otherwise called Assyria ; in the most limited meaning of the term, it was a small province or peninsula surrounded by the Tigris, and the less and greater Zab. Its extent was increased in the progress of time by the addition of seven other provinces, and in the age of Isaiah and Ahaz, it became, by the accession of other territories still, which extended into Syria and Palestine, the veiy large empire of Assyria. Its metropolis, Nineveh, was situated on the eastern shore of the Tigris, nearly op- posite the site of Mosul at the present day. It was laid waste in the year 877 before Christ by Arbaces and Belesis, but was rebuilt ; it was laid waste again by Cyaxares I. and Nabopolassar in the year 625 before Christ, and ever afterwards remained desolate. II. Aram Xaharaim, Mesopotamia, now called by the Arabic name Al-Gezira or the island, for it is almost surrounded by the Tigris and Euphrates. The provinces into which it was divided were 1. the Mesopotamian plains, D'ns "iliS , or B'^s iriili , and 2. the province of Nesibene, D'nx nais . III. Aram without any epithet attached to it, is Syria, now called by the Arabic name, Al-Sham or the country to the left, be- cause, when the Arab's face was turned towards the east, Aram or Syria lay upon the left, i. e. to the north. Its most celebrated cities, the ruins of which still remain, were Baalbec or Baal-Gad, 'is Vsa , otherwise called Heliopolis ; Tadmor, liann , or Palmyra ; Aleppo, now called Haleb, liaiti, and Antioch. Its minor divisions were, 1. the kingdom of Damascus, ptoa^ ; 2. the kingdom of Maacha, nss'g ; S. the kingdom of Tob, aia ; 4. the kingdom of Hamath, nan ; and 5. the kingdom of Geshur, iTOa , on the Orontes. Note. The orientals, when undertaking to designate tlie several quarters of the heavens, turn their face to the east. Hence Q'lg, which properly means in front or before, means also the East; bi bia Petrea, the Mediterranean, and Syria. The divine promise, how- ever, had respect at the same time to those territories, which the He- brews, when afterwards provoked to arms, should reduce to their authority. As soon as they were in a condition to penetrate to the land, which had been occupied by the Patriarchs before them, they conquered the kings of Gilead, who had taken up arms by way of re- sistance, and occupied, by the right of war, the tract which stretches from the river Arnon to the foot of mount Hermon or Antilibanus, Num. 21: 21, et seq. Afterwards they subjected the neighboring territories. The boundaries in reference to this increased extent are defined. Gen. 51: 18—21. Num. 34: 1, 2. Deut. 11: 24. Josh. 1: 4. 11: 16, 17. 12: 1—7. 15—33. On the south, the boundary line ran with some irregularities from the end of the Dead Sea along Idumea and Arabia Petrea, as far as the river or torrent of Egypt. The pastures of Arabia Petrea, par- ticularly of the desert, which extends both through Petrea and De- serta as far as the Persian Gulf and north along the Euphrates, remained free, for it was not possible to fix any definite limits in those regions. In the time of David, the whole of Idumea as far as the bay of Elana, submitted to the Hebrews. The furthest city, in this direction, that belonged to them, is often mentioned by the name of Beersheba, "3'd "isa, which, however, was not situated on the boundary line. On the west, from the river of Egypt to the city Acco or Ptole- mais, or rather as far as Achzib, Josh. 19: 28, 29, the boundary was the Mediterranean Sea, called in Hebrew, biisn D*ri , liitiNf; Djn . The Philistines, who were conquered by David, dwelt on its southern shore, within the limits just mentioned. They often threw ofi" the yoke. From Achzib, the boundary received a direction north into the main land, and ran contiguous to Phenicia 78 English miles to lat. 34°, terminating at Apheca, which is situated between Biblum or Gible and Baal- Gad or Baal- bec. Phenicia, therefore, was not included in the territory of the Hebrews. Josh. 13: 2 — 6. Comp. Numbers 34:1, and Joshua 19: 24—31. The northern boundary extended with many deviations from Aph- eca to the east, touched in Coelesyria upon the kingdom of Ha- 12 § 14. FACE OF THE OOUNTET, MOUNTAINS. math, and enclosed the city of Baal-Gad, lat. 34°, near which ap pears to have been situated the city of Dan, so often mentioned, as being on the northern extremity of the kingdom. There the line ran south-east to Arabia Deserta, so as to exclude the kingdom of Damascus ; the whole of which, with the cities of Betack and Bai- ruth, was at length occupied by the armies of David. It recovered, however, its freedom under his successors, and created much trouble to the kingdom of Israel. On the east, the Euphrates was the boundary assigned, Deut. 11: 24. It cannot, however, be accurately determined, on account of the extensive deserts, which exist in that -direction. The mountains of Gilead, which were subjected by Moses, approach the barren waste, which girds the shore of the Euphrates, and- as we learn 1 Chron. 5: 9, 16, supplied pasture to the tribes of Gad and Reuben. The tribes beyond Jordan, under Saul, subdued a large extent of country, 1 Chron. 5: 19. The Ammonites possessed the territory to the east of the river Arnon, and the Moabites inhabited the region to the south of the same river. So that the Arnon was the boundary, which sepa- rated the Hebrews on the east from the Ammonites, and on the south from the Moabites, until they were subdued by David, who extended the lines of his dominion, as far north as 35° 15' of lat. where the city Thipsach or Tapsacus wgs situated. From these facts it is clear, that the kingdom of David and Solomon was very large, extending from the 28th to the 35th of lat., and from the 52d to the 59th of longitude. § 14. Face of the codntey; Mountains. Palestine is a mountainous country. Two ranges, the one on the east, the other on the west side of the Jordan, extend from Syria into Arabia, interrupted, however, in various places, by vallies and level tracts of greater or less extent. The principal mountains are, I. Mount Lebanon. It is formed of two summits, which run north almost parallel from lat. 33° 12' to lat. 34° 32', and leave a valley in the middle, which is called Coelesyria, xoiXij JSvQia, I'lsalrt bin and -p'sab nS!?a, Gen. 10: 23. Jos. 11: 17. These mountains begin to ascend about three miles north of ancient Tyre, where the river Leontes, now called Kasmie, which flows from Coelesyria or the valley between the mountains, empties into the § 14. FACE OP THE COUNTET, MOUNTAINS. 13 sea. The western summit is denominated Libanus, by the Greeks, and the eastern, AntiUbanus ; but the Hebrews do not make this distinction of names, denominating both summits by the common name of Lebanon or Libanus. Libanus runs north from the mouth of the Leontes ; bending a little to the east, it leaves on the bor- ders of the sea a plain of different degrees of breadth. Some pro- montories, notwithstanding, two at least, project into the sea, the one near the mouth of the Lycus, now called Nahr el Khalb, lat. 33° 16', the other, lat. 34° 50', called ■&80v nQoacanov. Anciently on these mountains there grew cedars, of which there remain to this day from twenty to forty, though according to Aryda only fourteen, of great size and antiquity, together with many smaller ones. Antilibanus runs from the mouth of the Leontes, at first, in an eastern direction, but soon alters its course and runs north, parallel with Libanus. It is much higher than Libanus, and is crowned with perpetual snows, Jer. 18: 13. In the summer, snow is also found on Libanus in the clefts and fissures, which are exposed to the north ; it is often brought down into the neighboring cities, and mingled with the drink of the inhabitants, in order to render it more cool and refreshing, Prov. 25: 12. The highest peak of Antilibanus was called by the Hebrews, Hermon ; by the Sidonians, Sirion ; and by the Amorites, Senir, Deut. 3: 9. In later times these three names were given to three separate summits, 1 Chron. 5: 23. The part towards Damascus was called Amana, Jisrx , from which flow the two rivei"s Amana and Pharphar, 2 Kings 5: 12. The pine and the fir flourish on Antiliba- nus. The height of these mountains is about 9000 feet. They ex- hibit a grand and imposing appearance ; many of the images, which occur in the Scriptures, are drawn from them. Isa. 10: 34. 29: 17. 35: 2. n. Carmel. This is a mountainous ridge, which begins to rise about thirteen miles south of Ptolemais, in the vicinity of a large bay formed by the sea. It stretches south 11 J miles, and is 40 miles in circumference, according to D'Arvieux nearly 60. The northern and eastern summits are higher than the southern and western. The northern summit or ridge projects into the sea, the southern recedes, and leaves a plain on the shore in the form of a half circle. The name itself is' an indication of the fruitfulness ot these ridges, and of the valleys, which they form ; for b's'is is a contraction for ^X d'ns, which means the garden of God, or a 2 14 § 14 FACE or THE COUNTRY, MOUNTAINS. very pleasant region. The tops of these mountains are crowded with oaks and firs, the valleys with laurels and olives ; nor is there any deficiency of fountains and rivulets, so grateful to the inhabitants of the east. Carmel has been to the Hebrew prophets the source of many poetical images, Isa. 29: 17. 32: 13. 35: 2. Mich. 7: 14. Jer. 48: 33. Its many caves are worthy of notice, many of which existed in ancient times : also the paths leading through continuous clefts in the rocks, where one may easily and effectually hide himself, Amos 9: 3. 2 Kings 2: 25. 4: 25. There was another mount Carmel, with a city of the same name, in the tribe of Judah, 1 Sam. 25: 5. 27: 3. 2 Sam. 3: 3. III. Tahor, ^inri , It-ca^vQiov, a singular mountain of an oblong shape, in the direction from north to south, eleven miles east of Car- mel, and about nine west of the Jordan, on the northern side of the plain of Jezreel or Ezdrelom. It is estimated to be nearly a mile high, and a journey of three hours in circumference at the bottom. On the top of the mountain is a plain of an oblong figure, like the mountain itself, and three thousand paces in circuit. On this plain there was formerly a city, probably the same with the city Tabor in the tribe of Zebulun, mentioned 1 Chron. 5: 77, and which, in Josh. 21: 34, is simply called nnig , a city. It is not the same with the Ta- bor, mentioned 1 Sam. 10: 3, which was two miles distant from Jeru- salem. IV. The Mountains ofhrad, also called the Mountains of JSphraim, occupied nearly the centre of the whole country. To the south of them were the Mountains of Judah. Both ridges are fruitful, except- ing those parts of the mountains of Israel, which approach the district of the Jordan, and those also, which extend from the mount of Olives to the plains of Jericho. These tracts are rough and uneven, and abound in hiding-places for robbers, Luke 10: 30. The highest peak in the mountains of Israel or Ephraim, seem to be what was formerly called the Eock Eimmon, Judg. 20: 45 — 47, but is now called Qua- rantaria. The mountains Ebal and Gerizim are celebrated. They are separated from each other merely by an intervening valley, the former being to the north, the latter to the south of Shechem, Josh. 8: 30 — 35. Deut. xxvii. In the mountains of Judah are numerous and large caves, of which Adullam, D^15> , is the most celebrated, 1 Sam. 21: 1, 2. Comp. also Gen. 23: V, 19. Josh. 10: 16. There was also a city of the name of AduUam, Josh. 15: 35. § 15. PLAINS. 15 v. The mountains of Gilead, ish . They are situated east of the Jordan, and extend from Antilibanus or mount Hermon into Arabia Petrea. The northern part is called Bashan, and was celebrated for its oaks and pastures. The middle was denominated Gilead in the stricter sense. In the southern part were the mountains Abarim, c'lns . Among these, in the region of Jericho, arose the mountain Pheor or Phegor, also Nebo, from the summit of which, called Pis- gah, the whole land of Canaan is visible. Deut. 3: 27. 32: 48 — 50. 34: 1, 2. comp. Matt. 4: 8. § 15. Plains, nspa, nbs^a, nais, liaia. The most celebrated are, I. The shore of the Mediterranean from the river of Egypt to mount Carmel. The tract from Gaza to Joppa is simply called rtS'i'n , the plain. In this plain were the five principal cities of the Philistines, viz. Gaza, Askelon, Azotus, Gath, and Ekron or Accaron. The region reaching from Joppa to Carmel, which is somewhat hilly, was called Sharon. This is to be distinguished from a place, likewise called Sharon, situated be- tween Tabor and lake Gennesareth ; and from a third place also of the same name, east of the Jordan in the tribe of Gad, celebrated for its pastures. n. The plain of Jezreel, ixs'iJ'; , E^dQijXojfi, jiifa, nsdiov, extends from west to east, through the middle of Palestine, beginning at the Mediterranean, and the mountain Carmel, and terminating at the egress of the Jordan from lake Gennesareth. Its length is from twenty-three to twenty-eight, and its breadth from nine to thirteen miles. The eastern part is called Sharon ; the western, the plain of Megiddo, inw nsppa . See Judges 4: 1 et seq. 6: 33. 7: 8. 1 Sam. 29: 1, 11. 2 Kings 23: 29. 2 Chron. 35: 22. 1 Maccab. 4: 49. TTT . The region or district of Jordan, "^"i^r] 133 or nslji, jj neQiycoQog 70v 'loQSdvov or fiiya nsdt'ov, includes the shore on both sides of the Jordan from the lake Gennesareth to the Dead Sea. Its breadth from west to east is thirteen miles, its length from north to south, according to the corrected reading of Josephus, Bell. Jud. L. IV. c. 8. § 2. is 138 miles, which is too great a length to correspond with the distance betweep lake Gennesareth and the Dead Sea. Modem travellers make the length about 56 miles. This re^on may be divided into, I. The plain of Jericho, in'i'^ nsfsa, 16 § 16. FORESTS. which is watered and fertilized by a small river, and is eight miles in length, and two and a quarter in breadth. 11. The Valley of Salt, reaching to the Dead Sea. 2 Kings 14: 7. 1 Chron. 18: 12. 2 Chron. 25: 11. HI. The plains of Moah beyond Jordan, i-;b ax'iTD , also 3xia nia^is , in which the Hebrews pitched their tents, Num. 26: 3. These plains are called, Num. 25: 1, and Josh. 2: 1. 3: 1, Shittim, diBlsn bm, or the valley of Acacia. A variety of words are applied to level places or valleys, whose different shades of meaning caniiot now be accurately determined, bna, however, is a valley, which has a torrent flowing through it in the winter ; ia , "'S , Kij , is a valley without any such torrent ; pas is perhaps a deep valley, as rti'pa is a broad valley or plain. Of these valleys, that of Hinnom Disfl "^a or DiJrt "(3 "^t , near the southern wall of Jeru- salem, is particularly worthy of mention for two reasons. The one, that it separated Judah from the tribe of Benjamin ; the other, be- cause in a certain part of it was nsh Topheth 2 Kings 23: 10, where infants were burnt to the idol Moloch, Jer. 7: 31. § 16. Forests, trns'^. Forests are mentioned in Joshua 17: 15, and in many other pas- sages. They are mentioned so frequently as to convince us, that the Hebrews anciently were not often compelled, like the modern inhabi- tants of Palestine, to burn the excrements of animals for fuel ; al- though it may have sometimes been the case, as is probable from Ezek. 4: 15. The forests which are spoken of with the greatest praise in the Bible are, I. The cedar forest on mount Lebanon, see § 14. 1, also 1 Kings 7: 2. 2 Kings 19: 23. Hos. 14: 6—8. H. The forest of pines and firs on Antilibantis, which wds first reduced into the possession of the Hebrews by David. 2 Sam. 8: 5, 6. 1 Chron. 18: 4. HI. The forest of oaks on mount Bashan. Zech. 11: 2. IV. The forest of Ephraim, which the Ephraimites began to cut down so early as the time of Joshua, see ch. 17: 15, but of which there were some remains as late as the time of David, 2 Sam. 18: 6, 8, 17. A part of it seems to have been the wood near the city of Bethel, mentioned 2 Kings 2: 24. V. A forest on the boundary line between Judah and Benjamin, near the city Baalah, which was thence called Kirjath Jearim, ^^^T. '^T;^i or the city of the forest, Jos. 15: 9, 10, 60. Ezra 2: 25. § 17. DESERTS. 17 Neh. 7: 29. VI. The forest Chareth rnn , and the forest Ohorslia tv&vn . The latter was very large, in the tribe of Judah and the .viiderness of Ziph, 1 Sam. 22: 5. 23: 14^16. VII. The shrub fields on the shores of lake Merom and the Jordan, called liss 'ypvr\ the pride, and, sometimes in the English translation, the swell- ing of the Jordan. Zech. 11: 3. Jer. 12: 5. 49: 19. 50: 44. VIII. The forest Joardes, east of the Jordan, mentioned by Josephus as having been cnt down by the Romans, see his Jewish War, B. VIL chap. 6. § 5. IX. The forests on the top of Carmel, and on the sides of mount Tabor. If at the present period forests are rarely to be mot with in Palestine, we must remember that not only many of them were cut down by the Hebrews themselves, but that they were often destroyed also by the enemies, who at different times laid waste Judea. We should not be surprised, therefore, if ■ wood should be wanting for fuel, though not much is required in that warm climate, and that the dried excrements of quadnipeds should be used in its stead. § 17. DeseetS. The Deserts fti'na'i'a , mentioned in the Bible, are uncultivated tracts of earth of two kinds ; some mountainous, but not destitute of water; others are plains, covered with sterile sands, in which fountains are very rare, and still fewer are those, which afford water fit to drink. They scarcely make their way out of the thirsty earth, and are soon absorbed again. These plains produce, notwithstanding, a scanty herbage, upon which the sheep, goats, and camels feed. The sands, which are scorched by the heat of the sun, are very light ; and are borne about by heavy winds, like the waves of the sea. One whirlwind piles them up in immense heaps and leaves them standing; the succeeding one takes them and carries them to another place. In tbese deserts there were formerly villages and towns. Josh. 15: 61, 62. 1 Sam. 23: 19. They were not standing in the days of Jerome, (Prolog, in Comment. Amos). The mountain deserts are not of so dreary and unproductive a character. These deserts obtained names from the places, near which they were situated. The most celebrated is the Great Desert, which according to Jerome, (Prolog, in Comment. Amos,) com- mences at the city of Tecoa, which was six miles south of Bethlehem. 2* 18 § 18. THE JORDAN, LAKE MEROM, AND GENNLSAEETH. It extends through Arabia Deserta as far as the Persian Gulf, and north along the Euphrates beyond the city of Bir. This large tract is called in the Bible the Desert of Jvdah, because it commences within the limits of that tribe, Josh. 19: 34. Ps. 63: 1. 2 Chron. 20: 20. Maitt. 3: 1 Mark 1: 4. John 10: 40. The Desert of Engedi is on the western shore of the Dead Sea and connects with the desert of Ziph. Both have lofty mountains and many caves. More to the south is the desert of Max)n "lisa , the desert of Carmel with a city of the same name, the desert of Tecoa, sippi , also with a city of the same name ; all of which are parts of the desert of Judah. The Desert of Jericho is that chain of mountains, which separates the mount of Olives from the city of Jericho. The Desert of Beth Aven seems to be part of mount Ephraim, which exhibits, as Josephus him- self observes, in the part towards the Jordan, a bald and rough ap- pearance. Josh. 18: 12. § 18. The Jordan, lake Meeom and Gennesaeeth. The only river in Palestine of any considerable size is the Jor- dan, which, as was first discovered under the tetrarchate of Philip, has its source from lake Phiala, at the foot of mount Libanus. Hav- ing first measured from this lake a subterranean journey of thirteen miles and three quarters, it bursts forth from the earth with a great noise at Paneas, otherwise called Cesarea Philippi, see Josephus' Jewish War, B. I. ch. 21. B. III. ch. 10. It then advances about thirteen miles further, and discharges its waters into lake Merom or Samochonitis. Lake Merom in the spring, when the water is highest, is seven miles long and three and a half broad, hut the marshes extend to Daphne, wtiere the Jordan issues from it. In the summer it is noth- ing but a marsh ; in some parts indeed it is sowed with rice, but com- monly it is covered with shrubs and rushes, which afford a hiding place to wild beasts, Jewish War, B. IV. ch. 1. § 1. The Jordan, after it has left lake Merom, flows on thirteen miles, and enters Gennesareth, which is also called the sea of Galilee or Tiberias. The waters of this lake, which is sixteen miles long and five broad, are pure and sweet, and it abounds in fish, Strabo, p. 714. It is surrounded with fruitful hills and mountains, from which many rivulets descend. § 19. THE DEAD SEA. 19 The breadth of the Jordan, at its egress from the lake Gennesa- reth, is from 150 to 200 feet, and it is 7 feet in depth. With many windings it runs through the plain, which is denominated, from the liver itself, the Region of the Jordan. From the i\est it re- ceives five tributaries, which are not much known ; from the east it receives the Jabbok, the Jaezer, the Kerith, and the Acacia torrent, so called from the valley of the same name. The Jordan owes its origin to the perpetual snows of Antilibanus ; consequently, in the time of harvest, which commences in the latter half of April, when it is swollen by the melted snows of that mountain, it dashes on rapidly and fills the whole of its upper channel, Jos. 3: 15. 4: 18. 1 Chron. 12: 15, for the channel of the river in the vicinity of Jeri- cbo, the place, of which we are speaking, is double. The lower one is ordinaril}' from 70 to 80 feet broad, through which the water flows the whole year ; it is 10 or 12 feet deep, and the distance from the upper edge of the channel bank to the surface of the water is from 4 to 8 feet. The other channel, called the upper one, is- broader than the lower, varying from 2 to 600 paces, and is filled in the beginning of summer by the swelling of the waters, as just observed. Travellers have commonly visited the Jordan either before or after this time ; hence they say nothing of its rise. Mirike, however, Travels, p. 119, testifies, that he found the upper channel still wet and slippery. Many are inclined to suppose, that the river has hollowed the first channel so deep, that it now never passes it. § 19. The Dead Sea. ii3'^?fi c;: . The Jordan empties its waters into the Dead Sea, sometimes call- sd the Eastern Sea, sometimes the sea of Siddim, sometimes the sea of the Plain ; because it occupies the plain of Siddim, in which the cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, were situated, Deut. 3: 17. Gen. 18: 20. 19: 24 et seq. Joel 2: 20. Zech. 14: 8. As the Jordan, before the celebrated destruction of this plain, dis- charged itself in the same place that it now does, the conclusion is a necessary one, that the lake, which then existed, was subterranean, comp. Gen. 14: 3. It was covered with a crust of earth, which was sustained by the Asphaltus, a pitchy, bituminous substance, which emerged from the bottom of the lake, and collected during a long 20 § 19. THE DEAD SEA. course of years in large masses. The Asphaltus arises from the lake to this day, floats on its surface, and occasionally explodes, Isa. 34: 9, 10. Wisd. 10: 7. Jude 7. Hence it has obtained the name of the lake Asphaltites. This statement is confirmed by Gen. 14: 10, where mention is made of shmepits, through which the Asphaltus or bitumen penetrated from the subterranean water. This bitumen, being at length set on fire by the lightning, burnt, and the earth by which it was covered, being deprived of its sup- port, sunk in the waters, and the lake made its appearance. Gen. 19: 24. The lake is said to be 67 miles from north to south, and 17 in its greatest breadth from west to east. Its waters are a little im- pregnated with alum, and very much so with salt ; hence it is called the Suit Sea, Gen. 14: 4, and because it preserves nothing alive in it, it is also called the Dead Sea. Whatever is immersed in its wa- ters and taken out again, is covered with a crust of salt; which seems to have been the destiny of Lot's wife, unless indeed the discourse be merely of a monument heaped up of incrusted salt, Gen. 19: 26. The shores, excepting the north-western, are moun- tainous. On the north-west is a plain, impregnated with salt, barren, scorched, and covered with cinders. This fact explains to us the origin of the custom of sprinkling salt upon desert places, unless reference be had in the custom to other salt valleys, of which there are numbers in the East, Deut. 29: 23. Judg. 9: 45. In this plain grows the solanum melangenae p'ln, also called the vine of Sodom, which bears what have been denominated the ap- ples and also the grapes and clusters of Sodom, otherwise called the bitter and poisonous grapes and clusters. They are said to be beautiful outside, but within, corruption and ashes, Deut. 32: 32. In the spring, when the Jordan rises, the lake itself is swollen. The inhabitants, therefore, dig pits on the shore, which receive the waters of the lake; the water in the pits stagnates after the fail of the lake, goes off gradually in vapor and leaves a bed of salt, which sort of salt is used by the whole of that region, Zeph. 2: 9. Ezek. 47: 11. The other rivers, which empty into the Dead Sea are, I. from the west, Kidron, •/^ujji.aoQOS lav, Ksdgeov, John 18: 1, which arises in a valley of the same name between Jerusalem and the mount of Olives; its channel is dry, except in the winter. Its direction is § 20. OTHEE RIVERS. 21 first south, then east, through the steep chffs of the desert Engedi, where it receives some aecession by means of the torrents from the mountains, and then descends into the Dead Sea. 11. Near the southern extremity flows in . the Saphia or Saphria, a conside- rable stream. III. On the eastern shore, nearly in the centre, is the mouth of the torrent Zerea, and a little north of it, IV. is the mouth of the river Arnon, which has its rise in the valleys of mount Gilead, from the torrents of that mountain. It flows first in a south- ern direction and then west, so as to form with the Dead Sea, the Jordan, and the Jobbak, a peninsula. The channel of this river, as we have already said, separated on the east the Gadites and the Reu- benites from the Ammonites, and on the south the Reubenites from the Moabites. .-f § 20. Other Rivers. Of the other rivers and torrents, which are somewhat celebrated, may be mentioned, I. The Belus, nini\lj niab , a small river, ac- cording to Pliny, only 4 miles in length ; it arises in the mountains of the tribe of Asher and empties into the Mediterranean about two furlongs south of Ptolemais. The sand of its banks has been much used in the manufacture of glass, and it is said, " that the making of glass first originated from this river." n. The Kishon. It arises from the foot of mount Tabor, where the Tabor unites with the mountain called Little Ilermon ; it then divides into two branches. The smaller share of the waters, that descend from these mountains, flows east through the valley of Jez- reel into lake Gennesareth. The remainder, which forms the larger body of the two, runs west through the valley of Jezreel, and, after being increased by the accession of many small streams, enters the sea near Carmel. The last mentioned branch of the river was called Megiddo, and anciently divided the tribe of Issachar from the tribe of Zebulun. in. The Brook of Reeds, Ui]3 hn ; it is dry except in the win- ter. In its course from east to west, it formerly separated the tribe of Ephraim from that of Manasseh, Jos. 17: 8, 9. It enters the Medi- terranean south of Cesarea. IV. The Brook Eshkol ; it rises in the mountains of Judah and enters the Mediterranean at Askelon. It seems to be the same with the brook Sorek, Num. 13: 24. Jud. 16: 4. 22 § 21. ON THE CLIMATE OF PALESTINE. V. The Beook Besoe ; it enters the sea at Gaza. Note. — It may be remarked here, that hn signifies a river, brook, or torrent, which flows in the winter, though it may be per- fectly dry in the summer ; while 1(13 signifies a large stream, and if it have the article prefixed, almost always means the Euphrates. § 21. On the Climate op Palestine. The state of the atmosphere in this climate is different in different places, but it is not so changeable, as in some pai-ts of Europe. We shall state its variations during the six divisions of the oriental year, mentioned Gen. 8: 22, which have been perpetuated to this day among the Arabians, see Golii Lex. Arab. p. 934. During the first part of the year, which is called I'^si? or the har- vest, and which extends from the middle of April to the middle ol June, the sky is serene, the atmosphere in the latter part of April is warm, sometimes oppressively so, excepting in the valleys and on the shores of the sea, where it is temperate. The heat continues to in- crease, and to become more unpleasant towards the latter part of this division of the seasons. During the second part of the year, which is called 'j'';!; , the time of fruits or summer, extending from the middle of June to the middle of August, the heat is so severe, that the effect of it is felt through the night, and the inhabitants sleep under the open sky. The third season, extending from the middle of August to the middle of October, is called tin or the hot season ; because in the commencement of it the heat continues very severe, although it soon begins to abate. From the time of harvest or the middle of April to the middle of September, there is neither rain nor thunder. Pro v. 26: 1. 1 Sam. 12: 17. Jerome on Amos 4: 7. Sometimes in the beginning of the harvest or the latter half of April, a cloud is perceived in the morn- ing, which, as the sun rises, gradually disappears, Hos. 6: 4. But in the months of May, June, July and August, not a cloud is seen, and the earth is not wet, except by the dew, which is, therefore, every where used as a symbol of the divine benevolence. Gen. 27: 28. 49- 25. Deut. 32: 2. 33: 13. Job 29: 19. Mic. 5: 7. The dew, copiou? as it is, affords no support in the severe heat of summer, except te § 21. ON THE CLIMATE OP PALESTINE. 23 the stronger kind of herbs; the smaller and less vigorous, unless watered from some rivulet or by human art and labor, wither and die, Ps. 32: 4 If at this season of the year, a spark or brand fall among the dry herbs and grass, a wide conflagration commences, especially if brambles, shrubs, or a forest be near, Ps. 83: 14. Isa. 9: 18. Jer. 21: 14. comp. Exod. 22: 6. Joel 1: 19. Jer. 9: 12. The country generally presents a squalid appearance, for the fountains and brooks are dried, and the ground is so hard, that it sphts open into fissures. These effects are accelerated, if the east wind hap- pens to blow a few days, which is not only destructive to the vines and harvest-fields on land, but to the vessels at sea on the Mediter- ranean, Hos. 13: 15. Jon. 4:8. Job 14: 2. 15:2. Isa. 40: 7. Gen. 41: 6, 23. Ezek. 17: 10. 19: 12. 27: 26. Ps. 48: 7. 103: 15. Acts 27: 14. Every wind is called by the orientals ty-t^ , an east wind, which blows from any point of the compass between the east and north, and between the east and south ; see Shaw's Travels, p. 285, and Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Egyptiaca, near the beginning. The breeze, which blows a few hours before the setting of the sun in that climate, is called among the Persians to this time, as in Gen. 3: 7, the breeze of the day, i. e. the cooling or refreshing breeze of the day; see Chardin Voy. T. IV. p. 8. During the fourth part of the year, which is called S'^'t , or seed- time, i. e. from the middle of October to the middle of December, the appearance of the sky is various, sometimes dark and cloudy, but calm ; and sometimes rainy. In the latter part of October, be- gin the first or autumnal rains, so necessary for the sower. The atmosphere still continues warm, and at times it is very hot; but the weather gradually grows colder, and towards the end of this, division of the seasons, the snows fall on the mountains. The brooks are .still dry, and the water in the rivers is shallow. In the second half of November the leaves fall from the trees. Some, who are less robust, find the need of a fire, which they con- tinue almost till April, Jer. 36: 22 ; others do without one the whole winter. The fifth part of the year, tiin, extending from the middle of December to the middle of February, constitutes the mnter. The snows, which are then not unfrequent, scarcely continue through the day, except on the mountains ; the ice is thin and melts as soon as the sun ascends to any considerable height. 24 § 22. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. The north winds are chill, and the cold, particularly on the moun- tains, which are covered with snow, is intense. The roads are slip- pery, and travelling is both tedious and dangerous, particularly through the decU\'ities of the mountains, Jer. 13: 16. 23: 12. Si- rach 43: 22. Matt. 24: 20. When the sky is serene and tranquil and the sun is unclouded, the heat in the valleys and plains is some- times great, as Josephus expressly testiiies in regard to the plain of Cesarea near the sea. Thunder, lightning, and hail, are frequent ; the brooks are filled ; the rivers are svfoUen ; the fields are cov- ered with flowers. As January departs and February enters, the grain-fields flourish ; the trees put forth their foliage ; the amyg- dalus, the earliest tree of the forest, is in bloom about the middle of February. Finally, the sixth part of the year, from the middle of Februarj' to the middle of April, is called "I'lD or cold, because in the com- mencement of it the weather is still cold, though it soon grows warm and even hot. The rains stiU continue, but are diminished ; thunder and lightning and hail are frequent, though they cease to- wards the end of this season. The rain during this season is called the latter rain. The first rain, or autumnal, and the latter, or vernal, are necessary to the fertility of the earth, and greatly to be desired, Lev. 26: 4. Deut. 8: 7. 11: 14, 17. Isa. 30: 23. Jer. 3: 3. 5: 24. Rosea 6: 3. Joel 2: 3. Zech. 10: 1. Job 29: 23. Prov. 16: 15. 25: 14. James 5: 7. Eains in those regions are cold, and are announced by previous whirlwinds, raising the dust, which are expressed, by Arabic words, which mean messengers, and good messengers or tidings, Koran 7: 55. 77: 1 — 3. By the Hebrews they are sometimes called the word or the command of God, 'ii Tfyq^, 'ii 13^ Ps. 147: 15, 18. The north and west wind in particular indicate rain, 1 Kings 18: 42 — 45. Prov. 25: 23. If the evening be red, the morrow is expect- ed to be serene; if the morning be red, rain is expected. Matt. 16:2. § 22. Fertility of the Soil. The fertility of soil, so celebrated by Moses, is confirmed by tlie testimony of all, who have visited this region. Even the unculti- vated and desert tracts are not destitute of rich spots, although § 22. FERTIUTT OF THE SOIL. 25 they have comparatively hut a small claim to the praise of fertili- ty. If the untilled and waste places at the present day .afford no very prepossessing appearance, it ought to be remembered, that they were predicted by Moses, Deut. 29: 22 et seq., and that the country has been laid waste successively by Assyrians, Chaldeans, Syrians, Eomans, Saracens, the European crusaders, the Turks, and Moguls; and that it now groans under the dominion of the Turks, who neither protect the agriculturist from the incursions of the Arabs, nor afford him any encouragement, but the contrary. And yet it is the unanimous testimony of travellers in regard to this country, that, where it is cultivated, it is extremely fertile. It produces all sorts of fruit-trees ; and vines are not wanting, al- though the Mahometans do not drink wine. There are abun- dance of domesticated animals, of wild beasts and birds. Josephus, Jewish War, B. III. c. 3. § 3, praises Perea, (which at the present time is a desert,) for its vines and its pahn trees ; and particularly celebrates the region near the lake Gennesareth, also the plain of Jericho, which are now uninhabited and desolate, B. HI, c. 10. § 8. B. IV. c. 8. § 3. Indeed, we are informed by Josephus, that in Galilee there were 204 cities and towns, that the largest of the cities had 150,000, and the smallest towns 15,000 inhabitants. Hence we can account for it, that Josephus himself in this small province, short of 40 miles long and 30 broad, collected an army of nearly an 100,000 men. J. War. B. II. c. 20. § 6. As so many people were collected in such a small extent of country, it is clear, that the arts and commerce must have been patronized, and consequently the sciences ; which leaves us to conclude, that the miracles of Jesus were performed in a country, where they could be examined and fairly discussed. The reproach, which is cast upon Galilee in John 7: 52, has no reference to the character of its soil or climate, but only to the fact, that the prophet or Messiah was not expected from that part of Palestine. Note. — There is an intimation in Deut. 8: 9, that there were mines in Palestine, but we do not any where learn, tha* '.hey were wrought by the Hebrews. The author of the book of Job men- tions mines, in the commencement of his 28th chapter, but it is not certain, that he has reference to Palestine ; and a very general mention is made of them in Ps. 95: 4. Isa. 51: 1. It is a well-known 3 26 § 23. CALAMITIES TO WHICH PALES/INE IS SUBJECT. fact that mines, at a comparatively recent period, were wrought at Sarepta, a city of Phenicia. Scanty as our information is in re- gard to their mines, there is, nevertheless, reason to believe, that the Hebrews understood metallurgy, or the art of smelting ores; for we find mention made of an iron furnace, ^t'lart la, Deut. 4: 20. 1 Kings 8: 51. Jar. 11: 4 ; otherwise called the furnace of silver ore, i. e. a furnace for refining silver ore, qD3 Q''3''b 113, Ezek. 22: 18 — 22; called also the gold furnace, ant ira, i. e. a furnace for refining gold, Prov. 17: 3. 27: 21. The word 51D or aib, a metallurgical expression, means, (1.) a sort of unrefined ore, which, when melted, is employed in glazing earthen vessels, Prov. 26: 23 ; (2.) it means also alloy or metal of a meaner sort, which, by melting them together, was artificially combined with gold and silver^ Ps. 119: 119. Prov. 25: 4. Isa. 1: 22, 25. Ezek. 22: 18, 19. " Fullers' soap," r,i"ih , which was employed not only in washing garments, but in cleansing gold and silver from the dross, was well inown, Mai. 3: 2. Jer. 2: 22. § 23. Calamities to which Palestine is subject. I. It is often afflicted with the pestilence, which enters from Egypt and other countries, and is frequently spoken of in the Bible. II. Earthquakes are common ; see Abdollatif Dendwiird. Ae- gypt. p. 335 et seq. The city of Jerusalem rarely received any detriment from this source, Ps. 46: 3 et seq. The earthquakes, by which the country with the exception of Jerusalem, was so often shaken and laid waste, were a source of images to the prophets, by which any scenes of destruction and overthrow were represented, Ps. 60: 2, ^. Isa. 29: 6. 54: 10. Jer. 4: 24. Hag. 2: 0, 22. Matt. 24: 7. III. Thunder, lightning, hail, inundations, and severe winds hap- pen in the winter, Isa. 11: 15. Pliny, Histor. Nat. II. 49. Shaw's Travels, p. 289. From these operations of nature, the prophets borrowed many figures, Ps. 18: 8—15. 29: 1—10. 42: 7. Isa. 5: 30. 8: 7, 8. 11: 15. 28: 2. 29: 6. 24: 18. Matt. 7: 25. IV. Vast bodies of migrating locusts, fia^X , called by the Orien- tals the armies of God, lay waste the country. Thcj observe as § 23. CALAMITIES TO WHICH PALESTINE IS SUBJECT. 27 regular order, when they march, as an army. At evening they descend from their flight, and form, as it were, their camps. In the morning, when the sun has risen considerably, they ascend again, if they do not find food, and fly in the direction of the wind, Prov. 30: 27. JSTah. 3: 16, 17. They go in immense numbers, Isa. 46: 23, and occupy a space of 10 or 12 miles in length, and 4 or 5 in breadth, and are so deep that the sun cannot penetrate through them ; so that they convert the day into night, and bring a temporary darkness on the land, Joel 2: 2, 10. Exod. 10: 15. The sound of their wings is terrible, Joel 2: 2. When they descend upon the earth, they cover a vast tract a foot and a half high, Joel 1: 5. 2: 11. Judg. 6: 5. 7: 12. Exod. 10: 15. If the air is cold and moist, or i-f tliey be wet witli the dew, they remain where they happen to be till they are dried and warmed by the sun, Nah. 3: 17. They decamp at length in good order and march almost in a direct line north. Nothing stops them. They fill the ditches which are dug to stop them, with their bodies, and extinguish by their numbers the fires which are liindled. They pass over walls and enter the doors and windows of houses, Joel 2: 7 — 9. They devour everything which is green, strip oiF the bark of trees, and even break them to pieces by their weight, Exod. 10: 12, 15. Joel 1: 4, 7, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20. 2: 3. They make a loud noise when eating, Jer. 51: 14. The greatest part of the evil is, that the first army of locusts is likely to be succeeded by another, a third, and a fourth, which consume all that is left, and leave the ground in appearance, as if it had been burnt over with fire. When they have consumed everything, they fly away in the direction of the wind, leaving behind them not only their foetid excrements, but their eggs, buried in the ground, from which is produced, in the following spring, a much more numerous progeny of these evil invaders. They are borne, at length, over the sea, an element with which they have not formed an acquaintance. They descend up- on it, as they do upon the land, and are drowned. They are driven by the waves upon the shore, where they putrefy, and render the air so corrupted, as to breed the pestilence, Exod. 10: 13 — 20. Joel 2: 20. These locusts are much longer than those among us, being 5 or 6 inches long, and an inch and a half thick. The form of the head is like that of a horse. Hence they are often com- pared to horses. In some instances, it is like the human head, 28 § 24. DIVISION OF PALESTINE Rev. 9: 7. Their teeth are sharp and are compared to those of lions,. Joel 1: 5. 2: 4. There are different species of them; eight or nine occur in the Bible. V. Famine is a consequence of the devastations of the locusts, and of the defect of the first and latter rain. Famines have been so severe, that, in besieged cities, the inhabitants have been reduced to the necessity not only of eating animals not fit to be eaten, but human bodies, Deut. 28: 22—49. 2 Sam. xxi. 2 Kings 6: 25, 28. 25: 3, etc. VI. The evil of the greatest magnitude is the wind, called by the Arabs Samoom, by the Turks Samyel, and by the Hebrews nssbt , Ps. 11: 6, ns nil, Jer. 4: 11, isa hii-i, Isa. 4: 4, 2-jp rrnsb, Isa. 27: 8. It blows in Persia, Babylonia, Arabia, and the deserts of Egypt, in the months of June, July, and August ; in Nubia, in March and April, September, October and November. It continues not longer than 7 or 8 minutes ; but it destroys in a moment every person, ■whom it passes, who stands erect. They fall dead, and lie like one sleeping. If a person takes hold of their hand, to arouse them, it falls off. The body soon after turns black. This wind does not ex- tend high in the air, nor descend below the altitude of two feet from the earth. Hence travellers, when they see it approaching, common- ly fall prone upon the ground ; place their feet in the direction of the wind, and apply their mouths as firmly as possible to the earth, breathing as little as they can, lest they should receive into their lungs any of the passing Samoom. The indications of the Samyel's approach are distant clouds, slightly tinged with red, in appearance something like the rainbow ; also a rushing noise ; of the last circum- stance, however, some persons do not make mention. In houses and cities, its power is not felt. Animals, though ex- posed to it, do not perish, but they tremble through all their limbs, and instinctively thrust down their heads. The Arabians sometimes use the word Samoom in a broader sense, to denote any hot wind, which continues for a long time. In a similar way the Hebrews use the word tsi-ij?, comp. Ps. 103: 15, 16, etc. § 24. Division op Palestine among the Israelites. The Hebrews, having taken the country by arms, divided it among the twelve tribes. The posterity of Joseph, it is true, had AMONG THE ISRAELITES. 29 been divided into two, those of Ephraim and Manasseh, but the tribe of Levi received only 48 cities for its portion, which left twelve tribes, among whom the main body of the country was to be divided. The region beyond the Jordan was assigned by Moses to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh, Deut. .3: 12—27. Jos. 12: 1—6. 13: 8—33. The southern part of this tract was allotted to Reuben : it was bounded on the east and south by the river Arnon, on the borders of which river were situated the Ammonites to the eas; and the Moabites to the south; the western limit was the Dead Sea and the Jordan. The tract of country called Gilead, in the more limited sense of the word, ex- tending north of Reuben to the lake Gennesareth, became the por- tion of the tribe of Gad. The remainder, which was the northern portion on the further or eastern side of the Jordan, fell to the half tribe of Manasseh. The remaining nine and a half tribes took up their abode on this, i. e. the western, side of the Jordan. The territory allotted to Judah was the tract, which runs from the southern boundary of Palestine in a northern direction, as far as the entrance of the Jordan into the Dead Sea, the valley of Hinnom, and the northern limits of the city Ekron, Jos. 15: 1 — 15. As this portion, in a subsequent division of the country, was too large, a tract was set off on the western side of it towards the Mediterranean, the south- ern part of which was allotted to the tribe of Simeon, and the northern to that of Dan. The Hmits of these two tribes are not defined ; the cities merely, which they obtained, are mentioned. Jos. 15: 2—12. 19: 1—9, 40—47. This part of Palestine was divided, according to the face of the country, into ass or the southern district, nbsrri or the Plain bordering on the Medi- terranean Sea, the mountain or the hill-country of Judah, and the Desert of Judah, Jos. 11: 16. Luke 1: 39. To these the pro- phet Jeremiah adds the following geographical divisions, viz. the land of Benjamin, and the Country round about Jerusalem, but he has reference to a period after th3 separation of Israel, Jer. 32: 44. 33: 13. [The canton, allotted to the tribe of Benjamin, lay between the tribes of Judah and Joseph, contiguous to Samaria on the north, to Judah on the south, and to Dan on the west, which last parted it from the Mediterranean.] 'Home's Introduc. Vol. IIL p. 1 2. 3* 30 § 25. DIVISION OF PALESTINE The tribe of Ephraim received the tract, extending to the north of Benjamin as far as the Brook of Eeeds, Jos. 16: 1 — 4, 8. 17: 7 — 10. By the same lot, the second half of the tribe of Manasseh received its portion, the limits of which cannot, therefore, be accurately defined, Jos. 16: 4. 17: 9. It is clear, however, that the tribe of Manasseh come north of Ephraim and the Brook of Eeeds, and though on the east it fell short of the Jordan, that it extended on the west as far as the Mediterranean, Jos. 17: 10. The tribe of Issachar, which was situated north of the half tribe of Manasseh, obtained for its inheritance the plain of Jezreel. It ex- tended south along the Jordan as far as the tribe of Ephraim. Its northern limit was mount Tabor, but it does not appear to have reached to the Mediterranean, Jos. 17: 10. 19: 17 — 23. The canton of Asher extended from Carmel or the boundary line, by which the half tribe of Manasseh was limited on the west, in the first instance in a northern direction along the shores of the Mediter- ranean, and then along the borders of Phenicia to the city Apheca, Jos. 19: 24—31. The tribe of Zebulun was situated east of Asher and north of Issa- char, and extended as far as the egress of the Jordan from lake Gen- nesareth, Jos. 19: 10—15. Matt. 4: 13. The remainder of Palestine was allotted to the tribe of Naph- tali; this canton was bounded by the tribes of Asher and Zebulun, the lake Gennesareth, the Jordan, and the northern line of the whole kingdom, where, however, a colony of Danites took up their residence in the city of Lais, afterwards called Dan, Jos. 19: 32 — 39. Judg. xviii. After the death of Solomon a contention arose, and the whole country was divided into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. The boundary line between them was the northern limit of the tribe of Benjamin. § 25. Division op Palestine in the time of Christ. In the time of Christ the, country on the western side of the Jordan was divided into three principal provinces. I. Galilee. By this name, which occurs a number of times in Joshua, and at a later period very often, is meant the territory, which is surrounded by Phenicia, Syria, Jordan, the lake Gen- IN THE TIME OP CHRIST. 31 nesareth, and the plain of , Cj-^ian biba, Jos. 12: 23. 20: 7. Matt. 4: 15. II. Samaria ; it was situated nearly in the centre of Palestine, hut, though it ran across the country, it did not extend down to the Mediterranean. It reached from Ginea and Scythopolis on one side, to Acrabatene and Annuath on the other, John iv. III. JuDEA, which comprehended Idumea as far as the town of Jardan in Arabia Petrea, and also the shore of the Mediterranean as far as Ptolemais, was surrounded by Samaria, the Jordan, the Dead Sea, Arabia Petrea, and the Mediterranean. Josephus, Jew. War, Bk. in. ch. 3. In Perea or the country beyond the Jordan, that is, on the eastern side of it, were eight provinces or cantons. I. Perea, in the more limited signification of the word, viz. the southern part of thfe whole district, extending frorr "he river Amon to the river Jabbok. n. Gilead, situated north of the Jabbok. m. Decapolis, or the district of ten cities, which were inhabited chiefly by the heathen or gentiles. Their names were as follows : Scythopolis, which lies west of the Jordan, Hippos and Gadara, Pel- la, Philadelphia, Dion, Canath, Gerasa, Raphana, and perhaps Da- mascus ; in the enumeration of the ten cities of this district, however, ancient historians are not agreed, see Phny H. N. Lib. V. c. 18. Mark 5: 1. Luke 8: 26. Matt. 8: 28. rV. Gaitlonitis, a tract extending on the eastern shore of the lake Gennesareth and the Jordan as far as Hermon. V. Bataxea, the ancient Bashan, though somewhat diminished in its limits. It hes to the east of Gaulonitis and the north of Gilead. VI. AtTRANiTls, formerly Chauran or Chavran. '{m , Ezek. 47: 16 — 18, also called Iturea, was situated to the north of Batanea and to the east of Gaulonitis, Luke 3: 1. VII. Trachonit^s, to the north of Auranitis and to the east of Paneas otherwise ct^led Cesarea PhiUppi, by which it was separated from Galilee ; it was celebrated for its caves, which were inhabited in the time of Herod. VTH. Abilene, on the northern limits of this territory, situated 82 '§ 26. THE EARLIEST SHELTERS. between Baalbec and Damascus from lat. 33° 30' to 33° 40' ; it was called also Abilene Lysanias, from the robber Lysanias, who pur- chased it from the Eomans. Luke 3: 1. CHAPTER n. OF DWELLINGS. § 26. The earliest shelters were shady trees and caves. As men in the primitive condition of society were unacquaint- ed with the arts, they were not of course in a condition to erect houses ; they lived, consequently, under the open sky. Li un- pleasant weather, whether hot or rainy, they sought for a shelter under shady trees, in the clefts of rocks, and such caves as they happened to discover. Nor are we to suppose, that shelters of this kind were altogether inadequate. The inhabitants of mount Taurus even to this day, in a climate much more severe than that of Palestine, live in caves, as also do the wandering shepherds of Arabia Petrea, either in caves and the clefts of rocks, or beneath tlie shade of trees. § 27. The more recent Troglodytes or dwellers in Caves. Caves are not only numerous in the East, but many of them are both large and dry. They formed convenient dwellings, being warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Hence in a com- paratively recent age, when dwellings of a diiferent kind were commonly resorted to, the caves were still preferred by many, especially by those, who had emigrated to distant regions. The dwellers in caves whom we find mentioned, at quite a late period, were robbers, who had abandoned the restraints of society, and were the latest occupants of these abodes. The inhabitants of caves and mountains commonly occur in the Old Testament under the designation of Horites ; in regard to whom we are informed more particularly. § 28. TABEENACLES. 33 I. Of the inhabitants op mount Seir ; they chiefly occupied the mountains of Seir, but were found dwelling as far as Paran in Arabia Petrea, Gen. 14: 6. 21: 21. Deut. 2: 12, 22. Num. 10: 12. Gen. 36: 20—30. II. Of the Eephaims, who in addition to their caverns had some fortified cities, and were divided into three tribes, as follows : (1.) The Emijis, who dwelt in the region which the Moabites afterwards occupied, Deut. 2: 11, 12. (2.) The Zamzummims, men of large stature, living in the region, which was afterwards possessed by the Ammonites. (3.) The Eephaims, or giants strictly so called, who lived in the country of Bashan, were also of large stature, and were driven out by the Hebrews, Deut. 2: 10—23. 3: 3 — 16. in. Of the Troglodytes, or as the Hebrews denominated them, the sons of the caves, D-'psr i23 , called in the English version Anakims, Deut. 1: 28. 2: 10. 9: 1, 2. The three tribes, into which they were divided were, (1.) the Nephilim, Num. 13: 33. (2.) The CLANS OF AcHiMAN, Sheshai, and Talmai, Num. 13: 22, 23. Jos. 14: 15. (3.) The Anakims, inhabiting Debir, Anab, and the mountains of Judah, Jos. 11: 21, 22. (4.) The Anakims around Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod, 1 Sam. 17: 4. Note. — The caves, of which we have spoken, when they had become less frequently selected for the abodes of the living, were employed as sepulchres for the dead. Gen. xxiii. In times of perse- cution and war also, those, which were not converted into ceme- teries, nor occupied, as they sometimes were, by hordes of robbers, became a refuge to the oppressed and the vanquished, Jos. 10: 16. Judg. 15: 8. 20: 45. 1 Sam. 13: 6. 22: 1 et seq. Ip these caves, the necromancers sometimes practised their inauspicious arts, and the beasts of the forest found a dwelling place, 1 Sam. 28: 8—24. /- § 28. Tabernacles. As caves could not always be readily found, and as it was some- times great labor to excavate one, men were compelled by the exigencies of iheir situation, to form some other sort of residence. The shady trees and tall shrubs, whose tops approached each other and were twisted together, suggested the plan of cutting down 34 § 29. ON TENTS. large branches, fixing them into the ground in parallel lines, binding them together at the top, and covering them with leaves, herbs, reeds, branches, and even broad flat stones, in order to shield them- selves from the cold, the heat, and the dew. Thus they built taber- nacles, huts, or lodges, in Heb. nsD . The Eomans called them Map- palia. They were small and low in the beginning, so that a person could not stand erect, but was obliged either to lie down or to sit, but afterwards were built higher. The use of these tabernacles did not cease, even after the erec- tion of more stable and convenient dwellings. They were fre- quently made, sometimes from necessity, sometimes for convenience, and sometimes for pleasure, and are to this day erected in the sum- mer among the wandering tribes or Nomades of Mesopotamia. A collection of such tabernacles is called in Heb. nTifi and n"iiB. The word iTi"a is used, however, for uncovered sheep-cotes, towers, castles, and turrets. Gen. 33: 17. Ps. 27: 5. Jon. 4: 5. Matt. 17: 4.- Gen. 25: 16. Ezek. 25: 4. 1 Chron. 6: 54. Num. 31: 10. Cant. 8: 9. § 29. On tents. As tabernacles, which could not readily be moved from place to place, and from a want of materials could not every where be built, were made partly of shins, the design arose of erecting a shelter wholly of skins extended round a long pole, and so light, as to be easily moved from one place to another. It was tents of this kind, we may suppose, which Jabal invented. Gen. 4: 20. In the progress of years they were no longer covered with skins, but with various kinds of cloth, particularly linen. The Nomades of the east still use them. They pitch them in any place, which appears suitable, but they give the preference to a spot near some shady tree. Gen. 18: 4. Judg. 4: 5. § 30. Formation of tents. The first tents which were made, were undoubtedly round in thejf construction, and small in size ; afterwards they were made larger and oblong. The Nomades of Arabia Petrea have two kinds, the one larger, the other smaller, Gen. 33: 17. § 30. FORMATION OP TENTS. 35 They call the former kind, in distinction from the smaller ones, baiton or houses. The smaller tents are sustained by three poles only, and covered with a fabric, woven of wool and camel's hair ; the large ones are sustained sometimes by seven, and some- times by nine poles. The three longest of these poles, whether seven or nine in number, are erected in the middle, and on each side of the middle row are placed two or three others parallel, though shorter much than those between them ; they are covered with a black cloth made of goat's hair. The pole in the middle is taller than any of the rest, though it rarely exceeds eight or ten feet. The Arabians take a pleasure in pitching their tents on hills, in such a way, as to form a sort of circular encampment. When thus pitched, being pf a dark hue, they exhibit a beautiful appearance to the distantly approaching travellers, Cant. 1: o. The flocks and cattle during the night are driven into the space in the centre of the encampment called isn , and guarded by dogs. Job 30: 1. Some one of the shepherds keeps watch also during the night, a duty, which is performed alternately, Isa. 56: 9 — 11. The tent of the Emir is pitched in the centre of the others, which are about thirty paces distant, and is both larger and h'gher. The Emir has a number of tents in addition to the one appropriated to himself; viz. one for the females of his family, one for his servants, and a third, covered with green cloth for the reception of those, who wish to see him on business or come to render him their homage. On the same principle are arranged the tents of the subordinate Emirs when in the company of a superior Emir or chief, at some distance, it is true, but as D'Arvieux testifies, not exceeding 4J miles. § 31. Internal structure of tents. The larger kind of tents are divided by curtains into three parts, as was done also in the holy tabernacle. In the external divi- sion or apartment the servants lodge, and during the night the young animals also, to prevent their sucking the dam. In the sec- ond apartment are the males, but if the tent be smaller than usual, aU the males of the tent, together with the animals just men- tioned, are lodged together. The third or interior apartment, called nap, is allotted to the women. Num. 25: 8. The more 36 § 32. HOUSES. wealthy assign the external apartment to the servants alone, ex- cluding animals; and the Erairs, as already stated, have separate tents hoth for the servants and the females, Gen. 24: 67. The Nomades, who are less jealous, than the inhabitants of the cities, watch the other sex less scrupulously. Gen. 12: 15. 18: 6 — 9. 34: 1,2. The bottom of the tent is either covered with mats or with carpets according to the wealth of the possessor, and upon these they are in tlie habit of sitting. The more wealthy of the Nomades, especially the Erairs, possess in addition, coverlets, pillows, etc. made of valua- ble materials ; these are piled up in one corner of the tent by day, and brought upon the bottom of it at night. The utensils of the Nomades are few ; they have vessels of shell and brass, viz. pots, kettles, and cups of brass covered elegantly with tin, also leathern bags. Their hearth is on the ground. It consists of three stones, placed so as to form a triangle. In the middle of them is a small excavation of the earth, where the fire is kindled ; the vessels are placed over it upon the stones. The table, if so it may be called, from which they eat, is nothing more than a round skin spread upon the bottom of the tent. Clothing and military arms are hung upon nails in the poles of the tent. § 32. Houses. In the progress of time, as tabernacles became larger and were de- fended against the injuries of the weather by broad stones and earth heaped up against them, it was found, that dwellings could be made of stones alone and moist earth or clay. A want of stones in some places gave occasion for the formation of tiles, which were made by reducing a body of clay to shape and hardening it in the sun or bum ing it in the fire. These ancient attempts are mentioned. Gen. 11: 3. G: 16. In Deut. 8: 12, mention is made of elegant houses, and in 27: 2, 4, the use of limestone is spoken of, as if it were common and well known. § 33. Size op houses. Houses at first were small, afterwards larger ; especially in extensive cities, the capitals of empires. The art of multiplying § 34. FORM AND ROOF OF HOUSES. 37 stories in a building is very ancient, as we may gather from the construction of Noah's ark and the tower of Babel. The houses in Babylon, according to Herod. Lib. I, § 180, were 3 and 4 stories high, and those in Thebes or Diospolis in Egypt, 4 or 5 stories ; con- sult Diod. Sic. Lib. L c. 45. They appear to have been low in Pa- lestine in the time of Joshua ; an upper story, although it may have existed, is not mentioned, till a more recent age. Jeremiah praises houses of good form and architecture, and calls them rill's , n.73 , Jer. 22: 14. The houses of the rich and powerful in the time of Christ were splendid, and were buUt according to the rules of Grecian ar- chitecture. § 34. Form and roof of houses. Many of the larger houses were tetragonal in form, and enclosed a square area. They were lately denominated by a word of Persian origin !Tii3 , ^agv^, a palace, which according to Jerome, in whose time it was still used, signifies enclosed houses, built with turrets and walls. The roofs of the houses were flat, such as are still seen in the East. They were formed of earth heaped together, or in the houses of the rich, of a firmly constructed flooring, made of coals broken up, stones, ashes, chalk and gypsum, reduced to a solid substance by the application of blows. The declivity of the roof from the centre to the extremity is very small, hardly an inch in 10 feet. On those roofs, which are covered with earth, herbs sometimes spring up, and spears of wheat and barley, but they soon perish with the heat of the sun. The orientals often ascend these roofs, to enjoy a purer air, to secure a wider prospect, or to witness any event which happens in the neighborhood. In the summer they sleep upon them, but not with- out a covering. They even erect tents and tabernacles upon them ; they also spread their flax and cotton there to be dried by the sun. They ascend their roofs, moreover, to talk with a person privately, to witness a public solemnity, to mourn publicly, and to announce anything to the multitude, to pray to God, and to perform sacrifices. 2 Sam. 11: 2, 6, 7. Is. 22: 1. Matt. 24: 17. Mark 13: 15. 2 Sam. IG. 22. Jos. 2: 6. 1 Sam. 9: 25. Judg. 16: 26, 27. Is. 15: 3. Jer. 19: 13. 48: 3b. Matt. 10: 27. Acts 10: 9. The roofs are surrounded by a breast-work or wall, to prevent one from falling, which is as high as the breast. On the side next a neighbor's house, it is lower, in order 4 38 § 35. or the gate, porch, etc. that, if the houses are near and of the same altitude, the occupants may pass from one to the other. The railing or wall of the roof) npsa , was required by a law of Moses, Deut. 22: 2. It was this railing which the men demolished, Mark 2: 4. Luke 5: 19, that they might let the paralytic down into the court or area of the house. § 35. The gate, porch, area or court, female apartments. The gate or door, opening to the streets, is in the middle of the front side of the house. Hence in Arabic it is called ia.**,!, or the centre. The gates not only of houses, but of cities, were customarily adorned with the inscription, which according to Deut. 6: 9. 11: 20, was to be extracted from the law of Moses : a practice in which may be found the origin of the modem Mezuzaw, or piece of parchment, inscribed with Deut. 6: 5 — 9. 11: 13 — 20, and fastened to the door- post. The gates were always shut, and one of the servants acted the part of a porter, Acts 12: 13. John 18: 16, 17. The space immediately inside of the gate is called the porch, is square, and on one side of it is erected a seat for the accommo- dation of those strangers, who are not to be admitted into the in- terior of the house. In this porch, or contiguous to it, are the stairs which lead to the upper stories and the roof of the house, Matt. 24: 16, 17. From the porch we are introduced, through a second door, into the quadrangular area or Court, which is denominated tiJF!, isn, 10 i^eaov, the centre, 2 Sam. 17: 18. Luke 5: 19. The court is commonly paved with marble of various kinds. In the centre of it, if the situation of the place admits, there is a fountain. The court is generally surrounded on all sides, some- times, however, only on one, with a cloister, peristyle, or covered walk, Tj&iB , over which, if the house have more than one story, is a gallery of the same dimensions, supported by columns, Heb. Di'iiias, and protected by a balustrade, nana, to prevent one from falling, 2 Kings 1: 2. Hence occur so many allusions to col- umns, Ps. 75: 3. Prov. 9: 1. Gal. 2: 9. 1 Tim. 3: 15. Large com- panies are received into the court, as at nuptials, circumcisions, etc. Esther 1: 5. Luke 5; 19. On such occasions, a large veil of thick cloth is extended by ropes over the whole of it to exclude the § 36. CHAMBERS AND OTHER APAETMENTS. 39 heat of the sun ; which is practised at the present day, Ps. 104: 2. The veil or curtain of tlie area is called in the New Testament atsyrj, Luke 7: 6. Mai"k 2: 4. The back part of the house is allotted to the women, called in Arabic the Harem, and in Hebrew by way of eminence lio"!^ or ■|'TC"in the palace. The door is almost always kept locked, and is opened only to the master of the house, 2 Kings 15: 25. Prov. 18: 19. White eunuchs guard the door externally, but maids and black eu- nuchs only are permitted to serve within. The latter are great fa- vorites with their masters, Isa. 32: 14. Jer. 13: 23. 2 Kings 15: 25. The Harem of the more powerful is often a sepai-ate building, 1 Kings 7: 8. 2 Chron. 8: 11. Esth. 2: 3. Behind the Harem there is a garden, into which the women enjoy the pleasure of looking from their small but lofty apartments. In the smaller houses, which are not made in a quadrangular form, the females occupy the upper story. This is the place assigned them also by Homer in the Eiad and Odyssey. § 36. Chambers and other apahtments. The chambers are large and spacious, and so constructed, as to ex- tend around the whole of the open court or area. The doors of the chambers, D"'nns , nr'is , open in the first story into the cloisters, in the second into the gallery. The ceiling is flat; some say arched, but arches do not appear to have been known at a very early period. We search in vain for arches among the ruins of ancient edifices ; perhaps they have perished with years, but they do not remain. We infer therefore that as in Ezek. 16: 24, 31, 39, cannot with certainty be translated, arch or vault. The Hebrews at a very ancient date had not only summer and winter rooms, but palaces, Judg. 3: 20. 1 Kings 7: 2 — 6. Amos 3: 15. Jer. 36: 32, The houses, or palaces so called, expressly made for summer, were very large, and in point of altitude did not yield much to our churches. \ The lower stories were frequently under ground. The front of these buildings faced the north, so as to secure the advantage of the breezes, which in summer blow from that direction. They were paved with marble, and when it could be done, had a fountain in the centre of the court, in order to render them still more cool 40 § 36. CHAMBERS AND OTHER APARTMENTS. They were supplied with a current of fresh air by means of venti lators, which consisted of perforatirns made through the upper part of the northern wall, of considerable diameter externally, but dimin- ishing, in size, as they approached the inside of the wall. There was another kind of ventilator, which arose from the centre of the roof, was ten cubits broad, and looked like a turret. It was hollow and open to the north, and so constructed as to convey the cool air into the chambers and rooms below. Summer houses and chambers are called in Scripture, B'^n-ilia ni*b? and .ln;;ia f^hs ,, Judg. 3: 20, 24. Jer. 22: 14. One apartment worthy of notice extends from the interior of the front side into the court, sometimes a considerable distance beyond the galleries and cloisters. Its roof is supported by two columns only, and the front of it has no wall, in order to leave the prospect more free. In this apartment princes receive ambassadors, transact business, and dispense justice. The temple of Dagon, which was de- stroyed by Samson, was similar, as far as concerned the columns, in its construction. It was here that the Saviour seems to have had his trial, Judg. 16: 26. Matt. 26: 69. Luke 22: 61, 62, compare also 1 Kings 7: 7. Esther 5: 1. In the winter rooms and houses, the windows face the south, in order to render them more warm. They are not furnished with stoves and fire-places as among us. The coals and wood are heaped into a pot, which is placed in a hollow place left for that purpose in the centre of the paved floor. The smoke escapes through the windows. This method of keeping fires is still practised in the East, Isa. 44: 16. 47: 14. Sometimes the fire is placed directly in the holjow place or hearth in the middle of the floor, Jer. 36: 22. All the rooms of the upper story may be called njis and vTzsQaar, but these words apply more appropriately to the chamber over the porch. It opens by a door directly upon the roof, being commonly a story higher than the rest part of the house. It is a place for re- tirement, devotion, etc. Strangers are frequently lodged in it, 1 Kings 17: 19. 2 Kings 4: 10. 23: 12. Acts 9: 37—39. Note. — There is no mention made of kitchens, or places for cooking, Heb. nibiana, except in Ezek. 46: 23, 24. Chimneys, for the emission of smoke, were not known to the Hebrews. Those of modern construction are the invention of the 14th century. § 37. DOOHS, AND METHODS OF SECL'IIING THEiAI. 41 The Hebrews, however, like the modern orientals, had openings in their houses, by which the smoke might escape. The word naix is rightly explained by Jerome, in Hosea 13: 3, as an opening in the walls for letting out smoke, although, in other passages, it signifies an opening of any kind whatever, and especially a window. § 37. DOOES ; AND METHODS OF SECURING THEM. The doors were valves, Heb. r^^ , D'^n^'n . They were suspended and moved by means of pivots of wood, which projected from the ends of the two folds both above and below. The upper pivots, which were the longest, were inserted in sockets sufficiently large to receive them in the lintel ; the lower ones were secured, in a corres- pondent manner in the threshold. The pivots or axles are called Piin'S; the sockets, in which they are inserted, a'''i''S, Prov. 26: 14. The doors were fastened by a lock, biissia , Sol. Song 5: 5, or by a bar, Job 38: 10. Deut. 3: 5. Judg. 16: 3. The bars were commonly of wood. Those made of iron and brass were not used, except as a security to the gates of fortified places, or of valuable repositories, Isa. 45: 2. The lock was nothing more than a wood slide, attached to one of the folds, which entered into a hole in the door-post, and was secured there by teeth cut into it, or catches. Two strings passed through an orifice leading to the external side of the door. A man going out, by the fiid of one of these strings moved the slide into its place in the post, where it was fastened so among the teeth or catches, as not to be drawn back. The one coming in, who wished to unlock, had a wooden key, sufficiently large, and crooked like a sickle. It was called nn3B , Judg. 3: 25. He thrust the key throiigii the orifice of the door, or key-hole, lifted up the slide so as to extri- cate it from the catches, and taking hold of the other string, drew it back, and thus entered. Keys were not made of metal except for the rich and powerful, and these were sometimes adorned with an ivory handle. A key of this kind, in the days of the Hebrew mon- archs, was assigned to the steward of the royal palace, as a mark of his office ; he carried it on his shoulder, Isa. 22: 22. The key-hole was sometimes so large, as to admit a person's finger through it and enable him to lift the slide; in that case he stood in no absolute need of a key to enter, Sol. Song 5: 4. 4* 42 § 39. MATERIALS FOR BUILDING. § 38. "Windows ; Di:Sn , niiSn , •^in . They look from the front chambers into the court, from the female apartments, into the garden behind the house. Occasion- ally the traveller sees a window, which looks towards the street, but it is guarded by a trellis, and is thrown open only on the pub- • lie festivities, Judges 5: 2.8. Prov. 7: 6. 2 Kings 9: 30. Sol. Song 2: 9. The windows are large, extending almost to the floor. Persons sitting on the floor can look out at them. They are wide, not set with glass, but latticed, ti3p, iirsb, O'^i^n- In the winter they are protected by very thin veils, or by valves, through which the light is admitted by means of an orifice, 2 Kings 13: 17. 1 Kings 7: 17. Sol. Song 2: 9. Over the windows are nails fastened into the walls. They are adorned with beautiful heads, and not only sustain curtains by the aid of a rod extended from one to the other, but are of themselves considered a great ornament. Hence the propriety of those illustrations drawn from nails, Isa. 22: 23. Zech. 10: 4 Eccles. 12: 11. § 39. Materials for building. Although the materials for the construction of edifices were originally stone and mud, the inhabitants of the East at a very early period made use of tiles, and do to this day. They are called in Scripture S'^Ja^ , njnb , from the white clay of which they were made. They were of different sizes, somewhat larger than those among us. Commonly they were hardened by the heat of the sun merely; but when intended for splendid edifices, as in Gen. 11: 3, they were burnt by fire. "Bb'a a brick-kiln, occurs 2 Sam. 12: 31. Nahum 3: 14. Jer. 43: 3. The walls of the common dwell- ing-houses were erected of tiles dried in the sun upon a founda- tion of stone, but where the ground was solid, a basement of this kind was sometimes omitted. Matt. 7: 25. Dwelling-houses, made of tiles dried in the sun, seldom endure longer than one generation. They fill the streets with mud in wet weather, and with dust when it is dry, Isa. 6: 24. 10: 6. Zech. 9: 3. Vehement storms, especially, injure them very much, Matt. 7: 25. Ezek. 12: 5 — 7 13: 11, 14. § 39. MATERIALS FOB BUILDING. 43 In Palestine the houses were everywhere built of stones, of which there were great numbers in that region. lience Moses, Lev. 14: 33 — 57, enacted his law in respect to the leprosy of houses. From the indications of it, which are mentioned, and also from the name n'lX'?'? T^-J'}^ , or the corrosive leprosy, it would seem, that it could be no other, than nitrous acid, which dissolves stones, and communicates its corrosive action to those which are contiguous. Wherever this disease makes its appearance, its destructive effects are discovered upon the surface of the wall, it renders the air of the room corrupt, and is injurious both to the dress and the health of the inhabitants. The Hebrews probably supposed it to be contagious, and hence in their view the necessity of those severe laws, which were enacted in reference to it. Palaces were constructed of hewn stones, iTiTJ ■'53X, some- times with stones sawed, n^ssa ni^'^ia d'^ssx, sometimes with polished marble. They were all called, pin ina, 1 Kings 6: 36. 7: 9, 11, 12. Ezek. 40: 42. 1 Chron. 22: 2. Isa. 9: 10. Amos 5: 11. Sol. Song 5: 15. The Persians took great delight in marble. To this not only the ruins of Persepolis testify, but the book of Esther, where mention is made of white marble, d^a or b^iJ, of red marble, "n, of black marble, rr^nb, of the party-colored or veined marble, cina . The splendor and magnificence of an edifice seems to have been estimated in a measure, by the size of the square stones, of which it was constructed, 1 Kings 7: 9 — 12. The foundation stone, which was probably placed at the corner and thence called the corner stone, was an object of particular regard, and was se- lected with great care from among the others, Ps. 118: 22. Isa. 28: 16. Matt. 21: 42. Acts 4: 11. 2 Tim. 2: 19. 1 Pet. 2: 6. Rev. 21: 14. The square stones in buildings, as far as we can ascertain from the ruins, which yet remain, were held together, not by mortar or ce- ment of any kind, except indeed a very little might have been used, but by cramp irons. The tiles dried in the sun were at first united by mud placed between them, ich , afterwards by lime, T^b , mixed with sand, ^in , to form mortar, ala . The last sort of cement was used with burnt tiles, Lev. 14: 41, 42. Jer. 43: 9. The walls even in the time of Moses were commonly incrusted with a coat of plaster, Lev. 14: 41, 42, 45, and at the present 44 § 40. HOUSEHOLD FUENITUEE A3VD UTENSILS. day in the East, the incrustations of this kind are of the finest exe- cution ; such was that in the palace of the Babylonian king, Dan. 5: 5. Wood was used in the construction of doors and gates, of the folds and lattices of windows, of the flat roofs, and of the wainscoting, with which the walls were ornamented. Beams were inlaid in the walls, to which the wainscoting was fastened by nails to render it more secure, Ezra 6: 4. Houses finished in this man- ner were called diwap DTna, Hagg. 1: 4. Jer. 22: 14, ceiled houses and ceiled chambers. They were adorned with figures in stucco, with gold, silver, gems, and ivory. Hence the expressions, ■|':;n, "ipa , "lUi , •'i^'^n , " ivory houses," " ivory palaces," and " chambers ornamented with ivorj^," 1 Kings 22: 39. 2 Chron, .3: G. Ps. 45: 8. Amos 3: 15. The wood which was most commonly used, was the sycamore, bia|5ia ; (it will last a thousand years ;) the acacia, Q''l:'j ; the palm, "lan, for columns and transverse beams; the fir, o'^diia; the olive tree, '(Od , ''SS> ; cedars, Dins , which were peculiarly esteemed, 1 Kings 6: 18. 7: 3, 7, 11. The most precious of all was the Al- mug tree, so called by an Arabian name, though the wood itself seems to have been brought through Arabia from India, 1 IGngs 10: 11, 12. 2 Chron. 2: 8. 9: 10, 21. Trees not well known, perhaps a species of the oak, in Heb. in'in liffiiWi , and nnpi , occur, Isa. 41: 19. 44: 14. GO: 10. § 40. Household furnitltie and utensils. These in the most ancient periods were both few and simple. A hand-mill, and some sort of an oven to bake in, could not of course be dispensed with. Lev. 26: 2G. Deut. 24: 6. Subsequently domestic utensils were multiplied in the form of pots, kettles, leathern bottles, plates, cups, and pitchers. The floors were covered with mats of carpets, and supplied also for the purposes of rest with a sort of mattresses of thick, coarse ma- terials, called nsiBb, Judg. 4: 18. The bolsters, niriBtns, which were more valuable, were stuff- ed with wool or some soft substance, Ezek. 13: 18, 21. The poorer class made use of skins merely, for the purposes to which these mattresses and bolsters were applied. The mattresses were deposited during the day in a box beside the wall. Beds § 40. HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. 45 supported by posts are not known in the East, tlie beds or mattress- es being tlirown upon the floor. It is common, however, in villages, if we may credit Aryda, to see a gallery in one end of the room, three or four feet high, where the beds are placed. What is now nailed the Divan, and in Scripture, tiB'a , ia'n" , and asno , is an elevation running round three sides of the room, three feet broad and nine inches high. In the bottom of it is a stuffed cushion throughout ; on the back against the wall are placed bolsters, covered with elegant cloth. Here the people sit cross-legged, or with their knees bent, on account of the small elevation of the Divan. At tlie corners commonly, at one always, there are placed two or three of .the bolsters mentioned, made of the richest and softest materials. This is accounted the most honorable position, and is occupied- by the master of the house, except when he 3 ields it to a stranger of distinction. The Hebrews appear to have had another sort of beds, which occur sometimes under the names, K'^i;, Jits'?, 3='^'?' ^""^ ^'"® said to have been adorned with ivory, an ornament of which the Divans just described were not susceptible. These beds resembled the Persian settees, (sofas so called,) having a back and sides, six feet long, three broad, and like the Divans about nine inches high. They were furnished also with bolsters. The sofas, as will be readily imagined, were susceptible of ornamental ivory on the sides and back, and also on the legs, by which they were sup- ported, and although those who sat in them were under the ne- cessity of sitting cross-legged or with their knees bent, they were of such a length as to answer all the purposes of beds, Amos 6: 4. Ps. 41: 3. 132: 3. Those, who were more delicate, had a veil or caul laps , -/Mvamiov, which when disposed to sleep, they spread over the face to prevent the gnats from infesting them, 2 Kings 8: 15. The poor, as is common in Asia at this day ; and in the older and more simple times, the powerful as well as the poor ; when travel- ling, slept at night with their heads supported hy a rock, and with their cloaks folded up and placed under them for a pillow. Gen. 28: 11, 18, 22. To prevent as much as possible the mats and carpets from be- ing soiled, it was not lawful to wear shoes or sandals into the room. They were left at the door. Hence it was not necessary, that the room should often be swept, Matt. 12: 44. Lamps, 13, lvp:os. 46 § 41. VILLAGES, TOWNS, CITIES. were fed with the oil of olives, and were kept burning all night, Job 18: 5, 6. 21: 17. Prov. 13: 9. 20: 20. 24: 20. 31: 18. We may infer from the golden lamp of the Tabernacle, that those of the opulent were rich and splendid. Flambeaus, Q^T^^ > were of two kinds. The one were pieces of old hnen twisted firmly together and dipped in oil or bitumen, which were sometimes wholly consumed by the flame, Judg. 15: 4. The others were small bars of iron or brass, inserted into a stick, to which pieces of linen dipped in oil were fas- tened. But lest the oil should flow down upon the hand of him, who carried them, a small vessel of brass or iron surrounded the bottom of the stick, Matt. 25: 3. § 41. Villages, Towns, Cities. A number of tents or cottages, collected together, were called villages, D'^'iBB, "iSB, Ti£3, also towns and cities, ti'ny, "iS, lia, n^'ip. When a number of families saw that their situation was not secure, they begun to fortify themselves. Cain set the exam- ple ; who surrounded with a ditch, or a sort of hedge a few cottages situated perhaps on a hill, and raised a sort of scafiblding within, in order to aid him in reaching his enemies with stones. However this may be, undoubtedly something of this kind was the origin of fortified cities. In process of time the hedge was converted into a wall, the ditch became both wider and deeper, and the scaffold increased into a tower. Great advancement was made in the art of fortification even in the time of Moses, Num. 13: 25 — 33. But still greater at a sub- sequent age. It seems that the cities in Palestine in the time of Joshua were large, since 12,000 men were slain in the city of Ai, which is said to have been a small city. The Hebrews in the time of David, who were exceedingly increased in point of numbers, must have had large cities. Jerusalem in particular could not have been otherwise than extensive, since such myriads of people assembled there on festival day. For, though many dwelt in tents and many met with a hospitable reception in the neighboring villages, yot vast multitudes were received into the city. The extent of the cities of Galilee in the time of Christ is made known to us by Josephus, J. War, B. HI. 3, 2 ; and at that period, as we may gather from the number of the Paschal lambs, slain at one time, 3,000,000 people were wont to assemble at Jerusalem at the feast of the passover § 41. VILLAGES, TOWNS, CITIES. 47 It is clear from this, that the site of Jerusalem which at this time occupied an extent of 33 stadia, was crowded with houses, and those of many stories. It is worthy of remark, that towns are called nii''^ and c-i-is, and fortified cities, Di:'nQ, in the Talmud, an- swering to the distinctions in the New Test, of noleig YMfiono- ).sie. The streets, DipTO , pra, ym, nis!in, in the cities of Asia are merely from three to six feet broad. The object of this is, that the shades which they cast, may counteract in some degree the heat of the sun. That many of them formerly were much lai'ger, is evident from the fact, that chariots were driven through them, which is not done at the present day. Josephus also makes a division, both of streets and gates, into larger and smaller. The larger streets are distin- guished by a separate name, ah") and ninhn . A paved street is a rare sight in the East, at the present day ; although formerly, at least in the time of Herod, they were by no means uncommon. The mar- ket-places were near the gates of the city, sometimes within, some- times without, where the different kinds of goods were exposed to sale, sometimes under the open sky, sometimes in tents, 2 Chron. 18: 9. 32: 6. Neh. 8: 1, 3. 2 Kings 7: 18. Job 29: 7. This was the case at a very early period ; but Josephus teaches us, that later down, in the time of Christ, they were similar to those, which at the present day are common in the East, being large streets, covered with an arch, through which the light was admitted by the means of orifices. These large streets, or Bazars as they are termed, which are fur- nished with gates, and shut up during the night, are occupied on both sides with the store-houses of merchants. In the large cities there are many broad streets of this kind, and commonly a separate one for each different species of merchandize ; in these streets also are the shops of artificers. The houses in oriental cities are rarely contiguous to each other, and for the most part have large gardens attached to them. If therefore, Nineveh and Babylon are said to have occupied an almost incredible space, we must not suppose that it was occupied throughout by contiguous houses. Indeed it is the testimony of ancient Iiisto- rians, that nearly a third part of Babylon was taken up witli fields and gardens. Aqueducts are very ancient in oriental cities; Josephus, Antiq. B. IX. 14. § 2. We find mention made of aqueducts at Jerusalem, 48 § 42. OF THE NOMADES. 2 Chron. 32: 30. 2 Kings 20: 20. Isa. 7: 3, especially of one caller! nvh^ti ns'ia nbsn , the aqueduct of the upper pool or ditch, which implies, that there was another one more known, probably the one, whose distinguished ruins are seen to this day from Jerusalem to Bethlehem. The one first mentioned, some of the ruins of which still remain, conveyed the waters from the river Gihon into Jerusa- lem. These, as well as all the other aqueducts of Asia, were erected above the surface of the earth and were carried through valleys, over arches and columns. From this circumstance it appears, that the an- cients did not know, that water enclosed in this manner will of itself gain the elevation from which it falls. Aqueducts were not unfre- quent, but cisterns were found everywhere. Note. — The people of the East metaphorically ascribe the char- acter of females to cities. They represent them as the mothers of the inhabitants ; they speak of them, as wives of the kings ; when they revolt against their sovereign, they are adulterous, etc. 2 Sam. 20: 19. 2 Kings 19: 21. Ps. 137: 8. Is. 23: 12. 47: 1—8. 54: 3. 62: 4. 66: 9. Jer. 3: 8—14. 20: 5—8. 13: 26. 31: 4. Lara. 1: 1—8, 17. Nahum 3: 5, 6. Ezek. 16: 14. 23: 29. CHAPTER ni. § 42. Of the Nomades. The Nomades are a very ancient people. Gen. 3: 18, 21. 4: 2, 19, 20. 11: 2. They are numerous even at this day, and occupy large tracts of land. Nor is it wonderful ; for their mode of life has many things to recommend it, especially freedom, and facilities for the ac- quisition of riches. These shepherds of the desert wander about without any fixed habitation. They despise and neglect all other business, but that of tending their flocks. Still they are not mean and uncultivated, but are polite, powerful, and magnanimous. Such were Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their posterity also, till they con- quered the land of Canaan. They possess vast flocks and a great number of servants. The masters always go armed, and spend their time in hunting, in the oversight of their affairs, in wars and preda- § 43. PASTURES. 49 tory excursions. Part of the servants are armed, in order to keep from the flocks robbers and wild beasts. Pari have only a staff i^'^^ I ^1?'? J and a pouch, Vhich were anciently the whole property of travellers, and those who were not rich, except that instead of a pouch they carried a somewhat larger sack, iftps, 2 Kings 4: 42. 1 Sam. 17: 40—43. Ps. 23: 4. Mic. 7: 14. Matt. 10: 10. Luke 9: 3. 10: 4. XoTE. — ^If in the Bible kings are called shepherds, we are not to conclude, that the title is degrading to them ; on the contrary it is sublime and honorable. For the same reason, that it was applied to earthly moriarchs, it was applied to God, who was the king of the Hebrews, and as the shepherd is to his flock, so was He the guide and protector to his children Israel, see Ps. 23: 1 — 4. Isa. 40: 11. 63: 11. Jer. 10:21. 23:1. 31:10. 50: 6. 51:23. Mic. 5: 5. Nahum 3: 18. Ezek. 34: 2—28. 37: 24. Zech. 11: 15. In the Old Testament this tropical expression, viz. a shepherd, constantly indicates kings, but in the New Testament the teachers of the Jews, those, who presided in the synagogues, were denominated shepherds. The notions of the Jews in this instance seems to have coincided with those of the Stoics, who would have it, that wise men alone, those qualified to be teach- ers, were true kings. The appellation of shepherds, however, used by the former, is the more modest of the two, though the same in sig- nificancy. The use of the word to denote religious teachers was re- ceived and transmitted in the Christian church, and to this day we speak of the pastors or shepherds of a religious society, Eph. 4: 11. Matt. 9: 36. John 10: 12—14. Heb. 13: 20. 1 Pet. 2: 25. 5: 4. § 43. Pasttjees. M The pastures of the Nomades were the deserts or wilder- nesses, which have already been mentioned, nix3, nii, nism, ym, ■i3~t: iim, Job 5: 10. Mark 1: 45. These vast tracts of land could not be monopolized by any individual, but were open to all the shepherds alike, unless some one had by some means acquired in them a peculiar right. Such an unappropriated pasture was the part of Canaan, where Abraham dwelt, and where Isaac and Jacob suc- ceeded him. The Israelites from Egypt appear also to have gone there with their flocks, till they were debarred by the, increased num- ber of the Canaanites. The pastures, which were the property of 5 50 § 44. EMIGRATIONS OF THE NO-AIADES. separate nations, came iu the progress of time occasionally into con- tention. This was the case in regard to Canaan, which the Hebrews were eventually under the necessity of reoccupying by arms. After the occupation of Palestine, there lay open to the Hebrews not only the vast desert of Judah, but many other deserts or uncultivated places of this kind. This accounts for what we may gather from Scripture, that the Hebrews were among the richest of the Nomades, or people, who kept flocks in the wilderness, 2 Sam. 17: 27 et seq. 19: 32. 1 Sam. xxv. 1 Chron. 27: 29—31. comp. Isa. 65: 10. Jer. 50: 19. § 44. Emigrations of the Nomades. These shepherds occupy almost the same positions in the des- erts every year, nis!in . In the summer they go to the noith, or on to 'the mountains, in the winter to the south, or the valleys. When about to emigrate, they pluck up their tents, pile them up- on the beasts of burden, and go with them to the place, destined for their subsequent erection. The flocks live both night and day under the open sky. Hence their wool, being unexposed to the exhalations of sheep-cotes, but always being in the open air, is finer than usual. The flocks become acquainted with the path, which they yearly travel, and afford but little trouble to those who conduct them. Still they are guarded by hired servants, and by the sons and daughters of their owners, even by the daughters of the Emirs or chiefs, who to this day perform for strangers those friend- ly offices, which are mentioned. Gen. 24: 17 — 20. comp. Gen. 29: 9. Exod. 2: 16. The servants are subject to the steward, who is himself a dependent, though he has the title of n"^2 "lirt , the senior of the house. He numbers the sheep at evening, perhaps also in the morning, Gen. 24: 2. Jer. 33: 13. If animals or their young are lost, the steward is obliged to make compensation. Some limitations, however, are assigned, Gen. 31: 38. Exodus 22: 12. comp. Amos 3: 12. The hired servants sometimes received a portion of the young of the flock, as their reward. Gen. xxx. The servants, who, as well as the cattle, are sometimes comprehend- ed under the word, n:pa , inhabited tents in the winter, but often dwelt in tabernacles in the summer. The masters on the contrary dwelt in tents the whole year, except when occasionally they § 45: FOUNTAINS AND CISTERNS. 51 retreated into the neighboring cities, Gen. 19: 1. 26: 1. 12: 10, 20. 33: 17. Lev. 23: 43. In the vicinity of the tents, was erected a sort of watch tower, ITn^'B, I'li- b-iaa, from which the approach of enemies could be discerned afar off. Mic. 4: 8. § 45. Fountains and Cistekns. Water, which was very scanty in the deserts, and yet was very necessary to large flocks, was very highly valued and very frugally imparted, Job 22: 7. Num. 20: 17—19. Deut. 2: 6—28. Hence the Nomades, in those tracts, through which they yearly travel, dig wells and cisterns at certain distances, which they have the art of con- cealing in such a manner, that another, who travels the same way, will not discover them, nor steal away the waters. In this way perhaps they may be said to take possession of certain districts and to render them their own property, as was done by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, in respect to Palestine. Hence the contentions respecting wells were of great moment. Gen. 21: 25. 26: 13 — 22. Different receptacles of water are mentioned. I. Fountains, Q^a "■'S^sq , )1'J . These are the source of running waters, and are common to all. If they flow all the year round, they are called by the Orientals, Q'^in^x Dig , or nijasi , never-failing or faithful fountains : if they dry up in the summer, they are denomi- nated D^ajs or deceitful. Job 6: 15—22. Isa. 33: 16. Jer. 15: 18. Wells, 1S3, niisa, are receptacles of water, from which there is no stream issuing. They belong to those persons, who found or dug them first. Sometimes they are owned by a number of shepherds in common, who come to them on appointed days with their flocks, in an order previously settled upon, descend a number of steps, which lead to the surface of the water, receive the water into small buckets, ib'i , and pour into troughs, D^nsBa , for the flock. The flocks are admitted to drink in a regular order, Gen. 29: 3 — 12. 24: 11 — 15. Exod. 2: 16. Judg. 5: 11. The waters of wells and foun- tains are called living waters, Qi^n d^a, and are very much es- teemed. Lev. 14: 5, 50. Num. 19: 17. Hence they are made a sym- bol of prosperity, and God himself is compared to a fountain of liv- ing waters, Isa. 43: 19, 20. 49: 10. Jer. 2: 13. Ps. 87: 7. Joel 3: 18. Ezek. 47: 1 et seq. Zech. 14: 18. n. Cisterns, niiia, niixa, 'lia, ixa. They were the pro- 52 § 46. THE FLOCKS OF THE NOMADES. perty of those by whom they were made, Num. 21: 22. Under this name occur large subterranean vaults, often occupying an acre in extent, but which open by a small mouth. They are filled with rain water and snow during the winter, and are then closed at the mouth by large flat stones, over which sand is spread in such a way, as to prevent its being easily discovered. In cities the cisterns were works of much labor, for they were either hewn into rocks or surrounded with subterranean walls, and covered with a firm incrustation. We gather this from their ruins, and not a few of them remain. But if by chance the waters, which the shepherd has treasured up in cis- terns, are lost by means of an earthquake or some other casualty, or are plundered by a thief, both he and his flocks are exposed to de- struction ; an event, which happens not unfrequently to travellers, who hasten to a fountain, but find its waters gone. For this reason a failure of water is used in Scripture, as an image of any great ca- lamity, Isa. 41: 17, 18. 44: 3. There is a large deposition of mud at the bottom of these cisterns, so that he who falls into them, when they are empty of water, perjshes by a miserable death. Gen. 37: 22 ff. Jer. 38: 6. Lam. 3: 53. Ps. 40: 2. 69: 15. Cisterns, notwith- standing, were used, when empty, as prisons : prisons indeed, which were constructed under ground, received the same name, Gen. 39: 20. 40: 15. § 46. The Flocks of the Nomades. These are goats and sheep, and they have great numbers of them. They are called by the Hebrews, collectively, iss , but separately, nb Jer. 49: 29. Ezek. 25: 5. The sheep are horned, and commonly white, Ps. 147: 16. Isa. 1: 18. Dan. 7: 9. Black ones are very rare, Clin ; some are covered with small spots, ai-iipj , some with larger ones, BinVj , others are streaked, n-jiiia , and others again, called oi"!!ip5> , are distinguished by variegated hoofs, or, as so-ne .',ay, by circular strealis round the body, like rings, Gen. 30: 32 — 34. 31: 10 — 12. The sheep, mentioned in Ezek. 27: 18, whose wool is of a bright brown, inclining to a gray, ins las , are found in Caramania. Further ; there are three different breeds of sheep in the East. I. The common, of which we have specimens every day among ourselves. II. The deformed breed, with short legs, macerated body, and rough wool, called in Arabic nakad, and in Hebrew ngij. § 46. THE FLOCKS OF THE NOMADES. 53 in. A breed larger than ours, and of very Jim wool. Of this class of sheep, there are two kinds, the one, having immense tails about four feet long, and five inches thick, n^^ix , the other, having short tails, and lai-ge clumps of fat on the haunches. Sheep are profit- able to their owners for their milk, abn, their flesh, lira, and par- ticularly for their wool, las , which is shorn twice a year. A sheep hardly worth a florin will return a thousand to its owner, and many thousands of them are owned by a single shepherd in the vast deserts of the East, Job 1: 3. 1 Sam. 25: 3, 4. 1 Chron. 5: 18 — 21. The annual increase of the flock is the greater on this account, that the sheep frequently bear twins. Cant. 6: 6. They bring forth twice a year, viz. in the spring and autumn, going with young only five months ; but the spring lambs are esteemed pre- ferable to those of the autumn. The lambs of a year old are called tr/ys , 13 , Q'^i^ia? , tons . We may infer from what has been stated, which indeed is the fact, that their sheep, which are the source of so much emolument to the Nomades, are very dear to them. They give them titles of endearment, and the ram, that is called out by its master, marches before the flock ; hence the rulers of the people are everywhere called leaders of the flock, Jer. 25: 34, 35. 50: 8. Isa, 14: 9. Zech. 10: 3. The Arabians have certain terms, by which they can call the sheep, either to drink or to be milked. The sheep know the voice of the shepherd, and go at his bidding, John 10: 3, 14. Sometimes a lamb is taken into the tent, and tended and brought up like a dog. Such an one is called in Heb. t)!ifes b33 , and in Arabic by a word Avhich means an inmate, 2 Sam. 12: 3.' Jer. 11: 19. Before the shearing, the sheep are collected into an uncovered enclosure, surrounded by a wall, rri'na , r.'i'is , also irij , ns: , avXri, John 10: 11, 16. The object of this is, that the wool may be ren- dered finer by the sweating and evaporation, which necessarily result from the flock's being thus crowded together. These are the sheep- folds mentioned in the following as well as in other places. Num. 32: 16. 24: 36. 2 Sam. 7: 8. Zeph. 2: 6. There is no other kind than this, used in the East. Sheep-shearings were great festivals, 1 Sam. 25: 2, 4, 18, 36. 2 Sam. 13: 23. Goats, as well as sheep, are comprehended under the collective noun, "ss , but are properly called vm , fi-om is , a she-goat. The h&-goat is called d'^n, D"iW!7 T'^Sia, and i''33. They are of a 54 § 47. ANIMALS OF THE OX-KIND. black color, sometimes party-colored. They live under the open sky, with the exception only, that the kids are sometimes taken into the tent, to keep them from sucking the dam. They compensate their owners with their milk, more precious than any other, Prov. 27: 27 ; with their flesh, which in the East is highly esteemed ; and with their hair, of which the Arabian women make cloth, to covet their tents with. Of the skins lottles are made, nbx , Di^3i , bai , "ixi , nan . When they are used to hold water or other liquids, the hairy side of the skin is external, with the exception, that in wine-bottles, the hairy side is always turned in and the other out. From the skins of kids small bottles are made, which answer the purpose of flasks. It is uncertain what that preparation by the means of smoke was, which is mentioned, Ps. 119: 83. Perhaps it was the same with what, the ambassador from Vienna informs us, is practised at this day among the Calmucks, who,- by means of smoke, prepare very durable and transparent skins, and make from them small, but elegant, flasks and bottles. The goats of Ancyra, with hair resembling silk, commonly called camd's hair, appear to have been known to the ancient Hebrews ; and Sclmltz, in Paulus' Collection of Travels, Vn. 108 — 110, says, that he saw flocks of these goats descending from the mountains in the vicinity of Acco and Ptolemais, which exemplified the 'descriptions in Cant. 4: 1, 2. 6: 5. Note. — It is not necessary to enumerate the different species of wild goats. It is worthy of remark, that geese, hens, and swine were not known among the domestic animals of the Nomades. At a some- what recent period, hens in some places were raised by the Hebrews ; for ■nj'n , a hen, ' that does not hatch its eggs,' is spoken of by Jere miah, 17: 11 ; and in the time of Christ, when Peter denied his mas- ter, the cock crew in Jerusalem. No hearing is to be given to those Talmudists, who, though they lived nearly 200 years after Christ, took it upon themselves to deny the existence, at any time, of fowls of- this kind in that city. J § 47. Animals of the Ox-kind. These animals are called collectively '^Ija, but separately t|ljiS, liilS , Ci^BiiVs , Di-;;o ; those under three yeai-s, nibss B-^bss § 47. ANIMALS OF THE OX-KIND. 55 rtas; and those over three years, "iB, n'jB, D'''iQ, hiiB, also di"!''3S, which last, however, is properly an epithet of strength. These animals are smaller in oriental countries than among us, and have certain protuberances on the back directly over the fore- feet. They are useful chiefly in agriculture ; but they are not ex- cluded from the possessions of the Nomades, Gen. 24: 25. Job 1: 3. Herdsmen were held in lower estimation, than the keepers of flocks, but they possessed the richest pastures in Bashan, Sharon, and Achior. Hence the oxen and bulls of Bashan, which were not only well fed, but strong and ferocious, are used as the symbols of ferocious enemies, Ps. 22: 12. 68: 81. Isa. 34: 7. Deut 33: 17. Prov. 14: 4. Heifers were symbolic of matrons, Amos 4: 1. Hosea 4: 15, 16. 10: 11. Jer. 46: 20. The horns of oxen and bulls, also of goats, are used tropically to express power, Ps. 75: 10. 89: 17, 24. 92: 10. Amos 6: 13. Jer. 48: 25. Lam. 2: 3. Ezek. 29: 21. Dan. 7: 7, 8, 24 8: 3 — 5. Luke 1: 69. If the horns are represented as made of brass or iron, they indicate very great, and as it were, insu- perable power, 1 Kings 22: 11. 1 Chron. 18: 10. Mic. 4: 13—16. Hence the ancient coins represent kings with horns, and one of the titles which the Arabians attach to the great, especially to the war- like son of Philip, is, homed. Oxen not only submitted to the yoke, and were employed in drawing carts and ploughs ; but the Nomades frequently made use of them to transport goods on their backs, as they did on ciimels. The milk of the cows was found a nutritive drink. Gen. 18: 8. Of this the people made cheese, na-ias, ni-isd, nisp. 2 Sam. 17: 29. What is called a^n isi'iri, 1 Sam. 17: 18, were slices of coagulated milk, which had been strained through a leathern strainer, and after it had grown hard, cut into pieces, as it was found necessary to use them. Anciently butter was not much used, but instead of it, oiJ of olives, which was applied not only to vegetables, but also to other kinds of fruit. In the Bible there is no mention made of butter. i^xon , which in the Vulgate and other translations is rendered but- ter, was used as a drink, Judg. 5: 25, and, therefore, must have been milk in some shape or other. Honey and milk were accounted great dainties, but a great plenty of them was an indication, that a wide destruction of the people had preceded. On account of which diminution of the inhabitants, large and rich pastures were every- where to be found ; so that abundance of milk was the natural con- 56 § 48. OF ASSES. sequence, and swarms of bees, more numerous than usual, enjoyed a more free and undisturbed opportunity to gather their honey, comp. Isa. 7: 15. Note. — Wild animals of the ox-kind are not mentioned in the Bible. The animals, which are called "fmro , and DX-i , tn , are a species of the gazelle or wild goat, which, because they bear some resemblance to them, are called by the Arabs, wild oxen. § 48. Of Asses. Asses, D"'";''!?:!! , "liKn . She Asses, niiins , 'jinx . The latter arc considered the most valuable on account of the colts, "i";? , ti^'f^S , and in the enumeration of animals, they are mentioned separately. The Nomades possess great numbers of these animals, and, in the East, if rightly trained up, they are not only patient and dijigent, but active, beautiful in appearance, and ignoble in no respect. They are esteemed very highly, and their name is used tropically in the Scriptures, for active and industrious men, Gen. 49: 14. Their color is red, inclining to a brown, to which the name liori is an allu- sion. Some are party-colored, Judg. 5: 10. nilins, unless per- chance, such are painted; for the Orientals to this day are in the habit of painting their horses and oxen. They are employed in ploughing, in drawing carts, and in turning mills, to which Matt. 18: 6, is an allusion. Moses, Deut. 22: 10, passed a law, that the ass and ox should not be used together in ploughing. Commonly the asses bear their burden, whether men or packages, on their backs ; a mode of service to which they are peculiarly fitted. Anciently princes and great men rode on asses, Gen. 22: 8, 5. Num. 22: 21, 30. Jos. 15: 18. Judg. 1: 14. 5: 10. 10: 4. 12: 14. 1 Sam. 25: 20, 23. 2 Sam. 17: 23. 19: 26. 1 Kings 2: 40. 13: 13. 2 Engs 4: 22, 24. Zech. 9: 9. Matt. 21: 1—7. Luke 19: 29—36. John 12: 12 — 16. Horses were destined almost exclusively for war ; and all classes, in time of peace, made use of asses for the purposes of conveyance, the great as well as those in ob- scure life. They were guided by a rein placed in the mouth, in Hebrew linn can, translated to saddle the ass, Gen. 22: 3. Num. 22: 21. Judg. i9: 10. 2 Sam. 16: 1. 17: 23. The saddle was merely a piece of cloth, thrown over the back of the animal, § 49. CAMELS. 57 on which tlie rider sat. The servant followed after with a staff, when the ass had no rider, and applied it when there was necessity, to quicken the celerity of his movements, Judg. 19: 3. 2 Kings 4: 24. Prov. 26: 3. Note I. — Mules, di'i'iB , 'tis , are spoken of in the age of David, 1 Chron. 12: 40. Ps. 32:^9. 2 Sam. 18: 9, 10. 13: 25. 1 Kings 1: 33. Probably they were known much earlier, even in the time of Moses. The word D^td;; , Gen. 36: 24, is not to be translated mules, as is com- monly done, but " warm haths." Mules appear to have been brought to the Hebrews from other nations, and in the recent periods of their history, we find, that the more valuable ones came from Togarmah or Armenia, Ezek. 27: 14. The n'^:'nri'i'nx , or great mules of Per- sia, celebrated for their swiftness, the mothers of which were mares, are mentioned, Esth. 8: 10. Note II. — There are great numbers of wild asses in the East. Two species are worthy of observation, the one called Dsigetai ; the other, Kulan. The latter are supposed to have sprung from domes- tic asses, who, as occasions had presented, acquired their freedom. They are a fearful animal, and swift in flight, but can be tamed, if taken when young, Job 11: 12. 24: 5. 39; 5—8. Dan. 5: 21. That the Hebrew word X")3 means the Dsigetai, and the word liii" , the Kulan species, can neither be reconciled with the use of the Arabic, nor with Job 39: 5. They must be considered merely as separate names for the same species. These animals are of a fine figure and rapid in motion ; they frequent desert places and flee far from the abodes of men. The females herd together, and are headed by a male. When the latter is slain, the former are scattered and wander about separately, Hos. 8: 9. They feed on the mountains and in salt valleys. Job. 39: 8. Their organs of smelling, which are very acute, enable them to scent waters at a great distance. Hence travellers, who are destitute of water, are accustomed to follow them, Ps. 104: 11. Is. 32: 14. Jer. 14: 6. § 49. Camels, a-'b-gs , l:-:5 . They are of two kinds. The one is the Turkish or Bactrian, distinguished by two protuberances on the back. This kind is Urge and strong, carrying from eight to fifteen hundred pounds, 58 § 49. CAMELS. but is impatient of the heat. The other kind, called the dromedary or Arabian camel^ has but one bunch on the back, is more rapid in its movement, and endures the heat better, than the large camel. It is denominated in Heb. 1=3 , nnsa, and riis-is. Is. 60: 6. 66: 20. Jer. 2: 23. Camels require but little food, and endure thirst from sixteen to forty days. They are particularly fitted for those vast deserts, which are destitute of water ; are kept in great numbers by the Nomades, and the Arab is esteemed of a secondary rank, who is not the pos- sessor of them, Gen. 24: 10, 64. 31: 17. 1 Chron. 5: 19—21. Jer. 49: 29. comp. 1 Sam. 30: 17. 1 Kings 10: 2. Is. 30: 6. Ezek. 25: 4. They are used for the transportation of every description of packages, and burdens of every sort. Gen. 37: 25. Judg. 6: 5. 1 Chron. 12: 40. 2 Chron. 14: 15. 2 Kings 8: 9. Is. 30: 6. Men rode upon them very often, 1 Sam. 30: 17. When they are loaded, and set out upon a journey, they follow one after another, seven together. The second is fastened to the first by a woollen string, the fourth to the third, and so on. The servant leads the first one, and is informed by the tinkling of a bell, attached to the neck of the last one, whether they all continue their march. The seven camels thus connected together, are called D^iiaJ nssca, which is badly rendered by the Vulgate, "inundatio camehrum," Is. 60: 6. The riders either ride as on a horse, with the feet suspended, the one on one side and the other on the other ; or, when two go together, sit upon baskets, which are thrown across the animal, so as to balance each other. Some- s ' times they travel in a covered vehicle, "i3, )j-^, which is se- cured on the back of the camel, answers the purpose of a small house. It is often divided into two apartments, and the trav- eller, who can sit in either of them, is enabled also to carry some little furniture with him. These conveyances are protected by veils, which are not rolled up, except in front ; so that the person within has the privilege of looking out, while he is himself con- cealed. They are used chiefly by the women, rarely by the men, Gen. 31: 17. If the rider wishes to desqend, the camel does not kneel as on other occasions, but the rider takes hold of the servant's staff and by the aid of it alights. Gen. 24: 64. The camels, on which the rich are carried, are adorned with splendid chains and crescents, d-^sHn'^, Judg. 8: 21, 26. § 50. HORSES. 59 The Nomades understand how to turn to profitahle purpose all the parts of animals of this kind. They drink the milk, though it is thick. "When it has become acid, it inebriates, Judg. 4: 19. 5: 25. They feed upon the flesh, a privilege which was interdicted to the Hebrews, Lev. 11: 4. The hau-, which is shed every year, was manufactured into coarse cloth, and constituted the clothing of the poorer class of people. Matt. 3: 4. In the Arabic language, there are many allusions made to camels, and tropes drawn from this source possess as much dignity, as those drawn from oxen do in the Hebrew. Proverbs, founded in the qualities of the camel, occur in Matt. 19: 24. 23: 24. § 50. Horses. 6)!iD, ir:"i, ~2n, ^"13 or ui'is, sometimes, nr"!, 1 Sam. 8: 11. 2 Sam. 1:6. 8:4. 10:' 18. 1 Chron. 18: 4. Is. 21: 7. 28: 28.- The word ni-iias, when applied to horses, is merely an epithet of strength. It is applied in the same way to oxen also. The Noma- des of recent ages place much more value on these animals, than those did of an earlier period. We find horses first in Egypt, Gen. 47: 17. 49: 17. Exod. 9: 3. 14: 6—28. Job 39: 19. That country was always celebrated for them, 1 Kings 10: 28. Is. 31: 1. 36: 9. Ezek. 17: 15. Joshua encountered chariots and horsemen in the north of Palestine, chap. 11: 4 — 9. He rendered the horses useless, which he took, by cutting the hamstrings ; since they would have been but of little profit in the mountains of Palestine, comp. Judg. 4: 15. 5: 22, 28. Not long after, the Philistines conducted chariots into battle, Judg. 1: 19. 1 Sam. 13: 5. Anciently horses were used exclusively for the purposes of wai-, Prov. 21: 31. Hence they are opposed to asses, which were used in times of peace, Zech. 9: 9. The Hebrews first attended to the raising of horses in the reign of Solomon. The hundred, which were reserved, 2. Sam. 8:4. 1 Chron. 18:4, were destined for the use of David himself, whose example was imitated by Absalom, 2 Sam. 15: 1. The Psalmist frequently alludes to the mode of governing horses and to equestrian armies, Ps. 32: 9. 66: 12. 33: 17. 76: 6. 147: 10. Solomon carried on a great ti-ade in Egyptian horses. They were brought from Egypt and fromxip, mp, perhaps Kua situated in Africa, 1 Kings 10: 28. 60 § 51. DOGS. 2 Chron. 1: 16, 17. A horse was estimated at about 150, and a chariot at 600 shekels. In the time of Ezekiel, the Tynans pur- chased horses in Togarmah or Armenia. The Hebrews, after the time of Solomon, were never destitute of chariots and cavalry. The rider used neither stirrup nor saddle, but sat upon a piece of cloth, thrown over the back of the horse. The women rarely rode horses, but whenever they had occasion to, they rode in tlie same manner with the men. Horses were not shod with iron before the ninth century; hence solid hoofs were esteemed of great consequence, Amos 6: 12. Is. 6: 28. The bridle, 5na , and the cavesson, ■jS'i , were used both for horses and mules, Ps. 32: 9. § 51. Dogs, 01=^3, ais. The Nomades found use for them in guarding and in driving their flocks. Frequent as these animals are in oriental cities, they are universally abhorred, with the exception of the hunt- ing dogs. Hence to be called a dog is a cutting reproach, full of bitter contempt. Job 30: 1. 1 Sam. 17: 43. 2 Sam. 3: 8. 2 Kings 8: 13. Prov. 26: 11. comp. Luke 16: 21. 2 Peter 2: 22. The appellation of dead dog, indicates imbecility, 1 Sam. 24: 14. 2 Sam. 9: 8. 16: 9. The reward of prostitution is called, by way of contempt, dog's hire, 3^3 l''na, Deut. 23: 18. The Jews in the time of Christ were accustomed to call the Gentiles dogs. The Saviour in order to abate the severity of the appellation used the diminutive avvaqia. Matt. 15: 22 — 28. Impudent and con- tentious men are sometimes called dogs, Matt. 7: 6. Phil. 3: 2. Gal. 5: 15. In the East, dogs, with the exception of those em- ployed in hunting, have no masters, wander free in the streets, and live upon the ofFals, which are cast into the gutters. Being often at the point of starvation, they devour corpses, and in the night attack even living men, Ps. 22: 16, 20. 59: 6, 14, 15. 1 Kings 14: 11. 16: 4. 21: 23. 22: 38. 2 Kings 9: 36. Jer. 15: 3. They herd together in vast numbers ; whenever any tumult arises in the night, they commence a terrific barking, and when the people mourn through the streets for the dead, they respond to them with their howls. Hence may be explained Exod. 11: 7, yin^'S'ii; iJisib aba comp. also Josh. 10: 21. § 52. OF HUNTING. 61 Jackals. The wild or yellow dog, (so called by Hasselquist,) is denominated in Persian JUCi, in Turkish jCal., in Hebrew ba^i or the fox, in Syriac |i^.i, in Arab. ZSJd, Mju, Judg. 15:14 Foxes, however, properly so called, the Hebrews distin- guish by the name airjp D-^^sd, or little jackals, Cant. 2: 15. The jackals they call also n'liiN and cisn, the former of which words is commonly translated dragom in the English version. These animals are three and a half feet long, have yellow hair, a tail also of yellow, with the tip of bi-own. They go together in iierds, lie in caves through the day, and wander about howling through the night. They make their way into houses for the purpose of stealing food. They have so little cunning that when thieiing in a house, if they hear one of the herd howling out in the fields, they immediately set up a responsive cry, and thus betray to the master of the house their predatory visitation. They are also taken easily in other ways, Judg. 15: 4. They de- vour dead bodies, Ps. 63: 10. They are ferocious, but can be kept off with a cane. There are vast numbers of these animals in Pales- tine, particularly in Gahlee, and near Gaza, and Jaffa, (Joppa,) Judg. 15: 4. They do much injury to the vines, though less than the foxes, Cant. 2: 15. § 52. Of Hxjnting. Although the Nomades have many hunting dogs, the dogs are not always able to keep off the wild beasts from the flock, unless aided by the shepherds themselves. Hence arose hunting or the chase, which is practised the more readily from the circumstance, that the meat of wild animals is considered a great delicnc}-. Tlie earliest in- habitants of the world were compelled to hunt in order to secure themselves from the attacks of wild beasts, and a great hunter, 1*3 , was accounted a benefactor of mankind. Such a benefactor some in- accurately suppose Nimrod to have been, not taking into considera- tion all the circumstances, Gen. 10: 9. A different state of things existed in the time of Moses, who enacted two laws on the subject of hunting, the object of which was to preserve the wild animals of Palestine, Exod. 23: 11. Lev. 25: 6, 7. Deut. 22: 6, 7. Hunting in ancient times required both 62 § 53. OF ROBBERIES. speed and bravery. Some have slain lions without any armor, which is sometimes done in the East at the present day. The implements of hunting were usually the same with those of war ; viz. ndp , the bow ; vn , the arrow ; (hence the hunter Ishmael was called an archer, Gen. 21: 20 ;) also, rrgn , a spear or lance ; n'^in , a javelin ; a'nn , a sword. Hunters made use of various arts to secure their object. They employed nets, ncn, 1^=?:, in which lions were taken, Ezek. 19: 8; likewise gins, cpia, snares, bins, n|, and pitfals, HnB, which were excavated especially for lions, in such a way, that there was an elevation of solid ground in the centre. In this elevation a pole was fastened, and a lamb was confined to the pole. The lion excited by the prospect of a victim, rushed upon the lamb, but plunged headlong through the light covering, which con- cealed the intervening pitfal, Ezek. 19: 4. Birds were taken in snares or gins. These instruments and modes of warfare are used tropically, to indicate the wiles of an adversary, great danger, or im- pending destruction, Ps. 9: 16. 57: 6. 94: 13. 119: 85. Prov. 26: 27. fs. 24: 17. 42: 22. Jer. 5: 27. 6: 21. 18: 22. 48: 44. Luke 21: 35. Rom. 11: 9. Death is represented as a hunter, armed with his net, javelin, or sting, with which he takes and slays men, Ps. 91: 3. Hos. 13: 14. 1 Cor. 15: 55. Note. — For information, respecting other animals, mentioned in the Bible, see Bochart's Hierozoicon, Eosenmiiller's edition, publish- ed at Leipsic 1793 — 1796, and Oedmann's Sammkmgen mis Natwr- hunde zur Erhldrung der heiligen Schrift, 1786 — 96. § 53. Of Eobberies, committed on Travellers. Probably from the hunting of wild beasts, the Nomades turn- ed their attention to the plundering of travellers ; an occupation, which they follow to this day in the vast deserts, nearly in the same way that pirates practise a similar vocation on the ocean. Their skill at plundering was predicted of Ishmael and his posterity, and they have ever remarkably fulfilled the prediction. Gen. 16: 12. Still they do not surpass many 'others of the Nomadic tribes ; who lie hid behind hills of sand, and wait for travellers, and then plunder them to the skin, comp. Jer. 3: 2. They do not slay any one, unless some one or a number of their own party per- § 54. IMPORTANCE OF AGRIC0LTDEE. 63 ishes first. Having robbed them of all they possess, they commonly return a garment to the person plundered, in order that they may conceal their naiedness. They also permit tlie countrymen or friends of the captives, to redeem them. All the Nomades are polite and hospitable. They receive strangers info their tents, and, without any expectation of a return, exhibit to them every office of kindness. But they are different men, if they meet strangers in the wilderness. There are now, and there always have been Nomades, who have dis- approved of the proceedings, of which we hfive spoken. Such were Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the Israelites ; some of whom, however, were at times guilty of plundering, Judg. 9: 25. Mic. 2: 8. CHAPTEK IV. ON AGRICULTURE § 54. Its value ai^d importance. In the primitive ages of the world, agricuUure, as well as the keeping of flocks, was a principal employment among men, Gen. 2: 15. 3: 17 — 19. 4: 2. It is an art which has ever been a prominent source, both of the necessaries and the conveniences of life. Those nations, which practised it at an early period, learnt its value, not only from their own experience, but also from observing the con- dition of the neighboring countries, that were destitute of a know- ledge of it, see Xenophon's Oixovofi. L. V. § 1 — 20. p. 299 — 355. (T. IV. ed. Thieme.) Impressed with the importance of agricul- ture, Noah, after he had escaped from the deluge, once more be- stowed upon it his attention ; and there were some of the Nomades, who were far from neglecting it. Gen. 26: 12 — 14. 25: 34. 37: 7. Job 1: 3. Those states and nations, especially Babylon and Egypt, which made the cultivation of the soil their chief business, arose in a short period to wealth and power. To these communities just 64 § 55. LAWS OF MOSES IN REGARD TO AGRICULTURE. mentioned, which excelled in this particular all the others of anti- quity, may be added that of the Hebrews, who learned the value of the art while remaining in Egypt, and ever after that time were fa- mous for their industry in the cultivation of the earth. § 55. Laavs of Moses in regard to Agriculture. /- ■f. Moses, following the example of the Egyptians, made agricul- ture the basis of the state. He, accordingly, apportioned to every citizen a certain quantity of land, and gave him the right of tilling it himself and of transmitting it to his heirs. The person, who had thus come into possession, could rot alienate the property for any longer period than the year of the coming jubilee ; a regulation, which prevented the rich from coming into possession of large tracts of land, and then leasing them out in small parcels to the poor ; a practice which anciently prevailed, and does to this day, in the East, II. It was another law of Moses, that the vender of a piece of land, or his nearest relative, had a right to redeem the land sold, whenever they chose, by paying the amount of profits up to the year of jubilee, Euth 4: 4. Jer. 32: 7. III. Another law enacted by Moses on this subject, was, that the Hebrews, as was the case among the Egyptians after the time of Joseph, Gen. 87: 18 et seq. should pay a tax of two tenths of their income unto God, whose servants they were to consider themselves, and vrhom they were to obey as their king, Lev. 27: 30. Deut. 12: 17—19. 14: 22—29. comp. Gen. 28: 22. IV. The cus- tom of marking the boundaries of lands by stones, although it pre- vailed a long time before, Job 24: 2, was confirmed and perpetuated, in the time of Moses, by an express law ; and a curse was pro- nounced against him, who without authority removed them. These regulations having been made in respect to the tenure, incumbrances, etc. of landed property, Joshua divided the whole country, which he had occupied, first, among the respective tribes, and then, among individual Hebrews, running it out with the aid of a measuring-line, Josh. 17: 5, 14. comp. Amos 7: 17. Mic. 2: 5. Ps. 78: 55. Ezek. 40: 3. The word Vian a line, is accordingly used by a figure of speech for the heritage itself, Ps. 11: 6. Josh. 17: 5, 14. 19:9. Though Moses was the friend of the agriculturist, he by no means discouraged the keeper of the flock. § 57. MEANS OF INCREASING PEKTILITT. 6^ §56. Estimation in which Agriculttjee was held. The occupation of the husbandman was held in honor, not only for the profits which it brought, but from the circumstance, that it was supported and protected by the fundamental laws of the state. All who were not set apart for religious duties, such as the priests and the Levites, whether inhabitants of the country, or of towns and cities, were considered by the laws, and were in fact agriculturists. The rich and the noble, it is true, in the cultivation of the soil, did not always put themselves on a level with their servants, but none were so rich or so noble, as to disdain to put their hand to the plough, 1 Sam. 11: 7. 1 Kings 19: 19. comp. 2 Chron. 26: 10. The priests and Levites were indeed engaged in other employments, yet they could not withhold their honor from an occupation, which sup- plied them mth their income. The esteem in which agriculture was held, diminished as luxury increased; but it never wholly came to an end. Even after the captivity, when many of the Jews had become merchants and me- chanics, the esteem and honor attached to this occupation still con- tinued, especially under the dynasty of the Persians, who were agri- culturists from motives of religion. § 57. Means of increasing Fertility. The soil of Palestine is very fruitful, if the dews and vernal and autumnal rains are not withheld. The country, in opposition to Egypt, is eulogized for its rains in Deut. 11: 10. The He- brews, notwithstanding the richness of the soil, endeavored to increase its fertility in various ways. They not only divested it of stones, but watered it by means of canals, n^5^i3, communicating with the rivers or brooks ; and thereby imparted to their fields the richness cf gardens, Ps. 1: 3. 65: 10. Prov. 21: 1. Is. 30: 25. 32: 2, 20. Hos. 12: 11. Springs, therefore, fountains, and rivulets, were held in as much honor and worth by husbandmen as by shepherds, Josh. 15: 9. Judg. 1: 15 ; and we accordingly find, that the land of Canaan was extolled for those fountains of \\J.:~ '>f which Egypt was destitute. The soil was enriched also, in addition to the method 6* 66 § 58. DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN. just mentioned, by means of ashes ; to which the straw, )^t\ , the stubble, ffijs, the husks, y\vi, the brambles and grass, that over- ppread the land during the sabbatical year, were reduced by fire. The burning over the surface of the land had also another good ef- fect, viz. that of destroying the seeds of the noxious herbs, Is. 7: 23. 32: 13. Prov. 24: 31. Finally, the soil was manured with dung, Ps. 83: 10. 2 Kings 9: 37. Is. 25: 10. Jer. 8: 2. 9: 22. 16: 4. 25: 33. Luke 14: 34, 35. § 58. Different kinds of Grain. The Hebrew word "a'n, which is translated variously by the English words, grain, corn, etc. is of general signification, and com- prehends in itself different kinds of grain and pulse, such as wheat, nan; millet, -rpi; spelt, nssiB: wall-barley, in^; barley, nijsii); beans, Vis ; lentils, Q'^ttj'iS* ; meadow-cumin, ■|iH3 ; pepperwort, ns]?; flax, fiBiaS; cotton, fS-inBB; to these may be added va- rious species of the cucumber, and perhaps lice, rrniiu , Is. 28: 25. Eye and oats do not grow in the warmer climates, but their place is, in a manner, supplied by barley. BaTley, mixed with broken straw, afibrds the fodder for beasts of burden, which is called h'^bz . Wlieat, nan , which by way of eminence is also called ij'j , grew in Egypt in the time of Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on stalks or branches, ciSBpb, each one of which produced an ear. Gen. 41: 47. This sort of wheat does not flourish in Palestine ; the wheat of Palestine is of a much better kind. Cotton, ys ■'Htis, grows not only on trees of a large size, which endure for a number of years, but also on shrubs, which are annually reproduced. It is enclosed in the nuts of the tree, if they may so be called from their resemblance to nuts. The nuts when they are ripe, fall off; they are then gathered and exposed to the sun, whicli causes them to in- crease to the size of an apple. "When opened, they exhibit the cot- ton. There are a few seeds found in each of these nuts, which are sown again the following year. The cotton of the shrub, called ysia , ^vaaog, is celebrated for its whitene-ss. § 59. INSTEUSIENTS OF AGEICULTUKE. 67 § 59. Instruments op Agricultuke. The culture of the soil was at first very simple, being perform- ed by no other instruments than sharp sticks. By these the ground was loosened, until spades and shovels, in;, and not long after ploughs, rus'ina, were invented. All these implements were well known in the time of Moses, Deut. 23: 13. Gen. 45: 6. Job 1: 14. The first plough was doubtless nothing more than a stout limb of a tree, from which projected another shortened and point- ed limb. This being turned into the ground made the furrows; while at the further end of the longer branch was fastened a trans- verse yoke, to which the oxen were harnessed. At last a handle was added, by which the plough might be guided. So that the plough was composed of four parts; the beam, the yoke, naia, is, which was attached to the beam; the handle, and what we should call the coulter, rs, D'^tix, naino, 1 Sam. 13: 20, 21. Micah 4: 3. (Pliny, N. H. xviii. 47, speaks of ploughs constructed with wheels, which in his day were of recent invention.) It was necessary for the ploughman constantly and firmly to hold the handle of the plough, which had no wheels, and, that no spot might remain untouched, to lean forward and fix his eyes steadily upon it, Luke 9: 62. Pliny, N. H. xviii. 49. no. 2. The staff by which the coulter was cleared, served for an ox-goad. In the East at the present day, they use a pole about eight feet in length ; at the largest end of which is fixed a fiat piece of iron for clearing the plough, and at the other end a spike laifl , -/.('vtqov, for spur- ring the oxen. Hence it appears that a goad might answer the purpose of a spear, which indeed had the same name )'2'n , 1 Sam. 13:21. Judg. 3:31. Sometimes a scourge i^ib, was applied to the oxen. Is. 10: 26. Nah. 3: 2. There seems to have been no other harrow than a thick clump of wood, borne down by a weight, or a man sitting upon it, and drawn over the ploughed field by ox- en; the same which the Egyptians use at the present time. In this way the turfs were broken in pieces, and the field leveller' ; an operation which the word lib seems properly to sip'-.iiy, viz., to level, since, in Is. 28: 24, 25, it is interchanged with nTO . At a later period wicker-drags came into use, which Pliny mentions N. H. xviu. 43. 68 § 60. ANIMALS USED IN AGEICULTUEE. The modern orientals, except in India, are unacquainted with the cart; but formerly not only wagons nibjs, n^JS, Gen. 45: 19, 27. Num. 7: 3, 6, 7. 1 Sam. 9: 7, 8, 10, 11, 14. Amos 2: 13. Is. 5: 18. 28: 28, and warlike chariots, tsias"!, as'i, but also pleasure carriages, nsio , na3"]i3 , naS'ia , were used, Gen. 41: 43. 45: 19, 21. 2 Zings 5:' 9! 2 Sam.' 15: 1. Acts 8: 28. All the ancient vehicles were moved upon two wheels only. Covered coaches are known to have been used by ladies of distinction ; though this cir- cumstance is not mentioned in the Bible. § 60. Animals used in Agriculture. The beasts of burden, that endured the toils of agriculture, were bulls and cows, he-assps and she-asses, Job 1: 14. 1 Sam. 6: 7. Isa. 30: 24. 32: 20. But it was forbidden to yoke an ass with an ox, Deut. 22: 10. Those animals, which in the Scriptures are called oxen, were bulls, for the Hebrews were prohibited from castrating, although the law was sometimes violated, Mai. 1: 14. Bulls in the warmer climates, especially if they are not greatly pampered, are not so ungovernable, but that they may be harnessed to the plough. If indeed any become obstinate by rich pasturage, their nostrils were perforated, and a ring, made of iron or twisted cord, was thrust through, to which was fastened a rope ; which impeded his respira- tion to such a degree, that the most turbulent one might easily be managed, 2 Kings 19: 28. Isa.' 37: 29. Ezek. 19: 4. Job 40: 24. By this ring also camels, elephants, and lions, taken alive, were rendered manageable. "When bulls became old, their flesh was un- suitable for aliment ; for which reason they were left to die a natu- ral death. For the old age of these animals, which had been their companions in labor, was treated by the Hebrews with kindness. "Whence it is said, that, in the golden age, the slaughter of an ox will be equally criminal with the slaughter of a man, Isa. 66: 3. Pliny, N. H. vii. 45, 56. Hence too among the Hebrews bulls possessed their appropriate dignity, so that tropes were drawn from them, by i:'> means destitute of elegance. Num. 22: 4. Deut. 23: 17. § 61. preparation of the land. 69 § 61. Preparation of the Land. Sowing commenced in the latter part of October ; at which time, as well as in the months of November and December following, the wheat was committed to the earth. Barley was sown in January and February. The land was ploughed, uinn , rib's , and the quan- tity which was ploughed by a yoke of oxen, ^as , in one day, was called Tas a yoke, or an acre, 1 Sam. 14: 14. The yoke, naia, is , was laid upon the necks and shoulders of the laboring animals, and with ropes, niban, ban, was made fast to the beam of the plough. The ox beneath the yoke afforded metaphors expres- sive of subjugation, Hosea 10: 11. Isa. 9: 4. 10: 27. Jer. 5: 5. 27: 2, 8—12. 30: 8. Nahum 1: 13. Ps. 129: 3, 4. Matt. 11: 29, 30. The Syrians, according to Pliny (xviii. 3.), ploughed shallow. The furrows, B''^!ns, and the ridges between them were harrowed and leveUed, l^ir. Job 39: 10. Isa. 28: 24, 25. Hos. 10: 11. The seed was most probably committed to the soil in the harrowing, as Pliny relates. Yet it seems to have been customary in some cases formerly, as it is at present, to scatter the seed upon the field once ploughed, and cover it by a cross furrow. When it was prohibited by law to sow, either in field or vineyard, seed of a mixed kind, and crops of this kind became sacred, i. e. were giv- en to the priests, without doubt the seed-grain was carefully cleansed from all mixture of tares so often spoken of, and which we find denominated in the New Testament ^i^di'iov, in Arabic (jt.\ , in Syriac l^V*! > in the Talmud n^ajT, and in Hebrew csi and dii. This law by no means referred to a poorer sort of grain, as the Talmudic writers suppose, but what may be called the intoxicating tare, from which the bread and the watfer in which it was boiled received an inebriating quality, and became very inju- rious to soundness of mind. The beverage formed by boiling tares and water, was called tiki ■>« , water of tares, also poison water, Deut. 29: 18, 19. Ps. 69: 21. Jer. 8: 14. 23: 15. Hos. 10: 4. The tares, then, such were their injurious qualities, are very properly said to have been sown by an enemy, while the laborers were indulging sleep at noon. Matt. 13: 25 — 40. Consult, in reference to the law mentioned in this section, Lev. 19: 19, and Deut. 22: 9. 70 § 62. HAETEST. § 62. Harvest. In/Palestine, the crops are as far advanced in the month of February, as they are in this country in the month of May. At that time, when the grain has reached about a cubit in height, it is frequently so injured by cold winds and frost, that it does not ear. The effect, thus produced upon the grain, is called y\tiv:} or blasting. The common name for it in Arabic is not ^jjwio, as Niebuhr declares, but ^j-^"yo , Gen. 41: 6. Deut. 28: 22. 2 Iflngs 19: 26. Sometimes, even in November, the crops are so an- noyed by easterly winds, as to turn yellow, and never come to maturity. This calamity is denominated 'jip'J^ mildew, Deut. 28: 22. Amos 4: 9. Hag. 2: 17. 1 Kings 8: 37. 2 Chron. 6: 28. But whether the opinion of the orientals, that these effects are occa- sioned by winds, is founded in truth, cannot, as it seems, be deter- mined. The crops, in the southern parts of Palestine and in the plains, come to maturity about the middle of April ; but in the northern and the mountainous sections, they do not become ripe, till three weeks after, or even later. The cultivated fields are guarded by watchmen, who sit upon a seat hung in a tree, or on a watch-tower made of planks, and keep off birds, quadrupeds, and thieves, Jer. 4: 16, 17. Isa. 24: 20. It was lawful for travellers, Deut. 23: 25, to strip ears from an- other's field and to eat ; but they were not to use a sickle. The second day of the passover, i. e. the sixteenth fi-om the first new moon of April, the first handful of ripe barley was carried to the altar, and then the harvest Tisj^ commenced ; comp. John 4: 35. The barley was first gathered ; then the wheat, spelt, millet, etc. Exod. 9: 31, 31. Ruth 1: 22. 2: 23. The time of harvest was a festival. It continued from the passover until Pentecost, seven weeks ; and accordingly went by the name I''3j3 nipn nis'sa Deut. 16: 9 — 12. Jer. 5: 24. The reapers were masters, chil- dren, men-servants, maidenc, and mercenaries, Ruth 2: 4, 8, 21, 23. John 4: 36. James 5: 4. Merry and cheerful, they were intent upon their labor, and the song of joy might be heard on every 3 63. THKESHING FLOOE. 71 side, Isa. 9: 3. 61: 7. Ps. 126: 6. Travellers congratulated them on the rich harvest ; which was attributed to the beneficence of De- ity and considered a great honor ; while, on the other hand, sterility of the soil was supposed to be a divine punishment and a dis- grace, Lev. 26: 4. Deut. 11: 14. 28: 12—24. Isa. 4: 2. Hag. 1: 5— 11. Mai. 3: 10, 11. Anciently the ears were plucked off, or the stalks pulled up by the roots, which is still the custom in some eas- tern countries. It was esteemed servile labor by the Pharisees, and a profanation of the sabbath, when done on that day. Matt. 12: 1 — 5. The Hebrews used the sickle, irs-in, ^a, Deut. 16: 9. Joel 3: 13. Jer. 50: 16; so that the stubble ajj; remained in the earth. The crops when reaped were gathered up by the arms, and bound in bundles. Gen. 37: 7. Lev. 23: 10—15. Job 24: 10. Euth 2: 7, 15, 16. Amos 2: 13. Mic. 4: 12. Jer. 9: 21, 22. At length the bundles were collected into a heap rta^? , or conveyed away on a wagon, Amos 2: 13. Ps. 126: 6. But the corners of the field ifra nxs , and the gleanings Xi^h , were required to be left for the poor. Lev. 19: 9. Deut. 24: 19^ Euth 2: 2, 23. The land in the East generally yields ten fold, rarely, twenty or thirty ; but Matt. 13: 8, the land yielded thirty, sixty, and an hundred fold, and Gen. 26: 12, an hundred fold. Herodotus, Strabo, and Phny mentioned the increase of crops at the rate of one hundred and fifty, two hun- dred, and even three hundred fold. This great increase is owing to the circumstance of the kernels being put into the soil at a dis- tance from each other, so as to send out several stalks. Gen. 41: 5, 47, some of which, (according to Pliny, N. H. xviii. 21. 55.) have from three to four hundred ears ; and in Africa at the present time, they bear at least ten and fifteen. K § 63. Threshing floor, "'^a. The bundles were transported into the threshing floor either by hand, or by beasts of burden, or in wagons, Amos 2: 13, and piled in a heap, Exod. 22: 6. Judg. 15: 5. A bundle left in the field, even though discovered, was not to be taken up, but left for the poor, Deut. 24: 19. The threshing floor was in the field, in some ele- vated part of it : it was destitute of walls and covering ; ""and in- deed was nothing more than a circular space thirty or forty paces in diameter, where the ground had been levelled and beaten down, 72 § 64 THRESHING. Gen. 50: 10. 2 Sam. 24: 16, 24. Judg. 6: 37, etc. The assemblage of bundles in the floor for threshing, was used figuratively to de- note reservation for future destruction, Mic. 4: 13. Isa. 21: 10. Jer. 51: 33. -, / § 64. Threshing. At first the grain was beaten out with cudgels. Afterwards this method was retained only in respect to smaller kinds of grain and in threshing small quantities, Euth 2: 17. Isa. 28: 27. At a later period, it was trodden out by the hoofs of oxen, Isa. 28: 28. Deut. 25: 4, or beaten out with machines of the same kind, that are used in the East at the present day. All these modes of threshing are called tv\. Three kinds of instruments, however, are mentioned. The first, called DiajJlB , is not well known. Per- haps it was a square piece of wood, armed on the lower side with sharp -stones. The second, called 5'iia,was composed of four beams joined so as to form a square, between which were set three revolving cylinders, each one of which was furnished with three iron wheels, having teeth like a saw ; (see Archaeol. Germ. P. I. T. 1. tab. IV. no. VII.) The third, yi'in , was formed like the preceding, except that the cylinders were not famished with iron wheels, but with sharp pieces of iron six inches long and three broad. Possibly this may be the same kind with the first. These machines, upon which the driver sat, were fastened to the oxen, and were driven round upon the bundles, which were broken open and were deposited in the circle of the area six or eight feet in height. In this manner the grain was beaten out of the ear, and the straw itself broken in pieces, which in this state was called lan . Another man followed the machine with a wooden instrument, and placed the grain in order. Threshing frequently stands figuratively for a great slaughter ; and if the machine is said to be new, when it is usually the sharpest, it denotes a slaugh- ter proportionably greater. The victorious people are some- times represented as a huge machine, that threshes and crumbles even mountains and hills, like straw. But the conquered are al- ways prostrated upon the earth, like the bundles on the threshing floor, and ground to powder by the instruments, Judg. 8: 7. 2 Sam. 12: 31. Amos 1: 3. Micah 4: 12, 13. In Deut. 25: 4, it was for- § 65. VENTILATION. T3 bidden to muzzle the ox, that was treading out the com, comp. 1 Cor. 9: 9 — 12. 1 Tim. 5: 18, and the cattle which drew the threshing machine, were allowed to eat of it to the full. In refer- ence to this circumstance, threshing denoted figuratively a splendid manner of life. § 65. Ventilation. Th^ grain being threshed, was thrown into the middle of the threshing floor ; it was then exposed with a fork to a gentle wind, Jer. 4: 11, 12, which separated the broken straw, "an, and chaff, y'm; so that the kernels and clods of earth with grain cleaving to them, and the ears not yet thoroughly threshed, fell upon the ground. The clods of earth, as is customary in the East at the present day, were collected, broken in pieces, and separated from the grain by a sieve, n^S?. Sifting was accordingly used as a symbol of misfortune and overthrows, Amos 9: 9. Luke 22; 31. The heap thus winnowed which still contained many ears, that were broken, but not fully threshed out, was again exposed in the threshing floor, and several yoke of oxen driven over it for the purpose of treading out the remainder of the grain. At length the grain, mingled with the chaff, was again exposed to the wind by a fan which was called ir^ta , jitvov ; which bore off the chaff, l^ia , so that the pure wheat fell upon the floor, Euth 3: 2. Isa. 30: 24. This operation was symbolical of the dispersion of a van- quished people ; also of the separation between the righteous and wicked, Isa. 41: 15, 16. Jer. 13: 24. 15: 7. 51: 2. Job 21: 18. Ps. 1: 4. 35: 5. 83: 13. Matt. 3: 12. Luke 3: 17. The scattered straw, as much at least as was required for the manufacturing of bricks and the fodder of cattle, was collected, but the residue, with the chaff and stubble, as has been stated above, was • reduced to ashes by fire ; which afforded a figurative illustration to denote the de- struction of wicked men, Isa. 5: 24. 47: 14. Joel 2: 5. Obad. 18. Nahum 1: 10. Jer. 15: 7. Malachi 4: 1. Matt. 3: 12. Originally the grain thus obtained from the earth was kept in subterranean store- houses, and even caverns ; but in progress of time granaries above the earth were built, both in Egypt and Palestine, see Gen. 41: 35. Exod. 1: 11. 1 Chron. 27: 28. 7 <4 § 66. or VINES and vineyards. § 66. Or Vines and Vineyards. Among other objects of agriculture, the vine may justly be consid- ered worthy of particular attention. Vines, D'^SSS, in some parts of the East, for instance on the south- ern shore of the Caspian Sea, grow spontaneously, producing gi-apes of a pleasant taste, which in the very first ages of the world, could not but have invited the attention of men to their cultivation. Hence mention is made of wine at an early period, Gen. 9: 21. 14: 18. 19: 32—35. 27: 25. 49: 11, 12. The Hebrews were no less diligent in the culture of vineyards, than of fields for grain ; and the soil of Palestine yielded in great quantities the best of wine. The mountains of Engedi in particular, the valley of salt-pits, and the valleys of Eshcol and Sorek were celebrated for their grapes. Sorek indeed, was not only the proper name of a vcdley, but also of a very' fruitful vine, which bore smaU, but uncommonly sweet and pleasant grapes. In the kingdom of Morocco at the present time, the same vine is called SerU, the name being slightly altered, see Phny, xvii. 35. no. 5. In a few instances the wine of mount Libanus and Helbon is extolled in the Scriptures, Hos. 14: 7. Ezek. 27: 18. In Palestine even at the present day, the chisters of the vine grow to the weight of twelve pounds ; they have large grapes, and cannot be carried far by one man, without being injured. Num. 13: 24, 25. The grapes of Palestine are mostly red or black ; whence originated the phrase, "blood of grapes," Dinas c-i Gen. 49: 11. Deut. 32: 14. Isa. 27: 2. Some vines in eastern countries, when supported by trees, grow to a great height and magnitude ; of such are made the staves and sceptres of kings. The vine growing spontaneously, of which we have spoken, is not that which in 2 Kings 4: 39, is called " the wild vine," n-\'iiT\ "BJ , for that, (as the Vulgate rightly translates,) is the colo- cyntis or wild gourd, which in Jer. 2: 21, is called fi*'i23 '\ti,the degenerate or strange vine. The vine of Sodom Dip "sa is the solanum melangenm, the fruit of which, as was said above, is called UJ'n lass , or the poisonous clusters. § 67. SITUATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF VINETARDS. 75 § 67. Situation and Arrangement of Vineyards. Vineyards, D^a'is , Cna , were generally planted on the declivity of hills and mountains. They were sometimes planted in places, where the soil had been heaped by art upon the naked rocks, and was supported there merely by a wall, Isa. 5: 1. Jer. 31: 5. Joel 3: 18. Amos 9: 13. Mic. 1: 6. According to Strabo and Pliny, there were also very fine vineyards in moors and wet lands, in which the vines grew to a very great height. Of the vines, that grew upon such a kind of soil, were fabricated the sceptre, etc. spoken of above, whilst the branches of other vines were destined to be fuel for the flames, Ezek. 17: 1—8. 19: 10, 11, 12. 15: 1—5. Vines were commonly propagated by means of suckers, bi'^isp . Pliny (xvii. 35. no. 6.) says, vines were of four kinds ; viz. those that ran on the ground; those that grew upright of themselves; those that adhered to a single prop; and those that covered a square frame. It is not my design to treat of all these: it may suffice merely to mention, that Pliny is by no means correct, when he says, the custom prevailed in Syria and all Asia, of letting the vines run on the ground. This indeed accords with Ezekiel 17: 6, 7; but that vines frequently grew to a great height, being supported by trees and props, or standing upright of themselves, the prover- bial phrase, which so often occurs, of sitting under one's own vine and fig-tree, i. e. enjoying a prosperous and happy life, is sufBcient proof, Jer. 5: 17. 8: 13. Hos. 2: 12. Mic. 4: 4. Zech. 3: 10. The prohibition, Deut. 22: 9, to sow vineyards with divers seeds, and the command, that what was thus sown should be given to the priests, are not to be understood of the vines, but of herbs, which were sown in the intervals between them. Vineyards were de- fended by a hedge or wall, M=>ii:;?a, I'na, Num. 22: 24. Ps. 80: 12. Prov. 24: 31. Isa. 5: 5. 27: 2, 3.' Jer. 49: 3. Neh. 4: 3. Matt. 21: 33. In the vineyards were erected towers, Isa. 5: 2. Matt. 21: 33 ; which, at the present time in eastern countries, are thirty feet square, and eighty feet high. These towers were for keepr ers, who defended the vineyards from thieves, and from animals, especially dogs and foxes. Cant. 1: 6. 2: 15. By the law in Deut. 23: 25 the keeper was commanded not to prohibit the passing tra- 76 § 69. VINTAGE AND WINE-PKESS. veller from plucking the grapes, which he wished to eat on his way, provided he did not carry them off in a vessel. § 68. CULTTTKE OF ViNETABDS. The manner of trimming the vine, inj, and also the singular instrument of the vine-dresser, fTiaia, were well known even in the time of Moses, Lev. 25: 3, 4 ; compare Isa. 2: 4. 5: 6. 18: 5. Mic. 4: 3. Joel 3: 10. A vintage from new vineyards was forbid- den for the first three years, Exod. 34: 26, and Num. 18: 11, and the grapes also of the fourth year were consecrated to sacred pur- poses ; the vines therefore, without doubt, during these first years, were so pruned, as that few sprouts remained. On the fifth year when they were first profaned, Vsn , i. e. put to a common use, they had become sturdy and exuberant. Pruning at three several times, viz. March. April, and May, is mentioned not only by Bochart, but by PUny ; and Homer speaks of it as a thing well known, (Odyss. vii. 120.) The Hebrews dug, pJS, their vineyards, and gathered out the stones, ^JsG . The young vines, unless trees were at hand, were wound around stakes ; and around those vines which ran on the ground were dug narrow trenches in a circular form, to prevent the wandering shoots from mingling with each other. These prac- tices in the cultivation of the vine are to be duly considered in those allegories, which are drawn from vineyards, Isa. 5: 1 — 7, 27: 2 — 6. Ps. 80: 9—13. Matt. 21: 33—46. § 69. Vintage amd Wine-peess. /The vintage, "T'sa, in Syria, comniences about the middle of September, and continues till the middle of November. Bui grapes in Palestine, we are informed, were ripe sometimes even in June and July ■ which arose perhaps from a triple pruning, in which case there was also a third vintage. The first vintage was in August, which month in Num. 13: 20, is called Ci'^aj?' '^'^©a lai. ; the second in September, and the third in October. The grapes when not gathered, were sometimes found on the vines until November and December. The Hebrews were required to leave gleanings for the poor. Lev. 19: 10. The season of vintage was a most joyful one, Judges 9: 27. § 69. VINTAGE AND ■WINE-PEESS. 77 Isa. 16: 10. Jer. 25: 30. 48: 33. "With shoutings on all sides, the grapes were plucked off and carried to the wine-press, nisis , Irivos, which was in the vineyard, Isa. 5: 2. Zech. 14: 10. Hag. 2: 16. Matt. 21: 33. Rev. 14: 19, 20. The presses consisted of two recep- tacles, which were either built of stones and covered with plaster, or hewn out of a large rock. The upper receptacle, called pj , as it is constructed at the present time in Persia, is nearly eight feet square and four feet high. Into this the grapes are thrown and trodden out by five men. The jmce -ciiiin, flows out into the lower receptacle called 25;; , through a grated aperture, which is made in the side near the bottom of the upper one. The treading of the wine-press was laborious and not very fa- vorable to cleanliness ; the garments of the persons thus employ- ed were stained with the red juice, and yet the employment was a joyful one. It was performed with singing, accompanied with musical instruments ; and the treaders as they jumped, exclaimed, Tl-^n, {ho up) Isa. 16: 9, 10. Jer. 25: 30. 48: 32, S3. Figuratively, vintage, gleaning, and treading the wine-press, signified battles and great slaughters, Isa. 17: 6. 63: 1 — 3. Jer. 49: 9. Lam. 1: 15. The must, as is customary in the East at the present day, was pre- served in large firkins, which were buried in the earth. The wine-cellars were not subterranean, but built upon the earth. When deposited in these, the firkins, as is done at the present time in Persia, were sometimes buried in the ground, and sometimes left standing upon it. Formerly also new wine or must was preserved in leathern bottles ; and lest they should be broken by fermenta- tion, the people were careful that the bottles should be new. Job 32: 19. Matt. 9: 17. Mark 2: 22. Sometimes the must was boiled and made into syrup, which is comprehended under the term ujan , although it is commonly rendered honey, Gen. 43: 11. 2 Chron. 31: 5. Sometimes the grapes were dried in the sun and preserved in masses, which were called ni333 "'C-'CK and Cj"'p!)H3, 1 Sam. 25: 18. 2 Sam. 16: 1. 1 Chron. 12: 40. Hosea 3: 1. From these dried grapes, when soaked in wine and pressed a second time, was manufactured sweet wine, which is also called new wine, iri"i"in, yXevxog, Acts 2: 13. 7* 78 § 70. GAEDENS. § 70. Gardens. Culinary plants and fruit-trees were among the first gbjects of agriculture. Gardens accordingly were very ancient, and have always been numerous. By the Hebrews they were called ni:a , -j riss , nsj ; afterwards, the Persian name D'n^S , naQuSuLcoi, paradise, was introduced. The later Hebrews were invited the more to the cultivation of gardens by the example of the Syrians, whom Pliny extols for this species of agriculture, above all other nations-. — ^Trees were multiplied by seeds and shoots ; they were transplanted, dug around, manured, and pruned, Job 8: 16. Isa. 17: 10. Grafting occurs figuratively, Rom. 11: 17, 24. — The gardens in Persia at the present day are disposed in good order ; those in the Ottoman empire are very rude, displaying hardly any indication of art, except a fountain or receptacle of waters, which is never wanting. In the Scriptures, gardens are denominated from the preva- lence of certain trees: as the garden of nuts, "■;x rti, and the garden of Carthaginian apples or pomegranates, D^s'iB'i tJ'n'is, Cant. 6: 11. The forest of palms also, in the plain of Jericho, was only a large garden, in which other trees were interspersed among the palms, Strabo, p. 768. The modern orientals are no less fond of gardens than were the ancient Hebrews ; not only be- cause they yield the richest fruits, but because the shade is very refreshing, and the air is cooled by the waters, of which their gardens are never allowed to be destitute, 1 Kings 21: 2. 2 Kings 25: 4 Hos. 9: 13. Cant. 4: 13. 6: 11. Eccles. 2: 5. John 18: 1. 19: 41. 20: 15. The Hebrews had an attachment to gardens as a place of burial ; hence they frequently built sepulchres in them, 2 Kings 9: 27. 21:18. Matt. 15: 46. Matt. 26: 36. John 18: 1, 2. A pleasant region is called " a garden of God,"' i. e. a region ex- tremely pleasant. The trees which the gardens constantly dis- played are often used figuratively for men. Those which are flourishing and fruitful denote good men ; the unfruitful and bar- ren, wicked men, and lofty cedars in particular are the emblems of kings, Job 29: 19. Ps. 1: 3. 92: 12—14. Hos. 14: 6, 7. Jer. 17: 8. Dan. 4: 10—16. Luke 23: 31. Matt. 3: 10. 7: 17—20. 12: 33. Ezek. 17: 3, 4. 31: 3, 13. Indeed an assembly of men is com- § 71. OLIVE TREES. 79 ■ pared to a forest, and a multitude of wicked men to hiers, Isa. 9: 10. 10: 19, 33, 34. 11: 1. Several trees, which are often mentioned in the Scriptures, but not very well known, we shall now describe in a few wprds. § 71. Olive Trees. Olive Trees, Dinit , n'lj , were a very ancient and profitable ob- ject of agriculture. Its branches as early as Gen. 8: 11, and since that time among all nations, have been a symbol of peace and prosperity. Oil is first mentioned, Gen. 28: 18. Job 24: 11; which proves the cultivation of this tree to have been very ancient. Olives in Palestine are of the best growth and afford the best oil ; hence this region is often extolled on account of this tj-ee, and es- pecially in opposition to Egypt, which is destitute of good olives, Num. 18: 12. Deut. 7: 13. 11: 14. 12: 17. 18: 4. Land that is bar- ren, sandy, dry, and mountainous, is favorable to the production of the olive. The mount of Olives derives its name from this tree. The olive is pleasant to the view, having widely extended branches, and remaining green in winter. Its multiplied branches entitled it to become the symbol of a numerous progeny, a bless- ing which was attributed to the peculiar favor of God, Ps. 52: 8. 128: 3. Hos. 14: 6. Jer. 11: 16, 17. It flourislies about two hun- dred years, and even while it is living, young olives spring up around it, which occupy its place when dead; the young sprouts are called rr^i "'^'^nia , Ps. 128: 3. It was customarj^, notwithstand- ing, to raise the tree from suckers, which were transplanted. It requires no other cultivation than digging the ground and pruning the branches. The fruit is very pleasant to the palate, but near- ly all of it is thrown into the oil-press, for the purpose of procur- ing the oil, of which there are sometimes one thousand pounds ob- tained from one tree. By means of this article, the Hebrews car- ried on an extensive commerce with the Tyrians, Ezek. 27: 17. comp. 1 Kings 5: 11 ; they also sent presents of oil to the kings of Egypt, Hos. 12: 1. The berries of the olive-tree were some- times plucked or carefully shaken off by the hand, before they were ripe, Isa. 17: 6. 24: 13. Deut. 24: 20. If, while they were yet green, instead of being cast into the press, they were only beaten and squeezed, they yielded the best kind of oil ; it was call- 80 § 72. riG-TEEES. ed omphacinum, or the oil of unripe olives, and also beaten or fresh oil, nins tlj fi'^l 'ja'J, Exod. 27: 20. There were presses of a peculiar make for pressing oil, called 'TSizJ ra, (from which is derived the name Gethsemane, Matt. 26: 36. John 18: 1.) in which the oil was trodden out by the feet, Mieah 6: 15. The first expression of the oil was better than the second, and the second than the third. Eipe olives yielded oil of a less valuable "kind. The best sort of oil was mixed with spices and used for ointment ; the inferior sort was used with food. In sacrifices, ac- cordingly, which were in a certain sense the feasts of God, the king and ruler of the people, the use of oil was commanded. Lev. 2: 1, 5, 7, 15. 6: 15. Note. — The cotinus, xozivog, and the oleaster, dyQttXaioe, are both called wild olive trees. They are nevertheless of different kinds, though they are sometimes confounded by the Greeks them- selves. The fruit of the cotinus is used for no other purpose than coloring; but the oleaster, the Agrippa Elseagnus of Linneus, 'jHia ys , is that species of wild olive, whose branches, (see Schulz, in Paulus's Collection of Travels, VI. 290.) are grafted into barren olive trees, that are in a state of cultivation, in order that fruitfulness may be produced, comp. Rom, 11: 17, 24. § 72. FiG-TKEES. Mg-trees, 6''3^tPl, fiJSft, are very common in Palestine. They flourish in a dry and sandy soil. They are not shrubs, as in our gardens, but trees, not altogether erect, and yet tall iand leafy. The shade of the fig-tree is very pleasant, and was well known to the Hebrews, Micah 4: 4. Mg-trees begin to sprout at the time of the vernal equinox, Luke 21: 29, 30. Matt. 24: 32. The fruit makes its appearance before the leaves and flowers ; the foliage expands about the end of March, Matt. 21: 19, Mark 11: 13. The figs are of three kinds. I. The untimely Jig, which puts forth at the vernal equinox, and before it is ripe is called .19, the green fig, but when ripe, the untimely fig. Cant. 2: 13. Hos. 9: 10. Jer. 24: 2. It comes to maturity the latter part of June, comp. Mark 11: IS. Matt. 21: 19; and in relish surpasses the other kinds, Jer. 24:2. 11. The summer or drg Jig. It appears about the middle of June, § 73. THE POMEGRANATE. 81 and comes to maturity in August, m. The winter Jig, which ger- minates in August, and does not ripen until the falling of the leaves, which is about the end of November. It is longer and of a browner color than the others. All figs when ripe, but especially the untime- ly, fall spontaneously, Nahum 3: 12. The early figs are eaten, but some are dried in the sun and preserved in masses which ate called D-iia'n, n^5'n, 1 Sam. 25: 18. 30: 12. 2 Kings 20: 7. 1 Chron. 12: 40. The parable in Luke 13: 6 et seq. is founded in tlie oriental mode of gardening ; and the method of improving the palm, whose barren- ness may be remedied in the way there mentioned, is transferred to the fig-tree. Note. — The sycamore, Kr^xi^yD , in size and figure resembles the mulberry tree, and is very common not only in Egypt, but in Judea, especially in the low lands, 1 Chron. 27: 28. 2 Chron. 1: 15. 9: 27. Ps. 78: 47. Its body is large and its branches numerous, growing nearly in a horizontal direction ; by means of its branches it is easy of ascent, Luke 19: 4, 5. It is always green. Its wood which is of a dark hue, endures a thousand years, and was therefore much used in building, 1 Chron. 27: 28. Isa. 9: 10. Its fruit, which does not spring from the branches and among the leaves, but from the trunk itself, resembles the fig, though it is destitute of seeds. It is very luscious, and hence hurtful to the stomach ; it is not, therefore, eaten, except for the want of something better. The fruit does not ripen unless it is opened, D^2 by the nail or a piece of iron, so that the juice, which resembles milk, may be emitted ; then as the wound grows black, it comes to maturity, Amos 7: 14. The tree is very produc- tive, yielding its fruits seven times a year, and affording a supply of food for the poor, during four months of the year ; comp. my Arabic Chrestomathy, p. 114. § 73. The Pomegranate, ■pa'n. The tree, which bears this name, grows in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Palestine. It is not a tall tree, and at a little distance from the ground, shoots out into a multitude of branches ; in con- sequence of which, it is considered by some merely a shrub. The fruit it bears is very beautiful to the eye, and pleasant to the pal- ate; it is about the size of a large apple, say, two or three inches 82 § 74. THE BALSAM. in diameter, and is encircled at the upper part with something re- sembling a crown. At first it exhibits a green appearance, but in August and September it appears of a reddish color, approximating to a brown ; the rind is thick and hard, but easily broken. The in- terior of the pomegranate is of a yellow color. There seems to be a nuflober of internal rinds, which are soft and rich, ^d afford a juice, which from its effect on the palate may be called bitter- sweet. The seed are sometimes white and sometimes purple. Num. 20: 5. Deut. 8: 8. The artificial pomegranates, made to resemble the natural ones, were no small ornament, Exod. 28: 33, 34. 1 Kings 7:18. Note. — Citron and orange-trees appear to have been transplanted at some recent period from Persia into Palestine. Had they been native productions of Palestine, the Hebrews clearly would not Lave wanted a name for them ; for the phrase, "lart ys i"!!? the fruit of a goodly tree, 'Lev. 23: 40, means neither the citron nor the orange, but the fruit of any rich tree whatever, for instance the pomegranate or date. §74. The Balsam. The balsam is both a fruit and a tree. The odoriferous balsam, so salutary in some cases to health, Heb. I'^S is not gathered from the tree in Yemen called by the Arabic name Abu Shamm, but is distilled from a fruit, which is indigenous on the mountains of Mecca and Medina. The fruit which produces this distillation, was found to be cultivated in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Egypt, at Matara, not far from Grand Cairo, in gardens. That it was culti- vated in this way at a very ancient period in Gilead, and also in the vicinity of Jericho and Engedi, appears from many passages of Scripture, Gen. 37: 25. 43:11. Jer. 8: 22. 46:11. 51:8; see also the History of Tacitus, Bk. V. c. 6. Josephus in his Jewish War, Bk. IV. c. 8. § 3. compared with his Antiquities, Bk. VIII. c. 6. § 6. Bk. XX. c. 4. § 2.— Pliny's Natural Hist. Bk. XII. 2. Dio- dorus Siculus, XIX. c. 98. Strabo 763, and Justin Trogus XXXVI. 3. 2. So that the conjectures and statements, brought against what is here stated, cannot hold. There are three species of the § 75. THE PALM. 83 balsam, two are shrubs, the other is a tree. They yield their sap in June, July, and August, which is received into an earthen vessel. The fruit also, when pierced by some instrument, emits a juice of the same kind, and in more abundance, but less rich. The sap, extracted from the body of the tree or shrub, is called the opo- halsamum; the juice of the balsam fruit is denominated carpo- hdsamum ; and the liquid, extracted from the branches when cut off, the xylobahamum. § 75. The Palm, icn, i^oTvi'^. The palm-tree is very common in the countries of the East and in Africa. It is not very frequently found in Palestine at the pre- sent day ; the reason is, a want of cultivators. It requires men, who are skilful and experienced, to make a palm grove flourish- ing and productive. At a very early period, however, they were quite numerous even in Palestine. This we may learn from Lev. 23: 40. Deut. 34: 3. Judg.'l: 16. 3: 13. 4: 6, and from many pro- fane writers ; and also from the ancient coins of the Je^^'s and Ro- mans, which exhibit the palm, a sheaf of wheat, and a cluster of grapes, as the symbols of the Jewish nation. The palm flourishes most in a warm climate, and in case there is a sufBciency of wa- ter, in clayey, sandy, and nitrous soils. It is, therefore, commonly found most flourishing in valleys and plains, Exod. 15: 27. It as- cends very straight, and very lofty, being destitute of limbs, except very near the top, where it is surmounted with a crown of foliage, that is always green. The figure of the palm-tree was carved in or- namental work, 1 Kings 6: 32 ; and it is used figuratively, as a sym- bol of a beautiful person, Cant. 7: 8 ; and also of a religious, upright man, Ps. 1: 3. 92: 12. The dates grow on small stems, which germinate at the angles formed by the stock of the tree and the branches. Palm trees exhibit what may be termed a sexual dis- tinction ; and, in order to any fruits being produced, the seed from the flowers of the masculine palm must be borne, at the proper season, to the tree of an opposite character. If this is not done, or if it happen too early or too late, the female palm, like the male, bears no fruit. The productions of the palm are large clus- ters of dates, which become ripe in August, September, and Octo- ber. Some of the dates are eaten in their crude state ; the rest 84 § 76. TEREBINTHS AND PISTACIAS. are strained through a press woven of osiers, and after the jnicc is forced out, are reduced into solid masses, and are preserved. The juice pressed out is the date wine, formerly very celebrated; under which name was also comprehended the beverage, which was procured from clusters of dry dates steeped in warm water, and then pressed. The Hebrews, at the feast of tabernacles, bore palm branches in their hands; they also strewed them in the way before the kings, as they entered on public occasions into their cities. Lev. 23: 40. 1 Mac. 13: 51. Matt. 21: 8. The Greeks gave a branch of the palm to those who conquered in the games, comp. Eev. 7: 9. This tree is regarded by the oiientals, of all others as the most excellent and noble. Hence the saying from the branch (i. e. the palm branch) to the rush or reed; expressions which are interchangeable with the head and tail, 23T1 UJKI, and mean the same thing, as the phrase " from the highest to the lowest,'' Isa. 9: 14. iS^o- (jf § 76. Terebinths and Pistacias. Terebinths are called in Heb. "I'l^N, ta'^^iK, nix, etc., which words are sometimes confounded and interchanged with hiis and ■jiix , which mean the oak. The terebinths are a large tree, are loaded with branches and foliage, and are green through the whole year. They live a thousand years, and when they die, leave in then- place a scion, which in time spreads a like luxuriance of foliage, and lives to a like number of years ; so that, where they once appear, they may be said to be perpetuated. It was for this reason, viz. the comparative perpetuity, which was attached to them, that places were denominated from them, as from cities, Gen. 13: 18. Judg. 6: 11. 1 Sam. 10: 3. Isa. 6: 13. Ezek. 6: 13. They are used figuratively as symbols of the good, who in Isa. 61: 3, are called terebinths of righteousness, p'ri liiN . The pistacia is a tree, very much like the terebinth. It bears a very rich species of nuts ; which hang in clusters, D''3B3 , Gen. 43: 11, and which become ripe in October. They somewhat resemble almonds in appearance, but are of a much better flavor ; and are, therefore, most valued by the orientals. Walnuts, tias , are common in Palestine ; but hazel nuts are scarce, if indeed they are found there at all. The word vh , which some suppose to mean the hazel nut, is the name of the almond. § 77. BEES AND HONEY. 85 § 77. Bees and Honey. Palestine has been often called the land flowing with milk and honey. This is a proverbial expression, and is applied to any fruit- ful land, for instance, Egypt in Num. 16: 13. Still it must be con- fessed, that bees were very numerous in Palestine, not only in the hives, which were built for them of clay mixed with broken straw, but frequently in the woods, in the hoUow trees, and the fissures of rocks, Deut. 32: 13. Ps. 81: 17. They possess a keen animosity, and a very efficient sting, and when they have a disposition, attack to good purpose individuals and even large bodies of men. They are consequently used by a figure of speech to represent violent and fero- cious enemies, Deut. 1: 44. Ps. 118; 11, 12. They could be allured, by anything that made a tinkling sound, to any particular place, Isa. 7: 18. The Hebrews took great care of these little animals ; as is evident from the abundance of honey which they possessed, and were able to exchange in their traffic with the Tyrians, Ezek. 27: 17. Hence honey is often mentioned in the Bible, both the comb, Digiis P3b, fieXiamov xtjqwv, 'JluA the hquid honey, r|i\s, C2'n. It should be remarked, that the word aa'n , which means liquid honey, may also mean the sirup of dates and must, Gen. 43: 11. Wild honey, fish ay(>iov, aa'^rt rvn?;; , is hkewise spoken of, 1 Sam. 14: 25 — -27. Matt 3: 4. This was not the honey of bee? found in fissures of rocks; for this occurs under the phrase, sbsa b:'i Deut. 32: 13. Ps. 81: 17. Nor was it the liquid manna called terengabin, although this manna was formerly comprehended under the common word for honey. It is what has been called the honey dew, i. e. the excre- ments, which certain little insects, called by Linneus Aphides, emit very copiously upon the leaves of trees, so much that it flows down upon the ground, 1 Sam. 14: 15 — 27. The ancients used honey instead of sugar, and loved it much ; it is hence used tropically as an image of pleasure and happiness, Ps. 119: 103. Prov. 24: 13, 14. Cant. 4: 11. When taken in great quantities it causes vomiting, and is consequently used by a figure to express fastidiousness, or any nauseating sensation, Prov. 25: 16, 17. S 86 § 79. THE FALLOW TEAE. § 78. Fishing. Fish were esteemed by the Hebrews, as by all the orientals, a great delicacy, Num. 11: 5. In consequence of being held in sueb estimation, they were taken in great numbers from the river Jordan and the lake Gennesareth. Those only, which were destitute of scales or fins, were interdicted. Lev. 11: 9. Hence mention is made of the fish-gate, at Jerusalem, so called from the circumstance of fish being sold there, 2 Chron. 33: 14. Neh. 3: 3. 12: 39. Isa. 19: 8. Ezek. 26: 5, 14. 47: 10. Fishermen are used tropically for enemies, Isa. 19: 8. Hab. 1: 15. Strabo says, there was a great trade carried on in fish at the lake Gennesareth. Some of the apostles living near the lake were fishermen, and this class of men were in general active, experienced, and apt, Luke 5: 1 et seq. comp. Matt. 4: 19. The in- struments used in fishing, were a hook, nan Job 41: 1. Isa. 19: 8. Hab. 1:15; an iron spear, d''S'n bsb:: Job 41: 7, and a net, "icaa , i?sb , Job 19: 6. Isa. 51: 20. § 79. The Fallow Year. Agriculture on every seventh year came to an end. Nothing was sown and nothing reaped ; the vines and the olives were not pruned ; there was no vintage and no gathering of fruits, even of what grew wild ; but whatever spontaneous productions there were, were left to the poor, the traveller, and ' the wild beast, Lev. 25: 1 — 7. Deut. 15: 1 — 10. The object of this regulation seems to have been, to secure the preservation of wild beasts, to let the ground recover its strength, and to teach the Hebrews to be provident of their income, and to look out for the future. It is true, that extraordinary fruitfulness was promised on the sixth year, but in such a way as not to exclude care and foresight. Lev. 25: 20 — 24. We are not to suppose, however, that the Hebrews spent the seventh year in absolute idleness. They could fish, hunt, take care of their bees and flocks, repair their buildings and furniture, manufacture cloths of wool, linen, and of the hair of goats and camels, and carry on commerce. Finally, they were obliged to remain longer in the tabernacle or temple this year, during which the whole Mosaic law was read, in order to be instruct- § 81. STATE OF THE ARTS. 87 ed in religious and moral duties and the history of their nation, and the wonderful works and blessings of God, Deut. 31: 10 13. This seventh year's rest, as Moses predicted. Lev. 26: 34, 35, was for a long time neglected, 2 Chron. 36: 21 ; after the captivity it was more scrupulously observed. CHAPTER V. OF THE ARTS. § 80. The Origin op the Arts. Thet originated, no doubt, partly in necessity, partly in accident. At first they must have been very imperfect and very limited ; but the inquisitive and active mind of man, seconded by his wants, soon secured to them a greater extent and fewer imperfections. Accordingly, in the fourth generation after the creation of man, we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical instruments, Gen. 4: 21 — 23. Those communities, which, from local or other causes, could not flourish by means of agri- culture, of course directed their attention to and encouraged the arts. The arts, consequently, advanced with great rapidity, and were carried to a high pitch as far back as the time of Noah ; as we may learn from the very large vessel, which was built under his direction. § 81. State op the Arts prom the Deluge till Moses. Noah, together with his sons and servants, who were engaged with him in the construction of the ark, must, as above intimated, have been well acquainted, at least with certain of the mechanic arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the operations of artifi- cers in other ways besides that of building, and after the delr.ge imitated their works as well as they could. Hence not lonof after 88 § 83. ARTS AMONG THE HEBREWS. this period, viz. the deluge, we find mention of many things, such as edifices, utensils, and ornaments, which imply a knowledge of the arts. Gen. 9: 21. 11: 1—9. 14: 1—16. 12: 7, 8. 15: 10. 17: 10. 18: 4, 5, 6. 19: 32. 21: 14. 22: 10. 23: 13—16. 24: 22. 26: 12, 15, 18. 27: 3, 4, 14. 31: 19, 27, 34. Traces and intimations of which occur continually, as the attentive reader wiU find, down to the time of Moses. § 82. The Arts among the Hebrews in the time of Moses. Egypt in the early age of the world excelled all other nations in a knowledge of the arts. The Hebrews, in consequence of re- maining four hundred years with the Egyptians, must have become initiated, to a considerable degree, into that knowledge which their masters possessed. Hence we find among them men, who were sufficiently skilful and informed to frame, erect, and orna- ment the tabernacle. Moses, it is true, did not enact any special laws in favor of the arts, nor did he interdict them or lessen them in the estimation of the people ; on the contrary he speaks in the praise of artificers, Exod. 35: 30 — 35. 36: 1 et seq. 38: 22, 23, etc. The grand object of Moses, I mean in a temporal point of view, was to promote agriculture ; and he thought it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to the ingenuity and industry of the people. § 83. Arts among the Hebrews in Palestine. Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted by Joab of the tribe of Judah to artificers. It was called the val- ley of craftsmen, O'lB^n S^a 1 Chron. 4: 14. comp. Neh. 11: 35. About this time mention is made also of artificers in gold and sil- ver, Judg. 17: 3 — 5. The arts could not, however, be said to flour- ish much, although it was a fact that those utensils and instruments, which were absolutely necessary, were to be obtained from the shops of craftsmen, except when they were carried away captives in war, Judg. 3: 31. 5: 8. 1 Sam. 13: 19. Some of the less complicated and difficult instruments used in agriculture, each one made for him- self. The women spun, wove, and embroidered; they made clothing not only for their families, but for sdk, Exod. 35: 25. § 84. STATE OF THE ARTS AFTER THE CAPTIVITY. 89 1 Sam. 2: 19. Prov. 31: 18—31. Acts 9: 89. Employment, con- sequently, as far as the arts were concerned, was limited chiefly to those who engaged in the more difficult performances: for in- stance those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured idols or cast them of metal, made instruments of gold, silver, and brass, and vessels of clay and the like, Judg. 17: 4. Isa. 29: 16. 30: 14. Jer. 28: 13. Artificers among the Hebrews were not, as among the Greeks and Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank, and as luxury and wealth increased they became quite numerous, Jer. 24: 1. 29: 2. 2 Kings 24: 14. In the time of David and Solo- mon, there were Israelites, who understood the construction of tem- ples and palaces, but they were inferior to the Tyrians, and were willing to take lessons from them, 1 Chron. 14: 1. 22: 15. From the frequent mention made, in the history of the Hebrews, of nume- rous instruments, and of various operations in metals, we may infer as well as from other sources, that quite a number of the arts were understood among them. 1 rrTvuih -T^ § 84. State of ' THE Arts after the Captivity. During the captivity many Hebrews, (most commonly those, to whom a barren tract of soU had been assigned,) applied them- selves to the arts and merchandise. Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popular, that the Talmudists taught, that all parents ought to learn their children some art or handicraft. They indeed mention many learned men of their nation who practised some kind of manual labor, or as we should say, followed some trade. Accordingly, we find in the New Testament, that Joseph, the husband of Mary, was a carpenter, and that he was assisted by no less a personage than our Saviour in his labors, Matt. 13: 55. Mark 6: 3. Simon is mentioned as a tanner in the city of Joppa, Acts 9: 43. 10: 32. Alexander, a learned Jew, was a cop- persmith, 2 Tim. 4: 14; Paul and Aquila were tent makers, axrjvonoioi. Not only the Greeks, but the Jews also, esteemed certain trades infamous. At any rate the Rabbins reckoned the drivers of asses and camels, barbers, sailors, shepherds, and inn- keepers in the same class with robbers. Those Ephesians and Cretans, who were lovers of gain, ah-(_qo-A,iqSm, 1 Tim. 3: 8. 8* 90 § 85. ANTIQUITY OF THE ART OF WRITING. . Tit. 1: 7, were men as -we may learn from ancient writers, wLo were determined to get money in however base a manner. The more eminent Greek tradesmen were united together in the time of the Apostles in a society, Acts 19: 25. comp. Xenophon, Cyrop. viii. 2, 4. Of some of the arts we must say something separately. § 85. Antiqtjitt of the Art of Writing. Whether symbolic representations were first used, afterwards -ifieroglyphics, then alphabetic writing, is not very clear, nor is it a point necessary to be determined in this place. In regard to alphabetic writing, all the ancient writers attribute the inventior. of it to some very early age, and some country of the East; bu. they do not pretend to designate precisely either the age or th» country. They say, further, that Cadmus introduced letters fron Phenicia into Greece in the year, if we may credit the Parian chronicle, 1519 before Christ, i. e. forty-five years after the death of Moses. Anticlides, (see Pliny's Natural History, vii. 57.) asserts and at- tempts to prove, that letters were invented in Egypt fifteen years before Phoroneus, the most ancient king of Greece, i. e. four hun- dred and nine years after the deluge, and in the one hundred and seventeenth year of Abraham. On this I remark, that they might have been introduced into Egypt at this time ; but they had been previously invented by the Phenicians. Epigenes. who in the esti- mation of Pliny is weighty authority, informs us, that observations, made upon the heavenly bodies for seven hundred and twenty^ years at Babylon, were written down upon baked tiles, but Bero- sus and Critodemus, also referred to by Pliny, make the number of years four hundred and eighty. Pliny from these statements draws the conclusion, that the use of letters, as he expresses it, must have been eternal, i. e. extremely ancient. Simplicius, who lived in the fifth century, states on the authority of Porphyry, an acute historian, that Ocdisthenes, the companion of Alexander, fpurid at Babylon a record of observations on the heavenly bodies for one thousand nine hundred and three years. Of course the re- cord must have begun in the year two thousand two hundred and thirty-four before Christ, i. e. the eighty-ninth year of Abra- ham. This statement receives some confirmation from the fact, that . § 85. ANTIQUITY OF THE ART OF lYEITING. 91 the month of March is called Tjx , ^rf«?-, in the Chaldaic dialect; and at the time mentioijed, viz. the eighty-ninth year of Abraham, the sun, during the whole month of March, was in the sign of the zodiac, called Aries or the ram. The word -i'in, Adar, means the same with Aries. But, as letters were unquestionably invented for the purposes of commercial intercourse, they must have been known long before they were employed, to transmit the motions of the stars. Of this we have an evidence in the bill of sale, which as we have reason to suppose from the expres- sions used in Gen. 23: 20, was given to Abraham by the sons of Ileth. Hence it is not at all wonderful, that books and writings are spo- ken of in the time of Moses, as if well known, Exod. 17: 14. 24: 4. 28: 9—11. 32: 32. 34: 27, 28. Num. 33: 2. Deut. 27: 8. Nor is it a matter of surprise, that long before his time there had been public scribes, who kept written genealogies ; they were called by the He- brews, Di-iara, Exod. 6: 14. Deut. 20: 5 — 9. Even in the time of Jacob, SEALS, upon which names are engraved in the East, were in use, see Gen. 38: 18. 41: 42 ; which is another probable testimony to the great antiquity of letters. Note I. — Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus mention the existence in antiquity of two kinds of writing, the one sacred, the other ^ro/a>ie. Clemens Alexandrinus and Porphyry mention three kinds, viz. the sacred, the profane, and the hieroglyphical. Some interpreters sup- pose, that' the phrase cijx B'nn a marCs pen, Isa. 8: 1, means the mode of writing which is denominated profane. Hieroglyphics were in- scribed by the Egyptians, among whom they were used, upon stones. The phrase Ti'^SC's "ax , a pictured or engraven stone. Lev. 26: 1. Num. 33: 52, means a stone, engraven with hieroglyphical figures, which, in that age of idolatry, was liable to be worshipped. Those persons, who understood how to read hieroglyphics, Diaa'in magicians, were held in high estimation and much honored among the Egyptians, ■Exod. 8: 3. Gen. 41: 8. Note H. — Gesenius renders the word Si'nara overseers, rulers, or officers. In support of his rendering, he collates the Arabic word ■) ''^^^v to preside, and Jio-kmuo an overseer. But the Ara- 92 § 86. THE EXTENSION OF ALPHABETICAL WEITINa -'(- ' ^^"' " ' bic word Jom to write, and Jomjo a scribe, and the Syriae iS-^ * writing, are nearer as regards form to the Hebrew, than those which are collated by Gesenius. / /I, § 86. The extension of alphabetical writing. Letters, which had thus become known at the earliest period, were communicated by means of the Phenician merchants and colonies, and subsequently by Egyptian emigrants, through all the East and the West. A strong evidence of this is to be found in the different alphabets themselves, which betray by their resem- blance a common origin. The Hebrew Patriarchs received their alphabet from the Phenicians, or, what is the same thing, from the Canaanites ; and that their posterity preserved a knowledge of alphabetical writing during their abode in Egypt, where essen- tially the same alphabet was in use, is evident from the fact, that the Hebrews while remaining there always had public genealogists, Deut. 24: 1 — 3. 17: 18, 19. The Law also was ordered to be in- scribed on stones ; a fact which implies a knowledge of alphabeti- cal writing. The writing thus engraven upon stones is designated by its appropriate name, viz. niin, comp. Exod. 32: 16, 32. Not a few of the Hebrews were able to read and write, Judg. 8: 14 ; yet very many were very illiterate. Hence those, who were capable of writing, wrote for others, when necessary. Such persons were com- monly priests, who, as they do to this day in the East, bear an ink- horn in their girdle, Ezek. 9: 2, 3, 11. In the inkhorn were the materials for writing, and a knife for sharpening the pen, Jer. 36: 23. The rich and noble had scribes of their own, and readers also ; whence there is more frequent mention made of hearing, than of reading, 1 Kings 4: 3. 2 Kings 12: 11. Isa. 29: 18. Jer. 36: 4. Eora.'2: 13. James 5: 11. Rev. 1: 3. The scribes took youth under their care, who learnt from them the art of writing. Some of the scribes seem to have held public schools for instruction ; some of which under the care of Samuel and other prophets became in time quite illustrious, and were called the schools of the prophets, 1 Sam. 19: 16 et seq. 2 Kings 2: 3, 5. 4: 38. 6: 1. The disciples in these schools were not children or boys, but young men, who inhabited separate edifices, as is the case in the Persian academies. They were taught mu- § 87. MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS OF •WRITING. 93 sic and singing, without doubt writing also, the Mosaic law, and poetry. They were denominated in reference to their instructors the sons of the prophets, teachers and propliets being sometimes called fathers. After the captivity there were schools for instruc- tion either near the synagogues or in them, of which we shall speak hereafter. § 87. Materials and Instruments op Writing. I. Materials from the vegetable kingdom;. 1. The leaves of trees. 2. The hark of trees, from which in the process of time a sort of paper was manufactured. 3. A table of wood, mh, mva^, Isa. 8: 1. Ezek. 37: 16. Luke 1: 63. In the East, these tables were not covered with wax as they were in the West ; or at any rate very rarely so. 4. Linen. Linen was used for the object in question at Eome. Linen books ai'e mentioned by Liv}^. Cotton cloth also, which was used for the bandages of Egyptian mummies, and inscribed with hie- roglyphics, was one of the materials for writing upon. 5. The paper made from the reed papyrus, which, as Pliny has shown in his Natural History, XIII. 21 — 27, was used before the Trojan war. II. Materials from the animal kingdom. The shins of animals. They were but poorly prepared for the purpose, until some improved methods of preparation were invented at Pergamus, during the reign of Eumenes, about 200 years before Christ. Hence the skins of animals, prepared for writing, are called in Latin pergamena, in English parchmeiU, to this day, from the city Pergamus. They are sometimes denominated in Greek, fisfi^qdva, 2 Tim. 4: 13. in. Materials from the mineral kingdom. 1. Tables of lead, n'i3is>. Job 19: 24. 2. Tables of brass, SsXtoi xf>d.xal. Of all the materials, brass was con-sidered among the most durable, and was employed for those in- 94 § 87. MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS OP WHITING. scriptions, which were designed to last the longest, 1 Mace. S: 22. 14: 20—27. 3. Stones or rocks, upon which public laws, etc. were written. Sometimes the letters engraved were filled up with lime, Exod. 24: 12. 31: 18. 32: 19. 34: 1 et seq. Deut. 27: 1—9. comp. Josh. 8: 32 et seq. Job 19: 24. 4. Tiles. The inscriptions were made upon the tiles Jirst, and afterwards they were baked in the fire. They are yet to be found in the ruins of Babylon ; others of later origin are to be found in many countries in the East. 5. The sand of the earth, in which the children in India to this day learn the art of writing, and in which Archimedes himself delin- eated his mathematical figures, comp. John 8: 1 — 8. If in Ezekiel 3: 1, and in Eevelation 10: 9, we are informed that books were eaten, we must remember, that the descriptions are figurative, and that they were eaten in vision ; and consequently are not at liberty to draw the conclusion from these passages, that any substance was used as ma- terials for writing upon, which was at the same time used for food. The representations alluded to are symbolic, introduced to denote a communication or revelation from God. Instruments used in Writing. The instrument, commonly used for this purpose, was the style, Heb. EJ'in , a? . 1. When it was necessary to write upon hard ma- terials, as tables of stone and brass, the style was made of iron, and sometimes tipped with diamond, Jer. 17: 1. 2. The letters were formed upon tablets of wood, (when they were covered with wax,) with a style sharpened at one end, broad and smooth at the other ; by means of which, the letters, when badly written, might be rubbed out and the wax smoothed down. Wax, however, was but rarely used for the purpose of covering writing- tables in such warm regions. When this was not the case, the let- ters were painted on the wood with a black tincture or ink. 3. On linen, cotton cloth, paper, skins, and parchment, the let- ters were painted with a very small brush, Heb. perhaps 'dy\, afterwards with a reed, which was split. The orientals use this elegant instrument to the present day instead of a pen. The knife, with which the reed was split, was called 'laian ISn , Jer. 3.6: 23. § 88. RESPECTING BOOKS. 95 Ink called r'n , is spoken of in Num. 5r 23, as well known and common, comp. Jer. 36: 18, and was prepared in various ways, which are related by Pliny, XVI. 6. XXX. 25. The most simple, and consequently the most ancient method of preparation, was a mixture of water with coals broken to pieces, or with soot, with an addition of gum. The ancients used other tinctures also ; particularly, if we may credit Cicero de Nat. Deor. 11. 20. and Persius in. 11, the ink extracted from the cuttle fish, nbrn , although their assertion is in opposition to Pliny. The Hebrews went so far as to write their sacred books in gold, as we may learn from Josephus, Antiq. XII. 2, 11, compared with Pliny, XXXHI. 40. "■ § 88. Eespecting Books, n^'isp -iss . Boohs, (which are mentioned as very well known as early as Job 19: 23. Num. 21: 14 Exod. 17: 14,) were written most an- ciently on skins, on linen, on cotton cloth, and the reed papyrus ; and subsequently on parchment. The leaves were written over in small columns, called ninb'^ , Jer. 36: 23. If the book were large, it was of course formed of a number of skins, of a number of pieces of linen or cotton cloth, or of papyrus, or parchment, connected together. The leaves were rarely written over on both sides, Ezek. 2: 9. Zech. 5: 1. Whether the lines were written ^ovarQoq)tj- dov, as in the Sigean inscription, and in the Etruscan inscriptions, might yet be determined, if the stones mentioned Josh. 8: 32, could be found. The question, whether there was any space between the words, has been discussed in my IiUroduction to the Old Testament, T. V. p. 1. § 98. Books being written upon very flexible materials, were rolled round a stick; and, if they were very long, round two, from the two extremities. The reader unrolled the book to the place which he wanted, dvamv^ag to ^i^h'ov, and rolled it up again when he had read it, nrv^ag to §i§}.iov, Luke 4: 17 — 20 ; whence the name rkva a volume, or thing rolled up, Ps. 40: 7. Isa. 34: 4. Ezek. 2: 9. \ kings 19: 14. Ezra 6: 2. The leaves thus rolled round the stick, which has been mentioned, and bound with a string, could be easily sealed, Isa. 29: 11. Dan. 12: 4. Kev. 5: 1. 6: 7. Those books, which were inscribed on tablets of wood, lead, 96 § 90. ON POETRY. brass, or ivory, were connected together by rings at the back, through which a rod was passed to carry them by. Note. — The orientals appear to take a pleasure in giving tropical or enigmatical titles to their books. The titles prefixed to the fifty- sixth, sixtieth, and eightieth psalms, appear to be of this description. And there can be no doubt, that David's elegy upon Saul and Jona- than, 1 Sam. 1: 18, is called niriD or the how, in conformity with this peculiarity of taste. § 89. CoNCEENiNG Epistles. Epistles, which occur under the same Hebrew word with books, viz. iBb, are mentioned the more rarely, the further you go back into antiquity. An epistle is first mentioned 2 Sam. 11: 14 et seq. Afterwards there is more frequent mention of them, and sometimes an epistle is meant, when literally a messenger is spo- ken of, as in Ezra 4: 15 — 17. In the East letters are commonly sent unsealed. In case, however, they are sent to persons of dis- tinction, they are placed in a valuable purse, which is tied, closed over with clay or wax, and then stamped with a signet, see Isa. 29: 11. Neh. 6: 5. Job 38: 14. The most ancient epistles begin and end without either salutation or farewell, but under the Persian monarchy the salutation was very prolix. It is given in an abridged form in Ezra 4: 7 — 10. 5: 7. The apostles in their epistles used the Salutation customary among the Greeks, but they omitted the usual farewell at the close, viz. ^ai'gsiv, and adopted a benediction more conformable to the spirit of the Christian r^igion. Paul, when he dictated his letters, wrote the benediction at the close with his own hand, 2 Thess. 3: 17. He was more accustomed to dictate his letters than to write them himself. § 90. On Poetet. Poetry had its origin in the first ages of the world, when un- disciplined feelings and a lively imagination, naturally supplied strong expressions, gave an expressive modulation to the voice, and motion to the limbs ; hence poetry, music and dancing were contemporaneous in origin. As far back as the time of Moses, po- § 91. CHARACTER OF THE HEBREW POETET. 97 etrjf, not only among the Hebrews, but also among some other na- tions, had reached a great degree of perfection, Exod. xv. Deut, xxxii. Num. 21: 24 et seq. comp. also the book of Job. It after- wards flourished with great honor among the Hebrews for almost 1000 years. The design of it was not merely to excite pleasure, but also to preserve historical narrations, and that in such a way, that they might be sung on special occasions ; but it was more par- ticularly tlie object of this art, to declare in the most affecting man- ner the praises of the Deity, and to excite the people to good and to praiseworthy works ; see the books of Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes ; comp. also Gen. 3: 24. 4: 23. 9: 25—29. • "" — — § 91. Character of the Hebrew Poetry. Hebrew poetry, like the genuine poetry of all other nations, is characterized by ardent feelings, splendid thoughts, a great variety of beautiful images, strength of expression, condensation, and elegance. But it is distinguished in a number of particulars from the poetry of occidental nations. I. The metaphors, comparisons, etc. are more bold and unusual ; a point, which is capable of receiving much light from a collation of Ar'abic poems. II. The ornaments, by which a subject is enriched in Hebrew poetry, are derived from the state of things, as they exist in the East, especially Palestine ; (1.) from the natural objects of that region, from Lebanon and its" cedars, from Carmel, from the oaks of Bashan, from the gardens, the vineyards, and the forests, which enrich the land, and from the ani- mals, viz. the .oxen, the lions, and the gazelles, etc. that tread upon its surface ; (2.) from the occupation of husbandmen and she^.berds ; (3.) from the history of the nation ; (4.) from the manners exhibited in common life, even from its vices, as drunkenness, fornication, and adultery ; (5.) from oriental mythology, which, in a great degree, though not in all respects, corresponds with the Greek and Roman. We find, for instance, mention made of the chamber of the sun, Ps. 19. 5, 6, but then there is this difference; the orientals do not con- vey him on a chariot, like the Greeks and Romans, but make 9 98 § 91. CHAKACTEK OF THE HEBREW POETKT. him fly with wings, Ps. 139: 9. Mai. 4: 2. Tlie thunders are borne on chariots, but these chariots are not drawn by horses, but by cherubim, diailB, monsters that are symbolic of the clouds, Ezek. 1: 2 — 28. Ps. 18: 10. 99: 1. "We find mention made of a golden age, Isa. 2: 4. 11: 6—9. 24: 23. 30: 24—28. 60: 19, 20. 65: 4 — 25. 66: 1 — 5 ; of the infernal regions also, sheol or hades, iixia, aSris, into which descend not only soldiers, warlike heroes and emperors, even all who die, but also by a figure of speech, conquered nations and states, and even trees, the symbols of states. The warriors repose in this wide abode on couches, with their ar- mor placed beneath their head, Isa. 14: 9—20. Ezek. 26: 20. 31: 14_18. 32: 7, 8. 17: 30. Matt. 16: 18. We find mention hkewise of the rivers of hades, Ps. 18: 4 — 6. 2 Sam. 22: 5, and of a poHti- cal heaven, which can be shaken, and the moon and the stars there- of be obscured or cast down with great confusion and overthrow, Hag. 2: 6, 21. Isa. 24: 21—23. 34: 4. 65: 17. Amos 8: 9, 10. Matt. 24: 29. III. The poems in the Hebrew language may have been mea- sured by means of a certain number of syllables or words, but we have reason to believe that the rhythm consisted essentially and chiefly in the paraJMism. The parallelism, which is sometimes synonymous and sometimes antithetical, and sometimes shows it- self merely in the construction, independent of the sense, consists in many cases of only two members, see Ps. 114: 1 — 8; in other instances there are three members, see Hos. 6: 1, 2 ; in other instances again there are four members, the first answering to the third, and the second to the fourth, see Deut. 32: 42. Sometimes the parallelism displays itself in five verses or members, the two first and the two last being parallel, and the middle one unequal, Isa. 31: 4, or the first being parallel to the third, and the second to the fourth, and the fifth being unequal, see Ps. 19: 8 — 10. In some instances the poetry may be called irregular, i. e. incapable of being reduced to the more common forms of parallelism, Ps. 113: 5, 6. Micah 1: 4. These traits in the Hebrew poetry, when well understood, afford very considerable aid in the interpretation and criticism of the Bible, as for instance in such passages as Ps. 77: 18, 19. 139: 20. Isa. 47: 11. 49: 6, 16. One may find, in the parallelisms in various places, a similarity in the cadences, which gives to them a more than ordinary musical effect, and seems to § 93. USES OF MUSIC AMONG THE HEBREWS. 99 be the result of art, see Judg. 14: 18. Prov. 7: 13 — 15. 29: 17. Isa. 26: 20„21. 40: 24. 49: 8. 51: 1, 2—5, 8. 53: 6, 7. ZecL 11: 1. <1 § 92. On Music. Music is coeval with poetry. Musical instruments were the in- vention of Jubal, Gen. 4: 21, and as early as Gen. 31: 27, we are introduced to a whole choir. Afterwards music and poetry went hand in hand, and with equal step. The poet himself sung his own poems and accompanied his voice with instruments. Both music and poetry were esteemed of great consequence, and without doubt as long as poetry was cultivated, music was none the less so. The music of the Hebrews may be thought to have been too loud and noisy, but a person's opinion on a point of that kind will depend very much on his own personal habits and experience. •^ § 93. Uses of Music among the Hebrews. The Hebrews insisted on having music at marriages, on anni- versary birthdays, on the days which reminded them of victories over their enemies, at the inauguration of their kings, in their public worship, and when they were coming from afar to attend the great festivals of their nation, Isa. 30: 29. In the tahemade and the temple, the Levites were the lawful musicians, but on other occasions any one who chose might use musical instruments. There was, however, this exception ; the holy silver trumpets were to be blown only by the priests, who by the sounding of them, pro- claimed the festival days, assembled the leaders of the people, and gave the signal for battle, and for the retreat. Num. 1: 1 ' — 10. David, in order to give the best effect to the music of the tabernacle, divided the four thousand Levites into twenty-four classes, who sung psalms, and accompanied them with music. Each of these classes was superintended by a leader, nssa , placed over it; and they performed the duties, which devolved upon them, each class a week at a time in succession, 1 Chron. 16: 5. 23: 4, 5. 25: 1—31. comp. 2 Chron. 5: 12, 13. The classes coUec- tively, as a united body, were superintended by three directors. This arrangement was subsequently continued by Solomon after 100 § 94. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. the erection of the temple, and was transmitted till the time of the overthrow of Jerusalem. It was indeed sometimes interrupted dur- ing the reign of the idolatrous kings, but was restored by their suc- cessors, 2 Chron. 5: 12 — 14. 29: 27. 35: 15. It was even continued after the captivity, Ezra 8: 10. Neh. 12: 45—47. 1 Mac. 4: 54. 13: 51. It should be remarked, however, that neither music nor poetry attained to the same excellence after the captivity, as before that period. jj^rfj y 4J^'r § 94. Stringed Instruments. I. The harp, liss . This was the most ancient of this class of instruments. Gen. 4: 21. It was sometimes called sheminith, nijiaffl, or eight stringed, Ps. 6: 1. 12: 1. 1 Chron. 15: 21, although as we may gather from the coins or medals of the Maccabean age, there were some harps, which were furnished with only three strings. The harp, therefore, was of two kinds, one only of which is distin- guished by a separate name, viz. that called sheminith, unless per- chance separate names should be found for both in the Greek, .the three-stringed harp being called xi&aQa, the other Mn'Qa., for these two words appear to be used with some distinction of this kind in 1 Mac. 4: 64. Josephus in his Jewish Antiquities, VII. 10. 3. assigns ten strings to the harp, an evidence that in his time the number of them had been increased. The strings of this in- strument, it is lawful to suppose, were originally swept by the hand, but in Josephus's time, it was played with a small bow or fret ; which act is denominated in Hebrew by the words BBR , 'if , naw , fian , xa: , and even ^'si . This instrument, viz. the ancient harp, seems to have been called by the Babylonians ins&B and -iBJbS Dan. 3: 5, 7, 10, 15. II. The nablum or psaltery, baj, vdp.a favXa. It is first mentioned in the psalms of David. In Psalms 33: 2, and 144: 9, it is called liil)^ a ten stringed instrument; but in Ps. 92: 3, it is distinguished from it. Josephus, Antiq. VII. 10. 3. assigns to it twelve strings ; which, taken in connection with the fact above ■statfed, leaves us to conclude, that it sometimes had ten and some- ^times twelve strings. It was not played with a bow or fret, but ■with the fingers ; the act of playing it is expressed in Hebrew by the word Tat . It resembled in form a right angled triangle or the § 95. WIND INSTRUMENTS. 101 Greek Delta inverted p. The body of it was ot wood and hollow, and was enclosed with a piece of leather tensely drawn. The chords were extended on the outside of the leather, and were fixed at one end into the transverse part of the triangular body of the instrument. Such is its form at the present day in the East, but it has only five strings in its modern shape, 2 Sam. 6: 5. 1 Kings 10: 12. There was another instrument of this kind used in Babylonia ; it was trian- gular in form ; in Greek it is called au/j^vxTj, in Hebrew x=aO and saab; it had originally only four, but subsequently twenty strings, Dan. 3; 5, 7, 10, 15. The chords of stringed instruments are denominated fsa, Ps. 150: 4. At first they were the usual sort of strings twisted, from flax or some like substance, but subsequently were manufactured from the entrails of sheep. Chords of the last kind are mentioned by Homer, as a recent invention. t I 95 Wind Instruments. I. The ORGAN, (as it is called in the English version,) Heb. ass , uggab, Gen. 4: 21. It may be called the ancient shepherd's pipe, corresponding most nearly to the avqiy'i, or the pipe of Pan among the Greeks. It consisted at first of only one or fwo, but afterwards of about seven pipes, made of reeds and diflfering from each other in length. The instrument called mashhrohitha, Nrip^ii'da, used in Babylon, Dan. 3: 5, was of a similar construction. IL 'hi'^hn liaKl, nftTii nehiloth, and 3|?5 neheh, are wind instru- ments resembling the one just described, made of various materials, such as wood, reeds, horns, and bones. As far as we may be per- mitted to judge from the three kinds of pipes now used in the East, the Hebrew instrument called nehihth is one that is double in its structure, halil is perhaps the one of simpler form, having a sin- gle stem with an orifice through it, while nekeh answers to the one without an orifice, Isa. 5: 12. 30: 29. Jer. 48: 36. Ps. 5: 1. Ezek. 28: 13. HL iT'3Vs"iiD, or according to the marginal reading x^s'S'^O, Dan. 3: 5, 10, was a wind instrument made of reeds, by the Syrians called sambonja, by the Greeks samponja, and by the Italians zampogna. According to Servius, it was of a crooked shape. IV. The HORN, or crooked trumpet, '{vq^ . This was a very an 9* 102 § 96. DIFFERENT SORTS OF DRUMS. cient instrument. It was made of the horns of oxen, which were cut off at the smaller extremity, and thus presented an orifice, which extended through. In progress of time rams' horns were hollowed and employed for the same purpose. This instrument was called also 1STO shopJiar, as we may learn both from Josephus and Jerome. It is probable that, in some instances, it was made of brass, fashioned so as to resemble a horn. It was greatly used in war, and its sound resembled thunder. V. The STRAIGHT TRUMPET, nisisfi . This instrument was ' T : -: Straight, a cubit in length, hollow throughout, and at the larger ex- tremity shaped so as to resemble the mouth of a small bell. In times of peace, when the people or the rulers were to be assembled together, this trumpet was blown softly, which was expressed by the Hebrew word s;3F) . When the camps were to move forward, or the people to march to war, it was sounded with a deeper note ; this was expressed by the Hebrew verb S'^'nrt , and by the phrase SjrR § 96. Different sorts of Drums. I. b'^SFi, t)h, rendered in the English version tdbret and tim- hrel, Gen. 31: 27. It consisted of a circular hoop either of wood or brass, three inches and six tenths wide, was covered with a skin tensely drawn, and hung round with small bells. It was held in the left hand, and beaten to notes of music with the right. The ladies through all the East, even to this day, dance to the sound of this instrument, Exod. 15: 20. Job 1?: 6. 21: 12. 2 Sam. 6: 5. n. The CYMBAL, D'l^sbs, nifesa. There were two kinds of cymbals formerly, as there are to this day, in the East. The cym- bal, called T\tvv\ "iVsiia, consisted of two flat pieces of metal or plates ; the musician held one of them in his right hand, the other in his left, and smote them .together, as an accompaniment to other instruments. This cymbal, and the mode of using it, may be often seen in modern armies and military trainings. The second kind of cymbals, rc'^ "^bsis, Ps. 150: 5, consisted of four small plates attached, two to each hand, which the ladies as they dan- ced, smote together. But nibsa , Zech. 14: 20, [Engl, vei-s. Jefis,] are not musical instruments, as some suppose, nor indeed bells, § 96. DliTEKENT SORTS OF DRUMS. 103 but concave pieces or plates of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament. TTT . dii'sya , menaaneim, 2 Sam. 6: 5 ; the word is derived from S!i3, to move or to he shaken. We may suppose, therefore, it was an instrument corresponding to the sistrum, by which word Jerome, in his Latin version, has rendered it. If this were the case, we may suppose also, that like the sistrum, (in Greek aetCTQOv, from astco, to shake,) it was a rod of iron bent into an oblong shape, or square at two corners and curved at the others, and furnished with a num- ber of movable rings, so that when shaken or struck with another rod of iron, it emitted the sound desired. The instrument used by the women, which occurs under the word diKjVi, 1 Sam. 18: 6, probably differed from the more common sistrum only by being of a triangular form. Note. — The names of musical instruments which are very little known, are as follows : L VT^an, higgaion, Ps. 9: 16. 92: 4; perhaps this word was used to designate some sort of song or poem. II. n-'na, gittith, Ps. 8: 1. 81: 1. 84: 1, derived from na, a wine press ; an instrument which was played at the treading out of the grapes. Some suppose it derived its name from Gath, a city of the Philistines. in. la^ nra^i', almutk hhhen, Ps. 9: 1 ; a better reading of the Hebrew would be "a^ nw^?, for Ben was the name of a musi- cian in the time of David, 1 Chron. 15: 18. What the meaning of the word T\Vz^v is, is not very clear ; perhaps it was a kind of harp, and hence, 1 Chron. 15: 20, is interchanged with r^:ipa, a harp of eight strings. IV. )^m'v:'_, jeduthun, Ps. 39: 1. 67: 1, an instrument thus denomi- nated from some musician of that name. V. pbnia, mahalath, Ps. 88: 1. 53: 1, perhaps an instrument like the shepherd's pipe ; comp. the Ethiopic word mahlet, which in Gen. 4: 21, answers to the Greek xi&dQa. Some other words and phrases, such as shushan-eduth, Ps. 60: 1, appear to be enigmatical inscrijiions of the psalms, to which they are prefixed. 104 § 97. ON DANCING. / § 97. On Dancing. The Mohammedans esteem dancing a sport unworthy the dignity of a man, and accordingly leave it to the women. It is practised in such an indecorous manner among the modem orientals, that they would be still nearer the truth, if they should pronounce it, an art unworthy to be indulged in by either sex. It was different an- ciently. Among the Greeks it was a sort of pantomime, a mimic representation of the common actions of life, and, in some instances, of deeds of war. It was accordingly admitted among the gymnastic sports. The dancers danced to the notes of the timbrel ; they ex- hibited many inflections of the body and many gesticulations with the hands ; they danced, beating the floor in a circle, following the one they had chosen for a leader, with regular and artificial pulsa- tions of the feet, Exod. 15: 20. Judg. 11: 34. 1 Sam. 18: 6, 7. Jer. 31: 4, 13. Sometimes men who were singers or musicians, took a part iij these dances ; in this case the singers went forward, those who played on instruments followed, and the dancing women girded them on both sides, Ps. 68: 26. The dance was called in Hebrew bina ; it was practised on the national festivals, and made part of the sacred worship. The nobles and the princes of the peo- ple engaged in this ceremony, but did not mingle in it with the common multitude. This was the ground of the reproach, which Michal threw out against David, who danced before the ark in company with the rest of the people, 2 Sam. 6: 16 — 23. In the later periods of the Jewish history, the kings and great men appear io have been rather the spectators, than the parties in dances, see Matt. 6: 21—25. Note. — The art of oratory never flourished in the East. Paul, accordingly, when he appeared among the Greeks, who estimated eloquence very highly, although it was at that time degenerate and declining, was not listened to with that interest, with which he might otherwise have been. Paul, however, displays in his speeches re- corded in the Acts of the Apostles, a good arrangement and no little skill in the art of persuasion. CHAPTER VI. ON THE SCIENCES. § 98. The Origin of the Sciences. When the arts had been reduced by long practice and meditation to fixed and definite rules, they were succeeded by the sciences ; which in fact are nothing more than the reduction, into a more regular and philosophic form, of those rules and theories, which have been ascertained and approved by inquiry and practice. We are able to discover the beginnings, the indistinct vestiges of the sciences in very remote periods ; and in some nations more strikingly than in others. The Egyptians and Babylonians excelled in scientific knowledge all others. The Arabians also .are favorably mentioned in this respect, 1 Kings 4: 30 ; also the Edomites, Jer. 49: 7. The Hebrews became renowned for their intellectual culture in the time of David, and especially of Solomon, who is said to have surpassed all others in wisdom; a circumstance, which was the ground of the many visits, which were paid to him by distinguished foreigners, 1 Kings 5: 9 — 14. His example, which was truly an illustrious one, was beyond question imitated by other kings. The literature of the Hebrews was limited chiefly to ethics, religion, the history of their nation, and natural history ; on which last subject^ Solomon wrote many treatises no longer extant. The Hebrews made but little progress in science and literature after the time of Solomon. During their captivity, it is true, they acquired many foreign notions, with which they had not been previously acquainted ; and they subsequently borrowed much, both of truth and of false- hood, from the philosophy of the Greeks. The author of the book of wisdom, with some others of the Jewish writers, has made pretty good use of the Greek philosophy. It is clear, notwithstanding this, that the Jews after the captivity fell below their ancestors in re- spect to history ; as the published annals of that period are not of a kindred character, with those of the primitive ages of their coun- try. 106 § 99. HISTORY, GENEALOGY, AND CHRONOLOGY. §99. History, Genealogy, and Chronology. That the art of historical writing was anciently much cultivated in the East, the Bible itself is an ample testimony ; for it not only relates the prominent events, from the creation down to the fifth century before Christ, but speaks of many historical books, which have now perished ; and also of many monuments, erected in com- memoration of remarkable achievements and furnished with ap- propriate inscriptions. These monuments are denominated by va- rious names, as nasa , 1J , "i'^?'. • The Babylonians also, the As- syrians, the Persians, and Tyrians, had their Historical Annals. Among the Egyptians, there was a separate order, viz. the Priests_ one part of whose duty it was, to write the history of their coun- try. In the primitive ages the task of composing annals fell in most nations upon the priests, but at a later period the king had his own secretaries, whose special business it was to record the royal sayings and achievements. The prophets among the He- brews recorded the events of their own times, and, in the earliest periods, the genealoffists interwove many historical events with their accounts of the succession of families. Indeed, it should not be forgotten, that ancient history generally partakes more of a genealogical, than of a chronological character. Hence the Hebrew phrase for genealogies, niiViFi ISB, is used also for history. Gen. 6: 9. 10: 1 ; and hence no epoch, more ancient than that of Na- bonassar, is anywhere found. In the Bible, however, this defect, in regard to a regular chronological system, is in a manner com- pensated by the insertion in various places of definite periods of time, and by chronological genealogies. In giving a concise ac- count of the genealogy of a person, the Hebrews, as well as the Arabs, took the liberty to omit, according to their own pleasure, one or more generations, Ruth 4: 18, 22. Ezra 7: 1 — 5. !^att. 1: 8. It was considered so much of an honor, to have a name and a place in these family annals, that the Hebrews, from their first exist- ence as a nation, had public genealogists, denominated "laiffi. Not only the Hebrews, but, if we may credit Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians also, assigned a certain period to a generation. According to their estimation, three generations § 100. ARITHMETIC, MATHEMATICS, ETC. 107 made a hundred years. In the time of Abraham, however, when men lived to a greater age, a hundred years made a generation. This is cleai- from Gen. 15: 13, 16, and from the circumstance, that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob dwelt two hundred and fifteen years in the land of Canaan, and yet there were only two generations. § 100. Arithmetic, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology. I. Arithmetic. The more simple methods of arithmetical calcula- tion are spoken of in the Pentateuch, as if they were well known. The merchants of that early period must, for their own conve- nience, have been possessed of some method of operating by num- bers. And that they were able to do it, to some considerable ex- tent, may be argued from the fact, that they had separate words, viz. !ia"i fiaa"!, for so large a number as 10,000, Gen. 24: 60. Lev. 26: 8. iOeuV 32: 30. II. Mathematics. By this we understand geometry, mensuration, navigation, etc. As far as a knowledge of them was absolutely re- quired by the condition and employments of the people, we may well suppose that knowledge to have actually existed ; although nc express mention is made ofthem. III. Astronomy. The interests of agriculture and navigation re- quired some knowledge of astronomy. An evidence, that an attempt was made at a very early period, to regulate the year by the annual revolution of the sun, may be found in the fact, that the Jewish months were divided into thirty days each, see Gen. 7: 11. 8: 4. In astronomy, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phenicians exhibited great superiority. We are informed there were magicians or en- chanters in Egypt, Exod. 7: 11. Lev. 20: 27. 19: 31. Deut. 18: 10, denominated in Hebrew d^SEsa, because they computed eclipses of the sun and moon, and pretended to the people, that they pro- duced them by the efficacy of their own enchantments. Some of the constellations are mentioned by name, Job 9: 9. 38: 31, 32. Isa. 13: 10. Amos 5: 8. 2 Kings 23: 5. IV. Astrology. It is by no means a matter of wonder, that the Hebrews did not devote greater attention to astronomy, since the study of astrology, which was intimately connected with that of as- tronomy, and was very highly estimated among the neighboring nations, Isa. 47: 9. Jer. 27: 9. 50: 35. Dan. 2: 13, 48, was interdict- 108 § 101. DIVISION OF THE DAT AND NIGHT. ed to the Hebrews, Deut. 18: 10. Lev. 20: 27. Daniel, indeed, studied the art of astrology at Babylon, but he did not practise it, Dan. 1: 20. 2: 2. The astrologers, (and those wise men mentioned in Matt. 2: 1 et seq. appear to have been such,) divided the heavens into apartments or habitations, to each one of which apartments, they assigned a ruler or president. This fact develops the origin of the word Btslle^ovl, tint bS2, or the lord of the {celestial) dwelling, Matt. 10: 25. 12: 24, 27. Mark 3: 22. Luke 11: 15—19. § 101. Division of the Day and Night. The Hebrews, in conformity with the Mosaic law, reckoned the day from evening to evening. The natural day, i. e. the portion of time from sunrise to sunset, was divided by the Hebrews, as it is now by the Arabians, into six unequal parts. These divisions were as follows : L in\U also tuaj , the break of day. The portion of time was at a recent period divided into two parts, in imitation of the Persians ; the first of which began, when the eastern, the second, when the wes- tern division of the horizon was illuminated. The authors of the Je- rusalem Talmud divided it into four parts, the first of which was called in Hebrew "irtErt n'b^s , which occurs in Ps. 22: 1, and corres- ponds to the phrase Xiav nQcoi in the New Testament, Mark 16: 2. John 20: 1. n. "i|5i3 , the morning or sunrise. HI. bTsri dH , the heat of the day. It begins about nine o'clock. Gen. 18: 1. 1 Sam. 11: 11. IV. 0^y^;i , midday. V. Diin m-i, the cool of the cfay, literally the wind of the day. This expression is grounded in the fact, that a wind commences blowing regularly for a few hours before sunset, and continues till evening. Gen. 3: 8. VI. a"ns, the evening. It was divided into two parts, 0'^3'is; the first of which began according to the Karaites and Samaritans at sunset, the second, when it began to grow dark. But according to the Eabbins, the first commenced just before sunset, the second pre- cisely at sunset. The Arabians agree with the Karaites and Samari- tans ; and in this way the Hebrews appear to have computed pre- vious to the captivity. § 101. DIVISION OF THE DAT AND NIGHT. 109 Hours, fisi2. The mention of them occurs first in Dan. 3: 6, 15. 5: 5. Hours ■were first measured by gnomons, which merely indicated the meridian ; afterwards by the hour^walch, Gaidd^i^QOv ; and subsequently still, by the clepsydra, or instrument for measuring time by means of water. The hour-watch or dial, otherwise called the sun-dial, is mentioned in the re.ign of king Hezekiah, 2 Kings 20: 9, 10. Isa. 38: 8. Its being called "the sun-dial of Ahaz," renders it probable, that Ahaz first introduced it from Babylon, whence also Anaximenes the Milesian brought the first sMatheron into Greece. This instrument was of no use during the night, nor indeed during a cloudy day. In consequence of this defect, the clepsydra was in- vented, which was used in Persia, as late as the 17th century, in its simplest form. The clepsydra was a small circular vessel, constructed of thinly beaten copper or brass, and having a small perforation through the bottom. It was placed in another vessel filled with water. The diameter of the hole, in the bottom of the clepsydra, was such, that^. it filled with water in three hours, and sunk. It was necessary, that there should be a servant to tend it ; who should take it up, when it had sunk, pour out the water, and place it again empty, on the sur- face of the water in the vase. The hours of principal note, in the course of the day, were the third, the sixth, and the ninth. These hours, it would seem, were consecrated by Daniel to prayer, Dan. 6: 10, comp. Acts 2: 15. 3: 1. 10: 9. The day was divided into twelve hours, which of course varied in length, being shorter in the winter and longer in the sum- mer, John 11:9. In the winter, therefore, the clepsydras, were cov- ered internally with wax, that the water might subside from them more rapidly. The hours were numbered from the rising of the sun, so that at the season of the equinox, the third corresponded to the ninth of our reckoning, the sixth to our twelfth, and the ninth to 3 o'clock in the afternoon. At other seasons of the year, it is necessary to observe the time, when the sun rises, and reduce the hours to our time accordingly. We observe, therefore, that the sun in Palestine, at the summer solstice, rises at five of our time^ and sets about seven. At the winter solstice, it rises about seven and sets about five. Before the captivity, the night was divided into three watches. The FiKST, which continued till midnight, was denominated irN"i 10 110 § 102. OF WEEKS. ni'lJSBX the commencing or first watch, Lam. 2: 19. The second was denominated hiiainn rrifairs the middle watch, and continued from midnight till the crowing of the cock, Judg. 7: 19. The thied, called ipjari nniauis tlie morning watch, extended from the second to the rising of the sun. These divisions and names appear to have owed their origin to the watches of the Levites in the tabernacle and temple, Exod. 14: 24. 1 Sam. 11: 11. In the time of Christ, how- ever, the night, in imitation of the Eomans, was divided into four watches. According to the English mode of reckoning, they were as follows : I. 'Oqps', the evening, from twilight to nine o'clock. H. MECovvxtiov, the midnight, from nine to twelve. in. AXBxtoQoifiovia, the coch-crowing, from twelve to three. IV. nqm, from three o'clock till day-break. The assertions of the Talmudists in opposition to this statement are not to be regarded. § 102. Of Weeks. A period of seven days, under the usual name' of a week, i'siaia , is mentioned as far back as the time of the deluge. Gen. 7: 4, 10. 8: 10, 12 ; also Gen. 29: 27, 28. It must therefore be considered a very ancient division of time, especially as the various nations, among whom it has been noticed, for instance the Nigri in Af- rica, (see Oldendorp's Geseh. der Mission, I. 308.) appear to have received it from the sons of Noah. The enumeration of the days of the week commenced at Sunday. Saturday was the last or seventh, and was the Hebrew sabbath or day of rest. The Egyptians gave to the days of the week the same names that they assigned to the planets. From the circumstance, that the sabbath was the principal day of the week, the whole pe- riod of seven days was likewise called nam, Syriac liCal,, in the New Testament, ad^^atov and ad^(iuta. The Jews ac- cordingly, in designating the successive days of the week, were accustomed to say, the first day of the sabbath, i. e. of the week, the second day of the sabbath, viz. Sunday, Monday, etc. Mark 16: 2, 9. Luke 24: 1. John 20: 1, 19. In addition to the week of days, the Jews had three other seasons, denominated weeks. Lev. 25: 1—17. Deut. 16:9, 10. § 103. OP THE MONTHS AND THE YEAE 111 I. The week of weeh. It was a period of seven weeks or forty- nine days, which was succeeded on the fiftieth day by the feast of pentecoat, Greek nevtijuoaT^, fifty, Deut. 1 6: 9, 10. n. The week of years. This was a period of seven years, during the last of which, the land remained untilled, and the people enjoyed a sabbath or season of rest. m. The week of seven sabbatical years. It was a period of forty- nine years, and was succeeded by the year of jubilee. Lev. 25: 1 — 22. 26: 34. § 103. Of the Months and the Year. The lunar changes without doubt were first employed in the mea- surement of time. Weeks, however, were not as some suppose, sug- gested by these changes, since four weeks make only twenty-eight days, while the lunar period is twenty-nine and a half. Nor is it rational to suppose, that the changes of the moon first suggested the method of compviation hy years. Years were regulated at first by the return of summer or autumn. But when in the progress of time it was discovered that the ripe fruits, by which the year had been previously limited, statedly returned after about twelve lunar months, or three hundred and fifty-four days, the year was regulated by those months, and restricted to that number of days. In the course of seventeen years, however, it was seen, that, on the return of the same month, all the appearances of nature were reversed. Hence, as is evident from the history of the deluge, an attempt was made to regulate the months by the motion of the sun, and to assign to each of them thirty days ; but it was, nevertheless, observed, after ten or twenty years, that there was still a defect of five days. Moses did not make any new arrangement in regard to the lu- nar months of the Hebrews, nor the year, which was solar, but in order to secure a proper reduction of the lunar to the solar year, he obligated the priests, to present at the altar on the second day of the passover, or the sixteenth day after the first new moon in April, a ripe sheaf. For if they saw on the last month of the year, that the grain would not be ripe, as expected, they were compelled to make an intercalation, which commonly happened on the third year. After their departure from Egypt, there existed among the 112 § 103. OF THE MONTHS AND THE YEAR. Hebrews two modes of reckoning the months of the year ; the one civil, the other saa-ed. The beginning of the civil year was reck- oned from the seventh month, or Tishri, i. e. the fii-st new-moon in October. The commencement of the sacred year was reckoned from the month Nisan, or the first new-moon in April, because ' the Hebrews departed from Egypt on the fifteenth day of that month, Exod. 12: 2. The prophets use this reckoning. The civil year, which was tlie more ancient, was used only in civil and agricultural concerns. The Jewish Eabbins say, that March- and September, instead of April and October, were the initial months of these two years. That they were so at a late period is admitted, but the change was probably owing to the example of the Eomans, who began their year with the month of March. The Jews, being pleased with their example in this respect, or overruled by their authority, adopted the same practice. That this is the most prob- able statement, is evident also from the fact, that the position of the Rabbins is opposed not only by Josephus, but by the usage of the Syriac and Arabic languages ; from the fact also, that the prescribed observances of the three great festival days will not agree with the months of March and September, as has been shown by Michaelis, see Commentat. de Mensibus Hebraeorum in Soc. Reg. Goett. 1763 —1768, p. 10 et seq. Months, Qinii , sometimes also called d'ur'in , from the circum- ' • T : ' • T T ' stance of their commencing with the new-moon, anciently had no separate names, with the exception of the Jirst, which was called Abib, i. e. "the month of the young ears of corn," Exod. 13: 4. 23: 15. 34: 18. Deut. 16: 1. During the captivity, the Hebrews adopted the Babylonian names for their months. They were as follows : I. ■|&'i3 — NiSAN, reckoned from new-moon of April, Neh. 2: 1. II. ipl — Zip or Ziv, also called i;''X , — of May, 1 Kings 6: 1. III. l^ib — SivAN, of June, Esth. 8: 9. IV. tian — Tammuz, of July. V. as — Ab, of August, VI. i'^bs— Elul, of Sept. Neh. 6: 15. VII. i"nai?i — Tishri, also Q'^snish rrn^, of Oct. 1 Kings 8: 2. Vin. b^a— BxJL, also 'y:irros, ' ' of Nov. 1 Kings 6: 38. IX. iboB— KisLEV, ' ' ' ' of Dec. Neh. 1: 1. X. nna— Tebeth, of Jiwi. Esth. 2: 16. § 104. SURVEYING, THE MECHANIC AKTS, ETC. 113 KI. -jsa — Shebat, of February, Zech. 1: 7. XII. I'lK — Adar, of March, Esth. 3: 7. The first month here mentioned, Nisan, was originally called Abib. The intercalary month is denominated in Hebrew Tix . Note. — The division of the year into six parts has already been mentioned § 19, and need not be repeated here ; but we cannot avoid saying a few words on a subject, connected with the present one, viz. the longevity of the antediluvians. Cet'tain critics have put their skill into requisition to convert the hundreds of their years into tens, or into quarters of years, or into months, or into sum- mers and winters. Certainly they forget, that the orientals of the earliest period, as well as the modern Arabs, not only had a knowledge of the proper solar year, but di\'ided it both into months and into six periods of two months each. Clearly then, if the au- thor of the first part of Genesis had meant to say, that the antedi- luvians lived so many months or otlier less periods of time, instead of so many years, he would have said so in terms commonly used to express those minor divisions. Besides, the attempt to reduce the years of the antediluvians to months especiall}', will make them, in some instances, the fathers of children at five years of age. What some of tlie ancients say, in regard to a year much shorter than the solar one, is as Diodorus Siculus expressly assures us, nothing more than a mere conjecture, originated, to account for the great number of years, which the Egyptians and other nations attributed to their ancestry. § 104. Surveying, the Mechanic Arts, and Geography. I. Surveying. Measures of length are mentioned. Gen. 6: 15, 16i A knowledge of the method of measuring lands is implied in the £k>- count given Gen. 47: 20 — 27. Mention is made in the books of Job and Joshua, of a line or rope for the purpose of taking measurements, "ip ) ^51 • It was brought by the Hebrews out of Egypt, where, according to the unanimous testimony of antiquity, surveying first had its origin, and, in consequence of the inundations of the Nile, was carried to the greatest height. It was here, as we may well conclude, that the Hebrews acquired so much knowledge of the principles of that science, as to enable them, with the aid of th* 10* 114: § 105. MEDICINE. measuring line abovementioned, to partition and set off geographi- cally the whole land of Canaan. The weights used in weighing solid bodies, Gen. 23: 15, 16, provided they were similar to each other in form, imply a knowledge of the rudiments of stereometry. II. The Mechanic Arts. No express mention is made of the me- chanic arts ; but that a knowledge of them, notwithstanding, existed, may be inferred from the erection of Noah's ark and the tower of Babel; also from what is said of the Egyptian chariots, Gen. 41: 43. 45: 19. 50: 9. Exod. 14: 6, 7 ; and from the instruments used by the Egyptians in irrigating their lands, Deut. 11: 10. It is implied in the mention of these, and subsequently of many other instruments, that other instruments still not expressly named, but which were of course necessary for the formation of those which are named, were in existence. III. Geography/. Geographical notices occur so frequently in the Bible, that it is not necessary to say much on this point, see Gen. 10: 1—30. 12: 4—15. 14: 1—16. 28: 2—9. 49: 13, etc. Perhaps, how- ever, it deserves to be repeated, that in the time of Joshua, the whole of Palestine was subjected to a geographical division. Josh. 18: 9. It is evident then, from their geographical knowledge, as well as from other circumstances already mentioned, that there must have existed among the Hebrews the rudiments, if nothing more, of mathe- matical science. § 105. Medicihe. At Babylon the sick, when they were first attacked with a dis- ease, were left in the streets, for the purpose of learning from those who might pass them, what practices, or what medicines they had found of assistance, when afflicted with a similar disease. This was perhaps done also in other countries. The Egyptians carried their sick into the temples of Serapis ; the Greeks carried theirs into those of Escuhpius. In both of these temples, there were preserved written recipes of the means by which various cures had been effected. With the aid of these recorded reme- dies, the art of healing assumed in the progress of time the aspect of a science. It assumed such a form, first, in Egypt, and at a much more recent period, in Greece ; but it was not long be- fore those of the former were surpassed in excellence by the phy- § 105. MEDICINE. 115 sicians of the latter country. That the Egyptians, however, had no little skill in medicine, may be gathered from what is said in the Pentateuch respecting the marks of leprosy. That some of the medical prescriptions should fail of bringing the expected re- lief, is nothing strange, since Pliny himself mentions some, which are far from producing the effects he ascribes to them. Physicians, D"iitB"i, NSS, are mentioned first in Gen. 50: 2. Exod. 21: 19. Job 13: 4. Some acquaintance M'ith chirurgical operations is implied in the rite of circumcision, Gen. 17: 11 — 14. There is ample evi- dence, that the Israelites had some acquaintance with the inter- nal structure of the human system, although it does not appear, that dissections of the human body for medical purposes were made, till as late as the time of Ptolemy. That physicians some- times undertook to exercise their skill in removing diseases of an internal nature, is evident from the circumstance of David's play- ing upon the harp, to cure the malady of Saul, 1 Sam. IG: 16. TTie art of healing was committed, among the Hebrews as well as among the Egyptians, to the priests ; Avho indeed were obliged, by a law of the state, to take cognizance of leprosies. Lev. 13: 1 — 14, 57. Deut. 24: 8, 9. Reference is made to physicians who were not priests, and to, instances of sickness, disease, healing, etc. in the following passages, 1 Sam. 16: 16. 1 Kings 1: 2 — 4. 15: 23. 2 Kings 8: 29. 9: 15. Isa. 1: 6. Jer. 8: 22. Ezek. 30: 21. Prov. 3: 18. 11: 30. 12: 18. 16: 15. 29: 1. The probable reason of king Asa's not seeking help from God, but from the physicians, as men- tioned 2 Chron. 16: 12, was, that they had not at that period recourse to the simple medicines which nature offered, but to certain super- stitious rites and incantations ; and this, no doubt, was the ground of the reflection which was cast upon him. The balm or balsam, i"i2I, 112, was particularly celebrated as a medicine, Jer. 8: 22. 46: 11. 51: 8. That mineral baths were deemed worthy of no- tice may be inferred from Gen. 36: 24. [see Gesenius on the word cai.] About the time; of Christ, the Hebrew physicians both made advancements in science, and increased in numbers, Mark 5: 26. Luke 4: 23. 5: 31. 8: 43. Josephus, Antiq. XVH. 6. 5. It ap- pears from the Talmud, Skahbath, p. 110, that the Hebrew phy- sicians were accustomed to salute the sick by saying, "Apse from your disease." This salutation had an effect in the mouth of Je- sus, Mark 5: 41. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, a sick man 116 § 106. PHYSICS, NATURAL HISTORY, ETC. was judged to be in a way of recovery, who began to take his usual food, comp. Mark 5: 43. § 106. Physics, Natural History, and Philosophy. Physics, or natural philosophy, has secured but little attention in the East. A knowledge of the animal, vegetable, and mine- ral kingdoms, or the science of natural history, was always much more an object of interest. We are informed in 1 Kings 4: 33, that Solomon himself had given a description of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Traces of philosophy, strictly so called, i. e. the system of pre- vailing moral opinions, may be found in the book of Job, in the 37th, 39th, and 73d Psalms, also in the book of Proverbs and Ec- clesiastes, but chiefly in the apocryphal book of Wisdom, and the writings of the son of Sirach. During the captivity, the Jews ac- quired many new notions, particularly from the Mehestani, and appropriated them, as occasion offered, to their own purposes. They at length became acquainted with the philosophy of the Greeks, which makes its appearance abundantly in the book of Wisdom. After the captivity, the language, in which the sacred books were written, was no longer vernaculai-. Hence arose the need of an interpreter on the sabbatic year, a time, when the whole law was read ; and also on the sabbath in the synagogues, which had been recently erected, in order to make the people understand what was read. These interpreters learnt the He- brew language at the schools. The teachers of these schools, who, for the two generations preceding the time of Christ, had maintained some acquaintance with the Greek philosophy, were not satisfied with a simple interpretation of the Hebrew idiom, as it stood, but shaped the interpretation so as to render it conform- able to their philosophy. Thus arose contentions, which gave occasion for the various sects of Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. In the time of our Saviour, divisions had arisen among the Phari- sees themselves. No less than eighteen nice questions, if we may believe the Jewish Rabbins, were contested, at that period, be- tween the schools of Hillel and' Shammai. One of which ques- tions was an inquiry, " What cause was sufficient for a bill of di- vorce?" If the Shammai and Hillel of the Talmud are the same S 106. PHILOSOPHY. 117 with the learned men mentioned in Josephus, viz. Sameas and PoUio, who flourished thirty-four years before Christ, then Sham- mai or Sameas is undoubtedly the same with the Simeon, who is mentioned Luke 2: 25 — 35, and his son Gamaliel, so celebrated in the Talmud, is the same with the Gamaliel, mentioned Acts 5: 34. 22:3. Anciently, learned men were denominated among the Hebrews Oia:n, as among the Greeks they were called aocpoi, i. e. toise men. In the time of Christ the common appellative for men of that description was yQUfifiUTsvi;, in the Hebrew isw, a scribe. They were addressed by the honorary title of Eabbi, ai, la'n, i. e. great or master. The Jews, in imitation of the Greeks, had their seven wise men, who were called Rahhoni, ')3'i. Gamaliel was one of the number. They called themselves the children of wisdom ; an expression, which corresponds very nearly to the Greek (fiXoGOifog, Matt. 11: 19. Luke 7: 35. The heads of sects were called fathers, Matt. 12: 27. 23: 1—9. The disciples, tainiaVn, were denominated sons or children. The Jewish teachers, at least lome of them, had private lecture-rooms, but they also taught and disputed in synagogues, in temples, and in fact wherever they could find an audience. The method of these teachers was the same with that which prevailed among the Greeks. Any disci- ple who chose might propose questions, upon which it was the duty of the teachers to remark and give their opinions, Luke 2: 46. The teachers were not invested with their functions by any formal act of the church or of the civil authority ; they were self- constituted. They received no other salary than some voluntary present from the disciples, which was called an honorary, tifiri, HONORARIUM, 1 Tim. 5: 17. They acquired a subsistence in the main by the exercise of some art or handicraft. That they took a higher seat than their auditors, although it was probably the case, does not follow, as is sometimes supposed, from Luke 2: 46. According to the Talmudists, they were bound to hold no conversa- tion with women, and to refuse to sit at table with the lower class of people, John 4: 27. Matt. 9: 11. The subjects on which they taught were numerous, commonly intricate, and of no great conse- quence ; of which there are abundant examples in the Talmud. 118 § 106. ACADEMICAI. DEGREE. Note. — A sort of academical degree was conferred on the pupils in the Jewish seminaries, which, after the destruction of Jerusalem, were established at Babylon and Tiberias. The circumstances, at- tending the conferring of this degree, are described by Maimonides, Jad chazaka. Lib. VI. 4, as follows : I. The candidate for the degree was examined, both in respect to his moral character and his literary acquisitions. n. Having undergone this examination with approbation, the dis- ciple then ascended an elevated seat, Matt. 23: 2. III. A writing-tablet was presented to him, to signify that he should write down his acquisitions, since they migbi- escape from his memory, and, without being written down, be lost. rV. A- key was presented, to signify that he might now open to others the treasures of knowledge, Luke 11: 52. V. Hands were laid upon him ; a custom derived A'om Num. 27: 18. VT. A certain power, or authority, was conferred upon him, prob- ably to be exercised over his own disciples. Vn. Finally, he was saluted, in the school of Tiberias, with the title of BahU, a^ ; in the school of Babylon, with that ^f Moiier, la. 119 CHAPTER Vn. OF COMMEECE. § 107. Antiquity of Commerce. Merchandize, in its various branches, was carried on in the East, at the earliest period of which we have any account ; and it was not long before the traffic between nations, both by sea and land, was very considerable. Accordingly frequent mention is made of public roads, fording places, bridges, and beasts of bur- den ; also of ships for the transportation of property, of weights, measures, and coin, both in the oldest parts of the Bible, and in the most ancient profane histories. Gen. 10: 4—5. 12: 5. 23: 16. 37: 25, 26. 42: 1—5. Judg. 5: 17. Exod. 20: 23. 25: 4. Deut. 3: 14. 19: 3. Josh. 13: 2. 12: 5. 13: 13. 1 Sam. 27: 8—10. 2 Sam. 3: 3. 13: 37. 15: 8. § 108. Commerce of the Phenicians, Arabians, and Egyptians. The Phenicians anciently held the first rank, as a commercial nation. They were in the habit, either themselves in person or by their agents, of purchasing goods of various kinds throughout all the East They then carried them in ships on the Mediterra- nean, as far as the shores of Africa and Europe, brought back in return merchandize and silver, and disposed of these again in the more Eastern countries. The first metropolis of the Phenicians was Sidon ; afterwards Tyre became the principal city. Tyre was built two hundred and forty years before the temple of Solomon, or twelve hundred and fifty-one before Christ. The Phenicians had ports of their own in almost every country, the most distinguished of which were Carthage, and Tarshish or Tartessus in Spain. The ships from the latter place undertook very distant voyages ; hence any vessels, that performed distant voyages, were called ships of Tar- shish, iiJiiaiB ni'ijx . Something is said of the commerce of the Phe- 120 § 109. MERCAN'IILE ROUTES. nicians in the 27th and 28th chapters of Ezekiel, and the 23d chap- ter of Isaiah. The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a commerce with India. They carried some of the articles, which they brought from India, through the straits of Babelmandeb into Abyssinia and Egypt ; some they transported to Babylon through the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates ; and some by the way of the Eed Sea to the port of Eziongeber. They thus became rich, though it is possible, their wealth may have been too much magnified by the ancients. The eminence of the Egyptians, as a commercial nation, commences with the reign of Necho and his successor Psammeticus. Their com- merce, nevertheless, was not great, till Alexander had destroyed Tyre and built Alexandria. § 109. Mercantile Eoutes. The Phenicians sometimes received the goods of India by way of the Persian Gulf, where they had colonies in the islands of Dedan, Arad, and Tyre. Sometimes they received them from the Arabians, who either brought them by land through Arabia or up the Eed Sea to Eziongeber. In the latter case, having landed them at the port mentioned, they transported them through the country by the way of Gaza to Phenicia. The Phenicians increased the amount of their foreign goods by the addition of those which they themselves fabricated, and were thus enabled to supply all parts of the Mediterranean; The Egyptians formerly received their goods from the Phenicians, Arabians, Africans, and Abyssi- nians ; in all of which countries, there are still the remains of large trading towns. But in a subsequent age, they imported goods from India in their own vessels, and eventually carried on an export trade with various ports on the Mediterranean. Oriental commerce, however, was chiefly carried on by land. Accordingly vessels are hardly mentioned in the Bible, except in Ps. 107: 23 — 30, and in passages, where the discourse turns upon the Phenicians, or upon the naval affaire of Solomon and Jehoshaphat. The two principal routes from Palestine into Egypt, were the one along the shores of the Mediterranean from Gaza to Pelusium, and the other from Gaza by the way of mount Sinai and the Elg,nitic branch of the Red Sea. § 110. method of caeeying goods by land. 121 § 110. Method op carrying goods by land. Chariots were anciently in use among the inhabitants of the East. The merchants, notwithstanding, transported their goods upon cam- els ; animals, which are patient of thirst, and are easily supported in the deserts. For the common purpose of security against depreda- tions, the oriental merchants travelled in company, as is common in the East at the present day. A large travelling company of this kind was called a caravan or carvan, rrnx , tm-is. . A smaller one was called kajlle or hafle, (i="'^fi, Greek avvodia, Job 6: 18 — 20. Gen. 37: 25. Isa. 21: 13. Jer' 9: 2. Judg. 5: 6. Luke 2: 44. The furniture carried by the individuals of a caravan consisted of a mat- tress, a coverlet, a carpet for sitting upon, a round piece of leather, which answered the purpose of a table, a few pots and kettles of cop- per covered with tin, also a tin-plated cup, which was suspended be- fore the breast under the outer garment, and was used for drinking, 1 Sam. 26: 11, 12, 16 ; leathern bags for holding water, tents, lights, and provisions in quality and abundance, as each one could afford. Ezek. 12: 3. Every caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert, who was acquainted with the direction of its route, and with the cisterns and fountains. These he was able to ascertain, some- times from heaps of stones, sometimes by the character of the soil, and when other helps failed him, by the stars, Num. 10: 29 — 32. Jer. 31: 21. Isa. 21: 14. When all things are in readiness, the indi- viduals, who compose the caravan, assemble at a distance from the city. The commander of the caravan, who is a different person from the conductor or leader, and is chosen from the wealthiest of its mem- bers, appoints the day of their departure. A similar arrangement was adopted among the Jews whenever they travelled in large num- bers to the city of Jerusalem. The caravans start very early, some- times before day. They endeavor to find a stopping place or station to remain at during the night, which shall afford them a supply of water. Job 6: 15 — 20. They arrive at their stopping place before the close of the day, and while it is yet light, prepare every thing, that is necessary for the recommencement of their journey. In order to prevent any one from wandering away from the cavavan and getting lost during the night, lamps or torch- es are elevated upon poles and carried before it. The pillar of 11 122 § 111. COMMERCE OF THE HEBEE-WS. fire answered this purpose for the Israelites, when wandering in the wilderness. Sometimes the caravans lodge in cities; but when they do not, they pitch their tents so as to form an encamp- ment, and, during the night keep watch alternately for the sake of security. In the cities there are public inns called khanes and caravansaries, in which the caravans are lodged without expense. They are large, square buildings, in the centre of which is an area or open court. Caravansaries are denominated in the Greek of the New Testament navSoisiov, xwiahiais, and xardXvua, Luke 2: 7. 10: 34. The first mention of one in the Old Testament is in Jer. 41: 17, nrfOB n-ii . It was situated near the city of Beth- lehem. § 111. Commerce op the Hebrews. Moses enacted no laws in favor of commerce, although there is no question, that he saw the situation of Palestine to be very favorable for it. The reason of this was that the Hebrews who ■were designedly set apart to preserve the true religion, could not mingle with foreign idolatrous nations without injury. He, there- fore, merely inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and sell- ing. Lev. 19: 36, 37. Deut. 25: 13—16; and left all the other in- terests of commerce to a future age. By the establishment, how- ever, of the three great festivals, he gave occasion for some mer- cantile intercourse. At these festivals all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at one place. The consequence was, that those, who had anything to sell, brought it ; while those, who wished to buy articles, came with the expectation of having an opportunity. As Moses, though he did not encourage, did not interdict foreign commerce ; Solomon, at a later period, not only carried on a traffic in horses, as already stated, but sent ships from the port of Eziongeber through the Red Sea to Ophir, (probably the coast of Africa,) and also had commercial intercourse even with Spain, 1 Kings 9: 26. 2 Chron. 9: 21. This traffic, although a source of emolument, appears to have been neglected after the death of Sol- omon. The attempt made by Jehoshaphat to restore it, was frus- trated by his ships being dashed upon the rocks and destroyed, 1 Kings 22: 48, 49. 2 Chron. 20: 36. Joppa, though not a very conve- nient one, was properly the port of Jerusalem ; and some of the large § 113. MEASURES OP LENGTH. 123 vessels, which went to Spain, sailed from it, Jonah 1: 3. In the age of Ezekiel, the commerce of Jerusalem was so great, that it gave oc- casion of envy even to the Tyrians themselves, Ezek. 26: 2. After Ihe captivity, a great number of Jews became merchants, and trav- elled for the purpose of traffic into all countries. About the year 150 B. C, prince Simon rendered the port of Joppa more conve- nient than it had hitherto been. In the time of Pompey the Great, there were so many Jews abroad on the ocean, even in the char- acter of pirates, that king Antigonus was accused before him of hav- ing sent them out on purpose. A new port was built by Herod at Cesarea. § 112. Weights and Meastjkes. Commerce could not be carried on without coin, nor without a Bystem of weights and measures. Weights and measures were regu- lated at a very early period in Asia. Regulations in regard to them, as far as concerned the Hebrews, were made by Moses ; and mea- sures and weights to serve as models, both for form and contents, were deposited in the tabernacle. All the duties in regard to this subject devolved, among the Jews as well as among the Egyptians, upon the priests. After the time of Solomon the models for weights, etc. were deposited in the temple ; consequently, when the temple was destroyed, they perished with it. The Hebrews, while in cap- tivity, used, as might be expected, the weights and measures of their masters. The prophet Ezekiel is a proof of this, who speaks of cu- bits and weights, evidently the same with those in use after the cap- tivity. The weights and measures of the Jews therefore are to be distinguished into those lefore and those after the captivity. Whenever they are mentioned by the Alexandrine translators^ or by Josephus, they belong to the latter period. The amount and extent of weights and measures before the captivity cannot be accurately determined. § 113. Measures of Length. Almost all nations have taken their measures of length from the parts of the human body, and what their extent was among the Jews before the captivity can be learnt only by a reference to those parts. 124 § 113. MEASUEES OF LENGTH. I. saas , a jmger or digit. Its length was about the breadth of a finger. [According to the tahUs appended to the third volume of Home's Introduction to the Scriptures, which are taken chiefly from Dr. Arbuthnot, the Jewish digit is 0.912th of an English inch.J II. nsB, nSB, a palm or four digits, otherwise called a hancL- h-eadth, 1 Kings 7: 26. comp. 2 Chron. 4: 5. Jer. 52: 21. III. rT^j , a span, viz. from the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger, or three palms, Exod. 28: 16. 39: 9. 1 Sam. 17: 4. IV. nsK, a cubit. It extended from the elbow to the wrist, Ezek. 41: 8, or four palms, about the sixth part of the height of the human body, Deut. 3: 11. 1 Sam. 17: 4. Ezekiel (chap. 40: 5. 43: 13) mentions a cubit of five palms, i. e. the extent from the elbow to the knuckles. This appears to have been the Babylonian or new cu- bit, of which mention is made in 2 Chron. 3: 3, comp. Herodot. 1. 178, and Solinus 56. 2. V. laa , a measure which was probably the length of a man's arm, Judg. 3:" 16. VI. f^yp , a measuring reed, of six cubits, or the length of the hu- man body. Ezekiel (chap. 40: 5) mentions a Babylonian reed of a little more than six cubits in length. VII. NO'''! , a Chaldaic word, Greek azddiov, a stadium, or fur- long. It was a Greek measure adopted by the Jew^ and was one hundred and twenty-five geometrical paces in extent, or the six hundredth part of a degree, making one hundred and forty-five English paces, four feet, and six tenths, John 6: 19. 11: 18. Rev. 14: 20. 21: 16. The Egyptian furlong was sixty-seven fathoms and two feet. VIII. OSos ca^^arov, a sabbath day's journey, viz. seven hun- dred and twenty-nine EnglisTi paces and three feet. Acts 1: 12. This measure is a sort of Jewish invention founded on Exod. 16: 29. IX. MlXiov, a Roman mile, being eight furlongs, or a thousand geometrical paces. Matt. 5: 41. X. Y'i^Ti tria?, a little way. Gen. 35: 16. 2 Kings 5: 19; accord- ing to the Septuagint a horse's race, IvnoSQOiiog, i. e. as the Arabians inform us, a parasang, by which word the phrase is translated in the Peshito. It was about four English miles. XI. di'sti tit!^, a day's journey. It is sometimes greater and § 114. HOLLOW MEASURES. 126 sometimes less, varying from twenty to thirty miles, see Herodot. V. 53. ~^— § 114. Hollow Meastjkes. I. yap , a handful, a measure not accurately defined, Lev. 2: 2. 5: 12. n. "KS, an omer, used, as appears from Exod. 16: 16, 18, 22, 32, 33, 36, in the measurement of dry articles. It contained the portion, which was assigned to each individual for his daily food. It corres- ponded to the xotvi^ (fhe choenix) of the Greeks, and held five pints and one tenth English corn measure ; [see Home's Introd. to the Scriptures, Vol. HI. App. no. II.] IH. ns'^S, nS!*, an ephah, the Egyptian olcfi, a measure for dry articles. It contained, as we learn from Exod. 16: 36, ten omers. The genuineness of that passage is, indeed, somewhat doubtful ; but at any rate it is very ancient, since it is found in all the ancient ver- sions, even the Samaritan itself. It held three pecks and three pints. The hath, a measure for liquids, was of the same size. Josephus, however, (Antiq. VIH. 2. § 9.) makes a haih equal to seventy-two ^e'aiai, an Attic measure holding a pint. If this be true, it was the same in capacity with the /AEtQrjzi^g, a firldn, which was an Attic measure, commonly represented equal to seventy-two ^sarai, or nine English gallons, John 2: 6. IV. nxp , a seah. It appears to be merely the Hebrew name of that measure, which was called, by a word of Egyptian origin, epJiah, comp. Gen. 18: 6 with Judg. 6: 19. 2 Kings 7: 16, 18 and 1 Sam. 25: 18. It is thought by some to be the third part of an ephah. This measure occurs in the new Testament, under the word adrov, derived from the Hebrew D'^nsp . Josephus (Antiq. IX. 2.) remarks in regard to this measure, that it contained fiodiov x«« ^/xtav Itah-Aor, an Italian bushel and a half, i. e. a peck and a half English- V. "lah , a homer, used both for liquids and dry articles ; also call- ed "lb , a kor. It held ten ephahs ; consequently the kthek, T\Tk , which was half its size, held five ephahs. VI. 3|3 , a kab. It appears to have been used for dry articles merely, 2 Kings 6: 25. From the passage in Kings, it is clear, that it was a measure of small dimensions. 11* 126 § 115. WEIGHTS AND MONET. Vn. Iipi, a hin, used for liquids. A third, half, and fourth part of a hin are mentioned. It is supposed to be the sixth part of a bath, which agrees sufficiently well with those places, where it occurs. Vin. sV , a hg, the twelfth part of a hin. IX. ni^iS , a purah. The connection in Isa. 63: 2, requires this word to be rendered wine-vat; but in Hag. 2: 11, it appears to be the name of an unknown Persian measure. X. Shtrig, the Eoman sextarius, containing the forty-eighth part of an amphora. XI. Md5tOi', the Eoman hcshd, used for dry articles, containing a peck in English measure. Xn. Msrqrirris, a Greek measure, a third part larger than the Eoman amphora, being a Eoman foot and a half in length, breadth and height. § 115. Weights and Monet. In oriental countries, as far back as the time of Abraham, the value of goods was estimated at a certain quantity of silver, the purity of which was taken into account by the merchant. Gen. 23: 16. But there is no trace of stamped silver, or coin, previous to the captivity. Nor indeed was it at that early period divided into pieces of a certain size. It was commonly weighed out in balances, D'^jtsia, Die, though its weight was sometimes ascertained by means of an in- strument for weighing, answering to the modern steel-yards. Mer- chants were accordingly in the habit of carrying about with themselves balances and weights in a sort of pouch or bag. The weights were stones ; hence they are called Diaas , -laN , words which commonly mean stones. Lev. 19: 36. Deut. 25: 13 — 18. Prov. 11: 1. 16: 11. Mic. 6: 11. Persons who were disposed to be fraudulent, sometimes carried two sets of weights, a heavier and a lighter set, '3X1 "las* , using sometimes the one and sometimes the other, as best suited their interest. Gold, even so late as the time of David, was not used as a standard of value, but was considered merely as a very precious article of commerce, and was weighed like other articles. The oldest weight that is mentioned, is denominated in Hebrew nB"iiuj5. The same word is applied also to a piece of silver or § 116. WEIGHTS AND MONEY. 127 gold, but the amount or quantity designated by it, is in both cases un- known, Gen. 33: 19. Josh. 24: 32. Job 42: 11. In the time of Mo- ses, the weight most in use was the shekel, b'ffS , its half, Spa , and its twentieth part, fi'ia . An hundred shekels made a mina, nja , fiiva, 2 Chron. 9: 16. comp. 1 Kings 10: 17, and thirty minae or three thousand shekels made a talent 133, Exod. 38: 25, 26. The Greek talent varied in difierent countries ; the Athenian was esti- mated at six thousand drachms. § 116. Weights and Monet before the Captivity. The Jewish Kabbins, in their statements in regard to weights, estimate them, like the modern Persians, according to the num- ber of grains of barley, to which they are equivalent. That is to say, they make a grain of barley the smallest weight. This is the method of the Rabbins. The ancient Hebrews undoubtedly, as well as certain nations of profane antiquity, selected a seed of pulse, (siliqua,) as the representative of the smallest weight, with which they were acquainted. The Hebrew name for this weight is n"ia. Fannius, a contemporary with Augustus, says that six such seeds made a scruple, and three scruples a drachm. Hence, a drachm contained eighteen siKquae, or Hebrew gerdhs, which Ei- senschmid, in his treatise on weights and measures, p. 23, finds equal to eighty seven or eight Parisian grains. Consequently twenty of them, which are equivalent to a shekel, would be equal to ninety six or seven Parisian grains, or about ten pennyweights, English valuation. Beside the common legal or sacred shekel, tliere was another in the time of the kings, called " the king's shekel." The hair of Absalom was weighed with this sort of shekel, and amounted to two hundred of them. The heaviest head of hair, that has been found in England, weighed five ounces. Absalom's we may well suppose, could not have weighed more than ten. This supposition would lead us to the conclusion, that the royal did not amount to more than the fourth, perhaps not to more than the fifth or sixth part of the hgal shekel. Gold was dealt out by the weights, which have been mention- ed, but its value, for instance the value of a gerah or shekel of gold, cannot be accurately estimated, because we do not know 128 § 117. WEIGHTS AND MONET. precisely what its worth was, when compared with that of silver. The shekel used in weighing gold was the royal one. The difficulty of ascertaining the true worth of any quantity of gold mentioned iu the Scriptures is increased by the circumstance, that the gold itself possessed different degrees of purity ; in some instances it was adul- terated, and in other instances more fine than usual. § 117. Weights and Money after the Captivity. During the captivity of the Jews and after their return from it, they made use of the weights and the coin of other nations. Eze- kiel, accordingly, (chap. 45: 12) mentions foreign manehs of differ- ent weight, viz. of fifteen, of twenty, and of twenty-five shekels The coin, which the Jews used at this period, was the Persian, Gre cian, and Roman. It was not till the time of the Maccabean prin- ces, that they had a mint of their own, and coined gold and silver for themselves. The most ancient coin of which we have any knowledge, is the Persian gold coin, called the daric, SaQCixos, •liB?'n.'5, lias'i'is , 1 Chron. 29: 2. Ezra 2: 69. 8: 27. Neh. 7: 70, 72 The name does not take its origin from Darius the king, but from the Persian word KIO or w_>Mt> a hing ; a word which was ap- plied to the coin in question in order to signify, that it was stamped by the royal authority, and to distinguish it from any coin, that might be stamped and put in circulation by private merchants. The impression on this coin exhibits on one side of it the repre- sentation of a king; on the reverse an archer, holding in his left hand a bow and in his right hand an arrow, and having upon his head an acuminated tiara. Suidas, the scholiast of Aristophanes, iKxkrig, V. 598, and Harpocration represent the daric as equal in weight to twenty drachms. [" According to Dr. Bernard, the daric weighed two grains more than the English guinea ; but as it was very fine and contained little alloy, it may be reckoned worth about twenty-five shillings English money." — Eees' Cyclop. Art. Daric. A coin, very much in circulation among the Greeks, was the stater, araTrjQ, Matt. 17: 26, equal in weight to the shekel of the Hebrews. It was otherwise called tetradrachmon, rtTQaSQaxiiov, because it weighed four drachms; it amounted to two shillings, seven pence English. This coin exhibits on one side the head of § 117. WEIGHTS AND MONET. 129 Minerva, and on the reverse an owl together with a short inscription. It appeai-s, therefore, from the above, that a drachma. Sgaxfii], was the fourth part of the stater. It was, however, of different value in different places ; tfie Alexandrian, for instance, being of double the amount of the Grecian. The drachma, although it was in real value about a seventh part more, was nevertheless considered, in common mercantile exchange, as equal to the Roman denarius, i. e. seven pence two farthings English. The coin exhibited on one side the Eoman goddess of victory, and on the reverse a chariot drawn by four horses. At a recent period the reverse exhibited the head of Cesar, Matt. 22: 19. The Jewish prince„ Simon, 1 Mac. 15: 16, struck off a currency under llie denomination of shekels, which weighed a stater each, or according to F. Mersenne's estimate, two hundred and sixty- eight grains. The value of this shekel in English money was two shillings, three pence and three farthings. When it was coined in gold, its value was £1. 16s. 6d. Of those shekels which remain, those only are considered genuine, which have inscriptions upon them in the Samaritan character. Some, that have such inscrip- tions, may have been struck off at comparatively a recent period, in imitation of those that were really ancient. The inscriptions on them are various. The Eoman as, daadgiov, weighed nine pennyweights and three grains ; its value was three farthings and one tenth. It was a brass coin, and anciently exhibited on one side a figure of Janus, but lat- terly the head of Cesar. The representation on the reverse was the stern of a ship, Matt. 10: 29. Luke 12: 6. A quarter part of an as was called quadrans, xoSqavirig. The Greek coin called Xemov was of very small value, being the fourth part of a quadrans. Matt. 5: 26. Mark 12: 42. The weight denominated XijQa varied in different countries. Many kinds of merchandize were sold according to the litra of the particular country, from which they were brought. Its amount, therefore, cannot be stated, John 12: 3. 19: 39. ^ - Note. — It ought to be remarked, that silver and gold ancient- ly were more scarce than at present, and consequently of greater value. Its value in the fourth century before Christ was to ita value in England in the year 1780, as ten to one. So that 130 § 117. WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ETC. four hundred and forty grains of silver would purchase as much at the last mentioned period, as four thousand four hundred would at the first Note. — [The translator has thought it best, in a number of the last sections, to substitute the English modes of reckoning weights and measures, etc. instead of the German and Parisian, which are so frequently referred to by Dr. Jahn. This, which he was bound to do in justice to the English reader, will account for the peculiar aspect, which the translation wears in the sections mentioned, in comparison with the original. The following tables, which are not in the origi- nal, are taken from the third volume of Home's Introduction to the Scriptures, App. no. 11. We are there informed, that they are extracted chiefly from Dr. Axbuthnot's " Tables of ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures."] TABLES OP WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. 1. Jewish weights redvced to English troy weight. lbs. oz. The gerah, one-twentieth of a shekel, .... The beka, half a shekel, The shekel, The maneh, 60 shekels, 2 6 The talent, 50 manehs, or 3000 shekels, . . .125 2. Scripture measures of length reduced to English measure. Eng. feet. inch. A digit, 0.912 pen. 12 5 10 4 I A pa lm, 3.648 12 I 3 I A sp an, 10.944 24 I 6 I 2 I A cubit, 1 9.888 96 I 24 I 8 I 4"[ A fathom, 7 3.552 144 I 36 I 12 I 6 I 1.5 | Ezek iel's reed 10 11.32S 192 I 48 I fe I 8 [ 2 I 1.3 | An Arabian pole, . . 14 . 7.104 1920 I 480 I 160 I 80 I 20 | 13.3 | 10 | Aschoenus, or meas. line, 145 11.04 § 117. WEIGHTS, MEASUEES, ETC. 131 3. TTie long Scripture measures. Eng. miles. paceB. A cnbit, .... 00 1.824 400 I A stadium or furlong, 145 4.6 2000 I 5 I A sabbath day's journey, . . . . O 729 3.0 4000 I 10 I 2 I An eastern mile 1 403 1.0 12000 I 30 I 6 I 3 I A parasang, . . . . 4 153 3.0 96000 I 240 I 48 I 24 I 8 I A day's journey, . . . . 33 172 4.0 4. Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to English wine measure. Gal. pints. A caph, 0.625 1.3 I A log, 0.833 5.3 I 4 I A ka b, 8.333 16 I 12 I 3 I A b in, 12 32 I 24 ]" 6 I 2 I A seah, ■ 2 4 96 I 72 I 18 I 6 I 3 I A bath or ephah 7 4 960 I 720 I 180 I 60 I 20 I 10 I A kor or choros, chomer or homer, 75 5 5. Scripture measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English com measure. Pecks, gal. pinto. A gachal, 0.141G 20 I A ka b, 2.8333 36 I 1.8 I An omer or gomer, 5.1, 120 I 6 I 3.3 I A seah 10 1 360 I 18 I 10 I S] An ephah, 3 3 1800 I 90 I 50 f i s"! 5|A letek, . . . . 16 3600 I 180 I 100 I 30 I 10 I 2 I A chomer, homer, or kor, 32 1 6. Jewish money reduced to the English standard. £. s. d. A gerah , 1.2687 10 I A b ekah 1 1.6875 20 I 2 I A she kel, 2 3.375. 1200 I 120 I 50 I A maneh, or mina Hebraica, . . 5 14 0.75 60000 I 6000 I 3000 | 60"| A talent 342 3 9 A solidns aureus, or sextula, was worth, . . . 12 0.5 A siculus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth . . . I 16 G A talent of gold was worth 5475 In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at £i. per onnce. 132 § 118. MATERIALS OF CLOTHS. 7. Roman money, mentimied in the New Testament, reduced to thu English standard. £. A mite (XenTov or aaaaQiov) .... A farthing {xo^Qavrrig) about ... A penny or denarius {SsvaQiov) ... A pound or mina 3 s. d. far 0| li 7 3 2 6 CHAPTER Vm. > ON CLOTHING. § 118. jVIaterials of which clothes were made. OcR first parents, in the first instance, protected themselves with the leaves of the fig-tree ; afterwards, with the skins of ani- mals. Subsequently some method, as we may suppose was dis- covered for matting together the hair of animals and making a sort of felt cloth. Later still the art of weaving was introduced, and a web was formed by combining the hair of animals with threads drawn from wool, cotton, or flax. At any rate, the art of manufacturing cloths by spinning and weaving is of very great an- tiquity, Gen. 14: 23. 31: 18, 19. 37: 3. 38: 28. 41: 42. 45: 22. Job 7: 6. 31: 20. The Egyptians were very celebrated for such manu- factures. The Israelites, while living among them, learnt the art, and even excelled their teachers, 1 Chron. 4: 21. While wandering in the Arabian wilderness, they prepared the materi- als for covering the tabernacle, and wrought some of them with embroidery. Cotton cloth was esteemed most valuable; next to that, woollen and linen. That which was manufactured from the hair of animals, was esteemed of least value. Of silk there is no mention made at a very early period, unless perchance it be in Ezekiel (16: 10, 13,) under the word "naa. This, however, ia § 119. COLOES OE CLOTHS. 133 clear, that Alexander found silks in Persia, and it is more than prob- able, that the Median dress, which we find was adopted by the Per- sians under Cyrus, was silk. Silk was not introduced among the na- tions of Europe, till a late period. § 119. Colors of Cloths. White was esteemed the most appropriate color for cotton cloth, and purple for the others. On festival days the rich and powerful robed themselves in white cotton, which was considered the most splendid dress. It was denominated in the earlier He- brew by the synonymous words Iij\z5 and ia, and after the cap- tivity by another synonyme, viz. 'j'iia , the Greek ^vaaog. The ful- lers, di&M , had discovered the art, a singular one, it is true, of communicating a very splendid white to cloth by the aid of alkali and urine. Hence, lest their shops should communicate a fetid- ness to the atmosphere, where it might be of injury, they lived out of the city, Isa. 7: 3. Cotton cloth colored purple was de- nominated in Hebrew l«S'iN and riajs'i, and in Chaldaio lia'is. It was colored by the blood taken from a vein in the throat of a certain shell-fish. The color was very highly esteemed, seemed to be a medium hue between brown and pure red, and was very bright; it was essentially the same with the celebrated Tyrian pur- ple. Kjngs and princes were clothed with this purple, Luke 16: 19. Rev. 18: 12. The scarlet color so called, first mentioned in Gen. 38: 28, and occurring frequently afterwards, was very much admired. It was a different color from the shell-fish purple, and was extracted from the insects or their eggs, found on a species of oak; and thence in Hebrew it is called sVin, which means a worm or in- sect. The cotton cloth was dipped into this color twice ; hence the application of the Hebrew words iS!r and 151a nyVin, twice- dyed. This color is sometimes called IsiaiB, 2 Chron. 2: 14. 3: 14, from the Persian word JLoj.^ , which is the origin of the French word cannoisin. The hyadnth or dark blue color n^sn, was extracted from the cuttle-fish, which bears in Hebrew the same name with the color itself, and was highly esteemed, especially among the Assyrians, Ezek. 23: 6. 12 134 § 120. THE TUNIC. Bhck colm- was used for common wear, and particularly on occar sions of mourning. Party-colored cloths, Di&S WhS , were highly esteemed, Gen. 37: 3, 23. 2 Sam. 13: 18. As far back as the time of Moses we find, that cloths were em- hroidered, sometimes with the colored threads of cotton and linen, and sometimes with threads of gold. When the work was embroi- dered on both sides, the Hebrew word for fabrics of that kind appears in the dual form, viz. d'^nap'n . Some of the passages in relation to embroiderers and embroidery are as follows, Exod. 25: 36. 35; 35. Judg. 5: 30. Ps. 45: 9. Ezek. 16: 10. What the nature of that garment was, which is interdicted to the Hebrews in Lev. 19: 19, and Deut. 22: 11, is uncertain. It is said to be a mixed garment of wool and linen, but that does not decide the point. Josephus says, an opinion prevailed in his time, that the garments in question were embroidered ones, which be- longed to the priests, but the fact is, the law was universal, and in- terdicted them to the priests, as well as to all others. Perhaps the warp was made of wool and the woof of linen, a common mode of manufacturing in the East even to this day, according to the testi- mony of Aryda. The garments may have been interdicted to the Hebrews on account of their being so common a dress among the heathen. § 120. The Txinic. This was the most simple, and, as we may conjecture from that circumstance, the most ancient garment. It is a common ar- ticle of dress in the East to this day, and is called in Arabic ahram, DSinx. It was a piece of cloth, commonly linen, which encircled the whole body, and was bound with a girdle, and descend- ed to the knees. It occurs in the Bible ^rst, under the Hebrew- word nifs, afterwards, under the word tTi'lhn, which usually means a girdle. Those, who are clothed with a tunic merely, are sometimes said to be naked. Job 24: 7, 10. Isa. 20: 2 — 4. Mic. 1: 8. John 21: 7. As the fore-part of the tunic was liable to be elevated with the wind, the wearer had on also an under garment called in Hebrew niD3D», which in the time of Moses reached only from the loins to the knees, Exod. 28: 42 ; but in progress of § 121. THE GIRDLE. 135 time it was extended down to the ankles. Moses in Exod. 28: 42^ commands the priests to wear under garments of this description, on account of their convenience in performing the sacrifices. Hence it may be inferred, that they were not used by the people generally, which is found to be the state-of the case at this day in va- rious countries of the East. If Strabo in page 734 means to say, that the Persians wore three pairs of them, he certainly speaks of a recent period in their history. Mention is made of an upper pair of this garment in Dan. 3: 21, called in Hebrew hmp in Persian >t wLcu shalvar, in Syriae \^i-^ > in Arabic Jl.ww. The orientals, whether clad in the garment in question or not, when they find it necessary to emit urine, seek an obscure place, and in a sitting posture discharge themselves upon the earth ; with the excep- tion that the meanest and lowest of the populace defile the walls. Hence the peculiar, proverbial expressions, which occur in 1 Sam. 25: 22, 34, etc are to be considered, as denoting the very lowest class of people. The tunic, which at first only covered the body, was extended afterwards up round the neck, was supplied with short sleeves, and eventually with long ones, covering the whole arm. At first it set close to the body, but was afterwards made loose and flowing. The Babylonians, Egyptians, and Persians were clad with another tunic externally to the one described, and commonly more precious, which we learn was worn also by the Jews, Matt 10: 10. Luke 9: 3. § 121. The Girdle, lisn. The tunic, when it was not girded, impeded the person who wore it in walking. Those consequently, who perhaps at home were ungirded, went forth girded, 2 Kings 4: 29. 9: 1. Isa, 5: 27. Jer. 1: 12. John 21; 7. Acts 12: 8. There were formerly and are to this day two sorts of girdles in Asia ; the one a common one of leath- er, six inches broad and furnished with clasps, with which it is fas- tened around the body, ^mvij fSsQjjiaTivt], 2 Kings 1: 8. Matt. 3: 4. Mark 1: 6 ; the other, a valuable one of cotton or flax, and sometimes indeed of silk or some embroidered fabric, a hand's breadth broad, and supplied likewise with clasps by which it was fastened over the fore-part of the body, Jer. 13: 1. The girdle was J)ound round the loins, whence the expressions, "The girdle of the loins, and 136 § 122. OF UPPER GARMENTS. gird up your loins," 1 Kings 18: 46. Prov. 21: 17. Isa. 11: 5. Jer. 1: 17. The girdle worn by females, was sometimes ornamented with bosses ; they wore stomachers also for ornament, Hebrew bisons. The Arabians carry a knife or poniard in the girdle. This was the custom likewise among the Hebrews, 2 Sam. 20: 8 — 10 ; a fact, which admits of confirmation from the ruins of Perse- polis. The girdle also answered the purpose of a pouch, to carry money and other necessary things, 1 Sam. 25: 13. 2 Sam. 18: 11. Matt. 10: 9. Mark 6: 8. § 122. Of Upper Garments. The garment immediately over the funic was denominated nbaia , also 153 , Greek ijidnov ; it was very simple and of course we may suppose very ancient. It was a piece of cloth nearly square, of different sizes, five or six cubits long and five or six feet broad, and was wrapped around the body. When the weather was serene, it was more conveniently worn over the shoulders than by being wrapped around the body. The two corners, which were drawn over the shoulders, were called the skirts, or as it is in the Hebrew, the wings of the garment. Hag. 2: 12. Zech. 8: 23. Frequently this garment was hung over the left shoulder, where it accordingly hung lengthwise, partly over the back and partly over the breast, and was fastened by the two corners under the right cheek. While it answered the purpose of a cloak, it was so large, that burdens, if necessary, might be carried in it, Exodus 12: 34. 2 Kings 4: 39. The poor wrapped themselves up wholly in this garment at night, spread their leathern girdle upon a rock and rested their head upon it, as is customary to this day in Asia. Moses, therefore, enacted as a law what had before existed as a cus- tom, that the upper garment, when given as a pledge, should not be retained over night. Job 22: 6. 24: 7. Exodus 22: 25, 26. Deut. 24: 13. In the time of Christ the creditors did not take the upper garment or cloak, which it was not lawful for them to retain, but the coat or tunic, which agrees with the representation of Jesus in Matthew 6: 40. There having occurred an instance of the violation of the sabbath (Numbers 15: 32 — 41), Moses enacted a law, that there should be a fringe upon the four vomers of this garment together with a blue ribband, to re- § 122. OF UPPER GARMENTS. 137 mind the people of his statutes, Matthew 9: 20. Luke 8: 44. There were other upper garments' worn among the Hebrews as follows. I. b'^sn, MEIL, a garment of cotton, which extended below the knees, open at the top so as to be drawn over the head, and havin<» holes for the insertion of the arms. n. iSbk , EPHOD. It consisted of two parts, the one of which was suspended over the back, the other over the forepart of the body, both pieces being united by a clasp or buckle on the shoulders. In the time of Josephus the ephod had sleeves, a circumstance which is not mentioned by Moses, Exod. 28: 6, 7. Joseph. Antiq. Bk. III. ch. 7. 5. According to the Mosaic law the ephod and meil were appropriately garments of the high priest, but we learn that they were sometimes worn by other illustrious men, Job 29: 14. 1 Sam. 18: 4. 2 Sam. 6: 14. Ezek. 26: 16. We may infer from 2 Sam. 6: 14, and 1 Chron. 15: 27, that ia lis.-j and y'^^ ^''?'r) [rendered in the English version, a linen ephod, and a fine linen robe,"] were converti- ble expressions for the same thing ; still there is no doubt, that there were two kinds of ephods. ni. B"iBa , A HAT OR TURBAN, as may be seen to this day on the ruins of Persepolis. Garments of fur appear to have been used in the East, although the climate was warm. We undoubtedly hear of them under the word Ty^Vi . The phrase ^I'b n!):!? means a garment of hair, worn commonly by poor people and prophets, 2 Kings 1: 8. 2: 8. 13: 14. Zech. 13: 4. Heb. 11: 37. There were certain garments of hair, which were precious and were worn by the rich and princes. Josh. 7: 21, 24. 1 Kings 19: 13, 19. Jonah 3: 6. The words I'^'iD and aivSmv, though the same, signified different things; 'i'l'ib was a precious tunic of cotton, Judg. 14: 12, 13, 19. Prov. 31: 24. Isa. 3: 23, but atvSmv was a sort of coverlet, under which the people slept at night, Mark 14: 51, 52. 15: 46. Luke 23: 53. XXafivg is the name of a robe, common among the Greeks, which extended down to the knees, and was fastened over the breast, but the x^^h^S y-oxxipri, which is mentioned Matt. 27: 28, and Mark 15: 17, called in common speech noQcpvgu or the pur- ple, was a red robe of the Roman military, nearly of the same length with the Greek robe. The word i^.ativg is not to be collated in this case with the Heb. diba, for the nbsn "laibj mentioned in Ezek. 27: 24. were not Grecian robes, but blue cloths, brought 12* 138 § 123. SANDALS AND SHOES. from Arabia. The cloak, mentioned 2 Tim. 4: 13, in Greek (fslo- vrji or q)aiX6vi]g, was a Eoman garment, meant for protection against the rain, and to be worn on journeys. It was closed throughout ex- cept an open neck, by which it was admitted over the head and sup- ported on the shoulders. + § 123. Sandals and Shoes. At first in order to prevent the feet from being cut by sharp rocks, or burnt by the hot sand, or injured by pinching cold, small pieces of wood or leather were bound to the bottom of the feet, Sandals of this kind are still seen in the East ; afterwards shoes were made, and greaves, as may be seen on the ruins of Persepolis, and as is re- lated by Strabo. Originally no covering of the foot was used at all, but sandals, C^^?.?, aavSdha, vnoSruAaxot.; which were bound around the feet with leather thongs, '^"vsi, Ifiag, ifidvTsg, Gen. 14: 23. Exod. 12: 11. Isa. 5: 27. Judith 10: 4.' Matt. 3: 11. 10: 10. Mark 1: 7. 6: 9. John 1: 27. These sandals were held at a very low price, Amos 2: 6. 8: 6. Matrons sometimes wore elegant ones, Judith 10: 3. 16: 11. How precious the sandal was, mentioned in Ezek. 16: 10. of badger's skin, is not clear. The people put oif their sandals when they entered a house, and put them on when they left it. Whence the phrases, to loose one's sandals from off his feet, etc. Exod. 3: 5. Deut. 25: 9. Isa. 20: 4. Ruth 4: 7, 8. Ezek. 24: 7. To loose and to bind on sandals was the business of the lowest servants. Disciples performed this office, however, for their teachers ; but the Rabbins advised them not to do it before strangers, lest they should be mistak- en for servants. The business of a servant recently purchased was to loose and carry about his master's sandals ; whence the expres- sions in Mark 1: 7 and Matt. 3: 11, "to loose one's shoes," and "to bear them," are proverbial, and mean the same thing. As the wear- ers did not have on stockings, their feet became dusty and soiled ; ac- cordingly when they had laid aside their sandals and entered a house, they washed their feet ; which also was the office of the lowest servants. In some instances where the guests were very distinguish- ed men, the master of the family performed this office. Gen. 18: 4. Luke 7: 44. The poor sometimes went barefoot; the more rich and honored never, except in case of mourning, 2 Sam. 15: 30. Jer. 2: 25 In contracts the seller gave his sandals to the buyer § 125. OF THE Hair. 139 lu confirmation of the bargain. Hence, " a man withoiM sandals" became proverbial expressions, implying the reproach of prodigality, Deut. 25: 9. Ruth 4: 7. § 124. The Beard, lisT . The beard was considered a great ornament among the Hebrews, as it is to this day, among oriental nations. No one was allowed, to touch it except for the purpose of kissing it. To pluck or to shave the beard, or to mar it in any way, was considered a great disgrace, 1 Chron. 19: 3 — 5. 2 Sam. 10: 4 — 10. Hence the beard is used tropically for the distinguished men of any people, and the shaving of the beard was considered a mark, and used tropically as a repre- sentation of servitude, Isa. 7: 20. The beard was preserved in differ- ent ways by different people, 2 Sam. 19: 24. Tlie Hebrews alone were forbidden to shave the beard, i. e. as the phrase is to be inter- preted, to round the corners of the beard where it joins the hair of the head, Lev. 1 9: 27 ; because the Arabian tribes, by shaving off or rather rounding the beard, where it connects with the hair of the head, devoted themselves to a certain deity, who held the place among them, that Bacchus did among the Greeks. Herodot. HI. 8. Jer. 9: 26. 25: 23. 49: 32. To pull out or cut off the beard was an indica- tion of great grief, and mourning ; every ornament whatever, at such a time, being laid aside. This, however, must be done by the person himself. If a stranger should undertake to pull out his beard, it ■would be the greatest insult. § 125. Op the Hair, isb. Anciently the Egyptians alone, and some of the Arabians were in the habit of shaving their beards ; the Hebrews and otlier nations let them grow. Sometimes indeed they applied the razor, with the exception of the Nazarites, to whom shaving was absolutely interdicted, Num. 6: 5. Judg. 13: 7. 16: 17. 1 Sam. 1: 11. 2 Sam. 14: 26. Isa. 7: 20. Ezek. 5: 1. Baldness was a source of contempt, 2 Kings 2: 23 ; a heavy head of hair was esteemed a great orna- ment, 2 Sam. 14: 26. Cant. 5: 11 ; the hair was combed and set in order, (Isa. 3: 24,) and anointed, especially on festival occasions, Ps. 23: 5. 92: 10. 133: 2. 2 Sam. 14: 2. Ruth 3: 3. Prov. 21: 17. The 140 § 126. COVERINGS FOR THE HEAD. ointment used was the very precious oil of olives, mixed with spices, particularly spikenard, which was brought from India, but was com- monly adulterated. The spikenard, mentioned Mark 14: 3, mgdog nioTixri, seems to have been pure. The color of the hair of the peo- ple of the East, is commonly black, rarely red, which was esteemed a favorite color. Females, as is commonly the case, let the hair grow long, Luke 7: 38. 1 Cor. 11: 6 — 12, and braided it. Num. 5: 18. Ju- dith 10: 3. 1 Peter 3: 3 ; which is clear also from the Talmud. They interwove into their hair gems and gold, 2 Kings 9: 30. § 126. Coverings for the Head. At first the hair of the head was its only covering. To prevent its being dishevelled by the wind, it was at length bound around the head by a fillet, as is now customary among the servants in the East, and as may be seen on the ruins of Persepolis. Sub- sequently a piece of cloth was worn upon the head, which was afterwards converted into mitres of diiferent forms. There were two kinds of mitres among the ancients; the one mentioned in Esther 8: 15. of fine linen, purple in color, and enriched with gold; the other resembled a triangle in form, being pointed at the top, though not always made in the same way ; it is denomi- nated in Dan. 3: 21, Nba"i3 and in the Greek xvQ^aaig and xvq- ^aala. Josephus speaks of a piece of cloth, which was roUed around the head exterior to the mitre. Antiq. Bk. III. ch. 7. § 3. and 7 ; but of this article of head-dress it is not clear, that there is any express mention made in Scripture. We must suppose, therefore, it was introduced at a late period, certainly after the captivity. The Hebrew word ^pys was applied to the mitres in common use worn by both sexes ; the word nsasa to the mitres of priests, which were of greater height, Exod.' 28: 40. 29: 9. 39: 28. The mitre of the high priest, called rEJsa , was distinguished from that of the priests by a plate of gold bound in front of it. The mitres worn by princes and illustrious men, were the same with those of the priests and the high priests, Exod. 28: 4, 37. 29: 6. 39: 31. Lev. 8: 9. 16: 4. In the progress of time new and more elegant head- dresses, called 1X3, were introduced, and were common to both sexes. The phrase nixsn ni^ss and the word nii^ss mean a head-dress or turban of much splendor ; the words "iJ3 and fiioS § 127. OF THE VEIL. 141 mean a diadem, and not a mitre. Both men and women, as is now common in the East, remained with their heads covered both at prayers and in the temple. § 127. Of the Veil. The difference between the dress of the men and the women was small. It consisted chiefly in the fineness of the materials and in the length of the garment. The dressf of the hair in the two sexes was different, as already observed, and another mark of distinction was, that the women wore a veil. This distinction of dress, small as it was, was the ground of the command, prohib- iting the assumption by one sex of the dress, which was appro- priate to the other, Deut. 22: 5. All females, excepting maid- servants and others in a low condition in life, wore the veil, nor did they ever lay it aside, except in the presence of servants and those relations, with whom nuptials were interdicted. Lev. xviii. comp. Koran 24: 34. S3: 54. This custom in regard to the veil still prevails in the East. When journeying, the ladies threw the veil over the hinder part of the head ; but if they saw a man ap preaching, they restored it to its original position. Gen. 24: 65. When at home they did not speak with a guest, without being veiled and in the presence of maids. They never entered the guest's chamber, but standing at the door, made known to the ser- vant what they wanted, 2 Kings 4: 13. This is observed to be the case in Homer. It scarcely needs to be observed, that prostitutes went unveiled. Tamar, who was one of that class, assumed a veil merely for the purpose of concealing herself from her father-in- law Judah. The position which some nraintain from Gen. 20: 16, viz. that virgins did not wear the veil, is not clear from that passage ; and is the less so, when the fact is taken into considera- tion, that the custom of modern orientals is an evidence that they did. In Asia there are various kinds of veils in use, which cor- respond with those mentioned in the Bible. Like the matrons of the East at the present day, those of antiquity used veils of four kinds. I. I'l'ii . It somewhat resembled the hood of the French country, women, covering the top of the head and extending down behind the back, Cant. 5: 7. Isa. 3: 23. 142 § 128. STAFF, SEAL, AND RING. II. naa . This covered the breastj neck, and chin to the nose, Cant. 4:'l, 3. 6: 7. Isa. 47: 2. in. n'bs»'n . It hung down from the eyes over the face, ["called in the English version mufflers,'] Isa. 3: 19. IV. The fourth kind of veil received different names, viz. tiSBSa for the fashion of the winter, and finsaa for that of the sum- mer. It covered the whole body from the top of the head to the sole of the foot, Isa. 3: 22. Ruth 3: 15. Gen. 38: 14. V. C)"iS3 , or the douhk veil, in as much as it fulfilled the ofBce of two other veils, covering the top of the head, and falling down both behind and before. It was so large, that in many countries the ma- trons who wore it dispensed with any other. VI. diQiaffl a thin gauze-like fabric, [denominated in the Eng- lish version a caul^ which was used as a veil, comp. the correspond- ing Arabic. The phrase fi'^i'^S niB3, Gen. 20: 16, probably does not mean a veil; perhaps the reading, as Michaelis conjectures, should be Q'^r? TaHs , that is, the fine or punishment of the eyes, viz. of Abimelech. What sort of a veil it is, called in the Greek of the New Testament iSovaia Ini r^g xstfaXijs, is not known, 1 Cor. 11: 10. § 128. Staff, Seal, and Rings. The Hebrews bore a staff, naa , h]sis , etc. ; not only the traveller, as a help to him on his journey, but others also, who, like the Baby- lonians, must necessarily have carried one merely for ornament, and not for any positive benefit, Exod. 12: 11. Gen. 38: 18, 25. The Hebrews wore also, in imitation of the Babylonians, a seal or signet, DFiin, which »-was suspended from the neck over the breast, Gen. 38: 18. Cant. 8: 6. Hag. 2: 23. Sometimes merely the name of the owner, and sometimes an additional sentence was engraved upon the signet. If a door or box was to be sealed, it was first fastened with some ligament, over which was placed some clay or wax, which then received an impression from the seal or signet. Frequently a ring, with some inscription upon it, was used as a seal, by a delivery or transfer of which, from a mon- arch, the highest offices of the kingdom were created, Gen. 41: 42. Esth. 3: 10, 12. 8: 2. Jer. 22: 24. Dan. 6: 10. 13: 17. Rings, from the circumstance of their being employed for the same purpose § 130, NECKLACES, BEACELETS, ETC. 143 as seals, were called nisaa , which is derived from a verb, signify- ing to imprint, and also to seal ; they were worn commonly as an or- nament on a finger of the right hand, Isa. 22: 24. Exod. 35: 22. Luke 15: 22. James 2: 2. § 129. Ladies' Rings and Pendants, nisaa, Diai;. The ladies wore a number of rings upon their fingers, also pen- dants in the ear and nose. Gen. 24: 22. Exod. 32: 2, 3. 35: 22. Isa. 3: 21. Ezek. 16: 12. The rings were made of silver, gold, or other metal according to the person's property ; the pendants, also, which sometimes, however, consisted of pearls, merely suspended by a thread. When the pendants were of gold, they were denominated taiB, when of precious stones, niSiB3, Num. 31: 50. Ezek. 16: 12. Ear-pendants may be seen sculptured out on the ruins of Persepolis, for they were worn by men as well as women, among other nations. But this was not often the case among the Hebrews, Pliny 11. 50. Judg. 8: 24. The women also wore rings of silver and gold and other materials around the ankles, Hebrew d^DDS . The rings of the two ankles were sometimes connected with each other by a chain, called niisa ; perhaps the chain was comprehended also under the name above given for the rings, Isa. 3: 18. § 130. Necklaces, Bracelets, etc. The dress of the ladies in the East was always expensive, Gen. 24: 22, 23, 53. Num. 31: 50. Isa. 3: 16—26. Ezek. 16: 10 et seq. They wear at the present day, as formerly, not only rings and pendants, but necklaces, bracelets, etc. These ornaments were worn also in some cases by distinguished men, as a present from the monarch, as may be seen on the Persepolitan figures, Gen. 41: 42. Prov. 3: 3, 22. 6: 21. Cant. 1: 11. Dan. 5: 7. Necklaces and bracelets were made, sotoetimes of silver and gold, sometimes of a series of jewels, sometimes of coral, CJi;!?, Num. 31: 50. Exod. 35: 22. Three necklaces were commonly worn, one reach- ing lower than the other; from the one, that was suspended to the waist, there was hung a bottle of perfume, filled with amber and musk, called in Isa. 3: 20, ttJSJ "ipia . Half-moons also of silver and gold were suspended in this way, as may be inferred from the 144 § 133. PUKSE AND NAPKIN. G o ^ word oisHnb itself comp. -_^ w . With these the Arabians orna- mented the necks of their camels, Isa. 3: 18. Judg. 8: 21, 26. § 131. Amulets, nisaio. The orientals, from the earliest ages, have believed in the influ- ence of the stars, in incantations, and other magic arts. To defend themselves against them, they wore amulets, which consisted of pre- cious stones, gems, gold, and sometimes of pieces of parchment, writ- ten over with some inscription. The small gold effigies of serpents, Dianb , which the Hebrew women carried about in their hands, were amulets, and like the others, while they served to keep ofi' in- cantations, served none the less for ornament, Isa. 3: 20. Exod. 38: 8. § 132. MiRROKS, nwa, ixn. Mirrors were made of molten brass polished ; hence they were called ft'^s'T'is or shining. In Job 37: 18, the heavens are compared to a molten mirror. The ladies carried their mirrors in their hands. Their chambers were not ornamented with them, but the chamber doors latterly were made of a polished stone, in which objects might be obscurely seen, 1 Cor. 13: 12. § 133. Purse and Napkin. A man's girdle fulfilled for him all the purposes of a purse. The purse of a lady, which was made of solid metal, sometimes of pure gold, and fashioned like a cone with a border of rich cloth at the top, was suspended from the girdle which she wore ; these purses were called in Hebrew Di-jiin , Isa. 3: 22. 2 Kings 5: 23. Both sexes either wore napkins attached to their girdle, or bore them upon the hand or left arm; those of the rich and powerful were valuable and ornamented with embroidery. They were frequently employed to carry things in, and were wrapped around the heads of those who had departed from life, Luke 19: 20. John 11: 44. The aprons so called in Acts 19: 12, were a sort of napkin, which were placed around the neck for the purpose of receiving the sweat. § 135. DEESS AT FESTIVALS, ETC. 145 § 134. Painting and Branding ob Sealing. Various kinds of painting have been practised by all nations in all ages. It is our object, bowev.eV, at the present time, only fc speak of that mode of painting, which in the Bible is denominated Tjia, and in the Arabic Jlsxj . The principal material used in this mode of painting, the object of which is to communicate a dark tint to the eyebrows, is a sort of black lead, which is found to be used throughout all the East as far as India. It is applied to the eye- brows by a silver instrument, so as to give them the appearance of being very long, which is esteemed a great ornament, 2 Kings 9: 30. Jer. 4: 30. Ezek. 23: 40. The paint, which is prepared from the ashes of the plant Alkanet, and which is used by oriental matrons to communicate a yellow color to the arms and feet, and a tint of red- ness to the nails, though verj' ancient, is not mentioned in the Bible ; a mere allusion to it occurs in Jer. 2: 22, under the word ^nsi. The red paint in use among the Roman matrons, which was spread upon the idols on festival days, is mentioned in the book of Wisdom, 13: 14. A custom, which prevailed in the East anciently, and which is connected with this subject, has been perpetuated in that region even to our day ; viz. that whoever visited a temple should either de- vote himself to some god, or brand the image of the temple or the name of the god on his right arm. This custom as far as concerned the Hebrews was interdicted in Lev. 19: 28, but the words 'branding,' ' marking,' and ' sealing,' frequently occur with a tropical signification, Gal. 6: 17. Eph. 1: 13. Rev. 7: 4, 8. 14: 1—5. 13: 17, 18. Ezek. 9: 2—12. § 135. Dkess at Festivals and on Occasions op Mourning. The festival dress was very splendid ; it was white, and as often as the festival returned, was newly washed and perfumed with myrrh, cassia, and aloes, Gen. 27: 27. Ps. 45: 8. Cant. 4: 11. It was worn on the festivals of the family, of the state, and of religion, but when the festival was over, it was laid aside. The splendid garments of festivals were denominated in Hebrew JifeMn rtasa , ujn'p I'lnti, etc. Vast expense was bestowed upon them both as respected their quality and number, 2 Kings 5: 5. Matt. 10: 10. James 13 146 § 135. DRESS AT FESTIVALS, ETC. 5: 2. The mourning dress, Hebrew pb or sackcloth, is well known. It was in truth a sack, which was thrown over the person and ex- tended down to the knees, but which, nevertheless, had arm-holes for the admission of the arms. It derives its name from the Arabic verb, (3^11 to tear asunder, because in the moment of the person's grief it was torn from the neck down to the breast, and sometimes as far as the girdle. The materials were a coarse dark cloth of goat's hair. Job 16; 15. Jonah 3: 5. Note. — In the book of Leviticus, 13: 47 — 59, we are infonned of the leprosy of garments in the following terms : " the garment also, that the plague of leprosy is in, whether it be a woollen garment or a linen garment, whether it he «Vi the warp or woof whether in a skin, or anything made of shin," etc. The marks or indications of the exist- ence and nature of this leprosy are also stated with some particularity in the verses referred to. What this plague, as it is termed, was, it is difficult to state with much certainty, since the conjectures, which the learned have hazarded in regard to it, are by no means satisfac- tory. Without doubt the Hebrews had observed certain destructive effects wrought upon clothing, whether made of wool or cotton, or leather, and not understanding their origin or their nature, they chose to call them from certain resemblances as much apparent as real, the corroding plague or leprosy, rrnNaa r^J'Tl^. Altogether the most probable conjecture in regard to these effects is, that they were merely the depredations of certain little insects, which could not be seen by tbe naked eye. The Hebrews without doubt, considered the clothes' leprosy, as they termed'it, contagious, and consequently a se- rious and fearful evil. This opinion was the ground of the rigid laws, which are laid down in respect to it in Leviticus 12: 47 — 5('. 147 CHAPTER IX. CONCERNING FOOD AND FEASTS. § 136. Of Food in general. At first, men lived upon the fruits of trees, upon herbs, roots, and seeds, and whatever else they could find in the vegetable king- dom, that might conduce to the support of life, all which was ex- pressed in Hebrew by the word cni , in the broadest sense of the word, Gen. 1: 29. 2: 16. Afterwards a method was invented to bruise grain, and to reduce it to a mass, to ferment it, and bake it, and thus to make Iread, which is also expressed by Dtib, in the more limited sense of the word. Still later, not only water, but milk, oil, and honey, were mingled with the meal, and bread was made of a richer and more valuable kind. Even so early as the time of Abraham, the art of preparing bread was carried to some degree of perfection. Before the deluge the flesh of animals was convert- ed into food, as may be inferred from the division of animals into clean and unclean. Gen. 7: 2, 8 ; after the deluge animals are ex- pressly mentioned, as being slain for food. Gen. 9: 3 — 6. But meat is not so palatable and nutritious in warm climates as in others, and fruits, consequently, bread, olives, and milk, are the customary food. § 137. Preparation of Food by Fire. Originally food of every kind was eaten without being cooked, because there was no fire. If there had been fire, it would have been of no consequence in this case, seeing that its use in the preparation of food was unknown. Men were undoubtedly taught by chance to roast flesh and eventually to boil it. It was found so much more agreeable, when prepared in this way, that men were careful not to let the fire, which they had now found, be- come extinguished. Their method of obtaining fire was, to elicit sparks by the collision of stone and flint, or by the friction of pieces 148 § 138. OF MILLS. of wood, and afterwards to excite a blaze. This method of obtaining fire was very ancient, as we may learn from the etymology of the word mjj, Isa. 60: 11. 64: 1. § 138. Of Mills. Corn was eaten at first without any preparation of it at all ; the custom of thus eating it had not gone into total desuetude in the time of Christ, Matt. 12: 1. Lev. 2: 12. Deut. 23: 25. After the uses of fire were known, it was parched. Parching it became so common, that the words ■'^)5 , ^'k'^} and Kib;; , which properly mean parched, mean also corn or meal, 2 Sam. 17: 28. Lev. 2: 12, 14. Eutli 2: 14, 18. Some, who found a difficulty in mastication, broke to pieces the kernels of corn with stones or pieces of wood ; this suggested the idea of mortars, and eventually of mills. The mortar, nziT!? , rF)3^ , was used in the time of Moses for bruising corn, also the mill, firiB, Num. 11: 8. Fine meal, i. e. corn or grain gi'ound or beaten fine, is spoken of as far back as the time of Abraham, Gen. 18: 6 ; hence mills and mortars must have been known before his time. The mill common among the Hebrews, scarcely differed at aU from that, which is used at this day in Egypt and the East. It con- sisted of two circular stones, two feet in diameter and half a foot thick. The lower one was called innn and nbs , Deut. 24: 6. Job 41: 15, 16; it exhibited a slight rise or elevation on the centre, and was fixed in the floor. The upper one was called as'i , Judg. 9: 53 ; was movable, and in order to make it fit precisely to the nether one, was slightly hollowed. In the middle of it was a hole, through which the corn to be ground was admitted. The upper stone had a handle attached to it, by which it was moved upon the lower, and the corn and grain were in this way broken. There were sieves attached to the mill, which separated the flour from the bran ; the bran was put into the mill again and ground over. The sieves were made of reeds ; those made of horse-hair were a later invention, not earlier than the time of Pliny. § 240. BAKING BREAD IN AN OVEN. 149 § 139. Grinding. Since there were neither public mills nor bakers, except the king's, Gen. 40: 2. Hos. 7: 4 — 10, each one by consequence owned a mill himself; hence it was made an infringement of the law, for a person to take another's mill or millstone, as a pledge, Deut. 24: 6, for without his mill, there being no public ones, he would have been in a bad situation. At first barley alone was ground, but af- terwards wheat more commonly, as the poor alone used barley. Barley bread answers better in the warm climate of the East, than among us. On the second day it becomes insipid and rough to the palate; and this is the case also in warm climates with wheat bread. Hence the necessity of baking every day, and hence also the daily grinding at the mills about evening. The sound of the millstones, probably at this time, is spoken of by the prophet, Jer. 25: 10. The mill was commonly turned by two pei'sons, the low- est maid-servants. They sat opposite to each other, facing, the one on one side, the other on the other side. One took hold of the miU handle and impelled it half way round ; the other then seized it and completed its revolution, Exod. 11: 5. Job 31: 10, 11. Isa. 47: 2. Matt. 24: 41. The labor was severe and menial ; frequently enemies, taken in war, were condemned to perform it, Judg. 16: 21. Lam. 5: 13. § 140. Baking Bread in an Oven. The business of baking was peiformed anciently by women, however high their stations, Gen. 18: 6. Lev. 26: 26. 2 Sam. 13. 6, 8. Jer. 7: 18, 19. When luxury afterwards prevailed among them, the matrons and their daughters gave it up to their maids, 1 Sam. 8: 13. These maids were so numerous in the palace of David, that a portion of bread, etc. was distributed to them, the same as to a large multitude of men, 2 Sam. 6: 19. In Egypt there were king's bakers very early; they make their appearance in Palestine also, but at a much later period, Hos. 7: 4 — 7. Jer. 37: 21. Kneading troughs were a sort of wooden trays, in which the flour, being mingled with water, was reduced to a solid mass, and 13* 150 § 140. BAKING BKEAD IN AN OVEN. after remaining a little time,' was kneaded, some leaven being add- ed to it, Exod. 12: 34. Deut. 28: 5, 17. In case it was necessary to prepare the bread very hastily, the leaven was left out. Gen. 18: 6. 19: 3. Judg. 6: 19. 1 Kings 17: 12. Exod. 12: 15, 34. 13: 3, 7. Lev. 2: 11. Deut. 16: 3. Amos 4: 5. The cakes when made were round, Dili ni-i33, Judg. 8: 5, and nine or ten inches in diameter. The unleavened cakes were not thicker than a knife, but the leavened were as thick as a man's little finger. The bread was not cut with a knife but broken, Hebrew b'^a, Isa. 58: 7. Lam. 4: 4. Matt. 14: 19. 15: 36. 26: 26. Of ovens or places for baking there are four kinds ; L The mere sand, heated by a fire, which was subsequently removed. The raw cakes were placed upon it ; in a little while they were turned, and afterwards, to complete the process, were covered with warm ashes and coals. Unless they were turned, they were not thoroughly baked. This explains Hos. 7: 8. The ashes or coal-baked cakes so called, Hebrew nis" , were prepared in this way, Gen. 18: 6. 19: 3. 1 Kings 19: 6. II. The second sort of oven was an excavation in the earth, two and a half feet in diameter, of diiferent depths from five to six feet, as we may suppose from those which still exist in Persia. This sort of oven occurs under the word Q'^'i'^B, and in Lev. 11: 35, is mention- ed in connection with the word ^isn . The bottom is paved with stones ; when the oven is sufficiently warmed, the fire is taken away, the cakes are placed upon the warm stones, and the mouth of the oven is shut. III. A movable oven, called "il2n, which was besmeared within and without with clay, being constructed of brick. A fire was kin- dled within it, and the dough was placed upon the side, where it baked, and was called ~i!isn nsxa , Lev. 2: 4. IV. A plate of iron, placed upon three stones ; the fire was kindled beneath it, and the raw cakes placed on the upper sur- face. The cake baked in this way is perhaps the riaiia, men- tioned in Lev. 2: 5. 6: 14. Not only leavened, and unleavened cakes were baked in these ovens, but other kinds, which it is not neces- sary to mention. "VVe shall have to pass by the rest of the culinary apparatus. § 141. ON THE DIFFEBENT KINDS OF FOOD. 151 § 141. On the diffeeent kinds of food. Cooking, bii'S , was done by the matron of the family, unless, when intent on the adorning of her person, she thought proper to commit it to the maid. Vegetables, lentils especially, which are greatly esteemed even to this day among the Orientals, were the principal food, Gen. 25: 30, 34 ; cakes also mixed with honey, were frequent- ly used, Ezek. 16: 13. Flesh was not served up, except when a stranger was present, and on the occasion of a feast. Gen. 18: 7. Deut. 15: 20. Luke 15: 23. The Orientals at the present day are very sparing in the use of flesh ; too long an abstinence from it, however, produces a great appetite for it, and generates a disease 0--- also, which is known among the Arabians under the word |»/-9i Num. 11: 4, 12. As luxury increased, the flesh of animals began to be more used for food ; venison and the meat of the " fatted calf," were peculiarly esteemed, also of fatted oxen, Gen. 18: 7. 41: 2. 1 Sam. 16: 20. 28: 24. 2 Sam. 6: 13. The flesh of the sheep and goat kind, particularly of lambs and kids, were esteemed the choicest dish of any, and it was for the estimation in which they were held on this account, that they were so much used in sacrifices. In the most ancient a^es the animal to be slain was taken by the master, of the family himself, although he were a prince, and was slain. The cookin" also was done by his wife, though she were a princess. Gen. 18: 2 6. Judcr. 6: 19. The process of cooking seems to have been very expeditiously performed, Gen. 27: 3, 4, 9, 10. All the flesh of the slain animal, owing to the difiiculty of preserving it in a warm climate uncorrupted, was commonly cooked at once. This is the custom at the present day, although the art of dicing and preserving it by the sun is known among the Nomades. The flesh when cook- ed was divided into small pieces, and a sauce was prepared for it of broth and vegetables, in Hebrew p^a , Judg. 6: 19, 20. Isa. 64: L 152 § 142. OF BOASTING. § 142. Op Boasting, nis , nsx . Eoasting was the earliest method of preparing the flesh of ani- mals ; it seems to have been discovered at first by chance, as al- ready observed, and became in time a favorite method of cook- ing. The Nomades of the present day, following a very ancient custom, divide the flesh to be roasted into small pieces, salt it, and fix it upon a wooden spit. They turn one part of it to the fire, and when this is roasted, turn the other. Fowls are roasted whole on a spit, which revolves in two or more crotched sticks, placed on the ground on each side of the fire. When sheep and lambs are to be roasted whole, they thrust a sharp stick through from the tail to the head of the animal, another transversely through the fore feet, and roast it in the oven described in section 140. No. n. ; which mode of roasting is expressed in Arabic by the verb ^_;J»ifl , meaning to crucify. In the countries of the East, locusts are frequently roasted for the use of the common people. Their wings and feet are taken off and their intestines extracted; they are salted, fixed upon a sharp piece of wood, placed over the fire, and at length eaten. They are likewise prepared by boiling them. In summer they are dried and ground, and bread is made of them. Sometimes they are salted and preserved in bottles, and as occasion requires, are cut in pieces and eaten. Lev. 11: 22. Matt. 3: 4. Some species of locusts are esteemed noxious, and are, therefore, reckoned among the unclean animals. Lev. 11: 22. The Heb. word, D'^ibia, [rendered in the English version qwaik,] is not to be regarded as a name for any species of locusts for lib is to this day in the East the name of a migratory bird of the quail kind. They come over the waters of the ocean, and being weary descend in great num- bers on Arabia Petrea, so as to be easily taken by the hands, Diod. Sic. L 61. Niebuhr's Travels, Part L p. 176. The flesh of these birds is less esteemed on account of their living in a measure upon grasshoppers. Num. 11: 32. Note. — The use of salt is very ancient, see Num. 18: 19, com- pared with 2 Chron. 13: 5. In Exod. 30: 35, a kind of salt called pure salt is distinguished from common salt. Among the orientals § 143. INTERDICTED FOOD. 153 salt is the symbol of inviolable friendship ; ' a covenant of salt,' ac- cordingly, means an everlasting or perpetual covenant. It is used tropically for wisdom, and for preservation, Mark 9: 49, 50. Coloss. 4: 6, and salt that has lost its savor, on the contrary, for folly, Matt. 5: 13. § 143. Interdicted Food. Some sorts of food were interdicted to the Hebrews; some ani- mals being unclean according to the Mosaic law, such, for instance, as were actually unpalatable and noxious, or were esteemed so ; others being set apart for the altar, certain parts of which it was consequently not lawful to eat. The object of interdicting so many sorts of food, was to prevent the Hebrews from eating with the Gen- tiles, or frequenting their idolatrous feasts, by means of which they might, and probably would, have been seduced to idolatry. They are reckoned unclean. I. Quadrupeds, which do not ruminate, or have cloven feet. n. Serpents, and creeping insects ; also certain insects which sometimes fly and sometimes advance upon their feet. TTT. Certain species of birds, many of the names of which are ob- scure. rV. Fishes without scales ; also those without fins. V. All food, all liquids standing in a vessel, and all wet seed, into which the dead body of any unclean insect had fallen. "Water in cisterns, wells, and fountains, could not be contaminated in this way, Lev. 11: 1—38. VI. All food and liquids, which stood in the tent or chamber of a dying or dead man, remaining meanwhile in an uncovered vessel, Num. 19: 15. Vn. Everything which was consecrated by any one to idols or gods, Exod. 34: 15. It was this prohibition which in the primitive church occasioned certain dissensions, which Paul frequently remarks upon, especially in 1 Cor. 8: 10. Vin. The kid boiled in the milk of its mother, Exod. 23: 19. 34: 26. Deut. 14: 21. The reason of this law is somewhat obscure. Whether there was some superstition on the subject, or whether it was meant as a lesson on humanity to animals, or whether it is to be understood as a tacit commendation of oil in preference to 154 § 144 BEVEKAGE. butter and milk, is not clear. The consecrated animal substance which it was not lawful to eat, was, I. Blood, Lev. 3: 9, 10, 17. 7: 26, 27. 17: 10—14 19: 26. Deut. 12: 16, 23, 25. 15: 23. n. An animal which died of itself, or was torn to pieces by wild beasts, in as much as the blood remained in the body, Exod. 22: 31. Deut 14: 21. in. The fat covering the intestines, the large lobe of the liver, the kidneys and the fat upon them, Exod. 29: 13, 22. Lev. 3: 4, 10, 15. 4: 9. 9: 10, 19 ; also the fat tail of a certain class of sheep, in Heb. n;it<, Exod. 19: 22. Lev. 3: 9. 7: 3. 8: 26. 9: 19 ; all of which were devoted and set apart for the altar. The Hebrews abstained also from the haunches of animals ; the later Jews extended this absti- nence to the whole hind quarter. The custom originated from the account given in Gen. 32: 25, 32. § 144. Bevebage. The commonalty among the Mohammedans drink water; the rich and noble drink a beverage called sherbet, which was for- merly used only in Egypt, Gen. 40: 11, where ale or beer, ^v&og, olvoi XQi&ivog, was also used, though probably not so far back as the time of Moses. The orientals frequently used wine to such an extent as to occasion ebriety, from which circumstance many tropes are drawn, Isa. 5: 11—22. 28: 1—11. 49: 26. Jer. 8: 14 9: 14. 16: 48. Deut. 32: 42. Ps. 78: 65, etc. Wine, although in East- ern climates it is very rich, was at times mixed with spices, espe- cially myrrh, and this mixture was sometimes denominated from a Hebrew word, which signifies mixed. But the word in question, viz. ii!ina, for the most part, means a wine diluted with water, which was given to the buyer instead of good wine, and was con- sequently used tropically for any kind of adulteration, Isa. 1: 22. 2 Cor. 2: 17. Wine in the East was frequently diluted after it was bought, as we may infer from the fact, that two Arabic verbs still remain which indicate the dilution of this beverage. The words are \n « or joy, is sometimes put for a feast. Matt. 25: 21, 23. As many of the Hebrew feasts were the re- mains of sacrifices, the guests were required to be pure or clean, to which a reference is made in various allegories and tropes, Ezek. 39; 16, 20. Isa, 34: 4. Eev. 19: 17, 18. § 149 HOSPITALITY OF THE ORIENTALS. 159 § 149. Hospitality of the Oeientals. In the primitive ages of the world there were no public inns, or taverns. In those days the voluntary exhibition of hospitality to one, who stood in need of it, was highly honorable. The glory of an open hearted and generous hospitality continued even after public inns were erected, and continues even to this day in the East, Job 22: 7. 31: 17. Gen. 18: 3—9. 19: 2—10. Exod. 2: 20. Judg. 19: 2— 10. Acts 16: 15. 17: 7. 28: 7. Matt. 25: 35. Mark 9: 41. Eom. 12: 13. 1 Tim. 3: 2. 5: 10. Heb. 13: 2. Hence not only the Nomades or wandering shepherds hospitably receive among themselves stran- gers, but there are also persons in cities who go about the streets and offer to each one, whom they meet, water freely, which is a great favor in the hot countries of the East ; this liberality customa- rily meets with some little reward, Matt. 10: 42. Mark 9: 41. The high spirit of honor, that is characteristic of the orientals, is exhibited in a custom, which prevails to this day. If a man receii^e another, though he be a robber, into his house, if he eat with him even a crust of bread, he is bound to treat him as a friend, to defend him even at the hazard of his own life, unless he is willing to meet with the scorn and contempt of all his countrymen. Gen. 19: 1 — 9. Josh. 2: 1 — 6. 9: 19. Judg. 4: 17 — 22. An allusion is made to this cus- tom in Ps. 41: 9. 91: 1. 119: 19. 2 Sam. 12: 3. Luke 7: 34. John 13: 18. comp. Hiad VI. 210—231. The feet of the guests, as before observed, were washed ; whence washing of feet also is used as a symbol of hospitality, Gen. 18: 4. John 13: 5. 1 Tim. 5: 10. 160 J CHAPTER X. ON THE STATE OF DOMESTIC SOCIETY. § 160. Precautions against Fornication. Both polygamy and fornication were condemned by that pri- meval institution, which, in order to secure the propagation of the species, joined in marriage one man and one woman. Gen. 1: 27, 28. The old and pious patriarchs religiously observed this institution. But before the time of Moses, morals had become very much corrupted, and not only the prostitution of females, but of boys, was very common among many nations, and even made a part of th(! divine worship as indeed may be inferred from the words, llJ^ij , a prostitute boy, and iic'ip , the feminine of it, which properly and originally mean a person religiously set apart and con- secrated to the flagitious vice in question. To prevent these evils to which the Greek and Roman philosophers refused in progress of time to oppose any decided resistance, Moses made the following regulations, I. That among the Israelites no prostitute, neither male nor fe- male, should be tolerated, and that if the daughter of a priest espe- cially, were guilty of whoredom, she should be stoned and her body burnt, Lev. 21: 9 ; because these things, as Moses observes in Lev. 19: 29. Deut. 23: 18, 19, were a great abomination in the sight of God. Further, for fear that some priests of low and avaricious minds should, in imitation of other nations, make crimes of this kind a part of the divine worship, he enacted, II. That the price of whoredom, though presented in return for a vow, should not be received at the sanctuary, Deut. 23: 19. This law it seems was sometimes violated in the times of the kings, 2 Kings 23: 6, 7. To stop the evil at the commencement, he enact- ed likewise, III. That the man, who had seduced a female, should marry her, and in case the father would not consent, should pay the cus- § 151. POLYGAMY. 161 tomary dowry, viz. thirty shekels ; in case violence had been of- fered, fifty shelvels, Exod. 22: 16. Deut. 22: 23—29. This law seems to have originated in an ancient custom alluded to in Gen. 34: 1 — 12. Finally, to secure the great object, he enacted, IV. That a person who when married was not found to be a vir- gin, as she professed before marriage, should be stoned before her father's house, Deut, 22: 20, 21. These laws it must be admitted, were severe, but prostitutes of both sexes, notwithstanding their se- verity, were set apart in the time of the kings for the service of idols, Prov. 2: 16—19. 5: 3—6. 7: 5—27. Amos 2: 7. 7: 17. Jer. 3: 2. 5: 7. 1 Kings 14: 24. 15: 12, etc. / § 151. Polygamy. By the same primeval institution, just now referred to, polygamy was also foi-bidden. Lamech is the first mentioned, as having two wives, and the example which he set, found no lack of imitators, see Gen. 4: 19, compared with Matt. 19: 4 — 8. After the deluge the example of Noah and his sons was a good one, but it was not follow- ed. Polygamy very much prevailed among the Hebrews in the time of Moses, as we may gather from the fact, that the first born of six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men, above twenty years of age, amounted merely to the number of twenty-two thousand three hundred and seventy-three. Num. 3: 42. That this evil might in progress of time be diminished, Moses gave a narration, how the institution originally stood, Gen. 1: 27, 28. 2: 23, 24 ; stated the first transgression of it. Gen. 4: 29, and the inconveniences, which had subsequently resulted from having a pluralit}^ of wives, Gen. 16: 4 — 10. 30: 1 — 3, 15 ; evils, which travellers in eastern countries assure us are very great. n. He interdicted to the kings, whom the Hebrews should tliere- after elect, a multiplicity of wives. It is true he did not say pre- cisely how many they should have, but probably meant the number should be limited by the custom of his time. Perhaps, therefore, the number was four, which is the exposition, advanced by the Rab- bins and Mohammedans, and is in a measure supported by the exam- ple of Jacob, Deut. 17: 17. m. He obligated the husband to bestow himself at certain vimes upon each one of his wives, Exod. 21: 10, 11, compared 14* 162 § 152. THE CHOICE OF A "WIFE. with Gen. 30: 14 — 16, perhaps a week at a time upon each, as is the custom to this day in the East. He excepted, however, the sea- son of the menses, when sexual intercourse was prohibited on penalty of punishment with death, either because the offspring of such inter- course was supposed to be leprous, or for some other reason it was deemed injurious, IV. The uncleanness, contracted by sexual connection, continued through a whole day, Lev. 15: 18. Under these circumstances, a man could not well have more than four wives ; and in progress of time polygamy was much diminished. ^ § 152. The Choice op a Wife. The father of a family selected wives for his sons, and husbands for his daughters, Gen. 21: 21. 24: 31. Exod. 21: 9. Deut. 22: 16. Judg. 14: 1 — 4. If a son had a preference for any person as his wife, he asked his father to obtain her from her father. Gen. 34: 2 — 5. Judg. 14: 1, 2. We may therefore, well conclude, that the ex- pressions in Jer. 31: 22, and Isa. 4: 1, 2, are descriptive of a very great scarcity of men. But the father could not marry the daughter without the consent of the brothers. Gen. 24: 50. 34: 11 — 27. 2 Sam. 13: 20—29. comp. Gen. 12: 11—13. 20: 2—6. 26: 7—17. The re- straints, by which the fathers of families were limited in making choice of wives for their children, are mentioned in Lev. 18; 7 — 18. 20: 11 — 20. Intermarriages, moreover, were prohibited with the Canaanites, for fear that the Hebrews should be seduced to idolatry, Exod. 34: 15, 16. Deut. 7: 3. The law was extended by Ezra and Nehemiah to intermarriages with all foreigners, on the ground that there was as much danger of contamination from other nations in their time, as there was from the Canaanites anciently, Ezra 9: 2— 12. 10: 3. Neh. 13: 23. It was not lawful for a priest to marry a prostitute, a divorced, or a profane woman, and in the case of a high- priest the interdiction was extended to widows, and to women of for- eign extraction. Lev. 21: 7, 13, 14. Daughters, who through a want ■of brothers were heiresses to an estate, were commanded to marry some one of their own tribe, and indeed some kinsman, if possible, ■of more or less remote relationship, lest the estate should go to an- other tribe or family, Num. 27: 1 — 11. 36: 1 — 12. >^ § 153. THE MAREIAGE VOAV AND DOWET. 163 § 153. The Marriage Vow and Dowry. The marriage vow, to'nx , was a covenant between the father and the brothers of the bride, and the father of the bridegroom, made in the presence of witnesses. At a somewhat recent period, the covenant was submitted to writing, and was sometimes confirmed by the additional precaution of an oath, Prov. 2: 17. Ezek. 16: 8. Mai. 2: 14. A reference seems to have been had to this oath in the nup- tial sacrifices, of which mention is made by Josephus, Antiq. IV. 8. 23. By the marriage vow or covenant, not only the wedlock was confirmed, but the amount of presents was determined, which was to be given to the brothers ; and also the dowry, ina , which went to the father, for the bride formerly was estimated at a certain price, Gen. 29: 18, 27. 34: 11, 12. Josh. 15: 16. 1 Sam. 18: 23—26, which varied according to circumstances. In the time of Moses the medium estimation was thirty shekels, and the highest fifty, Deut. 22: 29. comp. Hos. 3: 1, 2. Wives, who were thus purchased, were too apt to be regarded as mere servants by their husbands, though there are not wanting instances, where they obtained the ascendency and reduced their husbands to subjection, 1 Sam. 25: 19 — 30. 1 Kings 11: 2 — 5. 19: 1, 2. 21: 7, 8. The honor, which is now rendered to the female sex, originates from the instructions of the apostles, and the only fear is, lest it should become too great, Eph. 5: 25 — 33. 1 Peter 3: 7. The wife, who was freely given up by her father, without his re- ceiving for her any pecuniary compensation, was the more highly esteemed, and being herself conscious of her dignity, she arrogated not a little in her own behalf. Gen. 16: 5, 6. 21: 9 — 11. comp. 31: 15. Some obtained a wife, as the reward of their bravery. Josh. 15: 15 — 19. Judg. 1: 15. 1 Sam. 18: 24 — 27 ; and it was sometimes, though rarely the case, that the bride, instead of being purchased by the bridegroom, received a dowry from her father. Josh. 15: 18, 19. Judg. 1: 16, 17. 1 Engs 9: 16. 164 § 154. CELEBRATION OF NUPTIALS. N^ § 154. Celebration of Nuptials. There was commonly an interval of ten or twelve months, be- tween the time when the agreement to marry was made, and the time when the marriage was celebrated. Gen. 24: 55. Judg. 14: 8, From the time of the agreement till its consummation by mar- riage, although there was no intercourse between the bride and bridegroom, not even so much as an interchange of conversation, they were, nevertheless, considered and spoken of as man and wife. If at the close of this probationary period, the bridegroom were unwilling for any cause to solemnize his engagements by the marriage of tl.c bride, he was bound to give her a bill of^divorce, the same as if she had been his wife. If the bride on the contrary should be convicted of having any illicit intercourse with any person between the period of the promise and its consummation, she was condemned to be stoned, the same as if she had been married, Matt, 1: 18—20. Luke 2: 5. "When the day of marriage had arrived, the bride, having pre- viously visited the bath, adorned herself very richly with the choicest of those ornaments, which are considered appropriate to the women. Her head was encircled with a crown ; a fact, which is a sufficient reason of itself, why n|3 , which primarily means a person that is croiimed, should possess the secondary signification of bride. It was the duty of the bridegroom to see that. a feast was made ready on the occasion, and in case he was a person of wealth, it was customarily prolonged through the week, Judg. 14: 17. About evening, the bridegroom, clothed in the festival robe, Isa. 19: 10, attended with a company of young men of about the same age, 01 viol Tov tvficpcovog, and cheered with songs and instrumen- tal music, conducted from her father's house the bride, who was in like manner surrounded with virgins of her own age to Ms father's house, Judg. 14: 11—16. 1 Mac. 9: 37—47. John 3: 29. comp. Jer. 7: 34. 25: 10. 33: 11. In the time of Christ, whenever the bride was conducted by the bridegroom and his attendants to the house of the bridegroom's father, in case it was evening, the way before them was lighted up by the second sort of flambeaux, that are mentioned in the fortieth section ; as we learn not only from the statement in the Talmud, but also from intimations in § 155. CONCUBINES, 165 Matt. 25: 1 — 10. Having arrived at the place, where the nup- tials were to be celebrated, the men began to indulge themselves in feasting and conviviality; while the women, who were assem- bled in an apartment appropriated to themselves, were equally- prompt in partaking of the feast, and in the exhibition of their gaiety and cheerfulness. At length the nuptial blessing, viz. a numerous oifspring, was implored upon the parties concerned. Gen. 24: 60. Ruth 4: 11, 12 ; a ceremony, which, simple and concise as it was, appears anciently to have been the only one, that was per- formed at the consummation of the marriage. At a later period, there were probably some additional ceremonies, for we read in Tobit 7: 15, that the father took the right hand of his beautiful daughter, and placed it on the right hand of young Tobias, before he uttered his solemn and impressive blessing. The spouse, who to this time had been veiled from head to foot, was at last led into the bed chamber, nsiti . TJBINES, D'iu5S^''Q , TO^iS . The ceremonies, mentioned in the preceding section, took place only in case of the marriage of a wife properly so caEed. Concubines, (some of whom had previously acted in the humble capacity of maid servants, and others were females who had pos- sessed their freedom,) were sometimes permanently associated by mutual consent with individuals of the other sex ; but, although this connection was in fact a marriage, and a legitimate one, it was not, nevertheless, celebrated and confirmed by the ceremonies above related. The concubine thus associated had a right to claim the privileges of a vrife ; and it was no longer in the power of her hus- band to dispose of her by public sale, even if she had previously been his slave, Deut. 20: 10 — 12. In order to prevent worse consequences, FATHERS frequently gave concubines to their sons ; and, whenever this was the case, they were bound by the laws of the state to treat them with the same tenderness, that they would a daughter or a daughter in law, Exod. 21: 9 — 12. If a woman were made captive in war, she was allowed a month, as a period in which she was at liberty to mourn the loss of her parents and friends; and neither father nor son was permitted to take her as a concubine, till the ex- piration of that time Deut. 20: 10 — 14. 166 § 157. makeiage, etc. § 156. Fetjitfulness in the Marriage State. This was greatly desired. A large number of offspring was con- sidered an instance of the divine favor of the highest kind. Sons were generally more desired than daughters, because they transmit- ted the name of the father in genealogies. Sterility was looked upon, not only as a ground of great reproach, especially to wives, but as a punishment from God, 1 Sam. 1: 6, 7. Ps. 127: 3—5. 128: 4. Hos. 8: 14. Prov. 12: 6. Eccles. 6: 3. Hai'dly less reproach was attached to a life of celibacy, and no prospect, accordingly, was more unpropitious and forbidding to vir- gins, than that of living and dying unwed and childless, Gen. 16: 2—14. 19: 30—32. 30: 13. Isa. 4: 1. 47: 9. In such a state of things, barren wives thought it expedient to make use of various means to produce or to increase fruitfulness. Gen. 30: 15, 16. Cant. 7: 18. They even offered their maids to their husbands, whose off- spring they adopted, Gen. 16: 1 — 3. 30: 1 — 18. § 157. Marriage of a Childless Brother's Widow. ^ There was 'an ancient law, existing prior to the time of Moses, Gen. 38: 8 — 12, to this effect. If in any case the husband died without issue, leaving a widow ; the brother of the deceased, or the nearest male relation, htfA, was bound to marry (oa'^) the widow, to give to the first-born son the name of the deceased kinsman, to insert his name in the genealogical register, and to deliver into his possession the estate of the deceased. This peculiar law is technically denominated the Lemrate law, and had its origin with- out doubt in that strong desire of offspring, which has been men- tioned in the preceding section. Moses was aware, that the Levi- RATE Law was in some respects pernicious ; but when he recollect- ed the feeling which was at the bottom of it, and the importance of that feeling being cherished, he did not think proper to abolish it. While, therefore, he did not withhold from it his sanction, and thought proper to make it one of the permanent laws of the Jew- ish state, he reduced it within certain limits, and thereby rendered the injurious consequences as small as possible. He, accordingly, enacted, that wlioever was unwilling to marry the wife of his decea.«» § 158. CONCERNING ADULTERY. 167 ed kinsman, might decline it in the presence of judges, in case he would allow the woman the privilege of taking off his shoes, of spit- ting in his face, and of addressing him with the discreditable salu- tation of unshod, an appellation, which in effect would be the same with stigmatizing him, as the destroyer of Ms father's house, Deut. 25: 5 — 10. The disgrace, which would be the consequence of such treatment from the widow, was not so great, but a person, who was determined not to marrj, would dare to encounter it, Kuth 4: 7, 8. Matt. 22: 23—28. § 158. Concerning Adultery. In those countries where polygamy prevails, the sentiment in re- spect \a the perpetration of adultery is this. If a married man has criminal intercourse with a married woman, or with one promised in marriage, or with a widow expecting to be married with a brother in law, it is accounted adultery. If he is guilty of such intercourse with a woman who is unmarried, it is considered fornication, di5!i:t . Adultery, even before the time of Moses, Gen. 38: 24, was reckon- ed a crime of a very heinous nature, and was accordingly punished. In Egypt the nose of the adulteress, in Persia the nose and ears were cut off, Ezek. 23: 25. In the penal code of Moses the punishment annexed to this crime was that of death, but the mode of being put to death is not particularly mentioned, because it was known from custom, Lev. 20: 10. It was not, however, as the Talmudists contend, strangvlation but stoning, as we may learn from various parts of Scripture, for instance Ezek. 16: 38, 40. John 8: 5, and as in fact Moses himself testifies, if we compare Exod. 31: 14. 35: 2, with Num. 15: 35, 36. If the adulteress were a slave, the persons guilty were both scourged with a leather-whip, trnjaa , the number of the blows not exceeding forty. The adulterer in this instance, in addition to the scourging, was subjected to the further penalty of bringing a trespass offering, viz. a ram, to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, to be offered in his behalf by the priest, Lev. 19: 20 — 22. 168 § 160. bill of divorce. § 159. The Suspected Wife. The power was given to the husband, who suspected his wife of infidelity, of exacting from her in the temple or tabernacle what may be termed the ordeal oath, Num. 5: 11 — 31. To this oath were attached such dreadful penalties, that a person really guilty certainly could not take it without betraying her criminality by some indica- tions, unless she possessed the extremity of hardihood. Moses ap- pears to have substituted this oath and the ceremonies attending it, instead of an ancient and pernicious custom, of which some traces still remain in Africa ; see Oldendorp's Geschichte der Mission, S. 266, 267. Dreadful as it was, there were not wanting wives, who set it at defiance ; licentiousness increased, and adulteries were mul- tiplied, especially in the later periods of the Jewish state. The Tal- mudists themselves state, Sota c. 9, that the law in regard to the suspected wife was abrogated as much as forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem. The reason they assign for it is, that the men themselves were at that period generally adulterers, and that God would not fulfil the horrid imprecations of the ordeal oath upon the wife alone, while the husband was guilty of the same crime, comp. John 8: 1—8. § 160. Bill of Divorce. As the ancient Hebrews paid a stipulated price for the privi- lege of marrying, they seemed to consider it the natural conse- quence of making a payment of that kind, that they should be at liberty to exercise a very arbitrary power over their wives, and to renounce or divorce them whenever they chose. This statf of things, as Moses himself very clearly saw, was not equitable as re- spected the woman, and was very often injurious to both parties. Finding himself, however, unable to overrule feelings and practices of very ancient standing, he merely annexed to the original institu- tion of marriage a very serious admonition to this effect, viz. that it would be less criminal for a man to desert his father and mother, than without adequate cause to desert his wife. Gen. 2: 14, com- pared with Mic. 2: 9, and Malaclji 2: 11—14. He also laid a re- striction upon the power of the husband as far as this, that he § 160. BILL OF DIVORCE. 169 would not permit him to repudiate the wife without giving her a bill of divorce. He further enacted in reference to this sub- ject, that the husband might receive the repudiated wife back, in fiase she had not in the mean while been married to another person ; but if she had been thus married, she could never afterwards become the wife of her first husband ; a law, which the faith due to the second husband clearly required, Deut. 24: 1 — 4. comp. Jer. 3: 1, and Matt. 1: 19. 19: 8. The inquiry, " What should be considered an adequate cause of divorce," was left by Moses to be determined by the husband him- self. He had liberty to divorce her, if he saw in her the nahedness of a thing, ns'n ni"ir , i. e. anything displeasing or improper, as may be learnt by comparing the same expressions in Deut. 23: 14, 15 ; anything so much at war with propriety, and a source of so much dissatisfaction, as to be, in the estimation of the husband, sufficient ground for separation. These expressions, however, were sharply contested as to their meaning in the later times of the Jewish nation. The school of Hillel contended, that the husband might lawfully put away the wife for any cause, even the smallest. The mistake com- mitted by the school of Hillel in taking this ground was, that they confounded moral and civil law. It is true, as far as the Mosaic sta- tute or the civil law was concerned, the husband had a right thus to do ; bui it is equally clear, that the ground of legal separation must have been, not a trivial, but a prominent and important one, when it is considered, that he was bound to consult the rights of the woman, and was amenable to his conscience and his God. The school of Shammai explained the phrase, nakedness op a thing, to mean actual advMe'ry. This interpretation of the phrase gives to the law a moral aspect, and assigns a reason, as the ground of divorce, of the truest moral nature ; but the truth is, that the phrase, in itself considered, will not bear this interpretation, and the law beyond question was designed to be merely a civil, and not a moral one. Jesus, who did not so much explain, as fill up the deficiencies of the Mosaic institutes, agreed with the school of Shammai as far as this, that the ground of divorce should be one of a moral nature, but he does not appeai; to have agreed with them in their opin- ion in respect to the Mosaic statute. On the contrary he denied the equity, the moral correctness of that statute, and in justification of 15 170 § 161. CHILDBIRTH. Moses maintained, that he suffered it to Ic sanctioned by his au- thority, only in consequence of the hardness of the people's hearts, Matt. 5: 31, 32. 19: 1—9. Mark 10: 2—12. Luke 16: 18. Wives, who were considered the property of their husbands did not en- joy by the Mosaic statutes a reciprocal right, and were not at liberty to dissolve the matrimonial alliance by giving a bill of di- vorce to that effect. In the later periods, however, of the Jewish state, the Jewish matrons, the more powerful of them at least, ap- pear to have imbibed the spirit of the ladies of Rome, and to have exercised in their own behalf the same power, that was granted by the Mosaic law to their husbands, Josephus, Antiq. XV. 7, 10, Mark 6: 17 — 29. 10: 12. In case the wife felt herself injured and aggrieved, we may infer, from the fact of the concubine's possessing that right, who had previously been a maid-servant, that the wife also possessed the right of obtaining a bill of divorce from a judge, Exod. 21: 10. § 161. Childbirth. In oriental countries childbirth is not an event of much diffi- culty, and mothers at such a season were originally the only assist- ants of their daughters, as any further aid was deemed unnecessary, Exod. 1: 19. In cases of more than ordinary difficulty, those ma- trons, who had acquired some celebrity for skill and expertness on occasions of this kind, were invited in ; and in this way there even- tually rose into notice that class of women denominated midwives. The child was no sooner born, than it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes, innii, Ezek. 16: 4. It was the custom at a very ancient period, for the father, while mu- sic in the meanwhile was heard to sound, to clasp the newborn child to his bosom, and by this ceremony he was understood to declare it to be his own. Gen. 50: 23. Job 3: 12. Ps. 22: 11. This practice was imitated by those wives, who adopted the children of their maids. Gen. 16: 2. 30: 3—5. The birthday of a son, especially, was made a festival, and on each successive year was celebrated with renewed demon- strations of festivity and joy, Gen. 40: 20. Job 1: 4. Matt. 14: 6, Herodot. I. 133. Cyropaed. I. 3, 9. The messenger, who brought the news of the birth of a son, was received with pleasure, and § 163. ANTIQUITY OF CIRCUMCISION. 171 rewarded with presents, Job 3: 3. Jer. 20: 15. This is the case at the present day in Persia. The MOTHER after the birth of a son was unclean for seven days, and during the thirty-three days succeeding the seven of un- ck'anness remained at liome. If a daughter were born, the num- ber of the days of uncleanness and seclusion at home was doubled. After the expiration of this period, she went into the tabernacle or temple and offered a lamb of a year old ; or if she was poor, two turtle doves, and two young pigeons, for a sacrifice of purification, Lev. 12: 1—8. Luke 2: 22. § 162. Circumcision. The son on the eighth day after its birth, was circumcised. By the fulfilment of this rite, it was consecrated to the service of the true God, Gen. 17: 10. comp. Kom. 4: 11. This, no doubt, was the principal end of circumcision, but there do not appear to have been wanting other subsidiary objects, comp. John 7: 23. L Circumcision was a preventive of the disease called the an- thrax or carbuncle. The disease originates from the impurities, which collect under the prepuce, and is fatal in its effects, Herodot. IL 45. Josephus against Apion, II. 13. Philo on Circumcision. II. Circumcision may have had the beneficial tendency of in- creasing the population, for when the prepuce, in such a climate as that of Palestine, is long, it is an obstacle to fruitfulness. The pains, resulting from circumcision, if we may believe the Mohammedans, are severest on the third day. Gen. 34: 25. § 163. Antiquity of Circumcision. The command, given in Gen. 17: 10 — 14, to practise circum- cision, is expressed in such terms, as to leave it quite evident, that the rite in question was known previous to the time of Abraham. "We learn from Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and from the prophet Jeremiah, 9: 25, 26, that in Egypt all the priests and not a few of the laity, were circumcised. No one certainly will un- dertake to say, that the Egyptians borrowed the rite from the He- brews ; and if this were not the case, it seems to be a very plain 172 § 164. ON THE NAMING OF CHILDEEN. and natural conclusion, that Abraham himself first learnt it in Egypt, Gen. 12: 10—15. If it be objected to this statement, that unciecumcision is de- nominated in Joshua 5: 9, the reproach of Egypt, (expressions, which imply that the Egyptians were not circumcised,) the answer is, those expressions might be very naturally and very properly used, provided only a part of the Egyptians, as above stated, were circum- cised; inasmuch as the Hebrews esteemed circumcision an honor of such a high and indispensable nature, that it could not be with- held, from a single individual, without discredit and disgrace. Gen. 34: 15. Josh. 5: 9. Jer. 9: 24, 25. It ought to be remarked, how- ever, that notwithstanding the high estimation in which the He- brews held this rite, the numbers of them, who in the age of the Maccabees, took a part in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and of course appeared naked on such occasions, considered circumcision a discredit to them ; and, by an operation, described in Celsus, Lib. VH. c. 25, and designated by the Greek verb iniandofiia, they con- trive to restore the prepuce to its original form, 1 Mac. 1: 15. 1 Cor. 7:18. § 164. On the Naming of Childeen. A NAME was given to the male child at the time of its circum- cision, but it is probable, that previous to the introduction of that rite, the name was given immediately after its birth. Among the orientals the appellations given as names are always significant. In the Old Testament, we find that the child was named in many in- stances from the circumstances of its birth, or from some pecu- liarities in the history of the family to which it belonged, Gen. 16: 11. 19: 37. 25: 25, 26. Exod. 2: 10. 18: 3, 4. Frequently the name was a compound one, one part being the name of the Deity, and among idolatrous nations the name of an idol. The following in- stances may be mentioned among others, and may stand as specimens of the whole, viz. isTOia, Samuel, heard of God; njans, Adoni- JAH, God is lord; p'jsin'i , Josedech, God is just; l>saint< , Ethba- AL, a Canaanitish name, the latter part of the compound being the name of the idol deity Baal ; lasB^S , Belshazzae, Bel, (a Baby- lonish deity,) is ruler and king. Sometimes the name had a pro- § 165. CONCERNING THE FIRST BORN. 173 phetic meaning, Gen. 17: 15. Isa. 7: 14. 8: 3. Hos. 1: 4, 6, 9. Matt 1: 21. Luke 1: 13, 60, 03. In the latter times, names were selected from those of the pro- genitors of a family ; hence in the New Testament, hardly any other than ancient names occur, Matt. 1: 12. Luke 1: 61. 3: 23 et seq. The inhabitants of the East very frequently change their names, and sometimes do it for very slight reasons. This ac- counts for the fact of so many persons having two names in Scrip- ture ; consult Ruth 1: 20, 21. 1 Sam. 14: 49. 31: 2. 1 Chron. 10: 2. Judg. 6: 32. 7: 1. 2 Sam. 23: 8. Kings and princes very often changed the names of those who held offices under them, particu- larly when they first attracted their notice and were taken into their employ, and when subsequently they were elevated to some new station and crowned with additional honors. Gen. 41: 45. 17: 5. 32: 28. 35: 10. 2 Kings 23: 34, 35. 24: 17. Dan. 1: 6. John 1: 42. Mark 3: 17. Hence a name (a new name) occurs tropically, as a token or proof of distinction and honor in the following among other passages, PhiUp. 2: 9. Heb. 1: 4. Rev. 2: 17. Sometimes the names of the dead were changed, for instance that of Abel, ban, a word which signifies breath, or something transitory, as a breath, given to him after his death in allusion to the shortness of his life, Gen. 2: 8. Sometimes proper names are translated into other languages, losing their original form, while they preserve their signification. This appears to have been the case with the proper names, which occur in the eleven first chapters of Gen- esis, and which were translated into Hebrew from a language still more ancient. The orientals in some instances, in order to distinguish themselves from others of the same name, added to their own name, the name of their father, grand-father, and even great grand-father. y^ § 165. Concerning the First Born, liaa. The first horn, who was the object of special affection to his parents, was denominated by way of eminence, cr:"! ^as , the open- ing of the womb. In case a man married with a widow who by a previous marriage had become the mother of children, the first born as respected the second husband was the child that was eld- est by the second marriage. Before the time of Moses, the fa- 15* 174 § 165. CONCERNING THE FIRST BORN. ther might, if he chose, transfer the right of primogeniture to a younger child, but the practice occasioned much contention, Gen. 25: 31, 32, and a law was enacted overruling it, Dent. 21: 15 — 17. The first horn inherited peculiar rights and privileges : I. He received a double portion of the estate. Jacob in the case of Eeuben, his first born, bestowed his additional portion upon Joseph, by adopting his two sons. Gen. 48: 5 — 8. Deut. 21: 17. This was done as a reprimand, and a punishment of his incestuous conduct, Gen. 35: 22 ; but Reuben, notwithstanding, was enrolled as the first born in the genealogical registers, 1 Chron. 5: 1. n. The first horn was the priest of the whole family. The honor of exercising the priesthood was transferred, by the command of God communicated through Moses, from the tribe of Reuben, to whom it belonged by right of primogeniture, to that of Levi, Num. 3: 12 — 18. 8: 18. In consequence of this fact, that God had taken the Levites from among the children of Israel instead of all the first born to serve him as priests, the first born of the other tribes were to be redeemed, at a valuation made by the priest not exceeding five shekels, from serving God in that capacity. Num. 18: 15, 16. comp. Luke 2: 22 et seq. I in. Tim first horn enjoyed an authoi*ity over those, who were younger, similar to that possessed by a father. Gen. 25: 23 et seq. 2 Chron. 21: 3. Gen. 27: 29. Exod. 12: 29, which was transferred in the case of Reuben by Jacob their father to Judah, Gen. 49: 8 — 10. The tribe of Judah, accordingly, even before it gave kings to the Hebrews, was everywhere distinguished from the other tribes. In consequence of the authority, which was thus attached to the first born, he was also made the successor in the kingdom. There was an exception to this in the case of Solomon, who, though a younger brother, was made his successor by David at the special appointment of God. It is very easy to see in view of these facts, how the word first born, came to express sometimes a great, and sometimes the highest dignity, Isa. 14: 30. Ps. 89: 27. Rom. 8: 29. Col. 1: 15—18. Heb. 12: 23. Rev. 1: 5, 11. Job 18: 13. § 166. the nurture of children. 175 § 166. The Nurture of Children Mothers, in the earliest times, suckled (p''5i!i) their ofTspring themselves, and that from thirty to thirty-six months. The day when the child was weaned, was made a festival, Gen. 21: 8. Exod. 2: 7, 9. 1 Sam 1: 22—24. 2 Chron. 31: 16. 2 Mace. 7: 27, 28. Matt. 21: 16. Josephus, Antiq. XL 9. Nurses (nipijia) were employed, in case the mother died be- fore the child was old enough to be weaned, and when, from any circumstances, she was unable to afford a sufficient supply of milk for its nourishment. In later ages, when matrons had become more delicate, and thought themselves too infirm to fulfil the duties which naturally devolved upon them, nurses were employed to take their place, and were reckoned among the principal members of the family. They are, accordingly, in consequence of the respectable station which they sus- tained, frequently mentioned in sacred history. Gen. 35: 8. 2 Kings 11: 2. 2 Chron. 22: 11. The sons remained till the fifth year in the care of the women ; they then came into the father's hands, and were taught not only the arts and duties of life, but were instructed in the Mosaic law, and in all parts of their country's religion, Deut. 6: 20 — 25. 7: 19. 11: 19. Those, who wished to have them further instructed, provided they did not deem it preferable to employ private teachers, sent them away to some priest or Levite, who sometimes had a number of other chil- dren to instruct. It appears from 1 Sam. 1: 24 — 28, that there was a school near the holy tabernacle, dedicated to the instruction of youth. There had been many other schools of this kind, which had fallen into discredit, but were restored again by the prophet Samuel ; after whose time the members 9f the seminaries in question, who were de- nominated by way of distinction the sons of the prophets, acquired no little notoriety. The daughters rarely departed from the apartments appropriated to the females, except when they went out with an urn (T 3) to draw water, which was the practice with those who belonged to those humbler stations in life, where the ancient simplicity of manners had not lost its prevalence, Exod. 2: 12. Gen. 24: 16. 29: 10. 1 Sam. 9: 11, 12. John 4: 9. They spent their Jime in learning 176 § 167. THE POWER or the father. those domestic and other arts, which are befitting a woman's situation and character, till they arrived at that period in life, when they were to be sold, or by a better fortune given away in marriage, Prov. 31: 13. 2 Sam. 13: 7. The daughters of those, who by their wealth had been elevated to high stations in life, so far from going out to draw water in urns, might be said to spend the whole of their time within the walls of their palaces. In imitation of their mothers, they were occupied with dressing, with singing, and with dancing ; and, if we may judge from the representations of modern travellers, their apartments were sometimes the scenes of vice, Ezek. 23: 18. They went abroad but very rarely, as already intimated, and the more rarely, the higher they were in point of rank; but they re- ceived with cordiality female visitants. The virtues of- a good woman, of one that is determined, whatever her station, to discharge each incumbent duty and to avoid the frivolities and vices, at which we have briefly hinted, are mentioned in terms of approba- tion and praise in Prov. 31: 10 — 31. § 167. The Povter of the Father. The authority to which a father was entitled, extended not only to his wife, to his own children, and to his servants of both sexes, hut to his children's children also. It was the custom anciently for sons newly married to remain at their father's house, unless it had been their fortune to marry a daughter who, having no brothers, was heir- ess to an estate ; or unless, by some trade or by commerce, they had acquired sufficient property to enable them to support their own fam- ily. It might of course be expected, while they lived in their father's house and were in a manner the pensioners on his bounty, that he would exercise his authority over the children of his sons, as well as over the sons themselves. If it be asked " What the power of the father was in such a case ?" the answer is, that it had no narrow limits, and, whenever he found it necessary to resort to measures of severity, he was at liberty to inflict the extremity of punishment. Gen. 21: 14. 38: 24. This power was so restricted by Moses, that the father, if he judg- ed the son worthy of death, was bound to bring the cause before a judge. But he enacted at the same time, that the judge should pronounce sentence of death upon the son, if on inquiry it could § 168 OF THE TESTAMENT OR WILL. 177 be proved, that he had beaten or cursed his father or mother, or that he was a spendthrift, or saucy, or contumacious, and could not be reformed, Exod. 21: 15, 17. Lev. 20: 9. Deut. 21: 18—21. The authority of the parents, and the service and love due to them, are recognized in the most prominent and fundamental of the moral laws of the Jewish polity, viz. the ten commandments, Exod. 20: 12. The son, who had acquired property, was commanded to exhi- bit his gratitude to his parents, not only by words and in feeling, but by gifts, Matt. 15: 5, 6. Mark 7: 11 — 13. The power of the father over his offspring in the ancient times was not only very great for the time being, and while he sojourned with them in the land of the living ; he was allowed also to cast his eye into the future, and his prophetic curse or blessing possessed no little efficacy. Gen. 49: 2—28. § 168. Of the Testament or Will. I. As it respected sons. The property or estate of the father fell after his decease into the possession of his sons; who divided it among themselves equally, with this exception, that the eldest son received two portions. The father expressed his last wishes or will in the presence of witnesses, and probably in the presence of the heirs, 2 Kings 20: 1. At a recent period the will was made out in writing. n. As it respected the sons of concubines. The portion, that was given to the sons of concubines, depended altogether upon the feel- ings of the father. Abraham gave presents, to what amount is not known, both to Ishmael, and to the sons whom he had by Keturah, and sent them away before his death. It does not appear, that they had any other portion in the estate. But Jacob made the sons, whom he had by his concubines heirs, as well as the others. Gen. 21: 8 — 21. 25: 1 — 6. 49: 1 — 27. Moses laid no restrictions upon the choice of fathers in this respect ; and we should infer, that the sons of concubines, for the most part, received an equal share with the other sons from the fact, that Jephthah, the son of a concubine, complained, that he was excluded without any portion from his fa- ther's house, Judg. 11: 1 — 7. m. As it respected daughters. The daughters not only had no 178 § 169. RESPECTING SLAVES. portion in the estate, but if they were unmarried, were considered aa making a part of it, and were sold by their brothers into matrimony. In case there were no brothers, or they all had died, they took the estate, Num. 27: 1 — 8. If any one died intestate, and without any oflfspring, the property was disposed of according to Num. 27: 8—11. IV. As it respected servants. The servants or the slaves in a family could not claim any share in the estate as a right, but the per- son, who made a will, might, if he chose, make them his heirs, comp. Gen. 15: 3. Indeed in some instances, those who had heirs recog- nized as such by the law, did not deem it unbecoming to bestow the whole or a portion of their estates on faithful and deserving servants, Prov. 17: 2. V. As it respected widows. The widow of the deceased, like his daughters, had no legal right to a share in the estate. The sons, however, or other relations were bound to afford her an adequate mamtenance, unless it had been otherwise arranged in the wiU. She sometimes returned back again to her father's house, particularly if the support, which the heirs gave her, was not such as had been prom- ised, or was not sufficient. Gen. 38: 11 ; compare also the story of Ruth. The prophets very frequently, and undoubtedly not without cause, exclaim against the neglect and injustice shown to widows, Isa. 1: 17. 10: 2. Jer. 7: 6. 22: 3. Ezek. 22: 7. comp. Exod. 22: 22—24. Deut. 10: 18. 24: 17. §169. Respecting Sl'aves, D-iias , ninsir- The number in a family was very much increased by the slaves, that were attached to it. It is probable, that some of the patriarchs, as was sometimes the case at a later period with individuals in Greece and Italy, possessed many thousands of them. Slavery ex- isted and prevailed before the deluge, Gen^_9;^. Moses therefore, although he saw the evils of slavery, was not in a condition to abol- ish it, and it would not have been wise for him to have made the at- tempt. He accordingly permitted the Hebrews to possess foreigners both male and female in the character of slaves ; but the owners of them were bound by the laws to circumcise them, if they had not pre- viously been so, and to instruct them in the worshin of the only true God, Gen 17: 13—17. § 170. WAYS IN WHICH MEN BECAME SLAVES. 179 AVe have said that the Hebrews were permitted to hold foreigners in slavery, but to this statement there are some exceptions, which are to be mentioned. The Canaaniies could not be held in sla- very. For them, under the then existing circumstances, slavery was regarded too great a privilege, or rather it would have subjected the Jews to too great a hazard. Such was the bad faith of the Canaanites, the greatness of their numbers, and their deep-rooted idolatry, that, had they been introduced under any circumstances whatever into the Israelitish community, they would certainly have endangered their existence, as a people of God. The (Jibeonites, the Kephirites, the Beerothites, and the inhabitants of Kirjath-jearim, having surreptitious^ obtained a treaty with the Israelites, were made exceptions also, and were employed in the service of the taber- nacle, Josh. 9: 1 — 27. § 170. Ways IN which men became Slaves. Men lost their freedom in ancient times in so many ways, that it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to assert of any one of them, that it was the origin or first occasion of slavery. We shall there- fore content ourselves with merely mentioning the various ways, in which they plunged into so unfortunate and debasing a con- dition. I. Oaptwity in war. Some suppose this to have been the origin of slavery, Deut. 20: 14. 21: 10, 11. Gen. xiv. II. Debts. These, as well as captivity in war, became an occasion of slavery, when they were so large, that the debtor was unable to pay them, 2 Kings 4: 1. Isa. 50: 1. Matt. 18: 25. m. Theft. Slavery was the consequence of theft, when the thief was not able to repay the amount of the property, which he had taken, Exod. 22: 2. Neh. 5: 4, 5. IV. Man-stealing. By this is to be understood that act of violence, by which an individual in time of peace is unjustly sold into slavery, or is retained as a slave in the possession of the author of the crime himself. Moses enacted laws of very great severity against this crime, but they were restricted in their operation to those, who had by violence taken and made a slave, or sold for one, a free Hebrew, "Exod. 21: 16. Deut. 24: 7. V. The children of slaves. Children, who were slaves by birth, 180 § 171. CONDITION or SLAVES AMONG THE HEBREWS. are mentioned in the Scriptures under the following Hebrew phrases : rria "iiib^ , those horn in one's house ; nnSBfi "ija , nrsn ■'Sa , the children of maid-servants ; nia "iia , the sons or children of the house. Consult Gen. 14: 14. 15: 3. 17:23. 21:10. Ps.,86: 16. 116:16. VI. Purchase. This happened, when a man, oppressed with poverty sold himself, or when a master sold his slave. Purchas- ing slaves of a person who possessed them, was the most com- mon method of obtaining them, Num. 31: 4, 14 — 18, 35. Hence slaves are denominated ~|C)3 f^.rp'? the property or the purchase of silver, i. e. those purchased with silver. The price of a slave was different at different times, varying with the age, sex, heahh, skill, etc. of the individual sold. We may infer from Exod. 21: 32, that the medium price of a slave was thirty shekels; and, by an examination of Lev. 27: 1 — 8, form a probable opinion as to the difference of the valuation of a slave in the different periods of his life. § 171. Condition of Slaves among the Hebrews. f Both the food and the clothing of those who, from any cause, whatever it might be, had lost their freedom, were of the poorest description. All their earnings went to their master, and their labor was worth to him double that of a merely hired servant. Deut. 15: 18. They commonly had the consent of their masters to marry, or rather to connect themselves with a woman in that way, which is denominated by a Latin law-term contulemium. The children, that proceeded from this sort of marriages, were the property not of the parents, but of their owners. The chil- dren, however, never addressed their owners as a father, but al- ways as a lord or master, Gal. 4: 6. Eom. 8: 15. Although the children born in his house were the slaves of the owner, they were as devoted and as true to him, as if they had sustained to him the actual relationship of children. It was in view of this fact, that the patriarchs thought proper to trust them with arms, and to train them up to war, Gen. 14: 14. 32: 6. 33: 1. They were expected to perform any labor, which their masters deemed it expedient to require of them ; but their common avocation § 171. CONDITION OF SLAVES AMONG THE HEBRE-WS. 181 ■was that of husbandry, and the tending of flocks and herds. The raaid-servants were employed in domestic concerns, though not un- frequently they were compelled to engage in those duties, which from their nature were more befitting the other sex. The servant, who was found to be most faithful and discreet, was placed over the others, and was called i^^5 '{^\ , oixovojxos; or tf^e steward, Gen 24: 2. 47: 6. 1 Sam. 24: 7. I'Chron. 27: 29, 30. Ruth 2: 5. It was the duty of the ruling servant or steward to allot to the others their various duties, and likewise to see their food pre- pared, except when, as was sometimes the case, a female servant, who had been found especially worthy to be trusted, had assumed the charge of the latter, Prov. 31: 15. 1 Chr. 4: 1, 2. Gal. 4: 2. Eph. 3: 2. Tit 1: 7. 1 Pet 4: 10. It was the business of some of the servants to instruct the children of their owners, while some waited upon their mistress, and others upon their master. The condition of these was in some respects less hard than that of the others, although it is natural to suppose, that those masters, who had any sense of the duties, which every man owes to another, whatever his condition, exhibited to all of their slaves acts of kindness and humanity. Job 31: 13. Moses, in order to render the condition of those who had lost their liberty, as free from misery and as favorable as possible, made the following regulations : I. That servants or slaves should be treated with humanity. The law, which is given in Lev. 25: 38 — 53, speaks very ex- pressly in relation to the treatment of servants that were of He- brew origin, and in truth of those only ; but as the slaves that were of foreign origin, when once circumcised, were reckoned among (he Hebrews, it may be considered as applying, in some degree at least, to all. II. That the master, who slew a servant of whatever origin, with a rod or by means of blows, should be punished according to the will and pleasure of the judge. In case the servant did not die till a day or two after being smitten, the master went unpunished, because the design of murdering the servant could not in that case be presumed, and the loss of the servant itself was deemed a suf- ficient punishment, Exod. 21: 20, 21. HI. He further enacted, if the master injured the servant in eye or tooth, that is, according to the spirit of the law, in any member 16 182 § 171. CONDITION OF SLAVES AMONG THE HEBEEWS. whatever, the servant in consequenoe of such treatment, should re- ceive his freedom, Exod. 21: 26, 27. IV. That the servants, on every sabbath and on all festival occa- sions, should enjoy a cessation from their labors, Exod. 20: 10. Deut. 5:14. V. That they should be invited to those feasts, which were made from the second tythes, Deut. 12: 17, 18. 16: 11. comp. Matt. 25: 21 —23. VI. That the servants, in accordance with an ancient law or custom to which there is an allusion in Job 24: 10, 11, were en- titled to and should receive an adequate subsistence from those, to whom they were subject, Deut. 25: 4. comp. 1 Tim. 5: 18. 1 Cor. 9:9. VII. The master was bound to provide for the marriage of maid- servants, unless he took them to himself as concubines, or gave them to his son, Exod. 21: 8. Vm. A servant of Hebrew origin was not obliged to serve longer than six years, after which time he was to be dismissed with presents of considerable amount, and with the wife, whom he had married previous to having lost his freedom, Exod. 21: 2 — 4. Lev. 25: 1 — 17. In case he had become a slave, while unmar- ried, and had married with the consent of his master during the period of his slavery, the wife could not go out with him to the enjoyment of freedom, till she had first completed her seven years of servitude, Exod. 21: 4. Lev. 25: 39 — 41. Deut. 15: 12—17. Of this privilege, for such it may be considered, the Hebrew miiiil- servants were, at first, for some reason, wholly deprived, Exod. 2i: 7 et seq. ; but at a later period, when the face of things had pro- bably undergone some changes, the Hebrew legislator thought fit to grant it to them, Deut. 15: 12 — 17. The person, who had once been a slave, but Lad aftervcards obtained his freedom, was denominated in Hebrew, ""BBn . If the servant, too much attach- ed to his master, his wife, and the children of whom he had be- come the father in his servitude, refused to accept the freedoni, which had been offered him ; the master in the presence of a judge had liberty to receive him, and in sign of perpetual servi- tude was to thrust an awl through his ear into the door-post, Exod. 21: 5, 6. Deut. 15: 16. It was not in the power of their masters, however, to sell slaves of this description, notwithstanding § 172. SLAVES AMONG OTHER NATIONS. 183 tliey had voluntarily subjected themselves to perpetual servitude, to any person living out of the Hebrew territories, Exod. 21: 7, 8. In regard to those slaves who had not completed the six years of their service, it may be further remarked here, that, if they were Hebrews by origin, and had been sold to persons dwelling in the Hebrew ter- ritory, their relations or any other person might redeem them, or thej' misjht redeem themselves, if they had property sufHcient, by paying a price adequate to the remaining years of service, making six in the whole. Lev. 25: 47 — 55. IX. On the year of jubilee, all the servants or slaves of Hebrew descent were to be emancipated. Lev. 39: 25 — 41, X. Slaves, who were Hebrews by birth, were permitted to possess some little property of their own, as may be learnt from Lev. 25: 49, compared with 2 Sam. 9: 10. Finally, a slave who had fled from another nation and sought a refuge among the Hebrews, was to be received and treated with kindness, and not to be forcibly returned back again, Deut. 23: 15, § 172. The Condition of Slaves among other Nations. Notwithstanding Moses inculcated in many instances hu- manity toward slaves, and protected them also by special laws enacted in their favor ; they were sometimes the subjects of undue severity of treatment, and of sufferings in various ways, Jer. 34: 8 — 22. Still it cannot be denied, that their condition was better among the Hebrews, than among some other nations ; as may be learnt from their well known rebellions against the Greeks and Eomans. Nor is it at all wonderful, that the Hebrews dif- fered from other nations in the treatment of their slaves in a way so much to their credit, when we consider the many and weighty motives, that were presented to them thus to act. Especially when we consider, that in other countries, there was no sabbath for the slave, no day of rest, and no laws sanctioned by the Divinity. Runaway slaves, and those who were suspected of an intention to do it, were branded, for the most part in the forehead, to which custom there are allusions in Galatians 6: 17, and Revelation 14: 9. 22: 4. Slaves in heathen nations were debarred from a participar tion' both in all the civil festivals, and in all the religious exer- 184 § 172. SLAVES AMONG OTHER NATIONS. cises, which was a very different state of things from that among the Hebrews. After Christianity had penetrated into those nations, the state of things was in some degree changed; and slaves, in the Christian church, enjoyed equal privileges with any others, as far as the Church was concerned, Gal. 3: 28. Coloss. 3: 10, 11. Philem. 10. 1 Cor. 12: 13. Eph. 6: 8. Slaves in other nations were not supported by those with whom they labored; consult Pollux on the word novmy-anri. They were very rarely permitted to marry, or to enter into that state called by a Roman law-term contubernium ; their private possessions were subjected to the will of their master ; and they were obliged to make him presents from it. Whenever they were so happy as to be manu- mitted, they were still under the necessity of retaining the name of freedmen, liberti, w&ot, in allusion to their previous condition ; and their children, as if the disgrace were designed to be perpetuated, were denominated libertini, freedmen's sons. We have not time to dwell upon the occasional, we might say frequent, and excessive cru- elty of their masters. In a word then, the condition of slaves was miserable, and the Jews were not to blame for boasting that they were the freemen of Abra- ham, John 8: 8. Paul himself acknowledges, that the condition of freedom is worthy of being eagerly embraced, when it can be em- braced without dishonesty or injustice ; but the freedom which he es- teemed most worthy in its nature and most important in its conse- quences, was that which is given through our Lord Jesus Christ, 1 Cor. 7: 21 — 23. Eom. 8: 15. Having this statement in regard to the slavery of other nations in view, one is in a condition to under- stand the force of that comparison introduced at times in the New Testament, which represents the Jews under tbe Mosaic law, as in a state of servitude, and Christians as in a state of freedom, John 8: 32, 34. Eom. 6: 17. James 1: 25. It is a comparison, not only lively and impressive, but one which, under the circumstances that existed in the time of our Saviour and the apostles, was very naturally made. This comparison, as far as respected sinners, had already been made by philosophers, and the meaning and emphasis attached to it were sufficiently well known to the Jews in the time of Christ. They must, therefore, have readily understood the expressions of Christ in John 8: 31 — 34, unless they wilfully preferred making a mistake in n case that was sufficiently plain. 185 CHAPTER XI. CHARACTER AND SOCIAL INTERCOURSE OF THE HEBREWS. § 173. Chaeactee op the Hebeews. The character of the Hebrews exhibits the vices common among oriental nations, viz. luxury, pomp, effeminacy, and arrogance. The arrogance of the Hebrews in later times was very great, see Tal- mud, Baba Metzia, p. 83. John 8: 33. Among the great, there was too great a prevalence of extortion, of oppression, and of hypocritical friendships, that sought to cover the hollowness of the heart be- neath the external appearance. We find that vices of this de- scription were a ground of complaint among the prophets, and the subjects of their reprehensions in all parts of their writings; and stiU it cannot be denied, that there occur in the history of the He- brews examples of great magnanimity. Gen. 14: 23. 44: 34. Judg. 8: 23. 1 Sam. 12: 3, 4. 18: 1. 20: 4^8, 41, 42. 23: 16—18. 24: 7— 12. 26: 9 — 12. 1 Kings 20: 31. Of the various traits in the char- acter of the Hebrews, which are developed in the course of their history, the most striking beyond any question is that of stubborn- ness and inflexibility, see Acts vii. The disposition for idolatry ceased after the captivity. If it be the fact, that the madness of worshipping idols seized upon some of the nobler sort of people, so late as the time of the Maccabees, it is sutRcienlly evident, that it did not extend to the great body of the nation. The public or political virtues of the people may perhaps be summed up by say- ing, that they were industrious in the culture of their fields, and brave on the field of battle. If we ■ should assume the province of mentioning any particular period in their history, during which, more than at any other time, they appear to have excelled in brave- 16* 186 § 173. CHARACTSS or the hebeews. ry and in warlike skill, we should point to the days of David and the Maccabees. Among the moral virtues, that are most celebra- ted in the Hebrew Scriptures, the following may be mentioned ; viz. (1.) fi|3l2 , _/««iice, a general term also for moral integrity and purity of life. (2.) nos , rti^iax , truth, fidelity, and sincerity. (3.) IDrt , humanity, benevolence, or the love of our neighbor. (4.) Q''135, the mild or merciful, Vulg. mitissimi. New Testa- ment TtQaug, are likewise spoken of with the most decided approba- tion. Many other moral virtues and duties are commended and enforced in the Old Testament ; so that there is no hesitancy in saying, that the Hebrews, in a knowledge of the principles of moral conduct, far exceeded all other nations. But we must not suppose, that the rectitude of the conduct of the Hebrews corresponded on all occasions to their knowledge, or that they all of them fulfilled those duties, the obligation of which they were too well informed not to admit. On the contrary, very many disregarded the light, which God had given, and neglected to fulfil those duties which they felt themselves bound to perform. This perversity of conduct exhibited itself more espe- cially in the later periods of their existence as a nation ; when many among them perverted the law of Moses by their traditions and phi- losophical quibbles. Holding to the letter, they wandered sufficiently far from its spirit, and acquired among all nations a very disgraceful celebrity for their falsehoods, impostures, and perjuries. Tacitus, Hist. V. 5. 1 Thess. 2: 15. Eph. 2: 14. In the last war of the Jews, viz. the contest with the Eomans, the vices in their character to which we have alluded, prevailed more, and were checked by fewer restraints, than at any former period. Josepbus himself, notwith- standing his origin from the Jewish people, is so candid as to confess the existence of such a state of things, as we have now stated. Comp. Matt. 12: 43—45. § 174. PEOPEIETY AND REFINEMENT OF MANNERS. 187 § 174. Propkiett and Refinement of Manners. It cannot be denied, that there prevailed among the Hebrews no little propriety and refinement of manners ; although the marks of civility, which they exhibited to each other in their social in- tercourse, are by no means the same in all respects with those, which would be expected in such intercourse from a well bred and polite inhabitant of modern Europe. The prevailing taste for civility and for refinement of manners was strengthened by con- siderations drawn from the law of Moses, Lev. 19: 32. The proofs, that such civility and such refinement of manners actually existed and prevailed, are so numerous in the Bible, that a person would be disposed to complain, that they were too numerous, rather than that they were too few. But every country and every climate has something peculiar in its manners and modes of intercourse, as well as in other things. If in any country the common expressions of civility, and the usual forms of politeness should be thoroughly examined and duly estimated, they would be found to be more marked and extravagant, than was required by the actual state of the feelings. The orientals, especially, would be thought by an inhabitant of Europe to be excessive in their gestures and expressions of good-will, when in truth those gestures and expressions mean no more than very moderate ones among us. For instance, prostration upon the earth scarcely signi- fied more among them, than a nod of the head, or an extension of the hand, among the less animated and more moderate inhabi- tants of occidental nations. The very ancient forms of civihty and politeness, mentioned in Genesis 18: 1 — 30. 19: 1 — 3. 23: 7, 12. 41: 43. 42: 6, and spoken of likewise by Herodotus and other ancient historians, have been perpetuated to a great degree among eastern nations till the present day. In the time of Christ, the ancient mode of addressing those who were worthy of being honored, viz. by saying my lord, or words to that effect, was in a measure superseded ; and the honorary and more extravagant address of Rabli, i. e. the great, S'n , *3'i , which originated in the schools, had become common among the people also the title of xgdziare, or most excellent, J^ake 1: 3. Acts 23: 26. 24: 3. 26: 25. 188 § 175. MODE OP SALUTATION. § 175. Mode op Salutation. The expressions used at salutation, and also those, which were used at parting, implied in both instances, that the person who em- ployed them, interceded for a blessing on the other. Hence the word 'r\';\2 , which originally means to bless, means also to salute, to wdcome, and to bid adieu. Gen. 47: 8 — 11. 2 Kings 4: 29. 10: 13. 1 Chron. 18: 10. The forms of salutation that prevailed among the ancient Hebrews, were as follows : (1) ns'ir: '^>n3 , nihi^ ■qsiia , nihi. Ti'iha , he thou blessed of Jeho- vah. (2) ?p'bs ni'iT] nS'na, the blessing of Jehovah be upon thee. (3) ^HS twt\ , may God be with thee. (4) T^ tii'a , ?]ibs dibiB , may peace (i. e. every blessing and pros- perity) he yours. This was the most common salutation ; see Ruth 2: 4. Judg. 19: 20. 1 Sara. 25: 26. 2 Sam. 20: 9. Ps. 129: 8. (5) "lins rtin , Sir, he your life prospered. This was the comr mon salutation among the Phenicians. It was in use also among the Hebrews, but was not addressed by them to any person except their kings. (6) XaiQE, answering to the Latin ave or salve; in Hebrew nin ; or Tr^n , Luke 1: 27, 28. Matt. 26: 49. 28: 9. The gestures and inflections of the body, which -yvere made on an occasion of salutation, differed at different times, varying with the dignity and station of the person who was saluted ; as is the .case among the orientals to this day. In pronouncing the forms of salutation just given, the orientals place the right hand upon the left breast, and with much gravity incline the head. If two Arab friends of equal rank in life meet together, they mutually extend to each other the right hand, and having clasped, they elevate them, as if to kiss them. Having advanced thus far in the ceremony, each one draws back his hand, and kisses it instead of his friend's, and then places it upon his forehead. If one of the Arabs be more exalted in point of rank than the other, he is at liberty to give the other an opportunity of kissing, instead of his own, the hand of his superior. The parties then continue the salutation by recip- rocally kissing each other's beard, having first placed the hand § 175. MODE OF SALUTATION. 189 under it, in which case alone it is lawful to touch the beard, 2 Sam. 20: 9. It is sometimes the case, that persons, instead of this cere- mony, merely place their cheeks together. It is the common practice among the Persians for persons in saluting to kiss each other's lips ; if one of the individuals be a person of high rank, the salutation is given upon the cheeks instead of the lips, 2 Sam. 20: 9. Gen. 29: 11, 13. S3: 4. 39: 11. 48: 10—12. Exod. 4: 27. 18: 7. The Arabians are in the habit of inquiring respecting the s ^ , health, nibir, ^y^Mi, of a person, when they salute him. Gen. 29: 6. 43: 27. 1 Sam. 16: 4. They give thanks to God, that they once more see their friend, they pray to the Almighty in his behalf, and supplicate for him every sort of prosperity. They are some- times so animated on such occasions, as to repeat not less than ten times the ceremony of grasping hands and kissing, and the interro- gations respecting each other's health. It may, therefore, be well concluded, that the salutation between friends was an occurrence, which consumed some time, and for this reason it was anciently inculcated upon messengers, who were sent upon business that required despatch, not to salute any one by the way, 2 Kings 4: 29. Luke 10: 4. When we consider the nature of the oriental salutations, the ardor of gesticulation on such an occasion, the professions of friend- ship and good will, which were then made, we should not wonder that the evangelist John in his second epistle, eleventh verse, thought it necessary to forbid a Christian to salute a man of another sect, or to welcome him to his house. For it is very clear, that pursuing such a course would have carried an erroneous appearance, and. would have possessed the very injurious eifect of confounding distinc- tions, and giving encouragement to heresy. In the presence of the great and the noble, the orientals incline themselves almost, to the earth, kiss their kness, or the hem of their garment, and place it upon their forehead. When in the pres- ence of kings and princes more particularly, they go so far as to prostrate themselves at full length upon the ground, sometimes with their knees bent, they touch their forehead to the earth, and before resuming an erect position either kiss the earth, or, if they prefer it, the feet of the king or prince, in whose presence they are permitted to appear. 190 § 176. ON VISITING. This is the state of things among the orientals ; and one proof among others, that it was the same among the ancient Hebrews, is to be found, in some instances in the prevailing, and in others in the original signification of those words, which are used to express the attitudes and the acts of salutation. The words to which we refer, are as follows ; lip , to incline or bend down the head. 3-i3 , to bend down the body very low. ?i"ia , to bend the knee, also to salute one. ns"!S d";qs sns, ns"ii< ninnpn, ns'nx bsj, to bend down to the earth, to fall prostrate on the earth, to fall with the face to the earth. The word ninnsn, when standing by itself, does not mean prostration upon the earth, but merely an inclination of the body, as is evident from 1 Kings 2: 19. Prostration is expressed in Greek by the word jiQoaxvvslv, and in Latin by the word adorare. The various positions of body, of which we have spoken, were assumed in the word of God. The Greeks and Latins maintained, that there should be a prostration of the body in the worship of God only, and not on an occasion of less importance, Acts 10: 25, 26. Eev. 19: 20. 22: 9. The Hebrew verb "iSD is used only in re- ference to the adoration of idols, and not of the supreme God, Isa. 44: 15, 17, 19. 46: 6. The corresponding word in the Ara- mean and Arabic dialects is more broad in its signification, Dan. 2: 46. 3: 5. § 176. On Visiting. A person, who went on a visit, found himself under the ne- cessity of knocking at the gate, or of calling with a loud voice, till the master of the house came out. The visitant was then, if it appeared suitable to the master of the house, conducted in ; but not till a sign had first been made to the females of the family, to retire to their appropriate apartments, % Kings 5: 9 — 12. Acts 10: 17. Those who intended to visit persons that held a high rank in life, were in the habit of sending previous notice of their con- templated visit, but they did not fulfil the purpose, they had thus announced, without bringing with them such presents, as were suitaible. The practice of carrying presents, when a person visits § 177. OF GIFTS. 191 those who are high in life, is still continued in the East. The guest set out upon his visit with a suitable pomp and i-etinue, and was re- ceived at the mansion, to which he was going, with equal indications of magnificence, his head was anointed, and he was perfumed with aromatic substances. Traces of these ceremonies occur in Gen. 27: 27. Exod. 30: 37, 38. Prov. 27: 9. Num. 16: 6, 17, 18, 37, 38. In the East, the following custom has hitherto prevailed and does at present. If it appear convenient or necessary in the estimation of his host for the visitant to retire, in order to relieve himself from the disagreeable necessity of saying so in express terms, he gives him a polite hint in respect to his wishes by causing him to be regaled with incense or burnt perfume. And this is accordingly the conclud- ing ceremony of the visit. § 177. Of Gifts. The practice of making presents, Mn:,"? , n^'^a , 123 , r/f(ij, Num. 22: 7, 16, 37. 24: 11 — 13, is very common in oriental countries. The custom probably had its origin among those men, who first sus- tained the oflBce of kings or rulers, and who from the novelty and perhaps the weakness attached to their situation, chose, rather than to make the hazardous attempt of exacting taxes, to content them- selves with receiving those presents, which might be freely oflfered, 1 Sam. 10: 27. Hence it passed into a custom, that whoever ap- proached the king, should come with a gift. This was the practice and the expectation. The practice of presenting gifts was subse- quently extended to other great men, to men who were inferior to the king, but who were nevertheless, men of influence and rank ; it was also extended to those who were equals, when they were visited, Prov. 18: 16. Kings themselves were in the habit of making presents, proba- bly in reference to the custom in question and the feelings connect- ed with it, to those individuals, their inferiors in point of rank, whom they wished to honor, and also to those, who, like them- selves, were clothed with the royal authority. These presents, viz. such as were presented by the king as a token of the royal esteem and honor, are almost invariably denominated in the Hebrew ina and l-.^wa, see 1 Kings 15: 19. 2 Kings 16: 8. 18: 14. Isa. 30: 2—6. The more ancient prophets did not deem it discreditable to 192 § 178. PKESHNT8 AND METHODS OF BRINGING THEM. them to receive presents, nor unbecoming their sacred calling, ex- cept when, as was sometimes the case, they refused by way of ex- pressing their dissatisfaction or indignation, 2 Kings 5: 5. 8: 9. In later times when false prophets, in order to obtain money, prophesied without truth and without authority, the true prophets, for the pur- pose of keeping the line of distinction as marked and distinct as possible, rejected everything that looked like pay, Amos 7: 14. Gifts of the kind that have now been described, are not to be confounded with those which are called nniu, and which were presented to judges, not as a mark of esteem and honor, but for purposes of bribery and corruption. The former was considered an honor to the giver, but a gift of the latter kind has been justly reprobated in every age, Exod. 23: 8, Deut. 10: 17. 16: 19. 27: 25. Ps. 15: 5. 26: 10. Isa. 1: 23. 5: 23. 33: 15. § 178. Kinds of Presents and Methods of bringing them. The giver was not restricted as to the kind of present, which he should make. He might present not only silver and gold, but clothes and arms, also different kinds of food, in a word, anything which could be of benefit to the recipient. Gen. 43: 11. 1 Sam. 9: 7. 16: 20. Job 42: 11. It was the custom anciently, as it is at the present time in the East, for an individual when visiting a person of high rank, to make some presents of small value to the. servants or domestics of the person visited, 1 Sam. 25: 27. It was the usual practice among kings and princes to present to their favorite oflScers in the government, to ambassadors from foreign courts, to foreigners of distinction, and to men eminent for their learning, garments of greater or less value, as already observed. Gen. 45: 22, 23. Esth. 8: 15. The royal wardrobe, in which a large num- ber of such garments was kept, is denominated in Hebrew nnnbo , 2 Chron. 9: 24. It was considered an honor of the highest kind, if a king or any person in high authority thought it proper, as a manifestation of his favor, to give away to another the garment which he had previously worn himself, 1 Sam. 18: 14. In tho East at the present day, it is expected that every one who has received a garment from the king, will immediately clothe him- self in it, and promptly present himself and render his homage to the giver ; otherwise he runs the hazard of exciting the king's dis- § 179. PUBLIC HONORS. 193 pleasure, comp. Matt. 22: 11, 12. It was sometimes the case, that the king, when he made a feast, presented vestments to all the guests who were invited, with which they clothed themselves, before they sat down to it, 2 Kings 10: 22. Gen. 45: 22. Eev. 3: 5. Cyrop. VIII. 3. 1. Iliad XXIV. 226, 227. In oriental countries, the presents, which are made to kings and princes, are to this day carried on beasts of burden, are attended with a body of men, and are escorted with much pomp. It matters not how light or how small the present may be, it is heavy enough at any rate to be carried on the back of a beast of burden, or if carried by a man, to be supported by both of his hands, Judg. 3: 18. 2 Kings 8: 9. § 179. Public Honors. It is the custom in Asia, to exhibit the most distinguished marks of attention and honor to kings, to princes, and to national am- bassadors, whenever on any public occasions they enter cities, or return from a distance to the places of their customary resi- dence. On such occasions there is a great concourse of people. The small windows, which look towards the street and at other times are shut up, are then thrown open. The level roofs are crowded and alive with eager spectators. The streets, to prevent the rising of the dust, are sprinkled with water. They are also, with the exception of a small undecorated path left in the centre of them for the procession, strewed with flowers and branches of trees, and spread with richly embroidered carpets. The specta- tors clap their hands, and shouts of joy re-echo on every side. On other occasions, when the people are permitted to behold the king, they honor and salute him in silence, 2 Sam. 16: 16. 1 Kings 1: 40. 2 Kings 9: 13. Isa. 62: 11. Zech. 9: 9. Matt. 21: 7, 8. The musicians walk first in the procession, 1 Kings 18: 46. 1 Chron. lb: 27 — 29. The persons who sustain offices in the government, and are attached to the palace, are the next in the procession. Then follows the king. All of them are carried on noble coursers. An- ciently kings, on such occasions, rode in chariots. Gen. 41: 43. 2 Sam. 15: 1. 1 Kings 1: 5. Note. Ceremonies similar to those, which have now been de- scribed, are exhibited in Asia on two other public occasions, be- 17 194 § 180. CONVERSATION AND BATHING. side the one in question ; viz. when a person has deserted the Christian and embraced the Mohammedan faith, and when a class or school of boys have finished the study of the Koran. The boys, who have thus completed the perusal of the writings of the Eastern Prophet, are seated upon the choicest steeds. Musicians go before them, the same as in the procession of kings ; and, surrounded with an escort of shouting fellow-students, they are conducted through the city. The prevalence of these customs in the East will throw some light upon such passages as the following. Gen. 41: 23. Esth. 6: 7 — 9. 1 Sam. 10: 5—10. § 180. Conversation and bathing. Conversation, in which the ancient 6rientals indulged like other men, in order to beguile the time, was held in the gate of the city. Accordingly there was an open space near the gate of the city, as is the case at the present day in Mauritania, which was fitted up with seats for the accommodation of the people, Gen. 19: 1. Ps. 69: 12. Those, who were at leisure, occupied a position on these seats, and either amused themselves with witnessing those who came in and those who went out, and with any trifling occurrences, that might offer themselves to their notice, or attended to the judicial trials, which were commonly investigated at public places of this kind, viz. at the gate of the city, Gen. 19: 1. 34: 20, Ps. 26: 4, 5. 69: 12. 127: 5. Ruth 4: 11. Isa. 14: 31. Intercourse by conversation, though not very frequent, was not so rare among the ancient orientals, as among their descendants of modern Asia. Nor is this to be wondered at, since the fathers drank wine, while the descendants are obliged to abstain from it; and we are well assured, that the effect of this exhilarating beverage was to communicate no little vivacity to the charac- ters of the ancient Asiatics, at least to that of the Hebrews, see Isa. 30: 29. Jer. 7: 34. 30: 19. Amos 6: 4, 5. The ancient Asiat- ics, among whom we include the Hebrews, were delighted with singing, with dancing, and with instruments of music. Promenad- ing, so fashionable and so agreeable in colder latitudes, was wea- risome and unpleasant in the warm climates of the East, and this is probably one reason, why the inhabitants of those climates pre- ferred holding intercourse with one another, while sitting near § 180. CONVERSATION AND BATHING. 195 the gate of the city, or beneath the shade of the fig-tree and the vine, 1 Sam. 22: 6. Micah 4: 4, It is for the same reason also, that we so frequently hear in the Hebrew Scriptures of persons sitting down as in the following passage, " Blessed is the man, that standeth not in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful, see Ps. 1: 1. 107: 32. 89: 7. Ill: 1. 64: 2. 50: 20. 26: 5. The bath was always very agreeable to the inhabitants of the East, Euth 3: 3. 2 Sam. 11: 2. 2 Kings 5: 10. And it is not at all surprising, that it should have been so, since it is not only cooling and refreshing, but is absolutely necessary in order to secure a decent degree of cleanliness in a climate, where there is so much exposure to dust. The bath is frequently visited by Eastern ladies, and may be reckoned among their principal recreations. Those Egyptians, who lived at the earliest period of which we have any account, were in the habit of bathing in the waters of the Nile, Exod. 2: 5. 7: 13 — 25. Herodot. II. 37. It was one of the civil laws of the He- brews, that the bath should be used. The object of the law with- out doubt was to secure a proper degree of cleanliness among them, Lev. 14: 2. 15: 1—8. 17: 15, 16. 22: 6. Num. 19: 6. We may, therefore, consider it as probable, that public baths, soon after the enactment of this law, were erected in Palestine, of a construction similar to that of those, which are so frequently seen at the present day in the East. The orientals, when engaged in conversation, are very candid and mild, and do not feel themselves at liberty directly to contra- dict the person with whom they are conversing, although they may at the same time be conscious, that he is telling them false- hoods. The ancient Hebrews in particular very rarely used any terms of reproach more severe than those of IBia adversary or oppo- ser, np'i EACA, contemptible, and sometimes baj fool, an expres- sion, which means a wicked man or an atheist. Job 2: 10. Ps. 14: 1. Isa. 32: 6. Matt. 5: 22. 16: 23. Tanchuma v. 2. xviii. 4. When anything was said, which was not acceptable, the dissatisfied person replied it is enough, Tj'^'n tab a'n , ly.avov iazi, Deut. 3: 26. Luke 22: 38. The formula of assent or affirmation was as follows ; aii slnag, n'la^ 'jS , thou hast said, or thou hast riglvtly said. We are inform- ed by the traveller Aryda, that this is the prevailing mode of a person's expressing his assent or affirmation to this day, in the vi- 196 § 181. TREATMENT OP THE JEWS TO STRANGERS. cinity of Mount Lebanon, especially where he does not wish to as- sert anything in express terms. This explains the answer of the Saviour to the high priest Caiaphas in Matt. 26: 64, when he was asked, whether he was the Christ the Son of God, and replied aii eJnas, thou hast said. To spit in company in a room, which was covered with a carpet, was an indication of great rusticity of manners ; but in case there was no carpet, it was not accounted a fault in a person, provided he spit in the comer of the room. The expressions, therefore, in Deu- teronomy, 25: 7 — 9, viz. I^jsa iiij'i^l and she shaU spit in his face, are to be understood literally, the more so on this account, because in other places, where spitting, buffeting, etc. are mentioned, they occur under circumstances, where there existed a great excitement of feeling, and because there are not wanting instances, of even greater rudeness and violence, than that of spitting in one's face. Matt. 26: 67. Mark 14: 65. comp. 1 Kings 22: 24. Isa.. 57: 4. Ezek. 2: 6. 25: 6. 2 Sam. 16: 6, 7. The orientals, as is very well known, are fond of taking a nap at noon, to which they are strongly invited by the oppressive heat of their chmate, 2 Sam. 4: 5. 11: 2. Matt. 13: 25. The phrase, to cover one's feet, is used in certain instances to express the custom of retiring to rest or sleeping at this time, Judg. 3: 24. 1 Sam. 24: 4. § 181. Treatment of the Jews to Strangers. Moses inculcated and enforced, by numerous and by powerful considerations, as well as by various examples of benevolent hospi- tality, mentioned in the book of Genesis, the exhibition of kindness and humanity to strangers. There were two classes of persons, who in reference to this subject, were denominated strangers, C'lS . One class were those, who, whether Hebrews or foreigners, were desti- tute of a home, in Hebrew niacin . The others were persons, who, though not natives, had a home in Palestine ; the latter were V^i strangers or foreigners in the strict sense of the word. Both of these classes, according to the civil code of Moses were to be treated with kindness, and were to enjoy the same rights with other citizens. Lev. 19: 33, 34. 24: 16, 22. Num. 9: 14. 15: 14. Deut. 10: ,18. 23: 8. 24: 17. 27: 19. In the earlier periods of the Hebrew state, persons who were § 182. THE POOR AND BEGGARS. 197 natives of another country, but who had come, either from choice or necessity, to take up their residence among the Hebrews, ap- pear to have been placed in favorable circumstances. At a later period, viz. in the reigns of David and Solomon, they were com- pelled to labor on the religious edifices which were erected by those princes ; as we may learn from such passages as these : " And Solomon numbered all the strangers that were in the land of Is- rael, after the numhering wherewith David his father had numbered them ; and they were found an hundred and fifty thousand and three thousand and six hundred ; and he set threescore and ten thousand of them to he hearers of hurdens," etc. ; see 1 Chron. 22: 2. 2 Chron. 2: 1, 16, 17. Tlie exaction of such laboi'ious services from foreign- ers, was probably limited to those who had been taken prisoners in war ; and who, according to the rights of war as they were understood at that period, could be justly employed in any offi- ces, however low and however laborious, which the conqueror thought proper to impose. In the time of Christ, the degenerate Jews did not find it convenient to render to the strangers from a foreign country those deeds of kindness and humanity, which were not only their due, but which were demanded in their be- half by the law of Moses. They were in the habit of under- standing by the word S'l , neighbor, their friends merely, and accord- ingly restricted the exercise of their benevolence by the same nar- row limits that bounded, in this case, their interpretation ; contrary as both were to the spirit of those passages, which have been adduced above, Lev. 19: 18. § 182. The PoOe and Beggars. Moses, as may be learned by consulting the references in the preceding section, made abundant provision for the poor, but it does not appear that he says anything in respect to heggars. "We find the 'first express mention of mendicants in the Psalms; see Ps. 109: 10. In the parts of the Hebrew Scriptures, which were written subsequently, the mention of them is quite frequent. In the time of Christ, mendicants were found sitting in the streets, at the doors of the rich, at tlie gates of the temple, and likewise, as we have reason to believe, at the entrance of the synagogues, Mark 10: 46. Luke 16: 20. Acts 3: 2. Sometimes food and some- 17* » 198 § 183. LETITICAL DEFILEMENTS. times money was presented to them, Matt. 26: 9. Luke 16: 21. We have no reason to suppose, that there existed in the time of Christ that class of persons called vagrant beggars, who present their sup- plications for alms from door to door, and who are found at the present day in the East, although less frequently than in the countries of Europe. That the custom of seeking alms by sounding a trumpet or horn, which prevails among a class of Mohammedan monastics, called' Kalender or Karendal, prevailed also in the time of Christ, may be inferred from Matt. 6: 2, where the verb aa).mX possesses the shade of signification, that would be attached to a corresponding word in the Hiphil form of the Hebrew, and is to be rendered transi- tively, as is the case with many other verbs in the New Testament, 1 Cor. 1: 20. 3: 6. 15: 1, etc. There is one thing characteristic of those orientals, who are reduced to the disagreeable necessity of fol- lowing the vocation of mendicants, which is worthy of being men- tioned ; they do not appeal to the pity or to the alms-giving spirit, but to the justice of their benefactors, Job 22: 7. 31: 16. Prov. 3: 27, 28. 21: 21. Ps. 24: 5. Eccles. 4: 1. 14: 13, 14. Matt. 6: 1. Koran 17: 28. 30: 37. 70: 24. Buxtorf. Lexic. Chald. Talmud, ilabb. p. 1821. § 183. Levitical Defilements. The defilements, which kept a person back not only from sacred scenes and duties, but from all intercourse with other persons, were recognized and had an existence, among the Hebrews, before as well as after the time of Moses. They had an exist- ence, in truth, at that very early period, not only among the Hebrews, but also among many other nations. If a man were de- filed or rendered unclean by disease, it so happened, because the disease was considered contagious. If he were defiled from any other cause, that cause, whatever it might be, was something, wliich was associated with ideas of impurity, with dislike, or ah- • horrence in the minds of the people. Moses defined more accu- rately, than had previously been done, those things to which it was the custom to attach the opprobrium of communicating un- , cleanness; and in order to increase and perpetuate the separa- tion which existed between the Hebrews and the Gentile nations, and, to render the former less liable to seduction to idolatry, he § 183. LEVITICAL DEFILEMENTS. 199 appointed and regulated the ceremonies, bj' which unclean persons might be purified and restored back again to the privileges of the tabernacle and to the intei-course of friends. If a person, who was defiled or unclean, touched another, he rendered the other person as unclean as himself, and both were excluded from the tabernacle and temple. Lev. 13: 3. Those persons, who according to the Levitical law, were unclean, were, I. Persons who were afflicted with the leprosy. They were not permitted to dwell within the limits of either cities or villages. They were clad in a rent and miserable garment, and were compelled to cry out to every one, whom they met, "Unclean, unclean!" Lev. 13: 45. Num. 5: 2 et seq. IL The Gonorrhea or seed Jlux whether benigna or virulen- TA, was a source of uncleanness to any person, who was the subject of it. Lev. 15:3. m. Whoever had an emissio seminis, even in legitimate inter- course, was to be unclean till the evening. Lev. 15: 16 — 22. rV. Women after the birth of a son were unclean for seven, and after the birth of a daughter, for fourteen days. And in case the in- fant was a manchild, they were debarred during the thirty-three fol- lowing days from the tabernacle and temple, and from the sacrifices ; in case the child was a female, they were thus debarred during the sixty following days, Lev. 12: 1 — 6. 15: 16 — 28. V. Women, during the period of the menses, and when laboring under the disease denominated an issue of blood were unclean, Lev. 15: 19—21. Matt. 9: 20. VL He, who had touched the corpse of a man, or the carcass of an animal, a sepulchre, or the bones of a dead person ; likewise he, who had been in the tent, or in the room, or house of the dying or the dead, were both of them unclean for seven days. Priests were rendered unclean by merely wearing the badges of mourning ; and for that reason they never assumed them, except in case of the death of parents, children, brothers, or unmarried sisters residing in their father's house. For the same reason, viz. the circumstance of their communicating uncleanness, the habiliments of mourning were alto- gether interdicted to the high priest. Lev. 5: 2. 11: 8 — 11, 24 — 31. 21: 1—5, 10, 11. Num. 19: 11—15. 200 CHAPTER Xn. OF DISEASES. § 184. Of Diseases generally. In the primitive ages of the world, diseases, in consequence ol the great simplicity in the mode of living, were but few in number. At a subsequent period the number was increased, by the accession of diseases, that had been previously unknown. Epidemics also, dis- eases somewhat peculiar in their character and still more fearful in their consequences, soon made their appearance, some infesting one period of life, and some another, some limiting their ravages to one country, and some to another. The propriety of this statement in regard to the original extent and subsequent increase of diseases in general, and to epidemics, will recommend itself to every mind, that makes even but small pretensions to attainments in know- ledge. Prosper Alpinus, in his Book de Medicina Aegyptiaca, Lib. I. c. 13. p. 13, mentions the diseases which are prevalent in Egypt, and in other countries in the same climate. They are ophthalmies, leprosies, inflammations of the brain, pains in the joints, the hernia, the stone in the reins and bladder, the phthisic, hectic, pestilential, and tertian fevers, weakness of the stomach, obstructions in the hver, and the spleen. Of these diseases, ophthalmies, pestilential fevers, and inflammations of the brain are epidemics ; the others are of dif- ferent character. Every region, and every age of the world, has been in the habit of attributing certain diseases to certain causes, and of assigning names to those diseases, derived from the supposed origin or cause, whether it were a real or only an imaginary one. The names thus given have been in many instances retained both by the vul- gar and by men of medical science, after different causes had been developed and assigned to the diseases in question. In respect to this subject, we know, that there are certain words of very an- cient standing, which are used to express diseases of some kind or § 185. THE DISEASE OF THE PHILISTINES. 201 Other; it will, therefore, be a prominent inquiry with us to learn what the diseases are, that were designed to be expressed by those words. And in order to clear the way for this inquiry, the re- mark may be made here, the truth of which every one will be willing to confess, that the ancients were accustomed to attribute the origin of diseases, particularly, of those whose natural cause they did not understand, to the immediate interference of the Deity. Hence they were denominated by the ancient Greeks jj-iiariyeg or the scourges of God, a word which is employed in the New Testament by the physician Luke himself, ch. 7: 21 ; and also in Mai-k 5: 29, 34. § 185. Disease of the Philistines, mentioned in 1 Sam. v. vi. The disease of the Philistines, which is mentioned in 1 Sam. 5: 6, 12. 6: 18, is denominated in the Hebrew Dibs? . This word occurs likewise in Deut. 28: 27 ; and it is worthy of remark that it is everywhere explamed in the Keri or marginal readings, by the Aramean word tjinna ; an expression, which in the Syriac dia- lect, where it occurs under th^ forms Ij.-**.^ and poi*.^ , means the fundament, and likewise the effort which is made in an evacua- tion of the system. The authors, therefore, of the reading in the Keri appear to have assented to the opinion of Josephus, ex- pressed in Antiq. VI. 1. 1 ; and to have understood by this word the dysentery. The corresponding Arabic words, iJJls- sJUte, mean a swelling on the anterior part of the veeenda in females, answering somewhat in its nature to the hernia in men ; a disease, wnsequently, very different from the hemorrhoids, which some persons understand to be meant by the word Disss' . Among other objections, it may also be observed that the mice, which are men- tioned not only in the Hebrew text, (1 Sam. 6: 5, 12. 16: 18) but also in the Alexandrine and Vulgate versions, (1 Sam. 5: 6. 6: 5, 11, 18) are an objection to understanding the hemorrhoids by the word under consideration ; since, if that were in fact the disease, we see no reason why mice should have been presented as an offer- ing to avert the anger of the God of Israel. Lichtenstein, a writer in Eichhorn's Bibliothek, Band VL p. 407 — 466, has given a solution, which is free from the difficulties 202 § 187. FALSE CONCEPTION. that attended all preceding ones. The word Q'^'^as?, which ig rendered mice, he supposes to mean venomous solpugas, which belong to the spider class, and yet are so large, and so similar in their form to mice, as to admit of their being denominated by the same word. These venomous animals destroy and live upon scorpions. They also bite men, whenever they can have an opportunity, particularly in the fundament and the verenda. Their bite causes swellings, fatal in their consequences, which are called in Hebrew aphalim, Di^sr ; see Pliny, Hist. Nat. Lib. XXIX. 4, The probable supposition then is, that solpugas were at this time multiplied among the Philistines by the special providence of God, and that, being very venomous, they were the means of destroying many individuals. § 186. The Disease of King Jehokam. King Jehoram, who was clothed with the double infamy of being at once an idolater and the murderer of his brethren, was diseased internally for two years, as had been predicted by the prophet Elijah ; and his bowels are said to have fallen out by reason of his sickness, 2 Chron. 21: 12 — 15, 18, 19. This disease, beyond all doubt, was the dysentery ; and though its continuance so long a time was very uncommon, it is by no means a thing unheard of. The intestines, in time, become ulcerated by the operation of this disease. Not only blood is discharged from them, but a sort of raucous excrement likewise is thrown off, and sometimes small pieces of the flesh itself; so that apparently the intestines are emitted or fall out, which is sufficient to account for the expressions that are used in the statement of king Jehoram's disease ; Mead, Medic. Sacr. c. IV. § 187. False Conception (Evm-eviAaiooaig). False conception or pregnancy (in Greek evTivsvuarcoaie, in Latin mola ventosa) does not appear to have been so unfrequent among the Hebrew women as among those of Europe. If it had been so, it probably would not have made its appearance on the pages of Hebrew writers in the shape of a figure of speech. The fact to which I allude is this. The Hebrews were accus- § 188. COUNTRIES WHERE THE LEPROSY PREVAILS. 203 tomed to expect after calamities a state of things quite ihe reverse, viz. a season of prosperity and joy. Tliey accordingly, compared a season of misfortune and calamity to the pains of a woman in travail, but the better destiny, which followed, they compared to the joy, which commonly succeeds childbirth, Isa. 13: 8. 26: 17. 2 Kings 19: 3. Jer. 4: 31. 13: 21. 22: 23. 30: 6. Mic. 4: 9, 10. John 16: 21, 22. But they carry the comparison still further. Those days of adversity, which were succeeded by adversity still, those scenes of sorrow, which were followed only by additional sorrow, were likened to women, who labored under that disease of the system, which caused them to exhibit the appearance and endure the pains of a state of pregnancy, when that apparent state of preg- nancy resulted either in nothing, or in the parturition of a monster, Isa. 26: 18. Ps. 7: 14. § 188. Countries where the Leprosy prevails. The Leprosy prevails in Egypt, in the southern part of Up- per Asia, and in fact may be considered a disease endemic in warm climates generally. Accordingly, it is not at all surprising, if many of the Hebrews, when they left Egypt, were infected with it ; but the assertion of Manetho, that they were all thus infected, and were in con- sequence of the infection driven out by force, in which he is precipi- tately and carelessly followed by Strabo, by Tacitus, by Justin Tro- gus, and by others more recent, is a mere dream, without any ade- quate foundation. The disease, it is true, was a very severe and a very repulsive one, and was regarded by the ancients, as a marked exhibition of the justice and the wrath of God. It was denominated by the Hebrews the stroke or wound, I'srn , rs'n^ j'as , i. e. by supply- ing the ellipsis, ihe stroke or wound of the Lord, Num. 12: 1 — 10. 2 Kings 5: 1 et seq. 15: 5. 2 Chron. 26: 16 et seq. Herodot. I. 138. But certainly the kings of Egypt, who, according to the unanimous testimony of the ancients, could correctly estimate the value of a nu- merous population, acted a strange and unaccountable part, if it be a fact, that on account of a disease, which might be called one of the at- tributes of the country and climate, they expelled from the very heart of the nation more than two millions of people. 201 § 189. PROGRESS OF LErROST. § 189. Beginnings and Progress op Leprosy. The leprosy exhibits itself on the exterior surface of the skin, but it infects, at the same time, the marrow and the bones ; so much so that the furthest joints in the system gradually lose their powers, and the members fall together in such a manner, as to give the body a mutilated and dreadful appearance. From these circumstances, there can be no doubt, that the disease ori- ginates, and spreads its ravages internally, before it makes its ap- pearance on the external parts of the body. Indeed we have rea- son to believe, that it is concealed in the internal parts of the system a number of years, for instance, in infants commonly till they arrive at the age of puberty, and in adults, as many as three or four years, till at last it gives the fearful indications on the sMn of having already gained a deep-rooted and permanent exist- ence. Its progress subsequently to its appearance on the external sur- face of the body is far from being rapid ; in a number of years it ar- rives at its middle, and in a number after to its final state. A person who is leprous from his nativity may live fifty years ; one, who in after life is infected with it, may live twenty years, but they will be such years of'dreadful misery, as rarely fall to the lot of man in any other situation. The appearance of the disease externally, is not always the same. The spot is commonly small, resembling in its appearance the small red spot that would be the consequence of a puncture from a needle, or the pustules of a ringworm. The spots for the m1)st part make their appearance very suddenly, especially if the infected person, at the period when the disease shows itself ex- ternally, happens to be in great fear, or to be intoxicated with anger, Num. 12: 10. 2 Chron. 26: 19. They commonly exhibit themselves in the first instance, on the face, about the nose and eyes ; they gradually increase in size for a number of years, till they become, as respects the extent of surface which they em- brace on the skin, as large as a pea or bean. They are then called nNir . The white spot or pustule, fT;;na , morphea, alba, and also the dark spot, rinSD , morphea nigra, are indications of the exist- ence of the real leprosy, Lev. 13: 2, 39. 14: 56. From these it is § 189. PROGRESS OF LEPROSY. 205 necessary to distinguish the spot, which, whatever resemblance there may be in form, is so ditFerent in its effects called Bohak pfia , and also the harmless sort of scab, which occurs under the word, nnaba , Le%'. 13: 6—8, 29. Moses, in the thirteenth chapter of Leviticus, lays down very ex- plicit rules for the purpose of distinguishing between those spots, which are proofs of the actual existence of the leprosy, and those spots, which are harmless and result from some other cause. Those spots which are the genuine effects and marks of the leprosy, grad- ually dilate themselves, till at length they cover the whole body. Not only the skin is subject to a total destruction, but the whole body is affected in every part. The pain it is true, is not very great, but there is a great debility of the system, and great uneasiness and grief, so much so, as almost to drive the victim of the disease to self-de- struction. Job 7: 15. There are four kinds of the real leprosy. The first kind is of so virulent and powerful a nature, that it separates the joints and limbs, and mutilates the body in the most awful manner. The second is the white leprosy, !1"12 . The third is the hlach leprosy or Psora, 315 , i^nc , n'lsnax nib iTia , &irt , nsfe-' , Deut. 28: 27, 35. Lev. 21: 20 — 22. The fourth description of leprosy is the alopecia, or red leprosy. The person, who is infected with the leprosy, howe*'er long the disease may be in passing through its several stages, is at last taken away suddenly and for the most part unexpectedly. But the evils, which fall upon the living leper, are not terminated by the event of his death. The disease is to a certain extent hereditary, and is transmitted down to the third and fourth generation; to this fact there seem? to be an allusion in Exod. 20: 4 — 6. 3: 7. Deut. 5: 9. 24: 8, 9. If any one should undertake to say, that in the fourth generation it is not the real leprosy, still it will not be denied, there is something, which bears no little resemblance to it, in the shape of defective teeth, of fetid breath, and a diseased hue. Leprous persons, notwithstanding the deformities and mu- tilation of their bodies, give no special evidence of a liberation from the strength of the sensual passions, and cannot be influ- enced to abstain from the procreation of children, when at the same time they clearly foresee the misery of which their offspring will be the inheritors. The disease of leprosy is communicated not 18 206 § 189. N JTE I. LEPEOST CALLED BOHAK. only by transmission from the parents to the children, and not only by sexual cohabitation, but also by much intercourse with the leprous person in any way whatever. Whence Moses acted the part of a wise legislator in making those laws, which have come down to us, concerning the inspection and separation of leprous persons. The object of these laws will appear peculiarly wofthy, when it is consid- ered, that they were designed not wantonly to fix the charge of being a leper upon an innocent person, and thus to impose upon him those restraints and inconveniences, which the truth of such a charge naturally implies ; but to ascertain in the fairest and most satisfactory manner, and to separate those, and those only, who were truly and really leprous. As this was the prominent object of his laws, that have come down to us on this subject, viz. to secure a fair and impar- tial decision on a question of this kind, he has not mentioned those signs of leprosy, which admitted of no doubt, but those only, which might be the subject of contention ; and left it to the priests, who also fulfilled the office of physicians, to distinguish between the really leprous, and those who had only the appearance of being such. In the opinion of Hensler, expressed in his Geschichte der abendlandischen Aussatzes, p. 273, Moses, in the laws to which we have alluded, discovers a great knowledge of the disease. Every species of leprosy is not equally malignant ; the most virulent species defies the skill and power of physicians. That which is less so, if taken at its commencement, can be healed. But in the latter case also, if the disease has been of long continuance, there is no remedy. Note I. On Bohak as distinct fbom infectious Leprosy. [We find mention, in the rules laid down by Moses for the pur- pose of ascertaining the true tokens of leprosy, of a cutaneous dis- order, which is denominated by him iokah ptis, and of which there is a slight mention in the above section. It was thought by the translator, that it might be interesting to the reader to have some further account of this disorder, and he has accordingly in- troduced here the answer of Niebuhr, found at page 135 of his Description of Arabia, to the inquiry of Michaelis on this subject. The words of Moses, which may be found in Leviticus 13: 38, 39, are as follows : " ^ a man or woman have white spots on the shin, and the priest see that the color of these spots is faint and pale : it is § 189. NOTE II. ON THE LEPROSY OF GUADALOTJPE. 207 m this case, the Bohak, that has broken out on the skin, and they are clean." A person, accordingly, who was attacked with this dis- ease, the Bohak, was not declared unclean, and the reason of it was, that it is not only harmless in itself, but is free from that in- fectious and hereditary character, which belongs to the true lep- rosy. Says Mr. Niebuhr: "The Bohak is neither infectious nor dan- gerous. A black boy of Mocha, who was attacked with this sort of leprosy, had white spots here and there on his body. It was said that the use of sulphur had been for some time of service to this boy, but had not altogether removed the disease." He then adds the fol- lowing from the papers of a Dr. Foster, "May 15th, 1763, I my- self saw a case of the Bohak in a Jew at Mocha. The spots in this disease are of unequal size. They have no shining appearance, nor are they perceptibly elevated above the skin ; and they do not change the color of the hair. Their color is an obscure tvhite or somewhat reddish. The rest of the skin of this patient was blacker than that of the people of the country in general, but the spots were not so white as the skin of an European when not sunburnt. The spots, in this species of leprosy, do not appear on the hands, nor about the na- vel, but on the neck and face ; not however on that part of the head, where the hair grows very thick. They gradually spread, and con- tinue sometimes only about two months ; but in some cases, indeed as long as two years, and then disappear, by degrees, of themselves. This disorder is neither infectious nor hereditarj'-, nor does it occa- sion any inconvenience." "That all this," remarks Michaelis, "should still be found exactly to hold at the distance of three thousand five hundred years 'from the time of Moses, ought cer- tainly to gain some credit to his laws even with those; who will not allow them to be of divine authority," see Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, Smith's Translation, Vol. in. p. 283. art. 210.] Note II. On the Leprosy or Guadalodpe. [Michaelis, in discussing the subject of leprosies, expresses his gratitude to God, that the Lepra Arabum, as it is termed by tlie learned, is known to the physicians of Germany, only from books, and by name. But this disease, although it is very unfrequent in 208 § 189. NOTE II. ON THE LEPBOSr OF GUADALOXTPE. Europe, indeed almost extinct, made its appearance about the year 1730 on the Western Continent, and spread its ravages among the sugar islands of the West Indies, particularly Guada- loupe. The inhabitants of this island, alarmed and terrified at the" introduction of so pernicious a disorder among thenj, petitioned the Court of France to send to the island persons qualified to institute an inspection of those who labored under suspicions of being in- fected, in order that those who were in fact lepers might be removed into lazarettoes. M. Peyssonel, who was sent to Guadaloupe on this business, writes as follows on the third of February, 1757. "It is now about twenty-five or thirty years, since a singular disease appear- ed on many of the inhabilants of this island. Its commencement is imperceptible. There appear only some few white spots on the skin, which, in the whites, are of a blackish red color, and in the blacks of a copper red. At first, they are attended nei- ther with pain nor any sort of inconvenience ; but no means what- ever will remove them. The disease imperceptibly increases, and continues for many years to manifest itself more and more. The spots become larger, and spread over the skin of the whole body indiscriminately ; sometimes a little elevated, though flat. When the disease advances, the upper part of the nose swells, the nostrils become enlarged, and the nose itself soft. Tumors ap- pear on the jaws ; the eye-brows swell ; the ears become thick ; the points of the fingers, as also the feet and toes swell ; the nails become scaly ; the joints of the hands and feet separate, and drop ofif. On the palms of the hands, and on the soles of the feet, appear deep dry ulcers, which increase rapidly, and then disappear again. In short, in the last stage of the disease, the patient becomes a hideous spectacle, and falls in pieces. These symptoms supervene by very slow and successive steps, requiring often many years be- fore they all occur. The patient sufifers no violent pain, but feels a sort of numbness in his hands and feet. During the whole pe- riod of the disorder, those afflicted with it, experience no obstruc- tions in what is called the Naturalia. They eat and drink as usual; and even when their fingers and toes mortify, the loss of the mortified part is the only consequence that ensues ; for the wound heals of itself without any medical treatment or applica- tion. When, however, the unfortunate wretches come to the last § 190. ON THE PESTILENCE. 209 period of the disease, they are hideously disfigured, and objects of the greatest compassion." " It has been remarked, that this horrible disorder has, be- sides, some very lamentable properties ; as, in the first place, that it is hereditary; and hence some families are more affected with it than others : secondly, that it is infectious, being propagated by coition, and even by long continued intercourse : and thirdly, that it is incurable, or at least no means of cure have hitherto been dis- covered. Mercurial medicines, and diaphoretics, and all the usual prescriptions and plans of regimen for venereal complaints, have been tried, from an idea that the infection might be venereal ; but in vain : for instead of relieving, they only hastened the destruction of the patients. The medicines serviceable in the lues venerea had no other effect than to bring the disease to its acme ; inducing all its most formidable symptoms, and making those thus treated die some years sooner, than other victims to it."] § 190. On the Pestilence, 12'i . The pestilence, in its effects, is equally terrible with the lep- rosy, and is much more rapid in its progress ; for it terminates the existence of those, who are infected with it almost immediately, and at the furthest, within three or four days. The Gentiles were in the habit of referring back the pestilence to the agency and interference of that being, whatever it might be, whether idol or spirit, whom they regarded as the divinity. The Hebrews also everywhere attribute it to the agency either of God himself, or of that legate or angel, whom they denominate Tisf^?. We are not, however, to suppose, that the Hebrews, in using these expressions, mean to attribute the pestilence to the immediate agency of God ; nor would they permit us to understand by the messenger, who, they assure us, is the agent in business of so disastrous a nature, the true and appropriate angel or legate of Jehovah. It is true, they tell us, that God sends forth the pes- tilence, and that the angel goes with it and smites the people with its power, but let it not be forgotten, that every angel is the crea- ture of God, and that, in a certain sense, God is the author of all things, and all events, whether prosperous or afiiictive, wheth- er good or bad. When they make God the author of the pestilence, 18* 210 § 190. ON thh; pestilence. it is clear, they do not mean to say, he is the immediate cause in so fearful a calamity, from the fact, that, in other places, they represent God as the author of moral evil, where they certainly do not mean to say, he is the immediate author of such evil. In a somewhat recent period of their history, it cannot be denied, that instead of making God the author of evil, they attribute it to a malignant spirit of high origin, viz. Satan ; but still they were aware of the origin of this being, that he was the creature of God and acted beneath his superintendence. The difficulty then in regard to their representations arises from this source. God, in a certain sense, is the author of all things. This is true. But the ancient Hebrews do not appear to have distinguished with sufficient accu- racy that liberty or permission, which is given us in the course of divine providence, to do or not to do, to do good or evil, from the direct and immediate agency of God himself, Deut. 4: 19. Josh. 11: 20. 2 Sam. 16: 10. 24: 1. comp. 1 Chron. 21: 1. 2 Kings 17: 14. Ps. 78: 49 — 51. In consequence of this disposition to identify the agency of God with the actions of his creatures, and to confound the original with second and subsidiary causes, we find, by con- sulting the Scriptures, that they sometimes represent men, and some- times animals or inanimate existences, as d^sxiia , i/te messengers or the angels of God; and this is not only in poetry, but likewise in prose, Ps. 34: 7. 104: 4. Heb. 2: 2. Acts 7: 53. 12: 23. Gal. 3: 19. comp. Josephus, Antiq. XV. 5. 3. This mode of speech was so common, that the Sadducees of a more recent age, who, although they received the Scrip- tures with veneration, denied the existence of any spirits, inter- preted all the passages, (where mention is made of angels,) of other existences, which were employed by God as instruments, and, as they supposed, were, from that circumstance merely, de- nominated the messengers, or angels of God. The Samaritans likewise, as has been shown by Reland (de Samaritanis, 7 — 9) gave the same perverted interpretation to the word, which is rendered angel. This mode of speaking found its way also among the Syrians, who were in the habit of calling diseases angels, i. e. mes- sengers that were sent to inflict punishment upon men ; and were accustomed to denominate a sick man, one tempted, ( * ff?1V> , or tried of Grod or of his angel, Assemani Bibl. Orient. T. I. p. 215. comp. .2 Cor. 12: 7. It is in this way that the pestilence, (the second- § 190. ON THE PESTILENCE. 211 ary cause of it being overlooked,) is attributed directly to God, Exod. 11: 4—7. 12: 23, 29. comp. Ps. 78: 49, 50 ; also to an angel, 2 Sam. 24: 15, 16, who is represented as slaying men with a sword, and, in 1 Chron. 21: 16, is described with the additional circum- stance of being elevated between heaven and earth. But that God, or the angel in these instances, is merely the pestilence itself, the original cause being put for the effect, and being identified with it, in a way, which is not common among us, seems to be sufficiently clear from 2 Sam. 24: 12, 15, where a pestilence with its ordinary and natural attributes is the prominent subject of discourse. This view^ of the subject gives a reason, why the Septuagint renders the word la'n or pestilence, in Ps. 91: 6, by Saifionov fieaij/i^gtvov, i. e. the demon of noon-day ; and why Jonathan renders the same word in the Chaldee Targum, Habak. 3: 5, by the Chaldee word TjSba, angel or messenger. We lay it down then, as a general principle, that wherever we are told, an angel scatters abroad a pestilence, the pestilence merely is meant by such expressions. Apply it for instance to the destruction of Sennacherib's army, 2 Kings 19: 35. comp. 2 Kings 18: 23. 19: 6 — 8. In this destruction, an hundred and eighty-five thousand men perished. We are told it was done by an angel, but we know, this was a common mode of speech ; and that all natural events and effects were frequently described as the mes- sengers or angels of God. If we seek then for a natural cause, for so wide a destruction, we fix immediately upon the pestilence, which is most violent in its first attack, and might well have de- stroyed the hundred and eighty-five thousand Assyrians, if the spoils of Egypt, infected with its contagious properties, had been scattered through the camp. The idea, that Sennacherib's army perished by means of the pestilence, communicated in the way above alluded to, or some other, agrees better than any other hy- pothesis, with the fact, that the survivors in that army were not aware till the return of the morning light, of the immense number, that had died. If any one wishes to be informed further concerning the nature of the pestilence, and the symptoms exhibited by an infected per- son, let him consult the original German edition of this Work, T. n. P. I. § 223. p. 389—397. It will merely be remarked here, in reference to those topics, that no one ever recovered from 212 §191. THE DISEASE OF SAUL AND NEBtJCHADNEZZAE. the pestilence, unless the boil of the pestilence came out upon him. And even then, he could not always be cured, 2 Kings 20: 7. Isa. 38: 21. [Note. Some liberty has been taken with the Latin of the above section, owing to its great conciseness and consequent obscu- rity. Having, however, examined the German edition, the transla- tor has given what he supposes to be the meaning of Dr. Jahn. On the sentiments conveyed in this section, this remark may be proposed for the consideration of the reader. If we admit, that the Hebrews sometimes spoke of winds, fires, and diseases, as messen- gers, ministers, or angels, as for instance some critics have main- tained in Ps. 104: 4 compared with Ps. 148: 8, it is still a question, on which many persons will feel themselves at liberty to dissent from our author. Whether he ought not to have limited his view of the irstrs loquendi under consideration to the poetical parts of the Scriptures ? Nothing is more obvious than that poetry has its appropriate HEKMENEUTICA, and what would be a very reasonable and correct interpretation of certain expressions in poetical description, does not necessarily hold good in prose. Accordingly, a serious objection might be made to receiving the accounts, given in 2 Sam. 24: 16. and 2 Kings 19: 35. which are unadorned historical statements, in any other than their most plain and obvious meaning.] § 191. The Disease op Saul and Nebuchadnezzak. The position, which we have endeavored to defend in the pre- ceding section, that diseases and events of rare occurrence, and, we may add here, events likewise of daily occurrence, were attributed by the ancient Hebrews to God, or to some angel, as his messenger, throws light upon many passages of Scripture. A person, who understands the extent and the proper bearing of that principle, will readily see, that the spirit of God, nVlT] nil , which departed from Saul, was no other, than an upright and a generous tendency of mind ; and that the evil spirit from the Lord, which beset and filled him with terror, mh'' nN« nsn nsn 1 Sam. 16: 14, 15. 18: 10. 19: 9, was a sort of madness, which had the ef- fect of deceiving him into the idea, that he was a prophet j for it § 191. THE DISEASE OF SAUL AND NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 213 seems, that he prophesied, xasn*!, and, in all probability, pre- dieted the loss of his own kingdom. The Targum of Jonathan, accordingly renders the word Ka3n\ he was mad or insane. This EVIL SPIRIT, in a word, was not more a spirit or messenger from God, than the evil spirit which, in Judges 9: 23, is said to have been sent by him among the Shechemites ; and which, certainly, as was evident even to the ancient interpreters, and has been since to every body else, was nothing more than the spirit of strife and dissension. In the same way, the spirit of fomieation, n^i tf'ivn in Hosea 4: 12, is merely lust; compare 1 Sam. 11: 6. IC: 14 Judg. 3: 10. 6: 34. 11: 29. 14: 6. Ps. 51: 11. Ezek. 11: 19. 18: 31. This representation more than any other is suitable to the fact, that Saul was benefited by music ; for the charms of music, however great its elRcacj' in any other case, would have been very incompetent to the task of subduing the untractable spirit of a real demon. This mode of speaking did not originate, as some have sup- posed, in the time of the captivity, from the doctrine held by the Mehestani, although it undoubtedly at that time became more common, and was used with greater latitude, than at any previous period. For, agreeably to this mode of speech and to the belief on which it is founded, viz. the subordinate agency of angels, we find mention made in Daniel 4: 10, 14, 20, [consult Michaelis's edition of the Hebrew Bible,] of c^.'^S or star-waichers. The de- signs or the decrees of these " holy watchers," as they are termed, which are made known to Nebuchadnezzar in his vision, and are stated in the verses above mentioned, are referred by Daniel, in the twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter, to the immediate agency of God himself; a circumstance which is altogether conformable to what has been already stated, in this and the preceding section, on this subject. The disease of Nebuchadnezzar, mentioned in this chapter, was that of insanity or madness. His mind was in such a state, his rea- soning powers were so perverted and deranged, that it appeared to him as if he heard a voice from heaven, declaring his expulsion from the kingdom ; and he imagined, that he was really transformed into a beast. Accordingly he acknowledges, in the fourth chapter, verses 31, 33, that he had again received the use of his reason ; which is an evidence that he understood the disease from which he recovered, to have been insanity. 214: § 192. EESPECTING DEMONIACS. § 192. Respecting Demoniacs. The inquiry respecting the Demoniacs, who are so often introduced in the New Testament, and likewise in the writings of profane authors of antiquity, is a very intricate and a very difficult one. There are some persons, who contend that the demoniacs were all of them either madmen, epileptics, or per- sons subject to melancholy; and they make their appeal in be- half of their opinions to physicians. They, accordingly, in their interpretation of those expressions which are employed in refer- ence to demoniacs, go on the principle, that the sacred writers meant by them the same and nothing more, than would be naturally meant, in case the posse'ssed persons were merely the subjects of those diseases. Other persons, both theologians and physicians, have strong objections to this view of the subject. In their estimation, the expressions in the New Testament clearly imply, that the demo- niacs were possessed by an evil spirit; and this state of things, they suppose, was permitted in the providence of God, in order to give to the Saviour an opportunity to exhibit his miraculous powers. We have no disposition at present to exhibit ourselves, as partizans in this controversy, and shall only endeavor to give an impartial statement of the arguments on both sides, so as to leave the reader in a condition to form his own opinion. § 193. Demoniacs were possessed with a Devil. It will be our object, in the first place, to state the arguments in favor of the opinion, that the Demoniacs were really possessed with a devil. They are as follows : I. They expressed themselves in a way, which is not done by epileptic, melancholy, or insane persons, as in Matthew 8: 28. Luke 8: 27. Mark 5: 7. They possessed the supernatural power of sundering all sorts of cords and chains. They requested of Jesus not to torment them. They answered with propriety ques- tions which were proposed to them. Demons departed from them and entered into swine. (Certainly it cannot be said in reference § 193. DEMONIACS POSSESSED WITH A DEVIL. 215 to this particular, that madness or melancholy, the mere phrenzy or wanderings of the brain went out of the possessed persons into the herd. The supposition, which some make, that the swine were driven into the sea by the demoniacs, is destitute of all probability. They would have stood a much better chance of being driven in many more directions than one, by persons of such an undisciplined and irrational character ; especially, as they were two thousand in number. n. No symptoms of disease are mentioned in the case of the dumb demoniac, introduced in Matt. 9: 32 and Luke 11: 14, nor in that of the dumb and blind demoniac, spoken of in Matt. 12: 22. The pos- sessed persons, therefore, in both of these instances were in a sound state of body and health, with this exception merely, that the devil, (for this certainly could not have been done by epilepsy, melancholy, or madness) obstructed their organs of speech and vision. m. It is admitted, that the circumstances attending the case of the lunatic, in Matthew 17: 15, are such as would be expected in the case of a person aflSicted with the epilepsy ; but then it should be par- ticularly noticed, that the effects in this instance, as well as in others, are attributed to the agency of the devil. IV. "We are informed, that the damsel of Philippi, Acts 16: 16, practised divination, which evidently could not have been done by a mad or deranged person. We must conclude, therefore, that she was under the influence of an evil spirit. V. The demoniacs themselves say, that they are possessed with a devil. The Jews of the New Testament, who happened to be concerned on account of their relationship to the person, or in any other way, in a case of demoniacal possession, assert the same thing. The apostles likewise and evangelists allege, that persons possessed with demons, were, brought to Jesus, and that the de- mons departed at his command. Matt. 4: 24. 7: 22. 9: 33. 12: 28. Mark 1: 32, 39. 9: 25. Luke 4: 41. 8: 2, 30, 38. 9: 49. 11: 14. Jesus himself asserts, that he casts out devils, Luke 11: 19. Matt. 12: 27, 28. VI. The sacred writers make an express distinction between de- moniacs and the sick ; and likewise between the exorcism of demons, and the healing of the sick, Mark 1: 32. Luke 6: 17, 18. 7: 21. 8: 2. 13: 32. Demoniacs, therefore, were not persons afficted with dis- eases, in the way that has been supposed. 216 § 193. DEMONIACS POSSESSED WITH A DEVIL. VII. Demoniacs knew, what madmen, insane persons, epileptics, and melancholy men could not of themselves know, viz. that Jesus VTAS THE Son op God, the Messiah, the Son of David, etc. Mark 1: 24. 5: 7. Matt. 8: 29. Luke 4: 34. Vm. Jesus speaks to the demons and asks them their name: and we find, that they answer him. He also threatens them, com- mands them to be silent, to depart, and not to return, Mark 1: 25. 5: 8. 9: 25. Matt. 8: 29—31. Luke 4: 35. 8: 30—32. IX. When the seventy disciples returned trom their labors, one prominent cause of their joy was, that the devils, when the name of Christ was pronounced, obeyed them. Jesus answered them, as follows, in Luke 10: 18 ; "I beheld Satan, as Kghtrdng fall from heaven. Behold, I give unto ymi power to tread on ser- pents and scorpions, and over aU the power of the enemy, and noth- ing shaU hy any means hurt you ; notwithstanding, in this rejoice not, that the spirits are sufject unto you, hut rather rejoice, because your names are written in heaven." X. When the Saviour was accused by the Pharisees of casting out devils by the aid of Beelzebub, he replied, that the kingdom, the city, or the family, in which were dissensions and discords, would of itself perish ; and that consequently, if there we're ?vich discords in the kingdom of Satan, as to induce one devil to exert his power in the expulsion of another, it could not long exist. To these things, he immediately adds : "If I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your sons cast them out ? Therefore, they shall be your judges. Bvi if least out devils hy the spirit of God, (by divine power or a miracle,) tJten the hingdom of God is come unto you. Or else how can one enter into a strong man's house, and spoil his goods, except he first hind the strong man 7 and then he will spoil his house," Matt. 12: 25, 28. Mark 3: 23—25. Luke 11: 17—19. XI. Jesus makes the following remarks in respect to the demons or evil spirits in Matt. 12: 43, and in Luke 11: 24. "When the un- clean spirit is gone out of a man, he wcdheth through dry places, seek-' ing rest hut finding none. He saith, I will return, to my house, whence-' I came out. And when he cometh, he findeth it swept and garnished; then goeth he and taketh seven other spirits more wicked than himself; and they enter in and dwell there, and the last state of that man is worse than the first." It is very clear, that a person would not naturally understand expressions of this kind in respect to a disease. § 194. THE OPPOSITE ARGUMENT. 217 XII. The woman in Luke 13: 11, who was bowed down with the spirit of infirmity, is said by the Saviour in the sixteenth verse, to have been bound by Satan. The Apostle Peter, in like manner, as- serts in Acts 10: 38, that all, who had been oppressed with the devil, xaradvvaatevojisvovg vno rov dia^oXov, were healed by Jesits of Na- zar^h, the anointed, of God. XIII. The wonderful miracles of Jesus will appear of but com- paratively little importance and little worth, if it should be admit- ted, that he did not actually cast out devDs, but merely healed diseases. The Church Fathers, accordingly, embraced, without any dissenting voice, the opinion, that the persons, of whom we have been speaking, were really possessed with demons, and the Church itself, in accordance with this opinion, instituted an order of persons, called exorcists. § 194. General view of the opposite Aeguicent. Those who maintain, that demoniacs were epileptic, melan- choly, insane, or mad persons, commence their arguments, with referring back to a very early period. They endeavor to prove by induction from various instances, which they conceive to be to the point, and by a multitude of quotations from Greek, Boman and Jewish writers, that the demons, to whom diseases are attributed as the agents, are not the o dtd^oXog of the New Testament, (the evil spirit in an emphatic and peculiar sense ;) but that they are the spirits of dead men, who had died by a violent death, particularly of such, as were known to have sustained bad characters while living. Demoniacs, therefore, according to the hypothesis of these persons, were men, who were afflicted with some disease mental or bodily, but who were generally supposed by the people to be possessed and agitated by these spirits, the same as if they had been haunted by furies ; compare the large German edition of this Work, P. I. Vol. n. § 227—229. p. 411—454. They take the ground, therefore, that Jesus, the apostles, and the writers of the New Testament, if they wished to be understood by those, for whom their writings were intended, were under the necessity of attaching the same meaning to the word demons, which was attached to it by their contemporaries. 19 2i8 § 195. SYMPTOMS IN DEMONIACS. Having taken this position, they endeavor to confirm their senti- ments by saying further, I. That the symptoms, exhibited by demoniacs, as stated in the New Testament, are the same with those, which are exhibited by men in epilepsy, hypochondria, insanity and madness. II. That the sacred writings give intimations in various places, that they use the words demon and demons solely because they were in common circulation at that period ; and are, accordingly, to be considered, as merely accommodating themselves to the language in common use, and not as professedly teaching or denying the agency attributed to evil spirits. III. That the real operation of departed spirits upon living men, is inconsistent with the doctrine of Christ and his apostles ; and of course they could not mean, by the phrases and passages in question, such operations. These three points, they endeavor to illustrate and confirm by va- rious arguments, of which we shall proceed to give an enumeration. § 195. Symptoms in demoniacs the same vv^ith those in Diseased Persons. The opposers of the doctrine of the real agency of evil spirits in the case of demoniacs proceed to state, in the first place, that, in the time of Christ, demoniacs in other countries were frequently restored by a re- sort to medical prescriptions. It is not at all rational to suppose, that demoniacs thus restored were actually possessed with the spirits of the dead, in as much as such spirits could not have been expelled by mere medical art. They were, therefore, merely diseased or sick persons in the ordinary sense of the words. The symptoms in these men were the same with those of the persons mentioned in the New Testament, viz. the ordinary symptoms of epilepsy, insanity, and hy- pochondria. The demoniacs, consequently, of the New Testament, as we have the utmost ground for inferring, were no other than sick men, since the symptoms they actually exhibited are such, as they would have exhibited, in case they had been afflicted with the dis- eases, above mentioned, and nothing more. And these diseases, let it be remembered, are attributed to spirits or demons so called, merely on account of the prevailing opinions and belief of the people. § 195. SYMPTOMS IN DEMONIACS. 219 Explanations. I. The two Gadarenes, Matt. 8: 28 et seq. of whom only the more conspicuous and celebrated one, (viz. the one, who after his recovery prayed Christ, " that he might be with him," i. e. might be his follow- er or disciple,) is mentioned in Mark o: 2, and Luke 8: 27, were deranged persons or madmen, who were impressed with the idea, that there were within them innumerable spirits of dead men. They accordingly dwelt amid the sepulchres of the buried, went naked, were ungovernable, cried aloud, beat themselves, and attacked those who passed by. Such things are characteristic of madmen. The great power which one of them possessed, and which enabled him to burst asunder bonds and chains, is not unfrequently witnessed, in persons who have lost their reason. Both Mark (chap. 5: 15,) and Luke (chap. 8: 35,) mention that the Gadarenes found this de- moniac after he had been restored by Jesus, aaxfQovovvza, i. e. in his right mind ; which is a clear intimation, that he was previously desti- tute of reason. It is true, these men address Jesus as the Son op God, i. e. the Messiah, and ask him not to torment them ; but this circumstance can be accounted for on the supposition, that they had heard, as they un- doubtedly had, in those lucid intervals, which are granted to many insane persons, that Jesus, whose fame, (Matt. 4: 24,) had already- extended as far as Syria, was regarded as the Messiah. They evidently betray their insanity by saying, they were devik without number, and by beseeching Jesus not to drive them into the sea, but to permit them to enter into the swine, which were feeding near. Certainly none but the professed advocates of real demoniacal possession would suppose, that an actual demon or devil would select such an habitation, as that. It is admitted, that Jesus, (Mark 5: 8,) commands the unclean spirit to depart. But does this prove anything ? The spirit was called unclean, because it was supposed to be the spirit of one dead, and was unclean of course. It was commanded to depart, merely that the attention of the people present might be excited, and that they might have ample opportunity to notice the miracle, wrought in favor of the unfortunate maniac. It was not the demons, but, as in Acts 19: 16, the madmen themselves, who impetuously attacked the herd 220 § 195. SYMPTOMS IN DEMONIACS. of swine, and drove them down the steep into lake Gennesareth. Mark and Luke, in conformity with the common mode of speech, represent the demons, as going from madmen, and entering into the swine ; for it was the custom to attribute to the agency of the supposed demons, whatever was done by the demoniacs themselves 5 comp. Matthew 9: 32. Luke 11: 14 13: 11, see also the large Ger- man edition of this work, P. L Vol. IL § 231. p. 464 That the swine, being a fearful animal, and running with great speed, as they naturally would before pursuers of such a peculiar character, should have plunged in considerable numbers into the lake and perished, is by no means strange or incredible. We say in considerable num- bers, because the expressions which are used, leave us at liberty to suppose, that some of the herd escaped. The meaning is that the expressions are not to be too literally interpreted, {ad vivum resecan- dum.) Nor is it, moreover, anything very extraordinary, that these men paid a sort of homage and reverence to the Redeemer, of whose miracles and greatness they had heard ; since there are not wanting instances of madmen, who both fear and exhibit a degree of respect . to Certain persons. n. The dumb man, mentioned in Matt. 9: 32 and in Luke 11: 14, and the man, who was both dumb and blind in Matt. 12: 22, were likewise insane, or at least melancholy persons. It is proper to re- mark here, in explanation of our thus coupling together these two classes of mental diseases, that insanity, and melancholy or hypochonr dria, as the experience of physicians sufficiently proves, are nearly allied to and often accompany each other. That the first mentioned of these persons was afflicted with one of these maladies, which in that age were attributed to the agency of demons, appears from the fact, that Luke, (chap. 11: 14,) calls the devil a dumb one, while the parallel passage in Matt. 9: 32, represents the man himself as dumb. in. The youth, who in Matt. 17: 15 is called a lunatic from his childhood, and who in Luke 9: 38 — 40 was seized and torn, while uttering cries of woe, by an evil spirit of such perse- vering cruelty, as to be unwilling to suspend the exercise of his vengeance even after the victim had already severely and cruelly suffered, and who, furthermore, is said in Mark 6: 17 to have had an unclean spirit, to have fallen with great outcries, sometimes upon the earth, sometimes into water, and sometimes into fire, to § 195. SYMPTOMS IN DEMONIACS. 221 have foamed at the mouth and to have gnashed his teeth, was evi- dently an epileptic person. It will give us some idea of the preva- lent notions anciently in respect to the epilepsy, when it is remark- ed, that Hippocrates wrote a book, the object of which was to show, that epilepsy was not a sacred malady, i. e. a malady sent from some superior power or Divinity. The epithet, nevertheless, which he is in the habit of applying to this disease in this book, is that of SACRED. IV. The maid of Philippi, who in Acts 16: 16, is said to have* possessed the spirit of Python, i. e. the spirit of Apollo, 7ivev(.ia nv&tovog, was insane. The ground of the assertion, that was made in respect to her, was the fact, that she cherished, as would not be unnatural in the case of insanity, a firm persuasion, that she was possessed with some spirit from the dead, that was com- missioned by Apollo. As the gift of prophecy among the heathen, (if we may credit the assertion of Cicero in his Treatise on Divi- nation, Ernesti's edit. I. 5. p. 661,) was always attributed to the agency of Apollo ; insane persons, who professed to prophesy under his auspices, were in a situation to make much money ; which was the case in the present instance. It is not by any means to be supposed, that the predictions of the damsel or any other predic- tions of a like character, were true prophesies, for such were beyond the power of Apollo, who was regarded as "nothing' in estima- tion of Paul, to utter or to communicate. Many other demoni- acs, who are mentioned, but the symptoms or rather operations of whose disease are not particularly given, are to be reckoned among those who were insane ; for example, Mary Magdalene, from whom, (Luke 8: 2,) Jesus cast out seven devils, i. e. restored her from a madness of so violent a nature, that it was supposed to be caused by the united agency of this large number of the spirits of the dead. If the Saviour commanded the demoniacs not to make him known, the reason was, that their declaration of the subject would do more hurt than good, Mark 1: 24. Luke 4: 34. Matt 8: 29. Mark 5: 7. V. Whether the expulsion of actual demons from a person, or the healing of epileptics, madmen, and hypochondriacs be the greater and most striking miracle, in the present argument, it is of but little consequence to decide. To those, however, who de- ny in this case the actual agency of demons, the healing of these 19* 222 § 196. OPINION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. maladies appears a more impressive exhibition of miraculous power than the ejection of demons, which was likewise done, as the advocates of the ODOOsite opinion will themselves admit, by exorcists. § 196. The Apostles, Evangelists, and Christ regarded Demoniacs as diseased Persons. * The apostles and evangelists, it is contended, whether they are introduced as speaking, or whether they appear as the authors of a narration, employ those expressions, which in their time were in common use. Hence, as was very natural, they make use of such phraseology as the following : " Demoniacs came to Jesus," '-'■ Demo- niacs were broiigJd to Jesus," " They were possessed with demons,'' " The demons were cast out," " They departed from or entered into a person,'' etc. If it be inquired what they really understood by such expressions, the answer is this. Similar expressions were used in respect to madness or insanity in that age, even in cases where there could be no doubt in re- spect to the natural cause of it, i. e. a man might lose his reason in some way or by some accident, which was perfectly well understood, and still, as much as in any other case, the loss of his reason was attributed to the agency of a demon. That was the common mode of speaking. Furthermore, demons were spoken of in reference to diseases, in the same way that Bacchus among the Greeks was used tropically for wine, and Ceres for corn. It cannot be inferred; therefore, that Jesus, the apostles, and evangelists supposed, that those persons, who were represented as possessed, were in reality possessed with demons or the spirits of the dead. It cannot be in- ferred, we contend, the more especially, because they often give inti- mations of a contrary opinion, as will appear from the following statements. Argument I. The evangelists often introduce demoniacs among sick men, as a separate class of sick. Matt. 4: 23, 24. 10: 8. Mark 1: 32. Luke 4: 40, 41. 5: 15. 8: 2. 9: 1. 13: 32 ; and, what is wor- thy of notice, all classes of sick persons, many of whom are never described by the evangelists as being subject to demoniacal posses- .sions, are represented in Acts 10: 38, without any exception, as be- ing oppressed with the devil, tiara8vvaaTSv6jA,sroi vno lov diu^o- § 196. OPINION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. 223 Xov. From this it clearly appears, that, in the view of the sacred writers, to be a sich person, and to he a demoniac or vexed with the devil, (i. e. with the subordinate agents of the devil, the spirits of the wicked dead,) were only different expressions for the same thing. The evangelists, it should be remarked in addition, in some instances comprehend demoniacs under the head of sick and diseased persons, when, without expressly mentioning them, they describe in general terms those to whom the Saviour gave assistance. That is to say ; when enumerating those, who had experienced the healing power of the Saviour, they did not deem it necessary particularly to mention demoniacs in distinction from the rest, because they did not conceive, there was anything suf- ficiently peculiar in their cases to render it necessary always to make this distinction, since they might conveniently and justly be considered as comprehended (even when not expressly mentioned) in a general catalogue of those maladies, which men were sub- ject to, and which the Saviour had healed, Luke 7: 21, 22. Matthew 11: 5. On the contrary, the Evangelists certainly would not have omitted the mention of them in such an enumeration, which was designed as a statement of what the Saviour had done in relieving the bodily woes of men, if they had supposed the demoniacs to be sound and in good health, with the exception that they were possessed with a devil ; because in this case, their situation and recovery would have been so peculiar, as to have demanded a distinct specification. The sacred historians frequently say, that the demoniacs were made whole, or restored, which is an intima- tion at least, that they were previously diseased, Matthew 8: 16. 12: 22. Luke 7: 21. 8: 2. 9: 42. Luke especially, (chap. 11: 14,) when speaking of a dumb spirit, and when describing the spirit of infirmity, (chap. 13: 11,) could not, certainly, mean to be understood as speak- ing of a real spirit, but merely of a disease, or of some defect in the bodily organs. If moreover Luke, who was a physician, uses such expressions as these, viz. to heal, to he healed from spirits, to heal those oppressed with a devil ; if he uses such expressions in reference to demoniacal possessions, it is clear we are to understand possessions in his language to mean the same with diseases, and nothing more ; consult Luke 7: 21. 8: 2, and Acts 10: 38. Not only the evangelists themselves, but the Jews also, who are introduced as speaking in the gospels, use the words ddifioiv 224 § 196. OPINION OF CHEIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. and Saifioviov tropically, (the same as profane writers,) when they speak of insanity, hypochondria, and natural madness, Matt. 11: 18, Luke 7: 33. John 7: 19, 20. 10: 20. Furthermore, in Mark 3: 21, 22, i^eaTTj he is beside himself, is interchanged with Besl^e^ovX e^ei he hath a devil. It can he shown also, that the word demmi is inter- changed in the same way with the words which signify disease or sickness, as if they were altogether synonymous ; comp. Mark 7: 29, and Matt. 15: 22 — 28; compare also Mark 9: 17, with Luke 9: 39; also Matt. 17: i5, and Luke 13: 10—12. Argument IL John, it is true, introduces the Jews as speaking in the customary way in respect to demoniacs and demons, (chap. 7: 9 — 20. 10: 20,) but let it be carefully marked, that he himself is altogether silent on the subject of demoniacal possessions, notwith- standing that he frequently speaks of the sick, who were healed by the Saviour, 4: 46. 5: 3. 6: 2. Paul also, in enumerating the various kinds of miraculous gifts, (1 Cor. 12: 9,) says nothing in respect to the exorcism of demons; a power which it appears he possessed himself, and which the Saviour had promised, Mark 16: 17. Matt 10: 8. Luke 10: 17. These two apostles therefore, con- sidered demoniacs as no other than persons afflicted with disease; and it was very natural indeed that it should be so, when it is remembered that in Asia Minor, where John composed his gospel, and Paul wrote his first epistle to the Corinthians, medical science was in a very flourishing condition, and it was very generally known that the diseases, attributed to demons, were merely natural diseases ; comp. the large German edit, of this Work, P. I. Vol. IL 232. p._ 477—480. If, therefore, it be objected against us, that the demoniacs in the New Testament acknowledge themselves to be possessed with demons, we reply, that nothing else was to be expected from madman. If it be further objected, that the Jews of the New Testament are in the habit of speaking of such possessions, it must be admitted by our opponents, either that this was the usus loqtjendi in respect to dis- eases, the common language to describe the causes and effects of cer- tain bodily maladies, without any particular belief that those maladies originated from the agency of spirits, or that the Jews actually believed in real possessions. If, moreover, we are told, that both the apostles themselves and the evangelists inform us, that demoniacs came to Jesus, or § 196. OPINION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. 225 were hrougkt and ivere healed; that Jesus also says, that he casts out devils ; the answer is, the ground of these expressions was the common mode of speaking, prevailing at that period ; and Jesus, the apostles, and evangelists made use of such expressions, when they spoke of hypochondria, insanity, epilepsy, and madness, in order to be understood by their hearers and readers. Nearly in the same way physicians of the present time denominate a cer- tain class of sick persons lunatics, i. e. persons under the infiuence of the moon, and tell us of St. Anthony's fire, and the night mare, although the true causes of these diseases are well known. Some- thing in the same way also, it is customary everywhere to speak of the sun's setting and rising, and to designate certain of the heavenly bodies as planets or wandering stars, although it is not philosophically true, either that the sun sets or rises, or that the planets describe that wandering, irregular path in the heavens, which they appear to, to an uninstructed eye. If, finally, it be said, that the diseases of demoniacs are some- times distinguished from those of other persons, the reason of it is, that these diseases, viz. melancholy, insanity, epilepsy, and mad- ness, are in some respects peculiar, and are healed with diflSculty ; and hence the curing of them by a single word of the Saviour was a matter of the greater moment. Ahgument III. It is admitted, that Jesus apparently speaks to the demons, threatens them, commands them to be silent, orders them to depart and not to return, Mark 1: 24. 5: 8. 9: 25. Matt. 8: ,32. Luke 4: 35. 8: 30 — 32. But it may be remarked in explana- tion of this, that he has reference partly to the persons themselves, whom he commands to be silent and whom he threatens, and partly to the disease, which he orders to depart and not to return. Paul, in the same manner, (Acts 16: 16,) addresses the spirit of ApoUo, and commands him in the name of Jesus to depart from the soothsaying damsel ; and yet, as we may learn from 1 Cor. 8: 4, he had not the least faith in Apollo, nor in any other god besides Jehovah. Nor are we at hberty to suppose, that Luke, the histori- an of the Acts, who subjoins to the account, of which we have now spoken, that the spirit left her, believed at all, that the spirit of Apollo was really present. The reason, why Paul and the Saviour made use of .such expressions on such an occasion, was, that they might excite the attention of the bystanders, and give them to ud- 226 § 196. 0>"INION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. derstand, that the disease had terminated at their command. It was for a reason of the same nature, viz. to make an impression on the minds of those present, that the Saviour, vsrhen the tempest was overruled and laid by his miraculous interference, commanded in an audible manner the winds and the seas to be at rest. Let those, who inquire, how Jesus could call the demon by name, if he did not believe one to be present, read the Greek text of Mark 5: 9, and of Luke 8: SO, and they will see, that it is not the demon, which is addressed by name, but the demoniac himself, (sTZTiQmza izvtov, i. e. av&Qwnov, not avzo, i. e. TzveHjia.) Jesus, in Luke 10: 17, does not assert the operations of demons in men, for he couples Satan with serpents and scorpions, which places us under the necessity of interpreting all of these words tropically, and of understanding by tliem cunning and powerful adversaries who opposed the pi-ogress of the gospel, but with- all their power were unable to interrupt its advancement. The expres- sions, which he employs, are as follows. "I see," Hebrew, in\Nii, " Satan," i. e. all the adversaries of the Gospel, who are afterwards called serpents, scorpions, and the enemy's host, "fall like light- ning from heaven," i. e. from the political heaven, from power and authoi-ity. Consult Isa. 14: 12, 13. Matt. xxiv. Luke 10: 15. Eev. 12: 7 — 9. See also Cicero, where he says to Mark Antony, you have hurled your colleagues down from heaven. (The ad- versaries of the Gospel also occur in Luke' 22: 31, under the name of Satan.) " Behold," he proceeds, " I give unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the ene- my," i. e. of overcoming and subduing by your miraculous gifts all adversaries, " and nothing shall by any means hurt you," i. e. oppress and overcome you, (comp. ddr/.7jari with the Hebrew p'iii'.) "Not- withstanding, in this rejoice not, that the spirits are subject unto you, but rather rejoice, because your names are written in heaven," i. e. rejoice rather in the favor of God, than in the power of casting out devils, or of healing the most difficult diseases. Jesus, in Matt. 12: 24—30. Mark 3: 22—30. Luke 11: 16—2-1, employs against the Pharisees the argumentum. ad hominem, which has no bearing in this case any further than the refutation of the adversary is concerned. The ground of his employing this species of argument in the present instance was this. The Phar- isees, if we may believe Josephus, taught that the demons, by § 196. OPINION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. 227 which men were possessed, Avere the spirits of bad men, who were dead, and were commissioned on their present business of torment- ing the children of men by Beelzebub. Jesus therefore replied, provided this were the true state of the case, that Beelzebub, by lending his assistance in casting out his own devils, was over- turning his own kingdom. He then adds, that this powerful spirit, for such the Pharisees supposed him to be, could not be compelled to perform such an unwelcome task, unless a stronger one, than Beelzebub himself, should first come, should bind him, and take away his arms. The parable in Matt. 12: 43—45, and Luke 11: 24—28, is to be interpreted with a reference to the explanation, at the end, viz. "so shaU it he with this wicked generation." The demons in these passages are the vices of the Jews, which had been in some little degree corrected by the preaching of John the Baptist and the Saviour, but which soon after developed themselves with great- er virulence, and to a greater extent than ever, as Josephus testi- fies was the case in the time of the "War with the Romans ; comp. the large German edition if ,his work, P. I. Vol. II. § 232. p. 490, 491. Finally, -Jesus liberates the woman, described in Luke 13: 12, as bowed down with infirmity, without making any mention of a demon ; if, therefore, a little after, he asserts that she was a daughter of Abraham, bound by Satan for eighteen years, the expressions are to be considered as figurative, being an allusion to the loosing of oxen, which it was lawful to. do on the sabbath in order to lead them to drink, and having reference at the same time to an opinion among the Jews, that all diseases had their ultimate origin, (not indeed from demons^ but from the devil, that overruling spirit of wickedness, who tempted Eve, and to whom allusions are made in Acts 10: 38, and in 2 Cor. 12: 7. Argument IV. That the church Fathers unanimously agreed in the opinion, that individuals, in the time of Christ, were reaUy and truly possessed with demons, those, who maintain that De- moniacs were diseased persons, plainly and expressly deny. They produce testimonies to the contrary. They assert, more- over, that, in point of policy, the church fathers would not have thought it advisable, to have made such assertions, as are repre- sented, since they were contending incessantly with philosopher^ 228 § 197. OPINION OF CHEIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. who believed in, and strenuously contended for the agency of de> mons. They say further, that nothing is gained or lost, even if the fathers were unanimous in one opinion, since, this is not a question of faith or doctrine, in which alone the united sentiment of the Fathers can be considered, as possessing a binding authority. They deny also, that it can be concluded from the fact, that a class or order of persons, called exorcists, existed in the primitive ages of the church, that the church itself believed in the real agency of demons ; since the popular superstitions on the subject might have been, as no doubt they were the ground of such an institution, see Veronius In Eegul, Fid. § 4. no. .4. § 197. Real Possessions inconsistent with the Doctrine OP Jesus and the Apostles. Those, who oppose the doctrine of real possessions, state that Jesus, the Apostles, and Evangelists, are not to be understood lite- rally, when they speak of the agency of demons, because such a sup- position would make them act contrary to the doctrine, which they themselves taught. They, accordingly, in support of the point, that the doctrine of the apostles and Jesus are contrary to that of real demoniacal possessions, advance the following considerations. Argument I. Jesus and the apostles teach us, that all things, even the most minute, are under the direction of God. They could not, therefore, for a moment suppose, that so great miseries were inflicted by demons, (whether they were the spirits of dead men, or other evil spirits,) or that God would be accessory to "such evils, by permitting them to exist in such a way. They would not countenance such an opinion the more especially, because it had its origin among nations, which were given to idolatry. It was the common belief among such nations, that the celestial divinities governed the world by proxy, entrusting it to inferior deities, and to the spirits of the dead. Argument II. Jesus and the apostles teach us, that the spirits of the dead immediately enter upon that state or destiny, which from their previous character they deserve ; both the good and the bad going to a retribution, from which they can never return, Luke 16: 22 et seq. 23: 43. 2 Cor. 5: 1. Philip. 1: 21. 3: 12. § 197. OPINION OF CHRIST, THE APOSTLES, ETC. 229 Heb. 12: 23. Some of the wicked spirits, as we learn from 2 Peter 2: 4, and from Jude verse 6, are reserved in custody till the day of judgment ; ,a statement which cannot be reconciled with the sup- position, that they are straying about the earth, and tormenting its inhabitants. Argument III. Let it be admitted that Jesus does not, in direct terms, contradict the prevailing notions, and does not expressly and explicitly say, that the demoniacs were not afflicted by the agency of demons, but merely by natural diseases, (which was the opinion maintained by the Sadducees,) still it must be con- fessed that, on the other hand, he no where expressly dmies that the effects produced upon individuals, who were represented as pos- sessed with demons, resulted from such diseases merely. The fact is- as is contended, the Saviour neither took one part nor . the other, neither denied nor asserted the reality of demoniacal possessions. Indeed it was not necessarily nor actually his province. A question of that kind, one which involved the state of the body or the mind, belonged rather to professed physicians. The apostles pursue the same course in respect to this subject that the Saviour does, with the exception of John and Paul, who, having resided much in Asia Minor, do not, as has been already observed, make use of the customary and prevalent phrases in regard to demoniacs. It is stated, further, in defence of the conduct of the Saviour and his apostles, that there was no need of their refuting the vulgar opinion m respect to demoniacs, as it was evidently inconsistent with their doctrine concerning the state of the dead, and was attacked by the physicians of that age with great success. Besides, an at- tempt at such a refutation, in an age when the opinion to be attacked was yet so prevalent, and in a country where it was so fondly cherished, would have involved the disciples and the Saviour in prohx disputations, and would have withdrawn their attention too much from the preaching of the Gospel. I have thus given the statements, illustrations, and arguments on both sides of this question, and will leave each one to form his own opinion. [Note. — To give an opinion on a question, where so many plausible considerations have been brought forward on both sides, would be of no avail, without various arguments to support it. And to do this, after the statements which have been already 20 230 § 198. THE ANGEL THAT TKOUBLED THE BATH. made, could hardly be expected here ; especially as it seems to bo generally admitted by both parties, that the adoption of either sentiment does not necessarily imply a doubt of the divine au- thority of the Saviour, or of the integrity of the historians of the New Testament. — Our author, has merely undertaken to give a concise account of the views of the conflicting writers on this inquiry; and it is only in pursuance of this design that we here mention, for the student's perusal, the Lectures of the late President Appleton. In this work, which is generally accessible to the students of this country, but probably never came to the notice of Dr. Jahn, not only the common arguments in favor of real possession are forcibly presented, but a number of specious objections to that view of the subject are met and controverted in a manner worthy of the in- quirer's candid consideration.] § 198. The Pool near the Sheep-Market at Jerusalem. The pool, iTii ry nQO^arixrj, or the receptacle of water, called Beihesda, John 5: 2, was a lath. I. The first argument in favor of this position is to be found in the fact, that the Rabbins and the Chaldaic paraphrast on Ec- clesiastes make the words nisaai'iB and xjaaiia, (the Greek aQo^arix^,) mean baths; and make the word !SB"'a'ia, mean the servant aitending on a hath. The name Beihesda, in Hebrew D'^a N'iBn , means, the house or place of favor or kindness, and agrees very well with a bath, which was both salutary and pleasant. n. Another proof, that the pool in question was a lath, is the fact, that the blind, maimed, and withered, were gathered around it ; and that there were likewise five porticos, erected without doubt for the reception of those who were sick and infirm. That this was the object of the porticos is the opinion, expressed both in the Peshito and by Suidas. The Angel that troubled the Bath. It is related, (John 5: 2 — 4, 6, 7,) in respect to this bath, that an angel of the Lord descended at certain times and troubled the water, and that the person who descended first, after this opera- tion upon the water, was healed of whatever infirmity he might labor under. This account of the descent of an angel, and of the consequent § 198. THE ANGEL THAT TROUBLED THE BATH. 23] restoration of the first one, who entered the water after his de- scent, is omitted in certain Greek and Latin manuscripts, and likewise in the Armenian version. It is pointed out to the pai'- ticular notice of the reader in some Greek manuscripts, sometimes by an obelits or dagger [f], and sometimes by an asterisk. The genuineness of the whole passage, therefore, is justly liable to sus- picion. On the supposition, that the whole narration is a genuine one, the bath in question might have been an animal bath, which has a beneficial infiuence in certain diseases, and which, in the present case, was furnished with blood from the temple, by means of a subterranean passage. Accordingly, when the blood flowed into it, the water might be said with no impropriety to be disturbed, especially on festival days, when it received a greater quantity than usual. Or it might have been, (and most probaby was,) a mineral batli, which derived its salutary powers from the mineral particles, that were intermixed with the mud at the bottom. Accordingly, when the water was more than usually disturbed or put in motion by some external cause, for instance, by showers or by subterranean heat, it is natural to suppose, that it was the more strongly impregnated with minerals, and of course more than usually eificacious. The sick and infirm, therefore, wished to enter it at this period, before the mineral particles tiad subsided, and the water had returned to its ordinary state. Eusebius in his Onomasticon under the word ^s^a&d confirms the last hypothesis, for he states, that in his time there were, at that place, viz. Bethesda, two contiguous receptacles of water, which were dry except when rains fell. Tliey were then slightly tinged with a red color, a proof, that the bottom was impreg- nated with mineral particles. GonsuU Eichteri Dissertatio Medic, iheol. de bcdneo animali, p. 107. Goetting. 1775, and Mead, Medic, sacr. 6. 8. The descent of the angel, and the healing of the first one, who en- tered into the water, are statements founded in the prevalent popular opinions. The reason, why the historian did not make a statement of his own on the subject, but chose rather, in the fourth and sixth verses, to give the popular belief, was, that the reader might under- stand the reply of the sick man, in the seventh verse. 232 § 199. ON PAKALYTICS. § 199. On Paralytics. The palsy of the New Testament is a disease that is of very wide import. Many infirmities, as Eichter has demonstrated, in the sev- enty-third and the following pages of the Treatise referred to in the preceding section, were comprehended under the word wluch is ren- dered palsy in the New Testament. I. The apoplexy, a paralytic shook which aflfected the whole body. • II. The hemiplegy, which affects and paralyzes only one side of the body. in. The paeaplegy, which paralyzes all the parts of the system below the neck. IV. The catalepsy. It is caused by a contraction of the mus- cles in the whole or part of the body, (e. g. in the hands,) and is very dangerous. The effects upon the parts seized are very violent and deadly. For instance, when a person is struck with it, if his hand happens to be extended, he is unable to draw it back. If the hand is not extended, when he is struck with the disease, he is unable to extend it. It appears diminished in size, and dried up. Hence the Hebrews were in the habit of calling it a vnthered hand, 1 Kings 13: 4—6. Zech. 11: 17. Matt. 12: 10—13. John 5: 3. V. The ceamp. This, in oriental countries, is a fearful malady, and by no means unfrequent. It originates from the chills of the night. The limbs, when seized with it, remain immovable, some- times turned in, and sometimes out, in the same position, as when they were first seized. The person afflicted resembles a man, under- going the torture, ^aaavi^o/Ai'vcp, and experiences nearly the same exquisite sufferings. Death follows this disease in a few days. Matt. 8: 9, 10. comp. Luke 7: 2. 1 Mac. 9: 55—68. Note. — The disease, denominated in Matt. 9: 20. Mark 5: 25, and Luke 8: 43, an issue of blood, is too well known to require any particular explanation. It may be well, however, to make this sin- gle observation, that physicians themselves acknowledge, that it is a disorder which is difficult to be cured, Mark 5: 26. § 202. DISEASE OF HEEOD AGRIPPA. § 200. The Death of Judas Iscaeiot. Judas Iscariot, i. e. Judas, the man of Karioth, nii'ip r''.\ , (Josh. 15: 25. Jer. 48: 41. Amos 2: 2,) we are informed in Matt. 27: 5, (^a.n^y%aTO,) hung himself. We are further informed in Acts 1: 18, (TiQijvijg ysvofisvo? iXdxtjas fisaog, xal s^&iv&i^ navra t« cnka.y'(ya uvzov, thaf he fell headlong, hurst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels gushed out. These two statements, which exhibit the appear- unce of being not ahogether harmonious, have occasioned various opinions among the learned. Tlie most easy and natural reconciliation of them is this. Peter, ill his discourse, (Acts 1: 18,) did not deem it necessary to give a full iiaiTation, in every respect, of an event, which was perfectly well known. He, therefore, merely mentions the circumstance, which probably originated from the rope's breaking, or being cut off with which he was suspended, at the time that he was taken down for interment, of his fall and breaking asunder in the midst. This very simple supposition, which gives a solution of the whole difficulty, appears to me preferable to any farfetched hypothesis. § 201. Blindness of the soeoeeee Bae Jesus. s . ^ Bar Jesus, the sorcerer, otherwise called Elymas, >«-Ai~e, a wise or learned man, was struck blind by Paul, Acts 13: 6 — 12. The blindness in this instance is properly denominated in Greek axXv'i, and was rather an obscuration, than a total extinction of the sight. It was occasioned by a thin coat or tunicle of hard substance, which spread itself over a portion of the eye, and interrupted the power of vision. Hence the disease is likewise called anorog, or darkness. It was easily cured, and sometimes even healed of itself, without resort to any medical prescription. Hence Paul adds, " not seeing the sun for a season." § 202. Disease of Heeod Agrippa. Josephus, (Antiq. XIX. 8. 2,) and Luke, (Acts 12: 23,) attribute the disease, with which Herod died, to the immediate agency of God; because he so readily received the idolatrous acclamations 20* 234 § 203. ON DEATH. of the people, who hailed and honored him, as a Divinity. Jose- phus says, the disease was in the intestines. But he perverts his statement by the intermixture of certain superstitious and incredible notions. Luke, who was a physician, says more definitely and accurately, that Herod was consumed with worms, which in eastern countries frequently prey upon the intestines. Josephus observes, that he died on the fifth day after the attack. CHAPTEE XIII. CONCERNING DEATH, BURIALS, AND MOURNING. § 203. On Death. The Hebrews regarded life as a journey, as a pilgrimage on the face of the earth. The traveller, as they supposed, when he arrived at the end of this journey, which happened when he died, was received into the company of his ancestors, who had gone before him, Gen. 25: 8. 35: 29. 37: 35. Ps. 39: 12 ; comp. Hebrews 11: 13, 15. Eccles. 12: 7. Reception into the presence of God at death is asserted in only two passages of the Old Testament, viz. Haggai 2: 23, and Eccles. 12: 7. Opinions of this kind, (viz. that life is a journey, that death is the end of that journey, and that, when one dies, he mingles with the hosts who have gone before,) are the origin and ground of such phrases as the following : to he gathered to one's people, lia? bs tiDNi] , Num. 20: 24, 26. Deut. 32: 50. Gen. 25: 8, 9. 35: 29. 49: 29. Jer. 8: 2. 25: 33, and to go to one's fathers, 1"'ninx , is Nia, Gen. 15: 15. 37: 35. This visiting of the fathers has reference to the immortal part, and is clearly distinguished, in many of the passages above quoted, from the mere burial of the body. See Gen. 37: 35. A person, when dying, was said to go, to. depart, or to he dimds- § 203. ON DEATH. 235 sed, noQSvsa&ai, ^aSii^siv, anoi.vsa&ai, Tj^fJ, Tj^J, Tob. 3: 6, 13. John 7: 33. 8: 21. 16: 16, 17. 2 Cor. 5: 6—9. Philip. 1: 13. 2 Tim. 4: 6. Luke 2: 29. 22: 22. comp. the Septuagint in Gen. 15: 2, 15, and Num. 20: 26. In those parts of the Bible, which were writ- ten at a comparatively recent period, there occur such expressions, as the following ; to sleep among one's fathers, Tinins OS asm , 2 Sam. 7: 12. 1 Kings 11: 21 ; and in all parts of the Bible, such as the following, to give up ike ghost, and no longer to be or exist, in Hebrew 515, >i2rs, Gen. 42: 13. Num. 20: 3, 29. Gen. 31: 15. Ps. 37: 10, 36. 39: 13. 103: 16. Mark 15: 37. Some suppose, that the expressions and descriptions, which occur in Gen. 5: 24. Ecclus. 44: 16. Wisd. 4: 10. Heb. 11: 5, and 2 Kings 2: 12, are of a poetical character, which convey, when truly interpre- ted, no other idea, than that of natural death. Sometimes the Hebrews regarded death as a friendly messen- ger, but they were more frequently inclined to dread him, as a for- midable enemy. Impressed with a sense of the terrors, which were the consequence of his visitations, their imaginations imparted to him a poetical existence in the character of a hunter, armed him with a daH or Javelin, xsvtqov, with a net lasa and with a snare, DTiS, biSB "'^an, n'.ia ''b^n, nia "'lURia. Thus equipped, this fearful invader commenced his artifices against the children of men. and when he had taken them captive, slew them, 2 Sam. 26: 6. Ps. 18: 5, 6. 116: 3. 1 Cor. 15: 55, 56. The wild fancy of some of the Poets went still fiarther, and represented Death, mv as the king of the Lower World, and fit- ted up for him a subterranean palace, denominated Sheol and Hades, iixp "AiSrii;, in which he exercised sovereignty over all men, (including kings and warriors,) who had departed from this upper state of existence. This place occurs also under the phrases, ria "i^sia , and al nvlai zov aSov, the gates of Death or Hades, Job 38:' 17'. Ps. 9: 13. 49: 15. 107: 18. Isa. 38: 10, 18. Matthew 16: 18. Such are the attributes of this place, its situation, its ruler, and its subjects, that it might very justly be denominated Death's royal palace, comp. 2 Sam. 15: 2. Mention is made of the rivers of Hades, in Ps. 18: 4, 5. The more recent Hebrews, adhering too strictly to the letter of their Scriptures, exercised their ingenuity, and put in requisi- tion their faith, to furnish the monarch Death with a subordinate 236 § 204. TKEATMENT OP THE CORPSE, EMBALMING. agent or angel, nisn Tii<\'0, viz. the prince of bad spirits, 6 Jici. §oXoi, otherwise called Sammael, and also Ashmodai, and known in the New Testament by the phrases, 6 aqimv jov xoaiJiov, ai B^i'Sfj, TO XQUTog rov &avdtov iy^av, o neiQa^av, the prince of this world, who hath the power of death, the tempter. The He- brews, accordingly, in enumerating the attributes and offices of the prime minister of the terrific king of Hades, represent him as in the habit of making his appearance in the presence of God, and demanding at the hand of the Divinity the extinction, in any given instance, of human life, (see Jude, chap, i.) Having obtained per- mission to that effect, he does not fail of making a prompt exhibi- tion of himself to the sick ; he then gives them drops of poison, which they drink and die. Comp. John 14: 30. Heb. 2: 14. Hence originate the phrases, " to taste of death," and " to drink the cup of death," which are found also among the Syrians,- Arabians, and ■ Persians, Matt. 16: 28. Mark 9: 1. Luke 9: 27. John 8: 52. Heb. 2:9. [Note. For some well written and learned remarks on the mean- ing, which was attached by the ancient Hebrews to the term Sheol, the reader is referred to Dr. Campbell's Preliminary Dissertations to the Gospels, Diss. VI. Pt. 2. The subject of the Devil and of wicked angels in general is exam- ined in the Biblical Theology of Storr and Flatt, recently trans- lated into English by Professor S. S. Schmucker. The real exist- ence of evil spirits, and the relation in which they stand to the human family, is concisely but satisfactorily illustrated in that valua- ■ ble work.] § 204. Treatment of the Corpse. Embalming. The friends or sons of the deceased closed his eyes. Gen. 46: 4. The corpse las , nbas , niass. , Eiaa , na , was washed with water, and except when buried immediately, was laid out in an upper room or chamber njbs vnsqmov, 2 Kings 4: 21. Acts 9: 37. The treatment of the lifeless body has not always been the same in every age, but has varied both in different ages, and in different countries. The Egyptians embalmed -jjn, the body. They had tliree methods of performing this operation, and, in determining which § 204. TREATMENT OF THE CORPSE, EMBALMING. 237 of these methods should be followed in any given case, the prominent inquiry was in respect to the rank and wealth of the deceased person. The fli-st method was adopted in the embalming of Jacob and Joseph ; it was very costly, and required, in defrayment of the expense, more than two thousand florins. Gen. 50: 2, 26. Herodotus (II. 86 — 88.) states, that the priest (one, who at the same time had some knowledge of the medical art,) designated to the operator a place below the ribs, on the left side of the de- ceased person, for the incision. The operator, he observes, had no sooner made the incision, than he fled with the greatest precipitation, for he was immediately attacked with stones by the bystanders, as one who had violated the dead. The rest of the priests (who, like the one that had designated the place for the incision, were in some degree acquainted with medicine, extracted the intestines, washed the body externally with water, and internally with the wine of the palm tree, and then anointed it with a composition of myrrh, cassia, salt of nitre, etc. The brain was taken out by a crooked piece of iron through the nose, and the cranium was filled with aromatic substances. The whole body was then wrapped round with linen, while each member of the body was at the same time bound separately, with pieces of the same materials. The process of embalming occu- pied thirty or forty days. Gen. 50: 2, 26. The two other modes of embalming, which occupied but a short time, it is not especially necessary that we should undertake, at the present time, to de- scribe. After the body was embalmed, it was placed in a box of sycamore wood, which was fashioned externally so as to resemble the human form, and was in this way preserved in the house, sometimes for ages', leaning against the wall, Exod. 13: 19, comp. Gen. 50: 24, 25. Josh. 24: 32 ; see also the large German edition of this Work, P. I. Vol. 11. tab. X. no. 1. This is the account of embalming, as far as the Egyp- tians, and those who were immediately connected with them, are con- cerned. In respect to this practice or art, as it existed among the He- brews, we have authority for saying as far as this, that it was their custom, in the more recent periods of their history, to wrap the body around with many folds of linen, and to place the head in a napkin, John 11: 44. (The general term that is used in the 238 § 205. OF FUNERALS. New Testament to include the whole of the grave-clothes, is n&ona.) It was their custom likewise to expend upon the dead aromatic substances, especially myrrh and aloes, which were brought from Arabia. This ceremony is expressed by the Greek verb irzacptdCeiv, and was performed by the neighbors and relations, Matt. 26: 6—14. 27: 59. John 19: 39, 40. 20: 7. 11: 44. Mark 14: 8. Acts 9: 37. There is reason to believe, that the more ancient Hebrews, although it cannot be proved by direct and decisive tes- timony, pursued the same course in regard to the dead, with their descendants. § 205. Of Funerals. The ceremonies at the burial of the dead were different in different countries ; but in every country it was considered a most ignominious procedure, to deprive the corpse of interment, and to leave it exposed to the depredations of wild beasts and birds. Heroes, accordingly, (such was the disgrace attached to non- interment,) were in the habit of threatening, as a mark of their indignation and contempt, this dishonor to their adversaries in battle. The prophets, in like manner, when putting in requisition the powers of their imagination in order to give an impressive picture of any fearful and approaching devastations by war, represent such a state of things as a feast, which God would make from human corpses, for the birds of heaven and for the beasts of the forest, 1 Sam. 17: 44 — 46. 31: 8—13. 2 Sam. 4: 12. 21: 9, 10. 1 Kings 14: 11—14. Jer. 7: 33. 8: 2. 16: 4. 34: 20. Ezek. 29: 5. 32: 4. 39: 17—20. Ps. 63: 10. 79: 2, 3. Isa. 14: 19. The patriarchs buried their dead in a few days after death. Gen. 23: 2—4. 25: 9. 35: 29. Their posterity in Egypt seem to have deferred burial. It is probable that Moses, in reference to this practice, extended the uncleanness contracted by means of a corpse to seven days, in order to make the people hasten the ceremony of interment. In a subsequent age, the Jews imitated the example of the Per- sians, and buried the body very soon after death. Acts 5: 6, 10. The interment of Tabitha, (Acts 9: 37,) was delayed on account of sending for Peter. The children, friends, relations, or servants of the deceased took the charge of his burial. Gen. 23: 19. 25: 9. § 206. SITUATION OF SEPTJLCHEES. 239 35: 29. 48: 7. Num. 20: 28. 1 Kings 13: 30. 2 Kings 23: 30. Mark 6: 29. Matt. 27: 59, 60. A box or coffin for the dead, flix , was not . used, except in Babylon and Egypt. The corpse was wrapped m folds of linen, and placed upon a bier, in the Hebrew "Ssm and fisa , Deut. 3: 11; and was then carried by four or six persons to the tomb. The bearers appear to have travelled very rapidly "in the time of Christ, as they do at the present day among the modern Jews, Luke 7.14. The mourners, who followed the bier, poured forth the an- guish of their hearts in lamentable wails; and what rendered the ceremony still more affecting, there were eulogists and musicians in attendance, who deepened the sympathetic feelings of the oc- casion, by a rehearsal of the virtues of the departed, and by the accompaniment of melancholy sounds. Gen. 50: 7 — 11. 2 Sam. 3; 31, 32. Amos 5: 16. Matt. 9: 23. 11: 17. Men, who were distin- guished for their rank, and who at the same time exhibited a claim to the love and to the favor of the people, for their virtues, and their good deeds, were honored with an attendance of vast multitudes, to witness the solemnities of their interment. Gen. 50: 7—14. 1 Sam. 25: 1. 2 Ghron. 32: 33. 1 Kings 14: 13. To bury, and to pay due honors to the remains of the dead, was consider- ed, in the later periods of the Jewish state, not only an act due to decency and the common feelings of humanity, but a religious duty, Tob. 1: 12—19. 2: 4—8. 4: 17, 18. 12: 12, 13. Eccles. 7: 31. Acts 8:2. § 206. Situation of Sepulchres. Sepulchres, otherwise called the everlasting houses, were commonly situated beyond the limits of cities and villages, Isa. 14: 18. Eccles. 1-2: 5. Luke 7: 12. Matt. 8: 28. The Mosaic law re- specting defilement by means of dead bodies, seemed to render it necessary, that they should not be located within them. And still it was as much the custom among other nations, as among the Hebrews, (and indeed continues to be the practice to the present day in the East,) to bury out of the city ; except in the case of kings and very distinguished men, whose ashes are commonly permitted 240 § 207. SEPULCHRES. to repose within it, comp. 1 Sam. 28:3. 2 Kings 21: 18. 2 Chron. 16: 14. 24: 16. Tlie sepulchres of the Hebrew kings were upon mount Zion, 2 Chron. 21: 20. 24: 25. 28: 27. 2 Kings 14: 20. With the exception to be made in respect to the situation of the tombs of their kings, the Hebrews generally exhibited a preference for burying their dead in gardens, and beneath shady trees, Gen. 23: 17. 35: 8. 1 Sam. 31: 13. 2 Kings 21: 18, 26. 23: 16. John 19: 41. But as such situations, viz. groves and gardens, belonged of course to individuals, the inference is, (what indeed we learn from other sources,) that sepulchres were the property of a single person, or of a number of families united together. Gen. 23: 4 — 20. 50: 13. Judg. 16: 31. 2 Sam. 2: 32. There were some burial places, how- ever, which were either common, 2 Kings 23: 6. Jer. 26: 23, or al- lotted to a certain class of people, Matt. 27: 7. To be buried in the sepulchre of one's fathers, was a distinguished honor ; to be excluded from it, was as signal a disgrace. In con- sequence of this feeling, the bodies of enemies, who had fallen in war, were delivered up to their friends to be buried, though in some instances when petitioned for, they were denied, Gen. 49: 29. 50: 13, 25. Judg. 16: 31. 2 Sam. 19: 37, 38. 2 Kings 9: 28. Jer. 26: 23. This honor was denied to those, who died whUe infected with the leprosy, 2 Chron. 26: 23. Those kings also, who had incurred the hatred of the people, were not permitted to be buried in the royal tombs, 2 Chron. 21: 20. 24: 25. 28: 27. Hence we are commonly informed in respect to kings of an opposite character, that they were buried with funeral honors, in the tombs of their ancestors, 1 Kings 11: 43. 14: 31. 15: 8, etc. To be buried like an ass, i. e. without mourning, and lamentation, was considered a very great disgrace, Jer. 22: 16—19. 35: 30. § 207. Sefulohees. The sepulchres or burying places of the common class of peo- ple were, without doubt, mere excavations in the earth, such as are commonly made at the present day in the East, Persons, who sustained a higher rank, were more rich, or more powerful, own- ed subterranean recesses, crypts, or caverns, which are sometimes denominated iTWa, sometimes nniiu, nniia, lia, sometimes laft. § 207. NOTK I. ON THE SEPULCHRES OF THE KINGS. 241 Di"iap (the usual name for places of interment,) and in the New Testament, idcfo^- and nvijixslor, Gen. 23: 6. Matt. 23: 27. 29: 27. 52: 53. (The word ^""iKia, also, in Psalm 141: 7, means a burying place.) These large subterranean places of interment were, in some instances, the work of nature, in some, were merely artificial excava- tions of the earth, and in others, were cut out from rocks. Gen. 23: 2 et seq. Josh. 10: 27. Isa. 22: 16. 2 Kings 13: 21. John 11: 38. 19: 41. Matt. 27: 52, 60. Numerous sepulchres of this kind still remain in Syria, in Palestine, and in Egypt. The most beautiful, called the royal sepulchres, are situated in the north part of Jerusalem, and were probably the work of either Helen, queen of Assyria, or of the Herods ; Josephus, Jewish "War, V. 4. 2. p. 843. The entrance into these sepulchres was by a desc.ent over a num- ber of steps. Many of them consisted of two, three, and even seven apartments. There were niches in the walls, where the dead bodies were deposited. The interior chambers of sepulchres, those the far- thest removed from the first entrance, were deeper than the others, and were approached by a flight of descending steps, 2 Chron. 32: 33. Ps. 88: 6. Isa. 14: 15. The entrance was closed, either by stone doors, or by a flat stone placed against the mouth of it, Ps. 5: 9. John 11: 38. 20: 5, 11. Matt. 28: 2. Mark 16: 3, 4. The doors of sepulchres, indeed the whole external surface, unless they were so conspicuous without it, as to be readily dis- covered and known, were painted white on the last month of every year, i. e. the month of Adar. The object of this practice was, by a timely warning, to prevent those, who came to the feast of the Passover, from approaching them, and thus becoming contami- nated. Matt. 23: 27. Luke 11: 44. In Egypt there are still found the remains of very splendid sepulchres, which, when we consider their antiquity, their costUness, and the consequent notice, which they attracted, account for the expressions in Job 3: 14, and 17: 1. Note I. Maundkell on the Sepulchres of the Kings. ["The next place we came to was those famous grots called the sepulchres of the kings ; but for what reason they go by that name is hard to resolve : for it is certain none of the kings either of Israel or Judah were buried here, the holy Scriptures assign- 21 242 § 207. NOTE I. ON THE SEPULCHRES OF THE KINGS. ing other places for their sepulchres ; unless it may be thought pei haps that Hezekiah was here interred, and that these were the sepul- chres of the sons of David, mentioned 2 Chron. 32: 33. Whoever was buried here, this is certain, that the place itself discovers so great an expense both of labor and treasure, that we may well sup- pose it to have been the work of kings. You approach to it at the east side, through an entrance cut out of the natural rock, which ad- raits "you into an open court of about forty paces square, cut down into the rock with which it is encompassed instead of walls. On the south side of the court is a portico nine paces long and four broad, hewn likewise out of the natural rock. This has a kind of architrave running along its front, adorned with sculpture, of fruits or flowers, still discernible, but by time much defaced. At the end of the por- tico on the left hand you descend to the passage into the sepulchres. The door is now so obstructed with stones and rubbish, that it is a thing of some difficulty to creep through it. But within, you arrive in a large fair room, about seven or eight yards square, cut out of the natural rock. Its sides and ceiling are so exactly square, and its angles so just, that no architect with levels and plummets could build a room more regular. And the whole is so firm and entire, that it may be called a chamber hollowed out of one piece of marble. From this room, you pass into, I think, six more, one within another, all of the same fabric with the first. Of these the two innermost are deeper than the rest, having a second descent of about six or seven steps into them. " In every one of these rooms, except the first, were coffins of stone, placed in niches in the sides of the chamber. They had been at first covered with, handsome lids, and carved with gar- lands ; but now most of them were broken to pieces by sacri- legious hands. The sides and ceiling of the rooms were always dropping with the moist damps condensing upon them. To remedy which nuisance, and to preserve these chambers of the dead polite and clean, there was in each room a small channel cut in the floor, which served to drain the drops that fall constantly into it."— Maun- 4rell's Travels, p. 76.] Note n. Hakmek on the white-washing op Sepulciikes. f'The general meaning of a comparison used by our Lord is obvious, when he said, Wo unto you, Scribes and Phansees, hypo- § 207. NOTE II. ON THE WHITE-WASHrNG OF SEPULCHEES. 243 crites J for ye are like unto whited septdchres, which indeed appear heavtiful ouiward, hut are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness, Matt. 23: 27 ; but it will appear with greater life, if we suppose, that the sepulchres about Jerusalem were just then white- washed afresh, which I should suppose is extremely probable, as the present Eastern sepulchres are fresh done upon the approach of their Bamadan. " Such is the account of Niebuhr, in the first volume of his Travels. Speaking there of Zebid, a city of Arabia, which had been the residence of a Mohammedan prince, and the most com- mercial city of all the country of that part of Arabia, but which had lost much of its ancient splendor in these respects, he adds, ' that however, Zebid makes yet, at a distance, the most beautiful appearance of all the cities of the Tehama, or low country, which is owing to their clergy, who have found means insensibly to appro- priate a very large part of the revenues of the city and adjoining country, to themselves and the mosques. From thence have arisen a multitude of mosques and kubbets, which at that time, when Eama- dan was near approaching,* had been almost all white-washed. The kubbets are little buildings, built over the tombs of rich Mohamme- dans, who pass for saints.' " The Passover was at hand when our Lord made this compari- son, as is evident from the context ; and therefore it is likely they were just then whited afresh, when the season for such rainy and bad weather as is wont to wash off these decorations was just over, and the time was at hand when Israel were about to assemble in Jerusalem at their national solemnities, which wer^ all held in the dry part of the year, or nearly so : the rain being at least just over at the time of the Passover, by the time of Pentecost it was gone in Judea, and the Feast of Tabernacles was observed before the rain was wont to return. " But whatever was the time of white-washing the Jewish sepul- chres anew, we may believe it was often done ; since to this day, the people of those countries have not discovered any way of so whiten- ing these buildings as to make it durable." Harmer's Observations, Vol. HL p. 92. Obs. XXVIIL] * Bamadan is a kind of Mohammedan Lent, followed by a festival ; as Lent, !n the English Church, is followed by Easter. 244 § 209. sepulchral monuments. § 208. Articles which were buried with the Dead. The custom prevailed among many ancient nations of throwing pieces of gold and silver, also other precious articles, into the sepul- chres of those who vrere buried. The Hebrews did not think proper to adopt this custom, but retained those precious gifts for the use of the living, which other nations chose to bestow upon the dead. There was this exception, however, in the case of the Hebrews, that tliey sometimes buried with their departed monarchs the appropriate ensigns of their authority, and sometimes deposited in the tomb of tlieir lifeless warriors the armor, which they had worn while living, Ezek. 32: 27. Herod, when he had opened and examined the tomb of David, found within it the ensigns of royal authority. Josephus (Antiq. XVI. 1. 11.) states, that John Hyrcanus found a treasure in the sep- ulchre of David. If this were the fact, the treasure in question could have been no other, than that, which was deposited there by Antiochus Epiphatfes. § 209. Sepulchral Monuments, nasa , nvrnxuov. Mention is made of such monuments in various instances, from the time of Abraham down to the time of Christ, Gen. 19: 26. 35: 20. 2 Kings 23: 16, 17. I Mace. 13: 25—30. Matt. 23: 29. The ancient Arabians erected a heap of stones over the body of the dead, Job 21: 32. Among the Hebrews, such a heap was an indication that the person was stoned, and was of course a mark of ignominy. Josh. 7: 26. 8: 27, 29. 2 Sam. 18: 17. In progress of time, one stone only, instead of a Aeo^, was selected and raised up as a monument. It was, as might be expected, a large one ; and, at a subsequent period still, it was cus- tomary to hew it, and ornament it with inscriptions. Sepulchral stones of this kind are very ancient, and are common to this day in the East. The Egyptians, like the Arabians, were in the habit of throwing together heaps of stones in honor of the dead. After the practice had once commenced, they gradually increased the heap to a very great size, till at length they exerted their ingenuity and their power, in the erection of those mountains of stone, as they may be termed, the pyramids. Anciently, monuments of another kind, resembling small obe- § 210. BURNING OF THE CORPSE. 245 lisks or columns of a large size, were likewise erected, and some of them are standing at the present day in Syria. The inhabitants of the East of the present age are in the habit of erecting over the burial places of those Mohammedans, who have bv;en distinguished for the sanctity of their life, small houses, sup- ported on four columns, and displaying an arched roof. These edi- fices are repaired and ornamented by the great, who desire to obtain the popular favor, in much the same way, that those of the prophets were in the time of Christ, Matt. 23: 29. The monument, erected in honor of the Maccabees at Modin, is described in the first Book of Maccabees, 13: 27. It was raised of square stones, and was very high. In the front of it were seven pyramids, and round about many columns, upon the tops of which were placed large stones, extending from one to the other. The delineation of some parts of this monument is still seen upon ancient coins. As far as we can judge from the representation of it, given upon these coins, one would conclude that it resembled in some degree the monuments of those Mohammedans, who had gained a celebrity for their piety. § 210. Burning of the Corpse. The ancient Hebrews considered burning the body a matter of very great reproach, and rarely did it, except when they wished, together with the greatest punishment, to inflict the greatest ignominy, Gen. 38: 24. The body of Saul, which had been suspended by the Philistines on the walls of Bethshan, was burnt by the inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead from necessity, not to inflict, but to preserve it from further disgrace, 1 Sam. 31: 12. The sentiment in respect to the burning of bodies seems at a later period to have been changed. An hundred and forty years after Saul, king Asa was burnt with many aromatic substances, not as an indication of disgrace, but as an honor. This ceremony in the case of Asa is not spoken of, as if it were a new thing, and it had proba- bly been introduced, at least some little time previously. After the time of Asa, the revolution of sentiment in regard to burning was so complete, that, while burning was considered the most distinguished honor, not to be burnt was regarded a most signal disgrace, 2 Chron. 16: 14. 21: 19. Amos 6: 10. Jor. 34: 5. 21* 246 § 211. OF MOTIRNING. Another change of sentiment eventually took place. After the captivity, the Jews conceived a great hatred to this rite. The Tal- mudists in consequence of this endeavored to pervert the passages respecting it, and to induce a belief, that the aromatic substances alone, and not the body, were burnt. § 211. Of Mourning. The grief of the Orientals formerly, on an occasion of death, was, as it is to this day in the East, very extreme. As soon as a per- son dies, the females in the family with a loud voice set up a sor- rowful cry. They continue it as long as they can, without taking breath, and the first shriek of wailing dies away in a low sob. After a short space of time, they repeat the same cry, and continue it for eight days. Every day, however, it becomes less frequent and less audible. Until the corpse is carried away from the house, the women, who are related to the deceased, sit on the ground together, in a circle, in a separate apartment. The wife, or daughter, or other nearest rela- tion of the deceased occupies the centre, and each one Holds in her hand a napkin. At the present day, there are present on such an occasion, as there were anciently, eulogists, m'33'pa who chant in mournful strains the virtues of the dead. When the one, who sat in the centre, gave the sign with her napkin, the persons who recalled, (so much to their credit,) the memory of the departed, remained silent. The rest of the females arose, and, wrapping together their napkins, ran, liltt mad persons. But the nearest relation remained in her positka, tearing her hair, and wounding her face, arms, and breast with hs: nails, comp. Gen. 50: 3. Num. 20: 29. Deut, 34: 8. 1 Sam. 31: 13. In addition to the persons, whose appropriate business it was to eulo- gize the dead, there were sometimes employed, on such occasions, professed musicians and singers, ins , "'S'll'' particularly in ancient times, Amos 5: 16. Jer. 9: 20. 48: 36.' Matt. 9: 23. Luke 7: 32. The lamentations, which are denominated in Hebrew ''3 , "n , mi) , nj-jr , began, for the most part, as follows : " Alas, alas, my brother ! " or " Alas, alas, my sister ! " Or if the king were dead, « Alas, alas, the king ! " 1 Kings 13: 29, 30. 2 Chron. 35. 2 Sam, 1: 12. 3: S3. Jer. 34: 5. The men at the present day are more § 211. OF MOURNING. 247 moderate in their grief; yet there are not wantirig instances ruyw- nor were there wanting such formerly, in which they indulged in deep and overwhelming sorrow, 2 Sam. 1: 11, 12. 19: 4. It was customary for the women after the burial to go to the tomb, and to pour out their grief and their lamentations there, John 11: 31. There were many other indications of a person's grief at the death of his friends, beside those which have been mentioned. Among the most common was that of rending the garment (either the outer gar- ment, or the inner, or both) from the neck in front down to the gir- dle. Such is the custom at the present day in Persia, Gen. 37: 34. Judg. 11: 35. 2 Sam. 1: 2. 3: 31. 2 Kings 5: 7, 8. 6: 30. We see, in this custom, the origin of the word pa sach-chth, from the Arabic word (S.-^ '" *^''"' or rend. The Hebrews, when in mourning, sometimes walked with their shoes oif, and with their heads uncovered. They concealed their chin with their outer garment, tore or dishevelled their hair and beard, or at least neglected to take proper care of them. They were forbidden to shave off their eyebrows on such occasions, Deut. 14. 1, 2. Oppressed with sensations of grief, they refused to anoint their heads, to bathe, or to converse with people; they scattered dust and ashes into the air, or placed them upon their heads, or laid down in them. Job 1: 20. 2: 12. Lev. 10: 6. 13: 45. 21: 10. 2 Sam. 1: 2— 4. 14: 2. 13: 19. 15: 30. 19: 4. Jer. 6: 26. They struck together their hands, or tossed them towards the sky, smote the thigh ana breast and stamped with the foot, 2 Sam. 13: 19. Jer. 31: 19. Ezek. 6: 11. 21: 12. Esth. 4: 1, 3. They wounded their faces with their nails, ■ although this was expressly prohibited in Leviticus 19: 28, and Deuteronomy 14: 1, 2. They fasted, abstained from wine, and avoided mingling in festivals, 2 Sam. 1: 11, 12. 3: 25. 12: 16. Jer. 25: 34. Elegies were composed on the death of those who held a distinguished rank in society, 2 Sam. 3: 33. After the burial, the persons, who lived near the mourners, prepared food for them, in order to refresh them, after such a season of suffering and grief. The refreshment supplied at such a season was sometimes denomi- nated DiJix dnb the bread of bitterness, and sometimes Qianjft ois ihe cup of consolation, 2 Sam. 3: 35. Jer. 16: 4, 7. Hos. 9: 4. Ezek. 24: 16, 17. In the time of Christ, if we may credit Josephus, the mourn- ers themselves gave the entertainment subsequent to the buriaj 248 § 212. OTHER CAUSES OF MOUKNING. The mourning, or rather the ceremonies indicative of the grief in case of death continued eight days. When the kings, or any persons who held a very distinguished rank, died, the mourning was general, including the whole people, and commonly continued during thirty days, Gen. 50: 4. 1 Sam. 25: 1. 1 Mac. 13: 26. Note. — The grief exhibited by the Greeks at the departure of their friends from life, which is mentioned by Paul in 1 Thess. 4: 13, agreed in many particulars with that of the orientals ; with this ex- ception, however, that it was still more excessive. It was so very marked and extreme, as to be made the subject of ridicule by Lucian de Imctu. For among the other extravagances, which they exhib- ited, they bestowed reproaches even upon the dead themselves, be- cause they did not remain in life ; uttered accusations and curses against the gods, and gave many other exhibitions of their grief of a kindred character. § 212. Othee Causes of Mourning. Indications of mourning were not only exhibited on the death of friends, but also in case of many pubUc calamities, such as famines, the incursions of enemies, defeat in war, etc. On such occasions the feelings of the prophets mingled with the deep sensations of the people, and they gave utterance to them by the composition of ele- gies, Ezek. 26: 1—18. 27: 1—36. 30: 2 et seq. 32: 2—32. Amos 5: 1 et seq. Thus David when a fugitive from his rebellious son, like a mourn- er, who had lost a friend by death, walked bare-foot, trjrn , and with head covered ; and all the others followed his example, 2 Sam. 15: 30. comp. 1 Sam. 4: 12. Josh. 7: 6. 1 Kings 21: 27. 2 Kings 19: 1. Isa. 15: 2. 16: 2, 3. 22: 12. 61: 3. Joel 1: 12, 13. Mic. 2: 3—5. 7: 16. Amos 5: 1, 2, etc. It was customary particularly for a person to rend his clothes, when he heard blasphemy. This was done by the high priest himself, 1 Mac. 11: 71, Matt. 26: 65, who was for- bidden by law to indulge in the usual expressions of grief, even for the dead. Lev. 10: 6. Fast-days were accounted days of grief, and we find in many in- stances, that fasting and mourning go together, Jonah 3: 5 — 7. 1 Mac. 3: 47. Whatever was the cause of the grief, it was not the case, that all the indications of it were exhibited in the same instance, but some- times, some, and at other times, others. PART SECOND POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 251 CHAPTER I. OIn- the HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. \' § 213. Patriarchal Government. J The posterity of Jacob, while remaining in Egypt, maintained notwithstanding the augmentation of their numbers, that patriar- chal form of government, which is so prevalent among the No- mades. Every father of a family exercised a father's authority over those of his own household. Every tribe obeyed its own prince, Nibj , who was originally the first-born of the founder of the tribe, but, in progress of time, appears to have been elected. As the people increased in numbers, various heads of families united together, and selected some individual from their own body, who was somewhat distinguished, for their leader. Perhaps the choice was sometimes made merely by tacit consent ; and, with- out giving him the title of ruler in form, they were willing, while convinced of his virtues, to render submission to his will. Such a union of families was denominated in Hebrew niax n^a and ax nia, and also nnaiaa, Num. 3: 24, 30, 35. In other instances, although the number varied, being sometimes more and sometimes less than a thousand, it was denominated CS^N , t]bK , a thousand 1 Sam. 10: 19. 23: 23. Judg. 6: 15. Num. 26:' 5—50. The heads of these united families were designated in Hebrew by the phrases, nias r,ia '^isn, Qiebs "'cs^, and ^s'nb;' "'sbx ''ttjs^, Numbers 1: 16. 10: 4. They held themselves in subjection to the princes of the tribes, who were called, by way of distinction from other chiefs, Q-'Sia; and ix'nto'^ "'aaia isibs. Both the princes and heads of families are mentioned under the common names of ci3|3t seniors or senators, and Diaao las'! heads of tribes. Fol- lowing the law of reason, and the rules established by custom, they governed with a paternal authority the tribes and united families, and while they left the minor concerns to the heads of individual families, aimed to superintend and promote the best 252 § 214. THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW interests of the community generally. Originally it fell to the prin- (•es of the tribes themselves to keep genealogical tables ; subse- quently they employed scribes especially for this purpose, who, in the progress of time, acquired so great authority, that under the name of Di"]Bii3 [translated in the English version, officers,"] they were permitted to exercise a share in the government of the nation, Exod. 5: 14, 15, 19. It was by magistrates of this descrip- tion, that the Hebrews were governed, while they remained in Egypt, and the Egyptian king made no objection to it, Exod. 3: 16. 5: 1, 14, 15, 19. § 214. The Fundamental Law of the Mosaic Institutions. The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were set apart and destined to the great object of preserving and transmitting the true religion, Gen. 18: 16 — 20 ; comp. Gen. 17: 9—14. 12: 3. 22: 18. 28: 14. Having increased in numbers, it appeared very evident, that they could not live among nations given to idolatry, without running the hazard of becoming infected with the same evil. They were, therefore, in the providence of God, assigned to a particular country, the extent of which was so small, that they were obliged, if they would live independently of other na- tions, to give up in a great measure the life of shepherds, and devote themselves to agriculture. Further ; very many of the Hebrews, during their residence in Egypt, had fallen into idola- trous habits. These were to be brought back again to the know- ledge of the true God, and all were to be e?cited to engage in those undertakings, which should be found necessary for the sup- port of the true religion. All the Mosaic institutions aim at the accomplishment of these objects. The fundamental principle, therefore, of those institutions was this : that the true God, the OKEji.TOK AND GOVERNOR OP THE UNIVERSE, AND NONE OTHER, OUGHT TO BE WORSHIPPED. To secure this end the more certainly, God, through the instrumentality of Moses, oiFered himself as king to the Hebrews, and was accepted by the united voice of their com- munity. Accordingly the land of Canaan, which was destined to be occupied by them, was declared to be the land of Jehovah, of which He was to be the king, and the Hebrews merely the he- reditary occupants. In consideration of their acknowledgment of OF THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 253 God as their ruler, they were bound like the Egyptians, to pay a twofold tythe, Exod. 19: 4—8. Lev. 27: 20—34. Num. 18: 21, 22. Deut. 12: 17—19. 14: 22, 29. 26: 12—15. In compliance with the duties, which naturally fall to the immediate ruler of a people, God promulgated, from the clouds of mount Sinai, the prominent laws for the government of the people, considered as a religious community, Exod. xx. These laws were afterwards more fully developed and illustrated by Moses. The rewards which should accompany the obedient, and the punishments, which should be the lot of the transgressor, were at the same time announced, and the Hebrews promised by a solemn oath to obey. Exod. xxi. — xxiv. Deut. xxvii. — xxx. In order to keep the true nature of the community fully and constantly in view, all the ceremonial institutions had reference to God, not only as the sovereign of the universe, but as the king of the people. The people were taught to feel, that the tabernacle was not only the temple of Jehovah, but tho place of their Icing ; that the table, supplied with wine and sheW-bread, was the royal table ; that the altar was the place, where the provisions of the .onarch were prepared ; that the priests were the royal servants, and were bound to attend not only to sacred but secular affairs, and were to receive, as their salary the first tythes, which the peo- ple, as subjects, were led to consider a part of that revenue, which was due to God, their immediate sovereign. Other things of a less prominent and important nature had reference to the same great end. Since, therefore, God was the sovereign, in a civil point of view as well as others, of Palestine and its inhabitants, the com- mission of idolatry by any inhabitant of that country, even a foi- eigner, was a defection from the true king. It was in fact treason, was considered a crime equal in aggi-avation to that of murdef, and was, consequently, attended with the severest punishment. — Whoever invited or exhorted to idolatry, was considered seditious, and was obnoxious to the same punishment. Incantations also, ne- cromancy, and other practices of this nature were looked upon as arts of a kindred aspect with idolatry itself, and the same punish- ment was to be inflicted upon the perpetrators of them, as upon idolaters. The same rigor of inquiry after the perpetrators of idolatry was enforced, that was exhibited in respect to other crimes of the deepest aggravation ; and the person, who knew of 22 254 § 215. CONDITION OF THE HEBREWS the commission of idolatry in another, was bound by tlie law to com- plain of the person thus guilty before the judge, though the criminal sustained the near relationship of a wife or brother, a daughter or a son. The law with the penalty attached to it, as may be learnt from other sources, had reference only to the overt acts of idolatiy ; it was rather a civil than a religious statute, and the judge, who took cognizance of the crime, while he had a right to decide upon the deed, the unde- niable act in any given instance, evidently went beyond his province, if he undertook to decide upon the thoughts and feelings of a person implicated, independently of an overt commission of the crime, Dent. 13: 2—19. 17: 2—5. It has been observed, that the law was not so much a religious, as a civil one. The distinction is obvious. A religious law has reference to the feelings, and those laws, consequently, which command us to love Gtod, to exercise faith in him, and to render him a heartfelt obedience are of this nature, Deut. 6: 4 — 9. 10: 12. 11: 1, 13. It ought to be remarked, that the severe treat- ment of idolatry, of which we have given a statement, was de- manded by the condition of the times. That was an age, in which each nation selected its deity, not from the dictates of con- science, but from the hope of temporal aid. It was an age, when idolaters were multiplied, and when nothing but the utmost severity in the laws could keep them from contaminating the soil of the He- brews. § 215. Condition of the Hebeews as respected other ^Nations. That the Hebrews, surrounded on every side by idolatrous nations, might not be seduced to a defection from their God and king, it was necessary, that they should be kept from too great an intercourse with those nations. This was the object of those sin- gular rites, which, though both proper and useful, were uncom- mon among the Gentiles. For the Hebrews, having once been ac- customed to them, could not readily mingle with other nations ; since it was extremely difficult to desert and condemn those insti- tutions, to which they had been accustomed from youth. But lest this seclusion from them should be the source of hatred to other nations, Moses constantly taught, that they should love their AS RESPECTING OTHEK NATIONS. 255 neiffhbor, S'n , i. e. every one, with whom they had anythuig to do, including foreigners, Exod. 22: 21. 23: 9. Lev. 19: 34. Deut. 10: 18, 19. 24: 17. 27: 19. To this end he teaches them, that the bene- fits, which God had conferred upon them in preference to other na- tions were undeserved, Deut. 7: 6 — 8. 9: 4 — 24. But although the Hebrews individually were debarred from any close intimacy with idolatrous nations, by various rites ; yet as a nation they had liberty to form treaties with Gentile states, with the following exceptions. I. The Canaanites, (including the Philistines, who were not of Oanaanitish origin,) were excepted. They were neither to be admitted to treaty nor to servitude, but to be destroyed by war, or driven from the country. This was to be done, not only because they unjustly retained the pasturing grounds of the Patriarchs, but because they were esteemed of des- picable faith, both as servants and companions, and were, moreover, addicted to idolatry. Being idolaters, they were considered no less than traitors in the kingdom of God, and therefore, were not to be tolerated, since there was a probability of their leading the Israel- ites to the commission of the same sin, Exod. 23: 32, 33. 34: 12, 16. Deut. 7: 1 — 11. 20: 1 — 18. The Phenicians were not included in this deep hostiUty, as they dwelt on the northern shore of the coun- try, were shut up within their own limits, and had occupied none of the pasturing grounds of the Patriarchs. "We learn from Josh. 11: 19, that the Canaanites might have avoided the exercise of the hos- tility of the Hebrews by leaving the country, which in truth many of them did. Such as pursued this course fled to the Phenicians, and were transported by them into Africa, Procopius de Vandal. II. 10. p. 258. n. The Amalekites or Canaanites of Ahabia Petrea were in like manner to be destroyed with universal slaughter. This was to be done, because they had attacked the weak and weary Hebrews in their journey through Arabia ; and because the robberies, which were committed by them on the southern borders of Palestine, could not be restrained in any other way, Exod. 17: 8, 14. Deut. 25: 17. comp. Judges 6: 3—5. 1 Sam. 15: 1 et seq. 27: 8, 9, and the 30th chapter. TTT. The Moabites and Ammonites were to be excluded forever from the right of treaty or citizenship with the Hebrews, but were not to be attacked in war, Deut. 2: 9 — 19. 23: 7. 256 § 216. PRINCIPAL OFFICERS IN THE HEBEE-W STATE. The reason of taking this middle course was, that, while they had granted to the Hebrews a passage through their country, they had refused to supply them with provisions, even if paid, Deut 2: 29, 23: 5. Afterwards in conjunction with certain Midianitish tribes, they invited the prophet Balaam to curse the Hebrews, and finally they allured them to idolatry, i. e. to the crime of treason, Deut. 23: 3 — 8. comp. 2: 9 — 19, 37. The Hebrews, however, did not feel themselves at liberty to carry on wars against them, except when provoked by previous h,ostility, Judg. 3: 12 — 30. 1 Sam. 14: 47-. 2 Sam. 8: 2 et seq. 12: 26 et seq. They ultimately crushed the Midianites, who had conspired with the Moabites in their plans, in a w?tr of dreadful severity. Num. 25: 16, 17. 31: 1—24 War had not been determined on against the Amorites, who had anciently taken away the region beyond Jordan from the Moabites and Ammonites by arms, for they were not in possession of any of the pasturing lands of the Patriarchs. But as their kings, Sihon and Og, not only refused a free passage, but opposed the Hebrews with arms, they were attacked and beaten, and their country fell into the hands of the Israelites, Num. 21: 21—35. Deut. 1: 4. 2: 24^37. 3: 1—18. 4: 46—49. comp. Judg. 11: 13—23. Treaties were permitted with all other nations. David, accord- ingly, maintained a friendly national intercourse with the kings of Tyre and Hamath ; and Solomon with the kings of Tyre and Egypt, and with the queen of Sheba. Even the religious Maccabees made treaties with the Eomans. The prophets everywhere condemn the treaties, which were made with the nations, not because they were contrary to the law of Moses ; but because they were injurious to the commonwealth, which the event proved, Iseu vii. xxxvi. xxxvii. 2 Kings xviii. xix. Hos. 5: 15. 7: 11. 12: 1 et seq. Isa. 30: 2—12. 31: 1, 2. 2 Kings 17: 4. § 216. Principal officers or Rulers in the Hebrew State. Many things in the administration of the government remained the same under the Mosaic economy, as it had been before. The authority, which they had previously possessed, was continued, ia the time of Moses and after his time, to the princes of the tribes, to the heads of families and combinations of families, and to the § 216. PRINCIPAL RULES OF THE HEBREW STATE. 257 genealogists, Num. 11: 16. Deut. 16: 18. 20: 5. 31: 28. Yet Mo- ses by the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, increased the num- ber of rulers by the appointment of an additional number of judges, n^Baii'i; some to judge over ten, some over tif\y, some over an hundred, and others over a thousand men. Exodus 18: 13 — 26. These judges were elected by the suffrages of the people from those, who, by their authority and rank, might be recltoned among the rulers or princes of the people. The inferior judges, i. e. those who superintended the judicial concerns of the smaller num- bere, were subordinate to the superior judges, or those who judged a larger number ; and cases, accordingly, of a difficult na- ture, went up from the inferior to the superior judges. Those of a very difficult cliaracter, so much so as to be perplexing to the superior judges, were appealed to Moses himself, and in some cases from Moses to the high priest. The judges, of whom we have now spol^en, sustained a civil as well as a judicial authority ; and were included in the list of those, who are denominated the elders and princes of Israel. That is to say ; supposing they were chosen from the elders and princes, they did not forfeit their seat among tliem by accepting a judicial office, and on the contrary, • the respectability attached to their office, (supposing they were not chosen from them,) entitled them to be reclioned in their number, Deut. 31: 28. comp. Josh. 8: 33. 23: 2. 24: 1. The vari- ous civil officers that have been mentioned in this section, viz. judges, heads of families, genealogists, elders, princes of the tribes, etc. were dispersed, as a matter of course, in different parts of the country. Those of them, accordingly, who dwelt in the same city, or the same neigliborhood, formed the comitia, senate, or legislc/- tive assembly of their immediate vicinity, Deut. 19: 12. 20: 8, 9. Judg. 8: 14 9: 3—46. 11: 5. 1 Sam. 8: 4. 16: 4. "When all, that dwelt in any particular tribe, were convened, they formed the legis- lative assembly of the tribe, and when they were convened in one body from all the tribes, they formed in like manner the legislative assembly of the nation, and were the representatives of all the people, Judg. 1: 1—11. 11: 5. 20: 12—24. Josh. 23: 1, 2. 24: 1. The priests, who were the learned class of the community, and besides were hereditary officers in the state, being set apart for civil as well as religious purposes, had, by the divine command, a right to a sitting in this assembly, Exod. 32: 29. Num. 36: 13. 22* 258 § 217. CONNECTION OF THE TRIBES WITH EACH OTHER. 8: 5 — 26. Being thus called upon to sustain very different and jet very important offices, they became the subjects of that envy, which would naturally be excited by the honor and the advantages, attached to their' situation. In order to confirm them in the duties which devolved upon them, and to throw at the gi'eatest dis- tance the mean and lurking principle just mentioned, God, after the sedition of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, sanctioned the separation of the whole tribe, which had been previously made, to the service of religion and the state; by a most evident and striking miracle, Num. 16: 1—17. § 217. Connection of the Tribes with each other. Each tribe was governed by its own rulers, and consequently to a certain extent constituted a civil community, independent of the other tribes, Judg. 20: 11—46. 2 Sam. 2: 4. Judg. 1: 21, 27—33. If any affair concerned the whole or many of the tribes, it was de- termined by them in conjunction, in the legislative assembly of the nation. Judges 11: 1—11. 1 Chron. 5: 10, 18, 19. 2 Sam. 8: 17. 1 Kings 12: 1 — 24. If any one tribe found itself unequal to the exe- cution of any proposed plan, it might connect itself with another, or even a number of the other tribes, Judg. 1: 1 — 3, 22. 4: 10. 7: 23, 24. 8: 2, 3. But although in many things each tribe existed by itself, and acted separately, yet in others, they were uniied, and formed but one community. For all the tribes were bound together, so as to form one church and one civil community, not only by their common ancestors, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, not 6nly by the common promises, which they had received from those ancestors, not only by the need, in which they stood of mu- tual counsel and assistance ; but also by the circumstance, that God was their common king, that they had a common taber- nacle for his palace, and a common sacerdotal and Leviti- cal order for his ministers. Accordingly every tribe exerted a sort of inspection over the others, as respected their observ- ance of the Law. If any thing had been neglected, or any wrong been done, the particular tribe concerned was amenable to the others, and, in case justice could not be secured in any other way, might be punished with war. Josh. 22: 9—34. Judg. 20: 1 et seq. It is possible, that a community thus constituted may be prosper- § 218. COMITIA OE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES. 259 ous and tranquil, but it will probably want promptness in securing that justice, which is its due, and will also be exposed to external and internal wars. We find examples of these evils during the time of the judges. In such a community, it was to be expected likewise, that the more powerful tribes would be jealous of each other, and rivals. Accordingly we find this rivalship existing be- tween the tribe of Judah, to which belonged the right of primo- geniture, and the tribe of Joseph, which had a double portion, Gen. 49: 8 — 10. 48: 5, 6. The right of possessing a double portion, in consequence of which the tribe of Joseph was divided into those of Ephraim and Manasseh, and which was equivalent in fact to the right of primogeniture, placed these two tribes on nearly the same footing, and caused them to look upon each other with the captious and unfriendly eye of competitors. From the rivalships of this kind a sad schism finally arose, which sundered the nation, 1 Kings xii. § 218. The Comitia ok Legislative Assemblies. (1.) Persons who composed the Comitia. They have been mentioned in a preceding section, and were as follows, viz. judges, i. e. those who exercised the oflSce in the judiciai sense of the word, heads of families, genealogists, elders, and the princes of the tribes. (2.) Titles applied to them in their collective capaci'^t. i^n^f^ ijpt, the elders of the assembly or of the people. ^npn-i>3 , msn-ps , iid , the whole assembly. At the conventions designated by these words, not only the persons mentioned at the head of this section were present, but also in some instances the whole body of the people. The words, therefore, may mean a na- tional legislative congress, where only the lawfully constituted mem- bers are present, or they may mean an assembly, which includes the whole mass of the people. nisn ■'S$"'iB5 the princes of the assembly or congregation. isia ''X-i'ip, nnsn ''S"''!!?, those called to the assembly. trnn ■''ilpB , those deputed to the assemhly. ^60 § 218. POWERS, ETC. OP THE COMITIA. Examine in reference to this point, Exod. 19: 7. 24: 3 — 8. 34: 31, 32. Lev. 4: 13. 8: 3—5. 9: 6. (3.) Method and Place op convening the Comitia. They were convened by the judge or ruler, for the time be- ing, and in case of his absence, by the high priest. Num. 10: 2 — i, Judg. 20: I, 27, 28. Josh. 23: 1, 2. The place of their assembling appears to have been at the door of the tabernacle, Num. 10: 3. Judg. 20: 1, 27, 28. 1 Sam. 10: 17. Sometimes some other place, commonly one of some celebrity, was selected as the place of meet- ing, Josh. 24: 1. 1 Sam. 11: 14, 15. 1 Kings 12: 1. As long as the Hebrews resided in camps in the Arabian wilderness, the comitia were summoned together by the blowing of the holy trumpets. It appears from Num. 10: 2 — 4, that the blowing of one trumpet only was the signal for a somewhat select convention, composed merely of the heads of the clans or associated families, and of the princes of the tribes. The blowing of two trumpets was the signal for con- vening the great assembly, composed not only of the heads of fami- lies, and the princes of the tribes, but of the elders, judges, and genealogists ; and in some instances including, as has been already remarked, the whole body of the people. When the Hebrews had become fairly settled in Palestine, the comitia were assembled, on account of the members living in places distant from each other, not by the sound of trumpet, but by messengers sent to them, see Deut 29: 9, 10. Judg. xx. (4.) PovfEES, etc. of the Comitia. Moses, while he sustained the oflSce of ruler among the He- brews, announced to these public assemblies the commands of God, which were afterwards repeated to the people by the Shote- rim, u^-fova, [whom, for want of a better term in English, we have denominated genealogists.'] In the comitia, (those, which met where the people were not present,) the rights of sovereign- ty were exercised, wars were declared, peace was concluded, treaties were ratified, civil rulers and generals, and eventually kings were chosen. The oath of oflBce was administered to its mem- bers by the judge, or the king of the state ; and the latter in turn § 219. FORM OF GOVERNMENT A MIXED ONE. 261 received their oath from the comitia, acting in the name of the peo- ple, Exod. 19: 7. 24: 2—8. Tosh. 9: 15—21. Judg. 20: 1, 11—14, 21: 13—20. 1 Sam. 10: 24. 11: 14. 2 Sam. 11: 14. 2: 4. 3: 17—19. 5: 1 — 3. 1 Kings xii. The comitia acted without instructions from the people, on their own authority, and according to their own views. Nor does any instance occur, in which the people exhibited any disposition to inter- fere in tlieir deliberations by way of dictating what they ought, or what they ought not to do. Still the comitia were in the habit of [I'.oposing to the people their decisions and resolves for their rati- (i-iifioii and consent, 1 Sam. 11: 14, 15 ; comp. Josh. 8: 33. 23: 2 et ^^c■,l. 24; 1 tt seq. When God was chosen, as the special king of the Hebrews, it was not done by the comitia, independently of those whom they commonly represented, but by the people themselves ; all of whom, as well Ss their rulers, took the oath of obedience, even the women and children, Exod. 24: 3 — 8. Deut. 29: 9 — 14. The people commonly approved what was done by the senate, but sometimes objected. § 219. Form of Government a mixed one. When we remember, that God was expressly chosen the king of the people, and that He enacted laws and decided litigated points of importance. Num. 17: 1—11. 27: 1—11. 36: 1—10; when we remember also, that he answered and solTed questions proposed. Num. 15: 32— 41. Josh. 7: 16— 22. Judg. 1: 1, 2. 20:18, 27, 28. 1 Sam. 14: 37. 23: 9—12. 30: 8. 2 Sam. 2: 1 ; that He threatened punishment, and that, in some instances. He actually inflicted it upon the hardened and impenitent. Num. 11: 33 — 35. 12: 1 — 15. 16: 1 — 50. Lev. 26: 3 — 46. Deut. xxvi. xxx.; when, finally, we take into account that He promised prophets, who were to be as it were his ambassadors, (Deut. xviii.) and afterwards sent them according to his promise ; and that, in order to preserve the true religion. He governed the whole people by a striking and pecu- liar providence, we are at liberty to say that God was ira fact the monarch of the people, and that the government was a theo- cracy. And indeed it is worthy of remark, that a form of govern- ment, in some degree theocratical in its nature, was well suited to the character of that distant age. The countries that bor- 262 § 219. FORM OF GOVERNMENT A MIXED ONE. dered on Palestine, had their tutelar deities ; and there existed among them nearly the same connection between religion and the civil government, which there existed among the Hebrews. There was this difference, however, in the two cases. The protection, which the false deities were supposed to afford to the nations in the vicinity of Palestine, was altogether a deception; while tlje protection, which the true God threw around the children of Israel, was a reality and a truth. There was likewise this further point of difference, that while among the former, religion was supposed to be the prop of the state ; it was a fact, that among the Hebrews the state was designed to be the supporter and preserver of religion. But although the government of the Jews was a theocracy, it was not destitute of the usual forms, which exist in civil governments among men. God, it is true, was the king ; and the high-priest, if we may be allowed so to speak, was his minister of state ; but stiU the political affairs were in a great measure under the disposal of the elders, princes, etc. It was to them that Moses gave the divine commands ; determined ex- pressly their powers ; and submitted their requests to the decision of God, Num. 14: 5. 16: 4 et seq. 27: 5. 36: 5, 6. It was in refer- ence to the great power possessed by these men, who formed the legislative assembly of the nation, that Josephus pronounced the government to be aristocraticcd. But from the circumstance, that the people possessed so much influence, as to render it necessary to submit laws to them for their ratification, and that they even took it upon themselves sometimes to propose laws, or to resist those which were enacted; from the circumstance also, that the legislature of the nation had not the power of laying taxes, and that the civil code was regulated and enforced by God himself, inde- pendently of the legislature, Lowman and John David Michadis are in favor of considering the Hebrew government a democracy. In support of their opinion, such passages are examined as the fol- lowing: Exod. 19: 7, 8. 24: 3—8, comp. Deut. 29: 9—14. Josh. 9: 18, 19. 23: 1 et seq. 24: 2 et seq. 1 Sam. 10: 24. 11: 14, 15. Num. 27: 1—8. 36: 1—9. The truth seems to lie between these two opinions. The Hebrew government, putting out of view its theocratical features, was of a mixed form, in some respects ap- proaching to a democracy, in others assuming more of an aristocrati- ■cal character. § 220. RULES OF THE ISKAELITISH COMMUNITY. 263 § 220. The Ruler of the Israelitish Community. From what has been said, it is clear, that the ruler, the su- preme HEAD OP the political COMMUNITY IN QUESTION WAS God, who with the design of promoting the good of his subjects, con- descended to exhibit his visible presence in the tabernacle, wherever it travelled, and wherever it dwelt Part sustained by Moses. If, in reference to the assertion, that God was the ruler of tha Jewish state, it should be inquired what was the part sustained by Moses, the answer is, that God was the ruler, the people were his subjects, and Moses was the mediator or internuncio between them. But the title most appropriate to Moses, and most descriptive of the part he sustained, is that of Legislator of the Israelites and their Deliverer from the Egyptians. It is clear, however, that a man may originate laws and may be the meritorious leader of an emigra- tory expedition, without being in the proper sense of the word, the ruler of a people. Accordingly Moses had no successor in those employments, in which he was himself especially occupied, for the Israelites were no longer oppressed with Egyptian bondage, and, those laws were already introduced which were immediately necessary for the well-being of the people. It was on this ground, viz. that the employments in which he was especially engaged, were of a peculiar nature, and having been accomplished while he was living, ceased when he was dead, that the council of seven- ty elders, ^ho were assigned him to assist him in the discharge of his oppressive duties, no longer had an existence after his de- cease. Part sustained by Joshua. If the same question should be put in respect to Joshua, that was supposed in regard to Moses, the answer would be, that he was not properly the successor of Moses, and that, so far from be- ing the ruler of the state, he was designated hy the ruler to sustain the subordinate office of military Leader of the Israelites in their ■2Gi § 221. THE THEOCKACT. conquest of the land of Canaan. Consequently, having been desig- nated to a particular object, and having accomplished that object, it was not necessary, when he died, that he should have a successor, nor was this the case. Part sustained by the Judges. But, although the Hebrew state was so constituted, that beside God, the invisible king, and his visible servant, the high priest, there was no other general ruler of the commonwealth, yet it is well known, that there were rulers of a high rank, appointed at various times, called i:3ia, a word which not only signifies a judge in the usual sense of the term, but any governor, or admin- istrator of public affixirs, comp. 1 Sam. 8: 20. Isa. 11: 4. 1 Kings 3:9. The power lodged in these rulers, who are commonly called judges, in the Scriptures, seems to have been in some respects paramount to that of the general comitia of the nation, and we find, that they declared war, led armies, concluded peace, and that this was not the whole, if indeed it was the most important part of their du- ties. For many of the judges, for instance Jair, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Eli, and Samuel, ruled the nation in peace. They might appro- priately enough be called the supreme executive, exercising all the rights of sovereignty, with the exception of enacting laws, and imposing taxes. They were honored, but they bore no exter- nal badges of distinction ; they were distinguished, but they enjoy- ed no special privileges themselves, and communicated none to their posterity. They subserved the public good without emolu- ment, that the state might be prosperous, that religion might be preserved, and that God alone might be king in Israel. It ought to be observed, however, that not all of the judges ruled the whole nation. Some of them presided over only a few separate tribes. r § 221. The Theocracy. God, in the character of king, had governed the Israelites for six- teen ages. He ruled them on the terms, which he himself, through the agency of Moses, had proposed to them, viz. that if they ob- served their allegiance to Bim, they should be prosperous ; if not, § 221. THE THEOCRAOT. 265 adversity and misery would be the consequence, Exod. 19: 4, 5. 23: 20—33. Lev. 26: 3—46. Deut. xxviii — xxx. We may learn from the whole book of Judges, and from the first eight chapters of Samuel, how exactly the result, from the days of Joshua down to the time of Samuel, agreed with these conditions. In the time of Samuel, the government, in point of form, was changed into a monarchy. The election of king, however, was committed to God, w^ho chose one by lot. So that God was still the ruler, and the king the vicegerent. The terms of the government, as re- spected God, were the same as before, and the same duties and principles were inculcated on the Israelites, as had been originally, 1 Sam. 8: 7. 10: 17—23. 12: 14, 16, 20—22, 24, 25. In con- sequence of the fact, that Saul did not choose at all times to obey the commands of God, the kingdom was taken from him and given to another, 1 Sam. 13: 5 — 14. 15: 1—31. David, through the agency of Samuel, was selected by Jehovah for king, who thus gave a proof, that he still retained, and was disposed to exercise the right of appointing the ruler under him, 1 Sam. 16: 1 — 3. Da- vid was first made king over Judah, but as he received his ap- pointment from God, and acted under his authority, the other eleven tribes submitted to him, 2 Sam. 5: 1 — 3. comp. 1 Chron. 28: 4 — 6. David expressly acknowledged God, as the sovereign, and as having a right to appoint the immediate ruler of the people, 1 Chron. 28: 7 — 10 ; he religiously obeyed Ilis statutes, the peo- ple adhered firmly to God, and his reign was prosperous. The paramount authority of God, as the king of the nation, and his right to appoint one, who should act in the capacity of his vicege- rent, are expressly recognized in the books of Kings and Chronicles, but dissensions and tumults, notwithstanding, arose upon the death of Solomon. The principles, recognized in Kings and Chronicles, are repeated in the Psalms and the Prophets. And all these books inculcate faith toward God, and obedience, and the keeping of his commandments, and threaten, unless his commands are kept, and faith and obedience exercised, the infliction of those punishment^, and that captivity, which are mentioned by Moses, Deut. 28: 49, 63—65. 29: 17 — 27. But the same prophets, who predicted the miseries of the Captivity, promised also a return, a greater con- stancy in religion, tranquillity and prosperity, a once more indepen- dent theocracy, the propagation of the knowledge of the true God, 23 266 TABLES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS AND SUCCESSIONS. through all nations, and the final overthrow of the Hebrews, and their ultimate and effectual expulsion from their native country. All which accordingly followed. Thus under the government and guardianship of God, the true religion was preserved among the He- brews, and at length propagated to other nations, as was promised, Gen. 18: 18. 22: 18. 26: 4. 28: 14. TABLES or THE PKOMINENT HISTORICAL EVENTS, AND OF THE SUCCESSIVB KINGS BOTH IN PALESTINE, AND IN THOSE NEIGHBORING NA- TIONS, WHOSE HISTORY IS MOST INTIMATELY INTERWOVEN WITH THAT OF THE JEWS. TABLE FIRST. I After Chrisb. I Deluge. 2332 292 Birth of Abraham. 2257 367 Calling of Abraham, being 75 years of age. 2232 392 Birth of Isaac. 2192 432 Marriage of Isaac. 2172 452 Birth of Esau and Jacob. 2157 467 Death of Abraham, being 175 years of age. 2052 572 Death of Isaac, being 180 years of age. 2051 573 Joseph, being 30 years old, made a ruler in Egypt 2044 580 Beginning of the Egyptian famine. 2042 582 Jacob, aged 130 years, emigrates into Egypt. 2025 599 Jacob dies at the age of 147. 1971 653 Joseph dies at the age of 110. 1684 932 Birth of Moses. 1644 972 Flight of Moses into Arabia. 1604 1012 Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt. IN PALESTINE AND THE NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES 267 TABLE SECOND. This Table gives a chrmiologicM view of hiswriccd events from the Departure from Egypt to the revolt of the Ten Tribes ; a period extending from the year 1563 to 1015 before Ohrist. Before 1 Christ. 1 After Depar- ture fr. Ejivpt 1563 40 Moses dies at the age of 120 years. 1546 57 Joshua dies at the age of 110 years. Othniel dies at the age of forty years. Ehud. Shamgar. Deborah and Barak. Gideon judged Israel 40 years. Abimelech, king of Shechem. Tola. Jair. 1263 340 Jephthah, Judg. 11: 26. Ibzan. Elon. Abdon. Samson. 1196 407 Eli succeeds as a Judge of Israel. 1156 447 Eli dies. 1136 109& 467 507 Samuel sustains the office of Judge. Saul chosen king. 1056 547 David made king. 1015 587 Solomon succeeds him. , 2C8 TABLES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS AND SUCCESSIONS TABLE THIRD. B.C. After Revolt oflOT. !;75 1 :t58 17 9i55 20 ;)o4 22 1)02 24 eso 45 <)-29 46 918 57 914 61 S97 78 896 79 891 84 884 91 884 91 877 98 856 119 840 135 838 137 826 149 825 150 811 164 797 178 785 190 784 191 774 201 773 202 772 203 761 214 759 216 753 222 747 228 /43 232 740 235 739 236 734 241 733 242 731 244 730 245 728 247 726 249 722 253 Rehoboam reigns 17 years Abijam, 3 years. Asa, 41 years. 2 4 25 26 37 Jehoshaphat, 35 years. 17 18 Jehoram, 8 years. Ahaziah, 1 year. Athaliah, 7 years. Jehoash, 40 years. 21 37 Amaziah, 27 years. 14 15 Uzziah, 52 years. 14 25 26 37 38 39 50 Jotham, 16 years. Isaiah, Micdh. 6 12 Ahaz, 16 years. 3 4 9 10 12 12 Hezekiah, 29 years. 2 6 Israfil Jeroboam I. 22 years. 17 20 Nadab, 2 years. Baasha, 21 years. Ela reigns 1 year. Omri, 11 years. Ahab, 21 years. 4 Ahaziah, 1 year. Jehoram, 13 years. 6 12 Jehu, 18 years. 7 Jehoahaz, 17 years. Joash or Jehoash, 16 years. 15 Jeroboam 11. 41 years. Jonah, the prophet. 27 Amos, the prophet. 41 Hosea, the prophet. Interregnum of 12 years. 10 Zechariah, 6 months. Shallum, 1 month. Menahem, 10 years. Pekahiah, 2 years. Pekah, 20 years. 6 12 16 19 Interregnum 8 or 9 years. 5 6 8 Hosea, 9 years. 2 4 Overthrow of Israel. ra PALESTINE AND THE NEIGHBORING COUNTRiES. 269 TABLE FOURTH. this tabk gives the royal successions during the latter pari of the peri- ods, mentioned in the third table, in Assyria, Media, and Babylon, B.C. After llevolt oflO T. 826 820 811 797 785 784 774 773 772 761 759 753 747 743 740 739 734 733 731 730 728 726 722 Assyria. 149 150 164 178 190 191 201 202 203 214 216 222 228 232 235 236 241 242 244 '245 247 249 253 Phul 21 years. 2 3 14 16 . Tiglath-pileser 19 years. 6 10 ( He conquers Damascus, \ Galilee and Gfilead. 12 Salmanassar 14 years. 2 5 8 10 13 Media. Babylon. Arbaces 29 yrs. 2 15 ( Interregnum \ 79 years 12 13 23 24 25 36 38 44 50 Nabonassar 14 54 4 57 7 58 8 63 13 64 Nadius2year3. 66 f Chinzirus or ( Porus 5 yrs. 67 2 69 5 71 Jugaeus 5 yre. ( Merodach \ Baladan. 76 23* 270 TABLES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS AND SUCCESSIONS TABLE FIFTH. ThefoUowing is a view of the royal successions in the Mngdom of Jit- dah after the overthrow of the Mngdom of Israel, and also of those in the neighboring nations of Assyria, Media, and Babylon. 11 |S B.C. 5^. They had the hberty of compelling any one, whom they met, to furnish them with a horse or other animal to ride on, or to go himself, and show the way. Hence the origin of the exotic Greek word dyyaQsvsiv, angariake. Matt. 5: 41. 27: 32. Mark 15: 21. The life-guard (otherwise called the pretorian band) of the Mac- cabees, and subsequently of Herod and his sons, were foreigners. They bore a lance or long spear, and were thence denominated in Greek, ansy.ovXdrmQEi;, Mark 6: 27. 292 § 237. THE king's harem. § 237. The King's Haeem. The women of the king's harem are to be considered as making a part of his retinue or equipage ; since, generally speaking, they were merely destined to augment the pomp, that was wont to be attached to his character and his situation. The multiplication of women in the character of wives and concubines was forbidden, it is true, by Moses, (Deut. 17: 17,) but the Hebrew kings, especially Sohrrum, gave but too little heed to his admonitions, and too readily and wick- edly exposed themselves to the dangers which Moses had anticipated as the result of pursuing the course which he had interdicted, 1 Kings 11: 1—3. 2 Chron. 11: 21. 13: 21. The kings willingly encountered any expense (whatever it might be) which might be deemed necessary, in ornamenting the persons of their women, and of the eunuchs (the black ones especially) who guarded them. It may be remarked here, that eunuchs were brought at a great expense from foreign countries, in as much as castration was contrary to the Mosaic law, Lev. 22: 24. Deut. 23: 1. For proof of the emplo3Tnent of eunuchs at the Hebrew court, see the fol- lowing passages, 1 Kings 22: 9. 2 Kings 8: 6. 9: 32, 33. 20: 18. 23: 11. Jer. 13: 23. 38: 7. 39: 16. 41: 16. The maids of the Harem were considered (at least when he wished to have them so considered) in the light of concubines to the king. But the successor to the throne, although he came into possession of the Harem, was not at liberty to have any intercourse with the members of it. Adonijah, accordingly, who in his zeal to obtain Abishag (a con- cubine of David's that had been untouched) let fall certain unad- vised expressions relative to the kingdom, was punished with death ; having given, both by the nature of the request, (which was not customary, and unlawful,) and by the manner in which it was made, too evident indications of a seditious spirit, 1 Kings 2: 13 — 16 et seq. Though the king had tinlimited power over the Harem, yet the wife who was chiefly in favor, and especially the mother of the king, had no little authority and weight in political concerns, 1 Kings 11: 3. 2 Chron. 21: 6. 22: 3. Hence in. the Books of Kings and Chronicles the mother of the king is every- §238. INTERCOtTESE OF OFFICERS WITH THE KING. 293 ■where spoken of; and in truth, in Jer. 29: 2, is expressly mentioned among the royal counsellors. § 238. The Method in which the Officers and others held Intercourse with the King. The kings of the East, as has been already observed, are almost inaccessible. Those, who seek any favor, or wish to pre- sent any accusation, are under the necessity of giving a paper to that effect to one of the officers, attached to the court, in order that it may be handed by him to the king, 2 Kings 4: 13. In case no one is willing to receive it, they themselves take the opportunity, when the king is promenading in public, to present it to him in person. If the inhabitants of a province wish to accuse the gov- ernor, many hundreds of them, assembling at the Harem, utter loud exclamations, tear their clothes, and scatter dust in the air, till a messenger is sent from the king to inquire the cause. Exodus 5: 15—19. But to the kings of the Hebrews, as has also been stated, there was more easy access, 2 Sam. 14: 2, 3. 15: 2, 3. Those, who went before the king, even the principal officers in the government, appeared in his presence with the accustomary obeisance and ceremony, and stood, like servants before their mas- ter. Hence to " stand hefore the Jdng " is a phrase, which means the same, as to be occupied in his service and to perform some duty for him. Gen. 41: 46. 1 Sam. 22: 6,7. 1 Kings 10: 8. 12: 6—8. Dan. 1: 18. The same expressions are used in respect to the priests and Levites, who were the ministers or officers of God, to denote the religious services, which it was their part to perform, Deut. 10: 8. 17: 12. Jer. 15: 1. 18: 20. 28: 5. Ps. 24: 3. Luke 18. 11, 13. Those, who sustained the station of servants and officers to the king, were entirely dependent on his will, and, on the other hand, they exercised a similar arbitrary power, (for instance the governors of provinces,) over those, who were immediately subject to them- selves. Hence it is, that the prophets frequently complain of their oppressions and violence. The royal officers of every grade are denominated the servants of the king, and, like the Orientals of the present day, they took a 25* 294 § 239. MAGISTRATES DUEING AND APTEE THE CAPTIVITY, pride in being thus denominated. To this appellation is wont to be attached the glory of prompt obedience, prompt, though the com- mand should be unjust. Those, who have the management of the collection of the reve- nues, or are entrusted indeed in any way, are not customarily called to an account. In case they are called upon to render an account of their proceedings, they show themselves prompt at the arts of deception ; but the consequence of an attempt at misrepresenting or defrauding, is almost certain destruction, Luke 16: 2. It should be observed, however, that the case was somewhat different in respect to Persia, in as much as the magistrates in the provinces were vis- ited yearly by a legate from the king, who, being supported in his duties by the attendance of an army, examined into the condition of affairs, and the prevalent management of the governors, Zech. 1: 7—12. § 239. Magistrates during and after the Captivitt. The Hebrews, during the captivity, and after that period, contin- ued among them that class of oflBcers, denominated heads of families, and perhaps likewise the princes of the tribes ; who, under the direc- tion of the royal governors, ruled their respective tribes, and family associations, Ezek. 14: 1. 20: 1 — 8. Ezra 1: 5. 4: 3. 5: 5. 6:8. Neh. 2: 16. 4: 13. 6: 17, 18. But it is most probable, that Jehoia- chin, and afterwards, Shealtiel, and Zerubbabel held the first rank among them, or in other words, were their princes. After their return to their native country, the Hebrews obeyed their iinS) , or president. Such were Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Ne- hemiah, who were invested with ample powers for the purpo- ses of government, Ezra 7: 25. When from any cause, there was no person to act as president, authorized by the civil govern- ment, the high priest commonly undertook the government of the state. This state of things continued, while the Hebrews were under the Persians and Greeks, till the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, in whose reign, they appealed to arms, shook off the yoke of foreign subjuga- tion, and having obtained their freedom, made their high priests princes, and at length kings. The Jews likewise, who were scattered abroad, and had takeu § 240. TETBAECHS. 295 up their residence in countries at a distance from Palestine, had rulers of their own. The person, who sustained the highest office, among those who dwelt in Egypt, was denominated Alabarchus ; the magistrate at the head of the Syrian Jews was denominated Archon. While the Jews were under the Roman Government, they en- joyed the privilege of referring litigated questions to referees, whose decisions in reference to them, the lioman pretor was bound to see put in execution. Cod. L. I. Tit. 9. I. 8. de Judaeis. As Christians, when they first made their appearance, were regarded, as a sect of the Jews, (Acts 23: 24,) they likewise enjoyed the same privilege. Paul, accordingly, blamed them, 1 Cor. 6: 1 — 7,) because they were in the habit of bringing their causes before the pretor, instead of leaving them out to referees. § 240. Tetraechs. After the subjugation of the Jews by the Romans, certain provinces of Judea, were governed by that class of Boman ma- gistrates, denominated Tetrarehs. The office of Tetrarch had its origin fh)m the Gauls. Having, at a certain time, made an incur- sion into Asia Minor, they succeeded in taking from the king of Bithynia that part of it, which is denominated from their own name, Galatia. The Gauls, who made this invasion, consisted of three tribes ; and each tribe was divided into four parts or Te- trarchates, each of which obeyed its own Tetrarch. The Tetrarch was of course subordinate to the king. The appellation of Te- trarch, which was thus originally applied to the chief magistrate of the fourth part of a tribe, subject to the authority of the king, was afterwards extended in its application, and applied to any gov- ernors, subject to some king or emperor, without reference to the fact, whether they ruled, or not, precisely the fourth part of a tribe or people. Herod Antipas, accordingly, and Philip, although they did not rule so much as a fourth part of Judea, were denom- inated Tetrarehs, Matt. 14: 1. Luke 9: 7. Acts 13: 1. Although this class of rulers were dependent upon Cesar, i. e. the Roman emperor, they, nevertheless, governed the people, who were com- mitted to their immediate jurisdiction, as much according to their own choice and discretion, as if they had not been thus dependent. 206 § 241. ROMAN PROCUBATOES. They were inferior, however, in point of rank, to the Eihnarch who, although they did not publicly assume the name of king were addressed with that title by their subjects ; as was the case, for instance, in respect to Archelaus, Matt. 2: 22. Josephus, Antiq. XVn. 11. 4. § 241. Roman Pboctjhatoes. Procurators, (a magistrate well known among the Komans,) are denominated in the New Testament Tjysiiorsg, but it appears, that they are called by Josephus enizQonoi, Judea, after the termina- tion of the Ethnarchate of Archelaus, was governed by rulers of this description, and likewise during the period, which immediately sue- ceeded the reign of Herod Agrippa. Procurators were sometimes Eoman knights, and sometimes the freemen of the emperor. Felix was one of the latter class, Acts 23: 24—26. 24: 3, 22—27. The procurator, if we may credit some remarks of Suetonius in his life of Claudius, which in truth, are confirmed by Tacitus in his History, (V. 9.) was for some particular reason, very dear to the emperor, but was never- theless, a very miserable governor. Festus also, according to Herodian, (IV. 8. 11.) was a freedman, Acts 24: 27. 25: 12. 26: 24, 25. It may be necessary to remark here by way of explanation, that procurators were sent by the emperor, independently of the vote or concurrence of the senate into those provinces, which had been reserved for his own use, and might be considered dur- ing his reign, as his personal property. They were commonly situated in the extremities of the empire. The business of the procurators, who were sent to them, was to exact tribute, to ad- minister justice, and to repress seditions. Some of the procurators were dependent on the nearest proconsul or president ; for in- stance, those of Judea were dependent on the proconsul gover- nor, or president of Syria. They enjoyed, however, great au- thority, and possessed the power of life and death. The only privilege in respect to the officers of government, that was granted by the procurators of Judea to that nation, was the appoint- ment from among them of persons, to manage and collect the taxes. In all other things, they administered the government them- § 242. OF THE TRIBUTE OF THE TEMPLE. 297 selves, except that they frequently had resort to the counsel of other persons, Acts 23: 24—36. 24: 1—10. 25: 23. The military force, that was granted to the procurators of Judea, consisted of six cohorts, Gnnqm, of which five were stationed at Cesa- rea, where they resided, and one at Jerusalem in the tower of Anto- nia, which was so situated as to command the temple, Acts 10: 1. 21: 32. It was the duty of the military cohorts to execute the procura- tor's commands, and to repress seditions. Matt. 8: 5. 27: 27. 28: 12. John 19:2, 23. Mark 15: 16. On the return of the great festivals, when there were vast crowds of people at Jerusalem, the procurators themselves went from Cesarea to that city in order to be at hand to suppress any commotions, which might arise. Matt. 27: 2 — 65. John 18: 29. 19: 38. § 242(. Of THE Tribute and Half-shekel of the Temple. The management of the provincial revenues was generally committed to the Roman knights, who were thence denominated a.Qxi'tskwvai and mXavd.Q'^ai, publicans, while the tax-gatherers or exactors, whom they employed, were termed Tilavai. The case, however, was somewhat different in Judea, where the management of the revenues, as already observed, was committed to the Jews themselves ; so that those of them, to whom the management of these affairs was instrusted, eventually obtained an equal rank with the knights of Rome, Luke 19: 2. Josephus, Jewish War, IT. 14,9. The subordinate agents in collecting the revenues, rskmrai, •who are denominated in the Vulgate, though somewhat incorrectly, publicans, took their positions at the gates of cities, and in the public ways, and, at the place for that purpose, called the " re- ceipt of custom," examined the goods that passed, and received the monies that were to be paid. Matt. 9: 9. Mark 2: 14. Luke 5: 27, 29. These tax-gatherers, if we may credit Cicero, were more in- clined to exact too much, than to belie the promise, they had made to their masters ; and were, accordingly, in consequence of their extortions, everywhere, especially in Judea, objects of hatred, and were reckoned in the same class with notorious sinners, Luke 3: 13. Mark 2: 15, 16. comp. Talmud, Baba Kama c. 10, 113. Col. 298 § 242. OF THE TRIBUTE OP THE TEMPLE. 1. Nedarim c. 3. The Pharisees would have no communication ■with them, and one ground of their reproaches against the Saviour was, that he did not refuse to sit at meat with persQns of such a char- acter, Matt. 5: 46, 47. 9: 10, 11. 11: 19. 18: 17. 21: 31, 32. The half-shekel tax was a tax or tribute to be paid every year by every adult Jew, at the temple. It was introduced after the captivity, in consequence of a wrong understanding of certain ex- pressions in the Pentateuch, and was a different thing both from the revenue, which accrued to the kings, tetrarchs, and ethnarchs, and from the general tax, that was assessed for the Roman Cesars. It was required, that this tax should be paid in Jewish coin, a circum- stance, to which an allusion is made in Matt. 22: 17 — 19, and like- wise in Mark 12: 14, 15. It was in consequence of this state of things, (as the Talmudists assert, ShehaEm, I. 1. 3.) that money- changers xollv^iazai, seated themselves in the temple, on the fif- teenth of the month Adar, and after, for the purpose of exchanging, for those who might wish it, Roman and Greek coins, for Jewish half-shekels. The prominent object of the temple money-changers was their own personal emolument, but the acquisition of property in this way was contrary to the spirit of the law in Deut. 23: 20, 21. It was for this reason, that Jesus drove them from the temple, Matt, 21: 12. Mark 11: 15. John 2: 15. Messengers were sent abroad into other cities, for the purpose of collecting this tax, (Matt. 17: 25,) according to the Talmudists, (^Shehalim I. 1. 3.) during the month Adar, who add further, that, in case payment was not made by the twenty-fifth of that month, a pledge was taken from the person who was delinquent. The Jews, who collected this tax from their countrjTuen dwelling in foreign nations, transmitted the sums collected every year to Jeru- salem. It is not surprising then, that the vast amount of treasures, of which we are informed, flowed into the temple, Josephus, Antiq. XIV. 7. 2. Cicero pro Flacco, 28. 299 CHAPTER ni. OF TRIALS AND PUNISHMENTS. § 243. Of Jddges. According to the Mosaic Law, there were to be judges in all the cities, whose duty it was likewise to exercise judicial authority in the neighboring villages ; but weighty causes and appeals went up to the supreme judge or ruler of the commonwealth ; and in case of a failure here, to the high-priest, Deut. 17: 8, 9. In the time of the monarchy, weighty causes and appeals went up of course to the king, who, in very difficult cases, seems to have con- sulted the high-priest, as is customary at the present day among the Persians and Ottomans. The judicial establishment was reorganized after the captivity, and two classes of judges, the inferior and superior, were appointed, Ezra 7: 25. The more difficult cases, nevertheless, and appeals, were either brought before the ruler of the state called fina , or be- fore the high-priest ; until, in the age of the Maccabees, a supreme, judicial tribunal was instituted, which is first mentioned under Hyr- canus II. (Josephus, Antiq. XIV. 9. 3.) This tribunal is not to be confounded with the seventy-two counsellors who were appointed to assist Moses in the civil ad- ministration of the government, but who never fulfilled the office of judges. § 244 The Sanhedrin. This tribunal, which is properly called avvtSqiov, Stnedrium, but is denominated by the Talmudists Sanhedrin, was instituted in the time of the Maccabees, and was composed of seventy-two members. The high-priest generally sustained the office of presi- 300 §244. THE SANHEDEISr. dent, lasii, or Xiiasn, in this tribunal. The next in authority, or the vice-president, was called in Hebrew nia iSN , likewise "ji^ ; and the second vice-president, DBHrt ; the former of whom sat on the right, and the latter on the left hand of the president ; comp. Matt. 20: 21. The members, who were admitted to a seat in the Sanhedrin, were as follows : I. Chief Priests, aQXisgeig, who are often mentioned in the New Testament and in Josephus, as if they were many in nulnber. They consisted partly of priests, who had previously exercised the high-priesthood, and partly of the heads of the twenty-four classes of priests, who were called, in an honorary way, high or chief priests. II. Elders, nqea^vre^oi. That is to say, the princes of the tribes, and the heads of family associations. in. The Scribes, or learned men. When we say that scribes and elders were members of the San- hedrin, we are not to be understood as saying that all the scribes or learned men of the nation, or that aU the elders held a seat in that body ; but those only who had obtained the privilege by election, or by a nomination from the ruling executive authority. For this rea- son, viz. because they were made members of the Sanhedrin in the same way, they are constantly joined together, nQEO^vrsqoi k(u yqaiificcteig, scribes and elders, Matt. 26: 57, 59. 27: 3, 12, 20, 41. Acts 4: 5. 6: 12. The Talmudists assert, that this tribunal had secretaries and ap- paritors, and the very nature of the case forbids us to doubt the truth of the assertion. The place of their sitting, however, is a question on which there is more difference of opinion. The Talmudists state, that it was in the temple ; but Josephus, in his history of the Jewish war, (V. 4. 2. VI. 6. 3.) mentions ^ovlr/r the council, ^ovXevt^qm the place of assembling, and also the Archives, as being not far from the temple on mount Zion. But in the trial of Jesus, it appears they were assembled, and that very hastily, in the palace of the high-priest, Matt. 26: 3, 57. John 18: 24. The Talmudists state, that when met, they took their seats in such a way as to form a semicircle ; and that the president and two vice-presidents occupied the centre. We learn from other sources, that they either sat upon the floor, a carpet merely be- § 244. THE SANHEDRIN OF THE WILDERNESS. 301 ing spread under them, or upon cushions slightly elevated, with their knees bent and crossed ; as is the custom at the present day, in the East. Appeals and other weighty matters were brought before this tribunal. Among other questions of importance, subject to its decision, the Talmudists {Sanhedrin I. 5. X. 89.) include the inquiry, « "Whether a person be a false prophet or not ? " Comp. Luke 13: 33. Its power had been limited, in the time of Christ, by the inteiference of the Romans. It was still, however, in the habit of sending its legates or messengers to the synagogues in foreign countries, (Acts 9: 2,) and retained the right of passing the sen- tence of condemnation, or what is the same thing in amount, of decreeing punishment in cases, where there was proof of criminal- ity ; but the power of executing the sentence when passed was taken away from it, and lodged with the Roman procurator, John 18: 31. Sanhedrin p. 24. col. 2. There was one exception, it is true, during the procuratorship of Pilate, and only one ; who permitted the Sanhedrin themselves, in the case of Christ, to see the sen- tence, of which they had been the authors, put in execution, John 18: 31. 19: 6. The stoning of Stephen was not done by the au- thority of the Sanhedrin, but in a riot. Acts vii. James, the brother of John, (Acts 12: 2,) was slain, in consequence of a sentence to that effect from king Herod Agrippa. The high priest Ananus did indeed condemn James, the brother of Jesus, (i. e. relation or cousin,) to be stoned, and others likewise, but it was done, when the procurator was absent, and was disapproved by the Jews them- selves. Consult the large German edition of this "Work, P. 11. Vol. n. § 132. p. 121, 122. [Note. On the Sanhedein op Seventy, instituted by Mo- ses IN THE "Wilderness. A remark was made at the close of the 243d section as follows : " This tribunal, (viz. the Jewish Sanhe- drin,) is not to he confounded with the seventy-two counsellors, who were appointed to assist Moses, etc." The following extract from Michaelis, whose opinions on such a subject every scholar will feel an interest in knowing, will give probably a correct idea of the insti- tution, to which an allusion is made in that section. " Moses established in the wilderness another institution which has been commonly held to be of a judicial nature ; and under the 26 302 § 244. THE SANHEDRIN OF THE WILDERNESS. name of Sanhedrin or Synedrium, much spoken of both by Jews and Christians, although it probably was not of long continuance. We have the account of its establishment in Num. xi. ; and if we read the passage impartially, and without prejudice, we shall proba- bly entertain an opinion of the Synedrium different from that gener- ally received, which exalts it into a supreme college of justice that ivas to endure forever. "A rebellion that arose among the Israelites distressed Moses exceedingly. In order to alleviate the weight of the burden that oppressed him, he chose from the twelve tribes collectively, a coun- cil of seventy persons to assist him. These, however, could hardly have been judges ; for of thein, the people already had between sixty and seventy thousand.* Besides, of what use could seventy new judges, or a supreme court of appeal, have been in crushing a rebel- lion. It seems much more hkely, that this selection was intended for a supreme senate to take a share with Moses in the govern- ment; and as it consisted of persons of respectability, either in point of family or merits, it would serve materially to support his power and influence among the people in general. By a mixture of aristocracy, it would moderate the monarchical appearance which the constitution must have assumed from Moses giving his laws by command of God, and it would unite a number of powerful families together, from their being all associated with Moses in the govern- ment. "It is commonly supposed that this Synedrium continued per- manent; but this I doubt. For in the whole period from the death of Moses to the Babylonish captivity, we find not the least mention of it in the Bible ; and this silence, methinks, is decisive ; for in the time of the judges, but particularly on those occasions when, according to the expression of the book of Judges, there was neither Mng nor judge in Israel ; and again, during those great political revolutions, when David by degrees became king over all the tribes, and when the ten tribes afterwards revolted from his * Without including the tribe of Levi, there were, Judges of tens, 60,355 of hundreds, 6,035 of thousands, 603 in all, 66,993 § 245. OTHEE TRIBUNALS IN THE TIME OF CHRIST. 303 grandson, Eehoboam ; and lastly, under the tyrannical reigns of some of the subsequent kings ; such a supreme council of seventy per- sons, if it had been in existence, must have made a conspicuous figure in the history ; and yet we find not the least trace of it ; so that it merely appears to have been a temporary council instituted by Moses for his personal service and security, and as he did not fill up the vacancies occasioned in it by deaths, it must have died out alto- gether in the wilderness. " No doubt the Jews, after their return from the Babylonish cap- tivity, did institute a Sanhedrin at Jerusalem, of which frequent mention is made not only in the New Testament, but also in Jewish writings. But this was merely an imitation of the ancient Mosaic Synedrium, with the nature of whose constitution the later Jews were no longer acquainted ; for they had indeed become ignorant of almost all the customs of their ancestors."] § 245. Other Tribunals dj the time op Christ. Josephus, (Antiq. IV. 8. 14.) states, that in every city there was a tribunal of seven Judges, with two Levites as apparitors, and that it was a Mosaic institution. That there existed such an institu- tion in his time, there is no reason to doubt, but he probably erred in referring its origin to so early a period, as the days of Moses. This tribunal, which decided causes of less moment, is denominated, in the New Testament, Kqiaig or the judgment, Matt. 5: 22. The Talmudists mention a tribunal of twenty-three judges, and another of three judges, but Josephus is silent in respect to them. The courts of twenty-tiree judges were the same with the synagogue tribunals, mentioned in John 16: 2 ; which merely tried questions of a religious nature, and sentenced to no other pun- ishment than " forty stripes save one," 2 Cor. 11: 24. The court of three judges was merely a session of referees, which was allowed to the Jews by the Roman laws ; for the Tal- mudists themselves, in describing this court, go on to observe, that one judge was chosen by the accuser, another by the accused, and a third by the two parties conjointly, which shows at once the nature of the tribunal 304 § 247. OP THE FORUM OE PLACE OF TRIALS. § 246. The Time of Trials. The time at which courts were held, and causes were brought before them for trial, was in the morning, iga, Jer. 21: 12. Ps. 101: 8. According to the Talmudists, (Sanhedrin IV.) it was not lawful to try causes of a capital nature in the night, and it was equally unlawful to examine a cause, pass sentence, and put it in execution on the same day. The last particular was very strenuously insisted on. It is worthy of remark, that all of these practices, which were observed in other trials, were neglected in the tumultuous trial of Jesus, Matt, 26: 57. John 18: 13 — 18. For what the modern Jews assert, viz. that forty days were allowed to Jesus, to make his defence in, is not mentioned by the more ancient writers. The trial of causes on the days of the national festivals is for- bidden in many passages in the Talmud. "Whatever might have been the ground of this prohibition, it at any rate contravened the spirit of the remark in Deut. 17; 13, viz. "And aU the people shcdl hear, and fear, and do no more presumptuously." That is, shall hear and tremble at the sentence passed upon the guilty ; for which they could not in general find so good an opportunity, as on the days of those festivals. Nor was there any reason to fear that the religious festivals of the nation, would be profaned in this way, in as much as judicial tribunals, in a theocracy, were of divine institution. It may be observed further on this point, that the reason assigned, why the Jews in Matt. 26: 5, avoided the festival day, was the fear of an uproar among the people. But it appears, as soon as a person was found treacherous enough to betray the Saviour, that even the fears from this source vanished. § 247. Of the Fobtjm or place of Trials. The places for judicial trials were in very ancient times the gates of cities, which were well adapted to this purpose. They were adapted to this purpose, in as much as they were public, and were used not only for entering and departing, but for fairs, places of business, and to accommodate those, who were assembled § 248. FORM OF TEIAL. 305 merel}' to pass away the ame, Gen. 23: 10 et seq. Deut. 21: 19. 25- 6, 7. Euth 4: 1 et seq. Fs. 127: 5. Prov. 22: 22. 24: 7. The place of trial was the same after the captivity as before, Zech. 8: 16. The Greek, forum ayoQu, was also a place for fairs. The Areopagus itself, uQeiog nayos, i. e. the hill of Mars, was so called, because justice was said to have been pronounced there formerly against Mars, Acts 17: 19. The Greeks assembled in the forum likewise, where the judicial tribunals had the place of their sitting, in order to examine into the conduct and qualifications of public magistrates, and candidates for office. Inquiries and examinations of this kind were expressed by the Greek word doHiua^mv, comp. 1 Cor. 11: 28. The assembly of the citizens, convened on extraordinary occasions, was called in Greek ixxltjaia or avyxXt^Tog. The convention of the citizens, which met on certain stated days rifAeqai xvgiat, which were de- signated by the law, and which recurred four times within every period of thirty-five days called xvgla. § 248. Form of Trial. Originally trials were everywhere very summary, excepting in Egypt; where the accuser committed the charge to writing, the accused replied in writing, the accuser repeated the charge, and the accused answered again, etc. Diodorus Sic. I. p. 75. comp. Job 14: 17. It was customary in Egypt for the judge to have the code of laws placed before him, a practice, which still prevails in the East, comp. Dan. 7: 10. Moses, however, when called upon to decide upon any litigated question, pursued that summary course, which was common among the Nomadic tribes; and in those laws of a permanent character, which he established, he did not lay the ground for any more formal or complicated method of procedure in such cases. He was, nevertheless, anxious that justice should be administered in a right manner, and, accordingly, frequently inculcated the idea, that God was a witness to judicial transactions. He interdicted, in the most express and decided manner, ffifts or bribes, "iniij , which were intended to corrupt the judges, Exod. 22: 20, 21. 23: 1 — 9. Lev. 19: 15. Deut. 24: 14, 15. Moses also, by legal precautions, 26* 306 § 248. FORM OF TRIAL. prevented capital punishments, and corporal punishments, which were not capital, from being extended, as was done in other na- tions, both to parents and their children, and thus involving the innocent and the guilty in that misery, which was justly due only to the latter, Exod. 23: 7. Deut. 24: 16. comp. Dan. 6. 24. This salutary arrangement seems to have been neglected by the kings, 2 Kings 9: 26 ; although in all other cases, where it was deemed expedient to inflict punishment, the form of trial was gone thrQugli, even in respect to those innocent persons, who had become the subjects of the royal displeasure, and were tried only to be con- demned, 1 Kings 21: 7 — 16. The disregard of justice, which, in such instances was manifested by the kings, exerted a bad influence on the minds of the judges, and, as we may learn from the repeated complaints of the prophets, they were too often guilty of partiality in their decisions. The ceremonies, which were observed, in conducting a judicial trial, were as follows : I. The accuser and the accused both made their appearance before the judge or judges, Deut. 25: 1 ; who sat with legs crossed upon the floor, which was furnished for their accommodation with a carpet and cushions. A secretary was present, at least in more modern times, who wrote down the sentence, and indeed every thing in relation to the trial, for instance, the articles of agreement, that might be entered into, previous to the commencement of the judicial proceedings, Isa. 10: 1, 2. Jer. 32: 1 — 14. The Jews assert, that there were two secretaries, the one being seated to the right of the judge, who wrote the sentence of not guilty, the other to the left, who wrote the sentence of condemnation. Comp. Matt. 25: 33 — 46. That an apparitor or beadle was present, is apparent from other sources. II. The accuser was denominated in Hebrew lato satan or the adversary, Zech. 3: 1' — 3. Ps. 109: 6. The judge or judges were seated, but both of the parties implicated stood up, the ac- cuser standing to the right hand of the accused. The latter, at least after the captivity, when the cause was one of great conse- quence, appeared with hair disheveled, and in a garment of mourn- ing- III. The witnesses were sworn, and in -capital cases, the par- •ties concerned, 1 Sam. 14: 37 — 40. Matt. 26: 63. In order to es- § 24:9. PRISONS AND TORTURES. 307 tablish the charges alleged, two witnesses were necessary, and, including the accuser, three. The witnesses were examined sepa- rately, but the person accused had the liberty to be present, when their testimony was given in. Num. 35: 30. Deut. 17: 1 — 15. Matt. 26: 59. Proofs might be brought from other sources ; for instance, from written contracts, or from papers in evidence of anything purchased or sold, of which there were commonly taken two copies, the one to be sealed, the other to be left open, as was customary in the time of Jerome, Jer. 32: 10—13. IV. The parties sometimes, as may be inferred from Prov. 18: 18, made use of the lot in determining the points of diffi- culty between them, but not without a mutual agreement. The sacred lot of TJrim and Thummim was anciently resorted to, in order to detect the guilty. Josh. 7: 14 — 24. 1 Sam. xiv. ; but the determination of a case of right or wrong, in this way, was not commanded by Moses. V. The sentence, very soon after the completion of the ex- amination, was pronounced; and the criminal, without any delay, even if the offence were a capital one, was hastened away to the place of punishment. Josh. 7: 22 et seq. 1 Sam. 22: 18. 1 Kings 2: 23. § 249. Prisons and Tortures. As the execution followed so soon after the sentence, there was no special need of prisons. Indeed they are not to be found in Persia at the present day, and it is customary to con- fine the criminal in an apartment of the house of the judge. Com- pare Gen. 40: 3, 4. The instrument of punishment, mentioned in Job 13: 27. 33: 11, in Hebrew to the stocks, was probably of Egyptian origin. Among the Hebrews anciently, criminals were put under a guard of persons employed for that purpose, Lev. 24: 12. Not unfrequently they were confined in empty cisterns. The great variety in the names of prisons would lead one to suppose, that they were more frequently erected, and more ofiten used, in the latter than in the early periods of the Jewish nation. They are as follows : 308 § 249. PRISONS and tortures. (1) lia , liia , which usually signifies a cistern, Gen. 40: 15. (2) insn nia, Gen. 39: 20. (The word inb appears to be of Coptic origin. (3) di'iTOri nia , (for Bi'iiiDsn nia) Eccles. 4: 14. (4) iioxri nia, Jer. 37: 15. (5) xban'r-'a ^ 1 Kings 22: 27. 2 Kings 25: 29. (6) xiV?, K-'ia, Jer. 37: 4. 52: 31. (7) raenan n^a, 2 Chron. 16: 10. (8) - *^^ ransom of one's life, i. e. the payment which might be made by a person, who had injured another, as a commutation for those corporal punishments, to which, in consequence of the law of retaliation, {^jus talionis,) he had exposed himself, was left to be determined by the mere pleasure of the person, who had been injured, Exod. 21: 30. (2.) The amount to be paid, in order to secure a commutation of the punishment, that was enacted by law, against the owner of a bull, which, although the owner had been previously admonished of the bull's character for pushing, had killed a free person, was left to be determined by the avenger of blood. This is the only instance, in which a commutation of the punishment was allowable, where death was the penalty of the crime, Exod. 21: 28 — 31. (3.) If two men, in contending with each other, injured a wo- man with child, so that she came to a premature birth, a fine was to be paid, according to the estimation of the husband and the judge. (4.) If a servant were slain by a cross ox, when known to be such by the owner, the owner was obliged to pay thirty shekels, Exod. 21: 32. comp. Deut. 22: 19. § 254. PUNISHMENT OF THEFT. 313 None of these fines were paid to the state, but all of them to the person, who had been injured. § 254. Punishment of Theft. The restitution, that was required to be made, in case of theft, yrtis dovhk of the amount taken, Exod, 22: 3, 6, 8. If a sheep, however, were stolen and had already been slain or sold, so that it was evi- dent, that the thief had no design to make restitution, a. fourfold; and, if this were the case in i-espect to an ox, a fivefold restitution was to De made. The reason of this distinction was, that sheep, being kept in the desert, were more exposed, than other animals, to be stolen ; and oxen, being so indispensably necessary in an agricultural commu- nity, could not be taken from their owners in this way, without great injury, and peculiar aggravation, Exod. 22: 1. In case the thief aSa, was unable to make the restitution demanded by the law, he was sold with his wife and children into servitude, Exod. 22: 2. 2 Kings 4: 1. comp. Gen. 43: 19. 44: 17. In the days of the kings, the fine for theft seems to have been in- creased, Prov. 6: 30, 31. Capital punishment was decreed only against a thief, who had ta- ken anything that was accursed, anything to which the epithet 3'in was applicable. Josh. 7: 25 ; for what David asserts, in 2 Sam. 12: 5, in respect to the person, who took away the lamb, viz. that he was worthy of death, means merely, that he was guilty, since he imme- diately adds, " He shall restore fourfold." It appears from this para- ble, however, to which we allude, that both thieving and taking away violently by force, came under the same law, and were followed by the same punishment. Whoever slew a thief, that was attempting to break open a house at night, let it be what hour it might before sunrise, was left unpun- ished ; since he did not know, but the thief might have a design upon his life, and he was unable also to notice his appearance, and thereby bring him to justice at a subsequent period, Exod. 22: 1. 27 314 § 255. coEroEAL punishments. § 255. CoEPOEAi, Punishments. Corporal punishments may be limited to one kind, viz. the inflic- tion of blows with a rod or scourging, Lev. 19: 20. Deut. 22: 18. 25: 2, 3. The dignity or high standing of the person, who had ren- dered himself liable to this punishment, could not excuse him from its being inflicted. Stripes, the rod, etc. occur very frequently for punishment of any kind, Prov. 10: 13. 17: 26. Jer. 37: 15—20. Ps. 89: 32. Scourging is very frequently practised at the present day in the East, as it was anciently ; with this difference, however, that the stripes were formerly inflicted on the back, but now on the soles of the feet. The instrument, commonly used to inflict the punishment, was a rod. Scorpions, d^a 'np? , i. e. thongs set with sharp iron points or nails, called by the Romans horeibilia, were applied, as a means of torturing, only by those, who. had no relentings of heart; especially by cruel masters, in the punishment of their slaves, 1 Kings 12: 11. The application of such an instrument in punishing was not sanc- tioned by the laws of Moses. The person, who was convicted of a crime, and was sentenced to scourging, was extended upon the ground, and the blows, not exceed- ing forty, were applied upon his back, in the presence of the judge, Deut. 25: 2, 3. The more recent Jews, from their great fear, lest, from any circumstance, the stripes might exceed the number prescribed, fixed it at thirty-nine instead of forty, which were inflicted in their synagogues, Matt. 10: 17. They employed for the purpose, ac- cording to the Talmudists, (Maccoth, 3. 10, a whip, which had three lashes, so as to inflict a triple wound with one blow. Thir- teen blows, therefore, made out the thirty-nine stripes, 2 Cor. 11: 24. That extreme and cruel scourging, known among the Romans, in which there was no limitation of the number of the blows, is not to be confounded with that of which we are speak- ing. According to the Porcian Law, such a scourging could not be inflicted on a person, who was a Roman citizen. Consult Cicero pro Rabirio, ad Famil. X. 32. in Verreni, V. 53. and Acts 16: 22, 25—30, 37. § 256. ON RETALIATION. 315 Note. Extinction of the sight, n'n5S, was not practised among the Hebrews, as a punishment. Nor was it in truth thus practised among other nations, except in cases, where the persons, whose eyes were put out, would otherwise have been in a condition to have engaged in plots against the existing government. It was from the fear of this, that the eyes of rebellious kings were put out, Jer. 52: 11. 2 Kings 25: 7. In Persia, so late as the seventeenth century, a silver style of that kind, which was used in painting the eyebrows, was heated red-hot, and thrust into the eye of the son of a king, for the purpose of destroying the sight, or at least destroy- ing it so far as to take away the power of distinctly discerning ob- jects. § 256. On Retaliation. If a man, in a personal conflict with another, smote him to such a degree, as to cause confinement to his bed, he was bound to make him indemnification, Exod. 21: 18, 19. When, in such a contest, injury was intentionally done to a particular member of the body, or life was taken away ; life was rendered for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe, hand for hand, foot for foot, Exod. 21: 23—25. Lev. 24: 19—22. A false witness, likewise, according to the law of retaliation (jus talionis,) was to be punished with the same punishment, which was decreed against the crime in reference to which he bad falsely testified, Deut. 19: 16—21. In the time of Christ, the jus talionis (Matt. 5: 38 — 40,) was confounded with moral principles, i. e. [it was taught that the law of .Moses, which was merely civil or penal, rendered it perfectly justifiable, in a moral point of view, for a person to inflict on another the same injury, whatever it might be, which he himself had re- ceived.] The persons who expounded the law to this effect, do not appear to have recollected [its true character, a.s a civil or penal law, which originated from the circumstances of the times,] and seem not to have remembered, that the literal retaliation could not take place, until after the decision of a judge on a suit, brought by the person injured, and then was never to exceed the original injury. Furthermore, it was by no means necessary, that this retal- iation should take place at all, since the aggrieved party might, 316 § 257. MOSAIC PUNISHMENTS. either before or after the decision of the judge, make an arrange- ment with the aggressor, and relieve him from the infliction of the punishment, to which he had legally exposed himself, on his render- ing that satisfaction, which in the Hebrew is technically called isis, and "ii'is a ransom. The law of retaliation was common among all ancient nations, and ^ras in truth the most efficacious means of protecting a person from injuries. But, in progress of time, when feelings and manners had tissumed a milder tone, causes, which originated from one person's receiving bodily injuries from another, were brought into the common civil courts, on the footing of other causes, and the punishment to be inflicted on the aggi'essor, or the satisfaction in any other way to be rendered to the injured party, was left entirely to the person, who sat as judge. The arguments, which have been employed against the expe- diency and propriety of the jus talionis, are of no great weight. For instance, it has been said, that this system of retaliation increased the number of injured and mutilated persons in the community ; when on the contrary it probably diminished it, as a person would naturally be cautious, how he inflicted wounds on the body of another, when he was fully aware of what might be the consequences to himself. Another objection is, that it would be very difficult, or altogether impossible, to requite upon the origi- nal aggressor just as much and no more, than had been suffered by the iiijured person. But the answer is, if, from any circum- stance, he should suffer more, all he has to do, is to attribute it to himself, and to consider it, as what he might very naturally have expected. § 257. Mosaic Punishments. Criminals, who had committed homicide, were punished, (as we may learn, as far back as Gen. 9: 6,) with death. But the mode in which this punishment was inflicted, is not there stated. Decapitation and the Sword. Decapitation or beheading was a method of taking away life, that was known and practised among the Egyptians, Gen. 40: 17 — 19. This mode of punishment, therefore, must have been known § 257. MOSAIC PUNISHMENTS. 317 to the Hebrewii And it may further be remarked, that if, in truth, there occur no indubitable instances of it in the time of the early Hebrew kings, it is clear that something, which bears much relationship to it, may be found in such passages as the following : viz. 2 Sam. 4: 8. 20: 21, 22. 2 Kings 10: 6 — 8. It appears, in the later periods of the Jewish history, that Herod and his descendants, in a number of instances, ordered decapitation, Matt. 14: 8 — 12. Acts 12: 2. It becomes us to observe, however, lest these remarks should carry an erroneous impression, that beheading was not sanc- tioned by the laws of Moses. The Mosaic punishment, the most cor- respondent to it, was that of the sword ; with which the criminal was slain in any way, which appeared most convenient or agreeable to the executioner. That this statement in respect to the liberty exercised by the executioner is correct, may indeed be inferred from the phrase, " Rush upon him" and '• He rushed upon him," ia SSQ , is J'SS'^i , Judg. 8: 21. 1 Sam. 22: 18. 2 Sam. 1: 15. 1 Kings 2: 25, 29, 31, 34. The probability is, however, that the executioner, generally, thrust the sword into the bowels of the criminal. Lapidation or Stoninff. In addition to the use of the sword, stoning was another mode of effecting the punishment of death, authorized by the laws of Mo- ses. Stoning was practised likewise among many other ancient nations. Moses (following, probably, some ancient custom,) enacted, that the witnesses should throw the first stone against the criminal, and, after the witnesses, the people, Deut. 13: 10. 17: 7. Josh. 7: 25. John 8: 7. The assertion of the Talmudists, (Sanhedrin, 6: 1 — 4,) that the criminal wa.s first thrown off from an elevated scaffolding, and then stoned, is mere fable. The punishment of stoning is to be understood, wherever the mode of putting to death is not expressly mentioned. This mode of punishment is meant, consequently, in Lev. 20: 10, where the discourse is concerning adulterers. Accord- ingly, this is the construction put upon that passage in Ezek. 16: 38, 40, and in John 8: 5. Compare likewise Exod. 31: 14, and 35: 2, with Num. 15: 35, 36. The opinion, therefore, of the Talmudists, who maintain, that strangulation is the punishment, meant, in the pas- sage referred to in Leviticus, is not to be admitted. 27* 318 § 258. EXCISION ; excommunications. § 258. Excision from the people ; Excommunications. When God is introduced, as saying in respect to any person, as follows, " I will cut Mm off, Ti'iin , from the people," the expression means some event in divine Providence, which shall eventually ter- minate the life of that person's family. Consult 1 Kings 14: 10. 21: 21. 2 Kings 9: 8. If the following expressions are used, " He shall he cut off ni33 , rrns"; , from the people," the punishment of stoning is meant. Lev. 17: 4. 20: 10—18. comp. Exod. 31: 14. 35: 2. Heb. 10: 28. The more recent Jewish interpreters have understood, by excis- ion from the people, excommunication ; and have accordingly made three species of it. I. Excommunication in the slightest degree, iw: , was separa- tion from the synagogue, and the suspension of intercourse with all Jews whatever, even with one's wife and domestics. A person, who had exposed himself to excommunication of this sort, was not allow- ed to approach another, nearer than a distance of four cubits. This separation was continued for thirty days ; and in case the ex- communicated person did not repent, the time might be doubled or tripled, even when the transgression, by means of which it was in- curred, was of small consequence, Buxtorfii Lex. Chald. Talm. Eabb. col. 1304 et seq. II. The second degree of excommunication is denominated ffin , the curse, and was more severe in its effects, than that just mentioned. It was pronounced with imprecations, in the presence of ten men, and so thoroughly excluded the guilty person from all communion whatever with his countrymen, that they were not al- lowed to sell him anything, even the necessaries of life, Buxtorfii Lex. Chald. Talm. Rabbin, col. 827. comp. John 16: 1, 2. 1 Cor. 5: 2—9. III. The third degree of excommunication, which was more se- vere in its consequences, than either of the preceding, was denomi- nated NnauJ . It was a solemn and absolute exclusion from all in- tercourse and communion with any other individuals of the nation: and the criminal was left in the hands, and to the justice of God, Buxtorfii Lex. Chald. Talm. Eabbin. col. 2463—2470. Whether the word itnaa, be the same with xns QKJ, the § 259. POSTHUMOUS INSULTS. 319 Name, (i. e. God) comes, and with Nrs '(ya our Lord comes, is a question, on which there is a difference of opinion. It is most probable, that, in the time of Christ, the second degree of excom- munication was not distinguished from the third, and that both were expressed by the phraseology, which is used in 1 Cor. 5: 5, and 1 Tim. 1: 20, viz. to deliver to Satan for the destruction of the flesh. § 259. Op Punishments, which consist op Posthumous Insults. It enters into the design of the Mosaic Laws to inflict punish- ments, but not punishments of such a nature, as shall have a ten- dency to communicate a perpetual infamy to the person who suffers them. This remark applies to the living. It was sometimes the case, that a lasting infamy, by means of posthumous insults, was heaped upon the dead. The posthumous insults, to which we refer, were as follows. I. The body of the criminal, who had been stoned, was burnt. Burning, as a mark of infamy, appears to have been an ancient custom, which was, consequently, not originated, although it was retained by Moses, Gen. 38: 24- Lev. 20: 14. 21: 9. Josh. 7: 15, 25. The Jewish Rabbins suppose, that the burning, which is men- tioned in the Scriptures, is the operation of pouring melted lead down the throat of the living criminal. Certainly such a supposition is a dream. II. Another mark of infamy was the suspension of the dead body on a tree or gallows. This was customary in Egypt, Gen. 40: 17—19. Num. 25: 4, 5. Deut. 21: 22, 23. The person suspended was considered as a curse, an abomination in the sight of God, and as receiving this token of infamy from his hand. The body, never- theless, was to be taken down, and buried on the same day. The hanging, mentioned in 2 Sam. 21: 6, was the work of the Gibeon- ites, and not of the Israelites. Posthumous suspension of this kind, for the purpose of conferring ignominy, is a very different thing from the CRUCIFIXION, that was practised by the Eomans, notwithstanding that the Jews gave such an extent to the law in Deut. 21: 22, 23, as to include the last named punishment, John 19^ 31 et seq. Galat. 3: 13. 320 § 260. PUNISHMENTS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. in. Heaps of stones were raised, either directly upon the dead body, or upon the place where it was buried, Josh. 7: 25, 26. 2 Sam. 18: 17. The pile of stones, that was gathered in this way, was in creased by the contributions of each passing traveller, who added one to the heap in testimony of his aversion to the crime. Examine in connection with this the two hundred and ninth Sec- tion. § 260. Punishments introduced from other Nations. There are other punishments mentioned in the Bible, in addi- tion to those, of which we have given some account ; but which were introduced among the Hebrews at a period later, than the days of Moses. I. Decapitation. [Something has been said in respect to this mode of punishment, in the two hundred and fifty-seventh section.] It was properly a foreign punishment, and was frequently practised among the Persians, Greeks, Romans, and other nations. n. StrangwkUion ; to which an allusion is made in 1 Kings 20: 31. The more recent Jews attributed the origin of this punishment to Moses, but without cause. They suppose strangulation is meant, when the phrase, " He shall die the deaih" is used. As that phrase, in their estimation, is meant to express the easiest death by which a person can die, they suppose the mode of death intended is no other than that of strangvkdion. A person will be surprised at their notions of an easy death, when he understands the method, in which it was effected, to have been as follows. The criminal, (as the punishment, according to their account, was inflicted) was thrust up to his middle in mud. A handkerchief was then tied round his neck, which was drawn by the two ends in opposite directions by two lictors ; and while the process of strangulation was going on in this way, melted lead was poured down his throat, Sanhedr. 10: 3. III. Burning. Persons were burnt alive in a furnace, which, as has been observed, resembled in its form a well, Dan. iii. comp. Chardin's Voyage, Vol. IV. p. 276. This mode of punishment was practised among the Chaldeans, Jer. 29: 22. IV. The Lion's Den. This mode of punishment is still customary in Fez and Morocco. See accounts of Fez and Morocco by Hoest, c 2. p. 77. Dan. vi. § 260. PUNISHMENTS OP FOREIGN ORIGIN. 321 V. Dichotomy or cutting asunder. This method of putting crimi- nals to death prevailed among the Chaldeans and Persians. When this punishment was inflicted, the left hand and right foot, or the right hand and left foot, or both feet and hands were cut off at the joints, Dan. 2: 5. Luke 12: 46. Matt. 24: 51. A mutilation, in this way, of persons, who had been punished with death, is mentioned in 2 Sam. 4: 12. VI. Beating to death, rvfiTzanai^oe. This was a punishment in use among the Greeks, and was designed for slaves. The criminal was suspended to a stake, and beaten with rods, till he died, 2 Mac. 6: 10, 19, 28, 30. Heb. 11: 35. VUL. Sawing asunder. The criminal was sometimes sawn asunder lengthwise. This was more especially the practice in Per- sia. Isaiah, according to the Talmudists, was put to death in this manner, by king Manasseh, Sanhedrin, p. 103. c. 2. comp. Justin's Dialogue with Trypho. David inflicted this mode of punishment upon the conquered inhabitants of Eabbath Ammon. Comp. 1 Chron. 20:3. Vm. The Romans, for the gratification of the people, com- pelled their criminals, and also their enemies taken captive in war, to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre. They likewise com- pelled them to contend with one another in the manner of gladiators, till their life was terminated in this way, 2 Tim. 4: 17. comp. 1 Cor. 15: 32. IX. The Persians, in some instances, enclosed a place with high walls, and filled it with ashes. A piece of timber was made to pro- ject over the ashes, and criminals of high rank were placed upon it. They were liberally supplied with meat and drink, till, being over- come with sleep, they fell over into the deceitful heap, and died an easy death. The Macedonians in Syria imitated this punishment, 2 Mac. 13: 4. X. It was the practice among the Greeks and Eomans to precipi- tate some of their criminals, especially the sacrilegious, into the sea or a river. The persons, who were thus put to death, were placed in a sack, and were thrown in with a stone about their neck. Comp. Matt. 18: 6. Mark 9: 42. XI. Orueifixion. This was a common mode of punishment among the Persians, Carthaginians, and Romans. The mode of crucifixion, adopted by the Maccabean princes, was that of the 322 § 261. cEuciFixioN among the homans. Romans. The Eomans, although it was done at the urgent and riotous solicitations of the Jews, were the executioners in the cru- dfixion of Jesus Christ. "We shall, therefore, speak more par- ticularly of this mode of punishment, as it existed among that people. § 261. Crucifixion as practised among the Komans. The cross was the punishment that was inflicted by the Eomans, on servants who had perpetrated crimes, on robbers, assassins, and rebels ; among which last, Jesus was reckoned, on the ground of his making himself king or MESSIAH, Luke 23: 1 — 5, 13 — 15. The words, in which the sentence was given, were as follows ; "7%0M shali go to the cross." The person, yho was subjected to this punishment, was deprived of all his clothes, excepting some- thing round the loins. In this state , of nudity, he was beaten, sometimes with rods, but more generally with whips. Such was the severity of this flagellation, that numbers died under it. Je- sus was crowned with thorns and made the subject of mockery, but nothing of this kind could be legally done, or in other words, insults of this kind were not among the ordinary attendants of cru- cifixion. They were owing, in this case, merely to the petulant spirit of .the Eoman soldiers. Matt. 27: 29. Mark 15: 17. John 19: 2,5. The criminal, having been beaten, was subjected to the further suffering of being obliged to carry the cross himself to the place of punishment, which was commonly a hill, near the public way, and out of the city. The place of crucifixion at Jerusalem was a hill to the north-west of the city. The cross,' aravQog, a post, otherwise called the unpropiiious or dnfamom tree, consisted of a piece of wood erected perpendicularly, and intersected by another at right angles near the top, so as to ■resemble the letter T. The crime, for which the person suffered, was inscribed on the transverse piece near the top of the perpendicu- lar one. There is no mention made in ancient writers of anything, on which the feet of the person crucified rested. Near the middle, however, of the perpendicular beam, there projected a piece, of TTood, on which he sat, and which answered as a support to the § 261. CRUCIFIXION AMONG THE ROMANS. 323 body, since the weight of the body might, otherwise, have torn away the hands from the nails driven through them. Here we see the ground of certain phrases, which occur, such as the following ; " To ride upon the cross," "to 'be borne upon the cross,'' "to rest upon the sharp cross," etc Compare Irenaeus against Heresies II. 42. Jus- tin's Dialogue with Trypho, and Tertullian against the Gentiles, Bk. n. also against Marcion, Bk. III. c. 18. The cross, which was erected at the place of punishment, being there firmly fixed in the ground, rarely exceeded ten feet in height. The victim, perfectly naked, was elevated to the small projection in the middle, the hands were then bound by a rope around the trans- verse beam, and nailed through the palm. We see in this statement the ground of such expressions, as the following : " To mount upon the cross," " to leap upon the cross," " to hing one upon the cross" etc. Compare Cicero against Verres, V. 66, and Josephus, Jewish War, vn. 6. 4 The position which is taken by some, viz. that the persons, who suffered crucifixion, were not in some instances fastened to the cross by nails through the hands and feet, but were merely bound to it by ropes, cannot be proved by the testimony of any ancient writer whatever. That the feet, as well as the hands, were fastened to the cross by means of nails, is expressly asserted in the- play of Plautus, entitled MosTELLARiA,.Act. II. sc. I. 12. comp. Tertullian against the Jews, c. I, and against Marcion, Bk. III. c. 19. In regard to the nailing of the feet, it may be furthermore observed, that Gregory Nazianzen has asserted, that one nail only was driven through both of them, but Cyprian, (de passione,) who had been a personal witness to crucifixions, and is, consequently, in this case, the better authority, states on the contrary, that two nails or spikes were driven, one through each foot. The crucified person remained suspended in this way, till he died and the corpse had become putrid. While he exhibited any signs of life, he was watched by a guard, but they left him, when it appeared that he was dead. The corpse was not buried, ex- cept by express permission, which was sometimes granted by the emperor on his birth-day, but only to a very few. An exception, however, to this general practice was made by the Eomans in favor of the Jews, on account of Deut. 21: 22, 23 ; and in Judea, accordingly, crucified persons were buried on the same day. 324 § 262. THE CRUELTIES OF CRUCIFIXION. "When, therefore, there was not a prospect, that they would die on the day of the crucifixion, the executioners hastened the extinc- tion of life, by kindling a fire under the cross, so as to suffocate them with the smoke, or by letting loose wild beasts upon them, or by breaking their bones upon the cross with a mallet, as upon an anvil, or by piercing them with a spear, in order that they might bury them on the same day. Note. The Jews, in the times of which we are speaking, viz. while they were under the jurisdiction of the Romans, were in the habit of giving the criminal, before the commencement of his suffer- ings, a medicated drink of wine and myrrh, Prov. 31: 16. The object of this was to produce intoxication, and thereby render the pains of the crucifixion less sensible to the suflPerer, Sanhedrin I. p. 250, This beverage was refused by the Saviour for the obvious reason, that he chose to die with the faculties of his mind undisturbed and unclouded, Matt. 27: 34. Mark 15: 23. It should be remarked, that this sort of drink, which was probably offered out of kindness, was different from the vinegar which was subsequently offered to the Saviour, by the Roman soldiers. [The latter was a mixture of vine- gar and water, denominated posca, and was a common drink for the soldiers in the Roman army,] Luke 23: 36. John 19: 29. § 262. The cruelties of Crucifixion. Crucifixion was not only the most ignominious, it was like- wise the most cruel mode of punishment. So very much so, that Cicero, (in Verrem, V. 64, et 66.) is justified in saying in respect to crucifixion, " Ah ocidis, aurihusque, et omni cogitatione hominum removendum esse.'' The sufferings endured by a person, on whom this punishment is inflicted, are narrated by George Gottlieb Richter, a German physician, in a Dissertation on the Saviour's Grucijiodon, at page 36 et seq. I. The position of the body is unnatural, the arms being extended back and almost immoveable. In case of the least motion an ex- tremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and feet, which are pierced with nails, and in the back, which is laceratsd with stripes. II. The nails, being driven through the parts of the hands and feet, which abounc' in nerves and tendons, create the most exquisite anguish. § 262. THE CRUELTIES OF CRUCIFIXION. 325 m. The exposure of so many wounds to the open air brings on an inflammation, which every moment increases the poignancy of the suffering. IV. In those parts of the body, which are distended or pressed, more blood flows through the arteries, than can be carried back in the veins. The consequence is, that a greater quantity of blood finds its way from the aorta into the head and stomach, than would be carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation. The blood vessels of the head become pressed and swollen, which of course causes pain, and a redness of the face. The circumstance of the blood being impelled in more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfavorable one also, because it is that part of the system, which not only admits of the blood being stationary, but is peculiarly exposed to mortification. The aorta, not being at liberty to empty, in the free and undisturbed way as formerly, the blood which it receives from the left ventricle of the heart is unable to re- ceive its usual quantity. The blood of the lungs, therefore, is una- ble to find a free circulation. This general obstruction extends its effects likewise to the right ventricle, and the consequence is an in- ternal excitement, and exertion, and anxiety, which are more intole- rable, than the anguish of death itself. AH the large vessels about the heart, and all the veins and arteries in that part of the system, on account of the accumulation and pressure of blood, are the source of inexpressible misery. V. The degree of anguish is gradual in its increase, and the person crucified is able to live under it, commonly till the third, and sometimes till the seventh day. Pilate, therefore, being sur- prised at the speedy termination of the Saviour's life, inquired in re- spect to the truth of it of the centurion himself, who commanded the soldiers, Mark 1 5: 44. In order to bring their life to a more speedy termination, so that they might be buried on the same day, the bones of the two thieves were broken with mallets, John 19: 31 — 37 ; and in order to ascertain this point in respect to Jesus, viz. whether he was really dead, or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon, a soldier thrust his lance into his side, (undoubtedly his kft side,) but no signs of life appeared, John 19: 13 — 37. If he had not been previously dead, a wound of this kind in his side would have put a period to his life, as has been shown both by the physician Eschenbach and by Gruner, the former m his Opiiscul. Medic, de 28 326 § 264. or the blood-avengek, and cities of eefuge. Servatore non appannter, sed vere mortuo, and the latter in his Dissert. Inaug. Medic, de Jesu Ghristi morte vera, non synoptica, 1800. The part pierced was the pericardium ; hence lymph and blood flowed out. § 263. The Public Executioners. When the sentence of death was pronounced by the king, it was executed by his body-guard. Compare § 236. Sometimes it was done by some other person, who considered the employment an hon- or, 2 Sam. 1: 15. 4: 12. The kings of Persia formerly, as is the case to this day, were unable to recall the sentence of death, when once passed, Dan. 6: 15 —26. Criminals were everywhere bound with their own girdle, and hur- ried away to punishment. Comp. Acts 21: 10 — 14. John 21: 18. Homicides were put to death by the hhod-avenge/r, bsia, i. e. by the nearest male relation of the' person slain, of whom we shall speak more particularly in the next section. "Where stoning was the punishment, the process was commenced by the witnesses them- selves, whose example was followed, and the punishment rendered complete by the people, Deut. 17: 7. The Roman magistrates had their lictors, but the soldiers in the time of the Cesars, executed the sentence of the cross. The dress of the crucified person was given to the soldiers, Matt. 27: 35. Mark 15: 24. Luke 23: 34. John 19: 23, 24. § 264. Of the Blood-avenger, and cities of Refuge. The execution of the punishment, which in Gen. 9: 6, was de- creed against homicide, deA'olved on the brother or other nearest relation of the person, whose life had been taken away. In case he did not slay the guilty person, he was considered infamous. Hence the application of the Hebrew word isia , goel, i. e. spotted or con- taminated, which he bore till the murder was revenged. A law of this kind, viz. which authorizes the blooa-avenger, may indeed be necessary, where there is no legally constituted tribunal of Justice ; but as soon as there is such an one, it ought to ccaie. To change a law, however, or practice of long standing, § 265. OF THE UNKNOWN MURDERER. 327 is a matter of no little difficulty. Moses, therefore, left it, as he found it, but he endeavored, nevertheless, to prevent its abuses. To this end, he appointed cities of refuge, dbpsn I'ns, three beyond, and three on this side of the Jordan. He took care also, that roads leading to them in straight lines should be laid out, in every direction, which were to be distinguished in some way from other streets. Any one, who had slain a person unexpectedly and without intention so to do, any person who had slain another in con- sequence of his unjustly attempting his life, or had slain a thief before the rising of the sun, fled by one of these roads to the cities, which have been mentioned. He was not to depart from the city into which he had fled, till the death of the High Priest ; after which the right of revenge might be legally exercised. All persons who had been the cause of death to another, might flee into one of those cities, which were the property of the priests and Levites, and which are named in Deut. 19: 1 — 13. 4: 41 — 43. Num. 35: 9—29. Josh. 20: 1—9. 21: 11—13, 21. 27: 32, 38 ; but they were all examined, and if found, according to the laws, guilty of homicide, were delivered up to the avenger of hlood. For the law of retaUation, (jus talionis,) was most strictly inflicted on those, who were known to have been guilty of intentional murder , even the altar itself in such a case afforded no refuge, and no commutation whatever was admissible, Exod. 21: 12. Num. 35: 9 — 35. Deut. 19: 1—13. 1 Kings 2: 28—34. The opinion that the place, where human blood has been shed, is watered neither with dew nor with rain, till the murderer has suf- fered punishment, appears to have prevailed at a very ancient period, 2 Sam. 1: 21. Ezek. 24: 7. 8. § 265. Of the unknown Murderer. [The original of this section is but little more than a literal state- ment in the author's words of the law, that is found in Deut. 21: 1 — 9. As far as the law, therefor^, is concerned, it will be as satisfactory, per- haps more so, to have it stated in the language of the common English version, which is as follows.] 1. " If one be found slain in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee to possess it, lying in the field, and it be not known who hath slain him ; 328 § 265. OP THE UNKNOWN MUEDJ3EEK. 2. Then thy elders and thy judges shall come forth, and they shall measure unto the cities which are round about him that is slain. 3. And it shall be, that the city which is next unto the slam man, even the elders of that city shall take an heifer which hath not been wrought with, and which hath not been drawn in the yoke; 4. And the elders of that city shall bring down the heifer unto a rough valley, which is neither eared nor sown, and shall strike off tlie heifer's neck there in the valley. 5. And the priests, the sons of Levi, shall come near ; (for them the Lord thy God hath chosen to minister unto him, and to bless in the name of the Lord :) and by their word shall every controversy and every stroke be tried. 6. And all the elders of that city, that are next unto the slain man, shall wash their hands over the heifer that is beheaded in the valley. 7. And they shall answer and say. Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it. 8. Be merciful, Lord, unto thy people Israel, whom thou hast redeemed, and lay not innocent blood unto thy people of Israel's charge. And the blood shall be forgiven them. 9. So shalt thou put away the guilt of innocent blood from among you^ when thou shalt do that which is right in the sight of the Lord." — Deut. 21: 1—9. The ceremonies, which have now been related, were not only a declaration of the innocence of the judges and elders, and of the hor- rid nature of the murder, but an implicit declaration likewise of the punishment which justly pertained to the person who had conmiit- ted it. 329 CHAPTER rV. ON MILITARY AFFAIRS. § 266. General view of Military Science. The dissensions of individuals gave occasion, in the progress of time, for the strife of families, for contests between tribes, and even- tually for the wars of nations. Those, who came off conquerors in the wars, which had thus been commenced, enriched themselves with plunder. This presented an excitement to those tribes and na- tions, which were conscious of their superiority in point of power, to engage in war ; and prepared the way for that ferocity and violence, to resist which the patriarchs after the flood found it necessary to arm their servants, and to be always in readiness to repel all attacks by force. The patriarchs, nevertheless, made it a point to act on princi- ples of equity ; they made treaties where they could, and where they could not, their resort was, (clearly a very natural one,) to extort re- spect, by striking a dread. Families had no sooner increased, in respect to numbers, into tribes, than it was no longer deemed necessary to put in requi- sition the aid of servants, and to arm them for war ; since it had become customary for every freeborn member of the commu- nity to accustom himself to arms, and to take the field against the enemy. Various implements of war are mentioned in the Pentateuch. At a subsequent period, the Hebrews, in their contests with the neighboring nations, were sometimes beaten, and sometimes vic- torious ; till at length, in the reign of David, they acquired such skill in the military art, together with such strength, as to give them a decided superiority over their competitors on the field of battle. David increased the standing army, which Saul had intro- duced. Solomon introduced cavalry into the military force of the 28* 330 § 267. GENERAL UILITAET ENBOLMENT. nation, also chariots. Botli cavalry and chariots were retained in the subsequent age ; an age, in which military arms were im- proved in their construction, the science of fortification made ad- vances, and large armies were mustered. From this period, till the time, when the Hebrews became subject to the Assyrians and Chaldeans, but little improvement was made in the arts of war. The Maccabees, after the return of the Hebrews from the captiv- ity, gave new life to the military art among them. But their descen- dants were under the necessity of submitting to the superior power of the Eomans. § 267. General Military Enrolment. In the second year after the Exodus from Egypt, there was a general enrolment of all, who were able to bear arms, sssa ■'SS'' is ; viz. of all, who were between the ages of twenty and fifty. There was an enrolment of the Levites, (whose duty it was to guard the tabernacle, which was understood to be the palace of God, as the political head of the community,) separately from the rest of the peo- ple, Num. 1: 1 — 54. There was a second enrolment, made in the fortieth year after the Exodus from Egypt, Num. 26: 2. The enrolment was made, as there can be no doubt, by the genealogists, under the direction of the princes. In case of war, those, who were to be called into actual service, were taken from those, who were thus enroled, in as much as the whole body were not expected to take the field, except on ex- traordinary occasions, Judg. xx. 1 Sam. 11: 7. comp. Exod. xvli. Num. xxxi. Josh. 7: 7. 11: 12. In respect to the enrolment, which was made in the reign of Da- vid, and which was displeasing to Joab himself, the design of it seems to have been to reduce the whole people to perpetual military servi- tude. It was accordingly done, not by the genealogists, Diiaiia , but by military prefects, ^"'tyn I'nir , and it is further worthy of remark, that instead of the usual word TiYQ , the word "iSO was employed in this instance, 2 Sam. xxiv. An universal enrolment of the people in this way was indeed at this time prevented, but it seems to have taken place under the subsequent kings ; otherwise, we are unable to account for the § 269. ON MILITARY DIVISIOHS. 331 large armies, which are mentioned in the Books of Kings, even when we lay out of the account the passages which labor under the suspi- cion of having been altered by copyists. § 268. Of the Lew for actual Service. Whenever there was an immediate prospect of war, a levy of this kind was made by the genealogists, Deut. 20: 5 — 9. In the time of the kings, there was a head or ruler of the persons that made the levy, denominated lEj'uL'rt , who kept an account of the number of the soldiers, but who is nevertheless to be distinguished from the gen- eralissimo, isain, 2 Chron. 26: 11. comp. 2 Sam. 8: 17. 20; 25. 1 Chron. 18: 16. After the levy was fully made out, the genealogists gave public notice, that the following persons might be excused from military ser- vice, Deut. 20: 5—8. (1) Those who had built a house, and had not yet inhabi- ted it. (2) Those who had planted a D'55, i. e. an olive or vine gar- den, and had not as yet tasted the fruit of it ; (an exemption, con- sequently, which extended through the first five years afl;er such planting.) (3) Those who had bargained for a spouse, but had not cele- brated the nuptials ; also those who had not as yet lived with their wife for a year. (4) The faint hearted, who would be likely to discourage others, and who, if they had gone into battle, where, in those early times, everything depended on personal prowess, woild only have fallen victims. A- § 269. Respecting the divisions etc. that were introduced into armies. The division of the army into three hands, as mentioned in Gen. 14: 14, 15. Job 1: 17. Judg. 7: 16, 20. 1 Sam. 11: 11. 2 Sam. 18: 2, was probably no other than the division into the centre and Uji, and right wings. The commanders of these divisions appear to have been called Difflinu, Exod. 14: 7. 15: 4. 2 Kings 7: 2, 17, 19. 9: 25. 15: 25. Ezek. 23: 13, 23. 332 § 269. ON MILITARY DIVISIONS. The Hebrews, when they departed from Egypt, marched in military order, dnkas 'bs by their armies or hosts, Exod. 12: 51 ; expressions, which, in Exodus 13: 18, are interchanged with the word t5''i2iBn, probably better pointed Diffian. We infer from these expressions, that they followed each other in ranks of fifty deep ; and that, at the head of each rank or file of fifty, was the captain of fifty; 1 Sam. 8: 12. 2 Kings 1: 9 — 14. comp. Joshua 1: 14. Judges 7: 11. The other divisions consisted of an hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand men, each one of which was headed by its appropriate commander. Num. 31: 48. Deut. 1: 15. Judges 20: 10. 1 Sam. 8: 12. 18: 13. 29: 2. 1 Mace. 3: 56. These divisions ranked in respect to each other, according to their fam- ilies, and were ^subject to the authority of the heads of those fami- lies, 2 Chron. 25: 5. 26: 12, 13. The centurions, and chiliakchs or captains of thousands, were admitted into the councils of war, 1 Chron. 13: 1 — 3. 1 Sam. 18: 13 ; and make their appearance, as it would seem, in Josh. 10: 24, and Judges 11: 6, 11, under the name of £131213 . The leader of the whole army was denominated K22!i bs "ito, the captain of the host. Another officer among those of principal standing was the one called iSiBfi [who is said in the original Ger- man edition to have had the care of the muster-roll, milflerro([etl' jnciflcr.J An officer different from both of these was the one called D'lb'nJBri-nN ISO , the numberer of the towers, who appears to have been a sort of engineer, Isa. 33: 18. 1 Chron. 18: 15, 16. 27: 33. 1 Kings 4: 4. 2 Chron. 17: 14. 26: 11. The army of David consisted of two hundred and eighty thou- sand men. Every twenty-four thousand of them had a separate commander. The divisions of twenty-four thousand performed mil- itary duty alternately, viz. a month at a time in succession. 1 Chron. 27: 1—15. The army in the reign of Jehoshaphat, was divided into five une- qual divisions, each of which had its separate commander, 2 Chron. 17: 14^17. The GENEALOGISTS, [in the English version ofp^ers,} according to a law in Deut. 20: 9, had the right of appointing the persons who were to act as officers in the army; and they undoubtedly made it a point in their selections, to choose those who are called heads of families. The practice of thus selecting military offi- § 269. ON MILITAET DIVISIONS. 333 cers ceased under the kings. Some of them were chosen by the king, and in other instances the office became permanent and heredi- tary in the heads of families. Both kings and generals had arnu v bearers, rrb'3 sbb . They were chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, and not only bore the arms of their masters, but were employed to give his commands to the sub- ordinate captains, and were present at his side in the hour of peril, 1 Sam. 14: 6. 17: 7. comp. Polybius X. 1. The infantry, the cavalry, and the chariots of war were so arranged, as to make separate divisions of an army, Exod. 14: 6, 7. The infantry were divided likewise into light-armed troops, tnT\ na , and into spearmen, Gen. 49: 19. 1 Sam. 30: 8, 15, 23. 2 Sam. 3: 22. 4: 2. 22: 30. Ps. 18: 30. 2 Kings 5: 2. Hos. 7: 1. The hght-armed infantry were furnished with a sling and javelin, with a bow, ar- rows, and quiver, and also, at least in latter times, with a buck- ler. They fought the enemy at a distance. The spearmen, on the contrary, who were armed with spears, swords, and shields, fought hand to hand, 1 Chron. 12: 24, 34. 2 Chron. 14: 8. 17: 17. The light-armed troops were commonly taken from the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, 2 Chron. 14: 8. 17: 17. comp. Gen. 49: 27. Ps. 78: 9. The Soman soldiers were divided into legions ; each legion was divided into ten cohorts, anHQai, each cohort into three hands, and each band into two centuries or hundreds. So that a legion con- sisted of thirty bands of six thousand men, and a cohort of six hun- dred, though the number was not always the same. In Palestine, in the days of Josephua, (Jewish War, III. 4. 2.) there were a number of cohorts, some of which consistea of a thou- sand foot, and others of only six hundred foot, and an hundred and twenty horse. Comp. Matt. 27: 27, 28. Mark 15: 16, and Acts 10: 1. 21: 31. 27: 1. In addition to the cavalry, there were certain light troops in the Palestine cohorts called St^ioldfioi, armed with a javelin and spear. Acts 23: 23. It is necessary to distinguish the Eoman soldiers, mentioned in the New Testament, not only from the soldiers of Herod Agrippa, (Acts 12: 4,) who kept guard after the Boman manner by quaternions, i. e. four at a time ; but also from the bands of Levites, that watched the temple, who had a priest of high standing for their captain, Luke 22: 4, 52. Acts 4: 1. 5: 24. It is no objection at all, as I conceive, to this statement, that the 334 § 271. OF SHIELDS. word anslga, (the Greek for a cohort,) is applied to the Levites here mentioned in John, 18: 3, 12 § 270. Military Reviews and Inspections. That the ceremonies of a military review or muster, consist- ed chiefly in the division of a body of soldiers into different corps according to the kinds of arms, with which they were furnished, and in a minute inspection of those corps, may be inferred from the verb *ipB, which is applied to such review or muster, but which, nevertheless, properly means to inspect or to examine narrow- ly. The arms, in which the soldiers presented themselves for inspec- tion, were either defensive, ni'^ia, 1 Sam. 17: 38, as the buckler, helmet, breastplate, and greaves ; or offensive, as the sword and spear, with which they fought the enemy hand to hand, and the sling, ar- rows, javelins, catapults, and ballistae, with which they fought them at a distance. Of these, we shall treat separately, and say something also of for- tifications, trenches, circumvallation, machines used in war, cavalry, and chariots. § 271. Op Shields. A shield, IJa, is first mentioned in Gen. 15: 1. The word frequently occurs afterwards, by a figure of speech, for defence or protection, 2 Sam. 22: 31, 36. Prov. 30: 5. Ps. 47: 9. 144: 2. There is another sort of shield, called nss; and a third called trvp. This last occurs for the first time in Ps. 91: 4, in connection with The difference of the shields nss and IJa consisted in this; T • '" T the latter was smaller in size than the former, which was so large as to cover the whole body, 1 Kings 10: 16, 17. comp. 2 Chron. 9: 16; hence ns:: is always joined with a spear, but ■Sa with sword and arrows, 1 Chron. 12: 8, 24, 34. 5: 18. 2 Chron. 14: 7. 26:14. The word n^nb, if we may form an opinion from its etymology, signifies a round shield, or buckler. [Gesenius has collated the corresponding Syriac word, and is of opinion, that the form of this shield cannot satisfactorily be inferred from the ety- § 271. OF SHIELDS. 335 mology of its name.J The form of a fourth sort of shield, called n^abiB and ''BVa is not well known ; but that these words are rightly rendered shields will be sufficiently clear by comparing 2 Kings 11: 10, with 2 Chron. 23: 9. 2 Sam. 8: 7. 1 Chron. 18: 7, 8. Shields were manufactured, sometimes of a light sort of wood, sometimes of osiers woven together, and covered with bull's hide, and sometimes of a bull's hide merely, twice or three times folded over. The hide was anointed to render it smooth and slippery, and to prevent its being injured by the wet, 2 Sam. 1: 21, 22. Isa. 21: 5. Shields made wholly of brass were very uncom- mon : it was sometimes the case, nevertheless, that they were cov- ered with thin plates of brass, and even of silver and gold, 1 Kings 10: 16, 17. 14: 25—28. 2 Chron. 13: 13—16. There was a boss in the centre of the shield ; and the margin, in order to prevent its being injured by the moisture when placed upon the earth, was sur- rounded by a thin plate of iron. The handle with which the shield was furnished, was made in various ways. In time of peace, shields were hung up in armories, 2 Chron.' 26: 14, and were sometimes suspended on the walls of towers, as an ornament, 1 Kings 10: 16, 17. Cant. 4: 4. Ezek. 27: 10, 11. Shields were borne by soldiers, when they went to war, and were confined to them by a thong, which went round the left arm, and the neck, 1 Chron. 5: 18. 12: 8, 24. 2 Chron. 9: 15. 14: 8. When about to attack an enemy, they held the shield by the handle in the left hand, and where there was a body of them together, they were able, by merely joining shield to shield, to oppose, as it were, a wall against the assaults of their foes. When about to scale the walls of a city, they placed them one against another over their heads, and in this way formed for themselves an impenetrable defence against missile weapons, 2 Chron. 25: 5. Job 41: 7. The phrases, " to seize the shield, etc." are used metaphorically to denote preparation for war, 2 Chron. 25: 5. Ezek. 38: 4, 5. Jer. 46: 9. 51: 11. To lose a shield in battle was ignominious ; to take one from the enemy, on the contrary, was attended with honor, 1 Kings 14: 26. 2 Sam. 1: 21. comp. Caryophilus de vetemm clypds. 336 § 273. COAT of mail. § 272. The Helmet, sa'lB, saip, neQixs^folaiw. The Helmet was a piece of armor, which covered the fore- head, and the top, and the 'hind part of the head, and was sur- mounted for ornament witli a horsetail and a plume. Anciently, the spearmen alone appear to have worn the helmet. To this remark, however, the Chaldeans should be made an exception, in as much as all the soldiers of that people seem to have been fur- nished with this piece of armor, Ezek. 23: 24. Jer. 46: 4. compare the large German Edition of this Work, P. H. Vol. H. Tab. XI. no. 5 and 7. It appears from 2 Chron. 26: 14, that king Uzziah had furnished an armory with helmets for the use of his soldiers. The materials from which the helmet was made, was an ox- hide ; but it was usually, especially in the more recent ages, cov- ered with brass. This piece of armor, in allusion to the purposes which it answered in war, is used tropically for defence and protec- tion, Eph. 6: 16. § 273. The Cuieass, Breastplate, or Coat op Mail. The breast-plate, fi;;'ii25, XT^'^.i 'i'''''1'^> '{^''^^i [sometimes ren- dered in the English version a coat of mail, and sometimes haber- geon,'] and which was known to the Grecians under the word QaiQai., consisted of two parts, the one of which covered the fare part of the body, the other the back ; both pieces being united at the sides by clasps or buttons. The breast plate or coat of mail, that was worn by Goliath, (1 Sam. 17: 5, 38,) was made of brass. And indeed it was not unfrequently the case, that other warriors likewise wore a breast-plate, made of that metal. This piece of armor was very common among the Hebrews after the reign of David, and we find, that it had a place among other implements of war and pieces of armor in the armory of king Uzziah, 2 Chron. 26: 14. As it was an efficient means of protection to the body, it occurs tropically for defence, Isa. 59: 17. Eph. 6: 14. 1 Thess. 5: 8. Rev. 9: 17. § 275. ON FORTIFICATIONS. 337 § 274. Greaves and Military Frock. Although there is no mention in the Bible of the piece of ar- mor, which was used for the defence of the right arm, (armiUa militaris,) it will be remembered that the riffht foot of Goliath was defended with 'greaves of brass, ntiaa, 1 Sam. 17: 6. In other in- stances, a sort of half greaves or boots, denominated ixb , Isa. 9: 4, was worn. The practice of defending the feet and legs in this way, however, does not seem to have been very common among the Hebrews. As the long robe, which was usually worn, was a hindrance to that celerity of movement, expected from men engaged in military life, the soldiers, accordingly, laid it aside, and wore in its stead a short frock. The girdle, "I'lTX , from which the sword was suspended, is fre- quently mentioned among the articles of military dress, Isa. 5: 27. Eph. 6: 14. § 275. On Fortifications. Military fortifications were at first nothing more than a trench or ditch, dug around a few cottages on a hill or mountain, together with the mound, which was formed by the sand dug out of it; except perhaps that there might have sometimes been elevated scaffolding for the purpose of throwing stones with the greater effect against the enemy. A city of this kind was built and fortified by Cain ; for to build a city and to fortify it, in the oriental idiom, are the same thing. In the age of Moses and Joshua, the walls, which surrounded cities, were elevated to no inconsiderable height, and were furnished with towers ; and yet, since the Hebrews, who were unacquainted with the art of besieging cities, took so many of them on both sides of the Jordan in so few years, the inference is, that the fortifications, which were at the first so terrible to them, (Num. 13: 28.) were of no great strength. The art of fortification was encouraged and patronized by the Hebrew kings, and Jerusalem was always well defended, espe- 29 338 § 275. ON FORTIFICATIONS. cially mount Zion, Tn later times the temple itself was used as a castle. The appropriate names for fortifications in Hebrew are as follows, viz. niiiss, nns Visa, ir^ia?:, and isst: I'ns. The words, nevertheless, which usually mean eifoe^, viz. w, is, &iis, in some instances mean fortifications. In the time of the Hebrew monarchy, armories, Q'^isfi tT'S , and guards of soldiers, made a part of the military establishment, 2 Chron. ]7: 2, 19. 26:,14, 15. 32: 5. 33: 14. The principal parts of a fortification were, as follows. I. The wall, nain . In some instances the wall, erected around cities, was triple and double, 2 Chron. 32: 5. Walls were commonly made lofty and broad, so as to be neither readily passed over, nor broken through, Jer. 51: 58. The main wall terminated at the top in a parapet for the accommodation of the soldiers, which opened at intervals in a sort of embrasures, so as to give them an opportunity of fighting with missile weapons. n. Towers, Di^^Sa, ni^'^isa, ^'3-'!«. Towers, which were erected at certain distances from each other on the top of walls, and ascended to a great height, terminated at the top in a flat roof, and were surrounded with a parapet, which exhibited openings similar to those, which have been just mentioned as making their appearance in the parapet of the walls. Towers of this kind were erected likewise over the gates of cities. In these towers guards were kept constantly stationed. At least this was the case in the time of the kings. It was their business to make known any thing, that they discovered at a distance, and when- ever they noticed an eruption from an enemy, they blew the trumpet, 2 Sam. 13: 34. 18: 26, 27. 2 Kings 9: 17—19. Nahum 2: 1. 2 Chron. 17: 2. Towers likewise, which were somewhat larger in size, were erected in different parts of the country, pai'- ticularly on places, which were elevated ; and were guarded by a military force, Judg. 8: 9, 17. 9: 46, 49, 51. Isa. 21: 6. Habak. 2: 1. Hos. 5: 8. Jer. 31: 6. The Hebrew word for structures of this kind, is ni"!3 ; and we find even to this day, that the circu- lar edifices of this sort, which are still erected in the solitudes of Arabia Felix, bear their ancient name of castles or towers. The watch towers of the shepherds, niliD, n^"':?, «i|Sb, are to be distinguished from those, which have now been mentioned, al- § 275. ON FORTIFICATIONS. 539 ' though it was not unfrequently the case, that they were converted into military towers, and eventually into fortified cities, 2 Chron. 26: 10. 27: 4. This accounts for the fact that cities, in many instances, occur under the words b^sa and iiBSB ; and also for the following pro- verbial expressions, which are sometimes found, viz. " From a watch- tower even to a fortified city." Prophets are frequently compared to the guards that were stationed in towers, Ezek. 3: 17. 27: 11. 33: 1 —9. Hos. 12: 13. in. Bastions. [We render the Hebrew word niss by the modern military term bastions, not because it conveys precisely its meaning, but because it appears to approach more nearly to it, than any other technical term. The statement following will give an idea of what is meant.] The walls were erected in such a way as to curve inward ; the extremities of them, consequently, projected out. The object of forming the walls, so as to present such pro- jections, was to enable the inhabitants of the besieged city to attack the assailants in flank. "We learn from the History of Tacitus, (V. 11.) that the walls of Jerusalem, at the time of its' being attacked by the Romans, were built in this way. The pro- jections above mentioned, are meant to be designated by the Hebrew word ni55. They were introduced by king Uzziah, 810 years before Christ, and are subsequently mentioned in the prophet Zepha- niah 1: 16. IV. The Fosse, h'^n , hn . The digging of a fosse put it in the power of the inhabitants of a city to increase the elevation of the walls, and of itself threw a serious difficulty in the way of an enemy's approach, 2 Sam. 20: 15. Isa. 26: 1. Neh. 3: 8. Ps. 48: 13. The fosse, if the situation of the place admitted it, was filled with water. This was the case at Babylon. V. The Gates, D^'^^'O , "ij;'?. They were at first made of wood, and were small in size. They were constructed in the manner of valve doors, C'^To'rt, and were secured by means of wooden bars. Subsequently they were made larger and stronger ; and in order to prevent their being burnt, were covered with plates of brass or iron ; niZJns inb^ . The bars were covered in the same manner, in order to prevent their being cut asunder ; but it was sometimes the case, that they were made wholly of iron, Isna ini"!a. The bars were secured by a sort of lock, Ps. 107: 16. Isa. 45: 2. 340 § 276. ARMS FOB FIGHTING HAND TO HAND. § 276. Akms, with which the Soldiers fought hand to hand. The arms, used in fighting hand to hand, were originally a cM and a hattle hammer ; but these weapons were but very rarely made use of by the Hebrews. Whether the expressions, bna Baia , mean an iron dub, Ps. 2: 9. 110: 2, and fiBa, Prov. 25: 18, means the battle-mallet or hammer, that was used in fighting, is a question, which has not yet been determined. Other sorts of weapons, used in close combat, were as follows: I. The Sword, a-in . Among the Hebrews it was fastened around the body by a girdle, 2 Sam. 20: 8. 1 Sam. 17: 39. Plence the phrase " to gird on^s self" with a sword means to commence war, and " to loose the sword," to finish it, 1 Kings 20: 11. The swords in use among the Hebrews appear to have been short; some of them, however, were longer than others, Judg. 3: 16, and some were made 'with two edges, ni*S, P1*B"'S. Ps. 149: 6. Isa. 41: 15. Judg. 3: 16. The sword was kept in a sheath ; which accounts for such expres- sions as 'ym p'^'in to draw the sword, Ps. 35: 3. It was polished to such a degree, as to render it exceedingly splendid, and in reference to this circumstance is used tropically for lightning. Gen. 3: 24. Ps. 7: 12. By a figure of speech, also a sword is attributed to God, which the strong imagination of the Hebrew poets represents, as if drunk with blood. This representation is carried still further, and every misfortune and calamity, and indeed wicked persons are represented as the sword of God, which he wields for the punishment of others, Ps. 17: 13. Jer. 12: 12. 47: 6. Furthermore, the word a'ln signi- fies, in some instances, war itself instead of the weapon, to which it is calculated to give employment ; the same as it does among the Ara- bians, Lev. 26: 6. Jer. 14; 12 — 16. Compare iiaxatQu, Matt. 10:34. II. The Spear, rra'i, Num. 25: 7. It was a wooden staff, sur- mounted with an iron point. Its length differed at different times and among different people. It was never shorter than eleven cu- bits, nor longer than twenty-four. § 278. THE BOW, ARROW, AND QUIVER. 841 § 277. Javelins. Javelins appear to have been of two kinds. In explanation of this remark, it may be observed, 1. That the javelin., which bears in Hebrew the name of nijii , is almost always mentioned in connection with the weapons of light- armed troops, Ps. 57: 4. 1 Sam. 13: 22. 18: 10. 21: 8. 22: 6. 2 Sam. 23: 18. In 1 Chron. 12: 34, it is indeed joined with res, the larger sort of hudder, but it is evident from 1 Sam. 18: 11. 19: 10. 20: 33, that this weapon, whatever might have been its shape, and although it may have sometimes been used as a spear, was, nevertheless, thrown, and is, accordingly, to be ranked in the class of missile weapons. That nijn was a weapon of this kind ac- counts for the fact, that the epithet SBa is joined t» it as follows, s&a mm. n. That the word '{Tin likewise means a javelin may be leamt from Job 39: 23, where it is joined with ni:n . Comp. Job 41: 29'. Josh. 8: 18, 26. 1 Sam. 17: 6. The difference between these two sorts of javelins cannot now be known any further than this, viz. that "(1113 , as may be inferred with some probability from Joshua 8: 18, 26, and 1 Sam. 17: 6, was the largest in size of the two. § 278. Of the Bow, Arrow, and Quiver. The bow, nin'ijj; , nc;; , and arrows, n'^an , yn , are weapons of a very ancient origin, Gk;n. 48: 22. 49: 24. comp. Gen. 9: 14, 15. Archers, riwjis "i^h , ndj? i^sa , were very numerous among the Hebrews, especially in the tribes of Benjamin and Ephraim, Ps. 78: 9. 1 Chron. 8: 40. 2 Chron. 14: 8. 17: 17. Weapons of this description belonged properly to the Ught-armed troops, who are represented, as having been furnished with the sword, the buck- ler, and the bow, 2 Chron. 17: 17. The Persian archers, who in other passages, are mentioned with applause, are spoken of likewise with commendation in profane history, Isa. 13: 18. Jer. 49: 35. 50: 9, 14, 29, 42. The bows were generally made of wood ; in a very few instances, they were made of brass. Psalms 18: 34. Job 20: 24. Those 29* 342 § 279. THE SLING. of wood, however, were so strong, that the soldiers soinetiines challenged one another to bend their bow. In bending the bow, one end of it was pressed upon the ground by the foot, the other end was pressed down by the left hand and the weight of the body, and the string was adjusted by the right. This accounts for the use of the word 'r\yj , (which literally means to tread upon,) in reference to the bending of the bow, 1 Chron. 5: 18. 8; 40. 2 Chron. 14: 8. Isa. 5: 28. 21: 15. Jer. 46: 9. A bow, which was too slack, and which, in consequence of it, injured the person, who aimed it, was denominated a deceitful bow fijol rep., Ps. 78:57. Hos. 7: 16. The bow, in order to prevent its being injured, was carried in a case, made for that purpose. The strings for bows were made of thongs of leather, of horse hair, and of the sinews of oxen, Diad rV. 116, 124. The soldiers carried the bow on the left arm or shoulder. Areows, disn , were at first made of a reed ; subsequently they were made from a light sort of wood, and were surmounted with an iron point. Whether they were sometimes dipt in poison or not, cannot, at any rate, be determined with much certainty from Job 6: 4, and Deut. 32: 24. They were more commonly, by means of the shrub called the hroom, Dn'i , discharged from the bow, while on fire, Ps. 120: 4. Job 30: 4. It is in reference to this fact, that arrows are sometimes used tropically for lightnings, Deut. 32: 23, 42. Ps. 7: 13. Zech. 9: 14. QuiYEKS, "hy^, were pyramidal in point of form. They were suspended upon the back ; so that the soldier, by extending his righJ hand over his shoulders, could draw out the arrows, the small part of the quiver being downward. § 279. Of the Sling, sip . The Sling, as there is ample reason for believing, may be justly reckoned among the most ancient instruments of warfare. Job 41: 28. The persons, who used slings, tr^s^i, sbp, were en- rolled among the light-armed troops. Those slingers were ac- counted worthy of special credit, who like the Benjamites, were capable in slinging of using equally the right hand or the left. Judges 20: 6. 1 Chronicles 12: 2. There was need of almost coe- § 281. BATTERING KAMS. 343 slant practice, in order to secure to one, any tolerable degree of suc- cess, in hitting the mark, 1 Sam. 17: 49. Slingers were of great ad- vantage in an army, Diodorus Sic Lib. XV. 85. § 280. Op Engines used in "War. Engines op war, naCTa, niMBn. Engines for warlike opera- tions, which were the " inventions of cunning men," were erected by king Uzziah upon the towers and the angles of the walls. They were, consequently, quite ancient in their origin. Of these engines, there were two kinds, viz. catapults and ballistae. The catapttlts were immense bows, which were bent by means of a machine, and which threw with great force large arrows, javelins, and even beams of wood. The hallistae, on the other hand, may be de- nominated large slings, which were discharged likewise by machines, and threw stones and balls of lead. § 281. Battering Rams, di'iB, iVaj5 ina. Battering rams are first mentioned by Ezekiel, as being an in- strument of war, in use among the Chaldeans, Ezek. 4: 1, 2. 21: 22. 26: 9. But as they were certainly not invented by them, they were of a still earlier date. They were long and stout beams, commonly of oak, the ends of which were brass, shaped like the head of a ram. They were at first carried on the arms of the soldiers, and impelled against the wall. But subsequently, they were suspended by means of chains in equilibrium, and in that way, by the aid of the soldiers, were driven against it. While this operation was going on, for the purpose of breaking through the wall, the soldiers, who were imme- diately, interested in it, were protected from the missiles of the enemy by a roof erected over them, which was covered with raw skins. 344 § 283. CHARIOTS of wae. § 282. Respecting the Catalet. "We have spoken of the cavalry elsewhere, but we have a few remarks more to make here. The Maccabean princes saw, that cavalry were not profitable in mountainous places, and bestowed their chief attention upon the infantry, by means of which they achieved their victories. The Caramanians used asses in war, which gained some notoriety by terrifying the horses in the army of Cyrus, and putting them to flight, Isa. 21: 7. comp. Xenophon's Cy- ropaedia, VII. 1. 22. Elephants are first mentioned, as being used in war, in the his- tory of Alexander's expeditions, but afterwards they were so frequent- ly and efficiently employed, as to give them much celebrity. Ma- chines, constructed like a tower, were placed upon the backs of these animals, from which sometimes no less than thirty-two soldiers fought. The foot soldiers were stationed round, and defended the elephant. The one, who guided him, was called the Indian, as at this day, 1 Mace. 6: 37. The elephants themselves also fought, at the same time, against the enemy. To excite them to use their proboscis the more efficiently, the soldiers gave them an intoxicating drink of "wine and Myrrh, 1 Mace. 6: 34. § 283. Op Chariots op "War, as'n nns-ia. The annoyance, which the Hebrews most dreaded, when they met an enemy in war, was that of chariots. Mention is made of chariots, as far back as anything is said of cavalry, Exod. 14: 6. 14: 23 — 28; but they could not be used, except on the plain country, Deut. 20: 1. Josh. 17: 16—18. Judg. 1: 19. 2: 7. 4: 3, 7. After the time of Solo- mon, the Hebrews always kept such chariots, and placed great re- liance upon them, 2 Chron. 1: 14. 1 Kings 10: 26. 22: 32, 85. 2 Kings 2: 12. Chariots, owing to their efficiency as instruments of war, are used tropicaUy for protection and defence of the highest kind, 2 Kings 2: 12. 13: 14. Chariots of war, like all others in the ancient times, of which we are speaking, were supported on two wheels only, and were generally drawn by two horses, though sometimes by three or four abreast. The combatant stood upright, upon the chanoU § 285. GYMNASTIC SPOETS. 345 Xenophon mentions chariots, invented by Cyrus, from each one of which, twenty men could fight. They resembled towers, Cy- ropaed. IV. 1. 16, 17. The end of the pole of the chariot, and the end of the axles were armed with iron scythes, which were driven with vast force among the enemy, and made great slaugh- ter. § 284. Spobts and Exercises preparatory to War. In the earliest periods of the history of our race, every soldier was indebted to himself, to his own exertions, as a separate and indepen- dent individual, for whatever skill he might possess in the manage- ment of weapons of war. For the acquisition of skill, nevertheless, even in those early days, in the use of weapons, the hunting of wild beasts, which was then practised, afforded a favorable opportunity. But as hunting itself implied some previous skill in the use of arms, it was necessary, that there should be some preparatory practice. Consult Gen. 14: 14. 32: 6. Job 16: 12, 14. Judg. 20: 16. 1 Chron. 12: 1. 2 Sam. 2: 19. 1 Sam. 17: 50. That such a preparatory exercise obtained among the Hebrews is evident from a vast number of passages. It is no other, than this exercise, which is expressed by the phrase rtoriVia "rah to learn war. Those who had been trained up in this way to the exercise of arms, were denominated fianba ■''irab instructed in war, 1 Sam. 20: 20, 35 —40. 2 Sam. 1: 22. '22: 35. Isa. 2: 4. Mic. 4: 3. § 285. Gymnastic Sports. The gymnastic sports were not properly military exercises, but since they had a tendency to prepare youth for skill in arms and war, and were of a military nature in their commencement, we shall treat of them in this place. The sports and exercises of the gymnasia had their origin among the Greeks, but were afterwards introduced among other nations. In the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, they became favorites with many of the Jews, 1 Mace. 1: 14, 15. 2 Mace. 4: 12—14, and were finally introduced into Judea by Herod. The Gymnasia, yviivaaia, were large edifices, exhibiting in their construction an oblong square, and surrounded externally 346 § 285. GYMNASTIC SPOKTS. with a portico. The eastern part of one of these piles of buildings was separated by a wall from the rest, and occupied more than half of the area, allotted for the erection of the whole. A ranee of porticoes extended around three sides of the interior of this part of the Gymnasium ; but the fourth side was lined with a flight of chambers, some for bathing, some for anointing the body, and some to serve as wardrobes. The middle of these chambers was de- nominated icptj^slov, EPHEBiuM, [the place where the epheU or youth exercised,] by which name the whole edifice was sometimes called. The AREA under the open air or the open court, including the porticos just mentioned, (one range of which, viz. that on the north side, was double,) was denominated the palaestea, nalmaTfja, in which were witnessed games and exercises, dancing and wrestling, throwing the quoit, and the combat with the caestus. The whole edi- fice was sometimes called the palaestra. The western part of the Gymnasium was an oblong, and was sur- rounded by a portico, in which the athletae exercised in unpleasant weather. The porticos for this purpose are called l^vaio), Xysti, from which the other parts of the building denominated ^vara, Xts- TA, differed in these particulars, viz. they were surrounded with rows of trees, were not covered with a roof at the top, and were used, as places for promenading. At the end of the western part of the Gymnasium, was the sta- dium. It was a large semicircle, an hundred and twenty-five geo- metrical paces long, and was furnished with seats, which ran around it in a circuitous manner, and ascended gradually one above another for the accommodation of the spectators. The games, which were more particularly witnessed in the stadium, were races on foot, on horseback, and with chariots. The athletae, after the fourth century before Christ, went wholly naked, as they found the clothes, which they wore, were an impediment to celerity of motion. There was this exception merely, that those, who threw the quoit, or rode the chariot, wore a sort of very light garment, 1 Mace. 1: 16. Heb. 12: 1. The caestus, to which an allusion is made in 1 Cor. 9: 26, was a leather strap, bound by the athletae around the right hand and fingers. This strap was wide enough to receive a piece of iron or lead, which was rolled upon it, and was discharged, nv-j- § 285. GYMNASTIC SPORTS. 347 HSieiv, with all the strength of the combatant against his adversary. It became the one against whom it was discharged, to be on the look- out, and to avoid, if possible, the intended blow. The chaeiot-race, which was run in the stadium, and from which Paul (in 1 Cor. 9: 24—27. 2 Tim. 4: 7, 8, and Phil. 3: 11— 14) borrows certain illustrations, was as follows. Four chariots started at the same time for the goal, which was at the further extremity of the stadium. The one who reached it first was the conqueror. Other competitors presented themselves, and the course was run again by four at a time, as in the first instance. The one who suc- cessively gained the victory over all that presented themselves, won the crown ; which was woven of branches of various trees, and, though of small value in itself, was esteemed in the highest degree honorable. A crown of this kind, ^qu^siov, was given not only to those who came off victors in the chariot-race, but to thoje also who succeeded in contests, whatever they might be, of a different kind, 1 Cor. 9: 54. Phil. 3: 14. Col. 3: 15. 2 Tim. 4: 8. Wherever the victor went, he received a branch of palm. Rev. 7: 9 ; he was robed in a splendid dress, and escorted with the highest honors to his city and his home. The exercises in which the athletae engaged, were by no means trivial, or such as could be easily gone through. It was necessary, in order to secure to themselves an adequate degree of strength, that they should take a considerable quantity of nour- ishment ; but their principal meal was in the evening. Their dinner was small, and they were not at liberty to eat of vari- ous kinds of food, according to their own choice. In addition to some coarse bread, they were allowed ten dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and herbs. Indeed it appears, that, in progress of time, they were furnished with meat of the most nourishing sort, which was roasted and eaten with coarse, unleavened bread ; but they abstained altogether from wine, and were not permitted to have the slightest intercourse with the other sex, not even to look upon them. Certain regulations in regard to the mode of conducting the contest, were entered into by them ; and he who violated them, though he was in fact the victor, could not receive the crown. Accordingly, as was indeed very necessary, there were judges of 348 § 285. GYMNASTIC SPOETS. the games, who saw that those regulations which were made in respect to them were observed, and determined who came off con- queror, 2 Tim. 2: 5. 4: 8. As the games, in which the athletab exerted their skill and physical ability, were extremely popular among the Greeks and Komans, it is not at all surprising, that they were objects of ha- tred in the sight of the greater part of the Jews. It was the fact, nevertheless, that there existed among the Jews themselves a sort of game, (different, it is true, from those of the Gymnasium,) which was practised in Palestine so late as the time of Jerome, and of which a vestige may still be discovered in the Arabic word Sjul>\ . This game consisted in lifting a stone ; the one who could lifl it higher than all the rest, was the victor, Zech. 12: 3. Note. The theatre, which was introduced by Plerod and his sons into Palestine, was an edifice constructed in such a manner as to describe the larger half of a circle. The games were exhibited in that part of it, where a line would have passed to enclose precisely a semicircle. Ampld-theatres may be described by saying that they were two theatres united ; they were, of course, oblong in point of form, and the games were exhibited in the centre of them. The seats, which extended around the interior of both theatre and amphi- theatre, ascending gradually, one above another. These edifices were left open at the top, except in the later periods of the Exj- man empire, when there was some change in the style of their architecture. In case of great heat or of rain, the opening above was enclosed by means of a piece of cloth of a close texture, ex- tended over it. In theatres of this kind, comedies and tragedies were acted; assemblies of the people were held, and ambassadors were re- ceived. Acts 12: 20. 19: 29. Among the Komans, sports also of various kinds were exhibited. They were mostly gymnastic exer- cises ; but some of them, in truth, were of a very bloody chai'ac- ter. Since criminals, who had been condemned by the laws of the country, and enemies who had been captured in war, were com'- palled to fight till they lost their life, either with wild beasts, or, Cin order to gratify the spectators with the mimic representa- § 286. OV ENCAMPMENTS. 349 tion of a battle,) with one another. Compare 1 Cor. 4: 9, and Heb. 10: 33. § 286. Of Encampments. The art of laying out an encampment, D''3no , nijria , nana , appears to have been well understood in Egypt, long before the departure of the Hebrews from that country. It was there, that Moses became acquainted with that mode of encamping, which, in the second chap- ter of Numbers, is prescribed to the Hebrews. In the encampment of the Israelites, to which we have alluded, it appears, that the holy tabernacle occupied the centre. In reference to this circumstance, it may be remarked, that it is the common prac- tice in the East for the prince or leader of a tribe to have his tent pitched in the centre of the others, and it ought not to be forgotten, that God, whose tent or palace was the holy tabernacle, was the prince, the leader of the Hebrews. The tents, nearest to the tabernacle, were tliose of the Levites, whose business it was to watch it, in the manner of a pretorian guard. The family of Gershom pitched to the West, that of Kohath to the South, that of Merari to the North. The priests occupied a position to the East, opposite to the entrance of the tabernacle. Num. 1: 53. 3: 21 — 38. At some distance to the East, were the tribes of Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun ; on the South were those of Eeuben, Simeon, and Gad; to the West were Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin ; to the North, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. The people were thus divided into four divisions, three tribes to a division ; each of which divisions had its sepa- rate standard, hm . Each of the large family associations likewise of which the different tribes were composed, had a separate stan- dard, termed, in contradistinction from the other, rox; and every Hebrew was obliged to number himself with his particular division, and follow his appropriate standard. The Israelites probably in forming their encampment at this time, imitated the method of the Nomades, and formed it in such a way, as to exhibit a cir- cular appearance. There does not appear to be any proof, that this mode of encampment was especially followed, at any subsequent pe- riod. We learn from 2 Sam. 16: 5 et seq. that there were no senti- nels stationed during the night in the encampment of Saul ; which 30 350 § 287. ON MILITARY MAKCHES. was done, as we learn, in other instances, in case there was any dan- ger, the sentinels relieving each other at stated intervals, Judg. 7: 19. 1 Sam. 14: 16. 26: 14 — 17. In respect to this point, we may infer, moreover, from the fact of sentinels being kept perpetually upon the walls of the city in subsequent periods of the monarchy, that they certainly were not wanting in the camps. Fires also were kept burning before encampments during the night. Fires of this kind were not the same thing, as some undertake to say, with the pillar of fire, which went before the Israelites in Arabia Pe- trea. See Num. 9: 15—23. Moses gives the following regulations in respect to the encampment in the wilderness. Num. 5: 1 — 4. Deut. 23: 10 — 15. I. That every unclean person shall live out of it. II. [The second regulation, to which reference is here made, stands in the English version, as follows.] "Thou shall have a paddle upon thy weapon; and it shall be, when thou wilt ease thyself abroad, thou shalt dig therewith and turn back, and cover that, which cometh from thee. For the Lord, thy God, walketh in the midst of thy camp to deliver thee and to give up thine ene- mies before thee," etc. A practice of this kind is observed to this day among the Ottomans. See the third Epistle of Busbeque, p. 250. § 287. On Military Marches. The same order was observed by the Hebrews, in the wilderness, when on their march, which was practised by them, when forming their encampment. As soon as the cloud ascended over the taber- nacle, the priests sounded with the silver trumpets, niisisr; , Num. 9: 15 — 23, a warning which is expressed in Hebrew by the phrases nsiiiFi ?i-iri and MSiiitn lypn . Immediately Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun on the East set for- ward. At the second sound of the trumpets, Reuben, Simeon, and Gad on the South followed. The march was next commenced by the Levites, who bore the parts of the tabernacle, and the ark of the covenant. They were followed, at the third sound of the trum- pets, by Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin from the West, and, at the fourth, by Dan, Asher, and Naphtali from the North, who § 288. ON MILITARY STANDARDS. 351- brought up the rear, a» . Each one followed the standard of his par- ticular corps and family. When the cloud descended again, the encampment was formed in the order mentioned in the preceding section, Num. 2: 1, 3, 10, 17, 18, 25, 31. 10: 5—8, 23—28. That the Hebrews could not, at a subsequent period, after they had settled in Palestine, observe the same order in their military expeditions, which was observed by them, while marching in the wilderness, is a matter so evident, that it hard- ly needs to be mentioned. § 288. On Military Standards. Of military standards, there were, I. The Standard, denominated ia'n degel; one of which pertain- ed to each of the four general divisions. The four standards of this name were large, and ornamented with colors in white, purple, crimson, and dark blue. The Jewish Eabbins assert, (founding their statement on Gen. 49: 3, 9, 17, 22, which in this case is very doubtful authority,) that the first of these standards, viz. that of Judah, bore a lion ; the second, or that of Reuben, bore a man ; that of Ephraim, which was the third, displayed the figure of a hM; while that of Dan, which was the fourth, exhibited the representation of cherubim. They wrought into the standards with embroidered work. n. The Standard, called nix oth. The ensign of this name belonged to the separate classes of families. Perhaps it was, ori- ginally, merely a pole or spear, to the end of which a bunch of leaves was fastened, or something of the kind. Subsequently, it may have been a shield, suspended on the elevated point of such pole or spear, as was sometimes done among the Greeks and Eo- mans. III. TTie Standard, called DJ nes. This standard was not, like the others, borne from place to place. It appears from Num. 21: 8, 9, that it was a long pole, fixed into the earth. A flag was fastened to its top, which was agitated by the wind, and seen at a great distance, Jer. 4: 6, 21. 51: 2, 12, 27. Ezek. 27: 7. In order to render it visible, as far as possible, it was erected on lofty moun- tains, and was in this way used as a signal, to assemble soldiers. It no sooner made its appearance on such an elevated position, 352 § 289. KESPECTING "WAR. than the war-cry was uttered, and the trumpets were blown, Isa. 5: 26. 13: 2. 18: 3. 30: 17. 49: 22. 62: 10—13. Note. — It has been already remarked, that the priests blew alarms and warnings with silver tnmvpets. It may further be obser- ved, that, in very many instances, such notices were given by means of horns, which were used in war likewise by many other nations. Josh. 6: 4, 5. Judg. 3: 27. 6: 34. 7: 18. 1 Sam. 13: 3. 2 Sam. 2: 28. 18: 16. 20: 1, 22. Isa. 18: 3. Jer. 4: 5, 15, 21. 6: -1, 17. 42: 14. 51: 27. Hos. 5: 8. 8: 1. § 289. Respecting Wak. Previously to commencing war, the heathen nations consulted ora- cles, soothsayers, necromancers, and also the lot, which was ascer- tained by shooting arrows of different colors, 1 Sam. 28: 1 — 10. Isa. 41: 21—24. Ezek. 25: 11. The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind were interdicted,, were in the habit, in the early part of their history, of inquiring of God by means of Urim and Thummim, Judg. 1: 1. 20: 27, 28. 1 Sam. 23: 2. 28: 6. 30: 8. After the time of David, the kings who reigned in Palestine, consulted according to the different characters, which they sustained, and the feelings, which they exercised, sometimes true prophets, and sometimes fake, in respect to the issue of war, 1 Kings 22: 6 — 13. 2 Kings 19: 2 et seq., 20 et seq. Sacrifices were also offered, in re- ference to which the soldiers were said " to consecrate themselves to the war," Isa. 13: 3. Jer. 6: 4. 51: 27. Joel 3: 9. Obad. 1. There are instances of formal declarations of war, and, sometimes of pre- vious negotiations, 2 Kings 14: 8. 2 Chron. 25: 17. Judg. 11: 12—28; but ceremonies of this kind were by no means always observed, 2 Sam. 10: 1 — 12. When the enemy made a sudden incursion, or when the war was unexpectedly commenced, the alarm was given to the people by messengers rapidly sent forth, by the sound of warlike trumpets, by standards floating on the loftiest places, by the clamor of many voices on the mountains, that echoed from summit to summit, Judg. 3: 27. 6: 34. 7: 22. 19: 29, 30. 1 Sam. 11: 7, 8. Isa. 5: 26. 13: 2. 18: 3. 30: 17. 49: 2. 62: 10. Mil- itary expeditions commonly commenced in the spring, 2 Sam. 11: 1, and were continued in the summer, but in the winter, the soldiers § 290. PREPARATIONS FOR BATTLE. 353 went into quarters. There is no mention made in Scripture of a war being settled by a combat between two individuals. In the case ot David and Goliath, it is true there was a challenge and a combat, but there was no previous agreement between the two armies, which pre- vented the further effusion of blood. War is considered by the Orientals, as a judgment sent from heaven. It is God, who grants victory to those who are in the right, but sends defeat upon those, who are in the wrong, 2 Chron. 20: 12. Isa. 66: 15, 16. This idea, viz. that God fights for the good against the wicked, very frequently discovers itself in the Old Tes- tament, and accounts for the fact, that, not only in the Hebrew, but also in the Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldaic, words, which origi- nally signify justice, innocence, or uprightness, signify likewise vic- tory ; and that words, whose usual meaning is injustice or wicked- ness, also mean defeat or overthrow. The same may be said in respect to words, which signify help or aid, [for instance nsiilji. ,] in as much as the nation, which conquered, received aid from God and God was its helper, Ps. 7: 9. 9: 9. 26: 1. 35: 24. 43: 1. 75: 3. 76: 13. 78: 9. 82: 8. 1 Sam. 14: 45. 2 Kmgs 5: 1. Isa. 59: 17. Habak. 3: 8. Ps. 20: 6. 44: 5. § 290. Preparations for Battle. Before battle the various kinds of arms were put in the best order : the shields were anointed, and the soldiers refreshed them- selves by taking food, lest they should become weary and faint under the pressure of their labors, Jer. 46: 3, 4. Isa. 21: 5. The soldiers, more especially the generals and kings, except when they wished to remain unknown, (1 Kings 22: 30 — 34,) were clothed in splendid habiliments, which are denominated, (Ps. 110: 3,) iIJ'^'p '''n'ln the sacred dress. The Hebrew words for an army in battle ar- ray are pd? , Ti^S-q , n=^5>a , ns'isia . The phrase, which is used to express the action of thus setting an army in array is tT'lSfJ Mania; it occurs in Genesis 14: 8, and very frequently after- wards, but we are left in some uncertainty in respect to its pre- cise import. There is evidence, however, for stating as far as this, viz. that the army was probably divided into the general divisions of centre, and left, and right wing, in as much, as there is frequent mention made of DiiBibia , i. e. leaders of a third part, Gen. 30*"' 354 § 291. CONCERNING THE BATTLE. 14: 14, 15. Judg. 7. 16—19. Exod. 14: 7. 15: 4. 2 Kings 7: 12. 17: 19. 10: 25. That the army was so arranged, as to form a phalanx of some sort, there can hardly be room for a doubt. Bodies of men drawn up in military order, in some instances, especially if danger pressed hard upon them, performed very long marches. This was the case with the Hebrews, when they departed from Egypt, Exodus 13: 18. comp. Josh. 1: 14. 4: 12. Judg. 7: 11. While the approach- ing army was at a distance, there was nothing discernible but a cloud of dust ; as they came nearer the glittering of their arras could be discovered, and at length the manner, in which they were drawn up, might be distinctly seen, Ezek. 26: 10. Isa. 14: 31. Xenophonin Expedit. Cyri I. 8, 5. It was the duty of the priests, before the commencement of the battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit that courage, which was required by the exigency of the occasion. [The words, which they used, were as follows :• " Hear, Israel ; ye approach this day unto battle against your enemies ; let not your hearts faint ; fear not, and do not tremble ; neither be ye terrified because of them. For the Lord, your God, is he, that goeth with you, to fight for yon, against your enemies, to save yoM,"] Deut. 20: 2 et seq. In more recent times, exhortations to the soldiers of this kind were given by generals, and kings, 2 Chron. 13: 4. 20: 20. In some cases, sacrifices were offered, either by some prophet, or by some other person, while he was present, 1 Sam. 13: 8 — 13. The last ceremony, previous to an engagement, was the sounding, »'''irt , of the sacred trumpets by the priests, Num. 10: 9, 10. 2 Chron. 13: 12—14. 1 Mace. 3: 54. § 291. Concerning the Battle. The Greeks, while they were yet three or four furlongs dis- tant from the enemy, commenced the song of war, something resembling which, occurs in 2 Chron. 20: 21. They then raised a shout, dlald^F.iv, which was also done among the Hebrews, nna, snri, nanba nsnin 1 Sam. 17: 52. Josh. 6: 6. Isa. 5: 29, 30. 17: 12. Jer. 4: 19. 25: 30. The war-shout in Judges 7: 20, was as follows ; « The sword of the Lord, and of Gideon," 'jS'^ih^ mhib a^n. At other times perhaps, at least in some instances, it was a mere yell or inarticulate cry. The mere march § 291. CONCEENING THE BATTLE. 355 of armies with their weapons, chariots, and trampling coursers, occa- sioned a great and confused noise, which is compared by the prophets to the roaring of the ocean, and the dashing of the mountain torrents, Isa. 17: 12, 13. 28: 2. The descriptions of battles in the Bible are very brief; but although there is nothing especially said in respect to the order in which the battle commenced and was conducted, there is hardly a doubt that the light-armed troops, as was the case in other nations, were the first in the engagement. The main body followed them ; and, with their spears extended, made a rapid and impetuous movement upon the enemy. Hence swiftness of foot in a soldier is mentioned, as a ground of great commendation, not only in Homer, but in the Bible. 2 Sam. 2: 19 — 24. 1 Chron. 12: 8. Ps. 18: 33. It was often the case in battle, that soldier contended personally with soldier. As, in contests of such a nature, the victory depended on personal strength and prowess, the animosity of the combatants became very much excited, and the slaughter, in proportion to the whole number, was immense. A common stratagem of war among the Hebrews was that of dividing the army and placing one part of it in ambush. Gen. 14: 14—16. Josh. 8: 12. Judg. 20: 39. Notwith- standing it was the sentiment of the early times of which we are speaking, that deception and art of any kind whatever, however unjust, might be lawfully employed against an enemy, there is, nevertheless, no instance of such deception recorded in the Bible, except the one in Gen. 34: 25 — 31, and which is there far from being approved of. If, in reference to this statement, we should be referred to the con- duct of Jael, (Judg. 4: 17 — 22) we should feel at liberty to say, that her daring deed could hardly be considered a stratagem, and at the worst was only pursuing a wrong course amid the collision of opposite duties. The Hebrews, when about to attack an enemy, deemed it a good reason for rejoicing if they saw a storm arising, from the hope which they indulged in, that God was coming in the clouds to their assistance, 1 Sam. 7: 10. Judg. 5: 20, 21. Josh. 10: 12—15. Habak. 3:11. The attack which is made by the Orientals in battle, always has been, and is to this day, characterized for vehemence and impetuosity. In case the enemy sustain an unaltered front, they retreat ; but it is not long before they return again, with renewed 356 § 293. CIRCUMVALLATION. ardor. It was the practice of the Roman armies, to stand still in the order of battle, and to receive the shock of their opposers. To this practice there are allusions in the foUov/ing passages, viz. 1 Cor. 16: 13. Gal. 5: 1. Eph. 6: 14. Phil. 1: 27. 1 Thess. 3: 8. 2 Thess. 2:15. § 292. On Sieges. In case an enemy threatened to attack a city, guards of vigilant and sedulous watchmen were stationed in towers, and on the tops of mountains, who made known, by signs or by messengers, whatever they had observed. At Jerusalem, in an extremity of this kind, the fountains beyond the walls of the city were filled up, Isa. 22: 9 — 11. Cities were sometimes taken by sudden and violent onsets, sometimes by stratagem, sometimes by treason, and at others were reduced less expeditiously, by means of famine. When there were no machines to assist in the siege and to break down the walls, it was much protracted, and, under such circumstances, was never undertaken, except as a last resort. When a city was threatened, it was in the first place invited to surrender, niifflb 'rrh^A N'j)3 , Deut. 20: 10. Isa. 36: 1 — 20. 37: 8 — 20. If the besieged had concluded to capitulate, the principal men of the city went out to the enemy's camp, in order to efiect the object. Hence " to go forth," or " come out," in cer- tain connections, mean the same as to surrender by capitulation, 1 Sam. 11: 3, 10, 11. 2 Kings 18: 31. 24: 12. Jer. 21: 9. 38: 17, 18. 1 Mace. 6: 49. In the most ancient ages, the enemy surrounded the city with a band of men, sometimes only one, at most only two or three deep, and efiected their object by assault; hence the very common phrases, " to encamp against a city," or " to pitch against " and "to straiten it," Josh. 10: 5. Judg. 9: 50. 1 Sam. 11: 1. 2 Kings 25: 1. Isa. 29: 3. § 293. CiRCUMVALLATION, nsQiTsqoe, P2'^ . Circuravallation was known in the time of Moses, also the mound called rh\b, Deut. 20: 19, 20, although it is not mentioned again afterwards till 2 Sam. 20: 15. The besiegers, when the siege promised to be of long con- § 294. THE besieger's mound. 357 tinuance, dug a ditch between themselves and the city, for their own security, and another parallel to it outside, so as to enclose their camp on both sides, and to prevent being attacked in rear, as well as in front. The earth thrown out of the ditch, formed a wall, on which towers were erected. The inhabitants of the city shut up in this way perished by degrees, by famine, pestilence, and missile weapons, 2 Kings 25: 1. Jer. 52: 4. Ezek. 4: 2. 17: 17. 2 Kings 6: 28—31. Ezek. 4: 10—15. 5: 10—15. Jer. 32: 24. 34: 17. § 294. The Besieger's Mound, nbib. The besiegers, in order to succeed against the walls of the city, when they were elevated and strong, cast up a mound of earth and strengthened it on both sides with beams of timber. It ran in an oblique direction from the lines of circumvallation towards the less strongly fortified parts of the city, and sometimes equal- led in altitude the city wall itself. The erection of this mound or wall is expressed by the Hebrew phrase, liJ'ti bs nibb T(Biii, literally to cast up a hank against the city, 2 Sam. 20: 15. 2 Kings 19: 32. Jer. 6: 6. 32: 24. 33: 4. Ezek. 4: 2. 17: 17—23. 26: 8. The inhabitants of the city fought against the mound with missile weapons ; the besiegers, on the contrary, posting themselves upon it, threw their weapons into the city. In the meanwhile the batter- ing rams were erected and made to move forward, in order to break down the city wall, in which case, the besiegers frequently erected another wall inside of the first, in doing which they tore down the contiguous houses, and employed their timbers in its erection, Isa. 22: 10. Sometimes the besieged, when they had captivated any of the more distinguished of the assailants, scourged them or slew them on the walls, or sacrificed them, that they might intimidate their enemies, and influence them to depart, 2 Kings 3: 27. When the wall was broken through ns"ia ne , Ezek. 21: 27, and the besiegers had entered, the remainder of it, at least in a great degree, was thrown down, as was the case, when the city capitulated, 2 Kings 14: 13. 2 Chron. 25: 23, 24. The expressions, .to draw a city with ropet into a vaUey or river, (2 Sam. 17: 13,) is a proverbial boast. 358 § 295. ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF VICTOKT. § 295. On the consequences of Victoet. Anciently, although humanity was considered praisewortliy, the power of the conquerors owned no hmitation ; ilocks and cat- tle, the fruits of the earth, fields, gardens, and houses, together with the idol gods of the conquered, fell into their possession. They sold the wives and children also, of those, whom they had subdued, for slaves, and razed their cities to the ground, 2 Sam. 5: 21. 2 Chron. 25: 14. Hos. 10: 5, 6. Jer. 46: 25. 48: 7. The principal men among the conquered, the soldiers, and the artificers, who were employed in the construction of arms, and the erection of fortifications, were sent away into distant provinces. The conquerors, however, were not always destitute of humanity. In many instances they permitted the conquered kings to retain their authority, only requiring of them the promise of good faith, and the payment of tribute. In case the kings, who were thus used, rebelled, they were treated with the greatest severity, Gen. 14: 4. 2 Kings 23: 34. 24: 1, 14. Isa. 24: 2. Jer. 20: 5, 6. The soldiers, who were taken, were deprived of all their property and sold naked into servitude. When the city was taken by assault, all the men were slain ; the women and children were carried away prisoners, and sold at a very low price, Mic. 1: 11. Isa. 47: 3. 20: 3, 4, 2 ChroB. 28: 9—15. Ps. 44: 12. We might, therefore, well expect the great lamentation and wailing, which were customary among those, who were conquer- ed. Those, who were able to, made their escape, Isa. 16: 1 — 6. Jer. 41: 6. 43: 6. Those, who could not escape, threw away their gold and silver, that they might be the more safe from the cruel- ty of the soldiers, Ezek. 7: 19. The fugitives sought for safety in the tops of mountains, in caves, and amid rocks; hence God on account of the protection he affords is called a rock ^Xi. , Judg. 20: 47, 48. Jer. 4: 29. 16: 10. 22: 20. Ezek. 7: 7, 17, Isa. 26: 4. The prophets sometimes represent (he culamity of subjection by a foreign power, as a great drunkenness, which is an evil every where, but peculiarl}' to in the East. Further, as the fortune o.' destiny of man is sonxtiuK's called a cup, so this, (one of the mc't afflictive events, lliat could fall to the lot of man,) was denominattii § 295. ON THE CONSEQUENCES OP VICTORY. 359 the cup of reeling or staggering, tibs'tn tsis, Jer. 25: 15—31. Nah. 3: 11. Zech. 12: 2. Ps. 75: 8. If tlie conqueror came in the capacity of a revenger of former injuries, he frequently cut down trees, obstructed the fountains, filled th« cultivated fields with stones, and reduced the ground to a state of barrenness for many years. This mode of procedure was forbidden to the Hebrews by the law in Deut. 20: 19, 20 ; but the prohibition was not always regarded, as appears from 1 Chron. 20: 1. 2 Kings 3: 18 — 25. The captivated kings and nobles were bound, their eyes were put out, and their bodies mutilated, they were thrown upon the ground, and trodden under feet, till they died, Judg. 1: 6, 7. 2 Kings, 25: 7. Josh. 10: 24. The captives were sometimes thrown down upon thorns, sawn asunder, or beaten to pieces with threshing instruments, 2 Sam. 12; 31. 1 Chron. 20: 3. Judg. 8: 7. Frequently old men, women, and children, were slaughtered, and thrown into heaps, 2 Kings 8: 12. Hos. 10: 14. Isa. 13: 17, 18. Even "the women with child were ripped up," Isa. 13: 16 — 18. 2 Kings 8: 12. Amos 1: 13. In defence of these cruelties, the aven- gers were unable to plead the precepts or the example of Moses, since the excision of the Canaanites, of which we shall hereafter speak, was a case of peculiar kind, as was also the tnn or irrevo- cable curse, by which, in certain cases, every living thing in the conquered country was devoted to death, and property of all kinds was consigned to the flames, or preserved merely for the sanctu- ary ; by which it was required, also, that the city should be level- led with the ground, that the site should be sowed with salt, and a curse pronounced upon every one, who should afterwards re- build it, Lev. 27: 21, 28, 29. Num. 18: 14. Deut. 13: 17. The object of this curse, or vow, was to make an example of certain idolatrous nations, and thereby to deter others from involving themselves in the same guilt, and revolting in hke manner against God. In some cases the conquered nations were merely made tributaries, 2 Sam. 8: 6. 2 Kings 14: 4. To be a tributary, however^ was con- sidered a great ignominy, and was a source of reproach to the idol deities of the countries who were thus subjected, 2 Sam. 8: 6. 2 Kinga 19: 8—13. Isa. 7: 20. Ps. 9: 20. The conquerors were intoxicated with joy ; the shout of vio 360 § 296. ON THE SEVERITIES OF ANCIENT 'WAEF^EE. tory resounded on their tops from mountain to mountain, Isa. 42: 11, 52: 7, 8. Jer. 50: 2. Ezek. 7: 7. Nah. 1: 15. The whole of the people, not excepting the women, went out to meet the returning conquerors with singing and with dancing, Judg. 11: 34 — 37. 1 Sam. 18: 6, 7. Triumphal songs were uttered for the living, and elegies for the dead, 2 Sam. 1: 17, 18. 2 Chron. 35: 25. Judg. 5: 1 — 31. Exod. 15: 1 — 21. Monuments in honor of the victory were erected, 2 Sam. 8: 13. Ps. 60: 1, and the arms of the enemy were hung up, as trophies, in the temples, 1 Sam. 31: 10. 2 Kings 11: 10. The soldiers, who conducted meritoriously, were honored with presents, and had the opportunity of entering into honorable matrimonial connections, Josh. xiv. 1 Sam. 17: 25. 18: 17. 2 Sam. 18: 11. David instituted a separate corps or order of military men, viz. those who were most renowned for their warlike deeds, 2 Sam. 23: 8—39. 1 Chron. 11: 10—50. Many nations were in the habit of leaving the bodies of their enemies, as a prey to the wild beasts and birds, (1 Sam. 17: 44. Jer. 25: 33,) and the feast, which was given to these destroyers, is repre- sented, as having been prepared by God himself, the judge of nations^ Frequently the; lifeless bodies of men, who had been distinguished, were given up to their relations, 2 Sam. 2: 32. 21: 14. Ezek. 39: 11 ■ — 14; sometimes they were made the subjects of insults, 1 Sam. 31: 8. The Hebrews, whether citizens at home or soldiers in war, when- ever they came in contact with a dead body, were rendered unclean, and were obliged by the Mosaic law to purify themselves, Num. 31: 19—24. § 296. On the Sevekities op ancient Warfake. Anciently war was characterized by deeds of ferocity and cru- elty. The Hebrews, therefore, have a claim on our forgiveness, if, in some instances, they resorted to those cruel measures, which were universally prevalent in their day, in order to strike terror upon other nations, to deter them from committing injuries upon themselves, and to secure their own tranquillity. There are some things, however, in their history, which cannot be approved, 2 Kings 15: 16. 2 Chron. 25: 12. Judg. 8: 4^21. 20: 1—30. Still, as hinted above, their severity in all instances cannot be condemned, § 297. JUSTICE OF THE WAR AGAINST THE CANAANITES. 361 for it is permitted, by the natural law of nations, to a people, to inflict as many, and as great evils, upon an enemy, as shall be ne- cessary to deter others from committing the like offence. The prevalent state of feeling among nations, whether it tend to kindness or to cruelty, will determine, how much is necessary to secure such an object. Nations anciently could not exhibit that humanity and forbearance in war, which are common among modern European na- tions, without running the risk of exposing themselves to every sort of injury. Num. 31: 14, 15. 2 Sam. 12: 31. comp. 2 Sam. 10: 1—5. 11: 1. Amos 1: 13. 2 Sam. 8: 2. comp. 2 Kings 3: 27. Amos 2: 1. For the most part, however, the Hebrews- were comparatively mild and humane, 2 Sam. 8: 2. 1 Kings 20: 30—43. 2 Kings 6: 21—23. 2 Chron. 28: 8. § 297. Justice op the War against the Canaanites. The cause of the expulsion of the Canaanites is stated in Gen. 15: 16, to have been the corruption of morals, which prevailed among them. God took it upon himself, in his providence, to punish this corruption, and, in the estimation of many persons, employed the Hebrews, as the instruments of his justice, and gave to them (jus belli,) the right of carrying on the war in question. But whUe this is conceded, viz. that God designed to punish the moral delinquencies of the Canaanites and gave to the Hebrews JUS belli, it is still inquired, why God did not send the Hebrews against some other nations not less corrupt, as well as against the Canaanites, and why he chose to select the Hebrews in prefer- ence to any other people. Something further, therefore, remains to be said. Those, who maintain, that the Hebrews attacked the Canaan- ites with no other right or justice, than is common to other emi- grating nations, who, in pursuit of new habitations, have expel- led the people from the land, where their ancestors had anciently dwelt, say in effect, that they had no right or justice on their side at all. What they state in further defence of their opinions, viz. that the sentiment prevailed during the early period in question, that the nation, which, with the divine favor, and approbation, conquered another, did it justly, proves nothing, because the very chapter, (Judg. 11: 24,) to which they appeal, actually announces, 31 362 § 297. JUSTICE op the war against the canaanites. on the part of the Israelites, a right of possession, in respect to the land of Canaan, altogether different, Judg. 11: 12—28. So that, though it be true, that they were in the habit of identifying success with justice, and of saying, that the nation, which conquered, was favored of God and in the right, it is evident, in this case, they had other and more legitimate grounds for the war. Further, if the Hebrews had attacked the Canaanites with the same right that other emigrating nations have attacked those, who came in their way, i. e. with no right at all, they would not have spared the Edomites, Moabites and Ammonites, nor have asked of the Amorites a peaceable passage over the Jordan, Num. 20: 14 — 22. 21: 4, 10—31. 22: 1—35. 31: 3—54. Deut. 2: 4—12, 16—37. The truth is, that Abraham with his servants and his flocks had originally occupied the pastures of Canaan, and had virtually de- clared by the wells, which he dug, and the altars he erected, his right to the land, and his determination to hold it, Gen. 12: 5, 6, 8, 9. 21: 25—30. comp. 13: 4, 14, 18. 15: 7, 13—21. 17: 8. This patriarch left the soil, to be occupied after his death, not to Ishmael, but to Isaac ; who in turn transmitted it to Jacob, to the exclusion of Esau. The Canaanites, it is true, were at that time in the land, (Gen. 12: 6,) but they were few in number, and occupied only a small part of it. The Patriarchs, therefore, had come into a fair and undeniable pos- session of this territory, and furthermore had occupied it, in their own persons, for two hundred and fifteen years ; and Jacob and his sons, when they emigrated into Egypt, were so far from abdicating the country, or giving up their right to it, that they evidently went away, with a determination to return, Gen. 48: 4, 21, 22. 49: 1 — 26. comp. 1 Chron. 7: 21, 24. During the abode of the Hebrews in Egypt, the Canaanites, who had increased in numbers, occupied the whole of the territory, and the Hebrews who were thus excluded from their own soil, soon had, evidence, that there w^ not the least prospect of their recovering it, except by an appeal to arms. It belonged to the Ca- naanites to make the first advances toward an amicable adjustment, but, as they declined it, they owed the consequences of the war, disas- trous as they were, to the course which they themselves had pursued, Josh. 11: 19. 9: 3—26. § 297. RIGHT OF THE ISKAELITKS TO PALESTINE. 363 Note. General View of the Argument tJiat Palestine had, from lime immemorial, been the property of Hebrew Hm-dsmm; and tliat the Israelites had a right to claim it again from the Ganaanites, on the ground that they were unlawful possessors, [As the propi-iety of Dr. Jalin's conclusions in the above section depends essentially on the proof which can be exhibited, that the Hebrews in fact originally possessed Palestine, and had not done anything by way of relinquishing such possession, but on the con- trary had, in various ways, asserted the continuance of their claim to said territory, it will be proper to give in this place a general view of the argument, which is gone into, to show that such was the case. The opinions of our author coincide in the main on this subject, with those of the ingenious writer of Commentaries mi the Laws of Moses ; and it will probably answer all the purpose for those by whom this teanslation will be read, if the statement of that writer, which forms the 31st Article of his "Work, should be here inserted.] [" From time immemorial, Palestine had been a land occupied by wandering Hebrew herdsmen, in which even Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, had exercised the right of proprietorship, traversing it with herds, without being in subjection to any one, or acknowledg- ing the Ganaanites as their masters. The Phenicians or Ganaan- ites, were certainly not the original possessors of this land, but had at first dwelt on the Red Sea, as Herodotus relates ; with whom Justin and Abulfeda in so far coincide, as that the former says, that they had another country before they came to dwell on the Lake of Gennesareth, or Dead Sea ; and the latter, that they first dwelt in Arabia. Moses is so far from contradicting Herodotus here, as has been commonly believed, that he rather expressly confirms his account, by twice saying in the history of Abraham, The Ganaanites were then in the land, Gen. 12: 6, and 13: 7. The word then, cannot imply that the contrary was the case in his own time ; for then the Ganaanites still dwelt in Palestine, and their expulsion only began under hie successor, Joshua ; so that he gives us clearly to understand, that there had formerly been a time when they dwelt not in that land, but somewhere else. But another relation which he gives in Gen. 36: 20 — 30, compared with Deut. 2: 12, 22, is still more decisive. He there describes an ancient people that, before the time of Edom, had dwelt in Seir, or as we 364 § 297. EIGHT OF THE ISRAELITES now call it, Idumea, and whom, from their living in subterraneous caverns, he denominates Horites, or Troglodites. Of this nation, was that one of Esau's wives mentioned Gen. 36: 2, 24; and as Moses elsewhere relates that Esau had three wives, two of Canaan- itish descent, and the third a grand-daughter of Abraham, (Gen. 26: 34, 35, and 28: 8, 9,) it evidently follows, that the Horites who of old inhabited Idumea, must have been Canaanites. Consequently, the Canaanites originally dwelt in the region afterwards called Idumea, and on the Red Sea ; but when they began to carry on the commerce of the world, for which they became so renowned in his- tory, they migrated into Palestine, the situation of which was pecu- liarly advantageous for that purpose. It would appear, that at first they only established trading-marts and factories, which could not but be very acceptable to the wandering hordes, because they gave them an opportunity of converting their superfluous produce into money, and of purchasing foreign commodities. By degrees they spread themselves further into the country, improved the lands, planted vineyards, and at last dispossessed the ancient inhabitants ; just exactly as their descendants did at Carthage, who first asked for a hide-breadth of ground whereon to sit, and then by an artful explanation, got' a bargain of as much room as was sufficient to build' a city on, and in the end made themselves masters of the whole country. As early as Abraham's time, complaints were made of the herds not having sufficient room, from the Canaan- ites being then in the land, and crowding it. But this always went on further and further; and when the Israelites had for a time gone down to Egpyt, the Canaanites at last appropriated to themselves the whole country. This land of their forefathers, and their nation, the Israelites had never given up to the Canaan- ites ; and therefore they had a right to reclaim it, and to re-conquer it, by force. If they solicited from other nations a passage into Palestine, it was merely to come at their own property again; and when i\xey passed the Jordan, and found the Canaanites in arms against them, the latter had no longer a legitimate cause to maintain, for they wanted to keep possession of the property of another people by force. " It cannot even be here objected, that the Israelites, by their descent into Egypt, had abandoned their right, or that they lost it by prescription. They went down to Egypt only for a time, on TO PALESTINE. 365 account of a famine ; and it was with the hope and determination of returning again, as the divine promise given to Jacob, Genesis 46: 4, confirms. I do not here inquire into, or draw any conclusion from the divinity of the promise : it is sufficient for me that, whether true or false, Jacob gave out, that he had in a vision such a promise made him ; because it proves the certainty of his hav- ing it in view, and making no secret of it, that his posterity should one day go back to Palestine. Whether prescription holds among nations, the single case excepted, where possession goes back to times of which history gives no certain account, and where of course, in default of other deductions, prescription does inter- fere ; and again, how long a period may be requisite to prescrip- tion in the law of nature and nations, (longer, no doubt, than in civil law) I will not here stop to inquire ; for prescription cantiot operate at all where a people avow and maintain their rights with sufficient publicity ; and this was done by the Israelites. Jacob went down into Egypt with a conviction that his descendants should, under the divine guidance, return to Palestine ; nor would he allow himself to be buried any where else than in his own hereditary sepulchre in Palestine, exacting from his son Joseph an oath for that purpose, (Genesis 47: 29 — 31). And his burial was conducted with such solemnity, (Gen. 50: 7 — 13,) that the people in Palestine could not possibly entertain 'a doubt of the intention of the Israelites to return thither at some future period. But were the matter considered still as somewhat doubtful, because Moses • does not expressly mention this as the reason of Jacob's desire to be carried thither ; on the occasion of the death of Joseph, it is placed in the clearest light. For he testifies to his brethren, his certain hope that God would re-conduct their posterity into Palestine; and therefore he desired not to be buried in Egypt, but begged that his body might, after the ancient Egyptian man- ner, remain uninterred, while they continued there, and be car- ried with the people at their general return into the promised land, and laid in the sepulchre of his fathers. Such was his anx- iety on these points, that he made his brethren swear that they would carefully attend to them ; and accordingly we find, that when he died, they did not bury him, but, as was not unusual among the Egyptians, let him remain embalmed in his coffin, until their descendants, at their departure for Palestine, carried his remains 31* 366 § 297. BIGHT OP THE ISRAELITES along with them, Gen. 50: 24—36. Exod. 13: 19. Could a people have given a stronger proof of their animus revertendi, and that they had not forever abandoned their ancient country? Was it necessary (I think not) that they should have sent a notary every thirty-three years, to protest against the forfeiture of their rights? Even the Egyptians well knew the expectations of the Israelites on this head ; and that was the principal reason of their oppres- sions towards a people that were not to remain forever within their country, and in subjection to them. For although from the first they did not intend to let them go, yet they were afraid, from the rapid increase of their numbers, that if a war took place, they might side with the enemy, and not perhaps conquer tlie country, but depart from it ; * or, as the proper expression is, go up: for we must recollect, that to go from Egypt to Palestine, was, in the idiom of the Hebrews, to ascend; and, wee versa, from Palestine to Egypt, was to descend. From the representation we have now given of the origin of the war, it will be easy to per- ceive (what to a reader of the Mosaic history must otherwise appear at first very strange) why Moses did not attack the Canaati- ites beyond Jordan ; but from Og, king of Bashari, and Sihon, king of the Amorites, requested nothing more than an unmolested passage, and only had recourse to arms when, instead of granting it, they marched hastily into the wilderness to meet him, and ofiered him battle. The reason was manifestly this, that the Israelites laid no claim to the country beyond Jordan, but only to the pasture- grounds that from time immemorial had belonged to the Hebrew herdsmen, and which their ancestors, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, had actually occupied with their cattle. " ' But might they not at least have left to the Canaanites those trading-cities whloh had been built, without opposition from their ancestors ? ' This question is easily answered. If a foreign peo- ple, whom we permit to estabUsh factories and trading-cities in our land, shall so abuse our generosity, as to dispossess us, and gradually appropriate to themselves our whole country ; and when we wish to return to our ancient abode, shall meet us with arms in their hands, in order to prevent it ; and shall, finally, have be- come so extremely wicked as to render it impossible for us to live with them, without having our morals corrupted — we cer- tainly are under no obligation to leave to them these factories and * See Exodus 1: 9, 10. TO PALESTINE. 367 trading cities, and thereby expose ourselves anew to the risk of such corruption. " ' But were not the Israelites in duty bound first to send the her- alds, and formally demand their lands again from the Canaanites ?' This question I must leave completely unanswered, partly because it belongs to the yet controverted point whether certain solemnities are or are not necessary at the commencement of a war, by way of de- clai-ation, and particularly, because we do not know whether Moses and Joshua did so or not. " By way of conclusion, I must still take notice of two objections, which Mr. Oepke has made to my opinion, and on which I have not yet touched. But because they are of more weight than those before noticed, I ought, perhaps, rather to ascribe them to Professor Stie- britz himself. " In the first place, he is of opinion, ' that the Israelites ought not to have re-appropriated a land possessed by, wandering herdsmen, unless all the posterity of such herdsmen had transfer- red their rights to them.' But let it be remembered, that the question here is not concerning wandering herdsmen quite uncon- nected with each other, but only concerning those of Hebrew origin, and of these more particularly, the ancestors of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob : and I do not see wherefore such a transfer could have been necessary, since we must here judge not by civil, but by natural law only. If several persons have an equal title to a certain possession, and some of them, either from weak- ness or cowardice, do not make it good, and relinquish it; an- other, who has the courage to act otherwise, does not from their pusillanimity lose a particle of his right : and if he conquers the land which they have abandoned, he holds, first, his own quota, by the right of former proprietorship ; and then, the remaining part by the right of conquest ; which in the case of a legitimate war, is equally legitimate. The other claimants who did not support him, and had relinquished their rights, can make no pretensions to the fruit of his victories ; and the unlawful possessors, who had carried on an unjust war, have it to thank for subjecting them to greater loss than they would probably have experienced, if they had yielded with a good grace. " In the secmid place, he objects, ' that I ascribe the war to a