THE GIFT OF ^ij.OZM:AMJiySAj^. Ai:^h^\^ a|a./i3.. 5474 The date shows when this volume was taken. All books not in use for instruction or re- search are limited to four weeks to all bor- rowers. Periodicals of a gen- eral character should be returned as soon as possible ; when needed ■-T&EC '|'"2'*™"" ' ij J,Jjsfo weeks a IPCJp^ special request should be made. All student borrow- ers are limited to two weeks, with renewal privileges, when the book is not needed by others. Books not needed during recess periods should be returned to the library, or arrange- ments made for their return during borrow- er's absence, if wanted. Books needed by more than one person belong on the reserve list. F^-*-i""'51 Cornell University Library HV4995.U5 A7 1902 Hearing on the bill (H. R. 14798) to est olin 3 1924 032 587 911 \1 The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032587911 HEARIKG BIT,L (H. R. 14798) TO ESTABLISH A LABORATORY FOR THE STUDY OF THE CRrMIML, PAUPER, AJ(D DEFEGTIYE CLASSES,' WITH A BiaBLIOGR^I^HY, Arthur MacDonald, j Spedalist in the United States Mureau of Education, Member of. the ' ' So(ASti : ■ D'Sypriologie de^Pans^" cmd Author of ''Abnorinal , , _. ; Man," "LesOriminel- Type," etc., liAD BEFPRE^THE COMMITTEE 01^ > TPIE JUDICIARY. WASHINGTON: ' GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902; GOVERNMENT WORKS. BY , . ARTHUR MacDONALD, , . - , Specialist in ilie United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. ' ABNORMAL MAN, bein^, essays on Education and Cf ime, Criminal Sociology, Criminal Hypnotism^ Alcoholism, Insanity, and Genius, with digests ol literature and a bibliography. 1893. Published 'by U. S. Bureau of Education. Washington, D. C. 445 pages,' 8°. 2d edition, 1896. , EDUCATION AND PATHO-SOCIAL STUDIES, including an investigation of the murderer "H." (Holmes); reports on psychological, criinlnological, and demographical congresses in Europe; London slums and Gen. Booth's Salvation Army movement. Reprint (from Annual Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1898-94) , 57 pages, 8°. Washington, D. C, 1896. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CHILDREN, including Anthropometrlcal and P^ychq-physioal meas- - urements of Washington school children; measurements of school children in United States and. Europe; description of instruments 6f precision in the laboratory of the Bureau of Educatioii; child study in the United States; and a bibliography. Reprint (from Annual Report of U S Commissioner of Education for 1897-'98), 325 pages, 8°. Washington, D. C, 1899. HEARING, ON THE BILL (H. E. ,14798) to establish a laboratory for the study of the criminal, pauper ana defective classes, treating especially of Criminology, with, a bibliography of genius insanity idiocy, alcoholism, pauperism, and crime, had before the Committee on the Judiciary of the U s' House of, Representatives. 309 pages, 8°. Government Printing Otflce. Washir^gton, D C 1902 This Hearing might be obtained on application to the Chairman ofthe Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives. , ' : * ' , SENATE DOCUMENT No. 400 (57th Congress', 1st Se.ssion); A plan for the study of man, with refer- ence to bills to establish a laboratory for the study of the criminal, pauper, and defective classes treating especially of Hypnotism, with a bibliography of child study. 166 pages,' 8°. Govern- ment Printing Office. Washington, D. C, 1902. • ,-. . ' a* t'^^o' '^1'^ ^^^ foUowlftg document might be obtained gratis on application to any, United' STATISTICS OP CRIME SUICIDE, AND INSANITY and othei- forms of abnormalitv in diffe-rent countries of the world in connection with bills to establish a laboratory, etc. Senate Document No. 11, 57th Congress, 2d Sessiop, 8°. GOyfemment Printing Office. Washington, D. C, 1903. HEABIN^G BILL (H. R. 14798) TO ESTABLISH A LABORATORY FOR THE STUDY OF THE CRIMINAL, PAUPER, AND DEFECTIVE CLASSES, BIBI.IOGIl-A.PHY, Arthur MacDonald, Specialist in the United States Bureau of Education, Member of the " SocUte ff Hypnologie de Paris," and Author of "Abnormal Man," "Les Criminel-Type," etc., HAD BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY. WASHINGTON: OOVERNMBNT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. ^r^^ \ :h 7V A \Lb'n ! -J CONTENTS OF HEARING. Pa^e. Members of committee at hearing 8 Bill 8 Names of those introducing similar bills _ 8 Study of man: Question as to utility 9 Methods of investigation 9 Psycho-physical laboratory _ _ _ 10 Laboratories and universities 10 Investigation of criminal and defective classes 11 Criminological study : Criminals not so abnormal 13 Crime not a disease 13 Freedom of criminal's will 14 The study of criminals theoretical 14 Physiology of the criminal's brain 15 The plethysmograph 15 Moral obtuseness of criminal , 16 Prevention of crime 17 Case of H. : Study of H. in his cell 18 Results of examination by kymographion 19 Measurements of his nervous system 21 Instruments applied to H 22 His uni versity life 23 Testimony of his classmates. 24 Conduct in dissecting room 26 Conduct before execution 30 Purpose of criminological study 30 Education and crime: Classes of society. - - 31 Teaching of practical morality 32 Relation of education to crime - 36 Summary of statistics in the United States gathered by the Bureau of Education 37 Method of investigation: Duties of reformatory institutions 40 Criminal psychology: General sensibility 41 Sight --- 41 Hearing - - - 42 Left-handedneas 42 Anomalies of mobility 42 Blushing - - - "^3 3 4 CONTENTS OF HEAEING. Criminal psychology — Continued. Page. Effects of insensibility _ - 43 Sentiments, instability, vanity - - - 45 Vengeance. _ 46 Cruelty 47 Wine and gambling 48 Relation to insanity: Sensibility and passions, vuineraltility 49 Feeling as to death 50 Intelligence of criminals 51 Specialists in crime 53 Recidi vation : Moral sense in recidivation _ 56 Criminal suggestion: Suggestion from the press _ 60 Vitriol or revolver _ _ 61 Poisoning _ 62 Crimes of hypnotizers _ _ 62 Suggestible persons _ _ _ _ _ _ 65 Conclusions as to criminal man 69 Man from a scientific jjoint of view 70 Alcoholism: Views of Dr. Baer on drunkenness . _ _ 72 Alcoholic hypnotism: Hypnotism as a remedy for alcoholism 80 Laws against hypnotism . _ _ gl Insanity and genius: Genius _ y,j Biographical facts showing eccentricities and symptoms of insanity 85 General considerations _ gj Physical anomalies in naen of genius and in the insane 92 Cranial capacity _ _ oo Conclusion 04 Study of children: Natural criticisms „ no Washington children q/. Sickliness, nervousness, laziness ny Sensibility to pain „o Temporal algometer 1„ Circumference of head ql Superiority of some children. ,„|, Abnormally shaped heads, right-handedness _ jqo Danger at age of puberty " " , „. Influence of city life •' ' --...... \\)\ Defects of sight and hearing, physical examination 102 Children's rights, ignorance of children, strength of memorx- 'l\ 103 Children of great men, fears of children, blushing '. . . IO4 Collecting interest, interest in the Bible " , ^r Influence of teacher Moral education Importance of the study of children ' ' " ' Opposition to psycho- physical research Necessity of instruments of precision ' Limitation of the senses. . ■ " 108 CONTENTS OV HEARING. 5 Page. Preliminary education for study in a psycho-physical laboratory 108 Susceptibility to disease and physical development in ('ollege women 110 Measurements of Chattanooga school children 112 Measurements of girls in private schools and of university students 118 Measurements of Polish and Italian children 122 Neuro-social data 124 Eecent results from the study of man: Growth _ 126 Sound, sight 127 Memory, skin 128 Taste, smell, movement, attention, and \'olition 129 Stimulation and sensation, moral sense reading and writing 130 Illusions and dreams, blushing and fear 131 Power and estimation 131 Washington children 132 Appendix : Opinions of scientific journals as to plan and nature of work 133 Indorsements: Letter from Fifth International Congress of Criminal Anthropology 135 Medical and other societies 1 35 Members of Congress writing letters to the Department in favor of a lab- oratory 136 Bibliography 139 Genius 141 Insanity, idiocy, imbecility, cretinism, feeblemindedness, etc 144 Alcoholism, drunkenness, inebriacy, dipsomania, intemperance, moderate drinking, prohibition, etc. 177 Pauperism, poverty, mendicity, chai-ity, philanthropy, etc 213 Criminalogy - - 229 Physical criminalogy 281 Capital punishment 28() Crime and insanity 288 Recent literature - - 392 Index - -- -- --- 293 HEARING ON THE BILL (H. R. 14798) TO ESTABLISH A LABORATORY FOR THE STUDY OF THE CRIMINAL, PAUPER, AND DEFECTIVE CLASSES, HAD BEFORE THE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY. April 26, 1902. Present: Hon. George W. Kay, chairman; Hon. John J. Jenkins, Hon. Richard Wayne Parker, Hon. D. S. Alexander, Hon. Vespasian Warner, Hon. Julius Kahn, Hon. Lot Thomas, Hon. S. L. Powers, Hon. David A. De Armond, Hon. S. W. T. Lanham, Hon. William Elliott, Hon. D. H. Smith, and Hon. H. D. Clayton. The Chairman. Gentlemen, Mr. Arthur MacDonald, specialist in the United States Bureau of Education, is present and has been accorded a hearing on the following bill: [H. R. 14798, Fifty-seventh Congress, first session.] Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assanhled, That there shall be established in the Department of Justice a_ laboratory for the study of the abnormal classes. That such work shall include, not '~ only lab o ra t ory I nve sLigalions, but a lsoThFcoIIection of jurisprudential, sociological, ^^^ tind pathological data, especially as found in institutions for the criminal, pauper, -'' and defective classes and as may be observed in hospitals, schools, and other insti- tutions; yalso inves tigatifln-irf-a!Barchistic" criminals^ mob influence, and like phe- nomena. That esp ^Taily the caus es of social evils shall besought out, with a view 3oTesamtnf^ pgveiTting them. That tEeSgTe"sults-anar those orsi'miTar wbr'k shalt— "Recollected and ptlblished fTOm-time to time. Sec. 2. That there shall be a director of the laboratory at an annual salary of three thousand five hundred dollars. Sec. 3. That the director shall have power to employ specialists to assist him m his investigations and such other help as may be necessary to carry on the work; that for all the expenses thus involved, together with the equipment of the labora- tory, hiring of rooms, purchasing of books and periodicals, and so forth, is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, twenty thousand dollars, ten thousand of which to be available on the passage of this Act. Mr. MacDonald said: A PLAN FOR THE STUDY OF MAN, ESPECIALLY THE CRIMINAL, PAUPER, AND DEFECTIVE CLASSES." Three bills, introduced by Senators Nelson, Bacon, and McComas, and one as an amendment by Senator Hoar, and two House bills (all six bills of Fifty-seventh Congress, first session), introduced by Rep- resentatives Ray (New York) and Henry (Connecticut), have for their purpose to establish a laboratory for the study of the criminal, pauper, and defective classes. The word "laboratory" is here used m its broadest sense, including sociological data. Laboratory in its restricted meaning, referring to use of instruments of precision, is only one feature of these bills. , . x x , ^i. a <. One of the most important objects contemplated is to take the data already gathered by the State institutions for the abnormal classes and combine and summarize them for more general use. ihi.s will encourage the States to gather further facts by more uniform methods. -Many points not considered in this Hearing will be found in Senate Document (by writef), No. 400, Fifty-seventh Congress, first session. o STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. Such uniformity and tlie feeling that the results will have more gen- eral utility will encourage a deeper study of the antecedents and characteristics of inmates of the different institutions, especially those where children are confined. Such methods, though requiring patience, are a most rational way of determining more definitely the causes of crime, especially in its beginning, thus enabling society to know how best to ameliorate or prevent crime. STUDY OF MAN. Anyone would suppose that the study of man, especially during childhood and youth, would be the most practical and necessary of all lines of inquiry. But, as a matter of fact, it is the most neglected of all studies. There are sciences of geology, botany, and zoology, but a science of living man as he is to-day does not exist. It is compara- tively easy to arouse interest in expeditions to the North Pole or into darkest Africa; to engender enthusiasm in in^-estigation of sun, moon, and stars; but it is very difficult to direct attention to the study of modern civilized man. Millions are given yearly for the study of rocks, plants, and animals, but almost nothing for the study of children What could be more practical than investigations of human beings from childhood through youth to manhood « While facts in nature are very interesting and, no doubt, of importance, they can not have the direc^t practical value which facts about man himself possess. The greatest of all studies is that of man himself as he is to-day A scientific investigation of man must be based primarily upon the individual, who is the unit of the social organism. if we are ever to have sufficient definite knowledge of livino- human beings that may become a science, it can only be done by the careful 'tJ'u^ 1 '^'^ "T^*^''"' °^ individuals. The more thorough the studv and the larger the number, the more useful such investigation can be made to society. ^ As in machinery we must first repair the little wheels out of o-ear so m society we must first study the criminal, crank, insane, inebriate' or pauper, who can seriously injure both individual and community' the community. The injury from sucli action is often beyond calcu- lation. Our Government pays out millions to catch, try, and care for criminals, but gives very little to study the causes that-'l'ead to ca'me The study ot_ man, to be of most utility, must be directed first to the causes of crime, pauperism, alcoholism, and other forms of abnoS rnality To do this, the individuals themskves must be stucUed Is the seeds of evil are usually sown in childhood and youth t is here that all investigation should commence, for there is litt e hone of ^^j^ ""''''' '' -^ '^ -^ -^^ *h^ ™ of sSai'^^L :t The most rigid and best method of study of both childrpn nr,rl adults IS that of the laboratory, with instrument of p'ecSon in con nection with sociological data. Such innuirv on,L.^ f. \u ? sociological, patholofical, and abnorl/Tta is founf in h!lte"l' criminal, pauper, and defective classes, and in hosuitils ^nol ' iments or measurements should be made as are ofP^ntere.t it """^T STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 9 number of such data concerning a large number of individuals, and to compute, tabulate, and publish the results could not easily be under- taken bj"- an individual or by a university, because of the expense involved. QUESTION AS TO UTILITY." But, it may be asked, what as to the utility of studying such ques- tions? We think it is not only useful, but there is great need of such investigation. We should like to inquire, for instance, as to the util- ity ot studying rocks and plants, arranging them, making chemical analyses of them, etc., if it is not to give a deeper knowledge of them, and thereby learn more about our planet? So the patient and extended study of man, especially children, is to gain a more definite knowledge about him and a deeper insight into his nature. The time has cer- tainly come when man, as he is, should be studied as much as nature. Much money has been given and great interest manifested for the discovery of new chemical elements or the search for unknown planets. We erect statues and found art galleries at great expense. These things may not all be immediately useful. Indeed, the highest art spurns even the idea of utility; and yet when it is proposed to study a child thoroughly to gain an insight into its nature, to find the causes of its defects, so that we may protect it and help it to become a good citizen, the utilitarian cry is heard. The time has come when it is important to study a child with as much exactness as we investigate the chemical elements of a stone or measure the mountains on the moon. Why is it that there is so little definite knowledge about modern man ? It is mainly because he has been studied so little. The first case in the history of this world of a thorough scientific study of a human being is that made on Zola " in 1897 by a number of French specialists. Such a statement as this may seen hazardous, but it is literally true. METHODS OF INVESTIGATrON. Man has been studied in a statistical way as to his acts and thoughts in the past; but this method is necessarily inexact and uncertain, because the events are so far removed in time. It is not only diflicult to understand the past in which we did not live, but also to distinguish between facts, inferences, and opinions as recorded by writers, who often had some special point of view and omitted important data. For this reason alone a science of history may be impossible. It is only in investigations of man as he is now that facts can be dealt with at first hand. MORE EXACT STUDY OF MIND NEEDED. Rigid methods of research have until lately been confined to phj^sics, astronomy, physiology, and other sciences; and when applied to man they have been concerned rather with his physical than rnental side. It IS only recently that more exact methods have been used in the study of man's mind. These methods were opposed and ridiculed by extreme doctrinaires, but such opposition has ceased almost entirely, and where it does exist it is due either to ignorance or to mistakes liable to occur in the introduction of new methods. If the study of man is to be worthy of the name, rigid methods nuist ^See article (by writer) entitled "A Laboratory for Sociological, Medical, and Jurisprudential Purposes," in Amer. Law Review for Nov.-Dec. 1901, ht. Louia, Mo. "Eesults are given in article on Zola (by writer), reprmt, 1901. 10 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. be applied to his mind as well as to his body. The most satisfactory and best method yet known is the psycho-physical method, introduced by Fechner and developed by Wundt into what is called "physiological psychology." PSYCHO-PnysiCAL LABORATOEY. The first requisite to carry out this psycho-physical method of study is a laboratory containing instruments of precision. In the study of man one of the greatest difficulties is the defective- ness and limitations of his senses. These defects have reference, not only to insufficiency of the senses to discover certain truths, but also to the errors they cause us to make. The diurnal rotation of the earth, the distance of the stars, and the weight of the air are not appreciated by our senses, and often may seem contradictory to them. The sensations of cold and heat are not absolute, but merely relative to the temperature of our bodies, fre- quently misleading us. The illusions of sight, hearing, and touch point to the conclusion, accepted by modern psychology, that our ideas of the external world are the result of a long and unconscious education of the senses. Science has destroyed the prejudice of the infallibilitv of the senses, and now finds its main help in the study of ma,n to be in the use of instruments of precision. These not only correct the defects of the senses, but increase their scope, so that the results of investigation may be described more fully and determined more definitely, LABORATORIES IN ITNIVERSITIES. While the initiative in psycho-physics came from Europe, it is in our country that it has developed to the greatest extent. A laro-e number of laboratories have been established, most of which are in the universities. But the plan of these laboratories is mainly for peda- gogical purposes. The research work is generally done by students desiring to prepare theses for their doctorates. While many of these theses are very valuable, a university could hardly extend such work to large numbers of individuals, for to gather the facts, compute and tabulate the results would involve clerical duties and other work not undertaken by universities. The psycho-physical work in the univer- sity IS generally confined to small numbers of persons, who are a special class, so that it is doubtful whether conclusions obtained can always be applied to people in general. The main object of a university is to prepare men for work not to carry on their work. NEED OF A LABORATORY FOR SOCIOLOGICAL PURPOSES. There is need, then, for a psycho-physical laboratory different from those in our universities; that is, one not pedagogical, but sociological and practical, and of more utility to society directly The purpose of such a laboratory is to collect sociological, patho- logical, and abnormal data as found especially in children and in the criminal pauper and defective classes, and in hospitals; to gather more special data with instruments of precision, and also to collect and pub^ hsh the results of similar work m this country and Europe But it may be said that the time is not ripe for psycho-phvsical work on a large scale. This may be true of much of t?,i finer expert mental work carried on in our universities, some of which Tan experiment with experiments. But the purpose of this laboratoryTs STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 11 to apply to large numbers of individuals onlv such experiments as are well attested. _ For if there is ever to be a sufficient definite knowledge of living civilized man, to become a science, it can only be gained by the study of large numbers of persons. Conclusions depending on small numbers are useful and instructive, but if they are to carry weight they must be based on numerous indi- viduals of all classes. But the ps3rcho-physical study is not all the worlf. Of no less importance are the sociological investigations involved, including the gathering of anthropological and medical data. In new work the field is always too large, and therefore it would be imperative at first to study in those parts only which will bring results most useful to society. INVESTIGATION OF CRIMINAL AND DEFECTIVE CLASSES. A special and very practical feature of a psycho-physical laboratorj^ wouM be the study of the criminal and defective classes. As in machinery we must first repair the little wheels out of gear, so in society we must first study the j^'iminal, crank, insane^Jnebriatej orj ^pau.per who can seriously injure botlriridtvtd ual aiidTcoimiiunity. Tlie communitj' is most directly concerned, for it pays out millions to catch, try, and care for criminals, but almost nothing to study the causes that lead to crime. Thus, in 1890 the expenses of all our penal institutions were more than $12,000,000. This does not include the cost of criminal or police courts, of the property stolen, or the untold injury to society. A worthless criminal or crank kills a prominent citizen; the injury from such action is often beyond calculation. CHILDREN SHOULD BE STUDIEp FIRST. However valuable the results of the investigation of man may be, they will always have an additional value when coming from the study of children. For whatever may be found of a detrimental character in both mind and body will always have a much better chance of cor- rection in the child than in the adult. We can not expect to lessen crime and dangerous forms of abnor- mality unless we study the causes; this is the first requisite in all rational procedure; and these causes should be sought out at their beginning. Special emphasis is therefore laid on the investigation of criminal and abnormal children. SUGGESTIONS AS TO FURTHER STUDIES. It would be important to find what physical and mental characteris- tics are common to criminal children, and whether such characteristics are due more to the child's nature or more to his environments. Only thorough and patient study of large numbers of children can answer such questions; theory and speculation based on a few facts can not, but they may accomplish good in calling attention to the subject. It is generally believed, but not proved, that crime is mostly due to sur- roundings; if this can be determined, then there is a great hope of lessening it, for it is much easier to change the surroundings of a child than to change its nature. INVESTIGATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. Much study has been devoted to children in our public schools; mistakes have doubtless been made by those with more enthusiasm than training. But this is the case with all new lines of inquiry. 1 et 12 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. there are very practical matters we should know as to our schools. To establish the measure of the work according. to the strength of the pupil is fundamental to health, for overtaxing the powers of the young can leave its mark for life. What is the maximum work suitable to a child in the diffei'ent periods of development in its school life? And can this maximum be injurious at times, as at puberty, when all the vital force may be required for growth? To answer such practical questions we must know the physiology of normal growth, its rate of increase or decrease, and what influences cause such increase or decrease." UNRULY AND EEPOEMATOEY CHILDEEN. It would be desirable to find what physical and mental traits are common to unruly school children and children in reformatories. If there is nothing peculiar as compared with children in general this is important to know. In like manner it would be interesting to know what characteristics, if any, are in common between the feeble- minded in our institutions and dull children in our schools. These and similar inquiries, when made with care and discretion, might enable us to foresee with some probability the special dangers that this and that child may be subject to, and thus to protect many children from temptations and conditions that otherwise might ruin them. IMPOJRTANCE OF LARGE NUMBERS. When the number of persons studied is large many subdivisions can be made, and in this way some of the most important, yet sometimes unexpected, results are reached. It would be well to know the differ- ence, not only between children of the professional, mercantile, and labormg classes, JDut between those with American parents and foreign parents. Then, if the numbers were large enough to admit further subdivisions, we might find the difference between children whose father is American but mother foreign born and those whose mother IS American and father foreign born. In all such questions, if there is'^no striking difference it is important to know it. Thus the influence of marriage between difierent races or nationalities upon the offspring might be determined more definitely. If it should be found, for instance, from the comparison of large numbers, where all possibility of accident or coincidence is eliminated that the difference between certain classes of children, such as the criminal, from children in general is quite marked, the question would arise whether such difference is due mainly to heredity or to unfavor- able surroundings. In cases where the crime or defect is due to heredity the treatment would be quite different from those in which environment is the cause. CKIMINOLOGICAL STUDY." As an illustration Of a criminological study, we give below the case ot H. But before doing this a few general remarks on criminology may not be out ot place. "^^^SJ Three divisions may be observed in criminological studies- First a summary and classifacation of results already known (this' may be 'For further discassion see "Experimental Study of Children" (by writer^ renrint from report of Commissioner of Education for 1M97-98 Washino-ton DP reprint Cong?Ls!'firrse°.£on""""' '"""°°'' ''' ^''^"'^ ^^^^'^'^^^^ ^- iOo/Eifty-seventh STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. l.j called general criminology); second, an investigation of individual crim- inals, or special criminology; and third, a consideration of methods and institutions for the i>revention and repress" on of crime, or practi- cal criminology, including prisons, reformatories, police systems, etc. The first is historical, the second scientific, the third, as its name indi- cates, is more directly related to society. But it is in special crimi- nology that most interest of late has been shown. It is pervaded with the scientific spirit which considers the investigation of causes as neces- sary before any rational treatment of crime can be expected. CRIMINALS NOT SO ABNORMAL. Should a philosopher desire to study normal human nature experi- mentally, he could do this best in prison, for probably nine-tenths of prisoners are crmiinals bj^ occasion; that is, their crime is due mainlj' to bad social conditions; their personalit}^ differs little or none at all from that of the average man, so that any results gained here relate to normal man. But there is an additional advantage; questions can be asked and investigations permitted that would be difficult with normal man outside of prison. The prisoner has much less to lose, and will often make confessions that few outside of prison would care to make, giving the deepest insight into human nature. Another advantage is that the exact conditions, such as I'egularity in habits of life, diet, etc., are known, and thus a more favorable condition of scientific inquir}' is afforded. This is especially true in reformatories, industrial schools, houses of refuge, etc.; most of the inmates are entirely normal; it is abnormal surroundings, such as poverty or drunkenness at home, that brought them here, and not abnormal natures in the children them- selves. But it may be added that if children remain long enough in such conditions thej' will be liable to develop whatever criminal ten- dencies are in them. It is generally admitted that about 10 per cent of inmates are incorrigible; that is, they are criminals by nature. As their incorrigibility is shown by repeated acts, it is not so difficult to select these cases. " This is not saying that such and such a case can not be cured, but intelligent prison officials of long experience doubt the probability of reformation. CRIME NOT A DISEASE. This fact of incorrigibility may be a reason why crime has been con- sidered a disease. Reports from the principal penitentiaries of this country, recentlv gathered by the Bureau of Education, show 82 per ■ cent in good health, 11 per cent in fair health. If crime is a disease, it would seem that it has little to do with what is ordinarily designated under this term. Some have sought by the study of criminals'- brains to show anatomical anomalies indicating disease; but there is little agreement in these investigations. _But if there were agreement, it would -only indicate probabilities, not certainties, for comparatively few brains of criminals have been' studied. Even in the case of the~ Tinsane it is not^ demonstrated that mental disease necessarily involves l)rain^Ts^ise; yeT""iiibst investigators believe that it does, and with J^^odiriasoEI- But there have been cases of insanity in which cerebral anomalies have been sought for in vain. To say that the cause was functional and so did not leave any traces is a hypothesis, but not knowledge in the scientific sense. Now, in the case of the crnmnal, the too common statement that crime is disease, is speculation, not fact. 14 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. FREEDOM OF CRIMINALS WILL. A general sociological and ethical maxim is that the idea of wrong depends upon the moral, intellectual, and physical danger or m]ury which a thought, feeling, volition, or action brings to humanity. This principle should be applied to degrees of exaggerated wrong or crime. But it may be asked if the degree of freedom or of per- sonal guilt should not be the basis of punishment. The force of this objection is evident; the idea of freedom has been the basis of crimi- nal law; it has also been sanctioned by the experience of the_ race; and although no claim is made of carrying it into practice without serious difficulties in the way of strict justice (difficulties inevitable to any system), yet it has been not only of invaluable service, but a neces- sity to humanity. This is not only true on criminal lines, but this idea has been the conscious basis of our highest moral ideals. But at the same time the exaggeration of the idea of freedom has been one of the main causes of vengeance, which has left its traces in blood, fire, and martyrdom; and though at present vengeance seldom seeks such extreme forms, yet it is far from extinct. On moral and on biblical grounds, as far as man is concerned, vengeance can find lit- tle support. With few exceptions, a revengeful tone or manner toward a prisoner (the same is true outside of prison) always does harm, for it stirs up similar feelings in the prisoner, which are often the cause of his bad behavior and crime. Kindness, with firmness, is the desira- ble combination. If we were obliged to withhold action in the (^ase of any criminal for the reason that we did not know whether, or in what degree, he was innocent or guilty, from the standpoint of freedom of will, the commu- nity would be wholly unprotected. If a tiger were loose in the streets, the first question would not be whether he was guiltj^ or not. We should imprison the criminal, first of all, because he is dangerous to the community. THE STUDY OF CRIMINALS THEORETICAL.' At present our jurists stud}" law books, not criminals, and yet nearly one-half the time of our courts is given to criminals. The individual study of the criminal and crime is a necessity, if we are to be pro- tected from ex-convicts — the most costlj^ and most injurious citizens we have. A complete study of a criminal includes his history, genealogj% and all particulars concerning himself and his surroundings previous to and during his criminal act; also a study of him in the psychophysical sense — that is, experiments upon his mind and body with instruments of precision — measuring, for example, his thought-time, sense of sight, hearing, touch, tast«, smell, pressure, heat, 'and cold; also an examination o*" his organs after death, especially of his brain. It is evident that no one person could make an adequate study of a crimi- nal. The microscopical anatomy of the brain alone, with its physi- ology, is more than the life work of many men could accomplish. Criminology, therefore, depends for its advancement upon the results of numerous departments of investigation. CRIMINOLOGY NOT YET A SCIENCE. In a rigid sense criminology is no more a science than sociology. Like many other branches of study, they are called sciences by cour- " Ideas o£ Italian school of criminology will be found in Senate Document No. 400 Fifty-seventh Congress, first session. ' STUDY OF THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. 15 tesy. But the empirical study of human being-s, with whatever class It begms, IS an miportant step toward a scientilic socioloo-y Crimi- nology IS an initiatory step in the direct study of individuals them- selves and their exact relations to their surroundings. The practical and scientific value of such study consists in showing more clearly what normal society is or ought to be, just as the study of insanitv gives by contrast an insight into mental health. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CRIMINAL'S BRAIN. As already indicated, linowledge of the criminal's brain, as well as of the brain in general, is very inadequate, so that any definite con- clusions are unwarranted. It may be said that the fact of a criminal having mental anomalies and at the same time cerebral or cranial ones, does not show that either one is the cause of the other, although it may justify a presumption that they are in some way related; for such conclusions are based upon the anatomy rather than the physiology of the brain; as to the latter little is l^nown. It is easy to conceive ithat brain circulation, qualitative and quantitative, has as much to do in its efi'ect on the mind as anatomical conditions. It is, however, reason- able to assume that in the last analysis every physiological irregularity is based upon an anatomical one; yet the reverse may be assumed also. The probability would seem to be' that the physiological and anatom- ical mutually act and react, one upon the other; and to decide which is primary is wholly beyond our present knowledge. THE PLETHYSMOGRAPH. Measurements of sensibility by instruments of precision have not been carried very far. As an illustration of the probable importance of this method of study, we give a dia- gram of the plethj'smograph of Mosso. The purpose of this instrument is to show the effect of the emotions upon the circulation of the arterial blood. This instrument is one among others belonging to the Bureau of Education, constituting the nucleus of a physio- educational laboratory. It consists of a cjdindrical vessel; G, suited for the limb (the arm); the opening through which the limb is introduced is closed with caoutchouc, and the vessel is filled with water. The arrangement is such that any increase or decrease in the volume of water in the vessel G causes the weight N to rise or fall. On this weight is attached a small bar which can be made to register its upward or downward movement on a revolving cylinder. As the aim enlarges from an increased sup- ply of blood the curve registered on the cylinder is upward. Since the flow of venous blood is regarded as uniform in the passive limb, an increase of the volume of the arm shows a greater velocity in the flow of arterial blood in the limb. By having the criminal insert his arm into the cylinder, some of the effects of ideas on his emotional nature through the circulation of the blood will be registered, giving invol- untary testimony as to his nervous and physical nature. Thus,_in the case of one when the sentence of a judge was read, a decrease in flow THE PLETHYSMOGRAPH. 16 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. of blood was observed by the lowering of the curve, but the sight of a cigar or a glass of wine raised the curve, which is equivalent to an increase in flow of arterial blood in the arm. In the case _ot a brutal murderer the flow was little affected by the sight ot a pistol whereas in normal man there is a decided effect. The value ot such an instrument for investigations on normal people will also be eviaent when we consider that both mental depression and sleep may cause the curve to lower; during straining and coughing the curve rises, Out falls in sighing. , , j. •* ;„ Although little has been done with the plethysmograph as yet it is easy to see the important bearing it may have on educational and psycho-physical questions. Thus a pupil with his arm in the vessel can be set to performing mathematical calculations or composing sen- tences, or varied ideas may be presented to his mind, and the effects of these mental states or studies on the circulatory system can be seen. As it is very probable that an increase of circulation in the arm, psychically caused, means a decrease of circulation in the brain,_ we are able to study directly the influence of different mental conditions on circulation in the brain. MORAL OBTUSENBSS. The extreme moral insensibility of habitual criminals can not be better shown than by their words and acts, often naively expressed. A criminal whose brother was being executed stole a purse and watch and said: "What a misfortune my brother is not here to have his share." Some speak so coldly and unconcernedly of their crimes in court that they would be taken for witnesses rather than authors of their deeds. Pity for the suffering of others is very feeble. One reminds the priest (preaching to him repentance) of the wine he had promised him fifteen days previously, and when mounting the scaffold the last and only thing which he said was to ask his wife, who was his accomplice, to give him credit for 37 francs. Another, from the three executioners desired to choose his "professor." Another complained of the condition of the streets through which he was brought to the scaffold. THE DECEITFULNESS OF CRIMINALS. Perhaps the greatest power of deceit of which man is capable has been shown on the scaffold. There are too many people who believe that no one would tell a falsehood when facing death. The fact that many hold this idea encourages criminals to insist on their innocence to the very last. Especially is this true of the more intelligent crim- inals, for they see thej' have little to lose but some things to gain as far as their reputation is concerned; for if they do not confess, many perhaps may believe them to be innocent or even consider them mar- tyrs. Then, too, they may deny their guilt for the sake of their family. Criminals probably fear death more than other men, but their intense vanity helps them to conceal it, just as their lack of foresight and impetuosity makes them appear courageous. Not a few have been known to confess their faults to Him who grants divine pardon and then proclaim with a loud voice their innocence and die in contra- diction with themselves. STUDY OF THE ABWOKMAL CLASSES. 17 PREVENTION OP CRIME. to When the cause of a particular crime is found, this indicates the most active cause, but not the only one. There may be specific rem- edies for specific cases, but they can only be determined by special study of the individuals. While some cases can not be reached, the great majority can be made susceptible to reformation, or at least im- provement. Often the truest and best advice a physician can give to his patient is to keep up the general health, and nature will be his best servant in resisting ail attacks of disease. The same principle applies in aiding one to overcome temptations to evil or crime. Such a remedy consists in moral and intellectual habits being implanted in children, which will give a constant resistance to all temptation, and be even an unconscious force when self-control is lost. Little can be expected from palliative remedies as long as this educational remed}' is not thoroughly carried out. CASE OF H. As a study in education and criminology the following case of H. is of interest, for he is an educated man, as the world goes, a doctor of medicine, graduate of a university, and a man above the average crim- inal in culture, appearance, and general intellectuality. The impor- tance of studying such a man is to note the gradual steps that led him to his fate, which he probably never intended. No man, as a rule, seeks to have his own life taken from him. He gradually gets accus- tomed to doing things, and forgets the feeling of the community. He then becomes careless and finally is caught. The intellectual edu- cation of a man at least fills his mind with subjects calculated to do him good. They do not tend to crime. But, of course, it is the moral side of education that has to do with the study of the criminal. It shows the importance of good habits, which the criminal seldom has. His life is irregular. He is a wanderer, from sociological^ necessity, and this wandering spirit leads to a feeling of irresponsibility. A man among strangers is liable to regard them as in a manner enemies. As most criminals, like H , are seeking their own pleasure, if money leads to it, it is a question of degree how far they will go. If the question is asked whether the acts of any criminal, his life, or any special deed are due to himself or to his surroundings, we say that the surroundings caused the crime, and when they are due mos^tly to him we say he is a criminal by nature. Where a man is admittedly a crim- inal by nature, he is three-fourths like othei- men; and what is true m general of the physiology and psychology of criminals is almost as true of all men. So that when we are studying criminals we are really to a large extent studying human beings, only criminals are more con- venient to study when they are in prison. fe^,i.u;- A common characteristic of the criminal is his vanity— the eliect his crimes are liable to have on the community-and H. was not an excep- tion to this i-ule. Some criminals when performing a bloody act get into a sort of spasm, and after they have killed their vie im hack hmi Spieces and then lay down through exhaustion and sleep right by the side of the body until they are rested. ,-,, , ^ a Criminals are dangerous to the community, and should be shut up and not l™out until there is reasonable certainty that they are no loiiger dangerous, %st thesam^a^w^treaUh^ins ane. It .s very difficult --li^^I^rp^Ir^i^^^^^te^r;;^^;:^^^^^^,^^^ Congress, first session. 9192 2 18 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. to tell the degree of guilt of any man, simply because we do not know his hereditary tendencies nor the special conditions and surround- ings under which he was at the time of committing his deeds, but it is conscience. That is, when he was wronged he felt it (many criminals are very sensitive on this point). But in wronging others he was will- fully made obtuse by his overt acts. Criminals are frequently accused of things they don't do, which shows the great disadvantage of having a bad reputation, which most of them earn. He was a deceiver by nature; and this, coupled with his greed for money, gradually led him into serious acts. But how shall we account for this criminals In one sense such a question involves the whole inquiry into the origin of evil itself. It will not do to say that he is a man born out of his time. It is not plausible in the case of a murderer by nature, for the taking of human life was very common in the early races of men. But H. was effeminate in nature, and when taking human life he used an effeminate method, poisoning. Throughout the history of crime this has been woman's meuhod. We do not know enough about the origin of society to account for the beginning of deception. It is evident from the let- ters that his greed for money, with little or no aversion to deceive, and his poverty gradually led him on. Poverty is often an occasion but not a cause of a great deal of wrongdoing. His strong impulse to deception and greed was the hereditary side of his character; the degree to which he developed them into crimi- nality depended upon his environment. The prisoner did not desire, and therefore the authorities did not permit, that an instrument be put upon him while on the scaffold and after he dropped for the purposes of measuring the effects of the emo- tions upon the movements of his chest while standing upon the scaf- fold and the reflex motions of asph^^xia. These effects would be tranaf erred to the muscles of the thorax by means of the kymographion; the chest movements after the fall of the drop, the rate of their tem- porary increase or decrease, and their periodicity could probably have been determined. It was not expected that from one single case any very important results could be obtained, but by observing the differ- ent effects of hanging when the neck breaks and when it does not, and also the effects in cases of electrocution, the comparative degree of pain and the length of duration of consciousness might be deter- mined. This would aid in a scientific study of the physiologjr of death, of which very little is j^et known. Physicians are allowed to study persons of the highest respectability both in private practice and in hospitals, and the knowledge thus gained has been utilized for the good of humanity. It is therefore difficult to see serious reasons why the greatest enemies of society should not be used for the benefit of society, provided, of course, no injury is done them. In reply to the remark that it was temporarily assumed that he (H.) might be guilty of some of the crimes he was accused of, the prisoner made the following statements: STUDY OP H. IN BIS CELL. He said: "I did not deny my guilt for several reasons; people would not lielieve me even if I told the truth. My counsel will tell you the reasons. I am preparing my affairs with a'view that I am to be executed. I prefer it to imprisonment for life. If 1 were not STUDY OF THE ABNOltMAL CLASSES. 19 executed the insurance companies would make an example of me If I am accused of seventeen murders, and the three insisted upon are shown to be false, how can anyone believe me guilty of the others? i lived m Chicago ten years and had a good reputation." When told that there was a moral certainty that he was guilty of one or two murders, and there were reasons to suspect that he had com_- mitted a number, he laughed. When told that the most intelligent and aristocratic criminals seldom confess on the scijffold, he said he did not desire to confess on account of his relatives. H. said he was going to cut the interview short, remarking when I was preparing the kymographion that I would use all my half hour with this; that another man was coming ij see him whom he desired to see more than me. After I had remained much longer than half an hour he said he guessed he would cut the other man short. He did not care himself, but the prison was granting him many privileges, and so he wanted to cut me short. When in prison at St. Louis he said he saw a negro hung, while look- ing through his cell window, and that pieces of the rope were taken as mementoes and fastened on the watch chains of the bystanders. Then he asked if I could believe that after such a terrible experience he would go and do things that would bring him to the gallows. I answeredthat of about one hundred and fifty men guillotined in Paris all had witnessed a similar execution. He said in his book he had admitted many crimes, but had never taken life; said "he drew the line at murder." (An innocent man would hardly use such an expression.) When told that criminals feared death more than other people and preferred imprisonment for life, he said he must be an exception; he was almost tempted to make a false confession in order to hang. When 1 inserted an instrument in his mouth to ms-asure the height of his palate, he said, as if afraid, " Don't choke me.'' He complained of being troubled with strabismus from childhood; said his mother was an epileptic; that he was not nervous, but at pres- ent felt a little nervous. He had lived with a professor, who was his best friend, and who was at that time demonstrator of anatomy'. He did not go to college, but graduated from the medical school. He added he was also a graduate in pharmacy. He would send all he had to say to his former professor (he did not do it), to whom I could write. He did not like to tell all on account of his domestic troubles, which had not been entered into. He admitted that he was mari-ied more than once. RESULTS OF E.YAMINATION BY K VMOGHAPHION. This instrument is for the purpose of measuring the effects of mental and emotional states upon the movements of the chest. Actors locate the seat of the emotion they simulate in the chest. A silk band is drawn closely about the chest, a little air-tight cjdinder with a delicate film over both ends, a hook being inserted in each film, was attached to the loops in the end of the silk band; from the air-tight cylinder a couple of j^ards of slender rubber tubing with the other end inserted in a tambour. The tube went into another air-tight apace, the bottom and sides of which were wood and the top a delicate film. On this film 20 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. rested a delicate hinge, to which was fastened a fine bamboo splinter, which rose and fell with every breath. When this was placed against the cylinder of the kymographion, lines were scratched on the surface of the smoked paper, which indicated the motion of the little bamboo point. With every inhalation the bamboo splinter was raised and with every expiration it descended, making a wave-like curve on the It will be noticed that all the mental and emotional States lessened the breathing, since the waves in all the lines are smaller than those in the regular breathing (line 1). In the few experiments made this THE KYMOGRAPHION BECOED. REGULAR BRCATHINS. READING PHILOSOFHY. fMLT/PLY 48$ T/MES 7. READING PHILOSOmrALOm The kymographion records the movements of the chest, as aHected by mental and emotional states. Tlie higher the waves in the lines the more the subject breathes. is what generally occurs: Reading of philosoph}^ (line 2), multiplica- tion (line 3), affected the prisoner's breathing most. This is what generally happens, with the exception of the feeling of hatred, which is in most people a wavy line, but in the prisoner it is his most intense line; that is to say, it absorbs his attention most. Concentration of attention seemed to be much easier for him in hating than in the other emotions. As an example of the effects of emotion on H. by another metliod, the following will illustrate: He was accused by a promi- nent lawyer of having killed the P. children. They were in a room together. His eyes bulged out; he turned red, and could say nothing. STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 21 PHYSICAL MEASURIMENTS. Januaet, 4, 1896. Height, 72 centimeters; sitting height, 33 centimeters; strength of right-hand gra.s\), 3-4 kilograms'; of left-hand grasp, y.)i kilograms; maximum length of head, 191 millimeters; niaximnm width of head, 149 millimeters; cephalic index, 78; distance between external edges of orbits, 110 millimeters; length of nose, 55 millinjcters; width of nose, 35 millimeters; nasal index, ()3; length of ears, right, 60 milli- meters; left, 62 millimeters (he remarked that he had injured his ear); width of mouth, 55 millimeters; thickness of lips, 10 millimeters; height of palate, 20 millimeters. MEASUREMENTS OP NERVOUS SYSTEM. Least sensibility to locality: Right wrist, 17 millimeters; left wrist, 17 millimeters. Least sensibility to heart; Right wrist, 4 degrees; left wrist, 5 degrees. Least sensibility to pain by pressure: Right tem- poral nmscle, 700 grams; left temporal muscle, 600 grams; with hand algometer (Catell's), right hand, 5,750 grams, and left hand, 4,750 grams. H. said he was ambidextrous (common amongij&riffiinals)^ He said the example of a friend taught him to be this. Another peculiarity is the fact of one ear being longer than the other. His palate is higher than the normal, which is about 14 millimeters. His sense of locality is more obtuse than the average, which is 15 millimeters. Another peculiarity is the fact that his left hand is less sensitive to heat than his right hand. This seldom is the case with normal people. His sensibility to pain is more acute than the average; that is, on the temporal muscle. EXAMINATION BY DR. TALBOT. Nativity, American; age, 35; weight, 150 pounds; occiput, full, right lower than left; bregma, sunken; forehead, left side more full than right, sloping; hair, brown; face, excessive; body, excessive; face, arrested; zygomse, arrested, hollowed on right side; ears, right lower than left; nose, long, very thin; stenosis of nasal bone; septum deflected to left; nose turned to right; thj-roid gland, arrested; eyes, strabismus in left, inherited; left higher than right; jaws, slightly pro- truding upper, arrest of lower; alveolar process normal; left side of mouth drops lower than the right; third molars not developed; remain- ing teeth regular; chin turned to right; breast, marked pigeon breast, left side more than right; chest contracted, tendency to tuberculosis; arms, right normal, left 11- inches short; legs long and thin; feet medium in size, but markedly deformed; depression on left side of skull at bregma, due to fall of brick at the age of 31; sexual organs unusually small. There are a number of abnormalities noted in Dr. Talbot's examina- tion, but they do not seem to me sufficient in number and degree to class the prisoner as phj-sically abnormal. His height of palate, in my own examination, and his general demeanor would class him among neurotics. SOCIOLOGICAL. Antecedents and childhood: One who knew his family well says in a letter: "I was born in P., N. H., in an adjoining town to the birth- place of H., which was G.. B. Co., N. H., and inasmuch as H. and his 22 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. parents were frequently attendants upon my father's preaching, and as he attended the district school taught by ray wife's sister, and as his wife, and part of the time himself, were in the employ of an uncle of mine, I have -a definite knowledge of his youth. "His people were very upright. God-fearing citizens, living in a quiet, secluded section of the country. Ther^ is no trace or taint of open immorality or vice in the family history for at least three gener- ations of which I have any knowledge. I "am intimately acquainted with several of his cousins, and they are all upright men. "As a boy, H. was a quiet, studious, faithful lad, with refined tastes, not caring to join to any extent in the rude and rough games of his companions at school, and easily standing as the first scholar in his class. He was a general favorite with the mothers in that community. INSTRUMENTS APPLIED TO H. 1. Palatemeter. 2. Hand-grasp measure. 3. Cranlometer. 4. Tlierinaesthesiometer. 5. Aesthesiometer. a. Temple algometer. 7. Falni algoiQeter. because he was such a well-behaved lad. In his youth he was predis- posed to a religious life; was a faithful, painstaking student of the Scriptures, and rather excelled in his Sunday-school class, and later in his Bible class, and ray recollection is that'he took an active part in the weekly prayer meetings, and was known as a religious youth." Letter fnmihlH first 'Wife. — In regard to his childhood days I can not say much, as I did not know ranch of hini until he was lY years old. I always felt that he was pleasant in disposition, tender-hearted, much more so than people in general. He was of a very determined mind, at the same tirae quite considerate of others' comfort and wel- fare. In 1881 he was at B., Vt., for the year, and in the spring of 1882 he started for the university, and, as far as I knew, was doing very well. 1 returned to N. H. the spring before he was to graduate and have known very little of him since, but he has always been called very smart, well educated, and a man of refined ways. Before attend- 8TUBY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSKR. 23 ing the medical school he taught school several terms and was very successful — as much so as teachers in general — and when the story came out people who had always known him said: " We can not believe this. H. would not have the heart or courage to do anything so terri- ble." But of course he has worked himself up to it little by little, and 1 think, having done some little wrong, he had been driven to a •greater one for a cover, and each one growing worse, of course it is eas\' or more easy to go in the wrong after the tirst few steps. I'N'IVERSITY MFK. Letters of inquiry were sent to his teachers and classmates, many of whom are now prominent physicians. One of the professors in the university says: "It is true that while a student here he was for a ye&v or two under my roof, but not in any such intimate relations with me as to justify him as looking upon me as his best friend; if so, his friends must be few. However, I am very sorry for him, even although he himself may be the direct cause of his present miseries and threatening punishments. He told me a few months ago, when I visited him in prison, that he and another classmate had worked up a scheme to defraud an insurance company a few months after they graduated in 1884 from the medical department here, but that the scheme fell through because of his friend's death, which occurred within a year after he graduated. 1 do not know whether he graduated in pharmacy or not. He certainly did not take that course here, as I find he was never entered as a pharmacy student. He may have taken the degree elsewhere, but if he did it was after he graduated in medicine, as he made no claim to having had a pharmacy course when he was here. "There were several things that occurred while he was here as a student that in the light of subsequent events show him to have been even at that time well practiced in criminal habits. Although he was married and had his wife here for a time doing work as a dressmaker and assisting in supporting himself and her, yet he got into trouble by showing some attention to a grass widow, who was engaged in the business of hair dressing. This woman made some complaints to the faculty during the latter part of his senior year, and the stories that she told, had they been confirmed, would have prevented him from graduating. But 1 had no reason to doubt his word at that time, and his friends lied for him so vigorously that I was wholly deceived and defended him before the faculty, and he was permitted to graduate. On the afternoon of commencement day he came to me of his own accord, with his diploma in his hand, and said: 'Doctor, those things are ti-ue that that woman said about me.' This was the first positive evidence that 1 had received up until that time that the fellow was a scoundrel, and I took occasion to tell him so at that time. I subse- quently learned, however, that he had made two attempts to enter my house in the character of a burglar, and also that he had, while occupy- ing a room in a portion of my house, attempted to force a drawer in my library in which I had been in the habit of keeping some valua- bles. Three months after he had graduated in medicine, and knowing full well what opinion I entertained of him, he wrote me asking for a recommendation to assist him in getting an appointment as a mission ary to Africa. This, I am satisfied, be did simply from the spirit of devilishness, and not that he had any serious intention of carrying out 24 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. such a purpose. These, and many little incidents that 1 might ijl^te to you, some of them personal experiences of my own with him, and others that have been told me by members of my family, serve to further illustrate these traits in his character, l;.ut they are all of the same nature as those that I have mentioned." Another professor savs: "Personally, I can not recall H.'s features. 1 only remember that he failed to pass in my work and that I voted against his graduation." TESTIMONY OF HIS CLASSMATES. 1. "Myself and family lived in the house with H. and his family almost one school year. His family consisted of a wife and one child (a boy about 4 years old). His wife was a very pleasant woman and willing to make any sacrifice that she might help him along in his course. She finally went out to work and gave him her earnings. She was subject to" convulsions of some kind, and while at work he gave her such quantities of bromide that her face broke out very badly. Every one thought it too bad for her. He must have been in very straitened circumstances, for he managed different ways of getting along. I remember he built a barn for a widow woman who was studying medicine in the homeopath}^ department at that time. She told me how H. beat her on the barn. He was very dishonest and tricky any place j'ou found him. He would borrow everything of the students that he could to save himself buying. I have no picture of H. Would never have i-ecognized him by his picture in the papers. At that time he had a rather slender face, wore chin whiskers, not considered good-looking; but I remember he had treacherous-looking eyes. Another piece of his wife's economy was to borrow our sewing machine and completely- turn a coat for him. 'He was not a graduate in pharmacy to my knowledge." 2. "It happened that H. acted as steward of a boarding house (only table boarding). It was his duty to keep the places at table filled with students and collect the money weekly. Mj^ recollection of him is quite distinct. None of the boj^s ever knew much of him (further than that he admitted himself to be mai'ried), or had much to do with him. His associations with his fellow-students amounted to but little, because of his way of living. He had no money, at least that is what he always said. For his meals he conducted the club, while he slept at Dr. H.\s house. (Dr. H. was then demonstrator of anatomy in the university.) This brought him to the boarding house only at meal- , time. The money was collected by H. regularly every Saturday even- ing. He was, as I remember, always punctual in performing his duties, and also regular at his meals. Even now I can see him sitting at the lower, dark end of the long table, saying but little and laughing seldom. He was of a remarkably taciturn disposition, apparently very indifi'erent to his surroundings, coldly methodical, unresponsive to humor, and very brief in his statements. His topics of conversation were mainly concerning Dr. H.'s operations upon his private patients. H., as I have said, slept at Dr. H.'s house. He always accompanied Dr. H. upon his night trips. We students, remarking the thing, always thought that H.'s quietness was due to his rest being broken and irregular, having always to hitch up the horse for the Dr.'s use, perhaps accompany him, and then stable the horse upon STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 25 return. I remember once of iiskiog' a medical student how H. answered up in his 'quiz.' The answer I got was that he was not very reliable or exact in his knowledge." 3. Health officer in a well-known city says: "From October, 1883, until June, 1884, 1 boarded at a boarding club. This club wis run by H., who was at that time a member of the senior medical class. He collected the board money and drummed up boarders among the stu- dents, receiving his own board free for the services rendered. I sat at the same table with him during most of the year. He assisted Dr. H. in his private dissecting room and in the injection of bodies received for dissection. He kept the cloakroom, receiving small fees from students engaged in dissection for looking after their clothing, renting them drawers for their dissecting instruments, etc., and m many other ways contrived to earn small sums of money. He was at all times, while I knew him, miserably, poor and a subject for pity. As a student he was distinctly what might be termed 'dum_b.'_ He was slow to grasp ideas and not at all ready in reasoning. I distinctly remember that we expected him to fail to graduate and that there was a general impression that his ultimate graduation was due to the pity of the professors overcoming their sense of propriety. Personally, he was not a man to attract friendship, although he was never offensive or repellant. He was rather quiet in manner, very slouchy in gait, and usually held his head low. I think (but am not positive) that he had a slight droop of one eyelid. I heard during the year succeeding H.'s graduation that he had gone to Cape Colony, South Africa, and was much surprised to note the first publication of his name in con- nection with the murders." 4. A woman medical student says: "I was in the same section for recitation with H. First note, a marked, almost rapt attention to detail in class work, both theoretical and practical; 2d note, very intelligent recitations; 3d note, in spite of the rather attractive physi- ognomy a personal feeling of repugnance, which 1 did not understand until his beard was shaved at one time. As I always judge a man by his mouth (as a correcting characteristic feature), I no longer won- dered at the instinctive distru^." . . 6. A classmate who is an alienist, says: "My recollection of him is that he was a 'quiet, unpretentious individual, not a brilliant student by any means, but rather plodding and perhaps below mediocre, but attentive to lectures and operations. My connection with this institu- tion has been continuous since the day of my graduation, and m the light of the experience I have had in seeing a large number of insane and defective people, I can not now recall anything about H. that would warrant me in saying that he was peculiar, degenerate, defect- ive, or insane, or tha't he lacked the average mental or moral qualities." , , . ^^ , , . j ^ 6 "I was quite well acquainted with him. He always stated to me that he was born in England. He seemed always of a sullen disposi- tion, not caring to talk much, a fair student, although not bright, and still he might be stated to be of average intelligence. We attended many lectures together, and occupied seats close to each other. He was not at all popular and seemingly had very few mtimate friends, and the talk was that he would not be able to pass his final examina- tions, as, if 1 mistake not, he entered on advanced standing-^ It i mis- take not he stated that he was a married man, and complamed frequently 26 STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. of lack of funds to complete his studies. He was often the center of comment on account of his quiet, rather sullen disposition, although he was quite talkative to those with whom he took a fancy. I do not presume that he took any particular fancy to the writer, but he fre- quently asked me for assistance or passed remarks about our work, and acted as if he had either some great trouble or was of a very retir- ing disposition." 7. ''I was well acquainted with him. He and I dissected together on the same cadaver. In college life he seemed rather a recluse, sel- dom taking any part in the mirth or amusements of the class, and yet it was not because he was overstudious, for he was but mediocre in attainments. He wore his hair cut square across behind, which gave the appearance of a bulging cerebellum. He did not appear defiant. I do not know that he had a single confidante among his classmates. As I recall him now, he gave no promise of being an adept at good works or crime. Once in the dissecting room I remember that he appropriated the foot of a child cadaver, taking it away for his own use. He did not seem in good health at any time. His eyes were sunken, complexion past3^ and figure lean." CONDUCT IN DISSECTING ROOM. _s. "1 know of nothing in his character during my acquaintance with him which would mark him as exceptional in anyway. 1 remem- ber he was identified with the Young Men's Christian Association of the university, and took sides with that society in a dispute between the society and one of the professors, and he told me at one time that after graduation he intended to go to New Zealand as a medical mis- sionary. On the whole, his conduct was such as to breed a sensation of dislike for him among his fellows. He appeared to be a good deal of a sneak, and L know as a matter of fact that he was a liar. He seemed to be fond of the uncanny things of the dissecting room, and told me at the beginning of one spring vacation that he intended to take home the body of an infant for dissection; that Dr. H. had given him one for that purpose. He seemed to derive a good deal of pleasure from the fact. Nevertheless, he was not an industrious worker in the dissecting room." 9. Classmate, president of a State medical society, says: "I saw him daily. His appearance was very ordinary. He was of a meditative, unassuming disposition, willing to talk if approached, but his manner was retiring. He was apparently most inoffensive; we then thouo-ht him stupid. In his difliculty with the dressmaker we, boylike, believed poor H. was being sinned against, and selected a law student, now a rnember of Congress for Idaho, to intercede for him, with the result that the faculty was lenient and H. was ' vindicated.' His bearing so little resembled that of one who sought the company of women that we regarded the incident as a great joke. Even at that time he was given to devising schemes for money -making; speculating on proiects that might be taken up after graduation. We did not regard them as of doubtful integrity, yet none of them were in line with the profession he was about to be graduated into. We looked upon them as vision- ary. He had no chums or associates, so far as I knew; always alone, of modest demeanor, and never aggressive. It was a serious struo-gle with him then for bare existence, and we pitied him without thoSffht of his merit, tor he was, as we saw him, a negative character " STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 27 10. "He was a fellow to slide along without attracting an}^ attention, and would be soon forgotten. There was an episode in which he acquired some notoriet}', and if guilty showed much foresight and caution on his part. The facts are as follows: A young widow was running a boarding house, he being one of the boarders. She obtained a letter to him from his wife; she brought her case before the faculty, claiming that he had promised to marry her, and in evi- dence produced some letters signed in his name. He denied the charge and produced specimens of his handwriting, including notebooks, etc., whicn were not in the same hand as the letters produced })y her. The evidence was not such that the facultj' could convict on, so thej^ let him oif . The opinion among the students was that he was the one who wrote the letters." 11. "His life was somewhat in the background. He said in con- versing with me that he had been in the life insurance business in New York, New Hampshire, and Chicago. He said he had traveled a great amount. He and his wife did not get along very well. Have seen her with blackened eyes as a result of their quarrels. They roomed only a few doors from where I roomed. His life was somewhat sus- picious, and he was supposed to be getting bodies for the anatomical rooms in some mj'sterious way. He gave me a hint of this in a con- versation I had with him. He. told me he did not intend to practice medicine, but wanted a medical education to help him in his V)usiness. He was only a fair student; was absent from his work often, and man}' of us thought he would not be able to get through. He paid more attention to anatomy, surgery, and materia medica. To me he was a suspicious person, and 1 so treated him while we were associated together. I would often question him along the lines of business he had been engaged in and he would invariablj' turn the conversation into other channels. He told me how he evaded pajnng the extra fees nonresidents of Michigan had to pa}'. I was not surprised when I saw in one of the papers a short sketch of his past life which tallied with some of the things he told me." 12. "He passed by the nickname of ' Smegma ' among the ' boj's ' of our class, due doubtless to a peculiar odor. As 1 remember him he appeared as a simple, harmless individual, and it has been a source of astonishment to me in noting his remarkable career of crime. He was in some ' shady ' transactions while at the university. As 1 now look back at the picture he left on memory's wall, he was an uncouth rustic, simple in speech, rude in manner, with not one prodromic symptom that would enable one to even dream that he would one day stand as a monster of crime." 13. "He had a noticeable aversion to familiarity. During the time spent with Dr. H. he took active interest in Sunda3'-school work of the Presbyterian church, of which Dr. H. was a prominent and active member. ' I remember him as an odd character in the class on account of his seemingly friendless fate and the manner in which he worked himself into the good graces of Dr. H. About the last thing he told me was he had decided to go as a medical missionary to some foreign country after graduating, and that Dr. H. had acted in his behalf to .secure for him all the necessary credentials for the undertaking." 14. "To me he was especially noticeable for his rather delicate and fair facial complexion and rather blue and open eyes. He had a thin 28 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. mustache curled up at the ends. His habits were decidedly of a secretive nature, and consequently he was never much discussed." 15. "1 was quite intimately acquainted with him and can honestly say that he was the last man that 1 would suspect of doing the deeds of which he was convicted." 16. " He was sickly looking and troubled quite a little with boils. He was peculiar in that he did not seem to care for anyone but him- self and paid but little attention to anyone. 1 thought he was rather repulsive in looks, but never thought him a criminal." 17; "He was a quiet, hard-working student, although in some respects a little peculiar. He was quite often found occupying older students' seats down nearer the lecturer, and in consequence was some- times 'passed up,' as the boys used to say. He was of quite a religions turn of mind and was quite a worker in the Presbyterian Sunday school." 18. "He never made very many friends; never was hail-fellow with anybod3^ Was alwa^^s influenced bj^ circumstances, and when once decided upon a point would never yield or acknowledge himself mis- taken. During 18S4 he wore a mustache, dressed plainly, almost shabbilj% and was very little with his class outside of absolute necessity." 19. "I boarded in the same club with him, and though sitting next to him at the table made very little progress toward an acquaintance; his disposition was such — sullen, I should call it — that one would be repelled rather than attracted." 20. "He was a man who tried hard to keep his identitj^ to himself. He registered from the State of Michigan, when in private conversa- tion he unthoughtedly admitted that he had never been in the State until he entered the university. His college career was not a bright one, as on many occasions he would try to use secret helps during his examinations. He never could carry on a conversation and at the same time look you in the face. When on the street he usually walked with his eyes on the ground." 21. "I remember having heard him referred to on one or two occa- sions as a 'smart Alec' It was not generally, if at all, believed by the students at Ann Arbor that he had the necessary nerve to commit murder. As 1 remember, he was looked upon as a bigot and a fellow of so little consequence that it was not worth one's while to pay any attention to him so long as he kept to himself." 22. "1 considefed him a quiet, bright, unsophisticated sort of a young man. 1 saw nothing abnormal or anything to especially attract attention. He seemed rather gloomy at times and not inclined to be intimate with anyone." 23. "He was easily disconcerted on being questioned and never ranked very high in his class, but this might have been caused by him entering upon advanced standing and not' taking the tirst year in the university." 24. "1 boarded at the same boarding house as he. After a few months the landlady found that he was cheating her by various methods; each boarder that left, he would report to"the landlady that the Ijoarder had not paid him for his board for several weeks, and pocket that amount of money. Also in ordering groceries he would 'beat' the lady. The other students thereby found out that he was dishonest. He appeared to be a sneaking, quiet, unpopular man, other students not associatmg with him to any extent. 1 never knew of him drinking. He did not seem to be a ' fast' boy, but a mean fellow As " STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 29 to his scholarship I remember only that Professor V. did not pass him on some branch and H. was very spiteful against Professor V. — wrote him letters calling him vile names and spoke bitterly against him." 25. "He never entered into sports of any Isind, seldom laughed, sometimes smiled in a dry, half-hearted waj' — he seemed secretive and afraid of suspicion." 26. "He was looked upon as one who would attempt to attain favor with the faculty by spying among the students." 27. "I was well acquainted with him. I have read everything about him since he was arrested and I know he tells the truth in some of his confessions." Letter from one who lived in the "Castle:" "February 2, 1889, I moved into a room in the 'Castle' and remained there till December 3, 1889. He was always quick and active. If you had seen him in drug store in Englewood you would have thought him the busiest man you^ever saw. Was considered the best druggist and chemist that ever came here, and his store was always filled with customers. Nearly everyone who knew him here does not l^elieve he killed anyone; think him too big a coward. He was one of the biggest swindlers they ever knew, but when he hired a man to do any work he always paid him what he asked without a word, but if he made a bargain with anyone that could afford to lose without breaking him up he would beat hmi almost every time. The iron columns in front of his building are an example. He never paid a cent for them and beat them in three courts. His gas business and using the city water for two years and making them believe it was artesian water were other instances. Bringing the city gas through a tank of water, he put stuff in the water to color the flame until the gas inspectors declared that it was not theirs." Letter from a prison chum: "It is very little information that 1 can give you regarding H. I met him for the first time in the jail, and was only with him for some three or four weeks while he remained in jail in St. Louis. I suppose that it was owing to the reputation that had been forced upon me that caused him to approach me and seek my acquaintance. I was then expecting to soon recover my liberty, and he stated that he intended soon to make a trip to Germany and wanted me to accompany him. 1 am now convinced that he would sooner or later have murdered me had 1 been able to have accompanied him on his intended trip abroad. I know nothing about him but what he told me of some of his former exploits before 1 met him. Of course you know that he told me all about the scheme to rob the insurance company, and that it was for introducing him to a lawyer who could be trusted to be allowed to know that the scheme to rob the insurance company was a fraud, etc., that I was to have $.500 to enable me to fight mv case or secure my liberty." Letter from Mrs. P.'s father: "I beg to be allowed to reply that Mrs. P. is not at all in a condition to give .such information even it she had it to give. It would be cruel to ask it of her. She is badly used up by the fearful ordeal she has gone through. The treatiiient received at the hands of officers and officials under the mistaken idea that she was a bad woman and desperate criminal, added to the horrid work of H. with herself and family, is surely enough to drive almost any woman to death or distraction. Her personal acquaintance with H. was not sufficient to give her a very concise opinion of his^pecuiiar traits or points of character. She saw him but a tew times before he 30 STUDY or THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. murdered her husband, and only a few times after, while at St. Louis, during the time he and his associates were robbing her of the insurance money. During the time she was being dragged about the country under the promise and delusion that she would see her husband and children, she only saw the wretch occasionally, and only for a short time. He never, to her knowledge, rode on the same train or put up at the same house or hotel where she was stopping. During this time Mrs. P. was under great mental strain. The children were confiding in him because P. had made them to understand and believe that he (H.) would be good to them. He allured P. to his death, and at the same time made him betray his family into his bloody hands. P. loved his family and would have fought for them had he thought any- one was going to impose upon or injure them. H. could show much kindness and be very sympathetic, but always, as it would seem, for the purpose of helping to carry out his murderous schemes. If his instructions to his victims in any matter were not carried out, he was quick to resent it and free to reprimand. He was 'boss' as well as executor. " CONDUCT BEFORE EXECUTION. H. made a long confession of many brutal murders, which he sub- sequently admitted to be false. The.purpose of this was said to be to pay his debts. Just before his execution H. desired his counsel to walk to the gal- lows and remain there with him. No one desired it, but it was done because he threatened to make a scene. His statement upon the scaffold was as follows: "Gentlemen, I have very few words to say, in fact, I would make no statement at this time except that by not speaking 1 would appear to acquiesce in my execution. I only want to say that the extent of my wrongdoing in taking human life consisted in the death of two women, they having died at my hand as the result of criminal operations. I wish to also state, however, so that there will be no misunderstand- mg hereafter, I am not guilty of taking the lives of any of the P. family, the three children or father, B. F. P., of whose death I am now convicted, and for which I am to-day to be hanged. That is all." H. was self-possessed to the last, even suggesting to the superin- tendent not to hurry or to make any mistake. PURPOSE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL STUDY. The purpose of such study is to seek out the causes and conditions that lesid to crmie on the general principle that the amelioration or prevention of evil doings can not be accomplished by rational methods until we know more definitely the causes, whether they lie more in the individual or more in the surroundings. As far as investigation of criminals has gone, the indications are that the cause of most crime lies in the surroundings rather than in the criminal, and this is a most hopeful result of such study, because it is possible to change the sur- roundings, but very difficult to change the nature of an individual, ihe study of a single criminal in the most thorough manner possible IS important from he fact that he represents generally a large num ber in his type and in this way a clear insight is gained into the defi- nite nature of those characteristics and special surroundings which lead through their combination into evil doing. STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES 31 The thorough study of a criminal illustrates the method by which every human being should be studied. There can be no scientific soci- ology in the rigid sense of that term until a thorough study is made of individuals in society. EDUCATION AND CRIME. It is an undisputed fact that the moral side of education is as difficult as it is important. This becomes most apparent in the education of the dependent, weak, and criminal classes. Any educational system that can succeed here can with slight modification succeed in the community at large, for all meu have tendencies, however slight, toward these defects; but, bj^ force of character or surroundings, the great majority have been able to resist to such a degree as not to ^all. But it maybe asked to what extent methods of education for normal individuals may be adapted to those who are abnormal. An individual may be said to be abnormal when his mental or emotional character- istics are so divergent from those of the ordinary person as to produce a pronounced moral or intellectual deviation or defect. To distinguish such abnormality from disease is difficult, if not impossible; but in general an abnormality is called disease as soon as it reaches a certain degree; but it may also be an excessive degree of the normal, just as in the physical man in a single diseased cell the normal or physiological processes are not changed in kind, but only in degree, or simplj^ act at an inappropriate time. In general it may be said that, while all dis- eases are abnormal, not all abnormalities are diseases. The fact that the same functions are involved in both normal and abnormal proc- esses (psychical and physical) is one explanation why the same methods of education are found applicable to both. CLASSES OF SOCIETY. If, then, the average man in the community is taken as a normal type and individuals are. classified according to their degree of like- ness or uolikeness to him, there will result in general the following divisions: (1) The normal class of individuals, who greatly exceed all other classes in number; t^hese in every community constitute the conserva- tive- and- trustworthy elerhent and may be said to be the backbone of ^e race. (2) The dependent class, as represented in almshouses, hospitals, asylums for orphans and the homeless, and similar charitable institu- tions. According to the census of 1880 in the United States the whole number of such individuals, for example, amounted to 123,626. (3) The delinquent class, as found in all penal and reformatory institutions, which, according to the same census, amounted to 70,077. f (4) The defective class. Here belong the insane, feeble-minded, \ idiotic, and imbecile, amounting in all to 168,854; and also the deaf, ■>^umb, and blind, numbering 82,806 in all. (5) M«n of genius or great talent. The total number of these first four classes in the United States tor 1880 was 445,363. This, of course, is far below the reality, smce many are not sent to the institutions from which the census is taken. It will, "Jahrb. fur Psych., 1889, vni, Heft in. 32 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. however, give an idea of the comparatively small number of distmo- tively abnormal individuals— that is, less than half a million out of 50,000,000 inhabitants. It is surprising that so small a part of the com- munity can cause so much trouble, danger, and expense. But it is m a social mechanism as in a mechanical, where one little part may throw the whole into disorder. Yet the importance of this part does not lie in itself, but in its relations to the others. Thus one crank or one criminal can throw the whole community into excitement, often caus- ing great injuiy. The delinquent classes approximate nearest to the normal type, for the majority deviate principally in one respect — that is, in a weakness of moral sense which gives away to temptation; this is the most harm- ful deviation, both for the individual and society, and the community justly regard these classes as their greatest enemy. While the dependent classes owe their condition directly or indi- rectly to either alcoholism or improvidence or general mental or phys- ical incapacity, their abnormality may be regaided as more distinctly social than in the case of the other classes. The insane and feeble-minded are the largest in number and vary the most from the normal type. The one is an exaggeration of mental fac- ulties due to cerebral irritation; the other is a diminution of niental powers; or both exaggeration and defect may coexist. Feeble-minded- ness, idiocy, and imbecility may be due to an immature or arrested development. There is a natural objection to calling the deaf and dumb and blind ' ' defectives, " since the public are liable to suppose that this term applies to the mental capacity, which in many cases is not true. Yet the pop- ular prejudice is not wholl}' unfounded, for anyone deprived of such important senses is so far hindered in opportunities for knowledge. It must be borne in mind also that a considerable number of the feeble- minded are deaf and dumb or partially so. The division of the abnormal classes into dependent, delinquent, and defective, while by no means exact, is as convenient as any perhaps. Any exact division is manifestly impossible for the defective and delinquent are generally dependent and the delinquent are often defect- ive, and vice versa. The difficulty of obtaining the number of all those who belong to the special classes is unavoidable. Thus the delinquent class are the most desirous to conceal themselves. As to the insane, there are many such in the community who are not referred to as such because they are harmless. Man}^ families seek to conceal insanity and idiocy. On the other hand, there may be exaggeration in the number of the poor, for some claim to be in poverty in order to receive help. There is also a~ tendency to exaggerate evil or misfortune in order to bring out a more liberal sjrmpathy or there is, unfortunately, a morbid desire to picture the world in its darkest colors. TEACHING OF PIIACTICAL MORAUTV. From the point of view of society, the importance of these classes is not according to their number, for the delinquent are the most injurious and costl^^ This is evident when one considers the time they require from the police, detectives, and courts. There is much to indicate that the sociological problem involved in the delinquent and dependent classes is at its foundation an educational one. Teaching of practical STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 33 morality in such a waj^ as to form good habits in the young is doubtless the surest preventive from a criminal career. A general criticism of educational systems is that they are little developed on their moral side as compared with the intellectual. Perez says that the business of education should be much more concerned with the habits that chil- dren acquire, and with their wills, rather than with the moral con- science. The latter is the blossom that will be followed by fruit, but the former are therootsand branches. While the moral and'intellectual sides of education necessarily exist together, yet society is most solic- itous about the former, for an individual may be a good citizen with little instruction if he has sound morality; but the reverse is not true. There is a special difficulty in teaching even a minimum system of morality, for the desideratum consists not only in inculcating general principles, but by indicating courses of conduct in detail. Generalities elevate the moral tone, but details incarnate the principles. A definite course of conduct is needed, yet broad enough to apply to the average individual. In the province of personal hygiene there is much to be done, but nothing should be taught unless sanctioned by the most com- petent medical authorities. One cleanly habit established suggests others; a beginning, with a few details, is much more impressive than generalities. Society teaches many of these things by occasion, when the poor are brought into hospitals and made conscious of what cleanliness signifies, or when the board of health forces this idea upon the community. Manj" children are taught, for the first time, lessons of cleanliness upon entering institutions for the weakling classes, where the good effects are seen; so that it is as true as it is paradoxical that some of the enemies of the State are receiving a most practical education from the State. This, however, has its justification, since the weak need more aid than the stronger, but this weakness may have been due to the neglect of such education at the outset. The inmates of institutions for the delinquent and dependent differ little or none at all from individuals outside. The excellences and defects of an educational system can be carefully studied in these insti- tutions, for all are under the same conditions and can be controlled in all details of their life. In addition to the practical value of the expe- rience of these institutions there is a deeper one. One of the main objects of education is to eradicate or modify undesirable tendencies and to develop the favorable ones. Here is an opportunity for the rational method of treatment, which is, first, to study the unfavorable characteristics, and, second, to investigate their causes as far as possi- ble. Knowledge thus gained will be the most reliable in correcting evil tendencies or preventing their development. By such a method no sudden results should be expected; gradual progress is all that can be hoped for. A thorough study of this nature in penal and reforma- tory institutions is possible; the effects of the method of education can be closely observed physically, inteilectualljj, and morally. Thus when, . for instance, an inmate ceases to reverse his drinking cup after using it, which is required for purposes of cleanliness and order, this though a very slight thing in itself, indicates that he is becoming careless and losing his will power to reform. By a sort of radiation other negli- gences are liable to follow, confirming the direction in which he_ is tending. A good report from his keeper, on the other hand, can sig- nify a new resolution of the will. Thus a series of records indicate, 9192 3 34 STUDY OF THE ABNOBMAL CLASSES. SO to speak, the moral and intellectual pulse of the inmate. What might seem a very slight offense outside of a reformatory institution is not so within, where there is a minimum of temptation to do wrong and a maximum of continuous restraint to do right, so that there may be a gradual education in the formation of good habits, which are the surest safeguard to the inmate after his release. It is important that institutions for the criminal and weakling classes strive to gain as much knowledge as possible of the life of the inmate previous to entering the institution, to keep a minute record of his condnct while under their care, and especially to follow his career afterwards, thus imparting useful knowledge to society at large, for if there is to be any advancement in the treatment of the weakling classes by educational methods, it will lie in the direction of the study of the inmates themselves. The institutions should afford facilities for such study, the very object of which is to furnish a trustworthy foun- dation for the prevention and repression of delinquency and depend- ency. If the cure is possible only to a certain degree, the approximate determination of this degree would be of great practical importance. But if it be objected that, after all, much that is detinite and trust- worthy may not be gained, the cause will be due mainly to the need of more exact methods of investigation. By keeping an exact record of conduct in school, workshop, military service, and cell in connection with intellectual standing, and giving special attention to those indi- viduals whose hereditary tendencies and early surroundings are best known, a thorough investigation of physical, mental, moral, and_ indus- trial education can be made. A minute study of one single individual in the social organism, be he delinquent, dependent, or not, may suggest a method for the beginning, at least, of a scientific sociological educa- tion. Such experience might be especially helpful in pointing out the best methods for the education of the young. In general, the main object of education is to train the young to become intelligent, moral, and self-supporting citizens. A system of education that can accom- plish this is a practical need in society as a whole. But education in the sense of the intellectual only is not sufficient; for, though the children of the weakling classes remain six hours in school, the rest of their time is spent in abodes of crime, squalid homes, or vicious idleness. While the reform schools are doing much, they do not reach, however, the veiy 3'oung at a time when influences for evil can leave indelible impressions. If these unfortunate children are to be educated morallj' and intellectually^ it is evident that this can not be done unless they are removed from their pernicious surroundings. Early prevention is the most effective of all reforms. Philanthropic efforts are being directed to this end, but they have not proved sutfi- cient, for their support is not always assured, and not infrequently they are of a sporadic nature. It would seem, if anything permanent and effective is to be accomplished, the State must assist. While the American Government is not a paternal one, yet there is a limit to all . forms of rules here; extremes can produce evil. JMajor McClaughry, chief of the Chicago police, and an expert of long experience, considers first among the causes of crime in this country "criminal parentage, association, and neglect of children by their parents." It is to be presumed that parents will properly care for their children, treating them kindly, and allowing them an opportunity for at least an ele- STUDY OB' THE ABNOBMAL CLASSES. 35 mentary education When this presumption is found to be untrue, the btate provides for the appointment of a suitable person to act as guard- ian. But, as Mr. Martindale'^ says, there are two defects in this method: "First, there is no officer or person or body charged specially with the duty of investigating and prosecuting the cases. Secondly, as such children have no estates out of which they may })e maintained and educated, the court can find no guardian who will undertake the task at his own charge. Experience in such cases shows that it is dif- ficult to induce neighbors to prosecute. The fear of revenge, reluctance to attend court, a common belief that a child belongs to a parent, who has a right to do_ as he pleases with it, and sympathy for a mother deprived other child, however depraved she may be, are all prevailing motives which hinder the prosecution of such cases. Prof. Francis Way land,'' of the Yale law school, says that "it may require a little time to convince the community that a father has no inalienable right to brutalize his children and to conduct under his roof a normal school for crime; that a mother has no inalienable right to turn her apartments into a brothel. A haunt of vice and crime is not a home, and we do not advocate institutional life save as, and always as, a temporary resting place under humane conditions, as to care and comfort, until a permanent home can be provided.'' According to the most thorough study yet made" of the conditions of the weakling classes, 20 per cent of the school fees can not be col- lected; 10 per cent of the children attending are in want of food; some come without breakfast because the parents do not get it for them; as a little boy said, "his mother got drunk and could not get up to get it." Such children are very irregular in attendance, which is a great annoyance to a teacher, not to sa}' a waste of public mone3^ Such children live in the poorest neighborhood; thej^ have no regular meals; fully a third live in one room with their parents; their waking hours are divided between school and the street; saloons are some- times as numerous as one to eveiy hundred adults; those on the verge of pauperism patronize them. Yet there is good order in these schools; the street urchins are trained to respond to right rule, afi'ording ground for hope as to their future. At home they have no training; they need encouragement; they should be lifted up from their sur- roundings and gain a taste for better things. The difficulty is caused more f requentlj^ by povert}' and shiftlessness at home than bj^ neglect and vice, yet the latter have great influence. Compulsion in its ordi- nary form is practicall}' useless in making such children regular in attendance at school. The parents are characterized hy improvidence, wantof purpose, and no regard for the future of their children; as soon as their boy is through with scho.ol he is put on work which prepares him for nothing, and thus he drifts into casual emploj'ment, trusts to chance for a living, and gradually sinks. The poverty, miseiy, and vice of the next generation will to a large extent come "from the slum children. Their need is education in habits of decency, cleanliness, self-respect, the rudiments of civilization and domestic life; their instruction should not be too abstract nor technical in the sense of fitting them for competitive examinations, clerkships, or college, but rather for the workshop, factor^^ trades, or the home. » "Child-saving legislation," North American Review, September, 1891. '"Child-saving legislation," reprint from National Baptist, Decembers, 1891, " Charles Booth, Labor and Life of the People, London. 36 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. KELATION OF EDUCATION TO CRIME. It is common suspicion of a number of writers that education has little influence in decreasing crime. That the meanmg of this may be clearly understood it will be necessary to cite a few opinions. Monsieur Tarde"^ speaks of the action of education upon insanity and suicide, which increase pari passu, but he refers only to primary educa- tion He remarks that the restrictive action of education over crime is not seen, for where there is the most illiteracy there is not always the most crime; in Spain the proportion of illiteracy to the population of the whole country is two-thirds, but only half of the crime comes from this number. In 1883, 64 of condemned assassins knew how to read or write; 67 did not; there is one condemned for theft out of every 6,453 with common education and 8,283 with no education. •= In the country, where there is less education than in the city, there are 8 pris- oners a year for 100,000 inhabitants, but 16 prisoners for 100,000 inhabitants in the cities. Education modifies crime. Thus within forty or fifty years the stealing of grain has diminished while that of jewels has increased; also the proportion of crime against chastity has been very large, a probable effect of the emancipation and refinement of mind. Therefore, accordingto Monsieur Tarde, "the quantity of crnne en bloc is not at all attacked by the diffusion of primary education. The remedy should be to proclaim the necessity of sacrifice, the insufli- ciency of the motive of personal interest, and the opportunity to elevate by festhetical education of the highest sort and to spread pro fessional education as far as possible." From_Tarde\s point of view, however, primary education is necessary, as it is a condition of the higher and professional, even if we should admit that per se it is without effect. According to Proal," instruction is not sufficient to repress crime; morality is not an attribute of thought, but of will; spiritual beliefs and respect of God are necessary. Instruction does not do away with egotism. Literary and philosophical studies have much more moral influence than those that are scientific. Victor Hugo liked to say that he who opens a school closes a prison. But Proal says many schools have been opened, but no prisons closed; criminality has not diminished while education has increased. Nicolay " insists that if defective instruction is the cause of every evil, then (1) there should he less morality in the country, where .instruction is less cared for, than in the city; (2) the sense of duty should be more feeble in woman than in man. But the contrary is the truth — the city popu- lation, which is onlj' three-tenths of the whole, furnishes almost half the number of accused, and women commits four times as few offenses and six times as few crimes as man. "La Criminalite comparee, Paris, 1890. " Jimeno Agius, la Criminalitad en Espafia. Revista de Espana, 1885. ° Le Crime et la peine, Paris, 1892. ■* Les enfants nml eleves, Paris, 1891. . STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 37 Lombroso," bj' comparing 500 criminals with normal men, Uriels the following: i)t;linqueuta. Normala. 1. Analphabets Per cent. 12 85 12 Per cetit. 6 67 27 2. Elementary instruction The delinquents are inferior to the normal in the two extremes, but not so in elementary instruction. But there is great variation, accord- ing to the category of criminals; 25 per cent of violators and assassins are analphabets, but only 9 per cent of criminals against property, and less than 1 per cent of swindlers. In Austria the class commit- ting the least crime for fourteen years consisted of those engaged in scientific work;'' but such men are engaged in tedious and long investi- gations; they are critical, and their emotional nature is little developed, so that the}' see more clearly the folly of crime, and that its reaction generally returns with great severitj^ upon the offender. But ^vit^l poets and artists crime is more common, since the emotional nature is more prominent. The artists are tempted by professional jealousy. While sculptors and architects manifest little tendency to crime, painters pro- duce their quota, owing perhaps to their abuse of alcohol. But crime is more frequent in the liberal professions. In Italj' and France 6 per cent had received a superior culture, in Bavaria 4 per cent, and in Aus- tria 3.6 per cent. Lombroso adds that these numbers are relatively greater than in the other classes of society. In Italy there is 1 criminal for everj^ 345 professional men ("prof essionistes"), 1 for eveiy 278 proprietors, 1 for every 419 farmers, and 1 for every 428 employees." For those who exercise a profession science is not an end in itself, but a means, thus giving less force to conquer the passions. The physician can easily give poison, the lawyer commit perjuiy, and the teacher sin against chastit}'. But there are other authorities who take a soinewhat different -^-iew. Biichner (Force et matiere) says that defect of intelligence, want of edu- cation, and poverty are the three great factors in crime. Beccaria asserts that the evils that flow from knowledge are in inverse ratio to its diffusion and the benefits directly proportional; to prevent crime, enlightenment should accompany liber t^^ A bold impostor, who is neve r a commonplace man, is adored by the ignorant and despised by the en- lightened. The surest, yet most difficult, means of preventing crime is tmrnprove education ; inclining the youth to virtue by the path of feeling, SUMMARY OF STATISTICS ON EDUCATION AND CRIME IN THE UNITED STATES, GATHERED BT THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. The whole number of inmates received by the prisons and peniten- tiaries reporting to the Bureau for the year 1891 was 27,103. The average age was 26f j^ears. ^L' Homme Criminel, Paris, 1887. "Messedaglia, Statistiche criminali dell' Impero Austriaco. ■= Oettingen, Die Moral-Statistik. 38 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. Education. — The education of the inmates was as follows: 13 per cent of those reporting could neither read nor write; 1 per cent claimed to have been in college; 4 per cent in high school or academy; 48 per cent in grammar grade of public school; 20 per cent in private elementary' school. Of those discharged, 3 per cent were unable to read or write. Those institutions reporting are probably among the best, and it is also probable that their per cent of education is higher than institu- tions which have not sent in returns; so that were it possible to obtain answers from all the prisons the percentages of illiteracy and want of general education would be somewhat greater. ReHgimi. — As to the religion of inmates, 43 per cent were Catholics, 0.8 per cent Jews, 33 per cent Protestants, and 16 per cent of no religion. Nativity. — Forty-two per cent were natives of the State and 43 per cent were natives of other States. This confirms the well-known migratory tendency in criminals. Eleven per cent were natives of Ireland, 3 per cent of Germany, 3 per cent of Canada, 4 per cent of England and Wales, 0.8 per cent of Scotland, 0.4 of France, 1 per cent of Italy, and 4 per cent of other countries. Character of offem^e. — There were 11 per cent of the offenses against person, 39 per cent against propert}', 47 per cent against public morals, and 3 per cent against government. Tntellhjence. — The number of those defective in intelligence was 19 per cent; 33 per cent showed fair intelligence; 38 per cent were good, and 5 per cent excellent in intelligence. Siiijects taught. — Twent};' institutions reported 124 teachers (leaving 20 with no school) and 2,722 pupils. The average daity session of school was about two hours and twenty minutes. Heading was taught in 18 institutions, writing in 16, spelling in 14, grammar in 11, geog- raphy in 9, history in 3, the Bible in 2, and literature, algebra, ethics, and religion each, in 1. The results here given do not include Sunday schools or Sunda}' teaching. Envployinent. — The proportion of inmates regularly employed before entering penitentiaries was 38 per cent; 22 per cent had learned some mechanical or manufacturing trade before entering the prisons. Parentage. — Sixty-two per cent were reported living with their parents until 10 years of age; 69 per cent of parents were poor, 18 per cent comfortable, and 6 per cent well to do. Sixty-three per cent resided in the city and 36 per cent in the country. Nature of crhritnal. — Considered incorrigible, 10 percent; institu- tions reporting, 26. Considered as returning to crime, 35 per cent; institutions reporting, 28. Considered as owing crime to circum- stances, 60 per cent; institutions reporting, 21. Considered as owing crime to criminal propensities, 35 per cent; institutions reporting, 22^ Health o/rr/vy/Z/jff/.— Eighty-two per cent were reported as havino- good health, 11 per cent fair health, and 6 per cent bad health. Conduct of ^v//// ;««/.— Sixty-eight per cent showed good conduct, 23 per cent fair, and 7 per cent bad conduct. _ Tni.<< of ci'lmlnal.—Fiite&n of the 34 penitentiaries report- mg consider the most trustworthy criminals to be those committino- offenses against person. Sixteen of the 30 reporting consider the least trustworthy criminals to be those against property. The remainino- STCJDY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. 39 answers were, so \'aricd that further classihcation could not be carried out. Pressing 2>ract leal reforms recommended. — Education speciall_y rec- ommendedby 7 institutions; strict discipline recommended by 7" insti- tutions; kind treatment recommended by .5 institutions; religious influences recommended by .5 institutions; teaching of trades recom- mended l)y -i institutions; occupation recommended by 4 institutions; better classification recommended by -t institutions; assistance to dis- charged prisoners recommended by 2 institutions. The other recom- mendations were not sufficiently similar to classify further. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. One method of criminology is to stud}' a few cases as thoroughly as possible. In a new field of empirical study the investigation of details is indispensable, if there is to be any attempt at scientific treatment. The reader may, in addition, gain an independent insight into t^'pical cases and the method of treatment in our penal institutions. The value of a single case Ties in the fact that repetition is the rule in crime. And for this reason the study of single cases is probably the best method of gaining a definite knowledge of the causes, difti- culties, and remedies for crime. The method of gathering the facts is by visiting different reformatories and prisons. The superintendent or warden was asked to name the purest murderer, the most habitual thief, and the meanest person generally among the prisoners under his charge. One aim is to studjr only those cases about which enough is known to place their real nature bej^ond a doubt. We should give in detail the complaints and other records of each case investigated, with the additional testimony gathered from the officers. These facts are of more scientific value than those gathered outside of prison, because they are not only more trustworthy, but the environment of the prisoner is more definitely known. Each com- plaint generally represents many repetitions of the same offense, for an officer naturally refrains from making complaints, as he may get the ill will of the prisoner, which adds difficulties to the duties of both. Our order of procedure is: (1) To decide upon the cases to be inves- tigated; (2) to copy all the records of the institution; (3) to interview all the ofiScers who had knowledge of the prisoner through experi- ence; (4) to interview and examine the prisoner himself. By copying the records one becomes familiar with the facts, and is thus" better able to question the officers to the point. After this the investigator will probably l)e well prepared to interview the prisoner. He should not let the prisoner know beforehand that he knows any- thing about him. This is the safest way to avoid errors and decep- tions, for the prisoner is easily caught in a lie and often becomes so bewildered that he finally concludes to tell the truth as best he can. Some cases are so abnormal and they falsify so easily from habit that they are unconscious of it at times. Or they may be too lazy or indifferent to tell the truth. It is not advisable to contradict a pris- oner, but to permit him to continue until his own words involve him in additional confessions. In making requests that might not be granted by the prisoner it is advisable to defer them to the last, for 40 STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. the better one knows a criminal the more open the criminal^ becomes and is more willing to act; otherwise one ma^^ get liis ill will, which ■makes further investigation difficult, if not useless. Manj' details should be given that in themselves may seem unimpor- tant, but the object should he to present each case fully and exactly as it is, so that the reader can be wholly independent of the writer in forming his judgment. It must be borne in mind, however, that a slight offense in the "complaints," as the leaving of a utensil out of place, can indicate the exact time when the prisoner begins to relax his will to reform; while a good report signifies a new resolution of the will. Thus the series of complaints record the moral pulse-beats of the prisoner. It is also true that what might seem a very slight offense outside the prison is not so within; for in every well-regulated reformatory institution there is a minimum of temptation to do wrong and a maximum of continuous restraint to do right, so that the inmate may be gradually educated in the formation of good habits, which are his surest safeguards on release. DUTIES OF EEFOBMATOBY INSTITUTIONS. Reformatory institutions should take more care in gaining knowl- edge of the previous life of the criminal, especiall_y concerning his career after leaving the prison, and also in carefully recording his daily life while under their care, thus imparting useful knowledge to society at large. For if there is to be any advancement in the knowl- edge of crime it lies in the direction of the study of the criminal him- self. Our institutions, then, should afford facilities for such study, the very object of which is to furnish a trustworthy basis for the pre- vention and repression of crime. A clear idea of the causes of crim- inality is the first rational step toward its cure. And if the cure be possible only to a certain degree, the approximate determination of this degree would be of great practical importance. Some cases may indicate in general the small amount of exact knowl- edge there is about human beings in society, since with a compar- atively large number of data one is unable to give more than an opinion as to the real cause of the crime; but this should discourage no one, as it is due mainly to our present need of more exact methods of investigation. It would seem, then, for the present, that criminological studies should be directed toward the investigation of individual criminals as members of society and the race. And it is in the psychology of the criminal that the most important results can be reached. His feelings and thoughts in general and especially at the moment of his crime reveal to us, most of all, his true condition. After this individual study one may pass to the broader fields of criminal sociology and anthropology. The thorough study of one single individual in the social organism, be he criminal or not, may suggest a method, for the beginning at least, of a scientific sociology. A sociological study, if 'it is to be rigid, must be based primarily upon the investigation of the individual, who is the unit in society. It would seem that there can be no scientific sociology without data gathered from investigations of large numbers of individuals in the STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 41 social organiem. Such a sociology does not exist, but many recent investigations show a tendency in this direction. It is a long and tedious road, for it means a patient study of the individual units to find out what is common to most of them in their mental, moral, and physical development. It seems natural to the public mind to attribute to a man the charac- teristics of his work. The surgeon, for instance, is called cruel, but there is perhaps no class of men who do more humane work. It has gone so far that, so to speak, if one studies an apple he eventually may be called an apple. In the study of the abnormalities and weaknesses of human nature, one may appear as not disapproving of them, because he simply describes the facts without referring to their ethical portent; but the main pur- pose of scientific method, so far as it can be applied to sociology, is to search out all the facts and present them just as they are. To discuss their value or to determine their detriment to society is more in the province of ethics than of science. The most impartial individual we can conceive of would be one com- ing from another planet, who has no special interest upon this earth, except to see things exactly as they are. But such absolute imparti- ality is impossible; nevei'theless, it has been one of the eflorts of science to endeavor at least to approximate to such an ideal. A la^-ge part of the most rigid science consists in simple and exact description, which should be given, of course, without regard to any views that one may consciously or unconsciously hold. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY." GENERAL SENSIBILITY. S It is generally admitted that sensibibitj^ is less among criminals. Lombroso finds proof in the extent of their tattooing; but the criminals permit also this custom as a guarantj^ of their reputation; they can manifest a stoicism about it; this resistance of the flesh can have as cause a hjrpnotic state, as with ecstatic martyrs, or with witches who die crying that they do not feel the flames. The galley slaves dread sufi'ermg even more than death (Corre). "We shall see that from this physical insensibility com^s in great part moral insensibility. Lom- broso and Marro find general sensibility one- sixth less and sensibility to pain two-fifths less than in the average person. Touch is obtuse in 4A per cent of criminals, while among noncriminals it is 29 per cent. Although the sense of touch is almost normal in swindlers and thieves, it is always less in murderers. Meteoric sensibility. — The criminals are more under the influence of the weather than ordinary men. Lombroso found this the case in 29 out of 112; 9 were quarrelsome just before a thunder shower; many were dizzy, had buzzing in the ears, and headache on very windy days. Sight.— Dr. Bono found 60 per cent of 221 young criminals color- blind, which is more than double that of 800 students and of 590 workmen. Holmgren found the same proportion. Biliakow found 'For criminal sociology (Mafia), see Senate Document (by author), No. 400, Fifty-seventh Congress, first session. 42 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 50 per cent of 100 murderers color-blind; among normal Russians there were not more than 4.6 per cent. Schmitz shows that 6.5 per cent of those distinguishing colors with difliculty are subject to grosser nervous diseases, as epilepsy, chorea, etc. /AvYyvVi^/.— Biliakow found dullness in hearing predominant in the left ear. Sometimes the criminals pretend to be more feeble than they really are. A common character is agility, especially among thieves, some of whom have the spryness of the monkey; they climb the most slender trees, and jump'upon the roof and thus entei' the house. Left-handedness.— Vand to have her shut up. Two other cases are positively known to have been caused or occasioned by the knowledge of this one murder. It is at first with repulsion that one hears of the details of crime, but with repetition there gradually comes an indifference to the whole matter. Then one may begin to look complacently upon the crime. The publication of these cruel details tends to harden the finer sensi- bilities in most persons, and in many weak ones can lead to overt acts. As before referred to, it is just those persons, numerous in every community, who, morally weak or on the borders of insanity, or insane, or something eccentric, are afi'ected most by the detailed publication of crime in popular form, as is common in the newspapers. VITRIOL OR REVOLVER. Suggestion here is sufficiently frequent. A woman employs the vitriol to satisfy her vengeance. The details are published in the news- papers; another woman in like situation finds this method convenient. Such cases are where the woman wishes to disfigure, but not to kill. The classical cases are those of seduction and abandonment. A young man makes the acquaintance of a young girl of the lower classes; he promises marriage, but time passes and his passion goes out. Often the social customs do not permit marriage with one of a lower class; the young man marries another; a natural feminine jealousy springs up; first to kill him, but that requires courage, and, besides, she does not really hate him, but she has heard about vitriolizing; this would be convenient. She reads of a case in the newspaper; there was a gracious acquittal. Besides, if she disfigures her former friend, his present wife will not like it; perhaps would not wish to have anythmg more to do with him; then he would return to her. This seems to her a capital thing to do. She may get renown for it also; the newspapers like to print racy articles. REVOLVER. Those who use the revolver, although more dangerous, are not per- haps of so mean or low a nature as those who employ vitriol; the latter class move in a lower grade of society. A married woman in the higher society was indignant at odious stories circulated about her lite when she was a young girl; a woman and a man were the parties who were talking thus about her. First, she tried to take ]ustice into her own hands; then she had the man brought before the court tor false testimony; he was condemned for two years; but he appealed, the case was delayed; in departing from the court, as he went out, she dis- 62 STUDY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. charged six balls; he was taken to the hospital and died; the journals gave columns daily to the case, giving personal details as to the accused; she was acquitted with the applause of the crowd and the jour- nals. In a few days the following conversation took place between another man and his wife: "If you were one of the jury, what would you have done?" "I would have acquitted her," answered the hus- band. Then the wife began to sob. " Whj^ do you cry?" asked the husband. "Ah," with exultation she said, "I am glad you are a man of soul." This same woman, later on, was followed by an archi- tect of note; becoming exasperated by his importunities and declara- tions of love, she finally shot him. The cause was the making a hero- ine out of the first woman by the public and press. POISONING. The crime of poisoning came to France from Italy. Poisoning was done with a bouquet, with a pair of gloves, with a letter, and even with a torch; Pope Clement VII was killed with a candle; in the sec- ond half of the reign of Louis XIV this form of crime was prevalent; the striking thing was that the great majority of cases were among the nobility. Poisoning is now on the decline, as indicated in the fol- lowing table, given by Aubry: From 1S25 to 1830 there were 150 cases; 1830-1835, 146; 1835-1840,221; 1840-1845,260; 1846-1850,269; 1850-1856, 294; 1855-1860, 281; 1860-1865, 181; 186.5-1870, 165; 1870- 1876, 99; 1875-1880, 78. For the last twenty-five years the decrease is a marked one, owing to new processes and to the progress of science in finding the least traces of toxical substances in the organism; thus poisoning tends to disappear while general criminality seems to increase. This period coincides with the epoch when chemical discoveries began. CRIMES OF HYPNOTIZEES. Almost all the crimes committed by hypnotizers on those hypnotized are violationsor outrages of modesty. In the lethargic or cataleptic state the subject is easily influenced; here also somnambulism offers some dangers. The affective sentiments toward the hypnotizer are strongly manifested in many cases; the subject, isolated from the entire world, only sees the hypnotizer. It is easy to comprehend the dange:- to one in a mental state like this. At this point the actions of a person might seem voluntary, and so not constitute a crime, but the hypnotizer or magnetizer who profits in the somnambulism from similar dispositions of mind is guilty of the crime of violation. In the state of lethargy one does not remember on awaking what trans- pired in this stage of the sleep, or the recollection is so confu.sed that the testimony can not be trusted. There is also a lucid lethargy, a still less degree of hypnosis. This state is important when the ques- tion of simulation arises, but in this state the recollection can generally be trusted. In some cases of violation the victim passes from lucid lethargy to complete lethargy; certain things are remembered, while others are confused or forgotten. Somnambulism can serve for the committing of a voluntary abduc- tion one might say; the individual is plunged into lethargy, and his totally unconscious state serves to carry him away. Certain magnet- izers of India were accustomed to employ this means to rob children STUDY OV THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 68 When there is a bodily and mental passivity, it almost always takes place m the lethargic state. A dishonest hypnotizer, owing to the remembrance of the facts of real life in the somnambulistic state, can gain knowledge from his subject that he could not if his subject were in his ordinary state. Giraud, Teulon, and Liebeault give cases of this kind. Gilles de la Tourette speaks of not always receiving an answer to every question, but some even falsify to cut short the iniportunity of the suggestion. As to offenses against mor- als, including confidences and confessions, there is much doubt; and according to Gilles de la Tourette there need be no great apprehen- sions from the misuse of hypnotism in such cases, for the cases of this nature that are cited are simply and purely experimental. In actual life, the dilEculties are so great that a crime in the line of con- fidences or confessions would soon be detected; the hypnotizer also would be easily found out. Also, in post-hypnotic " states, where niurder can be committed that was suggested during the hypnotic con- dition, the magnetizer or hypnotizer wouid soon be detected. Here is a supposed case given by Charcot: "A" desires to take revenge on "B." "A" has a patient whom he can put into the somnambulistic condition. He suggests to his subject to go and kill "B," command- ing him at the same time not to recall anythmg m the second hypno- zation. Experimentally this is realized, but the conditions are not the same in actual life, for the magnetizer would be sure to be found out. Whatdoes "A" do? At the hour suggested, while in hypnotic state, the patient now in his natural or ordinary state, has a thought (unknown to him until present time) that he must kill "B." Ho arms himself and does it, no matter where he finds him. Of course, he is totally unaware that any such order was given him in the hypnotic condition. The patient is, of course, arrested. What does he say? Nothing, or rather he tries to exculpate himself. To do it, he must invent a story out of whole cloth; but this would soon fall to pieces. It would not be long before he would he shown to be a neuropathic person, or hysterical, or easiljr hypnotizable; the patient would soon suspect that his magnetizer had suggested this to him, and would have no reason to keep silent as to a man who had taken such advantage of him. "A" would be sure to be caught. It would be much safer for a magnetizer to do the murdering him- self. But there are dangers for the honest and upright hypnotizer; there are cases where a hysterical person accuses the magnetizer of abusing her or violating her. This comes from pure imagination, or malice, or some ulterior purpose, for the character of those hj'pno- tized is not always beyond question, and it is not difficult to see how an honest hj'pnotizer might be made to suffer severely. Sometimes women of doubtful reputation go to be hj^pnotized for the very pur- pose of blackmail and scandal, and it is a legal platitude that a jury will believe a woman's story where she claims her virtue is at stake much easier than the testimony of a man. Violations are possible both in the lethargic and somnambulistic states. In both states for- getfulness of what passed during the sleep occurs on waking up. Nevertheless, if the crime is committed in the somnaml)ulistic state the memory of it can be recalled at the time of a second hypnotization. The criminal can make use of both states. The evidence of violation in either of these states is circumstantial. After examining the phys- 64 STUDY OF THE ABMORMAL CLASSES. ical state of the plaintiff, and iinding that she is hysterical, the expert should now see if she is hj'pnotizable; and, if easily so, whether a complete insensibility can be obtained. In the case of simulators who can be hypnotized, one must see if their sleep is deep enough to per- mit a crime. Many hypnotizations are generally necessary. The consciousness of the violation can exist at the time, and also the mem- ory of it after awaking; the victim can will to cry and yet be unable to.' The simulators can make the claim that in their sleep they willed resistance, but could not carry it out. They are mostly hysterical persons. At this stage convulsive attacks are the great criterion of the neurosis. Brouardel says that, however good the ability to simulate, it is impossible when one provokes the contraction of the sterno-mastoid muscle, or of a group of muscles enervated by the same nerve, or when the experiment of colors in vision is tried. Violation in the somnambulistic state may take place with or without violence. There are states analogue to the hypnotic, caused by a wound on the head or natural somnambulism. Hysteria dominates in most of such cases; natural somnambulism is a transformation. Suggestion can take place in hysterical somnambulism as well as in hypnotic, but crimes are more frequent in the latter state. Pressure over the _ hysterical zone can cause one to sleep, and commit a crime. Sometimes there is unconsciousness of the crime, or want of resistance owing to intellectual feebleness. This is also true in case of idiots or imbe- ciles who are brutally treated by those who are paid to protect them. As to moral responsibility, it must be borne in mind that arti- ficially caused somnambulism produces extreme cases, where the act suggested is imposed with irresistible force; that nothing is done in profound sleep which may not have its analogue in the waking state; that hypnotic sleep exaggerates physiological automatism, it does not create it; that between the fatal suggestion and the absolute voluntary determination all degrees maj^ exist; that to analj'Ze all the suggestive elements which intervene (in our absence) in the acts which we believe issue from our initiative, is impossible. Liegeois, professor of law at Nancy, France, hypnotized a woman, and by suggestion (with false fire- arms) caused her to shoot another person; being asked immediately whjf she did it, she confessed, with entire indifierence, she had killed him because he did not please her. When asked if it was not Liegeois who had suggested the idea to her, she answered, no; she did it spon- taneously; she is " alone guiltj^." Many profound sleepers are susceptible to post-hypnotic suggestions which have been known to have taken place not onlj- many dayi and weeks after they were suggested, but even as long as years. False testimony through suggestion is sufficiently frequent, as in the case of a child in court who through fear testifies falselj^, because questions are so put as to threaten the child if the desired answer is not given. Bernheim suggests these precautions: (1) The testimony of false accusers is not so persistent in memory; the impression is not so continuous; recollection is latent or obscure; (2) the magistrate should ask questions without pressing the witness or indicating his own opinion; one should not resort to suggestion in order to obtain confessions, as he may suggest the confession he desires; (3) testimony can be suggested by one witness making affirma- IE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 65 tions with force and conviction and recounting the facts in the pres- ence of other witnesses; for some are influenced, accept what is said, and form an image of the event through imitation. For this reason each witness should be questioned alone, and it should be certain that in their previous conversations no reciprocal suggestion has taken place. The agreement of several witnesses is not always an argument in favor of the truth, even when witnesses are honest, because in this case there can be unconscious suggestions. Nothing is more false than the saying, "Vox populi, vox Dei;" (4) The enlightened magistrate can measure the suggestibility of a suspected witness by skillful ques- tions, can appear to accept what the witness says, insist on the incidents and add to them, suggesting details, which will betray the suggesti- bility of the witness if he confirms these details. He says, tor ex- ample: "You said when 'X' took j^our money, you let a piece fall, and picked it up again. You remember the circumstance?" If the accuser falls into the trap and confirms the suggestion, the ques- tion is by this fact determine; (5) a medical examination, in the majority of cases, can determined if one has to do with a suggestible person; one generally can cause catalepsy by simple affirmation, and in some persons hallucinations can be produced. Human imagination is open to good and bad impressions; not all criminals are crimmals; not all falsehoods, falsehoods; there are those who mystify not only others but themselves without knowing it. SUGGESTIBLE PEKSONS. Certain suggestible persons falsify in good faith. It is easy to create fictitious remembrances, which may be called retroactive hallu- cinations, or false testimony. I say to one in his natural sleep: (Cases from Bernheim.) "I know why you do not sleep now; your neighbor coughs and sings, opens the window, fixes the fire; all the patients complain." 1 awake this person a few moments afterward. He rubs his eyes; thinks he awoke spontaneously; remembers nothing. Then I say: " You sleep, then, all the day?" "No," he answers, " but I can not sleep in the night." "Why?" "On account of patient in bed No. 6. He was probably sick. He coughed, sang as if in delirium. 1 don't know what possessed him; he went to open the window. " "Is it true? You must have dreamed." "All the patients heard him; they can tell you." Then his imagination was worked upon, and new souvenirs were created. ' "But the other patients have not complained. What did No. 4 say to him?" . „ "Four said to close the window, and not to make a noise. "Then what happened?" ^^ "No. 4 got up and went to him, and they struck one another. "And what did the sister do?" "She could not silence them." "Did the director come?" "He came in a blue dressing gown, and said' he would put them both out to-day." 9192 5 66 STUDY OP THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. Operator said: "That is not true; you dreamed it." Patient answered: "I did not dream it, because I was awake." Another experiment: (Bernheim.) 1 suggested to one suhjectin the hypnotio state that my colleague was a photographer, and had come at 4 o'clock the day before to take his photograph, and that he (subject) had paid 2 francs. On awakening the subject was convinced; but what is to be noted is that three other patients, who were awake at the time, affirmed they were present and saw my colleague take the photograph. I said it was not so, but their conviction remained. By questions it was easy to amplify the suggestion by their autosuggestion from a fictitious memory. Another case, very suggestible and hypnotizable. Operator says: "Henritte, I met you yesterda}^ at Stanislas Place. You were in singular circumstances. What happened when I saw you ?" Operator repeats the qviestion and looks at her. Her face changes; she reflects, turns red, and says: "'I dare not say."- "You must tell me." "I was struck," she sa3Ts in a low voice. "By whom?" "By a workman." "Why?" Silence. She is ashamed and does not wish to confess. "Come, tell me." She whispers in operator's ear: "1 did not wish to go with him." Operator looked at her severely. "Henritte, you are falsifying. Why did he strike you?" She became pale, confused, and, covering up her face, began to cry. ' ' Tell me what you did yesterday. " "1 wanted to steal his watch." "And then?" " I was led to the police station." The poor girl was overcome with shame. Operator effaced the remembrance bj'' saying: " You will not remember it any more." The retroactive hallucination was extinguished. Since criminals are easily suggestible, such experiments are not without instruction. Thus take the following case: A young woman of the best society and of high morality, fond of her husband and children, was accustomed to receive visits from a young man, a friend of the family. One day she was found in an isolated pavilion of her garden, naked, and dead from the effects of a bullet wound; the body had been outraged. The young man had fainted at her side, wounded by a pistol. Coming to, he narrated that the young woman being desperately in love had given herself to him on condition that they both should not survive her dishonor. He had sworn to kill her and kill himself afterwards. Is this account true? The young man impressed everyone with frankness; most persons considered it an act of foolish love. It is well known how passion can mislead the most honest natures. Accord- ing to the young man the crime was planned immediately before its execution, but at this time also the poor woman wrote a calm and serene letter to one of her family; she spoke of her household affairs, her children, and the young man in a simple and natural way, which indicated a tranquil spirit. This would have been hardly possible had STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 67 she been conscious of the events soon to follow. She was an exem- plary woman; modest, good, timid, affectionate, and never passionate, bhe was however suggestible. One day fixing her eyes upon a silver spoon she fell into a hypnotic state. She did not like Chambige; she was afraid of him. But how shall it be explained? It might be said that Chambige was a low assassin, who, after having cowardly violated and assassinated a woman, had invented this story to pose as a hero in a love tragedy. But the facts do not bear this interpretation out. Chambige impressed his comrades as superior; he had little moral sense; he had a sensual thirst, and drank from all sources without scruple. But he had the frankness of his convictions; he produced this impression before the jury, but as a man without heart and with- out prejudice, and not an impostor, violator, or murderer. Explanation (Bernheim): Chambige sees Madame Grille; he desires to have her; she does not love him, but still is dominated and fasci- nated by him. She had a vague fear of him. It is easy to understand how by his allurements and declarations she could fall into a hypnotic state,_as in the case of the spoon, and loose her personality. Chambige, working upon her facile imagination, could impose another conscious- ness, suggest a sexual excitation which she could not resist. Cham- bige could do all this, thinking that she loved him truly, without knowing anything at all about hypnotism. Her normal state did not love him. but her subconscious state did. Returning to her normal consciousness, Madame Grille would not remember anything. Thus on the morning_ of the crime the victim wrote her letter in the great- est of tranquillity ; an instant afterwards Chambige could have sug- gested to go to the pavilion; then came a foolish passion, an irresistible excitation. If the poor woman had made him ]3romise to kill her after her seduction to save her from dishonor, it would be the moral sense surviving in her hypnotic state, as an old hereditaiy feeling or by education, which could not be put down; her normal conscience could be dominated but not extinguished in the somnambulistic state; but the passion suggested overcomes it for the time. She is not herself. That which characterizes somnambulism is not sleep; there is a som- nambulism awake; consciousness exists, but it is another state of con- sciousness in which the faculties of reason are lessened or absent; the faculties of imagination, the idiodynamic automatism constructs the scene. The subject is not himself. Case (Bernheim): A young lady of good family, very intelligent, of sweet and affectionate character, was hypnotized by a young physician for hysterical crises. Each time she passed into somnambulism; during those attacks she confessed her love which she had for him (she had mar- ried contrary to her will). The physician became her lover during this somnambulistic state. In her normal state she remembered nothing. Becoming pregnant, she did not suspect it, not having had any relation with her husband for a year. When she finally discovered the real nature of her trouble, she became anxious, lost her head, and at parturition her insanity was complete. Later on she recovered, but never suspected her physician. These facts in this case show now the somnambulistic state, natural or provoked, modifies the passions, instincts, and char- acter, and diminishes resistance to evil temptations. We give another case of double personality related before the Acad- demy of Sciences at Paris: A lawyer, 3.3 years of age, was hysterical and very hypnotizable. A noise, a whistle, or reflection of a looking gg STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. ffkss upon his eyes could put him into a hypnotic sleep. One day he was trying- a case; the judge fixed his eyes upon him; he stopped short and slept. In these conditions he presented a double personality; he forgot his past existence and entered into another condition; he went and came, traveled, made visits,.and bought things. When suddenly he returned to his first condition he was wholly ignorant ot what had passed in his other state. One day, after an altercation with his brother-in-law, he had an attack which made his second personality appear; he went to visit his uncle, broke many objects, tore his books and inanuscripts contracted debts, and was taken before the court for swindling and condemned. All his recollections, effaced in the normal state, returned in the somnambulistic state. Such cases are perhaps more frequent than we suppose, because they are not recognized as a pathological anomaly, when anajsthesia is complete. Anesthesia, when incomplete, makes the diagnosis dimcult, as the idea of somnambulism does not come to the mind. \\ e all know persons whose lives are full of inconsequences and contradic- tions; their conduct is irreproachable; their character is timid, they are reserved in their manners, sensible in their actions, etc. _ Then from time to time the disposition is modified; they become capricious, extravagant, go against their instincts, and commit reprehensible acts; after a time the normal state reappears. All degrees can exist, froni a simple change of disposition (perceptible only to intimate friends) to the complete transformation of the moral being. This transforma- tion can be a mental disease, as periodic melancholia, intermittent dipsomania, or transitory insanity. All mental diseases are in reality states of modified consciousness. The extreme degrees only attract our attention; the light degrees we attribute to capriciousness or a sickljr state of feeling. It is clear how a suggestion realizes psychical modifications; gayety and sadness are alternately produced, there is a calm, then a passion- ate disposition, a spirit of obedience or the opposite, an affection or a hatred. These facts are not without importance to the magistrate, the moralist, and the philosopher. In the broad sense of the word sug- gestion may play a role in our acts, good or bad. The greatest criminals are not always the most guilty. Dr. Laurent gives a case of complicity in theft, where hypnotization is negative in results as to gaining a confession from the accused; for the present state of our knowledge does not permit us to know whether the person hypnotized obeys his conscience or his will, which holds him under its dependence. The following conversation took place while the accused was in the hypnotic state: L. " You are accused of complicity in theft." " I am innocent." L. "You knew, however, that the horse and carriage had been stolen." "No, no," said patient with energy, ''Ididn't know anything about it." L. "You knew it." "I swear to you I did not." L. "I tell you you did know it." "No," said the patient more softly. L. "lassureyouthatyouknewit; you knew it." "Yes; Iknewit." L. "Is it certain that you knew it?" "I knew it." L. "You did not know that the carriage had been stolen." "Yes; I knew it." STUDY OF THE ABKORMAL CLASHES. 69 L. "No; I tell you; you did not know anything about it." "No; I did not know anything about it." Case of theft (Krafi't-Ebing): The patient was sad and quiet; her head was supported on her her arms; she did not respond always when spoken to. The eyes were vague, as in a dream, not perceiving objects or persons near by. The experimenter sat opposite her and looked at her. Suddenly the patient took a special physiognomical expression. She heard a noise of a watch placed in the pocket of the physician; she approached the physician with adroitness, unhooked the watch, and hid it in a hole in her armchair. Likewise she took four other watches from the other physicians and hid them in a flowerpot; then she took a book to read, and kept on knitting. Krafl:t-Ebing produces in her the state of of autohypnosis. She did not react to the diflerent excitations of the sense organs, except that some measures of a song played threAV her into catalepsy. When one of the physicians jingled some money, she sought the pieces with avidity, and put them into her pocket. The same effect was produced when keys were shaken; not being permitted to take them, she grasped at them, struck the person who had the keys, gained possession of them, and hid them in a pan. Then she took up her book to read. The objects were retaken by their owners. When transformed into the normal state, she knew nothing of what occurred. On the next day, regarding a brilliant watch, she passed into the experimental -hypnotic state, and the phe- nomena characteristic of the continuation of the autohypnotic state, in which she was the day before, were repeated. She sought for the things hid and became agitated. In passing the hand in front of the patient, the experimental -hypnotic state was produced; she became tranquil and apathetic. In thisstate, she perceived the watch, but made no effort to take possession of it. In her natural state she was not abnormal in any way. SOME CONCLUSIONS AS TO CRIMINAL MAN." The following statements as to the criminal are not based upon experimental research so much as upon the experience of those who have studied criminals directly or who have had practical control of large numbers in prisons or reformatories: 1. The prison should be a reformatory and the reformatory a school. The principal object of both should be to teach good mental, moral, and physical habits. Both should be distinctly educational. 2. It is detrimental, financially, as well as socially and morally, to release prisoners when there is probability of their returnmg to crime; for in this case the convict is much less expensive than the ex-convict. ,3 The determinate sentence permits many prisoners to be released who are morally certain to return to crime. The indeterminate sen- tence is the best method of affording the prisoner an opportunity to reform without exposing society to unnecessary dangers. 4 The ground for the imprisonment of the crmimal is, first ot all, because he is dangerous to society. This principle avoids the uncer- tainty that may rest upon the decision as to the degree of freedom ot will- for upon this last principle some of the most brutal crimes would receive a light punishment. If a tiger is in the street the main ques- tion is not the degree of hi s freedom of will or guilt. Every man "From "Criminology" (by writer). 70 STUDY OF THE APNOEMAL CLASSES. who is dangerous to property or life, whether insane, criminal, or feeble minded, should be confined, but not necessarily punished. 5. The publication in the newspapers of criminal details and photo- graphs is a positive evil to society, on account of the law of imitation; and, in addition, it makes the criminal proud of his record, and devel- ops the morbid curiosity of the people; and it is especially the men- tally and morally weak who are affected. 6. It is admitted by some of the most intelligent criminals, and by prison officers in general, that the criminal is a fool; for he is oppos- ing himself to the best, the largest, and the strongest portion of society, and is almost sure to fail. MAN FEOM SCIENTIFIC POINT OF VIEW. Looking at man from a scientific point of view, he exceeds all others in criminalitjr; he kills not only his own species, which the animals rarely do, but beings of all other species with impunity ; those which it is not an advantage to kill he subjects to slavery. The egotism of the human species surpasses that of all others. The basis of this egotism is a combination of ps3rchic and physical force, not moral force. At present the bloody idea of war still remains in the whole human race. Modern Europe, where the highest civilization exists, has at least 12,000,000 men trained for war, while Rome, with her vast 'empire, had onW 300,000 legionaries; and this is the state of the world which, at present, is in its commercial glory, and yet, in the face of this, it is claimed that commerce and war are antagonists ; but it is said that war has the advantage of purging the race. To accomplish this, however, cholera is much more effective, for the lower strata are preeminently the sufferers, while in war much of the best blood of a nation ia sacrificed. The savage instinct of murder is still deeply rooted. War from the natural-history point of view is universal murder, an extension and development of universal homicide. In primitive times it was terri- ble in character, exceeding the ferocity of the wildest beasts; in the next stage of development one did not eat his enemy, but mutilated and tortured him, and modern civilized war is the same in essence, though different in form, for inventive genius is at present exerting itself to its utmost to discover how to kill and mutilate the enemy at great distances, and, to the disgrace of the nineteenth century human- ity, it seems to have succeeded. And, while we look with horror upon the cannibal, the words of Montaigne are not inapplicable when he says that "it is more barbarous to kill a live man than to roast and eat a dead one." ALCOHOLISM. Alcoholism may be considered briefly, first, in its general bearings, and, second, as a form of insanity. The relation between alcoholism, crime, pauperism, and charity is most intimate. For example, a certain young crunmal, who tried to kill an aged woman, without provocation, said that when he was 6 years of age his father used to return home drunk, striking his mother and throwing sticks of wood at him. He stood It for a while, but afterwards left home, and though not a thief was compelled to steal for a living; was sent to a juvenile asylum, and. after leaving, went among farmers to live under their care, being kindly STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 7l treated by a very few, whipped, and otherwise roughly treated by many. Remaining- a month or so with different farmers, he finally developed mto a tramp, and leaving all farmers wandered two years, stealing, eating, and sleeping wherever he could. Thus alcohol gave the initiatory to thieving. Charity endeavored to counteract these effects (result of six years of unfavorable surroundings) in two years, but the evil forces acquired by early treatment had gained too strong a foothold, and the following stages were tramping, pauperism, and crime. Such cases are typical, and almost wholly the result of evil surroundings, for which society is culpable, and for which she suffers dearly, both morally and financially. The alcoholic may be a good workman when sober, but from irregularity he loses his position and gradually becomes a pauper. A sad fact in connection with alcoholism is that often the kindest and most genial natures are for this very reason ruined through the unintentional influence of friends, for they are unable to resist the so-called feeling of good-fellowship when drinking together. From the ethical point of view it is questionable whether one has the right to take the chances of causing another to fall. It is better to forego the physical, intellectual, or social pleasure of indulging in any luxury or nonnecessity than to aid in the physical, moral, or social ruin of a fellow-being. The relation of ethics to all these forms of abnormal humanity is as direct as it is diversified. It is ethically questionable whether it is right to give to beggars; for by so doing we encourage them by vir- tually paying them to beg, and if not already paupers they can be made so by a mistaken philanthropy. It is a common saying and prac- tice of Americans traveling in Europe to give every beggar "a cent to get rid of him." This, of course, has just the opposite effect. AH these abnormal forms of humanity are different degrees of evil or wrong, the highest of which is crime. They are all links of one chain. This chain is that which we denote bj^ the words evil, bad, unjust, wrong, etc. These forms, to wit, criminality, alcoholism, pauperism, etc., majrall be considered under the head of "charitological." Thus the different institutions, such as prisons, insane asylums, inebriate and orphan asylums, institutions for the blind, deaf and dumb, and defectives; hospitals, dispensaries, relief for the poor in any form; church missions, and different forms of philanthropical work are, of course, charitable in their purpose. The difference between these institutions is one of degree, as an examination of the inmates would soon show. The pauper may be or may have been a criminal or insane or alcoholic, or the crim- inal may be or may have been a pauper or insane or alcoholic, and so on. The close relation of alcoholism to insanity is shown by the state- ment of a specialist (Kraff't-Ebing) that all forms of insanity, from mel- ancholia to imbecility, are found in alcoholism. It is artificial; it begins with a slight maniacal excitation; thoughts flow lucidly, the quiet becomes loquacious, the modest bold; there is need of muscular action; the emotions are manifest in laughing, singing, and dancing. Now the sesthetical ideas and moral impulses are lost control of, the weak side of the individual is manifested, his secrets revealed; he is dogmatic, cruel, cynical, dangerous; he insists that he is not drunk, just as the insane insists on his sanity. Then his mind becomes weak, his consciousness dim, illusions arise; he stammers, staggers, and like a paralytic his movements are uncertain. 72 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. The principal character of these mental disturbances consists in a moral and intellectual weakness; ideas become lax as to honor and decorum. There is a disregard of the duties of family and citizenship. Irritability is a concomitant; the slightest thing causes suspicion and auger which is uncontrollable. There is a weakness of will to carry out good resolutions, and a consciousness of this leads some to request to be placed in an asylum, for they are morally certain in advance that they can not resist temptation. Thus one has been known to have his daughter carry his wages home, as he could not pass a saloon on the way without going in if he had any money with him. Now it is a weakness of memor}^, a difficulty in the chain of thought and a weak perception, until imbecility is reached. There may be disturbances in brain circulation, causing restless sleep, anxious dreams, confusion, dizziness, headache. Such circula- tory disturbances in the sense organs can give rise to hallucinations. There is a trembling in hands, face, lips, and tongue. In short, there is a gradual mental and bodily degeneration. From the medical point of view, a cure is generally doubtful, for in private life total abstinence is impossible. The patient must be placed in an insane asylum, or better, in a hospital for inebriates, where total abstinence can be enforced. Patients with delirium tremens especiaLy need the most careful hospital treatment. The principal directions are conservation of strength and cerebral quiet, strong unirritating diet, and mild laxatives, etc. Such in general is considered to be the best medical treatment. A certain French specialist (Magnan) says that a dipsomaniac is insane to drink; but the drunkard is insane after he has drunk. VIEWS OF DR. A. BAER ON DRUNKENNESS. The simpliest things are not the most simple when studied. The good and sincere total-abstinence advocate has a high moral aim in view, and shows his loyalty ])y his sacrificial spirit, and thinks his case so clear and simple that he never doubts it. To insist on total abstinence from wine in France and beer in Ger- many is like objecting to the use of coffee and tea in England or America. The question of total abstinence is manifestly a local one; it is relative to the country, or even State, city, or town. To insist that drinking is either right or wrong in the absolute sense is an attempt to make the relative absolute, which is a conti-adiction. There are two distinct questions, the purely ethical and the purely scientific; and while they are separated for convenience, they are in reality together, for in the end the facts decide the "ought." The practical ethical question seems to turn on this point: To what extent the use of a thing should be prohibited when it is abused. Manjr ethical diffi- culties are not between good and evil, but between two evils, as to which is the lesser. Yet it must be admitted that total abstinence is the safest course. It will be interesting to follow one of the recent European investiga- tors. Dr. A. Baer,'' of the imperial board of health, and chief prison physician at Berlin. In the past, wine was used almost wholly by the well-to-do classes, "Die Trunksucht und ihre Abwehr, von Dr. A. Baer. Wien und Leipzig, 1890. STUDY Off THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 73 and beer was of such a nature that harm was out of the question. iLxcessive use of alcohol first began with the art of distillation, and with the obtaining- of strong concentrated whisky from corn, potatoes, and the like. With the universalizing of the use of whisky, a series of phenomena have appeared, which are designated by the word "alcoholism." _ The climate is an important factor. Drunkenness is more frequent in cold than in warm countries, and is more brutal and injurious in its effect as we go north. Yet this is not always true, for within the last ten years alcoholism has greatly decreased in Sweden, and in- creased in southern France and northern Italy. In tropical regions it is at present spreading fast, and with great injury, especially in newly discovered lands. The accustoming one's self to the use of alcohol causes, sooner or later, a feeling of need for it; alcoholism is not, there- fore, an inborn instinctive need, but an acquired one. Experience teaches that the longer this vice exists in a nation the greater the vice becomes. Persons who misuse alcoholic drinks, especially whisky, often become sick and die sooner than the moderate drinkers and non- drinkers. When alcohol is taken habitually, and when misused, it injures the whole constitution; all tissues and organs, and especially the blood, suffer sooner or later a pathological change, with which susceptibrity to disease is increased. Alcohol intoxication not only callsout diseases and disturbances that the nondrinker does not have, but it gives rise to a greater morbidity. It is an old experience that m epidemics of cholera, dysentery, and smallpox, drinkers are attacked in larger numbers, and with greater intensity, than nondrinkers. The bad constitution of the blood, the weakness of the changed heart- muscles, the sunken energy of the nervous functions, and the frequent accompanying disease of the brain, give a bad course to every disease, and a high mortality. The greater mortality of drinkers, as ('ompared with nondrinkers, is shown by the figures of the "United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident Association," an insurance com- pany founded since 1847: Total abstainers. General, division. Year. Deaths, expected. Actual deaths. Deaths expected. Actual deaths. 1866-1870 549 723 933 1,179 653 411 611 661 836 390 1,008 1,268 1,185 1,670 713 944 1,380 1 480 1871-1875 1876-1880 1881-1885 1,630 700 1886-1887 Total 3,937 2,798 6,144 5,984 In the "Total abstainers' division," 71 per cent of the expected deaths occurred; in the "General division," 97 per cent. Other com- panies give similar figures. Sweden, which, up to recent times, was considered the most drunken land, owed this state of things principally to the excess of small saloons and to a very small tax on whisky. The great decrease in the num- ber of these saloons, in connection with an increase of the whisky tax and with a temperance movement, has lessened drunkenness to a great extent. As the use of whisky decreased, the number of sick and dead 74 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. from alcoholism lessened also. In Norway, also, a bad legislation had a similar eifect in spreading drunkenness. With the decrease of con- sumption of whisky, that of beer increased; and no land has shown more improvement through the decrease of drunkenness than Norway. In Russia the alcohol consumption is great in certain parts, but in Russia as a whole it is not so considerable as one would expect from the amount of alcoholism. The results of the abuse of alcohol are in a great measure due to the climate and the social condition of the masses. Besides the raw climate, there is an insufficient nourishment, almost wholly vegetable, which drives to whisky; this is not taken in small quantities, and regularly, as in other nations, but seldom, and in large quantities, on holidays (ninety-six yearly), in family celebra- tions,'^in market days. Recently alcoholism has decreased. In Hol- land, with its wet, foggy climate and great number of seaports, there has always been a large consumption of alcohol, increased by the exceedingly large numl)er of licensed places, and especially from the . fact that whisky'is sold in many kinds of business (baker's, hairdresser's, etc.); as a consequence, there is a great increase in insanity through dipsomania and delirium tremens. In France, in former centuries, alcoholism was hardly known so long as wine was the alcoholic drink. But by the great exportation of wine, and by the recent appearance of oidium and phylloxera, and a like alcohol production from turnips, corn, meal, and potatoes, the alcohol consumption has gradually increased, and its consequent misuse has followed. The consumption of alcohol has more than trebled within fifty -five years. Where wine is least used there is the greatest consumption of whisky. The num- ber of suicides is directly proportional to the increase in alcohol con- sumption. The number of fatal accidents due to alcohol has shown a constant increase. In Italy the consumption of alcohol is, on the whole, verj^ small. It is larger in the northern provinces; more recently it has increased as the consumption of wine has decreased. In Austria the consmnption of beer is decreasing, while that of whisky is increasing. In Germany the consumption of both beer and whisky has been increasing. The use of beer, as compared with whisky, varies very much in different provinces of Germany; in the east and northeast much whisky and little beer; in the west and northwest, much of both ; in the south, very little whisky, but a great deal of beer (Bavaria); the increase of the consumption of whisky is mainly due to its large production and very great cheapness. The consumption of alcoholic drinks within the last ten j^ears, espe- cially strong drinks, has been aided by the rapid increase in the num- ber of saloons. The relation between drunkenness and crime is not always a parallel one. Crime is not alone conditioned by the quantity or intensity of intemperance, for it owes its rise to many social conditions also; but all these unfavorable conditions are aided by drunkenness, and in this sense the abuse of alcohol increases crime very greatly. It can be said that with the increase of intemperance and of drinkers (by no means identical with the increase of alcoholism) the number of criminals and crime increases. Misuse of alcohol means poverty and pauperism, which are the main sources of crime. The injury of drunkenness to family life can not be reckoned, but daily experience teaches that nothin ■■ disturbs the family life as much; the boys fall into idleness, slothfulness, and finally into crime; the girls become the booty of prostitution. STUDy OF THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. 75 Some of the preventive means against intemperance are- (1) Educa tion ot tlie children of the working classes in an orderly ndustrious' and economic life; (2) construction of healthy dwellings^ oi the wor! mg classes, so that an overcrowded room may no lono-er encouraiie the working-man to seek the saloon; (3) better food, so that he may nS be tempted to make u^ for this want by a temporary supply of whfsk? which deceives him in causing him to suppose that^L^is gainrnJ stiength; ^4) public cofiee houses, with home-like surroundings, pape.^s to read, etc.; (5) formation of temperance societies, which in man v vfays warn others against the evils of intemperance. While the total abstinence societies have done much good, yet a very practical oro-an ization exists in Switzerland which fas three categoriL ot menXs" {a) ihose who are total abstainers; (i) those who take the pledo-e for a certain length ot time; and (c) those who assist the society in a fanancial way. In this way a unified action can be gained without losing_ the aid of those who are in favor of all efforts against the evil ?R\ fr \ l?^ u ''^ 'fK''^ l^^.'*^ personally as to be total abstainers, (b) the establishment ot inebriate asylums, where the habitual drinker may be rescued. The state should limit the consumption of whisky to the smallest quantity possible, by (1) the lessening of production and the imposin.^ ot a tax. i rom experience in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland^ and J^ ranee this has lessened the so-called small house distilleries' which have been one of the greatest causes of house drunkenness' here whisky is made for local consumption, and, on account of primi- tive methods, IS of very bad quality. (2) As to the extreme measure ot prohibition, it can not be carried out in thickly populated states where the intemperance of the people is really great, and it is not necessary where drunkenness is not extensive among the people (3) A high tax on whisky. The consumption of alcohol increases in proportion to the cheapness of whisky. (4) A moderate tax on the lighter alcoholic drinks. Beer is the greatest enemy of whisky it must, therefore, be of good quality and not dear, but strong alcoholic beers should be taxed very high ; coffee, tea, chocolate, and all neces- sary articles of food should be made cheap and of good quality (5) A lessening of the number of licensed places. The need for whisW is not a natural one, but artificial. To increase the saloons increases the number of drinkers. The whisky trade does not follow the law of supply and demand, but rather that of demand and supply. The easier it is for every individual to find whisky at all times, places, and prices the more he will drink until it becomes his unconquerable vice. The lessening the number of licensed places, in connection with a high tax on whisky or other strong drinks, is the best means that the state can employ for the control and repression of drunkenness, and it is in those lands in which political and industrial freedom is valued the most that the severest measures against the whisky business are undertaken. (6) Punishment of the saloon keeper when he sells to persons already drunk or to minors not accompanied by relatives. (7) Inspection of the liquor traffic, both as to place and time of sale. The sale of whisky in groceries should be absolutely prohibited, because women with a tendency to drink are here very easy victims. The repression of public drunkenness by punishment of the drinker has been tried in many countries, but with little success. Many things are forbidden in the interest of public order and well-being, and though not necessarily in themselves immoral, produce conditions which easily i^g STUDY OF THE ABKOEMAL CLASSES. lead to immorality, or are otherwise dangerous to society. Yet it is rather c™S to permit saloons at every corner, and cheap whisky, and *'MeSS "tXe habitual drinker are: (1) Placing the drinker undei oSidifnship. This course would not differ materially from Soino- The saSe in case of the spendthrift and the insane It would fesSi the chances of wife and family becoming paupers, and would no only be for the good of the drinker, but a warnmg to o hers. (2) Pkcin' in inebriate asylums. In the later stages of habitual drunken- ness there is a considerable number of cases of insanity, and the "ntanity takes the most different forms, as chronic mama, epileptic nsanity, delusional insanity, general paralysis, and other phases of incurable insanity. In other cases alcoholic excess is a symptom of a diseased nervous system, where there was insanity before drinkmg commenced. In the first stages of mania melancholia, and general paXsis many are driven to the use of alcohol. Dipsomania is a form of Tnsanity. and is periodic. Besides all these there are a number of drinkers on the border line between health and disease, who, on account of their inherited mental weakness and consequent irritableness through overwork, are given to alcoholic excesses. There are a still P-reatlr number of habitual drinkers who are not insane, but through lone abuse of alcohol, can not resist drinking; they reach such a degree of volitional and intellectual weakness, of irritability and stupidity, indifference to customs and position, and mistrust and carelessness to- ward their family, that it is a question whether they are not a common danger to society. The number of these persons among- those sufler- ine for immediate use. But this commercial or utilitarian spirit does not yield the best results, though it may bring quick returns. In early stages of all inquiries much may be done that subsequently is seen to have been unnecessary, for the real meaning of any new truth can not alwaj^s be known until the dis- covery of other truths has been made. Many details in scientific research often make us impatient, but in all investigations it is better to have too many data than too few. A laboratory inquiry may be pursued a very long time and the result of all the labor be stated in one sentence, or the conclusion may be only negative, but this is no reason that the investigation should not have been undertaken, for it is often important to know that a thing is not true, and sometimes it is the only way to learn what methods and material to avoid. These and like objections would have applied to all sciences in their early stages. A child necessarily totters and falls before it learns to walk. It will not be long before the study of children will be considered one of the most necessary and important movements for the good of mankind. WASHINGTON CHILDREN. To illustrate some recent lines of work, we give a table and number of conclusions based upon a study of Washington school children. The table shows results of an investigation of 20,000 children by the writer, and indicates some relations between mental ability, sex, nationalitjr, sociological condition, abnormalities, and defects, as reported by the teachers. It is evident that had specialists examined the pupils the per cent of abnormalities and defects would have been much greater. But the purpose was to give simply the more obvious peculiarities and defects which any intelligent teacher by constant contact with a pupil would note. STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 97 Table : Mental ability in relation to sex, nationality, sociological conditions, abnormalities, and defects ofSO,000 Washington school children, as reported by the teachers. All boys All girls Boys, American par- entage Girls, American par- entage Boys, foreign parent- Girls, foreign parent- age Boys, American and foreign parentage . . Girls, American and foreign parentage . . Boys, laboring classes Girls, laboring classes Boys, nonlaboring classes Girls, nonlaboring classics Bright. Dull. Aver- age. Perct. 16 11 Perct. 45 50 47 51 49 62 62 Sickly. Per cl. 5.25 4.78 5.48 5.82 2.18 2.60 7.17 3.53 3.72 6.47 7.37 4.66 Ner- vous. Per ct. 1.20 .67 1.28 .80 .19 .19 1.79 .29 .51 .86 Defects in — Bye- Hear- o_„„„,, sight, ing. opeeoli Perct. 1.21 1.27 1.67 .77 1.46 1.97 1.73 Per ct. 0.67 .36 .68 .40' .19 .20 1.12 .20 .44 .57 .94 .27 Perct. 1.11 .28 1.11 .34 .87 .20 .77 .57 1.49 .14 Con- vul- sions. Per ct. 0.06 .01 Lazy. Per ct. 1.33 .22 1.48 .28 ..58 .10 1.23 .29 1.09 .19 1.91 .29 Un- ruly. Perct. 5.47 .26 5.63 .11 4.44 .96 5.60 .39 4.42 .19 7.06 .03 As the citizens of Washington come from all parts of the Union, the conclusions maj^ have more general application to America as a whole. Beginning with the first three columns of the table we will mention a few points. MENTAL ABILITY. All boys and girls show the same percentage of brightness, but the girls have 5 per cent less dullness, and so in general may be said to be a little brighter than the boys. But this may be due to the fact that girls reach maturity sooner than boys. Children (boys and girls) of American parentage are brighter than both children of foreign parentage and children of foreign and Amer- ican parentage. This seems to indicate that a mixture of nationalities is not always advantageous in its effect upon the offspring. Children of the nonlaboring (professional and mercantile) classes are superior to those of the laboring classes, indicating that the advan- tages of good social conditions are favorable to mental brightness. SICKLINESS AND NERVOUSNESS. ^ Eoys-of- nonlaboring classes show a much higher per cent of sickli- _negs_andjiervxmsriess-than boys of the labormg classes, indicating that easier social surroundings are not always conducive to health. LAZINESS AND UNRULINESS. While most all children, boys especially, are lazy at times, there are, nevertheless, a number of children who seem to be chronically lazy. From the table we see that the dull boys have the highest per cent of laziness (2.97). It may be true also that their indolence is one of the causes of this dullness. Comparing all boys and girls, the boys (1.33) will be seen to be much more lazy than the girls (0.22). While, of course, there is no standard of laziness, yet there are cer 9192 7 98 STUDY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. tain children whose excessive laziness is apparent to every teacher. This also is true in regard to unruly children. As we might expect, the boys (5.47) are very much more unruly than the girls (0.25). OTHBK DEFECTS AND ABNOBMALITIES. Without drawing further conclusions from the table, it is evident that boys in general show a much higher per cent of defects than girls. Many reasons might be given, but it may be said that boys are exposed to more danger from accident and to more temptations than girls. This parallelism seems to appear in other forms; thus in prison and reformatories there are four or live of the male sex to one of the female sex. But it would seem that when there are defects in the female they are more significant and serious than in the male. A general conclusion as to all children with abnormalities is that they are inferior not only in mental ability, but in weight, height, and circumference of head to children in general." SENSIBILITY TO PAIN. As pain is an important factor in life, we will illustrate how it is measured by an instrument called an algometer. The instrument, an illustration of which appears in figure 1, was designed by the writer and is called a temporal algometer, because it is pressed against the temporal muscles," to test the sense of pain. It consists of a brass cylinder BF, with a steel rod (7 running through one of the ends of the cylinder. This rod is attached to a spring, with a marker E on the scale A. This scale is graded from to 4,000 grams. The brass disk D is about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. A piece of flannel is glued to its surface, so as to exclude the feeling of the metal when pressed against the skin, thus giving a pure pressure sensation. The wnole instrument is 1 foot in length. In using this algometer it is held in the right hand at B by the experimenter, who stands back of the subject and presses the disk i) against the right tempoi*al muscle, and then he moves in f lont of the subject, where he can conveniently press the disk against the left temporal muscle. As soon as the subject feels the pressure to be in the least disagree- able the amount of pressure is read b}' observing the marker E on the scale A. The subject sometimes hesitates to say just when the pres- sure becomes in the least disagreeable, but this is part of the experi- ment. The purpose is to approximate as near as possible to the threshold of pain. To make any general distinction between "disa- greeable," "unpleasant," "uncomfortable," "least bit painful," etc., is diflEicult, if not dogmatic. Estimates of feeling are of course only approximate, and we have allowed 50 grams as a margin for error. This instrument measures approximately three things combihed: The nerve, the feeling of pain, and the idea of pain. In our present state of knowledge it would be premature to say which of these three elements enters most into the measurement. ''Based upon tables in "Experimental Study o£ Children," reprint from Report of Commissioner of Education for 1897-98, Washington, D. C. '' See paper (by writer) before the American Psychological Association. " Psycho- logical Review," IMarch, 1899. "These muscles are preferred, because no trade or profession materially affects their volume. They are also conveniently located. STUDY OF THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. 99 A common mistake is to think tiiat the amount of pressure one can endure is desired, and, owing to this misconception, objection has been made to using the instrument on children. But just the opposite is desired. Whenthe pressure feels the least disagj-eeable or uncom- fortable, the subject is to saj' so at once. In a large number of experi- ments the writer has heard no child complain of being hurt; many desire to try again, to decide more exactly. Instead of being an instrument for causing pain, it may teach us more about the nature of pain and thereby help us to prevent or lessen pain. The following conclusions are the result of experiments on different classes of children: Sensibility to pain decreases with age. Girls in private schools, who are generally of wealthier parents, are much more sensitive to pain than girls in the i-- public schools. It would appear that refinements and luxu- r |i ries tend to increase sensitiveness to pain. The hardihood which the great majority must experience seems advanta- The effect of hardihood is further seen from the f— geous. fact that the children of the nonlaboring classes are more, sensitive to pain than those of the laboring classes. There' seems to be no necessary relation between mental brightness and sensibility to pain. Girls are more sensitive to pain than boys at all ages. This agrees with some previous experiments showing that women are more sensitive than men; but this does not necessarily refer to endurance of pain. CIKCUMFEEENCE OF HEAD. The writer found, with the Washington children, that as circumference of head increased mental ability increased. This conclusion is in accord with the general truth held by zoologists that in animals the relative size of brain to body is an index of intelligence. It was also found that as age increases in children brightness decreases in most studies. In this connection it may be mentioned that the relative size of head to body in children is much greater than in adults." RECENT RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS OP CHILDREN. Fig. 1.— Tem- poral Algo- meter. We desire to consider some recent results of measure- ments of children in general. For most of these data we are indebted to American investigators. Some of the con- clusions may seem somewhat fragmentary, but this is what one might expect in new fields of inquiry. It may be as well to remark here as anj^ place that while most of the conclusions in this paper are based upon a considerable number of cases, they must be taken in a general sense only; that is, they are true in the majority of cases. Any assertion about human beings that is, so to speak, three-fourths true and one-fourth false is valu- able, for it is like much useful knowledge in the world which is only approximately true. =■ For further details see ' ' Experimental Study of Children, ' ' reprinted from Annual Report of Commissioner of Education for 1897-98. 100 STUDY OP THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. StrPEKIOEITY OP SOME CHILDREN. It has been found from a number of investigations in different parts of our country that children of well-to-do parents are taller and heav- ier for their age than children of poor parents. This is doubtless due to better food, air, and light enjoyed by those in comfortable circum- stances. Children of American-born parents are taller and heavier than those of other nationalities. One reason for this may be that American children are better adapted by heredity and education to their own country. This want of adaptability is illustrated by the belief that foreigners in a new country generally commit more crime relative to their number than natives. A certain specialist found by percussion " that the liver of boys of the well-to-do classes was larger than in boys of the poorer classes. It would seem that first-born children excel later-born children in height and weight. This may be due to the greater vigor of the mother at the birth of the first child. We are reminded of a fact, mentioned later, that out of Mtj great men of this century 30 per cent were the j'oungest sons. In England it was found that growth degenerates as we go lower in the social scale, there being a difference of even 6 inches in height between the best and worst fed classes in the community. An investigation of 10,000 children in Switzerland showed that chil- dren born in summer are taller for their age than those born in winter; as a majority of children in the public schools are poor, in winter their parents are forced to economize more on account of expense of heating; their rooms are also liable to be small and poorly ventilated, while in summer they are out in the fresh air; food is also cheaper and more varied. The influence of unhealthy conditions on a very young child would be much greater than when it is older and better able to resist them. It has been said that growth is regular, and any deviation from it tends to produce disease. Hence the importance of determining what regular growth is. A large head is frequently accompanied with a contracted chest; here mental action may be slow, probably from deficient supply of purified blood. One specialist has noted that boys with small frames and very large heads are liable to be deficient in repose of character. ABNORMALLY SHAPED HEADS. It is a general instinctive belief in us all that when we see an irreg- ular or poorly shaped head something must be wrong. It is true that some of the brightest people may have very poorly shaped heads, but these are exceptions to the general rule. The investigation of this question, though limited, indicates that our instinctive disfavor toward ill-shaped heads is not without some basis. It has been found that dull pupils have more irregularities in the head and face than pupils in general. This was ascertained bv an experiment made on 400 schoolboys, of whom 90 had abnormally shaped heads. They all ^j^i"^^7®'^ '''""P^® figures to add at certain limited times, those who added the most and made the fewest mistakes were found to have the "Tapping on the surface of the body in order to learn the~(Wition of the part beneath, by the sounds produced. ^ STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 101 better shaped heads. One muet be very careful here not to make any general conclusion from an experiment upon a relatively small num- ber. Yet the result indicates a probability; to determine its general truth would of course require investigation of a very much larger number of persons. BIGHT-HANDEDNESS. It has been for a long time under discussion whether it is not better to teach right-handed children to use their left hand more, the idea being to increase symmetry and uniformity in their development. This theory seems very plausible, but recent investigation tends to show that right-handedness is natural, and that its superiority over the left hand increases with growth, also that the brightest pupils are, so to speak, more right-handed than the others. This suggests the modern tendency to become expert in one thing rather than be upon the surface of many things. The left hand does best when it supplements or helps the right hand. [ It is a general opinion that criminals" have not only more left-handed people among them, but they are also more expert with both hands than people in general. \ Sometimes the finger muscles of the pickpocket are cut, so that he can apply either hand with greater dexterity. DANGER AT AGE OF PUBERTY. It has been found that girls from about 12 to 14 j^ears of age are both taller and heavier than boj^s, but at no other time — that is, they excel in average height and weight. The pubertal period is the time when girls are growing very fast and so need most of their vitality to adapt themselves to new conditions of life. For this reason they should be free from care and work more than at other times; but we regret to say that both their home and school duties seem to be increased at this time, so that their health is often impaired, if not undermined. Girls seem to have less power of endurance than boys at all ages. This is more marked at the time of pubei'ty. It is known also that during puberty the body grows in length at the cost of chest development, and the arteries" increase also in length, but their diameter is relatively little increased, so that much more woi'k is required of the heart. If now, by anj^ unfavorable conditions, growth is hindered or made irregular, there ma}^ be danger of tlie early development of consumption. At this period, also, girls are most disposed to sickliness, ansemia, headache, and other ills. UNFAVORABLE INFLUENCE OP CITY LIFE. It has been found that the average size of the body during school years is less and growth is slower in the city than in the country. While city bred children are usually more vivacious, they seem to have less power of endurance than children reared in the country. The puber- tal period, however, comes earlier in the city, and the children are more advanced in a way, but this is regarded as a premature and unfavorable development. Country life and air are more adapted for overcoming an 3^ injurious effect of confinement in school. ""Criminology," by writer. 102 8TUJY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. DEFECTS OF SIGHT AND HEARING. In an examination of about 6,000 school children in Chicago,_35 per cent were found to have defective eyesight. The defectiveness increases the most during the first three years of school life, and it seems to be due to faults in school conditions. In the tests of hearing it was found that a large number of the pupils could hear with one ear better than the other. The importance of seating such pupils on the side of the room where this best-hearing ear will be toward the teacher is evident. Defects of sight and hear- ing are more numerous among the dull and backward pupils. In an investigation in another city it was found that about 60 per cent of the pupils had at least one eye defective in vision. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION. Most of the studies on large numbers of children show that in gen- eral those inferior in body are also inferior in mind. When this bodily inferioritj' reaches a certain point, a physical examination should be made to determine if the pupil is strong enough to go on with his studies, for however successful his mental education may be if it is at the expense of his health it will be of doubtful advantage. This examination should extend not only to sight and hearing, but to the lungs, heart, and digestive system. If there are defects in these vital organs it certainly should be known. The teeth of many chil- dren could be saved were they attended to in time. This is especially important for the poorer classes, whose coarse food requires much mastication. In short, a thorough physical examination of every child on entering school would be one of the greatest safeguards for its mental as well as bodily health. CHILD STUDY. s The study of children might be thought to mean the same as what is generally called child study, but such is not the case. Child study does not usually include measurements of height, weight, lung capac- ity, fatigue, pain, etc. , but applies more to the study of school chil- dren by means of questions which they are to answer. The answers are subsequently classified and conclusions drawn from them. A special word _ has been invented for child study, called paidology. This method in the study of children has been employed mostly by teachers who have sought, through series of questions to the pupil, to gam some knowledge of what is in the child's mind, and how its mind works. It will be interesting to give the results of some of these experi- ments upon school children of our country. children's bights. In order to test the ideas of children as to rights, the following story was told them: "Jamie's father gave him a dog, but Jamie often for- got to feed it, and the dog cried often at the door. Then Jamie's father gave the dog to a kind little girl who lived down the street." The children were asked: Who had the best right to the dog— the father, Jamie, or the little girl, and why? In answering this question 70 per cent of the boys and 57 percent of STUDT OP THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. 103 the girls thought the little girl had the best right to the dog; 44 per cent of the children thought because Jamie had been so cruel in neg- lecting to feed the dog he did not deserve it. This seems to weaken the theory commonly held that children are cruel by nature. About 25 per cent thought the father had the best right to the dog, saying that he had paid for the dog, and he was older and would take better care of it. About 8 per cent said Jamie had the best right, because when a thing is given away you can't take it back again. It was principalljr the older children who took this last point of view. IGNORANCE OF CHILDREN. The ignorance of children is illustrated in another investigation, where most of them were between the ages of 5 and T. Fourteen per cent did not know their ages. The boys were more ignorant than the girls as to common things right about them, where knowl- edge is assumed. Three-fourths of the children thought the world a plane, and many described it as round, like a dollar. Wrong things were' specified much more rapidly and by more children than right things, and there was much more variety of wrong things. This sug- gests a theory of certain criminologists that children learn evil much faster than good. Boys say it is wrong to steal, fight, kick, break windows, and get drunk, while girls are more liable to think it is wrong not to comb the hair, to get butter on one's dress, climb trees, and unfold the hands. The city children know a little about many things, and so are liable to be more superficial than the country children, yet the city children know more about human nature. STRENGTH OF MEMORY. A story of some 300 words was repeated to the children, and they were to write down all they could remember after it was read. A considerable number remembered the first part of the story quite well, but very little of the latter part, showing probably the influence of fatigue. The shorter the sentences and the less unessential the woi*ds they contained, the better they were remembered. This is a practical hint to speakers and writers who desire to make more permanent impressions. The girls remembered more than the boys. In a comparison of white with colored children, the colored children showed the best memory. Those who had good memories stood well in their classes as reported by the teachers. CHILDREN OF GREAT MEN. In a statistical investigation of the early life of fifty great men of the present century, it was found that while they are absent-minded, generally speaking, their memories are very strong in the things they are interested in. In childhood they seem to be more imaginative than average children. It is generally said that a great man owes his success to his mother's influence, but there are many exceptions. They were influenced much by some one person, and the mother's place was often supplied by that of an aunt or relative. The child born of parents in the prime of physical life probably has the better chance of greatness, for the average age of the fathers when the great man-child was born was about 38, and that of the mothers 30. ihe 104 STUDY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. average number of children in the families was 6. Eleven of the great men were only sons, and 16 j^oungest sons; that is, in all over 50 per cent. If it is important to study the ci'iminal to find the causes of crime and therebj^ know best how to prevent or lessen it, it is per- haps more needful to study great men in order to learn those condi- tions and characteristics which make them great. FEAK8 OF CHILDREN. One often feels that manj- unnecessary fears and pains are inflicted on children by well-meaning but indiscreet parents. This is illustrated in a study of American as contrasted with London school children. The children of the poorer classes showed a marked difference in their answers to children in more comfortable conditions. The poor child- ren are more natural in their fears, are not afraid of the dark or wild animals or the coal man or even the policeman, but their objects of dread are the upsetting of a lamp, the possibilitj^ of father or mother becoming sick. Here we see how hard conditions of life develop prac- tical judgment. There are few evils without some good. A study of American children shows that most fears are created by parents and servants. The leading fears are those of lightning, thun- der, reptiles, strangers, the dark, death, domestic animals, disease, wild animals, water, ghosts, insects, rats, etc. In an Eastern State none were afraid of high winds, but in the West this was one of the main things to dread. In a certain State 46 of the children were in fear of being burned alive. This was evidently a result of teaching. A majority of the children feared ghosts; others did not dread them because they did not believe in them. One way to rid children of such superstitions was shown by the fact that a large number had been taught to disbelieve in them. But as we can not prevent children from hearing these superstitions from people who do place confidence in them, it has been suggested to let the children hear the truth at the same time. Harmless or even ennobling fancies might better take the place of more vulgar ones. BLDSHIN6. It would seem that fear is the real cause of most blushing, which is perhaps a relic of ancient sex fear. There is little uniformity in the way children blush. In some the blushing appears in a small spot and spreads m all directions, or it goes only upward or downward, being seen on the neck last. The fear of being noticed blushing increases it; thus one does not blush so readily in the dark. Some are fore- warned that they are going to blush through tremor, weakness in the limbs; warm waves pass from feet upward; the heart seems to stop then beats more rapidly; blood rushes upward; there is a hot glow all over, or cold all over; one feels uncomfortable or dizzv; there may be tingling in the toes or fingers; something rises in the"^ throat; eyes smart ears ring, face prickles; there may be pressure inside the head. Some fear they are gomg to be looked at; others feel foolish or con- fused, or as if they were going to blush. In waves of blushing it is thought there is probably an increase of flow of blood to the brain with a contraction of the arteries in other parts of the bodv Then as the blushing ceases, the blood is redistributed again throuo-h the surface of the other parts of the body, with tingling, prickling, and often sweating; sometimes there is chill, weakness, pallor or head- STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 105 ache. Blushing occurs most at the time of pubert3\ Girls blush much more than boys, and when they become women this tendency remains later in life than with men. children's interests. In general children's interests lie largely in what the object is good •for, or what it can do. COLLECTING INTEREST. The collecting interest in children is so strong that it can be called an instinct. It rises in early childhood, increases fast after six years of age, and is strongest from eight to eleven years, declining as the child grows older. What a child begins to collect seems to be more a matter of accident. The feeling is that they must collect something. This collective instinct is not a fad, but a natural desire up to eleven years of age, but if it continues on a few j^ears it generallj^ becomes a fad. The collecting interest is greatest with objects of nature, as bird's eggs, shells, etc. Then comes a desire to find stamps, and cigar tags are next in degree of interest, followed by the trivial collections of sticks, glass, and buttons. Sometimes the commercial spirit shows itself in buying and trading. Imitation and rivalry are the strongest motives; another incentive is the innate desire for large numbers and great possession. INTERESTS IN THE BIBLE. Children before nine years of age are most interested in those parts of the New Testament which give accounts of the birth and childnood of Jesus. From nine to fourteen years they are more concerned with the Old Testament, especially in the heroic and dramatic elements there described. This is the time they can memorize verses of Scrip- ture best. In their youth or adolescent period, from 12 to twenty-one about, there is great interest in the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, especially in Christ and his disciples. Children at all ages always feel more interest in persons than in objects in the Bible. These and similar facts as to the time and way in which children show their interest may suggest how and at what age different biblical subjects should be taught them. INFLUENCE OF TEACHER. In order to find out the teacher's influence, a large number of per- sons were asked to recall their past school experiences and recollection of teachers, good and bad. It was found that pupils were most sus- ceptible from ages eleven to nineteen, and that the good influence of a teacher does not depend upon the length of time the pupil is under his care. The influence of a bad teacher will affect a pupil earlier than the influence of a good teacher. A teacher in a moment of indiscretion may fatally or seriously injure the pupil's future life. There is an unconscious influence in the teacher's personality which remains a power in the pupil's character; this influence is based on what the teacher is, rather than on what he says. It was remarked 106 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL GLASSES. of the Earl of Chatham, " Everybody felt there was something finer in the man than anything he ever said." The pupil is attracted by externals much more than one would sup- pose, as manners, dress, good looks, and voice. This suggests the importance of neatness and good taste on the part of the teacher. moraC education. No kind of education can be more important than moral. However well the pupil's mind may be trained, and however brilliant he may be, it is of little avail if there are no good moral habits instilled into him; for otherwise he might live only to become a criminal. This question was asked of a large number of persons: What pun- ishments or rewards have j^ou ever had that did j^ou good or harm? The majority claimed to be benefited by punishment. The boys thought the effects of agood plain talk were salutary, and none had a com- plaint to make against a good ' ' dressing-down. " Many were grateful for having had punishment in due season. There is a time in many a boy's life when he thinks he is lord of everything, and it would seem that a good whipping is often the best way to cure this defect. Ten- derness is excellent for most children, but there are certain natures on whom it is wasted, because they simply abuse it. Conscience does not seem to be very powerful in children before the age of 9. Preaching, or advice unsought for, does not seem to do niuch good, while suggestion does. As to the influence of companions, it was greatest between the ages of 10 and 15. This influence is next to that of home. The influence of parents almost all described as of a pleasant and helpful nature. The difference in moral influence due to sex of parent, that is so often dwelt upon, does not show itself. Nearly all the things to make a noble character are found in both father and mother. Moral training not only consists in moral habits, but in the development of the feelings and emotions which have their roots in the religious senti- ments inculcated early in the child's life. As the parents have the heart and sympathy of the child they can make it almost what they will. If they gave as much time and patience to the nurture of their children as they do to society, business, amusement, and pets, much of the evil and crime in the world might cease. Unless children are brought up and trained well, and those provided for who have no proper home, there is little probability of making the world better. We must place the knife and fork in the child's hand, if we wish them properly held. So morality, like etiquette, must be taught through repeated acts, that become a habit. There is peihaps nothing more important to the individual, family, and country than the moral edu- cation of children. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF OHILDEEN. While the study of children has been gradually growing in impor- tance and mterest, it is only as yet at its beginning. ■ We do not know whether there are mental and physical characteristics by which we might distinguish criminal children from other children. It is STUDY OY THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 107 difficult to tell whether such charactei-iatics come more from the child's nature or more from its surroundings. If crime is mostly due to the environment, as is generallj' believed, and if this could be determined in the case of each child, there would be much more probability of lessening crime, for it is possible to change the child's surroundings but not its nature. If we could know whether there were mental and physical charac- teristics peculiar to unruly children in school and criminal children in reformatories, or to dull school pupils and feeble-minded children, characteristics distinguishing such children from the normal child, we might foresee special dangers to these children, and thus protect many from temptations and conditions that otherwise would ruin them. Such knowledge as this can only be gained by a patient scientific study of large numbers of children of all classes." There has been much investigation of school children, but as the subject is in its experimental stage and methods are new, criticism has naturally been aroused. This is the history of all new lines of inquiry that take up the humanities. Some imagine that the children might be harmed by instruments used upon them, or their rights inter- fered with, but nothing could be farther from the truth. The study of children is simply to gain knowledge about them, and if knowledge is power, it will be power for their good. OPPOSITION TO PSTOHO-PHYSIOAL KESEAKCH. Rigid methods of research, which have been confined mostly to the sciences, should be applied to man. It is only recently that more exact methods have been used in the investigation of the mind. Opposition and ridicule came not only from the ultraconservative people, who are usually opposed to all new things, but from extreme doctrinaires. The day has come when opinion, theory, or specula- tion must give way to first-hand knowledge. The value of opinion depends upon such knowledge, an ounce of which is worth a pound of theory. Much of this opposition also may be due to the mistaken idea that psycho-physical studies tend to materialism, or are liable to undermine morality and religion; but such unfounded opposition is graduallj;' ceasing, and where it does exist, it is due either to igno- rance or to mistakes that may often occur in the introduction of new methods. NECESSITY OF INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION. Athorough study of anj^ human being can not be made without instru- ments of precision. Such an investigation of living men is one of the most recent tendencies of science. Instruments of precision have been employed more extensively, perhaps, in the study of the abnormal, as illustrated in criminology, but it is time they were used in the inves- tigation of normal man. An instrumental method of inquiry is a more exact way of ascertain- ing the effects of mental, moral, and physical forces upon the body, of many of which we are unconscious. The facts thus obtained bear the closest relation to new questions in the development and education of man. 108 STUDY OF THE ABWOKMAL CLASSES. LIMITATION OF THE SENSES. The diurnal rotation of the earth, the distance of the stars, and the weight of the air aie not appreciated bj^ our senses, and often may seem contradictory to them. The sensations of cold and heat are not absolute, but merely relative to the temperature of our bodies, fre- quently- misleading us. The illusions of sight, hearing, and touch point to the conclusion, accepted by modern psychology, that our ideas of the external world are the result of a long and unconscious education of the senses. Science in its efforts to seek the truth has a special difficulty to con- tend against — it is the defectiveness or limitation of our senses. Instruments of precision are for the purpose of correcting these defects by increasing the scope of the senses, so that, when truth may be found, it may be described more fully and determined more definitely. In ancient times there were instruments to measure the weight and height, etc., or what is called the static condition. Subsequently dynamic movements, electric currents, variations of temperature, etc., were studied, but our senses were too slow and confused to determine these conditions, so instruments were necessary to measure the very small in time and in motion. PRELIMINAEY EDUCATION FOR STUDY IN A PSYOHO-PHTSICAL LABORATORY. It is difficult to recommend to students, after graduating from college, just what studies to pursue preliminary to taking up psycho- physics, which touches upon so many different departments of knowl- edge. The writer will venture a few remarks and suggestions. Physiological psychology, or psycho-physics,'' is no misnomer for modern psychology, because it is as much, if not more, physical than psychical. That, consequently, a somewhat extensive knowledge of physiology is a sine qua non for the thoroughly trained modern psy- chologist goes without saying; and this is as true whether there be sympathy or not with the modern view, for in the latter case the psy- chologist can hardly avoid discussing some of the results of physiology, and such discussions, to be trustworthy and valuable, must be based upon linowledge. And here is not meant mere book knowledge, but experimental knowledge gained in the physiological laboratory; other- wise when one speaks of sensations, reflex action, afferent and efferent nerves, etc., it is difficult to understand how he can have any adequate insight into the objective reality of these phenomena. It is not intended that any large amount of time be required for purely physiological laboratory work. A term's course, say, of six hours a week, might be the minimum. In this case it is assumed that the student has a general knowledge of human and comparative physiology. If the above requirements are necessary for one who proposes to study psycho-physical questions, it may be inquired further as to ana- tomical knowledge. That a proper conception of physiology is not possible without anatomy is so obvious as to be commonplace A general dissection of the body and special dissection of the sense organs and brain, while it would require more time than the physiological •^v^!",® y"l®-\P^®*'^''' ^^^^ ?®,™ *° "physiological psychology," which deals often with that which IS not physiological, but pathological. STITBY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. 109 course, would be well worth the extra trouble, since it is preliminary foundation work, and is also necessary for the investigation of patho- logical clinical cases, some of which are of the highest importance for the psycho-physicist. For this and other reasons an elementary course in practical histology is necessary. Thus it is not clear how any student without practical knowledge of coarser and finer anatomy can study and discuss intelligently questions concerning cerebral localization, cranial and spinal nerves, spinal column, medulla oblongata, etc. A study of medicine in the laboratory and clinic suflicient to gain a medical way of looking at things is a desideratum. Such training is also very valuable for students of criminology or other patho-social subjects. It may be objected that many of the facts learned in such a course of study would not be of direct utility, but this could be urged against almost any course of study. The value of such negative knowledge consists in serving as a sort of ballast in aiding the student in avoiding mistakes. It may be said that if practical courses in anatomy and histology are requisites, why not also similar courses in pathology and psychiatry. It is true that these would be valuable, but there must be a limit. Perhaps the student could take up individual pathological cases as they came in the course of his work, provided he has the physiological and anatomical knowledge of normal man before mentioned. It is assumed that the specialist in psycho-physics will read the writings of specialists in physiology, anatomy, and pathology when they treat of topics that bear directly on his own studies. To read such literature, appreciate the points of discussion, and make decisions as to weight of evidence requires at lea^t a practical elementary knowledge of the subjects. But it may be objected that, with accurate book learning and good diagrams, one can gain sufficient insight without going to the trouble of taking the practical courses. This objection is perhaps more aisthetical than rational, for many do not care for or are averse to dissection. It is a well-known difliculty, common to medical schools, to obtain faithfulness in dissection. There seems to be a natural dis- inclination, not only of the nature of dread or disgust that may appear on first entering the dissecting room, but another feeling, that is easier experienced than described. The psycho-physicist who has no medical training is very liable to have a strong disinclination to practical work in anatomy, even if he believes in its utility and necessity. Then there is sometimes the feeling that it is so much easier and saves time to sit quietly in one's own room and study the books and diagrams. It may be said that many good workers in psycho-physics have never bad this preliminary training. This is true, but they have suc- ceeded in spite of this fact. As is well known, many students of phi- losophy, having become dissatisfied with its methods and results, have turned their attention to experimental psychology, and have neither time nor opportunity to return to preliminary work, which they could have done had they known beforehand the subsequent direction ot ■j-i-ip-i-p studiss The fact that the majority of leaders in the department of physio- logical psychology in Europe were previously pnysicians or students ot medicine indicates the direction which the preliminary trammg in psycho-physics should take. 110 STUDY OF THE ABNOEMAL CLASSES. SUSCEPTIBlLITr TO DISEASE AND PHrSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN COLLEGE WOMEN." It is unnecessary to say that the conclusions drawn from the tables below are only tentative. To confirm or to limit such conclusions a much larger number of facts would be necessary. The tables are given in averages.'' The measurements of weight, lung capacity, height, and strength were made wholly independent of the medical examination. The num- ber of students in all is 1,486. When the numbers for any age are very small, their averages are omitted in the tables. CONCLUSIONS. Comparing those who report no diseases (Table I) with those having had one or more diseases (Table II), we find that those with no diseases are less in weight but greater in height and lung capacity, and about equal in strength to those having had one or more diseases. As far as these data go, they seem to indicate that strength and weight are not necessarily signs of health, or rather of lack of susceptibility to disease. The only difference between those having any disease (Table II) and those having constitutional diseases is that the latter are shorter in stature than the former, but in strength, weight, and lung capacity there is no marked difference. Those having had typhoid fever (Table III) show a superiority in lung capacity and strength, but are inferior in weight and slightly so in height to those having diseases in general (Table II). The typhoid cases, compared with all cases of specific infectious diseases, are infe- rior in weight, height, and strength. This confirms to a certain extent the remark of Hildebrand, that delicate slender people are much more subject to typhoid fever than to consumption. The cases of infectious diseases (Table IV) are distinctly superior in weight, lung capacity, height, and strength to those having diseases in general (Table II). On the other hand, those having hereditary diseases (Table VII) are inferior in weight and slightly so in height to those having had dis- eases m general (Table II). If we compare the cases of hereditary dis- eases directly with those of infectious diseases (IV), the contrast is still more marked, showing the hereditary cases to be inferior in weight, lung capacity, height, and strength to the cases of infectious diseases. _ Coniparmg cases of scarlet fever (Table XIII) with those of infec- tious diseases (Table IV) in general, the only noticeable difference is that the former are inferior in height to the latter. Diseases of the digestive system (Table VI) show cases of less weight and lung capacity but of greater height than diseases in general (Table II). Those with insufficient respiration (Table XI) have less weight, but, contrary to expectation, greater lung capacity and height than those with disease in general (Table II). Cases of heart murmurs (Table XII) show greater weight lung capacity, height, and strength to cases of disease in general (Table II) Those with habitual headache (Table IX) are inferior in weight /r^^?, vl!'^^- capacity, and strength to those with disease in general (Table II). ® '^ Reprinted from the Philadelphia Medical Journal, April 20 1901 * The data from which the tables are made were kindly furnished by the r,rofe«.sor of physical culture and the resident physician in one of our woman's colleges STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. Ill Tables of susceptibility to disease and physical development of college women. ALL. No. Nearest age. Weight, Lung capacity. Height. Strength of— Arms. Eight hand. Leit hand. 1 9 126 462 468 260 90 32 20 12 3 2 1 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 Lbs. 102 122 118 118 116 117 112 113 112 127 107 107 117 Oil. in. 175 171 166 164 160 162 159 165 151 167 165 127 160 Cm. 160 162 166 161 161 161 160 160 . 160 163 166 160 163 Kilos. 23 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 29 22 34 19 Kilos. 26 26 23 23 23 24 23 24 24 26 20 26 31 Kilos. 22 24 20 20 21 21 20 21 21 23 20 26 27 Table I.— THOSE REPORTING NO DISEASES. 41 17 118 163 162 27 22 20 178 18 119 166 162 27 24 21 128 19 116 168 161 27 23 20 73 20 117 164 164 28 25 22 10 21 112 165 161 24 21 19 10 23 116 167 159 26 26 23 Table II.— ALL HAVING HAD ONE OR MORE DISEASES. 61 17 119 168 161 27 23 20 226 18 118 162 161 27 23 20 280 19 116 161 160 27 23 20 138 20 118 162 161 27 23 20 61 21 113 157 160 27 22 20 11 22 109 159 160 26 24 22 Table III.— TYPHOID FEVER. « 17 18 117 169 160 28 23 20 26 19 117 164 162 26 23 20 11 20 117 171 160 27 22 21 Table IV.— SPECIEIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 28 17 119 163 159 27 23 20 59 18 118 167 163 28 22 20 106 19 123 176 161 28 25 21 49 20 120 169 162 30 23 28 21 114 169 161 29 24 21 Table v.— CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 31 18 119 161 151 26 24 21 22 19 120 164 163 25 24 20 32 20 118 160 161 25 23 20 Table VI. -DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEiM. 158 220 167 33 28 18 117 166 162 27 23 20 120 164 162 27 24 21 145 161 160 26 23 20 116 165 161 26 23 20 112 167 161 26 23 20 112 STUDY OF THE ABNOBMAL GLASSES. , Table of susceptibility to dinea-se and physical development of college women — Continued. Table VII.— HEREDITARY DISEASES. No. Nearest age. Weight. Lung capacity. Height. Strength of— Arms. Right hand. Left hand. 22 56 60 40 17 18 19 20 as. 118 116 119 112 OU: in. 157 168 163 163 an. 160 161 161 159 Kilos. 28 25 26 26 Ktlos. 22 23 23 22 Kilos. 20 20 21 20 Table VIII.— DISEASES OP NERVOUS SYSTEM. 18 IS 120 162 164 2S 25 21 69 19 115 160 160 26 24 22 12 20 113 162 162 25 22 20 Table IX.— HABITUAL HEADACHE. 29 18 115 162 160 26 23 21 46 19 113 156 160 24 22 20 17 20 113 171 160 26 20 19 11 21 111 147 158 24 23 22 Table X.— DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 18 17 121 164 162 26 22 20 57 18 120 158 161 26 24 21 84 19 114 159 160 27 23 20 48 20 119 163 161 27 23 22 12 21 111 154 160 26 22 19 Table XI.— INSUFFICIENT RESPIRATION. 36 17 118 170 163 27 22 21 95 18 116 164 162 27 23 20 119 19 116 162 161 27 22 20 52 20 116 164 160 27 23 20 32 21 1X2 162 160 27 23 . 21 Table XII.— HAVING HEART MURMURS. Table XIII.— SCARLET FEVER. 21 17 12.5 180 164 24 23 20 61 18 117 167 162 28 23 21 62 19 117 166 162 28 24 20 23 20 122 170 168 27 24 22 18 21 112 175 162 26 28 21 11 17 122 166 158 30 23 20 19 18 118 166 164 27 22 20 22 19 120 170 161 26 24 21 10 20 120 161 162 30 26 23 [Reprinted from American Medicine, February 22, 1902, Philadelphia, Pa.] MEASUREMENTS OF CHATTANOOGA SCHOOL CHILDREN. in another investigation an account vyas given of the measurements ot Washington school children taken by me,. and also a history of the measurements of school children in this country and in Europe STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 113 We shall add here a few further measurements " of school children of Chattanooga, Tenn. We regret the number is not larger. We have given some conclusions especially as indicating a purely experimental stage of investigation. It might be asked, for instance, what relation could there be between color of eyes and weight and strength, etc. We can not say, but if we had larger numbers further subdivisions could be made, and other factors that might have influence excluded, until finally the relation, if real, could be determined. To neglect every relation that a priori seems improbable is not con- sistent with the history of investigation, for it has happened that some of the most unsuspected relations have turned out through further inquiry to be of great importance. Chattanooga school children."— In this study of the Chattanooga children is recorded one of the first, if not the first, measurement of school children in the South. Measurements were taken of weight, height, strength, and sensi- bility to pain. The teachers reported also as to whether the pupil was bright, dull, or average in general, and as to the standing of the pupil in particular studies. In order that a fair estimate as to the ability of the pupil might be made, a pupil was marked average when- ever there was any doubt. . The date of birth, order of birth, and color of hair and eyes were also noted. The children were divided into blondes, mediums, and brunettes. If such characteristics should be related closely to any of the other data, it might in this way be ascertained. Chattanooga schoolgirls.— ^choo\g\T\s in Chattanooga are slightly taller and heavier for most ages than schoolgirls in Washington. (Tables 1 and 2.) Table \.— Washington school girls.* Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. 754 883 939 931 876 966 8 9 10 11 12 13 Inches. 47 49 51 53 56 58 Pounds. 49 54 58 64 73 82 833 655 450 323 151 14 15 16 17 18 Inches. 60 62 62 63 63 Pounds. 93 100 105 110 111 See Experimental Study of Children. The summer born are slightly less in height and strength and have less sensibility to pain than the winter born for most ages. (Tables 3 """Mentally conside^^ed {Talle 5).-The firstborn ^^^^ .«^;f ^1^^^ to the second born. Those born in wmter are superior to those born ™ThS-Tis no special difference between blondes and brunettes. _ l^haUan::g:^choolloys.-T.. Chattanooga ^oys ^^ J^™^,^ weight and height to theboy^uTWashingtc^^ """^•prof. wflLrKthSTnd Supt. Dr. A. T. Barrett kindly m.de the mea.ur,- ments. 9192 8 114 STUDY OF THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. iccords with the general impression that Southern men are taller than Northern men. Those born in summer are very slightly inferior in weight, height, and strength to those born in winter (Tables 8 and 9). This does not agree (as in the case of girls above. Tables 3 and 4) with Combe's results m Switzerland, who found children born in summer to be taller for their age. As the superiority of winter children in Chattanooga 18 very slight, it may be due either to the relatively small number measured or to difference of climate, it being severer in Switzerland during the winter than in Chattanooga. Mentally considered. —Tka firstborn boys are slightly superior men- tally to both the second born and later born (Table 10). Boas found the firstborn to excel the later born in both stature and weight. This coincides with results of most investigations, showing that superiority of body usually goes with superiority of mind. Thus the children of the nonlaboring (professional and mercantile) classes of Washington not only show a higher percentage of mental ability, but are physically superior to those of the laboring classes. Table 2. -Chattanooga, school children, white girl Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average lieight. Average weight. Strength of — Sensibility to pain. Right hand. Left hand. Eight temple. Left temple. 10 21 30 80 49 43 44 35 13 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Inches. 47 50 52 54 54 58 61 62 62 Pounds. (11) 70 (30) 77 92 100 101 101 Kao. 11 13 14 14 18 20 21 23 23 Mlo. 9 11 13 13 1« 18 19 21 20 G-rarns. 2,540 2!M1 (31) 2,520 (26) 2,550 2,687 2,460 2,653 Grams. 2,830 (14) 2,415 (31) 2, ,590 (26) 2,445 2,642 2,463 2,661 Table 3. — Simaner born. Number of ' pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Strength of— Sensibility to pain. Right hand. Left hand. Right temple. Left temple. 4 8 13 14 27 26 23 16 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Ft. In. 3 9 4 5 4 4 4 6 i 9 4 11 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 Pounds. (4) 71 91 99 99 100 117 Kilo. 10 12 14 15 17 20 21 22 24 20 Mlo. 8 12 13 14 15 18 19 21 20 19 Grams. 2,400 (4) 2,675 (14) 2,725 2,633- 2,755 2,604 2,368 2, 532 Grams. m 8,600 (14) 2,907 2,561 2,677 2,675 2,275 3,016 STUDY OF THE ABNOEMAL GLASSES. Table 4. — Winter bom,. 115 Strength of— Sensibility to pain. Number of pupils. age. height. weight. Kight Left Right Left hand. hand. temple. temple. Ft. In. Pounds. Kilo. Kilo. Grams. Grams. 6 8 i 1 12 10 18 9 4 2 12 11 15 10 4 5 (7) 14 12 2, 775 (9) 2,726 15 11 -4 6 69 14 14 2,266 2,366 22 12 4 9 82 19 17 2,361 (8) 2,329 (8) 17 13 4 11 20 18 2,862 2,193 21 14 5 1 97 21 19 2,611 2,712 18 15 5 3 105 23 21 2,306 2,236 5 16 5 3 108 24 20 3,110 3,020 Table 5. — Chattanooga public schools, girU No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. No. 136 124 81 56 Bright. Aver- age. Dull. 89 First born Per ct. 28 28 34 29 Perci. 66 61 51 55 Perct. 7 11 16 16 Winter born Per ct. 84 27 34 30 Per ct. 60 62 53 65 Per ct. 6 59 127 Second born Medium 13 Summer l)orn 15 Table 6. — Washington boys" {white). Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. 787 878 930 862 986 8 9 10 11 12 Incites. 48 50 62 58 56 Pounds. 61 56 61 66 73 926 784 528 346 13 14 15 16 Inches. 57 69 62 64 Pounds. 79 88 101 114 »See Experimental Study of Children. Table 7. — Chattanooga school children, white I Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. 10 17 28 39 35 8 9 10 11 12 Inches.. 49 15 52 64 57 Pounds. 77 (8) 79 47 35 16 12 13 14 15 16 Inches. 67 60 63 63 Pounds. (11) 89 95 (12) 107 116 116 STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. Table 8. — Winti'r bom. Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Strength of — Sensibility to pain. Right haad. Left hand. Right temple. Left temple. 5 4 15 25 22 23 18 8 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 n. In. 4 1 4 2 4 5 4 6 4 8 4 10 5 1 5 4 5 4 Pounds. (6) 71 '?. (10) 78 92 98 106 105 Mlo. 14 14 16 23 21 24 27 28 33 Kilo. 11 L2 13 19 20 20 25 27 28 Grams. (5) 3,090 s% 2,581 2,659 2,443 2,868 2,675 Grams. (6) 3,080 (10) 3,072 2,509 2,746 2,511 3,162 2,612 Table 9. — Summer horn. No. of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. Strenth of— Sensibility to pain. Sight hand. Left hand. Eight temple. Left temple. 5 12 IS 13 12 21 17 8 8 8 9 ft. in. 4 1 4 3 Pounds. Kilo. 14 14 15 19 19 21 24 30 34 Kilo. 13 13 Grams. Gravis. (1) 2,850 (1) 3,350 2,733 2,666 3,064 2,890 3,016 2,512 2,700 (1) 2,900 2,383 2,894 3,097 2,960 3,091 2,415 10 i 4 4 11 4 6 16 17 17 21 23 28 33 12 13 14 15 16 (6) 80 87 92 (8) 108 108 4 10 4 11 6 2 5 3 Table 10.- No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. 65 First born Per ct. 33 35 32 29 Per ct. 60 54 56 56 Per ct. 17 11 12 15 124 93 91 60 Winter bom Blondes . Per ct. 37 38 30 30 Perct. 44 53 54 62 Per ct. 59 Second bom Later born 19 9 16 108 Summer bom Brunettes Those born in winter are slightly superior mentally to those born in summer. (Table 10.) Ptiberty and sensibility to pain.—Both boys and girls (Table 11) are slightly less sensitive to pain after puberty than before. It was found m the study of the Washington children "^ that they were more sensi- tive to locality and heat on the skin before puberty than after Thus it seems probable that our senses in general are more acute before than after puberty. This accords with the general conclusion that sensi- bility to pain decreases with age." " Experimental Study of Children, page 1007. "lb., page 1113, STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 117 Table 11. — Puberty and sensibility to pain, Chattanooga children. Puberty. Number of persons. Sensibility to paiu. Right tem- porai muscle (pressure). Left tem- poral muscle (pressure). Boys: Before puberty After puberty . . Girls: Before puberty After puberty.. 26 106 50 117 Gravis. 2, 820 2,862 2,480 2, 689 Grams. 2,837 2,881 2,584 2,64S Table 12. — Colored boys, Chattanooga. No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. 131 First born Per ct. 41 37 37 42 34 Per ct. 40 38 56 31 46 Per ct. 19 25 7 27 21 27 56 156 174 Black skin Per d. ■iS 33 m 33 Per ct. 48 48 44 46 Per ct. 19 69 123 Second born Later born Brown skin Light brown skin .. Yellow skin 19 20 66 191 Summer born Winter born 21 Table 13. — Colored girls, Chattanooga. No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. No. Bright. Aver- age. Dull. Per ct. 33 39 33 30 31 Per el. 51 44 50 45 53 Per ct. 16 14 17 25 16 45 87 207 220 Per ct. 40 41 33 36 Perct. 44 45 46 54 Perct. 16 88 199 Second born Later born Brown skin Dark brown skin .. Yellow .skin 14 21 62 ■if9 Summer born 11 Colored ioys. — The first born are slightly superior mentally to both the second and later born. (Table 12.) There appears to be no relation between different degrees of color of skin and mental ability among the boys. Colored girls. — The second-born colored girls show a slightly greater mental ability than both the first born and later born. (Table 13.) The summer born show a slight superiority mentally to the winter born. (Table 13.) Those with light skin (light brown and yellow) show the lowest per- centage of mental ability. (Table 13.) This is not what we would expect from general impressions. But general impressions are some- times based on conspicuous exceptions. The temple algometer used in the pain experiments was designed by me and consists of a brass cjdinder with a steel rod running through one of the ends of the cylinder. This rod is attached to a spring, and there is a marker on a scale; this scale i.s graded from to 4,000 grams. There is at one extremity a brass disk 15 milimeters in diameter; a piece of flannel is glued to this surface, so as to exclude the feeling of the metal when pressed against the skin, thus giving a pure pressure sensation. The whole instrument is 30 centimeters in length. In using this algometer it is held in the right hand near the beginning of the cylinders, by the experimenter, who stands back of the subject and presses the disk against the right temporal muscle, and then he 118 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. moves in front of the subject, where he can conveniently press the disk against the left temporal muscle. So soon as the subject feels the pressure to be in the least disagree- able the amount of pressure is read by observing the marker on the scale. The subject sometimes hesitates to say just when the pressure becomes in the least disagreeable, but this is part of the experiment. The purpose is to approximate as near as possible the threshold of pain. ME. -^UREMENTS OF GIRLS IN PRITATE SCHOOLS AND OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS." It is an anomalous fact that children have been studied less than plants and animals. It is o'nly of late that the study of children has increased in importance and interest; it is therefore in an embryonic stage, methods are new, and naturally much criticism has arisen. Some have thought that the children might be injured by using instru- ments upon them, or that their rights might be infringed upon, but such fears are due either to ignorance or a vivid imagination. It is comparatively recent that scientific method has been applied to the mental side of man. That mind and feeling could be measured quantitatively was once generally doubted or ridiculed; but such oppo- sition has ceased almost entirely. Opinion and speculation are often entitled to as much respect as facts, but when they go so far as to oppose or ignore facts, they create a suspicion of their own weakness. The value of opinion varies according to first-hand knowledge. There is a somewhat prevalent idea that investigation of mind tends to weaken the basis of morality; but there is very little evidence of this. Morality is more a matter of habit and early training. Some of the worst criminals are theoretically sound in their doctrines, but they have not formed good habits, and so are in contradiction with themselves. Children in some respects are better for investigation than adults, for they are nearer to nature and have been less influenced by the conditions of the world. The study of children has also a more prac- tical bearing, for there is more probability of remedying defects than m the case of adults. We give herewith some recent measurements of young women in private schools and of university students. The numbers of indi- viduals are not as large as one could desire, but we trust that others will take up the work, increasing the number, so that finally the results o± such studies may come to possess a high degree of certainty. Table I.- - Washington schoolgirh. Number of pupils. Nearest age. Average height. Average weight. 754 883 939 931 876 966 833 655 460 323 151 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Inches. 47 49 51 53 56 58 60 62 02 63 63 Pounds. 49 54 58 64 73 82 93 100 105 110 111 - -• 1 AS"/l9of °'*°" ^^"-""^^ ^""^ ■^"^'°^' ^°""^^'' ^°1- OXLV, No. 5, pp. 127-129, STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 119 MEASDEEMBNTS OF GIRLS IN PEIVATE SCHOOLS. Comparing girls in private schools with Washington and Chatta- nooga schoolgirls, we find them heavier, taller, much stronger, and much moi'e sensitive to pain than girls in public schools (Tables 1, II, and III). It would appear that the comforts, refinements and perhaps luxuries of modern civilization, while beneficial to physical develop- ment, tend to increase sensitiveness to pain. This accords with our previous measurements of Washington school children, where it was shown that children of the nonlaboring classes (mercantile and pro- fessional) were superior in circumference of head, in height, sitting height and weight, but more sensitive to heat and locality on the skin than children of the laboring classes; that is, a superior physical development usually seems to be accompanied with greater acuteness of the sensibilities. Table II. — Chattanooga schoolgirls. Number ol Nearest Average Average strength o£— Sensibility to pain. Right temporal muscle. pupils. age. height. weight. Right hand. Left hand. poral muscle. Indies. Pounds. Kilos. Kilos. Gframs. Grams. 10 21 8 9 47 50 11 9 13 11 (5) (5) 10 52 14 13 2,540 2,830 (11) • (14) (14) 30 11 54 70 (30) 14 13 2,315 (31) 2,416 (31) 49 12 54 77 18 16 2,520 (26) 2,590 (26) 43 13 58 20 18 2,550 2,445 44 14 61 100 21 19 2,687 2, 642 35 15 62 101 23 21 2,460 2,463 13 1 '' 62 101 23 20 2,6.53 2,661 ■Figures in parentheses designate number irom which average i.s made. Table III. — Girls in private schools.'^ Nearest age. Aver- age weight. Aver- age height. Strength of — Cephalic index. Sensibility to pain. Number of pupils. Right hand. Left hand. Doli- cho. Messo. Right Brachy. tempo- ral. Left tempo- ral. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Lbs. 61 71 77 94 106 115 117 114 113 121 Inches. 57' 62 63 64 64 65 65 64 Kilos. 14 17 23 31 37 38 45 45 64 61 KUos. 12 16 21 27 84 34 41 43 46 58 1 2 5 Grams. 625 Grams. 665 6 1 4 1 4 7 8 3 6 1 708 525 730 868 773 934 1,317 1,250 900 11 i 1 5 2 3 1 9 1 7 12 8 2 2 716 19 23 14 1,363 1,905 900 9 .: 3 I 1 irp Vind Iv made for the writer bv Misse s A. B. J ones an d A. E. Palmer, teachers in the schools. Girls in private schools are less sensitive to locality on the skin, but more sensitive to pain before puberty than after puberty (Table IV). It is difficult to say why this sense of locality is less before puberty, as the difference is well marked. There seems to be a dLstinct differ- ence here between the pain sensibility and the locality sensibility. Compared with girls in Washington schools, girls in private schools are, contrary to expectation, much less sensitive, both before and after puberty, to locality on the skin (Table IV). 120 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. Table IV. — Sensibilities of girls in private and public schools. Girls (private schools) before puberty . Girls (private schools) after puberty . . . Girls (Washington) before puberty Girls (Washington) after puberty Girls (Washington) all ages....' Girls (Chattanooga) before puberty Girls (Chattanooga) after puberty Number of pupils. Sensibility to locality. Sensibility to pain. Right wrist. Left wrist. Right tem- poral. Left tem- poral. 14 80 186 Mm. 18.7 17.0 14.5 15.0 14.9 Mvi. 19.2 16.6 13.8 13.8 13.9 Grams. 664 971 G-rams. 693 994 362 648 50 i.-ISO 1 2,586 IIV ,titu UNIVBKSITY WOMEN, EASTERN STATE (TABLE v). Those with poor nutrition, when compare(i with others, are inferior in weight, sitting height, mid strength; in distance between orbits, cor- ners of eyes and from crown to chin, and in distance between zygo- matic arches; in short, they are ph3^sically inferior in general. _ Comparing the blondes with the brunettes, the blondes are inferior in all measurements except in the distance of crown to chin and distance between zygomatic arches. The blondes are less sensitive to pam. This is in accord with the investigation of this particular point by Miss Carman, in her study of the schools in Saginaw, Mich." In general, the blondes are inferior physically to the brunettes. Table V. — University women.' Nutrition good Nutrition fair Nutrition poor Complexion blonde Complexion me- dium Complexion b r u- nette Num- ber of stu- dents. Av- erage Aver- age weight. 125 126 114 116 128 129 Aver- age lung capac- ity. 143 158 157 153 145 166 Aver- age height. 161 164 163 168 162 163 Sitting height. Strength of- Right hand. Left hand. Distance between- Exter- nal of orbits. 100 97 95 101 99 Nutrition good Nutrition fair Nutrition poor Complexion blonde Complexion me- dium Complexion b r u- nette Crown to( chin. 234 235 230 236 233 Corners of ej'es. 29 28 23 29 29 27 Length of— Right i Left Right thumb Left thumb. Width of mouth Thick- ness of lips. Right tem- poral muscle. Least sensibil- ity to pain. Left tem- poral muscle 2,289 1,945 2,670 2,884 2, 276 1,931 2,242 1,867 2,315 2, 315 2, 109 1,918 Dis- tance be- tween zygo- matic arches. 129 128 125 126 129 126 M.' D.rTN^^v^l^T^^^'^^'^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^ Emily Dunning, deS-'buTTcourthr^^ ^K^'"7 ^"^" ^^'^•^ §»^«^" «o°^ewhat in gfvfweShtt r ronclusrs'^^ °' P^"'^"^ ^^'^^^^-^ ^^^ ^- -^11 *o 'Experimental Study of Children, p. 1114. STUDY OF TBE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 121 INTERPRETATION OP PHYSICAL CHABACTBRISTICS. We hear a gi-eat deal at present about the supposed significance of physical characteristics, anomalies, and the like, in the face, head, mouth, and hands; and not a few earnest people seem to attach much importance to many such signs; but the world of science has as yet shown little confidence in these interpretations of the signs. One, however, should hold himself open to all possible truth. But it is evident that if any of those physical signs are to be proved significant, it must be done by patient observations on a large number of people, faithfully recorded. People must not be selected for such purpose, and all exceptions must be carefully noted and studied. Until this is done few serious investigators can be expected to place much weight on conclusions as to personality drawn from physical characteristics. UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, WESTERN STATE (TABLE Vl). As a great majority of students have reached adult age, we will compare the students in general as to sensibility to pain. The first born (men and women) are more sensitive to pain than the second born. This accords with the investigation by Miss Carman, who found that in general sensitiveness to pain decreases in order of birth. The second born (men and women) are less sensitive to pain than the later born. This is not in accord with the results of the investigation just mentioned. But in new lines of inquiry with small numbers, ten- tative contradictions are what might be expected. It only shows the necessity of investigation of large numbers if more than preliminary results are to be obtained. Yet even with small numbers, the probable truth has often been indicated. Table VI. — University {Western State) . '^ MEN. Number of students. Sensibility to pain. Eight tem- poral. Left tem- poral. 13 23 22 19 13 21 14 34 10 68 Blonde Grams. 1,317 1,397 1,160 1,311 1,427 1,201 1,.512 1,183 1,340 1,289 Grams. 1,366 1,211 1,150 1,246 1,471 1,083 1,489 1,190 1,262 1,258 Medium Later born Dolichocephalic... . Mesocephalic Brachy cephalic All WOMEN. Blonde Brunette Medium First born Second bom Later born Dolichocephalic Mesocephalic Brachycephalic All 8 22 8 12 16 V 15 16 926 823 885 848 786 851 825 734 863 991 800 766 820 948 926 894 817 804 836 845 « These measurements were Icindly furnished the writer by Prof. B. J.Hawthorne. 122 STUDY OF THE ABNOBMAL "CLASSES. MEASUREMENTS OF POLISH AND ITALIAN CHILDREN.* We give some results of measurements on Polish and Italian children by specialists in those countries. Most of the conclusions must be taken as tentative, for the number of children measured is not as yet large enough to warrant more than probability. CHILDREN OF POLAND. The first part of Table No. 1 below is that of Dr. Landsberger, of Poland. From 1880 to 1886 he measured yearly in May 104 children. He lays stress upon the fact that it was always the same children. Many of the children, however, fell out from year to year, from one cause or another. Yet Landsberger says the numbers were large enough at the outset to give the average value. The children were separated into two classes, the poor and the well- to-do. He made measurements of the liver by percussion, and found that from 6 to 8 in boys the liver was on an average 10, lOi to 10^ centimeters long in the well-to-do classes; in the children of the poorer classes it was less. The liver is from 8.9 to 9.3 per cent the length of the body. Frerichs has found by measurements on the dead, where the length of body was from 100 to 160 centimeters, the liver was 8.3 centimeters, and in boys from 6 to 16 years 6.7 centimeters long. Hensen makes the liver of the new-born infant weigh 4.39 per cent and that of the adult 2. 77 per cent of the whole weight of the body. Length of body Arm reach Length of left arm Maximum length of head . . . Maximum width of head Height of head Height of face Circumference of head Circumference of neck Circumference of chest Cm. 106.9 106.3 47.3 16.5 13.7 20.7 14.7 50.9 24.9 54.8 7 years. Cm. 112.2 112.6 49.4 16.6 14.5 20.0 14.7 51.0 25.4 65.4 Cm. 117.8 116.9 50.2 16.7 14.3 20.9 14.9 .51.3 26.0 58.0 9 years. Cm. 122.1 122.2 63.6 16.5 14.5 21.2 16.4 51,7 26.3 60.2 10 years. Cm. V2l>.i 125. 54.9 17.0 14.5 21.0 15.7 61.8 26.7 61.9 11 years. Cm. 130.0 129.6 57.0 17.1 14.6 21.4 15.6 51.9 27.0 63.7 12 I 13 years. ; years. Cm.. 135.2 135.4 59.7 17.2 14.6 21.3 16.1 62.3 27.9 65.0 Cm. 139.2 140.5 62.7 17.5 14.6 21,7 16.5 52.3 29.1 69.0 Increase. From 6 to 13 years. Per year. Cm. Cm. 32.3 4.6 34.2 4.8 15.4 2.2 1.0 0.8 1.0 L8 0.2 1.4 0.2 4.2 0.6 14.2 2.0 INFLUENCE OF AGE ON GROWTH OF BODY. The position of the extremities is parallel to the length of the body and corresponds in growth. The length of the extremities is about one-halt the length of the body. The extremities grow rapidly up to the sixteenth year. Then there is a slow growth to the thirtieth year, when the maximum is reached; then follows a slight retrogression. Ihe increase of the leg in length is in general up to the tenth year less than half of the increase of the length of the body; but in the follow- ing year the leg grows faster than the half of the increase of the body in length. Ihis continues up to the seventeenth year. Directly before puberty leg and trunk grow about equally. The increased growth of the whole body during puberty is due especially to the increase m length of leg. 'Western Journal of Education, November, 1899, San Francisco Cal. STUDY OF THE ABNOBMAL CLASSES. 123 In advanced age the leg shoi'tens somewhat in length, due to the flattening of the instep, weakness in the knee joints, and sinking of the neck in the femur. The greatest yearly increase in the length of the foot is in the sixth year, which is striking. In old age foot and hand decrease. This, as in the extremities in general, is probably due to arthritic changes in the joints. Thus in the general shrinking of old age all members of the body take part. The circumference of head of the new-born child is over 60 per cent of its full length of body when grown. At birth the circumference of head is about three-fourths of the height of the body; when the child is grown it has fallen to only one-third of the height of the body. As to the shape of the head, it is rounder in childhood, but gradu- ally becomes longer as indicated by the cephalic index. As before indicated, the maximum length grows faster than the maximum width. The height of face during the last live years increases more than the other parts of the head; during the second five years the increase is small, but larger afterwards. The width of face of bizygomatic diameter, though having a smaller increase than the height of face, cor- responds to it in its growth. The distance between the eyes increases parallel with the width of head; the increase from birth to adult age is only 10 millimeters; at birth this distance is 68 per cent of its full growth. The height of nose represents the middle division of the face, which orows the most of all, both in width and height. The nose grows much faster in height than in width; the nasal index decreasing with age. The face maybe divided into three parts (Weissenberg) : The upper part, from the vertex to the root of the nose; the second or middle part, from the root of the nose to the base of the nose, and the lower part, from the base of the nose to the end of the chin. In duration and quantity of growth these three divisions of the face increase from above to below. The middle division increases the most, and it is the upper jaw that rules the growth of the whole face. The relatively small increase of head as compared with body may be due to the fact that from the day of birth the child needs its brain and senses as much as when it is grown. , tt • j In a work on children (by the writer), to be published by the United States Bureau of Education, will be found further details in juvenile anthropometry, and its bearing on sociological condition. Experimental study of children, including anthropometrical and psycho-physical measurements of Washington school children; meas- urements of school children in the United States and Europe; descrip- tions of instruments of precision in the laboratory of the Bureau of Education; child study in the United States; and a bibliography. Reprint (from Annual Report of United States Commissioner of Edu- cation for 1897-98), 325 pages, 8°. Washington, D. C, 1899. PERIODS OF GROWTH. Comparing the results of Weissenberg and others, there are six periods of growth. The first period extends from birth to the sixth or eighth year, and is throughout one of very rapid growth. The second period extends from 11 to 14 years of age, and growth is slow. 124 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. The third period is from 16 to 17, presenting a sudden advance in growth, which is in relation with the development of puberty. The fourth period shows a slow growth, extending up to age 30 for length of body; up to age 60 for chest girth. Here growth in the proper sense has ceased. The fifth period is one of rest, and in normal conditions is from 30 to 50 years of age, and is one of full symmetrical development. _ The sixth and last period is characterized by a decrease in all dimen- sions of the body. It must be remembered that these periods do not always fall at the same age. GEOWTH OF HEAD, FACE, AND NOSE. The development of the head of children has been studied but verv little. NEUEO-SOCIAL DATA." Tabular statement gimng quantitative measurements of sensibility in persons of different ages and different classes of society. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVT Claasificatioji of individuals. Num- ber of per- sons. Women (highly educated)... Young women (wealthy classes) Young men (wealthy classes) Boston, army of unemployed Washington school children (boys) WEish'ington school children (girls) Boys (parents well-to-do) Boys (parents poor) Girls (parents well-to-do) Girls (parents poor) Boys, before puberty Boys, after puberty Girls, before puberty Girls, after puberty Colored children: ' Boys Girls 551 205 119 183 133 318 208 186 362 33 58 Ages and aver- age Average least sensibility to distance (local- ity) between two points on volar surface of wrists. Eight wrist. "30 = 30 >28 6-18 6-18 6-18 6-18 6-18 6-18 6-14 15-18 6-12 13-18 6-19 6-16 mm. 17.3 13.6 12.4 16.1 16.3 14.8 16.2 16.6 14.3 14.9 16.7 17.2 14.5 1.5.1 13.9 16.2 Left Right wrist, wrist. Average least sensibility to heat on volar surface of wrists. mm.. 16.2 12.4 12.7 15.6 16.5 13.8 15.2 15.9 13.5 13.8 14.9 16.3 13.8 14.0 13.5 14.1 Cent. 2°.l 4.6 4.4 4.6 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.6 4.8 4.3 2.0 2.5 Left wrist. Average least sensibility to pain (by pressure) on temporal mus- cles and on palm of hand. Eight. Cent. Kilos. 10.7 1.253 4.4 3.7 3.9 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.6 3.6 4.2 1.7 2.4 2.9 4.V 9.5 Left. Kilos. l> 1.224 ■12.4 4.2 9.5 =* Average. ^T muscle. "Unknown. The tests for temperature discrimination were made with Eulen- bergs thermajsthesiometer; those for pain with the author's own algometer applied to the temporal muscle. All the psychical condi- c^^T!u'' ™^ ® ^l uniform as possible, especially with the children, bhould these results be confirmed by experiments on larger numbers of mdividuals, the following .statements would be probable- Middle-aged women of the educated classes are much less acute in the sense of locality on the wrist, but much more acute to heat than 'Froc(5edings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Psycholorical Asso- ciation, m the Psychological Review, Vol. Ill, No. 2, March 1896! STUDY OP THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 125 young women of the wealthy classes. (Nos. 1 and 11, columns 2, 3, 4, 5,6.) Young men of the wealthy classes are much moTe sensitive to locality and pain than the men of the Boston army of .the unemployed (N^os. Ill and IV, columns 3, 4, 7, 8). Young women of the wealthy classes are much less sensitive to locality and heat, but much more sensitive to pain than young men of the wealthy classes (Nos. 11, 111, columns 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, 8). As to pain, it is true in general that women are more sensitive than men, as shown in a former investigation. But, as remarked then, it does not necessarily follow that women can not endure more pain than men. Boys are more sensitive to locality and heat before puberty than after. Girls are more sensitive to locality before puberty, but their sensibility to heat is about the same before and after puberty (Nos. XI-XIV" columns 3, 4, 5, 6). Colored boys are more sensitive to locality and heat than white boys. Colored girls are less sensitive to locality, but more sensitive to heat than white girls (Nos. VI and XVI, columns 3, 4, 5, 6). Colored boys are more sensitive to locality and heat than colored girls (Nos. XV and XVI, columns 3, 4, 5, 6). The left wrist is more sensitive to locality, heat, and pain than the right wrist; only one exception (No.' Ill, columns 3, 4). These experiments are perhaps the first ever mads on the nervous system of school children. Their practical value is this: Any pupil 20 per cent above or below the averages for its age should be reported to the family physician. It is doubtful whether suoh a pupil should be allowed in school. If allowed, they should be separated from the others. There are too many bright pupils with weak bodies. SOME RECENT RESULTS FROM THE STUDY OE MAN. It may be interesting to give some of the results of recent investij gations- of modern man. The statement of these results will indicate how incomplete and unsatisfactory our knowledge of living man is. As there can be no more important study than man himself, the need of bringing this study up to the degree of accuracy equal to that of the sciences is evident. But this can be done only hy patient investi- gation with instruments of precision applied to many persons of all classes. To these psycho-physical results must be addeda sociological study of all the outward conditions in which the individuals have existed from childhood up. This combination of psycho-physics and sociology will make both "more useful to the community. The conclusions below, although based upon a considerable num- ber of cases or experiments, can be held only as tentative, that is, while true for the individuals experimented upon, they have only a general probability when applied to all persons. To be generally true, most of the conclusions would have to be based upon a very large number of experiments. Some of the conclusions may seem so obvious as not to need an experimental basis, but commonly accepted ideas may prove to be more false than true when submitted to rigid tests, for general impressions are sometimes based on conspicuous exceptions. It is not intended here to note results from all those who have done research work. In giving the conclusions we have followed the work 126 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. of the investigators as much as brevity would allow, giving the gen- eral idea in as few words as possible. As will be seen, much research has been done by Americans. RESULTS." Large children make their most rapid growth at an earlier age than small ones (Bowditch). Maximum growth in height and weight occurs in boys two years later than in girls (Bowditch). First-born children excel later born m stature and weight (Boas). Healthy men ought to weigh an additional 6 pounds for every inch in height beyond 61 inches, at which height they ought to weigh 120 pounds (Lancaster). Chest girth increases constantly with height and is generally half the length of the body (Landsberger). Chest girth and circumference of head increase in parallel lines (Daffner). The relatively large size of head as compared with body in children may be due to the fact that from birth on the child needs its brain and senses as much as when it is grown (Weissenberg). Boys grow more regularly than girls, but the growth of girls during school years is greater than that of boys (Schmidt). In boys in school the muscles of the upper extremities. increase with age as compared with those of the lower extremities because of their sitting more than standing (Kotelmann). Breadth of face increases much more rapidly in proportion to the growth of head in breadth and length (West). Tall boys (naval cadets) are much more likely to have completed their growth at an earlier age than those short in stature (Beyer). Children born in summer are taller than those born m winter (Combe). Boys of small frames often have large heads and are deficient in repose of character, and when the chest is contracted and mental action slow, this mental condition is due probably to lack of supply of puri- fied blood (Liharzik). Delicate, slender people are much more subject to typhoid fever than to consumption (Hilderbrand). Women students who have had infectious diseases are superior in weight, height, strength, and lung capacity to those having had hered- itary diseases (MacDonald). ^ Some defective children are over-normal— that is, they are taller and heavier than other children (Hasse). _ Growth degenerates as we go lower in the social scale (British Asso- ciation for Advancement of Science). Dull children are lighter and precocious children heavier than the average child (Porter). Urban life decreases stature from five years of age on (Peckham). Truant boys are inferior in weight, height, and chest girth to boys in general (Kline). 'For full understanding of some of the results, one of course must consult the original articles. "Philadelphia Medical Journal, April 20, 1901. STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 127 Righthandedness is natural, and the superiority of the right over the left hand increases with growth (Smedley, F. W.). Visual perceptions are not copies of a physical world, but mainly the result of experience and utility (Cattell). In the association of images frequency is the most constant condition of suggestibility (Calkins, Mary W.). If the eye is the expressing sense, all lengths are greatly underesti- mated, the error decreasing as the length increases (Jastrow). The recognition of an ordinary picture requires one-fifth of a second or less, the time decreasing as the familiarity increases (Oolegrove, An object is recognized more readily when inverted than in either of the two intermediate portions of quarter-reversal, and more readily than in the erect mirror position or the position inverted (Dearborn, G. v.). . Visualization decays as age advances and abstract thought increases (Armstrong and Judd). Localization seems to depend much more on fusion than upon motor tension of the ej^es (Hyslop). The effects of fatigue are more lasting toward the side portion of the retina than near the center (Washburn, Margaret F.). From the commencement of a momentary illumination until the appearance of an after-image 0. 344 second elapses (v. Vintschgau and Lustig). The eye when in the primary position can be rotated from this posi- tion 42° outward, 46° inward, 34° upward, and 67° downward (Schuurmann). The sense of sight is much more accurate in estimating length than the sense of touch aided by the muscular sense (Swift, E. J.). When colored objects are very small and illumined only for a short time, the normal eye first fails to perceive red (Aubert). When retinal fields (colored squares or figures) are presented in succession, the new field dominates In consciousness (Pace, E. A.). There is good evidence for believing that we can get an after-image from a mental image (Downey, June E.). Red and yellow are visible at greater distances than green and blue (Misses Tanner and Anderson). The pleasantness of colors generally increases with their saturation (Cohn, J.). The optic nerves, especially the left optic, in Laura Bridgman, are very small, when compared with those in normal brains (Donaldson.) Children can not see colors as far in indirect vision as adults. Differ- ence in sex makes no perceptible difference in the extent of color range (Luckey, G. W. A.). In comparison of a fixed object with one which is moved toward or from the eye, the moved object is generally underestimated (McCrea and Pritohard). SOUND. In the audibility of shrill notes there is a remarkable falling off of the power as age advances (Gal ton). Beats are more precisely perceived by the ear than by other sense- organs (Ho ring, Mach). 128 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES, We distinguish more easily the direction from which noises mixed with musical tones come than that of tones (Rayleigh). The fixedness of auditory localization can indeed influence the optical impression (Miinsterberg and Pierce). The conception of a rhythm demands a perfectly regular sequence of impressions within the limits of about 1.0 sec. and 0.1 sec. (Bolton, T. E.). The auditory element in reading is a maoh more persistent factor than articulation (Secor, B. S.). Tones of liminal intensity, attentively followed by practiced observ- ers, evince the fluctuations ordinarily described as "fluctuations of attention" (Cook, H. O.). There is no good evidence for supposing that cutaneous sensations play any part in the localization of sound (Angell and Fite). In young children a memory image is smaller than its object, while in adults it may exceed the object in size (Wolfe, H. K.). The memory which acts quicker acts better (Bigham, J.). The memory image tends to grow larger as the time interval increases (Warren and Shaw). The memory image is more readily producible after five minutes than after one minute (Bentley, I. M.). Matter memorized orally appears to be retained slightly better than that memorized visually (Whitehead, L. G.). It is absurd to assume that the memorizing of any subject gives val- uable memory training (Kirkpatrick, E. A.). Sentences are remembered inversely in proportion to their length and number of nonessentials contained (Shaw, J. C). Great men, though often absent-minded, have strong memories in the lines of their interests (Yoder). The accuracy of memory is enhanced if during the interval the attention is deflected from the thing to be remembered to something else (von Zwetan Kadoslawow-Hadji-Denkow). SKIN. The skin over the joints is more sensitive than elsewhere; touches on the back are more distinctly felt than touches on the front of the body; touches on the left side are not so well localized as on the right side (Krohn and Bolton). The greater the mobility of the part, the greater the sense of local- ity on the skin (Vierordt). A weight held by one limb seems to become lighter as soon as we contract other muscles of the limb, which, however, are not required to act in supporting the weight (Charpentier). The sensibility to cold is generally greater than to heat, that of the left hand greater than the right (Goldscheider). Limbs which are asleep feel heat and not cold (Herzen). The greater the sensibility of the skin the more rapidly can stimuli succeed each other and still be perceived as single impressions (Bloch). Two points touching the skin feel wider apart than when moved along the skin (Fechner). The pain threshold increases with the area of stimulation, but, like the tactile threshold, much more slowly than in direct proportion. STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 129 The most sensitive parts of the body are those where the skin is not separated from the bone by muscular and other tissues (GrifEng, H.). In cutaneous perception of form, the tip of the tongue ranks first, then come the finger tips and lips (Major, D. R.). TASTE AND SMELL. Taste sensation, so far as their discriminative or intellectual value is concerned, are the composite result of the mingling of sensations of smell, touch, temperature, sight, and taste (Patrick, G. T. W.). Sweet is tasted best on the tip of the tongue, sour on the edge, and bitter at the base, acid equally on the tip and edges, but less at the base (Kiesow, F.). Saline substances are tasted most rapidly (after 0.17 second); then come sweet, acid, and bitter (v. Vintschgau). Odorous bodies diminish the number of respirations (Gourewitsch). WeDer's law applies to smell (Gamble, Eleanor). MOVEMENT. The thought of a movement already begins it, facilitates it, quickens it; yet attention to a practiced movement in many instances embar- rasses it, hinders it, lengthens it (Baldwin). Accuracy in judging space b}^ movements of the arm increases with age (Gilbert). Automatic movements of the speech organs do take place and are far from uncommon (Curtis, H. S.). There is a gradual increase of motor ability with age; the increase in mental ability is not so well marked. Boys slightly surpass girls in motor abilitj'-, while the reverse obtains in mental ability (Bagley, W. C). In involuntary motor reaction there is a strong tendency to expan- sion under agreeable stimuli, and to contraction under disagreeable stimuli (Miinsterberg). Contraction of the extensor muscles is more pleasant in itself than contraction of the flexors (Dearborn, G. V. ISf.). The individual who is fairlj accurate and very quick is generally more accurate when he takes more time (Fitz, G. W.). The average knee-jerk varies in amount at different times of day, being as a rule greatest in the morning and very much less at night, and in general large after each meal (Lombard). ATTENTION. The constant of attention for any activity increases with (1) the effort of the accommodation of the special sense-organs; (2) the effort in coordination of the muscles; (3) the effort of the memory, and (i) the number of simultaneous activities (Welch, Janette C). The time question in attention is not a case of a " sensory " versus a "motor" reaction, but of a sensori-motor less habitual versus a sensori-motor more habitual (Angell and Moore). In perceptual attention there is a general increase in the rapidityof respiration. This is also characteristic of heightened mental activity (MacDougal, R.). VOLITION. The power of volition of the ego seems to induce changes in the cerebral centers and connected organs of sense apparently without 9192 9 130 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. any use of the muscular system to control the nature of those changes (Ladd). Mental images themselves constitute the motives, the springs of action, for all we do (Laj^, W.). Positive feeling seems to indicate that the function exercised is sup- ported by a good amount of nervous energjr, and negative feeling, the opposite condition (Hylan, J. P.). If the volitional temperament is unfavorable, practice will have no effect in determining the two types of reaction time (Titchener, Hill, and Watanabe). STIMULATION AND SENSATION. Intensity of sensation is exactly proportional to the duration of stimulation, the time being less than necessary to produce a maximum effect (Lough, J. E.). The threshold of sensation for the sense of pressure in an average person is 2 milligrams on the forehead, temple, and back of forearm, 6 milligrams on nose and chin, and 15 milligrams on under surface of fingers (Scripture). Equal increments of sensation are produced by increments of stimu- lus in geometrical progression (Morgan, C. L.). The minimal time of stimulation which will yield an after-sensation is about 5 seconds with a pressure of 150 grams (Spindler, F. H.). In judgments of comparison with a metal standard there is an absence of any correspondence with Weber's law (Woodworth and Thorndike). JIOEAL SENSE. Young children think of the results of action; older children con- sider more the motive that leads to action (Schallenberger, Margaret). _ The humane instinct in children is much stronger than the destruc- tive instinct (Barnes). As age increases children have more sense of their own value, sub- mit to punishment less, but feel more responsibility (Frear, Caroline). Moral action in child life is more a matter of imitation than intellect (Street, J. R.). Girls show less interest in material things than boys, and admire the esthetic more (Chandler, Kathermc). READING AND WHITING. Many acts called intelligent, such as reading and writing, can go on quite automatically in ordinary people (Solomons, Leon M., and Stein Gertrude). In reading, the size of tj'-pe is the all-important condition of visual fatigue. No type less than 1.5 mm. in height (11 point) should be used, the fatigue increasing rapidly even befoiethe size becomes as small as this (Grifling and Iranz). In learning to interpret the telegraphic language, it is intense effort which educates; each new step in advance seems to cost more than the former (Bryan and Harter). In writing-, men respond to an increased difficulty by intensifvino- the vohtiona impulse, women by a reduction in the size of the charac*'- ters written (Diehl, A.). Rapid readers do their work better, as well as in less time, and retain more of the substance of what is read (Quantz, J. O.). STUDY OF THE ABWOEMAL CLASSES. 131 As to legibility of small letters, w, m, q, p, v, y, j, and f are good; h, r, d g, k, b, x, 1, n, and u are fair, and a, t, i, z, o, c, s, and e are poor (Sanford). Eye movements in reading axe not materially different from those made in response to peripheral stimuli as the eye looks back and forth between two fixing points (Dodge and Cline). In_ adding, the effect of alcohol seems to be a slight quickening; in reading and writing, alcohol produces a period of quickening followed by a period of retardation (Partridge, G. E.). ILLUSIONS AND DREAMS. In perception _ of visual form, each observer has certain habits of illusion, or certain typical modes of associative completion, which per- sist with modification throughout his records (Hempstead, L.). Illusions are mainly due to auto suggestion (Tawney, G. A.). Men are less prone than women to illusions of weight (Wolfe, H. K.). Dreams are the product of light sleep, representing the reinstate- ment of consciousness after the early and profound sleep (Patrick and Gilbert). The delusions of waking hours seldom or never come to harass the sleep of the monomaniac (Pilcz, A.). Illusions are easily built up when suggested along the lines of firmly fixed associations, and consequently the brightest children are more suggestible under these conditions than the dullest ones (Dresslar, F. B.). BLUSHING AND FEAE. Blushing comes from shyness and fear, is unnatural and morbid, increases at puberty, and is greater in women than men (Partridge, G. E.). In boys, fear increases from ages 7 to 15, and then declines; in girls, from 4 to 18. Girls fear more than boys (Hall). POWER OP ESTIMATION. Younger children underestimate weight and size (proportion) and overestimate time (Franz and Houston). Weights are discriminated a little better through the hand than through the foot (Kinnaman, A. J.). In the estimation of measurement, men are more accurate than women (Bolton, T. E.). Time perception can alone be counted for as a process. Nearly all persons under nearly all conditions find a particular length of time mterval more easily and accurately to be judged than any other (Nichols, H.). MISCELLANEOUS. Students entei'ing college have heads, on the average, 19.3 cm. long; 15 per cent have defective hearing; their average reaction time is 0.174 sec; they can remember seven numerals heard once (Cattell and Far rand). In reaction time, the ear-lip coordination is the fastest (Angel! and Moore). Lower races seem to have shorter reaction times than higher races; they are more automatic (Bache, R. M.). 132 STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. The mental processes of the highest animals are not radically differ ent from those of man, but mannas capabilities of feeling and intel- lection which animals can not attain (Mills, W.). Mental exercise causes less inflow of arterial blood into the arm, and so does sleep (Mosso). Vascular tonicity increases dici-otism (double-beating pulse) and high pressure diminishes it (Binet). In general, sensitiveness to pain decreases in order of birth (Car- man, Ada). Those who have endured the most hardihood in life are usually the least sensitive to pain (MacDonald). City children are more vivacious, but have less power of endurance than country children (Liharzik). Among United States naval cadets there is a great preponderance of blondes (Beyer). The insane show an excess of 5 per cent of light eyes, with dark hair, and criminals of 10 per cent of dark eyes, with dark hair, over the general population (Roberts). In Germany 40 per cent of the children of the well-to-do classes are blondes and less than 10 per cent brunettes (Virchow). The endurance (ergographic work) of boys is greater than that of girls at all ages (Christopher, W. S.). The desire to make the objective conditions correspond with the subjective ones requires unity in our forms and is the one essential condition for the emergence of the assthetic consciousness (Pierce, E.). In religion conversion is not a unique experience, but has its cor- respondence in the common phenomena of religious growth (Starbuck, E. D.). Continuous intellectual work during several hours produces a decrease in the heart beats (Vaschide). Weather conditions which are physically energizing and exhilarating are accompanied by an unusual number of excesses in deportment and the minimum of deaths and mental inexactness, while the opposite meteorological conditions show the I'everse effects (Dexter, E. G.). In literature red indicates man; blue and green, nature; and white yellow, and black, imagination (Ellis, Havelock). ' High percentile rank in height, weight, and chest circumference in growmg children is nearly always found associated with a superior grade of mental work, as that is determined in our schools (Beyer). WASHINGTON CHILDREN. There is a very general representation from all States among the residents of Washington. Conclusions concerning the children there- tore, may be more applicable to our country as a whole We give some results from our study of 20,000 children in the public schools As circumference of head increases mental ability increases " Colored girls have larger circumference of head at aU ages than white girls. ^ Boys have greater circumference of head than girls- yet o-irls are superior to boys in their studies, but girls show higher percentages of average abihty and so ess variability, indicating less power of adapta- tion. This IS interpreted by some to be a defect from an evolutionary point of view. -' "It being understood that the race and^eTare the same^ STUDY OF THE ABNORMAL GLASSES. 133 In white children brightness decreases with age in most studies." In colored children the reverse is the case. Dull children are the most unruly, and unruly children are the dullest. Mixture of nationalities does not seem to be favorable to the devel- opment of mental ability in the offspring. The pubei-tal period of superiority of girls over boys in height, sitting height, and weight is nearly a year longer in the laboring classes than in the nonlaboring (professional and mercantile) classes. Children with abnormalities are inferior in height, sitting height, and weight, and circumference of head to children in general. Abnormalities are most frequent at dentition and puberty.* APPENDIX. I. OPINIONS OF SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal says: The question of the establishment of a psyclio-physical laboratory at Washington has been under discussion for a considerable time. It it hoped that such a la,bora- tory may be established, and if established may confine itself closely to the line of work outlined. That such work is needed there can be no question, and that it is eminently fitting that it should be supported and encouraged by the central Govern- ment is eq.ual.ly evident. It is peculiarly true of investigations of the proposed character which this laboratory is to pursue that a very large number of data must be collected before conclusions of significance may be drawn. The loose, popular, and often promiscuous talk of the last few years regarding degeneracy needs recon- struction and adjustment to the facts as soberly considered after years of patient investigation. If the suggested laboratory could, even in small measure, bring this about, its existence would be amply justified. In general, we are convinced that the intelligent collection of facts such as it is the design of this laboratory to accomplish in various lines of normal and abnormal anthropology is a work for which the time is ripe. Pediatrics (New York) says : Only by very extensive observations in this field can we ever hope to make trust- worthy inductions concerning the relationship of the physical to the psychical, and so appreciate the true significance of the so-called stigmata of degeneration, about which so much has recently been written. By such studies we hope to be able also to determine the influence for good or evil of our present educational methods upon the bodies, minds, and morals of our school children, and thus perhaps be able to adjust such methods to the varying requirements of the individual. Prolonged, careful, and painstaking observations of this character will also enable us to form a true concept of a normal child and lead us to appreciate the significance of variations therefrom. We hope thus to be enabled in large measure to counteract irresponsible but none the less injurious tendencies. The Centralblatt fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Urgeschichte says: The report of the commissioners of education for 1897-98 contains an extraordi- narily weighty work of MaoDonald's on anthropometrioal and psycho-physical observations on children. In addition to the investigations specially undertaken on Washington school children, the author has given in a praiseworthy way an account of the results of measurements of children in general, a hst of useful psycho-physical instruments, and a comprehensive bibliography. " Except in the more mechanical studies, as penmanship, drawing, and manual * For popular treatment of many points see article (by writer) entitled "The Study of Children," Everybody's Magazine, New York, June, 1901. 134 STUDY OF THE ABNOKMAL CLASSES. This work is so rich in. facts that it is impossible in one review to enter into details. The review, therefore, can bring out only the principal results. * * * MacDon- ald's work will form a guide and valuable help to everyone who is engaged in the elevation of the schools. The Physician and Surgeon, of Detroit and Ann Arbor, Mich., says: There are perhaps not many points of actual contact between the three learned professions— not munj subjects for study that may properly claim their attention to an equal degree. It is true, however, that man in his psychophysical relationship appeals to the divine, the student of law, and the physician aUke. Indeed, art itself is deeply concerned with the manifestations of normal and abnormal qualities, and similar bases for study should be patent to the educator and indirectly to all classes of student workers. Thus far we have all been almost totally engaged with that which lies nearest. In crime we have been dealing principally with the criminal and neglected the causes which made him such. As a nation we spend fifty-nine millions annually on judiciary, police, prisons, and reformatories, and in spite of this great outlay only 1 in 4 or 5 is saved from a life of permanent degradation. The same conditions that provoked the first offense operate to cause a relapse in 3 out of 4 cases. It is an appalling fact that habitual criminals are on the increase. We must be protected from them, and yet that which is still more important, they must be protected from the anomalous conditions in which they are born and grow up. Only by the study of normal and abnormal anthropology can scientific knowledge he gamed that will turn this current into more healthful channels. In the end much helpful information will be gained that should simplify all branches of study. This field IS now being cultivated by numerous scientists, and laboratory methods are bemg used to further their labors. There is, however, no Government support, and yet it IS a science that must inevitably react most favorably when put to practical use. An effort is now being made to establish a psychophysical laboratory in the i)epartment ot the Interior, and a Senate amendment to the sundry civil bill has already been introduced for that purpose. There are the best of reasons why this move should have been made long ago, and it is to be sincerely hoped that suitable provisions be made. The Eevue de Psychologie Clinique et Therapeutique, of Paris, says: That which authorizes us to ask as to the apphcation of Juvenal's aphorism mens Sana m copore sano, is the knowledge of the relations of the physical to the psy- chical indicated by the presence of numerous degenerative stigmata in individuals attacked with some abnormal mental condition or derangement. The scientific veri- fication ot these relations is an acquisition of very recent date; it rests entirely upon the progress of anthropology, for this science has taken to itself a part of psycholog- ^thTdTfXoDin'Iw '"' '''''" ^^^'^^^^^^ t° ^^Pl^i'^ by giving a review of the It is necessary to assure ourselves of the influence of educational methods for two reasons: Because education is concerned with the physical, mental, and moral devel- opment of mdividuals, who are an integral part of society and possess its power of nnfrluTtf'"/ ''"fJ^'f't^T educatioual processes tend to place young persons in the thornnXvl .'.H ""'f Y""' ^^"^ from every point of view it is necessary to analyze rela^XnLn^nT^ ° ^''°^ ^^'''^ °* *^•'''® processes and respective conditions are related to social degeneracy or regeneration. [From editorial in the American Lawyer, New York.] Scientific Study op the Criminal and Depbctive Classes. ot w ''^°'l*^ being made to establish a laboratory m the Department of the Interior atWaahmgton, for the practical application of physiological psychology to socio- crfmfnal naunerTifJ '/ r'^^'^r'^ data especiall^ as fo^mid i^ LstSns for the S Tchools^ an^l othPv 1 ft 7 «l^««e\and m hospitals, and also as may be observed W teW ™ieH '?t, -t'""'- 7^S '^''^"^^ ^^ °'^'" P'-e^ent criminal law is, sa we i^Ia +f,of ff ™^*e, 1842. Bremer, L. Tobacco, insanity, and nervousness. Scientific American Supp., Sept. 3, 1892. 2,700 worda. STtTDY OF THE ABNORMAL CLASSES. 149 Bremond, P. A. E. Essai Bnrl'hygifene de Tali^n^. 4°. Paris, 1871. Briand, M. Du d61ire aign. 4°. Paris, 1881. Brierre de Boismoat, A. J. F. De la foUe raisonnante et de I'importance du d^lixe des actes pour le diagnostic et la m^deoine legale. 8°. Paris, 1867. Brierre de Boismont. Du suicide et de la folie. Paris, 1856. 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