ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 S 621. W56 
 
 The drainage of fens and low lands ,*jy9r 
 
 3 1924 000 299 473 
 
THE 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 OF 
 
 FENS AND LOW LANDS 
 
 BY SRiVITATIOK OD STEU POWER. 
 
 BY 
 
 W. H, WHEELER, M. Inst. C.E., 
 
 BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 R & F. N, SPON, 125 STRAND, LONDON. 
 
 NEW YORK: 12, CORTLANDT STREET. 
 
 1888, 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 The drainage of fens, polders, and low lands, although a 
 matter of great importance, is a subject on which it is difficult 
 to obtain information. There is no complete treatise on the 
 drainage of low land by gravitation or by steam-power to 
 which an engineer called in to advise can refer. Numerous 
 papers describing drainage and reclamation works are to be 
 found in the * Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engi- 
 neers ' and in the engineering journals, yet these are too scat- 
 tered to be of ready service ; and there are many important 
 drainage works of which no record exists. The Author has 
 endeavoured in the following pages to supply this want 
 
 The lands dealt with are such as lie below the level of ordi- 
 nary high water of the sea, and therefore require embanking, 
 and special contrivances for securing proper outfalls for their 
 drainage. These lands may be divided into four classes. 
 First, those that are situated at a sufficiently high level as to 
 be able to discharge their drainage during low water ; these 
 require only protecting from inundation at high water by em- 
 bankments, and the main drains by sluices, which will discharge 
 the contents of the drains at low water, but close against the 
 rising tide. Second, lands at a lower level, which can obtain 
 a discharge by gravitation under ordinary circumstances, but 
 require that the water should be lifted out of the main drain 
 by mechanical power during floods. Third, lands lying 
 beneath low-water level, or so low that mechanical agency is 
 required during that portion of the year when the rainfall 
 exceeds the evaporation. Fourth, land, adjacent to the upper 
 reaches of tidal rivers, the suiface of which is sufficiently high 
 to obtain efficient drainage by gravitation, but owing to the 
 
iv Preface, 
 
 distance from the sea, the cost of deepening and improving 
 the channel of the river, or the length of main drain required 
 to be cut to carry the water to a lower outfall, frequently 
 through high intervening land, makes the cost of drainage by 
 gravitation greater than that by steam-power. 
 
 The greater part of the matter contained in this book, and 
 most of the illustrations, appeared during the year 1887 as a 
 series of articles in The Engineer^ entitled * The Drainage 
 of Fens and Low Lands by Steam Power/ and the Author 
 here acknowledges the kindness of the Editor of that journal 
 in allowing him the use of the engravings. 
 
 The information given has been obtained from various 
 sources — partly from descriptions of drainage works contained 
 in engineering publications, and from well-known works on 
 hydrology. A great portion of the matter is entirely new. 
 The Author's own experience as an engineer living in a fen 
 country, combined with a personal inspection of all the prin- 
 cipal drainage works in England and Holland, has given him 
 the opportunity of collecting together a large number of facts, 
 a record of which he hopes will be of service to those having 
 to design new works, or the superintendence of those already 
 in existence. For the ready assistance of those who have aided 
 him in the matter, the Author here tenders his best thanks. 
 
 In order to facilitate comparison of the different kinds of 
 machinery in use for lifting water, the results are in every case 
 reduced to one common standard in English measures of tons 
 of water lifted to a given height in feet, and of work done in 
 water lifted and discharged, expressed by the term water- 
 horse-power (W.H.P.). 
 
 In the Appendix will be found several useful formulae for 
 making hydraulic calculations. As the works in other coun- 
 tries are almost invariably given in French weights and 
 measures, the equivalents of these in English terms are also 
 given in one of the tables. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 .^m 
 
 CHAP. I AGE 
 
 Preface id 
 
 I. Introduction i 
 
 II. Drainage by Gravitation 7 
 
 III. Field Drainage „ 36 
 
 IV. Drainage by Steam Power 50 
 
 V. The Scoop Wheel 70 
 
 VL The Archimedean Screw Pump SS 
 
 VII. The Centrifugal Pump 92 
 
 VIII. Description of Pumping Stations 106 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 I. — Explanation of terms used.. 158 
 
 11. — ^Weights and measures relating to water; French weights 
 
 and measures and their equivalents in English terms *. 158 
 
 1 1 1. — Rules for ascertaining the pressure and velocity of water . . 1 60 
 
 IV. — Formula for finding the velocity of water in open channels 161 
 
 V. — For finding the quantity of water due to rainfall discharged 
 off the land, and the horse-power required for raising the 
 same 162 
 
 VI. — For finding the discharge of water through sluices .. .. 162 
 
 VII. — For finding the quantity of water due to twenty-four hours' 
 rainfall if discharged in a Hmited time owing to a sluice 
 being closed by the tide .. ,i .. .. 163 
 
 VIII. — For ascertaining the time the doors of a sluice are closed 
 
 by the tide 164 
 
 IX- — For ascertaining the height of the tide at any hour during 
 
 ebb and flood 165 
 
 X.— For finding the horse-power required for pumping engines 166 
 
 XL—Showing the dimensions and capacity of drains and sluices, 
 
 and the area of land for which they are adapted .. .. 167 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PI A,TE 
 
 Sea Sluice for Drain, width 8 feet opening .. i 
 
 Ditto, with three openings 2 
 
 Diagram showing Angles of Ingress and Egress of Scoops .. .. 2 
 
 Centrifugal Pump and Engine at Messingham 2 
 
 Scoop Wheel, Plan and Section .. .. , ., ., .. 3 
 
 Archimedean Pump .. .. ,. .. 3 
 
 Sections showing Blades of Pumps t 4 
 
 Centrifugal Pump and Engine at Grootslag Polder 4 
 
 Ditto, Legmeer Polder .. .. 4 
 
 Scoop Wheel at Podehole ,. • 5 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps at Lade Bank .. .. ,, 5 
 
 Diagram of Engine at 100 foot 6 
 
 Whittlesea Mere Pump Station 6 
 
 Section of Pump at Burnt Fen , 6 
 
 Scoop Wheel at Nordelph 6 
 
 Plan and Elevation of Pumping Station at Ferrara .. 7 
 
 Pump at Minden in Holland 7 
 
 Plan and Sectional Elevation of Pumps at Lake Haarlem 8 
 
THE 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 OF 
 
 FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The object of this book is to give a general description of 
 the works and machines used in draining low land, with such 
 information and practical hints as may be of service to those 
 having to superintend drainage districts or to design new 
 works. Living in the midst of the Fenland, where, with the 
 exception of Holland, the science of drainage has been 
 applied to the improvement of land on a larger scale than 
 any other part of the world, and having been engaged pro- 
 fessionally as an hydraulic engineer for the last twenty-five 
 years, the author has had the opportunity of collecting 
 together a large amount of facts and experience relating to 
 this particular subject, and hopes that, by rendering these 
 accessible to others who have not had the same opportunities, 
 he may be doing some service, 
 
 A civil engineer called in to advise as to drainage has not, 
 as a rule, had the experience necessary to enable him to 
 design the details of machinery required for the purpose, but 
 he ought to have sufficient knowledge of the subject to enable 
 him to judge as to what type of machinery is best suited for 
 
 B 
 
2 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 the particular work required, and to be able to draw up such 
 a specification that tenders for the work may be furnished 
 upon a similar basis. While a certain amount of freedom as 
 to details may be allowed to the makers tendering for the 
 machinery, the responsibility of the successful carrying out of 
 the work must rest with the engineer. 
 
 The want of sufficient knowledge of this special subject, and 
 experience of what has been done, has led in several cases to 
 the erection of unsuitable machinery, waste of money, and 
 failure to effect the object required in the most effective and 
 economic manner. 
 
 Very large tracts of rich land suitable for cultivation lie at 
 so slight an elevation above the sea, that this land can only 
 be rendered fit for cultivation by artificial means. The 
 Polders in Holland, the Fens and marsh land in England, the 
 sites of old lakes in Italy and other parts of Europe, and con- 
 siderable quantities of low land in the delta of the Mississippi 
 and in South America and the colonies, have been brought 
 into cultivation and made to yield large quantities of pro- 
 duce by a complete system of drainage. In India, Egypt, 
 and California, on the other hand, large areas of land are 
 rendered fertile, and made to grow abundant crops of fruit and 
 other produce, by means of irrigation; for this purpose, besides 
 channels carried from the rivers in the higher districts, mecha- 
 nical agency is largely resorted to for lifting the water into the 
 irrigating channels. The steam engine and centrifugal pump 
 are now rapidly replacing the more ancient and simple means 
 of lifting the water. 
 
 In Holland the reclaimed land, consisting, for the most 
 part, of the beds of lakes, is at so low a level that pumping 
 has been almost universally resorted to. 
 
 In the valley of the Po upwards of 600,000 acres of marshy 
 land have been drained and transformed into rich country by 
 means of pumps and lifting wheels, the drainage of which was 
 only practicable since the introduction of steam power, owing 
 
Introduction. 3 
 
 to the difficulty of getting rid of the water by gravitation. In 
 the south of France also large tracts of land have been made 
 available for cultivation by reclamation and steam drainage. 
 
 Primarily drainage by gravitation is the simplest and most 
 effective method. When windmills were the only motive 
 power, this means of getting rid of the water was more of 
 a necessity than it is at the present time, when pumping 
 engines can be obtained with a high degree of efficiency, and 
 can be worked at a small cost. 
 
 The engineers who originally designed the drainage for the 
 P'enland in England endeavoured by means of long straight 
 cuts to obtain a natural outfall into the sea, or main rivers, at 
 low water, excluding the tidal flow by sluices having self- 
 acting doors. Modern engineers have followed the example 
 thus set, and consequently, while large sums have been spent 
 in artificial cuts with the object of obtaining drainage without 
 the aid of mechanical power, the improvement of the main 
 tidal outfall rivers has been more or less neglected, and the 
 chimneys of pumping engines are everywhere to be seen 
 scattered over the fens. 
 
 In no instance in the Fenland has the attempt to obtain 
 what is called a "natural drainage," that is, drainage by 
 gravitation, been completely successful. While the higher 
 land is well drained, the lower fens, which often lie at the 
 greatest distance from the outfall, can only be kept fit for 
 cultivation by lifting the water out of their drains. The lift 
 of the water, and consequently the cost of the pumping, has 
 been considerably reduced, but the taxes to meet the interest 
 on the outlay for the works, in addition to the cost <vf pump- 
 ing, is much higher than in adjacent districts where more 
 reliance has been placed on pumping. Fen land, which was 
 well drained when the main outfall drains were first con- 
 structed, afterwards had to resort to pumping, owing to the 
 lowerinof of the surface from the consolidation and shrink- 
 ing of the peat Such has been the case in the East Fen in 
 
 B 2 
 
4 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 Lincolnshire, where a district of 30,000 acres, formerly drained 
 by gravitation, is now kept free from water by engines driving 
 centrifugal pumps erected in 1868, a description of which will 
 be given fuither on. 
 
 In the Black Sluice district the main drain, twenty-one 
 miles in length, was enlarged and deepened, and a complete 
 system of internal drainage carried out in 1848, with the hope 
 that the fen land would by this means be effectually drained 
 One district after another has, however, lesoited to pumping 
 as the only means of giving complete relief to flood water, till 
 now all the low land at the upper end of the main drain is 
 kept free from water in floods by steam-power. On the river 
 Witham, fourteen districts, containing an area of over 30,000 
 acres, are drained by steam-power* In the North Level 
 of the Bedford Level, where the taxation is already very high, 
 owing to the large amount expended in erecting outfall sluices 
 and perfecting the main drains, the lower districts suffer 
 greatly from flooding in wet seasons, and power was obtained 
 in the session of 188 1 to erect a large pumping station for the 
 better drainage of the district. 
 
 An enormous outlay was incurred in the Middle Level in 
 Cambridgeshire in cutting a large main drain eleven miles long 
 with an outfall sluice discharging into the river Ouse at a point 
 nine miles lower down the channel than where the old drain 
 discharged. It was considered at the time that this drain 
 would afford such a good discharge for the water that pump- 
 ing would become unnecessary. The numerous engines 
 which are now at woik in this level prove that these expecta- 
 tions were not justified by the result. Although the cost of 
 lifting the water has been reduced, yet nine tenths of the land 
 has to be secured from flooding in wet seasons by mechani- 
 cal means. There are certain districts in this level which 
 
 * *The Fens of South Lmcolnsliire,' by W. H, Wheeler, C.E. Simpkm and 
 MarshaH. This book is now out of print. A new edition is in course of pre- 
 paration, and will shoitly be issued by the same publishers. 
 
Introduchon. 5 
 
 refused at the time to be brought into the new system, pre- 
 ferring to rely on their engines and pumps. The taxation for 
 paying for the maintenance of the pumping stations in these 
 districts is so light, compared with those which are in the rest 
 of the Middle Level vvhich have to contribute to the outfall- 
 tax, as fully to have justified the opposition to the scheme, and 
 proves conclusively that there aie instances where drainage 
 by gravitation is often more expensive than drainage by 
 steam power. 
 
 In the South Level, owing to the want of improvement in 
 the river Ouse, the main outfall of the district, the discharge 
 from the main drains is so defective in wet seasons as to pre- 
 vent the floods getting away with sufficient I'apidity. The 
 water consequently rises to an undue height in the river above 
 the tidal outfall at Denver, bringing pressure on the banks 
 beyond what they were intended to stand, a greater head to 
 pump against, and additional water from leakage to be lifted. 
 The question as to whether the better course for the improve- 
 ment of the drainage of this level would be to imitate the 
 example of the Middle Level, and make a new cut discharg- 
 ing nine miles lower down the river than the present outfall 
 sluice at Denver, or to improve the outfall and its discharging 
 capacity, and so lower the height of the water in floods within 
 safe limits, and still rely on steam drainage, was referred to 
 the author to report on. The conclusion arrived at, after a 
 thorough investigation of the subject, was that efficient drain- 
 age of the low fen lands in this district by gravitation was not 
 advisable, and that the cost of draining by steam power 
 would be less than by gravitation * The interest on the 
 outlay for the money required for carrying out the gravitation 
 scheme would have put a greater tax by about two shillings 
 an acre on the land than that required for the improve- 
 
 * * Report on tlie Improvement of the River Ouse, between Denver Sluice 
 and the Eau Brink Cut.' By W. H. Wheeler, M. Inst C.E. Februaiy 1884. 
 Library, Inst. C.E. 
 
6 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 ment of the present outfall and the continuance of steam 
 power 
 
 The great improvements which have been made in the 
 steam engine and water-raising machines, together with the 
 greater facilities for obtaining and the lower price of coals, 
 have very considerably reduced the cost of lifting water as 
 compared to what it was when many of the improvements for 
 the drainage of the fen land were carried out. There is no 
 doubt if the work had to be done now, the engineers engaged 
 in those works would have trusted more to mechanical lifting 
 than to gravitation. 
 
 The choice as between gravitation and steam power for 
 draining low lands resolves itself into a question of cost If 
 the annual charge for interest on the outlay for a gravitation 
 scheme, with a proportionate sum for repayment of the prin- 
 cipal, exceeds the average annual cost for a pumping station, 
 then the steam power is decidedly preferable, not only as 
 being more economical, but as rendering the district more 
 thoroughly independent of outside circumstances. The annual 
 charge for a gravitation scheme is constant, be the season wet 
 or dry ; whereas a pumping station adapts itself more readily 
 to the actual work to be done, the charge for coals varying 
 with the amount of water to be pumped. 
 
 One obstacle to the more general use of steam power has 
 been the excessive cost of pumping stations in some localities 
 from the use of imperfect machinery^ and ignorance on the 
 part of those concerned in the management. While some 
 engines and pumps are so efficiently designed and managed, 
 as to leave little or no room for improvement, others are being 
 run with a most extravagant use of coals, and imposing a rate 
 of taxation for their maintenance that is quite uncalled for. 
 
( 
 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 DRAINAGE BY GRAVITATION. 
 
 The drainage of every district will vary either with the 
 elevation of the ground, the nature of the soil, the distance of 
 the district from the outfall, and other circumstances. It is 
 frequently the case that a low fen or polder has not only the 
 rainfall due to its own area to contend with, but also that of 
 the adjacent higher land. When the water has to be pumped 
 this is a serious consideration ; and even when it flows away 
 by gravitation, the water coming from the higher land will 
 over-ride the low-land drainage and frequently be the cause 
 of flooding or of obstruction to the free discharge of the low- 
 land water. To obviate this, whenever practicable, a drain 
 surrounding the district is made, which collects the high-land 
 water and prevents it finding its way into the lower level. 
 These drains were termed by Mr. Rennie "catch-water 
 drains " ; and the same purpose is attained in Holland by a 
 dyke and canal termed the " ringvart" 
 
 Rainfall. — If the district to be dealt with consists purely 
 of low land, provision must be made for the whole of the rain 
 which falls on the surface in winter, as from the low level of 
 the land none of the rain can soak away. In winter the 
 loss by evaporation and absorption by vegetation in wet 
 weather amounts to scarcely any perceptible quantity, and 
 with the outfall stream probably bank-full, and all the sur- 
 rounding land saturated, no deduction can be made for natural 
 soakage. If the district consists partly of high land, the pro- 
 portionate area of the drains can be made less, as some of the 
 rain of the higher districts will be absorbed by the soil on 
 
8 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 which it falls, the quantity depending on its nature. If the 
 higher lands consist of either sandstone or limestone, or 
 especially if of chalk, the absorption, after heavy rain, will be 
 very great, and the discharge off the surface to the drain very 
 small. In some chalk districts the absoi-ption is so great that 
 there is an entire absence of streams ; in others, the discharge 
 is so small, that the waterway of the bridges and culverts is 
 not an eighth of that required in clay districts. 
 
 A large fall of rain at any particular period does not 
 necessarily produce a flood in flat districts. When rainfall 
 succeeds a season of dry weather, it takes some time to 
 saturate the land ; and owing to the large capacity of the 
 arterial drains, their small declivity, and the level character 
 of the land, it occupies some time before these become fully 
 charged. On the other hand, if rain falls after a continuance 
 of wet weather, the land, together with the drains, is already 
 charged, and any exceptionally heavy rain, although even for 
 a short duration, is at once succeeded by a flood, as the drains 
 cannot carry off the excess in their surcharged state. 
 
 In the fen districts of Lincolnshire the average rainfall of 
 recent wet years has been 32*39 inches, of which 17 '52 inches 
 was due to the six winter months, September ,to February, 
 which, spread over this period, gives sRti average daily rainfall 
 of o ' 097. Taking the periods of excessive rain which occurred 
 during the same time, extending over six to thirty successive 
 days, the greatest average fall per day has been 0*41 inch for 
 fourteen days in October 1883 and November 1885, the next 
 highest being 0*29 for six days in February 1883. The 
 average mean rainfall during the twenty-one floods since 1852 
 was o * 26 for seventeen days. 
 
 The quantity of drainage which was provided for by the 
 old Fen engineers was that due to the water arising from a 
 continuous rainfall of a quarter of an inch of rain in twenty- 
 four hours, making no deductions for soakage or evaporation. 
 This calculation was also adopted by Sir John Hawkshaw 
 
Drainage by Gravitatmi, 9 
 
 for the engines erected for the drainage of the East Fen in 
 Lincolnshire, and by Sir John Coode as the maximum quan- 
 tity to be lifted by the engines proposed to be erected for the 
 drainage of the North Level. 
 
 Taking the rainfall in the Fen district as a guide, it may be 
 estimated that provision should be made for a daily rainfall 
 equal to about '0076 of the average annual rainfall of wet 
 seasons. 
 
 In Holland, the quantity generally calculated as having to 
 be lifted off the Polders varies from a quarter to three-eighths 
 of an inch of rain in twenty-four hours. The rainfall at Lake 
 Haarlem averaged 3 1 ' 27 inches for the ten years ending 
 1872, and 32 inches for the ten years ending 1886, the great- 
 est fall being 39*13 inches in 1877, ^^ engines running 
 8056 hours that year, against 6823, the average for the ten 
 years. 
 
 In Ireland, for the Rathdowney drainage on the river 
 Erkina, provision was made in the channel for a discharge of 
 600 cubic feet per square mile per minute, equal to a continu- 
 ous rainfall of about three-eighths of an inch in twenty-four 
 hours. The soil was a deep alluvium, the drainage area 
 containing S^'7 square miles of low-lying land on the lower 
 limestone.* At the "V\%xford Harbour Reclamation Works, 
 where the rainfall of wet years amounts to over 50 inches, 
 and the mean from 45 to 48 inches, it was estimated that 
 three-fourths of this quantity, or 34' 2 inches, would have 
 to be pumped ; but the machinery was made of sufficient 
 capacity to lift nearly an inch of rainfall in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Tidal Outfalls. — When the outfall of a main drain is into 
 a tidal stream, it has not only to be capable of discharging all 
 the water due to the rainfall, but also must be able to dis- 
 charge this water within a limited time, the doors of the 
 sluice being closed by the tide for a certain period twice a 
 day. This element has to be taken into consideration m 
 
 * Trans. Inst. C.E., vol. lix. p. 265 
 
10 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 determining the sectional area. The time the sluice is closed 
 by the tide should be ascertained by observation, but it may 
 be found approximately from Table VIII. in the Appendix. 
 
 Depth and Width of Drains. — The depth of a drain 
 must be determined principally by the level of the land with 
 reference to low water in the outfall in floods, and by the depth 
 it is thought desirable to maintain the water in the ditches 
 below the surface of the land. This should not be less, where 
 obtainable, than 3 feet or 3 feet 6 inches, to allow the under 
 drains to run clear. In peat land, two feet below the surface 
 is considered sufficient for the water-level. Taking the depth 
 to be 3 feet 6 inches, and allowing for one foot of water in 
 field ditches, the bottom of these will require to be 4 feet 
 6 inches below the surface. The depth of the main drains 
 and level of the water must be such as to provide for the 
 drainage of the lowest land situated the greatest distance 
 fi-om the outfall, and also to allow for the necessary fall in 
 the surface of the water from this land to the outfall. The 
 mean width of the drains must be determined by dividing 
 the area required by the attainable depth. 
 
 The greater the depth within certain limits in proportion to 
 the width, the better will be the discharging power of the 
 drain. The greater the body of water as compared to the 
 area of rubbing surface, the more free is the water to move. 
 The proportion of rubbing surface of the sides and bottom to 
 the area of the water is termed the hydraulic mean depth, 
 and is found by dividing the latter by the length of the 
 former, or the area by the wetted perimeter. 
 
 The best form of channel for conveying water is when its 
 hydraulic mean depth is at a maximum, and this is attained 
 when the mean width is double the depth, or a semicircle 
 with the diameter for the water-line. Such a form, however, 
 is never attained in land drains, and the width will generally 
 be from four to six times the depth. 
 
 Motion of Water. — The motive power which causes 
 
Drainage by Gravitation, 1 1 
 
 water to flow to its ultimate destination, the sea, is that due 
 to gravity, each particle of the fluid endeavouring to attain 
 the lowest leveL If the bottom of the drain be perfectly flat, 
 so long as there is any fall in the surface of the water the 
 particles at the higher end will continue to move until they have 
 arrived at the lower level ; and as every particle is free to move, 
 the whole mass of water in a channel, from the surface to the 
 bottom, will be in motion until a low-level horizontal surface 
 is attained. The action of a mass of water in a running 
 stream is not that of a body moving in a plane parallel with 
 the surface or bottom of the stream, but partakes more of a 
 rotary character, by which the particles of the water are con- 
 tinually being rolled round and round from the bottom to the 
 top, this action being increased where the bottom is irregular 
 and full of holes. The result of this rotary motion is indicated 
 by the numerous miniature whirlpools that are constantly 
 forming on the surface, and by the manner in which light 
 floating substances appear and disappear. It is, no doubt, 
 due to this centrifugal motion that the deep holes that are 
 found in running streams are maintained, the pebbles being 
 whirled round and round at the bottom, keeping the loose 
 soil continually in motion and allowing it to be carried away 
 by the running water. 
 
 A very slight inclination in the surface of water, even the 
 fraction of an inch in a mile, will cause movement An in- 
 crease in the surface inclination rapidly increases the velocity 
 and the quantity discharged. An increase of four times the 
 fall in the surface of a stream doubles its discharge. 
 
 Velocity of Water in Drains. — The velocity is 
 governed by the rate of inclination of the surface of the water, 
 and not of that at the bottom of the drain. The velocity of the 
 water due to gravity is checked and retarded by the friction 
 of the water against the rubbing surfaces with which it comes 
 in contact, this rubbing surface consisting of the sides and 
 bottom of the drain, weeds, sides of bridges, or other impedi- 
 
12 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 ments. A deep stream, therefore, having less rubbing surface, 
 has a greater velocity for the same inclination than a shallow 
 one, and a drain with a regular channel will discharge more 
 water than one with shoals and depressions in its bottom, or 
 having frequent bends. The velocity of a stream is in propor- 
 tion to the square root of the depth. Inclination combined 
 viith depth constitutes the power required to overcome 
 obstacles, and a deep stream, from its greater gravity, will 
 have more scouring effect than a shallow one having the same 
 velocity. Every particle of water in a flowing stream being 
 free to move, the whole body of water from the surface to the 
 bottom is in motion ; but owing to the retarding influence of 
 the bottom and sides, the velocity is greatest in the centre of 
 the stream, and at a small distance below the surface, and is 
 least along the bottom of the channel. The mean velocity of 
 a stream is generally taken as about four-fifths of the surface 
 velocity in the centre. If the same quantity of water that 
 enters a stream leaves it at the lower end, it is evident that 
 the same body of water must pass throughout its whole 
 length, whatever the difference in the area of the section at 
 different parts ; the water increasing in velocity when the 
 area is small, and decreasing when it is large, the surface 
 inclination varying in proportion. 
 
 The object to be sought in laying out a drain in a flat 
 country is to provide a channel wherein the water shall be 
 moved along its intended course with such ease that as small 
 an inclination and area shall be used as possible. Every 
 increase beyond what is absolutely necessary is a waste of 
 land and expense in excavation. 
 
 The method of calculating the velocity of a stream is by a 
 formula, deduced from the effect due to the action of gravity, 
 reduced by the amount of friction encountered. The theo- 
 retical velocity V, is found by multiplying the square root 
 of the product of the hydraulic mean depth R, by twice 
 the fall in feet per mile. The result must be reduced by 
 
Drainage by Gravitation, 13 
 
 a coefficient varying with the nature of the stream, and 
 determined originally by experiment checked by practice, 
 V = (\/R X 2 F) C. V equals mean velocity in feet per 
 second ; R equals hydraulic mean depth in feet ; F, fall of 
 surface in one mile in feet ; C, a constant, varying from 0*90 
 in rivers and large streams with considerable depth of water 
 to 0*60 for small drains in good order. The surface velocity 
 in the centre of the stream, as found by floats or by a current- 
 meter, must be multiplied by 0*83 to find the mean velocity 
 of ordinary drains. 
 
 The amount of retardation caused by friction, is an element 
 that can only be determined by experiment. Authorities 
 place this figure as low as 4 per cent, for streams discharging 
 a large volume of water, say from 2000 to 3000 cubic feet a 
 second, and as high as 40 per cent, for small streams of one- 
 hundredth this capacity. From observations deduced by 
 experience and comparison of the various formula given by 
 Beardmore, Stevenson, Neville, and others, the following may 
 be taken as the factors by which the theoretical discharge is to 
 be multiplied to allow for friction, and as generally applicable 
 to drains in low flat districts. 
 
 Depth. Mean Width p ^ 
 feet. feet. 
 
 Mam drams ........ 6 30 'So 
 
 Secondary drains 4 20 * 70 
 
 Small drains 2 10 '60 
 
 Weeds. — If weeds are allowed to grow in the drains con- 
 siderable deduction must be made from the theoi-'etical calcula- 
 tion, not only from the fact that they abstract from the area of 
 the drain, but necessarily retard the flow of the water. The 
 actual amount of deduction will vary with the quantity and 
 nature of the weeds, but a rule is given by Neville which 
 provides that the hydraulic mean depth of the drain should 
 be multiplied by i • 70. 
 
 The following is an illustration of the way in which weeds 
 hold up the water. In the river Hull in Yorkshire, over a 
 distance of 5f miles between Hempholme Lock and the 
 
1 4 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 South Bullock Pumping Station, which is about 12 miles 
 above the junction of this river with the Humber, in July 
 1887, previous to the cutting of the weeds, the mean inclina- 
 tion in the surface at low water was at the rate of 0*63 feet 
 per mile. After the weeds were cut between these stations and 
 in the river below, this was reduced to 0*15 feet per mile, the 
 water standing at Hempholme Lock, at low water, 2 • 84 feet 
 lower after all the weeds were cut than it did before the 
 cutting commenced. The lowering of the level and the de- 
 crease in the rate of inclination was progressive as the 
 cutting went on. The difference was not so great at the 
 lower station, as the weeds below this were not so thick, and 
 the river more affected by tidal influence ; but there the low- 
 water level was depressed i"09 feet by the removal of the 
 weeds. This alteration was considered to be due almost 
 entirely to the removal of the weeds. 
 
 Inclination in the Surface of Water.— Every inch 
 of fall being of value in flat districts the area of the drain is so 
 proportioned that the surface inclination of the water in the 
 drain is reduced to as low a rate as is compatible to the efficient 
 discharge of the water. Dubuat considered that the eighth of 
 an inch in a mile would cause a sensible movement in a canal. 
 The inclination of main tidal rivers through flat districts, 
 when properly trained, varies from 3 to 1 2 inches in a mile, 
 and should not under ordinary conditions exceed 6 inches. 
 Large tidal channels, when undisturbed by floods, flow 
 with an inclination as small as i inch in a mile. Main 
 arterial drains in well-drained flat districts flow with an 
 inclination of from i^ to 3 inches per mile. The Middle 
 Level drain, when the .syphons were at work, had a surface 
 inclination, over 15 miles at the lower end, of i\ inch 
 per mile. The main drain in Deeping Fen, Lincolnshire, 
 discharges the full quantity required to keep both the 
 pumping engines at work, with an inclination of 8 inches 
 in 12 miles, or at the rate of i\ inch per mile. The Black 
 Sluice drain in the same county, in floods, has an inclination of 
 
Drainage by Gravitation, 1 5 
 
 3| inches per mile for the first 1 2 miles above the outfall. The 
 surface inclination of the canalised part of the river Witham 
 is about 3J inches per mile. The tidal portion of the river 
 Ouse between the upper end of the Eau Brink Cut and 
 Denver Sluice, which has a very irregular section, has a mean 
 fall in floods of 1 1 inches per mile, the greatest fall being at 
 the rate of 17 inches for three-quarters of a mile round a sharp 
 bend in the river, falling to 3 inches per mile through the Eau 
 Brink Cut to Lynn. The inclination of the Shannon, where it 
 passes through flat land, is at the rate of 2\ inches per mile. 
 In the main drains and canals in the polders in Holland 
 the surface inclination varies from ij to 3 inches in a mile. 
 
 Slope of Side of Drain. — The determination of the 
 slope, or batter, to be given to the sides must depend on the 
 nature of the soil, but will also be guided to a certain extent 
 by the width and depth of the drain. It is frequently advan- 
 tageous to lay out the slopes of the main outfall drains at a 
 flatter batter than the nature of the soil absolutely requires, in 
 order to afford larger storage room during the time the flow 
 of the water is stopped by the tide, the rapid increase in the 
 area above the mean water line affording a large resei-voir for 
 the water, without increasing the width at the bottom. On 
 the other hand, to make the slopes more than necessary 
 entails useless expense. Soils of a sandy nature will require 
 very flat slopes, as the soil is easily removed by the wash of 
 the water. In the alluvial soils of marsh districts the large 
 drains may frequently be found having batters of only one to 
 one. Clay, according to its nature, will stand with a small 
 slope, so far as the wash is concerned, but i^ liable to slip if 
 laid too steep. Peat requires very little batter, in fact, many 
 of the secondary drains in the peat districts may be seen with 
 their sides almost vertical. A careful observation of the 
 existing drains or watercourses in the neighbourhood, and the 
 slope to which they have adapted themselves, will form a guide 
 as to the section to be given to a new drain. 
 
 Main drains seldom have less slopes than 2 to i, and this 
 
1 6 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 is increased to 3 to i in light soils, easily washed away, or 
 where the substratum is soft and will not bear the weight 
 of the sides after the drain is excavated. 
 
 In excavating drains where the substratum consists of soft 
 alluvial soil, frequently overlain by mateiial of a denser and 
 more stable character, the bottom will spring up and let the 
 sides down. When ground of this character has to be 
 encountered, the soil excavated must be moved to a sufficient 
 distance to prevent its weight forcing the sides into the 
 cutting, and should not be placed nearer than six feet. It 
 may even be necessary in very bad places to build the sides 
 up with fascines to prevent them slipping in. 
 
 As the drains diminish in size the slopes may decrease to 
 I ^ to I J to I for the second class drains, down to | to i for 
 the main ditches. 
 
 Area of Land occupied by Drains. — The area of land 
 occupied by drains varies considerably with the position and 
 chaiacter of the land and its means of discharge. In the 
 low polders in Holland, drained by windmills, it is estimated 
 that one-tenth of the land is occupied by water. If drained 
 by steam power, one-twentieth is frequently occupied. The 
 following proportions of the area of drains to the total area of 
 land of the principal polders in Holland is given in Huet's 
 ' Stoombemaling van Polders en Boezems ' : — 
 
 Polders. «Z1?* Proportion. 
 
 De Beemster 18,824 
 
 Haarlem Meer 44>7oo 
 
 Rijnland 305,000 
 
 Kennemerland 16,000 
 
 Gedeete van Vijf i8,ooo 
 
 Amstelland 74,100 
 
 DejQand 74,100 
 
 Wateiscliap de Rotte in Scliieland . . 27, 200 
 
 13-4 
 t 
 
 J 
 
 27 
 1 
 38 
 
 X 
 
 _ 
 
 I 
 
 59 
 
 % 
 
 77 
 1 
 
 8s 
 
 * * Stoombemaling van Poldeis en Boezems,' doox A. Huet, C.E h Gravenhage, 
 
 iSS5 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 17 
 
 When land drained by gravitation discharges its water into a 
 tidal stream, or, if drained by steam, the pumps do not work 
 at night, the area of the drains will require to be larger than 
 where the discharge is constant, as a reservoir has to be pro- 
 vided for the accumulation of water during the time the 
 doors are closed by the tide, or the pumps are not at work 
 
 Cleaning Drains and Removal of Weeds. — Drains 
 running through fens and flat districts, where the current is 
 never very rapid, and where generally in summer-time there is 
 no current at all, are liable to become choked with weeds. The 
 earthy matter carried by the water in suspension in floods is 
 arrested by these weeds, and gradually a deposit accumulates 
 at the bottom of the drains, in which more weeds grow, and so 
 accretion goes on. The uniform depth of the channel is thus 
 deranged, the bed of the river rises and consequently the 
 water-way and the discharging capacity of the drain is 
 diminished. The weeds themselves also prove a great ob- 
 struction to the flow of the water. Accumulation of deposit 
 also takes place across the main drains at the places where 
 the lateral drains come into them. 
 
 It is generally the practice to cut the weeds twice or three 
 times a year. The ordinary method is by an implement 
 resembling a number of scythe blades joined together, which 
 is drawn backwards and forwards across the drain by men 
 stationed on either side, and working upwards against the 
 stream. The weeds as cut are drawn out by rakes, and placed 
 above the highest flood level. The cost of this work in the 
 fen district, where it is termed " roding,'* is about 20^. a mile 
 for drains from 12 to 20 feet wide, and 30^*. for larger drains. 
 
 A more effectual plan, and one which also at the same 
 time removes shoals and accumulations of deposit, is by 
 loosening and breaking up the deposit by means of a revolv- 
 ing implement drawn along the bottom of the drain at the 
 time when a current is running down. By this means not 
 only the soil of the shoals is loosened and carried away in 
 
 c 
 
1 8 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 suspension, but also the roots of the weeds are torn up and 
 are carried by the current out of the drain. If this is done 
 frequently, drains can be successfully kept clear of weeds and 
 deposit ; and may even be deepened at considerably less cost 
 than by dredging, or by spade labour, without any injury to 
 the outfall. Too little advantage is taken of the capacity of 
 the water as a carrying agent in the improvement of rivers. 
 In dredging, the chief expense and difficulty is the removal of 
 the material dredged up. By continually stirring up the 
 matter to be removed, it rises in the form of mud, and the 
 particles are sufficiently small to be moved and carried away 
 in suspension. If the section of the channel is uniform, the 
 velocity of the water will carry the material entirely away, 
 but wherever there are wide places and slack currents, there 
 will be a tendency for the matter in suspension to be de- 
 posited. By frequently and continually running the machine 
 up and down the drain within the defined limits of the water- 
 way a uniform and regular channel can be maintained free 
 from shoals and weeds. 
 
 Transporting Power of Water, — The transporting 
 power of water may be realised by considering the turbid 
 condition and immense quantity of matter carried down by 
 comparatively sluggish streams in times of flood. The 
 quantity of material transported by such rivers as the 
 Humber and the Trent is evidenced by the fact that the 
 warping lands on to which the water is allowed to flow are 
 raised by the alluvium which subsides, as much as two feet in 
 one year. 
 
 Owing to the constant change in the direction or motion of 
 the water causing horizontal and vertical eddies there is a 
 considerable upward vertical action, which counteracts the 
 downward motion of particles of matter of heavier specific 
 gravity carried in suspension. Thus particles of soil are kept 
 suspended, which in still water would fall to the bottom. In 
 addition to the matter carried in suspension, the action of the 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 19 
 
 water rolls along the bed of the channel, particles of material 
 the specific gravity of which is too great to allow of their 
 being raised above the bed of the channel. A stream running 
 with a velocity of 6 inches a second, or about one-third of a 
 mile an hour, will transport soft clay ; a velocity of half a mile 
 an hour will carry sand as large as linseed ; a velocity of two- 
 thirds of a mile will sweep along fine gravel ; while a current 
 moving at the rate of a mile and a half an hour will roll 
 along rounded pebbles ; and at the rate of two miles an hour 
 pebbles the size of a hen's tgg will be moved along the 
 bottom of the channel. 
 
 In some rivers upwards of 2 per cent, in weight of the 
 total volume of water passing along their channels consists of 
 material carried in suspension. In the Tees, when the drain- 
 ing works were going on, the quantity of material in suspen- 
 sion in the water was as much as 5 oz, to a gallon, or -^^ of the 
 weight of the water. The proportion in the Durance and the 
 "Vistula in floods is -^-^ ; in the Garonne and the Rhine in 
 Holland, ^Jq- ; the Rhone, ^ J^ ; the Po, -^^ ; in the Humber, 
 ^|-^ ; in other rivers the proportion varies from the above as a 
 maximum to x^-J^^, as a dry weather flow. To give an illus- 
 tration of the quantity of material transported by a river, it 
 is stated that the Durance transports in one year 17,000,000 
 tons of earthy matter.* The river Witham, in Lincolnshire, 
 before the recent improvements were carried out, passed 
 through beds of shifting sands at its mouth. The tidal flow 
 was stopped by a sluice across the river about eight miles 
 above the mouth, and consequently the ebb was very sluggish 
 when there were no land floods running down, the tidal water 
 entering the confined portion of the river at the rate of 
 from 3 to 4 miles an hour. During the dry summer of 1868, 
 when there was no fresh water flow down the river, the 
 amount of sand brought up and deposited along the bed of 
 the channel was calculated to be one-and-a-half million tons. 
 
 * * Iriigation in France,' Trans. Inst C. E., vol. li. 
 
20 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 the whole of which was removed and carried back to the 
 outfall when the winter floods came. 
 
 Allowing Y^ as an amount that would be carried by a 
 stream without overloading, this would be equal to about 
 0*09 lb. in every cubic foot of water.* Taking a main drain 
 having 30 feet bottom, with slopes of 2 to I, depth of water 
 8*0, velocity I J mile an hour, the quantity of earthy matter 
 carried in suspension would be 117 tons an hour, as follows : — 
 
 The area is 368 feet, velocity 132 feet per minute ; 
 
 368 K 132 X *09 X 60 ^ , 
 
 ~ = 117*1 tons an hour. 
 
 2240 ' 
 
 Allowing ten hours for a working day, 1171 tons of earth, if 
 loosened and broken up in the form of mud, would be carried 
 away by the water. 
 
 Machines used for Dredging, Scouring, etc.— As a 
 practical illustration of the working of this system the 
 dredger employed by the Deeping Fen Trustees, hereafter 
 described, was employed in cleaning out the Vernatts drain, 
 which receives the water pumped from Deeping Fen, in 
 Lincolnshire, containing 30,000 acres. The velocity of the 
 stream, where the dredger was at work, varied according 
 to the state of the tide in the river Welland, being very 
 sluggish at high water, and increasing to about i;^ mile an 
 hour at low water. The boat was employed on a section 170 
 chains in length, for eleven weeks, and during this time the 
 whole of the weeds and mud accumulated, together with a 
 portion of the bottom of the drain, consisting of clay, in places 
 veiy hard, was broken up by the dredger, and transported by 
 the water free and clear, not only of the drain itself, but also 
 of the channel of the river, and deposited in the estuary ten 
 
 * Allowing 7ocx> grains in i lb. avoirdupois, and that a gallon of water weighs 
 10 lbs., this would give 70,000 grains in a gallon. Taking the proportion of 
 T^ would give 100 grains of earthy matter to a gallon of water. Or taking the 
 
 62* 1 
 
 cubic foot of water at 62*5 lbs., and the same proportion would give — = 
 
 = 0*08928 &c. lb. in a cubic foot of water. 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 2 1 
 
 miles distant The total cost of working the boat, for labour, 
 coal, oil, Sec, was 65/., equal to about ys, 6d, per chain. It 
 was estimated by Mr. Harrison, the surveyor of the district, 
 that to have done this work by spade labour would have cost 
 200/. 
 
 In the river Welland, by the aid of this machine, a length 
 of 24 chains was deepened 2 feet for a width of 17 feet in 
 three days* working. In the river Glen the channel was 
 deepened 3 feet 6 inches, with a very slow current running, 
 the soil being stiff clay. 
 
 Sevao. appliances L breaking „p shoals and loosening the 
 bed of streams have been brought out and used at different 
 times, both in this country and abroad. 
 
 In the river Stour a boat was used, fitted with a kind of 
 rake at the bow, adjustable to the depth required. At the side 
 of the boat wings were fixed which could be extended so as to 
 form a temporary dam when the rake was lowered. This dam 
 caused the water to rise on the upper side. As soon as a head 
 of from six inches to a foot had accumulated, the pressure 
 forced the machine forward, dragging the rake along the 
 bottom. The rate of progress was about three miles an hour. 
 The machine is said to have been very effective in scouring 
 the river.* 
 
 In removing the shoals in the river Maas a boat was used, 
 fitted on each side with a screw propeller, 3 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter, which could be raised or lowered by gearing on the 
 deck. The screws were adjusted so as nearly to touch the 
 shoals, and as the boat moved, these were caused to revolve 
 at the rate of 150 revolutions per minute, by bevel gearing, 
 driven from a cross-shaft by belting from the fly-wheel of a 
 portable 12 horse-power engine. By the aid of this machine, 
 shoals consisting of sand, clay, and peat, were easily and 
 quickly moved, sand at the rate of 130 cubic yards an hour, 
 clay and sand mixed, 116 yards. The boat was moved to 
 
 * Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. ii. 
 
22 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 the shoal to be removed by the action of its own propeller, 
 and was then anchored and warped along the shoal. This 
 machine was afterwards converted into a suction dredger, 
 having a two-bladed propeller or fan 4 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter, which was brought halfway up the stern in a case, 
 and the sand pumped up, discharged into the river on the ebb 
 tide, and so carried away. 
 
 The navigation of the Danube in Hungary, being frequently 
 impeded by shoals caused by the deposit driven out of the 
 tributaries in times of flood, the Danube Steam Navigation 
 Company employed a boat, fitted with a triangular rake 
 18 feet long, having thirty-four teeth 12 inches deep. This 
 rake was hung over the bow of a steamer and dragged across 
 the shallows, the steamer running astern, it being found that 
 if the rake was hung over the stern it interfered too much 
 with the steering. By the aid of this rake, the shoals, con- 
 sisting principally of shingle, were removed, and the depth of 
 water increased from 3 to 4 feet.* 
 
 For breaking up the sand on Pluckington Bank in the 
 Mersey, to facilitate its removal by the scouring sluices, 
 various forms of rakes and dredgers were used, a description 
 and illustration of which will be found in the Trans. Inst. 
 C. E., vol, xc. 
 
 A scouring dam, intended for the removal of shoals consist- 
 ing of sand, was brought out by Mr. John Kingston, and was 
 described and illustrated in ' Engineering' of August 4th, 1882. 
 This machine, which has been successfully used for clearing 
 the entrances to the tidal and coast canals at Balasore and 
 other places in India, consists of a barge, over the stern of 
 which is a framework, carrying a movable dam made of 
 wood, with appliances for raising or lowering the same. As 
 soon as this sheet dam is lowered into the water across the 
 stream, and within a few inches of the bottom, the water is 
 held up on the upper side of the dam and the current forced 
 
 * Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. Ix. p. 387. 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 23 
 
 underneath, causing the sand or mud to be stirred up and 
 mixed with the water. The force of the head of water is 
 utilised to move the boat forward and drag along the bottom 
 a " hedgehog," so as to loosen the hard crust. The machine 
 is allowed to drift slowly down with the ebb current, and the 
 material, thus broken up and scoured out, is carried away in 
 suspension. Care has to be taken in using this machine in 
 riveis passing through sand, that the water does not find its 
 way round the sides and so scour holes in the banks. 
 
 The machine already referred to as being in use in the 
 river Welland and the Deeping Fen di*ains, has been designed 
 and brought into practical use by Mr, Alfred Harrison, super- 
 intendent of the Deeping Fen Drainage District It consists 
 of a barge, to which, from framework projections at each 
 end, is suspended a "hedgehog" or revolving drum, on the 
 periphery of which are spearheaded spades. The barge is 
 moved along the channel by means of steel ropes, anchored 
 in the bank at one end, and the other working round drums 
 on the boats similar to those used for steam ploughing appa- 
 ratus. The drums are made to revolve by gearing attached 
 to a semi-portable engine in the boat, the one drum uncoiling 
 and the other coiling up the rope. The drums are balanced 
 by chains, passing over pulleys to counterbalance weights, so 
 as to enable them to rise over any substance too hard for the 
 spades to penetrate, undue strain on the ropes being thus 
 prevented. The barge travels at the rate of about two miles 
 an hour. The framework to which the hedgehogs are 
 attached can move laterally by means of a handle, and thus 
 acts as a steering apparatus, by means of which the boat 
 travels round very sharp bends without difficulty. The 
 spades are placed alternately, and only enter a short dis- 
 tance into the bed of the stream. By the constant travel 
 of the two hedgehogs up and down the drain, the soil is 
 broken up sufficiently small for the whole of it to float and 
 be carried away by the water. A perpetual churning motion 
 
24 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 is carried on by the fore and aft rollers, and the water being 
 breasted up by the fore-roller, causes a thorough mixture of 
 the soil with the water, the earth being converted into sludge. 
 Although soil and sand can easily be removed, a greater 
 effect is obtained with a clay bed from the lighter specific 
 gravity of this material. An illustration and description of 
 this machine will be found in the ^Engineer* of October 28th, 
 1887. 
 
 For removing mud shoals which collected along the Mare 
 Island Straits at San Francisco, revolving buckets were used, 
 the machinery being actuated by the forces of the stream. 
 A floating framework was fitted with an undershot wheel 
 20 feet in diameter. This wheel was driven by the current, and 
 was geared into two drums, which carried double ropes fitted 
 with small buckets. The ropes passed round loose pulleys, 
 which dropped into the mud, carrying the buckets with them, 
 and these on their return discharged their contents into the 
 stream, by which it was carried away. 
 
 Proportion of Size of Drains to Land drained.— 
 No fixed rule can be laid down for the designing of a system 
 of drainage for any particular district, either as to the number 
 of the drains, their arrangement, width, or depth, as these 
 must all be governed by the particular conditions of the land 
 to be drained and the outfall. 
 
 A typical case may, however, be taken, having an area of 
 flat land containing 20,000 acres, discharging into a tidal 
 stream which only allows the sluice doors to be open fourteen 
 hours out of the twenty-four. The rainfall is assumed as 
 l«i„g .hat due to a ,„ Jiet of a„ inch in twenty.four hours, 
 the whole of which is to be discharged off the land. The 
 quantity of water due to this rainfall would be equal to 
 210* 1 1 cubic feet a second; the main drain, running only 
 7 hours- each tide, would require a capacity equal to 359*498, 
 say 360 cubic feet a second. Taking the district as 6\ miles 
 long by S miles wide, this would require one main drain 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 25 
 
 up the centre, with lateral drains on each side at intervals of 
 
 every fifty chains ; ditches branching out of these lateral 
 
 drains would be required at intervals of every ten chains, 
 
 leaving the areas of the fields drained by them twenty-five 
 
 acres each. Taking the main drain as having 26 feet bottom 
 
 at its lower end, with side slopes of 2 to i, a mean depth in 
 
 floods of 8 feetj and a rise in the bottom of 4 inches per mile, 
 
 and 2 inches per mile on the surface, its discharging capacity 
 
 would be as follows : — 
 
 feet. 
 Bottom width , 26 
 
 Width surface of water 58 
 
 Mean width 42 
 
 Mean depth 8 
 
 Area 42-0 x 8'0 .. .. = 33^'0 h.m.d. 
 
 -«* j±± — -. t ' 508 
 
 Contour 17-6 + 17*6 + 26*0 =61 
 Fall per mile 0*166 X 2 = 0*332 
 
 Vs *So8 X 0*332 = 1*352 vel. per second. 
 1*352 X 0*80 = I -0816 „ „ 
 
 Area 336-0 x i*o8i6 = 363*42 cubic feet second. 
 
 The dimensions in the drain at the middle would be 40 feet 
 6 inches top, 10 feet 6 inches bottom, 7 feet 6 inches depth, 
 and discharging capacity 182 cubic feet a second* The quan- 
 tity of drainage due to the rainfall on 10,000 acres, the quantity 
 discharging at this part of the drain would be 180*06 cubic 
 feet per second. At the top end the drain would diminish to 
 I -o bottom, 29*0 top, and 7 feet depth. The twenty latei'al 
 drains would each take the drainage of 1000 acres. The 
 mean dimensions of these drains in the middle of their length 
 would be 2 feet 6 inches bottom, 6 feet 8 inches top, slopes 
 I J to I, mean depth i foot 8 inches, fall in surface 6 inches 
 in mile, and in bottom i foot in mile, discharging capacity 
 S ' 19 cubic feet per second, the constant for friction, &c., 
 being taken at 070. The water due to the rainfall of 
 
26 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 500 acres, the quantity coming in at the middle of the lateral 
 drains 5.25 cubic feet per second. These drains are taken as 
 running the whole 24 hours. The field ditches to have I'D 
 bottom, slopes | to I, mean depth of running water i foot 
 Supposing that in floods, during the time the sluice doors were 
 closed by the tide, the water rose i foot above the mean level, 
 as before given, and fell at low water to i foot below this 
 level, the drains would hold, between low and high water, a 
 quantity equal to the rainfall of five hours. Supposing, in 
 anticipation of a flood, and before the water had swollen in 
 the outfall, the water in the main drain was run off within 
 3 feet 6 inches of the bottom, the drains would hold up to 
 3 feet below the surface of the land a quantity equal to 
 about one day's rainfall. The area of land occupied by these 
 drains would be 282 acres, equal to ^ of the whole area. 
 If the water had to be pumped, and the pumps worked night 
 and day, the area of the drains would be proportionately less, 
 as would also be the case if the sluice was situated sufficiently 
 above the outfall to allow of a longer discharge than 14 hours. 
 
 The sluice for this district would i-equire to have three open- 
 ings of 14 feet each. The water would approach with a velo- 
 city of I • 078 feet a second, and as the piers of this sluice would 
 have pointed ends, it may be assumed that it would pass 
 through at the same rate, the velocity of approach being 
 sufficient to overcome the friction due to the sides and bottom 
 of the openings. The depth of the water on the sill being 
 8 feet, the same as that in the main drain, the area of the 
 waterway would be 3 x 14'Ox 8 •0 = 336*0 X i '0816 = 363 -42 
 cubic feet per second 
 
 Sluices. — Low fen and marsh lands being almost invariably 
 below the level of the tides, their outfall drains must be pro- 
 tected at the point where they discharge into the sea or tidal 
 stream by doors constructed to keep out the tide when it rises 
 above the level of the water in the drain. 
 
 These doors are generally made self-acting, so that they auto- 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 27 
 
 matically open on a falling tide, as soon as the water in the 
 river is slightly below that in the drainfand close as soon as 
 the tide rises above the level of the outflowing water. A very 
 small head is sufficient to open and close these doors. 
 
 In large drains the doors are made in pairs, the size of 
 the opening for the pair seldom exceeding 20 feet in width. 
 The doors being self-acting, a greater width than this is un- 
 advisable, the concussion of the doors as they come together 
 on closing with the rapidly increasing head of the rising tide 
 throwing a considerable strain both on the frame-work of the 
 door and the masonry. 
 
 The doors shut against a solid wooden sill at the bottom 
 and a pointed frame at the top, hooded over. In some sluices 
 the doors are made of sufficient height to be above the rise of 
 the highest tide. This plan adds considerably to their weight 
 and cost, and from the great length renders them liable to 
 strain without any corresponding advantage. The angle at 
 which the doors are set is generally about 25 degrees ; it 
 should not be less than 20, or exceed 30 degrees. The heel 
 post works in a masonry hollow quoin on a pivot at the bottom, 
 and is held in place by an anchor-strap at the top. These 
 doors do not open back flush with the wall, as in a lock, but 
 stand off sufficiently to allow the rising tide to get behind and 
 act on the back so as to close them. In order to give stability 
 to the structure, the masonry opening is made of considerable 
 width, and forms a bridge over the drain. 
 
 The length of the piers against which the doors open is 
 about double the width of the opening, and they are in- 
 variably, as are also those on the inside, made with pointed 
 or rounded ends. On the inside of the arch draw-doors are 
 also placed, working in grooves, and made to lift up or down 
 by means of a cast-iron toothed bar, actuated by pinions and 
 gearing so adapted that one man has complete control over 
 the door. In large doors counterbalance weights are sus- 
 pended by chains over pulleys. These doors are kept open 
 
28 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 to their full extent in floods, and lowered when the flood is 
 over, so as to regulate the water in the drain to a certain 
 fixed height for the purposes of navigation, or for the supply 
 of water to the ditches for fencing or other purposes. These 
 drains being frequently used for barges, one of the openings 
 is in this case provided with lock doors for the admission of 
 craft when the doors are not open. 
 
 Smaller sluices, w ith openings not exceeding 4 to S feet, are 
 made either with a single door, hung in the same manner as 
 already described, or with " tankard lid " doors, the door being 
 hung by a pair of double-acting hinges from the top, and fre- 
 quently provided with a counterbalance weight attached to a 
 lever fastened to the door. 
 
 An improved method of hanging flap doors has been designed 
 by Mr. Stoney, by the use of which this description of sluice 
 doors may be used of considerable size. Attached to the flap or 
 door are a pair of lever bars, having counterbalance weights at 
 the upper end. These bars are carried on the segment of a circle, 
 the centre of which is situated in the centre of gravity of the 
 moving mass. This segment rocks on a horizontal to the path 
 situated above the water-level, making the friction less than 
 when fixed pivots are used, and rendering the opening and 
 closing very easy. Doors of this description were used for the 
 sluices of the Ballyteigne and Kilmore Reclamation Works, a 
 description and illustration being given in the * Engineer ' of 
 April 29, 1887. These doors, 6 feet 3 inches wide by 4 feet 6 
 inches high, were found to open with a head of from J to f inch. 
 
 In addition to the sluice doors at the outlet, it is frequently 
 desirable to place doors at the end of drains discharging into 
 the main outfalls, to prevent backing up of the water in heavy 
 floods and at tide time, when the water accumulates, especially 
 where the main drain has to receive water fi-om high land. 
 By the use of these doors a large amount of embanking may 
 be saved, and even where embankments already exist the 
 erection of doors saves great pressure, and the risk of a breach, 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 29 
 
 a contingency from which no banks are free. Some settle- 
 ment, or weak place in construction, or burrow made by mole, 
 rat, or rabbit, which may have been in existence for some time 
 unknown, is finally discovered by a flood a few inches higher 
 than usual, the water finds its way through, the bank bursts, 
 and a whole level is inundated. 
 
 Great care is required in making the foundations of sluices to 
 prevent the water from finding its way under the floor at times 
 when, owing to the head on the outside during high tides, the 
 power of the water to penetrate through the ground 1% very 
 great. The lands enclosed generally consisting of deposits of 
 alluvial matter, and the site of the sluice being on the sea- 
 shore or on a river, the soil Is frequently nothing but silt 
 or sand, and frequently no material of a more tenacious 
 character can be reached within a distance that would 
 warrant the foundations being carried down to the solid 
 stratum. When the soil consists entirely of silt, the danger 
 to guard against is that of the water finding its way under the 
 floor of the apron and invert of the culvert Several cases 
 have come under the author^s experience where this has 
 occurred, and the sluices, otherwise well built, have been left 
 standing on the bearing piles with the material entirely washed 
 away from under the concrete below the floor. The only 
 reliable course to pursue in dealing with foundations in sand 
 or silt is to build the sluice on bearing piles, and completely 
 to box in the whole of the site covered by the foundation with 
 sheet piling, driven eight or ten feet below the bed of the 
 channel into which the sluice discharges. Within the box a 
 solid bed of cement concrete to be placed, and on this the 
 planking for the floor. Wings should be carried out with box 
 piling for some distance each side, both at the inner and 
 outer ends, to prevent the water making its way round outside. 
 The brick-work of the piers and for the culvert will rest on 
 the planking, bearing piles being driven to carry the walls ; 
 the whole upper part being surrounded with puddled clay. In 
 
30 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 fixing the depth to which the piles are driven, consideration must 
 be given to the probability of the deepening of the out-fall, either 
 by improvements or natural scour. After the sluice has been 
 built cement grout should be forced under the floor^ by pumping 
 it in through holes bored in the planking, and afterwards 
 plugged. By this means every cavity becomes filled up. 
 
 The illustrations given are examples of a small sluice with 
 8 feet opening built on a silt foundation, and of a larger 
 sluice with three openings of 14 feet each, suitable for the 
 draining of a district of about 20,000 acres.* 
 
 In situations where a solid foundation can be obtained 
 the difficulties of construction are less. The following is the 
 description of the foundations for the Ferraby sluice for the 
 Ancholme drainage as given by Sir J. Rennie.j The sluice 
 consists of three openings, each 18 feet wide, and one lock 
 20 feet wide. The sill is 2 feet 6 inches below L.-W. spring 
 tides in the Humber. The soil is alluvial silt and clay. Beech 
 or elm piles, 24 feet long and 12 inches diameter, were driven 
 3 feet apart, centre to centre, all over the site of the founda- 
 tion. The earth was then excavated 2 feet below the pile- 
 heads, and blocks of chalk were well rammed in and grouted 
 with lime and sand. Fir cap-sills and transoms, 12 inches by 
 12 inches, were fixed on the top of the piles, the space 
 between these being filled with brick-work in Roman cement, 
 and the whole covered with Baltic fir three inches thick, 
 fastened down with 9-inch jagged spikes. The flooring was well 
 bedded with lime, puzzolana, and sand. On this floor inverted 
 arches of stone, 18 inches deep at the crown, were built, and 
 the piers and sills erected. On the Humber side an apron 
 was made with piles 16 feet long, the spaces between being 
 filled in with blocks of chalk to a depth of 3 feet, and covered 
 with 3-inch planking. 
 
 * Plate I, Figs. I, 2, 3, 4, for the small sluice, and Plate 2, Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, for 
 the large sluice. 
 
 Trans. Inst. C. E , vol. iv. 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 31 
 
 In selecting the site for a sluice discharging on the sea 
 coast, as sheltered a position as practicable should be chosen, 
 where the sand is least likely to drift and fill up the outfalL 
 Shifting sands are frequently a source of great trouble, and 
 where sluices discharge on sandy fore-shores, it often becomes 
 necessary to carry the outfall from the sluice for a considerable 
 distance by means of a covered wooden tunnel. 
 
 When the coast is flat the water, after leaving the sluice, 
 frequently has to travel through a long stretch of maish and 
 sandy foreshore. Where creeks already exist, it is generally 
 necessary to deepen and straighten them. To prevent the 
 shifting of the channel through the sand, and the sides from 
 being washed down in storms, fascines made of thorns are the 
 best materials that can be employed. These, when once 
 properly laid in their places, and bedded with the sand, 
 form inexpensive and efficient training walls, which with 
 slight care will last for a great number of years. The same 
 method has also been successfully applied to the training and 
 straightening of livers. A full account of the method of 
 fascine training channels through sandy estuaries will be 
 found in a paper by the author in the * Transactions of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers.' * 
 
 Where the sluice discharges into a river, the site should be 
 fixed at a concave bend, where the water is always deeper 
 than in other parts, and the sill less likely to be blocked by 
 deposit in dry weather. The position of the sluice should be 
 such that the direction of the outflowing water should join 
 the ebb current at as small an angle as practicable and so 
 that its direction should coincide with that of the river, so as 
 to cause as little disturbance or check as possible at the point 
 where the two streams meet. 
 
 Where the district to be drained is at a low level, the sill 
 of the sluice has generally to be placed at the lowest level at 
 which the river is ever likely to be scoured out or deepened. 
 * * Fascine Work at the Outfall of Tidal Rivers,' vol. xlvi. 
 
32 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 It may even be of advantage, when every inch of fall is of 
 consequence, to place it a certain depth below the bed of the 
 river. Although the bed of the river at the time the sluice 
 is built may be below the sill, the out-flowing water will 
 always keep the doors clear, the water at the bottom of the 
 drain rising up to the higher level in the river, as it does over 
 a sunken weir. Any deposit that may accumulate against 
 the doors in summer is soon washed away when the winter 
 rains cause the water in the drain to rise. For the purpose 
 of scouring this deposit away, small sluice doors are placed in 
 the larger doors, near the bottom. These being drawn by 
 means of rods worked by gearing, permit a current of water 
 to pass out at low water, having sufficient head to wash away 
 the deposit so as to allow the main doors to open. 
 
 The quantity of water that will pass through a sluice is 
 found by multiplying the area of the water-way by the 
 velocity, the dimensions being taken at the outer side of the 
 sluice* The full velocity due to the head not being acquired 
 until the outer side of the sluice is reached, if the depth 
 be taken on the inside, it would give too great a result. The 
 velocity is governed by the head, less the frictional resistance 
 of the sides and the disturbance caused by the eddying of the 
 water as it leaves the confined space between the walls for 
 the open stream. If the piers have rounded and pointed 
 ends, the frictional resistance will not amount to 4 per cent. 
 With square piers and rough masonry, the loss due to the 
 friction will amount to 1$ or 20 per cent. In sluices with 
 doors which do not open 'freely, such as in structures with 
 hanging doors, or with lifting doors which are not raised 
 freely out of the water, there is resistance on four sides, and 
 the discharge in such cases may not amount to more than 
 60 per cent of that due to the head. The amount to be 
 allowed for frictional resistance must be a matter of judgment 
 determined by the facility for the outflow of the water with 
 the least possible friction or disturbance by projections causing 
 
Drainage by Gravitation, 33 
 
 eddies. The constant to be used in the formula for calculating 
 the discharge, varies from -96 in the best form, and large 
 sluices to '60 in small structures with hanging doors. In 
 calculating the velocity, allowance has to be made for the 
 head due to the velocity with which the water approaches the 
 sluice. If the sluice is of sufficient capacity, this will over- 
 come the friction, and carry the water through without any 
 heading up. 
 
 For example, take the case of a sluice with three openings 
 of 16 feet each, and a depth of 9 feet, the drain running with 
 a velocity of 1*50 feet per second, and discharging 1200 
 cubic feet per second. The quantity passing through each 
 opening would be 400 feet, and the velocity required with 
 the area of the sluice would be 2*778 feet per second. The 
 head required for this velocity, allowing 4 per cent, for friction, 
 that is multiplying by the factor -96, would be '1308 feet. 
 Deducting the head due to the velocity of approach of 
 1-50 feet or '0381, leaves the head required at the sluice 
 •0927 feet, or a little over one inch. 
 
 Area of waterway =i6*0X9*0X3 = 432*0 feet 
 
 Total quantity coming down drain divided by area of 
 
 1200 
 sluice = = 2*778 velocity required. 
 
 Feet 
 ~ ^— j == "1308 
 
 Lessheadofapproach=(3l^)=-O38i 
 
 Head required at sluice '0927 
 
 The proportion of depth to total width of the water passing 
 through sluices, varies in practice from one-fourth in the 
 smaller sluices to one-fifth and one-sixth in those of larger 
 capacity. 
 
 D 
 
34 T^he Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 Taking the average of four sluices draining pure fen land 
 on the East Coast, with total width of openings varying 
 from 33 to 45 feet, and a mean width of 37 feet, the number 
 of acres to each foot of waterway is 1082. Allowing the 
 depth of water to be one-fifth of the width or 7*40 feet, and 
 that the water passes through with a velocity of i * 50 feet per 
 second, this nearly allows for the discharge of rainfall due to 
 quarter of an inch in 24 hours over the area drained. Of six 
 large sluices draining rivers and mixed fen and high land, 
 having openings varying from 74 feet and a mean of 55 feet^ 
 the number of acres to each foot of waterway is 2304. 
 Allowing the depth to be one-fifth of the width or 1 1 feet, it 
 would require a velocity of 2" 19 feet per second for sufficient 
 water to pass through to allow for a rainfall of a quarter of an 
 inch in 24 hours. The discharge, however, being due partly 
 to high land, the quantity of water passing through these 
 sluices is less than this quantity. 
 
 Syphons. — Syphon pipes can be used for the discharge of 
 water from enclosed lands into the outfall instead of sluices, 
 but the cost of working them, and the loss of head required 
 to carry the water through, places them at a disadvantage as 
 compared with the ordinary sluices. 
 
 When an accident occurred to the Middle Level sluice on the 
 River Ouse in 1862, it became necessary to place a solid dam 
 of a very substantial character across the drain, and in order 
 to afford means of discharging the water from the drain into 
 the river, syphons were erected under the direction of Sir 
 John Hawkshaw. 
 
 The syphons erected at the Middle Level were 16 in number, 
 laid across the dam at an inclination of 2 to i on either side, 
 each end being terminated by a horizontal length containing 
 the upper and lower valves. The upper surface of the lower 
 pipes was laid I foot 6 inches below low water of spring tides, 
 and the top of the syphon was 20 feet above the same level. 
 The syphons were of cast iron i\ inch thick, 150 feet in total 
 
Drainage by Gravitation. 35 
 
 length, and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter- They were put into 
 action by exhausting the air from the inside by an air-pump 
 worked by a 10 horse-power steam engine. These syphons 
 continued in use for 15 years. Owing to their capacity 
 not being sufficient to cope with heavy floods and to dis- 
 charge the water with sufficient rapidity, there was frequently 
 a difference of more than 4 feet between the level of the water 
 in the drain and that in the river, the average varying from 
 2 to 3 feet, a very serious loss in such a flat district It being 
 found that the cost of adding a sufficient number of syphons 
 to drain the fens effectually would be greater than that of 
 building a new sluice. Sir J, Hawkshaw reluctantly advised 
 the latter course, although contending that the syphons were 
 right in principle and practice. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 The Drainage of Fens mid Lozv Lands, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FIELD DRAINAGE 
 
 The object of field drainage is, by facilitating the discharge of 
 the surplus water to such a depth from the surface, that while, 
 on the one hand, it is removed so far from the roots of the 
 plants as not injuriously to affect them, yet, on the other, 
 it is not so deep as to retard, during the dry weather of the 
 summer months, the supply of moisture which will arise from 
 the substratum by the action of capillary attraction. The 
 rain which falls in summer time is nearly all absorbed by the 
 vegetation and the dry soil, or is evaporated, and little or 
 none of it soaks through the ground to the ditches. In 
 winter, however, about 60 per cent, of the rainfall soaks 
 through the ground, and is carried away by the drains to the 
 ditches and outfalls. Supposing that rain has been falling for 
 some time, that the ground has become thoroughly moist, and 
 that the pores of the earth are full of water, the rain then 
 percolates through the interstitial spaces, and by the law of 
 gravity proceeds downwards, until its progress is arrested by 
 some impermeable stratum or soil already fully charged with 
 water. It then accumulates, rising higher and higher, until it 
 arrives at a line level with the water in the river or main drain 
 of the district. This level is termed in the fens the " soc " or 
 " soak.*' 
 
 In properly drained ground, while the rains of winter leave 
 the surface soil in a healthy moist condition, that below the 
 drains becomes completely saturated; and this supply of 
 moisture is gradually drawn up, by capillary action, to supply 
 the loss of moisture in the upper soil, which in dry weather 
 is absorbed by the roots of the plants or evaporated by 
 
Field Drainage. 3 7 
 
 the summer suns. During the severe drought of 1887, 
 Mr. T. R Hunt, Assistant Professor of Agriculture at the 
 University of Illinois, made some experiments in order to 
 ascertain the comparative quantities of moisture in drained 
 and undrained soils. The average of forty samples of earth, 
 2 feet in depth, taken from undrained fields was 13*2 per 
 cent, while in those taken from drained land it was 14' i per 
 cent. Probably the draining had been done at a small depth, 
 or the difiference would have been greater. The small differ- 
 ence in favour of the drained land, however, may serve to 
 dispose of the objection to draining, that it renders land less 
 able to bear drought 
 
 Thus it will be seen that, other considerations apart, pipe- 
 drains should be laid sufficiently deep to remove the surplus 
 water from the roots of the plants, yet not so deep as to retard 
 the moisture from rising, when wanted, from the supply stored 
 up in the stratum below the drains. 
 
 Drainage also acts mechanically on a tenacious soil, and 
 assists in the discharge of the rainfall and the improvement of 
 the texture of the ground by contracting it, and thus increas- 
 ing the number and size of the larger pores, making more 
 numerous crevices. That this is the case may easily be 
 proved by taking a roll of wet clay, i foot in length, and dry- 
 ing it, when it will be found to shrink in length about half an 
 inch, which, in a drain 100 feet long, would be equal to 
 increased spaces which, if added together, would measure 
 4 feet 2 inches. The value of these crevices and contractions 
 may be more fully realised by examining the appearance of 
 two seeds of corn, the one of which has been sown in well^ 
 drained land and the other in a hard, cold soil. In the former 
 case, the rootlets are able to travel in all directions in search 
 of food, and the plant is strong and healthy ; in the latter the 
 delicate fibres of the roots are unable to force their way 
 through the hard ground, and the plant, lacking nourishment, 
 is stunted and unhealthy. 
 
38 The Drainage of Fens and Loiv Lands. 
 
 The admission of air to the soil not only improves its 
 texture, but also raises the temperature, and supplies nourish- 
 ment to the plants. There is no doubt that a well-drained 
 and consequently a well-aerated soil, requires much less 
 manure than one that is sodden with water. There are many 
 mineral and organic substances in all soils which remain 
 dormant and useless to vegetation until decomposed by the 
 action of the atmosphere ; there are also many salts which 
 are unaffected by the water in the ground, but which, on 
 exposure to the air, are immediately set free and dissolved, 
 and carried to the roots of the plants. An excess of water 
 will thus neutralise the chemical decomposition of the sub- 
 stances contained in the manure laid on the fields, and which 
 largely supply food to vegetation* Drainage is as useful in 
 promoting the circulation of atmospheric air as in removing 
 the superabundance of moisture ; for if the pores in the soil 
 are emptied of water, it is evident that their place must be 
 supplied with air ; and as the effect of drainage is, by me- 
 chanically improving the texture of the soil, to increase the 
 number of these crevices, so it also increases the circulation of 
 the air, which passes through the soil to the drains, and along 
 them to their outlets, thus keeping up a constant supply of 
 fresh air. 
 
 Temperature of Drained Land.— The temperature of 
 the atmosphere attains its maximum on an average of seasons 
 about the middle of July — ^the cold period attaining its maxi- 
 mum about the middle of January. The heat that is given 
 out in the summer is absorbed by the earth, and gradually 
 finds its way downwards until it reaches a depth beyond 
 which, speaking generally, the temperature of the soil is not 
 affected by the heat of summer or the cold of winter. This 
 depth is found to vary from 50 feet to 100 feet below the 
 surface, the variation of temperature between winter and 
 summer being only 3 degrees at 24 feet below the surface, the 
 mean variation of the atmosphere being, on the surface, nearly 
 
Field Drainap'e. 
 
 39 
 
 30 degrees. The heat travels through the soil at a rate 
 proportionate to the depth, as will be seen from the following 
 table : — 
 
 Situation of Thermometer. 
 
 Middle of Warm 
 Penod. 
 
 Middle of Cold 
 Penod. 
 
 Mean Kange. 
 
 In the air 
 
 Sunk I mch in ground .. 
 „ 3 feet „ .. ., 
 
 j> ^ j> »» •• •• 
 >> 12 ,, ,, ,. ,, 
 
 9> 24 i9 J> •• •• 
 
 Month 
 July 21 .. ,. 
 July 26 .. 
 August 9.* 
 August 25 
 September 25.. 
 November 30 .. 
 
 Month. 
 January 20 
 January 24 j. 
 February 8 ,. 
 February 24 . . 
 March 27 
 June I 
 
 Degrees. 
 29*8 
 
 25*4 
 
 21*7 
 
 15-4 
 
 9*5 
 3*4 
 
 Thus it will be seen that it takes six months for the alter- 
 nations of heat and cold to affect the soil at a depth of 
 24 feet ; and when it is coldest above ground, the subsoil at 
 this depth below the ground is the warmest, and the heat of 
 the summer sun is gradually ascending through the soil 
 during the winter and early spring months to assist the 
 germination of the seeds sown, and to keep warm the roots 
 of the plants during the snows and frosts of winter.* 
 
 The effect of judicious drainage is to increase the capacity 
 of the soil for absorbing heat, and also to enable it to keep 
 up the temperature of the soil during cold weather* 
 
 Water is a better conductor of heat than air, and thus in 
 cold weather, and when the ground is covered with snow, 
 undrained land, having the crevices or spaces between its 
 particles filled with water instead of air, on the one hand parts 
 with its supply of heat more rapidly than drained land ; and, 
 on the other hand, is less calculated to take in as large a 
 supply in the warm period of the year. 
 
 To prove the effect of drainage in raising the temperature 
 of the earth, a premium was offered by the Marquis of 
 Tweeddale, some years ago, for observations and experiments 
 to be made on soils of a similar character, glowing the same 
 crops, and situated in the same locality ; the result of which 
 
 * Stemmetz, * Sunshine and Showers.' 
 
40 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 was a collection of carefully prepared and thoroughly re- 
 liable observations, from which the following results are 
 culled. That during a long-continued frost the mean tem- 
 perature of drained land at 30 in. below the surface was 
 nearly i\ degree warmer than the undrained. That showers 
 of sleet and cold rains lowered the temperature of drained 
 lands 2 degrees, and undrained land 4 degrees. That in 
 every instance drainage gave a decided advantage in an in- 
 crease of temperature, except only m summer, when a heavy 
 fall of rain was found to lower the temperature of the drained 
 land I degree more than the undrained — an evident advan- 
 tage to a hot, parched soil 
 
 Experiments also made by Dn Madden led him to the con- 
 clusion that an excess of water in the soil reduced its tempe- 
 rature in summer 6| degrees, which amount he considered 
 equivalent to an elevation above the level of the sea of 1959 
 feet So that, supposing two fields, lying side by side, 
 the one drained, the other undrained, and supposing them 
 both equally well cultivated, there would be nearly as much 
 difference in the amount and value of their respective crops 
 as if the drained one was situated at the level of the sea and 
 the other on an elevation as high as the Pentland Hills,* 
 Dr. Madden also, in order to dispel the idea where it existed, 
 that the interstitial spaces being so minute that their contents 
 could be of no consequence, quotes the fact that in moderately 
 well-pulverised soil they amount to no less than one-fourth of 
 the whole bulk of the soil itself; for example, 100 cubic 
 inches of moist soil contain no less than 25 cubic inches of 
 air. According to this calculation, in a field pulverised to the 
 depth of 8 in., every acre will retain beneath its surface no 
 less than 12,545,280 cubic inches ; and for every extra inch 
 in depth the ground is cultivated, 235 tons of additional 
 soil are called into activity, and rendered capable of retaining 
 beneath its surface 1,568,160 additional cubic inches of air. 
 * Lecture on Agricultural Science by Di. Madden. 
 
Field Drainage. 4 1 
 
 Undrained ground is less calculated to take in a store of 
 heat in summer than drained land, the summer sun being 
 wasted in drying up, by evaporation, the winter rain from 
 the soil, and in the process cooling down the land. 
 
 Increased Value of Land from Drainage.— The actual 
 increased return from drainage must vary a great deal, accord- 
 ing to circumstances and the nature of the soil Numerous 
 cases were given in evidence before parliamentary committees 
 of rents being raised 50 to 1 00 per cent, after drainage. 
 The average of several different classes of soils showed a net 
 return of 10 per cent on the outlay. As a fair average it 
 may be taken that on clay soils a wheat crop will yield 
 one quarter to the acre more on drained than on undrained 
 land, and this without any additional seed or labour. In ^et 
 cold seasons the increase will be much greater, and the 
 drainage is often paid for by the extra produce of a single 
 season. 
 
 After a series of years the subsoil of a thoroughly drained 
 field changes into the nature of soil as far down as the level 
 of the water in the drains, due to the ameliorating effects of 
 air and water producing healthy decomposition of the organic 
 and inorganic constituents. 
 
 When the working of the land and the treading of the 
 horses is considered — a treading which in the case of a pair 
 of horses leaves more than 200,000 footprints when cutting a 
 9-in. furrow over an acre of land — and the effect of this in 
 puddling a wet clay soil and injuring its texture, the advan- 
 tage of freeing such a soil from surplus water may more fully 
 be estimated. Also by the penetration of roots and by their 
 ultimate decay in the subsoil, and by the working of earth- 
 worms, the texture of the soil is improved. The diainer has 
 not a better assistant than the worm. Worms work their 
 way down through dry soil to great depths. The author has 
 seen worm-holes at depths of 10 feet and 12 feet below 
 the surface ; and in a drained soil their burrows always extend 
 
42 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 as low as the pipes, the cavities made in their progress acting 
 most effectually as feeders to the drains. 
 
 Thoroughly drained fields stand wet and drought better than 
 undrained fields of the same sort of soil From the principles 
 already laid down, it is evident that this should be the case. 
 It is well known by those who have paid attention to the 
 matter, how during protracted droughts the thoroughly drained 
 fields call attention to themselves by their superior verdure. 
 By their improved texture they are not liable to become 
 baked, and the free soil is in a condition to take in a supply 
 of moisture from the dews of the summer night, which the 
 hard diy skin of the undrained land is incapable of doing. 
 
 Thoroughly drained fields are also more easily tilled, and 
 are in a fit state for the operation of tillage a much greater 
 number of days in a year. 
 
 Time to Drain. — The time of the year chosen for putting 
 in drain-pipes must be regulated by the cropping and other 
 circumstances ; but it may be stated that the drier the 
 weather the better for the drainage. In clay soils, the drying 
 action of the air and wind on the trenches allows the soil to 
 contract and form the crevices necessary for the rains to 
 escape to the drains. Experienced drainers recommend the 
 month of February for the work, and that the pipes receiving 
 a light covering of soil, should be left open through March, 
 if it be drying weather, by which means the cracking of the 
 soil is much accelerated, and the complete action of the drains 
 advanced a full season. 
 
 In laying drains in a silty soil, the worst time to choose is 
 when the ground is full of water ; the feet of the men working 
 in the grips cause the silt to purge, so that it is impossible to 
 get a good and even bed to lay the pipes on ; and even when 
 laid they are extremely liable to choke, by the loose silt in the 
 trenches being washed in by the water which pours out of the 
 ground If the pipes are laid when the silt is dry, or only 
 slightly wet, the bottom of the trenches may then be taken 
 
Field Drainage. 43 
 
 out hard and firm ; and the ground, owing to the effect of the 
 drainage, will never again be so charged with water as to 
 make them liable to be stopped up ; and even should the 
 ground, from any exceptional cause, be drowned, after the 
 soil in the trenches had once become settled and consolidated, 
 there would be no danger of the water washing it into the 
 pipes, as it would find its way to them through the regular 
 crevices or canals. 
 
 Depth. — With regard to the depth at which pipe-drains 
 should be laid, this must depend to a great extent on the 
 outfalL There may be special circumstances where drains 
 may be advantageously laid at great depths, and by 
 neglecting to descend a few inches in certain soils, many of 
 the benefits of drainage may be lost. Again, where springs 
 occur it is often necessary to lay the drains at considerable 
 depths, and to resort to special means of getting rid of the 
 water, as by boring down through an impervious soil to the 
 porous stratum below. But these are cases which seldom 
 occur in low land drainage. There are many cases, however, 
 in fens and marsh land, where the state of the outfall ditches 
 will not allow of a greater depth than 2 feet. The pipes 
 should never be laid so low that their ends are buried in the 
 water in the ditches into which they empty; such a practice 
 is simply laying pipes for the purpose of soddening the 
 land with water instead of draining it. It completely stops 
 the whole circulation of air, and arrests all the benefits to 
 be derived from a properly laid drain. A drain laid 2 feet 
 deep, and free at the end, is far more effective than one laid 
 3 feet with the outfall constantly under water. 
 
 The outfall of the drains where they empty into the 
 ditches should be constantly inspected to see that they are 
 free and not stopped with weeds and earth. The ditches 
 ought to be regularly scoured out and cleaned once at least 
 every season. It is a good plan to lay the last tile of the 
 main drain on a flat paving tile or brick, and to place a small 
 
44 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 iron grating before the mouth of it to prevent the vermin 
 from getting up ; and too much care cannot be bestowed in 
 keeping these outfalls clean and free. 
 
 Direction and Fall.— Drains should always be laid to 
 run with the fall of the land, and not across it. A different 
 theory was held for a short time by some drainers, but 
 practice has proved what theory would teach, that the drains 
 should fall with the land, the only exception being in the 
 case of springs. A consideration of the subject will show that 
 the water has the least distance to travel to the drains when 
 laid in this manner, and when there will get away most 
 quickly. Supposing the strata to have the same inclination 
 as the surface, and the drains to be laid 30 feet apart, the 
 water will of necessity flow in the direction of the strata, 
 and a pait of it must therefore travel 10 feet if the drains be 
 laid to run across the slope ; but, on the other hand, if they 
 be laid to run with the inclination, the water will flow from 
 the centre space between the drains in both directions, and 
 thus have only 15 feet to travel, or only half the distance. 
 
 Where a field is in one plane, and level throughout, it is 
 better to lay the main across the centre of the field, letting 
 the drains radiate from it at right angles towards the sides- 
 The object to be kept in view is that the drains may be placed 
 so deep, that while rapidly collecting and conveying away the 
 suiplus of the rainfall, they shall also be so situated as most 
 effectively to promote a circulation of air, and allow the 
 moisture to be drawn up from the subsoil below the drains to 
 the roots of the plants in dry weather. Where no special 
 circumstances arise to prevent it, this object seems to be 
 most effectively attained where there is a covering of 3 feet 
 on the top of the drain pipes; and this may be taken 
 as a safe depth to lay drains, whether in tenacious clays or 
 silts and more porous soils ; and from 8 yards to 9 yards apart 
 in the former class of soils, and from 10 yards to 12 yards in 
 the latter, is sufficient distance for the drains to act effectively. 
 
Field Drainage. 45 
 
 The object being to get rid of the water quickly, the less 
 run it has through the small pipes the more rapid will be the 
 discharge, the friction in the mains being much less than in 
 the smaller drains. And so, in a very large field, it is never 
 desirable to lay the smaller drains of a greater length than 
 200 yards. Some engineers allow 300 yards as a maximum 
 length, and instances have come under the author's obsen^a- 
 tion where 2-inch pipes laid in a clay soil in lengths of 20 
 chains have been in effective working order for the past ten 
 years, and will possibly remain so as long as the pipes last ; 
 but under ordinary circumstances, 10 chains may be taken as 
 the maximum safe working length. 
 
 In flat districts it is seldom that much fall can be given to 
 the pipes, but a very slight inclination will cause the water to 
 travel with sufficient rapidity to the outfalL It is better that 
 the drains should be laid perfectly level than that a fall 
 should be acquired by laying the pipes shallow at one end 
 and deep at the other, the advantage gained by a fall thus 
 acquired being neutralized by the varying effect the differ- 
 ence of depth must have on the uniform diying of the ground. 
 The distance the drains are apart is determined with refer- 
 ence to the depth ; therefore if the drain be laid shallow at 
 the upper and deeper at the lower end, the distances must 
 either be too great at one end or too little at the other. 
 
 Fall is not absolutely necessary to the safe working of 
 drains. By the action of gravity, water is attracted towards 
 the earth's centre, and travels towards that point until its 
 progress is arrested by some impediment. Water varies 
 from more solid substances in that all its particles are free to 
 act, and they have so little cohesion, that every particle is free 
 to obey the influence of gravity, and seeks the lowest place 
 it can find ; a natural fall is thus caused on the surface of 
 the water in the drains. A fall in the drain itself only assist^ 
 this action, because all falling bodies acquire a velocity in 
 proportion to the height from which they fall ; and so the 
 
46 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 greater the fall the greater the velocity, and the greater the 
 velocity the greater the power to overcome obstacles, and the 
 more certa^Jn and rapid the discharge. Thus, while fall in the 
 bottom 9! the drain is a great advantage, and even a necessity, 
 in dr^ns which convey water having matters In suspension, as 
 in/town sewers, in enabling the water to keep the drain free 
 irom deposit, it is not absolutely necessary to the discharge 
 of clear water, or for land drains laid at a proper depth ; 
 and many miles of drains have been laid that are now doing 
 their work well which have not an inch of fall 
 
 Where pipes are laid level, or where only a very slight fall 
 can be obtained, the main should, wherever possible, be laid 
 lower than the small drains, and the end pipes should always 
 tip, or be laid at a greater inclination than the others, in 
 order to assist in drawing off the water. 
 
 The connections of the drains should never be made at a 
 right angle, but the smaller pipes ought always to be made 
 to enter the mains with a curve, or at a veiy obtuse angle. 
 When one current of water impinges on another at a right 
 angle, it causes a stoppage in both, and hinders the flow : an 
 eddy is thus created, and any heavy matter held m suspen- 
 sion is precipitated, having a tendency to choke the pipes ; 
 whereas, if the smaller stream has the same direction given 
 to it as the larger, by the pipes being made to join the others 
 with a curve, the united currents flow on together without 
 interruption. Experiments made in sewer work resulted in 
 ascertaining the fact that, when equal quantities of water 
 were running direct, at the rate of 90 seconds ; with a turn at 
 right angles, the discharge was only effected in 140 seconds ; 
 whilst with a turn or junction, with a gentle curve, the dis- 
 charge was effected in 100 seconds. 
 
 Irregularities in the cutting of the trenches and in the form of 
 the pipes are far more injurious to efficient drainage than 
 want of fall. It is of the first importance that there should 
 be no hills and holes in the bottom of the trenches, but that a 
 
Field Drainage. 47 
 
 regular inclination, when there is a fall, should be given 
 throughout the whole length of the drain. In selecting pipes, 
 those should be chosen which are evenly burnt, and which 
 are not warped or twisted, and care be taken in laying them 
 in the ground that the ends properly fit 
 
 Men by constant practice acquire a wonderful skill in 
 judging of the fall of the ground, and the regularity they 
 give to their trenches ; and where the ground is wet and the 
 water either runs away or follows them, they cannot get far 
 wrong ; but in dry ground, and especially where it is uneven, 
 the eye of the most practised drainer is apt to be deceived. 
 Too much attention cannot be bestowed to this part of the 
 work, and the pipes should never be laid in the trenches or 
 covered up until the work has been inspected by a trust- 
 worthy foreman. To lay out a large system of drainage, 
 the use of a spirit-level is absolutely necessary. For the 
 drainage of single fields, the ordinary " boning rods " com- 
 monly used by workmen in setting out short sections of 
 earthwork are sufficient These rods are made in the shape 
 of the letter T, about 3 feet 6 inches long, the cross being 
 14 inches, and the size of the wood 2^ inches by \ inch. 
 One of the rods has a leg with the feet and inches marked 
 on it, which leg is made to slide up and down by means of 
 two screws working in a slot, and can be fixed at whatever 
 depth the drain is to be cut. The rods should be painted 
 white, and to render them more visible the top of one should 
 have a black line about half an inch deep on its upper edge. 
 
 The method of using is as follows : — A peg is driven in. 
 the ground at the upper end of the trench, and another at the 
 lower end. The level of these pegs being set by the spirit- 
 level, with reference to the outfall, the drainer causes one of 
 the rods to be placed on the upper peg and the other on the 
 lower, the rod, with the adjustable leg being set to the depth 
 the trench is intended to be, is moved along it so as to keep 
 the three in a true line. Any elevation or depression in the 
 
48 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 bottom of the trench is by this means at once detected. The 
 use of these rods is acquired with very little experience, and 
 levels can be ascertained with quite sufficient accuracy for 
 all practical purposes. 
 
 If it is desired to find the inclination or fall of the ground, 
 all that is necessary is to fix two pegs about lo feet apart 
 from each other, making them level with the aid of a 
 straight-edge and spirit-level, or with a carpenter's level and 
 plumb-bob ; and then holding the two boning rods as before 
 on these pegs, the third rod with the sliding leg is to be 
 held at the lower end of the trench, or wherever else it is 
 required to level to, and then sliding out the leg until the 
 tops of the three rods are in a line ; the distance the leg has 
 to be drawn out gives the fall. 
 
 Pipes. — After trying various sizes and shapes for the pipes, 
 opinion is now universally in favour of cylindrical tubes, 2 
 inches in diameter and i foot long, for the small or feed 
 drains, and from 3 inches to 4 inches in diameter for the 
 mains. Some tile-burners manufacture a circular pipe, 
 having a flat bottom ; if they could ensure that these would 
 burn without the least twisting, there would perhaps then be 
 a slight advantage in their having a better bearing on the 
 bottom of the trench ; but as this is never the case, the flat 
 bottom is worse than useless, in rendering the pipes heavy 
 and cumbersome. The author has repeatedly watched men 
 laying these pipes, and half were not laid with the fiat part 
 downwards, the reason given being that the men could not 
 make the ends fit when so laid. The circular pipes are less 
 liable to warp and bend in the burning, having the same 
 thickness of material on every side, and are therefore easier 
 and better to lay. Collars are occasionally used, but are 
 quite unnecessary, except in very rotten ground, when they 
 are useful in assisting to Jkeep the ends of the pipes from 
 dropping away from one another. In such*^round, in order 
 to lay the drains effectually, the expedient should be resorted 
 
Field Drainage. 
 
 49 
 
 to of putting sods at the bottom of the trench, and treading 
 them well down, so as to give a firm bed for the pipes to 
 lay on. This is often absolutely necessary, and the only 
 way of putting pipe-drains in boggy soils. 
 
 As the expense of carting pipes from the maker's is a 
 consideration in the cost, it may be mentioned that a one- 
 horse cart will carry 8oo 2-inch or 500 3-inch pipes ; and 
 one horse will take this load easily on a good road, but it 
 will require two horses to drag it over soft ground. 
 
 Cost. — The cost depends upon so many local circum- 
 stances — as the quality of the soil, the rate of wages, the 
 depth at which the pipes are laid, and the distances apart — 
 that it is impossible to give any fixed or definite sum. But it 
 may be stated, as an average, that two men can dig out the 
 trenches in a soft clay soil free from stones, lay the pipes, and 
 fill in again at the rate of from four to five chains a day ; 
 and that an average price for pipes, at the maker*s yard, is 
 21^". per 1000 for 2-inch pipes, and 42^. for 3-inch pipes. 
 Having ascertained the cost of the pipes, and the rate of 
 wages for the district, the cost per acre can be calculated 
 from the following table : — 
 
 Distance apart. 
 
 No. of Pipes required 
 for One Acre. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 
 5 
 
 2,905 
 
 1* 
 
 2,640 
 
 6 
 
 2,420 
 
 7 
 
 2,o7S 
 
 8 
 
 1,816 
 
 9 
 
 1,613 
 
 10 
 
 1,452 
 
 II 
 
 1,320 
 
 12 
 
 1,209 
 
 13 
 
 1,117 
 
 14 
 
 1,037 
 
 15 
 
 974 
 
 16 
 
 907 
 
 i6i 
 
 880 
 
 No. of Chains of 
 Digging. 
 
 Chains, Rods. 
 AA O 
 
 IT 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 3^5 
 
 '-1 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 If 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 i8 
 
 n 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 04 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 li 
 
 Note. — The contents of this chapter are extracted from a pamphlet published 
 by the author in l868, entitled * Practical Remarks on the Pramage of Land,' 
 copies of which may be obtained from the publishers of this book. 
 
50 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DRAINAGE BY STEAM POWER. 
 
 Machines for Raising Water. — The machine for effi- 
 ciently draining low lands is one that will readily adapt 
 itself to the varying amount of work to be done, owing to 
 increase or decrease of lift from the rise and fall of the tide, 
 or of floods in the outfall into which it discharges, and from 
 the lowering of the water in the feeding drain as pumping 
 proceeds. The parts should be as simple as possible, and the 
 machine should be so constructed as not to get out of order 
 from lying by. Owing to the intermittent character of the 
 work, most pumps are idle for the greater part of the year. 
 
 Setting aside special contrivances which have occasionally 
 been used, but, owing to their unsuitability, the use of which 
 has not been repeated, the machines used for raising water for 
 the drainage of land are scoop wheels, screw pumps, bucket 
 pumps, and centrifugal pumps. Of these the scoop wheel and 
 Archimedean screw pump are the oldest types of machine. The 
 former still does duty to a greater extent than any other 
 method of raising water for drainage purposes, although it is 
 gradually being superseded by the centrifugal pump. Archi- 
 medean screw pumps have not been adopted in this country, 
 but in Holland they have been largely employed. 
 
 Bucket pumps have been used in some instances, both in Hol- 
 land and England, for land drainage, notably for the drainage 
 of Lake Haarlem, a full description of which will be found 
 later on. Bucket pumps are still in use for the drainage of 
 the Waldersea district on the Nene and of the Marton district 
 on the Trent The use of these pumps was probably advised 
 
Drainage by Sieam Power. 51 
 
 by engineers whose experience was acquired in mining dis- 
 tricts, where most excellent results were obtained from pumps 
 of the bucket type. Trials of bucket pumps have given out 
 as useful an effect as any others here mentioned ; but, as the 
 pumps were designed for working at much higher lifts than 
 those required for land drainage purposes, these trials do not 
 afford a guide, the proportion of efficiency moie rapidly 
 diminishing as the lift decreases than in centrifugals. From 
 the construction of these pumps, they are not adapted for a 
 varying lift ; and in cases where they have been applied to 
 fen drainage, the water has always to be lifted higher than it 
 need be, that at Marton raising the water as much as 6 feet 
 higher than necessary. The valves and working parts are 
 also ill-adapted to cope with water charged with mud and grit, 
 and the weeds and pieces of wood which frequently find their 
 way to the inlet. 
 
 Scoop Wheels verstis Centrifugal Pumps. — The ques- 
 tion as to whether the scoop wheel or centrifugal pump is the 
 better machine for draining land has been much debated, and 
 the matter is still a subject of controversy. The older class of 
 fen enginemen and managers place implicit faith In the scoop 
 wheel, and believe it to be superior to all other machines. When, 
 however, wheels have been replaced by efficient pumps the 
 result has been so satisfactory that the author has never met 
 with an engineman who would wish to return to his scoop 
 wheel. Such instances have occurred, and the pump been 
 removed and replaced by a wheel, but only whei'e the pumps 
 were of the most inefficient character and improperly driven. 
 The pump being a machine of superior character needs more 
 intelligence on the part of the person in charge, and, as with 
 all other machines, requires care and skill in the driving. 
 
 This question was some time ago referred by the Dutch 
 Government to a Commission, with instructions to report as 
 to the best machine for raising a given quantity of water— -in 
 this case 140 tons a minute — to a height varying between 
 
 E 2 
 
52 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 II '3 feet and 12*3 feet, and also at a height varying from 
 4 '9 feet to 13 • I feet. To the first question the Commissioners 
 were not able to give an opinion as to whether one form of 
 pump was superior to all others for a high but nearly constant 
 lift The answer to the second question was decisively in 
 favour of centrifugal pumps, as they found that no other 
 machine applied itself so well to differences of level in the 
 external and internal water.^ No other machine permitted the 
 application upon so large a scale of the whole disposable 
 motive force to all lifts comprised within the limits stated ; 
 and thus while the machine adapted for a maximum lift will 
 with lower lifts discharge larger volumes, the useful effect 
 which is produced by the coal consumed does not vary to any 
 great extent They therefore recommended centrifugal pumps 
 for both kinds of work* 
 
 Subsequently, in 1877, Signer Cuppari, an Italian engineer, 
 spent a considerable time in Holland visiting the different 
 pumping stations and investigating this subject The con- 
 clusion he finally arrived at was that no general rule can be 
 given as to the employment of one or other of the different 
 machines, but that all the circumstances of each case must be 
 considered before a decision is come to as to what machine to 
 use.* That the general opinion of Dutch authorities was that 
 in choosing a machine, consideration should be given to the 
 following circumstances, and the machine chosen which met 
 these requirements best : the turbidity of the water ; the pro- 
 bability of the internal water level being permanently lowered ; 
 the nature of the foundations ; the method of establishing 
 communication between the inner and outer water level ; the 
 level at which the machine can be placed with reference to the 
 water to be discharged ; the cost of erecting and working. 
 That the centrifugal had the advantage in all these cases, 
 except the first, over all other machines. That scoop wheels 
 
 * Cuppari *0n Water Raising Machines.* Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. kxr 
 1883-84. 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 
 
 53 
 
 are efficient machines and the best where there is a large 
 amount of debris, and that they have the further advantage 
 that they can be easily repaired by ordinary workmen. The 
 motors for moving them may be of common types, but cannot 
 be used to the best advantage, owing to the difficulty of 
 adapting them to the slow velocity required for the wheel. 
 That they further labour under the disadvantage, as compared 
 to centrifugals, of requiring stronger foundations ; with a 
 high lift the wheel must have a large diameter, the sill must 
 have a low level, and this necessitates massive and deep 
 masonry. That when there is a liability of a permanent lower- 
 ing of the low-water level, wheels would require costly altera- 
 tion, whereas with centrifugals additional lengths can always 
 be added to the piping, and the only difference is that the 
 consumption of steam will be greater. That in regard to the 
 separation between internal and external water, the easiest 
 and safest arrangement is that of pumps which discharge the 
 water through pipes carried over the banks or inserted in 
 masonry walls of sufficient thickness, thus avoiding the sluices 
 which are required for wheels or screws. That the system of 
 direct action between engine and pump is one that is most 
 economical in fuel ; and that the centrifugal pump lends itself 
 most readily for action with this kind of motor. 
 
 As regards expense, Signor Cuppari gives a table showing 
 the cost of the pumping stations in Holland during the pre- 
 vious ten years, from which it appears that the average cost 
 per horse-power of water lifted is as follows : — 
 
 Scoop wheels .. 
 Screw pumps .. 
 Centrifugal pumps ,. 
 Piston pumps .. 
 
 Building. 
 
 46*14 
 34-20 
 
 Machinery* 
 
 £ 
 
 46*28 
 
 36*80 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 92-42 
 
 94 
 72 
 
 Statistics given of the drainage stations erected in the seven 
 years 1875-81 show that centrifugal pumps are steadily making 
 
54 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 their way in Holland, as out of 139 machines put up, 50 were 
 centrifugal machines, 38 were scoop wheels, 30 screw pumps, 
 4 piston pumps, and the others of various types. Out of the 
 57 machines erected in recent years by Messrs. De Witt, 
 engineers, of Amsterdam, 31 were centrifugal pumps, 9i were 
 Archimedean screws, and 3 were scoop wheels. The centri- 
 fugal pumps generally used in Holland are direct acting, 
 having horizontal spindles, the discs placed above the water 
 level. The turbine form has been tried, but the results were 
 not favourable. 
 
 With regard to the relative merits of scoop wheels and cen- 
 trifugal pumps in the quantity of coal consumed, the general 
 weight of opinion amongst engineers in this country who have 
 had an opportunity of comparing the relative merits of the two 
 machines is decidedly in favour of the centrifugal pump. This 
 question was thoroughly investigated about ten years ago by 
 Mr. J. M. Heathcote, of Conington Castle, a gentleman who 
 was not only the owner of land drained by steam power, but 
 was greatly interested in fen drainage. As the result of his 
 investigations, Mr. Heathcote came to the conclusion that the 
 pump was decidedly the more economical machine, and in this 
 he was supported by facts and figures from other sources fur- 
 nished by Messrs. Easton and Anderson. These, however, 
 while useful so far as they went, were not drawn from actual 
 trials of the two machines working under precisely similar cir- 
 cumstances. The nearest approach to this is the running of 
 the two sets of machines over a series of years for the drain- 
 age of the Wexford Harbour reclamation, particulars of which 
 will be given hereafter. For the three years 1881, 1882, 1883, 
 the consumption of coal at these two pumping stations was 
 about one-third in favour of the centrifugal pumps, or at the 
 rate of 18*65 pence per acre for the land drained by a pump, 
 and 26*30 pence for that drained by a scoop wheel. The latter 
 was of modern construction, and the lift in each case the 
 same. 
 
Drainage by Steam Power, 55 
 
 To show that considerable difference of opinion still exists 
 as to the comparative merits of scoop wheels and cen- 
 trifugal pumps, attention may be drawn to the fact that 
 recently in the same number of the * Engineer,' an account was 
 given in one part of the paper of the removal of centrifugal 
 pumps which had been erected in Egypt by an English firm 
 for lifting the water for irrigation purposes, and the substitu- 
 tion under the direction of a French engineer of scoop wheels ; 
 and in another part, of the intended removal of scoop wheels 
 erected by Dutch makers for the drainage of land in the 
 north of Italy, and a substitution of centrifugal pumps by 
 English makers, because similar pumps working in the same 
 neighbourhood had satisfied the authorities that they were the 
 more efBcient machines. 
 
 Having paid considerable attention to this subject, and 
 had frequent opportunities of becoming acquainted with the 
 working of both machines, the conclusion arrived at by the 
 author is that, with regard to existing wheels, where a scoop 
 wheel can be made efficient at a reasonable outlay, it would 
 be more economical to adapt it than to replace it by a centri- 
 fugal pump. If the wheel requires replacing, or great expense 
 has to be incurred in altering the masonry and foundations 
 and lowering the wheel, it will be found more economical to 
 replace it with a centrifugal pump. In all new drainage dis- 
 tricts in this country, there can be no doubt that the direct 
 acting centrifugal pump is the most efficient and economical 
 machine to fix. 
 
 Engines used for Driving Wheels and Pumps.— In 
 the early attempts to drain land by mechanical means wind 
 power was entirely resorted to. In Holland, where this 
 source of power is largely applied for driving machinery, the 
 numerous windmills and pumps all over the country show 
 that steam has not yet succeeded in displacing the more 
 economical, if less efficient, source of power. Many of the 
 old windmills driving scoop wheels still remain in use in the 
 
56 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 Fenland. On the old one-inch Ordnance map there may be 
 counted five hundred windmills in the Fenland, which are in 
 use now, or were at one time engaged in draining the land. 
 In the Littleport and Downham district, in Cambridgeshire, 
 containing 28,000 acres, no less than seventy-five windmills 
 were engaged in lifting the water off the land — work which 
 is now much more efficiently done by two steam engines. In 
 1729 Captain Perry, an engineer who is known from his 
 attempts to stop the breach in the banks of the Thames, 
 erected a number of windmills for working scoop wheels for 
 lifting the water out of Deeping Fen, in Lincolnshire. In 
 1824 the forty-four windmills which from time to time had 
 been erected were replaced by one main pumping station, 
 having two large scoop wheels driven by steam-power, and 
 the Fen, which previously had been only in a half-cultivated 
 condition, became completely reclaimed.* 
 
 Mr. Arthur Young, in his survey of Lincolnshire, made in 
 1799, gives the following description of a drainage windmill in 
 use on the estate of Mr. Chaplin, in Blankney Fen : — " In that 
 long reach of Fen which extends from Tatershal to Lincoln, a 
 vast improvement by embanking and draining has been ten 
 years effecting. . . . This is a vast work, which in the whole has 
 drained, inclosed, and built and cultivated, between 20 and 30 
 Square miles of country. Its produce before was little, letting 
 for not more than \s. 6d, an acre, now from lis, to 17^*. an 
 acre. . . . This vast work is effected by a moderate embank- 
 ment, and the erection of windmills for throwing out the 
 superfluous water. The best of these was erected by Mr. 
 Chaplin, of Blankney. The sails go 70 rounds, and it raises 
 60 tons of water every minute when in full work. The bucket 
 wheels in the mills of Cambridgeshire are perpendicular 
 without the mill ; this, which is called dritch^ has in it a 
 sloping direction in an angle of about 40°, and within the mill. 
 It raises water 4 feet Two men are necessary in winter, 
 
 * * The Fens of South Lincolnshire.' 
 
Drainage by Steam Power, 57 
 
 working night and day at 10^. 6^. each a week with coals for 
 a fire ; add the expense of repairs, grease, and all together 
 will amount to 2/. per cent, with 1000/. first cost Mr. Eckard, 
 of Chelsea and Dover Street, was the engineer. It drains 
 1900 acres. Two years ago the floods overtopped the banks 
 and it cleared the water out so quickly that not a single year 
 was lost/* 
 
 Previous to the complete drainage of Lake Haarlem, the 
 rainfall from 75,357 acres of Polder Land was lifted into the 
 low part, or JBoezem, by two hundred and sixty-one large 
 windmills, of an aggregate force of 1500-horse power. The 
 complete drainage of this lake was subsequently effected by 
 steam power, a full account of which will be given further on. 
 In 1776 the first attempt was made in Holland at using steam 
 power in place of windmills for drainage purposes. A pump- 
 ing station and steam engine was erected at Arkelschendam, 
 near Rotterdam, and another at Mijdrecht in 1792. These 
 engines worked bucket pumps actuated by rods attached to 
 chains which rode on an arc at the end of a large rocking 
 beam, the piston-rod being similarly attached at the other end 
 of the beam. As these engines consumed 31 lb. of coal per 
 horse-power per hour, the use of steam did not extend much, 
 as it was thought that steam could not be used economically. 
 In 1825 steam power was used at Zuidplas to drive two Archi- 
 medean screws for lifting water a height of about 22 feet 
 These engines consumed 22 lb. of coal per actual horse-power 
 per hour. This lake was emptied by the united action of 
 thirty windmills working scoop wheels and the two steam 
 engines in 1840, and subsequently kept dry. Each steam 
 engine raised the water from 2352 acres to a height of 3*28 
 feet. Each windmill with its scoop wheel raised the water from 
 1898 acres for the first half of the upper lift to a similar height, 
 and from 2656 acres for the second half. The annual cost of 
 maintaining these thirty mills amounted to 60/. per mill 
 These mills were superseded by steam in 1871. 
 
58 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 Steam power as applied to Fen drainage in this country 
 came into use about sixty years ago. In 1820 Rennie applied 
 one of Watt's engines to the working of a scoop wheel 
 for draining Bottisham Fen, near Ely. The success of the 
 steam engine in draining water from the Cornish mines 
 naturally led to the adoption for land drainage of the same 
 type of machines as used for that purpose. The engines were 
 massive and substantial condensing beam engines, working at 
 a steam pressure of from 3 lb. to 5 lb. The structure consisted 
 of heavy cast-iron beams, working on girders resting on the 
 walls, and supported by ornamental cast- iron columns. The 
 connecting-rods were attached to crank shafts, on which were 
 fixed pinions working into spur wheels, or into a toothed 
 wheel running round the inside of the scoop wheel. The 
 foundations for carrying these engines and for the bearings 
 of the wheels, which often weighed as much as 50 tons, were 
 necessarily of a heavy and expensive character, piling and 
 planking having been almost universally resorted to for the 
 foundations. These massive engines seemed in character 
 with the ponderous scoop wheels which were then universally 
 used for lifting the water. Most of those in the Fenland bear 
 on their framing the name of the Butterley Iron Company as 
 makers, and the excellency of the workmanship is shown by 
 the fact that after running for more than half a century, the 
 greater part are still worked, some almost without alteration, 
 but others with only slight changes to adapt them to a more 
 economical use of steam. The engines more recently erected 
 have been of various types, the descriptions of some of the 
 best of which will be found in the account of the drainage 
 stations to be hereafter given. 
 
 Engines used for draining land should be of as simple a 
 character as possible, and free from all complicated parts. 
 The more nearly they approach the type of engines used for 
 agricultural purposes, the less difficulty will be experienced in 
 obtaining experienced enginemen. The saving of coal by 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 59 
 
 the use of condensing engines, or of others in which compli- 
 cated appliances are adopted for the same purpose, is not, 
 except in the case of the largest stations, of so much importance 
 in an engine used for the drainage of land as a saving in first 
 cost of machinery and foundations, and for subsequent repairs. 
 The circumstances attending engines used in pumping mines 
 or for the water supply of a town or similar purposes, and 
 those used for the drainage of land, are so different that it is 
 an utter mistake to take such engines as types. In the one 
 case the engine is continuously at work with skilled mechanics 
 at hand to carry out repairs and rapidly remedy defects. The 
 saving in the cost of coal in such cases is far greater than the 
 interest on the extra outlay for machinery and foundations, 
 and forms the principal subject of consideration. Experienced 
 men, equal to meet all ordinary contingencies, can be em- 
 ployed, whereas, in the event of a mishap with a drainage 
 engine, a messenger has to be sent from some out-of-the-way 
 place to a distant town to obtain the services of an engine- 
 fitter. Most land drainage engines run for only a short period 
 in the year — in dry seasons, perhaps, for only two or three 
 weeks in a twelvemonth — the saving of coals as between a 
 complex and a more simple machine does not therefore 
 compare so favourably with the annual payment for interest 
 on the extra cost of the more expensive machine. The fewer 
 parts of a simple machine also reduce the risk of breakdowns, 
 and drivers of the agricultural class have generally sufficient 
 intelligence to deal, at least for a time, with such accidents as 
 may happen. Drainage engines should therefore always be 
 of the simplest type, but of the best workmanship and ample 
 strength. The latter quality is one that should always be 
 insisted on. The extra cost of the metal required in making 
 a strong and substantial machine as compared to one beauti- 
 fully finished but so lightly constructed that it is always 
 shaking itself to pieces, forms so small a portion of the whole 
 cost that it ought never to influence a maker. 
 
6o The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 In Holland the type of engine most generally in use is of the 
 horizontal condensing single cylinder. In the older stations 
 in the Fens beam engines have generally been adopted. In 
 stations of more recent origin no one particular class of engine 
 prevails. In Holland, France, and Italy, the direct acting 
 horizontal compound engines have most generally been applied 
 for driving centrifugal pumps. Vertical engines require less 
 foundations and are less subject to strain if settlement of the 
 foundations takes place, a common occurrence in spite of all 
 precautions in fenland, than those of the horizontal type, yet 
 although adopted in some few cases, do not appear to have 
 received the attention they would seem to merit 
 
 Where the area of land is small, say not exceeding 2000 
 acres, and therefore not sufficient to warrant the cost of brick 
 buildings, the most economical arrangement is to use a semi- 
 portable engine driving a centrifugal pump, the whole enclosed 
 in a galvanised iron shed. The cost of foundations and erec- 
 tion of a chimney is thus avoided. The pump can be driven 
 by belt or by direct gearing from the crank shaft. 
 
 The Management of Drainage Engines.— Although 
 the saving of coal as between one type of engine and another 
 may not be of such consequence as in engines used for com- 
 mercial purposes, yet the total consumption is a matter which 
 ought to engage the most serious attention on the part of the 
 managers, as on this principally will depend the annual cost 
 of the pumping station and the amount of taxes required to 
 meet the expenses. The fuel should bear a direct proportion 
 to the amount of water lifted. If more than is necessary is 
 used it is due to the fault of either the engineman, the engine, 
 or the pump. The excess has to be paid for. As regards the 
 first, too great caution cannot be exercised in selecting a 
 steady, careful, and economical man. The best men can only 
 be secured by paying good and sufficient wages. A good 
 engineman may save his wages many times over by careful 
 stoking ; an incompetent man may not only run up the coal 
 
Drainage by Steam Power, 6i 
 
 bill, but do irreparable damage to the machinery by ignorant 
 management. The difference of the consumption of coal due 
 to good and bad stoking is strikingly shown by the trials of 
 enginemen at the agricultural shows. It may be assumed 
 that the men who enter for these competitions consider them- 
 selves as superior to the ordinary drivers, or they would not 
 enter for the competition. Selecting two of these competi- 
 tions as samples, with an interval of ten years between, it will 
 be seen that there was a marked improvement on the part of 
 the men in the work done. Some portion of this may be 
 due to the difference in the engines, but it would not amount 
 to much ; and it is fair to presume that the managers would 
 take care that the engine provided for the trials should be a 
 competent machine. 
 
 At the trials at the Lincolnshire Agricultural Show at 
 Spalding in 1872, with an 8-horse-power portable engine, 
 fifteen competitors entered the list. The best used coal at 
 the rate of- 7*86 lb. per horse-power per hour, the worst 
 20-2 lb., the average of the whole being ii\ lb., a difference 
 of 61 per cent, between the best and the worst 
 
 At Gainsborough in 1883 there were nineteen competitors. 
 The best man ran the engine with a consumption of coal at 
 the rate of 6*jy lb. per horse-power per hour. The worst 
 used 8 '95 lb. The average of the whole was 7*69. There 
 was thus a difference of 2* 18 lb. of coal per hour in the 
 driving of this engine by picked men. Taking the ordinary 
 type of drivers of agricultural engines, it may safely be taken 
 that there would be a difference of at least 10 lb. of coal per 
 horse-power per hour. With an engine running at lo-horse- 
 power, this would amount to over a ton in 24 hours. Beyond 
 this would be further waste in oil and damage to machinery 
 by want of skill or carelessness. 
 
 With regard to the quantity of coal consumed, the Dutch 
 engineers in their contracts generally stipulate that this shall 
 not exceed 6 '60 lb. of coal per horse-power per hour of 
 
62 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 water actually raised. Allowing an efficiency of * S 5 for the 
 machinery, this is equal to 3*63 lb. per I.H.P. Some of the 
 best pumping engines for land drainage purposes in this 
 country consume from 4 lb. to 4^ lb. of coal per indicated 
 horse-power per hour, which is above the Dutch standard, 
 being at the rate of 7^ to 8J lb. per W.H.P. At the trials of 
 the engines and pumps put up at Fos, Bouches de Rhone, the 
 consumption of coal was at the rate of 4-45 lb. per W.H.P. 
 or 2 '47 lb. per I.H.P ; and in those erected for the drainage of 
 the Ferrara marshes 4 lb. per W.H.P., and 2| lb. per I.H.P. 
 
 Neither with pumps nor scoop wheels is the consumption of 
 coal proportional to the lift, the relative quantity increasing 
 as the lift decreases. This is what would naturally be ex- 
 pected, as the dead weight of the machinery bears a larger 
 proportion to the total quantity of work the smaller the lift. 
 At trials at the Halfweg station in Holland the consumption 
 of coal varied from 14 '20 lb. per actual horse-power per hour 
 when the lift was under i foot to 5 ' 5 lb. when it was doubled. 
 With a lift of only 6 inches the consumption of coal was at 
 the rate of 50 lb. per horse-power per hour, the difference 
 being accounted for by the large amount of power required 
 simply to drive the wheels. Mr. Barker, one of the com- 
 missioners, gives the consumption of coal for engines working 
 centrifugal pumps, as varying with the lift, as follows — not 
 counting coal for getting up steam : — 
 
 Feet of lift I 2*40 3*30 to 7*20 
 
 Lbs. of coal per horse-power of 5*30 
 
 water lifted .. • 9*37 8*22 7-71 6*6o 
 
 (Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. Ixxv. p. 274.) 
 
 In recent contracts made for centrifugal pumps in Holland, 
 this matter has been taken into consideration, and three con- 
 ditions of lift are specified. 
 
 The conditions in some of the competitions for pumping 
 machinery in Holland, are that on the completion of the con- 
 tract for the erection of the machinery there should be two 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 63 
 
 trials, one carried out by the engiiiemen of the contractors, 
 and the other by those of the purchasers. Both trials to last 
 over a considerable period. In the event of the consumption 
 of coal exceeding that guaranteed by the contract, the con- 
 tractor to pay three-fourths of the capital sum which would 
 have to be paid by the purchasers to provide the additional 
 coal. 
 
 Insurance. — A very considerable saving in the manage- 
 ment of drainage engines might be effected if the Commis- 
 sioners in charge of them were to avail themselves of the 
 advantages to be derived from the regular inspection which is 
 undertaken by the boiler insurance companies. The primary 
 object of these companies is to insure the owners of boilers 
 against the damage arising from explosion, but the greatest 
 advantage derived is from the periodical inspection made by 
 their agents, who furnish reports after each visit as to defects, 
 whether arising from bad setting or from wear or corrosion^ 
 By the timely detection of defects, many explosions are 
 averted, and the reports of the inspectors as to the general 
 condition and management of the engines and boilers should 
 prove a useful check on the manager, and will frequently be 
 found to result in a considerable saving in the amount of coal 
 consumed. 
 
 Engine Drains. — In designing pumping machinery for 
 draining land, care must be taken that the power supplied is 
 adequate to the work to be done. This will depend on the 
 amount of rainfall in the particular district, and the propor- 
 tion of it that has to be lifted in wet seasons. As every ton 
 of water lifted represents the money value of the coal con- 
 sumed in effecting this, it is obviously desirable that all high 
 land water that can drain off by gravitation should be ex- 
 cluded from the drainage district by catchwater drains and 
 banks. The pumping machinery should be adequate to the 
 maximum rainfall of wet years, as it is at such times, when 
 the outfall stream is full, that the benefit will be most felt. 
 
64 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 The quantity of water due to rainfall has already been dealt 
 with in the chapter on ' Drainage by Gravitation.' Assuming 
 that the quantity to be raised to be that due to a quarter of 
 an inch in 24 hours, this is equal to about 2^\ tons per acre, 
 which, multiplied by the number of acres and the height to be 
 lifted, gives the work to be done from which the actual horse- 
 power of the engine required can be calculated. Thus, for 
 example, taking a district of 1000 acres, with a lift of 5 feet, 
 and daily rainfall of \ inch, this is equal to 39,388 lb. lifted 
 5 feet every minute, or 196,940 foot-pounds, which, divided by 
 33,000, the unit of i-horse power, is equal to 6-horse power. 
 Allowing that 50 per cent, is absorbed in overcoming the 
 friction of the machinery and leakage of the pumps, 12 
 I.H.P. would be required. This is on the supposition 
 that the engine during extreme floods is running night and 
 day, which in cases of emergency is generally done. If the 
 work is required to be done in less time, the power required 
 will be proportionately larger. While it is desirable to 
 provide adequate power, any unnecessary expenditure should 
 be avoided as adding to the dead weight of capital on which 
 interest must be paid. On the other hand, it is never desirable 
 to put too much strain on an engine ; a machine that is well 
 master of the work will run more economically than one that 
 is much pressed. 
 
 The best advantage is obtained when the machinery runs 
 continuously night and day. If the drains are capable of 
 delivering a full supply, a pump works at its best, and the 
 scoops of a wheel being fully charged deliver their full 
 quantity with less head than if the water-level is lowered and 
 gathers again during the night. The coals used in getting 
 up steam and restarting are saved, and usually a better result 
 is obtained. If the machinery does not run at night, it will 
 have to be so much larger as to render it capable of dis- 
 charging the rainfall of 24 hours in 14 or 16 as the case may 
 be, and the drains must be proportionately large to supply 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 65 
 
 the increased capacity of the pump and wheel. The wages 
 of the night men for the short time they are required will not 
 be found to amount to as much in a large pumping station 
 as the annual payment of interest and repayment of capital 
 on the extra cost of the engines and drains required to run 
 for only a limited time. 
 
 In calculating the work to be done, the height which the 
 water is lifted is taken as the vertical distance between the 
 surface of the water in the drain bringing the water to the 
 pump, and that in the main drain or river into which it is 
 discharged. If the water is discharged through horizontal 
 pipes — as in one form of the centrifugal pump — an allowance 
 has to be made for the friction. Consideration must be given 
 to the fact that this height may vary considerably in the 
 course of the day, owing to the outfall being a tidal stream, 
 or from the water having lowered in the feeding drain during 
 the time pumping is in operation. 
 
 If the pump used is of the turbine form, its position in the 
 pump well should be sufficiently below the lowest surface to 
 which the water is to be pumped to prevent its drawing air, 
 as within reasonable limits the depth of the pump below the 
 surface does not add appreciably to the work to be done. 
 The covering over the pump should not be less than 2 feet 
 If the main interior drains are of sufficient capacity the in- 
 clination in the surface of the water should not exceed 3 inches 
 per mile, and even 2 inches are sufficient to bring the water to 
 the pump. The surface of the water in the drains for effectual 
 drainage should be at a sufficient distance below the land to 
 allow the drain pipes to discharge freely from the lands situ- 
 ated at the greatest distance from the pumps. In alluvial 
 soils this will be from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches, and this, plus 
 the amount to be allowed for the surface inclination from 
 the furthest point, will regulate the level at which the water 
 should be kept in the main drain. 
 
 The main drains leading to the engine, and especially the 
 
 F 
 
66 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 main engine drain, act not only as conveyers of water to 
 the pump, but also as reservoirs to collect the water when the 
 engine is not running, and should therefore be larger than the 
 calculation would warrant if merely founded on their dis- 
 charging capacity. When steam is once up it is bad manage- 
 ment to allow the engines to stand still for the water to 
 gather, because the drains are not of sufficient capacity to 
 keep them supplied. The pumping station should be placed 
 as near the centre of the district as practicable. The main 
 engine drain will then be of shorter length, and the minor 
 drains arranged in a more effectual way as feeders than if the 
 pumping station be fixed at one end of the district ; the drains 
 falling into it from both directions will also require less fall 
 than if they had traversed the whole length. It is un- 
 necessary to refer further to this matter, as the whole subject 
 has been fully dealt with in the chapter on drainage. 
 
 Cost of Pumping Stations. — The cost of erecting a 
 pumping station depends upon so many circumstances peculiar 
 to the locality that no definite figures can be given. Generally 
 the cost may be taken for buildings and machinery at from 
 70/. to 80/. per horse-power of water lifted. Allowing for an 
 annual average rainfall of from 25 inches to 30 inches, i horse- 
 power would drain about 150 acres with a lift of 5 feet, 
 making the cost per acre about los. The main elements to 
 be taken into consideration are the quantity of water to be 
 lifted — depending principally on the rainfall and the area 
 drained, the height the water has to be lifted, and the nature 
 of the foundations required. Frequently a much greater 
 quantity of water has to be lifted than that due to rainfall 
 from the soakage from other districts through badly con- 
 structed banks. If the district is small, the proportionate 
 cost would be greater, but an increase in lift would be less 
 in proportion, as adding little to the cost of buildings and 
 general arrangements. The cost of erecting the Lade Bank 
 engines in Lincolnshire, in 1868, was 17,000/. ; the area of 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 67 
 
 land drained, 3S,ooo acres. The pumps were calculated to 
 raise 700 tons of water 4 feet 6 inches high per minute, equal 
 to 80*37/. P^i' horse-power of water lifted. The cost of the 
 two stations at the Wexford Harbour Reclamation Works 
 was 91 • 10/. for buildings and machinery at the north station, 
 where the pump was erected, being 37/. for machinery and 
 54/. lOi-. for buildings ; and 40/. per horse-power for the scoop 
 wheel and engine — the cost of the buildings not being given 
 in this station. The cost of an iron scoop wheel with curved 
 blades and horizontal engine, erected by Messrs. Appleby, for 
 the drainage of the Upwell district, in Norfolk, was 2680/. 
 — equal to 74*68/. per horse-power of water lifted for the 
 machinery, and 26*40/. for the buildings — together, ioi'o8/. 
 Centrifugal pumps, driven by semi-portable engines, housed in 
 wooden buildings, have been erected in the Fen districts at 
 from 70/. to 80/. per horse-power of water lifted. In Holland 
 the cost of erecting pumping machinery for horse-powers 
 varying from 14 up to 500 during recent years has averaged 
 92/. per effective horse-power * for scoop wheels, the amounts 
 varying from 58/. for the largest machines to 106/. for the 
 smallest. The buildings have cost 46*1/. per horse-power, 
 and the machines 46*3/. For centrifugal pumps the cost has 
 been 36*8/. for machinery, and 34 '2/. for buildings — together, 
 71/. The variation in cost for pumps has not been so great 
 between the larger and smaller machines as that for wheels. 
 The cost of erecting screw pumps is given at from ^61 to lOO/. 
 for buildings and machinery — the average being about 94/. 
 per effective horse-power, the power varying from 12 to 
 1 30 horse-power. 
 
 In California, in the valley on the western side of the Sierra 
 Nevada, where centrifugal pumps are used for raising the 
 water for irrigation, and where a number of small separate 
 pumping stations widely distributed are required instead of 
 one large establishment, owing to the distance of transport, 
 * Cuppari, * On Pump ng Engines m Holland/ Trans. Inst. C.E., vol kxv. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 the machinery is designed of light sections and scant pro- 
 portions. The cost of machinery for raising water to heights 
 varying from 6 to ii feet is given at 28/, lO^. per horse-power 
 for machines capable of lifting about 30 tons per minute, and 
 for larger engines up to 70 tons a minute 14/.* 
 
 Cost of Maintenance. — The annual cost of maintaining 
 a pumping station varies with the accessibility of the locality 
 as affecting the price of coals, the efficiency of the machinery, 
 and the skill and care of the engineman. From statistics 
 prepared by the author as to the expense of maintaining 
 pumping stations in a large district in the Bedford Level, the 
 average cost for the three years 188 1-2-3, which were very 
 wet, and during which several floods occurred, was 16' 25^^^ 
 per acre throughout the level, or i • %6d, per acre per foot of 
 lift, of which i'47<^. was for coals only. Taking the larger 
 districts, in which, from the engines being of a better character, 
 the proportionate consumption was less, the cost for coals only 
 was found to be about id. per acre per foot of lift. These 
 amounts were obtained as the result of the figures given by 
 eleven different stations, draining about 120,000 acres of land, 
 with lifts varying from 6 feet to 14 feet, the cost of coals being 
 about 16^-. per ton delivered f During the same period, the 
 cost of working the large engines and scoop wheels at Pode- 
 hole for draining Deeping Fen in Lincolnshire, was 10 '58^. 
 per acre, of which ^'$6^ was for coals. Taking the average 
 lift of the water at S feet, this gives i*^id, per acre per foot of 
 lift for coals. The average working charges of the engines 
 and centrifugal pumps at Lade Bank for draining the East 
 Fen in the same county for the same period — 1881-83 — was 
 1089/,, equal to 7*46^. per acre. The average rainfall was 
 30*27 inches a year. Taking the average lift at 4 feet, this is 
 equal to i • ?>6d. per acre per foot of lift The cost of coals 
 at this station would probably be about 14^'. per ton. For the 
 
 * 'Irrigation Machinery on the Pacific Coast/ by J. Richards, 
 t * Report on the River Ouse.' 
 
Drainage by Steam Power. 69 
 
 years 1871-72, in which the average rainfall was 28 '25 inches, 
 but was not so continuous nor the floods so high, the cost was 
 only 532/., equal to 3*63<3?1 per acre; the average lift being 
 taken for that season at 3 feet 9 inches ; this gives rather 
 under id. per acre per foot of lift. At the Wexford Harbour 
 Reclamation pumping station for the years 1 881-83 the average 
 rainfall was 40*34 inches, the average lift 5 feet 6 inches, 
 coals 18^. per ton, the cost was 26"^d. per acre for coals for 
 the scoop wheel, and 18*65^. for the centrifugal pump, re- 
 spectively 4*76^. and 3'38rf. per acre per foot of lift. 
 
70 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SCOOP WHEEL. 
 
 The "scoop" or "float" wheel has been in use as a machine 
 for lifting water from very ancient times — it is mentioned by 
 Vitruvius ; and that the Romans used it for this purpose is 
 proved by the discovery at the Tharsis Mines, in the south of 
 Spain, a few years ago, of a scoop wheel which had been 
 exhumed in the excavations then being carried on. This 
 wheel was made of oak, of light scantling, put together with 
 oak pins, no nails being used in the construction; and 
 although it must have been underground for nearly two 
 thousand years, the wood was in a good state of preservation.* 
 The wheel was introduced into Holland by W. Wheler in a 
 new form in 1649. 
 
 Mechanical power for drainage purposes in the Fen 
 country came first into use about 200 years ago, when scoop 
 wheels worked by horses were used by the Corporation of the 
 Bedford LeveL Horse-power was superseded by wind. In 
 1726 an Act was obtained for the drainage of Haddenham 
 Fen by the use of windmills working scoop wheels, after 
 which time their use became general throughout the Fen land, 
 also for the drainage of the low land along the Trent and in 
 other parts of the country. In Holland scoop wheels still 
 largely exceed all other kinds of machines for lifting water 
 from the low lands, and in Italy they are considered by some 
 of the principal engineers as more effective for this special 
 purpose than any machine yet invented. 
 
 These wheels have done exceedingly good service in the 
 
 * J. Lee Thomas, in Trans. Inst. C.E., vol. xxxii. 
 
The Scoop Wheel. 7 1 
 
 drainage of the land. When well constructed, and for situa- 
 tions where the height to which the water has to be raised is 
 not great, and where there is not much variation in the lift, 
 they are effective and useful machines, especially in the 
 Colonies and remote places, where wood is more plentiful and 
 available than a trained mechanic's services. The slow speed 
 at which they travel fits them for being driven by windmills 
 or the slow-speed beam engines by which these were suc- 
 ceeded. They are simple in construction, and easily repaired 
 by the aid of such mechanical skill as is readily obtainable in 
 country districts. They are not liable to get out of order 
 when laid by, or easily damaged by floating substances 
 brought to them in the water. 
 
 To the mind of those living by the side of the rivers and 
 drains of low flat countries, and accustomed to the slow 
 practices of an agricultural life, there is a sense of power and 
 solidity about a massive beam engine with its slowly revolving 
 fly-wheel and heavy beam rising and falling, driving a 
 ponderous water wheel lifting a large mass of water, for which 
 the small parts of a centrifugal pump and its rapid move- 
 ments seem but a poor substitute. They are, however, ex- 
 ceedingly cumbrous, the wheel weighing as much or more than 
 the total body of water lifted at each revolution. The larger 
 wheels, of say 30 feet in diameter, weigh from 30 to 40 tons, 
 and therefore require very heavy foundations and expensive 
 masonry work for the wheel race. The slow-speed engines 
 used for driving wheels are themselves as ponderous as the 
 wheels, and also require heavy foundations and a large area 
 of buildings. If engines of quick speed are used the loss of 
 efficiency due to the gearing necessary to reduce the velocity 
 of the engine to that of the wheel absorbs considerable 
 power. 
 
 As generally constructed scoop wheels are very wasteful of 
 power, and badly adapted to meet the alterations in the level 
 of the water due to tlie falling of the level on the inside, as 
 
72r The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 the water is pumped out of the drains, or on the outside due 
 to the rise and fall of the tide, or of flood waters in non-tidal 
 streams. As the angle at which the scoops enter and leave 
 the water seriously affects the working of the wheel, even in 
 the best constructed machines, there must always be a loss 
 due to variation in the level The unnecessary height to 
 which some part of the water must be lifted also throws 
 undue work on the engines, although it is not so regarded by 
 all enginemen. Sir G. B. Airy mentions a case of a wheel 
 which he visited, the attendant on which took considerable 
 pride in his wheel because it lifted the water well up into the 
 air, regardless of the fact that the steam power by which all 
 this water was tossed in the air had to be paid for, and was 
 so much waste of power.* There is also loss from leakage of 
 the water between the wheel and the sides and bottom of the 
 masoniy trough in which the wheel revolves. In the event of 
 the surface of the land drained lowering — a frequent occur- 
 rence — it becomes necessary to deepen the drains and lift the 
 water from a lower level, involving the lowering of the wheel, 
 or the lengthening the scoops, and reconstructing the masonry 
 breast of the course, an expensive and difHcult work, owing to 
 the foundations being generally built upon piles. 
 
 Most of the old scoop wheels employed in the drainage of 
 land are unnecessarily wasteful of power. Sir G. B. Airy, the 
 late Astronomer-Royal, who examined one of these machines 
 at work, for the drainage of a large district in the Fens, was of 
 opinion that four-tenths of the power applied was wasted, a 
 great part of which might have been saved by a proper 
 arrangement of the parts, in which opinion he was confirmed 
 by Sir W. Cubitt Many of the wheels do not give off a useful 
 effect of more than 30 per cent of the power applied. 
 
 They are, however, in some case capable of improvement. 
 By alterations recently effected in the engines and wheels 
 used for the drainage of Deeping Fen, more than double the 
 
 * Tians. Inst. C.E., vol. xxxii. 
 
The Scoop WheeL 73 
 
 quantity of water was raised, the consumption of coals being 
 at the same time reduced 42 per cent. 
 
 The scoop wheel resembles a breast-water wheel with re- 
 verse action. In its simplest form — Plate 3 — it consists of 
 an axle, upon which are fastened discs, to which are attached 
 radial arms A, terminating at the other end in the rim B, 
 upon which are fastened arms with boards called " scoops," C. 
 The wheel revolves in a trough, connected with the drain on 
 the one side and the river or place of discharge on the other. 
 The scoops beat or lift the water from the lower to the upper 
 side, the waterway on the river or outlet side being provided 
 with a self-acting door E. which closes when the wheel stops. 
 On the inside of the rim are cast-iron cogs fastened on in 
 segments, and geared into these is a pinion keyed on to the 
 shaft of the fly-wheel of the engine. In some wheels a spur 
 wheel F i^ fixed on the shaft of the wheel, in place of the 
 toothed segments. The former plan occupies less space, but 
 the wheel is more difficult to repair in case of damage to the 
 teeth. In some wheels the framework, including the rim, is 
 made in four castings, two forming one side of the wheel, and 
 are bolted together and keyed to the axle. 
 
 A large number of the scoop wheels in the Fenland were 
 designed by Mr. J. Glynn, and made by the Butterley Com- 
 pany. These have a cellular casting or disc keyed on to the 
 axle. The spokes are each in one casting through the width 
 of the wheel, bolted through the disc and transversely to the 
 rim. The wheels of more recent construction have had each 
 spoke made in a separate casting bolted transversely to the 
 disc and to lugs cast on the rim, the spokes being connected 
 by struts and bolts. The rim is cast with sockets, in which 
 are fixed with pins, oak arms, or " start posts." To the start 
 posts are bolted boards, from i inch to i J inch thick, varying 
 at the circumference from i foot to 3 feet apart. Wheels of 
 small width have only one start post, and the boards are 
 placed lengthways parallel with the post In wider wheels 
 
74 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 there are two or more start posts, the boards being placed in 
 the opposite direction. These boards are called indifferently 
 ''scoops," "ladles/' *' floats," "paddles," the former term being 
 adopted for use in this book, as that most generally in use. 
 
 The axle in the old wheels is carried on bearings resting on 
 the masonry of the trough, the gudgeons having no means of 
 adjustment, and are generally unnecessarily large, increasing 
 the friction. In more modern wheels the gudgeons are kept 
 in their place either by a shoulder running close against the 
 plummer blocks or by screws bearing against the ends. The 
 trough in which the wheel revolves is made of masonry, 
 carried up as high as the centre of the wheel. The invert is 
 made to the same radius as the wheel. The clearance, or 
 space between the wheel and the trough at the sides and 
 bottom, varies from -^ inch in the best machines to f inch, 
 and even more, in the older ones. Owing to the large dia- 
 meter of the wheels and their great weight, it is necessary 
 that the foundation should be rigid and the wheel very nicely 
 adjusted, as the slightest settlement causes the wheel to grind 
 against the sides. Even with thorough adjustment there is 
 always loss of water, owing to the space which must be left 
 between the wheel and the masonry. In order to prevent this 
 loss, some wheels have rims or shroudings on the sides, which 
 partially or wholly enclose the water. The latter are termed 
 wheel pumps. If only partially shrouded, only a portion of 
 the leakage is stopped, and, if wholly, a difficulty arises in 
 providing for the escape of the air contained in the space 
 between the two scoops, which consequently do not become 
 fully charged. 
 
 The scoops are generally flat boards bolted to the start 
 posts and dripping from the radial line at an angle varying 
 from 25 to 55, but generally about 40 degrees, the scoops 
 being set out in tangents to a circle concentric with that of 
 the wheel. The angle at which the scoop enters the water is 
 termed the angle of ingress, being that which the face of the 
 
The Scoop WheeL 75 
 
 scoop makes with the surface of the water when first it comes 
 in contact with it, the outer end of the scoop being at the 
 apex of the angle. The angle of egress is that which the back 
 of the scoop makes with the surface of the water when it 
 leaves it, the end of the scoop as before being at the apex. 
 In the diagram Plate 2, fig. 5, A B C is the angle of ingress, 
 and D E F that of egress. 
 
 In determining the angle of the scoop the mean level of the 
 water both on the interior and exterior side of the wheel must 
 first be settled. The centre of the wheel is then fixed so as 
 to divide the head and dip in equal proportions, except where 
 the lift is great, when the dip is seldom made to exceed 
 6 feet 
 
 Owing to the variation in both the external and internal 
 water-levels, it is impossible to fix the scoops at such an 
 angle as that they shall always enter and leave the water in 
 the way most favourable to the discharge. The larger the 
 angle which the scoop forms with the surface of the water the 
 better the scoop enters, and the better hold it gets of the 
 water ; and the larger the angle of egress the better the water 
 leaves the scoops ; consequently the more the angle of ingress 
 is improved the worse becomes the delivery. If the angle of 
 ingress be too small, too much of the scoop comes in contact 
 with the water on first entering, and instead of drawing it 
 gently forward, beats it back, causing a disturbing element 
 detrimental to the discharge. If the angle of egress be too 
 small, the water does not drip off the scoop readily, but a 
 portion is carried up with it above the level of the surface of 
 the outfall, the height to which the part of the extra water is 
 lifted in some wheels due to this cause being as much as 6 feet 
 to 8 feet, while the remainder is lifted from 2 feet to 3 feet. 
 The undue work thrown on the engine from this cause may 
 be realised when it is considered that the lift of these wheels 
 seldom exceeds 10 feet, and is frequently only half this. 
 Mr. Beijerinck, the engineer of several reclamations in 
 
76 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 Holland, advises that the angles of ingress and egress of the 
 scoops should be about equal with the mean internal and 
 external water levels. If there is any variation, it is certainly 
 better to increase the angle of egress, as this prevents useless 
 lifting of the water at the point of discharge, and more is 
 gained on the egress than is lost on the ingress side. Some 
 of the Dutch wheels, however, are constructed so that the 
 angle of egress is double that of the angle of ingress. The 
 wheels at Katwijk, which are of recent construction, are made 
 tangential to a circle concentric with the wheel, and having a 
 radius of 5*25 feet, the diameter of the wheel being 29 feet 
 6 inches. This gives the angle of ingress with the water at 
 mean level 20 degrees 30 minutes, and the angle of egress 
 42 degrees. The wheels at Podehole for the drainage of 
 Deeping Fen, the larger of which is 30 feet in diameter, have 
 scoops which incline from the radial line 25 degrees, being 
 tangential to a circle having a radius of 3*75 f^^t. If the 
 scoops were straight they would enter the water with S feet 
 dip at an angle of 29 degrees, and leave it with an angle of 
 36 degrees. The scoops are 6 feet 6 inches long ; the ends 
 for a length of 18 inches being bent back from the straight line 
 about 6 inches. 
 
 The best average results are probably obtained from wheels 
 having an angle of ingress of 30 and of egress of 45, when 
 the water is at its mean level. 
 
 In order to avoid the undue lifting of the water, and also 
 to facilitate the entry, wheels, both in this country and in 
 Holland, have been fitted with curved scoops made of sheet 
 iron, the rest of the wheel also being generally of iron. At 
 normal levels these wheels work well, but when the internal 
 water level alters, the convex part of the scoop strikes the 
 water, and any advantage otherwise gained is lost Wheels 
 with curved scoops should always be provided with a shuttle to 
 adjust the flow of water. The variation in the level may, to 
 a certain extent, be thus provided against Curved wheels 
 
The Scoop Wheel. 77 
 
 provided with a proper adjusting shuttle may be run with a 
 greater speed than with flat scoops, as the water escapes off 
 the scoops more readily, and will work effectively if run at a 
 speed at the periphery of 9 feet per second. Curved wheels 
 may also be made of less diameter than those having straight 
 scoops. Wheels with curved scoops are in use at Zuidplas, 
 Waterland, and other stations in Holland, for the Upwell and 
 Outwell district in the river Ouse, and at Ravensfleet and 
 Sturton on the Trent. 
 
 The older wheels made in Italy had the scoops straight 
 and radial. These wheels were of low efficiency, dashing the 
 water about as each scoop entered and left the water. More 
 recently, the practice of some of the Italian engineers has 
 been to make the wheels of iron, the scoops being inclined at 
 about 60 degrees to the radius, and formed with a double 
 curvature, a sliding iron shuttle being provided so as to admit 
 the water to the lower part of the wheel only.* At Gouda, 
 some of the scoop wheels erected in 1857 were subsequently 
 changed to wheels having curves with the concavity towards 
 the outer water, one having the concavity towards the inner 
 water, and two with the scoops nearly flat. The difference 
 in the delivery of these wheels was slight, the first-named 
 giving, on the whole, the best result. These have since all 
 been changed to fiat scoops. As a matter of experience, 
 wheels with flat scoops give the best results when all circum- 
 stances are taken into consideration. 
 
 The inlet and outlet courses for the water are constructed 
 of masonry, the wall of the engine-house generally being 
 placed on the inner side and the shafting from the engine 
 passing through an opening. The practice in Holland is 
 generally to decrease the width of the raceway as it 
 approaches the centre of the wheel, the sides converging at 
 an angle of 17 degrees from the straight line, the raceway 
 at its widest part being about one-third wider than the 
 
 * Trans. Inst. C E , vol Ixxvi., p 402. 
 
78 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 wheel In some wheels, both in Holland and England, the 
 divergence starts almost directly from the centre of the 
 wheel, while in most cases the divergence begins at the point 
 where the scoops are attached to the wheel The object of 
 this widening is to allow the water to get freely to the scoops 
 both at the end and sides. The outlet channel is provided 
 with either single or double self-acting doors, according to 
 the size of the channel These close automatically when 
 the wheel stops. In some cases these doors are placed 
 close to the wheel in a set-back in the masonry. A disturb- 
 ance is thus caused in the flow of the water by the alteration 
 in the size of the channel and by the water striking against 
 the framing of the doors and the angles of the masonry. 
 To ensure an even flow and prevent eddies, the outlet 
 channel should have the same width as the wheel, and 
 gradually widen outwards to the outfall drain ; the sides 
 should be smooth, and free from any projection or recesses ; 
 the door removed to some distance from the wheel ; and the 
 breast of the raised outlet sill rounded off. 
 
 Where the wheel has to contend with a great depth of 
 water on the outside, the scoops as they come round, churn 
 up a large quantity without discharging it. The wheel thus 
 becomes choked, and does not part with its load as efficiently 
 as it otherwise would This churning up of the water causes 
 also a strong back undercurrent, which seriously impedes the 
 free discharge from the wheel. To show the effect of this, an 
 instance may be quoted of a case where, although at the time 
 a large body of water was being discharged by a wheel into 
 the outfall channel, the undercurrent near the raceway was so 
 strong that a small boat which had got loose near the wheel 
 was sucked down and got jammed in the scoops. The atten- 
 *^^ion of the superintendent being called to the circumstance, 
 winlNaused the self-acting door at the end of the raceway to be 
 
 A' f isl 
 
 aajust ^N^ horizontally, Avith the result that when the water 
 a certain er^^i ^^^ \{{^ owing to floods, the lower half of 
 
The Scoop Wheel, 79 
 
 the door always remained closed. To obviate this movable 
 breasts have recently been fitted to some of the old wheels, 
 which can be raised or lowered to suit the level of the water. 
 The wheel at Podehole has thus been altered (see Plate 5). 
 On the breast of the outlet sill an iron plate has been fitted 
 in a recess cut in the masonry. This plate is hinged to 
 another plate which lies on the floor of the outlet channel 
 By means of a segmental-toothed rack geared into a pinion 
 on the windlass this movable breast can easily be raised or 
 lowered, and the sill of the discharging channel adjusted to 
 the height of the water. A similar arrangement has been 
 carried out in the large wheel on the Hundred Foot River, 
 and the discharge in both cases has been very greatly im- 
 proved. Experiments made by the superintendent of the 
 latter wheel showed that with the same pressure of steam in 
 the boiler, and other circumstances being the same, the number 
 of revolutions of the wheel — 50 feet in diameter — increased 
 about one-third, or from 31 in three minutes, with the 
 movable breast lowered, to 41 in the same time when it was 
 raised its full height of 4 feet, making a total rise of 8 feet 
 
 In 1868 Mr. Samuel Nay lor, the superintendent of the 
 Morton Car drainage district on the Trent, took out a patent 
 for a somewhat similar arrangement, which is thus described 
 in the patent specification : " At the end of the channel or 
 chase of the wheel is formed a face, and at the bottom 
 thereof, m a horizontal axis, is an-anged a flap or valve 
 constructed so that it will float, and jointed at intervals. 
 This flap floats in the water, allowing the water in the 
 wheel to pass it in an upward direction. When the level 
 of the water falls by the stopping of the wheel, and the flow 
 tends towards the wheel, the flap floats up to its face and 
 makes a tight joint, and so prevents the return of the water " 
 — Patent specification, irth March, 1868, No. 839, The 
 difference between Mr. Naylor's plan and that already 
 described is that the former is self-adjusting, and also 
 
8o The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 supplies the place of the self-acting doors placed across the 
 outlet. The wheel for draining the Morton Car district in 
 the Trent has been fitted with this arrangement Mr. 
 Naylor also included in his patent a curved guide for caus- 
 ing the water to enter at the under side of the wheel, so 
 that the scoops should not " come in contact with the water 
 until they have ceased to descend, and are travelling hori- 
 zontally, or nearly so, on the under side of the axis." The 
 blades or arms in the wheel are curved backwards, or in the 
 opposite direction to that in which the wheel revolves, so 
 that the water may leave them advantageously on the rising 
 side of the wheel. 
 
 The wheels at Katwijk, in Holland, have been fitted with 
 a somewhat similar arrangement to that here described, the 
 floor in front of the wheels being movable, and hung on 
 hinges, so that it can rise up automatically, and form an 
 adjustable breast, suitable to the vaiying level of the water 
 in the outlet. 
 
 Very few of the old wheels have been fitted with shuttles 
 to regulate the supply of water to the scoops. With a vary- 
 ing height of water it is not possible, without this arrange- 
 ment, to work the wheel to the best advantage. By means 
 of the shuttle the depth of immersion of the scoops can be 
 controlled, and the wheel prevented from being overloaded. 
 The shuttle is also useful in adjusting the load either at 
 first starting, before the wheel has got into full swing, or, in 
 the case of a tidal outfall, in diminishing the supply to the 
 wheel as the height of lift increases with the rise of the tide. 
 The shuttle consists of a wooden framework, with a sliding 
 door fitted in the raceway close up to the wheel, sloping at 
 such an angle as to be tangential to the circumference of 
 the wheel. The door is provided with friction rollers, which 
 work on a frame in the side next the wheel, and is provided 
 with a balance weight and rack and pinion for moving and 
 adjusting the shuttle. A shaft can be carried into the 
 
The Scoop Wheel. 8 1 
 
 engine-house and geared to the pinion, so that the shuttle 
 may be adjusted in the engine-room, a flange with float 
 being also placed there to show the height of the water. 
 See illustration of the Podehole wheel, Plate 5. 
 
 The diameter of the wheel is regulated by the " head and 
 dip," that is, the distance from the lowest point of the ladles 
 to the maximum height to which the water has to be lifted, 
 Sig. Cuppari quotes a formula of Mr. Forster*s for calculat- 
 ing the diameter D = 9*82 \/ 2 +/, in which i is the immer- 
 sion of the scoops, or the dip, and p the lift = 9 * 82 V H, in 
 which H = the height from the lowest point of the wheel to 
 the highest external level to which the water has to be 
 raised, the measurements being in feet. The constant in 
 the formula gives a larger diameter than is generally to be 
 found in either the Dutch wheels or those in use in the 
 Fens. A constant of 8*75 gives a result more nearly 
 approaching the Dutch and English practice. The wheels 
 at Zuidplas, which have curved scoops, have a dip of 3*28 
 feet, and a head of 11 '8 = 11 15*08, with a diameter of 
 32*80 feet, equal to about 8*5 times the square root of H. 
 The wheels at Katwijk, erected in 1880, have a head and 
 dip of 1 1 feet, and a diameter of 29 * 50 feet, equal to 8 • 92. 
 Taking twenty -five of the principal wheels in England, 
 having an average extreme head and dip of 15*0 feet, the 
 mean diameter is 34*0 feet, equal 8*77 the square root of 
 H. The new wheel at Wexford Harbour has a diameter of 
 40 feet for 14*50 feet head and dip, equal to a constant of 
 10. Wheels with curved scoops requii*e a less diameter than 
 those with flat. The Italian wheels generally have a larger 
 diameter in proportion to the lift than the Dutch or English. 
 The largest wheels in Holland do not exceed 33 feet in 
 diameter. In England the largest diameter is 50 feet, and 
 several examples of wheels 35 feet and 40 feet exist. The 
 limit for efficient working may be taken at 36 feet. It is not 
 advantageous to use scoop wheels for lifts above 12 feet. 
 
 G 
 
82 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 When the height is greater than this, centrifugal pumps are 
 more efifective and economical in working. Before the intro- 
 duction of pumps, where the lift was great, it was usual to 
 divide it into two, and to employ a double set of wheels, one 
 working at some distance behind the other. 
 
 In 1872 a patent was taken out by Mr. G. Hamit, the 
 superintendent of the Haddenham Drainage District, to 
 meet the case of alterations required in existing wheels 
 owing to the subsidence of the soil. By his proposal he 
 claimed to save the expense of increasing the diameter of 
 an existing wheel with the consequent lowering to the 
 masonry of the trough. His invention is described as con- 
 sisting of "the application of an auxiliary wheel at the 
 entrance to the wheel race to feed the water to the scoop 
 wheel, the efficiency of which is moreover increased. This 
 auxiliary wheel is provided with curved blades and is rapidly 
 rotated, the water being admitted to it through a sluice pro- 
 tected by a grating" — Patent specification, 3764, 1872. So 
 far as the principle is concerned, there is nothing new in this, 
 as examples of double lifts already existed in the Fens. 
 The object sought could be obtained more efficiently by 
 lengthening the scoops, as has been done in Deeping Fen 
 and other places. The existing machinery of the old wheels 
 being well and strongly constructed, is easily adapted to the 
 increased work by simple alterations, and by using steam at 
 a higher pressure. By judicious alterations to the engine 
 and wheel a large saving of coals may be effected, and the 
 engine rendered capable of dealing with the increased 
 work 
 
 The greatest quantity of water raised by scoop wheels, so 
 far as the author's knowledge goes, is at Atfeh. At Katwijk, 
 the six wheels raise each over 333 tons, or a total of 2000 
 tons a minute 4 feet high, or 1200 tons 7 feet high. The 
 greatest quantity of water lifted at one station in England is 
 at Deeping Fen, the larger wheel raising 300 tons a minute 
 
The Scoop Wheel. 83 
 
 to a height of S feet, and the two 560 tons a minute. The wheel 
 at the Hundred Foot River in Cambridgeshire discharges 
 120 tons a minute at a height of 17 feet, and 200 tons at the 
 ordinary lift of 13 feet The two Italian wheels at Adria 
 discharge 300 tons a minute each, the maximum lift being 
 10 feet. The Egyptian wheels recently erected at Atfeh, on 
 the Nile, can each discharge 254 tons a minute, or a total for 
 the eight wheels of 2030 tons. 
 
 The speed at which wheels with flat scoops run should not 
 exceed 8 feet per second at the periphery. When this is 
 exceeded, too great an impetus is given to the water, and 
 part of it is lifted higher than necessaiy. The best results 
 are obtained with a slower rate of speed than this. The 
 slower the speed the less the water is dashed about. It is, 
 however, contended by some managers of wheels that a slow 
 speed involves additional friction from the gearing required 
 to reduce the speed of the engine to that of the wheel. In 
 the old engines the number of revolutions of the engine to 
 those of the wheel was 3 or 4 to i. This has been increased 
 to 6 or 7 to I. A high speed, it is also contended, has the 
 advantage of the head due to the velocity with which the 
 water leaves the wheel, provided the outlet channel is of 
 suitable form. Thus, with a speed of 8 feet per second, the 
 water will pass through a regular and smooth waterway into 
 an outfall, the surface of which is nearly i foot higher than 
 the water at the wheels. Wheels in England having a 
 diameter of 30 feet generally make 4 to 4-| revolutions a 
 minute, equal to a speed of 6-27 feet to 7 feet per second 
 Some of the Dutch wheels run at as low a speed as 3 '46 feet 
 per second. Four of the new wheels at Atfeh make 2 • 29 
 revolutions a minute, and the other four I'pi revolutions, 
 equal to a speed of 3*93 feet, and 2*95 feet respectively. 
 Wheels having curved scoops can be run at a higher velocity 
 than those with flat blades. Where the discharge is into a 
 tidal stream, wheels are regulated to run at varying speeds 
 
 G 2 
 
84 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 according to the height of the water in the outfall, so as to 
 adapt the power of the engine to the varying lift. 
 
 The work done by a scoop wheel is measured by the 
 quantity of water lifted in a given time. To ascertain this it 
 is necessary to know the head and dip of the scoops. The 
 " dip " is the depth the scoops are immersed in the water 
 when vertical in the trough. The " head " is the difference in 
 level of the surface of the water on the inner and outer side 
 of the wheel. The cubical quantity of water lifted each 
 revolution is ascertained by multiplying the mean circum- 
 ference of that portion of the wheel which is immersed by the 
 width of the scoops and by the length of the immersed part. 
 From this must be deducted the space occupied by the start 
 posts and scoops. Mr. Wilfrid Airy, who paid considerable 
 attention to the performances of scoop wheels, and published 
 a pamphlet,* giving the result of his investigations into their 
 working some years ago, considered that a deduction should 
 also be made for leakage of the water which falls from the 
 wheel in the " clearance," or space left between its sides and 
 bottom and the masonry. He estimated this as equal to an 
 amount due to the area of such clearance multiplied by the 
 velocity due to the head or height the water was lifted. 
 Thus, taking a wheel 30 feet diameter, with scoops 4 feet 
 wide, and having a clearance of J inch, the lift being 5 feet 
 and the dip 5 feet, the calculation for loss from this source 
 would be as follows : — The area between the scoops and the 
 masoniy would be 5*0 4- 5 'O 4- 4*0 X i '^^^ = 'S^S feet 
 The velocity due to the head 8 \/5 = 17*89 feet per second. 
 The area multiplied by this velocity gives 625*7 cubic feet a 
 minute, or nearly 1 1 per cent, of the whole quantity lifted. 
 This is greater than is found to be the case in practice. If the 
 theoretical velocity as found above be reduced 30 per cent., 
 to allow for the friction of the water against the sides of the 
 
 * * Remarks on the Construction of the Course, and Design for a New and Im- 
 proved Scoop Wheel,* by W. Airy, 1870. 
 
The Scoop WheeL 85 
 
 masonry, it would bring the result more in accordance with 
 the results which have been obtained from the best con- 
 structed wheels. Signor Cuppari states that the actual dis- 
 charge of the wheels at Zuidplas, which have curved scoops, 
 is 92 per cent, of the theoretical. The author has seen these 
 wheels at work and does not consider their work as calculated 
 to give out such a good result. Taking the dimensions as 
 given above, the gross discharge of the wheel would be 5764 
 cubic feet per minute, found thus : — Diameter of the wheel 
 30 feet. Deduct half the dip of the scoops off each of the 
 radii of the wheel, leaves the mean diameter of the im- 
 mersed part of the wheel =30 — 5 feet dip = 25 feet, of 
 which the circumference is 78 • 54 feet. Area of the scoops 
 5*0 X 4*0 = 20 feet; 78*54 x 20'0 = 1570-80. Deducting 
 the area occupied by the scoops and start posts, 129*80 feet, 
 gives 1441 cubic feet for each revolution of the wheel. This 
 multiplied by four, the number of revolutions, gives the dis* 
 charge as 5764 cubic feet per minute. If the leakage be taken 
 as that due to 70 per cent, of the theoretical quantity found 
 above, say 438 feet, the net discharge would be 5326 cubic 
 feet per minute. The lift being 5 feet, the horse-power in 
 
 water lifted— W.H. P.— would be 5326 x 5 x62'5 ^ 
 
 33,000 ^ ^^ 
 
 The power required, in addition to that for lifting the water, 
 in overcoming the frictional resistance of the machinery of the 
 engine and wheel, and also for useless work in lifting water 
 too high, varies considerably. Mr. Airy estimated the per- 
 centages of loss due to unnecessary lifting of the water, 
 friction, and other causes as follows : — From leakage, 8 ; 
 unnecessary lifting of the water, 19 ; friction on the gudgeon% 
 5 ; resistance from the shape of the course, 8 ; a total of 40 
 per cent To this must be added 10 to 15 per cent for the 
 friction of the gearing, making a total loss for the wheel alone 
 of 55 per cent There is no doubt that in many of the old 
 unimproved wheels the loss from the working of the engine 
 
86 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 and wheel amounts to as much as 70 per cent of the power 
 applied ; on the other hand, in the best wheels, this has been 
 reduced to 30 per cent. Messrs. Watt and Co., of the Soho 
 Engineering Works, Birmingham, who have had considerable 
 practical experience in the working of scoop wheels, having 
 altered several of the older wheels in the Fenland, and thereby 
 added largely to their efBciency, are of opinion that the merits 
 of the scoop wheels are not sufficiently valued. Having care- 
 fully measured the quantity of water flowing down the feeding 
 drains, and taken the power of the engine as indicated at the 
 cylinder, they have found an efficiency of 75 to 80 per cent, 
 in wheels with flat scoops, worked by beam engines using 
 steam at a pressure of from 20 pounds to 25 pounds on the 
 square inch. The details of one of these trials will be given 
 in the description of the Hundred Foot wheel. Messrs. Watt 
 consider that in a scoop wheel the flow being continuous from 
 the feeding drain to the actual delivery, as good an effect 
 should be obtained in a well-constructed wheel as with a 
 reciprocating pump, where the motion of the water is not only 
 changed in direction, but where frequently masses of water 
 as between the pumps and air vessels or other pipes have 
 to be put in motion. Their experience gained from fitting 
 up a large number of waterworks, leads them to rely on 
 obtaining with such pumps 80 per cent, of effective work. 
 With regard to the loss by leakage, Messrs. Watt entirely 
 disagree with Mr. Airy. They consider that in a well-made 
 wheel the loss from this cause is practically nothing. The 
 head that causes the leakage they consider is only that be- 
 tween the level of the water in one space between the scoops 
 and the level in the next succeeding space, and that the 
 general motion of the wheel and the upward current of the 
 whole mass of water practically overcome the leakage. 
 Further, they consider that in calculating the discharge of a 
 wheel a greater quantity must be allowed for than the exact 
 dip of the scoop, as owing to the velocity imparted to the 
 
The Scoop Wheel. 87 
 
 water by the outer diameter of the scoops, combined with 
 the gradual contraction of the feeding drain increasing the 
 velocity of the water, the cavities between the scoops are filled 
 from a fourth to a fifth more than the actual dip. The other 
 deduction from the gross power applied for friction of the 
 gearing between the motor and the wheel for the gudgeons 
 and for water lifted too high they consider also as much 
 overrated. Mr. Korevaer, in a paper read before the Dutch 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, gives the useful effect of four 
 scoop wheels and engines in the Netherlands at a mean of' 
 6y per cent, of the indicated horse-power, the greatest being 
 69*6, and the least 60 'O, the lifts varying from 3*66 feet to 
 6-0 feet At Katwijk the percentage varied from 33 to 70 
 according to the height of lift, the mean being 50. At Gouda, 
 with curved scoops, the percentage was 56*3 per cent. ; with 
 the wheels as recently altered to flat scoops, and with new 
 engines an efficiency of 81 '97 per cent was obtained, the lift 
 being 5*80 feet, and the quantity discharged 598 tons per 
 minute. Mr. Huet, in his description of the scoop wheel at 
 Adria, in Italy,* which has a diameter of 39 J feet and width of 
 6J feet, with a lift of from 4 feet to 6 feet, states as the I'esult 
 of working that the proportion of horse-power of water lifted 
 to the indicated horse-power is 72 per cent In the Wexford 
 Harbour trials, when the wheel was first started, the per- 
 centage of useful effect was 68 * 2. 
 
 * * Stoombemaling van Polders en Boezems,' door A. Huet, C.E. Published 
 at The Hague, 1885. The author here acknowledges much valuable information 
 that he has obtained from this work. 
 
88 The Drainage of Fens and Lozu Lands, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ARCHIMEDIAN SCREW PUMP. 
 
 These pumps, although frequently used for lifting water from 
 drains for emptying and cleaning them out, and other similar 
 yurposes, have seldom been applied in this country for the 
 permanent drainage of land. They derive their name from 
 Archimedes, the Syracusan, who lived 287 B.C., and invented 
 this machine, during his stay in Egypt, for draining and 
 irrigating land. They were subsequently used by the Romans, 
 The Dutch have used them very extensively in Holland for 
 raising water for the drainage of the Polders. 
 
 The screw pump consists of three parts. A solid cylinder 
 in the centre, called the core, to which is attached one or more 
 spiral screws, and sometimes an external case. The number 
 of screws running round the core varies from one in the 
 simplest machine, to three or four in those of larger character. 
 The ends of the core terminate in gudgeons which revolve in 
 bearings, the lower one fixed under the water, and the upper 
 on a beam spanning the delivery opening. As the efficiency 
 of this machine is not affected by the speed at which it runs 
 it is suitable for being driven by steam, wind, or hand power. 
 In small pumps a crank handle is attached to the upper part 
 of the core, and on this a pole with an eye through the centre, 
 bushed with metal, is attached, the pole having cross handles 
 at each end. One man works at the handle on the core, and 
 one or more at each of the handles on the pole. It is 
 reckoned that one man can raise in an hour at the rate of 
 1738 cubic feet of water i foot high, the pump making forty 
 revolutions a minute. If worked by machinery, the pump is 
 
The Archimedian Screw Pump, 89 
 
 driven by a spur wheel at the top geared into a bevel wheel 
 and shaft 
 
 The water level on the inlet side may vary without affecting 
 the efficiency of the pump, except so far as the increased 
 weight is concerned, due to the greater length required to 
 meet the variation. But any change in the level on the 
 delivery side immediately affects the efficiency. These 
 pumps are not therefore adapted for use where there is much 
 change in the level of the water into which they discharge. 
 
 The angle which the pump forms with the horizon when 
 fixed varies according to the ideas of different constructors, 
 but generally it may be taken that the most efficient position 
 for the pump is when the angle of tilt is rather less than the 
 spiral angle. Thus, for a machine having a spiral angle of 
 40° the angle of tilt for the pump should be 30°. The spiral 
 angle is the form which the screw assumes with reference to 
 the core, and is the angle made by a tangent drawn to the 
 spiral on the cylindrical core, and a vertical line parallel to 
 the axis of the cylinder. This angle varies from 30° to 60°. 
 The Romans usually made it 45°. In the most effective 
 machines it varies between 30*^ and 40°. 
 
 The discharging power of these pumps varies so much with 
 the different circumstances under which they are woi'ked, 
 depending on the number of threads, the angle at which they 
 are placed, the angle at which the pump works, and other 
 matters, that it is difficult to give any precise formula for the 
 quantity discharged. Upon pumps working under nearly 
 similar conditions the discharge is as the cube of the diameter, 
 and approximately it may be taken that, under favourable 
 conditions, a pump i foot in diameter will discharge 0*32 
 cubic feet of water for every revolution. The number of 
 revolutions varies according to the kind of power applied and 
 the size of the pump. Small pumps of about i foot in 
 diameter may be run at sixty revolutions a minute, the larger 
 not reaching more than twenty. For drainage purposes it 
 
90 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 may be taken that these pumps can be run at from twenty to 
 forty revolutions a minute. They have been used in Holland 
 to lift the water 15 feet Mr. Korevaer, a Dutch engineer, 
 who has investigated the matter, places the limit of height at 
 14 feet, and the limit of discharge at 3500 (pSi tons) cubic 
 feet per minute. The ten screws erected at Katatbeh, in 
 Egypt, discharged 137*5 tons a minute each, making five to 
 six revolutions a minute. The screws were enclosed in iron 
 cases, but were found unequal to the weight of water they had 
 to carry, and were consequently removed Where the amount 
 of water to be lifted exceeds the capacity of one pump it is 
 customary to couple two or more together, all worked by the 
 same engine. 
 
 The useful effect of these pumps is about the same as scoop 
 wheels, and varies according to construction, from 50 to 80 
 per cent, of the power applied. 
 
 The Dutch screw pumps are constructed to work without 
 an external casing, the wheel revolving in a semi-cylindrical 
 trough of masonry. The weight of the water is thus borne 
 on the masonry, and the screw is relieved of the strain. An 
 example of one of these pumps is given in Plate 4. 
 
 Mr. W. Airy, in a paper contributed to the Transactions 
 of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1871 (vol. xxxii.), gives 
 the results of experiments carried out by him to test the rela- 
 tive merits of screw pumps of different construction. The 
 results he arrived at were : — (i) That the smaller the spiral 
 angle, i.e. the quicker the spiral, the flatter must the machine 
 be laid to the horizon to produce its best effect. (2) That in 
 an equal number of revolutions the quicker spirals will lift 
 much more water than the slower ones. (3) That there is a 
 great difference in the effect of the machines according as one 
 end or the other is upwards. The advantage is greatly in favour 
 of the machine when placed so that the acute angle which the 
 thread makes with the core is downwards. With regard to the 
 number of threads, Mr. Airy is of opinion that every machine 
 
The Archimedian Screw Pump, 91 
 
 should have as many threads as the conditions of ordinary 
 workmanship and convenience will allow. That for screws of 
 any size, say 6 feet or 7 feet external diameter, the width of 
 the chambers should not be less than i8 inches on the square, 
 and the diameter of the core one-third nearly of the external 
 diameter. These conditions allow four threads for a screw, 
 whose spiral angle varies between 20° and 30° ; three threads 
 for those between 40"^ and 50° ; and two threads for 60°. The 
 threads of the screws of the pumps upon which he experi- 
 mented, and which he considered was the proper form to use, 
 were made developable, by which term he meant a curved sur- 
 face that could be unwrapped, laid fiat, and inside a plane. 
 The surface of the spiral thread, as ordinarily used, lies at 
 right angles to the surface of the core, and if laid out 
 flat the external edges would have more surface than the 
 inner. Screws developed from a flat plate hold more water 
 than those having threads at right angles to the surface of the 
 core, and are easier to construct. The effect of the internal 
 frictional resistance with a pump 3 feet in diameter, 10 feet 
 lift, and running at twenty revolutions a minute, he found to 
 vary from ^ to 8 per cent, of the useful effect realised ; the 
 gudgeons being 4 inches diameter absorbed 12 per cent, of the 
 power applied ; and that the best machines give off a useful 
 effect of 85 per cent, of the power applied. For the most 
 economical machine he considered that the spiral angle should 
 not be less than 30° nor greater than 40° ; and that the limit 
 of height at which these pumps can be worked advantageously 
 is ID feet. 
 
92 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 
 
 In giving the following description of the centrifugal pump, 
 the subject has been confined, as far as practicable, to pumps 
 with low lifts adapted for drainage purposes. 
 
 Although the principle of the centrifugal pump was known 
 more than one hundred years ago, and pumps of this descrip- 
 tion were made and used experimentally fifty years since, 
 it was not until the Exhibitioa of 1851 that they were 
 brought into prominent notice. At the British Association 
 meeting held at Birmingham in 1849, Mr. J. G. Appold ex- 
 hibited a model of a centrifugal pump. After that, by an 
 exhaustive set of experiments, principally directed as to the 
 best form for the fans, Mr. Appold gradually improved the 
 discharging capacity, and was enabled to exhibit a pump at 
 the Exhibition of 1851 which formed one of the chief features 
 of interest, the public being astonished at the immense volume 
 of water put in motion by a machine which appeared, both 
 from its size and simplicity of form, to be quite inadequate to 
 the result attained. 
 
 Practically the form of pump shown at the Exhibition is the 
 pump of the present day, no material alteration having been 
 since effected Although the general principle on which the 
 pump acts is simple, the determining of the proportion of the 
 different parts, and of the effect of the shape of the fan, is 
 extremely difficult, requiring complex calculations, the data 
 for which are so scanty as to render them not to be relied on 
 unless checked by actual experiment. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps were "*first brought into use for the 
 
Centrifugal Pumps. 93 
 
 drainage of land in consequence of the successful trials at the 
 Exhibition. The proprietor of Whittlesea Mere, a large tract 
 of fen and morass, was so satisfied with the performance of this 
 machine that he gave instructions to Messrs. Easton and 
 Anderson, the exhibitors, for the erection of an Appold pump, 
 calculated to discharge 15,000 gallons — sixty-seven tons — a 
 minute to a height of 5 feet. The lift of this pump had sub- 
 sequently to be increased from time to time as the land 
 settled, an operation performed with so little difficulty as 
 to prove the adaptability of the pump for this purpose. A 
 full description of this pumping station will be hereafter 
 given. 
 
 The centrifugal pump is a machine consisting of an outer 
 case having inlet and outlet pipes, in which revolves a fan 
 at a high velocity. This high velocity adapts them well for 
 gearing direct to engines running at high speeds. A very 
 large displacement of water is effected in a short time. The 
 machines are compact and occupy small space. The weight 
 also being about one-twentieth that of a scoop wheel, the area 
 of buildings required is small, and the cost of foundations is 
 very inexpensive compared to those required for wheels. The 
 first outlay is also considerably less. The average difference 
 of cost of the pumping stations erected in Holland during 
 recent years is 20/. per actual horse-power in favour of the 
 pumps. Another great advantage of the centrifugal pump is 
 that it readily adapts itself to the varying lift which must be 
 encountered in most drainage stations, and automatically 
 adjusts the work thrown on the engine as the lift varies. At 
 first starting the engine drain is full, and at its highest level. 
 The lift therefore being smaller, the pump discharges a 
 larger volume of water ; as the water in the drain lowers 
 the lift increases and the quantity pumped diminishes in 
 proportion, giving more time for the water to flow from the 
 distant drains down to the engine drain and keep it fed. If 
 pumping into a tidal stream the same effect takes place ; as 
 
94 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 the lift increases the pump adjusts itself to the altered circum- 
 stances by sending out a less quantity, gradually regaining its 
 original discharge as the tide falls. Further, when permanent 
 settlement of the land occurs, the cost of adapting a pump is 
 trifling ; all that is necessary being the lengthening of the inlet 
 pipe. Where proper precautions are taken no practical diffi- 
 culty has been found to arise from weeds and other substances 
 which find their way into the pump well. Pumps have now 
 been running for the last thirty-five years, and performed their 
 work efficiently and without trouble. At the Lade Bank 
 station a manure fork is shown which, having been accidentally 
 dropped into the feeder on the inner side of the grating, safely 
 passed through the pump and came out without stopping the 
 machinery or receiving any damage itself. At the pump- 
 ing station, at Codigoro, North Italy, the body of a lad passed 
 through one of the pumps. The boy had been missed fi-om 
 his home, and it was ascertained that he was last seen in the 
 Valli near the main canal which leads to the suction wells of 
 pumps. Some days afterwards, when one of the engineers had 
 taken off the man-hole cover of condenser belonging to one 
 of the pumps, he discovered the missing body, which had passed 
 through the pump, but its further progress was impeded by the 
 smallness of the condenser tubes. To prevent such accidents 
 the approach to the pump should always be well protected by 
 gratings placed across the entrance to the raceway. 
 
 There are two types of centrifugal pumps — the one similar 
 to the Appold pump shown in the 1851 Exhibition having a 
 horizontal spindle, and almost invariably fixed above the level 
 of the water ; the other of the turbine form, having a vertical 
 spindle, the fan and case being submerged. All the larger 
 stations in England have been fitted with the turbine form, 
 but in Holland and Italy the pump with horizontal spindle has 
 been most generally used. Of the three largest makers of 
 drainage pumps in this country, Messrs. Easton and Anderson 
 have adopted the turbine form for all large works, whereas 
 
Centrifugal Ptmips, 95 
 
 both Messrs. Gwynne and Co. and Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne 
 have used the other form. 
 
 The following description of a centrifugal pump is taken 
 from a paper read by Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne at the British 
 Association meeting, held at Norwich in 1868, and partly from 
 the patent specification of the pump patented by them xxx 
 1 868. Fig. 3, Plate 4, shows front and side sectional elevation 
 of this pump. The pump consists of an outer case E, with a 
 disc or impeller A, having six arms or blades B cast on a 
 centre boss. A centre plate C springs from the boss and 
 gradually decreases in thickness to a knife edge, bringing the 
 separate currents of water into each side of the disc without 
 producing an eddy or reflux. The arms are radial for two- 
 thirds of the length, and curve off towards the periphery in 
 an opposite direction to the line of rotation, in order to direct 
 the water into the sweep of the case and prevent it rushing 
 against the outer side of the discharge passages. Two rings 
 D — see also Fig. 4 — one at each side of the arms, form the 
 bearing surface. The suction passages F F branch off from 
 the suction pipe G at the point g. The bottom part of the 
 casing E is thinned off to a knife edge, as shown at g^ in order 
 to prevent any obstruction to the water. A space is left 
 between the passage and the case to carry the suction pipes 
 F F over the enlargement of the discharge passage in a 
 straight line to the openings in the centre of the disc A, at 
 which point they curve into the top of the openings. The 
 discharge passage is sprung from the periphery of the disc in 
 the form of a helix or volute, commencing at the top of the 
 case E and gradually increasing till it reaches the full size of 
 the discharge pipe E^ That part of the pump casing E 
 which contains the impeller A is made of the same shape as 
 the profile of the impeller, and similar in section and of just 
 sufficient size to permit the impeller to revolve, the bearing 
 rings D being accurately fitted to the turned recesses in the 
 casing. By this means the usual side plates on the discs of 
 
96 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 centrifugal pumps are not required, the peculiar form of the 
 pump casing acting in the place of such plates, consequently 
 the friction of the disc A is reduced. The whole of the disc 
 and arms are steel in one casting. The spindle passes 
 through two stuffing-boxes cast on the casing E, to which are 
 fitted gun-metal glands. A driving pulley is attached to the 
 end of the spindle. Valves are placed at the bottom of the 
 suction pipe to retain water when the pump is not at work. 
 The area of the disc is equal to the area of the inlet and 
 outlet pipes at all points. As these pumps, when working at 
 their best speed, discharge every revolution three times the 
 cubical contents of the disc, the discharge passages are three 
 times the cubical capacity of the disc. By a simple arrange- 
 ment the discharge pipe from the pump is made to act as a 
 condenser for the steam from the engines. These pumps have 
 been further improved in detail since the publication of the 
 above description. 
 
 The points essential to a good pump, and common to all 
 makers, are as follows : — The shape of the vanes to be such as 
 to facilitate the movement of the water so that it shall enter 
 and leave without shock, and shall therefore correspond as 
 nearly as practicable with the path described by any fillet of 
 it from the interior to the exterior of the fan ; all changes of 
 direction in the connections with the pump to be as gradual 
 as possible, and all enlargements or contractions in the 
 passages avoided ; the passages throughout to be proportioned 
 so as to have a gradually increasing velocity in the water until 
 it arrives at the circumference of the fan, and then to have a 
 gradually decreasing velocity until it issues from the discharge 
 pipe ; ample space to be allowed in the case, the larger the 
 opening in the case the better the water passing off. 
 
 The chief attempts of makers to improve this form of pump 
 have been in the form of the blades. AH agree that these 
 must be curved The form of the curve varies with the ideas 
 of the different makers. At the trial at the Exhibition of 
 
Centrifugal Pumps. 97 
 
 1 85 1 the Appold pump with curved arms of the form shown in 
 Fig. 5, Plate 4, gave a maximum duty of o*68, while the same 
 pump with the arms made straight and inclined at an angle 
 of 45 degrees to the radius gave a duty of only 0-463, and 
 when the vanes were made straight and radial this duty was 
 further reduced to 0*243. This pump had a 12-inch fan with 
 internal width of 3 inches in two divisions of 1 1- inch each. The 
 central opening for the admission of the water on each side of 
 the fan was 6 inches in diameter. The quantity of water dis- 
 charged was 2100 gallons (9*37 tons) per minute at a height 
 of 8*20 feet, and 681 gallons (3* 04 tons) at a height of 27*60 
 feet, the fan making 828 revolutions in the former case, and 
 876 in the latter. 
 
 The pumps having horizontal spindles, from the ease with 
 which they can be fixed, are eminently adapted for temporary 
 purposes or for drainage in places where it is not considered 
 desirable to cut through a river bank. For small drainage 
 areas pumps of this type are preferable to those which are 
 submerged, owing to the greater facility of access to the 
 fan should it become choked with weeds, ropes, or other 
 matter liable to be twisted I'ound the blades. Substances 
 escaping through the protecting gratings, which will readily 
 pass through the openings in large pumps, frequently get 
 wrapped round the fans and spindles of the smaller pumps ; 
 and if not actually bringing the pump to a standstill, seriously 
 affect the efficiency and throw a greater strain on the engine. 
 The action of a small centrifugal pump has been known to be 
 completely stopped by eels, which had become twisted round 
 the spindle. To remove these impediments without taking 
 the case to pieces a hand-hole is frequently left in the cover, 
 and so fixed on with screws as to be readily removable. 
 
 Pumps should be so fixed that all the parts can be readily 
 accessible, and the suction pipe provided with means for 
 slinging it with a rope or chain when required to detach it 
 from the pump. The side plates are put together with bolts 
 
9^ The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 and nuts, and in case of any substance finding its way into 
 the pump sufficiently large to cause a stoppage, the taking to 
 pieces and putting together is a work occupying only a very 
 short time. The bearing of the driving shaft should be taken 
 off the pump case by a sliding iron seat fixed close up to the 
 case, which can be pushed away when the glands of the pump 
 require packing. 
 
 Pumps of this description require charging with water before 
 they can be started. This can be done by a small donkey 
 pump, or by exhausting the air by a steam jet. In the latter 
 case the outlet pipe and flap or non-return valve, which in all 
 cases is necessary to prevent the back-flow of the water when 
 pumping is stopped, are made sufficiently air-tight to allow 
 the water to flow up and fill the pump. In the former case a 
 valve opening inwards is placed on the inlet, which has also a 
 perforated rose at its termination to prevent, as far as possible, 
 the entrance of foreign substances. In large drainage pumps 
 a special air pump is provided for chai'ging the pump. 
 
 In order to avoid unnecessary lifting of the water the dis- 
 charge pipe is carried down below the lowest level of the 
 water on the outer side. The lift is then not greater than the 
 difference of level of the inner and outer channels, the suction 
 and delivery pipe acting as a syphon. 
 
 The turbine form of pump has a vertical spindle, and must 
 be placed below the water, at the lowest level from which the- 
 water has to be pumped. The earlier forms were made with 
 the fan divided into two parts with a centre diaphragm, but 
 pumps of more recent construction have only a single fan with 
 one inlet When the water enters on one side of the wheel 
 only, it causes a thrust in that direction. This thrust is made 
 use of to counterbalance the weight of the driving shaft and 
 pump vanes ; then after the pump is once in motion all weight 
 being thus taken off the bearings. For the same quantity of 
 water to be discharged the single pumps necessitate the fans 
 being made of larger diameter than those having double fans. 
 
Centrifugal Pumps. 99 
 
 Pumps with single fans can therefore be run at a smaller 
 number of revolutions — a great advantage when used for 
 drainage purposes. The water passes to the opening through 
 a trumpet-shaped mouth continued downwards a short dis- 
 tance to prevent the pump drawing air when the water is 
 pumped to the lowest level. The gradually decreasing size 
 of the opening at the entrance produces a corresponding in- 
 crease in the velocity, which is again decreased on leaving 
 the fan by guide blades, the apertures between the guide 
 blades being smaller near the fan than above. 
 
 The use of guide blades is found to increase very materially 
 the discharging power of the pump. In experiments made 
 by Mr. Parsons, a pump, which without the guide blades dis- 
 charged 1500 gallons a minute^ increased this quantity to 
 50CK) gallons a minute when the guides were added, the 
 pressure of steam remaining the same. 
 
 This form of pump is fixed in an iron case or brick well, the 
 outlet from which is at the lowest level to which the water 
 in the outlet channel is ever likely to fall No delivery or 
 suction pipes are required. The opening in the well is either 
 protected by a self-acting valve to prevent back flow when 
 the pump is not working, or doors are placed at the end of 
 the channel leading into the main outfall drain. The pump 
 is hung by its spindle to a girder across the well at the top 
 by a gun-metal bearing that is quite accessible, the spindle 
 being stayed by horizontal guides in the well. No footstep 
 is required. The bearings of the different parts have conical 
 seats, and the fan can at any time be taken out for repairs 
 and replaced without emptying the water from the pump 
 well. This arrangement secures the machine from the wear 
 and tear due to its exposure to the grit and dirt contained 
 in the water, and facilitates repairs when required. It is 
 necessary to arrange the well or case so that it can at any 
 time be pumped dry if required — a pi'ecaution, however, that 
 i^ seldom wanted. No valves are required, the pump being 
 
 H 2 
 
100 The Drainage of Fens and Low Laiids. 
 
 always charged and ready for starting; being also covered 
 by a considerable depth of water it is free from the action 
 of frost, which is liable to freeze the water if left in a pump 
 exposed to its action, and burst the case. The friction of the 
 water along the suction and delivery pipes necessary in the 
 other form of pump is also avoided. On the other hand, 
 the gain in efficiency due to a properly formed pump case is 
 sacrijficed. 
 
 The action of a centrifugal pump is as follows :— As soon 
 as the fan begins to revolve the blades carry the water with 
 them, which is then pushed forward and drawn into the case 
 partly by the mechanical action of the blades propelling the 
 water forward, and partly by the centrifugal action created by 
 the rapid rotary motion created by the fan. The vacuum 
 created by the water driven out of the fan is immediately 
 filled by a fresh supply of water from the inlets. The water 
 driven out by the fan is propelled along the discharge passage, 
 and having no other means of escape, rises up the pump well 
 till the outlet is reached. A constant and continuous stream 
 without check or shock, as in bucket pumps, is thus created, 
 and the water is kept in motion along its whole passage. 
 
 The best velocity for the water to flow through the passages 
 of the fan is from 6 feet to 8 feet per second. The discharge 
 increases with the increase of velocity, a small increase in the 
 number of revolutions producing a large increase in the 
 delivery. Mr. Parsons* states that he found an increase of 
 14 revolutions — 392 to 406, or about 3J per cent — increased 
 the discharge from 1012 gallons to 1753, or 42 per cent. 
 Up to a certain speed the pump does not act, and the fan 
 revolves without lifting the water over the overflow. Unless 
 the speed for which the pump is intended to be run at is 
 attained, the machine does not work at its best, and fuel is 
 wasted. It is important therefore that the engineman in 
 charge should know the velocity for which his pump is 
 
 * * Trans.' lust. C.E., vol. xlvii. 
 
Centrifiigal Pumps. i o i 
 
 speeded. The formulas for ascertaining the quantity of water 
 discharged by a centrifugal pump are complicated, and the 
 coefficients vary with each particular make. Messrs. Easton 
 and Anderson furnish the purchasers of their drainage pumps 
 with a diagram by which the quantity discharged can be 
 ascertained by inspection when the lift and speed are known. 
 If an account is kept of the lift, and the speed and time of 
 working of the engines by the engine-driver, checked by 
 locked counters attached to the machinery giving the number 
 of revolutions, a means is provided of preserving a record of 
 the quantity of water pumped, and at the same time a check 
 is placed on the engine-driver. 
 
 In the centrifugal, as in all other pumps, a certain amount 
 of the power applied in driving them is absorbed by friction 
 of the bearings and resistance due to roughness of the surface 
 of the pump, and to the slip and eddying motion of the 
 water ; this loss varies from 30 to 50 per cent. The duty to 
 be expected from a centrifugal pump of the best construction 
 used for drainage purposes may be taken at about 70 per 
 cent, falling in small-sized pumps, and those not of the best 
 construction to 50 per cent. The power absorbed by an 
 engine and pump may be divided approximately as 
 follows : — 
 
 Friction of engines 10 per cent 
 
 pumps 30 
 
 Efficiency 60 „ 
 
 100 
 
 The ratio of useful effect in water lifted, as compared with 
 the indicated horse-power, for the direct-acting engines and 
 pumps put up by Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne, has been found 
 to vary from 55 to 70 per cent 
 
 The efficiency of a centrifugal pump rapidly diminishes if 
 the lift is greatly increased. From observations made by 
 Mr. Richards of the pumps used for lifting water for irrigating 
 
102 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 purposes on the Pacific coast, he obtained an efficiency of 
 from 65 to 70 per cent, for lifts up to 10 feet, and only 35 per 
 cent for lifts of 100 feet. 
 
 The statical height of water which these pumps will support 
 without discharging requires a speed which varies in some 
 degree with the form of the blades. Mr. Thompson ^ states, 
 as the result of his experience, that the speed of the periphery 
 per second required to balance the weight of the water up to 
 the point of discharge is equal to eight times the square root 
 of the given height in small pumps, and 9*82 times in large 
 pumps. In a letter which appeared in * The Engineer ' of 
 September 24th, 1886, Mr. C. Brown gives, as the result of 
 experiments made by him with pumps having blades of the 
 form shown in Fig. 6, Plate 6 — the water being held at a 
 height of 45 feet — 
 
 (i) Required a speed per second = s! 2gh, 
 
 (2) ,, = considerably more. 
 
 (3) „ still more. 
 
 (4) >, 0'82 X JVgh, 
 
 In a description of the pump made by Mr. C. Hett, of Brigg, 
 for the s.s. Eldorado, in 'The Engineer' of June i8th, 1886, it 
 is stated that Mr. Hett found a pump of his make with 2 feet 
 disc which gave a full discharge at a height of 16 feet 6 inches 
 when running 190 revolutions a minute, the velocity at the 
 periphery being only about two-thirds of the head due to 
 gravity. 
 
 The following formula of Unwinds for ascertaining the speed 
 and discharge is given in Molesworth's ' Pocket Book ' : — 
 
 S = 8 \^ H in small fans, or 9 • 5 V H in large fans, 
 
 ^ "^ 64 '' ^^ 90*25 '' " 
 
 * 'Trans.' Inst. C.E., vol. xxxii. 
 
Centrifugal Pumps. i o 
 
 D =r Cy/- ^ 
 
 D = Diameter of fan in feet. 
 
 H = Head of water in feet, including head^ corresponding 
 
 with friction of pipes, &c. 
 S = Speed of periphery of fan in feet per second. 
 Q = Quantity of water lifted, feet per minute. 
 C = '12 to -18. 
 
 The great advantage that a centrifugal pump has over all 
 other machines for raising water for the drainage of land 
 where the lift is constantly varying, either from the rise and 
 fall of the tide in the outfall river or the lowering of the water 
 in the inside drains as the pumping proceeds, is that it adapts 
 itself to these variations in the lift without any alteration in 
 the speed of the engine, employment of differential gear, or 
 attention on the part of the engine-driver. If kept working 
 at the ordinary speed, the pump will discharge either more or 
 less water as the lift diminishes or increases. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps of the smaller class are generally kept 
 in motion by a strap running round a pulley on the spindle 
 of the pump and the driving wheel of the engine. Those of 
 the turbine form are worked by a mitre pinion, keyed on to 
 the vertical spindle gearing into a bevel wheel on the crank 
 shaft of the engine. Direct-acting engines and centrifugal 
 pumps are also constructed with engine and pump on the 
 same base plate, the piston-rod being attached by a short 
 connecting-rod to a crank in the spindle of the pump. On 
 Fig. 7, Plate 4, is shown one of a pair of these pumps as fitted 
 up by Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne for the drainage of the 
 Grootslag Polder, near Andyk, the lift being 10 feet 6 inches 
 and the discharge 75 tons per minute for each pump. 
 
 Messrs. Gwynne strongly advocate the use of the pump 
 with horizontal spindle as preferable to the turbine type, 
 being, in their opinion, more effective, occupying only a very 
 small space, and requiring inexpensive foundations, the cost 
 
104 T^^^ Drainage of Fens anct Low Lands. 
 
 of the instalment being considerably less than that of any 
 other type * 
 
 Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne have erected several of these 
 direct-acting engines and pumps in Holland and France, 
 particulars of some of which are given in Chapter VIIL For 
 the drainage of the Middel Polder in Holland, containing 1600 
 acres, a pair of their engines and pumps were erected in 1878. 
 The space occupied by engines and pumps is only 21 feet 
 by 1 1 feet, and they are each capable of delivering 30 tons 
 a minute to a height of 16 feet. Although these engines 
 make 138 strokes a minute, and, when emptying the lake, 
 worked for three months, night and day, they have run for 
 eight years without anything being required to be done to 
 them except ordinary repairs. At the Legmeer Polder a pair 
 of direct-acting vertical engines and pumps were also erected 
 by the same firm in 1875, of which an illustration is here 
 given, Plate 4. Each engine and pump is capable of lifting 
 75 tons 17*38 feet per minute, and occupies a space 15 feet 
 by 10 feet. These engines make 156 revolutions a minute; 
 yet, notwithstanding this high speed, the author was assured 
 by the superintendent in charge that, beyond an accident to 
 the fan of one of the pumps, owing to a piece of wood having 
 got into the case, no stoppage had taken place, and the 
 repairs had only been slight and of the ordinary character 
 common to all machinery. The satisfactory working of this 
 class of pump was confirmed at other stations in Holland 
 which the author visited. TIiq small space occupied by this 
 class of machinery, and the fact of the pump being placed on 
 the same floor with the engine, is the r^eans of effecting con- 
 siderable saving in foundations. In the case of the pumps at 
 Middel Polder, a road intervenes between the engine-house 
 and the river into which the drainage water is discharged ; 
 the ii'on delivery pipes are carried beneath this road, the 
 
 * * Notes on Pumping Machinery for Drainage Purposes,' by J. and H. 
 Gwynne, 1885. 
 
Centrifugal Pumps. 
 
 105 
 
 usual masonry culvert under the road being thus dispensed 
 with. 
 
 The theory relating to the discharge of these pumps, with 
 the result of experiments in connection therewith, will be 
 found in the papers in the * Transactions' of the Institution 
 of Civil Engineers, by Mr. Thompson, in 1871, vol. xxxii. ; 
 Mr. Parsons, in 1876, vol. xlvii. ; Mr. Unwin, in 1877, 
 vol. liii. 
 
 The various sizes of these pumps are generally described 
 from the diameter of the inlet pipes. Thus a " 30 inch 
 pump" would be one having a suction pipe 30 inches in 
 diameter at the inlet to the pump. 
 
 With the best class of pumps with low lifts, such as are 
 required for drainage purposes, the following may be taken 
 approximately as the rate of discharge. The amounts given 
 are, however, above those attained by the pumps in ordinary 
 use : — 
 
 
 Diameter ofSuc- 
 
 
 
 
 tioiT. and Discharge 
 
 Water discharged per Minute. 
 
 
 
 Pipe, m Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Ton& 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 5,000 
 
 22*32 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 7,000 
 
 31*25 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 11,000 
 
 49 lo 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 18,000 
 
 So-35 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 20,000 
 
 89*28 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 27,000 
 
 120 53 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 40,000 
 
 i7S'57 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 70,000 
 
 312-50 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 100,000 
 
 446 43 
 
 
io6 71ie Drainage of Fens and Low Lanas. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PUMPING STATIONS. 
 
 The pumping stations described in the following chapter have 
 been selected as fairly representing the various types of 
 machinery in use for draining low land, and for raising water 
 for irrigating purposes. 
 
 It has been difficult to obtain reliable average results as to 
 working, owing, in many cases, to the want of accurate records 
 of working, and also to the fact that the work done is con- 
 stantly varying from the daily rise and fall of the water. A 
 further difficulty occurs from the different ways of expressing 
 weights and terms in this and other countries. The author 
 has endeavoured, as far as practicable, to arrive at correct 
 results. In order to facilitate comparison, the data are 
 reduced in every case to one common standard of coal con- 
 sumed per horse-power of water lifted and discharged per 
 hour, and of tons of water lifted a given height in feet per 
 minute. A standard is thus afforded for readily comparing 
 the different kinds of machinery in use, and also showing 
 whether a pumping station is being worked with a due I'egard 
 to efficiency and economy. 
 
 PoDEHOLE, Deeping Fen, Lincolnshire. — The taxable area of 
 this drainage district is 30,000 acres, the quantity of land actually 
 draining by the wheels being 32,000 acres. The water from the fen 
 is collected into two large drains, from which it is pumped into an 
 outfall cut, called the Vernatfs drain, which discharges into the tidal 
 river Welland, about six and a-half miles distant. The machinery 
 was erected in 1824, and consisted of two scoop wheels worked by 
 two low-pressure condensing beam engines of 80 and 60 nominal 
 horse-power respectively, working at a maximum pressure of steam 
 
P limping Stations. 107 
 
 in the boiler of 4 lb. This pressure has since been altered and 
 other improvements made. The crank shaft fiom the engine passes 
 through the wall of the engine-house, and carries a pinion gearing 
 into a spur wheel on the shaft of the scoop wheels. The ratio of the 
 velocity of the engines to the wheels is 16 to 5, and 22 to 4-|- respec- 
 tively. The larger engine — called the Holland — has a steam-jacketed 
 cylinder, 44 inches in diameter, with 8 feet stroke. The fly-wheel is 
 24 feet in diameter. The smaller engine — called the Kesteven — has 
 a steam-jacketed cylinder 45 inches in diameter and 6 feet 6 inches 
 stroke. The fly-wheel is 24 feet in diameter, making 22 revolutions 
 a minute. The framing of the scoop wheels is of cast iron. The 
 larger wheel was originally 28 feet in diameter, and fitted with forty 
 scoops, but the diameter was mcreased about ten years ago to 31 
 feet. The scoops are 6 feet 6 inches long — ^radially — ^by 5 feet wide, 
 giving an area when wholly immersed of 32 * 5 square feet. The mean 
 diameter is 24 feet 6 inches, number of revolutions a minute 5, giving 
 a gross discharge, after deducting the space occupied by the scoops, 
 of 11,215 cubic feet per minute, or 313 tons. These wheels, as run- 
 ning at the present time, have been very accurately fitted in their 
 places, and run very true, so that there is a clearance of barely half 
 an inch between the floats and the masonry at the bottom and sides. 
 The smaller wheel is 31 feet diameter, with the same number of 
 scoops, each being 5 feet 6 inches long by 5 feet wide, giving an area 
 of 27 '5 square feet. The mean diameter is 25 feet 6 inches, number 
 of revolutions a minute 4I, equal to a discharge, after deducting 
 scoops, &c., 8959 cubic feet per minute, or 250 tons. The scoops 
 dip from the radial line at an angle of 25°, being tangents to a 
 circle 7 feet 6 inches, in diameter. This angle being found too 
 small to give the best results, the end of each scoop for a length of 
 18 inches was altered so as to dip further back 6 inches. The 
 straight part of the scoops enters the water at average flood level at 
 an angle of 29°, and leaves it at ^(P, The average dip in floods 
 is 5 feet, and the average head 5 feet, rising to 7 feet in extreme 
 floods. Steam is supplied to the engines by five double-flued Lanca- 
 shire boilers, having water-pockets above the furnaces ; they are 7 
 feet diameter by 26 feet long. The total discharge of the two wheels 
 is 563 tons per minute. This is equal to about the fourth of an inch 
 of rain over the whole area of 32,000 acres when the wheels are work- 
 ing to their full capacity for twenty-four hours a day. 
 
 The efficiency of these wheels has been gieatly increased by altera- 
 
io8 The Di^ainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 tions carried out a few years ago. On the inlet side — see Plate 5 
 — a shuttle has been added, by which the amount of water com- 
 ing to the wheel can be adjusted and the supply regulated to the 
 quantity best adapted for keeping the wheel fully charged without its 
 being drowned by it. This shuttle is of the same width as the wheel, 
 and consists of a wooden door fixed across the inlet close up to the 
 wheel, and working on friction wheels in a frame placed in the 
 masonry. The door is fixed close to the wheel, at an angle of 45 
 degrees to the bottom of the raceway. It is provided with a balance 
 weight, hung by a chain working over a pulley. The shuttle is lifted 
 or lowered by a toothed rack gearing into a spur wheel and pinion 
 attached to a shaft, which is carried up into the inside of the building. 
 The floor drops away from the bottom of the shuttle on the inlet side 
 in a circular form, so as to give a larger space for the admission of 
 the water, and allow it to come up and pass freely under the shuttle. 
 The water passing under the shuttle does not catch the scoops until 
 they come towards the bottom of the trough, and then impinges on 
 them in the same direction in which they are travelling, and with a 
 velocity due to the head of water at the back of the door, and thus 
 aiding in the forward motion of the wheel. The scoops become 
 fully charged as they assume a vertical position. The apparent in- 
 crease in the lift from the lower level from which the water has to be 
 raised is more than compensated for by the avoidance of the mass of 
 dead water which a wheel generally has to encounter "on first enter- 
 ing the water, and by the wheel being just sufficiently fed with water 
 having a velocity and direction which assist in sending it round. A 
 much greater quantity of water is thus raised with the same amount 
 of steam than could be done if the shuttle were not there. With the 
 surface of the water in the inlet drain during floods standing 6 feet 
 10 inches above the bottom of the scoops, the shuttle is lifted suffi- 
 ciently to allow I foot 3 inches of water to pass under it, and this 
 keeps the wheel well suppliei A movable breast has also been fixed 
 on the outlet side. It is made of iron plates, and works into a recess 
 cut in the masonry of the breast, so that its face is flush with it. The 
 plates are bent so as to have the same radius as the wheel; the 
 upper part of the segmental plate is hinged at the top into another 
 flat wooden platform fixed to an iron frame, which when down lies in 
 a recess in the floor of the outlet, and rises with the breast. To 
 enable this platform to adjust itself to the space in which it has to 
 lie, it is so formed that one end slides in and out of the iron frame. 
 
Pumping Stations, 
 
 109 
 
 The lower end of the frame is hinged to the floor; thus, when the 
 breast is raised the floor is also raised for some distance, forming an 
 inclined plane from the top of the movable breast to the floor of the 
 outlet channel. The breast is raised or lowered to adapt it to the 
 height of the water in the outlet drain by a segmental toothed rack 
 gearing into a spur wheel attached to a windlass fixed on the wall of 
 the raceway. By raising this breast to a sufficient height to allow of 
 a free egress of the water over it, the back current at the bottom of 
 the outlet, which always exists with the old arrangement, is entirely 
 avoided. These improvements to the wheel have been carried out 
 under the direction of Mr. Alfred Harrison, the superintendent of the 
 Deeping Fen drainage district. 
 
 During the five years, 1876-80, the average work of the two 
 engines amounted to 219^- days of twenty-four hours each for one 
 engine, and the consumption of coal averaged 5 tons 9 cwt. per day 
 These engines have lately been thoroughly overhauled by Messrs 
 Watt & Co., and new boilers provided, the working pressure of the 
 steam being raised to 20 lb. on the inch. The coal consumption has 
 been reduced to 3*28 tons per day, the amount of work done by the 
 engines being at the same time very largely increased. It was 
 reported that, owing to these improvements, 60 per cent, more water 
 was raised with 42 per cent, less fuel. The annual saving was 
 estimated at 450/. in wet seasons. 
 
 The average annual cost of this pumping station for the three 
 years 1880-83, when the rainfall was considerably above the aver- 
 age, was 141 2/., of which 1009/. was for coal, which cost about 
 15^. a ton. The average quantity consumed during the three 
 years was 1356 tons per year. Taking the area drained as 32,000 
 acres, this gives 23*61 acres for each ton of coal. The cost per acre 
 is 10 '58^., or taking coal only, 7*56^, Taking the average Hft 
 at 5 feet, this gives i*$id, per acre per foot of lift for coal only. 
 The following is the time the engines worked during the above 
 period : — 
 
 
 80-H.P. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 60-H.P. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 Coals 
 consumed. 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 1880-81 
 
 1881-82 
 
 1882-83 .. ., .. 
 
 hours 
 5112 
 2616 
 2664 
 
 hours 
 3912 
 1680 
 3756 
 
 tons 
 2104 
 
 718 
 1317 
 
 inches 
 
 37-12 
 26 12 
 32-87 
 
I lo The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 Taking the latter period as a fair sample of a wet season, and 
 allowing the average dip of the wheels throughout the whole period 
 the wheels were running to be 2 feet 6 inches, and the head 4 feet 6 
 inches, the average work done in water lifted would be '^z^^Z ^-^^ 
 The average consumption of coal, 442 lb. per hour, equal to 
 5*28 lb. of coal per hour per horse-power of water lifted and dis- 
 charged. 
 
 Lade Bank, Lincolnshire. — This pumping station is for the 
 drainage of a district known as the East Fen, forming part of the 
 system of the Witham Drainage Trust. It was drained and brought 
 into cultivation at the beginning of the present century, the principal 
 drain being fourteen miles in length, and discharging into Boston 
 Haven through a sluice with three openings of 15 feet each, the 
 outlet doors being self-acting. Owing to the subsidence of the peat 
 in the fen, the drainage of this district became imperfect, and in 
 wet seasons it was frequently flooded, the proprietors in several cases 
 using scoop wheels driven by portable engines to Hft the water off 
 their land, the aggregate power of these engines amounting to 80 
 horse-power. It was consequently decided to provide pumping 
 machinery for more effectually draining the lowest parts of the dis- 
 trict. In 1867 the pum ping-machinery was erected, the site being 
 fixed at Lade Bank, the pumps discharging into the main drain about 
 nine miles above the outfall sluice. The area of land which is pumped 
 is 35,000 acres. The average lift is about 4 feet, the extreme being 
 5 feet; and it was assumed by Sir John Hawkshaw, under whose 
 direction the works were carried out, that pumping power should be 
 provided equivalent to lifting a continuous rainfall of a quarter of an 
 inch in twenty-four hours over the whole district. The machinery 
 consists of two pairs of high-pressure condensing vertical and direct- 
 acting steam engines of 240 aggregate nominal horse-power. Two 
 massive A frames span over either side of the pump well, and carry 
 the crank shaft, on which is fitted a large mortice bevel fly-wheel. 
 The cylinders, which are 30 inches diameter by 30 inches stroke, are 
 placed outside either A frame, being carried on a heavy base plate. 
 Two small A frames fixed on the cylinder covers carry the parallel 
 motion of a wrought-iron grasshopper beam, one end of which is 
 attached to the crossheads of the piston-rods, the other end being 
 carried on a vibrating column. 
 
 From this beam the air-pump and feed-pump are worked. The 
 side valves are worked by means of excentrics on the crank shaft, 
 
PtL7nping Siaiions, 1 1 1 
 
 situate just inside the A frames. The arrangement of one of these 
 engines is shown in the sketch, Plate 5. The bevel mortice fly-wheel 
 gears directly into a pinion on the pump spindle, which is suspended 
 from a bracket, spanning across the engines by means of an onion bolt 
 bearing. By this arrangement, not only can the fan be readily with- 
 drawn, but the bolt allows of any necessary adjustment in the level of 
 the fan. Steam is supplied by six Lancashire boilers 23 feet by 
 6^ feet, the furnaces being 5 feet long by 2 J feet, the working pressure 
 being 50 lb. to the inch, steam being cut off in the cyhnder at quarter 
 stroke. The base plates of the engine are partly supported by the 
 brickwork, and rest on and are bolted to the cast-iron cylinder, which 
 forms the lining of the pump-well. There is one pump well to each 
 pair of engines. The pump case consists of a cast-iron cylinder, 1 2 
 feet in diameter, 9 feet 6 inches deep, open throughout its whole 
 depth on the delivery side, and furnished with self-acting gates, 12 
 feet wide. In each well is a double-inlet Appold centrifugal pump. 
 The fan is placed horizontally, and is 7 feet in diameter and 2 feet 
 4^ inches wide, the mouth of the lower suction pipe being 3 feet 6 
 inches above the floor of the well, and 4 feet 6 inches below the 
 surface of the water at the ordinary drainage level. The upper 
 suction pipe curves over, the mouth being about i foot 6 inches 
 above the other. Each pair of engines and pumps works indepen- 
 dently, and is capable of lifting 350 tons of water a minute 4 feet 
 6 inches high, being the largest amount in volume for one pump 
 which had been erected at the time. The engines are placed in 
 a brick building 34 feet by 46 feet, and 18 feet high. The boiler 
 house is 69 feet by 38 feet. The chimney shaft is square, 90 feet 
 high, and 4 feet 9 inches inside at bottom. The foundations rest 
 on a bed of Portland cement concrete. Across the main drain are 
 two sluices, each 12 feet wide, having doors to shut against the 
 water on the lower side, and a lock 70 feet long by 12 feet wide, 
 for the barges which navigate the main drain. The surface area 
 of the main drains between the pumping station and the outfall 
 sluice is about 100 acres. The machinery, buildings, and lock 
 were erected by Messrs. Eastons, Amos, and Anderson, and cost 
 17,000/. 
 
 Taking the work done as 700 tons Hfted 4 feet 6 inches high per 
 minute, this gives 80*37/. as the cost per horse-power of water 
 lifted. 
 
 The following account of the working of these pumps, a few years 
 
1 1 2 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 after their erection, was given by Mr. E. Welsh, the engineer to the 
 Commissioners (' Trans.' Inst. C.E., vol. xxxiii.) : — 
 
 Weight of water discharged in tons 
 
 Avei age lift in inches 
 
 Average revolutions made by engines pei\ 
 
 minute / 
 
 Sum of hours worked by both pumps . . 
 Coals consumed during working houis in tons 
 
 Engine oil used, gallons .. .. 
 
 Tallow used, lbs 
 
 Waste used, lbs 
 
 Wages paid first and second drivers yearly , . 
 
 Boy, yeaily 
 
 i<ireman, 2085^ hours at 3!^., and 2033 at i\d. 
 
 Years ending March 31st. 
 
 I87I. 
 
 1872. 
 
 13,5^4,190 
 
 44-77 
 
 18,2,6,130 
 45*00 
 
 36*02 
 
 38*20 
 
 794-25 
 
 328*00 
 
 . ^S-75 
 i8i- 
 
 135* 
 ^158 12 
 15 12 
 
 980*5 
 
 397*25 
 20*25 
 
 135* 
 
 ^^158 12 
 18 14 
 
 080 
 
 29 13 
 
 Taking the above account of work done and coal consumed, the 
 horse-power of water lifted for both engines is equal to 72 '52 horse- 
 power for 1871, and 79' 17 for 1872, the coals used equal to ii'37 
 lb. per horse-power of water lifted for the former year, and 11*46 
 lb. for the latter. This seems a very large consumption of coal 
 for machinery of this class, but the correctness of the result is borne 
 out by the quantity used by the engines and pumps for the North 
 Sea Canal, in Holland; which are similar to these, and which are 
 reported as using 11 lb. per horse-power of water lifted. 
 
 In 1875 there occurred a heavy flood in this district, the total 
 quantity of rain registered for October and November was 9*49 
 inches. To cope with this, both pumps were running continuously 
 from November 14th to the 20th, after which one pump only was 
 used. The two pumps were running 177 hours, and one pump for 
 562, during which time 300 tons of coal were used. 
 
 In the flood of 1876-77 the engines were running from December 
 27th to January nth; the highest lift being 5 feet 2 inches, the 
 lowest 3 feet 3 inches, and the average during that period 4-20 feet. 
 
 For the three years ending 1881-83 the average working charges 
 were 1089/., equal to 7*46^. per acre, taking the average lift at 4 
 feet, equal to i "86//. per acre per foot of lift. 
 
 LiTTLEPORT AND DowNHAM. — This district consists of 28,000 
 acres of peaty fen land, situated in the South Level of the Bedford 
 Level in the county of Cambridge. In addition to the fen land, some 
 of the adjacent higher land also discharges its water into the drains 
 
Pumping Staiions. 1 1 3 
 
 of this district, so that the total area drained is about 35,000 acres. 
 There are fifty-three miles of main drxins which collect and convey 
 the water to the engines, and twenty-three miles of catchwater drains. 
 The drain which leads direct to the engine has a 22 feet bottom with 
 slopes of ij to I. There are two pumping stations seven miles 
 apart ; one on the Hundred Foot River and one on the Ten Mile 
 River — part of the Ouse — near Hilgay. The drains communicate 
 with both, so that the water can flow to either station. The machinery 
 at both stations consists of scoop wheels driven by beam engines, and 
 was put up by the Butterley Company in 1830, under the direction 
 of Mr. Glynn. 
 
 The Hwtdred Foot Station, — The scoop wheel at this station 
 pumps into a tidal stream, and is now the largest in diameter that 
 the author knows of. The wheel as originally constructed was 37 
 feet in diameter. It was subsequently altered to 41 feet 8 inches 
 (iiameter, with scoops 2 feet 8 inches wide. This was removed and 
 replaced by the present wheel, which has sixty scoops and a diameter 
 of 50 feet, with an internal spur wheel of 36 feet diameter, gearing 
 into a pinion on the crank shaft. The scoops at the same time were 
 widened, and the radial length increased to 6 feet 6 inches and width 
 of 3 feet 4 inches. The start posts are of oak, 7 inches by 4 inches, 
 diminishing at the outer edge to 4 inches by 4 inches. The average 
 dip of the scoops is 3 feet 3 inches ; the greatest, 5 feet 6 inches ; 
 the average head, 13 feet 9 inches, the maximum being 17 feet. The 
 scoops dip from the radial line at an angle of 42°, being tangents 
 to a circle 25 feet diameter. At average flood level they enter the 
 water at an angle of 31°, and leave it at 50°. With the maximum dip 
 of 5 feet 6 inches, they enter at 22°, and at the maximum lift of 17 
 feet leave the water at 42°. The wheels make three revolutions a 
 minute to 21 of the engine. This wheel has been very accurately 
 hung on its bearings, the clearance on the delivery side between the 
 wheel and the masonry at the sides and bottom being only about 
 \ inch. On the inlet side the walls diverge from the wheel, the idea 
 being to allow the inflowing water to get freely to the wheel to feed 
 it. It is questionable whether the effect of this, by diminishing the 
 velocity with which the water approaches the wheel, does not do 
 harm. When working to its full extent the wheel discharges 197 
 tons per minute. A movable breast struck to the radius of the 
 wheel, with curved top, worked by a shaft and gearing from the 
 engine-house has been added to the original structure on the delivery 
 
 I 
 
1 14 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 side of the wheel. This can be raised at pleasure 8 feet above the 
 masonry delivery sill, which is lo feet above the tips of the scoops. 
 No portion of the floor is raised with the breast as at Podehole. 
 This breast is so raised and lowered that its crest shall be below the 
 level of the water in the outfall channel a depth equal to one-half 
 the dip of the wheel, this proportion diminishing as it approaches 
 towards the full height to which it can be raised. At a trial made in 
 1872 by Mr. Mason Cooke, superintendent of the district, it was 
 proved that the use of this movable breast added most materially to 
 the efficiency of the wheel. A temporary weir was fixed across the 
 outlet channel at a sufficient distance to allow the water to get well 
 away from the wheel. The crest of this weir was 7 feet 8 inches above 
 the masonry delivery sill, or 17 feet 8 inches above the points of the 
 scoops, equal to a high-flood level in the river. Steam during the 
 trial was kept at a uniform pressure of 5 lb, in the boilers. The dip 
 of the scoops was 3 feet 5 inches, and head 15 feet 11 inches. With 
 the movable breast down the engine was not able to raise the water 
 over the dam, but came to a standstill. The movable breast was 
 then raised 4 feet, when the engine made 10 revolutions a minute; 
 when raised to 5 feet the number increased to 12 ; at 6 feet, to 13 ; 
 at 7 feet, to 13^; and at 8 feet, or 18 feet above the tips of the 
 scoops, the engine made nearly 14 revolutions per minute, and dis- 
 charged over the dam a stream of water 7 feet 6 inches wide by i 
 foot 8 inches deep. A vertical door is fixed on the inlet, which can 
 be raised or lowered by gearing, but this is not used to regulate the 
 inflow of the water, and the wheel is not provided with any adjustable 
 shuttle. The wheel takes up and discharges its water quietly and 
 efficiently, and although necessarily a portion of the water is lifted 
 above the level in the outlet channel, there is no dashing about of 
 the water, but it leaves the scoops freely and in a soHd mass. The 
 wheel is driven by a condensing beam engine, having cylinders 3 feet 
 7 J inches diameter and 8 feet stroke; the steam pressure in the 
 boiler is 20 lb., the pressure before the recent alterations being 5 
 lb. This engine was overhauled and refitted by Messrs. Watt & Co., 
 of Birmingham, in 1881, and adapted to the increased size of wheel. 
 The old cast-iron crank shaft was replaced with a wrought-iron crank 
 with 4 feet throw, a circular slide valve to work from the parallel 
 motion was substituted for the D valve, and an internal expansion 
 valve added to cut-off at from one-tenth to one-half of the stroke, as 
 regulated by a hand-wheel and screw. When pumping at an average 
 
Pumping Stations- 115 
 
 level, tlie engine is well above its work, and advantage is taken of 
 the expansion gear, the steam being frequently ciit-ofF at from one- 
 sixteenth to one-tenth of the stroke. Steam is generated in three 
 Lancashire boilers, 24 feet long by 7 feet diameter, the safety-valves 
 of which are adjusted to blow off at 20 lb. The enormous weight of 
 this machinery compared to the work done may be judged from the 
 following : — The wheel alone weighs 75 tons ; the beam of the engine 
 is 3 feet 8 inches deep, and weighs 15 tons ; the fly-wheel is 25 feet 
 diameter and weighs 30 tons. 
 
 The improvements in the engine and wheel resulted in a very 
 considerable saving of coal, the consumption for 1881, before the 
 improvements were made, being 141 1 tons for a running of 2988 
 hours, and an average dip of the scoops of 2' 66 feet as against 691 
 tons for 1883 for 2288 hours' running, and an average dip of 3*30, 
 or, after allowing for the difference in the number of hours' run, this 
 shows a clear saving of 369 tons of coals in one season, while the 
 average extra head pumped against was increased i ' 54 feet, or an 
 increase of work of 31 per cent, and a decrease of coal of 35 per cent. 
 
 A series of trials was made by Messrs. Watt & Co., Birmingham, 
 on January 13th, 1882, after the improvements to the engine and 
 wheel had been completed by them. The following figures give the 
 results of the last of these trials : — 
 
 Mean dip of scoop , .. 4*0 feet. 
 
 Mean lift of scoop 14*79 feet. 
 
 Mean revolutions of engine per minute .. 18 '66. 
 
 Mean revolutions of wheel per minute ., 2* 75. 
 Mean velocity of water flowing down 
 
 engine drain per minute 45 '766 feet. 
 
 Area 137*397 feet. 
 
 Quantity per minute 6288 " 1 1 cub. feet. 
 
 Horse-power, gross indicated 224*05. 
 
 Horse-power, water lifted 1 76 * 1 58. 
 
 Ratio p = -7862. 
 
 Mean circumference of immersed portion 
 of wheel .. .. .. .. 144*5 feet. 
 
 Cubic contents of immersed portion, each 
 revolution less space occupied by scoops 1782' 11 cub. feet. 
 
 Ditto ditto per minute 4900*80 cub. feet. 
 
 The diagram, Fig. 9A, Plate 6, is the mean of those taken for this 
 trial. 
 
 From this it will be seen that the quantity delivered, as measured 
 
 I 2 
 
1 16 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 by the water passing down the drain, instead of being less than that 
 due to the theoretical discharge as measured by the wheel, was 
 about 21 per cent, greater. Messrs. Watt observe as regards this: — 
 " We took every care possible in getting at the true velocity. The 
 drain — mean width 28 feet 9 inches by 4 feet 9 inches deep — was 
 new, and entirely cleared out and free from weeds or obstructions. 
 We put three floats, which were regulated by tubes to sink from the 
 surface to within a few inches of the bottom, one in the centre, and 
 one on each side; they just projected out of the water and had a 
 feather put into the top so that there was the least possible obstruc- 
 tion from wind. All the floats practically went down the stream at 
 the same pace, but if there was any difference the mean of the 
 advance was taken. We have therefore every reasonable confidence 
 that the number of cubic feet that passed down the drain is not far 
 from being correct. As regards, the allowance of 10 per cent, 
 usually allowed for leakage, this is altogether in excess. The breadth 
 of the ladles in the wheel is 40 inches, the clearance on each side is 
 \ inch ; the area therefore for leakage is only 2 J per cent, upon the 
 width of the ladle. Then the head which would cause any leakage 
 is very small, being only that between the level of the water in one 
 space between the ladles and the level in the next succeeding space ; 
 moreover, these ladles act something like a pocketed piston having 
 grooves m. it, and the general motion of the wheel, and the upward 
 current of the whole mass reduces this leakage to a minimum. In a 
 broad wheel it is practically imperceptible. As regards the dip, we 
 found by very careful inspection that the ladles were more full by at 
 least I foot than was represented by the mere dip ; the fact being that 
 the velocity imparted to the water by the outer diameter of the ladles, 
 combined with the gradual contraction of the drain to a line passing 
 through the centre of the wheel increases the velocity of the water, 
 the result being that the cavities between the ladles are filled almost 
 to the inner lining, so that the quantity lifted in the 100 Foot 
 wheel would be represented by 5 feet depth in the ladles instead of 
 4 feet. At Podehole, where the feeding sluice or shuttle is depressed 
 owing to the great depth of water in the feeding channel, it allows 
 enough water to pass with the velocity due to the head, so as actually 
 to fill the ladles quite full. The calculated discharge of the wheel, 
 with 5 'feet dip, and the other figures as given, would then work out 
 at 6089*23 cubic feet, or equal to 76 per cent, of efificiency, as 
 against 6288*11 cubic feet and efficiency of 78*62 per cent as 
 
Pumping Stations. 
 
 117 
 
 measured in the drain. The discrepancy between the power of the 
 wheel to lift, and the quantity of water dehvered in the feeding 
 drain, are therefore reasonably consistent with each other." If the 
 work be taken as that measured by the wheel with the dip of 4 feet, 
 the efficiency would be only 61 per cent. 
 
 The Te?i Mile Station. — The scoop wheel at this station is 43 feet 
 8 inches diameter, having been increased 20 inches from the original 
 dimension by lengthening the scoops. There are 50 scoops, 7 feet 
 6 inches radial length by 3 feet wide. The average dip of the 
 scoops is 3 feet ; the greatest 5 feet 6 inches \ and the lift 1 1 feet 
 average, and 14 feet maximum. This wheel lifts the water into the 
 Ten Mile River, which is not tidal, the tide being shut out by sluice 
 doors at Denver Sluice. There is, however, a considerable rise in 
 the river during tide time. These scoops dip from the radial line at 
 an angle of 39°, being tangents to a circle of 18 feet diameter, and on 
 an average head and dip of 14 feet — 11 feet head and 3 feet dip — 
 enter the water at an angle of 34°, and leave it at an angle of 72°. 
 The wheel makes 4J revolutions a minute. When working to its 
 full extent, the wheel is capable of discharging 213 tons per minute. 
 This wheel has been provided with a movable breast as at the other 
 station. The engine for driving the wheel is similar in character to 
 that at the Hundred Foot Station, and was altered and adapted for 
 workina: with a hisrher pressure of steam in a manner similar to the 
 other. The cost of alterations at the two stations was over 6000/. 
 The estimated capacity of the two wheels at the maximum dip is 
 410 tons per minute. This is equal to a discharge of water due to 
 a continuous daily fall of 0*17 inch of rain. In the year 1883, 
 which was a very wet season, the engines ran as follows : — 
 
 Total hours rua 
 
 Coal consumed tons 
 
 Average dip of the scoops .. feet 
 
 Greatest ,, ,, .. .. .. .. ,, 
 
 Average head.. ,, 
 
 Greatest ,, •• »» 
 
 Hundred Foot 
 
 Ten Mile 
 
 Engine. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 2288 
 
 2280 
 
 691 
 
 589 
 
 3'30 
 
 3-08 
 
 5*33 
 
 4-58 
 
 13*80 
 
 Ii*i6 
 
 17*2 
 
 13*4 
 
 The estimated discharge, calculated with the average dip of the 
 scoops given above, is 122 '12 tons per minute lifted 13*80 feet, 
 equal to 114*40 horse-power of water lifted, with a coal consumption 
 of 5*99 lb. per horse-power of water lifted for the Hundred Foot 
 
1 1 8 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 engine, and 128 "55 tons lifted 11 '16 feet, equal to 97*38 horse- 
 power, with a coal consumption of 5 ' 93 lb. per horse-power for the 
 Ten Mile Station. Taking the two wet years, 1881 and 1883 — 
 1882 being omitted, as during this time the machinery was under 
 alteration — the cost of lifting the water was as follows : — Coal, 717/. ; 
 attendance and other expenses, 203/. The area drained being taken 
 at 35,000 acres, this gives 12 '62^. per acre per annum for working 
 expenses. The average height to which the water was lifted at the 
 two stations being taken at iij feet, gives I'lo^. per acre per foot 
 of lift, or, for coal only, of 0*85^. per acre, coal costing about 
 17X. per ton. 
 
 Whittlesea Mere. — This pumping station is in the Middle Level, 
 in the county of Huntingdon, and contains about 6000 acres. The 
 Mere originally was a large lake or morass, which produced nothing 
 but reeds and wild fowl. This, with the surrounding fen, was em 
 banked and drained by steam power by the proprietor, Mr. Wells, in 
 1851-2, being the first instance in this country where the centrifugal 
 pump was applied to this purpose; the results obtained with the 
 Appold pump at the trials of this machine at the Exhibition of 1 85 1 
 demonstrating its suitableness for the purpose. The engine then 
 erected was of 24 nominal horse-power, driving a double inlet hori- 
 zontal spindle Appold centrifugal pump, 4 feet 6 inches diameter, with 
 an average velocity of 90 revolutions a minute, equal to 1431 feet per 
 minute ; the lift at that time being from 4 feet to 5 feet. The pump 
 was driven by a double-cylinder steam engine, with steam at 40 lb. 
 pressure, and vacuum 133- lb. It raised 15,000 gallons — 67 tons — per 
 minute to a height varying from 2 feet to 5 feet. The total cost was 
 j6,ooo/., of which about 2000/. was for the machinery. The general 
 arrangement of the pumps is shown by the sketch (Plate 6). The 
 pump discharged into Bevil's river, a branch of the Nene, which forms 
 a part of the great Middle Level system, the outfall of the main drain 
 being into the River Ouse, at St. Germains, 30 miles distant. The 
 soil of this district is almost entirely peat, to a depth of from 15 feet 
 to 18 feet. After the drainage operations had been at work some 
 time, the surface of the land gradually lowered, owing to the waste 
 and shrinkage of the peat. In July 1857 the level of the water in the 
 drain was 5 feet above datum j and in August i860 it was reduced to 
 3 inches above datum. At the present time the surface is about 8 feet 
 lower down than it was thirty- two years ago, when the district was first 
 drained. The pump was twice lowered during the twenty-six years 
 
Pumping Stations. 1 1 9 
 
 it was at work, until the lift was increased to over 9 feet, thus demon- 
 strating the peculiar facility this class of machine has to meet such an 
 occurrence. Owing, however, to the increased lift, and the altered 
 circumstances of the district, it became necessary to increase the 
 pumping power. The average lift now is about 7 feet, rising frequently 
 to 9 feet 6 inches, and even higher in heavy floods. In 1877 the old 
 engine and pump were removed, and the fan of the pump may now 
 be seen at the Museum at South Kensington in almost perfect condi- 
 tion. Messrs. Easton & Anderson erected in their place a high- 
 pressure compound condensing beam engine, with expansion gear^ of 
 65 nominal horse-power, making about '^^^ revolutions a minute with 
 60 lb. steam. The boilers consist of one single-flued and one double- 
 flued Cornish boiler. The pump, which is placed in a well outside 
 the engine-house, is driven by a double set of motions, the first set 
 consibtmg of a toothing on the fly-wheel driving a pinion, which 
 actuates a horizontal shaft for driving a wheel geared into a bevil- 
 wheel on the vertical shaft of the pump. This is hung by an onion- 
 bearing to a cast-iron frame bolted to the top of the pump-well, which 
 is formed with a wrought-iron cylinder fixed in the centre of the sluice 
 connecting the main drain with the river. This cylinder was used as 
 a convenient mode under existing conditions of forming the pump- 
 well, and reduced the first cost by avoiding the necessity for building 
 a brick well. This sluice is 1 2 feet wide on the inlet side and 6 feet 
 on the delivery side. The fan is a single inlet fan of 6 feet diameter 
 by 16 inches deep, and is speeded to run up to 104 revolutions a 
 minute when on a lift of 1 1 feet. The quantity of water delivered is 
 96 tons per minute, or on a lift of 7 feet 6 inches, with a speed of 
 96 revolutions of pump, 155 tons per minute. The engine and 
 boiler are contained in a brick building. The chimney shaft is 53 feet 
 high, and 3 feet diameter at the top inside. The cost of the machinery 
 was approximately 3500/., plus the value of the old machinery. 
 
 Burnt Fen. — This district is situated in the South Level of the 
 Bedford Level, in the county of Norfolk, and is entirely fen land. 
 The area drained by the pumps is 15,000 acres. There are two 
 pumping stations, about 4 miles apart — one at the Fish and Duck, 
 on the south side of the district, discharging into the River Lark 
 about 3 miles above its junction with the Ouse ; the other on the 
 north, discharging into the Little Ouse about 2 miles above Brandon 
 Creek Bridge. The main drains between the two stations are in con- 
 nection, so that the water can run to either station. These pumping 
 
I20 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 stations are about 8 and 15 miles respectively above Denver Sluice, 
 where are self-acting doors, which shut against the tide at the time of 
 high water. The lift at the north station is rather the highest, the 
 average of the two stations being about 10 feet 6 inches, rising in 
 heavy floods to 1 6 feet. The north station consists of a scoop wheel 
 34 feet 6 inches in diameter, with scoops 4 feet 9 inches long by 
 
 2 feet wide, motion being given by one engine of 40 nominal horse- 
 power. The wheel is driven by a condensing engine of the old marine 
 side-lever type, having the beam below the cylinder. The piston has 
 
 3 feet 6 inches stroke, and makes 28 revolutions of the engine to 5^ 
 of the wheel. The working pressure of the steam is 15 lb. on the 
 inch. The station at the Fish and Duck was provided, until recently, 
 with a scoop-wheel ; but as, owing to the subsidence of the peat, the 
 surface has settled in this district 4 feet 6 inches since the beginning 
 of the present cen*-ury, it was necessary to provide more efficient 
 machinery ; and under the advice of Mr. Carmichael, the superin- 
 tendent of the works in the South Level, the scoop wheel and engine 
 were replaced by a centrifugal pump. The new engine is of the 
 horizontal tandem type, high-pressure compound condensing, fitted 
 with expansion gear, 60 nominal horse-power, the cylinders being 
 t8 inches and 30 inches in diameter, with 3 feet stroke, provided 
 with variable expansion valve working on the back of the high- 
 pressure valve. Steam is provided by three Lancashire boilers, 
 25 feet long by 7 feet diameter; the working pressure being (>^ lb. 
 Only two of the boilers are in use at the same time. The engine 
 makes 70 revolutions with steam at 65 lb. in the boiler, and cut off in 
 the small cylinder at half of the stroke, the pump making at the same 
 time 105 revolutions with a lift of 14 feet per minute, and delivering 
 120 tons. The case of the pump is 9 feet 6 inches diameter, situated 
 in a well immediately outside the wall of the engine-house. This well 
 is 9 feet 10 inches in diameter; the diameter diminishing below the 
 pump to 6 feet. The outlet for the discharge is 9 feet 6 inches above 
 the centre of the pump, and is 5 feet 6 inches high by 3 feet 6 inches 
 wide. The pump is driven by a bevel wheel geared into a bevel 
 pinion on the crank shaft, which is 1 1 feet long. The fan is single, 
 made of gun-metal, 6 feet diameter by 12^ inches deep at the peri- 
 phery, with a short suction-pipe attached to the case below the disc. 
 The spmdle is suspended by an onion-bearing, supported by a girder 
 across the top of the cylinder of the pump-well. When the pump is 
 working it is found that little weight is carried by the onion-bearing, 
 
Pumping Stations. 121 
 
 as the disc is so arranged that the water entering it supports the 
 moving parts. I'he pump is calculated to hft the following quantities : 
 — 121 tons at 9 feet; 115 tons at 10 feet; 109 tons at 11 feet; 
 104 tons at 12 feet ; 100 tons at 13 feet; 96 tons at 14 feet; 92 tons 
 at 15 feet; 89 tons at 16 feet. These quantities were exceeded at 
 the trials of the pump. The engine-bed occupies a space of 30 feet 
 by 5 feet 6 inches. The engine and pump were supplied by Messrs. 
 Hathorn, Davey & Co., of Leeds. The contract price, including the 
 well and fixing in the old building, the makers taking the old engines, 
 was 2700/. A drawing showing the arrangement of the pump and 
 engine will be found in * The Engineer,' vol Ivii., February 1884, and 
 an enlarged view of the pump is now given on Plate 6. Careful obser- 
 vations have recently been taken by Mr. Carmichael as to the con- 
 sumption of coal by this engine under ordinary working conditions, 
 the quantity of water delivered being ascertained by measuring the 
 quantity passing through the outlet drain. With a lift of 1 1 feet the 
 quantity of water discharged was 120 tons per minute, with a con- 
 sumption of 3 tons of Derbyshire coal in twelve hours. This is at 
 the rate of 6^ lb. per horse-power of water lifted per minute. The 
 quantity of oil used for lubricating is at the rate of i gallon in twelve 
 hours. The consumption of coal in this district has varied during 
 the last twenty years from about 250 tons to 1000 tons in a year 
 according to the rainfall ; the average cost for the years 188 1-3 (coal 
 being then about 15^". per ton) was for coal, 674/. ; attendance, oil, 
 &c., 252/. ; total, 926/. Taking the average Hft for both stations at 
 \o\ feet, this is equal to 14*81^. per acre, or per acre per foot of 
 lift, I '42^. ; or for coal only, i'02d. During this time both scoop 
 wheels were in operation. The main drain, which brings the water to 
 the pump, is 20 feet wide at the bottom, with slopes of i J to i. The 
 average depth of water when pumping is going on varies at starting 
 from 5 feet 6 inches to 3 feet at leaving oif ; the surface inclination 
 also varying from 2 J inches per mile to 4 inches. 
 
 PRiCKWiLLOW.-This pumping station is for the drainage of a 
 large district in the South Level, being part of the Great Bedford 
 Level, in the county of Cambridge. The taxable area of the district 
 is about 11,000 acres; but the area of land actually drained by the 
 engines at Prickwillow is about 25,000 acres, the drainage of a large 
 area of higher land bordering on the Fens finding its way into this 
 Fen drainage system. The water is lifted by both engines into the 
 River Lark, al30ut fourteen miles above Denver sluice, where the 
 
12 2 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 river discharges into tire tidal stream from the same main Fen drain, 
 'which is 20 feet wide, with slopes i^ to i. The depth of water at 
 starting the engines is generally about 6 feet 6 inches, decreasing to 
 4 feet 6 inches after the pmnping has been going on. Since the 
 erection of the new engine and pmnp this drain has been found to 
 be too small to keep up a full supply, the inclination on the surface 
 being at the rate of 6 inches in a mile, which is greater than should 
 be the case in a large main engine drain. The height the water has 
 to be raised on an average is lo feet, rising as high as 17 feet in high 
 floods in the river. Steam power was first applied to the drainage of 
 this district in 1832, a 60 horse-power low-pressure condensing 
 engine being then erected by the Butterley Company to drive a 
 scoop wheel 33 feet 6 inches in diameter ; and this engine, with the 
 aid of numerous wind engines previously in use, and retained as 
 auxiliaries, preserved the district from injury fairly well. The con- 
 tinuous subsidence of the surface of the land, and the increased 
 height the water rose in the river, due to the rapidity with which 
 floods now come down from the uplands, rendered this drainage power 
 inadequate. It was found by experience that, owing to the con- 
 stant variations in the levels of the water, both in the main drain 
 and in the river, the scoop wheel became so water-logged and 
 unwieldy, and the loss by leakage so increased by the great head of 
 10 feet to 13 feet, against which it frequently had to work, that, not- 
 withstanding the great prejudice which all Fen men have m favour 
 of the scoop wheel, Mr. Carmichael, the superintendent of the South 
 Level, advised the Commissioners to adopt another form of machine 
 which would adapt itself automatically to the variations of lift, and 
 which, under the varying circumstances of the discharge, would 
 absorb the whole power of the engine to the best advantage, and for 
 this purpose he selected one of the Appold type, which, although 
 they had been in use for some time in other parts of the Fens, were 
 as yet untried in the South Level. The new engine and pump were 
 intended to relieve the old engine of the greater part of its duty, more 
 especially in times of excessive floods, and to drain out the water to 
 a lower level than was practicable with the scoop wheel. The new 
 machinery was erected by Messrs. Easton & Anderson, under Mr,. 
 Carmichael's direction. The engine is a 60 nominal horse-power 
 compound condensing beam engine, supplied with steam at 65 lb, 
 pressure by two Lancashire boilers. The high-pressure cylinder is 
 IS inches, and the low-pressure 25 inches diameter, with 4 feet 
 
Pumping Stations. 123 
 
 6 inches stroke. The pump is of the vertical spindle pattern, with 
 single inlet, with balance fan 5 feet 4 inches diameter and i foot 2' 
 inches deep, placed at such a level that the lowest water in the drain 
 will cover it. The inlet is 2 feet 8 inches diameter, formed on the 
 lower side only, special provision being made for balancing, the 
 weight of the column of water above the fan being balanced by the 
 fixed inlet piece, which also serves to steady the lower end of the 
 fan spindle. The meeting faces between the fan and the fixed case 
 are both turned in the same direction, so that wear as it takes place 
 can be taken up simply by lowering the fan spindle by means of an 
 adjustment provided for the purpose. To take up the momentum of 
 the water issuing at great speed from the fan, patent guide curves 
 were fitted, which turned the water gradually into the vertical direc- 
 tion, and at the same time assisted to bring it to rest. In this parti- 
 cular instance these guide curves were not found to be of much avail, 
 as when the river was very low, the delivery was lower than the top 
 of the blades, and consequently there was a churning action going on 
 with the water in the well, which caused vibration in the spindle. 
 They were, therefore, removed. The pump is placed at the bottom 
 of a brick well, in one side of which is the outlet passage 4 feet wide 
 by 4 feet 6 inches high, fitted with self-acting doors, and communi- 
 cating with a cast-iron outlet pipe 4 feet 6 inches diameter and about 
 68 feet long. The upper end of the fan spindle hangs in an onion 
 bearing, and is driven by a pair of bevel wheels from a horizontal 
 shaft which passes into the engine-house, on which is a pinion driven 
 by annular gearing, bolted to the rim of the fly-wheel of the engine. 
 The pump is calculated to lift 95 tons per minute at 8 feet lift, 
 88 tons at 9 feet, ^z t<^^s at 10 feet, 78 tons at 11 feet, 74 tons at 
 12 feet, 71 tons at 13 feet, 68 tons at 14 feet, 65 tons at 15 feet 
 The cost of the machinery, including engme, pump, and two boilers, 
 was 3853/. The buildings, engine-house, boiler-house, pump-well, 
 chimney-base, piling, and concrete, cost about 1064/. At the trials 
 v/hich took place when the new engine was started it was found that 
 the old engine indicated 103-33 horse-power when delivering the 
 water to a height of 9*78 feet; the new engine when indicating 
 106 horse-power delivered 75*93 tons to a height of 10-84 feet; the 
 coal consumption was at the rate of sf cwt. per hour, and as com- 
 pared with that of the old engine in the proportion of 3 to 5. At a 
 subsequent trial a weir 13 feet wide was placed across the outlet 
 drain, the difference of level between the water in the inlet drain 
 
124 ^-^^ Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 and the weir at starting was 8 feet 9 inches ; with the scoop-wheel 
 the depth of water over the weir was 12 inches, with a Hft of 9 feet 
 6 inches; with the pump, the Hft being 10 feet, the depth of water 
 over the weir was 13J inches. The lift being increased about 
 3 feet, the depth of water over the weir was 4 inches less with the 
 scoop wheel than with the pump. At the trials that were made, the 
 new engine, indicating 106 horse-power, 75*93 tons of water were 
 lifted by the pump 10 • 84 feet, equal to 56 horse-power of water lifted, 
 or an efficiency of 52*79 per cent. The old engine, indicating 
 103 "33 horse-power, the wheel lifted 71*45 tons to a height of 
 9*78 feet, equal to 47 '43 horse-power of water lifted; or an efficiency 
 of 46 per cent. ; the coal consumed by the new engine was at the 
 rate of 2\ cwt an hour, or 5*50 lb. per horse-power of water lifted 
 per hour. In ordinary working at the present time the consumption 
 is at the rate of 5 tons in 30 hours for a lift of from 11 feet to 12 feet 
 Taking the horse-power as before at 56, this gives (^^66 lb. per 
 hour; or, if the work be taken at 74 tons lifted 11 feet 6 inches high, 
 a horse-power of 58-45, and coal consumption of 6*39 lb. The old 
 engine and wheel consumes 6 tons of coal in 24 hours ; if the horse- 
 power be taken at 48-12 as before, this gives 1 1 * 64 lb. an hour. 
 The cost of this pumping station, including both machines, on an 
 average of the three years, 1881-83, for coal, oil, attendance, &c., 
 was 625/., of which 483/. was paid for coal, which represents about 
 644 tons. This is equal to a cost per acre for land drained of about 
 6^., or, taking coal only, 4-62//., and taking the average height the 
 water has to be lifted at 9 feet 6 inches, this is equal to o • 8^. for all 
 expenses, and 0-62^. for coals only per acre per foot of lift 
 
 The Upwell, Outwell, Denver, and Welney south district is 
 situated in the Middle Level in Norfolk, being part of the Great 
 Bedford Level. This district was originally drained by scoop wheels 
 driven by windmills. The quantity of land which is drained by the 
 two wheels is about 9000 acres. The pumping station is at 
 Nordelph, about three miles from Downham. It was anticipated 
 that the construction of the new Middle Level drain in 1846 would 
 do away with the necessity of pumping the water off the district, 
 but experience showed that this was not the case. The height to 
 which the water had to be raised was however reduced from about 
 9 feet to 4 feet In order, therefore, to thoroughly drain this 
 district, the commissioners determined to provide better appliances 
 for raising the water than those hitherto in use. Tenders for pump- 
 
Pumping Stations. 125 
 
 ing machinery were advertised for, and that of Messrs. Appleby 
 & Co. was accepted. The new machinery, the arrangement of 
 which is shown on Plate 6, was erected in 1877, and consisted of a 
 scoop wheel 24 feet in diameter by 4 feet wide, and, according to 
 the maker's calculation, capable of delivering 3500 cubic feet (98^ 
 tons) per minute to a height of 4 feet, equal to 2 6 • 5 1 horse-power of 
 water lifted. The wheel makes five revolutions a minute, equal to 
 a speed of 6 '27 feet per second at the periphery. It is constructed 
 principally of wrought iron. The scoops, eighteen in number, 
 10 feet long, and -^-^ inch thick, are curved and shrouded by 
 wrought-iron plates, and are connected to the wheel by curved arms, 
 2 inches by 2 inches by | inch. The sides are -f-^ inch thick at the 
 periphery to | inch at the centre. An adjustable curved shuttle is 
 provided at the inlet to the wheel by which the admission of the 
 water is regulated. This shuttle is supported at the top by two 
 arms which project and clasp the axle of the wheel. Part of the 
 pressure of the water against the shuttle is thus brought to bear on 
 the [axle, causing considerable friction. The sill over which the 
 water is delivered is curved to the radius of the wheel. The wheel 
 is keyed on to a wrought-iron shaft 9 inches in diameter, which runs 
 in adjustable gun-metal beanngs. On one side of the wheel is bolted 
 a geared wheel made in segments 20 feet in diameter, of 3-inch pitch 
 and 6-inch face, and into this works the pinion on the engine crank 
 shaft The engines are of 40 nominal horse-power, of the horizon- 
 tal high-pressure, compound condensing type. The high-pressure 
 cylinder is 10 inches in diameter and 20 inches stroke. The low- 
 pressure cylinder is of 20-inch diameter and 20-inch stroke. The 
 low-pressure cylinder and condenser are on one base, the air-pump 
 being fixed in the chamber of the condenser. The high-pressure 
 cylinder is placed on a separate base parallel with the other 
 cylinder. The fly-wheel is 9 feet in diameter. Steam for the engines 
 is generated in two Cornish boilers, 20 feet long by 5 feet diameter, 
 fitted with Galloway tubes, the safety valves being weighted to a 
 pressure of 80 lb. of steam. The engines and boilers are contained 
 in a brick building. The chimney is of brick, built square, 60 feet 
 high. The contract price for building and machinery was 2680/., of 
 which 700/. was for the buildings, chimney, and casing for wheel. 
 This is equal to 74*68/, per horse-power of water lifted for the 
 machinery, and 26*40/. for the buildings, together ioi-o8/. This is 
 the only wheel in the Fen-land that has curved scoops. The head 
 
126 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 and dip of tliis wheel in ordinary floods are about 8 feet 6 inches, 
 the relative proportions of each varying as the water lowers in the 
 inlet or rises in the outlet drain. As an average the dip may be 
 taken at 4 ittl 6 inches and the head at 4 feet. With the wheel 
 making five revolutions a minute, and allowing 20 per cent, for slip 
 of water and leakage, — and this deduction is borne out by the 
 quantity of water flowing down the engine drain, — the discharge is 
 equal to 4305 cubic feet — 120 tons — a minute. The quantity of 
 coal consumed for this discharge, with 4 feet head, is about two 
 tons in twelve hours, equal to 11*440 lb. per horse-power per hour 
 of water lifted. By the side of the engine-house stands one of the 
 old windmills which is still used to drive a scoop wheel 20 feet in 
 diameter and 2 feet wide, and which when there is sufficient wind 
 assists in raising the water from the district. When both steam and 
 wind engines are at work, the quantity as given above is about equal 
 to the discharge of a continuous fall of \ inch of rain in twenty-four 
 hours over the area of 9000 acres, of which the district is comprised. 
 Glassmoor. — This is a district also in the Middle Level, con- 
 sisting of about 6000 acres of Fenland. It discharges its water into 
 one of the main drains of the Middle Level system about twenty- 
 seven miles from the outfall sluice in the Ouse. The average lift is 
 about 5 feet, rising occasionally in floods to as much as 8 feet. The 
 machinery consists of a pair of 15 nominal horse-power high-pressure 
 condensing vertical engines j the crank shaft is carried on cast-iron 
 A frames, the fly-wheel working inside these and toothed into a hori- 
 zontal bevel wheel attached to the vertical shaft of the pump, which 
 is placed in a well immediately under the engines. The steam 
 cylinder, condenser, and pump, are outside the frame, the latter 
 being worked by a rocking beam, one end of which is connected 
 with the piston-rod, and the other to the floor. Steam is supplied 
 by two Cornish boilers, the working steam pressure being 40 lb., the 
 engines making forty-seven revolutions a minute, and the pump at 
 this speed 116. The culvert for connecting the pump-drain with 
 the river passes under the engine-house, the pump well being in the 
 centre. The pump has a 4-feet fan, i foot i^ inch deep. The engine 
 and boilers are contained in a well-designed building of white 
 bricks with red arches and dressings, which present a very pleasing 
 appearance; the chimney is about 70 feet high. This machinery 
 was erected about twenty-four years ago by Messrs. Easton and Amos, 
 and has stood and worked during that time without any material 
 
Pumping Stations. 127 
 
 repairs. The framework of the engines only occupies a space about 
 6 feet square, and with the pump being placed under this frame, the 
 cost of foundations was reduced within a small compass. The long 
 time that the engines have run is considered to be partly due to 
 their being of the vertical type, the wear and strain on the cylmder 
 being less than in a horizontal engine, and a settlement in the 
 foundations having less effect on the working of engines arranged as 
 these are. This station is an illustration of the suitabiHty of the 
 centrifugal pump for Fen drainage, and shows that pumps, equally 
 with scoop-wheels, will run for a great number of years without 
 accident or repair. The consumption of coal for the three years 
 1881-83, averaged about 60 tons a~year, equal to 100 acres per 
 ton of coal. Taking the cost of coal at \^s. a ton, this is equal 
 to I * Zod, per acre for coal, or taking the lift at 5 feet, • 2>^d, per 
 foot of lift. 
 
 Messingham District, Lincolnshire. — ^The description of this 
 pumping station is given as an illustration of works carried out in an 
 inexpensive manner for the drainage of a small district where it was 
 not considered desirable at the time to incur an outlay sufficient to 
 put up works of a more permanent character. Owing to the 
 difficulty in the way of obtaining a site for the buildings, the engine- 
 house and pump are erected on piles over the main drain near the 
 outfall sluice, and the discharge pipe is carried under the highway to 
 the river. The engine and pump are situated at Butterwick, in the 
 north-west part of Lincolnshire, and were erected by Mr. C. L. Hett, 
 of Brigg, under the direction of Mr. Alfred Atkinson for the Com- 
 missioners of Sewers. The extreme range of a spring-tide in the 
 Trent at this place is about 18 feet, and the consequence is that 
 the scoop wheels, which have hitherto been almost exclusively used 
 for drainage purposes in that part of the country, can only work for 
 four or five hours each tide, or in some cases for even less. It was 
 therefore determined to use a centrifugal pump. An illustration 
 of the general arrangement of the machinery will be found in 
 
 Plate 2. 
 
 The district drained includes 3250 acres adjoining the river Trent, 
 and comprises some very low-lying land. Previous to the erection 
 of the pumping machinery, the drainage had been by gravitation 
 througb outfall sluices, the sills of which are about level with 
 ordinary low-water in the river. This system was found to be 
 inefficient in wet seasons when good drainage was of the greatest 
 
128 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 importance. When there was much rain falling in the upper districts 
 drained by the Trent, the sluice doors were kept closed, sometimes 
 for days together, during which the rainfall in the district accumu- 
 lated in the drains and ultimately overflowed the low grounds. The 
 result during wet seasons was most disastrous to the agricultural 
 population of the district. As the only means of relief, the Court 
 of Sewers determined to erect pumping machinery. The cost of 
 the works was defrayed by a tax on the land ; and, as many of the 
 contributors had become greatly impoverished by several successive 
 bad harvests, the greatest economy had to be exercised. The 
 pumping machinery was first started in March 1882, and has since 
 been working satisfactorily. Only one engine and pump were 
 erected, but it was intended to fix a duplicate set at a future time. 
 
 The centrifugal pump is of a pattern described as " Hetf s Improved 
 Accessible,*^ with suction and delivery pipes 2 1 inches in diameter. 
 It is so arranged that the side of the case can be removed, and the 
 interior inspected, or the disc removed without breaking any pipe 
 joints or connections. The pump is charged by means of a steam-jet 
 exhauster. The delivery-pipe has a submerged bell mouth, and is 
 fitted with a sluice valve near the pump. The pump is driven by a 
 belt from a double cylinder semi-portable engine, fitted with HartnelFs 
 automatic expansion valve gear. The quantity of water this pump 
 was estimated to discharge was 10,000 gallons (44*64 tons). The 
 lift varies from a few feet to about 1 2 feet at ordinary spring-tides, 
 increasing to 14 feet and even 16 feet at high tides. The total cost 
 of the machinery, with an engine-house large enough to contain two 
 pumps, was 1432/. 
 
 During the excessively wet season of 1882-3 ^ great strain was 
 thrown on this machinery 5 owing to the fact of the second pump not 
 being provided, it was not adequate to the work required. Notwith- 
 standing this disadvantage, the machinery has proved of the greatest 
 benefit to the district concerned. On 23rd October, 1882, occurred 
 one of the heaviest rainfalls known in the neighbourhood; and 
 almost simultaneously the highest recorded tide in the River Trent 
 The district is bounded on the north and south sides by streams 
 draining large tracts of upland, which were so surcharged as to 
 overflow the floodbanks; and at the same time a small breach 
 occurred in the Trent bank. All the water that gained access to the 
 district by these means had to be pumped out, in addition to the 
 rainfall, because the fresh in the Trent was too great to allow the 
 
Pumping Stations, 129 
 
 outfall sluices to act On this occasion the machinery was running 
 for 197 consecutive hours, stopping only for oiling now and then. 
 It was kept at work throughout the extraordinary tide mentioned 
 above. The scoop wheels in the neighbouring lands were at the same 
 time so completely drowned out that they could not be used for many 
 days after — the result being serious and long-continued inundations, 
 
 Redbourne, Lincolnshire. — This is another example of an in- 
 stallation for the drainage of a small area of land, where it was con- 
 sidered desirable to avoid the cost of foundations, and that the first 
 outlay should be as small as practicable. The area drained consists 
 of 800 acres of car land adjoining the river Aucholme in North 
 Lincolnshire. The surface of the land is below the level of floods in 
 the river, and there is very great leakage through the banks. It was 
 estimated that the rainfall and leakage together would require that the 
 quantity of water to be pumped would be equal to an amount due to a 
 continuous rainfall of half an inch in twenty-four hours, or 2 1 • 10 tons 
 per minute, and that this would have to be lifted an average of 7 feet 
 high, equal to 10 horse-power in water lifted. 
 
 The installation consisted of one of Hetf s side-opening centrifugal 
 pumps, having an 18-inch inlet, driven by a belt from a 14 nominal 
 horse-power semi-portable double-cylinder engine, placed in a brick 
 and tiled shed built on the adjacent bank. A cast-iron outlet, 18 inches 
 in diameter, was carried through the bank to the river, the outlet 
 being placed below the lowest point to which the water was likely to 
 fall. The pump is primed by a steam-jet exhauster, and the feed-tank 
 was also fitted with a jet-pump. The total cost was as follows : — 
 Engine and pump, 641/. ; brick and tiled shed and other work, 
 211/.; together, 852/.; equal to 85*20/* per horse-power in water 
 lifted. 
 
 The machinery was supplied and erected by Mr. Charles L. Hett, 
 of Brigg, for the Duke of St. Albans, the owner of the land, under 
 the direction of the author. 
 
 Level of Hatfield Chace, between Doncaster and Goole. — 
 This district, which lies on the borders of Lincolnshire and York- 
 shire, and comprises a tract of low-lying land of about 18,000 acres, 
 very similar in quality to the Fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridge- 
 shire, has undergone very considerable improvement, both in natural 
 and artificial drainage, during the present century. The original 
 system of natural drainage was estabHshed by Vermuyden above two 
 hundred years ago, the main features of which were the cutting of 
 
130 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 large outfall drains, with suitable sluices, having their outlets into the 
 river Trent at Keadby, Althorpe, and Owston Ferry in Lincolnshire, 
 also the cutting of what is known as the Dutch River, which empties 
 itself into the river Ouse at Goole. The Level is separated into 
 two districts by the ancient River Torne, which brings upland waters 
 for many miles, and discharges the same at Althorpe. 
 
 South District^ Wroof, or Bull Hassocks Engine. — The area of 
 this district is 7270 acres, the average level of the surface of the 
 land being only a few feet above low-water mark in the Trent, conse- 
 quently the natural drainage was totally insufficient in wet seasons. 
 Upwards of forty years ago a steam-engine was erected at a place 
 called Little Hirst, about 3 J miles from the outfall at the Trent ; but 
 experience showed that it was placed too far from its work, and in 
 1857 it was removed to its present position. Bull Hassocks, near 
 Wroot The engine was not new when purchased, having been con- 
 structed for marine purposes. It is a side-lever engine of 40 horse- 
 power nominal, equivalent to 70 water horse-power. The scoop 
 wheel is 30 feet diameter and 2 feet 1 1 J inches wide, and works at 
 the rate of 4J revolutions per minute, with an average lift of 5 feet. 
 
 North District, Dirtness Engine, — This district contains 10,660 
 acres. The entire works of drainage were previous to the year 1862 
 vested in the *' Trustees of Decreed Lands"; but in that year, by 
 Act of Parliament, they were incorporated under the title of the 
 " Corporation of the Level of Hatfield Chace," and twelve commis- 
 sioners were appointed in the usual manner. Powers were taken to 
 improve the drainage of the entire Level, and to erect machinery for 
 the north district at Dirtness, about two miles from the town of Crowle. 
 The new engines were built in 1864-65 by Messrs. Watt and Co., 
 of the Soho Works, Birmingham, and comprise two compound con- 
 densing beam engines, each 50 horse-power nominal. The high- 
 pressure cylinder is 20 inches diameter, with a stroke of 4 feet 4J inches. 
 The low-pressure is 35 inches diameter, with 6 feet stroke. The 
 two engines are coupled at an angle of 90° to a crank shaft carrying 
 the fly-wheel, and a pinion which gears into a wheel with wooden 
 cogs and shaft passing through the engine-house wall, and carrying a 
 pinion gearing into teeth cast with the rim of the scoop wheel. 
 Steam is supplied by four double-flued boilers, 20 feet long by 7 feet 
 diameter, working to a pressure of from 20 lb. to 30 lb. steam. 
 The scoop wheel is 33 feet 3 inches diameter and 6 feet wide, and is 
 capable of raising and delivering 12,000 cubic feet of water 7 feet 
 
Pwnping Stations. 131 
 
 high per minute, equal to 159 water horse-power. It contains 36 
 scoops, with a radial length of 7 feet 10 inches each. These enter 
 the water at an angle of 13° and leave it at 31^ Extreme dip, 
 7 feet; average dip, 4 feet; and average lift, 4 feet 9 inches. 
 Number of revolutions of engines per minute, 26 ; and those of the 
 scoop wheel, 4. The wheel has 8 spokes each, in one casting of the 
 width of the wheel, with three rims bolted to the spokes, and each 
 carrying a set of oak start-posts 7 inches by 3^ inches at the rim, 
 and 4:J inches by 3^ inches at the circumference. Each set of start- 
 posts is held together by two wrought-iron rings 2J inches by \ inch, 
 one in the middle and the other about 4 inches from the water end 
 of the start. The floats are of i-inch fir, and planking is also carried 
 round the wheel at the inner end of the floats. The wheel contains 
 in planking 166 cubic feet of fir timber, equal to about 2^ tons, and 
 in oak start-posts 115 cubic feet, weighing about 2\ tons. The 
 buildings cover 3990 superficial feet of ground, the boiler-house 
 being 41 feet square ; the engine-house is 52 feet 6 inches by 28 feet; 
 and the wheel-house, 5 2 feet 6 inches by 1 6 feet. 
 
 The cost of the engines, boilers, and scoop wheel was 4340/., 
 and of the building, 4547/. Taking the horse-power at 159 W.H.P. 
 this gives 26 '30/. for the machinery, and 28*60/. for the buildings; 
 together, 55 '90/. per horse-power in water lifted. 
 
 Wexford Harbour Reclamation Works, Ireland. — K large 
 area of land was reclaimed from Wexford Harbour by embankments. 
 From the level of this land, as compared with the water in the 
 harbour, it was necessary to use steam power for the drainage. The 
 reclamation is divided into two districts, termed respectively the 
 North, containing 2489 acres, and South, containing 2410 acres, 
 each having a separate pumping station; that for the south side 
 being a scoop wheel and for the north a centrifugal pump. The 
 water pumped off is exclusively rainfall, which in ordinary seasons 
 amounts to 45 J mches. It was calculated that three-fourths of this 
 would have to be pumped, the remainder bemg absorbed by the 
 vegetation or taken up by evaporation. Sprmg tides in the harbour 
 rise 5 feet, and neap I ides 3 feet. The pumping station for the south 
 reclamation is situated at Drinagh, and consists of a scoop wheel 
 driven by a condensing beam engine. The engine has one 36-inch 
 cylinder, with 6 feet stroke. A variable rate of expansion can be 
 given by sliding the cams which work the steam valves. The engine 
 runs at the rate of 25 revolutions a minute. Steam is supplied by 
 
 K 2 
 
132 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 two Cornish boilers, 21 feet 6 inches long, the working pressure 
 being 13 lb. on the inch. The scoop wheel is 40 feet diameter by 
 10 feet wide, the scoops being 3 feet long. The wheel makes 4^ 
 revolutions a minute when the engine is making 25, the velocity at 
 the periphery being 9 • 42 feet per second At this pace the wheel 
 was calculated to raise 170 tons of water per minute. The water 
 approached the wheel with a velocity of 9*42 feet per second — 
 equal to that due to a fall of i • 4 feet, leaving the net calculated lift 
 8 feet. The useful effect at the trials was found to be 68*2 per 
 cent., leaving the loss from all causes, including the engine, 31-8. 
 The fuel consumed was found to be 4^ lb. per indicated horse-power 
 per hour. The total cost of the machinery for this pumping station 
 was 5000/. — equal to 2 '08/. per acre drained- Taking the greatest 
 duty at 170 tons lifted 11 feet per minute, and the total cost at 
 5000/., this gives about 40/. per horse-power of water lifted for the 
 machinery, the contract price for the wheel being 760/. The wheel 
 weighs 34| tons, and is carried by a cast-iron hollow shaft 13 inches 
 diameter, working in brass bearings 12 inches diameter by 16 inches 
 long. It has three cast-iron spoke centres 6 feet diameter; twenty 
 flat wrought-iron spokes radiated 14 feet from the periphery of the 
 centres. A ring of flat iron, 34 feet diameter, connects the ends of 
 the arms. To this ring, and a smaller one, 28 feet diameter, are 
 riveted flat-iron float spokes, bent to give the scoops the proper 
 rake. The spur wheel is 31 feet 6 J inches diameter, 10^ inches wide, 
 and 3 J inches pitch. The spur pinion, 5 feet 3 J inches in diameter, 
 is keyed on to the fly-wheel shaft, and gears into the annular 
 wheel 7 feet below its centre on the discharging side, by which 
 arrangement it was considered that the weight of the water would be 
 borne directly by the pinion. There are forty scoops, each 9 feet 
 I if inches wide by 3 feet deep, drawn tangents to a circle 13 feet 
 diameter, and formed of 3-inch Memel planks, grooved and tongued, 
 and secured by hook bolts to the float spokes. The clearance 
 between the wheel and the masonry is from \ inch to f inch. The 
 water is delivered over a crest 4 inches broad, 1 1 feet higher than 
 the bottom of the race under the wheel, and 3 feet 6 inches below 
 high-water spring tides. Water is admitted to the wheel by cast-iron 
 sluices. The channel from the wheel to 8 feet outside the inlet is 
 level, 10 feet 7 inches wide on wheel side of sluice, and ir feet 
 7 inches on outside of sluice, the sill of which is 3 inches higher than 
 the bottom of the channel. 
 
Pumping Stations. 133 
 
 The pumping station for tlie North Reclamation was erected after 
 the scoop wheel had been in operation some time, and it was deter- 
 mined to adopt a centrifugal pump as the more effective machine 
 tinder all circumstances, its great advantage over the wheel being its 
 adaptability to varying Hfts and less cost of foundations. The pump 
 used was one of Appold's type, supplied by Messrs. Easton and Ander- 
 son. It is self-contained in a cast-iron frame, with galvanised iron 
 fan, 4 feet diameter by 15 inches deep, with diaphragm in middle 
 of its depth, and revolving in cast-iron case. Two suction pipes 
 conduct the water to above and below the fan, which is carried by 
 a vertical spindle making 133 revolutions a minute. Motion is given 
 to the spindle by a bevel pinion with 43 teeth geared into mortice 
 bevel fly-wheel, with 114 teeth keyed on to the crank shaft. The 
 pump is driven by a pair of direct-acting condensing engines, having 
 cylinders i8| inches diameter, with 2 feet stroke ; steam being used 
 at pressure of 50 lb., with high degree of expansion, and supplied 
 by a Cornish boiler 22 feet long by 6 feet 6 inches diameter. The 
 consumption of fuel at the trials was found to be 4J lb. per I.H.R 
 Allowing an efficiency of ^54, this is equal to 8*33 lb. per W.H.P. 
 The cost of the pump and engines complete was 1850/. The 
 buildings, culverts, and foundations cost 2725/. ; together, 4575^., 
 equal to i"84/. per acre drained, and 37/. per horse-power of 
 water lifted for the machinery, and 54/. ioj". for the buildings; 
 together, 91/. 10s. per W.H.P. Trials of this pumping machinery 
 were made soon after the erection, steam in the boiler being from 
 30 lb. to 35 lb., and the mean pressure on the piston varying 
 from 14*79 lb. to 17 "02 lb., the engine making 47^ to 54J 
 revolutions, and the lift— that is, the difference of level of water 
 in mouth of inlet culvert and in the outlet at engine-house — varying 
 from 6 feet 2 inches to 10 feet 2 inches. The indicated horse-power 
 varied from 43*6 to 58-8, and the horse-power of water lifted 
 24*07 to 31*67, giving a mean effective result of 53*8 to 55*2 per 
 cent, or allowing one-sixth of indicated horse-power as the resist- 
 ance of the engines, the mean duty of the pump was 67 per cent. 
 The particulars of these two stations are taken from a paper by 
 Mr. W. Anderson in the * Proceedings ' of the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers in Ireland for 1862 (vol. vii.), in which will be found the 
 full details of the trials and drawings of the scoop wheel, &c. Eor 
 the three years 1881 to 1883, the average rainfall at these stations 
 was 40*34 inches. The scoop wheel, which drains 2410 acres^^ 
 
134 ^he Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 worked on an average 1800 hours each year, and the engines con- . 
 sumed about 350 tons of coal The pump on the North Reclama- 
 tion, which drains 2489 acres, ran on the average 1516 hours, and 
 the engines consumed 215 tons of coal each year. Taking the 
 average hft throughout the year in both cases as 5 feet 6 inches, and 
 coal at iSi-. per ton, this gives 26*3^. per acre per annum for the 
 scoop wheel, and 18*45^. for the pump for coal only, or per acre 
 per foot of lift 4' 82^. and 3*35^. respectively. 
 
 Ferrara Marshes, North Italy. — This pumping station con- 
 tains one of the largest combinations of centrifugal pumps for the 
 drainage of land yet suppHed. The machinery was erected in 1873 
 by Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne, for pumping the water from the Terrara 
 Marshes in North Italy. The reclaimed land extends over an area of 
 nearly 200 square miles, and the work done by the pumps consists in 
 raising a little over 2000 tons of water per minute for a mean lift of 
 7 feet 6 inches — the maximum being 12 feet — and delivering it into 
 the river Volano, at Codigoro. The machinery consists of four pairs 
 of centrifugal pumps having vertical discs, each set driven by a pair of 
 compound engines. Each pump is constructed to deliver 9150 cubic 
 feet— 255 tons — a minute, or a total for the eight machines of 2040 
 tons. The pumps are placed one on each side of the engines, the 
 pump shafts forming prolongations of the crank shaft, and being con- 
 nected to the latter by disc couplings. The pump shafts are of steel, 
 %\ inches diameter, and are provided with bearings beyond the pump 
 casings. The pumps have discs 5 feet 9 inches diameter, with 
 delivery pipes 54 inches diameter, and double-suction pipes, in area 
 jointly equal to the delivery pipes. The casing of each pump 
 is made in a single casting, 15 feet diameter. The engines have 
 cyhnders 27I inches and 46f inches diameter, the stroke being 
 2 feet 3 inches ; both cylinders are jacketed. For some years after 
 the starting of these machines the low-pressure cylinders of each 
 engine exhausted into a pair of surface condensers, placed on the dis- 
 charge pipes. These condensers were cylindrical chambers traversed 
 by a number of 3-inch tubes, connected with the pump casing and 
 discharge pipe. It was suggested that the efficiency of the pumps 
 was interfered with by the presence of these surface condensers in 
 the delivery pipes. They were removed, and condensation by injec- 
 tion, with auxiliary air-pumping engines, substituted. The alteration 
 was, however, a doubtful improvement, the difference in efficiency 
 was not very observable, and the auxiliary engines involve extra 
 
Pumping Stations. 135 
 
 attention. Steam is generated by two groups of boilers, each con- 
 sisting of five, of a compound, double-flued type, with Galloway 
 tubes and horizontal marine tubes. At the official trial made in May 
 1875 the consumption of fuel was 2 J lb. per indicated horse-power 
 per hour, or 4 lb. per horse-power of water lifted — doubtless the best 
 result obtained on drainage works up to that time. All these pumps 
 worked continuously day and night from the loth October, 1878, to 
 31st May, 1879, in a satisfactory manner. Since the latter date the 
 seasons have been drier and the work lighter. These engines and 
 pumps are at the present time in perfect order, the cost for repair 
 having been very light In April 1887 Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne 
 received a certificate from the engineer-in-chief of the pumping 
 station, Sig. Ardizzoni, stating that, notwithstanding the excessive 
 work they had undergone since their erection, the pumps had never 
 wanted the slightest repair, and that the machinery was then in perfect 
 working condition, and splendid results had been obtained from it. 
 About the same time that these pumps were put up by Messrs, 
 Gwynne, four scoop wheels were fixed by a Dutch firm for draining 
 the Marrozzo Marshes on the other side of the river Volano. In 
 accordance with the recommendation of a commission of engineers 
 these were afterwards taken down and replaced by Messrs. J. and H. 
 Gwynne with two of their centrifugal pumps calculated to discharge, 
 each, 9951 cubic feet (277 tons) a minute. The new pumps are 
 worked by the existing engines, and in addition a supplementary 
 compound engine and pump, to discharge 70 tons a minute, is added. 
 Although the large pumps measure 17 feet over their cases, their 
 weight is hardly one-fourth of that of the four wheels which they 
 replaced. The old foundations were utilised to a large extent, and 
 the suction pipes dip into the old wheel pits. The pumps^ since 
 they have been put to work, have acted very successfully, keeping 
 the water down with great ease during the winter, only one pump 
 being required. It is considered that one of the large pumps does 
 as much work as was done by the four wheels combined. 
 
 A plan showing the general arrangement of these pumps and an 
 elevation of the building will be found on Plate 7. 
 
 Fos, Bouches-du-Rh6ne, Souxii of France.— In this district 
 large reclamation works were carried out in 1884-85. Pumping ws-S 
 required, and Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne were commissioned to erect 
 at Fos a pair of their " Invincible" compound direct-acting eentrifugal 
 pumping engines, each pump to raise 60 to 70 tons per minute; 
 
136 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 and at another pumping station (Gallejon) some miles distant, a third 
 " Invincible " engine was provided, to raise 90 to 100 tons per minute. 
 The lift was low (i-o metre to i-8o metre), and experience has 
 shown that with such lifts a low efficiency was to be expected. The 
 makers, nevertheless, guaranteed that for the smaller machines the 
 steam used would not exceed -0718 kilogs. for each cubic metre of 
 water raised one metre, and that the steam per indicated horse-power 
 per hour would be from 20 to 24 lb. English. For the larger machine 
 the figures were -07 kilog. and 20 to 22 lb. English. Very carefully 
 conducted trials were made with the smaller pumps, by Mr. A. C. J. 
 Vreedenberg, a Dutch engineer, when the following results were 
 obtained from No. 2 engine, with a mean lift of i'379 metres 
 (4-52 feet) : — ^Water raised, each pump per minute, 65 • 7 tons ; horse- 
 power in water lifted, 20*18; horse-power indicated, 37*0; efficiency, 
 ' 54 J coal consumption per W.H.P. per hour, 4 * 45 lb. — 2 • 033 kilogs. 
 Owing to a slight defect in the machinery, discovered after the trial 
 of No. I engine, the results obtained were not quite as good as those 
 from the other engine; but this having been remedied, there was 
 found to be very little difference in the working of the two sets of 
 machines. Given on terms of the guarantee, the result was 
 •0627 kilog. of steam per cubic metre of water raised i metre, and 
 20 '66 lb. English per indicated horse-power per hour. The boilers 
 were of French design and construction, their evaporative efficiency 
 being not very high, 8 ' 33 lb. of water per pound of good coal. The 
 coal per indicated horse-power was 2*47 lb. This was subsequently 
 confirmed by trials of eight hours on each pump, conducted by 
 Mr. Dorn^s, engineer of the reclamation, who obtained with one 
 pump the following results : — lift 65*75 inches ; mean delivery, 64*7 
 tons; efficiency of whole machine, "579; steam per indicated horse- 
 power, 20*32 lb. ; coal per indicated horse-power, 2*44 lb. per hour; 
 coal per water horse-power, 4*21 lb. per hour. The result from the 
 other pump was practically the same. 
 
 On the larger pump at Gallejon some interesting experiments were 
 made by French engineers with progressive speeds and lifts. The 
 lifts varied from 3I feet to 6|- feet. Three runs each of thirty minutes 
 were made with each lift^ and with a different number of revolutions 
 for each half-hour. The results showed that an efficiency of '50 was 
 obtainable on a lift of 3*28 feet; on the other lifts the average 
 efficiencies were for 4^ feet, -56; for 5 feet, '607 ; for 6 feet, '(>^\ 
 and for 6i feet, •698. All efficiencies represent, as in the experi- 
 
Pumping Stations. 
 
 137 
 
 ments with smaller pumps, the ratio which the water horse-power 
 bears to the indicated horse-power. The details of these trials are 
 given in the following table. These short experiments may not give 
 results so strictly accurate as more lengthened trials, but they are 
 consistent in agreeing with those obtained from the smaller pumps, 
 and it is evident that in these machines remarkably high efficiencies 
 were obtained, considering the small horse-power and the low lifts. 
 The difficulty in preventing waste of energy while raising a large 
 volume of water rapidly through a small height is obvious enough, 
 pump and engine friction making a larger fraction of the total power 
 uselessly expended when the lift and water horse-power are small. 
 It is important to observe in these experiments the steady increase 
 of efficiency with increase of lift. 
 
 Trials of the Gallejon Fumps, — Table of discharge and efficiency 
 corresponding to different heights of Hft and to variable speeds. 
 
 Height of Lift in 
 Metres. 
 
 I'OOO I 
 
 (0*900 to I'lOO); 
 
 1*322 I 
 
 (1*300 to 1*350); 
 
 1*540 
 (1*520 to 1*560)' 
 
 I '800 
 (1*760 to 1*840)- 
 
 2*000 
 
 Revolutions. 
 
 65*4 
 71*5 
 
 86*5 
 
 101*3 
 
 90*6 
 107*7 
 117*5 
 
 93*0 
 103*0 
 
 li6*o 
 
 94*0 
 106 '5 
 
 120*0 
 
 107*0 
 119*0 
 
 Di«;charge in 
 
 Litres per 
 
 Second. 
 
 453 
 
 716 
 
 1280 
 
 1634 
 
 I24I 
 1748 
 1990 
 
 1070 
 146 1 
 
 1884 
 
 955 
 1448 
 1892 
 
 1314 
 1738 
 
 Efficiency between work 
 
 shown on pistons and 
 
 eflfective work in water 
 
 raised. 
 
 0*325 
 0*428 
 0*446 
 0.504 
 
 0*603 
 0-568 
 0*511 
 
 0*622 
 0*618 
 0*581 
 
 0*658 
 
 0*797 
 0*634 
 
 0*718 
 0*678 
 
 FoNDi, Southern Italy. — In the year 1882 the Provincial Board 
 of Public Works of Casserta entered into a contract with Messrs. 
 Guppy and Co., of Naples, for two complete sets of steam engines 
 with centrifugal pumps, which were guaranteed to raise 20,500 
 gallons (equal to 91 "51 tons) of water per minute to a height of 7 feet 
 8 inches, for the purpose of draining part of the marshes near Fondi, 
 for reclaiming the land for cultivation, and at the same time rendering 
 the neighbourhood more healthy. This large extent of constantly 
 
138 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 submerged land was useless for cultivation, and the stagnant water 
 made the whole district a most unhealthy one, as it produced pesti- 
 lential exhalations during the summer months, which infected and 
 poisoned the atmosphere for miles around. On this account the 
 peasants could not reside on the spot, but lived in villages built on 
 high ground a considerable distance from the marshes, and came 
 down to their work every morning, returning home in the evening 
 before sunset. Even with these precautions it was scarcely possible 
 to escape the effects of the bad air, and the people who frequented 
 these districts were sallow, subject to low intermittent fevers, and 
 not in a really fit state of health to perform hard work. The value 
 of the land for these reasons was naturally much depreciated, and in 
 many cases the owners allowed their property to be confiscated 
 rather than submit to pay taxes on ground which brought them no 
 return. 
 
 The marshes which are now drained are situated between a range 
 of hills on the north, and the small Like of Fondi on the south, and 
 are formed by a considerable depression of ground, which permitted 
 the rain-water to collect The lake derives its supply of water from 
 springs at the base of these hills, and the water is brought down by 
 the Canale d'Acqua Chiara, the overflow discharging itself into the 
 sea on the opposite side. The mode of draining these marshes has 
 been to cut large canals parallel to each other, intersecting the space 
 between by small canals that collect and bring the water down to the 
 pumping station. These large canals vary in width from 6 to 15 feet, 
 their total length being upwards of twelve miles ; the small canals 
 are about 4 feet wide and over six miles long altogether. Several of 
 these canals extend down to the sea, and are there provided with 
 sluices, which are closed when the tide rises. The average annual 
 rainfall is 32 inches j but as a large volume of water collects from 
 the surrounding country, it has been found from experience that it 
 requires at least six days to pump up the rain-water that falls in 
 twenty-four hours. The pumps generally commence working after 
 the first heavy rains in October, and continue running, as required, 
 throughout the winter up to the end of April. On starting the 
 pumps in the autumn, when the land requires to be tilled, both 
 engines and pumps have to work for the first fifteen days, twenty- 
 four hours per day, until the water is reduced to a certain level; 
 for the next fifteen days they work twelve hours a day, and after 
 this one engine and pump is generally sufficient to keep the land 
 
Pumping Stations. 139 
 
 dry, except in a wet season, when, if necessary, both engines are 
 employed to pump away the extra rainfall. All the water pumped 
 up is discharged into the Canale d'Acqua Chiara, and Hows through 
 the Lake of Fondi into the sea. It may be stated that the quantity 
 of water hfted by the pumps has been ascertained to be about 
 27,000 gallons (equal to 112*5 tons) per minute, which is equal to 
 about \ of an inch of rainfall in 24 hours. 
 
 The area of land drained is about 12,000 acres, of which at least 
 10,000 acres are at present kept dry and under cultivation. The 
 land reclaimed is a rich alluvial soil, mixed with clay, admirably 
 suited for raising all kinds of cereal crops, especially Indian corn. 
 Since it has been drained and cultivated there is decided improve- 
 ment, splendid crops are being raised, and the proprietors, far from 
 demurring to pay the land-tax, now willingly submit to an extra tax 
 for the drainage of their property, which lets freely at 5/. per acre. 
 
 The house erected to contain the pumping machinery is situated 
 close to the Canale d'Acqua Chiara. Owing to the nature of the soil, 
 it was necessary to drive in piles on which broad foundations were 
 laid and walls built On each side of this building are the lateral 
 canals that bring the water from the marshes to the suction pipes of 
 the pumps, whence it is lifted and discharged into the large reservoir 
 constructed in masonry, which is in* communication with the Canale 
 d'Acqua Chiara, so that the water flows away direct to the lake. The 
 reservoir has sluices that can be closed should the water in the 
 Canale d'Acqua Chiara rise higher than the level of the water in the 
 reservoir. 
 
 There are two horizontal boilers, each 18 feet long and 4 feet 
 II inches in diameter, with an internal flue 2 feet 7|- inches in 
 diameter, in which are placed five conical tubes \ at the back end of 
 the boiler there are thirty-one iron tubes. Each boiler has a heating 
 surface of 37 6 J square feet, and a fire-grate area of 12 square feet. 
 The working pressure is 70 lb. per square inch; and as a single 
 boiler is sufiEcient for supplying the steam to both engines, the 
 second is kept in reserve. 
 
 The two horizontal steam engines that drive the centrifugal pumps 
 have one cylinder each of 13I inches in diameter, with is§ inches 
 in length of stroke, fitted with variable expansion valves, cutting off 
 steam at 0-175 of the stroke. The condensers and air-pumps are 
 placed behind the cylinders, being bolted to the same bed-plate, and 
 are worked direct by the piston-rods of the cylinders. In case the 
 
140 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands* 
 
 suction pipes of the air-pumps should get choked with weeds, an 
 extra injection cock is provided, connected with the casing of the 
 centrifugal pump, so that the air-pump may still obtain its supply of 
 water for condensing. This cock can also be used to form a vacuum 
 in the cases of the centrifugal pumps, should the ejectors get out of 
 order. The small donkey engine for feeding the boilers draws water 
 from the condenser when the engines are working or from the canal 
 when they are at rest. 
 
 The two large centrifugal pumps are coupled to the main shaft of 
 each engine. The outer casing of these pumps is 7 feet 7 inches in 
 diameter, and cast in two pieces, the lower part being fixed to one 
 side of the bed-plate of the engine, and has a large flange on the 
 upper side, on to which the upper half is bolted. The lateral suction 
 pipes are also bolted to the sides of this casing by flanges, which 
 admit of their being easily dismounted to examine the disc inside, 
 remove weeds, &c. The suction pipes have no foot valves, and the 
 discharge pipe a hinged valve, which remains closed when the 
 pumps are not at work. The discs are 3 feet i x\ inches diameter, 
 with a central web having six long and six short blades on each side. 
 The spindle of the pump is of Bessemer steel, with a brass casing 
 and lignum-vitse bearings. Each pump is supplied with an ejector 
 for forming the vacuum in the suction pipes before starting. 
 
 The following experiments were made in December 1882 in the 
 presence of the Itahan Government engineers appointed to inspect 
 the machinery, and to ascertain if it fulfilled the conditions of the 
 contract. At the two trials both engines were set in motion with 
 steam supplied from one boiler, and were kept running for twelve 
 hours. On the first occasion the pumps ran at 130 revolutions per 
 minute, the pressure of steam in the boilers was 70 lb. per square 
 inch, cut off at o'i75 of stroke, the vacuum was 24^ inches, and 
 24,700 gallons of water were raised per minute, the lift being 6 feet 
 6| inches, and the consumption of coal 2f cwts. per hour. On 
 the next trial the experiment was continued with a lift of 5 feet 
 8 inches, when, with the same number of revolutions, the pumps 
 raised 27,300 gallons of water per minute, with a consumption 
 of 2 J cwts. of coal per hour. The horse-power in water raised was 
 on an average 47^ per cent of the indicated horse-power, with a 
 mean consumption of 6* 12 lb. of coal per horse-power per hour. 
 
 [Extracted from a paper by Mr. T. R. Guppy in the * Minutes of 
 the Proceedings ' of the Institution of Civil Engineers.] 
 
Plumping Stations. 141 
 
 Lake Haarlem, Holland. — This tract of land was originally 
 a large fresh-water lake, which it was supposed had been caused by 
 inundations in 15 91 and 1647, previous to which time it had been 
 an inhabited district with three villages. In shape it is an irregular 
 oblong, the length from north to south being 14^ miles, and the 
 greatest width eight miles. The total area contained 56,609 acres 
 of lowlands and meres, and formed the "boezem" or collecting 
 basin for the surrounding lands, being a portion of the great drainage 
 district of E.ijnland. The surface of the water in this boezem was 
 maintained at its lowest level by natural drainage, through sluices 
 emptying into the North Sea — one at Katwijk and the others into the 
 Y at Spaarndam, and at Halfweg. Schemes for the drainage of this 
 lake date back two and a half centuries. In 1643 Jan Adriansz — 
 surnamed Leeghwater — a millwright, published a detail plan for the 
 drainage, which passed through thirteen editions, the latest appearing 
 in 1838. In 1836 very severe storms occurred which drove the 
 water of the lake upon Amsterdam, and up to Leyden, submerging 
 part of the city and inundating 100,000 acres of polders. These 
 disasters finally decided the Dutch States-General in decreeing the 
 reclamation of the lake, and in 1839 a vote, amounting to over three- 
 quarters of a million of money, for the purpose was passed. It was 
 not, however, until nearly ten years afterwards that operations were 
 actually commenced. The first work was to surround the lake with 
 a dyke or bank to shut off the water from the adjoining polder. 
 Parallel with the bank a canal was cut called the Ringvart. The 
 dyke and canal were 37 miles long; the top of the dyke was 7 J feet 
 above A.P. — or 9 • 63 feet above ordinary high-water in the North 
 Sea— and the bottom of the canal, 19^ feet below A.P. The canal 
 was 140 feet wide, having a depth of 10 feet for a width of 95 feet, 
 and navigable for vessels. A road was made between the canal and 
 the dyke. The canal had slopes of two to one, and, with the cess, 
 occupied an area of 654^ acres. The dyke was made of peat, and 
 occupied, with its slopes, 1013J acres. 
 
 A commission was appointed to determine as to the most suitable 
 machines for raising the water from the lake, and for afterwards 
 keeping it dry. The use of windmills, driving scoop wheels, or 
 Archimedean screw pumps, was strongly advocated, while the 
 advantage of steam was also pressed on the attention of the Com- 
 missioners. It was found after fully investigating all the proposals 
 that the estimated cost of draining the lake by wind-power would 
 
142 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 be over 300,000/., and that tlie maintenance of the 114 windmills 
 required would amount to over 6000/. a year. The cost of draining 
 by steam-power was estimated at 100,000/., and the annual expendi- 
 ture after the lake was dry at 4500/. Some of the Commissioners 
 came over to England to inspect the steam pumps in the mining 
 districts of Cornwall and elsewhere, and as the result of their inspec- 
 tion recommended a design submitted to them by Messrs. Gibbs and 
 Deane, which was finally adopted. The dimensions of the steam 
 engines and pumps as set out in this design were larger than any 
 that had previously been constructed, and the whole scheme was 
 so novel, and differed so much from anything that had ever been 
 attempted before in Holland, that considerable anxiety was felt by 
 the Commission in incurring so large an outlay. The agreement 
 with Messrs. Gibbs and Deane stipulated that they were to receive 
 a premium of 3000 guilders, whether the machinery succeeded or 
 not; if successful, to have 9100 guilders in addition — making about 
 1000/. — and 200 guilders for each million pounds in excess of the 
 stipulated 75,000,000 lb. of water raised i foot high with 94 lb. of 
 best Welsh coal 
 
 Observations on the rainfall of Holland, extending over a period 
 of ninety-eight years, had shown that the greatest depth of rain in 
 any one month was 6*524 inches more than the evaporation for the 
 same period j i • 47 inches were allowed for infiltration, giving 8 inches 
 to be lifted in one month. The level of the lowest land was 14 feet 
 below A.P., and the water in the drains, after the lake was reclaimed, 
 was settled to be 15^ feet below A. P. The lift into the Ringvart 
 would therefore be, when the pumping was completed, 15 J feet. 
 The lake at 13 feet deep contained 780,000,000 tons of water, 
 which had to be lifted an average height of 16 J feet. The total 
 rainfall and infiltration was estimated at 40,000,000 tons during the 
 works and 60,000,000 tons afterwards. It was calculated that to 
 lift this quantity and afterwards to keep the polder dry, three engines 
 of 350 horse-power each would be required, and it was determined to 
 erect these at the extremities of the lake. These engines were sub- 
 sequently named the Leeghwater, at the south, near Kaag; the 
 Lynden, at the north ; and the Cruquis, near the junction of the 
 canal with the Spaam. It was estimated that, with no delay from 
 accidents, the lake could be laid dry in fourteen months, allowing 
 250 working days in a year. From a variety of causes, and the 
 access of water from infiltration beyond what was anticipated, the 
 tmie actually occupied was thirty-nine months, and the quantity 
 
Pumping Stations. 143 
 
 raised 900,000,000 tons. The time the pumps were actually at work 
 was nineteen and a half months, frequent delays occurring from the 
 valves becoming choked with silt and other causes. In the winter 
 season the rainfall, with the absence of evaporation, gained upon the 
 power of the engines. The general average lowering of the surface 
 was at the rate of about 4 inches per month, every inch in depth 
 giving 4,000,000 tons. 
 
 The dyke and canal were finally completed in 1848, and pumping 
 began with the Leeghwater, and with the other engines in the spring 
 of the following year. The lake was laid dry in 1852. The works 
 for fitting the bed of the lake for cultivation consisted in making 
 main canals 80 feet wide along the centre from north to south and 
 from east to west, terminating at their respective ends at the three 
 pumping stations. Four smaller canals parallel with the others were 
 made lengthways, and six across the lake. The subdivisions con- 
 tained fifty acres each. The length of the large canals was 18*63 
 miles ; of the smaller, 93*15 miles. The total length of the canals 
 and ditches was 750 miles. There were also made 122 miles of 
 roads and sixty-five bridges. The total area of the polder to the 
 encircling canal is 41,648 acres, of which 301 1 acres, or about 6| per 
 cent., are occupied by roads and main waterways. The estimated 
 expenditure at the commencement of the operations was 687,500/. 
 The total amount actually expended was 781,500/. — at the rate of 
 16*57/ per acre of available land, out of which the dyke and canal 
 cost 161,527/; the engines, boilers, and pumps, 71,216/; and 
 buildings for same, 50,615/ Taking the power in water lifted at 
 1037 horse-power, this is equal to 48*23/ for buildings; (>^*(>(iL 
 for machinexy; together, 116*89/ P^^ horse-power. The net cost 
 after sale of the lands, exclusive of interest and commission, was 
 86,042/, for which 41,648 acres were added to the taxable resources 
 of the country, and provision made for the maintenance of a large 
 population, now amounting to over 12,000. The first public sale of 
 the land took place in 1853. The prices realised ranged from 25/, 
 the average over the whole polder being about 16/ an acre. 
 
 The average rainfall on the polder for the ten years ending 1872 
 was 31*267 inches. The time the pumps were working was 5584! 
 hours, divided as follows : — 
 
 Rainfall. Hours 
 
 inches. pumps working. 
 
 First four months 7*472 2254! 
 
 Second „ 10*503 398! 
 
 Third ,, 13*292 2932 
 
144 ^^^ Drainage of Fens and Low Lands^ 
 
 The average annual consumption of coal was, during the same 
 period, 2690 tons. The rainfall for the ten years — 1877-86 — 
 averaged 32 inches, the maximum being 39*13 inches in 1877; 
 and the minimum, 26*69 inches in 1884. The average number 
 of hours the pumps were working, during the same period, was 
 6823 hours ; equal to ninety-four days of twenty-four hours for each 
 station, the average quantity of water pumped being 96,091,600 tons. 
 The water is kept at an average level of at least 3 feet below the 
 surface of the arable land, and about 2 feet for the grass land. 
 
 The Leeghwater was the first machine erected ; the three sets of 
 machinery are almost similar in design and dimensions. The engines 
 are beam engines of the Cornish type, single-acting, condensing, and 
 working expansively, giving motion to a series of pumps, working at 
 a single lift arranged concentrically round the engine. The water is 
 delivered by the buckets of the pumps on to a spilling-floor A, Plate 
 8, Fig. 13, at either side of which are self-acting doors B, which 
 open out to a short channel leading to the main canal. These doors 
 open as soon as the water on the floor rises above the level of that in 
 the canal, and close as soon as the pumps cease. There are valves 
 which, when opened, leave the spilHng-floor dry, so that the buckets 
 and other parts of the pumps can be drawn out and laid on the floor 
 for repair. The general arrangement of these engines will be seen 
 from the drawing, Fig. 14. The foundation for the machinery and 
 buildings consists of 1400 piles driven to a depth of 40 feet into a 
 stratum of hard sand. On these a platform was laid 21 feet below 
 the surface of the lake, and upon this a brick well was built in which 
 the pumps were fixed. The engine was placed in the centre, with 
 the pumps C, eleven in number, ranging round three sides in the 
 segment of a circle, the boilers being placed at the back. The 
 engine is of peculiar construction, having two cylinders, D, E, one 
 within the other, united at the bottom, and having a clear space of 
 I J inches between them at the top under the cover, which is common 
 to both. The outer or annular cylmder, E, is 12 feet in diameter, 
 and the inner, D, 7 feet. The pistons are connected to the rocking- 
 beams by one main piston-rod attached to the smaller piston, 
 12 inches in diameter, and four small rods attached to the annular 
 piston, each 4^ inches in diameter, and having a large crosshead 
 with a circular body 9 feet 6 inches in diameter, and formed to 
 receive the ends of the balance-beams of the pumps. When the 
 pistons are at the bottom of the cylmder, steam is admitted at a 
 
Ptimping Stations. 145 
 
 pressure of from 40 lb. to 45 lb. beneath the interior piston, which 
 is then raised, carrying with it the annular piston, crosshead, and a 
 weight of about 30 tons of iron, with which it is loaded, the total 
 dead-weight lifted being about 100 tons. Steam is cut off at tV^'^s 
 of the stroke, at the end of which an equilibrium valve is opened 
 and the steam admitted to both sides of the piston, which is 
 held in its place for a short interval by two hydraulic rams, one 
 on each side of the cylinder, in order to enable the pump valves 
 to adjust themselves ; the equilibrium valve is then closed, the 
 eduction valve opened, and the steam passes through the large 
 cylinder to the condenser, the piston descending by gravity, draw- 
 ing down the balance-beam of the pumps, and lifting the water 
 on to the upper floor of the well. The various valves for the 
 admission of steam to the cylinder, the equilibrium valve, and 
 to the condenser, and for the cataract, are opened and closed 
 by tappets on rods, which strike levers actuating the valves. 
 
 The pumps at this station are eleven in number, and each of them 
 62, inches in diameter ; at the t^^o other stations there are only eight 
 pumps, each 73 inches in diameter. The pumps are attached to 
 cast-iron balance-beams turning upon a centre in the wall of the 
 engine-house, the other end of the beam being connected with the 
 crosshead of the engine. Each pump-rod is of wrought iron, 3 inches 
 in diameter and 16 feet long. The steam and pump pistons have a 
 stroke of 10 feet. The eleven pumps make ten strokes a minute, 
 and raise each 6 tons per stroke — equal to 660 tons per minute. 
 The weight of the several parts is as follows: — ^beams, 9* 82 tons 
 each; the cylinder, 24*2 tons; crossheads, 18 '8 tons; pump cylin- 
 ders, 6*82 tons each; and buckets, 3 tons. 
 
 The first trial of the Leeghwater was made in September 1845, and 
 was in full working order in the following November. The engine 
 was found at the trial to do a duty equal to raising 75,000,000 lb. 
 one foot high by the consumption of 94 lb. of good Welsh coal, 
 and exerting a net effective force of 350 horse-power with a lift of 
 13 feet. There are fiVQ boilers, each 30 feet long by 6 feet in 
 diameter, with a single flue 4 feet in diameter. The Cruquis has 
 eight pumps 6 feet in diameter with 10 feet stroke, lifts 8 tons per 
 stroke, making ten strokes a minute, or a total for all the pumps of 
 640 tons per minute, the average lift being 15 • 58 feet. The Lynden 
 machinery is similar to the Cruquis — it works generally during the 
 winter, using only seven pumps, making seven strokes a minute ; 
 
 L 
 
146 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 delivery, 7 tons each stroke, with an average lift of 15 feet; the 
 
 steam pressure in the boiler being 40 lb., and ciit-off in the cylinder 
 
 at half the stroke. 
 
 The coefficient of useful effect of these pumps is stated by Sig. 
 
 Cuppari to be higher than any other machines in Holland, the 
 
 ratio of effective to calculated discharge for the Cruquis being 89 per 
 
 cent., and for the Leeghwater rather less. The ratio of horse-power in 
 
 ^40 W H P 
 
 water lifted to that indicated of the Cruquis is—: ^^ ^^ ' = 60*60 
 
 560 I.H.P. 
 
 per cent. The average consumption of coal over a long period is 
 
 6 • 82 lb. per W.H.P. per hour. At trials made by Mr. Elink Sterk, the 
 
 engineer of the Haarlem ermeer, it was found that with the engine 
 
 making three strokes a minute the consumption of coal was 5 *44 lb. 
 
 per I.H.P., and 7-80 lb. per W.H.P. ; the ratio of efficiency of the 
 
 machinery being '698. With seven strokes a minute 4*94 lb. of 
 
 coal were used per I.H.P., and 6-74 lb. per W.H.P. The ratio 
 
 ^ W.H.P. 361 ^ . 
 
 "^ ijlp: ^ ^^^^^ '^^^- 
 
 To compensate the district of Rijnland for the loss of the large 
 area of polders taken from it by the drainage of Lake Haarlem, and 
 to effect the maintenance of the water in the Ringvart or surrounding 
 canal at a uniform level, pumping stations were erected at Halfweg, 
 half-way between Haarlem and Amsterdam, to lift the water into the 
 Y, when it rose above the height at which it would flow away by gravi- 
 tation ; at Spaamdam, near Amsterdam, to lift it into the Spaarn ; 
 and at Katwijk, to lift it into the North Sea. A pumping station was 
 also erected at Gouda, to regulate the water in the Gouda Canal, 
 and to discharge the flood water into the Yssel. The table on p. 147 
 gives the principal dimensions and particulars of the engines and 
 wheels. 
 
 Halfweg. — The six scoop wheels * at this station are ranged in two 
 sets of three €ach on either side of the engine-house. The wheels 
 have a combined width of 39*36 feet Each set of these wheels is 
 fixed on a c^st^ron axle, but is so arranged that the couplings can be 
 disconnected and only part of the wheels worked when the lift is 
 high. The fmmiiig for each of the wheels consists of three heavy 
 
 * Illustrations of the scoop wheels at Katwijk and Halfweg, and also of other 
 drainage machinery, will be found in the atlas of plates of * Stoomhemaling van 
 Polders en Boezems,' hy A. Huet, C.E., published 2^1 The Hague. 
 
Pumping Stations. 
 
 147 
 
 q) 
 
 Date of erection . . 
 Number of wheels 
 Dia. of wheels in feet . . 
 Width in feet 
 
 Total width 
 
 Number of scoops 
 Internal diameter, feet 
 Dia. of circle to which! 
 
 scoops are tangents in 
 
 feet . . , . . . . . I 
 Numbei of revs, per min. 
 Velocity of periphery in 
 
 feet per second . . 
 Weight of each wheel in 
 
 tons 
 
 Average dip of wheels in 
 
 feet 
 
 Lift in feet 
 
 Total discharge in tons'! 
 
 per minute . . . . j 
 
 Description of engine . . 
 
 W.H.P 
 
 Ratio of speed of engine 
 to wheel 
 
 Ratio of W.H.P. \Q\ 
 I.H.P. percent. -./ 
 
 Days of 24 hours work- 
 ing I year . , 
 
 Pressure of steam in lbs.i 
 per square inch . . . . J 
 
 Cylinder dia. in feet . . 
 
 Length of stroke . . 
 
 Number of boilers 
 
 Size of boileis in feet . . 
 
 Coal used in lbs. per\ 
 W.H.P. per hour . . j" 
 
 Cost of machinery in £ 
 
 Do. per W.H.P 
 
 Do. buildings \Ti £ 
 
 Per W.H.P. .. .. .. 
 
 Do. total do 
 
 Halfw eg. 
 
 Katwijk. 
 
 1852 
 
 6 
 21*64 
 6-56 
 
 39*36 
 
 24 
 11*84 
 
 5*70 
 
 4I 
 5*00 
 
 15 
 
 4'6o 
 
 1*64 to 2*62 
 
 1037 
 
 single-cylinder 
 
 horizontal 
 
 condensing 
 
 123 
 
 13*5 to 6 'oo 
 
 50, average 1 
 3 years, 
 1853-56 1 
 
 45 
 
 3'36 
 8*00 
 
 3 
 28*0 X 5*50 
 
 5*50 
 
 4845 
 
 39*39 
 
 7896 
 
 64*20 
 103*59 
 
 1880 
 6 
 29*50 
 
 8*00 
 48*00 
 
 io"5o 
 
 4I 
 6*17 
 
 43 
 
 5*66 
 
 o to 7*00 
 
 2000 
 
 2 compound 
 
 horizontal 
 
 condensing 
 
 370 
 
 36 to 4 
 
 /33 to 70, 
 \ mean 50 
 
 } 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 2 'GO and 3 'GO 
 
 4*25 
 
 8 
 
 32*66 X 7*31 
 
 7*71 
 
 14,200 
 
 23*66 
 
 15,100 
 
 25-16 
 
 48*82 
 
 Spaarndam. 
 
 1845 
 ID 
 17*05 
 
 68*42 
 
 1869 
 
 2- cylinder 
 
 horizontal 
 
 condensing 
 
 280 
 
 3 to I 
 
 Gouda. 
 
 3*02 
 
 5*16 
 
 4 
 
 37*72x5*40 
 
 II '00 
 
 1857 
 
 6 
 
 26*00 
 
 5*75 
 
 34*50 
 12 
 
 ii*i6 
 
 4 
 
 5*44 
 
 4* 16 
 
 4'Oto 6*0 
 
 1053 
 
 horizontal 
 condensing 
 
 240 
 
 4 to I 
 
 81*97 
 
 65 
 
 3*oo 
 
 5*25 
 
 3 
 
 rings of cast iron, with, spokes connecting the rings to an iron nave. 
 These rings are cast in two segments and bolted together, and to 
 them are attached cast-iron start-posts, and on these twenty-four flat 
 wooden scoops are attached. The consumption of coal has been 
 found to vary very considerably as the lift is altered, owing to the 
 large proportional absorption of power at the low lifts required 
 
 L 2 
 
148 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 simply to move the machines, the following being given as the result 
 of trials:— 
 
 Consumption ot coal in lb. 
 Lift in feet. Per horse-power per 
 
 hour m water lifted. 
 
 0*45 50*0 
 
 0*66 to 1*00 14*20 
 
 i-ootoi-33 i^'^° 
 
 1-33 to 1*66 ^'^^ 
 
 2-O0t02'28 5*5^ 
 
 The discharge of these wheels varies from 154 tons per revolution 
 when the water is low in the canal, to 230 tons when it is at its 
 highest. These wheels ran 3623 hours during the emptying of Lake 
 Haarlem, the average lift being 20 inches. The average power 
 exerted in water lifted was 92 horse-power, and consumption of coal 
 at the rate of 9 lb. per horse-power per hour. The total quantity of 
 water raised was 202,765,406 tons. The time the engines ran 
 for the three years after the lake was dried— May ist, 1853, to July 
 ist, 1856— was 3675 hours, equal to an average of fifty-one days 
 a year. 
 
 Katwijh—^\it combined machinery at Katwijk is the largest in- 
 stalment of pumping machinery erected in Holland or England. 
 The arrangement and construction of the wheels is similar to that at 
 Halfweg. The wheels are capable of lifting 2000 tons per minute to a 
 height of 4 feet, or 1200 tons to a height of 7 feet. On the discharge 
 side the floor of the raceway immediately in front of the wheel is 
 made movable and hinged at the outer end, so that it rises and falls 
 automatically according to the height of the water, and so makes a 
 movable breast and prevents the back current on to the wheel when 
 it is working. The height to which the wheels have to lift the water 
 varies daily with the tidal condition of the sea from a few inches to 
 7 feet. The variation on the inside is small, never altering more 
 than about 18 inches. The average time of working is about sixty 
 days of twenty-four hours in the year. 
 
 Gouda,—T^t six wheels here are all ranged in two sets on one axle. 
 When the station was first erected the wheels had flat scoops, and 
 were driven by a high-pressure condensing horizontal engine, having 
 an effective power of iii W.H.P., made by the Atlas Company at 
 Amsterdam. The wheels were each 5*75 feet wide and 24-27 it^t 
 in diameter. The consumption of coal with this machinery was at 
 the rate of about 6 lb. per W.H.P. per hour. The cost was 7863/. 
 for buildings and 10,666/. for machinery, equal to about 70*84/. for 
 
Pumping Stations, 149 
 
 the former and 96/. for the latter, or a total of 166*84/. per horse- 
 power of water lifted. In 1872 these wheels were changed for wheel 
 pumps — Pofnpradereji — having a width of 5*25 feet, and diameter 
 25*84 feet. The drum was 19*41 feet in diameter. These wheels 
 made from 3-63 to 4*30 revolutions a minute. The number of 
 buckets was originally six, this number being subsequently increased 
 to twelve. At one time buckets were tried, having a curved form 
 with the concavity towards the inner water, and others with the con- 
 cavity towards the outer water. There was not found in working to 
 be much difference in the result between the two systems, but, if 
 anything, the latter gave the best results. The loss by slipping and 
 imperfect filling of the pump wheels was found to amount to as much 
 as 22 per cent, of the theoretical discharge. These pump wheels 
 were recently altered to ordinary wheels having flat scoops, and new 
 engines of the horizontal condensing type have been put up by 
 Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hiitte, of Mulheira. These engines have a stroke 
 of 5 • 25 feet ; cylinder diameter, 3 * 00 feet; I.H.P., 147 each. Steam 
 is used at a pressure of 60 lb., and is cut off at half the stroke. The 
 engines make 16 revolutions per minute to 4 of the wheel. With 
 four wheels at work the discharge is 152*8 tons, lifted to a height of 
 6 feet, equal to 240 water horse-power. The indicated horse-power 
 of the two engines being 294, this gives an efficiency of 81 * 97 per cent 
 The scoops are tangents to a circle having a diameter of 11 • 16 feet. 
 The outer diameter of the wheel is 26 feet; the inner diameter and 
 length of scoops, 4*23 feet. The scoops are twelve in number, made 
 of wood ; the framing of the wheel being iron. With the scoop fully 
 immersed, the discharge at each wheel is 43* 88 tons per revolution, 
 or 175*52 tons per minute, and for the six wheels 1053*12 tons. 
 With an immersion of 3 feet the discharge is reduced to 33*22 tons 
 per revolution. The two engines use at the rate of half a ton of 
 coal per hour, which, with an effective power of 240 water horse- 
 power, is equal to 4* 67 lb. per hour. 
 
 BuLLEWijKER PoLDER, HOLLAND. — This machinery was put up 
 in 1 88 1 by Messrs. J. and H. Gwynne ; it is of a similar type to that 
 erected by this firm elsewhere, and is capable of raising 60 tons a 
 minute. The lift is 14 feet— 4*67 metres; maximum discharge, 
 2508 cubic feet per minute — 1*184 cm. per second; coal consumed 
 per W.H.P. per hour, 5*22 lb. — 2*37 kilogs. ; ratio of water to 
 indicated horse-power, 58 per cent. The trials from which these re- 
 sults were obtained were made by Mr. Elink Sterk, the engineer 
 
150 The Drainage of Fens and Lozv Lands. 
 
 of tlie Haarlemermeer drainage. This pump has very long suction 
 and delivery pipes, doubtless reducing its efficiency to a small extent. 
 
 BijLMEHMEER, HOLLAND. — The first compouud centrifugal pump- 
 ing engine put down in Holland was supplied by Messrs. J. and 
 H. Gwynne for this drainage in 1883. When tested, the pumps 
 raised 70 tons per minute 14 feet high ; the ratio of water to indi- 
 cated horse-power was '613; and the coal used, German, was 
 4-67 lb. — 2*12 metres — per W.H.P. per hour. Although German 
 coal is inferior to good English steam coal, the consumption would 
 not have been so high as stated had the boilers been more per- 
 fectly proportioned to the requirements of the engines. Two are 
 provided, one is rather too small to give steam enough, while both 
 are quite too large. 
 
 ZuiDPLAS Polder, near Mobericht, Holland. — This is a very- 
 low polder, the peat having been used largely for fuel. The lift 
 from the surface of the water to the mean level of the river Yssel, into 
 which the water is discharged, is about 22 feet. The area of the 
 polder is 11,050 acres, of which 682 acres are occupied by the 
 Ringdyke, leaving 10,368 acres. At the beginning of the present 
 century windmills driving scoop wheels were erected to keep down 
 the level of the water. In 1825 the Dutch Government determined 
 to thoroughly drain the lake. For this purpose it was divided into 
 two parts, the lower level being separated from the upper by a 
 surrounding canal or Ringvart, into which the water from the lowest 
 part was lifted, and from which it was raised with the drainage of 
 the rest of the polder into a collecting basin, which discharged into 
 the river Yssel by sluices. The lower level was drained by fifteer|^ 
 windmills, eight driving Archimedean screws, and seven scoop wheels. 
 For the lift from the upper level there were fifteen windmills, ten of 
 which drove screws and five wheels. There were also erected in 
 1838 two steam engines driving screws. The windmills were in 
 operation until 1873, the annual cost of maintaining them being at 
 the rate of 60/. each. The Archimedean screws, erected in 1838, 
 were 5-83 feet in diameter, the axle being 1*70 feet, and the blades 
 o'i2 foot thick. The axle was laid at an inclination of 30°. The 
 screws made 47 revolutions a minute, and the engines 19*86. The 
 engines were direct double action, with cylinders 1*66 feet diameter, 
 and having 7 feet stroke. The spur wheel fixed on the crank shaft, 
 geared into a bevel wheel on the axle of the screws. With a lift of 
 6*16 feet, the discharge was 1*17 tons per revolution, equal to 
 
Ptmtping Stations. 1 5 ^ 
 
 57-46 tons per minute. The horse-power of the engine in water 
 lifted was 24 water horse power. The consumption of coal was 
 at the rate of 2 1 • 34 lb. per water horse-power per hour. 
 
 There are now two pairs of pumping stations, each having in- 
 stallations consisting of scoop wheels and centrifugal pumps. The 
 scoop wheels at present in use are the largest in diameter in use 
 in Holland, one being for the lower lift and the other for raising 
 the water from the Ringvart to the collecting basin. The wheels 
 are 32*80 feet in diameter and 4 feet wide. The lift is 11*80 feet 
 for the lower, and 8* 20 feet for the upper wheel. They have thirty- 
 two curved iron scoops, the curve being concave to the internal 
 water, and make 4^ revolutions a minute. The velocity at the peri- 
 phery is 7*22 feet per second; the weight of one wheel with its axle 
 is 21 tons. The author has seen these wheels at work, his impres- 
 sion being that their performance is not satisfactory, the scoops 
 not entering or leaving quietly, or with the best effect, the water 
 being too much dashed about. The wheels are not provided 
 with shuttles to regulate the supply of water to the scoops. These 
 wheels work in an uncovered masonry raceway outside the engine- 
 house, and are driven by single-cylinder condensing horizontal 
 engines. The wheels discharge 110*5 tons per minute to a height 
 of 11*75 feet; the horse-power of the engines in water lifted is 
 eighty-nine, and the consumption of coal at the rate of 7 lb. per 
 water horse-power per houn The two steam engines and wheels 
 cost 5000/., or at the rate of 28*03/. per water horse-power. 
 
 The centrifugal pumps were erected in 1876 by Messrs. Gwynne and 
 Co., London. They are of the direct-acting type, having horizontal 
 spindles, and are fixed in pairs in the two engine-houses, one for the 
 lower and the other for the upper levels. The suction and delivery 
 pipes are 3 feet in diameter, and the latter is carried by a bend 
 below the lowest water-level in the basin into which it discharges. 
 Each station has two pumps driven by separate non-compound direct- 
 acting engines, fitted with variable expansion gear, and having steam- 
 jacketed cyhnders, 24 inches diameter, with 20 inches stroke ; the 
 engines and pumps making 100 strokes per minute at the full lift of 
 13 feet. A separate air pump is provided for charging the pumps at 
 starting. Each pump is capable of raising 7 1 tons per minute. The 
 diameter of the pump disc is 6 feet, and the width 3 feet. Steam is 
 supplied by four Lancashire boilers, with 24 Galloway tubes 25 feet 
 long by 6' 5 feet wide, at the lower station; and three boilers at the 
 
1 5 2 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 upper. The working pressure of steam is 75 lb. The lift varies from 
 5 feet to 13 feet These machines give off in water lifted from 40 to 
 50 per cent of the indicated power, the average being 40. The con- 
 sumption of coal is at the rate of 7*67 lb. per water horse-power 
 per hour. The four centrifugal pumps, with the engines and boilers, 
 cost 11,833/. Taking the power in water lifted for such as 62-64, 
 this is at the rate of 47 '22/. per water horse-power. The pumps work 
 under some disadvantage as compared with the wheels, the work of 
 the latter being more regular and constant, while that of the pumps 
 frequently varies both with regard to the lift and time of working. 
 At a trial of one of these pumps made in 1877, the consumption of 
 coal was found to be at the rate of 5 '95 lb. — 2*7 kilogs. — per horse- 
 power of water lifted. The average lift was 12' 73 feet; the number 
 of revolutions, 105; discharge, 87*17 tons per minute. 
 
 Beemster Tolder, North Holland. — A pair of direct-acting 
 engines and centrifugal pumps were fixed for the drainage of 
 this polder by Messrs. Gwynne and Co. in 1878. Each of these 
 engines is stated to be capable of raising 100 tons of water a minute 
 to a height of 17 feet. The cylinders of the engines are steam 
 jacketed, 27 inches in diameter, with 20 inches stroke. The engines 
 work at the rate of 100 revolutions a minute. The steam in the 
 boiler is supplied at a pressure of 75 lb. per square inch, and is cut 
 oif at one-eighth of the stroke by adjustable expansion valves. Four 
 smaller sets of similar pumps were erected by Messrs. Gwynne in 
 the previous year. At the trials of these pumps they each discharged 
 %'^ tons of water per minute while going at xoo revolutions ; the coal 
 consumption being at the rate of 5 • 94 lb. per hour per horse-power 
 of water lifted. Pumps erected by the same firm at Dordrecht, 
 lifting 54 tons of water a minute 6-56 feet high, running at 120 
 revolutions a minute, took 24*3 horse-power, and consumed at the 
 trial, made in 1876 and lasting over if hours, 6 •691b. of coal per 
 hour per horse-power of water lifted. Two smaller pumps, dis- 
 charging together 65I tons a minute to the height of 6-56 feet, with 
 125 revolutions per minute, required 29*4 horse-power, and consumed 
 at the rate of 7 J lb. of coal per hour per horse-power of water lifted. 
 
 Waterland, Holland. — This polder is situated near Amsterdam, 
 and contains 25,000 acres. There are three pumping stations pro- 
 vided with engines driving scoop wheels. The Buiksluit station has 
 two curved scoop wheels, with the concave side of the curve towards 
 the internal water. The curve is struck to a large radius, and, although 
 
Pumping Stations, 1 5 3 
 
 this form is advantageous in entering the water, is not well adapted 
 for parting with it. The wheels are 20-66 feet in diameter by 
 3-70 feet wide, and have sixteen curved iron scoops. The wheel 
 makes 5^ revolutions a minute to sixty of the engine, the speed at 
 the periphery being 5-66 feet per second. The dip is about 4 feet, 
 and the lift from 2-60 feet to 4*25 feet, the mean being 3*60 ; each 
 wheel can discharge 105 tons a minute. The wheels are driven by 
 two single-cylinder condensing horizontal engines of 30 actual horse- 
 power. The cylinders are 1*37 feet in diameter, with 2*16 feet 
 stroke. Steam is generated in two double-flued Lancashire boilers, 
 each 6*87 feet by 28 feet long, having twelve Galloway tubes. The 
 safety valve is weighted to blow off at 90 lb» The machinery was 
 erected by the Prins Van Orange Company m 1875. The wheels 
 work on an average 120 days of fifteen hours in the year. 
 
 One boiler is sufficient to generate steam for the cwo engines when 
 discharging 210 cubic metres per minute. With the boiler first 
 supplied, the consumption of coal was at the rate of 1 2 • 7 6 lb. per 
 water horse-power. The ground in this polder is principally moor, 
 and the water contains a great deal of sulphur and saltpetre, which 
 had a very bad effect on the boilers, which were worked out in eight 
 years. With the new boilers working at a pressure of 90 lb., the coal 
 consumption has been reduced from about 4 to aj tons per day of 
 fifteen hours. The average consumption now is at the rate of 
 7*15 lb. per horse-power of water lifted. 
 
 MiNDEN, Holland. — The illustration given in Plate 7 is an ex- 
 ample of a centrifugal pump for the drainage of land, driven directly 
 by a vertical engine. The pump was made and sent to Holland by 
 Mr. Hett, of Brigg, and is 36 inches in diameter, with pipes 10 inches 
 in diameter. The speed of the engine is about 1 20 revolutions a minute* 
 It is calculated to discharge 1700 gallons (7^ tons) a minute to a 
 height of 6 feet. All the working parts are of forged steel, including the 
 crank, which is counterbalanced and cut out of the solid. Full 
 lubricating arrangements are provided, so that the engine can run for 
 almost any length of time without stopping. The engine has a shifting 
 eccentric for varying the cut-off. The cost of the pump, engine, and 
 pipes was 250/. The engine and pump was erected and the boiler 
 supplied by the Machinefabriek at Breda, and is reported by the 
 proprietors as keeping their land dry in a very satisfactory manner. 
 
 Katatbeh and Atfeh, in Egypt.— These pumping stations 
 were formed for lifting the water from the Nile for irrigating the 
 
1 54 The D^mnage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 land and providing Alexandria with water. These two stations form 
 the largest installation of pumping machinery in the world. 
 
 For the purpose of improving the irrigation of the Behera, or West 
 District of the Nile, in Lower Egypt, a canal had been made com- 
 municating with the Nile by an intake above the Great Barrage, 
 situated at the junction of the Rosetta and Damietta branches. For 
 about six months in the year, or during low Nile, the river is not 
 high enough for the water to flow into this canal; and it being 
 excavated for the first 25 miles through desert sand, the supply was 
 found to be inadequate for the irrigation of the lands and for the 
 supply of Alexandria. In 1856 the Egyptian Government, in 
 order to remedy the deficiency, decided to erect pumping stations at 
 Katatbeh and Atfeh, so as to be able to pump into the canal from 
 the Nile at a point below that portion of the canal which passes 
 through the desert. The Katatbeh pumping station is situated 
 about 25 miles north of the Barrage. The canal is 75 miles long, 
 and discharges into the Mahmoudieh. The latter has its intake 
 at Atfeh, 15 miles south of Rosetta, and supplies Alexandria and 
 irrigates the north of the province. A large part of the traffic to 
 and from Alexandria and the interior is carried on this canal. 
 
 In order to keep up the required supply it is necessary that the 
 machinery at Atfeh should be worked during six months of the year, 
 and t^at at Katatbeh four months. 
 
 Affeh — The machinery as originally constructed at tliis station 
 consisted of four groups of single-cylinder beam engines, working 
 centrifugal pumps by means of toothed wheels and pinions. These 
 pumps raised 800,000 cubic metres in twenty-four hours (555^ tons 
 per minute) to a height of 8 feet 6 inches. The results attained not 
 being satisfactory, the machinery was altered from time to time by 
 Messrs. Easton and Co., the principal change being the com- 
 pounding of the engines. As, however, even after the alterations, 
 the pumps could not discharge the quantity required (1369 tons a 
 minute), they were finally removed and replaced in 1885 by eight 
 scoop wheels. Four of the wheels were worked by the old engines : 
 two by engines removed from Katatbeh ; and the others by new 
 compound engines. 
 
 Two of the wheels are 9*84 feet, and two ix*8i feet wide, with a 
 diameter of 33 feet. Each wheel has eighty fiat scoops 7*55 feet 
 long, placed at an angle dropping from the radial line, being tangents 
 to a circle concentric with the wheel 6 feet 6 inches in diameter. 
 
Ptimping Stations. 155 
 
 The ordinary speed is 2*29 revolutions a minnte, equal to a speed at 
 the periphery of 4 feet per second. The other four wheels are the 
 same diameter, 11 '81 feet wide, with scoops 6 feet 7 inches long, 
 and dip 4 feet below low-water. The speed is i'9i revolutions a 
 minute, equal to 3 feet a second The engines make 12 revolutions 
 to one of the wheel. The wheels work in a masonry raceway 
 rendered with cement. The clearance between the wheel and the 
 raceway is -f^ inch. The crest of the raceway is movable, and can 
 be adjusted to suit the height of the water in the canal. 
 
 The eight wheels discharge at low-water of 0*30 metre, 2,922,708 
 cubic metres in twenty-four hours, equal to about 2000 tons per 
 minute. The consumption of coal for the year 1885 ^^ stated by 
 Baghos Nubar Bey, in a paper in ' Trans.' Instit. C.E., to be 3 • 10 lb. 
 per water horse-power per hour. 
 
 These wheels differ from those constructed in this country in having 
 the scoops placed much closer together, their great width, and slow 
 speed. The results attained appear to be very satisfactory, the con- 
 sumption of coal as given being small as compared with that of the 
 Dutch or English wheels. 
 
 Katatbeh. — The machinery originally erected for raising the water 
 at this station was put up by Messrs. Easton and Co. in 1882. It 
 consisted of a set of ten Archimedean screw pumps, placed parallel 
 with each other, and worked by a shaft 164 feet long, coupled to 
 three steam engines. These screw pumps were 39 feet long by 
 10 feet diameter, the cores being 4 feet diameter. The casing, core, 
 and spiral strut were of wrought-iron plates. The spiral had a pitch 
 of 25 feet. The screws made from 5 to 6 revolutions a minute, and 
 discharged 25 cubic metres per revolution (about 136 tons per 
 minute). These screws were found unequal to the enormous weight 
 of water, and the cores broke at about one-third of their height. 
 Seven of these were subsequently removed, the remaining three being 
 kept as a reserve after being strengthened by tension rods placed 
 radially, so as to connect the core and the casing. The weight was 
 relieved by a ring of rollers fixed at two-thirds of the height, which 
 turned on a roller path fastened to the masonry. The screws were 
 replaced in 1883 by five vertical-action centrifugal pumps constructed 
 by Messrs. Farcot and Co., each driven by a separate engine. The 
 new engines are placed on the foundations prepared for the sluices 
 of the screws, and the pumps in the basin below. The vertical 
 shaft of the pumps has a crank to which the rod of the engine is 
 
156 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 directly connected. The lift varies from 20 inclies to 10 feet, and 
 the minimum duty of each pump was fixed by the contract at 
 500,000 cubic metres, raised to a maximum height of 3 metres in 
 23 hours, equal to about 2140 tons a minute 10 feet high. The 
 whole, including the reserve screws, can discharge 3,500,000 cubic 
 metres per day of 23 hours (about 2500 tons a mmute), and the 
 power in water raised is equal to 2000 water horse-power. The 
 engines are of the Corliss type, having cylinders 39*37 inches in 
 diameter, with 5 feet 10 J inches stroke. The body of each pump is 
 19 feet 8 inches in diameter and 12 feet high. It stands on a group 
 of six cast-iron columns, resting on the invert of the basin ; regulat- 
 ing screws are fitted to each column to adjust the level. The discs 
 or fans are 12 feet 5^ inches diameter by 4 feet 9 inches high. The 
 average speed is 33 and the maximum 36 revolutions per minute. 
 The water outlet, which springs from the annular chamber in the 
 body of the pump, is formed of two cast-iron pipes 27 feet long. 
 The inlet is trumpet-mouthed, 6 feet 10 J inches in diameter at the 
 smallest part, enlarging to 9 feet 10 inches^ with a further curved lip 
 10 feet 8 inches in diameter. Within the opening is an inverted 
 cone, which, rising in the centre, passes from a diameter of 
 11*8 inches to 23 • 6 inches. The water attains a speed of 6 feet per 
 second for the normal discharge of 6 cubic metres at 10 feet lift. 
 The lower part of the pump shaft is made hollow, to admit a support 
 solidly attached to the invert, and serving as a bearing above the 
 level of the pump itself, and nearly 5 feet above the highest probable 
 water-level. Above the disc the hollow shaft traverses a stuffing box 
 in the dome of the pump. On the top of the iron column is fixed a 
 cast-iron cylindrical head, 14* 76 inches in diameter and 17*72 inches 
 high. This head, on the upper face of which is a bearing of 
 phosphor bronze, with a concave surface, supports the whole of the 
 turning load, and also serves to centre the hollow shaft, the enlarged 
 cavity of which is at the point provided with a bronze bush 
 10 '82 inches deep. Above this bush the exterior shaft of cast iron 
 divides into two branches, meeting again above, and leaving a wide 
 opening for giving access to the pivot. The head of the hollow shaft 
 above this opening is enclosed in a plummer block bolted to a heavy- 
 girder spanning the basin. 
 
 The quantity of coal to be consumed was limited by the terms of 
 the contract to 3*85 lb. best English coal per water horse-power per 
 hour, the quantity actually consumed being 3^ lb. The engines 
 
Pumping Stations. 157 
 
 give off 65 per cent, of the indicated horse-power in water actually 
 lifted. 
 
 A full description of these works, with drawings and illustrations, 
 will be found in a paper on Irrigation in Egypt, in * Le Genie Civil,' 
 vol X., 1886. An abstract of this paper will be also found in the 
 ^ Transactions' of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. Ixxxix., 1887 ; 
 and also in * Engineering ' of Jan. 28, 1887, where illustrations of the 
 engine and pump at Katatbeh are given. 
 
158 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Explanation of Terms used. 
 
 The quantities throughout are expressed, unless otherwise specially- 
 mentioned, as given below : — 
 
 The mean velocity of the current in feet per second. 
 
 Quantity in cubic feet or tons ; a cubic foot of water being taken 
 as 62 "50 lb., and a ton 35 '84 cubic feet. 
 
 Rate of discharge = cubic feet per second. 
 
 Hydraulic mean depk = the product found by dividing the sectional 
 area of a channel by the perimeter or wetted contour, that is, 
 length of the sides and bottom in contact with the water. This is 
 sometimes termed the hydraulic radius. 
 
 Fall = the rate of inclination in the surface oi the water in feet 
 per mile. 
 
 Head = the difference in the level of the surface of the water at 
 the upper and lower side of the place of the discharge in feet; e,g, 
 in an engine drain the head or height which the pump has to lift the 
 water is the vertical distance between the level of the surface of the 
 water in the drain on the inside, and that of the channel on the out- 
 side, into which it is discharged. In a submerged sluice the head is 
 in the same way the difference of level in the surface of the water on 
 the inside and outside. 
 
 W,E.P. Horse-power in water actually lifted and discharged. 
 
 TABLE 11. 
 
 Weights and Measures relating to Water. 
 
 I gallon of water weighs 10 lb. 
 
 I „ seawater „ 10-20 „ 
 
 I cubic foot of water „ (i2*'^2 
 
 (generally taken as 62*50 lb.) 
 
 I ton of water = 35-84 cubic feet 
 
 do. do. =224 gallons. 
 
Appendix, 159 
 
 I cubic foot of water .. .. = 0*0279017 ton. 
 
 do. do. .. .. = 6*232 gallons. 
 
 I gallon = '16051 cubic foot. 
 
 do. = 277*274 „ inches. 
 
 I cubic metre of water .. = -985 ton. 
 
 437 '5 grains = i oz. avdp. 
 
 7000 „ = I lb. „ 
 
 French Weights and Measures, and their Equivalents in 
 
 English Terms. 
 
 I foot = 0*30479545 metre. 
 
 I metre = 3*280899 feet 
 
 I inch = 2*539954 centimetres. 
 
 I centimetre = 0*3937079 inch. 
 
 I square foot .. .. = 0*09289968 metre. 
 
 I „ metre .. .. = 10*7643 feet. 
 
 I „ inch .. .. = 6*45016, &c.,sq. centimetres. 
 
 I „ centimetre .. = 0*154757, &c., sq. inch. 
 
 I cubic foot = 0*0283153 cubic metre. 
 
 I ,, metre (stere) .. = 35-3x658 „ feet 
 
 I cubic yard = 0*76451^ „ metre. 
 
 I _„ metre ., .. = 1-30IL _ : yards. 
 
 I kilometre = 0*6214 mile. 
 
 I mile .. = 1*60932 kilometres. 
 
 I grain (avdp.) .. .. = 0*064798, &c., gramme. 
 
 I ounce (02.) .. .. = 28*349375 grammes. 
 
 I pound (lb.) .. .. = 0*45359265 kilogramme. 
 
 I gramme = 15*43267 grains. 
 
 453*59 grammes .. .. = 0*352739 ounce. 
 
 I kilogramme .. .. = 2*2048515. 
 
 I ton = 1016*0475 kilogrammes. 
 
 I gallon = 4*543457 litres. 
 
 I litre .. = 0*2200967 gallons. 
 
 I hectolitre = 22*00967 gallons. 
 
 I bushel = 36*34766 litres. 
 
 I hectolitre = 2*7512 bushels. 
 
 I cubic foot = 28*33 litres. 
 
 I perch of land .* .. = '2529194 are. 
 
 I are = 3 * 953^3 perches. 
 
 I acre = * 404671 hectare. 
 
 I hectare = 2 '471 143 acres. 
 
i6o The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 
 I cubic metre of water = <^*9^S ^^'^' 
 
 I hectolitre of coal . . = about 2| bushels, and weighs 
 
 about 1 4 cwt. 
 I kilogramme per square 
 
 centimetre . . . . = 14." 22128, &c. lb. per squaie inch. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 For ascertaining the pressure and velocity of water. 
 
 The pressure in lbs. per 
 
 square foot . . . . = height in feet multiplied by 
 
 62*5 lb. 
 The pressure in lbs. per 
 
 square inch . . . . = height in feet multiplied by 
 
 0-4335 lb. 
 Height in feet . . . . = pressure per square inch 
 
 multiplied by 2 • 307. 
 
 The velocity of water theoretically is found by the formula 
 Y=^^2g/i, where V == velocity in feet per second; ^, the 
 velocity of a body falling freely for one second, or 32*182 feet. 
 /i = the height or vertical distance in feet through which the body 
 passes. This is generally taken for practical purposes as eight times 
 the square root of the head. 
 
 The theoretical velocity has to be reduced for loss by friction, &c., 
 varying according to the character of the opening of channel through 
 which the water passes. The result, as found above, therefore, has 
 to be multiplied by one of the following constants which have been 
 determined by experiment : — 
 
 Formulae V = 8 V/2 X ^, and 
 
 ^^= (^y* 
 
 Bxc 
 
 h = height in feet. In the case of sluices or bridges, this is the 
 vertical difference in the surface of the water above and 
 below the opening. 
 V = velocity in feet per second. 
 c = constant. 
 = opening of a bridge or sluice with pointed piers and smooth 
 masonry . . •96 
 
Appe7idix, 1 6 1 
 
 = opening of a bridge or sluice with square piers, or 
 
 where the doors are so hung as to cause eddies . . ^Z(> 
 
 = small openings of sluices, as in a lock, whether sub- 
 merged or not, or sluices with tankard-lid doors 
 causing resistance on all four sides * 64 
 
 These constants have been selected as appearing to give the most 
 correct result. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 To find the velocity of water in open channels. 
 
 V = ( VR X F 2 ) C. 
 
 V = velocity in feet per second, 
 
 R := hydraulic mean depth, or area of water divided by the length 
 of the sides and bottom of the channel in direct contact 
 with the water. 
 F = fall in feet per mile. 
 C = constant for friction, &c. 
 
 = large streams , '90 
 
 = large drains in good order 'So 
 
 = secondary drains *10 
 
 = small drains . . . . * 60 
 
 The mean velocity of a stream is equal to the surface velocity in 
 the centre multiplied by o • 83. 
 
 Example, — The mean velocity of a large drain having 10' -6" 
 tiOttom, 7' '6" depth, slopes 2 to i, and inclination 2 inches per 
 mile : — 
 
 Area = 191*25 feet, contour 44* 16 feet. 
 
 IQI*2c; 
 
 44* 10 
 
 V = (V4'33 X '16 X 2>-8o 
 
 V = 0*9432 feet per second. 
 
 M 
 
1 62 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 To find the cubic feet of water to be discharged by a drain or 
 pumpi?ig ejtgine per mifiute due to any given quantity of rain falling in 
 24 hours ^ and the ho7'se-power ifi water raised for each foot of lift^ 
 multiply the number of acres drained by the multiplier opposite the 
 rainfall. 
 
 Rain in 24 Hours. 
 
 In parts of 
 Inches. 
 
 Decimal 
 Equivalents. 
 
 ■125 
 ■250 
 
 '375 
 •500 
 
 •625 
 
 750 
 
 ■875 
 
 Multiplier for 
 
 Cutic Feet per 
 
 Minute per Acre. 
 
 0*3151 
 0*6303 
 
 0*9453 
 I '2606 
 
 i'575S 
 1*8909 
 
 2 * 2060 
 
 2*5210 
 
 Multiplier for 
 W.H.P. per Foot 
 of Lift per Acre. 
 
 •000597 
 
 •001 194 
 •001790 
 •002387 
 ' 002985 
 •003581 
 •004178 
 
 •004775 
 
 Example, — To find the quantity to be discharged per minute from 
 an area of 10,000 acres with a rainfall of a quarter of an inch in 
 24 hours ; and lift of s feet :- 
 
 10,000 X 0*6303 = 6303 cubic feet. 
 
 10,000 X 0-001194 X 5 = 59*70 water horse-power. 
 
 Rai7ifalL 
 
 I 
 
 inch 
 
 rain 
 
 =: 
 
 3 
 
 ,630 
 
 cubic feet 
 
 per acre 
 
 
 >j 
 
 J) 
 
 = 
 
 
 loi- 
 
 183 tons 
 
 j> 
 
 
 j> 
 
 >> 
 
 
 122 
 
 ,614 
 
 ' 90 gallons 
 
 n 
 
 TABLE VL 
 
 To find the discharge of water through sluices. 
 
 Multiply the area of the waterway, or the space occupied by the 
 water, by the velocity as found in Table III. 
 
 In calculating the area of the water passing through the sluice, the 
 depth must be taken at the lower side of the opening, as the velocity 
 
Appendix. 163 
 
 due to the head is not acquired until the lowest level is reached. In 
 a tidal sluice, both the depth of water and velocity will vary from the 
 time when the doors are first opened till they are closed again by the 
 rising tide. The calculation must therefore be made on the mean 
 velocity of the water. 
 
 Example. — A sluice with pointed piers, and doors fully open, 
 allowing a free discharge of the water, having 16 feet opening, with 
 depth of water 9 feet, and the head, or difference in the level of the 
 surface above and below the sluice, of 2 inches, or say o* 16 foot, and 
 allowing a deduction of 4 pet cent, for friction, would discharge 
 442 • 36 cubic feet per second. 
 
 Area = 16' o" x 9' o" = 144' o". 
 
 Velocity = 8^-i6x'96 = 3*o72 feet per second. 
 
 Discharge = 144 x 3*072 = 442*36 cubic feet per second. 
 
 If the water approached the sluice with a velocity of i * 50 feet per 
 second, allowance would require to be made for the head due to this, 
 then : — 
 
 Head due to this = /z = ( — -A — - ) = o • 038, 
 
 \*96 X 8/ "^ 
 
 Adding this to the head through the sluice, the head = • 16 + '038 
 = -198, which gives a velocity of 3*4176 feet per second, and dis- 
 charge of 144 X 3*4176 = 49 2*134 cubic feet per second. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 Tidal Sluices. 
 
 To find the quantity of water due to 24 /tours' rainfall if discharged 
 in a limited time, owing to the sluice being closed by the tide. 
 
 Multiply the given discharge per hour, minute, or second, by the 
 multiplier opposite the number representing the hours the sluice 
 doors are open each tide. 
 
 Example. — The discharge from the rainfall of 24 hours over a 
 given area is equal to 500 cubic feet per minute. This has to pass 
 through a sluice, the doors of which are closed 5 hours each tide, or 
 10 hours out of the 24, consequently the discharge will have to be 
 effected in 14 hours, or 7 hours each tide, and the quantity per 
 minute will be 855 cubic feet :— 
 
 500 X i'7i = ^5S' 
 
 M 2 
 
164 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 No. of Hours Sluice Multiplier. 
 Doors open each aide. *^ 
 
 13 I 
 
 II i'09 
 
 10 1*20 
 
 9 i'33 
 
 8 I'So 
 
 7 1-71 
 
 6 .. ,. 2*oo 
 
 5 ^40 
 
 4 • 3*oo 
 
 3 4*00 
 
 2 .. 6*00 
 
 I ,, I2*00 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 To ascertain the time the doors of a sluice are closed by the tide. 
 
 Having ascertained the level of the sill of the sluice with reference 
 to low-water in the sea or estuary into which the water is usually dis- 
 charged, divide the height of the water in the drain by the range of 
 the tide ; the constant in the table nearest the result will give the time 
 the doors will close with the rising tide and open again on the falling 
 tide. 
 
 Time after High Water. Time before High Water. 
 
 Falling Tide. Constant. Rising Tide. 
 
 H.M. H.M. 
 
 0*0 I'oo 6*00 
 
 0-30 .. -96 .. .. .. .. 5-30 
 
 i-oo '92 5-00 
 
 i'30 '84 4-30 
 
 2'oo *75 .. .. .. . 4-00 
 
 2*30 '63 .. .. .. .. 3-30 
 
 3*00 'SO 3*00 
 
 3*30 - '3^ • 2-30 
 
 4'oo .« '26 2*00 
 
 4*30 .. .. .. .. '16 1*30 
 
 5*00 'oS i*oo 
 
 5*30 -025 0-30 
 
 Example. — Supposing a tide rising 22' o" above low-water spring 
 tides, and the water to run in flood at 10 feet above the sill at low-water, 
 accumulating during tide time to 14 feet — ^then 10 divided by 22, the 
 rise of the tide, gives 0*45, which, being nearly the mean between 
 2 hours 30 minutes and 3 hours, the time given in the table the 
 
Appendix, 165 
 
 doors will close 2f hours after jElood, leaving ^k hours to high-water. 
 Again, 14 divided by 22, gives 0*63, which from the table gives the 
 time for opening again as 2 J hours after high-water, making the time 
 the doors would be shut as 5I hours each tide or iij in the day. 
 The drain must therefore be calculated to discharge the rainfall due 
 to 24 hours in 12^ hours. 
 
 The figures in the table are based on the assumption that the out- 
 fall is on or near the sea, or an estuary, and that the ebb and flow both 
 last about 6 hours. If the sluice is situated some distance up a tidal 
 river, these figures will require modification, and the time determined 
 by observation of the tide at the particular locality where the sluice 
 situated. 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 To ascertain the height of the tide at any hour during the ebb and flood. 
 
 Rule, — Multiply the range of the tide for the day by the constant 
 given in the table opposite the time required, the result will give the 
 height of the tide at that time. 
 
 Example, — Required the height of a tide, the high-water level of 
 which rises 22 feet above low-water, at 2 J hours after high-water, or 
 the same time after flood. The constant for a falling tide opposite 
 2.30 is 0-63, which, multiplied by 22, gives 13*86 feet as the height 
 at 2 hours after high-water. For a rising tide the constant is 0-38, 
 which, multiplied by 22, gives %'z(> feet as the height above low- 
 water 2 J hours after flood. 
 
 Falling Tide. Rising Tide. Constant for 6 Hours. 
 
 Time after High Water. Time after Flood. Ebb and Flood 
 
 H.M. H.M. 
 
 o'oo 6*o I'oo 
 
 0*30 5'30 0-96 
 
 I'oo 5*00 0*92 
 
 1-30 4*30 0-84 
 
 2-00 4'oo 0*75 
 
 2-30 3*30 0-63 
 
 3-00 3*00 0*50 
 
 3-30 2*30 0-38 
 
 4*00 2*00 .. 0*26 
 
 4-30 1*30 o-i6 
 
 5*00 .. .. .. .. I'oo o'o8 
 
 5*30 0-30 0-025 
 
1 66 T/ie Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 1ABLE X. 
 
 To find the horse-power required for j^ti7nping-*engiiies, 
 
 H.P. = 33,000 lb. (14*73 tons) lifted i foot higli per minute. 
 
 N.H.P. — ^The nominal horse-power of an engine is a commercial 
 term, used solely for the purpose of giving a general 
 idea of the power of an engine. 
 I.H.P. — The indicated horse-power is the power of the engine 
 calculated from the mean pressure of the steam in the 
 cylinder throughout the whole of the stroke, as 
 obtained by indicator diagrams. 
 
 W.H.P. — The horse-power in water actually raised and discharged. 
 Efficiency. — The efficiency of pumping machinery is expressed by 
 the percentage of useful effect in water raised of the 
 power given off by the engine, as found by the 
 indicator diagram. Thus, if the indicated horse-power 
 is represented by 100, and 40 per cent, of this is 
 absorbed in working the engine and pump, the 
 efficiency of the machinery is 60 per cent., or adopt- 
 ing the decimal notation and taking perfection at 100, 
 the efficiency would be * 60. The difference depends 
 on the efficiency of the machinery; the best engines 
 and centrifugal pumps give off as much as 60 per cent, 
 of the indicated horse-power. Although the trials do 
 not record the proportion of this due to the engine as 
 separate from the other part of the machinery, of the 
 difference, approximately 10 per cent, may be given to 
 the engine, and 30 per cent, to the pump. In ordinary 
 practice it would not be safe to reckon on a higher 
 efficiency than 60 per cent, for the pump, or 50 
 per cent, for engine and pump. 
 
 To find the net horse-power (W.H.P.) required to lift any given 
 quantity of water a given height per minute : — 
 
 1. Multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 62 * 5, and by the 
 
 height in feet which it has to be lifted, and divide the product 
 by 33,000; 
 
 2. Or, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by the height to 
 
 be lifted in feet, and divide by 528 ; 
 
 3. Or, multiply the number of cubic feet by '0019 ('00189393, &c.), 
 
 and by the height to be hfted in feet. This gives a slight 
 excess. 
 
Appendix. 
 
 167 
 
 Examples. ---llQ find the horse-power required to lift 500 cubic feet 
 of water 10 feet high per minute : — 
 
 (I) -" =^ =9*47 W.H.P. 
 
 33,000 
 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 
 500 X 10 
 528 
 
 = 9-47 W.H.R 
 
 500 X '0019 X 10 = 9-50 W.H.P. 
 
 To find the indicated horse-power required, that is, the power to 
 hft the water and work the machinery, allowing an efficiency of 
 55 per cent : — 
 
 9 '47 X 100 T TT T» 
 
 ■^---^ = 17-22 I.H.P. 
 
 55 
 
 i xVJtSJLjJtl/ JvJL* 
 
 Showing the dimensions and capacity of drains afid sluices^ and the area 
 of land for which they are adapted. 
 
 Bottom 
 
 Depth of 
 
 Fall per 
 
 Constant 
 for 
 
 Slope of 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Area 
 
 Width 
 of Sluice 
 required. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Mile. 
 
 Friction, 
 
 Sides. 
 
 per 
 Second. 
 
 Drained. 
 
 ft in. 
 
 it. in. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 cubic ft. 
 
 acres. 
 
 ft. m. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 •60 
 
 1 to I 
 
 o'74 
 
 78 
 
 I 
 
 I 6 
 
 I 3 
 
 6 
 
 •60 
 
 J> 
 
 1-48 
 
 140 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 6 
 
 6 
 
 •60 
 
 I to I 
 
 2*99 
 
 280 
 
 I 6 
 
 3 
 
 I 6 
 
 6 
 
 •60 
 
 >J 
 
 3'92 
 
 370 
 
 I 9 
 
 4 
 
 I 9 
 
 4 
 
 •60 
 
 >> 
 
 5-17 
 
 500 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 •6S 
 
 J» 
 
 9-72 
 
 950 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 4 
 
 •65 
 
 >> 
 
 I7'92 
 
 1,700 
 
 6 
 
 lo 
 
 2 9 
 
 4 
 
 •65 
 
 litoi 
 
 27*36 
 
 2,600 
 
 9 
 
 12 0' 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 •6s 
 
 f* 
 
 37-09 
 
 3^530 
 
 10 6 
 
 14 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 •65 
 
 ») 
 
 54*26 
 
 S,i68 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 •70 
 
 >> 
 
 81-73 
 
 7,780 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 
 
 •70 
 
 lito I 
 
 114-15 
 
 10,900 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 '1^ 
 
 >> 
 
 150*23 
 
 14,300 
 
 25 6 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 •75 
 
 )> 
 
 173-11 
 
 16.500 
 
 29 6 
 
 28 
 
 5 6 
 
 3 
 
 •75 
 
 )} 
 
 215*32 
 
 20,500 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 •80 
 
 2 to I 
 
 298-37 
 
 28,400 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 6 6 
 
 3 
 
 •80 
 
 3 J 
 
 361-53 
 
 34,400 
 
 45 
 
 34 
 
 6 9 
 
 3 
 
 •80 
 
 >> 
 
 403-67 
 
 38,400 
 
 47 6 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 •80 
 
 )> 
 
 450-80 
 
 43,900 
 
 50 
 
 38 
 
 7 6 
 
 3 
 
 •80 
 
 J> 
 
 521*85 
 
 49,700 
 
 53 6 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 •80 
 
 J> 
 
 617*17 
 
 58,700 
 
 56 
 
 This table gives approximately the dimensions of drains and sluices 
 required for conveying the water off fens or polders. 
 
1 68 The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands. 
 
 The calculations are based on a quantity of water due to a quarter 
 of an inch rain in 24 hours, and allowing for the drains and sluices 
 to run the whole 24 hours* 
 
 The larger sluices are calculated to discharge at about the same 
 velocity as the drains. In the smaller sluices a greater head has been 
 allowed. If a greater head can be given, the width of the sluices can 
 be reduced accordingly. 
 
 As the velocity varies as the square root of the fall, four times the 
 fall per mile given in the table will double the discharge, or, one- 
 fourth of the fall will give one-half the discharge. 
 
( ^69 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Adria^ scoop wheel at, 2^7 
 Aeration of the soil by drainage, 38 
 Agricultural Show, trials of engines 
 
 at, 61 
 Air spaces in drained soils, 37 
 Airy, Sir G. B., on scoop wheels, 72 
 
 W,, on scoop wheels, 84 
 
 on screw pumps, 90 
 
 Anderson, W., on Wexford Harbour 
 
 machinery, 133 
 Angles of egress and ingress for 
 
 scoops, 75 
 Appleby &: Co,, machinery erected 
 
 by, 125 
 Appold, J. G., centrifugal pump, 92, 
 
 118 
 Archimedean screw pump, %^ 
 
 angle of tilt, 89 
 
 spiral angle, 90 
 
 , discharging capa- 
 
 city, 89 
 
 comparative cost of, 
 
 53 
 
 efficiency, 90 
 
 at Katatbeh, 156 
 
 Ardizzoni, pump at Ferrara, 13^5 
 Arkelschendam, steam used for 
 
 pump, 57 
 Atfeh, pumping station at, 155 
 
 quantity of water raised by 
 
 wheels, 82 
 Atkinson, A., Butterwick engine, 127 
 
 B. 
 
 Ballyteigne Reclamation, sluices for, 
 
 28 
 Barker, on coal consumption, 62 
 Batter of drains, 15 
 
 Beemster Polder, pumps at, 153 
 Beijerinck, on scoop wheels, 75 
 Bijlermeer Polder, pump at, 150 
 Black Sluice drainage, 4 
 Boezem, or collectmg basin, 141 
 Boilers, insurance of, 63 
 Boning rods, for setting out drains, 
 
 47 
 Bottisham Fen, steam used for 
 
 draining, 58 
 Breasts, movable, for scoop wheels, 
 
 78 
 Brown, C, on pumps, 102 
 Bucket pumps, 50 
 
 comparative cost of, 53 
 
 at Lake Haarlem, 144 
 
 Bull Hassocks wheel, 130 
 Bullewijker Polder, pumping station 
 
 at, 149 
 Burnt Fen, pumping station at, 119 
 Butterley Iron Company's engines, 
 
 58, 122 
 
 Scoop wheels, 73 
 
 Butterwick pump, 127 
 
 C. 
 
 Carmichael, G., pumping engines, 
 
 120, 122 
 Catchwater drains, 7 
 Centrifugal pumps as compared 
 
 with scoop wheels, 5 1 
 report on use of, by Dutch 
 
 Commission, 51 
 
 comparative cost of, 53, 93 
 
 cost of, and engines, 67 
 
 description of, 92, 95 
 
 materials passingthrough, 
 
 94 
 
170 
 
 Index, 
 
 Centrifugal pumps, points of a good 
 pump, 96 
 
 angles of blades, 96 
 
 « with horizontal spindles, 
 
 97 
 
 vertical spindles, 98 
 
 guide blades, 99 
 
 action of, 100 
 
 velocity of water through, 
 
 100 
 
 diagram of working, 10 1 
 
 efficiency of, loi 
 
 adaptability to varying 
 
 heads, 93, 103 
 sizes and discharge, table 
 
 of, 105 
 
 gearing for, 103 
 
 statical height of water 
 
 supported by, 103 
 substances 
 
 passmg 
 through, 94 
 description of, at Burnt 
 
 Fen, 119 
 
 IS' 
 
 - Bullewijker, 149 
 
 - Bijlmermeer, 150 
 
 - Beemster Polder, 
 
 134 
 
 118 
 
 131 
 
 Ferrara Marshes, 
 
 Fondi, 137 
 
 Fos, 135 
 
 Grootslag, 103 
 
 — Gallejon, 137 
 
 Glassnioor, 126 
 
 Katatbeh, 156 
 
 Lade Bank, no 
 
 Legmeer Polder, 104 
 
 Messingham, 127 
 
 Middel Polder, 104 
 
 Minden, 153 
 
 Prickwillow, 121 
 
 — , Redbourne, 129 
 
 Whittlesea Mere, 
 
 Wexford Harbour, 
 Zuidplas Polder, 150 
 
 Clearance of scoop wheels, 74 
 Coal used per h.-p. for engines, 6 1 
 
 quantity not proportional to 
 
 lift, 62, 148 
 used depends on engine 
 
 man, 61 
 
 . by Dutch machinery, 61 
 
 — Dutch contracts respecting 
 
 quantity, 62 
 
 consumption of, at Halfweg, 62 
 
 Codigoro, centrifugal pump at, 94 
 Coode, Sir J., on rainfall, 9 
 Cooke, Mason, trials oi Hundred 
 
 Foot wheel, 114 
 Cost of pumping station, (>(} 
 
 •> for maintenance, 68 
 
 Cubitt, Sir W., on scoop wheels, 72 
 Cuppari, Sig., on water-raising 
 
 machines in Holland, 52 
 
 D. 
 
 Danube river, deepening by scour, 
 
 22 
 Deeping Fen drainage engines, 106 
 deepening drain by scour, 
 
 20 
 De Witt, Messrs., drainage engines 
 
 erected by, 54 
 Dirtness wheel, 130 
 Dorn^, trials of pumps, 136 
 Drains, slope of sides, 15 
 
 depth and width of, 10 
 
 land occupied by, 16 
 
 proportion of width to depth, 10 
 
 example of size of, 25 
 
 table showing dimensions and 
 
 capacity, 167 
 
 engine, 63 
 
 cleaning and removal of weeds, 
 
 17, 18 
 
 — sizes of, 24 
 
 — fall in surface, 14 
 field drain, 44 
 
 Drainage by gravitation, 3, 7 
 
 steam power, 50 
 
 field, 36 
 
 effect of, in drought, 37 
 
Index. 
 
 171 
 
 Drainage, field, aeration of soil by, 
 temperature increased by, 
 
 ;8 
 
 increased value of land 
 
 by, 41 
 
 m, 42 
 
 time to put field drain 
 
 depth of, 43 
 
 distance apart, 44 
 
 direction and fall, 44 
 
 pipes, 48 
 
 cost of, 49 
 
 — . table of number of pipes 
 
 required per acre, 49 
 
 setting out and levellingy 
 
 47 
 
 use of boning rods, 47 
 
 Dredging machinery for cleaning 
 
 drains, 20 
 Drivers of engines, 60 
 
 East Fen drainage, 3, 1 10 
 
 Easton & Anderson, as to cost of 
 
 wheels and pumps, 54 
 exhibition of centrifugal 
 
 pumps, 93 
 diagram for centrifugal 
 
 pumps, loi 
 
 machinery erected by. 
 
 III, 119, 122, 126, 133, 155 
 
 Efficiency of scoop wheel, 85 
 
 centrifugal pump, loi 
 
 engines, loi 
 
 Egress, angle of, for scoop, 75 
 
 Engineer,' 'The, description of 
 machinery, 24, 28, 102, 121 
 
 * Engineering,' description of ma- 
 chinery, 22, 157 
 
 Engines used for driving pumps 
 and scoop wheels, 55 
 
 horse-power, description of 
 
 meaning, 166 
 
 management of, 60 
 
 general description of, 60 
 
 Engines, attendants on, 61 
 
 simplicity of construction 
 
 desirable, 58 
 
 power required for pumping, 
 
 64 
 
 tables showing W.H.P. re- 
 quired, 162 
 
 — running of, at night, 64 
 
 — coal consumed by, 61 
 
 — drains, 63 
 
 XT 
 
 r . 
 
 Fall in surface of drains, 1 1, 14 
 Farcot & Co., machinery erected 
 
 by, 156 
 Fascines, training outfalls by, 
 
 31 
 
 Ferraby sluice, 30 
 
 Ferrara Marshes pumping station, 
 
 134 
 Field drainage, see Drainage 
 Float wheel, see Scoop Wheel 
 Floats, 74 
 
 Fondi pumping station, 137 
 Fos pumping station, 135 
 French weights and measures, 159 
 
 G. 
 
 Gainsborough, trials of portable 
 
 engines at, 61 
 Gallejon pumping station, 137 
 Garonne river, 19 
 Gibbs & Deane, pumps for Lake 
 
 Haarlem, X42 
 Glassmoor pumping station, 126 
 Glen river, 21 
 Glynn, J., 73 
 
 Gouda pumping station, 148 
 Gravitation, drainage by, 7 
 
 compared with steam power, 6 
 
 Grootslag Polder, pump for, 103 
 Guppy, T. R., description of Fondi 
 
 station, 137 
 Gwynne & Co., machinery erected 
 
 by, 151, 152 
 
172 
 
 Index. 
 
 Gwynne, J. & H., description of 
 
 centrifugal pump, 95 
 efficiency of their ma- 
 
 cMnes, loi 
 machinery erected by. 
 
 103, 104, 134, 135, 149? ISO 
 
 H. 
 
 Haarlem, Lake, windmills, 57 
 
 description of drainage, 141 
 
 Haddenham Fen scoop wheel, 82 
 Halfweg pumping station, 147 
 coals used for different lifts, 
 
 62 
 Hamit, G., patent for scoop wheel, 
 
 82 
 Harrison, A. J dredging machine, 23 
 
 Podehole engines, 109 
 
 Hatfield Chace scoop wheels, 129 
 Hathorn, Davey & Co., Burnt Fen 
 
 pump, 121 
 Hawkshaw, Sir J., on rainfall, 8 
 
 Middle Level syphons, 34 
 
 Lade Bank pumps, no 
 
 Head or lift of scoop wheel, 84 
 Heathcote, J. M., on pumps and 
 
 scoop wheels, 54 
 Hett, L., centrifugal pumps, 102, 
 
 127, 129, ii;3 
 Holland, drainage in, 2 
 Horse-power of engines, 166 
 Huet, A., Z^ 
 Hull river, 13 
 Humber river, 19 
 Hundred Foot pumping station, 
 
 113 
 
 Hunt, Professor, on effect of drain- 
 age, 37 
 
 HydrauHc mean depth, 12, 25, 161 
 
 L 
 
 Inclination of surface of water, 14 
 Ingress, angle of, for scoops, 75 
 Insurance of boilers, 63 
 
 Katatbeh, description of machinery, 
 
 IS3 
 
 Katwijk pumping station, 148 
 
 quantity of water raised by 
 
 wheels, 82 
 Kilmore Reclamation, sluices used 
 
 at, 28 
 Kingston, J., scouring machine, 22 
 Korevaer, Mr., 87, 90 
 
 L. 
 
 Lade Bank pumping station, 94, 
 
 no 
 Ladles, 74 
 
 Land occupied by drains, 16 
 improvement of, by drainage, 
 
 41 
 table showing capacity of 
 
 drains and sluices for draining, 
 
 167 
 Leeghwater, drainage of Lake 
 
 Haarlem, 141 
 
 engine, Lake Haarlem, 144 
 
 Legmeer Polder, pump at, 104 
 Levelling rods for field drains, 47 
 Lift of scoop wheels, 84 
 Lifts, coal used for different, 62 
 Lincolnshire Agricultural Society, 
 
 trials of engines, 61 
 Littleport and Downham drainage 
 
 district, 112 
 windmills used in, 56 
 
 M. 
 
 Maas river, deepening by scour, 
 
 21 
 Machines used for dredging and 
 
 scouring, 20 
 
 for raising water, 50 
 
 Madden, Dr., experiments on 
 
 drainage, 40 
 Maintenance cost of drainage 
 
 engines, 68 
 
Index. 
 
 ^IZ 
 
 Management of drainage engines, 
 
 60 
 Mare Island Straits, deepening by 
 
 scour, 24 
 Marozzo Marshes, pump for, 135 
 Marton drainage district, 50 
 Mersey river, deepening Plucking- 
 
 ton Bank by scour, 22 
 Messingham pump and engine, 
 
 127 
 Middel Polder, pump at, 104 
 Middle Level drainage, 4 
 
 syphons, 34 
 
 Mijdrecht, steam engine used for 
 
 drainage at, 57 
 Minden, pump at, 153 
 Molesworth's Pocket-book, 102 
 Morton Car scoop wheel, 79 
 Motion of water, 10 
 Movable breast for scoop wheels 
 
 at Podehole, 79 
 
 Hundred Foot, 79 
 
 Katwijk^ 80 
 
 N. 
 
 Natural drainage, 3 
 
 Naylor, S., patent for scoop wheels, 
 
 79 
 Night work for pumping engines, 
 
 64 
 North Level drainage, 4 
 North Sea Canal, pumps for, 112 
 
 P. 
 
 Paddles, 74 
 
 Parsons, W., on centrifugal pumps, 
 
 99, 100, 105 
 Perry, Captain, 56 
 Pipes for field drains, 49 
 Piston pumps, comparative cost of, 
 
 53 
 
 Po, valley of, 2 
 
 river, 19 
 
 Podehole pumping station, 106 
 Pompraden, or pump wheels, 149 
 
 Power of engine required for pump- 
 
 mg, 64, 166 
 Pressure of water, 160 
 Prickwillow, pumping station, 121 
 Pumping stations, cost of, 66 
 
 cost of maintenance, 68 
 
 position of, 66 
 
 Pumps, bucket, 50 
 
 Raceway for scoop wheels, ^^ 
 Rainfall, discharge of, 7 
 
 Lake Haarlem, 143 
 
 drainage due to, in main 
 
 drains, 7 
 
 in field drains, 36 
 
 quantity of water to be 
 
 pumped, 64 
 
 tables relating to, 162 
 
 Ravensileet scoop wheel, 77 
 Redbourne pump engine, 129 
 Rennie, J., advised use of steam for 
 
 draining fens, 58 
 
 Sir J., Ferraby sluice, 30 
 
 Rhine, river, 19 
 Rhone, river, 19 
 Richards, pumps used on Pacific 
 
 coast, 10 1 
 Roding drains, 17 
 
 Scoops, 73, 74 
 
 Scoop wheels, advantage of, as 
 
 compared with other pumps, 51 
 report on, by Dutch 
 
 Commission, 51 
 
 Cuppari's opinion of, 52 
 
 comparative cost of, 53 
 
 cost of engines, (fj 
 
 first use of, 70 
 
 description oi^ 72> 
 
 with curved scoops, 76 
 
 diameter, 81 
 
 angle of egress and in- 
 
 gress, 75 
 
174 
 
 Index. 
 
 Scoop wheels, inlet and outlet 
 courses, 'jj 
 
 shuttle for, 80 
 
 movable breasts, 78 
 
 quantity of water raised 
 
 by, 82 
 
 - speed of, 83 
 
 ~ work done by, 84 
 
 - efficiency of, 85, 115 
 
 - clearance, 74 
 
 ~ discharge of, 84 
 description of, at Pode- 
 
 and 
 
 hole, 106 
 
 Littleport 
 
 Downham district, 112 
 Ten Mile station, 
 
 117 
 
 well, 124 
 
 Hundred Foot, 113 
 Upwell and Out- 
 Burnt Fen, 119 
 Prickwillow, 121 
 Hatfield Chace, 
 
 130 
 
 Katwijk, 148 
 
 Halfweg, 147 
 
 Zuidplas, 150 
 
 Waterland, 152 
 
 Atfeh, 155 
 
 Scour, removal of deposit by, 18 
 Screw pumps, 88 
 Shuttle for scoop wheels, %o 
 Sluices, size of, 26, 167 
 
 doors, 27 
 
 ' for lateral drains, 28 
 
 foundations of, 29 
 
 at Ferraby, 30 
 
 position ofj 31 
 
 level of sill, 31 
 
 capacity for discharge, 32 
 
 formula for calculating dis- 
 charge, 33, 163 
 proportion of depth to width, 
 
 33 
 
 Stoney^s improved method of 
 
 hanging doors, 28 
 — examples of, 30, 34 
 
 Sluices, table showing dimensions 
 and capacity, 167 
 
 quantity discharged 
 
 by tidal, 163 
 
 time closed by tide, 
 
 164 
 Soc, 36 
 South Level, drainage of, 5 
 
 cost of pumping in, 68 
 
 Spalding, trials of portable engines 
 
 at, 61 
 Speed of scoop wheels, %'^ 
 Start posts, 73 
 Steam engines for drainage, 58 
 
 power, drainage by, 50 
 
 compared with gravita- 
 tion, 6 
 
 first applied to drainage, 57 
 
 Sterk, Elink, trials of pumping 
 
 machinery, 147, 149 
 Stoney, improvement in sluice 
 
 doors, 28 
 Stour, river, deepening by scour, 21 
 Sturton-on-Trent scoop wheel, ^'j 
 Suspension, material carried in by 
 
 water, 19 
 Syphons used at Middle Level 
 
 drain, 34 
 
 T. 
 Tees, river, 19 
 
 Temperature of drained land, 38 
 Ten Mile pumping station, X17 
 Thompson, on centrifugal pumps, 
 
 102, 105 
 Tidal outfalls, 9 
 Tide, tables showing time sluices 
 
 closed by, 164 
 
 height of, 165 
 
 Training outfalls by fascines, 31 
 Transporting power of water, 18 
 Trials of engine drivers, 61 
 
 U. 
 
 Unwin, centrifugal pumps, 102, 105 
 Upwell, Outwell, &c., wheel, 124 
 
Index. 
 
 175 
 
 V. 
 
 Velocity of water in open drain, 1 1 
 
 mean, 13 
 
 formula for ascertaining, 12, 
 
 160 
 
 scoop wheels, 83 
 
 Vernatts drain, deepening by scour, 
 
 20 
 Vistula, river, 19 
 Vreedenberg, A. C. J., trials of 
 
 pumps, 136 
 
 W. 
 
 Waldersea drainage district, 50 
 Water, quantity to be raised by 
 pumping engines, 64 
 
 table, 162 
 
 raised by scoop wheels, 
 
 82 
 
 due to rainfall, table, 162 
 
 transporting power of, 18 
 
 . sediment carried in suspen- 
 sion, 19 
 
 motion of, 10 
 
 velocity of, in open channels, 
 
 II, 161 
 
 through bridges and 
 
 sluices, 32, 1 60, 162 
 
 — pressure of, 160 
 
 — inclination in surface, 14 
 machines used for raising, 50 
 
 Waterland, pumping station at, 152 
 Watt & Co., machinery erected by, 
 109, 114, 130 
 
 Watt &: Co., trials of, as to dis- 
 
 charge of wheels, 115 
 Weeds, obstruction from, 13 
 
 in river Hull, 1 3 
 
 removal of, 17 
 
 Weights and measures, 158 
 
 French, 159 
 
 Welland, river, deepening by scour, 
 
 21 
 Wells, use of Appold pump, 93 
 Welsh, E., trials of Lade Bank 
 
 engines, 112 
 Wexford Harbour, cost of running 
 
 pumps, 54 
 
 drainage stations, 131 
 
 Wheel pumps, 74, I49 
 Wheler, W., scoop wheel, "jo 
 Whittlesea Mere, use of centrifugal 
 
 pump, 93 
 
 pumping station, 1 1 8 
 
 Windmills, use of, for drainage, 55, 
 
 56, 57 
 for draining Lake Haarlem, 
 
 141 
 
 Zuidplas Polder, 150 
 
 Witham drainage, 4 
 river, 19 
 
 Y. 
 Young, Arthur, description of wind- 
 mill in fens, 56 
 
 Zuidplas Polder pumping station, 
 57, 150 
 
 LONDON; FKINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMtORD STREET 
 
 AND CHAKING CROSS. 
 
Fig: 3 
 
 IE)IE AI£fA(^ ®F WmB3 AHB ILiOW jLA jIID^ „ 
 
 Vlme. 1. 
 
 JN^-N K — h 
 
 ELEVATION OF LAND END. 
 
 JFig: 4^. 
 
 hij>./ V^if / -^ jy -f ;y f 7 
 
 Sea/** 
 
 J' 
 
 i-'bet. 
 
 ELEVATION OF SEA END. 
 
 E df' Y F Spoii.-Xor\doii k ITew Tork. 
 
 Tbo* Kail ^ Han, Ml. 40 iSng S** Coyar* Gai a ex 
 
BiEAiifA^E ®F wmmB Amm> 1.©'W ILilSIBe 
 
 Plate. 2. 
 
 Pig: 1. 
 
 SECTIONAL ELEVATION. 
 SLUICE FOR DRAIN 
 
 EMPTYING INTO TIDAL RIVER. 
 
 at q^o ; -2 8 -^ :? e 7 9 ^ JP 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION 
 
 ■Saalf /brJ'Cg. ,7. 
 
 ELEVATION OF DRANN DOOR. 
 
 Fig: 5 . 
 
 ■OJFhel .X'<se0-7O S^O 7p 
 
 Secde-AinFi^.a. 
 
 ■m eo:x-eey 
 
 Pig : 6 
 
 E/&r. N. Sj)oxi.,_Ioiidou & l^ew York 
 
 I'ho? Kell &.■ Son, iith. 4-0 Kug 3° Ccr/Bnu GOTdfiii 
 
DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 fc^^ l^^fei 
 
 Plate 3. 
 
 FIG,SS' 
 
 5ECT10M-^,A A 
 
 PLAN AND SECTION OF SCOOP WHEEL, 
 
 ARCHIMEDEAN PUMP. 
 
ENGINE AMD PUMP 
 
 DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOV\^ LANDS. 
 
 AT GROOTSLAG POLDER 
 
 AT LEGMEER POLDER 
 
 FIC5 
 
 Plate 4 
 
 FIG.6 
 
 BLADES OF PUMPS 
 
DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 Plate B. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 SCOOP WHEEL AT PODEHOLE. 
 
 FiQ. n. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. LADE BANK. 
 
DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 Plate 6. 
 
 
 Fi^.lZ, 
 
 SCOOP WHEEL AT NORDELPH. 
 
 Ij^^ 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP AT WHITTLESEA MERE. 
 
 DIAGRAM, 
 100 FOOT ENGINE. 
 
 SECTION OF PUMP. 
 BURNT FEN. 
 
DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 r=C 
 
 
 Plate 7. 
 
 ^^^\^^^r^^^^'TO^mm'^k^^^^^^^ 
 
 EV:X^mX^i>>i!;?i!:mmSNSS\^^^^^^ 
 
 g ^\^^^ KV'vV.xv^V^SV.^'.^ S'^V^V-vV-WyVVVW ;?^ 
 
 k^^^^^■;'^^s'^^.^v^v^^ws^^^^^^v\s^\'^y?CT^ 
 
 /f^l^tf 
 
 PUMP AT MINDEN IN HOLLAND. 
 
DRAINAGE OF FENS AND LOW LANDS. 
 
 Plate 8. 
 
 FtgJS 
 
 Plan 
 
 Fig. U. 
 
 PUMPING ENGINE LAKE HAARLEM 
 
1887. 
 
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 tion V, Constmction of Domes and Cupolas — Section VI. Construction of Partitions — 
 Section VII. Scaffolds, Staging, and Gantries— Section VIII. Construction of Centres for 
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 and Viaducts— Section XI. Joints, Straps, and other Fastenings— Section XII. Timber. 
 
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 B 2 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Shallow Placers, Rivers, and Deep Leads ; Hydraulicing ; the Reduction 
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 Iron Roofs: Examples of Design, Description. Illus- 
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 A History of 'Electric Telegraphy ^ to the Year 1837. 
 
 Chiefly compiled from Original Sources, and hitherto Unpublished Docu- 
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 national Society of Electricians, Paris. Crown 8vo, cloth, 9x. 
 
 Spons' Information for Colonial Engineers. Edited 
 
 by J. T. Hurst. Demy 8vo, sewed. 
 No. I, Ceylon. By Abraham Deane, C.E. 2j. 6d, 
 
 Contents : 
 
 Introductory Remarks— Natural Productions— Architecture and Engineering— Topo- 
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 No. 2. Southern Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, and the 
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 Map. 3^. 6d. 
 
 Contents : 
 
 General Description of South Africa— Physical Geography with reference to Engineering 
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 Formation in South Africa— Engineering Instruments for Use in South Africa— Principal 
 Public Works in Cape Colony: Railways, Mountain Roads and Passes, Harbour Works, 
 Bridges, Gas Works, Irrigation and Water Supply, Lighthouses, Drainage and Sanitary 
 Engineering, Public Buildings, Mines-Table of Woods in South Africa-Animals used for 
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 Contents: 
 
 . I*hyfaical Geography of India— Building Materials— Roads— Railways— Bridges— Irriea- 
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 A Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding, 
 
 including descriptions of the modern machinery employed in the art. By 
 N. E. Spretson, Engineer. Third edition, with 82 plates drawn to 
 scale, 412 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, iZs. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPGN. 5 
 
 The Depreciation of Factories and their Valuation. 
 
 By EwiNG Matheson, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth, 6j. 
 
 A Handbook of Electrical Testing, By H. R. Kempe, 
 
 M.S.T.E. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged, crown 8vo, cloth, i^s. 
 
 Gas Works : their Arrangement, Construction, Plant, 
 
 and Machinery. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E. With Zl folding plates, 
 8vo, cloth, 24f, 
 
 The Clerk of Works: a Vade-Mecum for all engaged 
 
 in the Superintendence of Building Operations. By G. G. HosKiNS 
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 American Foundry Practice: Treating of Loam, 
 
 Dry Sand, and Green Sand Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise 
 upon the Management of Cupolas, and the Melting of Iron. By T. D. 
 West, Practical Iron Moulder and Foundry Foreman. Second edition, 
 with nuffierous illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 10s, 6d* 
 
 The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads. By T. 
 
 CODRINGTON, M.I.C.E, F.G.S., General Superintendent of County Roads 
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 Hydraulic Steam and Hand Power Lifting and 
 
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 With T^ plates, 8vo, cloth, i%s. 
 
 Pumps and Pumping Machinery, By F. Colyer, 
 
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 Pumps and Pumping Machinery. By F. Colyer. 
 
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 The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer s Handbook, 
 
 By H. Percy Boulnois, Mem. Inst. C.E., Borough Engineer, Ports- 
 mouth, With numerozcs illustrations, demy 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d. 
 
 Contents : 
 
 The Appointment and Duties of the Town Surveyor—Traffic — Macadamised Roadways- 
 Steam Rollmg— Road Metal and Breaking— Pitched Pavements— Abphalte— Wood Pavements 
 — Footpaths— Kerbs and Gutters— Street Naming and Numbering— Street Lighting — Sewer- 
 age—Ventilation of Sewers— Disposal of Sewage— House Drainage — Disinfection— Gas and 
 Water Companies, &Cm Breaking up Streets— Improvement of Private Streets— Borrowing 
 Powers— Artizans* and Labourers' Dwellings — Public Conveniences — Scavenging, including 
 Street Cleansing— Watering and the Removing of Snow— Planting Street Trees— Deposit of 
 Plans— Dangerous Buildings— Hoardings— Obstructions— Improving Street Lines— Cellar 
 Openings— Public Pleasure Grounds — Cemeteries— Mortuaries— Cattle and Ordinary Markets 
 —Public Slaught&r-houses, etc.— Giving numerous Forms of Notices, Specifications, and 
 General Information upon these and other subjects of great importance to Municipal Engi- 
 neers and others engaged in Sanitary Work. 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Tables of the Principal Speeds occurring in Mechanical 
 
 Engineerings expressed in metres in a second. By P. Keerayeff, Chief - 
 MecKanic of tlie Obouchoff Steel Works, St Petersburg ; translated by 
 Sergius Kern, M.E, Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6^. 
 
 A Treatise on the Origin, Progress^ Prevention^ and 
 
 C-ure of Dry Rot in Tifuber; witli Remarks on the Means of Preserving 
 Wood from Destruction by Sea- Worms, Beetles, Ants, etc. By Thomas 
 Allen Britton, late Surveyor to the Metropolitan Board of Works, 
 etc., etc. With lo plates, crown 8vo, cloth, 7j. 6d. 
 
 Metrical Tables. By G. L, Molesworth, M.LC.E. 
 
 32m.o, cloth, u, 6d, 
 
 Contents. 
 
 General— Linear Measures — Square Measures — Cubic Measures — ^Measures of Capacity — 
 Weights— Combinations— Thermometers. 
 
 Elements of Construction for Electro-Magnets, By 
 
 Count Th. Du Moncel, Mem. de I'lnstitut de France. Translated from 
 the French by C. J. Wharton, Crown 8vo, cloth, 4^. 6d, 
 
 Electro -Telegraphy, By Frederick S. Beechey, 
 
 Telegraph Engineer. A Book for Beginners. Illustrated. Fcap. 8vo, 
 sewed, 6d, 
 
 H andr ailing : by the Square Cut, By John Jones, 
 
 Staircase Builder. Part Second, with eight ;plates^ 8vo, cloth, 3^. ^d. 
 
 Practical Electrical Units Popularly Explained, with 
 
 numerous illustrations and Remarks. By James Swinburne, late of 
 J. W. Swan and Co., Paris, late of Brush-Swan Electric Light Company, 
 U.S.A. iSrao, cloth, IJ-. 6^. 
 
 Philipp Reis, Inventor of the Telephone : A Biographical 
 
 Sketch. With Documentary Testimony, Translations of the Original 
 Papers of the Inventor, &c. By Silvan us P. Thompson, B.A., Br, Sc, 
 Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol. Wit^ 
 illustratwns, 8vo, cloth, */s, 6d 
 
 A Treatise on the Use of Belting for the Transmis- 
 sion of Power, By J. H. CooPER. Second edition, illustrated, 8vo, 
 cloth, 15^*. 
 
 Hints on Architecttiral Draughtsmanship, By G* W* 
 
 Tuxford Halxatt. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, is, 6d, 
 
PUBLISHED BY K & F. N. SPON. 
 
 A Pocket-Book of Useful Formulce and Memoranda 
 
 for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. By Guilford L. Moles worth, 
 Mem. Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer to tlie Government of India for 
 State Railways. With numerous illustrations^ 744 pp. Twenty-fiist 
 edition, revised and enlarged, 32mo, roan, 6^. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents: 
 
 Survejring, Levelling, etc. — Strength and Weight of Materials — Earthwork, Brickwork, 
 Masonry, Arches, etc — Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses — Flooring, Roofing, and Roof 
 Trusses — Girders, Bridges, etc. — Railways and Roads — Hydraulic Formulas — Canals. Sewers, 
 Waterworks, Docks — Irrigation and Breakwaters — Oas, Ventilation, and Warming — Heat, 
 Light, Colour, and Sound — Gravity: Centres, Forces, and Powers — Millwork, Teeth of 
 Wheels, Shafting, etc. — ^Workshop Recipes — Sundry Machinery — Animal Power — Steam and 
 the Steam Engme — ^Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, etc — ^Wind and Wmdmills— 
 Steam Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc. — Gunnery, Projectiles, etc. — ^Weights, 
 Measures, and Money — ^Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves — ^Telegraphy—Mensura- 
 tion— Tables of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circles — Logarithms, Square and 
 Cube Roots, Powers — Reciprocals, etc. — Useful Numbers — ^Differential and Integral Calcu- 
 lus — ^Algebraic Signs — Telegraphic Construction and Formulae. 
 
 Sponi Tables and Memoranda for Engineers; 
 
 selected and arranged by J. T. Hurst, C.E., Author of * Architectural 
 
 Surveyors' Handbook,' * Hurst's Tredgold's Carpentry,' etc. Seventh 
 
 edition, 64mo, roan, gilt edges, is. ; or in clotb case, is, 6^. 
 
 This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only i\ in. by if in. by 
 i in. thick, that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket. 
 
 " It is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume 
 measuring but 2i in. by if in., yet these dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy 
 little book before us. The volume — ^which contains 118 printed pages, besides a few blank 
 pages for memoranda — is, in fact, a true pocket-book, adapted for being carried m the waist- 
 coat pocket, and containing a far greater amount and variety of information than most people 
 
 would imagine could be compressed into^o small a space The little volume lias been 
 
 compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend it to our 
 rea*ders as a useful little pocket companion." — Engineering. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Natural and Artificial 
 
 Concrete, its Varieties and Constructive Adaptations. By Henry Reid, 
 Author of the * Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement.' 
 New Edition, with 59 woodcuts and $ plates, 8vo, cloth, 15^. 
 
 Notes on Concrete and Works in Concrete; especially 
 
 written to assist those engaged upon Public Works. By John Newman, 
 Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., crown 8vo, cloth, 5^. 
 
 Hydrodynamics : Treatise relative to the Testing of 
 
 Water- Wheels and Machinery, with various other matters pertaining to 
 Hydrodynamics. By James Emerson. Witk numerom tUustraizons, 
 360 pp. Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 4r. 6d, 
 
 Electricity as a Motive Power. By Count Th. Du 
 
 MONCEL, Membre de I'lnstitut de France, and Frank Geraldy, Inge- 
 nieur des Fonts et Chaussees. Translated and Edited, with Additions, by 
 C. J. Wharton, Assoc. Soc. Tel Eng. and Elec. With 113 engravings 
 and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 7"^* ^^' 
 
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special consideration 
 
 of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. Gustav Zeuner, 
 Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Confederated Polytechnikum of 
 Zurich. Translated from the Fourth German Edition, hy Professor J. F, 
 Klein, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. Illustfated, 8vo, cloth, 12s, 6d. 
 
 The French' Polisher's Manual. By a French- 
 
 Polisher^ containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving, 
 Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, 
 Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Re- 
 polishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, 6d, 
 
 Hops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in 
 
 various Countries. By P. L. SiMMONDS. Crown Svo, cloth, 4J. 6d, 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distri- 
 bution of Coal Gas, By William Richards. Demy 4to, with numerous 
 wood engravings and 29 plates, cloth, "zZs, 
 
 Synopsis of Contents : 
 
 Introduction — History of Gas Lighting — Chemistry of Gas Manufacture, by Lewis 
 Thompson, Esq., M.R.C.S. — Coal, with Analyses, by J. Paterson, Lewis Thompson, and 
 G. R, Hislop, Esqrs. — Retorts, Iron and Clay — Retort Setting— Hydraulic Main — Con- 
 densers — Exhausters — Wabhers and Scrubbers — Purifiers — Purification — History of Gas 
 Holder — Tanks, Brick and Stone, Composite, Concrete, Cast-iron, Compound Annular 
 Wrought-iron — Specifications — Gas Holders — Station Meter — Governor — Distribution- 
 Mains— Gas Mathematics, or Formulae for the Distribution of Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq^.— 
 Services— Consumers' Meters — Regulators—Burners — Fittings — Photometer — Carburization 
 of Gas — Air Gas and Water Gas— Composition of Coal Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq. — 
 Analyses of Gas — Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature on Gas — Residual 
 Products— Appendix — Description of Retort Settings, Buildings, etc., etc. 
 
 Practical Geometry^ Perspective^ and Engineering 
 
 Drawing; a Course of Descriptive Geometry adapted to the Require- 
 ments of the Engineering Draughtsman, including the determination of 
 cast shadows and Isometric Projection, each chapter heing followed by 
 numerous examples ; to which are added rules for Shading, Shade-lining, 
 etc., together with practical instructions as to the Lining, Colouring, 
 Printing, and general treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter 
 on drawing Instruments. By George S. Clarke, Capt. R.E. Second 
 edition, with 21 plates. 2 vols,, cloth, loj. 6^. 
 
 The Elements of Graphic Statics. By Professor 
 
 Karl Von Ott, translated from the German by G. S. Clarke, Capt. 
 R.E., Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering 
 College. With 93 illustrations, crown Svo, cloth, 5j. 
 
 The Principles of Graphic Statics. By George 
 
 Sydenham Clarke, Capt. Royal Engineers* With 112 illustrations. 
 4to, cloth, 12s. 6d, 
 
 Dyfiamo-Electric Machinery : A Manual for Students 
 
 of Electro-technics. By Silvanus P. Thompson, B.A., D.Sc, Professor 
 of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol, etc., etc. Second 
 edidun, illustrated, Svo, cloth, I2s. 6d. 
 
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 9 
 
 The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge 
 
 of Rivers and Canals. By W. R. KUTTER. Translated from articles in 
 the * Cultur-Ingenieur,' by Lowis D'A. Jackson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. 
 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d, 
 
 Practical Hydraulics ; a Series of Rules and Tables 
 
 for the use of Engineers, etc., etc. By Thomas Box. Fifth edition, 
 numerous plates^ post 8vo, cloth, ^s, 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Hori- 
 zontal and Vertical Waferwheels, specially designed for the use of opera- 
 tive mechanics. By William Cullen, Millwright and Engineer. With 
 II plates. Second edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, I2x. 6^?. 
 
 Tim Describing the Chief Methods of Mining, 
 
 Dressing and Smelting it ahroad ; with Notes upon Arsenic, Bismuth and 
 Wolfram. By Arthur G. Charleton, Mem. American Inst, of 
 Mining Engineers. With plates^ 8vo, cloth, 12s, 6d, 
 
 Perspective^ Explained and Illustrated. By G. S. 
 
 Clarke, Capt. R.E. With illustrations^ 8vo, cloth, 3^. 6d. 
 
 The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics; 
 
 hased on the Principle of Work^ designed for Engineering Students. By 
 Oliver Byrne, formerly Professor .of Mathematics, College for Civil 
 Engineers. Third edition, with 148 wood engravings^ post 8vo, cloth, 
 
 Contents : 
 
 Chap. I. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without reference to a Unit 
 of Time — Chap. 2. The Work of Living Agents, the Influence of Friction, and introduces 
 one of the most beautiful Laws of Motion— Chap.j. The principles expounded in the first and 
 second chapters are applied to the Motion of Bodies — Chap. 4. The Transmission of "Work by- 
 simple Machines— Chap. $• Useful Propositions and Rulesi^ 
 
 The Practical Millwright and Engineers Ready 
 
 Reckoner; or Tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels, 
 diameter, weight, and power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc. 
 By Thomas Dixon* Fourth edition, i2mo, cloth, 31. 
 
 Breweries and Mailings : their Arrangement, Con- 
 struction, Machinery, and Plant. By G. Scamell, F.R.I.B.A. Second 
 edition, revised, enlarged, and partly rewritten. By F. COLYER, M.I.C.E., 
 M.I.M.E. With 20 plates, 8vo, cloth, iSs, 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Starchy 
 
 Glucose^ Starch-Sugar^ and Dextrine, based on the German of L. Von 
 Wagner, Professor in the Royal Technical School, Buda Pesth, and 
 other authorities. By Julius Frankel ; edited by Robert Hutter, 
 proprietor of the Philadelphia Starch Works. With 58 illustrations, 
 344 pp., Zyo^ cloth, i8j. 
 
 B 3 
 
10 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Mill-gearing, Wheels, Shafts, 
 
 Riggers, etc.; for the use of Engineers. By Thomas Box. Third 
 edition, with ii plates. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7^*. 6d, 
 
 Mining Machinery: a Descriptive Treatise on the 
 
 Machinery, Tools, and other Appliances used in Mining;. By G. G. 
 Andre, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Mem. of the Society of Engineers. 
 Royal 4to, uniform with the Author's Treatise on Coal Mining, con- 
 taining 182 plates, accurately drawn to scale, with descriptive text, in 
 2 vols., cloth, 3/. 12S* 
 
 Contents : 
 
 Machinery for Prospecting, Excavating,- Hauling, and Hoisting— Ventilation— Pumping— 
 Treatment of Mineral Products, including Gold and Silver, Copper, Tin, and Lead, Iron 
 Coal, Sulphur, China Clay, Brick Earth, etc. 
 
 Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, Canals, 
 
 Roads, etc, varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By A. 
 Kennedy and R, W. Hackwood. Illustrated, 32mo, cloth, zs> 6d. 
 
 The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland 
 
 Cement, with observations on some of its constructive applications. With 
 66 illustrations. By HENRY Reib, C.E., Author of *A Practical 
 Treatise on Concrete,* etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, iSj. 
 
 The Draughtsman! s Handbook of Plan and Map 
 
 Drawing; including instructions for the preparation of Engineering, 
 Architectural, and Mechanical Drawings. With numerous illustrations 
 in the text, and 33 plates (15 printed in colours). By G. G. Andre, 
 F.G.S., Assoc. Inst C.E. 4to, cloth, gs. 
 
 Contents : 
 
 The Drawing Office and its Furnisliings — Geometrical Problems — ^Lines, Dots, and their 
 Combinations— Colours, Shading, Lettering, Bordering, and North Points — Scales — Plotting 
 —Civil Engineers' and Surveyors' Plans— Map Drawing— Mechanical and Architectural 
 Drawing — Copying and Reducing Trigonometrical Formulae, etc., etc. 
 
 The Boiler-makers andiron Ship-builders Companion, 
 
 comprising a series of original and carefully calculated tables, of the 
 utmost utility to persons interested in the iron trades. By James Foben, 
 author of * Mechanical Tables,' etc. Second edition revised, with illustra-- 
 tions, crown 8vo, cloth, 5^** 
 
 Rock Blasting: a Practical Treatise on the means 
 
 employed in Blasting Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By G. G. Andri^, 
 F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. With 56 illustrations and 12 plates, 8vo, cloth, 
 los, 6d, 
 
 Painting and Painters' Manual: a Book of Facts 
 
 for Painters and those v^rho Use or Deal in Paint Materials. By C. L. 
 CONDIT and J. SciiELLER. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth» lor. 6d* 
 
PUBLISHED BY K & F. N. SPON. ii 
 
 A Treatise on Ropemaking as practised in public and 
 
 private Rope-yards^ with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables 
 of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade, Shipping, Mining, Railways, 
 Builders, etc. By R. Chapman, formerly foreman to Messrs. Huddart 
 and Co., Limehouse, and late Master Ropemaker to H.M. Dockyard, 
 Deptford. Second edition, l2mo, cloth, 3,?. 
 
 Laxtofis Builders'and Contractors' Tables; for the 
 
 use of Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Land Agents, and 
 others. Bricklayer, containing 22 tables, with nearly 30,000 calculations, 
 4to, cloth, 5^. 
 
 Laxton's Builders and Contractors' Tables. Ex- 
 cavator, Earth, Land, Water, and Gas, containing 53 tables, with nearly 
 24,000 calculations. 4to, cloth, 5^. 
 
 Sanitary Engineering: a Guide to the Construction 
 
 of Works of Sewerage and House Drainage, with Tables for facilitating 
 the calculations of the Engineer. By Baldwin Latham, C.E., M. Inst. 
 C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., Past-President of the Society of Engineers. Second 
 edition, with numerous plates a7id woodcuts ^ 8vo, cloth, i/. los. 
 
 Screw emitting Tables for Engineers and Machinists^ 
 
 giving the values of the different trains of Wheels required to produce 
 Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay, M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
 etc. Cloth, oblong, 2^-. 
 
 Screw Cutting Tables^ for the use of Mechanical 
 
 Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the 
 Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the 
 Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer, 
 Second edition, d^long, cloth, ij*., or sewed, ^d, 
 
 A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Slide- 
 
 Valve Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction, based upon the principles 
 enunciated in Euclid's Elements, and comprising the vaiious forms of 
 Plain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing ; together with Stephenson^s, 
 Gooch's, and Allan's Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to 
 variable expansion combinations. By EDW4K.D J. Cowling Welch, 
 Memb. Inst. Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6j. 
 
 Cleaning and Scouring : a Manual for Dyers, Laun- 
 dresses, and for Domestic Use. By S. Christopher. iSmo, sewed, ed. 
 
 A Handbook of House Sanitation ; for the use of all 
 
 persons seeking a Healthy Home. A reprint of those portions of Mr. 
 Bailey-Denton's Lectures on Sanitary Engineering, given before the 
 School of Military Engineering, which related to the "Dwelling," 
 enlarged and revised by his Son, E. F. Bailey-Denton, C.E., B.A. 
 With 140 illustrations^ 8vo, cloth, 4^. 6t/. 
 
 B 4 
 
12 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 
 
 A Glossary of Terms used in Coal Mining. By 
 
 William Stukeley Gresley, Assoc. Mem. Inst C.E., F.G.S., Member 
 of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers. Illustrated with 
 numerous woodcuts and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 5^. 
 
 A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users ^ 
 
 comprising a variety of useful information for Employer and Workman, 
 Government Inspectors, Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineei'S in charge 
 of Works and Slips, Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam- 
 using Public. By Maurxce John Sexton. Second edition, royal 
 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5^. 
 
 Electrolysis: a Practical Treatise on iNlickeling, 
 
 Coppering, Gilding, Silvering, the Refining of M^iais, and the treatment 
 of Ores by means of Electricity. By Hippglyte Fontaine, translated 
 from the French by J, A. Berly, C.F., Assoc, S.T.E. With e?igramngs, 
 8vo, cloth, 9^. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine, con- 
 taining Plans and Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines, 
 with Essays on the Principles involved in Design and Construction. By 
 Arthur Rigg, Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of 
 the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Demy 4to, copiotisly illustrated 
 with woodcuts and ^6 plates ^ in one Volume, half-bound morocco, zl. 2s,i 
 or cheaper edition, cloth, 25^, 
 
 This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam enjyine, but 
 is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering into the wide 
 domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most 
 recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, Portable, Semi- 
 portable, Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other similar Engines, hf the most eminent Firms in 
 Great Britain and America. _ The laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed 
 in the construction of the various details, such as Cylinders, Piston"^, Piston-rods, Connecting- 
 rods, Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics, Simple, Expansion, Balanced, and Equilibrium 
 Slide valves, and Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found 
 articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode of Applying the Indicator, 
 Heat and Expansion of Steam Governors, and the like. It is the writer's desire to draw 
 illustrations from every possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems 
 correct. 
 
 Barlows Tables of Squares, Ctibes, Square Roots, 
 
 Cube Roots, Reciprocah of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000, Post 8vo, 
 cloth, 6s, 
 
 Camus {M) Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels, demon- 
 strating the best forms which can be given to them for the purposes of 
 Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work, and the art of finding 
 their numbers. Translated from the French, with details of the present 
 practice of Millwri|:^hts, Engine Makers, and other Machinists, by 
 Isaac Hawkins. Thiid edition, ikM i^ flaies^ 8vo, cloth, 5x. 
 
PUBLISHED BY K & R N. SPON. 13 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and 
 
 Engineering Surveying, Levelling^ Estimating Quantities, etc., -vvitli a 
 general description of the several Instruments required for Surveying, 
 Levelling, Plotting, etc. By H. S. Merrett. Fourth edition, revised 
 by G. W. UsiLL, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. 41 platesy with illustratians 
 and tables, I'oyal 8vo, cloth, I2x. 6d, 
 
 Principal Contents t 
 
 Part I. Introduction and the Principles of Geometry. Part 2. Land Surveying; com- 
 prising General Observations— The Chain— Offsets Surveying by the Chain only— Surveymg 
 Hilly Ground — To Survey an Estate or Parish by the Chain only — Surveying with the 
 Theodolite — Mining and Town Surveying— Railroad Surveying — Mapping— Division and 
 Laying out of Land — Observations on Enclosures— Plane Trigonometry. Part 3. Levelling— 
 Simple and Compound Levelling— The Level Book — Parhamentary Plan and Section- 
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 On Lathes — Txirning Tools — ^Turning Wood — ^Drilling; — Screw Cutting — Miscellaneous 
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PUBLISHED BY K & R N. SPON. 15 
 
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 Proceedings of the National Conference of Electricians^ 
 
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 With illustrations^ i8mo, cloth, 2s, 6d, 
 
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 12. Marine Engines. 
 
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 Abacus, Counters, Speed 
 
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 Integral. 
 Canals. 
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 Dynamo - Electric and 
 Magneto-Electric Ma- 
 chines. 
 Dynamometers. 
 Electrical Engineering, 
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 Lighting and its prac- 
 tical details,Telephones 
 Engines, Varieties of. 
 Explosives. Fans. 
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 the practical work of 
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 OF THE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ART8, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCIAL 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 Edited by C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S. 
 
 more important of the subjects treated of, are the 
 
 Among the 
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 Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs. 
 Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs. 
 Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp. 
 Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs. 
 Alloys. Alum. 
 
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 Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs. 
 Blacks. 
 
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 Bleaching, 5 1 pp. 48 figs. 
 Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs. 
 Carbon Bisulphide. 
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 Cements. Clay. 
 Coal-tar Products, 44 pp. 
 
 14 figs. 
 Cocoa, 8 pp. 
 Cofi'ee, 32 pp. 13 figs. 
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 Cotton Manufactures, 62 
 
 pp. 57 figs. 
 Drugs, 38 pp. 
 Dyeing and Calico 
 
 Printing, 28 pp. 9 figs. 
 Dyestuffs, 16 pp. 
 Electro-Metallurgy, 13 
 
 pp. 
 Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs. 
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 Fibrous Substances, 92 
 
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 Food Preservation, 8 pp. 
 Fruit, 8 pp. 
 
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 Hair Manufactures. 
 
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 Printing and Engraving, 
 
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 Silk Manufactures, 9 pp. 
 
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 Sugar, 155 pp. 134 
 
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 Tea, 12 pp. 
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 Woollen Manufactures, 
 
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Crown 8vo, cloth, with illustrations, Ss. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 
 
 By ERNEST SPON. 
 
 Bookbinding. 
 
 Bronzes and Bronzing. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Cleaning. 
 
 Colourwashing. 
 
 Concretes. 
 
 Dipping Acids. 
 
 Drawing Office Details. 
 
 Drying Oils. 
 
 Dynamite. 
 
 Electro - Metallurgy — 
 (Cleaning, Dipping, 
 Scratch-brushing, Bat- 
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 Deposits of every 
 description). 
 
 Enamels. 
 
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 Copper, Gold, Silver, 
 Steel, and Stone. 
 
 Etching and Aqua Tint. 
 
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 LanceSjLights, Wheels, 
 Fire-balloons, and 
 minor Fireworks). 
 
 Fluxes. 
 
 Foundry Mixtures. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Freezing. 1 
 
 Fulminates. ' 
 
 Furniture Creams, Oils, 
 Polishes, Lacquers, 
 and Pastes. 
 
 Gilding. 
 
 Glass Cutting, Cleaning, 
 Frosting, Drilling, 
 Darkening, Bending, 
 Staining, and Paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Glass Making, 
 
 Glues. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Graining. 
 
 Gums. 
 
 Gun Cotton. 
 
 Gunpowder, 
 
 Horn Working. 
 
 Indiarubber. 
 
 Japans, Japanning, and 
 kindred processes. 
 
 Lacquers. 
 
 Lathing. 
 
 Lubricants. • 
 
 Maible Working. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Mortars. 
 
 Nitro-Glycerine. 
 
 Oils. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Paper Hanging. 
 
 Painting in Oils, in Water 
 Colours, as well as 
 Fresco, House, Trans- 
 parency, Sign, and. 
 Carriage Painting. 
 
 Photography. 
 
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 Polishes. 
 
 Pottery — (Clays, Bodies, 
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 Stains, Fluxes, Ena- 
 mels, and Lustres). 
 
 Scouring. 
 
 Silvering. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 Solders. 
 
 Tanning. 
 
 Taxidermy. 
 
 Tempering Metals. 
 
 Treating Horn. Mother- 
 o'- Pearl, and hke sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Varnishes, Manufacture 
 and Use of. 
 
 Veneering. 
 
 Washing. 
 
 Waterproofing. 
 
 Welding. 
 
 Besides Receipts relating to the lesser Technological matters and processes, 
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 Architectural Mouldings, Compos, Cameos, and others too numerous to 
 mention. 
 
 London : E. & F. N. SPON, 185, Strand. 
 
 New York : 35, Murray Street. 
 
Crown 8vo, cloth, 485 pages, with illustrations, 5x. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
 By ROBERT HALDANE. 
 
 Acidimetry and Alkali- 
 metry. 
 Albumen. 
 Alcohol . 
 Alkaloids. 
 Baking-powders. 
 Bitters. 
 Bleaching. 
 Boiler Incrustations. 
 Cements and Lutes. 
 Cleansing. 
 Confectionery. 
 Copying. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Disinfectaiits. 
 
 Dyeing, Staining, and 
 
 Colouring. 
 Essences, 
 Extracts. 
 Fireproofing. 
 Gelatine, Glue, and Size. 
 Glycerine. 
 Gut. 
 
 Hydrogen peroxide. 
 Ink. 
 Iodine. 
 Iodoform. 
 
 Isinglass. 
 
 Ivory substitutes. 
 
 Leather, 
 
 Luminous bodies. 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Paper, 
 
 Parchment. 
 
 Perchloric acid. 
 
 Potassium oxalate. 
 
 Preserving, 
 
 Bigments, Paint, and Painting : embracing the preparation of 
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 lamp, sight, soot), blues (antimony, Antwerp, cobalt, cseruleum, Egyptian, 
 manganate, Paris, Peligot, Prussian, smalt, ultramarine), browns (bistre, 
 hinau, sepia, sienna, umber, Vandyke), greens (baryta, Brighton, Brunswick, 
 chrome, cobalt, Douglas, emerald, manganese, piitis, mountain, Prussian, 
 sap, Scheele's, Schweinfurth, titanium, verdigris, zinc), reds (Brazilwood lake, 
 carminated lake, carmine, Cassius purple, cobalt pink, cochineal lake, colco- 
 thar, Indian red, madder lake, red chalk, red lead, vermilion), whites (alum, 
 baryta, Chinese, lead sulphate, white lead — ^by American, Dutch, French, 
 German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson processes, precautions in making, and 
 composition of commercial samples — whiting, Wilkinson's white, zinc white), 
 yellows (chrome, gamboge, Naples, orpiment, realgar, yellow lakes) ; JPaint 
 (vehicles, testing oils, driers, grinding, storing, applying, priming, drying, 
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 iron paint, lime paints, silicated paints, steatite paint, transparent paints, 
 tungsten paints, window paint, zinc paints) ; Painting (general instructions, 
 proportions of ingredients, measuring paint work ; carriage painting — priming 
 paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the paints, oils, 
 driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing vehicles, re -varnishing, 
 how to dry paint ; woodwork painting). 
 
 London : E. & P. N. SPON, 126, Strand. 
 
 Ifl'ew York: 85, Murray Street. 
 
•JU SX I^XJJBIL-ISKEED. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 480 pages, with 183 illustrations, 5^. 
 
 VV V-*/ Xv xV o XjL vy X xV JIL V,_^ JH/ x X X O, 
 THIRD RFRIFS 
 
 By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK. 
 Unifonn with tlie First and Second Series. 
 
 Synopsis op Contents. 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 Indium- 
 
 Rubidium. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Iron and Steel. 
 
 Selenium. 
 
 Barium. 
 
 Lacquers and Lacquering. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Beryllium. 
 
 Lanthanum. 
 
 Slag. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Sodium, 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 Lithium. 
 
 Strontium. 
 
 Caesium. 
 
 Lubricants. 
 
 Tantalum. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Terbium. 
 
 Cenum. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Thallium. 
 
 Chromium. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Thorium. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Mica. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Molybdenum. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 Didymium. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Tungsten. 
 
 Electrics. 
 
 Niobium. 
 
 Uranium. 
 
 Enamels and Glazes. 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 Vanadium. 
 
 Erbium. 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Yttrium. 
 
 Gallium. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Glass. 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Zirconium. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Rhodium. 
 
 
 London : E. & F, N. SPON, 125, Strand* 
 
 "New York: 36, Murray Street* 
 
WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 
 
 FOURTH SERIES, 
 
 DEVOTED MAINLY TO HANDICRAFTS & MECHANICAL SUBJECTS. 
 By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK. 
 
 250 Illustrations, with Complete Index, and a General Index to the 
 
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 Waterproofing — rubber goods, cuprammonium processes, miscellaneous 
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 Packing and Storing articles of delicate odour or colour, of a deliquescent 
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 Embalming and Preserving anatomical specimens. 
 
 Leather Polishes. 
 
 Cooling Air and Water, producing low temperatures, making ice, cooling 
 syrups and solutions, and separating salts fiom liquors by refrigeration. 
 
 Pumps and Siphons, embracing every useful contrivance for raising and 
 supplying water on a moderate scale, and moving corrosive, tenacious, 
 and other liquids. 
 
 Desiccating — air- and water-ovens, and other appliances for drying natural 
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 EmT;lsifying as required by pharmacists and photographers. 
 
 Evaporating — saline and other solutions, and liquids demanding special 
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 Filtering — water, and solutions of various kinds. 
 
 Percolating and Macerating. 
 
 Electrotyping. 
 
 Stereotyping by both plaster and paper processes. 
 
 Bookbinding in all its details. 
 
 Straw Plaiting and the fabrication of baskets, matting, etc. 
 
 Musical Instruments— the preservation, tuning, and repair of pianos, 
 harmoniums, musical boxes, etc. 
 
 Clock and Watch Mending — adapted for intelligent amateurs. 
 
 Photography — recent development in rapid processes, handy apparatus, 
 numerous recipes for sensitizing and developing solutions, and applica- 
 tions to modern illustrative purposes. 
 
 London : E. & F, N". SPO]Sr, 126, Strand. 
 
 "New York : 35, Miirray Street. 
 
JUST 3PXJB3L,ISHEr>. 
 
 In demy 8vo, cloth, 600 pages, and 1420 Illustrations, 6^. 
 
 SPONS' 
 MECHANICS' OWN BOGE:; 
 
 A MANUAL FOR HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing — Casting and Founding in Iron, Brass, Bronze, 
 
 and other Alloys — Forging and Finishing Iron — Sheetmetal Working 
 
 — Soldering, Brazing, and Burning — Carpentry and Joinery, embracing 
 
 descriptions of some 400 Woods, over 200 Illustrations of Tools and 
 
 their uses, Explanations (with Diagrams) of 116 joints and hinges, and 
 
 Details of Construction of Workshop appliances, rough furniture. 
 
 Garden and Yard Erections, and House Building — Cabinet- Making 
 
 and Veneering — Carving and Fretcutting — Upholstery — Painting, 
 
 Graining, and Marbling — Staining Furniture, Woods, Floors, and 
 
 Fittings — Gilding, dead and bright, on various grounds — PoHshing 
 
 Marble, Metals, and Wood — Varnishing — Mechanical movements, 
 
 illustrating contrivances for transmitting motion — Turning in Wood 
 
 and Metals — Masonry, embracing Stonework, Brickwork, Terracotta, 
 
 and Concrete — Roofing with Thatch, Tiles, Slates, Felt, Zinc, &c. — 
 
 Glazing with and without putty, and lead glazing — Plastering and 
 
 Whitewashing — Paper-hanging— Gas-fitting — Bell-hanging, ordinary 
 
 and electric Systems — Lighting — Warming — Ventilating — Roads, 
 
 Pavements, and Bridges — Hedges, Ditches, and Drains — Water 
 
 Supply and Sanitation— Hints on House Construction suited to new 
 
 countries. 
 
 London: B, & F. N. SPOM", 125, Strand. 
 
 New York: 85, Murray Street.