f[RTJJJC/aL Q^rieliltUral Scsds. fh^ best soufie&s of sl/pp/c/ :p. ORX. 1895 New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library S 633.R52 °''"*" ""'""'"V Library ,.M[lifJSi£!«!:«!i?ersar,d agricultural The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000358485 Artificial +^ ^H Fertilisers and Agricultural Seeds. Their uses and the best sources of supply. Hy; Richardson & Compy., Skeldergate Bridge, 1895. YORK. Established 1824. Right of Reproduetion Reserved. Delittle & Sons, York. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Section. Introduction. I. — Superphosphates : Vitriolized Raw Bones, Dissolved Bone Ash, Dissolved Bone Compound, Mineral Superphosphates, various qualities. II. — Phosphates, Undissoeved : Raw Bones and Bone-Meals, Steamed and Boiled Bone-Meals, Basic Slag Phosphates. III. — Nitrogenous and Ammoniacae Manures : Rape Cakes and Rape Meals, various kinds ; Fish Meals, Ichaboe and Peruvian Guanos, Sulphate of Ammonia, and Nitrate of Soda. IV. — Potash and Magnesia, Sources of : Kainit, Muriate and Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia, etc. ; Nitrate of Potash. V. — Specially Prepared Manures for Various Crops : Pasture, Meadow and Fog ; Lawns, Wheat, Barley, Oats, and Corn Topdressing ; Potatoes, Turnips, Mangolds, Beans, Peas, etc. VI. — Sundries : Salt, Rock Salt, Agricultural Lime, Peat Moss Litter. VII. — Valuation of Manures from Analysis, with table of Unit-values. VIII.' — Table of Manure Analyses. IX. — Agricultural Seeds. Clovers and Ryegrasses, Permanent Pasture Seeds, Turnip and Mangel Seeds. X. — Terms, Discounts, Railway Carriage, etc. Appendix : Pr. J. a. Voelcker on Anbury or " Finger and Toe." On Wireworm Prevention : Board of Agriculture. Manurial Value of various Foods. Sir J. B. Lawes on "Valuation of Unexhausted Manures." Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893, also Board of Agriculture Regulations and Royal Agricultural Society's Suggestions re Guarantees and Sampling. Chemical Composition of Foods. Table of Analyses of Foods. Average Annual prices of Wheat — 1600 to 1895. Monthly Average Prices of Wheat, Barley, and Oats— 1885 to 1894. On Rainfall and Sunshine Measurements. Cental and Quarter : Grain Tables. For Alphabetical Paged Index see End. INTRODUCTION. Much of the information contained in the following chapters has appeared in the successive editions of our Annual Circular, which our clients have received each February or early March for many years past. The original aim has been to accompany our price current on the opening of each season, and at the same time to place at the disposal of intelligent practical agriculturists such general information on the various artificial fertilisers in common use in England as a firm which has been largely engaged in their manufacture and sale for more than seventy years might be able to supply. In recent years, however, we have had a large and increasing number of enquiries for copies of the pamphlet, from a much wider circje than that of our own clients, including many whose interest in the articles referred to is not merely a commercial one. It cannot but be a source of satisfaction to us that the pamphlet (admittedly a trade circular) has been appreciated in this manner ; and we have this year decided to revise and put together into a more permanent form, for issue as a separate book, combined with some additional matter, such portions of each section as are of more general and permanent interest. We have therefore to ask our clients to whom this little work proves of interest to be good enough to retain it for future reference, and to bear in mind that it will not be issued again each succeeding spring, as has been usual hitherto. We are also issuing a briefer Annual Circular, limited to details referring more particular!}' to the current values of the time, and to other matter special to the approaching season. In future years our Annual Circular ^\W probably be merely a short descrip- tive catalogue of the particular parcels of goods we have to offer for that season, with price-lists ; and referring, where needful, for the full description of the articles, to the various chapters of this pamphlet. We may add that we have printed a slightly larger number nf copies than may be needful for our present trade connection. If, therefore, any of our clients have agricultural acquaintances who are users of the articles referred to, and who would be likely to find this pamphlet tlseful, we shall be glad to receive the names and addresses of such, with a view to posting them a copy, so long as our limited stock may last. 4 Introduction. The subject of artificial fertilisers covers so wide a field that it is not easy to decide in what order to treat the various articles included. We think the simplest course will be to commence with the principal separate articles, giving the first place to the more generally known manures in common use. These will naturally be followed by the no less important considerations attaching to the combinations of the various fertilising principles in the special mixtures that are needed to meet the varying requirements of crops and soils. We have also prepared an article on Unit- Valuations of manures from analysis, which will, we hope, prove useful to some of our clients. In addition to the unit-values of the various items of an analysis, the table shows the ton-prices of the principal manures on which the unit-values are based. Not- withstanding the inevitable fluctuations in the market, our readers will thus be able to see the proportion which these ton-prices bear to the market values of the articles in the future time ; and by increasing or reducing the unit-prices in similar proportion they can readily bring them up to date. In the contents of our Appendix we have been guided, in our selections, rather by what is likely to be of interest and use to agriculturists, than to any very definite connection with Artificial Fertilisers or Seeds. In offering the little book to our clients, we are conscious of man}^ imperfections and omissions, for which the limited time and resources at our command for its preparation are in some degree responsible : we ask our readers, therefore, to excuse its various shortcomings. We shall be particularly obliged if our friends will inform us of an^' inaccuracies they may notice, with a view to their correction in case another edition should be needed at any future time. We are, Yours respectfully, HY. RICHARDSON & COMPY. Richard Thompson. John Willinvi Procter. YORK, February, 1895. '?m m Section /.] 5 SECTION I. SUPERPHOSPHATES. The use of superphosphates does not date nearly so far back as some other fertilisers, such as rape-dust, ground bones, etc., but they are now so extensively used in so many ways that they may fairly claim the first place in a treatise on artificial fertilisers. Not only are superphosphates the principal manures for roots, but they are also important adjuncts to other fertilisers for cereals, especially barley, and for clover and grass, all which respond very markedly in quality of yield, as well as in quantity, to the application of soluble phosphates. The experience of several somewhat dry years has been more in favour -of super- phosphates than of insoluble sources of phosphoric acid. The results have been the best where the superphosphates have been used in conjunction with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia and potash salts. During recent years some supplies of raw phosphatic material from fresh sources have come into the market, and have checked the advancing tendency of prices ; but, on the other hand, the costs of production have increased in some respects. Prices, though steady, have been of recent years very moderate. In the remainder of this section we give a separate chapter to the detailed description of each of the various superphosphates we usually offer, viz. : — Dissolved or Vitriolized Raw Bones (pure). Dissolved Bone Ash, Dissolved Bone Compound, Mineral Superphosphates, various qualities. The important distinction between these «i:/!i(fr-phosphates and other forms of phosphate of lime, such as bone-meal, etc., is that in 5w/>«'-phosphates, either the whole or a large part of the phosphoric acid contained is in the soluble state, and is, therefore, more readily available to the plant than in either bone or other undissolved phosphates. The phosphate of lime usually costs more per unit in superphosphates than in bone meals, basic slag, etc., the action of the soluble phosphate being much more certain under varying conditions of weather and soil. An adequate supply of phosphate of lime is essential to all farm crops, and as it is not contained in the air, the plant must derive it from the soil. Even fair crops of swedes of, say, twenty tons of roots and three tons of tops, take from the soil about ninety lbs of pure phosphate of lime per acre ; while a crop of mangels, of, say, twenty-five tons of roots and nine tons of leaf, removes about 122 lbs per acre. These are equal to applications 6 Superphosphates. [Section I- of about 3^ cwt per acre of a 26 per cent soluble phosphate for turnips ; and of nearly five cwt per acre for mangels. A crop of beans takes from the soil a still larger quantity of phosphate of lime than either of these ; a crop of wheat, barley or oats some; what less, but still very considerable quantities for each acre ; the other crops of the rotation also require varying but rather smaller quantities. It is, therefore, evident that if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained, it must be supplied, at some time during the rotation, with at -least as much phosphate of hme as the total amount required by all the four or five crops of the rotation, taken together. In practice it is found necessary to do more than this. Allow- ance must be made for a certain proportion of manure which may get washed too deep into the soil, or may pass ofi" in the drains. Further, we must not presume that every particle of the manure applied will fall within reach of the rootlets of the crop ; this can seldom be the case, especially with turnips and mangels, the roots of which can only appropriate the nutriment in their immediate neighbourhood, and cannot search the whole bodj'- of the surrounding soil, as do the more spreading roots of com. It is perhaps mainly for this reason — but also in part, because some of the other crops in the rotation often get little if an}- phosphate of lime applied to them, — that it is found in practice desirable to give to root crops a much larger quantity of phosphate of lime than the above figures show that they remove from the soil. The experiments recently conducted for the Glasgow Tech- nical College, under the advice of Mr. C. M. Aikman, in the south west of Scotland, appeared to shew that soluble phosphate is the most important of all manurial principles for turnip growing. In these experiments superphosphate was tried at the rate of four and eight cwts respective!}' per acre. The larger qnantit>- gave the greater yield in crop, but the smaller quantit}- appeared to be the more economical. The characteristic effect of superphosphates, whether applied to roots, corn, or grass, is to promote the early maturing of the plant. Superphosphates are therefore specially important on backward, cold clays, and stiff, calcareous or damp soils, on which the crops are apt to ripen late and slowly. In most seasons this characteristic of superphosphates in promoting the earlier ripen- ing of the crop, proves to be a valuable one. In an interesting lecture on " Root crops as affected by Soil, Manure, and Climate," — delivered some time ago before the London Farmers' Club, the late Dr. Voelcker said : — On account of the valuable property of readily a\ailable phosphates to cause early maturity, neither turnips nor mangels, nor indeed any root crop, in my judgment, should be grown without superphosphates, 3 or 4 cwt of which per acre are best drilled in at the time of sowing. Section I.] Superphosphates. 7 On the other hand, liberal applications of nitrogenous manures, as sulphate of ammonia, guanos rich in nitrogen, rotten fold-manure and nitrate of soda, tend to prolong the period of growth of the plant, and to develop a luxuriant leafage.* On this account the moderate use of such manures is found very desirable on soils which do not adequately sustain their crops up to full maturity, or tend to ripen them too early. In most cases, how- ever, these nitrogenous manures answer better when combined with others of a less stimulating character, and which supply also the phosphates and potash. There are now so many kinds of superphosphates manu- factured and offered for sale, that the term is rather the name for a class of manures, than that of any one particular article. Super- phosphates are manufactured from various and widely differing sources of phosphate of lime, among which we may name bones, bone-ash, coprolites, phosphatic guanos, and a great variety of mineral phosphates from many different sources. The following list of the quantities imported into the United Kingdom during 1894 will shew the wide range from which our foreign supplies are drawn, and the advantage which English agriculture derives from these large additions to the home supply of bones and coprolites. Florida, U.S.A. ... ... ... 116,101 tons. South Carolina, U.S.A. ... ... 101,927 Belgium and Holland ... ... 82,393 France ... ... ... ... 44,162 Algeria 25,313 West Indies... ... ... ... "'5,731 Canada ... ... ... ... 3,192 South America, Norway, etc. ... 1,450 Total 380,269 tons. These imported phosphates range from the higher qualities of Canadian, Curacao, etc., which sometimes contain over 90 per cent phosphate of lime and which average fully 75 per cent, down to Cambridge coprolites of about 56 per cent, Suffolk and Bedfordshire coprolites of 50 per cent, and Belgian and others of still lower percentages. It is largel}' to the rapid development in recent years of the extensive deposits in Florida and South Carolina that we owe the very low prices of superphosphates which have latterly obtained The total production of these two States alone amounted in 1894 to over 1,065,600 tons. The most recent addition to our foreign sources of supply is Algeria, which com- menced about 1892 by shipping some 4,000 or 5,000 tons. Its * In cases where mildew is feared, a top-dressing of 6 or 8 stones of nitrate of soda per acre, will often entirely prevent it, by stimulating the leafage. 8 Superphosphates. [Section I. total export in 1894 was 50,000 tons, fully half of which came to our own country. We have a collection of many of the various mineral and other sources of phosphate of lime used in the manufacture of superphosphates, which we shall have pleasure in showing to any of our clients who are interested in the subject. The Basic Slag Phosphates, to which we devote a chapter in section 2, are also another useful source of phosphate of lime, but somewhat less soluble than superphosphates ; they may therefore be suitably used in conjunction with the latter, the superphos- phate supplying the plant with the needed phosphates in the earlier stages of its growth, and the less soluble basic phosphate feeding it later on. It is hardly necessary to say that these two articles must not be mixed, but should be applied separately. In all the various raw phosphates named above as sources of superphosphates, the base, lime (CaO) is combined with the phosphoric acid (P2O5) in the form known to chemists as " tribasic," i.e., three equivalents of lime are combined with one equivalent of phosphoric acid, thus (CaO)3 P2O5, or as it is usually written, Cag 2PO4. These tribasic phosphates are not soluble in water, and are therefore not distributed through the soil by rain, so as to come within reach of the rootlets of the plant. They are accordingly treated (" dissolved ") with sulphuric acid, which combines with two out of the three equivalents of lime, leaving the whole of the phosphoric acid in combination with the remaining one equivalent of lime. This form of phosphate of lime, — known to chemists as an "acid superphosphate" (CaH^ 2PO4) — is soluble in water, which enables it to permeate the soil, and thus to become available to the rootlets of the plant. This is the sole object of the "dissolving" process. The above is the chemical principle involved in the manu- facture of all superphosphates ; but the details of the processes employed, the cost of the manufacture, and the value and quality of the resulting manure depend mainly on the kind and quality of the tribasic phosphate used, and on the percentage of this which is to be rendered soluble. In most analyses the proportion of phosphates rendered soluble is usually stated in its dried (anhydrous) state, as Ca 2PO3, and is described as "monobasic" or " monocalcic phosphate " or " bi-phosphate." We annex the chemical for- mulae and equation : — Caa 2PO, + 2H,S0, = CaH^2PO^ + 2Ca SO^ or (CazPOj + 2H,0) Insoluble + Sulphuric = Soluble + W,itcr + Sulphate tribasic acid monobasic of lime phosphate phosphate Section /.] Superphosphates. 9 In describing the quality of a superphosphate in analyses it is usual to quote as soluble the percentage of tnbasic phosphate which has been rendered soluble, and not the actual percentage existing in the soluble state Thus : — superphos- phate of the ordinary quality is usually described as "containing 26 per cent soluble phosphate," whereas the actual percentage which it contains of monobasic phosphate (Ca 2PO3) is 16 61 per cent, or of the acid superphosphate (CaH^aPO^) 1962 per cent : these being each equal to 26 per cent tribasic phosphate rendered soluble. It would be more accurate to say — " containing soluble phosphate equal to 26 per cent tribasic phosphate rendered soluble." The proportions are as follows : 142 of phosphoric acid (PjO,), or 198 of monobasic phosphate (Ca 2PO3), or 234 of the acid superphosphate (CaH^ 2PO,) are each equal to 310 of tribasic phos- phate (Ca, 2PO4) rendered soluble. As to the relative values of soluble and insoluble phosphates for roots and other crops, see our paragraph in section 5 on this subject, in connection with the series of experiments conducted in Aberdeenshire some 5'ears ago, and more recentl}' in Sussex, on light sandy soil. We would also refer to our chapter in section 2, on Basic Phosphates, as bearing on the subject. DISSOLVED OR VITRIOLIZED RAW BONES. PURE, AND OF OWN MANUFACTURE. The valuable characteristics of Dissolved Bones, if genuine and from raw bones only, are so well known as to require little comment. For those, however, who have not systematically used our make, we ma}' mention that our stock is made entirely from pure raw bones and vitriol, without the addition of either mineral phosphate, gypsum or even steamed bones, to assist in drying ; — and that dissolved or vitriolized bones, so made, retain all the ammonia present in the bones, and come into action much more quickly than undissolved raw bones. They have also the advan- tage over mineral superphosphates of supplying ammonia and phosphates excellentl)^ blended together by nature, whilst the dissolved bone, being in all degrees of decomposition, — from actual solubility in water to undissolved bone, — provides successively for the various stages of the plant's growth. The effects therefore are more lasting than is the case with ordinary superphosphates. We may also mention, as an additional advantage, that bones so treated are not carried away by rooks. We prepare annually, at our works at York, a considerable stock of Pure Vitriolized Bones, made from raw bones only, of the highest quality, treated with only a small proportion of sulphuric acid. In our manufacture we do not aim at the highest degree of solubility at the time of application, as soluble phos- phate can be more cheaply supplied in the form of mineral superphosphate. Our Dissolved or Vitriolized Bones are manu- factured some time before they are required, in order that they may become mellow in the heap, and supply bone phosphates lo Dissolved or Vitriolised Raiv Bones. [Section I. in a readily available form, combined with a high percentage of ammonia. Their action in the soil is therefore well maintained throughout the whole term of growtli of the crop : not only if applied in spring, but in the case of autumn application also. Our make is especially fine and dry in condition, and the steadily increasing demand which we have had since adopting our present methods, proves, we hope, that it gives satisfactory results in the field. We annex two analyses., made by two experienced chemists, of portions from the same sample carefully drawn from over the whole bulk. In the third column we print the mean of the two tests. We can strongly recommend this article, as par- ticularly high quality. Moisture . . •Organic matter and combined water . . Bi-phosphates of lime (monobasic) . . Equal to bone phosphate rendered soluble Insoluble phosphate.. Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts and magnesia Insoluble siliceous matter 'Containing nitrogen Equivalent to ammonia Total bone phosphate Prices. — See our current price-sheet. For parcels of ten tons and upwards, we are glad to make special offers. Guarantees. — For our guaranteed analyses, we refer to our Amiual Circular and price-sheet. But we further offer to our buyers that if, on analysis by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, the Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society ; or by Mr. Thomas Fairley, F.R.S.E., Chemist to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society and to the York Chamber of Agriculture ; or other chemist mutually agreed ; of samples fairl}- taken on delivery by mutual arrangement, the bulks should be found to vary to the detriment of the buyer from the mean tests of our own samples stated above, by over 3 per cent total phosphates, and ^ per cent ammonia, we will make a fair allowance, it being understood that any excess of one principle shall be held as compensating a proportionate deficiency of another, at their relative values (see our article, in section 7, on Valuation of Manures from AnalysisJ. The cost of analysis is to be borne by the buyer if the test shews that no allowance is due to him, but if otherwise, we undertake to pay the cost of analysis, in addition to making the allowance. Misrepresentations. — The Association of the Manure Manu- facturers have for some time past advised all their members that the term Pure Dissolved or ]^itriolieed Bones should be limited to A B Mean lo-oS 10 26 10-17 31-54 3086 31-20 588 618 603 (9-20) (9-68) (9-44) 2S-05 31-02 29-53 2256 1972 2114 i-8g I 96 loooo 193 loooo lOOOO 303 301 3-02 3-6S 3-65 3-66 37-25 40-70 38-97 Section /.] Dissolved or Vitriolized Raw Bones. ii such as are e?itirely from raw bones and acid, and we believe this is adhered to by the respectable makers in the trade. There are, however, others who do not adhere to this limitation. It must therefore be borne in mind that Bone Superphosphates made wholly, or in part, from steamed bones, burnt bones, etc., are still frequentl}' described and sold as " Pure Dissolved Bones." Such can readily be supplied at much lower prices than pure dissolved raw bone only. In one of the recent issues of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, Dr. J. A. Voelcker reports three such cases, one of which we reprint as follows : — Mr. — , of — , sent two samples of Pure Dissolved Bones for analysis. Both were invoiced " Pure Dissolved Bones." The following analyses were returned on June igth : — Moisture.. •Organic matter and water of combination. . Monobasic phosphate of lime Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phosphate) rendered soluble insoluble phosphates Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, etc. Insoluble siliceous matter 'Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia Neither of the samples is pure dissolved bone — i.e. a manure made entirely from raw bones and acid. They do not contain admixture of mineral phosphate, but the bone used- in the manufacture, instead of being entirely raw bone, is steamed or boiled bone. The ammonia, in consequence, is only about half what it would be if raw bone entirely had been used. The following remarks by Dr. J. A. Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal, in his report, page 839 in the December, 1891 vol. of the Journal are of interest in this connection. Dissolved Bones. — These, when sold under guarantee of being ' pure,' have generally been found to prove so ; although somewhat higher prices may have been asked, I am sure it will pay farmers better to get such a material, and, if they so please, mix mineral superphosphate with it, than to purchase the various mix- tures sold under the names of 'Dissolved Bone Compound,' 'Dissolved Bone Manure,' etc., which contain a more or less uncertain amount of bone in their composition. Manufacturers also are, I think, turning more attention to the mak- ing of genuine dissolved bone in a form in which it can be readily sown. In a recent volume of the same Journal Dr. Voelcker calls attention to two cases which have recently come before the Chemical Committee, in which a manure not differing in character or analysis from Boiled Bones was sold to farmers as "Pure Dissolved Bones made under a new process." It contained no "soluble phosphate," and had not been dissolved with vitriol. 905 24-35 I60I 985 2380 1339 (2S-06) 15-59 (20-98) 24-75 3251 249 2736 ■85 lOOOO lOOOO 179 2-18 1-24 1-51 12 DISSOLVED BONE-ASH. iSection I. Bone. ash is imported in large quantities from the Rio Grande and River Plate districts of South America, where cattle- rearing is carried on extensively. Bone-ash consists of the raw bones burned to ash; this destroys the organic matter and nitrogen, but leaves the mineral constituentsof the bone, mainly tribasic phosphate, from which, when " dissolved " with acid, a high quality superphosphate is obtained, in excellent condition if well made. Until recently these bone-ash superphosphates commanded the highest prices on the market. It has now, how- ever, been established that phosphate of lime, when really rendered soluble, is of no greater manurial value from bone than from mineral sources, and we do not, therefore, consider it worth while to make dissolved bone-ash, however excellent a super- phosphate it may be, unless it can be obtained at little or no higher price per unit than the value of mineral superphosphate of equally high percentages. This is not often the case, but when it does occur we give a preference to bone-ash over any mineral. DISSOLVED BONE COMPOUND. This article is a superphosphate made usually from mineral phosphates and a proportion of bones, in order to supply those who prefer to pay a lower price than that of pure Vitriolized Raw Bones. The guaranteed analysis of what we have prepared for 1895 is : — Nitrogen f to if per cent, equal to ammonia i to 2 per cent. Phosphates soluble 21 to 24 per cent. Undissolved phosphates, from bone, 6 to 10 per cent. Where a superphosphate supplying some ammonia is re- quired at a lower price than that of Vitriolized Bone, this may prove useful. MINERAL SUPERPHOSPHATES. The use of mineral superphosphates has steadily increased in recent years, and is now very large. The supply of the raw material, for which we are largely dependent on the United States, Belgium and France, has hardly kept pace with the export demand during late years, and the greatly increased home consumption in those countries. Fortunately, however, the opening out, a few years ago, of extensive deposits in Florida, and more recentlj' in northern Africa, has added con- siderably to the annual supply, especially of the higher qualities, and values have been kept down in consequence. On most soils containing a sufficiency of lime, these mineral superphosphates are now generally found to be the most certain Section /.] Mineral Superphosphates. 13 and economical form in which phosphoric acid can be applied ; and in many cases where soluble phosphate is principally re- quired, such as on clayey land, and in late-growing districts, we consider them particularly suitable. On land of this character, especially where fold-yard or other manure has been spread in autumn, a dressing of 3 to 6 cwt per acre of superphosphate often answers for roots as well as, or better than, the more costly mixtures of phosphates with nitrogenous manures. Where carriage is a material consideration, the higher percentages have the advantage over the lower, on account of their greater con- centration. On the other hand, the lower qualities seem to answer better on some light soils deficient in lime, in con- sequence of their less acid character and greater bulk. These mineral superphosphates are also very suitable for application by the water-drill, as all their valuables are soluble. Superphosphates vary in percentage of soluble phosphate according to the source from which they are made. The usual quality contains from 25 to 27 per cent of phosphate rendered soluble, but higher qualities can be obtained at little if any higher proportionate prices, whilst both carriage and labour in handling are less in proportion on these higher qualities. We make the principal qualities at our works at York. In order to save carriage to our buyers, we also contract for supplies in various other localities, and forward direct to our buyers' stations as required. Prices have been very low for the last few years, but the tendency has recently been upward. Caution. — Cases have frequently come to light in which the sellers o± superphosphates of good quality are underquoted by those who fraudulently substitute lower qualities, unknown to their customers. The larger manufacturers, therefore, agreed, some time ago, that all deliveries shall be so branded on the bags as to indicate their quality, and we now brand all our deliveries of mineral superphosphates with the minimum percentages we guarantee. A recent report of the Chemical Committee of the Royal contains no less than five cases of inferiority of superphosphates. We reprint the particulars below, omitting names. They show conclusively the need for caution in purchasing. 7. — , of — , sent a sample of superphosphate costing ^3 6s. per ton delivered at Hereford. On analysis the sample proved to contain only 21-33 per cent of soluble phosphate. 8. — , of — , sent a sample of superphosphate, price £-i 5s. per ton in London. The sample contained 1988 per cent soluble phosphate, and was reported on as an inferior sample in bad condition. g. — , of — , sent a sample of superphosphate, price £^ los. per ton for cash. Analysis showed the superphosphate to contain i7'95 per cent soluble phosphate. 14 Mineral Superphosphates. {Section I. 10. — , of — , sent two samples of superphosphate, which on analysis con- tained respectively 21-52 and 22-21 per cent of soluble phosphate. These superphosphates were sold at ^3 per ton, and guaranteed to contain 26 to 29 per cent soluble phosphate. 11. — , of — , sent a. sample of superphosphate guaranteed 26 per cent soluble, but analysis proved it to contain only 2124 per cent. Guarantees. — Of the percentages quoted, the minimum onlj- is guaranteed under the new Fertilisers Act, to allow for the inevitable variations in analysis which cannot fail to occur amongst the large number of chemists who are appointed as county analysts. As regards deliveries from our own works, however, we are usually prepared to make a pro rata allowance for any deficiency below 26 per cent (though our guarantee is 25), provided that samples are drawn and sealed by mutual arrangement on delivery at our works, and are submitted to Dr. Voelcker, of the Royal, or Mr. Fairley, of the Yorkshire, or to any other mutually agreed chemist. Reduction for large quantities. — On purchases of ten and twenty tons or upwards, we make corresponding reductions from our list price. For delivery in bulk or in buyers' own bags, we also make a reduction of 2/- to 2/6 per ton, according to the circumstances. 25 to 27 per cent soluble. — This is the qualit5' most largely used : we keep it always in stock at our works at York, and can supply in particularly good, dry, powdery condition, quite read}"- for use. We are in the habit of having it well riddled before delivery ; this adds a little to its value, as compared with the usual unscreened condition in which it is commonly sent out. 29 to 39 per cent soluble, various strengths. — Of these higher qualities we have stocks in good dry condition at our works at York. As pointed out above, the cost of carriage is smaller in proportion on these high qualities than on the lower. For our quotations see our current price-lists. To buyers at a distance from York To these we Can usually deliver in their own districts on specially favourable terms, by forwarding direct from the point of . manufacture most suitable for each particular locality, as detailed below. We guarantee, in every case, the minimum percentage named, as -with our York stocks. Tyne and Tees Districts. — For Stations which can be best supplied from the T}.ne or Tees, we can forward direct from works in these neighbourhoods the 25 to 28 per cent soluble, also higher qualities if desired. These higher qualities usually cost less per unit than the ordinary 25 to 28 per cent. Section /.] Mineral Superphosphates. 15 The East Riding District, South Yorkshire, Eastern and the Midland Counties, etc. — For these districts we can forward, direct from various places, both the 25 to 28 per cent soluble, and the higher quality, 34 to 38 per cent, on close wholesale terms, thus saving carriage and other charges. London District. — We can also supply from London, etc., whenever carriage would be saved thereby. For our quotations for the above districts, we refer to our price-lists, and shall be glad to submit special offers, carriage paid, if desired, on application. To buyers of large quantities, who prefer to have a fresh analysis made for their particular deliveries, we shall be glad to make our best quotations, /ifr unit of phosphate made soluble, on the analysis of Dr. Voelcker, the Royal Agricultural Society's chemist ; or on the test of Mr. Fairley, the chemist to the York- shire Agricultural Society. Samples for analysis to be fairly taken on delivery by mutual arrangement, and the cost of analysis to be divided between buyer and seller. j5 [Section II- SECTION II. UNDISSOLVED PHOSPHATES. Bones and Bone Meals, Basic Cinder. BONES AND BONE MEALS. RAW AND UNSTEAMED. Bones contain two important fertilising constituents, phos- phate of lime, and nitrogen. The former exists in the form of tribasic phosphate, or bone-earth as it is often called, and amounts to from 45 to 50 per cent in good English bones, whilst in particularly clean, dry imported parcels, it occasionall}' runs up to 54 or 55 per cent. Associated with this phosphate of lime, throtighout the whole structure of the bone, is gelatine and other nitrogenous matter, yielding nitrogen equal to 4^ to 4i per cent of ammonia, the money value of which percentage is usually about as great as that of the whole of the phosphate of lime. When bones are steamed, the greater part of this valuable nitrogenous matter is destroyed, though the percentage of phosphates is proportionately increased. The manurial value of bones has been long appreciated : they form, when ground, an excellent permanent agricultural improvement, less likely than almost any other manure to waste in wet seasons, even on light sandy soils. Formerh- bones v^ere only ground to "half-inch," but their distribution on the land was so imperfect when so coarsel3'- ground, and their action so slow on many soils in that form, that finer grinding is now recommended, and their use as finely ground bone-meals has increased greatly in recent years. All crops require nitrogen and phosphates, and bones under suitable conditions maj^, there- fore, be used for all crops, but for roots and grass they are specially valuable. Fine grists of bone-meal, either raw or steamed, are also now recommended by some, in preference to superphosphates, for turnips on land subject to finger and toe or anbury. In addition to the home production of bones, large quantities are regularly imported from the Mediterranean and Baltic ports. South America, etc., and are usually drier than English bones, the latter often containing a much larger percentage of moisture than their appearance would indicate. Considerable impor- tations have also arrived latterly from India, principally from Bombay and Calcutta, both in the crushed and uncrushed form, and though for the most part good, the quality varies decidedly ; and some arrivals are not such as we could recommend. Section 11.] Bones and Bone Meals. 17 Our purchases of bones are carefullj^ selected as regards quality ; rubbish is systematically rejected before grinding ; and as we keep our stocks constantly under cover, we deliver in specially clean, dry condition. We prepare considerable quan- tities of the various grists of ground bones, and are glad at any time to show the bulks at our works here, to intending buyers. We have, for a long course of j^ears, invariabl^r delivered bones by weight, — i.e. by the ton, or by the quarter of 24 imperial stones, — as the practice of selling bj- a measured qxiarter is liable to abuse. We make a rule to test all our purchases of bone meal not ground by ourselves, and can, therefore, confidently recommend our bone-meals. As much care as ever is, however, still needed in purchasing. This is shown bj' recent reports of the Consult- ing Chemist in the Journalsof the Royal Agricultural Societj-, as the following extract will indicate : — Mr. — , of — , sent on May 19th, on behalf of — , a sample of 4 tons of Bone Meal, which had been purchased at £(> per ton, carriage paid. The order given on April 15th, 1892, was for 4 tons of best English Bone Meal, 4J per cent ammonia, 45 per cent phosphates. The report given on the sample was as follows : — Moisture 10-87 ' *Organic matter 3533 Phosphate of Lime 41-58 loo-oo f Carbonate of Lime, etc. 10-32 Sand ... 1-90 ^ 'Containing nitrogen . . . ■ 363 Equal to ammonia . . 4-41 flncluding common salt • 299 This is low in quality and contains some admixture of salt. The vendors offered los. per ton allowance, but Mr. — did not consider this sufficient, and ultimately /i per ton was deducted. As illustrating this need for care, we may add that the quality of imports varies very considerabl)^ sometimes by over £\ per ton in -value, between one cargo and another, some being much cleaner and drier than others, as well as containing more ammonia. Guarantees. — The Royal Agricultural Society has been in the habit of recommending its members, when purchasing Raw Bones, Bone Meal, or Bone Dust, to obtain a guarantee that they are "pure" and contain at least 45 per cent of phosphate of lime and 4 per cent of ammonia. All genuine unsteamed bones, in good dry condition, should fulfil this specification, and we therefore give these minimum guarantees with all our deliveries of raw bones and bone meals, whether English or foreign, though our tests invariably show higher figures. i8 Bones ajid Bone Meals. [Section II. Half-inch Raw Bones.— For all strong and good bodied soils not containing a large percentage of carbonate of lime, we recommend bone meals in preference to coarser grists, but on the wolds and chalky land generally decomposition is much more rapid, and many experienced farmers prefer half-inch grinding under such circumstances. Our stocks of " Half-inch " bones are well ground from the same high quality of clean raw bones as we name above, and we deliver in good dry condition, with all the dust, with the above guarantees. We shall be glad to give special quotations for lots of ten tons and upwards. English Half-inch Bones. — When ground alone, English bones are damp as compared with foreign bones, but being low in price, some may be disposed to use half-inch bones of this class. We shall, therefore, be glad to make special quotations of such when desired. They are believed to decompose in the soil rather more quickly than dry foreign bones of the same grist. Half-inch bones were formerly largely applied to grass land, turnips, etc., but being slow in action and liable to be carried away bj^ rooks, the}'' are not now considered so profitable an application as the more finely ground meals. For vine borders, bones are usually preferred in the half- inch form, with the dust riddled out. We can deliver thus when preferred. Bone Meals, raw and unstcamed. — We have recently in- creased the power of our grinding machinerj', and can now bring bones to any degree of fineness, — from coarse quarter-inch meal up to fine flour. Bones thus finely ground are much more effec- tive, because more thoroughlj' distributed on the land, than when only crushed to half-inch ; they also come into action in the soil more quickly, and this, we believe, much more than repays the extra cost of the better grinding. We usually make three separate grists of bone-meal, viz : — No. 2, grist ; from quarter-inch to fine meal, of which latter it contains a good proportion. No. 4, our medium grist ; decidedly finer grist than No. 2. No. 6, our finest ordinary grist ; as fine as coarse oatmeal, and very uniform. We can also supply very fine bone-flour for horticultural purposes, if required ; but we think that, for agricultural use, the meals are better value, being much less costly to grind. For quotations, we refer to our current price-sheets. All these bone-meals are made entirely from the best quality of bones. Of several analyses which have been made for us of these meals, we annex two by Mr. T. Fairley, F.R.S.E., Mean 8-38 7-83 811 3II2 2985 3048 49-43 49-46 49-44 I-5I 239 1-95 trace 1-37 ■69 956 910 933 lOOOO lOOOO loo-oo 4-06 3-61 383 4-93 4-38 4-65 Section II.] Boiies a7id Bone Meals. 19 chemist to tlie Yorkshire Agricultural Society, shewing a mean percentage of 49^44 phosphates and 4'65 ammonia. We believe these figures will not at all overstate the quality of our usual deliveries, though it will be seen that they considerably exceed the guaranteed percentages which the Roj'al Agricultural Society recommend bu3-ers to require. Moisture •Organic matter ' Phosphate o^ lime Siliceous matter Sulphate of lime Carbonate of lime •Containing nitrogen.. Equal to ammonia. . Bombay, Calcutta, and other Foreign Bone Meals. — These meals have been low in price for the last few years. We fre- quently have parcels of good quality for sale in lyiverpool, Hull, and other ports, which we can despatch to our clients direct from the docks, thus avoiding warehousing and other charges. We also keep stocks at our warehouses at York, to which we ship by water at a low freight, direct from the import vessel. The best brands of Calcutta and other Indian arrivals may be recom- mended, though they are, perhaps, somewhat slower in action than meals of English grinding. Preference is also often given to the meals of our own manufacture, on account of their more even grist. The following analyses of Indian bone-meals of fine quality — the first two by Dr. Voelcker and Sons, the third by Smetham — shew the usual composition of parcels of this high class : — M R H SE Moisture . . . . . . . . . . 890 7^43 705 •Organic matter and water of combination fPhosphoric acid Lime . . Carbonic acid, oxide of iron, etc. . . Insoluble siliceous matter . . 2875 2766 27-30 2478 23-49 24-63 33-40 31-51 3287 307 5-53 5-50 TIC 4-38 lOO'OO 2-65 loooo lOOOO 385 3-95 3-93 4-67 4-79 4-77 5409 51-28 63-76 •Containing nitrogen. . Equal to ammonia fEqual to tribasic phosphate of lime . We shall be glad at any time either to shew the bulks we have in stock, or to send samples by post on application. We guarantee all our deliveries of these foreign bone-meals in accordance with the Royal Agricultural Society's form : the actual tests will, we believe, prove higher in all cases. 20 Bones and Bone Meals. [Section II. Bone Sawings.— These (if pure) are usually of high quality ; we frequently have fine parcels on oifer, of very good value. We forward them direct from the bone-working centres (Sheffield, Birmingham and London), and so save carriage to our buyers. Adulteration.— The greater part of the imports of bone-meal are, on the whole, of good quality, and practically free from the adulteration with carbonate of lime (chalk) so common in some past years. But parcels of very inferior quality still arrive from time to time. A cargo landed at a northern port not long since, shewed 26 per cent sand, and only 3^ per cent ammonia. It was quoted to us at somewhat under the value of higher qualities, and described as the "cheapest bone-meal ever sold on this market." Whether its low price was the lowest recorded we do not know, but it was not by any means the cheapest in the sense of the best value. Such of the buyers of this parcel as happened not to be in the habit of having their goods tested, doubtless congratulated themselves on having made a good purchase. With Bone Sawings and somfe of the fine white bone meals, vegetable ivory, which has no value as a fertiliser, is sometimes found as an adulterant. The admixture of vegetable ivory may be detected by a very simple experiment, thus : add a few drops of strong sulphuric acid to a small portion of the bulk of the bone meal, placed in a saucer. After a short time, if vegetable ivory be present, it will become blackened ; but if the sample consist only of genuine bone, it remains of a lighter yellowish grey colour. The following is extracted from a recent Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society. The following case is an illustration of the need of precaution in purchasing very finely ground bone meal. The finer portions of the meal obtained after grinding and sifting frequently contain very much higher percentages of fine sand and dirt than the coarser kinds, The sand is not actually added by way of adulteration to bone-meals, but is separated out from the coarser, and retained to a greater extent in the finer portions during the process of sifting ; hence the finer meals are often of inferior quality. Although rightly sold at a lower price in consequence, the very fine meals ought not to be described as " pure." Mr. — , of — , sent on April 18, a sample of bone-meal, 15 tons of which, he stated, had been sold to him as " pure, raw, ground bone-meal." The following analysis was returned : — Moisture Organic matter Phosphate of lime . . Carbonate of lime, etc. Insoluble siliceous matter . 7-55 \ 24-35 45-49 779 1482 . loo-oo Containing nitrogen . . Equal to ammonia. . . 303 3-67 STEAMED OR DEGELATINISED BONES. 21 Bones which have been steamed a1. high pressure, in order to extract the gelatine contained, lose in this process the larger proportion of their ammonia, — only i^ to 2 per cent remain- ing ; they have, however the advantage of a proportionately larger percentage of phosphate of lime, which the steaming process has rendered more readily soluble, so that its action is greatly quickened in the soil. The steaming process also removes the fat from the bones, but this is rather an advantage manurially, as fat itself is valueless as a fertiliser, and when present has a tendency to retard decomposition. The steamed bones are usuall}- lower in price than such as have not been subjected to this process, though the last year or two this reduction has not been very marked. Discretion and knowledge of the article are therefore required in purchasing, as also in deciding whether the steamed or unsteamed bones are the more suitable for the requirements of each case. Bones are frequently only boiled or slightly steamed, so that but very little gelatine is extracted. These, of course, contain much more nearly than the fully-steamed bones the proportion of nitrogen and phosphates found in raw bones. They can be recommended where the nitrogen is important, or where some- what quicker action is desired than can be obtained from entirely raw bones. If only boiled in an open vessel, and for so limited a time that the gelatine is not dissolved out, such bones may be considered "raw." Bone-meal, steamed. — The make of Steamed bones we have usually found best suited for this district is finely ground meal, containing 60 to 63 per cent phosphates and li to 2 per cent ammonia. We can supply this either at York or free on rails in the Midland Counties, as is most convenient to buyers (see our current price-lists). This meal, being soreadily decomposed in the soil, is specially suitable where early results are required. The following analysis by Voelcker and Sons shows its average composition : — Moisture .. .. H'S? •Organic matter and' salts of ammonia. . .. 1901 Phosphate of lime, magnesia, etc. . . 60-02 Siliceous matter . . . . . . . . . . '86 Sulphate of lime . . . . . . . . . . 52 Alkaline salts, carbonate of lime (by difference) 802 •Containing nitrogen 160 .. Equal to ammonia 1'94. Bone-flour, steamed. — We can also supply the same .steamed bones represented by the above analysis, and of the same composition, but still further reduced to fine flour, at as. 6d. per ton above our quotations for the meal. We shall be glad to send samples on application. \ 22 Steamed or Degelaiinised Bodies. [Section II. Bone-meal, boiled. — We also offer boiled bone-meal usually guaranteed to contain 3^ to 4 per cent ammonia and 50 to 52 per cent phosphates, of nice fine grist, which we can supply either at York, or on rails in South Yorkshire. Caution. — Care is also required in buying these steamed bone-meals, as will be seen from the following, extracted from a Report of the Chemical Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, see Journal, Vol. xxv., second series, pp. 775-6. Mr, — , of — , sent two samples of boiled bones for examination as to their purity ; and on hearing that ' neither of them was free from admixture,' applied for a fuller analysis and report. The following is the analytical report sent to him in reply : — No. I No. 2 Moisture loog 2051 Organic matter 17-56 I5'59 Phosphate of lime. . 51-23 39-63 Sulphate of lime 129 7-64 Carbonate of lime, etc. 1679 884 Salt 2-04 2-88 Insoluble siliceous matter I 04 4-91 I00"00 100 00 :;ontaining nitrogen . . 103 ■85 Equal to ammonia. . . 1-25 1-03 Both samples have admixture of common salt ; No. i is further adulterated with carbonate of lime (chalk), and No. 2 with sulphate of hme (gypsum). BASIC CINDER PHOSPHATES, VARIOUS MAKES. These phosphates have now earned for themselves a recognised position as a very cheap and valuable addition to our available supply of phosphoric acid for agricultural use. They have been tried extensively in all parts of the country, and on a great variety of crops and soils, with, of course, some- what varying results ; but the general experience of the last six years strongly confirms our belief in their real value as fertilisers. Many buyers who commenced with small experimental quantities have since used them much more largely, and the demand has been fully equal to the supply. Values have consequently somewhat advanced since the first introduction of the article, notwithstanding that the prdduction is now at least 125,000 tons annually in Great Britain, and over 600,000 tons in German)^ France and Belgium, the whole of which large quantity passes readily into agricultural consumption. Section //.] Basic Cinder Phosphates. 23 Percentages. — The percentages of phosphoric acid contained in the various basic phosphates differ according to the particular make. The highest qualities contain 18 to 20 per cent phosphoric acid, equal to 39 to 44. per cent phosphate of lime. The guaranteed minimum percentages of other makes are 37 to 42, 28 to 33, and 20 to 24 per cent, or even less, of phosphate of lime respectively, and the prices vary greatly accordinglj'. It must be borne in mind that the actual tests are often considerablj- higher than the guaranteed minima ; thus, the average of about a dozen recent tests of one of the better makes which we supply shews over 41 per cent phosphate of lime. The high qualities are usually the cheapest to the consumer, and can better bear the cost of railway carriage ; but something also depends on the locality. We print at the conclusion of this chapter several represen- tative analyses by different chemists, which may interest inquirers. The prices at which these high percentages of phosphate of lime can be supplied are so low that we think the article well worthy of a trial, especiallj- on strong clays, and on peats and moory soils rich in humus and 3'ielding carbonic acid ; also on wet meadows and exhausted pastures on a great variety of soils. Basic phosphates are also strongly recommended for soils deficit in lime, and for crops having an extended period of growth, particularly such as are laid down for two or more years. Grist. — These basic phosphates are of little, if any, value as fertilisers unless they are ground to a very fine powder. The guarantees of grinding of the different makes vary somewhat, but the exceeding fineness required will be seen when we say that, with each of the various basic phosphates which we quote, we guarantee that at least 80 to go per cent of the powder will pass through a standard sieve equal to 10,000 holes (100 x 100) to each square inch, while a large proportion passes a much finer mesh. This ver}- fine grinding of .so hard a substance is, we need hardly add, an expensive process, and constitutes a large part of the cost of these basic .cinder phosphates. But in order to reap the full benefit of their manurial value, this very fine grinding is absolutely necessary, as repeated experiment has proved, that it is onl}' in their finely ground form that the phosphoric acid contained becomes readily available in the soil. We notice as we write, an advertisement from an iron works district, of " Disintegrated slag for foundations, garden footpaths, and matiu?-e for arable land, to pass the ^-inch mesh. Price 2/6 per ton." We see no mention of the percentage of phosphoric acid, if any, but even the highest quality of phosphatic slag, thus coarsely ground, would be practicalh' valueless as a fertiliser. Purchasers should therefore always obtain a definite guarantee of the percentage that will pass the standard sieve. Quotations. — We forward the basic phosphates from I^eeds, Staffordshire, Cleveland, Lancashire, etc., in truck loads of four 24 Basic Cinder Phosphates. [Section II. tons and upwards, direct to our clients' stations. We shall' be glad to make special quotations for large quantities, and to give any further information in our power ; also to send samples to any of our correspondents who may wish to see the fineness of the grinding. Application. — When applied to grass and clover these phosphates have produced very striking results, not only in the increased yield, but in the permanent improvement in the quality of the herbage and the development of the white clover, when this plant had previously been hardly noticeable. In some exceptional cases, where the application of basic phosphates has not seemed to produce any marked effect, we think it probable that the soil is alread3^ sufficienth' rich in phosphates. On light sands its effect has not always been so favourable as on some other soils, — due probably to the lime contained in the slag. The phosphate of lime contained in basic phosphates is not so soluble as superphosphates, and the}' should therefore be applied somewhat earlier. On pasture and meadow lands autumn or winter applications at the rate of five to ten cwt per acre are usually the most economical, but the full effect of this will not be by any means exhausted in the first year,— indeed the effect has often proved more apparent the second year than the first. On arable land the most suitable tipae for the application will generally be previous to ploughing, thus giving time for the decomposition of the material, and the liberation of the phos- phoric acid for the use of the growing plant. The Basic Cinder is usually sown broadcast on growing crops, either by means of a drill or otherwise, and a calm day should be selected for its application. For root crops it is applied in the rows, similarly to other hand-manures. Four to six cwts per acre will give good results, but as the labour of application is a material consideration on so low-priced an article, five to ten cwts, according to qualitj-, are more frequently used. It is hardly needful to point out that, though these basic cinder phosphates supply phosphoric acid at so cheap a rate, they contain neither nitrogen nor potash— the two other important principles required by plants. These should, therefore, in most cases be supplied in other waj-s, and we believe the best results have been obtained where, in order to supply the needed potash, kainit has been mixed with basic cinder, or put on separately if less labour. The two are best applied in the winter or ear/v spring, and ma}- be followed, somewhat later in the season, by a light dressing of some suitable source of nitrogen, as nitrate" of soda, where such is needed. Section //.] Basic Cinder Phosphates. 25 Whenever it is desirable to apply in one dressing tlie various manures required, the basic phosphates may be quite suitably mixed with nitrate of soda and potash salts, but as such mixtures are liable to "set" somewhat, they should not be mixed long before use. Basic Cinder Phosphates should not in any case be mixed with sulphate of ammonia, guanos, or other ammoniacal articles, as the lime present in the slag liberates the ammonia and wastes it. Nor should we think it desirable to mix with superphosphates, as the solubility of the latter would be materially reduced there- by, and a "precipitated," "reduced," or "reverted" phosphate would be formed. An experienced and dependable observer within four miles of York, writes : — I found it (Basic Cinder) answer wonderfully well with me on strong clay pasture land that had been very much neglected by the previous tenant. The clover I had, wherever I put it on, was quite remarkable. I find it answers for the clovers better than for the other grasses, though they did fairly well also. On the other hand it must not be assumed that these basic phosphates will prove remunerative applications on a//soils. "We have had a few adverse reports from dependable correspondents, who say they have produced no effect on their land. "Thomas-Gilchrist" Process.— All these basic phosphates are bye-products of the conversion of Cleveland, Staffordshire, and other pig-irons into steel and ingot iron, by the " Thomas Gilchrist" process, which was patented in 1879 bj' Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist, and has since come into extensive use ; 493,000 tons of steel having been made by this method in i88g in England, and three and a half times this amount in other countries. A similar basic phosphate, but decidedly lower in qualit}', results from the " Martin " process used on the Continent. Almost all our British iron-ores, excepting the haematites, contain a small proportion of phosphorus, which renders them unsuitable for the manufacture of steel by the Siemens and ordinary Bessemer processes. The Cleveland, Staffordshire, and Scotch ores, when smelted into "pig," contain proportions of phosphorus, varying from nearly one to about three per cent, and it is the special object of the " Thomas-Gilchrist " process to eliminate this objectionable phosphorus. The Bessemer con- verters are lined with magnesian limestone, and by forcing air through the molten mass the phosphorus is oxidised to phos- phoric acid ; and this, combining with the lime, forms phosphate of lime, which passes into the slag and floats as scum on the surface of the molten metal. 26 Basic Cinder Phosphates. [Section II. The Basic Cinder or phospliatic slag so produced had accumulated greatly in the Middlesbro' district as well as in the Staffordshire and other steel works ; and, until a few years ago, it was practically wasted. The attention of agricultural chemists had been directed for some time previously to its possible use as a source of phosphoric acid for the soil ; but combinations of phosphoric acid with iron are much less soluble than phosphates of lime, and this characteristic was, at first, generally believed to preclude the use, for manure purposes, of these and other phosphatic articles when associated with much But it has been shown by Dr. Paul Wagner, Director of the Agricultural Experimental Station at Darmstadt, also by Bvicking and L,inck-Stahl, and some other German and English chemists that, under the very high temperature of the blast furnace, the phosphoric acid in the basic slag combines with the lime in two forms, of different degrees of solubility ; partly as a tribasic phosphate with silicate of lime, 4(Ca03P205) + CaOSi03, and partly as a tetrabasic phosphate, approximately represented by the formula (CaO)^P205, and containing a particularly large proportion of lime in a state of supersaturatiou ; and that, in this somewhat unstable form, it is, when sufiElcientl}' finely ground, more readily decomposed and rendered soluble by the action of the carbonic and vegetable acids in the soil. Dr. Wagner has also recently established that the presence of the combined silicic acid increases, w thin certain narrow limits, the relative solubilit}' of the phosphates in basic slag. This has latterh' been confirmed b}- Mr. J. E. Stead, F.I.C., whose location at Middlesbro' has given him special facilities for the study of this question. He has been engaged in a series of investigations into the conditions under which the solubility is maximised, with a view to ascertaining whether there are any practicable modifications in the manufacture of basic slag by which its solubility, and, therefore, its agricultural value, can be materially increased. Experiments. — Simultaneously with Dr. Wagner's dis- coveries, the agricultural value of the article has been conclu- sively proved in our own country on a great variety of soils, by a large number of careful experiments conducted in 18S4 and 1885 by Prof Wrightson and Dr. Munro, of the Down ton Agricultural College; in 1886 by Prof E. Kinch at the Royal Agricultural College farm ; by Mr. Warington on Sir J. B. l,awes's farm at Rothamsted ; by Dr. A. P. Aitken at Pumpherston ; and more recently by Mr. Gilchrist and Mr. Charles F. Archibald of the Agricultural Department of the Bangor College, as well as by many other agricultural authorities. The results of these Section //.] Basic Cinder Phosphates. 27 experiments have been freely reported in the agricultural press. In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for March, 1890 will also be found an interesting article on Basic Cinder as a Manure, by Prof. E. Kinch, who summarises the results of a series of experiments conducted in different counties in the preceding j-ear. The last of the analyses appended to this chapter is taken from Prof. E. Kinch's paper. Adulteration. — It might, not unnaturally, be assumed that so low-priced an article as the Basic Cinder would offer no temp- tation to adulteration or imposition of any kind. But it must be borne in mind that it is only the slag resulting from the Thomas- Gilchrist process of steel-conversion that .contains the high per- centage of phosphoric acid which gives to the basic slag its manurial value. The ordinary iron and steel slags produced by the old processes, and of which there are now very large accumulations in the Cleveland and other districts, contain very much less phosphoric acid, and are, we believe, of very little, if any, value as manure, no matter how finely they may be ground. There is, however, little doubt that some of these comparatively worthless iron slags do find their waj- into the market in the fiinely ground form, so that care is required in purchasing even this low-priced article. Dr. Wagner states that in Germany some worthless iron slags, containing no phosphates at all, are being fraudulently sold, in imitation of the Basic Cinder. The "Martin" slag referred to above, which, we are informed, has been fraudulently sold on the continent as "Thomas" slag, contains, we believe, only about eleven per cent phosphoric acid and forty per cent lime. We ourselves saw, a while ago, the detailed analysis of some practically worthless slag, containing less than one per cent of phosphoric acid, but for which, we are informed, 40s. per ton was being asked. We believe that the slags containing the highest percentages of phosphoric acid are quite undistinguishable by mere appearance from the worthless makes, and that nothing short of a chemical analysis can test their value as fertilisers. In the Journal of the Royal, for June, 1893, ''^^^ ^e found particulars of a sale of a quantity of slag at 25/- per ton, which proved on analysis by Dr. Voelcker to be quite innocent of either phosphoric acid or lime. It contained 82 per cent of " insoluble siliceous matter," and Dr. Voelcker reported that it supplied "no fertilising ingre- dient whatever." In a later volume of the same journal. Dr. Voelcker reports that the sale of this worthless article still continues, another similar case having come before him, where a member would have purchased sixty tons but for a timeh' test. 28 ANALYSES OF BASIC SLAGS. [^Section II. VARIOUS QUALITIES. Minimum guarantees of phosphoric acid i8 % 17 % 14 % •Phosphoric acid P^Oj Lime . . . . Ca O Silica . . . . Si O3 Ferrous oxide . . Fe O Ferric oxide . . Fe^ Oj Oxide manganese Mn O Magnesia . . Mg O Alumina .. Al^ O3 Loss by ignition "Equal to Tribasic phosphate of lime Soluble in citrate of ammonia Percentage passing fine mesh of 10,000 holes per square inch 18-41 • 1730 . • 1423 4328 . 43-80 . . 41-80 12-91 ■ 1370 • • 18-73 6-61 ■ 843 . • 570 8-38 • 5'44 • . 8-26 6-50 • 550 . ■ 472 2-8i . 2-65 . I 22 — . -98 . . 2-38 i-io 2-20 . 2-96 lOOOO lOOOO lOOOO 40'19 37-70 31 -06 31-18 29-10 23-76 87-20 8700 85-82 20th Feb., 1895. Pattinson & Stead, 15th Feb., 1895. J. Hughes, F.C.S., i6th Jan., 1891. Phosphoric acid . . Lime Magnesia Peroxide of iron 18-00 . . 47-62 6-09 ■ • 443 -^Phosphoric acid Lime Magnesia Peroxide of iron 18-70 50'37 5 43 3-81 Protoxide of iron ■■ 5-91 Protoxide of iron 935 Silica 7-85 ■ Protoxide manganese, alumina 6-oo Carbonic acid, & combined -water 4-10 Sulphur Alumiiia Alkalies, & others not determ'd. -18 2-32 2-17 Water -07 *ir«„^7 #^ lOOOO Silica 7-60 * Equal to Tribasic phosphate o-f lime 39*29 Phosphate dissolved in Wag- ners acid citrate of am- monia re-agent on shaking together for half-an-hour . . 3026 Insoluble phosphate . . 9-03 Percentage of fine meal ^Phosphoric acid . . Lime Magnesia Peroxide of iron Protoxide of iron Protoxide of manganese Sulphur Alumina, etc., not determined Carbonic acid . . Combined water Silica . . 39-29 86-51 16-00 38-21 4-14 6 71 11-95 5-23 •43 2-89 2-24 1-60 9-60 *Eqiui/ to Tribasic phosphate o-flime 34--92 *Eqnal to Tribasic phosphate of lime 40-82 (See Prof E Kinch in Ro-^- Soc. Journ. HI arch, i8go. •Phosphoric acid Lime Magnesia Ferrous oxide . . Ferric oxide ilanganese oxide -Vanadium oxide Sulphide of lime Sulphuric acid . . Silica Alumina . . Moisture, carbonic acid, alka- lies, etc. Agr. t 16-50 49'oo 5-00 1 1 00 350 3-50 20 -60 20 700 2 00 1-50 'Equal to Tribasic phosphate of lime 36-00 Section III.'] 29 SECTION III. NITROGENOUS and AMMONIACAL MANURES, including Rape Cakes, Rape-seed Meal, Fish Manures, Ichaboe and Peruvian Guanos, Sulphate of Ammonia, Nitrate of Soda, etc. RAPE CAKE AND RAPE DUST. Rape-cakes are the residue from Rape-seed, after the oil has" been extracted by crushing; they owe their manurial value mainly to their large proportion of vegetable organic matter, which, decomposing slowly in the soil, yields, according to quality, from 5 to 7^ per cent of ammonia, and 3^ to 5|- per cent of phosphates. Rape-seed comes in large quantities from the South Russian provinces, shipped through the Black Sea ; and a fine quality (Rubsen) from Germany and Hungary. Some very high qualities are also imported from the Eastern provinces of India, making cakes which test very high in nitrogen. The old yellow Guzerat and the Jamba seed are, perhaps, the best im- ported, but the brown East Indian seed is of excellent quality. This old-fashioned tillage still retains its long- established character as an excellent source of nitrogen for any crop for which it can be harrowed-in or worked under the surface ; and it remains in regular demand each spring season, though the low values of wheat of late years have tended to lessen the autumn consumption of rape-nuts. Rape-cake has, however, fallen in price so much recenth' as to render it of particularly good value, as well as being also an excellent and safe fertiliser. In cases where buyers have convenience for grinding at home, we can sometimes effect for them a saving in carriage by forwarding Rape-cakes direct from the seed-crushing mills, in various places. Instead of the old-fashioned crushing of the seed, another process has been recentlj^ introduced for extracting the oil from the ground rape-seed, namely, by means of a chemical solvent. This process secures the more complete extraction of the oil, and leaves rather larger percentages of nitrogen and phosphates in the residual meal, both which are decided advantages for manurial purposes. Manurial Use. — Both of the fertilising principles in rape- dust are in excellent forms for application to almost any crop, and experiments continue abundantl}' to confirm the high opinion commonly entertained of the value of rape-cake. When its value 30 Rape Cake and Rape Dust. [Section III as a manure for corn was under discussion, Sir John B. lyawes stated, with regard to the result of a series of experiments care- fully conducted at Rothamsted : — I should say that, as a manure for the production of grain crops, no substances exist which are more certainly efficacious than the' various oilcakes, whether they are applied directly to the land, or by means of feeding with stock. It may further be said with something, like certainty, that if, parallel with our rape-cake experiments, an equal weight of ground barley had been applied to the land, the produce per acre would have been considerably less than that obtained by the cake. This is confirmed by Dr. Voelcker's report on the Woburn experiments, 1889-90, on the continuous growth of wheat with different manures : — The effect of rape-cake, applied so as to give 100 lbs of ammonia per acre is greater than that of farm-yard manure estimated to contain double that amount. — See Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, June, i8gi, p. 364. Thus rape-dust forms an excellent constituent of fertilisers for spring corn, potatoes and line, and indeed of most compounded manures which are intended to be harrowed in, and covered up by the soil. This fertiliser was formerh' used for turnips almost as extensivel}^ and with as much success, as it now is for potatoes and in Some districts it is still largely applied as a turnip and mangel manure On many soils its mechanical action is also a recommendation. For potatoes rape-duist has long been largely used in the extensive potato-raising districts of the East Riding; and though it has in recent years been to some extent replaced by more quickly acting manures, some of the more successful growers are again returning to its use. A series of interesting experiments were conducted in 1892 by arrangement between the Selby Agricultural Club, and the Agriculttiral Department of the Yorkshire College of Science, in conjunction with the West Riding County Council, under the superintendence of Dr. James Clark, in order to ascertain the comparative values of equal quantities of nitrogen when applied to the potato crop in the forms of rape-dust, sulphate of ammonia, and nitrate of soda respectively. The experiments were carried out in the neighbourhood of Selbj' on three different classes of soil. The results were decidedlj- in favour of rape-dust as the most economical source of nitrogen both as regards the weight and quality of the crop, and especially the freedom from disease, as well as the after condition of the soil; — a much larger proportion of the valuables of the rape-dust remaining for the next crop's use than in the case of any of the other manures. For autumn wheat manuring, rape-nuts have long been largely used ; for this crop they form a very suitable manure, answering well on strong soils, either alone or, better still, in conjunction with bone superpho.sphate. Section III.] Rape Cake and Rape Dust. 31 Purchasing. — Not less care is required now in purchasing rape cakes than used to be the case; the lowest priced cakes are not always the cheapest, as will be seen from the following, extracted from two of Dr. Voelcker's Annual Reports to the Royal Agricultural Societj-. Rape-cake, used as a manure, has been hard to obtain pure or of good quality. Admixture of earth and dirt is very frequent, and cannot arise purely from accident, at least in the following sample which I examined — 1888 Journal, p. 302 Moisture . . . . . . . . 7'i3 'Organic matter Phosphates Alkalies, etc. Sand 'Containing nitrogen . . . . . . . . 356 Equal to .\mmonia . . . . . . . . 432 Subjoined is an analysis of rape-cake sold for manurial purposes, but which it will be observed, was very inferior indeed, having nearly 37 per cent of sand and earthy matter. — 1889 Journal, p. 353. Moisture .. .. .. •■ -. •• 719 \ 'Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . 44'8i | Oxide of iron, alumina, phosphate of lime, etc. 9-44 i*" loo-oo Alkalies, etc. . . . . . . . . . . 171 Insoluble siliceous matter and sand . . . . 36'85 ■^ 'Containing nitrogen .. .. .. .. .. 1-63 Equal to ammonia .. .. .. .. .. 158 For comparison with the above analj'ses of impure cakes, we print below, three tests made by Mr. T. Fairley, chemist to the Yorkshire Agricujtural Society, and another chemist, represent- ing good qualities of Black Sea and fine East Indian rape cakes respectively. Good Good East Indian Fme East Black Sea. (Brown or Green}. Indian (Jamba) Moisture 903 914 7-95 'Organic matter . . 8170 8136 8425 Phosphates 5-12 4-82 ] 5-90 Alkalies, etc. ■56 1-59 Sand 359 lOOOO 309 1-90 loo-oo lOOOO 'Containing nitrogen 4-81 529 5-88 Equal to ammonia 5-84 6'42 7-1* East Indian Rape Calces. — The cakes made from sound East Indian seed are usually the best quality used for manure ; they contain nitrogen equal to about 6^ to 7A per cent ammonia. Rape dust is, we believe, not unfrequently sold as East Indian, which is not entiiely such. We have reason to know that, in some recent years at any rate, a large proportion of the mustard-seed-cakes crushed were not sold as mustard-cakes, but 32 Rape Cake and Rape Dust. [Section III- were ground up with fine yellow East Indian rape- cakes, from which, when ground, they are not readily distinguishable by the unpractised eye. Such so-called East Indian rape-dust can of course be sold at a much lower price than that made honestly from sound East Indian rape-seed only. For quotations, see our price currents, Black Sea Rape Cakes, if of good quality and made from clean seed, contain nitrogen equal to 5I to 6 per cent ammonia. If from particularly fine seed, they occasionally test rather higher even than these figures, but only in very exceptional cases. Inferior Black Sea cakes, however, contain decidedly less ammonia ; further than this, such low quality cakes frequently consist largely of the sittings from foul linseed and other oily seeds ; when this is the case, they have been known to introduce objectionable weed-seeds into the soil, but this, of course, does not apply to the better qualities. On the whole, Black Sea rape seed has been cleaner and better quality of late years than used to be the case, and the cakes test proportionately better. There are still, however, more than enough of cakes of poor character, so that buyers should still assure themselves as to quality. Rape-seed Meal. — We also keep in stock parcels of rape- meal from which the oil has been chemically extracted by the process named above, leaving the residue of greatly increased value as manure. These oil-extracted meals contain more nitrogen than would the rape-dust from the same seed if crushed into cakes in the ordinary way : they are also much more bulky. Of late, these rape-meals have been low in price, and we think them very good value ; whenever this is the case, they may be recommended as a cheap manure, though their appearance is not quite so nice as that of the usual ground cake, made by the older crushing process. The usual qualities we keep test from 5f to 6i per cent ammonia, and 7 J to 7f respectively, the former being from Black Sea seed, and the latter from the finest East Indian. We annex analyses by Dr. Bernard Dyer, F.I.C., of parcels of these two qualities. Moisture (loss at 212° Fahr.) 'Organic matter fPhosphoric acid Lime . . . . . . ... Magnesia, alkalies, carbonic acid, etc, Insoluble siliceous matter . . •Containing nitrogen . . Equal to £immoni£i , . . . tEqual to tribasic phosphate of lime Black East Sea. Indian 1046 n-26 7824 81-30 183 1-82 I'2I 101 3'46 293 480 1-68 lOO'OO lOO'OO 509 630 6-18 7-65 3-99 397 Section III.] Rape Cake and Rape Dust. 33 Wireworm. — A broadcast application of 4 to 8 cwt per acre of ground East Indian rape or mustard-cakes, or other rape-dusts is also recommended for the destruction of the wire-worm, the larvae of some species of Elateridse, — beetles known as Skipjacks and Click-beetles ( Agriotes lineatus, Agriotes sptttator and Agriotes obscurus) . The rape-cake is believed to attract the worm, which eats it greedil}' in preference: to the corn. The annual reports by Miss E. A. Ormerod, the late Hon. Consulting Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society, have contained interesting observations on this point from time to time, but it is not yet proved that the application of rape or mustard- cake for this purpose is more than a temporary remedy. See also an Article on "The Prevention of Insect Attacks" by Charles Whitehead, in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, June, 1891 ; and a leaflet on Wireworm, just issued by the Board of Agriculture, which we reprint in extenso, in our Appendix. DRIED FISH MANURES. Fish Guanos (so-called). These manures are bye-products of the large fish-curing factories. The fish-refuse is first pressed under heat to extract the oil, wholly or in part ; it is then reduced to a fine dry meal in excellent condition for agricultural use. Containing, as they do, a high percentage of ammonia, combined with a fair proportion of phosphates, these fish-meals form very valuable fertilisers, and are now in high estimation for application to almost any crop requiring tl^ese principles in a not too soluble form. The demand, especially for the continent, has much increased, and seems some- what beyond the .suppl}'. Prices have, therefore, ruled somewhat higher of late than the extraordinarily low valueswhich ruled early in this decade. We can recommend these meals as very safe applications, permanently enriching the laud. English Fish IVleals. — We annex analyses by Messrs. A. Voelcker and Sons of two representative parcels of English manufacture, pure, and of high quality. We keep fish meals always in stock at York, having usually a selection of several cargoes during the season. We can also forward similar qualities direct to our buj'ers' stations, from the various places of manufacture, Hull, Grimsby, etc. For quotations see our daily price-sheets. 34 Dried Fish Manures. \Siction III. Moisture 'Organic matter and water of combination Phosphoric acid Equal to phospha.te of lime Lime . . Oxide of iron, alumina, magnesia, car- bonic acid, etc. . . Insoluble siliceous matter . . 'Containing nitrogen. . Equal to ammonia Ex Ex Ex "Julia," " Romeo," ' "Morning 66. lob. , Star." 1911 2037 14-58 57-25 53-23 56-44 680 813 8-15 (14-84) (17-75) (17-79) 784 10-36 9-90 7-41 6-86 9-14 1-59 105 1-79 loooo lOOOO lOOOO 825 7-64 8-45 10-02 9-28 10-26 Fish Meals are very suitable for use with mineral super- phosphates and kainit, for growing roots at a low cost per acre. Such a mixture, only costing 3s. to 5s. per cwt, according to the proportions, gives excellent results for roots, especially on light soils. Guarantees. — In our fish-meals, unless otherwise stated, we guarantee the minimum percentages named on our price-sheets, subject to Voelcker's test of samples mutually drawn, moderate excess of one constituent to stand against slight deficiency of another at the respective market values. I^ower qualities. — We may add that much lower qualities are in plentiful supply, at lower prices, but the higher qualities are, in our opinion, the most economical to the user. A make con- taining about 3 per cent ammonia and 3 per cent phosphate of lime, with over 60 per cent carbonate of lime, is, we believe, sold freely in some districts at about half the price of our higher qualities. Oil in Fisli IVleais. — Fish meals vary very much in their freedom or otherwise from oil, a constituent which is useless as a manure, and the presence of which tends to lessen the solubility of the fertilising principle.^ contained. Indeed, some experi- ments tried by Dr. Clark, of the Yorkshire College, and some other chemists, seem to show that an excessive percentage of oil retards decomposition, not only in the fish meal itself, but in the adjacent particles of soil. Fish meals made from herrings usually contain from 10 to 17 per cent of oil, whilst the best makes of meal, altogether or in part from " white-fish," usually contain from 5 to 10 per cent oil. We, therefore, always give the preference in our selection to the latter class of fish-meal, as we consider the more oih' parcels are decidedlj^ less valuable per unit of ammonia and phosphates. Application. — In the report on the Barley experiment tried by the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture in 1887, on Mr. Garrett Section III.'] Dried Fish Manures. 35 Taylor's farm at Whitlingham, in order to compare the values of the residues from different kinds of manures applied for the mangold crop of the previous year, we noticed that the plot on which fish maniire had been used gave the best barley results in the following year. This confirms our own opinion, that the whole of the value of fish manure is not by any means exhausted in the first year. Dr. Aitken, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, strongly recommends that potash, in which fish manures are somewhat wanting, should be used with them ; also that a proportion of ammonia and phosphates, in more soluble forms than are contained in the fish manures should be added. He remarks : They would be still further improved if there were added to them some high-class superphosphates and a little sulphate of ammonia. For general purposes I would recommend a fish manure so mixed as to show from 5 to 10 per cent soluble phosphate, 15 to 20 per cent insoluble phosphate, 10 per cent of ammonia, .partly soluble, and 4 per cent potash; and I feel sure that if manufac- turers can produce such a manure it will rapidly become popular with farmers, and produce a good market for a substance of which there is a truly inexhaustible supply ; and the result will not only be a gain to agriculture, but also a means of giving greater stability and security to our fisheries, which have lost much in the past from the wholesale destruction of valuable fish material. — North British Agriculturist, /■. 54. t The above recommendation of Dr. Aitken is particularly interesting to us, in that it is exactly on these lines, though using a greater range of materials, that we have for many years past compounded our guaranteed mixed manures, supplying in each of them the ammonia and phosphates, both which are derived from a considerable choice of articles, in different degrees of solubility, so as to carry on the plant through all the stages of its growth, up to complete maturity (see section 5.) Adulteration. — Fish-meals, like so many other articles, are occasionally adulterated. In a recent issue of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, Dr. Voelcker reports a case of so- called " Fish Manure," bought by a member at £t, per ton, which proved on analysis to contain more than 50 per cent of sand, carbonate of lime and oxide of iron, and to be "not worth paying carriage upon." This proves that adulteration of fish- meals is still practised. We niaj^ mention that an adulterant specially prepared for the purpose — a fine brown powder, resembling a well-prepared fish-meal — has been recently on off'er to the trade at under ;^i per ton. We hope the demand has not been brisk, but the circumstance may well make buyers cautious. DRIED BLOOD. This is a concentrated source of nitrogen, which yields some 14 to 18 per cent ammonia by gradual decomposition in the soil; it is, however, hardly sufficiently soluble for most 36 Dried Blood. [Section III- purposes, and we think the previously named articles supply ammonia and phosphates in better and more suitable forms. In addition to these considerations the price is, frequently, somewhat high. It is imported from South America and other countries in addition to the home supply. ICHABOE /A GUANO. This article was not very largely used in this immediate neighbourhood until a few years ago, since which time con- siderable quantities have been sold throughout the district, and it has shown satisfactory results. It has long been popular in many districts in the south of England, where it is well- known and preferred by many to Peruvian guano. This guano is the pure fresh excreta of sea-birds ; it is deposited on the Ichaboe group of islands, which are situate on the south west coast of Africa, about 26° south latitude, and 15° east longitude, and some 600 miles north of the Cape of Good Hope, whence it is imported direct to the United Kingdom. The deposits increase yearly to a very considerable extent, and the birds multiply largely on the Island of Ichaboe and the adjacent rocks. After the hatching season is over and the young birds are strong enough to shift for themselves, they leave the islands, — generally about March, — returning again in June ; and during this interval the excrement is collected and placed in pits, ready for shipment. It will thus be seen that the present supplies of Ichaboe guano are the dried fresh deposits of sea-birds which feed upon the enormous quantity of small fish that frequent the water surrounding the islands. The circumstance that the Ichaboe Islands are rarely visited by rain, and that the guano is collected before the recent deposits have been deteriorated by moisture in the air or other influences, explains the high percentage of ammonia contained in this guano. The high character held by the present yield of Ichaboe guano is no doubt partly due to the fact that its essentials are fresh, and that the ammonia contained is present in a variety of chemical compounds, all of organic origin ; these the importers claim to be of greater value than a similar percentage of ammonia in guanos of older deposit. We annex a representative analysis showing the usual rich character of this guano, but the figures vary somewhat in different parcels. It will be noticed that Ichaboe guano is particularly high in nitrogen, whilst it also contains a good percentage of phosphates. The insoluble siliceous matter (sand) is always Section III.} Ichaboe Guano. 37 somewhat greater than could be desired, as these deposits are collected on a sandy beach. This is not, however, of much con- sequence, as we are able, in spite of the sand, to take 8J to 9 per cent nitrogen, equal to lo to ii per cent ammonia, and 20 to 23 per cent phosphates, as the usual bases of guarantee, below which an allowance would be made, on the same terms as to sampling, analysis, etc., as we name in connection with Peruvian guano, page 39, in case of deliveries showing deficient test. ANALYSIS. Moisture •Organic matter and ammoniacal salts, etc. Phosphoric acid Equal to phosphate of lime Lime, alkaline salts, etc. i. . Insoluble siliceous matter . . •Containing nitrogen 8 83, equal to am mom 16-34 3398 1023 (22-95) 20-17 lg-28 As a protection to the buyer, each bag of Raw Ichaboe guano is plainly branded, usually in red, with the registered trade-mark ■with which we head this chapter (P enclosed in a triangle), and without it none is genuine. This guano is readily distinguished from Peruvian by the presence, throughout the bulk, of a number of minute feathers, which are unmistakeable evidence of its recent bird-origin. The price of the Raw Ichaboe guano is usually decidedly below that of Peruvian guano of the same high percentage of ammonia, and we can recommend it as well worthy of a trial. For our quotations we refer to our daily price-lists. RAW PERUVIAN GUANO. For some years past the shipments of Peruvian guano have been smaller and more irregular than formerly, and many of them are not nearly so rich in ammonia. Many of these ship- ments have contained onlj- 2 to 5 per cent ammonia, though they have been, on the other hand, higher in phosphates than used to be the case. Recently, however, under a new contract with the Peruvian Government, shipments have taken place from some deposits on Corcovado Island, north of Callao, also from Chao Island, which have proved to be very fine and uniform in quality, containing up to 12 per cent ammonia. Some of these newl)^ discovered deposits resemble the old popular Chinchas guano in character. Unfortunately, these high-class arrivals command somewhat fancy prices. Messrs. Voelcker and Sons reported as follows on the early samples : — We have recently examined samples of the shipments of Peruvian guano from the new " Corcovado " deposit. ?8 Raw Peruvian Guano. [Section III. This guano is in good condition, and is very free from stones, the presence of which has often been a cause of great trouble in the past both to vendors and to purchasers. But the great merit of the guano from the new deposits consists in its high quality, it being in this respect like some of the old kinds of Peruvian guano, which procured for themselves a deservedly high reputation and made the name of ' guano ' famous among agriculturists, causing also many attempts to be made to imitate it artificially. These samples of the new ' Corcovado ' deposits are superior to any samples of Peruvian guano which we have had under our notice for several years ; and for those to whom a natural Peruvian guano of high quality will always be a desideratum, these new supplies should be most welcome. Some good supplies are also received from the Lobes Islands, and from the deposits at Huanillos and Pabellon de Pica. The deposits on some of these islands on the west coast of South America are being, to some extent, renewed; so that we may hope it will be long before such an excellent manure as Peruvian guano will be altogether a thing of the past. Peruvian guano, as a whole, arrives in much better condition than at one time. The more phosphatic parcels are most suit- able for application to roots : those rich in ammonia to corn. The official analyses have of late years been found to represent very accurately the respective cargoes at the time of import, but when guano is stored for any considerable time a part of the ammonia originally contained takes the volatile form, and is lost. This is the explanation of some glaring discrepancies bet:veen the official analyses and the fresh tests made on delivery, which have occasionally come to light. We may also point out that many of the recently imported phosphatic cargoes contain an appreciable percentage of potash, which is a great addition to their value as a general manure. Peruvian guano has some advantages over most other un- mixed manures containing the same percentages of ammonia and phosphates, on account of its more complex chemical condition, the nitrogen and phosphates contained being each in several different forms, of different degress of solubility, so that they , supply the plant's requirements more slowlj- and evenlj- through the period of growth than can be done by manures in which the nitrogen and phosphates contained are each in some one form of chemical combination. The nitrogen in guanos exi,sts as urates, carbonates and phosphates of ammonia ; and other nitrogenous organic compounds such as guanine, uric acid, etc., as well as in the more soluble nitrates. The phosphoric acid exists also as phosphates of lime, magnesia, potash, soda and ammonia. This .wonderful natural combination cannot be surpassed as a general manure, if its price were on a par with other sources of plant- food, but its very excellence has apparently tended to enhance its market value. Experience shows, however, that Peruvian guano is not a desirable form in which to supply the nitrogen to chalk and limestone soils ; on these, nitrates are generally more suitaljle. Section IH.~\ Raze Peruvian Gtiano. 39 \\"e have before us, from time to time, the ofi&cial analyses of the vanous cargoes of genuine Peruvian guano offering, var3-ing gxeatlj- in quality, and differing in price bj- many pounds per ton. From these various qualities we select those that we believe will prove the best value to our customers. We give the respective tests in our price-sheets, and can either supply from our stores at York, or from the ports of arrival. Riddled Guano. — Peruvian Guano usuallj" arrives in a more or less lumpy condition, and frequently contains a considerable quantity of stones, so that it is most economically used after it has been prepared, bj- the reduction of the lumps to fine powder and the rejection of the stones. Most of our buyers prefer to take it in this prepared state, and as we have arranged machinery specially for the purpose, we can effect this preparation at much smaller cost and more efficiently than is possible by hand-labour. It should be borne in mind that our riddled parcels are delivered in fine, dry powder, and that our quotations for them include this cost of preparation, as well as the loss in weight due to the rejection of stones. We can, however, supply Peru-\'ian guano in the unriddled state, exactly as imported, whenever buyers so prefer. Guarantees. — We usuall}' guarantee the ofi&cial analj^ses within one per cent ammonia, three per cent phosphates, and one per cent potash. We agree to make a proportionate allowance in case the delivered bulk should prove to be below this guarantee, on the anahsis of Dr. J. Aug. Voelcker, the Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society; or Mr. T. Fairley, F.R.S.E., who represents the Yorkshire Agric. Society ; or of some chemists to Agricultural Associations, to be mutually agreed upon at the time of purchase : it being understood that an excess of any one principle beyond the guarantee shall be held as compensating a proportionate deficiency of another at their respective values ; the sample for analj-sis to be fairh" taken by mutual arrangement ; the cost of the analysis to be borne bj- the seller if the value should prove below the guarantee ; if equal to or above the guarantee, \>\ the bu>er. In doing this, however, we are accepting a responsibilit\" that the profits on guano do not realh- cover, as the agents of the Peruvian Government still persist in practically refusing to guarantee to us even the official analj-ses on which we bu5-. AMMONIATED PERUVIAN GUANO. GUARANTEED. In order to meet the demand for a Peruvian guano at a reasonable price and with a good percentage of ammonia guaranteed, we prepare an ammoniated Peruvian guano. It .Q Ammoniated Peruvian Guano. [Section HI- consists entirely of Peruvian guano, to whicli we have added a proportion of sulphate of ammonia of best quahty, thereby raising considerably the percentage of ammonia. Where a soluble and concentrated ammoniacal manure, similar to the old Peruvian guano, is required we can strongly recommend this ammoniated guano for use on all soils excepting chalks and limestones ; on these latter soils the nitrogen is most economically supplied in the form of nitrates. The ammonia generally exceeds lo per cent, together with a good percentage of guano phosphates, frequently 26 to 30 per cent The analysis necessarily varies with each parcel of Peru- vian guano employed ; we, therefore, refer to our price-sheets for guaranteed analyses and quotations. SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. Sulphate of ammonia is the most concentrated, and, at the same time, one of the most active and readily available forms in which ammonia is .supplied to the soil, being decidedly quicker in its action than even nitrogenous matter in its best organic states ; and, indeed, than any other manures, the nitrates alone excepted. The use of sulphate of ammonia as a fertiliser has, with some fluctuations, increased decidedly in recent years. It is admittedly a very valuable stimulant on clay and loamj' soils ; while for corn crops, potatoes, etc., it is used with marked success, especially where it can be applied earh-, in conjunction with superphos- phates or other manures, and harrowed in and covered b3- the soil. Contrary to the effect of nitrate of soda, which turns damp and pasty on mixing with superphosphate, sulphate of ammonia improves, rather than otherwise, the condition of the mixture. The valuable principle contained in sulphate of ammonia is more readil5' "fixed" or retained in most soils than is the case with nitrate of soda, — thus yielding to the growing plant a slower and more even supply of food than does the more quickly acting nitrate. For this reason, we think it more suitable than nitrate of soda for autumn or early spring use, and in most other cases where it is intended to last in the soil some time. We use sulphate of ammonia regularh- in many of our mixed manures with very satisfactory results : it is, we believe, specially suitable for this purpose, agricultural authorities being agreed that it is more likely to be retained in the soil when mixed with super- pho.sphates than when applied alone. Deliveries. — W^e have stocks of sulphate of ammonia at various places of manufacture, whence we forward it direct to our clients' stations whenever carriage can be saved by doing so. Sectioti III.] Sulphate of Ammonia. 41 We also keep it constantlj- in stock at our works at York. In the latter case we can, if our customers prefer, deliver sulphate of ammonia, riddled and in even-weighted 2 cwt bags, at 2/6 per ton ejctra. Quality, adulteration, test, etc. — We supph" none but the best qualities, guaranteed to contain not less than 24 and 24^ per cent of ammonia, and most of our deliveries test over the higher figure. When available at not exceeding ;^i2 per ton for 24I per cent, the ammonia costs under 10/- per unit : it will also be seen that a slight reduction of even ^ per cent in the per- centage of ammonia contained reduces the value about 5/- per ton^ The cost of ammonia in Peruvian guano is very considerably higher per unit than in sulphate of ammonia. So concentrated an article as sulphate of ammonia offers special temptation to adulteration. - A recent issue of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal (vol. xxv., p. 775) publishes a case in which sulphate of ammonia had been bought the previous spring by an agricul- turist in Kent at ^13 per ton. Instead of the 24 per cent ammonia which it ought to have contained, it proved, by Dr. Voelcker's test, to contain rather under 18 per cent. The following simple test has been suggested by Prof. Church, for showing the absence of most, at any rate, of the impurities with which sulphate of ammonia is likely to be adulterated. Place a pinch of the sulphate on a red-hot shovel or other iron-plate ; the sulphate of ammonia, if pure, will be all quickly volatilized and disappear entirely. Application and Experiments. — There is now a general con- sensus of opinion, as the result of observation of its effects on different soils, that sulphate of ammonia cannot suitablj^ be used on chalk and limestone land, on account of the liability to waste b}' decomposition of the sulphate, and the formation of the volatile carbonate of ammonia in the soil. One careful and experienced observer in the eastern counties has recently stated his opinion that sulphate of ammonia should not be used on any soils showing, on analysis, more than ten per cent of carbonate of lime. On such soils nitrate of soda, applied as a topdressing to the growing crops, will generally be found to give good results. From Dr. J. A. Voelcker's experiments at Woburn some years ago, on the continuous growth of wheat, it would seem that, where the applications were small, nitrate of soda showed a de- cidedly better result than sulphate of ammonia ; but that, where double the quantity of each was used, the advantage was slightly on the side of sulphate of ammonia in the yield of corn, though the nitrate of soda plots grew more straw. Another report by Dr. Voelcker on the same series of experiments brought out the effects of sulphate of ammonia as more permanent than nitrate of soda on the Woburn soil. 42 S^dphate of Ammonia. J^Scdion III- A striking point is brought out by the omission for a single year of the nitrogenous topfiressings (plots 8rt and 9a), for while the produce of plot ga (nitrate of soda) has at once gone down to that of the unmanured plot i, ttie ammonia salts applied last in 1887 have still continued to give an increase of six bushels of corn and six cwt of straw. Last year also there was just about this same difference to note, and it has an important bearing on the question ot residual nitrogen in the soil from previous manurings with these salts. bn the contrasting experience of the wet year 1889, and the dry >'ear 1890, the respective rainfalls of which were 23-67 and i6'8 inches, he remarks that — In 1889 ammonia-salts, whether used alone or with mineral manures, pro- duced a larger crop than nitrate of soda ; but in the drier year, 1890, the exact reverse was the case, nitrate of soda in each instance then shewing the higher return On the other hand the report of the Woburn experiments on the continuous growth of barley, twelfth season, 1888, brings out the difference between wheat and barley in respect of the residual value of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda in the second year after their application. Dr. Voelcker says (p. 302) : — When we come to examine the plots 8a and ga, where the topdressings have been omitted for a single year, we see very strikingly the residual effect of both kinds of salts, and also the differences between the wheat and barley crop in this respect ; for, while the produce of wheat has gone down in a single year to the level of the unmanured land by the withholding of nitrate of soda for that year, barley, under similar conditions, still shows an increased yield of 10 bushels of grain and 3J cwts of straw. Further than this, the residue even from nitrate of soda would, in the case of barley, appear to be a yearly increasing one. Still more is this the case with ammonia-salts, which, though omitted for the year, are still capable of doubling the unmanured produce, and giving, as with wheat, a residue considerably in excess of that from nitrate of soda. The consideration of this subject is one of the deepest interest, as bearing both on the relative action of these salts, and on their respective conservation in the soil by crops differing themselves in nature. As a single illustration, it may be observed that the in- crease of barley due to the residue from ammonia-salts applied last in 1887 is equivalent to that produced by an application of 275 lbs nitrate of soda (50 lbs ammonia) per acre in the year of growth. In a series of elaborate experiments on the growth of barley, reported some time ago by Prof. Tanner, h-e shows that when the nitrogen was supplied in the form of sulphate of ammonia, the qualit}' of the crop was improved. On the other hand nitrate of soda gave the highest yield of albuminoids, and most perfectly utilised the nitrogenous matter which it supplied to the crop, thus increasing the value of the barley for feedi7ig purposes. Thus Prof. Tanner thinks that it is not so much the use of nitro- genous manure for the barley crop that is objectionable for its malting character, as the form in which the nitrogen is supplied. A series of experiments on Mangolds, conducted some years ago by the Essex Agricultural Society, confirmed the general experience that sulphate of ammonia gives better results when applied at the time of sowing than when used as a topdressing. Section III.] Sulphate of Ammonia. 43 Prof. Jamieson's experiments also indicate that sulphate of am- monia is more suitable than nitrate of soda for application with insoluble phosphates. Experiments which have been carried out on the continent appear to indicate that beet-root grown with sulphate of ammonia contains a larger percentage of sugar than when nitrate of soda is used. It would also appear from experi- ments on the growth of potatoes, that the use of sulphate of ammonia is more favourable than that of nitrate of .soda to the formation of starch, on which depends the mealiness of the potato. Sources of supply. — Sulphate of ammonia is manufactured principally from the waste-liquor resulting from the destructive distillation of coal in gas works ; the liquor is subjected to heat, either alone or in the presence of lime, in order to volatilize the ammonia, which is then passed into sulphuric acid. The supply from this source — always large — continues gradually to increase, the gross revenue of gas works in the United Kingdom from the sale of this valuable bye-product alone amounting now to about ;^i, 200,000 per annum, though it is only in comparatively recent years that its recover}- has been, in most gas works, attempted. The supply of sulphate of ammonia, unlike that of nitrate of soda, is limited, and the increase in the productiou from one )-ear to another is only small, as will be seen in the later paragraphs of this chapter. Sulphate of ammonia is now also produced to a trifling extent by distillation from shoddy and some other animal products, and in the process of manufacturing bone-charcoal for the sugar refineries. But a much greater increase has latterly taken place in the recovery of otherwise waste nitrogen, from blast-furnaces, and from coke and carbonizing works. The manufacture of sulphate of ammonia from these two sources has advanced from 6,300 tons and 2,800 tons respectively, in 1891, to about 10,000 and 5,000 respectively, in 1893. Doubtless the recovery of this valuable fertiliser from these previously neglected sources is capable of much greater development yet, but it already results in a clear prevention of waste to this country of about ^170,000 per annum. A large addition to the supply of sulphate in recent )'ears, estimated in 1893 at 27,000 tons, has been obtained from the Scotch shale oil-works, of which there are now, we believe, between forty and fifty in operation. The destructive distillation of the shale yields carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen : — the two former combining to form oil, while the nitrogen in the presence of steam takes up hydrogen and forms ammonia. We see it stated that from 12 to 30 lbs of sulphate of ammonia (and in the case of one factorj^ much more than this) are obtained in this way from each 44 Sulphate of Ammotiia. [Section III. ton of shale passed through the retort* The supply from this source has latterly amounted to more than one-sixth of our total manufacture, and without it there would certainly have been a decided scarcity, and much higher prices. The production of sulphate of ammonia has increased con- siderably on the continent during the past five or six years, and is now believed to amount to over 117,000 tons per annum. But more than half of the total European supply is manufactured in the United Kingdom, where the out-turn has steadily grown from 40,000 tons in 1870, to 60,000 tons in 1880, 97,000 tons in 1885, 134,000 tons in 1890, 150,000 tons in 1892, and 151,500 tons in 1893. The connection between the supply of sulphate of ammonia and the clearness of the weather is interesting. In 1893, the eight months from March to October were unusually bright and sunny : this so far reduced the consumption of gas as to cause a very perceptible diminution in the supply of sulphate of am- monia which the gasworks would otherwise have turned out. The following table gives the principal sources from which our supplies have been derived in recent years. , 1893. 1892. 1891. 1890. Gas Works 109,000 110,750 107,950 102,150 Shale-Oil Works 27,000 23,100 26,600 24.750 Iron Works 10,500 11,000 6,300 5.050 Coke Ovens and Carbonising Works 5,000 5,000 2,800 2,300 151,500 149.850 143.650 134.250 Export. — More than one-fifth of our 1893 production, or 32,000 tons were exported to Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, etc. ; 27,000 tons (or rather less than in 1892), to France, Spain and Italy ; 27,000 tons to Belgium and Holland ; and 26,000 tons to America and the Colonies. This latter figure is considerably more than in any previous j'ear, and as we understand the new Aiiierican tariff admits sulphate of ammonia free, a still further increase is not unlikely. Consumption. — Our home consumption for agricultural use and chemical purposes has amounted to rather under one-fourth of our production, or about 37,500 tons in 1893. This is a reduction of some 10 per cent as compared with the average of the four years 1889 — 1892, but much more than in any earlier year. So recently as in 1884 and 1885 our average consump- tion was only 20,000 tons. * Prof. Ivison Macadam's lecture at Glamis, on Soiiires of Nitrogen. Stction III.'] Sulphate of Ammonia. 45 The remaining three- fourths of our production of sulphate of ammonia finds a ready market in the foreign countries named above, in addition to their own very considerable home supply, for the growth of the sugar beet, and other agricultural purposes. It continues to be a matter of surprise that the value of so con- centrated and so cheap a fertiliser should not be at least as great to the English farmer at home as to our continental neighbours and to American agriculturists, who have, of course, to bear the considerable export and other charges, in addition to the Knglish price. In connection with the above figures on the supply of sulphate of ammonia, it may be of interest to remark that new uses are being continually discovered to which ammonia may be profitably put. In the summer of 1890, a new and considerable demand sprang up for export to the United States, where it is now largely used in order to supply the volatile liquid ammonia for the manufacture of ice, which is in steadily increasing request in connection with the packing and exportation of meat, tinned fruits, and other perishables ; and for the supply of cool storage chambers for warehouses, ocean steamers, etc. The action of the refrigerating machinery in general use is based upon the reduction of temperature which accompanies expansion of compressed gases, and for this purpose liquid ammonia is found in practice the most efficient, on account of its liquefaction at a pressure of about seven atmospheres, and its ready vaporisa- tion at a low temperature (37° Fahr.). Still more recently the same enterprising country has seen the introduction of a new engine, in which ammonia is used instead of steam, amm^onia gas of higher pressure than in the case of steam being said to be obtainable from the same expenditure of fuel. NITRATE OF SODA. ' Nitrate of Soda is without exception the most soluble, and next to sulphate of ammonia the most concentrated, of the various sources of nitrogen which are practically available as manure, nitrate of potash being usually quite precluded by its high price. The use of nitrate of soda as a fertiliser has increased greatly in the past ten years. In 1890 and 1891 it attained its maximum, when the total consumption of the United Kingdom during the six months January to June, which is mainly for agricultural use, averaged more than 90,000 tons. Since then the figures show some slight reduction in the demand, the quantity con- sumed in the first half of 1894 having been about 84,000 tons. The world's total consumption in 1894 ^^^ the largest on record, being about 964,000 tons, following a consumption in 1893 of 886,000. In the United States the annual consumption, which 46 Nitrate of Soda, increased from 45,000 tons in 1885 since remained stationary at about statistics may be of interest : — to 104.000 tons m this fio:ure. The {Section III. i8go, has followino: Consumption in United Kingdom for spring hf-year. Consumption Average retail in United price at Kingdom for United whole year. Kingdom ports. Annual Annual Consumption Consumption Annual Consumption Continent. United States, the World. 894 893' 892 891 890 887 Tons. 84,900 71,000 84,000 90,000 91,000 73,000 75,000 68,000 Tons. 114,500 100,000 117,000 120,000 119,000 105,000 102,000 88,000* £ s. d. 9 12 6 9 18 9 950 950 8 13 o 9 13 o 10 5 o Tons. 749,500 682,000 685,000 703,000 666,000 564,000 527,000 385,000 Tons. 100,000 104,000 100,000 100,000 104.000 80,000 65,000 65,000 Tons. 964,000 886,000 902,000 923,000 889,000 749,000 694,000 548,000 Supply. — The combination of the nitrate producers of the west coast of South America, which has been in operation for the past three years, and under which the shipments during 1893 were restricted to 950,000 tons, came to an end in March, 1894. A new combination with a similar object is now under considera- tion, the exact effect of which it is not easy to forecast, but there is no reason to anticipate a short suppl5\ Delivery. — We forward nitrate of soda regularl}- in large quantities from Hull, Liverpool, Newcastle, London and other ports, direct to our clients' stations, when carriage is saved thereby. We also keep it regularly in stock at York, where we can, if preferred, deliver it riddled, and in even-weighted 2 cwt bags, at 2/6 per ton extra. Quotations fluctuate with the market from day to day ; we refer to the accompanying price-sheet, and shall be glad at anj' time to make our best offers, in response to enquiries by letter or otherwise, either for present or forward deliver3^ Quality. — Nitrate of soda of 95 per cent puritj^ contains 156 per cent of nitrogen (equal to nearly 19 f5er cent ammonia), to which it owes its manurial value. The Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893, requires that the percentage of nitrogen shall be guaranteed, and this is now, therefore, commonly done, though it is much less generalh' understood by farmers. At its present price (February, 1895) nitrate of soda is supplj'ing nitrogen at about 10/- per unit for ammonia ; this is about the same as the present cost of this principle in sulphate of ammonia, and not more than one-half to two-thirds its price in high qualit}- Peruvian guano. * Also 10,000 tons shipped to the Continent from the United Kingdom. Section III.'] Nitrate of Soda. ^'j The usual standard of good qualit}' nitrate of soda is at least 95 per cent of purit}-, or, as it is generally stated, "not exceeding 5 per cent refraction." We never knowingly buy parcels below this standard, though such are offered from time to time, when tVey arrrive. • We regret to see it stated in several reliable qiiarters that there has been a marked deterioration in the quality of recent imports of this article, and that many samples tested last year only yielded about 93 per cent pure nitrate of soda. Each cargo is tested on its arrival in this country, and if the impurity and moisture together exceed 5 per cent, an allowance is made proportionately. Members of the Royal and of the Yorkshire Agricultural Societies, and of the York Chamber of Agriculture can have tests made by the respective chemists to these societies for 5s. each, and we think it is well worth their while, occasionally at any rate, to submit their purchases for examination. Adulteration. — Nitrate of soda is so similar in appearance to common salt, kainit, etc., that there is more temptation to adulteration than with some other articles, and care is required in purchasing. We had hoped that these dishonest practices were not now quite so common as some years since ; but regret to notice that the proportion of cases in which tests of nitrate of soda made in 1894 for the members of the Royal, by the Society's chemist, shewed less than 95 per cent pure nitrate, were about three times as large as in 1893. We see also that the quarterly report of the Chemical Committee of the same Society, in June, 1894, publishes a case in which a sample of nitrate of soda, sent for analysis, proved to contain over 25 per cent of common salt. The exposure of such cases ought to prove a useful warning. Application. — The 15 to 16 per cent of nitrogen, equal to nearly 19 per cent amruonia, contained in nitrate of soda, exists in the form of nitric acid, all, compounds of which (nitrates) are very readily soluble. This ready solubility seems to explain the very rapid and somewhat different action of nitrate of soda in the soil, as compared with sulphate of ammonia, Peruvian guano and other stimulating manures, in which the nitrogen is con- tained mainly in the form of ammonia. Nitrate of soda is, therefore, particularly valuable as a quickly -acting top-dressing for corn, grass and roots. It has frequently been laid down by chemists of standing and practical experience that, on account of the extreme solubility of nitrate of soda, it is most economically applied when the rootlets of the crop are developed, and ready to appropriate it.* If, however, care is exercised, and it is used in moderate quantity, it is not, we think, altogether unsuitable for application * " Nitrate of soda should never be put on to the land unless the plants are actually there." — Br. Aitken's Lecture at Castle Douglas. 48 Nitrate of Soda. [_Section III. with the seed, but the seed is liable to be injured by contact with the nitrate, and must, therefore, not be touched by it. In some districts, it is found to answer in many seasons to use at any rate a part of the application of nitrate for spring corn and some other crops, either alone or in mixture with superphosphate or other manures, — sowing the manure broadcast after the drill, and harrowing-in with the seed. In a moderately dry season this plan answers well on both clay and limestone soils. But on manv open, permeable soils, through which the water passes readily, the very soluble nitrate is liable to be washed into the drains before the rootlets of the plant are developed and ready to appropriate it. This danger is, of course, greater if much rain should fall in the two or three weeks just after sowing. On the other hand, this ready solubility of nitrate of soda is, under other circumstances, very useful ; enabling it, by the absorption of moisture from the air, to find its way to the roots even when applied on the surface in dry weather. It is generally accepted by chemists that nitrogen is taken up by most plants in the form of nitrates, and not as ammonia ; that these nitrates are produced by the slow nitrification of ammonia in the soil, and that this process is due to the action of minute germs or living organisms, the presence of which is characteristic of fertile soils. A close analogy is suggested by the action of yeast in bread-making. Nitrate of soda should in all cases be carefully mixed with some dry, well-ground material, so as to ensure its even distribu- tion. On light land, salt, or better still, kainit (see article thereon, section 4), answers this purpose well, and both these articles are commonly believed to tend to stiffen the straw ; the mixture should, however, onlj- be made shortly before it is required for use. It should be borne in mind that nitrate of soda stimulates mainly the stem and leafage rather than the fruit or flower ; and that it supplies ovXy 07ie element of plant growth, viz., nitrogen. If, therefore, it is used too freely, year after year, on the same land, without supplyi7ig the other essentials of fertility, as phosphates, potash, etc., it tends to exhaustion of the soil. In such cases it is evident that the increased crop takes from the soil the principles not supplied by the nitrate in greater quantities than if the stimulating nitrate had not been applied. If, however, nitrate of soda be u^ed judicioulj\ in moderate quantities, on soils and for crops to which it is suited, there need not, we believe, be any tendency to exhaustion. Prof. Jamieson's Aberdeenshire experiments would seem to indicate that nitrate of soda is a more effective and economical source of ammonia when the phosphates applied with it are in the soluble form, as superphosphate, than when in the insoluble form, as bone-meal, etc. ; and he gives it as the practical outcome Section III.'] Nitrate of Soda. 49 of his experience that " it is injudicious to apply nitrate of soda with insoluble phosphate." If, however, phosphates not in soluble forms, such as basic slag, bone-meal, etc., have been applied earlier on, so that there has been time for the action of the acids of the soil upon the phosphates, nitrate of soda forms a perfectly suitable applica.tion. The well-known Woburn experiments on the continuous growth of wheat, reported in the Roj'al Agricultural Society's Journal, Oct., 1886, are interesting, as showing the considerable increase of corn obtained hy the use of sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. As between these two manures there was no marked difference in the quantitj- of corn produced, 275 lbs nitrate of soda being used against 200 lbs sulphate of ammonia, but nitrate of soda produced rather the larger yield of straw. A similar series of experiments on the continuous growth of barle}' showed a rather larger yield of corn with 275 lbs nitrate of soda than with 200 lbs sulphate of ammonia. As regards the result of the following year, we see that Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker stated : — So far as my observations have gone, and these are borne out by the experiments conducted at Woburn, in the season of 1886, nitrate of soda, as a top-dressing, has been, on the whole, more productive than sulphate of ammonia similarly used. See Journal 1887, p. 300. In a series of interesting experiments on wheat, by Dr. A. B. Griffiths, the application of i^ cwt of nitrate of soda per acre, in three separate instalments of ^ cwt each, in March, May, and again rather later, showed decidedly better results, both in quality and yield, than the same quantity applied at one time. Similar experiments on potatoes and red clover gave equally decisive results in favour of the application of the nitrate of soda at three separate times in the season, rather than all at once.* Top-dressing Roots. — The practice of using nitrate of soda for turnips and mangels has obtained increasingly in recent years ; many of our most successful growers now regularly use a small quantity, say not exceeding i cwt per acre for turnips, and if or even 2 cwt for mangels, with the other manures at the time of sowing, following up by smaller applications of 4 or 6 stones after singling, and again by a similar application a few weeks later. We have for many years recommended these top- dressing applications after the plant is up. The additional manuring has almost invariably produced a decided increase of weight in the crop, especiallj' in dry seasons, the cost and trouble of top-dressing being much more than repaid by the improved crop of roots. Though the increased weight is not all solid matter, we recommend the practice for more extended trial. * See North British Agriculturist, i6th March, 1887, page 180. 50 Nitrate of Soda. {Section III- We extract the following from the late Dr. Voelcker's report in Vol. XV. of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal :— As a rule, nitrate of soda is used as a spring top-dressing for wheat or barley, and rarely for other crops. It may, however, be applied with much ad- vantage to roots grown with superphosphate or bone manure. The best time tor applying nitrate of soda to root crops is the period after the plants have been singled out. Upon mangolds, from i to ij cwt of nitrate of soda, sown by hand along the rows, has a marvellous effect, which is plainly visible m the course of a week or ten days, provided rain has fallen in that time and washed the nitrate into the soil. I had an opportunity of noticing, in the Woburn experiments this year, the striking effect of nitrate of soda on mangolds. On the acre, m the rotation experiments, where the mangolds were top-dressed in spring with 248 lbs of nitrate of soda, the yield in cleaned and topped and tailed mangolds was 18 tons, 3 cwt and 20 lbs ; whilst on the adjoinging acre of mangolds, not manured with nitrate of soda, the produce in clean roots was only 11 tons, 16 cwt. The following reference to the use of nitrate of soda when the "fly" is troublesome, and especially in view of such attacks as that of the caterpillar of the diamond-back moth {Pltdella cruciferarum) on swedes in 1891, may be useful. It is taken from an interesting article on "The Mangold and Beet Fly (^Anthomyia betx)," in the Agricultitral Gazette, of some time ago. Any fertilising application will do good which will act at once in furnishing nourishment to the plant, and thus keep it continually replacing by new growth the leafage which is destroyed by the maggots. Nitrate of soda appears to do best, but as the action of all these fertilisers depends on having rain at the time to wash them down to the roots, it is better to have previous good treatment of the land to trust to. Origin. — Nitrate of soda, or " cubic nitre,"* is believed to be the result of the natural process of nitrification in the soil. The supply for Europe is obtained from a group of "salinas" or dried-up salt lagoons in the strip of barren land extending some 150 niiles by 50 miles along the west coast of South America, between the Andes and the Pacific, from 20° to 27° south latitude. These now Axy lakes have probably been at one time upland inland' seas, or have been raised to their present elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet by volcanic agency.. This district is almost rainless, as the prevailing winds which blow steadilj' from the east are drained of all their moisture before reaching the we.stern side of the mountain range. Some light has recently been thrown on nitrification bj' the researches of chemists, who have proved that it is due to the action of organic ferments in the soil. Dr. J. M. H. Munro, in a most interesting paper on The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil, in the Dec, 1891 number of the Royal Agricultural Journal, remarks: — 'Nitrate of soda is also known as " soda nitre," and " Chili saltpetre," the prefix in each case being intended to distinguish it from the earlier-known salt- petre, or nitrate of potash, of which the natural deposits in India, and the artificial nitre beds of Europe, are our chief sources of supply. See article on Nitrate of Potash in Section 4. Section III.'] Nt irate of Soda. 51 We have only space to add that from some experiments of Miintz on the nitrification of nitrogenous matter in presence of sea salt it would seem almost certain that the Peruvian deposits of crude nitrate of soda are the results of gigantic nitrification which formerly went on in the drying up residues of salt lakes. The same obser\'er has found in the earth of the nitrifying cave-deposits of Venezuela a nitrifying organism which he describes as three or four times the size of that found in French soil. 1 Nitrate of soda forms the principal industry of the rich province of Tarapaca, which formerly belonged to Peru but was lost by it to Chili during the war of 1878-80. The nitrate deposits are principally confined to the Pampa of Tamarugal, some 3,500 feet above the sea, commencing about 12 miles from the Pacific coast, and running from 79 to 80 miles from north to south. There are other deposits in the Atacana desert and the Loa basin, which are more extensive but less rich than those of the Tamarugal Pampa. The principal shipping port and the head quarters, as regards the residence and offices of the manufacturers and merchants, is Iquique, now a prosperous Chilian cilj- of 20,000 inhabitants. We see it stated that over ten millions of British capital are invested in these nitrate works and in the steep Nitrate Railway which conveys the nitrate from the high pampas to the coast for shipment. The export dut}' paid b}- the nitrate is now about £2 12s. 6d. per ton, and has amounted recently to over ;^2,ooo,ooo sterling. The agricultural value of nitrate of soda seems to have been early recognised by the Indians, and some small works have long been known, but the modern development of the industry dates practically from 1852, when an Englishman from Norwich went out to establish the manufacture. The nitrate is raised in a crude and very impure form, containing for the most part from 30 to 50 per cent of nitrate of soda ; the deposit varies from 2 or 3 feet up to, in some cases, 20 feet in thickness, but is usually covered by a hard saline deposit, localh' known as "costra," consisting of sand, common salt, and 15 to 20 per cent of nitrate of soda. The crude nitrate cake, or " caliche," is crushed and boiled in tanks for some 8 or 10 hours to dissolve out the nitrate, which is then re-crystallized by slow evaporation in the sun . This occupies from 24 hours to four or five days, after which it is bagged and exported to Europe, and also in smaller quantity to the United States. Some of the deposits also contain iodine, which is separated from the liquor left after the nitrate of soda has crj^stallized out. '^'^F^"^' fF 52 SECTION IV. [Seciion IV. POTASH AND MAGNESIA SALTS. The supply of potash in some form is absolutely necessary to vegetation for the formation of the starch granules in the green leaf, and their translocation into the other parts of the plant. The potash-requirements of soils differ considerably in different districts. On some soils, as at Woburn, and in some parts of Scotland, there would seem to be little need for any artificial supply of this principle. But on very many other soils, especially such as are light and porous, the addition of a small proportion of some potash salt produces a marked increase of yield. Generally speaking, on light, sandy, and gravelly soils, thin chalks, peaty soils, and on reclaimed fen and moor-land, in which potash is in small supply, applications of it are particularly valuable. We have used potash in various forms for many years in most of our compounded manures, with good effect, especially those for potatoes, clover, beans, peas, and mangel wurtzel. Experimental results. — I^arm-yard manure is very rich in available potash, which is doubtless one reason of its great value and general applicability to all crops ; consequently land to which farm-yard manure has been liberally supplied may contain enough potash for the cereal crops, but an additional application of potash is generally desirable for potatoes and other crops which are specially dependent upon it. Clover-sickness in pasture land and weakness of straw in cereals are understood to be frequently due to deficiency of potash in the soil, — the alkalies being the natural solvents for silica. Root-crops are also reported as being sounder and keeping better, when grown on land having a sufficiency of potash. The beneficial effect of potash on plant-growth was some years ago markedly indicated by a large number of experiments with different manures and on various crops, carried on under the late Prof. Voelcker's direction, by practical farmers in various parts of the country ; these results were strikingly con- firmed by a later series of experiments, conducted under the auspices of the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, in 1886, and again by a further series in 1887, and reported in the Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society, so that the value of potash as an important element in manures for almost all crops is now generally accepted. In one instance in these experi- ments, on the farm of Mr. F. I. Cooke, Flitcham Abbey, Norfolk (Old Sainfoin Field, plots i and 3), the yield of barley was apparently doubled by the addition of i cwt of muriate of potash to superphosphate and nitrate of soda ; while the four plots which received no potash gave decidedly the lowest yield, both in head- corn and straw. It must, however, be borne in mind that this land Section I v.] Potash and Magnesia Salts. 53 was selected for the experiments in consequence of its want of potash, and the above verj- marked result would not probably be noticed to an equal extent on land already rich in this principle. The series of experiments on hay, oats, and turnips, carried out in 1893 by Professor Patrick Wright, of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, the conclusions from which we re-print m extenso in our article on Mixed Manures, section 5, seem to point conclusively to the value of potassic applications to those crops on a wide range of soils. A series of experiments carried out on very different soil, by the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society, 3'ielded very much less favourable results from the application of potash, thus showing the varjing requirements of diiferent soils. An interesting article by Sir John B. I,awes, on The History of a Field newly laid down to Permanetit Grass, appeared in the spring issue of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal for 1889. The field in question had been continuously manured with dung and artificials and mown for hay over a course of twenty- three years, during which time a careful register was kept of the amount of ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash supplied to the soil in the manure and removed by the (weighed) crop of hay. Sir J. B. L,awes summarises the result as follows : — Indeed the results aflford a forcible illustration of how great is the ex- haustion of potash when hay is sold, and how important it is that there should be adequate return, either in dung or in artificial manure, (p. 8.) And again : — In laying down arable land to permanent grass, especially if hay is to be removed, it is essential to supply, not only nitrogenous, but an abundance of mineral matter, and especially of potash, a large quantity of which is removed in the crops, and must be returned, (p. 24.) On the Irish Government experimental farms of Glasnevin, Cork and Athy, the application of potash in the form of Kainit produced a decided increase in the yield of potatoes. Though the fungoid growth known as the potato disease ( Phytophthora infestansj is not in any sense directly due to deficiency of potash in the soil, it has been observed that potatoes grown on land deficient in potash suffer more from the disease (other things being equal) than those grown on soils richer in this principle. The ash of plants.^ — The incombustible part or "ash" of farm crops contains, on an average, nearly one-third its weight of potash. This principle constitutes, indeed, by far the largest proportion of the mineral principles removed from the soil by agricultural produce. Sir J. B. I^awes recently stated, in speaking of lime, that the ash of leguminous plants growing in an ordinary pasture which 54 Potash and Magnesia Salts. {Section IV. has been well supplied with potash, contains 32 per cent of potash and 22 per cent of lime ; but on pasture where potash has not been supplied, the ash contains 32 per cent of lime and 14 per cent of- potash. I.ime therefore economises the use of potash and appears to be, to a certain limited extent, interchangeable with it. The following list gives the percentages of potash said to be contained in the ash of some of the commoner farm and garden crops : — Turnip's, Whites, root 49i% leaf 274 Swedes „ 39 .. 22 Mangels 464,. „ 254 Sugar Beet 48 „ 22 Carrots 37 .. „ 174 Potatoes . . tubers 37 .. 20 KohlRabi -. „ 37 .. 9 Wheat . . . .grain 30 .. straw 13 Barley 32 „ ,, 14 Oats 31 .. .. 15 Rye 32 .. .. 17 Parsnips . . Cow Cabbage Broccoli Asparagus . . Peas . . Beans Flax . . Red Clover Alsyke The Grasses Apple Cherry Plum Strawberry Pear . . heart 464% 41 .. 51 .. ■ ■ 51 .. ■• 43 .. •• 37 .. •■ 35 .. .. 36 „ .. 29 „ 20 to 42 , , fruit 354 „ ■ • 51 .. -■ 59 .. ■ • 21 ,, • • 544 .. Interesting as are the above figures, the point is presented in a more practical form as regards manurial requirements, in the following table, which we extract from Chemistry of the Farm, by R. Warington, F.C.S., showing the quantities of potash (the oxide) which are taken from the soil b3' the ten farm crops referred to : — 17 tons Turnips with their tops, abstract 149 lbs of potash, per acre. 14 ,, Swedes 22 , Mangels 6 , Potatoes 14. Meadow Hay 2 , Red Clover Hay 30 bus. Beans with straw 30 . Wheat 40 . Barley 45 . Oats ,. 301 . 80 , 51 „ 83 , „ 67 , 29 , , 36 , , 46 , From these figures it is evident that cultivated soil is j-earl}- deprived of large quantities of potash ; we have long felt the importance of supplying it to most crops, especially on light and sandy soils, such being generally deficient in this valuable principle. Time and mode of application. — The best mode of spring application of potash salts is to mix them with superphosphate and other manures, in various proportions according to the soil and crop, — rather than to use them alone. Many experiments have shewn that, though potash applied alone on certain soils Section 17.] Potash and Magnesia Salts. 55 seems to have but little effect, it is a very valuable addition to other manures. There has latterly been a growing preference amongst chemists, both in Germany and France, as also here, for autiimn or winter application of kainit and even of the more soluble muriate of potash, especiall}- on limestone soils or with lime, the lime appearing to combine with the liberated muriatic or sulphuric acid with which the potash was previously associated, and ^Yhich might otherwise have " soured " the soil after the absorption of the potash by the plant. We notice that an emi- nent potato-grower in Scotland recently gave the following as his opinion, in a lecture on The Potato : its Varieties atid Culture. Speaking of growing potatoes with purely chemical manures, he is reported as saj'ing that : — He found that by the judicious use of them (chemical manures) he could grow the best crops of the finest potatoes at the least expense and with the lowest proportion of disease, even in varieties liable to have it badly. They should have their land prepared as early as possible in the winter, and sow their potash and phosphatic compounds early in January, in quantities in keeping with the condi- tion and character of the soil, the bulk of crop they proposed to try to grow, and the variety they had to deal with. — Vide Agricultural Gazette, p. 12, 1893. Supply. — The supply of potash for agricultural purposes was at one time obtained almost entirely from the " ash" of seaweed and other marine plants, and its price was so high that it was seldom used as a manure. For many years past, however, we have imported it largely from Germany, both in a crude unmanufactured form as kainit, and also in more concentrated forms as muriate and sulphate of potash (see following pages). For the growth of sugar-beet and tobacco, sulphate of potash is better than either kainit or muriate of potash. It is interesting to learn that a fresh source of supply of nitrate of potash has been discovered at Prieska, South Africa, the tract of land measuring about forty miles by ten miles. We hope this report may be confirmed, and that the supply may be useful for the peaceful requirements of agriculture and commerce, rather than be devoted to the manufacture of gunpowder for the purposes of bloodshed. Of the man}' forms in which potash can now be obtained we think kainit ("see next chapter) is generally the most suitable for application by itself, and particularly on soils which are apt to " burn up ; " on such soils a liberal dose of a saline manure is not objectionable. On speciall}' cold soils a more concentrated form, such as the sulphate, is probably better. The forms of potash most usually available and desirable for agricultural use are, Kainit, containing 12 to 13 per cent pure potash. Muriate of potash, various qualities, containing 45 to 60 per cent potash. Potash and Magnesia Salts. [Section IV. Double sulphate of potash and magnesia, containing some 26 to 29 per cent potash. Calcined potash salts, containing 35 to 40 per cent potash. Sulphate of potash (concentrated), containing 50 to 52 per cent potash. Nitrate of potash, low quality, 25 to 35 per cent potash. Nitrate of potash, high quality, 42 to 45 per cent potash. The three latter are, however, somewhat expensive forms for agricultural requirements. KAINIT OR CRUDE POTASH SALTS. Potash is usually supplied, in kainit at a lower price per unit than in the more concentrated forms. Kainit is a natural, unmanufactured salt, the product of the German Government and other mines in Anhalt- Dessau, and the district round Stassfurt. German tests of Kainit show the follow- ing as about the average composition, but these figures are not guaranteed. English chemists' analyses usuallj' give slightly lower results : — Moisture . . 'Sulpha-te of potash Sulphate of magnesia . . Chloride of magnesium Chloride of sodium (common salt) Sulphate of lime . . Insoluble matter. . •Equal to pure potash . . 1270 v^ 23-60 I2'40 3460 1-70 ■50 12-80 Taking the above as 23 per cent of sulphate of potash, it is equal to about 12^^ per cent pure potash. Application. — From the above it will be seen that the im- purities in kainit include about 27 per cent of magnesia salts, which' are of much value to grain and other crops on soils deficient in magnesia; also about 34 per cent of common salt, neither of which is paid for in the price. For this reason kainit is particularly suitable in cases where common salt would be applied with advantage. We frequently recommend it instead of salt, for mixing with guano, nitrate of soda, and other manures which are deficient in a suitable proportion of potash. In such cases it will answer all the purposes of salt, besides supplying a valuable fertiliser (potash) not contained in salt, while its cost is not much more. For mangel wurtzel and cabbages, kainit is also a valuable application. It is also very desirable to sprinkle kainit from time to time on farm -yard manure as it accumulates; the nitrogen is fixed Section /F.] Kainit or Crude Potash Salts. 57 by means of the magnesia salts of the kainit, and the valuables of the manure are thus retained and increased. The value of Kainit as an adjunct to other artificial manures for turnips has been strikingly brought out by the experirnents carried out in Northumberland and Durham in 1892 and 1893 t)y the County Councils of those counties, under Dr. W. Somerville, F.R.S., of the Durham College of Science. He states (page 14 of his report) : — As has been noted, 2 cwt of kainit produced an increase six times out of nine, the average gain in swedes over all being 27J cwt. It is rather remarkable that the same quantity of kainit should have produced almost the same increase with yellow turnips (zSf cwt) in 1892. The 27J cwt of increase was got this year at an expenditure on kainit of about 4s. 2d., so that each ton of swedes produced under the influence of this substance cost only 3s. Last year the yellow turnips cost 2S. gd. per ton with the same manuring, and in both cases they must be regarded as cheap roots. Kainit is also especially recommended on light sandy and turfy soils, as it tends to make them more compact, and to retain the moisture. It is more suitably used in conjunction with phos- phatic or ammoniacal manures rather than alone, except on such permanent pastures as are already well supplied with ammonia and phosphates. For clover, kainit is a valuable application along with superphosphates. Kainit is also a very desirable addition to Basic Cinder phosphates : for this purpose we would recommend 2 to 4 cwt per acre, according to the character of the land. Time of application. — In most cases we prefer the winter months, some time before the seed is sown, when the kainit can be spread broadcast and ploughed or harrowed in. Early spring application an.swers well on some soils. Kainit is also largely applied at the time of sowing and planting. We do not recom- mend it as a top-dressing on corn or roots, after the plant is up, unless in small quantity, as for instance, along with nitrate of soda ; and even upon pasture land it is better not to apply it when the grass is wet. Stocics, deliveries, etc. — We keep kainit regularly in stock at York. We have usually also a succes.sion of arrivals' at Hull, Hartlepool, Boston, etc., at intervals during the spring months, and can forward direct from these ports on particularly favour- able terms, thus saving carriage to our buyers. We can also arrange low freights from Hamburg to some of the other East Coast ports, from whence, if we have orders in hand at least fourteen days previously, we can usually forward direct to stations in Norfolk, Suifolk, Essex, Hertford, Cambridgeshire, etc., on very close terms, and shall be glad to quote for free delivery at our buyers' stations in any cases where so preferred, on hearing the station and the quantity required. 58 Kdinit or Crude Potash Salts. ^Section IV. Those who are in the habit of using kainit in the early spring have been repeatedly inconvenienced in recent years through the frost or low water in the Elbe having delayed the arrival of the first spring shipments of kainit until they were too late for use. The date of the re-opening of the Elbe naviga- tion is necessarily somewhat uncertain, as it is dependent on the weather: and in most seasons it is safer either to provide supplies before the close of the navigation in autumn (though involving the considerable cost of storage over the winter, and regrinding riddling, etc., in the spring), or to incur the about 4s, per ton extra cost of rail-carriage beyond that of water shipment, from the Stassfurt mines to Hamburg. To meet the difficulty, we adopt both precautions, and are prepared to forward promptly from our stocks at York, or from parcels railed to Hamburg in February, and due to arrive at the various ports on successive dates in February and March. The slight extra cost of these early arrivals is a much smaller evil than the risk of dela5^ and disappointment in the spring, when time is so all-important. In most such cases the extra expense to the consumer does not exceed 6d. per acre, — a trifle not worth 9onsidering in compari- son with securing the best season for the crops. All our deliveries from York are made in fine powdery condition, freshly riddled or ground, and ready for use, so that buyers may rely on these advantages. For prices and guarantees we refer to our price-sheets, and we shall be glad to make special quotations for large quantities on application. SULPHATES OF POTASH AND MAGNESIA. Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. — This is a some- what more concentrated form of potash than kainit, consisting of a double sulphate of potash and magnesia (Kg, Mgg,, SO^). It is, we think, the best form in which potash can be supplied to the majority of soils : and especiallj- to heav\' land. The magnesia contained adds materially to the agricultural value of the article, without any practical increase in the price. The quality we usually recommend and import, and which we regularly keep in stock at our works, contains 48 to 52 per cent sulphate of potash, or about 26 to 28 per cent pure potash. This quality also supplies some 25 to 30 per cent sulphate of magnesia, and has the advantage of containing under 2iV per cent of chlorine, thus showing that the potash and magnesia are practically all in the form of sulphate. Parcels containing as much potash and magnesia, but with more chlorine, can be Section IV.] Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. 59 bought at considerably lower prices ; they will not, however, we think, produce such good results. We append an average analysis of this double sulphate ; Moisture . . Sulphate of potash Sulphate of tnag^nesia Muriate of soda . . Muriate of potash Sulphate of lime . . Magnesia . . Insoluble . . 45q 49-34 32-86 377 -13 5-35 ■99 297 Quotations will be found in our current price-lists. Care is required in purchasing these potash salts. A case was published in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal some time ago, in which an article, bought by a leading agriculturist in Shropshire, as sulphate of potash guaranteed to contain 40 to 50 per cent sulphate of potash, proved under Dr. Voelcker's test, to consist of more than 86 per cent of common salt. The importance of magnesia salts on some soils is, we believe, greater than is generally supposed, chemists having long noticed the persistent presence of magnesia in all cultivated crops, and in most fertile soils. The ash of wheat contains about 15 per cent of magnesia, and that of some other grains even more than this. M. Joulie, a French chemist, strongly recommends the application of magnesia salts whenever the top eight inches of soil contain less than '02 per cent of magnesia. MURIATE OF POTASH. This article (KCl) is the most soluble of the various salts of potash, and supplies it in a more concentrated form than either kainit or the double sulphate named above ; it is, therefore, particularly suitable for use in prepared top-dressings, as well as in some other special cases. It can be used either during the previous winter or in spring, though the former is, in most cases, now considered the better time. Muriate of potash is usually sold on a basis of 80 per cent purity, the price rising or .falling according to the particular test of each parcel. Considering the reduced cost per unit in car- riage on high qualities, we usually recommend parcels testing 80 to 90 per cent pure muriate of potash, or, say, about 50 to 57 per cent potash. These we regularly keep in stock, and can supply on favourable terms. A series of experiments on wheat after rotation-seeds, con- ducted by Mr. F. I. Cooke, of Flitcham, Norfolk, and reported 6o Muriate of Potash. [Section IV. in the April, 1889 volume of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, shows a very marked increase in yield as resulting from the use of one cwt muriate of potash per acre, applied in autumn, along with four cwt of rape cake and two cwt superphosphate, as compared with the yield produced by the rape cake and superphosphate without the muriate of potash. The field of the experiment is described as a thin and light hungry topsoil, resting on chalk. CALCINED POTASH SALTS. For purposes where there is no special advantage in the whole of the potash being in the form of either muriate or sulphate, the calcined potash salts are a fairly concentrated source. They contain potash, principally as muriate, in varying quantity. The price is usually somewhat lower in proportion than that of muriate of potash ; these salts are, therefore, some- times a cheap source of potash. They are, however, verj' deli- quescent, and their condition is consequently liable to become unsatisfactory ; we do not, therefore, keep them in stock or Specially recommend them. The annexed analysis shews their composition approximately. The 60 per cent muriate is equal to about 38 per cent pure potash, the oxide : — Moisture . . *Muri£Lte of potash 405 60-78 13-44 I2II 5-04 202 256 'Equal to sulphate of potash . . 71-72 Choride of sodium Sulphate of magnesia Chloride of magnesium Sulphate of calcium Insoluble matter . . NITRATE OF POTASH. Of all the combinations of potash this is considered to be manurially the best, the potash being combined with nitrogen in the form of a soluble nitrate(K NO3). Unfortunately, however, it is often so high in price as to be out of the question as a fertil- iser; but parcels not quite pure enough for chemical purposes are occasionally obtai;iable at prices which allow of their agricul- tural use. These usually vary from about 60 to 90 per cent purity, equal to about 28 to 42 per cent pota.sh. We generally have a limited quantity- in stock, for which we shall be glad to quote on application. Nitrate of potash is similar in many of its characteristics to nitrate of soda, and may be applied under similar conditions, — excepting on land already rich in potash, when the nitrate of soda would produce nearly as good a result and at much less cost. Generally speaking, nitrate of potash is best applied as a topdressing whilst the plant is growing. Section K.] SECTION V. 6l MIXED MANURES. (guaranteed). In these times of small returns from agricultural produce of almost all kinds, the question of the various expenses in pro- ducing crops is very rightly regarded as a most important one ; and experiments carefully and accurately carried out i under experienced scientific oversight should receive greater attention than ever. Amongst such experiments, those carried out in 1893 oil li^y> oats, and turnips, by Professor Patrick Wright, in Scotland, on behalf of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, are well deserving of study. We cannot afford space to give the detailed statement of the results, which have been published by the College in a pamphlet of sixty pages. We think, however, the conclusions drawn by Professor Wright from each set of experiments are well worthy the attention of our readers, and we therefore append them as given in the pamphlet. The report in full can be obtained from the Sec- retary of the College, post free for one shilling. Conclusions from experiments on manuring liay (P. 25) :— 1. All the manures applied have given an increase of crop. 2. The' application of salt alone has given very contradictory results, and in only a few instances has proved directly profitable. It may possibly, however, be employed with advantage on foul meadows, for the destruction of shallow- rooted weeds and the improvement of the general quality of the herbage. (See Tables I.-VIIL, Plot 7.) 3. The application of potash salts alone, whether in the form of muriate of potash or in the form of kainit, has repaid itself in the first cutting. When due allowance is made for the effect on the aftermath, on the succeeding crops, and on the increased development of leguminous herbage produced by the potash dressings, their use has proved distinctly profitable. (See Tables I.- VIII., Plot I and 6.) 4. The application of a potash salt along with superphosphate has proved markedly beneficial to the clovers in the crop, and wherever clover plants have been abundant, has given a large and profitable increase of crop. On the grasses alone the effects have been comparatively slight. (Tables I.- VIII., Plot 4.) 5. The application of a potash salt along with a nitrogenous manure has given a large and profitable increase of crop. The grasses have been more largely encouraged than the clovers by the dressings employed in these experi- ments, but a reduction in the proportion of nitrogen supplied might modify this effect. (Tables I.-VIII., Plots 2 and 3.) 6. The combination of nitrogen and potash contained in nitrate of potash has proved very effective, but, on account of the high market price of this manure, more profitable results are likely to be obtained, as a rule, by using nitrate of soda aud muriate of potash in equivalent quantities. (See Tables I.-VIIL, Plots 2 and 3.) 7. A pidicious combination of phosphatic, poiassic, and nitrogenous manures, such as was used on Plot 5, has given, on the whole, the most satisfactory and profitable results, both as to quantity and quality of herbage. In hardly any instance on fields and pastures of varied quality and character has this combination of manures failed to produce a large and profitable increase of crop. (See Tables I.-VIII., Plot 5.) 62 Mixed Manures. [Section V. Conclusions fronn experiments on manuring turnips (PP. 46-7):— 1. Large and profitable crops of turnips can be successfully grown by suit- able mixtures of artificial manures alone. 2. The application of phosphatic manures in any of the forms employed has, in all cases, given a large and profitable increase of crop. 3. The phosphate has been most effective and most profitable in the form of superphosphate, except, perhaps, on peaty or mossy soils, where basic slag seems to be at least as effective. 4. Basic slag, with nitrate of soda, has given better results than bone meal, containing equal quantities of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. 5., f The addition of sulphate of potash to the artificial turnip manures has given a profitable increase of crop. 6. The most suitable manure for the turnip, when artificial manures have to be employed alone, is one consisting mainly of phosphates, supplemented by moderate quantities of nitrogenous and potassic manures — such as was employed on Plot 7 (see p. 42.) 7. Large crops of turnips can be grown by the application of good dressings of farmyard manure alone. 8. Larger and more profitable crops can be grown by the application of half dressings of farmyard manure, with additions of small quantities of phos- phatic and nitrogenous manures — such as were employed on Plot 11. The largest and most profitable crops grown in these experiments were obtained under this treatment. Conclusions from experiments on manuring oats (P. 57):— 1. The judicious application of artificial manures to the oat crop will give a very profitable increase of crop. 2. Nitrate of soda applied alone as a topdressing gives a very profitable return on soils in good condition, but on other soils the return is uncertain. 3. Nitrate of soda, along with superphosphate, in the quantities applied on Plot 2, gives a much more certain and a more profitable return. 4 The addition of potash to the mixed nitrogenous and phosphatic manure is attended with marked advantage on oat crops grown after lea, but is not profitable on oats grown after roots that have received an ordinary dressing of farmyard manure. 5. Nitrate of soda has proved somewhat more effective than sulphate of ammonia. 6. By a judicious employment of the manures used in Plots 2 and 3 of this experiment, the average oat crop in the West of Scotland could be considerably increased, with a corresponding increase of profit to the producer (see Table IV., p. 62). Mixed Manures. — We are .satisfied that on no one department of our business does our reputation more depend than on the preparation of our Mixed Manures. We regard it, therefore, as of extreme importance, and give to it our constant personal attention. We are convinced that, in o.rder to obtain the best returns from the application of manures, it is necessary to supply to the plant a// its requirements, in the most suitable forms, and we have long made this point one of special study and observation. This position has recently been strikingly con- firmed b\- the manurial experiments on turnips, carried out by the Connty Councils of Xorthumberland and Durham for the Section V.] .Mixed Manures. 63 last two seasons, under Dr. W. Somerville, of the Durhana College of Science. He writes (page 12 of his 1893 report): — " The great secret of success is to use fairly complex mixtures of substances possessing varying degrees of solvibility, so that the crop, instead of being surfeited at one stage and starved at another, shall be fully nourished right through the season of growth." In the correction of our recipes each season, we are largely guided by field experience in this and other neigh- bourhoods, as well as by a careful study of experiments reported from time to time in the journals of the Royal and other Agricultural Societies. The demand for our Mixed Manures has been steadily maintained, notwithstanding the long con- tinued depression in agriculture, and has increased materially in recent years, they having proved themselves to be economical as well as effective applications. The values of the various constituents of these manures have of late years ruled much lower in price than formerly ; this enables us to supply the high qualities for the respective crops named in the various chapters in this section at prices at which we think their use will prove remunerative. The very natural disposition on the part of farmers in recent years to economise expenditure has undoubtedly prompted some to use single articles which have seemed to be low in price, even though they do not supply more than perhaps one of the several principles required bj^ the crop ; we refer especially to mineral superphosphate, kainit, etc., which are most valuable articles, i/"used in suitable conjunction with the further require- ments of the crop ; but they are not necessarily any cheaper to the user than the same money-value in a more complete manure such as our special compounds for the various crops ; these latter supply ammonia also, and are, therefore, usually some- what higher in price. We believe our large and increasing sales of these complete manures, the analyses of which we guarantee, are an indication that the results in the field have been satisfactory to those who have used them. We are glad to sa}' we are not aware of a single case in which our mixed manures, on being tested by analysis, have proved to be inferior to their guarantees; probably this cir- cumstance, amongst others, has tended to increase the annual demand for them. In recommending our special compounds for the various crops, we do not forget the wide-spread and well-based objection on the part of intelligent agriculturists to applications of a too stimulating character. , We belie^-e, however, that those who have used our mixed manures over a course of years will bear us out that these compounds lia^-e b>' no means an exhausting tendency ; but that, on the contrary, they have increased the 64 Mixed Manures. \Siotion V. permanent fertility of the land. Had we not kept this con- sideration carefully in mind, we might have frequently shown a more vci2.xk&i!L present effect for a given cost, as for instance, by a free use of nitrate of soda in these mixtures. Our first aim is always to produce a remunerative effect on the crop in hand; but, further than this, we take care, by the use of old-fashioned articles, such as rape-dust, bone-meals, etc., which are not readily exhausted, to maintain, unimpaired, the permanent condition of the soil. For limestone and chalky land we recommend special recipes, and shall, therefore, be glad to be informed on this point when pur mixed manures are intended to be used on such soils. In our Mixed Manures for these farm crops, each ingredient contained is calculated only at its list price, with the addition of a moderate charge for the costs of preparation and intimate mixing. We can, therefore, distinctly state that our mixed manures are no dearer to the consumer than if he were to purchase the ingredients separately and to add the cost of the necessary preparation. This latter can always be done in quantity and by means of machinery, etc., much more economically than is possible on a smaller scale. Thus we feel we are not open to the objection often urged against mixed and special manures (frequently we fear with truth), that they are generally bought at £^ to £2 per ton above their real value, according to the ingredients contained. We do not print testimonials, nor have we studied the adoption of attractive names by which to advertise our compounds, but we can confidently recommend them as well worth the prices charged. In addition to our standard mixtures, we are also, at all times, glad to compound manures from our clients' own recipes, or to make our best quotations for such, when desired to do so. Guarantees' — We continue to guarantee the minimum of the percentages of ammonia, phosphates and potash named in our price-sheets in connection with each of these mixed manures, on Dr. Voelcker's test. At the risk of apparent repetition we would impress upon buyers that, of necessity, we must fix the figures we guarantee considerably beloiv the percentages which we believe that these manures actually contain, in order to allow for contingencies of anah-sis and fluctuations of the market. In case of deficiency we undertake to make proportionate allowance, it being understood that any small excess of one principle shall be held as compensating a proportionate deficiency of another, at the relative rates of value. Snmples for analysis to be taken fairl}' on delivery, by mutual arrangement, from a number of different parts of the delivered bulk, in accordance with the Royal Agricultural Societ3''s recommendations to its members. (See Journals). The expenses of sampling and analysis to be Section K.] Mixed Manures. 65 borne b}- the biijer if the quality should prove equal to or above our guarantee, and if inferior thereto, by ourselves. Condition — The importance of the condition- oi artificial manures has long been urged b}- all authorities, whether chemists or practical agriculturists. We are particularly careful to send out these manures in a dry, iinel)' powdered state, ready for use; and we believe our buyers will willingly admit that they will bear comparison in condition, as well as in quality, with the best manures in the market. Reduction of price for quantity. — In order to give buyers of ten tons and upwards of our own Special Manures a corresponding advantage for these large quantities, we usually make a special allowance of is. 6d. per ton on cash payment. The quantity (ten tons and upwards) need not consist of one kind of mixed manure only, but may be made up of several, taken at separate tim& during the same season. Choice of materials. — Tlie different imported articles used in the manufacture of artificial manures var)' considerabh' both in price and character from j'ear to year, and their relative cheapness as fertilisers varies also ; it is therefore absolutely necessarj', in order to produce the best and cheapest compound, that we should maintain . close acquaintance, with not only all old-established articles, but also with the comparative merits of the large and ever-increasing variety of competing materials, and especially as regards the new articles which are introduced from time to time. Man>' of these new materials are imperfect manures if used alone, though thej^ may supply certain principles at a specially cheap rate. On the other hand, a principle which is of the greatest value zvhen in a desirable state, may be 6£fered at an apparent!}' tempting price, but prove to be in an entirely unsuitable, or even an injurious form for application to certain particular crops ; or the state in which it exists raaj- be suitable for one time or mode of application, but not for another. The most reliable and cheapest manure is therefore usually obtained by a judicious combination of several articles, provided this is •done with the necessary knowledge of the special chemical and mechanical treatment that each requires, and with due reference to the crop and soil. To secure these advantages in the largest degree, it is absolutely necessar}- that we should keep a constant hold upon all the varying chemical and practical con.siderations involved, as well as on the ever-changing market. In order to place his clients on the best terms, the manufacturer must be able to provide capital and storage-room for the material at an}- time in the year when the best opportunitj' oflfers for purchasing ; as it is only by buying in large quantities (frequenth'' whole cargoes), C 66 Mixed Manures. {_Seotion V. and by prompt cash payment, that he can obtain his supplies on the very best terms. He must also have powerful and expensive machinery to perform effectively all the operations required ; as it is seldom worth the while of consumers, for their individual requirements, to supply all these conditions, — necessary though they are to obtaining the manures which are at once the best and cheapest, and at the same time suited to the varied needs of the different crops. Further than this, any one at all familiar with the analyses of manures will see how greatly the rates vary at which the valuable principles contained can be purchased, according to the sources from which they are obtained. Taking Ammonia first ; its most concentrated source is sulphate of ammonia, of which good qualities contain fully 24 to 24i per cent of pure ammonia. Thus, when sulphate of ammonia of 24 per cent quality can be supplied at £12 per ton, the ammonia costs just 10/- per unit; whilst in high qualities of raw Peruvian Guano, and in the higher qualities of dissolved guano, this principle will be found usually to cost at lea.st 17/6 to 23/6 per unit, although neither of these articles is more than half so concentrated a source of ammonia as the sulphate. Sulphate of ammonia is, therefore, we consider, a very suitable application to most soils (limestones excepted) where gradual action and a high percentage are desired. Nitrate of soda when at £() los. for 95 per cent purity, supplies nitrogen in a soluble form at equal to los. per unit of ammonia (see our article thereon in section 3). It is suitable, with care, for application to a large range of crops, and has a special value where quick action is required ; we, therefore, use it in our mixed manures, in cases where these characteristics point to it as desirable. Fish manures, and other articles of similar character, are also concentrated sources of nitrogen, which, by their natural decomposition in the soil, yield ammonia in an excellent form for agricultural use. Of late >-ears, ammonia in this form has frequently cost 10/9 to 1 1/9 per unit, and seems to have tended upward since fish-meals have become so well known and appreciated. Rape-cakes, though less concentrated nitrogenous manures than high quality fi.sh-meals, sulphate of ammonia, or nitrate of soda, form one of the very best sources for supplying ammonia b\' gradual decomposition in the soil. The com- mencement of the 1894 season goes byond the record up to that date for low prices of rape-cakes, supplying at the rates then ruling nitrogen at equal to 9/6 to 12/6 per unit for annuonia. See our articles under these heads in section 3, Nitrogenous and Ammoniacal Manures, further on. Section V.'] Mixed Manures. 67 Shoddy, wool-refuse,* and some other low-class nitrogenous manures are only suitable for application in special cases, on account of their comparative insolubility and very variable quality. In these articles, ammonia, or nitrogen equal thereto, can often be bought at the low rate of 4/- to 6/- per unit, accord- ing to condition and other circumstances, but we should only recommend them in special cases, and do not use them at all in our Mixed Manures. Amongst other sources of ammonia, may be mentioned ground hooves and horns, containing nitrogen equal to 15 to 17 per cent ammonia ; but notwithstanding this high percentage of ammonia, it is doubtful whether it is in a sufficiently available form for many crops, and we should value the ammonia at decidedly less thajjt in more soluble forms : the cost per unit is, however, frequently as great as in many very superior states. Finely-ground leather clippings are a still less desirable source of ammonia ; they contain 4 to 9 per cent ammonia, but the tan- ning proce-ss renders them very insoluble, and the late Dr. Voelcicer used to consider that thej' had no material value as a manure. All these articles are largely used in many of the low priced maiiures having an extensive sale, as well as in the manu- facture of some of the so-called "Dissolved Bone Manures," and Dissolved Bone Compound. From the above it may be seen that it is easy to manufacture a manure which may, on paper, show a high percentage of ammonia and be apparently cheap but not really so, if the constituents are not all in such condition as to be readily avail- able to the plant. Soluble Phosphate of Lime is obtainable from many different sources for our compound manures. In 1894 and 1895 it has been worth in mineral superphosphates of 26 to 39 per cent soluble some 2/- to 2/3 per unit, and in our pure Vitriolized Raw Bones a somewhat higher rate per unit {see articles thereon, section i). Though soluble phosphate costs more when manu- factured from bones, guano, etc., than from mineral sources, chemists are generally agreed thai its agricultural value is no greater from one than from another; the comparison is therefore a fair one from the farmer's point of view, his sole object being to purchase the various fertilising principles in their best and cheapest forms. Insoluble Phosphate (neutral), from whatever source derived, whether bone or mineral, is described by the same term in chemical anal3'ses ; but, unlike the "soluble" phosphate, its * Wool-manure, so called, is not always made from wool; a sample sent to Dr. Voelcker in May, 1890, showed on analysis less than i per cent nitrogen, and Dr. Voelcker reported " this is not wool at all, but only cotton. It is practically worthless. ' Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. 68 Mixed Manures. {Section V. agricultural value varies considerably, according to the readiness with which it can be appropriated by the plant, the fineness of its grinding, etc. ; and these the analysis cannot show. Thus an insoluble phosphate ground to an impalpable powder, and in such combination (organic or otherwise) that it decomposes readily in the soil, is much more valuable than a roughly ground phosphate of the same analj'sis, or one in which the phosphoric acid is in some form of combination with alumina or other minerals from which it is not readily liberated. In these latter forms insoluble phosphate is generally considered to be of less agricultural value than in the phosphatic guanos, bones, bone- meals, bone-ash, etc., in which it may be considered as having recently cost some i/- to i/ii per unit; whilst in Peruvian guano, whether raw or dissolved, it costs still more. » Soluble versus Insoluble Phosphates. — A series of investiga- tions were commenced some eighteen years ago in Aberdeenshire, and have been continued more recentl}' in Sussex, b}- Professor Jamieson, F.I.C. The experiments are, we believe, still in pro- gress at both stations, and in view of the importance of the subject, they have been assisted by a grant from the Board of Agriculture. The results are reported from time to time in the agricultural journals ; thus far they have indicated that on some soils and under certain conditions the returns from the use of insoluble phosphates, if sufficiently finely ground, were greater than might have been expected. This experience, however, is not confirmed by many other chemists of equal standing. The explanation of the conflicting evidence on this point may probably be found in the different requirements of the soils on which the various experiments have been tried, especially as regards the amount of lime contained. On some limestone and other soils the greater certainty and rapidity of action of the soluble phosphate, and its marked tendency in the direction of early maturing of the plant, have more than repaid the cost of dissolving with vitriol; while on other "earlier" and more readily permeable soils the more slowly acting and cheaper undissolved phosphate may, if sufficiently finely ground, be the more remunerative application. We believe that it is on sandy, granite soils, moorlands and heaths deficient in lime but rich in organic matter, and therefore yielding carbonic acid, that the best results with undissolved phosphates have been obtained. The results of a series of carefully conducted experiments, tried in 1886, by our own county Society, in conjunction with the Royal Agricultural Society, in three different districts in Yorkshire were clearlj- in favour of superphosphates. The April 1887 vol. of the "Royal" Journal contains a valuable detailed report of these and some other experiments, from the summary of which we extract the following : — Section F.] Mixed Manures. 69 Superphosphate, for the third time in these Yorkshire experiments, has proved itself superior to ground coprolites, and so far as that part of the country is concerned, there can be left but little doubt on the question of dissolved versus undissolved phosphates. Either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia have given with superphosphate a rather more economical return than the latter mixed with six loads of dung. Dung, used alone, has not had a high result, and the use of artificial manures with a small quantity of dung, would appear to have been, on land in such .condition as this, the most profitable manuring to employ. There is no decided reply as to the use of manures containing potash. The results, in brief, of the Norfolk experiments point to the profitable employment on certain soils, for both barley and root crops, of manures com- prising potash in their composition, and show also that on some soils the applica- tion of potash can become a sine qu& non. The results of the Essex experiments point to the superiority of nitrate of soda to sulphate of ammonia in a dry season, as a manure for mangolds, and that it should be sown as a top-dressing ; while sulphate of ammonia is better sown with the seed. Further, that even where twelve tons of dung have been used per acre, soluble nitrogenous manures to the extent of as much as two cwt per acre of nitrate of soda can be profitably used on such soil, together with superphosphate. Lastly, the Yorkshire experiments are specially valuable by reason of the clear answer they give to the vexed question of dissolved versus undissolved phos- phates, (pp. 268 — 273). Dr. Aitkeu, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, gave, some years ago, the results of a number of elaborate experiments on roots at Yestermains, which brought out the comparative effects of ground corprolite, bone-meal, and ground apatite, all undissolved, and the same articles dissolved, — showing an increase with soluble phosphate of nearlj- 50 per cent. The grain crops following these turnip experiments also showed that the effect of dissolving the phosphates is to increase the yield of grain about 15 per cent, and of straw 12 per cent ; the more soluble manure was therefore not exhausted b}' the first crop. (See article on Superphosphates, section i). In his inaugural lecture on Agriculture, at the Glasgow Technical College, more recently, the same chemist sums up his results as follows : — The whole question of the relative value of dissolved and undissolved phos- ■ phates resolves itself into one of fineness of division. It has been shown that the dissolving of phosphates attains the object of fineness of division, and evenness of distribution through the soil, more certainly than grinding can be trusted to do, and that superphosphate is a safer, and, in the end, a cheaper manure than mineral phosphates in most cases, As regards the experiments with the Basic Slag Phosphate Powder (a cheap source of phosphoric acid in combination with lime, iron, etc.), conducted a few 3'ears since in England by Prof. Wrightson and Dr. Munro, and in Germany by Prof. Wagner, see our article further on, in section 2. Basic Slag Phosphates are, however, not at all suitable for use in mixed manures, because of their effect on other constituents. Their phosphates are not " soluble," but are decidedly quicker in action than ground mineral phosphates. 70 Mixed Manures. [_Section V. Potash also varies considerably in agricultural value and suitability, according to its association with objectionable principles or otherwise, and its forms of chemical combination — whether muriate or sulphate, the latter being less readily soluble than the former. Thus, under some conditions of soil and time of application, one may be much more suitable than the other. Conclusion. — From the above it will be seen that the selection and combination of the constituents of compounded manures require considerable experience and knowledge, as regards both the chemical and the mechanical considerations in.volved. These we endeavour carefully to apply in the pre- paration of our special manures for the different crops, so as to provide each of the various principles required in its best and cheapest form; and as we offer these mixed manures with a distinct guarantee of the minimum percentages contained, and do not handicap them with extra profits, we have no hesitation in recommending them. GUARANTEES, ETC., of MIXED MANURES. In all our mixed manures, we guarantee the minimum per- centages named, as explained on page 64. Place of manufacture and delivery. — We manufacture all our mixed manures for the various crops at our own works at Skeldergate Bridge, York, and deliver them in bags, free to carts, or to rails at York Station, unless our clients prefer that carriage should be paid and included in the account. MANURES FOR GRASS LANDS. For prices see our annual circular and price-list. For Pasture, and where permanent improvement in the quality of the herbage is one of the principle aims, we re- commend a somewhat less stimulating manure than for mowing grass. The following guaranteed analysis we have found to answer well : — Quaranteed Percentag'es :- - Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. 5ito6i . 12 to 15 . . 9 to 13 .. 2 to 3 . . equal to about 4 to 5} This manure will be found to discourage moss, as well as to increase the yield and improve the quality of the herbage. When pastures are particularly mossy we shall be glad to alter the recipe with special reference to this point, without extra cost. Section F.] MaTiures for Grass Lands. 71 For Clover and Rotation Seeds we make a mixture specially adapted to their requirements, and based upon careful observa- tions extended over many years ; it shows the guaranteed analysis given below. For this crop we have effected some decided improvements in our recipes during the last few years, in the light of recent investigations into the requirements of the leguminosse. G-uaranteed Percentages :— Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. 3J to 4^ ■ ■ 13 to 17 . . 9 to 13 . . 5 to 6 . . eqxicA to about g to ,11 We believe it often proves worth while to let a good field of "seeds" stand an extra year or two, if not wanted for grazing lambs, and to give it a little artificial help, — say 3 to 4 cwt per acre ; thus practically increasing the proportion of grazing land on the farm. A good deal of ' expert ' attention has been latterly given to the prevention and cure of " clover sickness," — which is often due to the presence of minute eelworms (nematodes). Miss Ormerod and Mr. C. Whitehead have recommended specific applications (see Royal Agricultural Journal, June '91), ^particu- lars of which we shall be glad to supply when desired. For Meadow Land, and where a rather more stimulating manure, or one acting more quickly is required, the following guaranteed analysis has given excellent results : — , Guaranteed Percentagres :- - Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. 'Potash. 6ito7i . 12 to 16 . . 6 to 10 . . ij to 2j eqxtal to about 3 to 4J For Fog or After-Grass, we also make a still more stimulating manure, testing as under, for use in the summer or early autumn. Guaranteed Fercentagres :— Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph Potash. 10 to II . . 8 to II . . 3 to 6 . . i to ij . . equal to about 2 to 3 Quantity recommended. — The quantity we recommend for pasture or meadow is 3 to 5 cwt per acre ; for clover 4 to 5 cwt ; and for fog 2 to 3 cwt, according to circumstances. A smaller application will, however, produce a decided effect. Even the heaviest of these applications costs considerably less than a moderate dressing of farm-yard manure, without reckoning the heavy cartage of the latter. On very poor land we believe an outlay of 20s. to 30s. per acre at first, and a further 20s. to 25s. in the course of two or three years will be found to well repay the cost. We would recommend those who have not yet used our grass manures to experiment with an application of 2 or 2^ cwt on a half-acre plot (60^ yards by 40 yards). Small trial-orders of this kind very frequently result in repetition-orders for large quantities. 72 Manures for Grass Lands. [Section V. Time and mode of application.— In most cases we think our pasture manures, also those for clover, are best applied in the earfy spring months, say February and March, or as soon as the winter frosts have gone; whilst for meadow rather later application, say March or early April, is preferred by many experienced usets. Poor and long neglected grass land can seldom be got into good condition all at once, and in most ^ cases we believe it will be found worth while to repeat a light dressing of grass manure, at least for a time, almost every other 5'ear. In field experiments, both on grass and other crops, we would recommend the trial of a rather heavier dressing on a single acre of the field. A simple experiment of this kind will often show the heavier dressing to be the more remunerative. It is also a good plan to leave unmanured a narrow strip across the field, in order to test the effect of the season. In grass land which has been recently drained, the small rush and other water-plants frequently remain for some time. To pro- duce an improved herbage on such lands in as short a time as possible, it is often well to commence with a caustic application, such as lime. TheySr.?/ effect of this will be to scorch the rush, moss and weeds ; but afterwards the growth of the better grasses will be encouraged. Recent experiments have proved that on many soils sulphate of iron (ferrous sulphate), if used as a top- dressing for grass at the fate of not exceeding J to f cwt per acre, is a valuable manure in itself ; and, further, that it has a tendency to destroy moss. Artificial manure should not, we need hardly say, be applied immediately after lime, nor indeed until sufficient time has elapsed for the rains to " slake " the lime and wash it into the surface soil. We believe that where coarse, poor herbage has obtained an undue predominance in consequence of wet seasons, the quality and quantity' of herbage will both be much improved by the application of an inexpensive and not very stimulating manure, consisting mainly of phosphates and other mineral principles. This need not cost more than 80/- to 90/- per ton, and if used in sufficient quantity and early in the season, it will, we think, prove remunerative. The now well known Basic Cinder Phosphates, finely ground, have given very marked results during the past few years, and are well worth a trial on much poor grass land, especially on clays, peat, and soils deficient in lime. See the chapter on this article in section 2. Exhaustion. — Many farmers do not sufficiently realise that if they are to maintain the fertilitj- of meadows and pastures, it is just as necessary that they should return to them the fertilising principles removed by the hay, beef or mutton, and milk, as is the case with corn land. Each ten gallons of milk contains nearly A^ lb phosphate of lime, so that a cow giving seventeen Section V .'] Manures for Grass Lands. 73 quarts of milk per da>' removes lA lbs of phosphate of lime from the soil each week, which is equal to about 3 lbs of bone dust per week, or li cwt per annum, or about double that quantity of ordinary mineral superphosphate. Ever}' one hundred lbs. of cheese contains 2|- lbs of phosphate of lime or bone earth, requiring 5 lbs of bone-dust to replace it.* An average hay crop of 28 cwt per acre Removes nitrogen equivalent to about 54 lbs ammonia, or nearly 2 cwt of sulphate of ammonia, and phosphate of lime equal to 40 lbs steamed bone-meal, as well as potash equivalent to about 3^ cwt of kainit. In many districts fold manure can seldom be spared for the grass land, and in such cases we have no hesitation in recom- mending the use of artificials. Artificial manures are still occasionally spoken of as " exhausting" to grass land. In some cases this may be parth' true ; but everything depends upon the kifid of manure used, and the condition of the land. The con- tinuous use of nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia alone, year after }'ear, would doubtless prove exhausting ; but if the mineral principles (phosphates of lime, potash, etc.) are also supplied in adequate quantit}-, there need be no tendency to exhaustion. Sir J. B. Lawes has shown that grass land which has been con- tinuously manured for eighteen j^ears with nitrate of soda, together with mixed mineral manures (phosphate of lime, potash, etc.) and nothing else, shows no signs of exhaustion ; but on the contrary', that the average yield of the second nine 3'ears exceeds that of the first nine. After the experience of more than thirty years in the manu- facture of special manures for the improvement of the various descriptions of grass land, — whether pasture, meadow, seeds, fog or aftergrass, — we are increasingly convinced that a judicious application oi suitable manures to poor grass is no less certain in its effects, and will often pay better than applications to some land now under the plough, especially at the present low price of wheat. Writing some years ago in the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Societj-, on laying down land to permanent pasture, Mr. Morgan Evans sums up the reports of a large number of practical men on this point, in the following paragraph, which recent experience has abundantly confirmed : At all times it IS to be presumed that manuring grass land with suitable substances will repay the outlay. There is little danger of being too liberal in this respect, although some grass land will yield a fair profit by grazing alone, and the inducement to give it additional manure is not so great. Corn crops may be too heavily manured, leading in moist seasons to a great yield of straw, at the expense of quality of grain. Barley or wheat may be too bulky and get laid, when the grain does not properly ripen, and the difficulty and expense of harvesting the crop are considerably increased. But grass, being consumed in * Johnson's Agricultural Chemistry. 74 Manures for Grass La?ids. [Section V. the blade, and before it is ripened, cannot well grow too luxuriantly. Ceteris paribus, the outlay in manuring grass is a safer investment than in the case of corn. Effect on Herbage. — Many careful experiments, conducted over a long course of years, have shown that phosphate of lime, potash, etc., applied to grass land, encourage the clovers and broad-leaved plants, develope the bottom growth and promote earlier maturity. On the other hand, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, guano, and other nitrogenous or ammoniacal manures stimulate the narrow-leaved grasses, as cocksfoot, ryegrass, etc., producing a rank and succulent herbage, and prolonging the period of growth. Speaking generally, nitrogehous manures increase the quantity, while phosphatic manures and those con- taining potash improve the quality. In compounding our grass manures we endeavour to combine these principles in suitable proportions, so as to bring out the clovers and finer grasses, and at the same time to increase the yield. In recommending manures for grass we take into careful consideration the circum- stances of each case,— kind of soil and character of herbage, whether increased quantity or improved quality is more impor- tant, the time of year when application is to be made, etc. ; — these considerations account for the varying prices of the different recipes. Permanent improvement. — It should be remembered that manures applied for the improvement oi pashire land are not by any means exhausted the first year, but are necessarily much more permanent in their beneficial effects than similar applica- tions to arable land. The increased crop being each season consumed on the land, a good proportion of the manuring principles are year by je.ax returned to the soil, again and again to take their part in enriching the next 3'ear's yield. The great development of rootlets in grass land enables it to appropriate and retain a larger proportion of the soluble principles supplied in manures than is the case with most arable land, so that manure judiciously applied to grass land is seldom wasted. Bone and Bone Meals. — Ground Bones were, until recently, largely used in some districts for the improvement of grass land, and in many cases have given excellent results ; on some soils, however, more especially limestones, the late Dr. Voelcker con- sidered them of little use. Ground bones used to be applied in the past in the ' half-inch ' form, and an average dressing then cost from £2 to £2, per acre, according to the quantity applied. Though slow in action, and rather expensive, they constituted a permanent improvement of grass land. Bones are, however, more effective, and give a much earlier return, when finely ground and applied as bone meal; or partially dissolved, as Vitriolized Bones (see our chapter thereon, .section i). Section F.] Manures for Grass Lands. 75 In these forms bones are more readily available to the rootlets and less liable to be carried awa}' by rooks than in the coarser, half-inch form. We have recently erected powerful machinery, which enables us to grind bones to almost any degree of fineness, down to the finest meal, at verj' small additional cost. At the present price of Bone Meal we can recommend it as an excellent permanent grass manure, supplying phosphates and nitrogen at a relatively low cost as compared with many other sources. See article on Bo7ie Meals, section 2. Lawn Manure. — Having had many enquiries for a special manure for the improvement of lawns and the eradication of daisies, moss and weeds, we have for some years past prepared a mixture calculated to stimulate the growth of the finer grasses, and to discourage the daisies and other broad-leaved weeds. The demand for this lawn manure has gradually extended much beyond the limited circle for which it was originally intended, and we now send out considerable quantities for lawns, cricket creases, and other similar purposes. An application of one lb to five or six square yards ma5' be repeated several times during the sea.son, at intervals of about a fortnight, care being taken to appl}- it when the grass is dry. If applied too heavilj' on anj- portion the grass may be temporarily browned, but will soon recover after rain. Some users prefer applying it in spring only ; but light dressings in the autumn also are, we think, advantageous. This Lawn Manure will be found much more powerful than the " I,awn Sands" usuallj^ sold, and it should therefore be used with care. An easy method of obtaining an even " spread" is to use a large-sized kitchen dredger, or to spread it carefully by hand, previously mixing it with a larger bulk of dry earth or sand. It does not deteriorate if kept in a dry place, and has no offensive smell. It usually costs about £\2 15s. per ton, cash; £\2, 15s. credit, including bags. For the convenience of those who only require small quantities, we can supply at corresponding rates ; say four stones and upwards at 13s. 6d. per cwt cash. We guarantee minima of 12 to 15 per cent ammonia and 12 to 15 per cent phosphates. CORN MANURES. In each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom the area under wheat shews a slight increase in 1894 ^s compared with 1893, and this increase is more noticeable in the North Riding of Yorkshire than in any other district. But the effect of the steady reduction in the prices obtainable for this crop is clearly seen in the fact that the area under wheat cultivation in England is now onlj' about 60 per cent of that of twenty years ago. 76 Corn Manures. [Section V. But even with the present low values of home-grown corn, it is as important as ever to the English farmer that he should secure the best crop possible on such acreage as he does devote to corn, — the rent and taxes and most other expenses being the same on a bad as on a good crop. A moderate application of a suitable artificial manure will generally be found worth while, unless the land is already in exceptionally good condition from previous manuring. In a favourable season it abundantly repays its cost, and even in a bad year it generally reduces the loss to narrower limits. Our corn manures have now been practically tested for many years, by use on a very large acreage of varying descriptions of soil ; the continued and increasing demand for them, is, we hope, an indication of the results. With these, as with our other special manures, we are constantly on the outlook for any infor- mation enabling us to improve their composition. We can therefore recommend them with confidence, and believe they will compare favourably with any manures in the market. Prices and Guaranteed Percentages. — For quotations of OUr special corn manures, which have recently been very low, in sympathy with prices of corn, see our annual circular and price- lists. For quantities of ten tons or upwards of our mixed manures, we make a reduction of is. 6d. per ton for cash pay- ment; this quantity may be made up of several kinds, and may be taken in separate lots during the same season. We also print in our price-sheet the percentages we guarantee in each case (see paragraph as to guarantees, page 64), but the following. have been our standard figures recentl}': — Barley and Spring Wheat. Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Siilph. Potash y to 8 10 to 14 2/04 ij to 2 equal to about 2J to 3I Oat Manure. Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. S to g g to 12 2 ip 4 ij to 2J equul to about 3 to 4J TOPDRESSIXG FOR CoKX. Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. 10 to II 8 to II 3 to 6 I to ij equal to about 2 to 3 Autumn and Winter Wheat. Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. 44 '0 5j 6^ to 74 9 t" 10 I to i\ equal to about 2 to 3 Limestone Soils. — For these we use special recipes, and shall, therefore, be glad to be informed when orders are for use on limestone land. Section V.] Corn Manures. 77 For poor or backward corn we recommend the specially stimulating Topdressing, adapted for use later in the season than other corn manures. In addition to several other equally im- portant principles, this Topdressing contains good proportions of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia. We can recommend it with confidence, at the rate of 2 or 2^ cwt per acre, as of particularly good value. Oats require a more stimulating and nitrogenous compound than wheat and barlej', and we recognise this in our preparations. For cold, strong land also, the higher priced and more stimulating mixtures are sometimes the most suitable, even for barley. The corn crops and other gramineae seem to have but little power to accumulate nitrogen in the soil, and they respond freely to its application as a fertiliser ; indeed their yield of carbo- hydrates (starch and cellulose) is very much in proportion to the amount of nitrogen they can be made to assimilate, in combina- tion with the required mineral principles. This is clearly brought out in the results of the Rothamsted experiments on the growth of wheat and barley for the twenty years, 1852 — 1871. In our special mixtures for the various corn crops, we take these ascer- tained requirements carefully into account. It is our aim to combine the right proportions of nitrogenous, ammoniacal, and phosphatic materials, also of potash and other constituents, carefully selecting those which are, in our opinion, the best and cheapest form of each. These mixtures vary in price according to the materials they contain. They have proved themselves effective and economical, at the rate of about 3 to 4 cwt per acre, but even smaller applications have produced marked results. We feel no doubt that, in most seasons, these compounds will be found of greater value for their cost and will produce better crops than any sifigle manure, such as rape-dust or Peruvian guano, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, etc., used alone. Experiments. — From an Ohio Agricultural Kxperimental Station comes a suggestion for the prevention of smut in oats. The process recommended consists, mainly, in steeping the seed oats in water, sufficiently hot to destroy the smut-germs which adhere to the surface of the grain, but not so hot as to injure the oat-germ itself. For oats affected with eelworms, Mr. C. Whitehead recommends an application of sulphate of potash, either alone or in combination with superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia. See article in Royal Agricultural Journal, June, iSgr, on Methods of Prevefiting and Checkhig the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. On the contrasting effect of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, we print some remarks under the head of Sulphate 78 Corn Manures. {_Scctiou V. of Ammonia, in section 3. In connection with the right reading of experimental results, it has been recently pointed out by Sir J. B. Ivawes that plots under the experiment must be kept scrupu- lously clear of weeds, if the experiments are to be of value, or some of the smaller or commoner weeds may consume large quantities of the nitrogen which has been intended for the crop. We may add that it has been found, as the result of many experiments, that the use of phosphates, whether dissolved or in the form of bone-meal, improves decidedly the quality of barley. Our mixtures, which contain a proportion of these principles, have the advantage of bringing forward the crop to harvest more quickly than nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia alone can do. In a valuable lecture delivered at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, in June, 1886, by Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., he gives the result of experiments at Rothamsted on the growth of barley for more than thirt3^ years in succession on the same land ; and shows the tendency to exhaustion produced by different kinds of manures and by variations of seasons, in their effects on the amount of produce and on the composition of barle3'. He points out, also, that as barle}' is usually sown on a lighter surface-soil than wheat, and has a shorter time for its root-development, it is more dependent than wheat on the stores contained in the surface soil, and that it is accordingly more susceptible to exhaustion of the surface-soil supplies, both of nitrogen and minerals, — especially of the latter. This he gives as the explanation of the common agricultural experience that barley is more benefited than wheat by the direct application of phosphatic and other mineral manures when sown under similar soil-conditions. Some interesting details are also given of a series of experi- ments intended to solve the question, — on what does the strength of straw depend ? Contrary to the usually accepted view that high quality and stiffness of straw depend on a high amount of silica, the ' results of these experiments clearly show that the proportion of silica is, as a rule, lower and not higher, in the straw of the better grown and better ripened crops. Dr. Gilbert says on this point : — " Nor can there be any doubt that the strength of straw depends on the favourable development of the woody substance ; and the more this is attained_, the more will the accumulated silica be, so to speak, diluted, — in other words, show a lower proportion to the organic substance." The lecture is well worthy of careful perusal. POTATO MANURE. Potatoes appear ver}- dependent on liberal supplies of potash and nitrogen in readily assimilable forms, as well as a Section V.'] Potato Manures. 79 moderate quantity of phosphates, part at least of which should be soluble. Ichaboe and Peruvian guanos suppl}' the two latter in excellent forms, but at a somewhat higher cost than some other good articles, such as fish-meals, vitriolized bones, bone meals, etc. ; or the phosphates may be supplied as superphos- phates and the nitrogen in rape dust, sulphate of ammonia, or nitrate of soda. That potatoes take potash largely from the soil, is proved by the fact that 37 per cent of the ash of the tuber and 20 per cent of the ash of the leaf consist of this important principle. We have, therefore, for man}- years past used in our potato manure a proportion of potash, and our belief in its value is confirmed by the many favourable reports we have received from time to time, especially in some years when the disease has been unusually prevalent. The potato disease is well-known to be caused by the growth of the microscopic fun^s Phyiophihora infestans, and is not di;-ectly due to deficiency of potash or any other principle in the soil ; but the plant, like the animal, is best able to withstand disease when all the principles necessary to its healthy growth are supplied to it in suitable proportion. How- ever difficult it may be to find an effective remedy for disease in potatoes, it is often remarked that a crop of potatoes is a valuable preventive on land affected by that almost equally troublesome disease in turnips, the "anbury" or "finger and toe." The explanation, however, is not so clearh' ascertained as the fact. Fold-yard Manure contains a large proportion of potash, and is therefore specially suitable to the potato crop. The mechanical effect of fold-manure, as tending to keep the land open, is also very useful on some soils. On this and other grounds we would recommend that, in addition to the artificial, some fold-yard manure be used whenever practicable, even if it can only be spared in small quantity. When, however, only a limited quantity is available, we incline to think it better in most cases to spread this, as a light dressing, over the whole acreage to be planted, rather than to apply it more liberally on a smaller area, which would leave the remainder of the land entirely dependent on artificial manures. Where fold-yard manure cannot be spared, or where the soil is particularly light, we should make special recipes, differing slightly from our usual mixture. We also make special mixtures for limestone and chalk soils. The principal potash salts suitable for potatoes are : — muriate of potash, sulphate of potash and magnesia, kainit, etc., as to which see articles under these heads in section 4. Magnesia salts, which are supplied in kainit (as an impurity, and, therefore, not paid for) are believed to be of considerable value to the potato as well as to some other crops, the ash of the entire potato plant containing 5^ per cent, and that of the 8o Potato Manures. [Section V. tuber 6 per cent of magnesia. The double sulphate of potash and magnesia also contains a good percentage of magnesia, and is an excellent medium for supplying both potash and magnesia. We keep all these articles regularly in stock at our works at York. As is well known to all practical potato growers, liberal manuring is quite essential to the successful cultivation of this crop — the necessarilj- heavy expenses of seed, planting and working being the same for a poor as for a good yield ; the profit is, in fact, very often merely the difference between the two. We have had many years' experience in compounding for this crop, during which it has been our endeavour steadily, to improve our recipes in the light of further knowledge, and we believe we have succeeded in doing so. Our potato manures are ver}- carefully prepared, all the elements of growth being supplied in what appear to us to be the most suitable forms, with due reference to their relative cost and to the special requirements of the plant and soil ; and we feel confident that our preparations for this crop will continue to give satisfaction. H. R. &,Co.'s Potato Manure. — Our guaranteed analysis usualh' shews about the following figures. For quotations, which include bags and delivery free on rails at York, see our annual circular and price-sheet. Ammonia. Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Pure Potash. Sulph. Potash. 7 '0 8 7 to 10 4 to 6 5 *" 54 f?! 1/9 to 2,- Newcastle and Liverpool ) 54 Valuation of Manures from Analysis. [Section VII Per Unit. Insoluble or neutral phosphate (tribasic, Cag 2PO4) \ ^j^^ ^^ 3/2 in natural guanos as Ichaboe, Peruvia7i, etc j Ditto, in pure vitriolised raw bone ■■■ ■■■ i/S ^^ ^/7 Ditto, in fish manures, half-inch bones, bone- ") ,^ ^^ ^ / meals, etc. J ' Ditto, in finely ground coprolite a^id other \ ^^ ^^ ^^^ undissolved minerals ) Ditto, in Basic Ci?ider, finely ground, including] ^^^ ^^ ^, bags, at works, without carriage J Ditto, in mineral superphosphates. Up to ^ fier^ cent only, about half the price of V \d. to 6d. ground coprolite, say ■■■ ■■■ j Precipitated or reduced * phosphate (Cag 2PO4) 1/5 to 1/9 Phosphoric acid (P2O5) in soluble form, ) , ^^ ,g according to source ... •.• J Ditto 171 large quantities, without carriage .. 4/1 to 4/5 Ditto in Basic Cinder, finely ground and in \ ^ , ^^ .^ bags, according to place of delivery J Ammonia (NH3), in hi^h quality Peruvian guanos \ ^^y_ ^^ ^^,_ containing 6 to 12 per cent ammonia \ ' "' Ditto, in ammoniated Peruvian gua?io, 10 to 11 > ^ , ^^ ^g,_ • per cetit am?ii07iia) '" Ditto, in raw Ichaboe guano, 10 to 11 per cc7it\ , . ^,,g a77i7//07/ia J ' '"' Ditto, i7i ground rape-cakes and rape-meal \ „,_ , , f according to place of deliveiy) ) ' "' Ditto, i7i g/'ound bo7ies, acco/-di7ig to fineness of\ i-f / o/-i7id!7!g and to place of delive/y ) ' '^ Ditto, in sulphate of amnW7ita. acco7-di7iir to place \ ^ , ,^ • V , /. >- Q/6 to 10/6 of denvc/y J ^' ' Ditto, in fish 7uaii2ucs (acco7-di7ig to place of delive7y 10/9 to 11/6 *As is well known, superphosphates made from phosphorites containing iron and alumina are liable to "go back," or become again insoluble, after having once been made soluble. Opinions differ as to the dependability of the citrate of ammonium and other methods used by chemists for the determination of this "reduced" or "retrograde" phosphate. Its agricultural value in a superphos- phate has, however, long been admitted in France, Belgium and America, and its recognition is gaining ground in England. Several English chemists of standing now estimate it whenever desired to do so. Section F//.] Valuation of Manures from Analysis. 95 Per Unit. Ammonia, i7i shoddy and other substances 7iot readily ) available in the soil, if containing not >- 5/- to 7/6 less than 2> per cent ammonia ... ... ) Ditto, in low quality shoddy, sud-cake, ground\ ,, , , leather, hooves, etc. ... ... ... j ^' " 5/9 Ditto, equivalent to nitric acid contained in nitrate') of soda and other nitrates, according to > 9/6 to 11/- place of delivery ... ... ... ... ) ( These prices equal about i/ii to ij^. per unit of nitrate of soda of 1/7^ to 2/- date, and quantity ... ... ... j These prices are equal to about 2/1 1 to -^1?,^ for pure potash (the oxide KgOJ, or \j\d^ to ■2li\. per unit of muriate of potash (K CI).* Potash, Sulphate of {Y^^^O^) in higher qualities 2/- to 2/3 Potash, Muriate of (K CI) 2/1 to 2/3 2/2 is equal to about :;^l^^ for pure potash f the oxide, KjOy. Magnesia, Sulphate of ■■■ ■.. ... ... jd. to gd. *87 parts sulphate of potash (K^SO^) and 74J muriate of potash (K CI) and loi pEirts nitrate of potash (KNO3) in each case contain 47 of pure potash (the oxide, KjO). The table vaax perhaps seem somewhat complicated. We believe, however, that those of our readers who combine the necessary knowledge of both the chemical and the commercial considerations involved will admit that the distinctions we have drawn are real ones. To be of any practical value, a table of this sort must recognise all necessarj' differences ; — otherwise it will be not only useless, but misleading. The estimated unit-values given above are based on the following approximate cash values per ton of the leading ferti- lisers in common use. The prices are calculated including bags, and for deliverj- at York unless otherwise stated. This list of prices is merely given as shewing the bases of the unit- valuations named above, and not as in an}' sense a dependable price-list. However accurateh" such a list may represent the market values when drawn up at an}' one time, it will necessarily soon be out of date. 96 ARTICLES AND PRICES ON -WHICH ARE BASED THE TABLE OF UNIT VALUATIONS on February, 1895. [Section VII. PAGES 93-95. A rticlc. 1 Sol. Phos. Insol. Phos. Potash. Price. Superphosphate, high quality . . 35 1 £ s- 3 2 to 3 10 d. 6 According to place of delivery. Superphosphate, ordinary 26 2 7 to 2 12 6 6 Superphosphate, high quality . . 35 3 15 at York. Superphosphate, ordinary 26 2 17 6 .. Pure Vitriolized Ra-w Bones, ! high quality ! Ichaboe Guano 3-66 10-50 12-32 9-50 29 21-50 32-60 5 15 II 5 15 15 ■■ Peruvian Guano, Corcovado . . . 300 ,, ditto Core. &-Huanillos 8-22 44-52 1-50 12 15 ,, ditto Amman ated 10-50 2800 I 00 10 15 ,, Fish Meal 9'5o 9-50 10-50 2400 '024-50 14 00 1600 6 at Ports. ditto 6 10 at York. ditto 1700 7 2 6 Sulphate of Ammonia ' j / ^ II 5 to 12 j According to place r r Nitrate of Soda, 95 % purity . . Ground Bones, half-inch igoo 4-60 5000 i 8 17 to g 10 5 15 6 ] delivery, at York. Bone Meals, according to grist.. 4-60 50*054 ( 5 7 to 6 6 Indian Bone Meals 4-60 175 175 350 575 52*054 60-00 I 4 15 '055 5 15 5 17 S T r at Ports. at York. Steamed Bone Meal ditto Flour 60 - 00 6 Boiled Bone Meal 5100 400 " Rape Cake Dust, Black Sea . . ( ^D 2 15 to 3 5 \ According ^ to place ditto East Indtan . . 675 4-00 ( '■ 1 3 17 to 4 7 6 6 of j delivery. Rapeseed Meal, oil extracted . . 575 400 ( "" "t 2 7 to 2 17 6 6 1 ■• ditto East Indian . . 7-50 4-00 1 3 17 to 4 7 6 6 1 i " Muriate of Potash, 80 % , 1 506 -^ 8 5 to 8 17 6 1 - Kainit, 23 % snlph. potash 12-50. I 17 to 2 5 6 1^ Basic CmAer, finely ground . . . . 37 '042 1 I I 17 to I At Works, ■ without carri ge. ditto ^S'033 20/024 \ I 13 to I 16 I 8 r> 6 1 ) ditto 97 ^iw^: SECTION VIII. MANURE ANALYSES. We annex a selection of analyses of various fertilisers, whicli may be useful for comparison and reference. We would just add that it must be borne in mind that in these tables of analyses certain combinations shewn in some of the columns are alternative, or for comparison, and do not always exist in reality in that particular form. For instance, nitrate of soda does not contain any nitrogen in the form of ammonia, but we have shewn the equivalent in ammonia of the nitrogen contained, for comparison with other sources of nitrogen in the ammonia form. Again, in calcined potash salts the total potash is shewn as 3873 ; also its equivalent in sulphate of potash, 71 '72, for comparison with others, though, in fact, the potash exists largely in the form of muriate of potash. So also in phosphatic minerals ; the total phosphoric acid is shewn in one column, and, for the sake of equal comparison, the whole of this is shewn in another column (4) calculated into the equivalent figure for tribasic phosphate of lime ; though it does not necessarily follow that the whole of the phosphoric acid in the mineral phosphates is combined with lime as tribasic phos- phate of lime. D 98 [Section VIII- ANALYSES OF I 2 3 4 Manures supplying Soluble Phosphates. Moisture. Combined Water and Organic Matter. Nitrogen in No. 2. (N.) Equal to Ammonia in No. i. (NH,). Vitriolized Raw Bones, Pure,) or Dissolved Raw Bones, r Pure ) ii"9i 24"85 2-86 3 '47 Dissolved Raw and Burnt] Bones or Bone Superphos- , phate 14-28 22-38 1-66 2-01 Dissolved Bone Ash or Bone] Ash Superphosphate •■■] 1672 11-68 -21 ■25 Dissolved Bones, made from) Steamed or Boiled Bones ...f 11-31 2977 1-79 2-i8 Dissolved Bone Compound, | from Bones and Minerals...) 16-00 ... 1-24 I '50 Mineral Superphosphate of Lime, from ' Coprolites, etc., 25 to 28% i7'5i 10-61 ... ... ditto \ from Higher Phosphates, 1 29 to 31 % 18-40 8-70 ... ... ditto from High-grade Phosphates, . 34 to 37% 13-29 6 90 ... I 2 3 Phos. Acid 4 5 Basic Cinder Phosphates. Moisture. Pliospharic Acid. (P»0o). Tribasic Piiospliate of Lime. (CAazPO,) Lime. (CaO). Protoxide of Iron. (FeO). Basic Slag (Thomas-Gilchrist) . . ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto (Martin) ditto (Thomas-Gilchrist) . . ditto ditto I-; c i( ■( I- 4' 2( 2' >7 )0 '3 20 165 187 160 16-4 18-4 II-4 180 14-2 173 4 I 4 3 3600 4082 34'92 35-88 4019 24-97 39-29 31-06 37-70 4900 5037 38-21 52-33 4328 4086 47-62 41-80 43-80 IIOO 935 "■95 928 6-61 590 570 8-43 Section F///,] MANURES. 99 5 Monocalcic Phosphate. (Ca2P03). 6 Equal to Tribasic Phosphate rendered soluble. (Ca, 2PO,). 7 Insoluble Tribasic Phosphate of Lime. (Ca, 2PO,). 8 Sulphate of .ime, Alkaline Salts, Magnesia, etc. 9 Insoluble Siliceous Matter. Analyst. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 "60 15-16 25"99 8-6i 1673 1 9' 20 22-49 11-89 2374 40-70 i3'49 22-00 26-20 30-07 35'2i 26-59 i7"52 •70 26-39 8-00 3-15 I 69 7 '05 28-06 27-56 42-50 22-47 46-61 4942 46-97 ■99 3-10 2-41 • 1-45 5'39 2-59 3 '30 Voelcker Penney Penney Voelcker W.J. L. Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker 6 Peroxide of Iron. (Fe.Oj). 7 Protoxide of Manganese. (MnO). 8 Silica. (SiO=). 9 Alumina. (AljO,). 10 Magnesia. (•MgO). II Sulphur Compounds, Vanadium Oxide, Alkalies, etc. Analyst. 9 lo II 12 13 H 15 i6 I? 3-50 3-8i 671 2X2 838 17-85 443 826 544 3-5° 6.23 453 650 556 601 472 5-50 7 7 9 9 12 14 18 13 00 60 60 26 91 31 85 73 70 20 23 2-8< ■8 2-3 -9 5 2 5 3 i 500 543 414 421 2-8i 998 609 I 22 ?-65 I 00 2-35 267 ■35 Kinch Hughes Macadam Kroseberg Pattins'n& Stead Kroseberg Kroseberg lOO ISeciion VIII. ANALYSES OF Manures supplying Nitrogen, etc. Moisture. Organic Matter and Combined Water. Nitrogen in No. i. (N.) Equal to Ammonia No. 2. (NH3.) Bones, half-inch and quarter-inch \ Foreign and English ] ditto ditto ordinary English Bone Meal, fine English, dry diito Bombay, good ditto Bombay ditto Karachi ditto Calcutta Crushed Bones, Calcutta ditto Rosario, S. America . . . . Steamed Bone Meal or Flour Boiled Bone Meal or Flour Dried Beef, S. America Liebig's Meat Guano, S. America ditto S. America Dried Blood Amraonigen Embalmed Egyptian Cats Rape Cake Dust, Black Sea ditto East Itidian, brown or green . . ditto Guzerat, yellow^ ditto East Indian, Jamba Rape-seed Meal, oil-extracted. Black Sea ditto East Indian, Jamba Fish Meal, ordinary English ditto English, white fish ditto English, herring ditto English ditto English ditto Norwegian cod ditto extra, fine Norwegian ditto Norwegian whale Bats' Guano ditto ditto Peruvian Guano, Corcovado ditto Huanillos ditto Lotos de Afuera .... ditto Pabellon de Pica .... ditto Lobos de Titria Guano, Maiden Island Ichaboe Guano ditto Soot Whale Bone Meal, Norwegian, steamed 8-05 I2'7 I0'20 7'30 7-85 836 606 8-o8 9'io 11-57 978 10-46 8-49 994 17-26 1-03 903 914 10-39 8-85 10-46 11-26 1305 12-94 1475 1209 9-14 8-50 456 18-88 11-50 20-10 18-40 1604 15-02 10-23 16-34 I7'53 12-48 459 3375 3i'43 3040 27-10 25-90 2434 2468 2826 3134 1901 28-94 7739 52-66 57-96 73-00 9201 81-70 81-36 81-92 80-60 78-24 81-30 55-75 57-24 5854 62-36 57-59 5443 72-36 14-92 7763 50-13 43-28 18-36 2933 5-22 33-98 3606 Cnrbon 510* 3609 3-96 3-91 3-69 3-94 3-57 3-78 3-83 3-92 4-II 1-6 3-27 9-87 6-57 7-03 11-05 loSo ■ 5-51 4-81 5-29 5-77 5'6o 509 6-30 6-94 8-57 8-'i5 8-79 8-61 837 8-63 1-73 998 8-45 10-84 3-54 574 -18 8-83 906 2-92 4-81 4-76 4-48 4-78 4-33 4-59 4-65 4-76 4-99 1-94 3-97 11-98 7-98 8-54 13-42 13-12 6-70 5-84 6-42 701 6-80 6-18 7-65 8-43 10-40 9-89 1067 10-45 10-17 10-48 2-10 12-12 1026 13-16 3-92 4-30 6-97 2-83 -22 10-72 IIOI 4-26 354 Section VIII.^ lOI MANURES. 5 6 7 8 9 Phos. Acid Insoluble calculated as Allialine Salts Potash Siliceous Oil Analyst. Phosphate atid other ill No. 6. Matter. in No. 2. of Lime. constituents. (3CaO,P,0,) (K,0). 4997 8-18 •05 Voelcker 4666 6-99 222 4817 8-93 2-30 Firby 5418 9-67 175 Smetham 5223 942 4-60 Smethaih 5390 8-72 4-68 Penney 56-51 8-95 3-80 Williams 5401 806 1-59 Dyer 5060 672 2-24 Fairley 6002 8-54 -86 Voelcker 5327 7-06 ■95 Voelcker 947 -24 244 Voelcker i 3508 272 105 Voelcker 26-37 4-14 1-59 Voelcker 1-65 595 2-14 Davies ■65 162 105 364 Penney 36-31 Smetham 5-12 '■56 3-59 Fairley 4-82 1-59 3-09 Penney 480 289 Fairley 430 1-95 4'30 W.J. L. 399 2-51 4-80 Dyer 3-97 179 1-68 Dyer 15-81 13-99 1-40 ii-o 18-38 1000 1-44 4-72 13-60 10-87 2-24 8-46 16-97 7-53 1-05 8-56 28-05 493 -29 233 Voelcker 30-80 5-21 I 06 Fairley .20-56 •52 Falconer King 3765 18-95 9-60 6-94 1-54 2-39 Voelcker 13-90 13-24 2.63 Voelcker 27-10 8-70 2-52 55-77 ■33 47-52 1-52 4-46 12-10 Dyer 35-08 13-16 3-11 430 Dyer 41-33 2-66 6gi8 15-29 Voelcker 2295 7-45 19-28 21-42 298 2201 ■78 4-38 .. 51-54 3-74 ■49 Voelcker I02 ^Section YIII. ANALYSES OF Manures supplying Nitrogen, etc. I Moisture. 2 Nitrate of Soda. (NaNO,). 3 Nitrogen in No. 2. (N). 4 Equal to Ammonia ■ No. 2. (NH3). Nitrate of Soda 301 210 1-20 ■586 9504 9601 97- 1 1 ■ 99-154 15-65 15-81 15-99 16-33 18-99 19-19 19-41 19-82 ditto Sulphate of Ammonia. (sNH,, so,) Sulphate of Ammonia 240 5-77 420 9716 93-40 95-34 2060 19-81 20-22 25 02 2406 24-56 ditto iitto Potash, Magnesia and Soda Salts. I ■Moisture. t 2 Total Potash. (K.O). 3 Sulphate of Potash. (K. SOJ. 4 Total Magnesia. (MgO). Potash & Magnesia, Sulphates of ditto ditto Kainit ditto Sulphate of Potash, low quality ditto high quality Muriate of Potash ditto from Beet Root Calcined Potash Salts White Agricultural Salt Ground Rock Salt Nitrate of Pota.sh, impure 3-96 4'59 12-70 12-76 8-16 7-52 3-18 4-05 ■33 2-64 26-42 26-64 12-80 12-56 34-76 51-30 52-01 58-43 38-73 41-40 48-92 49-34 23-60 23-25 64-34 95-00 20-16 (^ of No. 2 ) C Nitrate of N V^Potasli W^J i3'65 11-94 10-05 7-48 ... /'Sulphate ot\ K. LIrae SOS ) Limestones. Moisture. Carbonate of Lime. Sulphate of Lime. Carbonate of Magnesia. Settrington Pye Pits, Mai ton Brotherton Warmsworth Cliff, before burbling ditto after burning •65 •20 I -60 94-7 97-19 87-73 54-20 ( 58-40 \ \ Lime. ) 175 •37 ... ■43 "1-36 45-00 ( 38-60 ) Section F///.] MANURES. 103 5 6 7 8 9 Phos. Acid calculated as Chloride of Sulphate of insoluble Phosphate Sodium. Soda. Siliceous - Refraction. Analyst. of Lime. Matter. (3CaO,P,OJ (NaCl). (Na.SOJ 140 .32 •23 4-96 Fairley •65 •80 ■44 399 Can-. & New. , , 1-33 ■36 289 Williams ■■ •20 trace ■06 .846 W. J. L. Free Acid, Cyanides : FerrocyanideSy etc. Ferricyanides, Sulphocyanides. Nil •44 Firby ■13 Nil ■70 W. . L. •14 Nil ■32 W. J. L. 5 6 7 8 9 Sulphate of Muriate of Chloride of Insoluble Chloride of Magnesia. Potash. Sodium. Matter Magnesium. (MgSOJ. (KCl). (NaCl). and other constituents. 41-36 336 2-40 32-86 ■13 377 9"3i i4'50 34-60 2-20 12-40 10-32 41-76 2-29 9-62 Macadam 18-43 I-2I 7-86 Macadam 82-44 5-26 2-28 2-50 Macadam ... 73'30 /' Carbonate of N 1^ Soda 1-02 J •39 / Potass \ VC irbonrite -195^ 12-11 ( 60-78 ) ■ i3'44 2-56 5 '04 / Snlphate of \ ^ Lime -87 J 98-99 / Sulphide of "N (^ Sodium -It J traces 74 / Chloride of > (, Calcium -49 J 9686 1-58 ... Sharpe 11-82 8-91 •58 /'Sulphate of Soda^ I 2-81 ) Macadam Oxide of Iron Insoluble Carbonate of Phosphate of Iron, Magnesia, 1 and Silicious iron. Carbonic Acid, Alumina. Matter. etc. '- — - - -90 i'57 ■77 1-84 Milne 1-12 7'i3 ■69 ... •30 -20 ■30 1-40 ■50 i-io I04 [Section VIII. ANALYSES OF I 2 Combined Water and Organic 3 Phosphatic Minerals, etc. ■Moisture. Phosphoric Acid. Matter. (P2 O5). Florida Phosphate . . 1-36 35 57 Chisholm Phosphate Rock 238 25-99 Goodrich Rock Phosphate .. 27-57 Florida Land Rock, Peninsula •76 3570 ditto Withlacooche . . 124 34'9o ditto Ocala and Blue River •66 3670 Peace River Rock Phosphate 2827 Algerian Rock Phosphate . . 398 241 30-24 Neptune Phosphate 1-55 3019 Belgian Phosphate, Ciply . . ■35 105 19 II Somme Phosphate, roas/jcrf.. 3166 MejUones Guano 938 6-66 3280 Bull River Phosphate 216 2790 Cambridge Coprolites 1-24 2680 Bedford Coprolites . . 206 2352 Canadian Apatite 38-14 Norwegian Apatite . . '75 40-42 Curafao Phosphate . . 1-24 38-92 Charleston Phosphate 152 27-77 Sombrero Phosphate 710 32-39 Spanish Phosphate, high test . . . . : . •19 ■15 3760 Sone A.sh, South Americai: . . 767 1-58- 35-So Bone Charcoal 376 (OarjK,nje.c.) 30-10 Section VIII.'] MANURES. 105 4 5 6 7 8 9 Phos. Acid calculated as Tribasic Phosphate of Lime. Carbonate of Lime. Oxides of Iron and Alumina. (FejOa and Iron Pyrites, Fluorine, Magnesia, Alkalies, Insoluble Silicious Matter. Total Lime. A7mlyst. (Ca, 2PO4). (CaCOs). AljOa). etc. (CaO). I 7765 336 2-78 1-69 8-15 47-09 Dyer 2 5674 11-36 228 3-45 13-5 41-04 Dyer 3 6018 10-22 2-6i 3-23 12-47 43-90 Can". & Ne-wton 4 7852 740 2-92 202 -8 50-40 Hughes 5 7714 501 2-44 3-61 401 48-79 .. 6 80-64 636 -83 -49 240 52-56 7 61-71 2-48 13-64 13-56 42-05 Dyer 8 66-OI 13-46 -19 •91 48-81 9 65-91 200 12-95 5-27 48 04 -Voelcker 10 41-72 1-35 25-00 3-25 49-89 -Voelcker II 6912 11-27 1-80 5-87 220 47-20 ■ 12 71-60 4-81 9-17 37-18 ■Voelcker 13 6092 27-28 1-24 -16 8-24 Macadam H 58-50 16-13 3-67 8-90 43-26 Sibson IS 51-34 16-54 2442 33-46 Sibson 16 83-72 5-60 556 1-60 3-52 Tate 17 88-24 I 02 200 -43 434 51-04 Ogston 18 8497 io-i8 -34 49-32 -Voelcker 19 60 64 25-94 1-56 -42 9-92 Macadam 20 70-71 12-65 1-45 46-41 -Voelcker 21. 82-09 4-67 7-44 49-95 -Voelcker 22 76-07 4-88 3-54 4653 ■Voelcker 23 65-70 Carbonic Acid 2-20 1-25 3-52 3-60 41-61 -Williams lob [Section nil- ANALYSES OF MANURES. Hy. Richardson & Compy.'s Manures. Minimum percentages guaranteed. Feb., ,1895 For conditions of guarantees, see footnote. Grass Manures ditto ditto ditto Corn Manures ; : Pasture Meadow Seeds Aftergrass, stimulating . Barley &• Spring Wheat Oats .. Topdressing Autumn Wheat ; Own recipe Coleman recipe Nitrogen. A mnionia. equal to ditto ditto ditto Potato Manure ; ditto Turnip Manure . . Mangold Manure Rape and Mustard Manure Bean, Pea, and Tares Manure Dissolved or Vitriolized Raw Bones, pure Dissolved Bone Compound Root Manure Superphosphates, minimum per- centages guaranteed .. Peruvian Guano : Ammoniated ditto Equalised, No. 1 ditto Equalised, No. 2 Raw Bones and Bone Meals Steamed Bone Meal and Flour Boiled Bone Meal Kainit, genuine, best Rape Dust or Nuts, Black Sea ditto fine ditto J. East Indian,/K« Rape Seed Meal, Black Sea ditto East Indian Ichaboe Guano . . Fish Meals, minimum percentages stated are guaranteed Sul. Ammonia. Pro rata allow- ance if under 24^% ammonia Nitrate of Soda. Pro rata allow- ance if under 95% purity Peruvian Guano Raw 4ito 5i 5i to 6i Phosphates I soluble. 5J- 6J 2S - 34 8i 5i' 64 8i 3i 5i 3j 3j 44 44- 2j- 74 64 4i 4J 54 54 34 2f - 3j 6|- 7I 3i- 4i S - 9 [O - II 44- 54 7 8 4-5 4-5 54- 64 54-64 3i 4i 3j- 4 44-5 4i- 54 54-64 6J - 7i 4i- 5i 5i- 6J 6 - 6J 8J- 9 4 14 3j 54 5i 6i 5i 7i 12 to 15 12 - 16 13 17 - II o 14 9 12 8 - II 64-74 7 7 14 13 13 13 Phosphates, insoluble. Potash, pure. 9 to 13 6-10 - 13 - 6 - 4 - 4 - 6 10 - 6 - 7 - 9 - 10 - 10 - 13 36 - 40 24 8J - 9 10 -II .. 25-30 64 - 74 8 - 9 . . 30-35 3j - 4i 4 - 5 ■ • 35-40 3i - 4i 4 5 • • 45-55 li - li 14 - 2 • • 60-65 24 - 3j 3j 4 • • 50-55 194 - 204 234 - 25 15J-16 184-194 Oj^cial analyses guaranteed .within 1% ammonia, 3% phos- phates, and 1% potash. 50 3 3 3 3 3 20 2 to 3 14- 24 5 - 6 I - 14 li- 2 14 - 24 I - 14 I - 14 5-54 84- 94 li- 2 2i - 3i 2i- 3l 5-6 1-2 14- 2 14-2 13 Conditions.— Samples to be taken by mutual arrangement from at least five dlBferent bags ; to be then carefully mixed and well packed in tin or glass, sealed, and sent to Dr. Voelcker, or otlier approved chemist. In case of slight deficiency, reasonable excess of one constituent to be set against deficiency of another at their respective market values. If any allowance is due to buyer, seller to pay same and cost of test. If the manure is up to value on basis of guarantees, buyer to pay cost of test. Section IX.] SECTION IX. 107 AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. In purchasing seeds, of whatever kind, the most important considerations are growth, hardiness of character, freedom from weeds, and correct type or strain. The grains should be plump, well matured, well harvested, and natural in colour. If these points are attained, good growth is almost assured, but tests of germination are in all cases desirable. Hardiness of character is as important as germination, and should always be carefully ascertained. No seeds can be better suited to stand the English climate than those which have been produced in it. As regards clover seeds, this question is a very important one, and we give a decided preference to home-grown parcels, the plants from which are not only hardier, but are much more frequently of large and robust habit of growth than the produce of foreign seed. Seeds from Canada, though usually rather smaller than English seeds, are of very hard}- character and of high germination. They are, however, thought to yield a somewhat smaller plant than English seed. Such as come from the northern parts of Europe are also usually suitable for this country ; but those from the south European countries, also from the Southern States of America, and indeed from all countries not subject to winter frost, are liable to prove of somewhat delicate and undependable character. In our climate such seeds produce small and weak plants, and often disappear after the first winter, when buj-ers, who have been tempted bj' their low prices, find how costly has been the apparent saving. In selecting all our stocks of seed, therefore, we buy only such as are known to be hardy in character and of good quality ; and we take special care to avoid parcels containing objectionable weeds. We may add (with shame that it is so) that we have more difi&culty in finding English seeds clear from docks and some other weeds than seeds of any other country. It is much to be regretted that English seed growers will not be at the trouble to weed these out, as they lose much more than the cost of the labour by this carelessness. We think buyers cannot be too much on their guard against purchasing objectionable and troublesome weeds, unnoticed, among seeds, especially when it is so costly to the farmer to eradicate such if once introduced ; we are, therefore, particularly careful on this point. The same expenditure per acre in reallj- good clean seeds, costing though they do a trifle more per stone, will always, we believe, prove much cheaper in the end, than using low-priced samples ; a pro- portionatel}' smaller quantity of really good seed being sufficient and producing stronger plants. lo8 Agricultural Seeds. [Section IX. The supplies of natural grass seeds, for laying down land to permanent pasture, shew very great improvement in purity, cleanness and germination during recent years, though there are still all qualities offering, and much care is needful. Tests of growth.— In addition to very careful selection and examination of our seeds when purchasing, it has for many years past been oitr constant rule to try the growth of each lot we buy, so that in almost all cases we shall be able to tell enquirers the exact percentage of growth of the particular parcel they may select ; and also, if desired, to guarantee the percentages or to offer them facilities, before purchasing, for making similar trials for themselves. The vitality of clover seeds can easily be tested in a few days by counting impartially a certain number, say 50 to 100 seeds, sowing them with a. very thin covering of soil, and keeping them damp, in a warm place; or, when time presses, the test of germination can be obtained more quickly by placing the seed between several thicknesses of blotting paper or felt, which must be kept in some warm place, and moistened frequently. With the seeds ' of some of the natural grasses used for per- manent sowing, however, the trial of growth by either of the above methods is not quite so quickly done, as some varieties take a much longer time before appearing above ground. Carriage. — The cost of carriage on such expensive goods as seeds is much less, proportionately, than on manures and feeding articles, the weight of which is many times over that of seeds of the same value. We find that it is a convenience to many of our buyers to have their seeds sent carriage paid, and we are therefore in the habit of paying railway carriage on all seed orders of one cwt and upwards (excepting tares and linseed). On orders of the same size (one cwt and upwards) sent by carrier, we shall be obliged if our customers will pay carriage at the time and deduct from our accounts. Discount for Casli. — Our prices for clovers and grasses, unless specially quoted as net, are subject to a discount of five per cent on all orders above £1, for cash within one month, or two and a half per cent if paid within five months, as an induce- ment to prompt payment. On root seeds, the same discount is allowed on orders of one stone and upwards. We trust this will be borne in mind in comparing quotations. Terms of Sale. — In the conduct of our seed trade we shall continue, as in the past, to exercise all practicable care both as regards quality, quantity, germination, accuracy of description, etc. We cannot, however, for our trifling profit, afford to accept any responsibility as regards results in the field. If goods are not accepted on this understanding, please communicate with us promptly with a view to their being returned to our address. Section IX.] Agricultural Seeds. 109 We endeavour that our quotations shall be closely regulated by true market values. We do not put on large profits, and we confidently believe that our seeds will be found quite as cheap, considering their quality, as a7iy others offered ; and, in fact, very much cheaper indeed, in the long run, than lower qualities at lower prices per stone. Inferior seed is always freely quoted at low prices, but we confine our stocks to such as we can recom- mend. We have spacious and convenient accommodation for our seed trade, and invite a visit to our warehouse, where we can show a good assortment of bulks of all the various kinds. All orders entrusted to us will be executed at the lowest market values, and we shall be glad to forward samples and quotations to buj-ers at any time. CLOVER, RYEGRASS, etc. The following are some of the principal clovers and rye- grasses used for one and two years' rotation seedings, with a few of their characteristics. For quotations see our annual price- sheets. Red Clover. — ( Trifolium pratensej . — This excellent clover, so much used for mowing as well as pasturing, is too well known to need description. It is very important that the seed be clear of weeds, well ripened and hardy, and known not to have been grown in too warm a climate. English seeds are the best and most hardy ; but those from Canada and the more northern parts of the Continent are suitable for our climate, though hardly considered so bold and strong in growth. Giant Red Clover (Trifolium, pratense giganteum). — This is a hybrid between red clover and cowgrass, of very large size and quick growth and especially suitable for cutting green. The price is slightly higher than ordinary red clover. Cowgrass (Trifolium pratense perenne). — This is the perennial variety of red clover, and although of higher value for permanent pasture than the shorter lived red clover, the seeds are so nearly identical in appearance that great care is needful in purchasing. Some foreign-grown clovers are now being sold as "Cowgrass," but we have greater confidence in those of genuine English growth. "Single-cut Cowgrass" or late-flowering variety we keep also in stock. It is much prized where one heavy crop of hay is desired. This clover is also especially valuable for pasturing ; and as it retains its succulence longer than other varieties, is very acceptable to stock. White Clover {Trifolium repens). — This clover is principally sown for pasture, especially for sheep, and for laying land down permanently. no Clover, Ryegrass, etc. \Section IX. Alsyke Clover ( Trifolium hybridum).— This frequently suc- ceeds on "clover sick" soils, probably because it requires less potash than other clovers (see article on Potash) ; it therefore supplies a desirable change if sown, at least in part, in the place of the other clovers. It is especially valuable for pastures on light poor land, and will grow even in cold wet places. For mowing, the addition of a few lbs per acre is recommended. Its habit and time of flowering are between red and white clovers, from which it is a hybrid. Considering its tillering style of growth, and that a single lb contains about 512,000 grains, the necessary seeding is not costly. In the spring of 1894 Canadian alsykes were very good and moderate in price, and the same applies in 1895. Under such circumstances the demand is usually proportionatelj- large. Trefoil {Medicago lupulind). — This is chiefly valuable for its early growth, coming at a time when other food is scarce, and it seldom fails to grow. Rib Grass {Plantago lanceolatd). — A low-priced seed, and especially suitable for sheep pastures, and for sowing where better herbage is not certain to grow. Italian Rye-grass {Lolium italicuni). — Avery valuable grass of annual or biennial character, useful for either meadow or pasture. It is early and free in growth, and will repay liberal manuring. In selecting our stock we pay special attention to freedom from weeds. The imported seed is generallj' considered slightly earlier than home-grown. Good re-cleaned seed weighs 20 to 22 lbs per bushel. Perennial Rye-Grass {Lolium perenne). — This is also an excellent grass for either pasturing or meadow, and though not quite so strong and early in growth as the Italian, is much longer lived ; a moderate proportion ma}' also be used for permanent pasture seeding. This proportion should not, however, be very large, as this grass seeds more abundantly than the really permanent natural grasses, and has been thought by some, if sown too freely, to crowd out the latter during the first few years. We usually obtain some particularh' fine clean Scotch seeds, weighing 26 to 28 lbs per bushel. Spring Tares, SO called from their being sown in the spring, for cutting green the same summer, form a very convenient means of adding to the green food on the farm on very short notice. Those from the north of the continent are usually considered somewhat earlier than those of English growth. They are usually delivered 63 lbs to the bushel. Sow 2\ to 3^ bushels per Section /A'.] Clover, Ryegrass, etc. Ill Winter Tares. — As regards winter tares, on the other hand, it is very important that they should be of genuine English growth, as they are sown in the autumn. Sow 2\ to 3^ bushels per acre. Trifolium Incarnatum is much sown in the South of England on stubble as soon as the corn is off, to supply early keep in spring. In the north, however, harvest is usually too late for the best results. Rotation Seeds. — Amongst the numerous recipes which we make up to meet the special circumstances of each case, the following will be found to suit many in this district, though in other cases more liberal seedings may be desirable. Pasture : Mowing ; for Sheep and and afterwards other Stock. pasturing. lbs per acre. lbs per acre. 9 Red clover 4 do. giant hybrid ... Cowgrass, ordinary, also late flowering variety White clover 2 7 Alsyke Trefoil I I Ribgrass Italian ryegrass Cocksfoot - 2 t Timothy - 18 18 If intended to remain more than one season, a somewhat larger seeding, especially of grasses, is required. For cost per acre, see annual price-sheets. PERMANENT PASTURE SEEDS. The improvement in purity observed during the last few years has been maintained, and natural grasses of good quality may now be obtained when care is exercised. We are prepared, when desired by our buyers, to guarantee the percentages of growth within reasonable limits, subject to test, by the Consult- ing Botanist to the Royal Agricultttral Society, of samples mutually drawn. Much special attention has been given in recent years to the various methods of laying down land to grass. It is now generally admitted that in order to obtain the best pastures. 112 Permanent Pasture Seeds. \_Section IX. yielding continuous supplies of nutritious herbage throughout the year, the selection of the kinds of seeds, their proportions and quality, are even more important than the original quality of the land. That the land should be clean, however, and in really good condition, are most important requisites, as is also freedom from weeds in the seeds employed. The various points involved in supplying the necessary seeding have had our careful attention for many years, and we give special consideration to the require- ments of each case, submitting the exact recipes to our clients whenever they desire to express an opinion upon the kinds and proportions. Adulteration of seeds is, we fear, still by no means altogether a thing of the past, but especially is there liability to this when mixtures are bought without specific guarantees as to their constitution. We find that in some quarters varieties closely resembling the true seeds, but of much smaller value, both agriculturally and commercially, are supplied under the names of Foxtail, Crested Dogstail, Sweet-scented Vernal, and Sheep's Fescue, Fiorin, etc. The values, too, of the different kinds of grasses, vary from rather over 2d. up to at least 2S. 6d. per lb ; so that mixtures for permanent pastures can of course be sold at any price, according as they contain much or little of the more costly grasses. We keep the various grass and clover seeds separately in stock, and we endeavour to supply such kinds and proportions as we think piost suitable, according to the circumstances of each order entrusted to us. We fear the practice common amongst seedsmen, of selling their own special mixtures, without supply- ing to their customers the details of what they contain, is open to much abuse. We therefore furnish our buyers in every case with full particulars of the exact quantity of each grass or clover supplied in his order. We shall be glad at any time to give estimates of the cost for permanent pasture seeding, on hearing whether the seed is to be sown with or without a crop, and the description of land, etc. As we have already pointed out, it is necessary, in laying down a really good permanent pasture, to sow a considerable number of different grasses, having varying characteristics as to herbage, the time of reaching maturity, and feeding value, in order to obtain, throughout the whole season, the continuous supplies of nutritious grazing which are so desirable. In addition to the well-known clovers and rye-grasses, of which latter the proportion should be small, the principal natural grasses most recommendable for this purpose are named below, together with a few characteristics of the most important varieties. Although Section /.V] Peffi/aneni Pasture Seeds. 113 the interesting experiments on natural grasses, for permanent pasture, which are being carried on at Woburn under Mr. Carruthers, F.R.S., have not yet warranted manj^ deductions, the exceedingly heavy weight of herbage produced by cocksfoot, meadow fescue and tall fescue, are verj^ strikingly manifested even in these early years of their growth. Mr. Carruthers' paper on The Composition of some of the Famous Ancient Pastures of England, in the December 1890 Journal of the Ro5'al Agricultural Societj-, gives valuable information to those interested in permanent pastures. Prices. — We refer to our price-sheets for quotations of the daj\ Our stocks are obtained from sources in which we have great confidence, and we can therefore recommend them for purity and genuineness as well as for growth. We believe our prices will again be found to compare favourably with other quotations for similar quality. Cocksfoot (jDactylis glomeratd). — Grows in all soils, producing a large quantity- of very nutritious grass, even with great - extremes of weather : comes quicklj' to maturity. Meadow Fescue {Festuca pratensis). — An excellent grass and much liked by stock ; it is very productive and nourishing, though as the seed ripens it becomes less nutritious. Meadow Foxtail {Alopecurus prate7isis'). — Of early growth, producing large quantities of valuable herbage ; should be sown on all but poor, dry soils. It takes three years to reach maturity, and is slow in germinating. Tall Fescue {Festuca elatior). — Succeeds on wet or heavy soils better than most grasses, and, on the other hand, bears drought well ; though coarse, it is liked by catttle, and is earlj', nutritive and productive. Seed which is not of the true species is frequently sold as Tall Fescue. Timothy or Catstail {Phleum prate^ise). — Nutritious and free in both spring and summer growth, even if closely eaten down until May. It is valuable for hay, but does not pro- duce much aftermath. Rough Stalked Meadow Grass (Poa tnvialis). — Considered the most valuable of the Poas, especially on moist, good soils, but will not thrive in dry, exposed situations. Golden Oat Grass {Avena flavescens). — Maybe sown for sheep, especially in dry and exposed positions ; produce only small. True seed very difficult to obtain, and usually costly. Seed of Aira flexuosa (_wavy mountain hair-grass), which is low in price and of no value, is frequently sold for Avena flavescens. 114 Permanent Pasture Seeds. {Section IX. Crested Dogstaii, {Cynosurus cristatus). — Of high nutritive value, but produces limited herbage, and is not much liked by sheep and other stock. It grows on all soils, stands drought well, and, as it bears being trodden better than almost any other grass, it is very valuable for parks, lawns, cricket grounds, etc. Seed rather high in price. Hard Fescue {Festuca duriuscula). — Thrives on a variety of soils, and stands both the drought of summer and severe cold of winter. FiNE-i/EAVED Sheep's Fescue (^Festuca ovina tenuifolia). — If genuine it is suitable for dry upland sheep pastures. Festuca duriuscula, which is not worth half the price of F. ovina tenuifolia, is frequently sold under this name. Wood Meadow Grass (JPoa nemoralis, sometimes styled P-N. sempervirens). — Produces fine succulent herbage, especially in spring ; will grow in shady places. FiORiN (Agrostis stolonifera latifolia). — If genuine, supplies winter growth of herbage, and is suitable in small quantity on medium strong soils. This species is very subject to ergot, and good and true seed is practically unobtainable. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass ( Anthoxanthum odoratumj. — Gives flavour to hay, and is of early growth ; found on all soils, especially rich ones ; produce only small. Smooth-Stalked Meadow Grass fPoa prate?isisj. — Its strong creeping roots impoverish the soil and are difficult to get rid of. It is, therefore, only recommendable if better grasses cannot obtain a footing, though it is liked by cattle. Creeping Fescue {Festuca rubf-d). — Only valuable on poor soils, liable to drought. The recipes we recommend for permanent pasture seeds are the result of careful modification and revision up to the present time ; as already stated, we shall be glad to submit them, with the exact quantity of each constituent, for our customers' approval, and to give special estimates for any other recipes. We supply the seeds either separately or mixed, as preferred by buyers. If sown with a crop, the following are the quantities we usually send : — For light soil 36 to 40 lbs per acre. For medium soil ... 40 to 44 lbs „ For strong soil 42 to 46 lbs „ Section IX.J Permanent Pasture Seeds. 115 A somewhat larger seeding is desirable if sown without any other crop. With orders for permanent pasture seeds, we are glad to know whether they are to be sown with or without other crops, also the kind of soil, whether drained, and whether on ordinary levels or high elevations. Method of Sowing. — To SOW the seeds to the best advantage, the lighter seeds must be sown separately from the heavier ones, as the latter invariably find their way to the bottom of the sack if mixed with the light seeds, however thoroughly. To save trouble to our customers, we usually send out our permanent pasture seeds thoroughly mixed together ready for sowing, when not otherwise ordered, placing the light seeds in separate bags from the heavy ones ; we are, however, always glad to supply each kind separately when preferred. Renovating thin Pastures, — We believe the Sowing of a few permanent grass seeds on bare places or thin pastures will well repay the outlay. The following recipe will give good results. For price see price-sheets. HEAVY SEEDS. I lb White Clover ( Trifolium repens) I 4 lbs Cowgrass {Trifolium pratense perenne) Alsyke Clover ( Trifolium hybriduni) Timothy or Catstail {Phleum pratense). Mixed together. 2 lb 2^ „ i^ LIGHT SEEBS. Cocksfoot (^Dactylis glomeratd) Meadow Fescue {Festuca praiensis) Tall Fescue (Festuca elatior') Crested Dogstail {Cynosurus cristatus) Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis') Hard Fescue (Festuca duriusculd) Wood Meadow Grass (JPoa nemoralis) Perennial Rye Grass (Lolium perenne) Mixed together. 10 lbs Many dairy farms, carrying a heavy proportion of stock, make up for deficiency of permanent grass by allowing the " seeds " to stand for four or five years, at the same time ii6 Permanent Pasture Seeds. [Seciion IX. manuring them liberally. In such cases the number of grasses sown, and their proportion to the clovers, is of course larger than for one or two years' ley. We shall be glad to recommend special prescriptions for any special circumstances which may point to other than the usual seedings, either for temporary or permanent pastures, — without extra charge. TURNIP AND MANGEL SEEDS. We keep the following selection from the best varieties of Swede, Yellow, and White Turnip Seeds, Mangels, Rape, etc. Amongst them we believe all the principal and approved varieties will be found, although different growers frequently give fresh names to strains raised bj' themselves. We endeavour to exercise the greatest care in our selections, only buying from those on whom we think we can thoroughly depend. We also test the growth of every parcel of seed, so that we can state the percentage which has germinated. The startling disclosures in courts of law some little time since proved the necessity of these tests, as it was then shown that samples are offered for sale of which only two-thirds of the seeds will grow, or in some cases even a smaller proportion still. Most of our root seeds grow 96 to 100 per cent. Disease-proof Yellow Turnip. — Driffield's "Achilles" Hybrid yellow turnip seed. This is a new variety, raised in Yorkshire. It is claimed that this turnip possesses the remarkable power of withstanding "Finger and Toe," "Grub," or "Anbury," and that, even on land subject to these diseases, healthy crops have been produced by this turnip when others side by side have proved complete failures. We recommend a trial. Discount. — For one stone and upwards, our prices are subject to a discount of five per cent for cash payment within one month. We give special quotations for large quantities of any of these seeds. Orders for eight stones or more are sent carriage paid : smaller parcels are also forwarded carriage paid if sent with clover-seed orders, making up at least eight stones in all. The following is the 1895 list of our root seeds. For quota- tions we refer to our price-lists. Section IX.] Turnip and Mangel Seeds. 117 MANGEL WURTZEL. Long Red, Mammoth. TU largest cropper Yellow Globe- Dobito's. The best yciiow globe Golden Tankard. Sutton's. Particularly fine quality PURPLE-TOP SWEDE TURNIPS. BanGHOLM Improved, a very heavy cropper and good keeper SkIRVING'S Improved, short neck, superior stock Sutton's Champion, a good cropper and of fine quality DruMMONd's Improved. Similar to champion, hardy Elephant, Carter's Their own raising, oblong, very large cropper Elephant, Carter's. Carefully re-grown GREEN-TOP SWEDE TURNIPS. Hartley's Short Top. Excellent quality and a good keeper Lord Derby Bronze Top. Fine quality and good cropper Driffield's Goliath. very heavy cropper and hardy YELLOW TURNIPS. Aberdeen Green Top. The best yeiiow buiiock FOSTERTON Hybrid. Large and early Sutton Purple Top Hybrid "Favourite." ) Highly nutritious and of excellent quality ) Large Improved Green Top. Answers well in Yorkshire Driffield's "Achilles." Resists desease WHITE TURNIPS. TwEEDDALE Green Globe- of fine quality and a good keeper Pomeranian Globe. The best white globe and keeps well Devonshire GrEYSTONE. Largest and earliest white Mammoth Purple Top White. An improved Greystone Long Stalked Sowing Rape Seed Mustard Seed irS Turnip and Mangel Seeds. [Section IX. Quantities of seed per acre. — The quantity of turnip seed generally sown is about 3 lbs per acre. With a favourable season this is quite enough ; but in a dry time, when the fly is very troublesome, a larger quantity, though. involving a little extra labour, gives a better chance of sufficient " plant " being obtained. It is better to have to thin freely than to sow again, as second sowing involves the risk of having only a partial plant, resulting in gaps, interspersed with a few wastefuUy grown large roots. We therefore recommend ^i lbs per acre, thinking that in most seasons the extra outlay will well repay its trifling cost. Of mangel seed 5 to 7 lbs per acre, according to land and season, is usual. Mangels are less liable to " run to seed " if grown from seed which has been kept for one or two seasons, although rather fewer of such seeds germinate. In this case the seed should be kept in a cool, moderately dry place. Turnips also, both Swedish and White, are of better quality and less "fangy" in the roots when the seed has been kept a year. In this case, however, the seed does not sprout so soon as new seed. ^w Section .v.] J jg SECTION X. TERMS:— DISCOUNTS, CREDIT, ALSO Written Orders, Railway Carriage, Retdrned Bags, Analysis, etc. As we pay prompt ' cash for all our purchases, we need hardly say that prompt payment or very short credit suits us much better than longer credit. We can accordingly always make our most favourable quotations for cash payments ; and to encourage this, whenever such is convenient to our buyers, we make a decided difference between the credit and the cash prices. This difference is most conveniently made in the form of a discount-deduction from the credit prices, for prompt pay- ment. On Manures. — Though the net cash prices are usually quoted at the time of sale, it is our custom to invoice most manures at their respective credit prices, allowing the cash discount in full, against payment within one month. For payment within three months we allow three-fourths of the cash discount ; and one-half for cash within five months. Thus, on our mixed manures for corn, grass, turnips, and on bone-meals and vitriol- ized bones, etc., we allow a discount of los. per ton off the credit prices for payment within one month; 7s. 6d. if paid within three months, or 5s. if paid within five months. The discount- deduction on other fertilisers is in similar proportion, according to their prices, as shown on our price current. Reduction of price for quantity on Mixed Manures. — In addi- tion to the ordinary discount for cash as above, we make a further special allowance of 1/6 per ton for net cash payment to buyers of ten tons and upwards of our mixed manures, in order to give them a corresponding advantage for these larger quanti- ties. The ten tons and upwards may consist of more than one kind of our mixed manures, and may be taken in separate lots during the same season. This reduction does not apply to special contracts. On Linseed and Cotton Calces. — Cakes and other feeding articles are usually understood to be sold for cash payment within one month. As, however, this may not always be con- venient to some buyers, we are in the habit of invoicing these articles at a correspondingly higher price for payment within four months. This .slight addition in price amounts in such cases to about one penny in the £ per month (equal to 5 per cent per annum), and is, of course, deducted in full if payment is made within one month ; a proportionate allowance is made for payment within two or three months. For longer credit than four months, we charge i^^d. in the £ per month, from the expiration of the four months to date of payment. Discounts, Credit, etc. [Section X. Discount on Seeds. — In order to encourage cash payments we allow a discount of 5 per cent on all clover and grass seed accounts of £1 and upwards, also on turnip and mangel seed orders of one stone and upwards, for payment within a month ; or 2i per cent if paid within five months. The account is net at Christmas. Terms of Sales of Seeds. — In the conduct of our seed trade we shall continue, as in the past, to exercise all practicable care both as regards quality, quantity, germination, accuracy of description, etc. We cannot, however, for our trifling profit, a£Ford to accept any responsibility as regards results in the field. If goods are not accepted on this understanding please com- municate with us with a view to their being returned to our address. Cash payments overlooked. — It occasionally happens that an account, intended to be paid within one month, is, bj' an over- sight on the buyer's part, allowed to remain unpaid for three or four months. In such cases we are sometimes asked to forego the little interest due, on the ground that the delay has been unin- tentional. We would gladl}^ do so, were it so small a matter as it va.a.y seem to the buyer. Our net profit on a large part of our turn-over does not exceed sd. to 6d. in the £, for cash payment, which is five to six months' interest, or about 2^ per cent ; so that if, in such cases, we were to give five or six months' credit at the net cash price, we should sacrifice our whole profit. Accounts remaining unpaid beyond twelve months become liable to overdue interest at the rate of 6 J per cent per annum. Remittances, etc. — The Yorkshire Banking Company, Limited, and the York Cit}- and Count}- Banking Company, Ifimited, are our bankers. It may be a convenience to man^- of our customers to know that they may at an}- time paj- money to the credit of our York account, at any of the Branches of either of these Banks, or at any of the Branch Banks of Messrs. Back- house & Co., or Messrs. Lambton & Co., without expense or trouble. We annex a list of the various Branches of these Banks. The Yorkshire Banking Compy., Ld. Armley, Leeds Earby Keighlky Selby Barnoldswick Easingwold Leeds — Settle Bawtry Gargrave New Briggate Shipley Beverley GUISELEY Long Preston Skiptox Bradford — ■ Harrogate Middlesbrough South Cave Bankfoot Heckmondwike Morley Tadcaster St. James' Market Hellifield NORTHALLF.RTON Thirsk Dudley Hill HOLBECK Otley Thorne Castleford Howden Pateley Bridge Wetherby Cowling HUDDKRSFIELD Pontefract Yeadon Crosshills Hull Pudsey York DONCASTER HUNSLET RiPON Section A'.] Discounts, Credit, etc. 121 The York City and County Banking Compy., Ld. Barnard Castle Barton-on-Humb'r Beverley Bishop Auckland boroughbridge Boston Spa Bridlington Bridlington Quay C A wood Cleethorpes Crovvle Darlington doncaster Driffield Durham Filey Flamborough GOOLE Gt. Ayton (Fri.) Grimsby Old Town Grimsby Docks CleethorpeRd.Br. guisborough Harrogate Haswell Hawes Hornsea HOWDEN Hull — Silver Street Beverley Rd. Br. St. Andrew's Dock Knaresborough Leyburn Leeds — Cattle Market Corn Exchange Malton Mexbro' Middlesbrough Newcasle-on-Tyne Northallerton North Cave RiPON Robin Hood's Bay Rothekham Saltburn Scarborough South Cliff Bridge Selby Sherburn-in-Elm't Sheffield Shildon Snaith South Bank Staithes Stanhope Stockton-on-Tees Stokesley Sunderland Tadcaster Thirsk Wakefield Whitby WiLLiNGTON Quay Winterton Woodhouse, Sheffield. IVIessrs. Backhouse &, Compy. Barnard Castle Bishop Auckland Crook Darlington Durham Hartlepool Hetton Middleton-in- Teesdale, Middlesbrough Northallerton Seaham Harbour South Bank Stanhope Sunderland Thornaby Towlaw West Hartlepool Stockton-on-Tees Wolsingham Monkwearmouth St. John's Chapel Messrs. Lambton &. Compy. Alnwick Gateshead Blaydon Haltwhistle Blyth Hexham Chester-le-Street Morpeth North Shields Sunderland Newcastle — Grey-St. & Quayside Cattle Market, Tuesday When pa3ments are so made through our bankers our clients should at once advise us by post-card or otherwise, with the name of the Bank and the exact amount paid, in order that we maj' place it to their credit and send them our receipt. In the absence of such advice it sometimes happens that several days elapse before we become aware of the payments having been made. Where it would be any convenience to the customer, the Bankers will readily furnish a duplicate of their lodgment slip, which can be posted to us in a half-penny wrapper, instead of the post-card suggested above. Crossed Cheques. — We shall be obliged if our correspondents will kindly "cross " their cheques by drawing two parallel lines across the cheque, thus = This involves no extra expense to them, and it is an additional security in transmission through the post. Bank Drafts are a safe and convenient form of remittance through the post, especially for those who do not keep cheque books. They are issued by all the banks, free of charge, payable a few days after date. 122 Discounts, Credit, etc. [Section X. First transactions. — Unknown correspondents, 'with whom we have not hitherto had business transactions, will oblige by giving us with their first order, a reference to their Bankers, or to some gentleman of their acquaintance with whom we are in the habit of doing business ; so as to avoid delay in the execution of their orders. Telegrams. — " Richardson, Yorlc." No further address is needed, but the sender's name should of course be given in all cases. Printed order-bool 12 6 084 5 7 3 8 2 6 X 8 1 I 9 I 16 I 13. Wheat X 8 7 14 3 g 6 064 4 3 2 10 1 11 I 3 xo 2 12 14. Malt X 6 8 13 4 8 XI 5 II 4 2 8 I 9 I 2 9 I 18 6 15. Barley I 6 X 13 I 088 ° 1 § 3 10 2 7 I 9 I 2 9 I 17 7 16. Oats X 9 xo 14 IX g II 068 4 5 2 XI 2 I 4 II 231 17. Rice meal (X 7 10) (0 13 II) (0 9 3) (0 6 2) (4 1) (2 9) (1 10) (I 3) (0 10) {2 I) 18. Locust beans... 19. Malt coombs ... 3 10 9 X X5 4 I 3 7 X5 9 xo 6 7 4 8 3 I 2 X 520 20. Fine pollards ... 2 13 4 I 6 8 17 10 XX xo 7 XI 5 3 3 6 2 4 I 7 3 16 IX 21. Coarse pollard 2 17 9 I 8 10 xg 3 12 10 8 7 5 8 3 10 2 7 I 8 4 3 3 22. Bran 2 18 5 192 xg 6 13 8 8 5 9 3 10 2 7 I 8 442 Deduct \ of Orig].nai. Manukx-value the Last Year, and x from Year to Year. One Ton. . 23. Clover hay 2 I 3 13 9 II Q 8 g 7 5 7 4 6 3 7 2 II 2 17 I 24. Meadow hay ... 25. Pea straw I 8 7 g 6 077 061 4 II 3 II 3 2 2 6 2 I 19 8 18 10 063 050 040 3 3 2 7 2 I I 8 I 4 I 6 2 26. Oat straw IX 7 3 10 3 I 026 2 1 7 I 3 I 10 x6 I 27. Wheat straw ... xo X 3 4 028 2 2 I 9 I 5 I I II 8 14 28. Barley straw ... 10 X 034 028 2 2 I 9 I 5 I I II 8 14 29. Bean straw ... 17 7 5 10 048 039 3 a 5 X XI I 6 I 3 I 4 4 ^ Deduct i of Original Manure-value the Last Ybak, and \ from Year to Year. Ten Tons. 3c. Potatoes 342 I 12 I 1 1 5 14 3 9 6 6 4 4 3 2 10 I 11 4 12 7 31. Carrots 226 I I 3 14 2 18 I 095 6 4 4 2 2 10 I 10 I 3 3 I 3 32. Parsnips 2 14 2 I 7, X 12 I 8 S 4 3 7 2417 3 18 I 33. Swedish turnips 34. Mangel wurzefs 251° I 2 II 15 3 10 2 6 10 4 6 3 2014 360 2 XO ! 5 °v 16 8 II I (J4 4 II 3 4 2 2 I 6 3 12 I 35. Yellow turnips... (x xg 2) (019 7) (0 13 l) (0 8 9) (311) (2 7) (I 9) (I 2) (2 16 8) 36. White turnips 2 tx 13 4 8 XI 5 II 3 II 2 8 I 9 I 2 2 17 8 Appendix.-] MANORIAL VALUES 137 OF FEEDING MATERIALS. That the different feeding materials differ considerably in their fertilising value has been long known to all practical agriculturists. But it was tiot until about thirty years ago that an5' s3-stematic attempts were made to express in figures these acknowledged differences. Sir J. B. Lawes then published a table, based on a large number of careful experiments and analyses, giving his estimates of the manurial values of the various foods in common use. A few }'ears later, in 1867, the late Dr. Voelcker also published a similar table, which.has been largely used. Most of the differences in the estimates of these two eminent agricultural chemists were probably- due to the different rates at which they valued ammonia and phosphates of lime, rather than to any material differences in their analyses ; and we have generally preferred to use the average of the two, rather than either one alone. The whole subject of these manurial values was under very careful review b}' both these authorities for some years ; it having been one of the special objects of the well-known Woburn experiments, undertaken by the Royal Agricultural Society, to test the accuracy of the accepted figures. In 1885, Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert prepared a valuable paper, in which they gave the results of twenty-five years' study of the question, in the form of carefully revised tables of the estimated values of the manures, resulting from each ton of food consumed. The article also contained a table of suggested allowances for unex- hausted manures, for the use of valuers and others, as well as a large amount of interesting matter on this important subject. As this article is still frequently referred to on questions of tenant-right allowances, we again print the various tables and most of the explanatory' matter, in extenso for the use of our clients. The interest in the subject is, we find, not exhausted, and considerable differences of opinion exist among agricultural authorities on some of the points in question. We have compiled the following table, from which it will be seen that Sir J. B. Lawes' and Dr. Gilbert's revised estimates of 1885 confirm very closelj' Dr. Voelcker's figures of an earlier date. We print them side by side, — also, in the third column, the average of the two. 138 Manurial Values of Feeding Materials. lApfendix. Estimated money value of manure from each ton of food consumed. (After deduction for increase of live weight.) Lawes and Gilbert, Voelcker, Average. 1885. 1878. / s. d. £ s. d. £ s, d. Decorticated Cotton Cake .... 5130 566 599 Rape Cake 454 489 47° Linseed Cake 3 18 6 3 ^5 8 3 ^7 i Malt Combs 3 1° 9 3 i^ ° 3 10 i" Undecorticated Cotton Cake .... 388 2180 334 Peas, L'entils, and Beans 55/- to 63/5 320 3 o 7 Cocoa Nut Cake 3°? 3°? Linseed 2195 2179 , 2 1,8 7 Pollard AND Sran 53/4 '» 58/5 2 15 o 2 15 5 Clover Hay 213 213 Palm Nut Cake i 19 10 i 14 o i 16 11 Oats i 9 10 i 9 10 Wheat 187 170 i79 Malt 168 160 164 Barley 161 150 156 Indian Corn 151 ^5° 15° Rice Meal i 710 15/- *» 25/. 13" Meadow Hay 187 0150 119 Locust Beans o 18 3 o 18 3 Straw (Bean and Pea) 17/7 to 18/10 0182 STB-kW (Wheat, Barley, and Oat) .. .. lo/i q2)- [Appendix. which have long supplied their members with facilities for analyses by chemists of agricultural experience, may be dis- posed to think that they already had in their own hands all the protection that they needed. We have not disguised our own opinion that, in these ways, intelligent purchasers, who are willing to take the needful pains to understand something of the articles they buy, have long been well able to protect themselves against imposition, at probably a smaller cost, and with more of elasticity as to methods, than the Act supplies ; but it is perhaps too much to assume that all will take the necessary trouble to this end. The Act was clearly framed in the interests of honest trade, and as such we welcome it ; though some of its provisions add con- siderably to the expenses of manufacturers in a variety of ways. It must also not be overlooked that the operation of the Act is largely to protect from gross fraud by penal proceedings, rather than to facilitate the equitable adjustment of financial differences between buyer and seller. It is our impression that the latter is of practical importance to a larger number than the former, in this district at any rate. This impression is confirmed by the very limited extent to which, so far, agriculturists have used the Act. We are not aware of a case in which it has been made use of in connection with any sales of ours. How far it will ulti- mately attain the end it aims at, time only can decide. We annex a copy of the Act in extenso ; also of the supple- mentary regulations as to sampling, etc., issued by the Board of Agriculture, under the authority of the Act. To these we add the Royal Agricultural Society's " Suggestions as to the Purchase of Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs, and Instructions for sending Samples for Analysis," which have been circulated among the members of the " Royal " in the form of a useful pamphlet. FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS ACT, 1893. (56 and 57 Vict., ch. 56.) An Act to amend the Law with respect to the Sale of Agricultural Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs. "DE it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: Warranty on sale of fertiliser. 1 . — (I.) Every person who sells for use as a fertiliser of the soil any article manufactured in the United Kingdom or imported from abroad shall give to the purchaser an invoice stating the name of the article and whether it is an artiiicially compounded article or not, and what is at least the percentage of the nitrogen, soluble and insoluble phosphates, and potash, if any, contained in the article, aud this invoice shall have effect as a warranty by the seller of the statement contained tj^erein. Appendix.] Fertilisers and Feediyig Shiffs Act, 1893. 141 (2.) For the purposes of this section an article shall be deemed to be manufactured if it has been subjected to any artificial process. (3.) This section shall not apply to a sale where the whole amount sold at the same time weighs less than half a hundredweight. Warranty on sale of feeding stuff. 2.— (1.) Every person who sells for use as food for cattle any article which has been artifi- cially prepared shall give to the purchaser an invoice stating the name of the article, and whether it has been prepared from one substance or seed, or from more than one substance or seed, and this invoice shall have effect as a warranty by the seller of the statements contained therein. (2.) Where any article sold for use as food for cattle is sold under a name or description implying that it is prepared from any particular substance, or from any two or more particular substances, or is the product of any particular seed, or of any two or more particular seeds, and without any indication thab it is mixed or compounded with any other substance or seed, there shall be implied a warranty by the seller that it is pure, that is to say, is prepared from that substance or those substances only, or is a product of that seed or those seeds only. (3) On the sale of any article for use as food for cattle there shall be implied a warranty by the seller that the article is suitable for feeding purposes. (4) Any statement by the seller of the percentages of nutritive and other ingredients contained in any article sold for use as food for cattle, made after the commencement of this Act in an invoice of such article or in any circular or advertisement descriptive of such article, shall have effect as a warranty by the seller. Penalties for breach of duty by seller. 3. — (I.) If any person who sells any article for use as a fertiliser of the soil or as food for cattle commits any of the following offences, namely: — (a) Fails without reasonable excuse to give, on or before or as soon as possible after the delivery of the article, the invoice required by this Act ; or (6) Causes or permits any invoice or description of the article sold by him to be false in any material particular to the prejudice of the purchaser: or (c) Sells for use as food for cattle any article which contains any ingredient deleterious to cattle, or to which has been added any ingredient worthless for feeding purposes and not disclosed at the time of the sale, he shall without any prejudice to civil liability, be liable, on summary conviction, for a first offence to a fine not exceeding twenty pounds, and for any subsequent offence to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds. (2.) In any proceeding for an offence under this section it shall be no defence to allege that the buyer, having bought only for analysis, was not prejudiced by the sale. (3.) A person alleged to have committed an offence under this section in respect of an article sold by him shall be entitled to the same rig)its and remedies, civil or criminal, against the person from whom he bought the article as are available to the person who bought the article from him, and any damages recovered by him may, if the circumstances justify it, include the amount of any fine and costs paid by him on conviction under this section, and the costs of and incidental to his defence on such conviction. Power to appoint analysts. 4. — (i) The Board of Agriculture shall appoint a chief agricultural analyst (hereafter referred to as the chief analyst), who shall have such remuneration out of moneys provided by Parliament as the Treasury may assign. The chief analyst shall not while holding his o£5ce engage in private practice. (2.) Every county council shall, and the council of any county borough may, appoint or concur with another council or other councils in appointing for the purposes-of this Act a district agricultural analyst (hereafter referred to as a district analyst) for its county or borough, or a district comprising the counties or boroughs of the councils so concurring. The remuneration of any such district analyst shall be provided by the council, or in the case of a joint appointment by the respective councils in such proportions as they may agree, and shall be paid, in the case of a county, as general expenses, and, in the case of a county borough, out of the borough fund or borough rate. The appointment shall be subject to the approval of the Board of Agriculture Provided that no person shall, while holding the ofiice of district analyst, engage in any trade manufacture, or business connected with the sate or importation of articles used for fertilising the soil or as food for cattle. 142 Fertilisers and FeedtJig Stuffs Act, 1893. [Appendix. Power for purchaser to have fertiliser or feeding stuff analysed. 5.— (i.) Every buyer of any article used for fertilising the soil or as food for cattle, shall, on payment to a district analyst of a fee sanctioned by the body who appointed the analyst, be entitled, within ten days after delivery of the article to the buyer or receipt of the invoice by the buyer, whichever is later, to have the article analysed by the analyst, and to receive from him a certificate of the result of his analysis. (2.) Where a buyer of an article desires to have the article analysed in pursuance of this section, he shall, in accordance with the regulations made by the Board of Agriculture, take three samples of the article, and shall in accordance with the said regulations cause each sample to be marked, sealed, and fastened up, and shall deliver or send by post one sample with the invoice or a copy thereof to the district analyst, and sha 1 give another sample to the seller, and shall retain the third sample for future comparison ; Provided that a district analyst, or some person authorised by him in that behalf with the approval of the body who appointed the analyst, shall, on request either by the buyer or by the seller and on payment^ of a fee sanctioned by the said body, take the samples on behalf of the buyer. (3.) The certificate of the district analyst shall be in such form and contain such particulars as the Board of Agriculture direct, and every district analyst shall report to the Board as they direct the result of any analysis made by him in pursuance of this Act. C4.) If the seller or the buyer objects to the certificate of the district analyst, one of the samples selected, or another sample selected in like manner, may, at the request of the seller, or, as the case may be, the buyer, be submitted with the invoice or a copy thereof to the chief analyst, and the seller, or, as the case may be, the buyer, shall, on payment of a fee sanctioned by the Treasury, be entitled to have the sample analysed by the chief analyst, and to receive from him a certificate of the result of his analysis.* (5.) At the hearing of any civil or criminal proceeding with respect to any article analysed in pursuance of this section, the production of a certificate of the district analyst, or if a sample has been submitted to the chief analyst, then of the chief analyst, shall be sufficient evidence of the facts therein stated, unless the defendant or person charged requires that the analyst be called as a witness. (6.) The costs of and incidental to the obtaining of any analysis in pursuance of this section shall be borne by the seller or the buyer in accordance with the results of the analysis, and shall be recoverable as a simple contract debt. Penalty for tampering. 6. — If any person knowingly and fraudulently — {a) tampers with any parcel of fertiliser or feeding stufi' so as to procure that any sample of it taken in pursuance of this Act does not correctly represent the contents of the parcel ; or (b) tampers with any sample taken under this Act; he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding twenty pounds, or to imprison- ment for a term not exceeding six months. Prostcutions and appeals. 7. — (x.) A prosecution for an offence under this Act may be instituted either by the person aggrieved, or by the tfouncil of a county or borough, or by any body or association authorised in that behalf by the Board of Agriculture, but in the case of an offence under section 3 shall not be instituted by the person aggrieved or by any body or association except on a certificate by the Board of Agriculture that there is reasonable ground for the prosecution. {2.) Any person aggrieved by a summary conviction under this Act may appeal to a court of quarter sessions. Construction and application. 8 — (i.) For the purposes of this Act the expression " cattle " shall mean bulls, cows, oxen, heifers, calves, sheep, goats, swine, and horses; and the expressions "soluble" and "insoluble" shall respectively mean soluble and insoluble in water. (2.) This Act Shall apply to wholesale as well as retail sales. Application to Scotland. 9. — In the application of this Act to Scotland — (r.) The expression " council of any county borough " shall mean the magistrates and town council of a burgh, and the duties and powers of councils of counties and county burghs shall be performed and be exerciseable in a coxmty by the county councils or district committees thereof and in a burgh by the magistrates and town council, and the remuneration of district analysts appointed under this Act shall be paid in tlie case of a county out of the consolidated rate, and in the case of a burgh out of the police or burgh general assessment. Appendix.] Fertilisers a?id Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893. ^43 (2.) The expression "burgh" means a burgh which returns or contributes to return a member to Parliament, not being a burgh to which section fourteen of the Local Government (Scotland) Act, i88g, applies. (3.) Penalties for offences under this Act may be recovered summarily before the sheriff in manner provided by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, and any person aggrieved by a summary conviction may appeal therefrom in accordance with the provisions of those Acts. Application to Ireland. 1 0. — For the purposes of the execution of this Act in Ireland, inclusive of the appointment of a chief agricultural analyst, the Lord Lieutenant acting by the advice of the Privy Council shall be substitued for the Board of Agriculture, and the district analysts shall be the analysts ap- pointed for counties and boroughs in Ireland under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, and the additional remuneration of such analysts for their duties under this Act shall be provided in manner directed by the said Act of 1875 and any Act amending the same. Commencement of Act. 11. — This Act shall come into operation on the first day of January, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-four. Short title. 1 2. — This Act may be cited as the Fertilisers and Feeding Stufifs Act, 1893. The following are the Regulations as to sampling, etc., issued by the Board of Agriculture, under the authority of the Act. FERTILISERS & FEEDING STUFFS REGULATIONS, 1893. By the Board of Agriculture. The Board of Agriculture, in pursuance of the provisions of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893, do hereby make the following regulations as to samples to be taken under the said Act. Commencement. I. — These Regulations are to take effect from and after the first day of January, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-four, and to remain in force until altered or revoked by the Board of Agriculture. Definitioits. 2. — In these Regulations : " District Analyst" includes any person authorised by the District Analyst to take samples, with the approval of the body who appointed the District Analyst. "Buyer" and "seller" include their respective agents. *' Fertiliser" means any article sold for use as a fertiliser of the soil, which has beeii subjected to any artificial process in the United Kingdom or imported from abroad. " Feeding stuff" means any article sold for use as food for cattle which has been artificially prepared. Other terms have the same meaning and scope as in the above-mentioned Act. Proceedings by Buyer to procure Samples. 3.— When the buyer of not less than half-a-hundredweight of a fertiliser, or of any quantity of a feeding stuff, desires to have the same analysed in pursuance of the fifth section of the above Act, he is, within ten days after delivery of the article to him or receipt of the invoice, whichever is later, either to take setmples of the article himself, or to give notice in writing to the District Analyst, stating that he desires that the samples shall be taken by the District Analyst. Regulations as to Samples taken by Buyer. 4,_-VVhen the buyer intends to take the samples himself, he is to give three days' notice in writing of such intention to the seller, with particulars as to the place, day, and hour of sampling. If the seller does not attend, the samples are to be taken in the presence of a witness, who is to initial each sample. 144 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Regulations, 1893. [Appendix, 5.— The buyer is immediately to deliver or send by post to the District Analyst one of such samples^, with a report of the case, the invoice or a copy thereof, and also, in the case of a feeding stuff, any circular or advertisement of the seller, descriptive oi the article to be analysed, which the buyer may wish the District Analyst to consider in making his analysis and giving his certificate. 6.— One of the remaining samples is to be delivered or sent by post to the seller, and the other is to be retained by the buyer. Regulations as to Samples taken by District Analyst. i 7.— When the buyer or the seller desires that the samples shall be taken by the District Analyst, he is to give notice in writing to that effect to the District Analyst. Such notice is to con- tain the names and addresses of the buyer and seller, and such particulars as may be necessary to enable the District Analyst to identify the article to be analysed. A copy of any such notice given by the seller is to be sent at the same time to the buyer. 8.— The District Analyst is to give three days' notice in writing to the seller and to the buyer as to the place, day, and hour of sampling, to enable them to be present at such sampling, if they so desire. 9.— One of the samples taken by the District Analyst is to be retained by him, another de- livered or sent to the seller, and the third delivered or sent to the buyer. 10. — Any notice or sample required by these Regulations to be given or sent by the District Analyst to the buyer or the seller, may be sent by post to the respective names and addresses stated in the above-mentioned notice to the District Analyst. II- — The District Analyst, at or before the time of sampling, is to be supplied by the buyer with the invoice or a copy thereof, and also in the case of a feeding stuff, with any circular or advertisement of the seller descriptive of the article to be analysed, which the buyer may wish the District Analyst to consider in making his analysis and giving his certificate. 12. — The District Analyst is to provide any receptacle or other thing required by him for the sample. General Regulations for taking Samples. 13.— When the fertiliser is delivered in bags or other packages, a number of bags or packages are to be selected as follows, viz.: — Not less than 2 bags or packages where the quantity does not exceed half-a-ton. Not less than 3 bags or packages where the quantity does not exceed two tons. Not less than 5 bags or packages where the quantity does not exceed five tons. Not less than 10 bags or packages where the quantity exceeds five tons. 14- — The selected bags or packages are to be emptied separately on a clean and dry stone or wooden floor, worked up with a spade, and one spadeful from each set aside. The separate spade- fuls are then to be thoroughly mixed and any lumps broken up by the hand or spade. From this mixture three samples of from 4 lb to i lb are to be taken and carefully and securely packed, a sufficient quantity of the mixture for such purpose being in the first place separated firom the bulk. 15.— When the feitiliser is delivered in bulk, then, in like manner, portions are to be taken from different parts of the fertiliser, and thoroughly mixed together, and the samples taken from a portion of such mixture. 16. — When the fertiliser consists of bulky materials, uneven in character and likely to get matted together, such as shoddy, wool, refuse, hair, etc., portions are to be taken from the selected bags or packages, or from different parts of the fertiliser, if in bulk, the matted portions torn up, and the whole mixed as above directed, but the samples are to be somewhat larger. 17. — When the feeding stuff is in the state bf meal or grain, it is to be sampled in the same manner as prescribed for fertilisers. When the feeding stuff is in the state of cake, a number of cakes are to be selected as follows: — Not less than 3 cakes where the quantity does not exceed one ton. „ 5 „ „ ,, five tons. „ 10 ,, ,, exceeds five tons. 18. — A section of about four inches wide, across the whole breadth, is to be taken from the middle of each selected cake, and these sections subdivided, also across the whole breadth, into three parts. Three samples shall then be taken, each containing one of these subdivided parts of each selected cake. ig, — If the cakes be much broken up, the samples are to be taken in as nearly as possible the same manner as in the case of entire cakes. Appendix.'] Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Regulations, 1893. 145 20. — In the case of a feeding stuff, if any appreciable portion be mouldy, sour, or otherwise unsuitable for feeding purposes, or if cakes be full of hard lumps, or have cotton or hair attaching to them, separate samples are to be taken of such portion or cakes and of" the residue of the feed- ing stuff. An estimate is to be formed as to the proportion of the feeding stuff represented by each sample. 21.— When the feeding stuff is in a fluid or semi-fluid condition a number of packages, in the same proportion to the total quantity as in the case of meal or grain are to be selected, and a portion taken from each. The several portions are then to be well mixed together in a clean vessel and three samples taken therefrom as in other cases. 22. — In every case the sampling is to be done as quickly as is possible consistently with due care, and the material is not to be allowed to be exposed any longer than is absolutely necessary 23-— The object of the person taking the samples is to obtain samples fairly representing the bulk from which they are drawn, and, therefore, no bag, package, or cake is to be selected which has apparently been damaged while in the possession of the buyer. 24. — Each sample is to packed in a dry clean bottle or jar, or {except in the case of a fertiliser) in a dry clean tin, or in some other suitable manner so that the original composition of the fertiliser or feeding stuff may be preserved. 25. — The samples are to be so packed and secured that they cannot be tampered with, and to be sealed and initialed by the person taking the sample, and numbered consecutively. They may also be sealed by the buyer and the seller, if present and so desiring. Each sample is to be endorsed with the name of the article, and the date and place of the sampling. Regulations as to Samples sealed by Seller and Buyer. 26. — Where any samples are taken in the presence of, and sealed by, the seller as well as the buyer, such samples are to be deemed, as between the buyer and seller^ to have been taken in accordance with these Regulations. Short Title. 27. — These Regulations may be cited as the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Regulations, 1893. In witness whereof the Board of Agriculture have hereunto set their Official Seal this twenty-third day of December, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three. {Signed), T. H. ELLIOTT, Secretary. The following suggestions have also been circulated in pamphlet form among the members of the Royal Agricultural Society. ^opai Jlgrimltuval (Socktp of ^nglanli. SUGGESTIONS AS TO 1 HE PURCHASE OF FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS. The Fertilisers and Feeding; StufFs Act of 1893 (56 and 57 Vict. ch. 56) which came into force on the ist January, 1894, affords to agriculturists the important protection that the seller must give the purchaser an Invoice of the article sold— such Invoice to have the effect of a warranty that the article is of the quality stated. The provisions of this Act dealing with this matter will be found in Sections 1, 2, 3 and 8 of the Act (which is quoted in full on pages 140-143), and it should be observed that for the. further assistance of farmers who may desire to have analyses made of Fertilisers or Feeding Stuffs (and who presumably are not connected with organisations already existing-^like the Royal Agricultural Society— which provide for their 146 Royal Agricultural Society's Suggestions. {Appendix. * Members analyses at low rates), Section 4 of the Act requires each County Council to appoint a " District Agricultural Analyst," and Section 5 prescribes the procedure to be adopted on submitting samples to him in accordance with regulations to be made by the Board of Agriculture. It will be seen from the Act that proceedings for penalties under Section 3 for offences created by the Act are to be "without prejudice to any civil liability;" and in view of this civil liability, the Royal Agricultural Society has prepared the following Suggestions and Instructions for the guidance of Members of the Society in their general farming transactions, having regard to the ordinary rights and liabilities of vendor and purchaser at common law. Where, however, it is desired to institute a prosecution for any offence under the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, the special procedure described therein should be adopted. SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS. In view of the above observations, a purchaser is recommended in all cases to insist on having an INVOICE, and to see that such Invoice contains the following particulars : — In the case, of Fertilisers: — (i) The name of the Fertiliser. (2) Whether the Fertiliser is artificially compounded or not. (3) The minimum analysis of the Fertiliser in respect of its principal fertilising ingredients. In the case of artificially prepared Feedings stuffs for Cattle : — (i) The name of the article. (2) The description of the article — whether it has been prepared (a) from one substance or seed, or (b) from more than one substance or seed. For example: (a) An invoice describing an article as "Linseed Cake" implies a warranty that the article is pure, i.e., is prepared from linseed only; "Cotton Cake" (whether decorticated or undecortioated), and "Rape Cake" (for feeding purposes), would come under a similar category. Purchasers are reminded thai the use of such terms as "95 per cent," "Oil Cake," etc., afford no security against adulteration. Ihe adoption of the Order Form appended to these Suggestions is therefore strongly recommended. (b) In the case of a Compound Cake or Feeding Stuff, a vendor is only compelled by the Act to state that it is prepared from more than one substance, and he is not required to specify the particular materials used in its preparation. Purchasers are recommended, therefore, to buy Mixed Feeding Cakes, Meals, etc., with a guaranteed analysis. Any statements in the Invoice as to the com- ponent parts of such Mixed Cake or Meal will take effect as a warranty, as also will any statements in an invoice, circular, or advertisement as to the percentages of nutritive and other in- gredients in any article sold for use as food for cattle. Members of the Society are strongly recommended not only to see that the Invoices given to them accurately describe the goods they have ordered, but to mai V a a; c S-5 o o -z O O +J _ -S Q- ±1 0) r~N 5 '^ ■= ,Q 5.2 s. « >> ^-1 ■= ™ ,0 ■«§ ii C Q) pl ■~ X ■° a - +j 5 Q UI3 UJ 3 1- " Z T3 < C T3 a: si C < . (^ 3 mb O c ^ 1- si o 148 Royal Agricultural Society's Suggestions. [Appendix. CONDITIONS OF PURCHASE AND SALE. FERTILISERS. Raw Bones, Bone-meal, or Bone-dust to be guaranteed " PURE," and to contain not less than 45 per cent of Phosphate of Lime, and not less than 4 per cent of Ammonia. Boiled Bones to be guaranteed "pure," and to contain not less than 55 per cent of Phosphate of Lime, and not less than i per cent of Ammonia. Mineral Superphosphate o-f Lime to be guaranteed to contain a certain percentage of "Soluble Phosphate." [From 25 to 28 per cent of Soluble Phosphate is an ordinarily good quality.] Dissolved Bones to be guaranteed to be "made from raw bone and acid only," and to be sold as containing stated minimum percentages of Soluble Phosphate, Insoluble Phosphates, and Ammonia. Compound Artificial Manures, Bone Manures, Bone Compounds, etc., to be sold by analysis stating the minimum percentages of Soluble Phosphate, Insoluble Phosphates, and Ammonia contained. Basic Slag to be guaranteed to contain a certain percentage of Phosphoric Acid (a good quality contains 15 to 17 per cent of Phosphoric Acid), and to be sufficiently finely ground that 70 to 90 per cent passes through a sieve having 10,600 meshes to the square inch. Peruvian Guano to be described by that name, and to be sold by analysis stating the minimum percentages of Phosphates and Ammonia. Sulphate of Ammonia to be guaranteed to be " pure," and to contain not less than 24 per cent of Ammonia. Nitrate of Soda to be guaranteed to contain 95 per cent pure Nitrate of Soda. Kainit to be guaranteed to contain 23 per cent of Sulphate of Potash. . All Fertilisers to be delivered in good and suitable condition for sowing. FEEDING STUFFS. Linseed Cake, Cotton Cake (Decorticated and Undecorticated), and Rape Cake (for feeding purposes) to be pure, i.e., prepared only from the one kind of seed from which their name is derived. The report of the Consulting Chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England to be conclusive as to the "purity " or otherwise of any feeding stuffs. Mixed Feeding Cakes, Meals, etc., to be sold on a guaranteed analysis. Appendix.^ Royal Agticultuyal Society's Suggestions. 149 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. GENERAL RULES.* I. — A sample taken for analysis should be fairly representative of the bulk from which it has been drawn. 2. — The sample should reach the Analyst in the same condition as it was at the time when drawn. FERTILISERS. When Fertilisers are delivered in bags, select four or five of these from the bulk, and either turn them out on a floor and rapidly mix their contents, or else drive a shovel into each bag and draw out from as near the centre as possible a couple of shovelfuls of the manure, and mix these quickly on a floor. Halve the heap obtained in either of these ways, take one-half (rejecting the other) and mix again rapidly, flattening down with the shovel any lumps that appear. Repeat this operation until at last only some three or four pounds are left. From this fill three tins, holding from J-lb to i-lb each, mark, fasten up and seal each of these. Send one for analysis, and retain the others for reference. Or, — the manure may be put into glass bottles provided with well-fitting corks: the bottles should be labelled and the corks sealed down. The sample sent for analysis can be packed in a wooden box and sent by post or rail. When manures are delivered in bulk, portions should be successively drawn from different parts of the bulk, the heap being turned over now and again. The portions drawn should be thoroughly mixed, sub-divided, and, finally, samples should be taken as before, except that when the manure is coarse and bulky it is advisable to send larger samples than when it is in a finely-divided condition, FEEDING STUFFS. Linseed, Cotton, and other Feeding: Cakes. — If a single cake be taken, three strips should be broken off right across the cake, and from the middle portion of it, one piece to be sent for analysis, and the other two retained for reference. Each of the three pieces should be marked, wrapped in paper, fastened up and sealed. The piece forwarded for analysis can be sent by post or rail. A more satisfactory plan is to select four to six cakes from different parts of the delivery, then break off a piece about four inches wide from the middle of each cake, and pass these pieces through a cake-breaker. The broken cake shoiild then be well mixed and three samples of about i-lb each should be taken and kept in tins or bags duly marked, fastened and sealed as before. One of these lots should be sent for analysis, the remaining two being kept for reference. It is advisable, also, with the broken pieces to send a small strip from an unbroken cake. *[For more detailed remarks as to sampling of Manures and Feeding Stufifs, see Journal, R.A.S.E., Third Series, Vol. II., No. VIII., December, iSgi, pp. 858-863.] 150 Royal Agricultural Society's Instructions for Sampling. Feeding Meals, Grain, etc. — Handfuls should be drawn from the centre of half-a-dozen different bags of the delivery ; these lots should then be well mixed and three J-lb tins or bags filled from the heap, each been marked, fastened up and sealed. One sample is to be forwarded for analysis, and the others retained for reference. SOILS, WATERS, Etc. Soils. — Have a wooden box made six inches in length and width, and from nine to twelve inches deep, according to the depih of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark out in the field a space of about twelve inches square ; dig round in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil andrits sub- soil nine to twelve inches deep ; trim this block to make it fit in the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid, and send by rail. The soil will then be received in the position in which it is found in the field. In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out. Waters. — Samples of water are best sent in glass-stoppered Winchester bottles, holding half-a-gallon. Care should be taken to have these scrupulously clean. In taking a sample of water for analysis it is advisable to reject the first portion drawn or pumped, so as to obtain a sample of the water when in ordinary flow. The bottle should be rinsed out with the water that is to be analysed, and it should be filled nearly to the top. The stopper should be secured with string, or be tied over with linen or soft leather. The sample can then be sent carefully packed either in a wooden box with sawdust, etc., or in a hamper with straw. Milk. — A pint bottle should be sent in a wooden box, GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. Time for Taking Samples. — All samples, both of fertilisers and feeding stuffs, should be taken as soon after their delivery as possible, and should reach the Analyst within ten days after delivery of the article. In every case it is advisable that the Analyst's certificate be received before a fertiliser is sown or a feeding stuff is given to stock. Procedure in the Event of the Vendor wishing Fresh Samples to be Drawn. — Should a purchaser fihd that the Analyst's certificate*shows a fertiliser or feeding stuff not to come up to the guarantee given him, he may inform the vendor of the result and complain accordingly. He should then send to the vendor one of the two samples which he has kept for reference. If, however, the vendor should demand that a fresh sample be drawn, the purchaser must allow this, and also give the vendor an opportunity of being present, either in person or through a representative whom he may appoint. In that case three samples should be taken in the presence of both parties with the same precautions as before described, each of which should be duly packed up, labelled and sealed, by both parties. One of these is to be given to the vendor, one is to be sent to the Analyst, and the third is to be kept by the purchaser for reference or future analysis if necessary. All samples Intended fop the Consulting Chemist of the Society should be addressed (postage of carriage prepaid) to Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 13 Hanover Square, London, W. Separate letters of instruction should be sent at the same time. Appendix ] I c j CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of FEEDING MATERIALS. The connection between the analyses of foods and their fertilising value is so close, as explained above, that a few words on the terms used by writers on the Chemistry of Foods may perhaps interest some of our readers. They lay no claim to originality, and are taken from the man}- treatises on the subject b\- writers of repute,* and from articles which appear from time to time in our agricultural journals from the pens of the leading agricultural chemists. The constituents of food are usually classed under the followng four heads, though this is not the order of their relative feeding values : — Albuminoids or Flesh-Forming Compounds ; Carbo-Hydkates, or Carbonaceous, or Starchy Principles; Oil or Fat; Mineral Constituents or Ash. Albuminoids. — The Albuminous principles or Albuminoids are a class of closely allied but slightly diflfering vegetable principles. Thej' promote the formation of flesh or muscle, — as distinct from fat, — and were therefore named by Liebig the plastic constituents of food, or flesh-formers, to distinguish them from the non-plastic or fat-producers. The Albuminoids are also sometimes spoken of as the protein compounds ; and more commonly as the nitrogenous constituents of food, because, in addition to their carbon, oxj-gen, and hydrogen, with i or 2 per cent of sulphur, they contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen, while the other two classes of food do not contain any nitrogenf. For this reason the manure from foods rich in the albuminoids, as decorticated cotton cake, linseed cake, beans, etc., is more valuable than that produced bj' foods of the starch}- and oily classes, as wheat, maize, palm-nut-meal, etc. The albuminoids are essential constituents of all feeding materials, and without them no food is capable of supporting life; they supplj' the nitrogenous tissue of the animal frame, as well as the hair, wool, and horn ; they seem also to act as stimulants to the digestive and respiratory organs, and to the functions of the whole frame ; and, though only entering indirectly into the composition of fat, they appear to be, in the animal economy, essential to its formation ; and in some, — the carnivora, especially, — to be the principal source of fat. *Dr. Voelcker, Sir J. B. Lawes, Dr. Aitken, R. Warington, Anderson, Johnston, Cameron, and others. fThe albuminoids have, on an average, the following percentage com- position : — carbon, 533 ; hydrogen, 71; oxygen, 221; sulphur, 18 ; and nitrogen, 157. These proportions correspond to the chemical formula C, jHj,„NigO..S. 152 Chemical Composition of Feeding Materials. {Appendix. In many feeding articles, such as grain, oilcakes, etc., most of their nitrogen is in the form of albuminous compounds, and the percentage of the latter is frequently calculated by analysts, with approximate accuracy, from the amount of nitrogen con- tained, instead of by direct tests for albuminoids. It has, however, been recently pointed out b,y several chemists, that in many immature vegetable products, particularly bulky ones which contain much sap, such as grasses, clovers, potatoes, and especially turnips and mangolds, one fourth to one-half of their nitrogen is in non-albuminoid forms, containing more oxygen, and known as amides. These amides, though nitrogenous, are incapable of forming muscle, and are of much less value than soluble albumen ; but, like the albuminoids, they contribute, on oxidation, to the production of heat and, to some extent, of fat. Among the vegetable albuminoids may be named, ist, gluten of wheat, barley, rye and maize ; 2nd, ave?iin of oats, — these two being almost identical with the fibrine of blood and muscular fibre; 3rd, the legumin of peas, beans, etc., which corresponds very closely with the caselne of milk, curd and cheese : — indeed we have seen it stated that the Chinese make a veritable vegetable cheese, which when salted and pressed, developes in time the peculiar flavour and smell of cheese ; 4th, albumeri, which is contained in the juices of all plants in larger or smaller quantity, and is almost identical with the animal albumen, of which white of egg is a good illustration ; 5th, diastase, another member of this group, is probably albumen in a peculiar stage of decaJ^ Diastase plays an important part in the germination of seed and the forma- tion of the first young shoot in plants ; and thus seems to be the first to start the complicated changes in the material and structure of plants which we call growth. Acting on the starch in the seed, it first converts it into a. form of gum called dextrine, which in turn changes first into sugar and then to cellulose or woody fibre. It is the diastasic action of the cerealin in bran and malt which is said to assist the digestion of starch in the animal economy, and promote its conversion into dextrine. Non-nitrogenous. — The Starchy or Carbonaceous principles and the Oils or Fats are frequently classed together as the non- nitrogenous substances. They have an important property in common, — that both supph' the carbon required for respiration and for maintaining animal heat. They are, therefore, often spoken of under one name, as the respiratory and the fat-pro- ducing or heat-producing constituents of foods. Both are also sometimes spoken of as the carbonaceous principles, but this term is more usualh' confined to the members of the starch group. There are, however, important differences between the two groups. The Carbo-hydrates or the Starch Group form the larger part of all vegetable foods ; they include a large number of important elements in food, all consisting of carbon, hydrogen and Appendix.'] Chemical Composition of Feeditig Materials. 153 oxygen :— the two latter being always combined in the propor- tions which form water (H2O), viz., one part by weight of hydrogen to eight of oxygen ; the hydrogen contained is-there- fore completely oxidised, and the carbon only keeps up the animal heat by slow oxidation or combustion. The group may therefore be described as hydrates of carbon, and they are accordingly known as the carbo-hydrates. Among them may be named starch, gum, mucilage or dextrine ; these are all identical in chemical composition (CeHioOj), containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the proportions of four parts by weight of carbon tf^ five of water. Some other non-nitrogenous constituents of food, as pectin, lignose, and vegetable acids are often included in this group, though not strictly carbo-hydrates. Cellulose or woody fibre is also chemically identical with starch, and when in a tender, readily digestible form is of con- siderable feeding value, but the value is greatly reduced as the fibre becomes old and woody. Cellulose is not quite so digestible as starch or sugar, and is considered to have a slightly lower value. The sugars and pectose ox pectin are also important branches of this group ; they are present abundantly in turnips, mangolds, beet, parsnips, carrots, etc., and in most fruits, and are almost identical with starch both in composition and in feeding value. Cane sugar {sucrose C-LgHaaOn) consists of carbon, hj'drogen, and oxygen, in the proportions of 36 parts of carbon and 49^ of water; and grape or starch sugar {glucose CgHj^gOe- H^O) of 36 carbon and 63 of water. The composition oi pectose is said to be CggH^gOga- The Carbo-hydrates form the bulk of the digestible part of vegetable fodder, and play an important part in animal nutrition. It has been pointed out that they do not take up any settled abode in the animal, as do albumen and fat ; and may therefore be described as the floati7ig rather than the fixed capital of the body. The functions of the numerous members of the Starch group in the animal economy are various, and are not yet clearly defined. They are useful in preventing the waste of the albu- minoids, though they are themselves incapable of forming muscle. But their special purpose seems to be to provide the carbon, of which they contain about 44^ per cent, which is required for respiration and for the warmth of the body. Any excess not required for these purposes goes to the formation of fat, — five parts of starch or sugar being said to be capable of forming nearly two parts of fat in a healthy animal. Oil or Fat. — The Oil or Fat group of food constituents includes a number of slightly different vegetable oils, all nearly identical in chemical composition, and all consisting of carbon. 154 Chemical Composition of Feeding Materials. lAppendix. hydrogen, and oxygen ; but the oxygen is in much smaller pro- portion than would, with hydrogen, form water. Of the liquid fats, oleine (C57H104O), contained in linseed, olives, etc., is a good example. The solid fats axs. palmitine (Cs^HagOe), con- tained in butter, palm-fruit, etc.; and s/earine (CstH^ioOo). which is identical with the fat of sheep, goats, etc. The waxes, turpentines, and resins, also belong to the group known as the fatty substances of plants, but they contain still less oxygen, it being entirely absent in the turpentines (CioHig)- Not only does Fat or Oil exist in large quantities in the well known oil-seeds, as linseed, rape and turnip seed, and in palm kernels, etc., but it is present in smaller proportions in most farm crops, as will be seen by reference to the following tables of analyses. These vegetable Oils or Fats contain about 80 per cent of their weight of carbon, or nearl5' twice as much as the members of the starch group, and they are in consequence correspondingly more valuable as heat producers and supporters of respiration ; but they are especially important in foods, in that they pass so readily into animal fat, which is produced from them much more directly and with less of loss than from the Starch or Sugar compounds. The fat thus stored in the animal tissues is also believed to be somewhat more stable than that produced from starch and sugar, and less liable to oxidation for warmth or respiration so long as the supplj^ of suitable food is maintained. On these accounts oil is considered the most valuable of all food constituents, and in any attempts that ma}- in the future be made to establish a set of standards of valuation for the various principles contained in foods, oil will probablj- (like nitrogen in a manure analysis) head the list. From the Rothamsted experiments, conducted by the late Dr. Voelcker, it would appear that the heat-producing power of Fat or Oil is about two-and-a- half times (2"44) as great as that of Starch or Cane Sugar. There is no need to call attention to the importance of fat, and the large proportion in which it exists in the well-fed animal ; but it is perhaps less generallj^ known that the carcase of a lean sheep contains about 64 per cent more fat than lean. The carcase of a store pig contains twice as much fat as lean, and that of a fat pig nearly five times as much.* Mineral Constituents. — These consist chiefly of Phosphate of lime and magnesia (which go to the formation of bone), potash salts, carbonate of lime, and silica. Though the proportion of these mineral matters contained in feeding articles is very small, they are not unimportant factors in the various organic processes of growth. •See analyses by Lawes and Gilbert in Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society, part 2, i860, Appendix.] Cheinical Composition of Feeding Materials. 155 Order of Nutritive Value.— The following is the order of nutritive value of the constituents of food which is now accepted by most agricultural chemists of repute; though some years since the late Dr. \'oelcker, we believe, considered the third group rather more valuable than the second. I. Oil and fatty matter. ir. Albuminoids or nitrogenous compounds. III. Sugar, starch, and analogous carbo-hydrates. IV. Digestible cellulose. \'. Indigestible woody fibre. VI. Mineral matter or ash. Albuminoid Ratio. — The proportion between the albuminoids or nitrogenous principles, and the carbo-hydrates, in the various feeding articles is spoken of as the "albuminoid ratio" or "nutritive relation." This proportion varies very greatly in different foods ; thus the " albuminoid ratio " in the grain of wheat and oats is about i to between 6 and 7, and of linseed cake or decorticated cotton cake i to between i and 2 ; of red clover before flowering, i to 3^ ; in full bloom, i to 5^ ; and of average meadow hay, i to 8. The subject is claiming much attention from agricultural chemists, both English and German, and all those who are interested in the study of animal nutrition and the most economical modes of feeding stock. A series of tables has been recently published by Dr. E. Wolff, which seems likely to prove of practical value to the agriculturist. A rough rule for obtaining the albuminoid ratio is to add the carbo-hydrates to twice the fat contained in the food (fat being considered to be worth about twice their feeding value). Then divide the result by the albuminoids, when the figure arrived at is the ratio of the carbonaceous principles (excluding wood}- fibre) to i of albuminoids. Taking beans as an example, — the}- contain albuminoids 25'5o, fat 2, carbo-hydrates 46"5o, woody fibre 10. Add twice the fat, say 4, to the carbo-hj'drates 46"5o, say 50*50, and divide by the albuminoids 25-50, an albuminoid ratio of i to about 2 is thus given, the woody fibre being ignored. For a horse the albuminoid ratio required varies from i to 8 when not working, to i to 4*^ w-hen doing specially hard work. For fattening cattle the ratio may commence with i to 7A, end- ing with I to 4A- in the later stages of feeding. The time taken by food in passing through the intestines differs much in different animals. Dr. Aitken states that in most of the caruivora it is accomplished in 12 hours ; in the case of man in about 25 hours : and in herbivorous animals in four to six da3-s. The length of the intestines or alimentary canal varies correspondingly. In carnivorous animals \\-hose food is 156 Chemical Composition of Feeding Materials. [_Appeniix. readily digested, the alimentary canal measures only about five times the length of the animal's body ; in man it measures six to seven times his length, in the horse it measures about ten times, in the pig thirteen times, in the ox twenty-two times, and in the sheep thirty times the length of the body of the animal. The tables of analyses on the following pages show the proximate constituents of a large number of articles used as food. They are taken from various sources, including the accepted text books on agricultural chemistry, the reports and papers by the late Dr. Voelcker, and from private sources; the name of the analyst being given in each case. The object of the tables is not so much to give elaborate detailed analyses, as to facilitate the ready comparison of the various feeding articles in common use. They must of course be taken as typical analyses of good average samples of the articles named, and not as representing any particular parcel which we have on offer. It will be noticed that none of these articles consist entirely of any one class of constituents, but that each is a combination of all the important elements, — though the proportions differ greatly. Thus we see that beans, which are so particularly rich in albuminoids or flesh formers (25 per cent), contain also two per cent of oil and 46 per cent of starch or its allies ; while rice meal and Indian corn, which are good illustrations of what are often called starchy or non-nitrogenous food, each contain both oil and gluten ; whole linseed, which contains one-third its weight of oil, has also 25 per cent of flesh-formers, and 22 to 30 per cent of gum or mucilage. When, therefore, beans are spoken of as albumin- ous or flesh-forming food, it is not meant that the}' are exclusively so, but merely that they are particularly rich in this respect as compared with other foods. Appendix.} Analyscs of Feeding Articles. 157 For explanation of headings of coiumns see footnotes, 3, 4 and 6. Corn Crops, etc. Wheat, Whole Grain Grain White English Wheat . Fine ]VIieat Flour . . . Middlings Sharps Bran Wheat Bran Wheat-germ Barley, Grain Meal Pearl Oats, Grain Scotch Oat Meal Rye, Irish Rye Flour Maize Meal Maize Refuse Meal . . Straws, Pea Bean Oat cut green .... Oat ripe Oat over ripe .... Barley Wheat just ripe .... Buckwheat Beans Haricot Beans Peas, old Tares, winter Lentils Locust or Carob Beans . . I (mean of three) \ , , , seeds only Rice Meal, inferior ,, better ,, fine Rangoon ,, very fine Dari Seed Millet, cnished whole Brewers' Grains Fresh Malt, with sprouts Dry Malt, without sprouts . ... Malt Dust or Coombs ,, ,, another Malt Dried Grains, pale ale ,, porter mixed ale Water. Fat or Oil. Albumi- noids or Flesh- formers Starch, Sugar, Gum, etc. Woody Fibre. Mineral Matter (ash). 3 4 6 15 3 12 65-50 2-75 1-75 14 1-20 14-60 66-90 1-70 1-60 145 1-2 II 69 2-6 17 13 -8 10-5 74-3 ■7 -7 12-55 3-3b 14-68 61-63 473 2-95 1280 3-90 14-62 54-61 9-22 4-85 I4'55 3-13 13-87 54-09 901 5-35 14 4 15 44 17 6 10-86 9-97 13-86 60-59 4-72 16 2to3 xo-50 65 3-50 3 18 1-67 9-56 63-39 4-73 2-55 14-6 1-3 6-2 760 -8 i-i 14 5(08 11-50 6050 7 3 5 lo-i I6-I 63 3-7 2-1 16 3 9 63 8 I 13 1-6 105 71 2-3 1-6 13-99 3-01 9-38 69-76 2-21 1-65 lo-zg 883 15-32 56-72 733 1-51 1602 234 9-86 26 06 40-79 4-93 16 I 6-30 36-70 35 5 16 1-57 8-49 42-38 24-86 670 16 1-05 4-08 40-74 31-78 6-35 16 1-25 3-65 30-94 41-82 6-34 15 150 3 34 42 4-50 13-33 1-74 2-93 23-66 54-13 4-21 13-4 34 15-20 63-6 21 2-3 13 2 25-50 46-50 10 3 14 2-3 23 52-3 5-5 2-9 1370 1-43 22-69 52-69 5-57 3-65 1550 2 26-50 45-50 9 1-50 14-5 2-6 24 49 51-93 Sng 6-9 3-0 14-65 1-08 703 1G09MUC 6-34 2-88 14-11 2-03 16-94 54-50 8-81 3-61 947 377 6-56 58-68 13-77 7-75 10-70 10-77 12-39 51-88 6-24 802 902 , 12-36 13-61 53-70 4-08 7-23 9-85 14-51 13-12 45-60 8-31 8.-61 12-55 2-93 10-31 70-43 1-63 2-15 12-85 3-91 11-25 6025 7-73 4-01 13-19 3-83 9-56 57-06 12-51 385 76-60 0-40 4-90 9 10 6-20 I-20 47-50 I 650 33-70 4-30 1-70 7-50 2-30 9-40 69-80 8-70 2-30 10-51 ■77 2441 47-iS 10-28 684 9-50 2-20 23-70 44-90 12-50 680 9-35 1-97 "•37 1S-8S Sub 51-43 Dzt 5-53 3-51 996 777 19-31 42-38 14-93 5-65 8-60 8-23 2006 44-85 14-63 3-63 9-70 7-80 20-70 41-90 15-40 4-50 Analyst. Cam". & Joh". Johnston A. H. Church A. H. Church -Voelcker "Voelcker "Voelcker A. H. Church Can". & New". -Voelcker Voelcker A. H. Church Cam" &Joh". A. H. Church Cameron A. H. Church -Voelcker -Voelcker -Voelcker Warington Voelcker -Voelcker -Voelcker -Voelcker -Voelcker A. H. Church Cam". & Jon". A. H. Church -Voelcker Cam". & Joh". A. H. Church Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Williams Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Wrightson Wrightson Wrightson Voelcker Warington Voelcker Voelcker Dyer O. Helmer 3._Tbe 3rd column, headed albuminoids or flesli-formers, includes all the nitrogenous constituents of plants, as gluten, albumen, legumin and casein, which each contain about 16 per cent nitrogen. 4, The 4th column includes starch, sugar, gum, mucilage and digestible cellulose, all which are identical in chemical composition. 6._The mineral matter or ash mclndes the phosphoric acid, potash, soda, lime, sand, and all other mineral or incombustible principles. 158 Analyses of Feeding Articles. [Appendix. For explanation of headings of columns see footnotes, 3, 4 and 6. Cakes. Linseed Cake, fine English pure , , good average pure ,, good American . . ,, Norwegian . . . Rape Cake, English , , German feeding . . Cotton Cake, undecorticated . . ,, another sample Decorticated Cotton Cake. . , , another sample , , another ,, another Corn Cake — Waterloo Round Palm Nut Cake, A.M. S's ., Cocoa Nut Cake, do. Copra Cake Maize-germ Cake ditto Wheat-germ Cake ■ . Chinese Pea Cake Hemp Cake Hemp-seed Cake Niger-seed Cake Maize Cake Earth Nut Cake ,, ,, ,, decorticated. . . ,, ,, ,, undecorticated . Earth Nut and Kurdee Sunflower Cake, Giant Sunflower Cake, Minor Sesame Cake Palm Nut Meal, Smith's .... Linseed Cake Meal, our ovm grinding . American oil-extracted , , -another Rape-meal, Feeding, oil-extracted Rape Seed Linseed Baltic Black Sea Bombay Calcutta 11-32 12 960 i2-8o 10-33 10-83 11-46 I2-20 9-28 8-98 780 8-20 9-14 9 12 8-40 12-76 11-83 9-90 9-80 12-79 10-57 13-60 11-94 10-50 10-77 975 8-10 980 9-40 7-13 II 756 912 9-30 1015 11-15 11-86 7-13 9 8-34 6-75 7-80 7-40 Oil. Albwni noids or Flesh- formers 11-63 11-50 10-51 9-84 956 8-72 6-07 5'40 1605 14-29 13-96 I3'50 303 11-50 11-36 1012 8-07 7-76 536 7-15 11-17 6-44 585 12-50 8-47 lOIO 7-26 6-50 1119 I3'93 12-83 19-30 12-50 1006 2-8o 2-15 2-66 36-81 25<035 38-20 38-54 40-36 41-23 28-65 29 70 31-44 26-58 31-06 33-81 22-94 20-8o 41-25 41-44 39-51 44 12-43 15-50 20-37 16-90 16-13 15-62 18-37 39-25 29-56 31-02 31-02 25-62 47-44 48-06 47-81 47-31 3787 46 06 29-93 30-19 15-50 33-37 29-25 30-75 32-81 21 50 I9to25 2482 26-14 2215 16-39 Starch, Sugar, Gum, etc. 32-75 27-80 32-31 37 30-59 28-05 32-52 35-60 16-45 21-55 28-66 21 62-50 36-45 4061 49-78 54-98 54-49 52-52 29-60 18-03 15-70 2382 40-65 2227 21-74 2502 19-28 25-40 19-94 23-51 25-31 35-45 3184 39-67 38-43 36-13 i8-73 34 20-05 1957 1949 24-52 Woody Fibre. Mineral Matter {ash). 9-25 12 III3 7-35 10-20 11-49 20-99 20-80 8-92 6-26 3-76 6-50 912 23-69 12-97 5-03 3-65 6-43 7-04 5-67 24-20 2516 19-44 863 4-53 4-85 4-86 1026 993 6-67 17-40 5-33 23-69 10-37 11-83 1107 9-80 6-86 8 4-87 5-20 6-16 . 7-20 6-40 7 5-01 643 8-26 710 602 520 8-05 7-48 6-31 6-80 3-78 3-74 629 5-41 5-34 5-80 6-91 5-54 6-47 8-08 7-93 210 6-52 5-50 6-95 6-85 6-21 6-27 533 12-31 3-74 506 6-30 6-45 674 8-97 5 3-72 3-80 4-04 3-26 Analyst. Voelcker -Voelcker -Voelcker Penney "Voelcker -Voelcker Voelcker Warington -Voelcker ■Voelcker Voelcker Warington Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Williams Williams Smetham Williams Voelcker Voelcker Penney Penney Voelcker Voelcker Smetham Voelcker Voelcker Williams Dyer Dyer Williams Voelcker Smetham Voelcker Voelcker Dyer Anderson Johnston Penney Penney Penney Penney 3.— The 3rd column, headed albuminoids or flesh- formers, includes all the uiti-ogenous constituents of plants, as gluten, alhuinen, legumin and casein, which each contain about 16 per cent nitrogen. 4. — The 4th column includes starch, sugar, gum, mucilage and digestible cellulose, all which are identical in chemical composition. 6. — TYiemineral matter or ash mcludes the nhnc^,llr^T■;r. .,(.;a Tin».,ci. ..^a.. 1; — . .-...>j — i -ti -^1.— miueral or incombustible principles. Appendix-I Analyses of Feeding Articles. 159 Grass, Meadow Clover, Green Hay, Meadow , Clover , Red Clover , Cowgrass , White Clover , Trefoil , Ribgrass , Lucerne Turnips, Swedes Swedes, another . White Globe . . . Aberdeen Yellow. Greystone Whites Mangel Wurtzel Red Beet Root For explanation of headings of columns see footnotes, 3, 4 and 6. Green Poods, etc. Potatoes . Parsnips . Carrots . Carrots . Cabbage Green Rape Green Rye „ silo'd Melons for Cattle Furze, Gorse or Whin. . . . Bracken North China Sugar Cane Yellow Lupins, cut green . . Ribgrass ditto Acorns Apples Treacle . . . Milk, Cow . , Mare , Ewe . , Sow . Water. 80 83 I4'30 16 1 6' 60 1660 i6'6o i6'6o 1660 1660 89-46 89-30 9042 90-57 94 91-70 87-78 820 75 82 87-50 89-0 89 87-05 75-40 72-50 92-98 75-02 6-65 8i-8o 89 20 84-78 32 75 86-8o 9040 83-10 8460 Fat Albumi- noids or Flesh formers ■80 ■70 250 2'20 3-06 3HI 3-65 338 306 230 ■33 ■20 -33 -33 ■29 •20 -25 -30 ■50 -33 -65 •89 -73 118 4-7P 2-55 •37 •56 3 33 3-8 10 5-5 4-8 350 330 970 I2-20 1879 15-98 15-63 2050 11-91 10-63 1-44 1-50 I-I4 1-80 ■64 I'lO 1-54 -40 2-10 1-30 JtolJ ■50 3-30 3-13 275 1-99 { 1-53 2-70 12-13 1-53 2-38 2-18 15 2 39 20 55 6-3 Starch, Sugar, Gum, etc. 920 7 41 38-20 37-06 35'35 3337 27-76 33-58 33-47 5'6o 7-30 5-14 4-29 2-65 5-30 8-35 aoE' 10 Dxtl G'm !■ 3-4 Pol.) 20-50 7-25 7' Sufrar4'5 Dittn) Gtiin J. -8 Pete.) 5-06 4 9-13 12-86 Uuc 0-80Lac.Ac. Woody Fibre. Mineral Matter 2-51 7-6i 4684 9-10 3-96 6-08 47 16 54*060 4-6 6-2 5-0 34 4-50 4-50 26-30 26 16-46 21-63 22-11 2260 27-56 28-51 2-54 I-IO 2-34 2-35 1-79 3-0 I-IO 8 3-50 4-3 -99 356 1048 9-72 1-65 1178 24-43 4-03 329 5-10 2 1-50 620 530 7-97 6-96 8-57 9-03 7-23 8-42 -62 -60 -63 -65 -63 -70 -96 1-32 1-60 1-35 2-J3 -60 t-74 5-25 •99 ■80 1-30 I I Analyst. Warington Warington Warington Warington Wr". & Cam". Vqel'-. & And". Warington Voel>-. &And". Warington Voel'-. & John, Church Warington Cameron Voel'. & Joh". Church Johnston Voelcker Voelcker "Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Voelcker Johnston Johnslon Voelcker McConnell McConnell McConnell McConnell 3. — The 3rd column, headed albuminoids or flesh-formers, includes all the nitrogenous constituents of plants, as gluten, albumen, legumin and casein, which each contain about 16 per cent nitrogen. 4.— The 4th column includes starch, sugar, gum, mucilage and digestible cellulose, all which are identical in chemical composition. 6. — The mineral matter or ash includes the phosphoric acid, potash, soda, lime, sand, and all other mineral or incombustible principles. i6o AVERAGE PRICES OF ENGLISH WHEAT. The following table of the average prices of English wheat per imperial quarter for each year since 1600 may interest our readers. We are indebted for it to the editors of the Mark Lane Express. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1600 . ■ 37 8 1660 . • 50 ^ 1720 . • 32 10 1780 . ■ 36 1840 . . 66 4 I60I . • 34 10 1661 . . 62 z 1721 . • 33 4 1781 . . 40 6 1841 . ■ 64 4 1602 . • 29 4 1662 . • 65 9 1722 . • 32 1782 . • 49 3 1842 . • 57 3 1603 . ■ 35 4 1663 . ■ 50 8 1723 • • 30 10 1783 • • 54 3 1843 . • 50 I 1604 . • 30 8 1664 . • 36 1724 . ■ 32 10 1784 . ■ 50 4 1844 . ■ 51 3 1605 . • 35 10 1665 . • 43 10 1725 ■ • 43 I 1785 ■ ■ 43 I 1845 . . 50 10 1606 . • 33 1666 . . 32 1726 . . 40 10 1786 . . 40 1846 . ■ 54 8 1607 . • 36 8 1667 . . 32 1727 . • 37 4 1787 . . 42 5 1847 • • 69 9 1608 . • 56 8 1668 . • 35 6 1728 . . 48 5 1788 . . 46 4 1848 . . 50 6 1609 . ■ 50 1669 . • 39 .5 1729 . • 41 7 1789 . ■ 52 9 1849 . • 44 3 I6I0 . ■ 35 10 1670 . • 37 1730 • • 32 5 1790 . ■ 54 9 1850 . • 40 3 I6II . ■ 38 8 1671 . • 37 4 1731 • • 29 2 1791 . . 48 7 1851 . ■ 38 6 I6I2 . • ^0 4 1672 . • 36 5 1732 . • 23 8 1792 . . 40 3 1852 . • 4° 9 I6I3 . . 48 8 1673 • • 41 5 1733 ■ ■ 25 2 1793 ■ - 49 3 1853 • • 52 3 I6I4 . • '^l 8 1674 . . 61 1734 ■ ■ 30 9 1794 . ■ 52 3 1854 • ■ 72 5 I6I5 . ■ 38 8 1675 ■ • 57 5 1735 ■ • 38 2 1795 • ■ 75 2 1855 - • 74 8 I6I6 . • "^S 4 . 1676 . • 33 9 1736 • • 35 10 1796 . ■ 78 7 1856 . . 69 2 I6I7 . . 48 8 1677 . • 37 4 1737 • ■ 33 9 1797 . • 53 9 1857 ■ • 56 4 I6I8 . . 46 3 1678 . ■ 52 5 1738 . ■ 31 6 1798 . • 51 10 1858 . ■ 44 2 i6ig . • 35 4 1679 . • 53 4 1739 ■ ■ 34 2 1799 . . 69 1859 . • 43 9 1620 . ■ 30 4 1680 . . 40 1740 . • 45 I 1800 . •113 10 i860 . • 53 3 1621 . • 30 4 1681 . • 41 5 1741 . ■ 41 5 1801 . .119 6 1861 . • 55 4 1622 . • 58 8 1682 . • 39 I 1742 . ■ 30 2 1802 . . 69 10 1862 . • 55 5 1623 . • 52 u 1683 . • 35 6 1743 • . 22 I 1803 . ■ 58 10 1863 . • 44 9 1624 . . 48 1684 . • 39 I 1744 . . 22 [ 1804 . . 62 3 1864 . . 40 2 1625 . • 52 1685 . • 41 5 1745 ■ . 24 5 1805 . . 89 9 1865 . . 41 1626 . • 49 4 1686 . . 30 2 1746 . • 34 8 1806 . ■ 79 I 1866 . • 49 II 1627 • ■ 36 1687 . . 22 4 1747 • ■ 30 II 1807 . ■ 75 4 1867 . • 64 5 1628 . . 28 1688 . . 40 10 1748 . • 32 10 1808 . . 81 4 1868 . • 63 9 1629 • ■ 42 ° 1689 . . 26 8 1749 . • 32 10 1809 . ■ 97 4 1869 . . 48 2 1630 . ■ 55 8 1690 . • 30 9 1750 . . 28 10 1810 . .106 5 1870 . . 46 II 1631 . . 68 1691 . • 30 2 1751 • • 34 -^ 1811 . • 95 3 1871 . ■ 56 8 1632 . ■ 53 4 1692 . ■ 41 5 1752 . • 37 2 1812 . .126 6 1872 . ■ 57 1633 ■ • 50 1693 . . 60 I 1753 • • 39 8 1813 . .109 9 1873 • ■ 58 8 1634 . • 56 1694 . • 56 10 1754 • • 30 9 1814 . ■ 74 4 1874 . ■ 55 9 1635 ■ ■ 56 1695 . • 47 I 1755 • ■ 30 I 1815 . ■ 65 7 1875 . ■ 45 I 1636 . • 56 8 1696 . . 63 I 1756 ■ . 40 I 1816 . ■ 78 6 1876 . . 46 2 1637 ■ ■ 53 1697 . • 53 4 1757 • ■ 53 4 1817 . . 96 II 1877 . • 56 9 1638 . • 57 4 1698 . . 60 9 1758 . • 44 5 1818 . . 86 3 1878 . • 46 5 1639 . • 54 10 1699 . ■ 56 10 1759 • • 35 3 1819 . • 74 6 1879 . • 43 10 1640 . • 44 8 1700 . ■ 35 6 1760 . • 32 5 .1820 . • 67 10 1880 . ■ 44 4 1641 . • 57 I 1 701 . • 33 5 1761 . . 26 9 1821 . • 56 I 1881 . • 45 4 1642 . . 60 2 1702 . . 26 2 1762 . • 34 8 1822 . • 44 7 1882 . • 45 I 1643 . • 59 10 1703 • • 32 1763 ■ • 36 I 1823 . • 53 4 1883 . ■ 41 7 1644 . . 61 3 1704 . • 41 4 1764 . • 41 5 1824 . ■ 63 II 1884 . • 35 8 1645 . • 51 3 1705 • . 26 8 1765 . . 48 1825 . . 68 6 1885 . . 32 10 1646 . . 42 8 1706 . . 23 I 1766 . ■ 43 1 1826 . • 58 8 1886 . ■ 31 1647 . • 65 5 1707 . • 25 4 1767 . • 47 4 1827 . • 58 6 1887 . ■ 32 6 1648 . • 75 6 1708 . • 36 10 1768 . • 53 9 1828 . . 60 5 1888 . • 31 10 1649 . • 71 I 1709 . ■ 69 9 1769 . . 40 7 1829 . . 66 3 1889 . • 29 9 1650 . . 68 I 1710 . • 69 4 1770 , • 43 6 1830 . . 64 3 1890 . • 31 9 1651 . ■ 65 2 1711 . . 48 1771 . • 47 2 1831 . . 66 4 1891 . • 37 I 1652 . • 44 1712 . . 41 2 1772 . • 50 8 1832 . • 58 8 1892 . ■ 30 4 1653 • ■ 31 6 1713 • • 45 4 1773 • • 51 1833 ■ • 52 II 1893 . . 26 4 1654 . • 23 I 1714 . • 44 9 1774 • ■ 52 8 1834 ■ . 46 2 1894 . . 22 10 1655 • ■ 29 7 1715 • . 38 2 1775 • . 48 4 1835 ■ • 39 4 1656 . ■ 38 2 1716 . . 42 8 1776 . • 38 2 1836 . . 48 6 1657 • ■ 41 5 1717 . • 40 7 1777 . • 45 6 1837 ■ • 55 10 1658 . • 57 9 1718 . ■ 34 6 1778 . • 42 1838 . . 64 7 1659 . • 58 8 1719 . ■ 31 I 1779 . • 33 8 1839 . ■ 70 8 H ighest— -1812, 12 6s. 6d. ; Lowes —1743- 44. 22s. Id. Afpendix.'] i6i MONTHLY AVERAGE GAZETTE PRICES ENGLISH WHEAT, BARLEY, and OATS FOR THE TEN YEARS 1885 1894. We are indebted to the Mark Lane Express and the Agri- cultural Gazette for the following table- of the official monthly and annual average gazette prices of English Wheat, Barley and Oats, per imperial quarter for the ten years 1885 — 1894. The table also shews the highest and the lowest weeklj' average in each year, and the range between the two. We see that, according to Willich's tables, the septennial tithe-rent charge is ;^74 3s. g^d. per ;^iqo, or iis. sid. lower than last year. The average for the fifty-eight years from the com- mutation in 1836 is ;^99 6s. yid. per ;^ioo. HOME-GROWN WHEAT. 1885 s. d. 33 7 32 8 31 10 34 I 36 8 33 « 33 S 33 5 31 3 30 II 30 II 30 6 1886 s. d. 29 10 29 5 29 10 30 7 31 10 31 7 31 2 32 5 31 10 29 II 31 2 33 2 1887 s. d. 35 8 33 9 32 II 32 9 33 7 35 I 34 4 32 29 4 29 3 30 8 31 1888 s. d. 30 II 30 3 30 5 30 4 31 7 31 4 31 9 35 3 35 10 31 7 31 10 31 1889 s. d. 30 I 30 7 30 2 29 II 28 6 27 II 30 9 29 II 29 8 30 I 30 1890 s. d. 30 I 29 10 29 10 29 11 32 2 33 8 32 8 36 2 32 II 31 32 4 32 3 1891 s. d. 32 9 32 4 33 10 38 4 40 5 39 9 38 6 40 38 5 35 37 " 37 6 1892 s. d. 35 4 32 6 32 II 31 2 31 5 30 I 29 3 29 7 29 28 2 28 I 26 4 1893 s. d, 26 3 25 10 24 10 25 I 26 8 27 I 26 7 26 2 26 3 27 8 27 3 26 8 1894 s. d. 26 3 25 24 3 24 7 24 7 23 II 24 6 24 3 20 7 17 8 18 10 20 7 January February March March April May May June July July August August September October October November Bbcember Annual Average HigU&t Wkly. do. Lowest do. do. 32 38 30 7 10 I 2 IX 31 35 29 2 32 28 7 6 4 5 II 31 38 30 8 10 I 1 29 31 27 3 9 2 II 3 31 36 29 8 10 37 I 40 5 32 4 8 I 30 36 25 10 4 4 8 8 26 27 24 3 4 10 8 2 22 26 17 10 4 6 10 Annual Avcraee Highest Wkly. do. Lowest do. do. Range l62 [Appendix. BARLEY. Januaky February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Average .... Highest Wkly. do. Lowest do. do. Range 1885 1886 1887 1888 I s. d. 31 II 31 10 31 3 31 7 29 II 28 6 28 10 26 10 31 30 8 29 II 29 6 30 32 6 24 10 7 23 10 23 4 27 5 27 3 27 8 26 9 26 o 29 7 22 4 7 3 s. d. 22 6 26 24 3 23 II 22 10 21 10 21 O 23 5 27 8 28 II 29 6 29 I 25 5 29 7 20 5 9 2 30 30 29 30 30 25 24 22 4 28 6 2g I 27 II 27 I 27 10 31 3 18 8 12 7 s. d. 26 9 26 4 25 II 25 I 23 4 21 6 ig II 20 8 29 30 30 5 30 3 25 9 31 3 19 5 ri 10 1890 ' 1891 s. d.] s. d 71 28 6 5 27 II 6. 27 8 s: 27 8 A 27 9 5! 27 6 I, 26 I I, 26 I 2[ 28 7 29 6; 291 6 29 3I 31 o 71 29 II 28 28 8 32 3 22 6 31 o 26 I 1892 s. d. 29 2 28 2 27 9 26 9 25 I 24 2 22 9 23 7 27 o 27 9 26 ID 24 9 26 2 29 5 21 I 8 4 s. d 25 4 25 I 25 2 24 I 23 2 27 6 29 4 29 2 28 II 25 6 29 6 20 3 9 3 1894 s. d. 28 II 28 5 27 2 27 3 25 o 23 8 21 7 20 4 23 II 23 9 22 10 21 5 24 6 29 2 16 5 12 9 January February March April May June July August September October November December A nnual A verage Highest Wkly do. Lowest do. do. Range OATS. January February March April May Tune July August September October November December Annual Average.... Highest Wkly. do. Lowest do. do. Range 1886 1886 1887 \ 1888 1889 1890 > 1891 1892 1893 1894 s. d. 20 8 21 4 22 9 22 3 22 2 22 19 4 18 10 18 8 18 4 20 7 23 6 18 I 5 5 s. d. s. iC 5 17 19 o 17 [9 4 16 19 4 16 20 3 16 20 7 17 20 6 17 20 II' 16 18 8 14 II 17 3! 15 16 10 16 91 15 9> 16 Oi s. d. 16 o 15 II 15 9 15 II 16 9 17 17 19 18 16 16 16 s. d. 16 4 16 6 16 II 17 5 18 4 18 8 18 II 2; 19 7 19 o 16 3 16 10 51 4 17 9! 20 9 l6 7 14 7! 15 5 4 9 3 2| 5 4 17 g 20 6 16 2 4 -4 18 7 20 5 17 3 3 s. d. 17 ID 18 18 6 19 6 20 II 21 I 21 4 21 4; 20 2 18 9 21 7 21 5 21 7 17 10 3 9 1892 1893 s. d. 20 6 s. d. 16 II 20 20 4 20 7 21 2 21 7 17 9 18 2 18 7 19 6 20 8 21 5 21 5 ig 8 17 II 17 10 16 II 21 7 20 17 10 18 18 2 18 2 ig II 22 2 l6 3 18 g 22 3 16 8 5 " 5 7 S. d. 17 II i8 o 18 2 18 3 18 8 18 9 19 9 18 II 15 9, 13 6 13 9 14 I 17 I 20 5 13 3 7 2 January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual Average Highest Wkly. do. Lowest do. do. Range Appendix.^ 163 RAINFALL. The amount of rainfall of each year, — and especially its distribiition over the various seasons, — has so important a bearing on agriculture, often giving to each successive season much of its special character, that we have been in the habit, for more than twenty years, of printing in the Appendix to our Annual Circular, the previous year's record for the neighbour- hood of York. As the subject is of some general interest, we give below the average monthly rainfall at York for the forty-six years from 1849 to 1894. Of these, the figures for the twenty-four years since 1870 are the means of our own daily measurements and of three or four other dependable gauges in the suburbs of the city. Order of relative Yearly excess ( Mean of 46 ytats. dryness of months, Yearly totals, or deficiency. corrected for their J871- -1894, compared 1 1849— 1894. respective lengths, in inches. with 46 years' H6 years' mean. mean. Jan. I 653 Mar. 1-572 1871 27-66 + 3-52 1872 40-38 + 16-24 Feb. 1-536 April 1-616 1873 19-87 4-27 1874 22-04 — 210 Mar. 1-598 Jan. i'626 1875 24-60 + -46 1876 30-63 + 6-49 April 1-590 Fee. 1-658 1877 3257 + 8-43 1878 26-71 + 2-57 May 2 002 Dec. 1-876 1879 22-70 1-44 1880 30-47 + 6-33 June 2006 Sept. 1-929 1881 27-14 + ■ 3 1882 33-03 + 889 July 2-703 May 1-970 1883 27-61 + 3-47 1884 19-57 4-5-7 Aug, 2-525 Nov. 2-016 1885 22-59 I '55 1886 29-34 + 5-20 Sept. 1-898 June 2039 1887 16-27 - 7-87 1888 23-76 -38 Oct. 2 '739 Aug. 2-484 1889 23-36 ■78 1890 21 62 252 Nov. I '983 July 2659 189I 23-54 -60 . 1892 24-80 + -66 Dec. 1-907 Oct. 2-695 1893 23-41 -73 1894 28-41 + 4-27 24-140 24-140 *An inch of rain measured at 60" Fahrenheit weighs nearly loi tons per acre (100-99), and contains about 22,623 gallons. 164 The Rainfall for 1894. {Appendix. In the second column of the table the months are arranged in the order of their relative dryness, as brought out by the 46 years' mean, after making the necessary correction for the different num- ber of days in each. This brings out the interesting fact that in thi.s district the first four months of the 3'ear differ but little in their rainfall, and are the driest of the twelve ; that the amount of the rainfall rises steadily through May and June to July, which has usuall)' a much larger rainfall than any earlier month. After this the record declines evenly through August and September, — only to rise again in October, which shares with Julj' the joint distinction of being the wettest of the twelve ; the comparatively dry months of November and December leading up to the still drier months of the opening 3-ear. As this sequence is based upon the observations of a long period of years, its deductions are no less true, though individual seasons diverge so widely from the recorded means. In the third and fourth columns of the table, we give the annual York rainfall since 1871, and the excess or deficiency of each year, as compared with the fortj'-six years' mean. Turning from these local figures to the record for the whole of England, it may be remarked that, speaking generallj-, the rainfall of the eastern side of England ranges from a minimum of 20 to a maximum of 33 inches, — giving a mean of about 26 inches. In the midland and southern comities the average is from 28 to 31 inches. In the grazing districts of the western counties, the rainfall ranges from 36 inches in the lower-lying districts, to about 47 on the higher lands, including Wales, and rising to 130 inches on a few wet mountain sides, — giving a mean of about 43 inches. The following table shows the mean annual Rainfall for the twenty-nine years 1866-1894, with the number of rainy days, for the various districts into which the country is divided by the Meteorological Office. — See Meteorological Office Returns, Vol. XI., .4pp. I., new scries, page 9. 2g yenn' Number mean. of Wheat Pkoducing Districts. 1866-1S94. "wet days.. Scotland, North.. 1 Scotland, East . . 2 England, North East (including York) 3 England, East . . 4 Midland Counties 5 England, South Mean of Wheat Producing Districts, as above • The number of "wet " days is the mean of the fourteen years, 1881-1894. Wet days are understood to be days on which the rainfall amounts to one- hundredth of an inch (01) or more. 45'0 2457 30S 1992 260 1887 256 . 186-2 283 . i8i-2 293 1770 280 1861 ApfeniUx.] The Rainfall for 1894 165 ■zi^yean Niimber mean 0/ 866-1894. '-<^'ft days. 45-5 2107 391 197-8 433 2024 39-2 2287 39-8 2o8g 414 209-5 347 ig8-6 Principal Grazing Districts. 6 Scotland, West . . 7 England, North West 8 England, South West 9 Ireland, North . . 10 Ireland, South . . Mean of Grazing Districts, as above Mian for British Isles generally . . For comparison with the above, it may be noted that the dries/ year of the twenty-nine (1866 to 1894) ^'^ which the averages refer, was 1887, when the rainfall of the Wheat Districts was 2 I'D inches: of the Grazing Districts 3o"5 inches ; and of the country generally 25-8 inches, or nearh' 26 per cent below the twenty-nine years' mean ; while much the zcetlest j'ear of the period was 1872, when the Wheat Districts had 40*2 inches of rain ; the Grazing Districts 58*0 inches ; and the country' generally 49' i inches, or 41 per cent above the twenty-nine years' mean. Central Yorkshire is a comparatively dry district, as will be seen by comparing the mean annual rainfall at York (24-14 inches) with the following list of the mean annual fall for the ten years, 1880 to 1889, at a number of representative stations in various parts of the country. The' figures are extracted from the very complete returns published annually in British Rainfall, by Mr. G. J. Symons, the well-known authority on the subject ; they may therefore be taken as dependable. * The number of " wet " days is the mean of the fourteen years, 1881-1894. Wet days are understood to be days on which the rainfall amounts to one- hundredth of an inch (-oi) or more. ^F 1 66 [Appendix. RAINFALL. Average of ten years, 1880 — i88g. PLACE. COUNTY. INCHES. London (Camden Square) Middlesex 25-45 Docking Surrey 3060 Canterbury . . Kent • 25-51 Chichester Sussex, West ■ 3283 Isle of Weight (Osborne) . . Hampshire ... 27-29 Newbury Berkshire 30-27 Hertford Hertfordshire 25-04 Oxford (Magdalen College) Oxfordshire . . 26-19 Kettering Northampton 27-18 Bedford Bedfordshire 2401 Ely Cambridgeshire 22-39 Saffron Walden (Newport) Essex . . 24-82 Diss . Norfolk 25-81 Salisbury Plain . Wilts 28-26 Weymouth . . . Dorset 29-36 Torquay Devon 3459 Barnstaple . . ■ • 52-85 Glastonbury (Street) Somerset 31-16 Stroud Gloucestershire 30-91 Ross Hereford 31-18 Oswestry Shropshire . . 3495 Burton . Stafford 25-86 Great Malvern Worcester 29-49 Coventry Warwick 28-94 Leicester Leicester; 2769 Horncastle . . Lincoln 26-62 Worksop Nottingham • 25-84 Matlock Bath . Derby 36-62 Chester Nurseries Cheshire 2908 Over Darwen Lancashire 46-56 Cartmel (Holker) ,, 42-25 Otterbnrn-in-Craven . York, W. Riding . . 41-19 Knaresborough .. 1, . . . 27-37 Pocklington (Warter) „ E. Riding 30-46 Malton ,,, N. Riding 26-90 Leyburn ,, ,, • > . 36-10 Guisborough (Hutton Hall) .> II . . . 3397 Darlington . . Durham 2645 Rothbury . Northumberland 30-86 Borrowdale (Seathwaite) . . Cumberland . . 129-01 Carlisle M 3034 Appleby . Westmorland • 3275 Appendix.] 1 67 The sunshine RECORD. The comparative amount of sunshine of each season is, in its bearing on agricultural life, no less important than the rainfall ; and its dailj' registration is a much more cheerful operation. It is to be regretted that a larger number do not take up this simple and interesting form of meteorological observation. A number of sunshine-recording instruments have been in constant operation since April, 1880, under the supervision of the Meteorological Office, whose published measurements become of more value year bj' year, as the length of time increases over which the comparisons extend. The instrument in use in most of these stations is an improved form of CanipbelVs Sunshine Recorder, devised by Sir G. Gabriel Stokes, and known as the Campbell- Stokes instrument. The record is taken by means of a solid ball of glass, about four inches in diameter, resting on a pedestal ; this is firmly fixed on a slate base and placed in an elevated and carefully selected situation, facing due south, so as to expose the glass globe to the direct rays of the sun all along his daily path from east to west. So long as the sun continues to shine, this glass globe acts as a burning-glass or " scorcher," and focusses the ray on to a prepared card, which is duly marked with the hours, like a sun-dial, and is held accurately in position by metal grooves fixed immediately behind the glass. As the sun travels from east to west, the mark of the sun's focussed ray moves gradually along the card, scorching on it a dark line during bright sunshine, and leaving the card blank so long as the sun is obscured by cloud. By removing this card daily, after sunset, and fixing a fresh one in position, an accurate and automatic record both of the amount and the exact times of daily sunshine is easily obtained. The percentage which the actual sunshine bears to the total time between sunrise and sunset is simply calculated, and gives a convenient basis of comparison between different seasons. The record given by this instrument is that of the s\i\\-heat. Another and much less expensive instrument, costing under half the price of the Campbell-Stoke, has been recently introduced by Mr. J. B. Jordans. Its record is of the amount of sun-light rather than that of heat, and its registration depends on the action of the actinic or chemical sun-rays on a .sheet of sensitised photographic paper, placed within a short cylinder. In the following table we print the Meteorological Office Monthly Returns for 1894, of the duration of bright sunshine and the percentage which this bears to the "possible" amount, for the district North East England, which ranges from Alnwick to the Humber, and includes the Vale of York. It will be seen in this district the bright sunshine of the year amounted to about 1,305 1 68 The Sunshine Record for 1894. {Appeniix. hours, or 30 per cent of the possible amount, i.e., of the time between sunrise and sunset. In the remaining columns of the table we add the monthlj' figures for each of the great sections into which the country is divided in the returns of the Meteorological Office, viz. : — Cist) the principal Wheat-producing Districts, including the east of Scotland, the north-east and east of England, as well as the midland and south-eastern counties. (2nd) the Grazi7ig Districts, which are understood to com- prise the west of Scotland, the north-west and sout1i-west of England, and the whole of Ireland. (3rd) The Channel Isla?ids. The last column giA^es the mean figures for the British Islands, the Wheat-producing and Grazing Districts combined. BRIGHT SUNSHINE RECORD, 1894. North-East England. Wheat Producing Districts. Grazing Districts. Channel Islands. British Isles. Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Jan. 36 .. 16 43 .. /y 42 .. 19 69 .. 29 43 .. ?9 Jan, Feb. 72 .. 2S m .. 33 61 .. 23 96 .. .35 74 .. 2S Feb. March 194 .. 47 191 . . 46 182 .. 44 2ig . . 53 187 .. 45 March April 129 . . 33 137 .. 36 137 ■■ 36 178 .. 47 137 .. 36 April May 149 .. 34 157 •• 36 165 .. 38 193 . . 46 161 .. 37 May June 165 .. 28 i8e .. 32 193 . . 33 242 . . 44 190 . . 33 June July 172 .. 37 162 .. 36 144 .. 32 160 .. 36 153 .. 34 July Aug. 114 .. 27 119 .. 29 107 .. 26 133 ■• 33 113 •• 28 Aug. Sept. 127 .. 29 136 .. 30 155 .. 33 225 . . 51 146 .. 33 Sept. Oct. 52 •■ '7 63 .. 21 7S .. 26 113 .. .38 71 .. 24 Oct. Nov. 42 .. 17 66 .. 27 59 .. 24 6g .. 27 63 .. 26 Nov. Dec. 53 ■• ■?/ 47 .. IS 43 •• 16 66 .. 23 45 •• /7 Dec. 1305 ..50% 1393 --32% 1366 ..31% 1763 ..42% 1383 -.32% For comparison with the foregoing record for 1894 we give in the following table some extracts from an interesting report, Appendix.] The Sunshine Record for 1894. 169 Ten years' sinishine in the British Isles, 1881-1890, published by the Meteorological Office, shewing the mean flionthly duration of sunshine, and the percentage this bears to the "possible" amount, at a number of representative stations over Great Britain, ranging from north to south, from the Orkneys to the Channel Islands, for the ten years, 1881-1890.* The pamphlet giyes the figures for a much larger number of places than those we have selected, and is worth the perusal of any who are interested in this department of Meteorological observation. The following are the summarised conclusions on the ten years' figures : — I That the sea coast receives more sunshine than the inland parts of the country This is natural, as the sea coasts are low, as a rule, and clouds form inland where the ground rises to hills. 2. Large manufacturing cities, like London and Glasgow, cannot fairly be compared even with stations in their immediate neighbourhood, particularly in winter. This is evidently due to smoke, which possibly affects to a certain extent all town records. 3 The south and west coast stations, and especially the Channel Islands, are particularly favoured in almost all months of the year. Jersey is the only station recording in a:ny month, on the mean of the ten years, an average of even one-half of its possible duration of sunshine ; 52 per cent was registered there in May and 55 per cent in August. The highest figure for any other station was only 48 per cent. 4. The east coast of Great Britain, as represented by Aberdeen, Geldeston and Hillington, is comparatively sunny. In the case of Aberdeen this is evidently due to the position of the observatory with the high Braemar mountains on its western side. 5. In the summer and early autumn the north-west of Ireland and of Scotland, with the Orkneys, receive very little sunshine. 6. In the late autumn, Ireland generally receives more sunshine than most of England. * The asterisked returns are for the five years, 1886-90. -"i^^ lyo [Appendix. BRIGHT SUNSHINE TEN YEARS' AVERAGE Jan. Feb. Hours. % Mar. % April % May % Orkneys Aberdeen Glasgow Durham* Opwaldkirk,' N. Rid'g, Yorks York Stonyhurst Worksop Buxton* Norfolk, Geldeston Cambridge Oxford Cirencester Greenwich Kew Observatory Southampton St. Leonards* Ventnor* Falmouth Jersey 309 54'9 20 • 464 43- 256 312 354 266 531 472 413 44'5 257 361 45-5 636 56- 46-8 681 52-2 695 45-8 672 59-2 53-6 58- 56-1 43- 69-4 63- 61 -6 68- 43' 499 67- 79- 796 76-1 871 827 iii'6 807 996 IOI-6 985 975 981 75- 1241 ii8-i III-6 II0-2 92-1 104-6 1262 112- I20'4 129-8 I49-I 142- 143- 126-5 II3-4 127-4 128-6 I35'9 122-7 go- 163-4 147-8 141-2 142-2 127-6 138-1 162-6 157- 176-8 1730 187-6 180-7 193-3 159-6 139-6 144-4 187-1 192-6 174-6 118-2 229-1 199-8 192-4 196-9 185-9 200-1 2106 2242 201-8 216-3 243-1 35 38 32 28 29 38 39 36 24 48 41 40 41 39 42 44 47 42 46 52 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 i6 17 18 19 20 Ap'pendix.'i 171 RECORDS. 1S81 — 1890. June July August Sept. Oct Nov. Dec. Whole Year. Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. % Hours. I 1689 37 154- 29 117-8 25 965 25 65-4 21 34-5 15 19-9 11 "45-5 2 195-4 37 171 2 33 1553 34 115-7 31 91-2 29 553 24 37-9 19 1394-3 3 159-4 '31 134- 26 129-9 28 95-6 25 63-4 20 26-7 11 15-2 7 1056-8 4 163- 32 154-8 30 1506 33 109-3 29 78-8 25 54-2 22 46-2 21 1223-2 5 165-2 33 153-2 30 139- 31 105-4 28 80-4 25 52- 21 44-2 20 12150 6 168-6 33 161-6 32 147- 32 105-3 28 80-5 25 42-1 17 24-5 11 12230 7 1851 37 166-3 33 149-7 33 119-9 32 79-9 25 45-1 IS 27-7 12 1288-9 8 156-6 31 159-9 32 148-7 33 110-2 29 82-9 26 50-2 20 31-9 14 1227-3 9 142-2 29 I4I-2 28 122-6 27 94-8 25 64-2 20 26- 10 16-2 7 9600 10 211-8 43 206-6 42 191-7 43 147-6 39 III-3 34 64-6 25 46-4 20 1619-I II 191-7 39 195- 39 176-6 40 135-1 36 105-6 33 64-1 25 39-3 17 1483-3 12 187-3 38 189-2 38 182-6 41 133-9 36 IOI-5 31 55-4 22 37-4 16 1435-4 13 187-4 38 183-3 37 179-7 40 120-3 32 97-6 30 53-7 21 38-6 17 1422-4 14 1711 35 172-5 35 159-7 36 113-6 30 75-3 23 4I-I ' 16 19-3 8 1226-9 15 187-2 38 190-2 39 181-5 41 128-5 34 95-9 29 51-7 20 35-3 15' 1399- 1 16 204-2 42 206-5 42 202-9 46 149-8 40 112-3 34 56-8 '22 463 19 1590-7 17 218-8 45 211- 43 201-2 45 170- 45 126-2 39 58-2 22 64-4 27 1685-6 18 180-6 37 188-8 39 209- 47 178-2 48 130-6 40 534 20 50- 21 1625-2 19 225-4 47 210-9 43 206-2 47 145-7 39 115-3 35 69-4 26 54- 22 1668-9 20 233-7 49 230-4 48 242-9 55 175-4 47 124-9 38 65-4 24 57-1 23 1864-8 172 [Appendix. GRAIN TABLE: CENTAL and QUARTER. Englisli Miiize and Cental. Wheat, etc. Foreign Corn. Barley, Oats. Ton. 36 stone. 34 sto. 4 lbs. 3z stones. 24 stones. 160 stones. 22.p lbs. zoo lbs. 504 lbs. 4S0 lbs. 44S lbs. 336 lbs. 63 lbs. bu'sh. 60 lbs. bush. 56/65. &«jA. 42 /6s. bush. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. £. s. d. 3 15 1 14 5 13 5 10 1 a 7 2 3 I IS 6 14 10 13 10 10 4 3 9 I 3 2 t6 15 2 14 2 10 8 3 10 II 3 3 16 5 15 7 14 7 10 II 3 12 10 3 4 16 10 16 14 II II 2 3 14 8 3 5 17 3 16 5 15 4 II 6 3 16 6 3 6 17 8 16 10 15 8 11 9 3 18 5 3 7 18 I 17 2 16 I 12 403 3 8 18 6 17 7 16 S j 12 4 422 3 9 , 18 II 18 16 10 1 12 7 440 3 lo 19 4 'f 5 17 2 12 II 4 S 10 I 'i 19 9 18 10 17 7 13 2 4 7 9 4 20 2 19 2 17 11 13 5 4 9 7 4 I 20 7 19 7 18 4 13 9 411 6 4 2 21 20 18 8 14 4 13 4 4 3 21 5 20 s 19 14 3 4 15 2 4 4 21 10 20 10 19 5 14 7 4 17 I i 5 22 3 21 2 19 9 14 10 4 18 II 4 6 22 8 21 7 20 2 15 1 5 10 4 7 23 I 22 20 6 IS S 5 2 8 4 8 23 6 22 S 20 II j 15 8 5 4 6 4 9 23 II 22 10 21 3 16 S 6 S 4 lo 24 4 23 2 21 8 16 3 S 8 3 4 11 24 9 23 7 22 16 6 5 10 2 5 25 2 24 22 5 16 10 5 12 5 J 25 7 24 5 22 9 17 I 5 13 10 5 2 26 24 10 23 2 17 4 S IS 9 5 3 26 6 25 2 23 6 17 8 5 17 7 S 4 26 II 25 7 23 II 17 II 5 19 6 ^ i 27 4 26 24 3 18 2 614 5 6 27 9 26 5 24 8 18 6 6 3 2 5 E 28 2 26 10 25 i8 9 6 S I 5 8 28 7 27 2 25 S 19 6 6 II 5 9 29 27 7 25 9 19 4 6 8 10 5 'o 29 S 28 26 2 19 7 6 10 8 5 II 29 10 28 s 26 6 19 II 6 12 6 6 30 3 28 10 26 11 20 2 6 14 5 6 I 30 8 29 2 27 3 20 5 6 i6 3 6 2 31 I 29 7 27 8 20 9 6 18 2 6 3 31 6 30 28 21 700 ^ '^ 31 II 30 5 28 4 21 3 7 I 10 i k 32 4 30 10 28 9 21 7 7 3 9 6 6 32 9 31 2 29 1 21 10 7 5 7 6 7 33 2 31 7 29 6 22 I 7 7 6 6 8 33 7 32 29 10 22 5 7 9 4 ^ ^ 34 32 5 30 3 22 8 7 M < 2 6 lo 34 5 32 10 30 7 23 7 13 I 6 II 34 10 33 2 31 23 3 7 14 n 7 O 85 8 83 7 31 4 23 6 7 16 10 Appendix.'] 173 GRAIN TABLE: CENTAL AND QUARTER. Cental. English Wheat, Uaize and Foreign Barley. Oats. Ten. etc. Corn 36 stone. 34 sto. 4 lbs. 32 stones. 24 stones. An ctnTioe 1 100 lbs. 504 lbs. 4S0 lbs. 448 lbs. 336 lbs. n^jt/\ 1 nc 6i lbs. bush. 60 /6s. bush. 56 /is. 6«sh. 42 lbs. bush. 224^ 1DS( s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. £ s. d. 7 I 35 8 34 31 9 23 10 7 18 8 7 2 36 I 34 5 32 I 24 I 8 6 7 3 36 6 34 10 32 6 24 4 8 2 5 7 4 37 35 2 32 10 24 8 8 i 3 7 5 37 5 35 7 33 3 24 II 8 6 2 7 6 37 10 36 33 7 25 2 8 8 7 7 38 3 36 5 34 25 6 8 9 10 7 8 38 8 36 10 34 4 25 9 8 II 9 7 9 39 I 37 2 34 9 26 8 13 7 7 10 39 6 37 7 35 I 26 4 8 15 6 7 II 39 II 38 35 6 26 7 8 17 4 8 40 4 38 5 35 10 26 11 8 19 2 8 I 40 9 38 10 36 3 27 2 9 I I 8 2 41 2 39 2 36 7 27 5 9 2 II 8 3 41 7 39 7 37 27 9 9 4 10 8 4 42 40 37 4 28 9 6 8 8 5 42 5 40 5 37 8 28 3 8 6 8 6 42 10 40 10 38 1 28 7 9 10 5 8 7 43 3 41 2 38 5 28 10 9 12 3 8 8 43 8 41 7 38 10 29 I 9 14 2 8 9 44 I 42 39 2 29 5 9 16 8 10 44 6 42 5 39 7 29 8 9 '17 lO 8 II 44 II 42 10 39 II 30 9 19 9 9 45 4 43 2 40 4 30 3 10 1 7 9 I 45 9 43 7 40 8 30 6 10 3 6 9 2 46 2 44 41 I 30 10 10 5 4 9 3 46 7 44 S 41 5 31 I 10 7 2 9 4 47 44 10 41 10 31 4 10 9 I 9 5 47 6 45 2 42 2 31 8 10 10 II 9 6 47 11 45 7 42 7 31 11 10 12 10 9 7 48 4 46 42 II 32 2 10 14 8 9 8 48 9 46 5 43 4 32 6 10 16 6 9 9 49 2 46 10 43 8 32 9 10 18 5 9 10 49 7 47 2 44 I 33 II 3 9 II SO 47 7 44 5 33 4 II 2 2 10 50 5 48 44 10 33 7 11 4 10 I 50 10 48 5 45 2 33 II II 5 10 10 2 SI 3 48 10 45 7 34 2 II 7 9 10 3 SI 8 49 2 45 II 34 5 II 9 7 10 4 52 I 49 7 46 4 34 9 II u 6 lo 5 52 6 SO 46 8 35 II ■3 4 10 6 52 11 50 5 47 35 3 11 15 2 10 7 S3 4 50 10 47 5 35 7 II 17 I , 10 8 S3 9 SI 2 47 9 35 10 II 18 II 10 9 54 2 SI 7 48 2 36 I 12 10 10 10 54 7 S2 48 6 36 5 12 2 8 10 II 55 ° 52 5 48 II 36 8 12 4 6 11 55 6 52 10 49 3 87 12 6 5 174 [Appendix. GRAIN TABLE : CENTAL AND QUARTER. English Maize and Cental. Wheat, Foreign Barley. Oats. Ton. etc. Corn. 36 stone. 34 sto. 4 lbs. 3S stones. 24 stones. io6 lbs. 504 lbs. 480 lbs. 448 lbs. 336 lbs. [DO Stuiicb. 1 65 lbs. bush. 60 /6s, bush. S6 lbs. bush. 42 lbs. bush 2240 IVS, s. d. s. d. s. d. S. d. s. d. £ S. d. II I SS 10 53 2 49 8 37 3 12 8 3 II 2 5^ 1 53 7 50 37 6 12 10 2 "I 3 56 8 54 50 5 37 10 12 12 11 4 57 I 54 5 50 9 3? ' 12 13 10 ■I 5 57 6 54 10 51 2 38 4 12 15 9 11 b 58 55 2 51 6 38 b 12 17 7 II 7 5^ 5 55 7 51 II 3S II 12 19 6 II 8 58 10 56 52 3 39 2 '3 I 4 II 9 59 3 56 5 52 8 39 6 13 3 2 II lO 59 8 56 10 53 39 9 '3 5 I II II 60 I 57 2 S3 5 40 '3 6 II IS 60 6 57 7 53 y 40 4 13 8 10 12 I 60 11 58 54 2 40 7 13 10 8 12 2 61 4 58 5 54 6 40 II 13 12 6 12 3 61 9 58 10 54 II 41 2 «3 '4 S 12 4 62 2 59 2 55 3 41 5 J3 16 3 '2 5 62 7 59 7 55 8 41 9 13 18 2 12 6 63 60 56 42 14 12 7 63 S 60 5 56 4 42 3 14 I 10 12 8 63 10 60 10 56 9 42 7 14 3 9 12 9 64 3 61 2 57 I 42 10 14 5 7 12 10 64 8 61 7 57 6 43 J 14 7 6 12 II 65 I 62 57 10 43 5 14 9 4 13 65 6 62 5 58 3 43 8 14 11 2 13 I 65 11 62 10 58 7 44 14 13 1 13 2 66 4 63 2 59 44 3 14 14 II 13 3 66 9 63 7 59 4 44 6 14 16 10 J3 4 67 2 64 59 9 44 lO 14 18 8 ^k 5 67 7 64 5 60 I 45 I 15 6 13 6 68 64 10 60 6 45 4 15 2 5 13 7 68 6 65 2 60 10 45 8 15 4 3 13 8 68 II 65 7 61 3 45 " 15 6 2 13 9 69 4 66 61 7 46 2 15 8 13 10 69 9 66 5 62 46 6 15 9 10 13 II 70 2 66 10 62 4 46 9 15 11 9 14 70 7 67 2 62 9 47 15 13 7 14 I 71 67 7 63 1 47 4 15 15 6 14 2 71 5 68 63 6 47 7 IS 17 4 14 3 71 10 68 5 63 10 47 " 15 19 2 14 4 72 3 68 10 64 3 48 2 16 I I JH s ,72 8 69 2 64 7 48 5 16 2 II 14 6 73 1 69 7 65 48 9 16 4 10 '4 .7 73 6 70 65 4 49 16 6 8 14 8 73 'I 70 5 65 8 49 3 16 8 6 14 9 74 4 70 10 66 I 49 7 16 10, ■) 14 10 74 9 71 2 66 5 49 10 16 12 3 14 II 75 2 71 7 66 10 50 I 16 14 2 15 75 7 72 67 2 50 5 16 16 Compiled by Hy. Richardson &> Compy., Yofk. INDEX— ALPHABETICAL. 175 Page. Ammonia, various sources of . . 66 valuation of, in analyses 94 sulphate of . . 40 to 45 Ammoniacal Manures . . 29 to 51 Analyses (guar, in Manures) 64 and 106 Analysis, valuation of Manures by . . 93 ,, importance of .. ..124 Manures — tables of 97 to 106 of Foods — tables of 157 to 159 Board Agric. Regulations 143 Anbury in Turnips .. 83 and 127 Barley Manure (analysis guaranteed)' 76 ,, monthly prices of, 1885 — 1894 162 Bags returned . . .. .. ..124 Basic Phosphates or Basic Slag 22 to 28 Bean Manure (anal, guaranteed) . . 84 Bi-phosphate (see soluble phosphate) Blood, dried . . . . . . • • 35 Board of Agriculture on Wireworm 130 ' ,, Sampling 143 Bone Ash, dissolved . . . . . . 12 Bones and Bone-Meals . . 16 to 22 Bones, pure Vitriolized, raw . . g Calcined Potash Salts . . . . 60 Cental and Quarter — Grain tables . . 172 Chemical Composition of Feeds . . 151 Clover Seeds . . . . . . . . 107 Club-root in Turnips . . ..83 and 127 Corn Manures (analyses guar.) 75 to 78 Discounts, Credit, Terms, etc. 119 to 126 Dissolved Raw Bones . . . . 9 Bone Ash . . . . . . 12 Bone Compound . . . . 12 Feeds, chemical composition of . . 151 Fertilisers & Feeding Stuffs Act, 1893 139 Finger and Toe in Turnips 83 and 127 Fish Manures (fish guanos) . . . . 33 Fruit Trees, Vines, etc.. Manure for 85 Page. Garden Manure . . . . . . 85 Grain Tables — Cental and Quarter. . 172 Grass M anures (guar, analyses) 70 to 75 Grass and Clover Seeds . . 107 to 116 Guano, Ammoniated Peruvian . . 39 Peruvian, raw .. ■ ■ 37 Ichaboe, guar, analysis .. 36 Guarantees, H. R. & Co.'s 64 and 106 recomm'd by R.A.S.E. 148 Ichaboe Guano (guar, analysis) 36 Kainit (for potatoes see also page 79) 56 Lawes on Unexhausted Improvts. . . 134 Lawn Manure . . . . . . ■ • 75 Leather, ground . . . . 67 and 95 Limes, Agricultural . . 89 and 102 Line Manure . . . . . . . . 84 Magnesia, sulphate of . . . . 58 salts in Kainit, etc. . . 56 Mangel Manure (guar, analysis) . . 80 Seeds . . . . . . . . 116 Manure Analyses, Tables of 97 to 106 Manures, Valuation by analyses 92 to 96 Manure-value of Foods . . . . 137 Meadow Manures . . . . ■ • 71 Meals, Bone, raw and steamed 16 to 22 Mineral Superphosphates . . . . 12 Mixed Manures (guar, analyses) 61 to 85 Mixtures, special, for sundry crops . . 84 Muriate of Potash . . . . ■ . 59 Mustard Seed . . .. .. _. . 117 Nitrate of Soda . . . . ■ • 45 Nitrate of Potash . . . . . . 60 Nitrogenous Manures . . 29 to 51 Nitrogen — valuation of, in analyses 95 Manures supplying .. 100 Oat Manure (guaranteed analysis) . . 76 Oats, monthly prices of, 1885 — 94 . . 162 176 INDEX. — Continued. Order forms, printed . . ,, Roy- Agri. Soc. Page. 122 147 Pasture Manure . , . . . . 70 ,, Grasses, Permanent .. in Peas, Manure for (guar, analysis) . . 84 Peat Moss Litter . . . . • • 91 Permanent Pasture Seeds . . ..in Peruvian Guano, Ammoniated . . 39 Peruvian Guano, raw . . • ■ 37 Phosphate of Lime, sol. 6, 67, 74, 93 ,, ,, . insol, . . 16, 67, 94 sources of 7 and 67 Phosphates, chemical formulae for. . 8 Phosphatic Minerals . . . . 7 and 104 Phosphate Povi^der, Thomas . . 22 Potash Salts .. ..52 to 60 and 102 ,, valuation of, in analyses 95 Potato Manures (guar, analyses) . . 78 Railway carriage and Delivery . . 122 Rainfall and Sunshine . . 163 to 171 Rape and Mustard Manure . . . . 81 Rape-cake and Rape-dust . . . . 29 ,, Seed . . . . . . . . 117 Reduced Phosphates. See footnote 94 Returned Bags . . . . . . 124 R..^.Soc , Suggestions on Purchasing 145 Salt, white, ground and lump rock. . 86 Seeds, Clovers, Grasses, Turnips, Mangels, Tares, etc. ..107 to 118 Seeds, Manure for (guar, analysis) . . 84 Shoddy, low value of amm. in 67 and 95 Slag, Basic . . . . . . 22 to 28 Soluble Phosphates . . 6, 67, 74 and 98 Page. 93 84 21 40 58 to 15 Soluble Phos., value of, in analysis. Special mixtures for sundry crops . Steamed or degelatinised Bone Sulphate of Ammonia Potash and Magnesia . Superphosphates . . . . 5 SampHng for anal. Bd..\g. regulations 143 Sunshine and Rainfall • • 163 to 171 Terms, Discount, Credit, etc. . . iig Topdressing for Corn (guar, anal.) . . 76 Turnip Manures (guar, analyses) . . 80 Turnip and Mangel Seeds . . . . 116 Tables of Analyses of Manures 97 to 106 ,, Analyses of Foods ••157 to 159 ,, Valuation of manure anal. 931096 Manure-value of Foods .. 137 ,, Compensation- values of unexhausted manures 134 to 136 ,, Cental and Quarter 172 to 174 Tares, Manure for (guar, analysis' . . 84 Undissolved Phosphates 16 to 28 Valuation of Manures from Analysis 92 of unexhausted manures 134 Vine and Fruit-tree Manure . . 85 Vitriolized Raw Bone . . . . g Voelcker on Anburv . . . . . . 127 Wheat Manure (guar, analysis) . . 76 annualprices of, since 1600. . 160 monthly prices of, 1S85-94.. 161 Wireworm .. .. 33 and 130 2l oH'k