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PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER 
 
 EDUCATIONAL SERIES 
 No. I. 
 
 Continuation Schools in England and 
 Elsewhere 
 
Sherratt & Hughes 
 
 Publishers to the Victoria University of Manchester 
 
 Manchester ; 34 Cross Street 
 
 London : 60 Chandos Street W.C. 
 
Continuation Schools in 
 England & Elsewhere 
 
 Their Place in the Educational 
 System of an Industrial and 
 Commercial State 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 M. E. SADLER, M.A. 
 Professor of the History and Administration of Education 
 
 MANCHESTER 
 
 At the University Press 
 1907 
 

 A.<J.'A\'^'/2' 
 
 University of Manchester Publications 
 No. XXIX. 
 
This Volume is Inscribed 
 
 TO 
 
 J. J. FINDLAY, 
 Sarah Fielden Professor of Education 
 
 IN THE 
 
 University of Manchester 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction xi. 
 
 Chapter I. — Historical Review of Certain Agencies 
 FOR Further Education in England. By 
 M. E. Sadler i 
 
 introductory sketch: 
 
 First Period, 1 780-1 833 5 
 
 Second Period, 183 3- 1848 9 
 
 Third Period, 1848-1870 . 10 
 
 Fourth Period, 1870-1907 13 
 
 chief agencies for " further education " : 
 
 1. The Sunday Schools 13 
 
 2. The Adult Schools 17 
 
 3. The Mechanics' Institutes and the Rise of Technical 
 
 Education 2 1 
 
 4. The Working Men's Colleges - 32 
 
 5. The Educational Work of Working Men Co-operators 48 
 
 6. The Young Men's Christian Association - 50 
 
 7. The Night Schools and Evening Classes under 
 
 Government Inspection 52 
 
 8. The Extension of University Teaching 7 1 
 
 9. The Free Public Libraries and the National Home 
 
 Reading Union 80 
 
 Further Agencies : 
 
 i! Boys' and Girls' Brigades 84 
 
 2. The Recreative Evening Schools Association 91 
 
 3. The Co-operative Holidays Association. By P. 
 
 Sandiford and A. L. Dakyns 96 
 
 4. The Workers' Educational Association 100 
 
 5. The Encouragement of Physical Education in con- 
 
 nection with Continuation Classes 102 
 
 Chapter II. — The Present Position of State-aided Evening 
 Schools and Classes in England and Wales. 
 By M. E. Sadler 105 
 
 Chapter III. — Evening Schools in London. By G. L. Bruce 129 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Evening Continuation Schools of 
 Manchester, Leeds, Halifax, St. Helens, Bootle and 
 Widnes, with a note on thfe Evening Schools of 
 Rochdale. By H. Bompas Smith 145 
 
 Chapter V. — Catholic Evening Schools and Clubs in 
 
 Manchester. By Caroline Coignou - 198 
 
 Evening Classes in the Manchester Lads' 
 Clubs. By J. H. Helm 202 
 
 Chapter VL — The Work of Continuation Schools in certain 
 
 Rural Districts of England. By M. E. Sadler 
 and Mary S. Beard : — 
 
 Cambridgeshire 211 
 
 Gloucestershire 215 
 
 Northumberland 223 
 
 Cumberland 228 
 
 Buckinghamshire . 231 
 
 Yorkshire (East Riding) - 233 
 
 Chapter VH. — Results of an Inquiry into the Working of 
 Continuation Schools in England. Summarised 
 by Mary S. Beard 238 
 
 Chapter VIII. — English Employers and the Education of 
 their Workpeople. Returns summarised by M. E. 
 Sadler and Mary S. Beard 265 
 
 Chapter IX. — The Half-time System in the Textile Trades. 
 
 By Peter Sandiford 318 
 
 Chapter X. — Laws regulating the Employment of Children 
 and Young Persons in Factories and Workshops in 
 the United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland. 
 Contributed by the Labour Department of the 
 Board of Trade 352 
 
 Chapter XL — Working Men and Continuation Schools. 
 
 By Albert Mansbridge 369 
 
 Chapter XII. — The Rank and File in 'our Public Elemen- 
 tary Schools. By Mary O'Brien Harris - 388 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Trade Schools for Boys and Girls : their 
 Economic Value and their Place in a National 
 System of Education. By C. T. Millis 401 
 
 Chapter XIV. — Certain Trade Schools and Pre-Apprentice- 
 ship Schools in England : a brief review of their 
 aims and courses of study. By M. E. Sadler and 
 Mary S. Beard 427 
 
CONTENTS ix. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter XV. — Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment 
 Committees. By H. Winifred Jevons. With an 
 Account of the Work of the Cambridge Boys' 
 Employment Registry. By Eglantine Jebb 454 
 
 Chapter XVI. — The Organisation of Continuation Schools 
 
 in Scotland. By M. E. Sadler 472 
 
 Chapter XVII. — The People's High Schools in Denmark 
 
 (with short bibliography). By J. S. Thornton 483 
 
 Chapter XVIII. — Compulsory Attendance at Continuation 
 Schools in Germany (with short bibliography). 
 By M. E. Sadler 513 
 
 Table showing State Laws on the subject of 
 Attendance at Continuation Schools in Germany 
 By G. HuTH face 518 
 
 Chapter XIX. — The Continuation Schools of Munich. 
 
 By C. E. Stockton 535 
 
 Chapter XX. — The Continuation Schools of Switzerland. 
 
 By A. J. Pressland 548 
 
 Chapter XXI. — Continuation Classes and Social Education 
 in France (with short bibliography). By Georges 
 Cahen. Translated by Mary S. Beard ' 576 
 
 Chapter XXII. — Evening Schools in the United States. 
 
 By William Scott 643 
 
 Chapter XXIII. — The Trend towards Industrial Training 
 in Continuation Schools in New England. By 
 M. E. Sadler 657 
 
 Chapter XXIV. — The Limits of Compulsory Education in 
 the United States. Summarised Analysis by 
 Mary S. Beard : followed by tabular statement 
 of Statutory Provisions relating to Compulsory 
 Attendance and Child Labour (to close of 1906) 
 from report of U.S. Commissioner of Education 674 
 
 Chapter XXV. — Should Attendance at Continuation 
 Schools be made compulsory in England? By 
 M. E. Sadler 689 
 
 Short List of Books upon the Continuation School Question 
 
 in Great Britain 750 
 
 Index 755 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 I. 
 
 The view tliat the State should fix a minimum standard 
 of school training and attainment and require it to be 
 reached by every child, was first adopted in England as 
 a principle of our public policy in the year 1876. The 
 decision to adopt this principle was reached after a 
 conflict of opinion which had lasted for three generations. 
 It was reached with reluctance, because most Englishmen 
 would rather things were done freely than under com- 
 pulsion by Grovernment. Voluntary effort has for genera- 
 tions played a great and stimulating part in English 
 education. It cannot be dispensed with as one factor 
 in any system of national training which has to adjust 
 itself to complex and ever-changing national needs and 
 to clashing convictions which have their roots deep in 
 different social ideals. But in spite of much generosity 
 and perseverance and in spite of its success in some parts 
 of the field, voluntary effort failed to relieve the whole 
 of the educational destitution in many of our great cities 
 and in the new industrial districts which had become 
 squialidly populous in consequence of the growth of the 
 factory system. The fair-minded friends of the voluntary 
 principle found themselves forced therefore to the con- 
 clusion that in the public interest they must call to their 
 aid the authority of the State. This conclusion opened 
 the way for the passing of the Elementary Education Act 
 of 1870, the aim of which was to supplement voluntary 
 effort by collective action. Six years later, the principle 
 of enforcing a national minimum of school training and 
 A 
 
xii. INTRODUCTION 
 
 of individual attainment became part of the law of the 
 land. The slender minimum then fixed by statute has 
 since been raised by successive enactments in 1880, 1893 
 and 1900. And since 1903 it has been generously inter- 
 preted by the Code of Regulations for public elementary 
 day schools, a document which has the force of law. 
 
 But there is reason for thinking that once more the 
 national minimum should be raised. In the course of 
 every year more than half a million children m England 
 and Wales leave the public elementary schools at thirteen 
 or fourteen years of age. Not more than one out of every 
 three of these children receives, in point of general or 
 technical edtication, any further systematic care. Yet 
 tho se who f q ,i1 tn re cei ve such . care, are, broadly speaking, 
 those who need it most. And the years which imme- 
 diately^foUow the day school course are the critical years 
 of adolescence when stimulating instruction, technical 
 training and well-directed guidance in matters of conduct 
 and personal hygiene are often most needed and, if 
 wisely given, most helpful towards healthy living and 
 self-control. Those whose work lies among boys and girls 
 of this age, especially in cities, lament the spoiling of 
 promise and the waste of power which they see caused by 
 lack of tendance and of invigorating discipline. Some 
 economic changes have increased the mischief. It has 
 never been so easy, as it is in England to-day, for a boy 
 of thirteen or fourteen to find some kind of virtually 
 unskilled work involving long hours of deteriorating 
 routine, in which there is little mental or moral discipline 
 but for which are offered wages that for the time seem 
 high and flatter his sense of being independent of school 
 discipline and of home restraint. The work lasts for a 
 few years and then leaves the lad, at the very time when he 
 begins to want a man's subsistence, out of line for skilled 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii. 
 
 employment and only too likely to recruit the dismal 
 ranks of the unskilled labour. Certain forms of industry, 
 which make large use of boys and girls who have recenily 
 left the elementary schools, are m p9,!ft""(excepr"where the 
 enSpitrfeTs—make ~ special "efforts tcr"meet "their" responsi- 
 bilities) "parasitic in char^ter '^nd get more than they 
 ought, , and more than their promoters realise that they 
 are get-tijig ^ nf thfi physical and m oral capital of the 
 rising generation. Many callings . connected with trans- 
 port and communication, and some branches of manufac- 
 ture, use juvenile unskilled labour to a degree which, if 
 no counteracting measures are taken, must cause grave and 
 lasting injury to the national life. And in this matter, 
 great Grovernment Departments are to blame.^ 
 
 The reality of these dangers is unquestionable, though 
 no one^can at present speak with confidence oJ their actual 
 extent or of their remoter consequences. The dangers 
 
 1. Almost as these words were being written, an announcement was 
 made which encourages the hope that the Post Office will in future have 
 more regard for the further education of the boys in its service. The 
 Times of October 19 contained the following paragraph : 
 
 "A problem which has long occupied the attention of those interested 
 in educational matters seems at last to have found a solution. Many of 
 the best lads attending the elementary schools throughout the country 
 are attracted to the Post Office messenger service, because the pay is 
 good, the uniform is smart, and the hours are regular. But under pre- 
 sent conditions there is scarcely a chance of a telegraph boy's obtaining 
 a higher position in the service, since the postmen are recruited from the 
 ranks of time-expired soldiers. The consequence is that these lads must 
 go out as pages, hall boys, and errand boys, and later on obtain their 
 living as best they can. Recently, with the approval and assistance of 
 the Brighton Municipal Technical College Committee, a conference took 
 place between the principal of the college and the officials of the Post- 
 Office in the town, when the position of the telegraph messengers was 
 discussed. The Postmaster undertook to see each messenger personally 
 and ascertain from him if he would be willing, facilities being given, to 
 apply himself to some definite trade or suitable study during his two 
 years at the Post Office, and also to obtain the consent of his parents. 
 
xiv. INTRODUCTION 
 
 are felt not only in this country but also in France, in 
 Germany and in the United States. The^causes, Jrpm 
 which they spring are partly economic, partly psycho- 
 logical. In some districts of England the population is 
 now passing through an acute crisis of industrial revolu- 
 tion in consequence of new applications of machinery and 
 new developments of transit and communication. But 
 the psychological causes of unrest are more subtle and 
 not less powerful. The traditional ways of looking at 
 things have been disturbed by a great stir of thought 
 which has affected the intellectual atmosphere among sill 
 classes. Many things which used to be taken for granted, 
 or at least not publicly questioned, are freely criticised 
 and challenged. Bough and ready kinds of parental dis- 
 cipline have become less general, and in some cases have 
 disappeared without any better form of home influence 
 taking their place, partly because the parents themselves 
 hesitate about the degree and basis of their authority; 
 partly because the youn ger generation have often had 
 
 The result of these interviews has been encouraging, a large percentage 
 eagerly enrolling their names and choosing their subjects, such as 
 electrical engineering, general engineering, carpentry, plumbing, type- 
 writing, shorthand. Civil Service, etc. The principal of the College sub- 
 mitted the scheme to his comcmittee, who, having a suificient number of 
 free scholarships at the Technical College, decided to present them to 
 suitable Post Office messengers. The lads will be kept under strict 
 supervision, and their hours on duty at the Post Office so arranged that 
 regularity of attendance will be ensured. The Postmaster will receive 
 monthly reports as to their progress and conduct, and prizes have been 
 offered to be competed for at the end of the session. It is suggested 
 that municipalities throughout the kingdom should utilize their various 
 technical schools for the same object, with the support of the various 
 postmasters. It is also suggested that in future telegraph messengers 
 should be engaged only upon the condition that technical education shall 
 be compulsory during the two years that the boys are required, and that 
 facilities will be made for their attendance at the classes." The Post- 
 master at Stockport took action in the same matter some time ago, and 
 it is probable that in other towns similar efforts have been made. 
 
INTRODUCTION xv. 
 
 mor e schoo ling than their parents; partly because each 
 generation in turn ^rowi^up with its own attitude of 
 mind which in this case inclines towards early indepen- 
 dence. But all these changes have their good sides as 
 well as their bad. Behind them all lies the tremendous 
 force of the intellectual and economic movements which- 
 are carrying us forward not solely to new dangers but also 
 to new opportunities of good. The state of things, which 
 is now quickly passing aw,ay, was no ideal scene of virtue 
 and happiness. Much of the older kind of discipline was 
 arbitrary, stupid and merely repressive. Two of the most 
 characteristic tendencies of the movement of thought, 
 before which many old restraints are now losing their 
 power of control, are the desire for reality and the desire 
 for self-expression. These desires may le,ad into perilous 
 places but, if there goes with them the restraining power 
 of reverence and of self-knowledge, they mean veracity 
 and strenuous life. It is no unreasoning or ill-judged 
 confidence which relies upon the power of the truth and 
 wisdom of the old order to hold their own and indeed to 
 extend and deepen their influence under conditions which, 
 after all, will for the most part be only superficially new. 
 Thus, in considering what it would be wise or possible 
 for public authority and for voluntary workers to attempt 
 in order to meet the educational needs of young people 
 who have recently left the elementary school, we find 
 ourselves face to face not only with a technical question 
 of educational administration but with one (and that not 
 the simplest) aspect of a grave problem in national life, 
 a problem which is felt to be urgent in many other 
 countries besides our own. We shall not expect, there- 
 fore, to find any simple or easy remedy for what is amiss. 
 Whatever is done must necessarily be done in stages, so 
 that the weight of public opinion may go along with new 
 
xvi. INTRODUCTION 
 
 legislation ,and with the administrative action to which 
 such legislation would lead. In considering what should 
 be done, we shall not be content to fix our thoughts upon 
 the purely industrial or commercial interests which are at 
 stake. These indeed are of far-reaching importance and 
 must constantly be borne in mind in any practical hand- 
 ling of the subject, not only because the economic well- 
 being of the nation is serioiisly concerned in the problem, 
 but because the industrial and commercial occupations of 
 the people have a close connexion with their moral welfare 
 and outlook, (" the character of men," as Euskin once 
 said, " depending more upon their occupations than on 
 any teaching we can give them or principles with which 
 we can imbue them." i), a.nd_aIsoj3ficause-the-^aTt— o-f-the 
 educ ational problei n_gr^i,„s:hich- we are here espe ciall y 
 concerned lies at thfi_goini_j7h^^^hool-:t£aching has to 
 be skilfu]J^jdoyetailed^ntojthB_dj^ of the workshop or 
 the office. It is, however, the human side of the question 
 that rightly appeals to us with the greatest force. We are 
 right, when we discuss it, to think of individual boys and 
 girls whom we know, in circumstances with which we are 
 familiar, and of practical difficulties and opportunities of 
 which we have personal experience. And this leads us to 
 think of the real conditions of employment which lie 
 around us; of the home circumstances of the children as 
 we know them in real life; of the point of view of 
 foremen; of the different ways in which employers regard 
 their responsibilities; and of the actual people (teachers, 
 attendance officers, clerks, inspectors) through whom, if 
 it further exerts its authority, the State will be bound 
 to act. By seeing things thus in the concrete; by trying to 
 visualise the actual working of suggested plans ; by trying 
 
 1. Arrows of the Ohace, edition of 1880. Vol. ii, p. 193. 
 
INTRODUCTION xvii. 
 
 to judge how far their requireni'ents could be evaded, and 
 what their unseen and collateral results might be ; by real- 
 ising the inner differences which distinguish English social 
 life from. American or German or French ; we may hope to 
 escape from fallacious generalities and to see in fair 
 proportion the part which, in England, legislation can 
 play in social improvements and the parts which must be 
 borne by public opinion, by the action of employers, by 
 the skill and good sense of the teachers, ,and by the 
 personal effort of individuals who bring to social service 
 a shrewd combination .of sympathy and science. 
 
 II. 
 
 It is in Germany that the most systematic and (so far 
 as can at plisent be judged) tlie most successfuLefiorts 
 have been made to grapple witEnhequestion of the 
 further Training^orboys and girlFwho have completed the 
 course at the elementary day scho6l7 After~Germany, 
 stands Switzerland. In Denmark more has been done 
 than m any other country to kindle national ideals~ahd 
 intelligent interest in co-operation among the country 
 population. ^^"'Ht a gng-r-fgr nj .all the me n and women 
 between 20 and 50 years of age now engaged in Danis'hr 
 agriculture have passed through a r*)uple's-5ig]i_School. 
 Biit the latter receive no pupils under 16 years of age 
 (the great majority ,are between 18 and 25) and only six 
 per cent, of their students come from the towns. Thus, 
 though unrivalled in the spirit ajid efficiency of their 
 work within its own sphere, these schools have not 
 addressed themselves to the task (much more urgent, it 
 will be remembered, in large towns than in the country) 
 of getting boys and girls to follow some regular course of 
 further training during the years which come immediately 
 after the close of the elementary day school course. In 
 
xviii. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Francfi^andJ n Grreat Br itainjo effort has been spared by- 
 voluntary workers and by many public authorities in the 
 fyrgajrJHat uiTi nf p.lasHRs , IgntjireSjClubs and institutesjof 
 all kinds for young_peaple and for adults. But in both 
 counJEnis^ success has been greater in the case of older 
 students than in the case of boys and girls who have just 
 left the elementary day school. It is at the very point at 
 which continuation school work is really continuative of 
 what the elementary day school has begun that (with some 
 brilliant and, fortunately, increasing exceptions) our 
 efforts, like those of the French, have as yet comparatively 
 failed. And it is in the large towns that under modern 
 industrial conditions such failure leads to the most serious 
 results. In the United States far legs-^has hitherto_been 
 done in the way of evening classes than in Great Britain 
 or in France. This is partly compensated for by the fact 
 that, in the more progressive States, the mass of children 
 remain at the elementary day school a year longer than 
 is still the case in France or in England and Wales. Bu t 
 in the great cities of th e E astern State s, and especially 
 in_Massach,usetts, the- waste of mental and moral power 
 caused by lack of suitable training during adolescence is 
 now recognised as a grave evil which impairs the social 
 welfare of the community and threatens its industrial 
 efficiency. 
 
 In all these countries, therefore, pub lic attention is 
 being t urned, to the_jjro blem of c ontinuation schools. 
 And everywhere the lines along which thought is~moving 
 point to three conclusions. First, there is need for 
 f urther limitat ion of the hours of juvenile labour. 
 Secondly, the law should' place all employers,TncIuding 
 Government^ JDejmrtments^ ihanufactTrrers7 commercial 
 firms, retail tradesmen, and employers of young domestic 
 servants, under statutory obligation to enable young 
 
INTRODUCTION xix. 
 
 persons of less tliaii 17 years of age wlio are in their 
 employment to attend courses of technical and general 
 instruction for four hours a week at times of day when the 
 pupils are not too tired to profit by the teaching. And, 
 thirdly, increased efforts should be made by the State to 
 encourage local authorities and associations in organising, 
 according to the needs of different localities and of differ- 
 ent callings, courses of instruction which will be practi- 
 cally useful to young people of from 14 to 17 years of 
 age and so planned as to train them for healthy living and 
 for the duties of citizenship. 
 
 These proposals raise many thorny questions. They 
 mean a great extension of the educational responsibilities 
 of the State. They would impose upon employers respon- 
 sibilities which in Great Britain, France and the United 
 States are not yet recognised by law. They would prolong 
 the term of years during which every parent is answerable 
 for his child's receiving education. In the collective 
 interest they would curtail some socially undesirable forms 
 of private profit. In defiance of some recent applications 
 of biological theory to social problems, they assume that 
 skilfully organised education and discipline, so far from 
 being " fleeting palliatives," can enhance the permanent 
 well-being of a community by establishing forms of 
 social environment which favour the development of moral 
 qualities conducive to organised efficiency and to vigour 
 of individual life. It may be pointed out, however, that 
 in none of these respects do the proposals to which I have 
 referred, involve any new principle. They simply propose 
 a further application of principles already recognised in 
 our social policy as regards employment, parental duty, 
 and national education. The argument, therefore, turns 
 on questions of degree. Itl ies indee d witli thna<» who 
 advocate these new developments to .s how t hat the y are 
 
XX. INTRODUCTION 
 
 socially expedient, jidministrativelji feasible aniJikely 
 to be, ii. the wider sense, ultimately proj.table_to the com- 
 munltyTin^fact'so profitable as' to make the expenditure 
 whicT^tTiey would entail a remunerative investment. 
 But it is not necessary for those who favour the raising 
 of the national minimum standard of general education 
 and of technical training to establish any new principle 
 of public policy as a basis for their case. 
 
 Tha purpos e of the following chapters is to furnish the 
 reader with some materials for a judgment upon the 
 questions,,tkuB -raised.- 
 
 III. 
 
 A few words should be added to explain the scope of 
 this book and the circumstances which have led to its 
 publication. 
 
 It is the outcome of an inquiry made by members 
 (teachers and senior students) of the department of educa- 
 tion in the University of Manchester. Assistance has 
 been given by many former students of the department 
 who are now engaged in teaching in different parts of 
 England. To an older member of the Owens College 
 (Mr. J. S. Thornton, a distinguished student of Scan- 
 dinavian education) we owe the chapter on the People's 
 High Schools in Denmark. A number of other writers, 
 not personally connected with the University but inter- 
 ested in the subject of the inquiry, have contributed 
 chapters based upon the results of their personal investi- 
 gations — Mr. H. Bompas Smith (Headmaster of King 
 Edward the Vllth's School, Lytham), Mr. G. L. Bruce, 
 who has borne an influential part in London education, 
 Mr. A. Mansbridge (Secretary of the Workers' Educa- 
 tional Association and a member of the Consultative 
 Committee of the Board of Education), Mrs. O'Brien 
 
INTRODUCTION xxi. 
 
 Harris (an experienced teacher in London), Mr. C. T. 
 Millis (Principal of the Borough Polytechnic Institute), 
 Miss H. W. Jevons, Miss E. Jebb, Monsieur Georges 
 Cahen, Mr. A. J. Pressland (of the Edinburgh Academy) 
 and Mr. William Scott (Headmaster of Holy Trinity 
 School, Liverpool). We are also indebted to m.any 
 correspondents in this country and abroad for their 
 courtesy in giving information in the course of our in- 
 quiry. Special acknowledgement is due to officers of the 
 Board of Education and of the Labour Department of 
 the Board of Trade; to members and officers of various 
 Local Education Authorities; to Mr. Alfred Mosely, 
 C.M.G,. whose liberality has enabled many English 
 teachers to gain the stimulus of new ideas from visits 
 to schools in America; and to those employers of labour 
 who have communicated to us the details of the 
 arrangements made by them for the further education of 
 their workpeople. We ask their indulgence if any errors 
 have slipped into our accounts of their work. The index, 
 besides the chapter which bears his name, is the work of 
 Mr. Sandiford, a member of the staff of our department. 
 As editor, I am indebted to Miss M. S. Beard (now Head- 
 mistress of Ladybam House School, Withington, Man- 
 chester) for help, both in the collection of information 
 and in the summarised presentment of it, without which 
 the book could not have been undertaken or finished. 
 
 It will be understood that each writer is responsible for 
 the opinions expressed in the chapter which bears his or 
 her name. Those chapters to which no name is attached 
 are the work of the editor. 
 
 The plan of the book is as follows. The first chapter 
 gives aH'Tiistoftcalr^ir conni of-^the-^-rowth— of the ch ief 
 agencies which furnish means for " further education " 
 inTEiigland and Wales. The record of this work shows 
 
xxii. INTRODUCTION 
 
 the vigour and valua ^of -volTiHtej ;:gi--gffort~ in English 
 education; its quick response to new currents of feeling, 
 religious and political; its power of kindling enthusiasm; 
 the training which it gives in self-government; and the 
 relief which it affords to moral tension in the national 
 life. On the other hand, the record shows the weakness 
 and the limitations of voluntary effort ; its failure to deal 
 with residual parts of the problem; its inability to enforce 
 compulsion when the discipline of compulsion would be 
 salutary; and its waste of energy in maintaining com- 
 peting forms of organisation. In the title of Chapter I. 
 the term " further education," officially used by the Board 
 of Education and by the Scotch Education Department, 
 is adopted as conveniently describing a wide range of 
 educational agencies, among which are the evening classes 
 under Government inspection and in receipt of Grovern- 
 ment aid. Chapter II. describes the present position of 
 State-aided evening schools in England and Wales. 
 Chapter III. reviews the work of the evening schools in 
 London; Chapters IV. and Y. that of the evening schools 
 in Manchester, Leeds, Halifax, St. Helens, Bootle, Widnes 
 and Rochdale, these towns having been selected on 
 account of the special interest of what is being done there. 
 Chapter VI. describes the work of the continuation schools 
 in certain rural districts of England, — Cambridgeshire, 
 Gloucestershire, Northumberland, Cumberland, Buck- 
 inghamshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire. Chapter 
 VII. summarises the results of an extensive inquiry 
 among teachers and others as to the work of continuation 
 schools in a considerable number of towns and some 
 country districts. Chapter VIII. gives an account of the 
 arrangements made by a large number of English em- 
 ployers for the further education of their workpeople. 
 The information gathered in the course of our inquiry 
 
INTRODUCTION xxiii. 
 
 shows that employers are giving increased attention to 
 this subject and that technical instruction in England is 
 rapidly coming into closer association with the workshop. 
 The particulars published in December, 1905, by the 
 Association of Technical Institutions in their " Reports 
 of an Inquiry as to the Co-operation of Employers and 
 Technical Institutions " (St. Bride's Press, Fleet St., 
 London, E.G.) give further proof of the same tendency. 
 The main results of this branch of our inquiry are sum- 
 marised on pp. 306 — 8.1 The drift of educational thought 
 in this country and elsewhere seems tending towards some 
 system which would combine part-time instruction in the 
 technical school with wage-earning in the field, factory 
 or workshop. In England a legalised combination of 
 elementary education and of wage-earning work has long 
 been in existence, but it is allowed to begin at so early 
 an age as to render the educational benefit of the system 
 more than doubtful, while the social and economic results 
 of it (so far at least as the textile trades are concerned) 
 seem to be in the main injurious. An account of the 
 working of this half-time system in the textile trades of 
 Lancashire and. Yorkshire is given in Chapter IX.' 
 
 As the purpose of the continuation school is to provide 
 further instruction for those who have already left the 
 elementary day schools and have entered upon the prac- 
 tical work of life whether as apprentices or as independent 
 wage earners or in the duties of the home, it is necessary 
 
 1. A detailed analysis of the courses of technical study arranged in 
 evening classes and a discussion of present tendencies in evening technical 
 instruction in England and Wales will be found in Mr. C. H. Creasey's 
 "Technical Instruction in Evening Schools" (London : Swan Sonnenschein, 
 1905), the publication of which has materially furthered the movement 
 for establishing closer relations between technical instruction and the 
 practical work of industry. In our book we have avoided going over 
 the ground so well covered in Mr. Creasey's volume. 
 
xxiv. INTRODUCTION 
 
 for tlie student of the subject to take into account the 
 laws which regulate the employment of children and 
 young persons in factories and workshops. In Chapter 
 X. will be found a summary of the provisions of these 
 laws in the United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland. 
 For this chapter we are indebted to the Labour Depart- 
 ment of the Board of Trade. 
 
 The industrial and economic changes, entailed by any 
 great development of continuation schools, would affect the 
 home life and early wage-earning power of great numbers 
 of working-class families. Chapter XI. therefore des- 
 cribes the attitude of working men towards evening 
 schools. An effective reform of the continuation schools, 
 however, will depend upon improvements being made in 
 the conditions of work in the higher standards of many 
 elementary day schools. In view of this, the importance 
 of trying experiments in the better co-ordination of the 
 work of the closing years of the elementary day school with 
 the course of work of the continuation school is urged in 
 Chapters XII. and XIII. These chapters further recom- 
 mend the establishment, for boys and girls, of new types 
 of day continuation school with courses less literary and 
 more practical than would be suitable in the secondary 
 day schools of the older kind. A number of such schools 
 have recently been established in England, and in Chapter 
 XIV. will be found a review of their educational aims 
 and courses of study. At present great numbers of 
 children, on leaving the elementary day school, drift 
 off into any kind of unskilled labour which may offer a 
 (for the time) attractive wage. These " blind-alley " 
 occupations are baited at the entrance with the offer of 
 good money. But the boys and girls who have entered 
 them, perhaps with little thought on their own account 
 and often with no effective guidance from parents or 
 
INTRODUCTION xxv. 
 
 teachers, find themselves ousted a few years later by some 
 younger competitor. And to this cause may partly he traced 
 the excess of unskilled labour which forms a very serious 
 part of the problem of unemployment. In order to 
 grapple with this very difficult question, there have been 
 established in London and elsewhere Apprenticeship and 
 Skilled Employment Committees, the aims and work of 
 which are described in Chapter XX. 
 
 For purposes of comparison the next seven chapters des- 
 cribe the way in which continuation schools are now 
 organised in these countries whose educational experience 
 is fullest of suggestion to English people. Chapter XVI. 
 gives an account of the system in Scotland, where there 
 is a strong current of thought in favour of throwing upon 
 employers the statutory obligation of enabling their 
 younger workpeople to attend continuation classes, and of 
 giving local authorities the power of making attendajice 
 at such classes compulsory upon young people up to 17 
 years of age. Chapter XVII. describes the People's High 
 Schools in Denmark, the most inspiring centres of civic 
 training for an agricultural population which exist any- 
 where in the world. A great wave of national feeling 
 secured their success : their teaching is powerful in its 
 influence upon character because it embodies a moral ideal 
 of civic duty adapted to the practical needs of the country 
 folk; and their work has resulted in unforeseen economic 
 advantage. In Chapter XVIII. an account is given of 
 the remarkable development of compulsory continuation 
 schools in nearly all the large towns and manufacturing 
 districts of the German Empire. In many respects the 
 Gnerman system of continuation schools may serve as the 
 new model for Great Britain and the United States. In 
 Chapter XIX. there follows a more detailed description 
 of the arrangement and cost of the continuation schools 
 of Munich, in which city the new system has been carried 
 
xxvi. INTRODUCTION 
 
 to a high point of excellence. The Continuation Schools 
 of Switzerland, in nineteen cantons of which attendance 
 is compulsory upon some part of the younger population, 
 are descrited in Chapter XX. In Chapter XXI. an 
 account is given of the continuation classes in France, and 
 of the varied movements for providing means of social 
 education for the people— movements which reveal an 
 inner conflict hetween two social ideals. France at the 
 present time stands next to Great Britain in vigour of 
 effort to solve the continuation school problem by the 
 method of voluntary attendance. Evening schools in the 
 United States are described in Chapter XXII., and in the 
 following chapter is given an account of the strong trend 
 of opinion in Massachusetts in favour of industrial train- 
 ing in continuation schools, and of the reasons which cause 
 many American citizens to regard with concern the 
 failure of the present system of public education to 
 furnish a course of pr,actical training sufficiently pro- 
 longed to prevent great numbers of children, who might 
 recruit the skilled trades, from drifting into the ranks of 
 unskilled labour. This new movement in American opin- 
 ion may lead to important modifications in the present 
 law, and therefore in Chapter XXIV. an account is given 
 of the present limits of compulsory education in different 
 parts of the United States, and of the educational restric- 
 tions upon child labour which are now on the different 
 Statute Books. The last chapter of the book discusses the 
 question whether it would be expedient to make atten- 
 dance at continuation schools compulsory in England and, 
 if so, during what years; whether for girls as well as 
 for boys; and whether in urban and rural districts alike 
 or only in those areas (whether in town or country) in 
 which the local education authority should so decide. 
 
 M. B. SADLEE. 
 
 The University, Manchester, 
 October, 1907. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Historical Review of Certain Agencies for Further 
 Education in England. 
 
 During tlie last hundred years evening schools and classes, 
 with, other means for the further education of the people, 
 have played a significant part in the social history of 
 England. In no other country have they been more nu- 
 merous or more varied in form and purpose. In none have 
 they been more intimately connected with the currents of 
 religious feeling and of social or political aspiration. For 
 two generations they attempted to fill the gaps which were 
 left by a very defective provision of elementary day schools. 
 They furnished the first beginnings of a system of technical 
 instruction. They have given scope to individual energy 
 and have adjusted themselves to the characteristically 
 English preference for a great variety of independent so- 
 cieties, self-governing and adjusted to fine shades of differ- 
 ences of intellectual opinion and of social distinction. 
 What Crabbe said of the schools of the Borough has been 
 in some degree true of English arrangements for further 
 education also — 
 
 " To every class we have a school assigned. 
 Rules for all ranks and food for every mind." 
 
 The evening classes and other forms of popular adult 
 education in England have encouraged the habit, and have 
 helped in training the power, of voluntary organisation. 
 For fifty years they were without exception independent of 
 subsidy from the State. To this day the majority of them 
 receive no aid from public funds. By the help of evening 
 
 B 
 
2 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 classes thousands of vigorous minds have repaired defects 
 due to the lack of early training. The work done in them 
 has steadied the judgment and kindled the imagination of 
 many who have afterwards become leaders of opinion in 
 their district or trade. Such classes have trained some of 
 the leaders of the industrial and commercial movement 
 which gave Britain a leading place in the markets of the 
 world. They were the chief channel through which a 
 knowledge of physical science was diffused among the in- 
 dustrial classes. In England, in Scotland and in "Wales 
 they have had their characteristic, and often separate, 
 development. But each branch of the movement has in 
 turn exerted decisive influence upon the others. Thus, the 
 varied means of " further education " for the people have 
 rendered signal service to the intellectual, moral and eco- 
 nomic interests of the whole kingdom. 
 
 On the other hand, they have been in some respects little 
 but a makeshift for what should have been done in element- 
 ary day schools. But, in England, conflicting (though 
 dimly formulated) social ideals long prevented a compre- 
 hensive organisation of public education by means of the 
 authority of the State. Much that was attempted in even- 
 ing schools would have been better done by a well-planned 
 system of day schools or by day classes dovetailed into the 
 practical duties of apprenticeship. Through the lack of a 
 sound foundation of elementary knowledge in the minds 
 of many of the pupils, the work of the evening classes has 
 often been wanting in thoroughness of intellectual dis- 
 cipline. Their efficiency has suffered from fluctuation in 
 popular interest and from insufficient funds. Not having 
 behind them the pressure of legal compulsion or such 
 steady force of public opinion as renders legal compulsion 
 unnecessary, they have left untouched large sections of the 
 community, some of which especially need long sustained 
 
FURTHER EDUCATION 3 
 
 and well directed care. They have offered excellent oppor- 
 tunities to those with enough iorce of character and physical 
 vigour to fight their way through difficulties to positions 
 of responsibility or of leadership. But they have in great 
 measure failed to touch the less strenuous or the idle. 
 
 Thus alike in their excellence and in their defects, the 
 evening classes have borne the characteristic features of 
 English educational organisation. Free in their develop- 
 ment, vigorous in some of their achievements, and often 
 well adapted to the requirements of the persevering and 
 the strong, they have been unsystematic in arrange- 
 ment, weakened by defects inT the^eafly training of their 
 pupils and, from~a naSOTial point__ofview, msiifficiently 
 adjusted to the needs of the rank and file, especially during 
 the^rTEical years~wliich lie betweenrT?oy]roo3~and^manhood . 
 
 The reasons for the prevalence of evening classes in 
 English education may thus be traced to our long-continued 
 backwardness in organising elementary day schools (itself 
 the result of an even balance between confiicting theories 
 as to the social organisation of our national life) and 
 partly to the social and economic disturbance produced by 
 the Industrial Revolution. Eor the first three-quarters of 
 the nineteenth century elementary day schools in England, 
 both in numbers and in quality of work, fell far short 
 of the needs of the nation, and especially of the new com- 
 munities which had sprung up in consequence of the growth 
 of the factory system. Th,e swift economic change which 
 took place at the time of the Industrial Revolution created 
 large communities which, educationally, were almost 
 destitute. Philanthropic effort set itself to grapple with 
 their needs. Again, the Industrial Revolution brought to 
 the front numbers of vigorous workpeople who felt their 
 lack of early schooling and were eager for the opportuni- 
 ties of intellectual self-impyovement afforded hj the even- 
 
4 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 ing class. Thirdly, great numbers of these men, in order 
 to satisfy their. curiosity about industrial processes and to 
 enhance their technical skill, craved scientific information, 
 much of which could conveniently be given in evening 
 classes held when the day's work was done. Finally, the 
 fact that adult education, apart from that given in the 
 Universities and in a few other established institutions for 
 higher teaching, was left for the most part to voluntary and 
 co-operative effort instead of being organised on a definite 
 plan under the control of the State, allowed many different 
 forms of opinion upon social matters to be diffused by its 
 means. 
 
 In this chapter an attem.pt is made at a brief review of 
 the historical development of the m^eans of " further 
 education " in England. Arranged in the order of their 
 origin they fall under nine chief heads, namely, (1) the 
 Sunday Schools, (2) the Adult Schools, (3) the Mechanics' 
 Institutions with which were connected the rise of tech- 
 nical instruction land the spread of popular lectures on a 
 great variety of subjects, (4) the Working Men's Colleges, 
 (5) the educational efforts of working-men co-operators, (6) 
 the Young Men's Christian Association, (7) Night Schools 
 and Evening Classes under Government inspection, 
 (8) the extension of University teaching, and (9) the Free 
 Public Libraries and the National Home Reading Union. 
 Brief accounts are also given of the work of a number of 
 other agencies, the educational influence of which has been 
 considerable. These are (1) the Boys' Brigades, (2) the Re- 
 creative Evening Classes Association, (3) the Co-operative 
 Holidays Association, (4) the Workers' Educational 
 Association, and (5) the National League for Physical 
 Education. 
 
 An account of the most permeating influence of all, that 
 of the Press and of popular literature, does not fall within 
 
FURTHER EDUCATION 5 
 
 the scope of this volume. But its growth has heen one of 
 the distinctive marks of the period within which the means 
 of " further education " in England have been multiplied. 
 Its penetrating power has caused many of the chief 
 developments of popular education. And the publication 
 of cheap editions of scientific, philosophical and other 
 works has been perhaps the most potent instrument in 
 popular culture, apart from the influence of the personality 
 of great teachers and the power of the living voice. 
 
 The history for this overlapping series of efforts for 
 " further education " in England during the last 120 years 
 falls into four main periods. 
 
 (i) The first period extends from the rise of the modern 
 Sunday School movement about 1780 to the first Parlia- 
 mentary vote ' for the purposes of education ' in 1833. It 
 covers the chief phases of the Industrial Revolution and 
 the struggle for political reform. The main influences 
 which were at work in further education at this period 
 were religious and political. The religious revival of the 
 18th Century, expressing itself in the Wesleyan, the Evan- 
 gelical and other movements, led many men and women 
 to devote themselves to the task of relieving the spiritual 
 wants of the poor and of teaching them to read in order 
 that they might study the Bible. The political movement 
 produced a strong desire for the intellectual enlightenment 
 of the masses. It ran in two main currents. One was 
 individualist and radical. The other coUectivist and auth- 
 oritarian. On the educational side of the first, the chief 
 names are those of Jeremy Bentham, Brougham, and 
 Francis Place. On the educational side of the second, the 
 great figure is Robert Owen. Both groups drew part of 
 their inspiration from France. The individualist group 
 was greatly influenced, through Adam Smith's Wealth of 
 Nations (which strongly urged the wisdom of giving ele- 
 
6 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 mentary education to the whole people) by Turgot and the 
 Physiocrats. The other group, and especially Eobert 
 Owen, drew their educational ideas in great measure from 
 Helvetius. Apart from the work of these two groups there 
 was great educational activity on the part of earnest Non- 
 conformists (notably William Allen and other members of 
 the Society of Friends) and, on a larger scale, on the part 
 of the Church of England. The educational labours of the 
 latter call for special recognition. Though partly of a self- 
 protective nature, they drew their real power from religious 
 conviction and benevolent regard for the poor. These 
 various movements, though divergent in many of their 
 principles, were at one in providing means of elementary 
 education for the poorer classes. Through the lack of day 
 schools and the long hours of child labour, much of the 
 instruction thus provided was given in the evening. 
 
 One of the earliest night schools in Great Britain was 
 established by David Dale for the children employed at the 
 New Lanark Mills. The story is told by Robert Owen in his 
 Neio VieiD of Society (1816). Speaking of the arrangements 
 at the New Lanark Cotton Mills, he says, that his father-in- 
 law, Mr. Dale, who founded the manufactory in 1784, built 
 a boarding house for the 500 children whom he obtained 
 from public charities (chiefly workhouses and charities in 
 Edinburgh) to work in the mill. "The benevolent pro- 
 prietor spared no expense to give comfort to the poor 
 children. The rooms provided for them were spacious, 
 always clean and well ventilated; the food was abundant 
 and of the best quality ; the clothes were neat and useful ; 
 a surgeon was kept in constant pay to direct how to pre- 
 vent or to cure disease ; and the best instructors which the 
 country afforded were appointed to teach such branches of 
 education as were deemed likely to be useful to children 
 in their situation. Kind and well disposed persons were 
 
FURTHER EDUCATION 7 
 
 appointed to superintend all their proceedings. Nothing, 
 in short, at first sight, seemed wanting to render it a most 
 complete charity. But to defray the expenses of these well 
 devised arrangements, and support the establishment gener- 
 ally, it was absolutely necessary that the children should 
 be employed within the mills from six o'clock in the morn- 
 ing till seven in the evening, summer and winter; and 
 aitet these hours their education commenced. The directors 
 of the public charities, fromi mistaken economy, would 
 not consent to send the children under their care to cotton 
 mills, unless the children were received by the proprietors 
 at the ages of six, seven, and eight. And Mr. Dale was 
 under the necessity of accepting them at those ages, or of 
 stopping the manufactorjr which he had commenced. It 
 is not to be supposed that children so young could remain, 
 with the intervals of meals only, from six in the morning 
 until seven in the evening, in constant employment on 
 their feet within cotton mills, and afterwards acquire 
 much proficiency in education. And so it proved; for 
 many of them became dwarfs in body and mind, and some 
 of them were deformed. This labour through the day, and 
 their education at night, became so irksome, that numbers 
 of them continually ran away." ^ 
 
 An early case of the foundation of night schools by mem- 
 bers of the Church of England was that opened in the Free 
 Chapel of St. James, at Brighton, on November 1st, 1813, 
 as described in the Reports of the Society for Bettering the 
 Condition of the Poor.^ The school was established by 
 the minister of the chapel, the Rev. James Marsh, and his 
 wife for the benefit of those who attended no other school 
 and who were employed during the day. " In the town of 
 Brighthelmstone there are shepherds' boys, drivers of 
 
 1. " A. New View of Society," 2nd ed., 1816, pp. 42—46. 
 
 2. Vol. vi., 1815, No. clxvi. 
 
8 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 donkey carts, and others of this description; and many- 
 girls who are out at service or are employed in assisting 
 their parents at home, and can only be spared in the even- 
 ing." During the first week 42 hoys and 38 girls applied 
 for admission, and by November 29th the number had in- 
 creased to 200. The whole number— 100 boys and 100 
 girls — were divided into four companies of 50, according 
 to their ability to read the Bible, the girls attending on 
 Mondays and Thursdays, the boys on Tuesdays and Fri- 
 days. The senior girls were under the superintendence of 
 a lady visitor and a writing master, the latter being paid 
 £30 per annum for attendance on four nights a week. "While 
 twenty-five learned writing for one hour, the others read 
 the Bible and were instructed in religion. Mr. Marsh 
 directed the plan of the whole and attended at the close 
 of school to catechise the scholars in the Collect for the 
 week or the Church Catechism. Each scholar brought her 
 own copy-book and one penny per week, for which she was 
 to receive a Bible at the end of the year. The junior girls 
 were under a lady visitor and a mistress, who was paid 
 £5. 5s. per annum, and five of the senior girls remained 
 to act as monitors. There were four classes — a Testament, 
 spelling, single word, and alphabet class. Mr. Marsh came 
 in for the last half -hour to catechise, as in the senior class. 
 The boys' classes were arranged in the same manner, 
 the junior class being under a paid master. The expenses 
 were £40. 10s. (writing master, £30; master and mistress 
 for junior classes, each £5. 5s.). " It has been the prin- 
 cipal object with Mr. and Mrs. Marsh," the report con- 
 tinues, " to prepare the children for their attendance on 
 religious worship, and make them good members of the 
 Established Church. Their attention has therefore been 
 particularly directed to making them thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with our excellent Liturgy, in all its parts." 
 
FURTHER EDUCATION 9 
 
 An example of tlie self-supporting night schools opened 
 at this period in the mining and manufacturing districts 
 hy wandering teachers may be drawn from the early life 
 of George Stephenson (1781 — 1848), the founder of the 
 English railway system. Stephenson was eighteen years 
 old before he learned to read. Engaged as an engineman 
 .he heard of the engines made by Watt and Boulton. But 
 he could not read about them. Therefore he went to a 
 night school opened at Walbottle by a teacher Robin 
 Cowens who taught him and a few other lads reading and 
 spelling for 3d. a week. In the winter of 1799 Stephenson 
 went to another night school opened by a Scotch teacher, 
 Andrew Robertson, in the village of Newburn. Robertson 
 taught him arithmetic and charged 4d. a week.^ 
 
 Within this same period (1798 onwards) the Adult School 
 movement began. Its rise is described below (Pp. 17 — 21). 
 
 (ii) The second period in the history of " further educa- 
 tion" in England extends from 1833 to the French Revolu- 
 tion of 1848. The movements which had begun in the 
 earlier period continued, but new tendencies showed them- 
 selves in other parts of the field. The most significant of 
 these were the increasing efforts for technical instruction 
 (begun earlier by Anderson and Birkbeck, and especially 
 noticeable in Manchester from 1824) and the work of 
 William Lovett and his friends from the time that they 
 issued their "Address to the Working Classes on the subject 
 of National Education" in 1837. The movement for tech- 
 nical instruction was the natural result of the Industrial 
 Revolution and the extended use of machinery. Apart, 
 however, from this direct economic impulse, mention should 
 be made of the influence of corresponding movements in 
 France and in Germany. William Lovett's work was in- 
 
 1. Smiles' Life, of George Stephenson. London : Murray, 1857, pp. 
 16—21. 
 
10 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 spired by a political and social aim. It was strong with the 
 new motive of lassociation, which, from the outbreak of the 
 French Revolution of 1848, became the distinctive mark of 
 other inspiring efforts for adult education in England. 
 This new motive was, in part, caught from France, biit the 
 extending influence of the educational ideas of Oxford, 
 preeminently through the work of John Henry Newman on 
 the one hand and of Arnold of Rugby on the other, was a 
 not less potent factor in the new movement for social and 
 collegiate education among working men. The Mechanics' 
 Institutes had been somewhat individualistic and self- 
 regarding in ideals and influence. Lovett's propaganda 
 marked a generous reaction in feeling. 
 
 (iii) The third period extends from 1848 (when the 
 French Revolutionary movement exerted a momentous 
 influence on English social ideals) to the passing of the 
 Elementary Education Act in 1870. The distinctive marks 
 of the movement for further education during these years 
 are four : (1) A deepened sense of personal responsibility 
 for collective welfare ; (2) an earnest desire on the part of 
 many members of the older Universities to bring the in- 
 fluence and noble traditions of Oxford and Cambridge 
 more directly into the service of the whole nation ; (3) the 
 influence of four writers and teachers, Thomas Carlyle, 
 Frederick Denison Maurice, John Ruskin and Herbert 
 Spencer; and (4) a new attitude towards education on the 
 part of the State. 
 
 (1) Religious feeling, combined with social enthusiasm, 
 produced Christian socialism, and with it the foundation 
 of the Working Men's College in London by Frederick 
 Denison Maurice and his friends in 1854. The link 
 between this and the Chartist educational movement which 
 preceded it is found in the Shefiield People's College 
 established in 1842. Again, the evangelical piety (com- 
 
FURTHER EDUCATION ii 
 
 bined with long-sustained self-sacrifice and great 
 business ability) of George Williams and his associates led 
 to the establishment and success of the Young Men's 
 Christian Association. (2) The reform of Oxford and 
 Cambridge, as a result of the Royal Commissions of 
 1850 — 2, brought the old universities into a new relation to 
 English life. And the establishment of what is now the 
 University of Manchester, by the legacy of John Owens in 
 1846, began the movement which has resulted in the 
 creation of a new group of Universities, civic yet national 
 in their work and aims. (3) In 1839 Thomas Carlyle 
 sounded in his Chartism a trumpet call for educational re- 
 form. "Universal education is the great thing we mean."'- 
 In Past and Present in 1843 he called for " an effective 
 Teaching Service " for the " souls of English living." ^ 
 And the work of John Ruskin, though less heeded at the 
 time, became in later years not less strong in its influence 
 on the educational ideals of many Englishmen. Ruskin 
 was a teacher at the Working Men's College, and closely 
 identified with Maurice's work. Herbert Spencer's essays 
 on Education, which brought Pestalozzi's ideas to the 
 knowledge of the general reader in England (they were at 
 work in some English schools forty years earlier), appeared 
 in 1861. (4) This period (1848—1871) is also marked by 
 the rise of the State as an authority in English education. 
 Evening Schools were first aided by Government in 1851. 
 The Government Department of Practical Art was estab- 
 lished, as an outcome of the earlier School of Design, in 
 1852. It was followed in 1853 by a Department of Science. 
 The two were united under the name of the Department of 
 Science and Art in 1853. By Order in Council the estab- 
 
 1. Edition of 1840, p. 98. 
 
 2. Copyright edition (Chapman and Hall), p. 228. 
 
12 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 lishment was removed from the Board of Trade to the new- 
 Education Department created in 1856. In 1850 the State 
 had dared to lay its hand on Oxford and Cambridge. In 
 1855 (as a result of the report of Sir Stafford Northcote 
 and Sir Charles Trevelyan in 1853) it held the first open 
 competition for places in the Civil Service, the be- 
 ginnings of a system fraught with educational results of 
 which we have not yet seen the furthest consequences. 
 Thus, all along the line of elementary, secondary, tech- 
 nical. University and " further " education, men felt the 
 rising power of the State. Moreover, the Prince Consort's 
 influence and labours had led many Englishmen to sym- 
 pathise with German views as to the functions of Govern- 
 ment in promoting the culture of the people. 
 
 It should be added that during the decade 1860 — 1870 
 a new form of evening school became popular through the 
 action of the Department of Science and Art, which 
 recognised and vigorously encouraged the growing interest 
 of working men students in the study of physical science. 
 The scientific movement was stirring the thoughts of the 
 nation. Darwin's Origin of Species had been published 
 in 1859. Herbert Spencer in 1861 had boldly claimed for 
 scientific studies the dominant place in intellectual train- 
 ing. Huxley, with unrivalled skill, was making the public 
 realise the bearing of scientific investigation upon 
 many current ideas. Tyndall, another lecturer to whom the 
 nation listened, published his Heat considered as a Mode of 
 Motion in 1863. The industrial applications of science grew 
 in importance year by year. Perkin's discovery of the dye- 
 stuff " mauve " had laid the foundation of the industry of 
 coal-tar colours in 1856. The Bessemer process was 
 invented in the same year, and armour-plating for ships 
 in 1860. The Atlantic Cable was laid in 1866. Applied 
 science had won its great victories and educational ideas 
 
SUNDAY SCHOOLS 13 
 
 were profoundly affected by the new scientific point of view. 
 Slowly, too, the idea of the State as an organism began to 
 win its way, and disposed many thinking people, who were 
 individualist at heart, to grant to Government a degree 
 of educational authority unknown in modern England 
 before that time. 
 
 (iv) The fourth period in the history of " further educa- 
 tion" in England begins with the Elementary Education 
 Act of 1870 and extends to the present day. Its main fea- 
 tures are (1) the growth of the power of the central auth- 
 ority of the organised State, (2) the improvement of the 
 education of girls and women, (3) the rapid development of 
 the universities, old and new, (4) the advance of technical 
 instruction, partly as a result of the working of the 
 Elementary Education Acts, partly in conscious imitation 
 of the educational policy of Germany and the United 
 States, and (5) the several stages of an attempt to organise 
 English education upon a comprehensive national plan. 
 
 This is not a place in which to enter into any detailed 
 analysis of the influence at work during this last period — 
 in some respects (unless we are deceived in our perspective) 
 the most important period in the history of English educa- 
 tion for two and a half centuries. But one result of the 
 synthetic view of national education, which is the dis- 
 tinctive mark of the period, has been a convergence of 
 thought upon the problem of the continuation school. 
 
 II. 
 
 (1) The Sunday Schools. 
 The Sunday Schools were the first to offer opportunities 
 of continued or elementary education to adults and to 
 young people whose schooldays were over. Historically, 
 they developed from the ancient practice of catechising in 
 church. From the first, adolescents and even adults as 
 
14 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 well as children came to be catechised. The 59th Canon 
 of the Church of England, agreed upon in 1603, requires 
 every parson, vicar or curate, upon every Sunday or holy- 
 day, before Evening Prayer, for half an hour or more to 
 examine and instruct the youth and ignorant persons of 
 his parish in the Ten Commandments, the Articles of 
 Belief, and in the Lord's Prayer, and diligently to hear, 
 instruct and teach them the Catechism set forth in the 
 Book of Common Prayer. Moreover, it is not only required 
 that fathers and mothers should cause their children 
 to come to the church at the time appointed, " obediently 
 to hear and to be ordered by the minister until they have 
 learned the Catechism," but all masters and mistresses 
 are laid under a similar obligation in regard to their 
 apprentices. 
 
 The English Charity Schools founded in great numbers 
 between the years 1698 and 1750 — under the guidance of 
 the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 
 which was established in 1698, chiefly at the instance of 
 Dr. Bray — seem to have been expressly limited to children 
 between the ages of 7 and 12 years. ^ But night schools 
 for adults were recommended by the S.P.C.K. in a circular 
 letter dated December 20th, 1711. (History of the 
 S.P.C.K., Allen & McClure, page 143.) 
 
 The Welsh Charity or Circulating Schools which 
 were established by Griffith Jones, of Llanddowror, in 
 1730, and which bore so great a part in the education 
 of the Welsh people, form the next link in the chain. 
 Jones had been admitted a corresponding member of the 
 S.P.C.K. in 1713, and his connection with that Society had 
 
 1. See the orders "to be read and given to the parents on the ad- 
 mittance of their children," given in "An Account of Charity Schools 
 lately erected in Great Britain and Ireland," London, 1709, page 7. 
 
SUNDAY SCHOOLS 15 
 
 great influence upon his educational plans. To Ms Welsli 
 Circulating Schools, as previously to his catechising " upon 
 the Saturdays before the monthly Sacrament Sundays," 
 Griffith Jones admitted parents as well as children. His 
 express purpose was " to instruct both the young and the 
 old ignorant people." ^ The object of these schools was to 
 enable the people to read the Bible in Welsh. They were 
 called Circulating Schools, because the plan was for a 
 master to stay at a place until a number of the people had 
 been taught to read, and then to pass on for similar work 
 elsewhere. The S.P.C.K. helped the schools by donations 
 of Bibles and other books. Persons of all ages attended 
 them. Sometimes poor families were supported during the 
 months that they attended the schools. Griffith Jones died 
 in 1761. During the last thirty years of his life he had 
 been instrumental in establishing 3,495 of these schools, 
 in which more than 158,000 scholars bad learnt to read. 
 The adult night schools were attended twice as numerously 
 as the day schools ; two-thirds of the regular day scholars 
 were adults. The work of these schools was closely con- 
 nected with the religious awakening in Wales in the years 
 1735 onwards. In 1770, Jenkin Morgan, one of the school- 
 masters employed in the Circulating Schools, opened an 
 adult evening school at Crawlom, near Llanidloes, with 
 meetings on Wednesday and Sunday evenings.^ 
 
 The Sunday Schools established in Gloucester by Eobert 
 Raikes and Thomas Stock, in 1780, were intended for 
 children; and throughout the history of that part of the 
 Sunday School movement to which Raikes' work gave the 
 chief impulse, the teaching of children has been the dis- 
 tinctive feature. In 1798, however, an adult Sunday 
 
 1. See Griffith Jones's Report, dated December 1744, printed in "Tlie 
 Sunday Schools of Wales," by David Evans, 1883, page 94. (Sunday 
 School Union.) 
 
 2. The Sunday Schools of Wales, p. 158. 
 
i6 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 School, for Bible reading and instruction in the secular 
 arts of writing and arithmetic, was opened at Nottingham, 
 in a room belonging to the Methodist New Connexion, by- 
 William Singleton, a Methodist. He had help from 
 Samuel Fox, a tradesman belonging to the Society of 
 Friends ; and the school came to be principally conducted 
 by Fox and the assistants in his grocer's shop. ^ Adult 
 schools were founded in Wales, in considerable numbers, 
 during the years from 1785 until his death in 1814, by 
 Thomas Charles of Bala, to whom the work of GrriflBlth Jones 
 had suggested the system of Circulating Schools. Writing 
 in 1796, Charles said that he had established " Sabbath and 
 Night Schools, for the sake of those who are too much 
 " engaged or too poor to avail themselves of the Day 
 " Schools." 2 The Bible Society was founded in 1804, and 
 the discovery that many poor people could not read the 
 Bibles which were offered to them led to a great increase 
 in the number of Sunday Schools. In some districts of 
 Wales nearly the whole population was enrolled in them. 
 Thomas Charles of Bala was thus the great organiser of 
 Sunday Schools in Wales; and one of the characteristics 
 which distinguish the Welsh from the English Sunday 
 Schools, has always been the large proportion of 
 adult students attending them. In England the work 
 done in the Sunday Schools, until the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century, was chiefly — but by no means exclusively — 
 confined to younger children. Increasing attention, how- 
 ever, has been paid to the care of adolescents in the Sunday 
 Schools; and the adult school movement, of which the 
 rapid growth is described below, is one offshoot of the 
 Sunday School tradition. There is reason for thinking 
 that the importance of Sunday Schools in English educa- 
 
 1. See "A History of the Adult School Movement," by J. W. Eown- 
 tree and H. B. Binns. Headley Brothers, 1903. 
 
 2, See " The Sunday Schools of Wales," p. 171. 
 
ADULT SCHOOLS 17 
 
 tion will increase ; and during recent years much lias been 
 done through the encouragement of the Sunday School 
 Union (established 1803), the Church of England Sunday 
 School Institute (1844), the Wesleyan Sunday School 
 Union (1874), the Sunday School Association, and the 
 Society of Friends' Pirst-Day Schools Association, so to 
 improve the methods of teaching and organisation as to 
 increase the hold of the Sunday Schools upon young 
 people during the years following the close of the day- 
 school course. Of all the agencies engaged in the further 
 education of young people, none is numerically and other- 
 wise more important than the Sunday School movement in 
 its various developments. 
 
 In 1789, some teachers in the Sunday Schools at Bir- 
 mingham united together to give instruction in writing 
 and arithmetic to young men after they ceased to attend 
 the Sunday Schools. '^ But this " Sunday Society " appears 
 to have been confined to secular teaching and moral in- 
 struction ; and is therefore more fitly placed in the line of 
 Societies ending in the establishment of the Mechanics' 
 Institutes. (See page 22 below.) 
 
 (2) Adult Schools. 
 
 Closely connected with the Sunday School movement is 
 that for the establishment of Adult Schools. The first o£ 
 the Adult Schools on an undenominational religious basis 
 was opened at Nottingham by Singleton and Fox in 1798. 
 It was originally started for the instruction of working- 
 women, but a men's class was soon added. The Notting- 
 ham Adult School is the only one opened before 1845 which 
 has continued, without lapse, to the present day.^ 
 
 The next Adult School, in order of date, was that founded 
 
 1. " History of Adult Education,'' by J. W. Hudson, p. 29. Long- 
 mans, 1851. 
 
 2. " History of the Adult School Movement," by J. W. Rowntree and 
 H. B. Binns, 1902. 
 
i8 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 at Bristol in 1812. The visitors of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, founded 1804, had found a great number of 
 poor inhabitants who could not read. Attention was called 
 to this fact at a meeting of the Bristol Auxiliary Bible 
 Society in 1812; and in the same year one of the audience, 
 William Smith, a Methodist doorkeeper, with the help of a 
 Bristol merchant, Stephen Prust, opened two schools for 
 the instruction of adults. A Society was soon formed 
 in Bristol, called "An Institution for Instructing Adult 
 Persons to read the Holy Scriptures." A member of the 
 committee was Dr. Pole, the author of " History of the 
 Origin and Progress of Adult Schools," Bristol, 1814. 
 The Bristol Adult Schools were particularly helped by the 
 members of the Society of Friends. The movement soon 
 spread to other parts of the country — Plymouth, London, 
 Yarmouth and Sheffield. In 1813, a school for adults was 
 opened at Brighton. In 1814, fifty-seven schools were 
 started in Buckingham and Berkshire. These two efforts 
 were not connected with the Society of Friends, but 
 acknowledged the impetus which that Society had given to 
 the foundation of Adult Schools. In 1815, schools were 
 opened at Ipswich ; in 1816, at York and Leeds ; in 1818 at 
 Edgbaston. With the one exception of Nottingham, these 
 early Adult Schools were not permanent. They fall into 
 two groups, the undenominational and the denominational. 
 The greater number were undenominational Bible classes 
 for adults. In 1842, Joseph Sturge of Birmingham visited 
 Nottingham, and was much struck with the work of the 
 Adult School there. For three years he pondered over the 
 subject, and then laid before some of his younger friends a 
 suggestion that a similar school should be opened in 
 Birmingham. In October, 1845, a class for lads over 14 
 was accordingly opened, in the British School in Severn 
 Street, Birmingham, from 6 to 8 on Sunday evenings. 
 
ADULT SCHOOLS 19 
 
 In the following spring, as tlie evenings grew long, the 
 attendance declined. The time of meeting was therefore 
 changed to 7-30 a.m. Full-grown men soon began to come 
 to the school, and at first the teachers were somewhat dis- 
 concerted by their presence. In 1852, the adult school was 
 separated from the junior department. The original order 
 of procedure in the Severn Street classes was as follows : — 
 The first hour was devoted to writing ; one of the scholars 
 and a teacher then read a chapter aloud; and the re- 
 mainder of the time was devoted to Scripture, reading, 
 spelling, and questioning by the teacher.^ 
 
 An Adult School for women was also opened in Ann 
 Street, Birmingham, and afterwards removed to the Priory. 
 
 In the Adult School movement in Birmingham, no in- 
 fluence has been so great as that of the late William 
 White, a native of Reading, who settled in Birmingham 
 in 1848 as bookseller and printer. It was William White 
 who, with the support of Joseph Sturge, specially directed 
 the attention of the Society of Friends, in the years 1849 
 onwards, to the urgent importance of adult classes. The 
 Friends' First-Day Schools Association, founded in 1847, 
 united the Adult and Sunday school work of the Society. 
 Since 1873, the adult work has been numerically the more 
 important, though both parts of the problem receive the 
 careful attention of the Society. 
 
 The Adult School movement met with a check in 1871, 
 but recovered its impetus in 1874, from which time there 
 has been a steady growth. The increase in the number of 
 schools in recent years has been remarkable. In 1906, there 
 were about 1,200 Adult Schools in England (men's, 850, 
 women's, 350). About 100 new schools are opened every 
 year. The number of members was 82,600 (men, 60,000, 
 Women, 20,000, juniors, 2,600.). The work of the schools 
 
 1. " History of the Adult School Movement," op. cit. 
 
20 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 is entirely voluntary, non-sectarian and non-party. They 
 flourish alike in large cities, in towns and in villages, both 
 in slums and suburbs. They meet in Council schools, 
 Rational schools, Co-operative halls, Church and Chapel 
 schoolrooms, Trades' halls, Friendly Societies' rooms, and 
 even in lofts and workshops. The usual times of meeting, 
 for the men's schools, are on Sunday mornings at 7.30, 8, 
 8.30 or 9 ; the women's schools meet on Sunday afternoons 
 and weekday evenings. Most of the work is done in classes, 
 the courses of study being Biblical and secular. Short 
 lectures on social, scientific, or historical subjects, or 
 addresses on religious topics, precede or follow the Bible 
 classes. Many adult schools have now taken premises 
 which they'open every weeknight for friendly meeting and 
 games and occasionally for classes and debates. The growth 
 of the Adult Schools in Leicestershire has been significant 
 during recent years. The schools reach about one-twentieth 
 of the adult population of the districts, and in some villages 
 a much larger proportion. The first half-hour of the 
 Sunday morning meeting is utilised for the purposes of 
 general instruction, e.g., dictation, writing, or short lessons 
 in history, science, or geography. Then follows Bible read- 
 ing or religplous instruction. In some schools discussion is 
 encouraged, in others it is deprecated. But the ultimate 
 purpose of the whole work of the schools is "to intensify the 
 " social spirit, by associating men together for the free 
 " study of the deeper problems of life, viewed in relation 
 to the ideal of manhood set before them in the Gospels." 
 The social development of the work of the Adult Schools 
 has been striking in recent years. In Leicestershire es- 
 pecially, choral societies and bands have been organised 
 in connection with some of the schools. Cricket and foot- 
 ball matches are arranged by the members, who also hold 
 flower shows and take part in summer camps and co-opera- 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 21 
 
 tive holidays. No one can visit an early Sunday morning 
 adult school, without being deeply impressed by the depth 
 of its religious earnestness, and the vigour of its social and 
 educational life. The distinctive marks of the movement 
 are the brotherly spirit which unites the members, and 
 the simplicity, reality, commonsense and mutual helpful- 
 ness that characterize its work. 
 
 (3) The Mechanics' Institutes 
 AND THE Rise of Technical Education. 
 Another current of effort which has run through the move- 
 ment for adult education in England began with the 
 growth of interest in physical science in the second half of 
 the eighteenth century. The work of the Society of Arts, 
 founded in 1754 for the encouragement of the arts, manu- 
 factures and commerce of the country, and for the bestowal 
 of rewards for discoveries, inventions and improvements 
 in agriculture, chemistry, mechanics, manufactures and 
 other useful arts, did much to stimulate national interest 
 in the practical applications of science. The writings of 
 Joseph Priestley, and the electrical experiments and dis- 
 coveries of Franklin, quickened popular interest in scien- 
 tific subjects. 
 
 Between 1780 and 1830 there sprang up in succession in 
 England two well-marked groups of local societies which 
 were carried on by voluntary subscriptions with the pur- 
 pose of providing for their members enlarged opportunities 
 of mental cultivation. The earliest in point of date were 
 the Literary and Philosophical Societies. They were 
 partly French (and Encylopaedic) in their first inspiration 
 and were designed for the encouragement of scientific 
 inquiry and literary culture.^ Of the provincial societies, 
 
 1. The Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, which was replaced by the 
 Koyal Society of Edinburgh in 1783, belongs to an earlier group which 
 can be traced to the model of the Royal Society. The Philosophical 
 Society, formed by Franklin at Philadelphia in 1743, which became the 
 American Philosophical Society in 1769, bears the mark of a like 
 affiliation. 
 
22 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 the Literary and Philosophical Societies of Manchester 
 (founded 1781) and of Newcastle lipon Tyne (founded 
 1793) were and are the most renowned. To the same group 
 belonged the London Philomathic Institution (1807), the 
 London Eussell Institution (1808), and the London In- 
 stitution (1809). These societies were the meeting places 
 of a cultivated elite. They rendered a considerable service 
 to scientific investigation, partly by encouraging research, 
 partly by facilitating communication between men of 
 similar tastes, and partly by assuring friendly support 
 to those who might, in isolation, have incurred suspicion 
 and unpopularity. 
 
 The second group were the Mechanics' Institutions. 
 These were designed for the benefit of working men. 
 Though not connected with either political party, they 
 became associated with a point of view that was distasteful 
 to the more conservative section of English society because 
 of the opinions of some of their most conspicuous sup- 
 porters. The idea of their establishment came from Scot- 
 land, but one of the first Mechanics' Institutions in Eng- 
 land (the Liverpool Mechanics and Apprentices' Library, 
 founded in 1823) is said in the original circular to have 
 been prompted by the example of New York. The first 
 object of the Mechanics' Institutions was the instruction 
 of working men in the branches of science which were of 
 practical application to the exercise of their trade. The 
 very backward condition of elementary education blighted 
 this first organised attempt at technical instruction in 
 England. The great majority of the working classes were 
 not sufficiently prepared by elementary school training to 
 take advantage of systematic instruction in the scientific 
 principles underlying their trades. Quarterly or annual 
 payments were inconvenient to most of them. The result 
 was that the attendance of workmen declined. The in- 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 23 
 
 stitutions became more and more closely identified with, 
 the tradesman class. In 1839 Brougham, who was in- 
 defatigable in his support of Mechanics' Institutions, sug- 
 gested an effort to popularise the scientific side of their 
 work by a system of itinerant lectures. It was proposed 
 that a lecturer should visit all the institutions in a district, 
 giving a lecture at each. But the plan did not work 
 satisfactorily, partly because of the lack of class teaching 
 of the kind needed by the workmen, partly because the 
 great majority of the latter were too deficient in general 
 education. But the Mechanics' Institutions did a great 
 work, partly in diffusing a more general interest in scien- 
 tific questions, but still more in affording intellectual 
 stimulus and encouragement to numbers of workmen of 
 exceptional ability. The spirit which animated the move- 
 ment was somewhat individualistic and utilitarian, but it 
 inspired energy and weakened much deepseated prejudice. 
 It provoked a reaction against itself, but by doing so 
 rendered a further service to national education because it 
 compelled those who, like J. H. Newman and F. D. 
 Maurice, disliked and distrusted its tendencies, to give 
 clear expression to their objections and to work out in a 
 practical way their own educational ideal. Many of the 
 original Mechanics' Institutions disappeared or were trans- 
 ferred into middle-class reading-room and lending libraries 
 with programmes of miscellaneous lectures. But a number 
 held their ground through a long and difficult period until 
 the working of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 
 began to bear fruit and the time was ripe for a general 
 advance in technical instruction. The technical instruc- 
 tion movement of to-day owes much to the pioneer work 
 of the founders of the Mechanics' Institutions. 
 
 I now return to the history of individual institutions. 
 In 1789, the " Sunday Society " was founded at Birmmg- 
 
24 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 haul, for the instruction of young men after they had ceased 
 to attend the Sunday school. This Society arranged lec- 
 tures on mechanics and other branches of physical science, 
 for working men, especially those engaged in the foundries 
 and manufactories of the town.^ In 1796, the Society 
 changed its title to the " Birmingham Brotherly Society," 
 and continued for many years to diffuse a taste for scien- 
 tific pursuits among the artisans of Birmingham. Con- 
 nected with it was the Birmingham Artisans' Library ; and 
 this organisation may claim to be regarded as having been 
 the first Mechanics' Institution in Great Britain. 
 
 Dr. John Anderson, professor of natural philosophy in 
 the University of Glasgow, was in the habit of giving, for 
 some years before his death in 1796, a course of lectures 
 on experimental physics, to which some workingmen, 
 among others, were invited. By his will, he left the greater 
 part of his property for the foundation of an institution 
 to be called Anderson's University. In 1799, Dr. George 
 Birkbeck was appointed professor of natural philosophy and 
 chemistry in this institution. He had visited Birmingham 
 and knew the work done there by the Brotherly Society and 
 by the Artisans' Library. "When he began his first course 
 of lectures at Glasgow, he found it necessary to make a good 
 deal of apparatus ; no philosophical instrument maker re- 
 sided at that time in the city, and Dr. Birkbeck was accord- 
 ingly obliged to apply to the workshops which were best 
 able to meet his needs. In this way, he came into personal 
 communication with a number of Glasgow artisans. He 
 found them so anxious to acquire knowledge, and so full 
 of intelligence, that he resolved to deliver a course of 
 experimental lectures upon mechanics, " solely for persons 
 " engaged in the practical exercise of the mechanical arts, 
 " men whose situation in early life has precluded the possi- 
 1. " History of Adult Education," by J. W. Hudson, p. 29. 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 25 
 
 " bility of acquiring even tlie smallest portion of scientific 
 " knowledge." Birkbeck's first lecture was attended by 75 
 workpeople, and the numbers rose so rapidly that at the 
 fourth lecture there was an audience of 500. He continued 
 the lectures during the two following sessions, but removed 
 to London in 1804. The mechanics' class at Anderson's 
 Institution was continued for many years. 
 
 In 1821 there was founded the Edinburgh School of 
 Arts, for the purpose of affording instruction to the labour- 
 ing classes. Its secretary was Leonard Horner. 
 
 In 1823, seceders from Anderson's Institution established 
 the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution ; and in the same year 
 the Mechanics' and Apprentices' Library was founded at 
 Liverpool. In 1823, the London Mechanics' Institution 
 was established, under the presidency of Dr. Birkbeck. 
 The new Institution was heartily supported by Brougham 
 and by those who shared his educational and political 
 sympathies. 
 
 The important part which Manchester has played in the 
 work of technical instruction began in the early days of 
 the movement for the establishment of Mechanics' Institu- 
 tions. The Manchester Mechanics' Institution was founded 
 in 1824. Its building was the first erected in England 
 with accommodation for the various departments of its 
 scientific work. It provided systematic class instruction 
 in chemistry and mechanics. Its chief object was " to 
 point out and teach the scientific principles upon which the 
 business of the machine-maker, the dyer, the carpenter, the 
 mason and others depends." Eleven citizens subscribed 
 £6,600 for the erection of the building, among the founders 
 being Benjamin Heywood and William Fairbairn. For 
 more than fifty years the defective state of elementary 
 education hampered its work, but the institution was 
 carried on with great persistency of purpose and rendered 
 
26 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 good service by its lectures on science and literature, in- 
 dustrial exhibitions and concerts. In 1857 tlie institution 
 was transferred to a new building in what is now Princess 
 Street. About 1880 the good effects of the Elementary 
 Education Act of 1870 began to be felt, and the outlook for 
 technical instruction became brighter. The Manchester 
 Mechanics' Institution was one of the first in the country 
 to avail itself of the aid given to technological instruction 
 by the City and Guilds of London Institute (established in 
 1879). At this point in its history steps were taken to 
 enlarge the scope of the Mechanics' Institution, and its 
 name was changed to that of the Technical School. In 
 1880 the Government appointed a Eoyal Commission to 
 inquire into the question of technical instruction, and two 
 Manchester citizens, Mr. John Slagg and Mr. (now Sir) 
 "William Mather took a distinguished part in its work. 
 Manchester was the second city in the kingdom to avail 
 itself of the power conferred upon local authorities by the 
 Act of 1889 to levy a rate for purposes of technical instruc- 
 tion. In 1892 the Technical School and the School of 
 Art were transferred to the care of the Corporation, which, 
 with the aid of a gift of land from the legatees of Sir 
 Joseph Whitworth and of large sums assigned for the pur- 
 pose out of the profits of the Exhibition of 1887, began in 
 1895 the erection of the present School of Technology. 
 Thus in the history of the Manchester Mechanics' Institu- 
 tion may be traced all the important stages in the develop- 
 ment of technical instruction in England from 1824 to the 
 present day."^ 
 
 From 1824 onwiards the Mechanics' Institute move- 
 ment spread rapidly through the country. The best account 
 
 1. Hudson, History of Adult Education, 1851, pp. 124 — 9, and Mr. 
 J. H. Reynolds' article on " Technical Instruction in the City of Man- 
 chester," in the Handbook issued in connexion with the meeting of the 
 British Medical Association held in Manchester in 1902. 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 27 
 
 of tlieir early growth is in Hudson's History of Adult Edu- 
 cation, already mentioned. In 1837, Mr. Edward Baines 
 suggested the establishment of a Union of Mechanics' and 
 other Literary and Scientific Institutions in the "West Hid- 
 ing of Yorkshire, for the purpose of engaging lecturers and 
 interchanging opinion on questions of the management of 
 the Institutes. In 1839, a Metropolitan Association of 
 similar Institutions, and a Lancashire Union, were estab- 
 lished ; the latter had the support of Richard Cobden. The 
 Lancashire and Cheshire Union of Mechanics' Institutions 
 was founded in 1847. In 1850-51, there were in England 
 alone 610 Literary and Mechanics' Institutions with a 
 membership of 102,000. The Mechanics' Institutes move- 
 ment was fairly successful in Scotland, where in 1850-51 
 there were 55 Institutes, with 12,500 members; but com- 
 paratively speaking, it was a failure in Ireland and in 
 Wales. It was found that, in spite of their name, the 
 workingmen did not join the Institutes in large numbers. 
 In a few cases, as at Huddersfield, Birmingham and Liver- 
 pool, the plans of the founders were realised; but in most 
 cases the membership of the Mechanics' Institutes was 
 chiefly recruited from the tradesman class. The class dis- 
 tinctions in England were stronger than Brougham and his 
 fellowworkers had realised; Brougham had also exagger- 
 ated the educational value of courses of lectures without 
 systematic class instruction. The educational work of the 
 Literary and Mechanics' Institutions rapidly declined from 
 1848 onwards. The managing committees were out of 
 sympathy with many of the new political and social 
 ideas that were then stirring the working classes ; 
 and as a factor in the adult education of the people the 
 Mechanics' Institutions for several decades were of com- 
 paratively small importance, though in some parts of the 
 country, especially in the West Hiding of Yorkshire, their 
 influence was strong in the smaller towns and villages. 
 
28 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 But a new stimulus was given to the educational work of 
 some Mechanics' Institutes and similar local organisations 
 by the offer which the Grovernment made in 1859 to give 
 grants in aid of scientific instruction. In that year the 
 Department of Science and Art established an examination 
 for teachers, and those teachers who obtained a certificate 
 of competency to teach could earn payments from the 
 Department in proportion to the number of pupils they 
 passed in the general examinations first held by the Depart- 
 ment in May 1861. The instruction had to be given in a 
 school approved by the Department for the industrial class 
 and, apart from other conditions, the local managers were 
 required to guarantee for the support of the school, 
 whether from fees or other local funds, a sum at least equal 
 to the Government grants. 
 
 An important link in the history of the educational 
 movement which began with the Mechanics' Institutes and 
 (through the confluence of several currents of effort and 
 influence) has led to the foundation of the newer Univer- 
 sity Colleges and of the London Polytechnics, is formed 
 by the work of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, 
 which has borne a great part in the work of adult educa- 
 tion in the city and neighbourhood of Birmingham for 
 more than flfty years. The Institute was established in 
 1853 and incorporated by Act of Parliament in the follow- 
 ing year. The original programme and prospectus stated 
 that " the want of a Literary and Scientiflc Institution in 
 Birmingham, commensurate with the character and re- 
 quirements of a town where the occupations of the great 
 majority of its artisans demand a certain amount of 
 mechanical, chemical or artistic knowledge, led to the 
 foundation of the Institute." The view of the promoters 
 was that it would become " a great industrial college." 
 " The education of artisans, practical miners and others in 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 29 
 
 the scientific principles of their daily avocations" was stated 
 to be " a primary object of the Institute." In 1854 the 
 Town Council of Birmingham granted a site adjoining the 
 Town Hall for the proposed buildings, on condition that 
 £10,000 was raised for their erection. The Council ap- 
 pealed for support to all who were " interested in the 
 education of the people in the scientific principles of their 
 daily occupation, and in a knowledge of those ' common 
 things ' so essential to social comfort and success in life." 
 This appeal for financial support met with a liberal re- 
 sponse. The original plan of the institute embraced a 
 General Department and a School of Industrial Science. 
 The General Department included (1) the Literary branch, 
 comprising libraries, reading-room and lectures on subjects 
 kindred to this branch; (2) museums, devoted to geology, 
 mineralogy, natural history, the manufacture of the dis- 
 trict and models and specimens of machinery used in the 
 various manufactories ; (3) a collection of mining records ; 
 (4) lectures on general scientific subjects; (5) periodical 
 meetings for the reading and discussion of original com- 
 munications upon the plan of the British Association, and 
 (6) a gallery of Fine Arts for paintings and sculpture. In 
 the School of Industrial Science the members were to be 
 provided with systematic lectures and class instruction in 
 the various branches of science with especial reference to 
 these particular occupations. Classes were promised in 
 Chemistry, Mechanics, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, 
 and Mining Engineering. The Governing Body of the 
 Institute was representative of the Borough Council, of 
 the chief educational institutions pf Birmingham and of 
 the subscribers. The Institute was founded in the year 
 marked by the establishment of the Government Department 
 of Science. On one side of its work it was an outcome of 
 the new movement for technical instruction which had 
 
30 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 just received encouragement and assistance from the State. 
 But its programme wisely included other than techno- 
 logical studies, and shows that those who framed it had in 
 their minds the liberal education of a great community. 
 
 Again, the Birkbeck Institute, London, forms a link 
 between the old Mechanics' Institutes and the new London 
 Polytechnics, the foundation and development of which have 
 been one of the greatest educational achievements in 
 London during the last twenty-five years. The beginnings 
 of the London Polytechnics were due to Quintin Hogg, 
 whose work among London working boys began in a ragged 
 school, in a room in Of Alley (now York Place), Charing 
 Cross, in 1864.^ Quintin Hogg's work developed in 1871 
 into separate evening classes in Hanover Street, and in 
 1878 into an evening institute in Long Acre. In 1881, 
 Mr. Hogg bought the lease of the derelict Polytechnic in 
 Regent Street, and at great expense altered it for its new 
 work as a social and educational institute for young men. 
 In 1882, Besant published his novel " All Sorts and Con- 
 ditions of Men," in which was described a plan for a Palace 
 of Delight for the East End of London. Out of this idea 
 ultimately sprang the People's Palace, now the East 
 London Technical College. It was, however, the appro- 
 priation of money under the City Parochial Charities Act, 
 1883, that gave a permanent foundation to the new move- 
 ment. A E-oyal Commission had reported that the chari- 
 table endowments of the City of London were being largely 
 wasted or frittered away. They recommended the appoint- 
 ment of a special Executive Commission, with power to 
 frame schemes for the application of these large funds to 
 
 1. See " Quintin Hogg," by Ethel M. Hogg. London : Constable, 1906. 
 Also, "London Education," by Sidney Webb, pp. 133 and following. 
 Longmans, 1904. 
 
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS 31 
 
 objects of utility to the whole Metropolis. In 1883, largely 
 through, the exertions of Mr. Bryee, an Act of Parliament 
 was passed which appointed special commissioners to pre- 
 pare a general scheme for the establishment, in different 
 parts of London, of Institutes which would do what Mr. 
 Hogg had shown to be possible at the Regent Street Poly- 
 technic, and what was aimed at in the proposed People's 
 Palace in the East End. Upon condition that other funds 
 were provided in each locality by private subscription, the 
 commissioners offered to London a very large capital sum, 
 and annual endowment, for the establishment of polytech- 
 nics. Three of the City Companies — ^the Drapers', the Gold- 
 smiths' and the Clothworkers' — gave munificent donations 
 in aid of the establishment, respectively, of the People's 
 Palace, of an Institute at New Cross, and of the Northern 
 Polytechnic at HoUoway. Other City Companies gave 
 further help. Mr. Evan Spicer, and Sir Henry and Mr. 
 Edwin Tate, gave large sums for the establishment of 
 Polytechnics in Southwark and Battersea. In 1892-3, the 
 London County Council began to devote to the promotion 
 •of technical education the grant from the national ex- 
 chequer made by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) 
 Act, 1890. The Polytechnics received a large and liberal 
 ■share of this new fund. The result is that there are now 
 in London twelve Polytechnic Institutes, with three 
 branches. It would be difficult to overestimate the value 
 ■of the services they have rendered to adult education in the 
 Metropolis, both on the strictly intellectual and also on the 
 isocial and recreative sides of their work. The Polytechnic 
 Institutes of London are, in some ways, the most charac- 
 teristic educational achievement of the last twenty years. 
 
32 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 (4) The Woeking Men's Colleges. 
 Next in order of historical development come the Work- 
 ing Men's Colleges. They sprang from the Chartist move- 
 ment and from the Christian Socialist movement. Their 
 growth was due to a sense of the need for fellowship, 
 brotherhood and social union in all higher education 
 among adults. Their founders felt that the Mechanics' 
 Institutions had failed to meet the educational needs of 
 the working classes. The first (though hy no means the 
 most influential and important) of the Working Men's 
 Colleges was the People's College at Sheffield, established 
 in 1842 by the Rev. R. S. Bayley, an Independent Minister 
 then living in the town. His prospectus states that the 
 Mechanics' Institutions generally had fallen far short in 
 their efforts at popular education, and that the time had 
 come when studies of a higher range ought to be placed 
 within the reach of the youth of the middle and working 
 classes. He proposed to establish classes in Latin, Greek, 
 French and German, Mathematics, English Literature, 
 Logic, Elocution and Drawing, besides the more elementary 
 subjects which formed the course of the ordinary night 
 schools. The times of meeting were from 6-30 to 7-30 a.m. 
 and from 7-30 to 9-30 p.m. Women were admitted as well 
 as men. The fees were ninepence a week. Mr. Bayley 
 himself bore the brunt of the work. His enthusiasm and 
 determination kindled the zeal of the students. The class- 
 room, for the first year and a half, was "a whitewashed, un- 
 plastered garret, not fitted up with the necessities, much 
 less with the conveniences, of study. In this place the 
 morning classes in winter were particularly uninviting, 
 and it required considerable devotion to travel through 
 snow at half-past six in a morning, before breakfast, to find 
 a room probably without fire, or one but newly lighted by 
 the monitor-student, to whose lot it had fallen for the week 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 33 
 
 to perform that and kindred duties. But there was no 
 trial that the Principal himself did not willingly endure, 
 and no morning, however rough and uncomfortable, but 
 found him in attendance."^ At the first meeting of the 
 Committee, " the room was illuminated by a half-penny 
 candle inserted in an earthenware inkstand." Owing to a 
 number of untoward circumstances the numbers began to 
 fall off about 1846, and in September 1848, when Mr. 
 Bayley left Sheffield for London, the College was all but 
 extinct, but it was saved by the resolute efforts of sixteen 
 young students, many of them under age. Twelve out of 
 the sixteen were appointed to form a committee and a con- 
 stitution for the College was framed. It was on democratic 
 lines. " The People's College shall be a self-supporting 
 and a self-governing Educational Institute." "All persons 
 above sixteen years of age shall be eligible to become 
 members." " Subjects bearing upon party politics or 
 sectarianism shall not be introduced in the classes." " The 
 executive power shall be vested in a committee of twelve 
 students." Mr. T. Eowbotham became president. The 
 new constitution of the College was approved at a public 
 meeting in October 1848. " It was stated at the meeting 
 that the Committee did not possess a single book and had 
 not a single farthing to invest in furniture. Indeed, to 
 outside observers things looked so hopeless that Mr. 
 Overend, J.P., who had presided at the public meeting, 
 and his brother earnestly asked the Committee to estimate 
 the probable expenses of the first year that they might sub- 
 scribe a portion and beg the rest. Although the generosity 
 of this offer was perfectly appreciated, it was nevertheless 
 respectfully declined. A principle had been laid down 
 
 1. Quoted from "An Account of the Origin and Progress of the 
 People's College at Sheffield," by T. Eowbotham, in the Working Men's 
 College Magazine, 1859 vol. i, pp. 71-2 and 98—101. 
 
34 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 and it must be abided by." ^ Tbe classes were opened on 
 October ITtli, 1848. Before the end of the month 200 
 students had joined the classes. The College was opened 
 at 6-30 a.m. for an hour on Monday, Tuesday and "Wednes- 
 day, and every evening from 7 to 9-30. The General Rules 
 laid it down that " The females shall sit in any part of the 
 room that the Committee may appoint, and retire first at 
 the close of each class. No student shall leave his seat 
 until the females have retired." Day classes were estab- 
 lished in connexion with the institution, partly as a feeder 
 to the College, partly because the teachers engaged for the 
 day classes would help with the evening work. Industrial 
 classes were opened in 1853, as the Committee considered 
 " that there was something more required for the artisans 
 of Sheffield than purely mental discipline, however excel- 
 lent that in itself might be, and that to be really a College 
 for the people, it must include in its classes studies that 
 would have a direct bearing upon the industrial pursuits 
 that distinguished the town." Public lectures were given on 
 Chemistry in its application to the staple trade of Sheffield. 
 In 1856, the Committee decided to avail itself of the ex- 
 amination then instituted by the Society of Arts. The 
 Sheffield People's College was " the means of receiving and 
 dispensing more than £4,000 for the promotion of popular 
 education during the ten years 1848 — 58, and through 
 many temptations, steadily held to the principle of self- 
 support." 
 
 Mr. Rowbotham makes no mention of the " Address to 
 the Working Classes on the Subject of National Education" 
 drawn up by William Lovett and others in 1837, but it is 
 difficult to avoid the conclusion that, consciously or uncon- 
 sciously, Mr. Bayley had been influenced by Lovett's sug- 
 
 1. Mr. Rowbotham's "Account" in the Working Men's College Maga- 
 zine, vol. i, p. 98. 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 35 
 
 gestions. The latter proposed a compreliensive plan of 
 schools for the people under a committee of Public Instruc- 
 tion to be selected by Parliament every three years. The 
 creation of schools and colleges was to be at the expense of 
 the nation. The Committee of Public Instruction was to 
 be responsible for all monies received and expended. But 
 as all avoidable concentration of power was to be avoided, 
 it was proposed to set up in each locality a School Com- 
 mittee of twenty or more persons to be elected annually by 
 universal suffrage of the whole adult population, male and 
 female. These School Committees were to be entrusted 
 with the selection of teachers, the choice of books, and the 
 whole management of the schools. Each School Com- 
 mittee was to represent an area of about equal size and 
 to have power to levy an annual rate. State Training Col- 
 leges were to be established in different districts throughout 
 the country. No teacher was to be allowed to teach in any 
 school without having qualified himself at a Training Col- 
 lege. Besides the Training Colleges, four different descrip- 
 tions of schools were to be established throughout the 
 country : — (1) Infant Schools for children from 3 to 6, (2) 
 Preparatory Schools for children from 6 to 9, (3) High 
 Schools for children from 9 to 12, and (4) Colleges or 
 Finishing Schools for all above 13 who might choose to 
 devote their time to acquire the higher branches of know- 
 ledge. All the schools were to be open to both sexes. ' No 
 particular forms of religion ' were to be taught in any of 
 them. The Colleges were to be " open every evening to 
 enable the adult population to avail themselves of the 
 benefit of musical instruction societies, singing, lectures, 
 or any other rational pursuits or amusements." ^ 
 
 It will be remembered that the influence of William 
 
 1. An Address from the Working Men's Association to the Working 
 Classes on the subject of Nationcd Education. London : Cleave [1837], 
 
36 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 Lovett and the Chartists was strong in the "West Riding of 
 Yorkshire. The educational ideas set forth in the Address 
 from the "Working Men's Association are closely akin to 
 those which the young men who formed the Committee of 
 the Sheffield People's College tried to carry into effect. In 
 both places, the significant word 'College' was prominently 
 used. The Colleges of "Wm. Lovett's scheme, like the Col- 
 lege at Sheffield in 1842, were to be open in the evening 
 to both men and women. The range of subjects 
 in both programmes, at any rate after the election of the 
 Committee at the Sheffield College in 1848, was almost iden- 
 tical. In both, stress was laid on the teaching of Chemistry 
 in its application to the trades and pursuits to which the 
 students were engaged. In both cases, all distinctive re- 
 ligious teaching was barred by rule. The general similarity 
 between the two schemes is so close as to suggest the thought 
 that the young men who formed the nucleus of the People's 
 Colleges at Sheffield from 1842 onwards had been influenced 
 by the educational ideas put forward by "William Lovett 
 and his thirteen co-signatories five years before. 
 
 But the greatest service rendered to English adult educa- 
 tion by the Sheffield People's College was that it suggested 
 to Frederick Denison Maurice and his friends in 1853 the 
 foundation of a People's College in London. It thus 
 helped to create an institution which has done more than 
 any other College to set up a high, disinterested and 
 humane ideal of working-men's education. 
 
 " The Paris February Revolution of 1848," Dr. Furnivall, one of 
 F. D. Maurice's fellow workers, wrote in 1860, " said to a barrister of 
 Lincoln's Inn, Mr. John Malcoln Ludlow, Are you lawyers doing your 
 duty to the poor in the place where you earn your fees ? The answer 
 was a proposal to the then newly-appointed Chaplain of Lincoln's Inn, 
 Mr. Maurice, that some district near should be taken in hand by the 
 lawyers whom Mr. Ludlow could get together. After refusals of nearer 
 places, Little Ormond Yard (close to the place where the Working 
 Men's College was afterwards established) was handed over to us, and 
 our house-to-house visiting began. We soon had to engage a mistress 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 37 
 
 and open an infant school, and at night taught boys and men in the 
 rooms ourselves. 
 
 . . . Well, we visitors and teachers used to meet at Mr. Maurice's one 
 evening in the week to have tea and chat and read the Bible together, 
 and at these meetings the letters on "Laboiu- and the Poor," then coming 
 out in the Morning Chronicle, and written by Mr. Henry Mayhew and 
 his coadjutors, were the subjects of frequent and earnest talk. Few of 
 us had any idea of the widespread misery in the workmen's homes around 
 us, and fewer still know how the slop-system had been at work lowering 
 wages, destroying the honourable trade and forcing women and children 
 into their father's work. Week after week did Mr. Ludlow press these sub- 
 jects on our consideration and say " we must no longer be accomplices in 
 this state of things, we must get an honest middleman between us and 
 some workingmen at least; we must have here an Association like the 
 French Working Men's Associations, in which the manager shall be 
 appointed by the men and by us, and be a bond between us instead of a 
 division" Under Tuesday, Jan. 8, 1850, in my diary I find the entry : 
 "Little Ormond Yard School, from 7-30 till 9-15; meeting at Maurice's 
 about starting an Association of Tailors — about twenty-three there, — 
 talked till 12; appointed a Committee; £300 wanted." Mr. Ludlow had 
 not only started the notice of an Association but had in his visitings in 
 Fetter Lane found a message for it in the person of Mr. Walter Cooper, 
 a well-known Chartist speaker. . . Mr. Kingsley wrote his pamphlet 
 " Cheap Clothes and Nasty." Money was raised by subscription among 
 our friends ; the Working Tailors' Association opened shop at 34 Castle 
 Street East, Oxford Street, and on February 11th, 1850, appeared 
 " Tracts on Christian Socialism," No. 1 (written by Mr. Maurice) to 
 explain that "Our object was to apply the principles of Christianity to 
 trade and industry" . . Mr. Vansittart Neale came forward to help us. 
 Several Working Men's Associations began business in London and the 
 country. Mr. Slaney got us "The Industrial and Provident Societies' 
 Act, 1852" to facilitate their formation, and a great spur was given to 
 the co-operative movement which has since so widely spread through the 
 North West of England. The Little Ormond Yard party, with some 
 additions, formed "The Society for Promoting Working Men's Associa- 
 tions," and built the "Hall of Association" under the workshops of the 
 "Tailors' Association" in Castle Street. In this Hall were begun, at 
 Mr. Ludlow's suggestion, classes and lectures, to both of which women 
 were admitted.' The only successful classes were Mr. Ludlow's French 
 one and the Drawing-class. 
 
 ... A great want had been felt all along for better education among 
 co-operators, and at our meeting on Jan. 11, 1854, the minute-book says : 
 "A conversation took place concerning the establishment of a People's 
 College in London, in connexion with the Associations, and Mr. Van- 
 sittart Neale read a letter received from Mr. Wilson, the Secretary of 
 the People's College, Sheffield, as to its origin and history, and also the 
 five Annual Eeports of that Institution," and, further on, " The follow- 
 ing resolution, proposed by Mr. Hughes, seconded by Mr. Lloyd Jones, 
 
 1. Among those who gave lectures at this Hall in 1852 were P. D. 
 Maurice, John HuUah, B. C. Trench, William Johnson of Eton, F. C. 
 Peiorose, Nevil Story Maskelyne and the present Marquis of Ripon. In 
 the following year lectures were given by Charles Kingsley, M. Grant 
 Duff, J. Llewelyn Davies, Charles Pearson, Lloyd Jones and others. 
 (See the chapter by J. M. Ludlow on "The Origin of the Working 
 Men's College," in The Working Men's College, 189^—1905, pp. 14—16. 
 Macmillan, 1904. 
 
38 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 was carried : " That it is referred to the Committee of Teaching and 
 Publication to frame and, as far as they think fit, carry out a plan for 
 the establishment of a People's College in coimexion with the Metropolitan 
 Associations." ' 
 
 This record shows how close was the connexion of ideas 
 between the Chartist movement and the activities of the 
 brilliant and high-minded group of workers which gathered 
 round Frederick Denison Maurice. It also proves that the 
 account which Maurice and his friends received of the 
 People's College in Sheffield had influence upon them at the 
 moment when they set their hand to the work of establish- 
 ing a People's College, (or, as it was afterwards decided to 
 call it, a Working Men's College) in London. 
 
 The same point was touched upon by Mr. Maurice himself 
 in an address which he gave in the Corn Exchange, Man- 
 chester, on January 5th, 1859, at the ' aggregate annual 
 meeting ' of the Manchester, Ancoats and Salford Working 
 Men's Colleges. He gave an account of the motives which 
 had induced his friends and himself to take part in a 
 London Working Men's College. 
 
 " We were a knot of men of different professions — lawyers, doctors, 
 parsons, artists, chemists and such like. . . We were afraid of falling 
 into the little pedantries and the little jealousies which are sometimes 
 apt to spring up among professional men when they are shut up within 
 their own narrow circles. . . How could we be secured from that peril ? 
 We might be secured from it if we could form an alliance with men 
 brought up in circumstances altogether unlike ours, if we could enter 
 into sympathy with some great body of human beings who could be re- 
 garded in that character and that only. Now while we were thinking 
 about these things, and thinking earnestly about them, there came that 
 awful year 1848, which I shall always look upon as one of the great 
 epochs in history. ... I do say that when I think how it has affected 
 the mind and heart of the people of England; yes, of all classes of 
 Englishmen. ... I hear one intelligent man and another confessing : 
 'Ten years ago we thought differently. But all of us have acquired, 
 since that time, a new sense of our relation to the working-class.' ... It 
 did cause us to fear, I own ; but it was not fear for our property and 
 position; it was the fear that we were not discharging the responsibili- 
 ties, greater than those which rank or property imposes, that our 
 education laid upon us. . . . We believed and felt that unless the classes 
 in this country which had received any degree of knowledge more than 
 their fellows, were willing to share it with their fellows, to regard it as 
 
 1. History of the Working Men's College, by F. J. Furnivall in the 
 Working Men's College Magazine, 1860, pp. 144—8. 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 39 
 
 precious because it bound them to their fellows, England would fall first 
 
 under an anarchy, and then under a despotism Therefore, we 
 
 sought for some method of binding ourselves to the working classes of 
 the country. . . . Apparently there were many methods by which we 
 might, if we desired it, make our little education useful to those who had 
 less. There were, for instance, the Mechanics' Institutes, which that 
 earnest and excellent man Dr. Birkbeck bequeathed to this country. 
 Some of us had the opportunity of lecturing at these institutions, and 
 whenever we did so we were more than rewarded by the sympathy 
 which was bestowed upon us. But such sympathy made us desire a 
 closer fellowship than the mere effect of occasional lecturing could make. 
 Besides these institutes. Evening Classes of a more regular kind have 
 been commenced in London and have been a vast blessing to overworked 
 clerks in public and private ofiice, and have happily conspired with the 
 examinations for the Civil Service which have been recently established. 
 But here, again, the relation was merely one between teacher and 
 learner, and what we wanted, if possible, was to make our teaching a 
 bond of intercourse with the men whom we taught. How that could be, 
 we might never have found out. But the working men themselves had 
 found it out. We heard in 1853 that the people of Sheffield had founded 
 a People's College. The news seemed to us to mark a new era in educa- 
 tion. We had belonged to Colleges : They had not merely given us a 
 certain amount of indoctrination in certain subjects : They had not 
 merely prepared us for our particular professions ; they had borne witness 
 of a culture which is the highest of all culture. We had formed in those 
 Colleges friendships which we hoped to keep wherever we went — friend- 
 ships that had had an influence upon our life and character through all 
 the years that had passed since we left them. . . . Was it not a glorious 
 thing then that the working people should lay hold of this name ; that 
 they should say, ' we are determined we will have Colleges ? 
 Whether you set them up among us or not, we will have them, because 
 we want to connect all our education with our social life, with our 
 fellowship as human beings.' I repeat it, you will see then that we 
 have no pretensions to originality in our London College : we were 
 plagiarists from the Sheffield people." ' 
 
 It was indeed a glorious kind of ' plagiarism.' The 
 Sheffield idea was transfigured under the influence of 
 Maurice and his friends. But both ideas were one in their 
 essentials. Both laid stress upon the necessity of the spirit 
 of brotherliness and fellowship in all higher education of 
 adult students; upon the fact that in its true form such 
 education is mutual education; and that teachers and 
 taught must meet as human beings, with full confidence in 
 one another and without reserve. 
 
 " Our first-class," said Maurice in the same address at Manchester, 
 "(indeed before the College was opened) was a Bible class. Over that 
 class I presided and the course which I pursued was simply this — I read 
 
 1. Working Men's College Magazine, February, 1859, pp. 28 and 
 following. 
 
40 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 a portion of Scripture, I explained what I thought was the meaning of 
 it, then I invited all possible questions from those about me. I wished 
 them to ask anything that was in their minds, anything that was pressing 
 upon their minds. They met my wish : and I have never had one cause 
 to complain of want of reverence, nor yet of failure of boldness and 
 freedom to state frankly what they were thinking and feeling. And in 
 this way I affirm that I have learned more myself than I have imparted. 
 Again and again the wish has come into my mind when I have left those 
 classes : ' Would to God that anything I have said to them has been as 
 useful to them as what they have said to me has been to me. ... I may 
 speak also of part of our teaching in which we have departed most from 
 the example of the mechanics' institutes. From » natural wish to avoid 
 party irritation they resolved that they would avoid politics altogether. 
 We have felt that we could not avoid them. If the nettle is apt to 
 sting, we must grasp it hard that it may not sting us. To have shunned 
 politics would have been to shun the subject which gave the working men 
 the strongest assurances that they were English citizens and English 
 men." ' 
 
 The Committee whicli set to work in January 1854 to 
 
 consider the plan for a Working Men's College in London 
 
 included Mr. F. D. Maurice as its president, Lord Goderich, 
 
 M.P. (now the Marquis of Ripon), Mr. Wm. Johnson of 
 
 Eton College, the Rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. J. M. Ludlow, 
 
 Mr. A. Macmillan, Mr. Yansittart Neale, and Mr. John 
 
 Westlake. The Committee agreed on certain maxims and 
 
 asked Mr. Maurice to outline a plan for them. On 
 
 February 7th he submitted a printed statement in which 
 
 he recapitulated the maxims suggested by the Committee. 
 
 The first ran as follows : 
 
 " Our position as members of a society which affirms the operations- of 
 trade and industry to be under a moral law — a law concerning the rela- 
 tions of men to each other — obliges us to regard social, political or, to 
 use a more general phrase, human studies as the primary part of our 
 education." 
 
 This is the keynote of the work of the Working Men's 
 College, and it represents the ideal which Maurice and his 
 friends worked out, at a critical time in English social 
 history, for the adult education of English working men 
 and working women. 
 
 The third maxim ran thus : 
 
 "Adult males {that is to say, males at all events not younger than 16) 
 should be contemplated first and chieily in our education : though it was 
 thought very desirable that provision should in due course be made for 
 the teaching of boys and of females." 
 
 1. Ibid, pp. 31, 32. 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 41 
 
 The f ourtli, fifth and sixth maxims were the following : 
 
 4. It was agreed that the education should be regular and organic, not 
 taking the form of mere miscellaneous lectures or even of classes not 
 related to each other. 
 
 5. It was agreed that the teachers, and by degrees the pupils, sliould 
 form an organic body, so that the name College should be at least as 
 applicable to our institution as to University College or to King's College. 
 
 6. It was determined that the College should, in some sense or other, 
 immediately or ultimately, be self -governed and self -supported.' 
 
 The completely co-educational plan adopted at the Shef- 
 field People's College (it is not clear with what degree of 
 continued success) did not commend itself to Mr. Maurice. 
 He thought that the education of the workwoman should 
 in part be joined with that of the workman but in part 
 be separate. ' The language classes, the music classes, might 
 be the same for both, the starting points of knowledge 
 being the same. In politics they would not be the same, 
 nor perhaps in ethics. It is quite clear that women should 
 have lessons in social life and order as well as in ethics, 
 taJjing domestic life for the ground. They should also 
 have lectures upon health, though I suppose the physician 
 would feel the necessity of giving these an entirely differ- 
 ent character from those he addressed to men.' 
 
 On the subject of the self-support and self-government 
 of the new College, Mr. Maurice took a view rather differ- 
 ent from that which had been acted upon in the case of the 
 People's College at Sheflaeld. With the principle that 
 the work of the College should be carefully guarded from 
 outside interference, he of course entirely agreed. 
 
 "I should most strongly object to any interference of patrons, 
 ecclesiastical or civil, and of the outlying public, secular or religious, 
 with the arrangement of our studies or with the subsequent management 
 of the College. And if we do not mean to submit to their dictation, we 
 must not ask for their help. ... I perfectly agree therefore with the 
 Sheffield principle that the education should be paid for and that we 
 should not incur any expenses which the payments of the pupils will not 
 nearly meet. I wish also that the pupils should feel themselves a part 
 of the College adopted into it from the first, any of them capable of 
 holding offices in it hereafter." 
 
 1. Quoted in Dr. Furnivall's History of the Working Men's College 
 in the Working Men's College Magazine, 1860, p. 146. 
 
42 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 But at this point he parted company witli the more 
 extreme theory of self-government adopted at the Sheffield 
 People's College. Mr. Maurice continued : 
 
 " I would not let the pupils have the least voice in determining what 
 we shall teach or not teach, or how we shall teach. We may have 
 social meetings with them; we may have conversations with them 
 individually ; but no education will go on if we have general tumultuous 
 assemblies to discuss what has been done or what is to be done. We 
 who begin the institution must claim authority over it, and not hastily 
 resign our authority, however we may admit others by degrees to share 
 it, and however willing we may be to creep out of it when the institution 
 can stand without us. That we may preserve this position, I believe it 
 is necessary that our teaching should be gratuitous ; all the fees going 
 at first to the procuring of the necessary machinery for the institution. ' ' ' 
 
 Dr. Fumivall, Mr. Ludlow, and others strongly felt that 
 the governing body of the College should from the first 
 consist of equal numters of teachers and working men. It 
 was decided, however, that at first only the teachers should 
 be on the governing body, working men to be gradually 
 admitted to the extent of one-third of its number. Dr. 
 Fumivall, writing in 1860, said : "At the end of our sixth 
 year we have two of them, one-fourteenth of our whole 
 number, but the finance of the College is practically 
 controlled by students only." 
 
 In June and July, 1854, Mr. Maurice delivered in Willis' 
 Rooms, London, a course of six lectures, which served as a 
 public announcement of the aims of the new College.^ He 
 pointed out that the education of children and the educa- 
 tion of adults were two aspects of one national problem, 
 and that both must be grappled with. In the fifth and 
 sixth lecture he spoke in detail of the Studies and of the 
 Teachers in a Working College. The College was opened 
 in the following November at 31 Red Lion Square, Mr. 
 Maurice having given the inaugural address in St. Martin's 
 Hall, Long Acre, on October 30th. At the inaugural ad- 
 
 1. "Working Men's College Magazine," 1860, p. 165. 
 
 2. Published in his volume "Learning and Working." Cambridge : 
 Macmillan, 1855. 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 43 
 
 dress there was a full meeting. As the visitors entered the 
 hall, each was presented with a copy of Mr. Ruskin's 
 chapter on ' the Nature of Gothic Architecture and herein 
 of the functions of the workman in art,' which he and his 
 publishers allowed Dr. Furnivall to reprint " for the pur- 
 pose of showing what a sort of fellow one of our teachers 
 was." Any working man above sixteen years of age, who 
 could read and write and knew the first four rules of arith- 
 metic, was eligible as a member of the College. The 
 College was established especially for manual workers but 
 other students were not refused. The founders "desired 
 to be in communication with the existing Universities." 
 " The Universities, we hope, will receive persons coming 
 with certificates from our College as readily as from any 
 other, and will grant our students degrees, provided they 
 go through the necessary examinations. How the Univer- 
 sities of Oxford, Cambridge and London may be disposed 
 to accomplish this object, we cannot of course foresee, but 
 we are confident that no fee will hinder working men from 
 having all the advantages which their fellow countrymen 
 possess." ^ This declaration links the new movement to 
 that of University extension and reform, which had grown 
 in force from the year 1831, in which Sir William Hamilton 
 began his strictures on the English Universities, and had 
 culminated in the appointment of the two University Com- 
 missions in 1850 and in the publication of their reports in 
 1852. 
 
 The subjects of the classes held in the opening session of 
 the Working Men's College were thirteen in number. Three 
 of the courses, viz., those on the Gospel of St. John (held 
 on Sunday evenings), on Political Terms illustrated by 
 English Literature, and on the Reign of King John, illus- 
 
 1. These words are quoted from the original circular of the Working 
 Men's College, issued in 1854. The circular is printed in the "Working 
 Men's College Magazine," 1860, pp. 166-7. 
 
44 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 trated by Shakespeare's Play, were conducted by Mr. 
 Maurice. Mr. Ruskin took the Drawing class ; Dr. Purni- 
 vall that in English grammar; Mr. Walsh and Mr. T. 
 Hughes that in Public Health; Mr. Brewer that in the 
 Geography of England as connected with its History ; Mr. 
 Westlake and Mr. Litchfield those in Arithmetic and Al- 
 gebra; Mr. Hose that in Geometry; Mr. Locock that in 
 Natural Philosophy and Astronomy ; Mr. McLennan ■' liat 
 in Machinery; and Mr. Ludlow that in the Law of Part- 
 nership. After Christmas, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Lowes 
 Dickinson and E. Vansittart Neale were among the 
 teachers. In the third term, Mountstuart Grant Duff joined 
 the staff, and in the fourth Thomas Woolner, the sculptor, 
 began a modelling class. Among the many who took 
 classes at the College during the first seven years of its 
 work were J'. Llewelyn Da vies, Charles Kingsley, E. 
 Bowen, Godfrey Lushington, Frederic Harrison, and Eord 
 Madox Brown. In the long history of adult education in 
 England, there is no chapter comparable with this. 
 
 In 1857 the College was moved to 45 Great Ormond 
 Street, where it remained till the recent opening of the 
 new buildings in Crowndale Road, St. Pancras.^ Through- 
 out its long career, it has remained true to the aims of 
 its founders. It places a liberal education within the reach 
 of working men. The teaching of the humanities is its 
 main purpose. As its present Principal, Professor A. "V. 
 Dicey, has said, the College is ' grounded on the invaluable 
 combination of self-help and mutual aid.' 
 
 The founders wished to see similar Colleges established 
 in every town in England. A Working Men's College was 
 founded in Cambridge in 1855, largely through the labours 
 
 1. The history of the College is admirably told in the volume "The 
 Working Men's Magazine, 1854 — 1904," edited by the Rev. J. Llewelyn 
 Davis, and published by Messrs. Macmillan in 1904. 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 45 
 
 of Dr. Harvey Goodwin, afterwards Bishop of Carlisle. 
 One was opened in Ancoats (a working-class quarter of 
 Mancli ester) in January, 1857; one in "Wolverhampton in 
 October, 1857; another in Manchester in January, 1858; 
 and one in Salford in May, 1858. Others were at work 
 in Halifax and in Oxford (the Working Men's Educational 
 Institution) in January, 1859, but the date of their founda- 
 tion is not known to me. A Working Men's College was 
 founded in Liverpool in 1860, and another (now called the 
 Working Men's College but originally established under 
 the name of the Working Men's Institute) was founded at 
 Leicester by Canon Yaughan in 1862. There were also 
 others, as for example at Nottingham, but no complete 
 record of the movement has yet been published. 
 
 The great work which Maurice and his friends accom- 
 plished was the setting up of a new and more liberal ideal 
 of adult education for men and women engaged during the 
 daytime in the duties of the workshop, the office or the 
 home. This new ideal has had a far-reaching influence 
 both on University opinion and on educational effort in 
 its different forms throughout the country. The thoughts 
 to which the founders of the Working Men's College in 
 London gave expression both in their writings and in their 
 practical work as teachers were the outcome of a new 
 social (movement. This social movement inspired the 
 founders of the Working Men's College with the convic- 
 tion that ' the cultivation of social feeling should go hand 
 in hand with the pursuit of knowledge.' ^ 
 
 The same current of thought and feeling affected the 
 work of the Young Men's Christian Associations and of 
 many of the Mechanics' Institutes. It appeared later in 
 the University extension movement. It has led to such 
 
 1. These words occur in the report of the Salford Working Men's 
 College, January, 1859. 
 
46 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 valuable educational developments as the Ancoats Recrea- 
 tion. It lias been continuous in its influence, and one 
 result of it can be traced in the plea, put forward by Dr. 
 Paton of Nottingham in 1885, and ever since pressed by 
 him upon educational administrators and upon public 
 opinion, that no system of evening classes can fully meet 
 the needs of the community unless it includes the provision 
 of social institutes, in which the idea of brotherhood and 
 fellow service permeates educational and recreative work 
 alike. 
 
 A more recent outcome of the same current of educa- 
 tional influence is the establishment of Euskin College at 
 Oxford. The College was founded in 1899 with the design 
 of giving working men, and especially those likely to take 
 a leading position in the labour movement, an education 
 which will help them in acquiring the knowledge essential 
 to intelligent citizenship and increase their influence for 
 good among their fellows. The aim of the College is thus 
 stated by its Council : 
 
 " Hitherto the opportunity of gaining an educated insight into the 
 problems of our life and generation has been beyond the hope of most 
 working men. Yet these men are our citizens, our voters, and the 
 makers of our laws. Whether they will use their powers with judgment 
 or under the influence of prejudices born of ignorance, depends upon 
 their knowledge. It is in order that they may be able impartially to 
 study the great social and political problems of the day that Euskin 
 College exists. 
 
 The endeavour is to create in each student a feeling of responsibility. 
 He is taught to regard the education which he receives, not as a means 
 of personal advancement, but as a trust for the good of others. He 
 learns in order that he may raise and not rise out of the class to which 
 he belongs. The work is carried on in two ways : — 
 
 (1) By the education at Ruskin College, Oxford ; this is intended for 
 those who show special promise, who may become working-men Members 
 of Parliament, and officials of Trade Unions and Co-operative Societies ; 
 by this means they are enabled to come to Oxford and study the 
 problems which they have to solve. 
 
 (2) By the Correspondence School. By means of this all who are 
 interested in the problems of our time are enabled to study the subjects 
 taught at Ruskin College, by home reading." 
 
 The courses of instruction for the year begin on January 
 15th and end on December 15th, but students may enter at 
 
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES 47 
 
 any time for a period- of not less tlian a month. Each 
 student is expected to work two hours a day at cleaning, 
 etc., and to take his turn as delegate, as no servants are 
 kept, except a cook. Each student must send two testi- 
 monials of good character and a certificate stating that he 
 suffers from no serious physical defect. There are no 
 examinations or creed tests, religious or political. The 
 cost of residence, covering hoard, lodging, and education, 
 is £52 per annum; for a less period than one year, £1. 5s. 
 per week. There are no extra charges. Sometimes a fund 
 is available for rendering financial assistance to those who 
 are unahle to pay the full fees. 
 
 The courses of instruction are so arranged as to form a 
 connected whole. They include classes in Logic, Ethics, 
 Political Economy, Industrial History, Sociology, the 
 History of Social Movements, Political and Social Move- 
 ments, Puhlic Administration and the Relation between 
 the State and Education. There are also classes in Essay 
 Writing, English, French, German, Arithmetic, in the art 
 of Public Speaking, and in Phonetics (English pronuncia- 
 tion). An essay of not more than 700 words is expected 
 from every student each week during residence. This 
 essay is corrected both in style of writing and accuracy of 
 statement. 
 
 Stress is laid by the Council upon the educational value 
 
 of 
 
 " the daily discipline of social life. The student's opinions are criticised, his 
 eccentricities are a subject for banter. He has to learn the noble art of 
 give and take. This learning to live with men in a common social life 
 is one of the best things the College does for the students. . . . Most of 
 the domestic work of the College is in the hands of the students. 
 Every week they hold a House Meeting and appoint their own officers. 
 Each student passes in turn through the posts of official life. There are 
 no servants except a cook, so that each -student by washing up or 
 scrubbing floors learns how exacting are the claims of household 
 drudgery unless relieved by a simple life." 
 
 The Council of the College includes well-known Univer- 
 sity men and leaders of the trades union and co-operative 
 
48 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 movements. Great sacrifices are made by many of the 
 students in order to reside in the College. During the first 
 six years of its work, 232 students have come into resi- 
 dence, the greater number for one year. The list of 
 students includes engineers, miners, spinners, weavers, 
 blacksmiths, house painters, compositors, chairmakers, and 
 representatives of many other trades. Ninety-five thou- 
 sand members of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers 
 have raised £1,350 for the College by means of four levies 
 of one penny each. The Amalgamated Society of Rail- 
 way Servants has subscribed £300 to the Building Fund 
 and has established three scholarships. The Northern 
 Counties Weavers have given £90 and two scholarships. 
 Subscriptions have also been received from the London 
 Society of Compositors, the Scottish Co-operative Whole- 
 sale Society, and other working men's organisations. In 
 many cases a student has been enabled to come to the 
 College by the liberality of his fellow- workers. 
 
 (5) The Edtjcational Work of Woeking Men 
 Co-operators. 
 
 The Co-operative movement in Great Britain received 
 a strong educational impulse from the work of Robert 
 Owen (1771—1858).! But the first educational effort 
 made in the English working-class co-operative movement 
 in its present form was that of the Rochdale Pioneers 
 (1844). These twenty working men were mostly Socialists 
 of the Owen school and Chartists. From the first they 
 set aside out of their margin of profit a fund for education. 
 Since that time, the Co-operative societies formed upon the 
 Rochdale plan have played an important part in the adult 
 education of English workmen. At the present time the 
 educational machinery of the Co-operative movement con- 
 sists of the following bodies : 
 
 1. The best account of Owen's work is in " Robert Owen, a 
 Biography," by Frank Podmore. London : Hutchinson, 1906. 
 
EDUCATION OF CO-OPERATORS 49 
 
 (1) The Central Educational Committee of the Co-operative Union, 
 
 dealing with the whole movement, and formed from the Sectional 
 Boards, with representatives of the Educational Committees' 
 Associations and the Women's Guild. 
 
 (2) Sectional Boards and District Associations. 
 
 (3) Educational Committees' Associations, one in each section, work- 
 
 ing, if possible, in connection with the Sectional Boards and 
 District Associations. 
 
 (4) Educational Committees and Women's Guild connected with local 
 
 societies. 
 
 The objects of Co-operative education are defined as : 
 
 ' ' primarily, the formation of co-operative character and opinions by 
 teaching the history, theory, and principles of the movement, with 
 economics and industrial and constitutional history in so far as they 
 have bearing on Co-operation ; and, secondarily, though not necessarily 
 of less import, the training of men and women to take part in industrial 
 and social reforms and civic life generally. 
 
 It deals with the rights and duties of men and women in their 
 capacities as Co-operators, Workers, and Citizens." 
 
 It is no longer felt to be necessary for co-operative edu- 
 cation committees to establish, general libraries or to organ- 
 ize new 'evening schools or technical classes of the ordinary 
 type, as these are now provided for under the Education 
 and Libraries Acts. The Union is therefore endeavouring 
 to concentrate the educational work of the movement upon 
 the principles and methods of co-operation studied in the 
 light of the economic development of the people. The 
 co-operators give special encouragement to the work of the 
 Working Men's College (London), E-uskin College, (Ox- 
 ford) and the Worker's Education Association. The Union 
 has founded, in memory of the great services of Edward 
 Vanaittart Neale and Thomas Hughes, two scholarships 
 open for competition for sons of co-operators, and tenable 
 at Oriel College, Oxford. They have also founded two 
 prizes of £2, called the " Blandford Travelling Scholar- 
 ships," which are awarded to the most successful can- 
 didates in the highest grades of the examinations held by 
 the Union on the subject of co-operation. The Co-opera- 
 tive Union arranges classes in economic and industrial 
 history, in economics, in citizenship, and in subjects closely 
 
50 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 connected with tlie history and methods of co-operation. 
 It also encourages the formation of classes in which teachers 
 of co-operative classes may study the art of teaching. The 
 educational work of many of the co-operative societies has 
 been largely social in character. Mention should be made 
 of the influence of the Women's Co-operative Guild in 
 furthering the educational side of the co-operative move- 
 ment. 
 
 (6) The Young Men's Christian Association. 
 
 The world-wide organisation of the Y.M.C.A. has sprung 
 from the gathering of a few young men for prayer and 
 Bible reading, in 1844, in a bedroom on the premises of 
 Messrs. Hitchcock and Rogers, a firm of retail silk mercers 
 on Ludgate Hill, London. The leader of the little group 
 was George Williams (afterwards Sir George Williams), 
 the son of a farmer in the hills above Dulverton, in 
 Somerset. A man of strongly religious nature, George 
 Williams drew into friendship with himself a few of the 
 other young assistants for Bible reading and prayer. One 
 day, when crossing Blackfriars Bridge he mentioned to a 
 friend, Edward Beaumont, his desire to extend the benefits 
 of the Young Men's Society which had been formed by his 
 efforts at Messrs. Hitchcock and Rogers, to every drapery 
 establishment throughout London, and twelve young 
 friends met together on June 6th, 1844, " for the purpose 
 of forming a Society, the object of which is to influence 
 young men to spread the Redeemer's Kingdom amongst 
 those by whom they are surrounded." ^ 
 
 In the following July a circular was issued which thus 
 stated the purposes of the plan. 
 
 " We have looked with deep concern and anxiety upon the almost 
 totally neglected spiritual condition of the mass of young men engaged in 
 
 1. An extract from the diary of one who was present, quoted in 
 "The Life of Sir George Williams," by J. E. Hodder Williams, 
 Hodder and Stoughton, 1906, page 112. 
 
Y. M. C. A. 51 
 
 the pursuits of business, especially those connected with our trade, and 
 feel desirous, by the assistance of God, to make some effort in order to 
 improve it. . . . We have seriously and carefully consulted as to the 
 best means by which to accomplish so great a work ; and we have come 
 to the decision that there is nothing so calculated to discountenance 
 immorality and vice, and to promote a spirit of serious inquiry among 
 the class in which our lot is cast, as the introduction of some religious 
 
 service among them, which they shall be invited to attend 
 
 A society is now formed, the object of which is the promotion of the 
 spiritual welfare of young men engaged in the drapery and other trades, 
 by the introduction of religious services among them. We earnestly 
 entreat your Christian co-operation in this great work." 
 
 The name of tlie Young Men's Christian Association 
 was given to the new Society. There were at this time 
 at least 150,000 young assistants living in houses of retail 
 trade. Their hours were very long, often from seven in the 
 morning till late at night. Outside the ordinary work of 
 the religious bodies, nothing was done in any organized way 
 to provide for their spiritual or intellectual interests.^ 
 The three aims of the new Association were, Comradeship, 
 United Prayer and the Study of the Bible. The movement 
 spread rapidly, and in the intervals of an exacting business 
 life George Williams devoted himself with extraordinary 
 zeal and generosity to the work of the Association. He 
 became the intimate friend of Lord Shaftesbury, whose 
 support did much in furthering the work. At the time of 
 the Exhibition of 1851 (a date of importance in other 
 branches of English Education) efforts were made to in- 
 terest visitors from all parts of the world in the work of 
 the Y.M.C.A. The London branch outgrew building after 
 building. After some critical years between 1855 and 
 1864, the Y.M.C.A. rapidly developed. At the jubilee of 
 the foundation, held in England in 1894, delegates 
 attended from all parts of the world, a fact which showed 
 the far-reaching influence of the association's work. 
 
 The American Y.M.C.A. was founded in 1851, and has 
 developed educational classes for general and technical 
 
 1. Ibid, p. 56. 
 
52 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 education much more extensively than, with a few excep- 
 tions, has been the ease in the United Kingdom. 
 Mr. Hodder Williams writes : 
 
 " It may be predicted with confidence that future years will find the 
 educational work of the Association organised and maintained with 
 greater efficiency than at present. It is true that at the time of 
 writing this department is lacking in signs of immediate growth. This 
 is largely owing to the fact that members have been discouraged by 
 seeing the educational work of the Association in Great Britain brought 
 into competition with the evening classes established by the Educational 
 authorities. There are, however, not wanting signs that the Association 
 is beginning to realise that a wide field is open to-day for the provision 
 of specialised forms of instruction designed to fit young men for the 
 profession or business in which they are engaged. That there are great 
 possibilities of successful work in this direction has been demonstrated 
 in recent years by the Central Association, which by making provision 
 for the training of young men for the Civil Service, and preparing 
 candidates for the examinations of the Bankers' Institute and of the 
 London Chamber of Commerce, has secured for this department a degree 
 of prosperity far exceeding that obtained when the curriculum was 
 confined to ordinary commercial subjects." 
 
 A further development of the work of the Association has 
 been the establishment of boys' sections in connection with 
 some of the larger branches. These endeavour to meet the 
 special needs of boys between 13 and 17 years of age. 
 
 (7) Night Schools and Evening Classes 
 UNDER Government Inspection. 
 
 Night schools first received pecuniary aid from the 
 Government in 1851. But from the first beginnings of 
 what is now the Board of Education's work, the Govern- 
 ment inspectors watched their progress in different parts 
 of the country. 
 
 The Committee of Council on Education was established 
 in 1839, and in the Department's first Report (1839-40) 
 Mr. Tremenheere, in his report on the state of elementary 
 education in the mining district of South "Wales, stated 
 that the number of adults attending evening schools was 
 about 90.^ In the mining districts of Durham and 
 Northumberland, Mr. John Allen found (1840) that 
 
 1. Minutes of Committee of Council and Education, 1839-40, p. 182. 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS 53 
 
 almost all the " common day schools " conducted by 
 masters for private profit and attended by boys and girls, 
 were also opened during the winter between the hours of 
 7 and 9 " for the instruction of pitmen and others not able 
 to attend during the day." Mr. Allen adds that " the 
 owners of collieries are, in most eases, willing to provide 
 their labourers with a room which may be used as a day 
 and night school during the week, and on Sunday is opened 
 to one or two sects (and in some instances three) in 
 succession for the purposes of public worship." ^ The 
 Rev. Baptist Noel reported in 1840, evidently quoting in 
 part from the Reports of the Manchester Statistical 
 Society, the following attendance at evening schools in 
 five large towns : — 
 
 Birmingham (1838) 563 
 
 Manchester. . . 
 Liverpool . . . 
 Salford 
 Bury 
 
 He speaks of evening schools as useful to young persons 
 whose early education has been neglected and who want to 
 learn the three R's, but adds that " the evening school 
 which only affords instruction for four hours in the week, 
 and that when the scholars are jaded with 12 or 13 hours 
 of toil, cannot educate those who attend it." ^ 
 
 In 1844 the Rev. F. C. Cook reports that Mr. Geary, a 
 manufacturer in Norwich, " allows no youth to attend his 
 factory who is unable to read, and compels their attendance 
 at an evening school until they arrive at years of 
 maturity." ^ 
 
 In the following years a considerable increase in the 
 number of evening schools in the North of England is 
 
 1. "Minutes, 1840-1," pp. 166 and 182. 
 
 2. "Minutes, 1844," vol. ii. p. 166. 
 
 (1834) 
 
 1,458 
 
 (1836) 
 
 548 
 
 (1835) 
 
 626 
 
 (1835) 
 
 151 
 
54 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 reported by the inspectors. " Night schools are usually 
 under the teaching of the national schoolmaster, and 
 superintended by the clergyman of the place. The hours 
 of instruction are generally from 7 or 8 p.m. to 9 and 10. 
 In many places the young people of either sex come on 
 alternate evenings." ^ 
 
 In 1849, the Rev. W. J. Kennedy, in his report on 
 schools in the North-western district (Cumberland, 
 Westmorland and Lancashire), urges that more should 
 be made of the evening schools. But he adds : " I see no 
 way to bring about this vital measure except by a large 
 special assistance from the Committee of Council, derived 
 from the Parliamentary grant for Education, or from an 
 educational rate. The voluntary system has done a vast 
 deal, but it has nearly, if not quite, run to the end of its 
 tether." ^ This is the first definite proposal for the pay- 
 ment of Government grant to night schools that I have 
 found. But the idea was in the air at the time, and it is 
 probable that Mr. Kennedy's suggestion had been antici- 
 pated by others. 
 
 An important part in the furtherance of night classes 
 had been taken during the previous years (1844 onwards) 
 by the promoters of the Ragged Schools. A passage in 
 Miss Mary Carpenter's Reformatory Schools for Children 
 of the perishing and dangerous classes and for juvenile 
 offenders ^ gives an account of the rise of evening ragged 
 schools in London. The movement was begun by some 
 Sunday school teachers in London. 
 
 " The first attempt to concentrate their efforts was made in April, 
 1844, by a meeting held at St. Giles' Eagged School. These teachers, 
 having often observed with regret the many children that are excluded 
 from the regular Sunday or Day School in consequence of their ragged 
 and filthy condition and also the great numbers who constantly infest 
 
 1. "Minutes, 1845," vol. ii. p. 176. 
 
 2. "Minutes, 1848-9-50," vol. ii. p. 190-1. 
 
 3. London . Gilpin, 1851, pp. 110. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 
 
 55 
 
 our streets and alleys to idle, to steal or to do mischief, resolved to 
 establish schools expressly for that destitute and depraved class in the 
 very localities, courts and alleys where they abound. . . . The rent and 
 other expenses were generally paid by the teachers themselves, some- 
 times by one or more benevolent individuals in the locality of the 
 schools. There was no lack of pupils : numbers very often could not be 
 admitted for want of room or want of teachers, and a policeman in some 
 cases was kept at the door to drive away those who wished to force 
 themselves in. . . . The main object of the Eagged School Union was to 
 teach the children of the lowest poor to read the Word of God and to 
 understand its simple truths; to bring destitute and neglected children 
 under some moral and religious influence by means of schools where such 
 children could receive, once or twice a week or oftener, some simple 
 knowledge of their duties as responsible beings and as creatures born to 
 live for ever." 
 
 The iollowing table shows the extent of the work during 
 
 fear. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Amount Collected 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1844 
 
 . 20 . 
 
 200 . 
 
 2,000 
 
 61 
 
 1845 
 
 . 26 . 
 
 250 . 
 
 2,600 
 
 320 
 
 1846 
 
 44 . 
 
 454 . 
 
 4,776 
 
 824 6 10 
 
 1847 . 
 
 . 62 
 
 902 . 
 
 . 12,823 
 
 .. 1,174 4 1 
 
 1848 . 
 
 . 82 . 
 
 . 1,053 . 
 
 . 17,249 
 
 .. 4,142 16 8 
 
 The Ragged Schools attempted, with great earnestness 
 of purpose, a very difficult work. But it was hard to find 
 the necessary number of teachers who were qualified to 
 maintain discipline and to influence the pupils. Many of 
 the best teachers were women but the schools were in de- 
 graded districts where it was difficult for women teachers 
 to go at night. The children's attendance was for short 
 periods and instruction was but for one or two evenings a 
 week. Gradually the work became more systematic. The 
 schools were opened more frequently — some on every night 
 of the week. Industrial training was added in many 
 schools, and one paid teacher was added to the staff of 
 nearly all of them. Then Free Day Schools were estab- 
 lished. One at Bristol was well-known. The boys learnt 
 shoemaking and tailoring. It was 'intended for the gratui- 
 tous instruction of such young persons only as cannot 
 attend the other schools in Bristol owing to the poverty' of 
 
56 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 their parents or their own want of character or necessary 
 clothing.' The rules said that ' The fundamental prin- 
 ciples of religion in which all professed Christians agree 
 shall form the basis of the instruction given. All sectarian 
 theology shall be carefully avoided. The lessons of the 
 school shall include the most common branches of useful 
 tnowledge, instruction in some industrial occupation and 
 the inculcation of cleanly, orderly habits. No corporal 
 punishment, or holding up to public shame or ridicule 
 shall be made use of.' ■■■ 
 
 The decisive step in regard to the subsidising of 
 evening schools was taken by Government in 1851. In 
 that year the Committee of Council on Education decided 
 to encourage the combination of evening schools with 
 existing elementary day schools, and were prepared to 
 allow the usual Government grant to be paid to an 
 additional certificated teacher, engaged by the m^anagers 
 of an elementary school under inspection, if employed 
 morning or afternoon in the day school and afterwards 
 in the evening school. But they would not sanction any 
 arrangement by which the same teacher taught in the 
 morning, afternoon and evening school. An evening 
 school, supplementary to a day school under inspection, 
 would be allowed to receive grants for the purchase of 
 books and maps at reduced prices.^ 
 
 In 1852, the Committee of Council announced their 
 readiness to approve of an assistant teacher (i.e., a pupil 
 teacher who had completed his apprenticeship) taking 
 charge of an evening school provided that he worked under 
 the headmaster's general direction and that the latter 
 were present sufficiently often to be really responsible 
 for the state of the school. In January, 1853, the 
 
 1. This seems to refer to Joseph Lancaster's methods of school 
 discipline. 
 
 2. "Minutes, 1851-2," vol. i. pp. 74-5. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 57 
 
 rule forbidding a master to take an evening school in 
 tke winter, in addition to a morning and afternoon class, 
 was relaxed. At tlie same time, grants for books and 
 maps were allowed in the case of an evening school 
 established independently of a day school, but the other 
 Government grants were not permitted in that case, as 
 such a school was held to be unsuitable for the apprentice- 
 ship of pupil teachers. 
 
 In 1855, the assistance to- evening schools was further 
 increased. A school already in receipt of an annual grant 
 might obtain for an evening school in connection with it 
 (1) augmentation of salary for a second certificated teacher ; 
 or (2) stipend for an assistant if the attendance amounted 
 to over 50 during the day and to more than 20 in the 
 evening. Or, if a suitable industrial class were organised 
 under a gardener, superior labourer or other com- 
 petent person, (or, in the case of a small school, were 
 taken by the schoolmaster himself) the day school teacher 
 would be allowed to conduct the evening school also ; or a 
 grant of not less than £5 or more than £10 would be made 
 to an evening school teacher of proper character and 
 attainments, aged between 20 and 40, teaching for not 
 fewer than 60 nights in the year, but not employed in the 
 day school. The fees paid by night scholars were required 
 to equal or exceed the Government grant. 
 
 In the report of the Rev. W. J. Kennedy on schools 
 in Lancashire, in 1857, special mention is made of the 
 encouragement which had been given to the establishment 
 of evening schools by the Lancashire and Cheshire Union 
 of Mechanics' Institutions. In the establishment of the 
 Union, Sir J. P. Kay Shuttleworth had taken an active 
 part. Its main objects were stated to be (1) " first and 
 principally, to encourage and improve evening schools— a 
 matter of the greatest importance amongst a population 
 
58 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 which goes to work so early in life as the factory operatives 
 iiiLaiica.shire;"(2)"to examine the scholars of the evening 
 schools periodically and award certificates and prizes to 
 those amongst them who attain a certain proficiency." 
 The Union appointed a number of evening school teachers, 
 paying them a salary in addition to the ,£10 which they 
 received from the Government grant, and also " a very 
 able certificated and scientific master to organise and 
 superintend all the institutions in union and to give 
 lectures to them periodically." ^ 
 
 In 1858, further assistance was given to evening schools 
 by the decision of the Committee of Council to allow 
 scholars, attending a properly organised night school for 
 fifty nights in the year, to be added to the number of day 
 scholars for whom the school might receive capitation 
 grants. The rule, however, that the sum received in fees 
 must equal the Government grant was found to malie the 
 establishment of evening schools impossible in many 
 villages. 
 
 Another branch of evening school-work must here be 
 mentioned, as destined afterwards to become of great im- 
 portance. The Science and Art Department, which in 1856 
 had been severed from the Board of Trade and placed in a 
 co-ordinate position with the Education Department under 
 the Lord President of the Council, responded to the 
 educational need of the industrial part of the nation and 
 set on foot a new system of evening classes in scientific 
 subjects. Its grants were paid towards the support of these 
 classes on the results of written exam.inations conducted 
 under the authority of the Department. The opportunity 
 of conducting the classes was welcomed by a large number 
 of elementary schoolmasters. Those wishing to hold 
 classes were required to pass the special examination of 
 
 1. "Minutes, 1857-8," pp. 407—14. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 59 
 
 tlie Department, and thus received certificates of com- 
 petency to teacli. Tlie first examination for teachers was 
 held in 1859, and the first general examination for students 
 in 1861. Many workmen who saw the importance of 
 gaining some elementary knowledge of science in order to 
 qualify themselves for higher positions in the workshop 
 resorted to the evening classes as a step towards attaining 
 their purpose. Thus from 1859 onwards (until the two 
 divisions of the Education Department were effectively 
 united) there were two separate categories of evening 
 classes receiving aid from Government, each from a 
 different side of the same central authority. The evening 
 science classes have been one of the chief means of further- 
 ing technical instruction in England. 
 
 To return to the elementary evening schools. The 
 Code of 1860 sumimarised the previous regulations for 
 evening schools, continuing the payment not exceeding 
 ^10 or less than £5 to evening teachers not otherwise 
 remunerated out of the grant for education on condition 
 (1) that if the evening school was attended by scholars of 
 both sexes the teacher must be a married man; if by 
 scholars of one sex alone must be of that sex; (2) that he 
 must be over 20, unless previously engaged in teaching, 
 and under 40 when appointed; (3) that he must produce 
 certificates of previous good character and aptitude for 
 teaching, and satisfy the inspector in a written examina- 
 tion; (4) that the sum received in fees in any year was 
 equal to the Government grant; (5) that the school had 
 been open at least 60 times during the year, and (6) that 
 the teacher was favourably reported on by the managers 
 and the inspector. Capitation grants were allowed on 
 evening scholars who had attended 50 times at least, who 
 were upwards of 12 years of age, and who had not been 
 reckoned among day scholars. 
 
6o EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 In 1862 important changes were made in the regu- 
 lations for evening schools. For the first time the 
 position of the schools was clearly defined as con- 
 tinuative of the day school work. Grants to teachers were 
 withdrawn and given to the school only in the form of 
 capitation grants on average attendance and on the result 
 of an examination in reading, writing and arithmetic. The 
 attendance grant was 2s. 6d. per scholar. The grant for 
 every scholar who passed the examination after attending 
 more than 24 evening meetings of the school was 5s., 
 Is. 8d. beirig forfeited for failure to pass in any one of the 
 three subjects. No evening attendance might be reckoned 
 for any scholar under 12. Restrictions on day-school 
 teachers taking evening classes were withdrawn. The even- 
 ing school, the Committee of Council stated in their instruc- 
 tions to inspectors in the Revised Code, 1862, "should differ 
 in nothing from the morning or afternoon meetings, except 
 in the scholars who attend. Its business is not secondary, 
 but continued elementary, instruction. A few scholars 
 here and there may be fit for more advanced instruction, 
 and may be glad to find at the evening meeting a room 
 in which they can study and obtain assistance. . . . As 
 the object of attendance in the evening is to fix and perfect 
 elementary knowledge, scholars who have passed under 
 Standard VI. are not precluded from being examined 
 again and from bringing grants to the schools by their 
 examination.'' 
 
 Thus the Revised Code of 1862 definitely assigned to the 
 evening school the duties of an elementary continuation 
 school. The attendance at evening schools rapidly increased 
 under the operation of the new regulations. The average 
 number of pupils in attendance in 1863 was 14,073. It 
 steadily rose till it reached the number of 83,457 in 
 1870-71, when the whole situation had been altered by 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 6i 
 
 the passing of the Elementary Education Act of 1870. 
 These years 1851 — 70 form the first period in the history of 
 evening schools under government inspection. The second 
 extends from 1870 to 1891 in which year the Education 
 Acts were so amended as to allow elementary education not 
 to form the principal part of the curriculum of an evening 
 school. The different stages in the history of the schools 
 during this second period may be thus summarised. 
 
 The Elementary Education Act of 1870 defined a public 
 elementary school as a school at which elementary educa- 
 tion is the principal part of the education there given. An 
 evening school receiving grant was reckoned as an element- 
 ary school. Therefore its work was confined in the main to 
 elementary subjects. Before long, this limitation began 
 to affect the evening schools. The great development of 
 elementary day schools naturally caused a falling off in the 
 number of pupils requiring elementary instruction in even- 
 ing schools. The numbers in average attendance at even- 
 ing schools accordingly began to decline in 1871-2, in 
 which year it was 66,388, as compared with 83,457 in the 
 previous year. The total fell steadily (with a slight rise in 
 1876-9) till 1884-5, when it stood at 24,233. 
 
 In the meantime the grants to evening schools had been 
 increased in 1871 to 4s. per scholar in average attendance 
 if the school had been open 80 times in the evening, and 
 7s. 6d. for each scholar who passed the examination in 
 reading, writing and arithmetic (2s. 6d. for each subject). 
 But at the same time it was decided that attendances 
 were not to be reckoned for any scholar over eighteen. 
 In 1876, the upper age limit was extended to twenty-one. 
 
 In 1882, important changes were made in the evening 
 school regulations. Attendance as a rule was not to be 
 reckoned for any scholar under 14 or over 21, though child- 
 ren under 14 who were exempt from the legal obligation to 
 
62 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 attend day school were recognised as scholars in an 
 evening scliool. Grants were no longer confined to the 
 elementary subjects. In addition to a fixed grant of 
 4s. or 6s., a grant (amounting to 2s.) on the examination 
 of individual scholars in any of the elementary or 
 additional {i.e., class or specific) subjects was paid for 
 each scholar passing in each subject. But no scholar was 
 allowed to be examined in additional subjects alone. 
 The rule that everyone must be individually examined in 
 reading, writing and arithmetic was still enforced. 
 
 In 1886 a Royal Commission was appointed, with Lord 
 Cross as Chairman, to inquire into the working of the Edu- 
 cation Acts. The Commissioners heard evidence about the 
 evening schools. Their findings (given on p. 94 — 96 below) 
 led to great changes being made in the law as it affected the 
 courses of study in evening schools under government in- 
 spection. In 1890 a revolutionary change was made in the 
 regulations. The Education Act of 1870, which defines an 
 elementary school as " a school or department of a school at 
 which elementary education is the principal part of the edu- 
 cation there given," had limited the Parliamentary grant 
 to public elementary schools. The Education Code Act of 
 1890 enacted that " it shall not be required as a condition 
 of a Parliamentary grant to an evening school that 
 elementary education shall be the principal part of the 
 education there given." By the Code of 1890, scholars in 
 evening schools were excused examination in elementary 
 subjects if they produced certificates that they had been 
 scholars in a public elementary school and had passed 
 Standard V. in the elementary subjects. The numbers in 
 average attendance at evening schools rose from 43,347 
 in 1889-90 to 51,974 in 1890-1, and thus the second period 
 in the history of the schools closed with encouragement and 
 hope. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 63 
 
 The third period (1891 to the present day) has been one 
 of rapid development and differentiation in the work of 
 evening classes in England. 
 
 In 1893 Mr. Aeland, then Vice-President of the 
 Committee of Council on Education, introduced a new 
 evening school code, which marks an epoch in the history 
 of this branch of education in England and "Wales. The 
 old conception of the evening school was boldly swept 
 away. Attendance of persons over twenty-one years of age 
 was recognised for grants. No scholars were compelled to 
 take the elementary subjects. Grants were paid, as in day 
 schools, upon the instruction of the school as a whole 
 instead of upon the attainments of individual scholars. 
 Fixed grants were paid on an aggregate number of hours' 
 instruction received, instead of upon average attendance. 
 Exajnination by the inspector on a fixed day was abolished, 
 and visits without notice were substituted. Instead of 
 grants for individual passes, variable grants were paid for 
 the time devoted to each subject. 
 
 No scholar might be entered or continue on the register 
 who was under fourteen years of age, unless such scholar 
 was deemed by the Department to be exempt from the 
 legal obligation to attend school. 
 
 In 1897 the Code laid it down that the total amount of 
 grant paid to an evening school might not exceed the 
 greater of the two sums named below, viz : — 
 
 (a) A sum equal to 17s. 6d. for each unit of average 
 attendance (a fraction of a unit, if it reaches 0"5, being 
 counted as an additional unit). 
 
 (b) The total income of the school from all sources 
 whatever other than the grant. 
 
 The numbers and the attendance at evening schools 
 rapidly increased in consequence of the liberal treatment 
 thus accorded by the State. The numbers of inspected 
 
64 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 evening schools rose from 1,977 in 1892-3 to 5,263 in 
 1899-1900; the numbers in average attendance rose from 
 81,068 to 206,335 ; and the numbers on the registers from 
 115,582 to 509,251. 
 
 But new administrative developments were now pending. 
 The Technical Instruction Act of 1889 had armed the 
 County Councils, established in 1888, with educational 
 powers. The Local Taxation (Custom and Excise) Act of 
 1890 had given them considerable funds available for 
 technical and commercial education. The new County 
 and County Borough Committees for Technical Instruction 
 began to develop evening classes in scientific and com- 
 mercial subjects, and to draw grants from the Science and 
 Art Department at South Kensington. For many years 
 the evening classes under the School Boards derived 
 aid from the same source, as well as from the grants 
 paid by the Education Department. Thus a clash between 
 the two co-existing local authorities, each operating in the 
 sphere of evening school work, became inevitable. The 
 question at issue was whether evening schools were to be 
 regarded as part of the elementary school system or as part 
 of the system of technical and higher education. The 
 truth is that the purely continuative parts of the evening 
 school work are most conveniently administered in intimate 
 relation with that of elementary schools, while the more 
 advanced and technical developments of the evening schools 
 are appropriately considered as part of higher and technical 
 education. The line, however, between the two parts of 
 the work is not easy to draw, as clever youths can pass on 
 at once from the day school to higher work in the evening 
 school. The real solution was the unification of all 
 educational administration in the district in the hands of 
 one local authority. But this had not yet come, and 
 consequently there was a period of conflict. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 65 
 
 The question of powers was brought to an issue by the 
 action of Mr. Barclay Cockerton, district auditor under 
 the Local Government Board, who, in 1899, disallowed 
 certain expenditure which had been incurred by the 
 London School Board in respect of Science and Art classes 
 in day schools and in evening continuation schools. The 
 case (Regina v. Cockerton) was tried before Mr. Justice 
 Wills and Mr. Justice Kennedy in the Queen's Bench 
 Division, and the judgment given on December 20th, 1900, 
 confirmed the auditor's view. The questions before the 
 Court for decision were (1) whether it was within the 
 powers of the School Board to provide Science and Art 
 Schools or classes, either in day schools or in evening con- 
 tinuation schools ; (2) whether it was lawful for them to pay 
 the expenses of maintaining those schools or classes out of 
 the School Board rate or School Fund. In pronouncing 
 judgment, Mr. Justice Wills thus stated the case as 
 regards evening schools : — " It appears to me to have been 
 perfectly within the competence of the Department to lay 
 down the conditions under which it would make grants 
 and I am not in the least surprised that where it found 
 schools de facto fulfilling those conditions the grant 
 followed as a matter of course. But to argue, as has been 
 done, that such action on the part of the Department sets 
 the School Board free to teiach, at the expense of the 
 ratepayers, to adults and to children indiscriminately the 
 higher mathematics, advanced chemistry (both theoretical 
 and practical), political economy, art of a kind wholly 
 beyond anything that can be taught to children, French, 
 German, history, I know not what, appears to me to be the 
 ne plus ultra of extravagance. If the Acts of which the 
 primary object was elementary education, and the whole 
 object was education for children, are to be transformed 
 into Acts for the higher education — education of a kind 
 
66 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 usual rather in a college of a university than in a school — 
 of grown up men and women, it must be done by Act of 
 Parliament and not by a stroke of the pen of a Government 
 Department. The Department has never affected to do 
 anything of the kind, or to do more than lay down the 
 conditions under which a grant of money may be earned. 
 The extravagance is in the application which has been 
 made by the School Boards of the successive developments 
 of the Code. The Department is under no restrictions as 
 to the conditions under which it shall grant public money, 
 Parliament being at liberty to withhold or ratify the grant. 
 But it is the strangest of arguments to say that because 
 the Department is prepared to grant money for teaching 
 adults to any school in a position to teach them, it follows 
 that a board, created and existing to supply education for 
 children and for no other purpose, has a right to spend 
 money out of the rates for teaching those who are not 
 children." Finally, he answered the two questions before 
 the Court as follows: — "As to question 1, my answer is, 
 that it is not within the power of the Board to provide, at 
 the expense of the ratepayers, science and art schools or 
 classes in day schools ; as to question 2, that science and art 
 classes in evening continuation schools are as much beyond 
 the scope of rate-aided education as in day schools, but that 
 in both such educational work may be carried on by the 
 School Board provided the whole of the funds required for 
 it are furnished from sources other than contributions 
 from the rates." ^ 
 
 This decision, which was upheld by the Court of Appeal, 
 led to the issue by the Board of Education of a minute, 
 dated July 3rd, 1901, in which it was announced that in 
 future, in any evening school conducted as a public 
 elementary school under the Elementary Education Acts, 
 
 1. As reported in "The Times," Dec. 21, 1900. 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 67 
 
 the instruction given must be in accordance with, those 
 Acts, and that the attendance of any scholar over fifteen 
 at the beginning of the school year would not be counted 
 for grants. In the same year (1901) a temporary way out 
 of the difficulty thus created was found in the passing of 
 an Act which empowered County and County Borough 
 Councils to sanction the carrying on by School Boards for 
 one year of any evening school which had been started 
 contrary to the law, and, pending a complete settlement 
 of the question by the Act of that year, this arrangement 
 was renewed in 1902. 
 
 By the Education Act of 1902, the local administration 
 of education was unified, the County and County Borough 
 Councils being constituted as the authorities for education of 
 all grades, and the special difficulty with regard to the 
 legality of evening schools giving higher education to 
 adults has disappeared. The power of the Local Authority 
 to provide instruction under the Elementary Education 
 Acts is now limited, with certain exceptions, to " the 
 provision in a public elementary school of instruction 
 given under the regulations of the Board of Education to 
 scholars who at the close of the school year will not be 
 more than sixteen years of age " ; whereas their powers 
 with regard to the supply of higher education include " a 
 power .... to supply or aid the supply of any education 
 except where that education is given at a public elementary 
 school." Thus evening schools have become definitely a 
 part of the provision of higher education and are legally 
 entitled to aid from the rates. 
 
 But the change which was made in view of the import- 
 ance of encouraging the technical or more advanced types 
 of evening classes has had the eiiect of diverting adminis- 
 trative interest from the problem of the more elementary 
 type of continuation school. In the work of many local 
 
68 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 education authorities the care of elementary and of higher 
 education respectively is assigned to different committees. 
 The evening classes come under the supervision of the 
 higher education committees. This is perfectly right so 
 far as the more advanced classes are concerned. But the 
 fortunes of the elementary continuation schools are in- 
 timately bound up with those of the elementary day 
 schools. The work of the two forms one problem. It is 
 desirable therefore that the same body of administrators 
 should constantly view the two problems together as part 
 of an organic whole. At present this is not always 
 possible, so far as the committees are concerned, but the 
 vigilance of the executive oificers averts some of the in- 
 convenience which might otherwise arise. 
 
 Our present system of voluntary attendance at continua- 
 tion schools has much in its favour. In some characters it 
 develops " grit." It rewards self-denying industry. 
 
 On the other hand, it fails to touch the idle or the less 
 strenuous. As compared with the German or Swiss system 
 of compulsory continuation schools, it leaves a large 
 residue of the boy population without any educational 
 discipline during the critical years of adolescence. We 
 must not exaggerate the power of schools or undervalue 
 the rough education of life. But it should be acknowledged 
 that our voluntary system is wasteful of human material 
 which might by timely care be made more serviceable to 
 the State. It is individualistic, not collective, in spirit. 
 It disregards the average boy unless he voluntarily offers 
 himself as a pupil. It does not grapple with the problem 
 as a whole, but contents itself with offering facilities to 
 those who are willing to seize them. It affords oppor- 
 tunities, but does not impose a national obligation. The 
 result is that there are vast numbers of boys and girls in 
 England who, after leaving the day school, slip away 
 
UNDER GOVERNMENT 69 
 
 from educational influences altogetter, and these include 
 tlie great proportion of tlie future unskilled workers of 
 tlie country. In Manchester, where the evening school 
 system has been the subject of long-continued care, there 
 were in the autumn of 1904 at least 14,000 children 
 between 14 and 16 years of age who were not touched by 
 the evening classes. In the Final Report of the School 
 Board for London (1904) it is calculated that, in the session 
 1901-2, out of the population of London between 14 and 21 
 years of age, only 15 per cent, enrolled themselves in the 
 Board's evening schools and, even when account is taken 
 of the attendance at the evening classes which were being 
 conducted at the same time under the then Technical Edu- 
 cation Board, it is clear that only a small minority of 
 London boys and girls were in attendance at continuation 
 schools. 
 
 In the autumn of 1903 the Manchester Education Com- 
 mittee took steps to ascertain what proportion of the 
 students in the different evening schools of that city 
 had joined the evening classes immediately after com- 
 pleting their course in the elementary day school. It 
 proved that, out of 6,714 students present in the evening 
 schools on November 16th, nearly one-half (48 per cent.) 
 had allowed a gap of one or more years to intervene 
 between the close of their day school course and the be- 
 ginning of their attendance ai evening classes.^ The Com- 
 mittee further asked the teachers in the evening schools 
 to report whether they found that the students who entered 
 the evening classes after such an interval had lost an appre- 
 ciable amount of the knowledge which they had gained in 
 the day school. There was a striking consensus of opinion 
 among the teachers that the loss was great. One teacher 
 reported that " scholars who were in the Sixth Standard of 
 1. There has since been a great improvement. 
 
70 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 tlie day school, are not able on returning to the evening 
 ischoor after a year's absence, to do the work of Standard 
 III. or IV." Another replied that he had " found, among 
 the adult pupils who had left the day school many years 
 before, men who, though they had been in Standards IV. 
 or V. in the day school, had completely forgotten the 
 methods of simple division." Another reported that " the 
 work of a girl who allows twelve months to elapse before 
 joining the evening school, has greatly deteriorated and it 
 takes her a long time to regain what she has lost." 
 Another said that "girls who had passed Standards V. 
 or VI. before leaving the day school, are unable, after two 
 or three years' absence, to do the work of Standards III. or 
 IV., and are careless and inaccurate, especially in writing." 
 The experience of the teachers in the Manchester evening 
 schools is confirmed by that of teachers in other parts of 
 England. And it must be remembered that only a small 
 proportion of the children who go through the day school 
 course ever come to the evening school, even after an 
 interval. Nor is the mere forgetting of much that they 
 had learnt in the day school the worst feature of the case. 
 What matters much more is their loss of intellectual dis- 
 cipline and of the habit of regular learning during 
 adolescence. 
 
 Thus the question to be decided is whether we in Eng- 
 land gain more through stimulating and rewarding the 
 energy of the vigorous few by our voluntary system of 
 continuation schools than is lost through our failure to 
 raise the general average of trained and disciplined effi- 
 ciency by means of compulsory attendance for all. The 
 same question comes up, in some form or other, in every 
 attempt to balance the advantages of what may broadly 
 be distinguished as the English and German forms of 
 educational organisation. The Germans make thriftier 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 71 
 
 use of their average material than we succeed in doing. 
 On the other hand, there are some indisputable advantages 
 in the freedom which we enjoy from the close administrative 
 restraints entailed by any plan of system.atic compulsion. 
 
 Can we afford the waste which our lack of organisation 
 entails? This question raises momentous issues in many 
 other problems of national life. The student of education 
 needs to be on his guard against attaching too much im- 
 portance to the influence of schools upon individual char- 
 acter. But it will perhaps be admitted that most English- 
 men are a little inclined to overlook the service which a well 
 planned system of skilful teaching can confer upon a 
 nation. In any case, it should not be forgotten that " the 
 State was formed to make life possible, and exists to make 
 life good." 1 But it may be retorted with some justice that 
 the wisdom of the State and the wisdom of an administra- 
 tive department in Whitehall are not necessarily identical 
 terms. And the reader of this chapter, when he casts his 
 eye over the multifarious activities of " further education " 
 in England, will observe that the power of some of the 
 educational agencies at work in it comes through intensity 
 of personal conviction on many subjects in regard to which 
 the individual conscience and not the State must have the 
 last word. 
 
 (8) The Extension of TJniveesitt Teaching. ^ 
 University extension, in the widest and older sense of the 
 term, is one of the most important of the movements 
 
 1. Aristotle " Politics," Bk. 1, Chap. 2. Dr. Welldon's translation, 
 p. 5. 
 
 2. No brief summary can do justice to the importance of this move- 
 ment, which has touched the intellectual and social history of the country 
 at almost every point, and has been the outcome of profound changes 
 in the conditions of national life. But some reference to the subject 
 is necessary here, as many of the classes which have been established 
 in the course of the movement form part of the new provision for the 
 education of adults who are unable to take any day courses of instruction 
 for university degrees. 
 
72 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 which have multiplied opportunities for the " further edu- 
 cation " of adult students in England. It began with the 
 foundation of University College, London (originally in- 
 tended to be a University for London) on undenominational 
 lines in 1826. The foundation of King's College, London, 
 followed' in 1831. In 1832 the University of Durham was 
 founded by means of funds granted by the Dean and 
 Chapter. In 1836 the University of London was incor- 
 porated as an examining body which for the next fourteen 
 years admitted to its degrees none but duly qualified can- 
 didates from University and King's Colleges. 
 
 In the meantime Mr. W. E. Whatton had mooted in 
 1829 a plan for the conversion of the Manchester Royal 
 Institution into a University of Manchester, but his pro- 
 posal remained unrealised, as did a further one made by 
 Mr. Harry Longueville Jones in 1836.^ It was in Man- 
 chester, however, that the decisive step was taken towards 
 the establishment of Universities in the great industrial 
 and commercial centres. In 1846 a Manchester merchant, 
 John Owens, bequeathed the residue of his personal estate 
 (about £96,000) to be applied for the purpose of affording 
 the youths of fourteen years and upwards instruction in 
 the branches of education taught at the English Univer- 
 sities, free from the religious tests which then limited the 
 extension of University education. In 1851, the Owens 
 College, now the Victoria University of Manchester, began 
 its work. 
 
 The middle of the nineteenth century was a critical 
 period in the history of English Universities. Three move- 
 ments converged upon them and compelled their extension. 
 The first, and at that time the most conspicuous, was the 
 m.ovement for the removal of denominational restrictions 
 
 1. "The Owens College: its Foundation and Growth," by Joseph 
 Thompson. Manchester : Cornish, 1886, pp. 15—23. 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 73 
 
 at Oxford and Cambridge. The form of subscription, 
 imposed at Oxford on matriculation and at Cambridge 
 before graduation, excluded, from m.embersh.ip in the one 
 and from, the degrees of the other, persons who were 
 unwilling to express or imply assent to adopt all that is 
 contained in the Articles of the Church of England. 
 Though somewhat uncertain in its operation through the 
 f ormof subscription required, the test, especially at Oxford, 
 was intended to exclude nonconformists. Moreover the 
 Oxford University Commission (1850—2) found that the 
 manner in which subscription was imposed ' habituated 
 the mind to give a careless assent to truths which it has 
 never considered, and led to sophistry in the interpretation 
 of solemn obligations.' At this combination of exclusive- 
 ness and unreality, just indignation had long been grow- 
 ing. Both the principle and the method of subscription 
 were regarded by very many as mischievous or obsolete. 
 And, from the point of view of the public interest and of the 
 intellectual well-being of the whole community, it was 
 felt that the ancient University foundations must, if they 
 were to remain national, become comprehensive of all sec- 
 tions of the national life. Secondly, the growth of popula- 
 tion and the intellectual and social requirements of modem 
 life necessitated a great enlargement of the opportunities 
 for University training. Thirdly, the movement in favour 
 of admitting women to university education had begun to 
 show its strength. The first of these demands led to the 
 abolition of religious tests at Oxford and Cambridge by 
 the successive Acts of 1852, 1854 and 1871. The second 
 has resulted in the establishment of the following new 
 Universities and University Colleges. 
 
 Owens College, Manchester 1851 
 
 [The Owens College was the first, and for four years the only, member 
 of the Victoria University, which received a charter in 1880. It 
 became the Victoria University of Manchester in 1903.] 
 
74 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 The Durham College of Science, Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne 1871 
 
 [now the Armstrong College. Affiliated to the University of Durham 1871.] 
 
 The Yorkshire College, Leeds 18T4 
 
 [admitted to the Victoria University 1887, and received a charter as the 
 University of Leeds 1904.] 
 
 University College, Bristol 1876 
 
 Firth College, Sheffield 1879 
 
 [re-named University College, Sheffield 1897 ; received a charter as the 
 University of Sheffield 1904.] 
 
 Mason College, Birmingham 1880 
 
 [received a charter as the University of Birmingham 1900.] 
 
 University College, Nottingham 1881 
 
 University College, Liverpool 1882 
 
 [admitted to the Victoria University 1884, and received a charter as the 
 University of Liverpool 1903.] 
 
 University College, Reading 1892 
 
 [first called the University Extension College.] 
 
 Royal Albert Memorial College, Exeter 1893 
 
 [first called the Technical and University Extension College.] 
 
 University of London, re-organised 1900 
 
 Hartley University College, Southampton, re- 
 organised in 1902 
 
 A corresponding development of University work has 
 taken place in Wales. 
 
 St. David's College, Lampeter, founded 1827 
 
 The University College of Wales, Aberystwyth 1872 
 
 The University College of South Wales, Cardiff 1883 
 
 The University College of North Wales, Bangor 1884 
 
 The University of Wales, established 1893 
 
 [in which are incorporated the three University Colleges mentioned 
 
 above.] 
 
 The third movement, that for the University Education 
 of Women, has led to the establishment of the following 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 75 
 
 colleges. Tlie table also shows the dates at which women 
 were admitted to degrees at the Universities of London, 
 Durham and Wales and in the Victoria University, and 
 to University Examinations (without the right to proceed 
 to degrees) at Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 Queens College, London, founded 1848 
 
 Bedford College, London, founded 1849 
 
 Girton College, established at Hitchin 1869 
 
 „ „ moved to Cambridge 1872 
 
 Newnham College, Cambridge, founded 1871 
 
 [Degrees of London University open to women 1878] 
 
 Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, founded 1879 
 
 Somerville College, Oxford, founded 1879 
 
 [Degrees of Victoria University open to women 1880] 
 [Women admitted to all Honour examinations 
 
 for degree of B.A. at Cambridge 1881] 
 
 [Women admitted to Honour Moderations and 
 Final Honour Schools of Mathematics, 
 Science and Modern History at Oxford . . . 1884] 
 
 St. Hugh's Hall, Oxford, founded 1886 
 
 Royal HoUoway College, Egham, founded ... 1887 
 [All degrees and offices in the University of 
 
 Wales open to women equally with men. . . 1893] 
 Women admitted to remaining examinations 
 
 for B. A., including Pass Schools, at Oxford 1894 
 Degrees in the University of Durham opened 
 
 to Women 1895 
 
 From the year 1845 the term University Extension came 
 into common use. It described a number of plans for in- 
 creasing the usefulness of the Universities, for enlarging 
 the number of their students or for establishing new centres 
 of academic instruction and influence. It was applied to 
 the proposals made in 1845 by a very influential body of 
 memorialists that the University of Oxford should extend 
 
76 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 its benefits to a greater number of promising young men 
 of narrow means. It was used by the Manchester Guardian 
 in 1846 to describe tbe purpose of John Owens' legacy for 
 higher education in Manchester. In 1850 it was employed 
 by Mr. "William Sewell of Oxford in a further sense. 
 "Though it may be impossible," he wrote, "to bring the 
 masses requiring education to the University, may it not be 
 possible to carry the University to them ? Yes^ and at first 
 by way of experiment, professorships and lectureships might 
 be founded say at Manchester and Birmingham, the great 
 centres of manufacturing districts and in the midst of the 
 densest population . . . By degrees the system might be ex- 
 tended through the whole country and similar institutions 
 might be planted in the principal towns in convenient dis- 
 tricts such as Norwich, Exeter, Leeds, Canterbury, New- 
 castle, etc. Cambridge, of course, would take its own share 
 of the work. By originating such a comprehensive scheme, 
 the Universities would become, as they ought to be, the 
 great centres and springs of education throughout the 
 country and would command the sympathy and affection of 
 the nation at large, without sacrificing or compromising 
 any principle which they are bound to maintain. ^ 
 
 Mr. Sewell's plan, suggested perhaps by John Owens' 
 legacy (1846) for a University in Manchester and by the 
 permanent engagement of itinerant lecturers by some of 
 the Unions of Mechanics Institutions (1837 onwards), was 
 not adopted at the time. Nor was a similar suggestion 
 made at Cambridge in 1855 by Lord Arthur Hervey (after- 
 wards Bishop of Bath and Wells) in his pamphlet " A Sug- 
 gestion for supplying the Literary, Scientific and Mech- 
 anics' Institutions of Great Britain and Ireland with 
 lecturers from the Universities." But the establishment 
 
 1. "Suggestions for the Extension of the University," by W. Sewell, 
 B.D. Oxford, 1850. 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 77 
 
 of the University Local Examinations at Oxford in 1857 
 and at Cambridge in 1858 produced administrative mach.- 
 inery wMch was subsequently used for the purpose, of 
 arranging courses of lectures in different centres under the 
 supervision of one or other of the Universities. The 
 founder of the University Extension lecture system was 
 Mr. James Stuart. As a young Fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, he received in 1867 an invitation from an asso- 
 ciation of ladies in the North of England, of which Mrs. 
 Josephine Butler was President, and Miss A. J. Clough 
 the Secretary, to deliver some lectures to them. ' Vexed 
 with the insufficiency of the single lecture system which 
 had prevailed in connection with Mechanics' Institutes and 
 Literary Societies,' he planned a course of lectures which 
 was given at Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester and Sheffield. 
 In these courses Mr. Stuart used a printed syllabus and 
 invited his hearers to send him weekly written exercises. 
 The first feature, suggested by the practice of Professor 
 Ferrier of Edinburgh, was devised as a lesson in note 
 taking. The second was a means of escaping from the 
 ordeal, dreaded by the lecturer and his hearers, of oral 
 questioning. Mr. Stuart suggested that the organisation 
 of similar courses should be taken in hand by the Univer- 
 sity. Successful lectures to the railway men at Crewe and 
 to the co-operators at Rochdale, led him to hope that the 
 plan of University Extension Lectures might be adopted 
 in populous centres for the benefit of working-class 
 audiences. In 1871 Mr. Stuart appealed to the University 
 of Cambridge to adopt the scheme and to organise lecture- 
 centres as well a^ examination-centres. In 1872 the 
 University appointed a syndicate to investigate the sub- 
 ject. In the following year the syndicate reported in 
 favour of trying Mr. Stuart's plan. The University of 
 Cambridge thus led the way, and was followed by the 
 
78 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 London University Extension Society in 1876 and by the 
 University of Oxford in 1878. Since tliat time the system 
 has been adopted by the other English Universities as a 
 part of their work. The distinctive method of University 
 Extension teaching is the lecture forming part of a con- 
 nected course and followed by a class for conversational 
 teaching. A printed syllabus is issued in connexion with 
 each course for the guidance of the students. At the end 
 of the course there is usually an examination, entrance to 
 which is optional and according to the results of which 
 certificates are granted by the University authorities. A 
 travelling library of books is generally sent out in con- 
 nexion with each course. For the last 19 years Summer 
 meetings of University Extension and other students have 
 been annually held at Oxford or Cambridge (once each in 
 London and Exeter). The first Summer meeting was 
 held in Oxford in 1888. A system of affiliation, originated 
 at Cambridge, has done much in a few places to secure 
 continuity of work. The success of the University Exten- 
 sion courses has on the whole been well-sustained. Many 
 men of high intellectual distinction have been members 
 of the teaching staff. The influence of the chief lecturers 
 has been deservedly great. The audiences are representa- 
 tive of all sections of the community. Among the 
 students, women are in a majority. In a considerable 
 number of places, co-operative societies and other organisa- 
 tions of working men have supported the courses. 
 
 The defects of the system lie upon the surface. They 
 consist in the frequent discontinuity between the subject 
 of one course of lectures and the next; in the often pre- 
 carious dependence of the work upon the fluctuating re- 
 sources of the local committees; and in the lack of sys- 
 tematic classwork in the less effectively organised centres. 
 These defects are serious but the University Exten- 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 79 
 
 sion courses, through the devotion and ability of the chief 
 lecturers and the strenuous exertions of many of the honor- 
 ary local organisers, have been a potent influence for good 
 in nearly every part of England. Their function has been 
 in the main stimulative, but they have elicited much 
 hidden talent and have given encouragement and guidance 
 to very large numbers of isolated students. They have been 
 especially effective in diffusing instruction in historical 
 and literary subjects and have been an important factor in 
 checking the tendency towards a narrow and too utilitarian 
 view of adult education. In many provincial towns, 
 especially during the earlier years of the work, they 
 brought together for the first time for an educational 
 purpose sections of the community which had been pre- 
 viously unaccustomed or unwilling to cooperate. Thus at 
 a critical time the University Extension courses and the 
 work involved in their local organisation were of service 
 in promoting greater unity of social effort, especially among 
 different sections of the middle classes. In some cases, 
 notably in Sheffield, Nottingham, Reading and Exeter the 
 University Extension courses, combined with the move- 
 ment for science teaching and technical instruction, have 
 led directly to the establishment of permanent institutions 
 for higher education. In a variety of ways, the local lec- 
 tures and the Summer Meetings have formed new links 
 between the Universities and large sections of the non- 
 academic part of the nation. Apart from their directly 
 educational influence, the University extension lectures 
 and classes have been one, and not the least important, 
 of the causes which have produced in England a changed 
 attitude of mind towards University work and a new sense 
 of its value as an element in national life. 
 
 The University Settlements in the poorer districts of 
 the great towns form another and equally important. 
 
80 PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND 
 
 though in sortie respects a distinct, part of the movement 
 for University Extension. It is in the labours of F. D. 
 Maurice and his Christian Socialist friends in London 
 from 1848 onwards that the starting point of this wider 
 ideal of the possibilities and responsibilities of University- 
 influence may be found. But the systematic organisation 
 of Settlement work in its modern form is due to the 
 devotion of Canon and Mrs. Barnett who in 1884 conceived 
 the idea of the settlement in Whitechapel which carries 
 on the influence of Arnold Toynbee and bears his name. 
 From this beginning and through the work of Oxford 
 House in Bethnal Green and other institutions, the organ- 
 isation of Settlements for social and educational work in 
 poor districts of great cities, and for the close and practical 
 study of the economic and social problems which there 
 arise, has spread widely in Great Britain and America, and 
 has greatly helped in giving reality and method, as well as 
 sympathetic insight and practical idealism, to sociological 
 inquiry. 
 
 (9) Free Public Libraries and the National Home 
 Reading Union. 
 
 In the further education of the great majority of adult 
 students, especially those of narrow means, an indispens- 
 able service has been rendered by the Free Public 
 Libraries. The first instance in England of a library 
 supported by a Town Council out of rates was that of the 
 library at the Warrington Museum, which was founded in 
 1848. In its establishment Edward Edwards was assisted 
 by William Ewart, M.P. for Dumfries who, in 1849, 
 secured the appointment by the House of Commons of a 
 Select Committee to report upon the best means of extend- 
 ing the establishment of libraries freely open to the 
 
HOME READING UNION 8i 
 
 public, especially in large towns in Great Britain and 
 Ireland. This Committee was impressed by the rich pro- 
 vision of libraries in Germany as compared with the 
 very inadequate provision in Great Britain. The Public 
 Libraries Act introduced by Mr. Ewart passed into 
 law in 1850 and gave power to certain districts to 
 establish free libraries and tO' tax the inhabitants for 
 the purpose. In 1852 Manchester led the way in 
 taking advantage of Ewart's Act. Liverpool and 
 Birmingham opened libraries in 1860, but for many years 
 the spread of public libraries was slow. In 1870 only 
 about 50 places in the United Kingdom had adopted the 
 Public Libraries Acts. But the trend of opinion in favour 
 of library extension was strengthened by the social and 
 intellectual change gradually brought about by the opera- 
 tion of the Elementary Education Acts. 
 
 In England, as compared with many parts of the United 
 States, comparatively little has yet been done to bring the 
 work of the free public libraries into organic connexion 
 with the elementary and secondary schools and with the 
 continuation classes. But during the last few years strik- 
 ing efforts have been made in many places to establish this 
 necessary and fruitful connexion. Mr. J. J. Ogle has 
 pointed out^ that the first effort to make the free public 
 library more useful to children appears to have been made 
 in 1865 at Birkenhead, where Mr. Richard Hinton was 
 librarian. The first free public library authority to estab- 
 lish direct relationship with the public elementary schools 
 was that of Leeds where branch libraries were established 
 in the schools from 1884 onwards. The Plymouth Library 
 Committee followed in 1888 and Norwich in 1889. Since 
 
 1. Article on the " Connection between the Public Library and the 
 Public Elementary School" in Special Beports on Educational Subjects. 
 Vol ii. Wyman and Sons, 1898. 
 
82 PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND 
 
 that time the raovement has spread widely, and important 
 service has been rendered to it by Mr. John Ballinger, 
 Librarian of the Borough of Cardiff; and by Mr. Ogle, 
 as Librarian at Bootle. The methods which have been 
 adopted are (1) the temporary deposit in school buildings 
 of special libraries, the contents of which are changed 
 from time to time ; (2) the " school deliveries " of books to 
 individual scholars in accordance with the latter's requisi- 
 tion; (3) special facilities for the teachers for borrowing 
 books needed by them in the preparation of their work, 
 and (4) the arrangement of special lessons for small classes 
 of children in the library itself , the object being to interest 
 the children in the history of books and of printing, and 
 to acquaint them with the chief books in carefully selected 
 departments of literature. Encouragement has also been 
 given to the individual reading of the scholars by the 
 provision of small reference libraries in some of the class- 
 rooms. In this way the pupils are trained in the use of 
 works , of reference and are helped to form the habit of 
 self direction in their studies. Elementary education 
 in England has consisted too largely in oral instruction 
 given by the teacher to rows of listening pupils. This has 
 resulted partly from the false economy of large classes, 
 and partly through the persistence of the theory 
 that the teacher is mainly a conduit^pipe through which 
 information pours out upon the scholars. But encourage- 
 ment has wisely now been given to greater initiative on 
 the part of the pupils, both in practical work and in 
 literary studies. 
 
 The closer connexion between the free public libraries 
 and the schools has been furthered by the establishment 
 of the National Home Reading Unioni which was founded 
 
 1. Office, Surrey House, Victoria Embankment, London, W.C. 
 
HOME READING UNION 83 
 
 in 1887 at the suggestion of Dr. Paton of Nottingham. 
 The objects it had in view were : 
 
 (i) To stimulate, encourage and direct home reading in 
 such a way as to make home reading educational in the 
 truest sense of the word. 
 
 (ii) To give definiteness, continuity, and system to home 
 reading, alid to adapt it to the divers needs and tastes of 
 readers. 
 
 (iii) To give all practical help, in the most economical 
 and efficient way, to those who engage in such reading. 
 
 (iv) By means of local unions, or associations of readers, 
 and the influences of a large organization, as well as by 
 personal sympathy, to sustain the interest and confirm the 
 purpose of all who undertake a regular course of home 
 reading, and to unite them in honourable and helpful 
 fellowship with each other. 
 
 The Union has given guidance of considerable value to 
 many different categories of students. Its monthly maga- 
 zines (Special Courses Magazine, General Course Magazine) 
 contain a series of articles by scholars of distinction. These 
 writers have developed the happy knack of dealing with 
 their difficult subjects in a way helpful to isolated readers, 
 especially to those who have had little systematic prelim- 
 inary training. Lists of books are issued by the Union, 
 some of which are required to be read in connection with 
 the articles in the magazines. Others are recommended as 
 supplementary or illustrative. A third section of the list 
 names those books of reference which should be available 
 in public libraries for the use of students requiring fuller 
 information on special points. Reading circles are formed 
 consisting of any number of persons who undertake to read 
 the same course at home and to meet at convenient intervals 
 in order to talk over their reading, and to discuss essays 
 prepared in connection with it. Courses of reading are 
 
84 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 arranged in sevenal grades, viz : The Young People's Sec- 
 tion, the General Section, and the Special Courses. Tutorial 
 help and correspondence teaching are offered to individual 
 readers. Summer assemblies for lectures on the Chaut- 
 auqua plan are held annually at some attractive resort. 
 The local organisers of the Union invite the co-operation of 
 the teachers in the different grades of schools and of the 
 librarian of the free public library. In the latter a room 
 is sometimes provided for the meetings of reading 
 circles. The Board of Education has given strong support 
 to the work of the National Home Reading Union, and has 
 issued circular letters to all Educational Committees in 
 England and Wales recommending the adoption of the 
 methods of the Union in connection with schools and public 
 libraries. About a hundred public libraries are joined in 
 honorary membership with the Union. Under the Educa- 
 tion Committee of the London County Council about two 
 hundred reading circles are at work. The Manchester 
 Education Committee have introduced National Home 
 Reading circles into their schools, and circles are also 
 carried on under the County Councils of Gloucestershire, 
 Norfolk and Middlesex, and the Education Authorities of 
 Leicester, Halifax, Nottingham and other towns. 
 
 III. 
 (1) Boy's and Girls' Bkigades. 
 These associations are organised upon a voluntary basis. 
 They are of a patriotic or philanthropic character. Their 
 chief purpose is to promote steadiness of character and the 
 habit of loyal co-operation among boys or girls during the 
 years of adolescence. One (the National Service League, 
 with which is incorporated the Lads' Drill Association) is 
 distinctively patriotic in its purpose. The others are pri- 
 marily religious, but two of them (the Boys' Brigade and 
 the Church Lads' Brigade) make use of military organisa- 
 
BOYS' BRIGADES 85 
 
 and drill as a means of securing the interest of the boys and 
 developing their sense of discipline. The Boys' and Girls' 
 Life Brigades lay emphasis on the saving of life. The drill 
 of which they make use is not associated with the use of 
 arms, but directed towards training the members in the 
 means of saving life from fire, drowning or other accident. 
 The Boys' League of Honour and the Guild of Courtesy, 
 both of which, like the Boys' and Girls' Life Brigades, owe 
 their origin to Dr. Paton of Nottingham, belong to a differ- 
 ent category. They aim at a definite kind of moral training 
 and at placing before children and young people an ideal 
 of conduct. Membership of these associations can be com- 
 bined with service in one or other of the Brigades men- 
 tioned above. 
 
 All the associations here grouped together under the 
 heading Boys' Brigades make use of drill, whether military 
 or other, as a means of getting hold of boys during the 
 critical period between boyhood and manhood and of 
 training them in citizenship. In one case only is there a 
 Brigade for girls as well as for boys. 
 
 (1) The oldest is the Boys' Brigade, founded in 1883. 
 Its headquarters are in Glasgow (162, Buchanan Street) 
 but it has branches all over the United Kingdom and the 
 work has spread to the United States, Denmark, and many 
 of the Colonies, as well as to India, Ceylon, China and 
 Japan. The aim is definitely religious — " The object of 
 the Brigade shall be the advancement of Christ's Kingdom 
 among boys, and the formation of habits of obedience, 
 reverence, discipline, self-respect and all that tends to- 
 wards a true Christian manliness," but, though every 
 company must be officially connected with a church, 
 mission or other Christian organisation, the work is not 
 limited to the members of any particular denomination. 
 "Military organisation and drill are used as a means of 
 
86 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 securing the interest of the toys, banding them together 
 in the work of the Brigade and promoting among, them 
 such habits as the Brigade is designed to form/ but 
 military drill is not the only means employed to attain 
 the objects of the association. In addition to the definitely 
 religious agencies — Bible Classes, Sunday Services, Church 
 Parades, etc., — athletic clubs of various kinds (football, 
 cricket, swimming, gymnastics) have been formed in con- 
 nexion with most of the companies ; ambulance classes 
 are held; there are bands, reading rooms, and boys' 
 libraries; and Summer Camps are organised and are be- 
 coming every year more popular. In 1905-6, the total 
 number of boys (ages 12 to 17) enrolled in the United 
 Kingdom was 53,486. The number of companies was 
 1,237 and the total enrolment, including officers and staff- 
 sergeants, amounted to 60,612. 
 
 (2) The Church Lads' Brigade, which has its head- 
 quarters in London (13, Craven Street, Charing Cross), 
 was founded in 1891, with aims very similar to those of 
 the Boys' Brigade. Its first object, as set forth in its 
 constitution, is expressed in almost the same words : " The 
 advancement of Christ's Kingdom among lads of all 
 classes, the promotion of reverence, discipline, self-respect 
 and all that tends towards true Christian manliness," and 
 the means to be used towar.ds this end are (a) military 
 organisation and drill, and (6) religious, educational and 
 recreative agencies. The desire is to provide for lads of 
 the class whose regular school education necessarily ends 
 when they are from 12 to 14 years of age, an organisation 
 which, in some measure, may be ,to them in their after 
 lives what the Public School is to boys more fortunately 
 situated. Discipline, comradeship, and healthy physical 
 
 1. Constitution of the Boys' Brigade, "The Boys' Brigade Manual," 
 1906. 
 
BOYS' BRIGADES 87 
 
 exercises are recognised to be necessities for all growing 
 boys, and tbese tb© Cburcb Lads' Brigade (wbicb is open to 
 boys from 13 to 19 years of age) seeks to secure for those 
 whose circumstances oblige them to become wage-earners 
 before they have grown to be men. As in the case of the 
 Boys' Brigade, clubs of various kinds are organised, bands 
 are started and Summer Camps are popular. The Church 
 Lads' Brigade, as its name implies, is a definitely Church 
 of England organisation, and is worked on diocesan lines, 
 the aim being to train its members " to be loyal Church- 
 men, regular churchgoers and communicants." In ■ 1907 
 there were 1,145 companies in the Unitfed Kingdom and 
 112 in the Colonies. 
 
 (3) The Lads' Drill Association -w&a founded in 1899, 
 but incorporated in 1906 with the National Service League 
 (see below). It differed from the Boys' Brigade and the 
 Church Lads' Brigade in that it advocated physical and 
 military training, not as a means to a religious, but to a 
 patriotic, end. The object of the Association was simply 
 " Systematic Physical and Military Training of all British 
 Lads." In his introduction to the annual report for 1904, 
 the Chairman, Lord Meath, speaking of the aims of the 
 Association, said that, while not advocating conscription; 
 it endeavoured " to point out the absolute necessity and to 
 emphasise the importance, if the Empire is to be main- 
 tained, of training to arms, during the educative portion of 
 their lives, the entire male youth of the British race, con- 
 fident that in time of real danger the great mass would 
 voluntarily offer their services to the State." Such training, 
 he points out, while not hindering lads from learning a 
 trade, " would be of inestimable advantage in reforming 
 the loafing elements to be found. amongst all classes, and 
 would implant in the youthful mind a respect for the manly 
 virtues which tend towards the manufacture of good and 
 
88 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 useful citizens." The first object of tlie Association was to 
 improve the physical training given in Elementary Schools 
 by obtaining for those responsible for its organisation the 
 help and guidance of an authorised curriculum, and the 
 Model Course of Physical Training, issued by the Board 
 of Education in 1902, and revised in 1904, was largely the 
 result of its efforts. The second aim was the military 
 training of elder lads, both those of the working classes who 
 have left or are about to leave school, and those who are still 
 at secondary schools. 
 
 The National Service League (72 Victoria Street, 
 London, S.W.), with which the Lads' Drill Association was 
 incorporated in 1906, has the following objects : 
 
 (1) To ensure peace and security for the British 
 Empire by organising our Land Forces in such a manner 
 that we may not only be able to defend successfully any 
 portion of the Empire against attack, but also that the 
 strength of our defensive arrangements may render any 
 attack improbable. 
 
 (2) To improve the moral and physical condition of 
 the nation and thereby to increase its industrial 
 efficiency. 
 
 With a view to attaining these two objects, th« League 
 advocates that, subject to certain exemptions to be defined 
 by law, including those necessary to provide for the re- 
 quirements of the Navy and the Mercantile Marine : 
 
 Every man of sound physique, without distinction of 
 
 class, shall be legally liable during certain years of his 
 
 life to be called upon for service in the United Kingdom 
 
 in case of emergency. 
 
 In order to fit hiin for this duty he shall be legally 
 
 obliged to undergo three or four months' military 
 
 training when he arrives at the military age. 
 
 But the League holds that this limited amount of train- 
 
BOYS' BRIGADES 89 
 
 ing can only be effective if as much military instruction as 
 possible bas been given to all boys previous to their reach- 
 ing the military age. Such instructional training will, it 
 maintains, have a beneficial effect on the moral and physi- 
 cal condition of the population at large. 
 For this purpose the League recommends : 
 
 The development of a spirit of patriotism and duty 
 towards the country in all boys at school. This is 
 already done in some of our Colonies, in the United 
 States, and in sevelral Continental countries. 
 
 Universal physical training of a military character, 
 and instruction in the use of the rifle, as part of the 
 curriculum of all schools ; and — in the case of boys who 
 leave school before eighteen — the continuation of this 
 training, up to that age, in cadet corps, boys' brigades, 
 and similar institutions, under State supervision. 
 
 The encouragement of rifle clubs, and the endeavour 
 to make rifle shooting a national sport. 
 (4) The Boys' Life Brigade, (Office: 56 Old Bailey, 
 London, B.C.) makes use of drill as a means of religious 
 and moral training, but it is distinguished from all 
 the associations hitherto nlentioned by the fact that 
 it has adopted as its main principle the idea of Life 
 Saving, and that it avoids the use of military drill. 
 " The objects of the Brigade," says its constitution, " are 
 to lead our boys to the service of Christ ; to train them for 
 an active, disciplined, and useful manhood ; and to pro- 
 mote habits of self-respect, obedience, courtesy and help- 
 fulness to others, and all that makes for a manly Christian 
 character. These objects shall be sought chiefly by means 
 of drill — not associated with the use of arms, but with 
 instruction and exercises in the saving of life from fire, 
 from drowning, and from aceident," and these objects are 
 further explained in the following words. " It is intended 
 
90 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 that the physical training given in the different kinds of 
 drill should thus prepare for helpful service to others, 
 whilst imparting healthful vigour to the body and giving 
 the moral discipline which comes from the obedience and 
 self-regard and mutual trust necessary in effective drill. 
 The whole principle and tone of the Brigade is Life- 
 saving." The Brigade is affiliated: with the Sunday 
 School Union, the Union Council being also the 
 Brigade Council, and it is recommended that the 
 Boys' Life Brigade should be everywhere associated with a 
 Christian Church or some other religious organisation, so as 
 to ensure, amongst other things, that definite religious and 
 moral instruction shall be given to the boys. The main 
 object is to supplement and develop the work of the Sunday 
 School, and it is a fundamental principle of the Brigade 
 that, after joining the Company, a boy must attend either 
 Sunday School or Company Bible Class. Boys from 12 
 to 17 years of age are eligible for enrolment as members of 
 the Brigade, but boys under 12 may be admitted as cadets 
 to a special section of a company, and membership after 17 
 is allowed in special circumstances. The subjects of com- 
 pany instruction are Marching (Squad Drill), Gymnastics 
 and Stretcher Drill, Life Saving — to save from water. Life 
 Saving — to save from fire, Hygiene and First Aid, i;he 
 first half hour being always devoted to drill or to gym- 
 nastics and the rest of the meeting to such of the other 
 subjects of instruction as the company may elect to take 
 up. In the last annual report it is stated that compara- 
 tively few companies take only one subject. Most take two 
 - — Squad Drill and First Aid, and Fire Drill and Swimming 
 and Life Saving from water are taken up in an increasing 
 number of cases. A Summer Camp is now: frequently an 
 integral part of company work. 
 
 (5) The Girls' Life Brigade, (Office 56 Old Bailey, 
 
RECREATIVE EVENING SCHOOLS 91 
 
 London, E.G.) lias aims almost identical with those of the 
 Boys' Life Brigade. "The aims of the .Brigade are to 
 awaken in our girls a sense of their responsibility in life, to 
 help them to make the very best use of their powers of body 
 and mind., and so to train them to be capable and useful 
 women. The discipline of the Brigade will encourage habits 
 of punctuality and promptitude, self-respect, courtesy and 
 helpfulness to others ; physical drill of various kinds will 
 develop the body ; and lessons in first-aid, sick-nursing, and 
 life-saving will impart knowledge requisite in times of 
 emergency. The Bible-class and the personal influence of 
 the officers in each Company will, it is believed, induce the 
 girls to concentrate all their powers to the service of God." 
 The same subjects of company instruction are used as 
 means to these ends, with the important addition of sick- 
 nursing, and there is the same close connexion with the 
 Sunday School. Girls over 10 years of age are eligible for 
 enrolment as members. 
 
 In April, 1906, the total enrolment in the Boys' Life 
 Brigade, including officers and cadets, was 8,485 (7,648 
 members, on roll, 726 cadets on roll, and 781 officers). In 
 the Girls' Life Brigade, the total enrolment was, at the 
 same date, 1,363 (1,21,5 members on roll, and 148 officers). 
 
 (6) The Boys' League of Honour (Hon. Sec, Mrs. H. E. 
 Norton, " Recorder " offices, Ilf ord, Essex) is of quite 
 recent foundation. It seeks to strengthen a boys' instinc- 
 tive admiration for courage, truth, self-command, fair- 
 play and chivalry. 
 
 (2) The Receeative Evening Schools' Association. 
 
 This Association (office : 37 Norfolk Street, Strand, 
 London) owes its existence to Dr. Baton, of Nottingham, 
 a pioneer in the movements for the improvement of 
 
92 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 English Continuation Schools, who for more than twenty- 
 years has impressed their social significance and value 
 upon public attention. 
 
 The objects of the Association are : 
 
 (1) To encourage and attract those boys and girls who 
 have left the Public Elementary Day Schools to con- 
 tinue their education at Evening Schools, opened under 
 Government Inspection, and for this purpose to en- 
 courage Recreative and Practical Instruction. 
 
 (2) To utilise as far as possible Elementary Schools 
 and other buildings for the establishment of Evening 
 Homes for working women and girls, and Clubs and 
 Institutes for working men and boys. 
 
 (3) To stimulate public opinion and Yoluntary and 
 State effort towards the promotion of the industrial and 
 social well-being of the people by all such means as 
 come within the scope of the Association. 
 
 The Association seeks to promote Continuation Schools 
 of a Practical and Recreative kind throughout the whole 
 country for those who have left the Elementary Schools, 
 so as to prevent the loss of the benefits of early training, 
 to shield them from the perils of the streets at night, and 
 by suitable classes to fit them for the work of life. 
 
 The subjects include Elementary Science, Object Lessons, 
 Lantern Teaching of History and Geography, Vocal 
 Music, Drawing, Manual Instruction, Hygiene and 
 Gymnastic Exercises, with Cookery, Laundry, and Dress- 
 making for Girls. 
 
 Other branches of its work are : 
 
 (1) Homes for Working Girls, open every evening for 
 rest, recreation, and instruction in useful and pleasant 
 subjects. 
 
 (2) Social Institutes for "Working Lads and Men, pro- 
 viding social, recreative, and educational opportunities 
 
RECREATIVE EVENING SCHOOLS 93 
 
 to lads over 16, and meeting places for Clubs and Pro- 
 vident and Benefit Societies. 
 
 Tlie work of the Eecreative Evening Schools' Associa- 
 tion dates back to the time of the deliberations of the 
 Royal Commission appointed in 1886 to inquire into the 
 working of the Elementary Education Acts in England 
 and Wales. Many of the witnesses who gave evidence 
 before the Commission testified to a serious falling off 
 in the success of the evening schools. They were reported 
 to be a failure in Birmingham, and to be unsuccessful in 
 Salford and Bradford. In London there were 10,000 
 names on the evening school registers, with an average 
 attendance of 7,000. 
 
 The chief caiises assigned for the decrease and compara- 
 tive failure of the schools were the insufficient encourage- 
 ment given, by the Education Department and the want of 
 freedom both as to classification and subjects of instruction. 
 " We tried," said Mr. Burges, " very hard inside the 
 Birmingha.m Board, when I was on it, to get the Education 
 Department to give grants to night schools without 
 obliging us to go into elementary subjects; and when they 
 refused it, our night schools were knocked in the head." 
 
 The weight of evidence was in favour of a special 
 curriculum for evening schools. The instruction, it was 
 urged, should have a more direct bearing upon the 
 practical duties of life. The pupils should be allowed 
 to take drawing, modelling, shorthand, bookkeeping, etc. 
 The importance of physical exercises from the point of 
 view both of health and morals was emphasised. Opinions 
 were divided as to the advisability of making evening 
 schools compulsory. Some witnesses were very strongly 
 for it, others were equally strong against it. 
 
 Several drew attention to the good moral effects of even- 
 ing schools. Dr. Paton gave evidence on behalf of the 
 
94 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 Eecreative Evening Schools' Association, and laid great 
 stress on this point. He attributed the success which had 
 been achieved to the discipline and bright tone of a good 
 night school, and to the carrying on of the training begun 
 in the day school to a period when it becomes effective in 
 the character of the scholar. He was also of opinion 
 that the night school exercised " a most important social 
 civilising influence," but that much of this influence had 
 been lost since 1870. 
 
 The conclusion of the majority of the Commissioners 
 was thus expressed in the report issued in 1888 : — " Upon 
 the whole we axe decidedly of opinion that the evening 
 school system should be thoroughly revised; that special 
 schedules of standards and subjects should be allowed, 
 suited to the needs of the locality; that local managers 
 should be encouraged to submit such schedules to the 
 Department for approval; that any such provision as that 
 embodied in the present Code, which requires all scholars 
 to pass in the three elementary subjects, as a condition 
 for taking up additional subjects, should cease to be 
 enforced, and that no superior limit of age should be 
 imposed on the scholars. While we believe that the 
 success of evening schools will largely depend upon great 
 freedom being given to the managers and teachers of such 
 schools, the Department should take ample security for 
 their educational efficiiency. If this were done, a larger 
 proportion of the grant might be iixed, and less made to 
 depend on the results of individual examination. In our 
 opinion, the evening schools of the future should be 
 regarded and organised chiefly as schools for maiiitaining 
 and continuing the education already received in the day 
 school, but, for some years to come, it will be necessary 
 in many places, to repeat in the evening school, in greater 
 
RECREATIVE EVENING SCHOOLS 95 
 
 or less proportion, the course of instruction, previously 
 given in the day school." ^ 
 
 A minority report was signed by the Hon. E. Lyulph 
 Stanley (now Lord Stanley of Alderley), Dr. R. W. Dale, 
 Mr. T. E. Heller, Mr. Henry Eichard and Mr. George 
 Shipton. While heartily agreeing in the recommenda- 
 tions of the majority as to evening schools, they re- 
 commended that in the re-organisation Of the evening 
 school system the following points should be kept in view : 
 
 1. The desire and need of young people for healthy 
 physical exercises should be kept in view, both from the 
 point of view of training the body and of moral discipline. 
 Calisthenics and musical drill would be attractive to 
 scholars. 
 
 2. The methods and subjects should be such as to 
 awaken the interest of the pupils and give them pleasure 
 in the pursuit of knowledge. Teaching should be largely 
 oral, and given in connection with real objects, and should 
 in many cases have direct bearing on the scholars' own 
 lives and employments. 
 
 3. The education should be in an elementary sense 
 technical. One way to secure the interest of the scholars 
 is to make clear the benefit they derive from learning. 
 In addition to drawing, art handwork would be attractive 
 both to boys and girls. " By these means they could be 
 trained to dexterity of hand, accuracy of sight and touch, 
 and to the perception and enjoyment of neat workmanship 
 and beautiful form." 
 
 4. The course of reading should be ' such as to fill the 
 naind and imagination with noble examples of duty, and 
 music should be taught to elevate the taste and prepare 
 the scholars to enjoy in their home life or elsewhere the 
 pure pleasure which song can impart. It should be 
 
 1. " Final Eeport," pp. 162-4. For the subsequent adoption of those 
 suggestions by the Government, see 62 — 64 above. 
 
96 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 remembered that some scliolars come to tlie evening scliool 
 desiring, not so much systematic continuation of their 
 education, as to supplement some special deficiency of 
 which they are conscious. 
 
 " The evening school should have regard to the whole 
 nature and circumstances of those who attend them."^ 
 
 These farseeing words have borne a good deal of fruit. 
 And in keeping this humane ideal of continuation school 
 work before the public, the Eecreative Evening Schools' 
 Association has done a useful work. 
 
 (3) The Co-opeeative Holidays Association. ^ 
 
 The aim of the Co-operative Holidays Association is 
 similar to that of the National Home Reading Union ; it 
 provides facilities to busy men and women for continuing 
 their education throughout life. But it ofiers these facili- 
 ties in a rather different way. As the name would indicate 
 the recreational and social aims of the Association are 
 more important than the provision of actual instruction, 
 and it would not be too much to say that the true educa- 
 tional value of the movement lies in the combination of all 
 three aims. 
 
 The history of the Association can be briefly told. Mr. 
 T. Arthur Leonard, the present General Secretary, was the 
 founder of it. The first step was taken in 1887 with 
 the formation of a rambling club of the Men's Guild 
 attached to the Congregational Church at Colne, of which 
 church Mr. Leonard was at that time the Pastor. During 
 the next nine years the movement expanded steadily, 
 Saturday afternoon walks developed into annual excur- 
 sions into the Lake District or North Wales. These ex- 
 
 1. "Final Report," pp. 323-4. 
 
 2. This section of the chapter is the work of Messrs. Peter Sandiford 
 and Arthur L. Dakyns. 
 
CO-OPERATIVE HOLIDAYS 
 
 97 
 
 peditions occupied three or four days and were at first only 
 undertaken once in the year. With the growth of their 
 popularity they became more fre^^uent. Women as well 
 as men, and finally people of all denominations and creeds, 
 were allowed to join. In 1896 a great advance was made. 
 As early as 1887 the club had been given a constitution 
 and a name ; in 1896 an affiliation with the National Home 
 Reading Union took place which led to a great extension 
 of the Co-operative Holiday idea and the foundation of a 
 national movement. Dr. Paton of Nottingham was one 
 of the pioneers of the society at this time. In 1899 a 
 limited liability company was formed among the members 
 to purchase a guest-house — ^Ardenconnel at Row on the 
 shores of the Gareloch. Hitherto the financial respon- 
 sibility of the society involved in the renting and upkeep 
 of guest-houses had been borne by a voluntary association 
 of members; at the present time a small company with a 
 capital of £5,000 (most of which carries a deferred lia- 
 bility) affords security for the renting of guest-houses and 
 any other financial schemes which the society may have in 
 view. The dividend is limited to 5 per cent. 
 
 The progress of the Association in recent years has been 
 very rapid. In 1906, 9,282 guests were distributed as 
 follows among the eleven centres : 
 
 Whitby 
 
 Row 
 
 
 
 
 ... 1618 
 .. 1957 
 
 Hayfield 
 Newlands Vale 
 
 
 
 
 .. 1296 
 .. 1057 
 
 Addiscombe ... 
 
 
 
 
 .. 503 
 
 Bangor 
 
 Portballintrae 
 
 
 
 
 .. 437 
 .. 600 
 
 Boscastle 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 382 
 
 Dublin 
 
 
 
 
 .. 329 
 
 St. Luc (Switzerla 
 The Volcanic Eif( 
 
 nd) '.'.'. 
 
 il (Germ 
 
 any) 
 
 
 .. 651 
 
 .. 452 
 
 Total 
 
 9282 
 
98 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 This shows an increase of 882 guests, or nearly 10 per 
 cent., over the total of the previous year. The Centres or 
 Guest-houses for the present year (1907) are thirteen in num- 
 ber and many new places of interest have been chosen. The 
 Balance Sheet for 1906 shows a turnover of nearly £18,000. 
 
 The organization of the Centres is closely connected with 
 one of the principal aims of the Association — simplicity. 
 The chief members of the staff at each of the eleven 
 centres are the Secretary and the lecturers, who together 
 organize and superintend the daily excursions, two Host- 
 esses whose business it is to look after the female members 
 of the party and a Manageress who superintends all the 
 house-work and catering. With the exception of the last 
 mentioned these helpers give their services practically free. 
 The ordinary house duties are undertaken by specially 
 chosen " domestic helpers," who, while receiving a fair 
 wage for their services, are allowed to spend their spare- 
 time with the other guests and share in the pleasures of the 
 holiday life.'^ The social side of the movement is brought 
 out strongly in these features of the arrangements. The 
 amount of routine work is reduced to a minimum by the 
 encouragement of self-help and social-service ; the work 
 itself is lightened by that absolute disregard of class- 
 distinctions which is one of the vital principles of all the 
 undertakings which the Association organizes. 
 
 Simplicity also gives the key to the recreational ideal of 
 the movement. The object from the beginning has been to 
 offer counter-attractions, in the way of a pure-minded and 
 healthy open air life among companions, to the conven- 
 tional holiday-life spent in crowded seaside resorts. The 
 vantage ground of the new movement has always been the 
 
 1. At one of the centres — Newlands — some domestic-helpers are 
 dispensed with, and the guests share many of the duties among them- 
 selves; with the consequence that the charge at this centre is lower 
 than at any other. 
 
CO-OPERATIVE HOLIDAYS 99 
 
 relatively low price at which health-giving pleasures can 
 be purchased. Understanding. recreation to mean the re- 
 cuperation of the mental and physical faculties, the Asso- 
 ciation attaches great importance to physical exercise. In 
 its last report the Committee urges upon members the de- 
 sirability of putting themselves in training some weeks 
 before the holiday, in order not to be overtired by the long 
 walks. A particularly interesting experiment is being 
 tried this summer at Halesowen. A physical training 
 school has been engaged as the guest-house and the guests 
 will go through a course of physical exercises, swimming 
 lessons, and games all under skilled instruction. The 
 Time-Table for the day is as follows : 
 
 7-0 Bathing — Swimming lesson for men. 
 
 8-30 Breakfast. 
 10-0 Gymnastic and other physical exercises. 
 12-0 Bathing — Swimming lesson for ladies. 
 
 1-0 Lunch. 
 
 2-30 Outdoor games or excursions. 
 
 4-0 Afternoon tea. 
 
 7-0 Dinner. 
 
 9-0 — 10-30 Music or games. 
 
 It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that physical 
 culture pursued for its own sake is the main feature of the 
 holiday life at the various centres. Active open-air life 
 amid beautiful surroundings would be a better description 
 of the recreational side of the movement. . Exercise is 
 looked upon, not only as good in itself, but as a real means 
 of education. 
 
 Nor does the Association neglect the more ordinary 
 methods of instruction. Certain members accompany 
 each holiday party in the character of lecturers, and 
 lectures on any subjects likely to prove of special interest, 
 
100 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 such as botany, archseology, geology, etc., are given daily. 
 Fortnightly Summer Nature-study courses have also been 
 arranged from time to time at various centres, and have 
 been successful in awakening interest in natural philo- 
 sophy. Other courses of lectures are given at different 
 times in the year in connexion with some of the fifteen 
 Rambling Clubs which have been organised by the . 
 Association in different towns. According to the last 
 Report the number of these clubs is steadily increasing. 
 
 One of the chief aims of this branch of the Association's 
 activities is the inculcation of feelings of reverence for 
 natural beauty; and this object is regarded as such an 
 important one that comradeship, simplicity aw^Z Reverence 
 are said to be the three watchwords of the movement. 
 
 The central offices of the Association are at Heathfield, 
 Birch Vale, near Stockport. 
 
 (4) The "Workers' Educational Association. 
 
 The Workers' Educational Association was established 
 in 1903, with the object of promoting the higher education 
 of working men and women. It has had remarkable 
 success in stimulating public interest in the question. It 
 is definitely unsectarian and non-political, and endeavours 
 to carry out its aims by the following principal methods : 
 (a) By arousing the interest of the workers in higlier 
 education, and by directing their attention to the facili- 
 ties already existing. 
 
 (h) By inquiring into the needs and feelings of the 
 workers in regard to education, and by representing 
 them to the Board of Education, Universities, Local 
 Education Authorities, and Educational Institutions. 
 
 (c) By providing, either in conjunction with the 
 aforementioned bodies or otherwise, facilities for studies 
 
WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION loi 
 
 of interest to the workers which may have been hitherto 
 
 overlooked. 
 
 {d) By publishing, or arranging for the publication 
 
 of, such reports, pamphlets, books, and magazines as it 
 
 deems necessary. 
 
 The Association consists of a central authority, with its 
 office at 24 Buckingham Street, Strand, London, district 
 authorities and local branches. The branches are federa- 
 tions of local organisations with individual members. 
 They are autonomous bodies, but their constitutions must 
 be approved by the district authorities upon which they 
 are represented. The constitutions of the district authori- 
 ties must, in their turn, be approved by the central 
 authority. The central and district authorities keep the 
 branches in touch with one another, and with educational 
 movements give guidance as to educational policy. They 
 also undertake to deal with local difficulties, when such 
 arise, and to afford help when desired. There are now 
 (1907) about 40 towns in Great Britain where scholars and 
 workmen, together with their organisations, are thus 
 united in systematic educational work. The work under- 
 taken in the various branches differs according to their 
 varying local needs, but the endeavour of each is to focus 
 working-class opinion upon educational matters and to 
 co-ordinate existing, as well as devise fresh, means by 
 which workpeople may increase their education. The 
 branches work in harmony with the local education 
 authorities which are as a rule officially represented on the 
 local councils and have given material assistance to the 
 work. At Birmingham, the University has co-operated 
 in the movement by the arrangement during the winter of 
 1906-7 of a special evening course of Social Study for 
 workpeople. The subjects taken were : (1) The Social 
 Ideal, (2) Social Economics, (3) Industrial Organisation, 
 
102 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 (4) Local Administration and (5) Public Health and 
 Housing. Twenty-five lectures were given with an 
 average attendance at each course of 352 students, almost 
 all of whom were trade unionists and members of Adult 
 Schools. In London, history lectures were given in "West- 
 minster Abbey in 1907 on " The Story of the Abbey in 
 relation to the History of the English People." The course 
 was largely attended and 300 students stayed behind each 
 week to put questions to the lecturer. Four classes, con- 
 taining 180 men, have met regularly during the summer 
 to continue the studies begun at the lectures. An account 
 of the work of the Pochdale branch, which is of especial 
 interest, will be found in the Note on the Evening Schools 
 of Rochdale at the end of Chapter IV. 
 
 (5) Encouragement of Physical Education 
 IN Connection with Continuation Classes. 
 
 The Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland) 
 reported in 1903 in favour of a more general introduction 
 into continuation schools of physical exercises for lads over 
 school age. The Commissioners were of opinion that it 
 would be reasonable to require all groups of continuation 
 classes recognised by the Education Department to afford 
 adequate opportunities for physical training for those who 
 might desire to avail themselves of such opportunities. 
 They also advised that all pupils admitted to the elemen- 
 tary or preparatory grade of continuation classes should be 
 required to take part in such physical training, or to pro- 
 duce a certificate of sufficient previous training of the same 
 kind. The Commissioners did not adopt the view sug- 
 gested to them by some witnesses that, as in the case of 
 elementary day schools, the provision of an adequate 
 amount of physical training should be a universal condition 
 
LEAGUE FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 103 
 
 of grant to continuation classes. Tliey pointed out that 
 such a universal rule would be resented by many who attend 
 advanced continuation classes for technical instruction, 
 and that its operation would seriously interfere with the 
 usefulness of this important branch of further education. 
 But they urged that young loafers should be brought 
 under some form of physical discipline, and suggested 
 the experiment of establishing " Short Detention " schools 
 in which there could be brisk and lively work in the work- 
 shop, the drill yard and the gymnasium. 
 
 A similar suggestion was made by the Inter-depart- 
 mental Committee on Physical Deterioration which re- 
 ported in 1904. " Lads should be made to attend evening 
 continuation classes in which drill and physical exercises 
 should take a prominent place, and, with a view to the 
 encouragement of clubs and cadet-corps, exemption from 
 the obligation might be granted to all enrolled and effi- 
 cient members of such organizations." ^ But the need for 
 suitable accommodation in which the lads can change their 
 clothes after severe physical exercises, the pressure of other 
 classes upon the time which the pupils now voluntarily 
 give to attendance at the continuation school, and the 
 fatigued state in which many of the boys are left by a hard 
 day's work present practical difficulties which have hitherto 
 prevented local authorities from requiring attendance at 
 a physical training class as part of a recognised course of 
 evening classes. 
 
 Within the last few years the influence of the Swedish 
 and Danish methods of physical training has grown in 
 England and a considerable body of public opinion now 
 favours systematic physical training on Swedish lines for 
 all school children above the age of nine years and for 
 
 1. "Eeporfc," vol. i. p. 91. London: Wyman and Sons, 1904. 
 (Cd. 2175.) 
 
104 HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 young people beyond the limits of the elementary day 
 school age. Such physical training could without diffi- 
 culty be given in the towns — where it is most wanted. 
 But a great increase in the number of teachers able to 
 give this physical training is required. To prepare a large 
 body of such teachers the first step must be (as Colonel Fox 
 and Mr. C. J. Phillips point out in their report on the 
 organisation of physical training in Sweden) the creation 
 of a body of highly qualified expert instructors.^ What, 
 however, is still more needed is a wave of national feeling 
 and a quickening of the sense of personal responsibility 
 towards the State. This would quickly show itself among 
 young men, as it has done in Denmark, in a desire to attain 
 physical efficiency in order to help in furthering national 
 development and to render competent service in national 
 defence. 
 
 The encouragement of organized games has been a 
 marked feature of English educational policy during re- 
 cent years,^ and the London County Council have rendered 
 valuable service in affording facilities for the purpose in 
 the parks and open spaces under their control.^ 
 
 The National League for Physical Education and Im- 
 provement * incorporated in 1905 and now combined with 
 the 20th Century League, appointed a Playgrounds Com- 
 mittee with the purpose of pressing upon the attention 
 of the local education authorities the importance of open- 
 ing school playgrounds for the organized play of working 
 boys and girls after school hours. The Committee's appeal 
 has met with a favourable response. 
 
 1. " Board of Education Pamphlet," No. 11. London, 1907. 
 
 2. The Education (Administrative Provisions) Act 1907, Section 13 (1) 
 empowers local education authorities " to provide, for children attending 
 a public elementary school, . . . play-centres or other means of recrea- 
 tion during their holidays or at other times, in the school house or in 
 some other suitable place in the vicinity." 
 
 3. See " London County Council E«gulations relating to the playing 
 of games, together with particulars of the facilities accorded for such 
 games and general recreation in parks and open spaces under the 
 control of the Council." London : P. S. King and Sons, 2nd edition, 
 1906. 
 
 4. Office, Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge Road, London, S.W. 
 
105 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Present Position of State-aided Evening Schools 
 and Classes in England and Wales. 
 
 l y England amL Salfis-e y o ning o ohools and ola sses-mAy be 
 placed_uadeiL_G gyernment inspectionand,_jxri---tbe--j-Hlfil- 
 ment of caJaJB^-GOBditia ns. receive Govemm fint-aid; — The 
 local education authorities in Counties and County 
 Boroughs may establish evening scjiools in jjiy jgart of 
 their area^ndTmay maintain them at the ex pense of the 
 rates. They may^lso, if they think fit, recognise and aid 
 evening schools which, are carried on under-independent 
 management. By the Education Act 1902, evening schools 
 of all kinds, whether elementary or advanced, are placed 
 in the category of higher education. A school or class 
 held after 4 p.m. (or, on Saturdays, 1 p.m.) is regarded as 
 an evening school. 
 
 Regulations of the Boakd of Education. 
 
 Great freedom is allowed under the Government regula- 
 tions as regards the choic^ of the subjects of ins truction. 
 The courses iii the evening schools th us brought u nder 
 G overnment ins pectien— are clSssiiied under seven heads. 
 The following list shows the plan of classification and the 
 courses which were recognised in each division in the year 
 1904-5, the last for which statistics are available. 
 
 Pee paratoby Division. 
 
 Under this division may be recognised any instruction, not provided 
 for below, of a kind which may be included in a good elementary 
 education. The separation of this Preparatory Division from Division I. 
 was first made in 1906. It points towards some clearer distinction being 
 made hereafter between the Continuation School proper and the more 
 advanced evening class. 
 
io6 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 The following list of recognised courses includes some which will not 
 in future be classed in the Preparatory Division :— 
 
 Reading, Composition, Writing and Arithmetic 
 
 {separately or in combination). 
 Knowledge of Common Things or Nature Knowledge. 
 Mensuration and Preparatory Mathematics. 
 Workshop Arithmetic, etc. 
 Elementary and General Science. 
 Elementary Drawing. 
 Life and Duties of a Citizen. 
 Reading and Recitation. 
 Music (Theory and Singing). 
 General Courses (Civil Service, etc.). 
 
 Division I. Lit eear y_and Commercial. 
 
 Any generalised or special subject of literary or commercial education 
 may be recognised under this head. 
 
 English Language & Literature. Commercial Arithmetic. 
 
 Welsh. Commercial Correspondence and 
 
 Gaelic. Office Routine. 
 
 French. Book-keeping. 
 
 Spanish. Shorthand. 
 
 Portuguese. Typewriting. 
 
 Italian. Mercantile Law and Practice. 
 
 German. Banking, Accountancy, etc. 
 
 Dutch. Economics. 
 
 Russian. Logic. 
 
 Danish. Theory of Teaching, School 
 
 Swedish. Management, etc. 
 
 Japanese. Psychology. 
 
 Latin. Library Administration. 
 
 Greek. General Courses [Matriculation, 
 
 Hebrew. etc.]. 
 
 Geography, and History 
 (separately or together). 
 
 Division II. Art. 
 
 Courses of instruction under this head may be arranged with a view 
 to the requirements of a particular craft. 
 
 Division III. Manual Instruction inJWqod, Metal oe 
 
 OTHER MATERIALS. 
 
 Manual instruction must as a rule be connected with instruction in 
 drawing. It may include instruction in the use of machine tools, but no 
 course is approved which does not secure adequate training in the use 
 of hand-tools. A course may be arranged in this division so as to form 
 a preliminary training for any group of related trades or industries, but 
 must not be specialised so as to be applicable only to a single trade or 
 industry. 
 
 Wood-carving. Repousse-work. 
 
 Wood-work. Metal-work. 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 107 
 
 Di vision IY. Sci ence. 
 
 Any generalised or special branch of Science, including Mathematics, 
 may be recognised under this head. In cases where the instruction is 
 arranged with definite relation to the requirements of a particular trade, 
 or group of trades, and includes practical instruction in the trade 
 methods necessary to illustrate corresponding systematic instruction in 
 the underlying scientific principles, the rate of grant depends upon the 
 extent to which the course is concerned with principles and their 
 application, as distinct from practice in trade-processes with a view to 
 the acquirement of manipulative skill. 
 
 (a) General : — 
 
 Introductory and Experimental 
 
 Science. 
 Practical Geometry. 
 Mathematics. 
 Mechanics. 
 Physics (general). 
 Sound, Light and Heat. 
 Magnetism and Electricity. 
 Chemistry (theoretical and 
 
 practical). 
 Physiography. 
 Astronomy. 
 Geology. 
 
 Mineralogy. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Biology. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Hygiene. 
 
 Navigation and Spherical and 
 
 Nautical Astronomy. 
 Surveying. 
 Agriculture. 
 Horticulture. 
 Rural Science. 
 
 (b) Science applied to Building and Woodworking Trades : — 
 
 Building Construction and 
 
 Drawing. 
 Surveyors' and Builders' 
 
 Quantities. 
 Bricklaying and Masonry. 
 Plastering. 
 Sanitary Science. 
 Plumbing. 
 
 Staircasing and Handrailing. 
 Painters' and Decorators' Work. 
 Carpentry and Joinery. 
 Cabinet Making. 
 Chair Making. 
 Wheelwrights' Work. 
 Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 (c) Science applied to Engineering and Metal Trades : — 
 Machine Construction and Metal Plate Work. 
 
 Drawing. 
 Applied Mechanics. 
 Engineering and Prime Movers. 
 Naval Architecture. 
 Marine Engineering. 
 Boiler Making. 
 Pattern Making. 
 
 Construction of. Cycles and 
 
 Motor Vehicles. 
 Special Factory Machines. 
 Civil, Municipal and Sanitary 
 
 Engineering. 
 Minor Metal Work Trades. 
 
io8 
 
 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 (d) Science applied to Mining and Metallurgy :— 
 
 Mining. 
 
 Mine Surveying. 
 
 Metallurgy. 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 (e) Science applied to Chemical Trades : — 
 
 Gas Manufacture and Coal Tar Pottery and Porcelain Works. 
 
 Products. Glass and Enamel Manufacture. 
 
 Oils and Fats. Brewing. 
 
 Photography. Dyeing and Bleaching. 
 
 (f) Science applied to Electrical Trades : — 
 
 Electrical Engineering. Electro-plating. 
 
 Electric Lighting, Wiring, etc. Electrotyping and Stereotyping. 
 
 Telegraphy and Telephony. 
 
 (g) Science applied to Textile Trades : — 
 
 Weaving, Spinning & Designing. Wool and Worsted Spinning and 
 
 Cotton & Wool Trades (general). Weaving. 
 
 Cotton Manufacture. Calico and Linen Printing. 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 (h) Science applied to Leather Trades : — 
 
 Tanning and Leather Work. Boot and Shoe Manufacture. 
 
 (i) Miscellaneous : — 
 
 Materia Medica. 
 Microscopical Research. 
 Mathematical, Electrical and 
 Optical Instrument Making. 
 Watch and Clock Making. 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 Typography. 
 Lithography. 
 Book-binding. 
 
 Gas-fitting. 
 
 Brush Making. 
 
 Upholstery Drawing and Drapery. 
 
 Tailoring and Cutting. 
 
 Hat Manufacture. 
 
 Furriery. 
 
 Milling. 
 
 Breadmaking & Confectionery. 
 
 Division Y. HoME_£k;cOTATioNs and Industries. 
 
 Any course of instruction in Domestic SuBjects, or in the proper 
 performance of ordinary domestic duties or occupations, or in minor 
 home industries, whether urban or rural, may be recognised under this 
 head. The practical work of the students must not include the 
 repetition of manipulative processes of which they have acquired a 
 knowledge. 
 
 Needlework. 
 
 Dressmaking and Cutting Out. 
 
 Domestic Tailoring. 
 
 Millinery. 
 
 Embroidery. 
 
 Lace Making. 
 
 Domestic Economy. 
 
 Cookery. 
 
 Breadmaking & Confectionery. 
 
 Laundry Work. 
 
 Dairy Work. 
 
 Gardening. 
 
 Bee-keeping & Poultry-keeping. 
 
 Basket Making. 
 
 Ambulance, Home Nursing, &c. 
 
 Minor Home Industries. 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 109 
 Division VI. Physical TaAiNU JTG. 
 
 Any course of Physical Exercises which aims at the general physical 
 development of those attending it may be recognised under this Division. 
 Managers must use all reasonable endeavour to encourage those 
 attending classes for Physical Training to attend also classes recognised 
 under some other Division. The courses of physical exercises must be 
 specially adapted to the age and sex of those under instruction. No 
 particulars of courses held under this Division, which is of recent 
 introduction (1905), have yet been published. 
 
 By the regulations of the Board of Education no evening 
 student may be registered for the purpose of a grant who 
 is under 12 years of age or while still in attendance at any 
 other school where his attendance is recorded for the 
 purpose of a grant under other regulations of the Board. 
 Teachers must, as a rule, be paid fixed salaries. The 
 subjects and method of instruction must be suitable to 
 the circumstances of the locality, and be approved by the 
 Board of Education. The syllabus of each course must be 
 approved by the Board. No student may be admitted to 
 any course who, for want of sufficient preliminary training, 
 is not qualified to derive advantage from the instruction 
 given in it. The Government grant may be withheld on 
 account of any student whom the inspector reports to be 
 unqualified. The school must not be conducted for private 
 profit or be farmed out to the teacher. The fees must be 
 suitable to the locality, and must be approved by the 
 Board, whose sanction is also required for the remission or 
 the abolition of fees. The school must have adequate local 
 support, and at least 25 per cent, of the expenditure of 
 the school, or group of schools under the same managers or 
 under the same County or County Borough Council, should 
 be met from sources other than the Board of Education grant, 
 such as fees, subscriptions, grants from the Local Authority 
 or endowments. Each school has to be under the superin- 
 tendence of a responsible body of managers. 
 
 In the subjects in the Preparatory Division and in 
 
no PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 Division I. (Literary and Commercial) no lesson of 
 less than one complete half-liour is allowed to count as 
 instruction eligible for grant. In Division II. (Art) and 
 Division III. (Manual Instruction) the minimum duration 
 of each lesson must be one hour. In Division IV. (Science) 
 and in Division V. (Home Occupations and Industries) the 
 minimum requirement is 40 minutes for each lesson. In 
 Division VI. (Physical Training) no lesson of less than 
 30 minutes, and no attendance of more than one hour on 
 any one day is recognised. 
 
 No Government grant is paid for instruction in any 
 subject or course in which less than 20 hours of instruction 
 is given in the year, and no student's attendance at any 
 course may be reckoned for grant unless he has received at 
 least 14 hours of instruction in that course. The maximum 
 number of hours of instruction upon which grant may be 
 claimed in respect of any student in one year is in 
 Divisions I to V 160, and in Division VI 60 hours. 
 
 The Board of Education presses for arrangements being 
 made, so far as practicable, to provide for a progressive 
 course of instruction for students attending in successive 
 years. It also gives strong encouragement to the planning 
 of courses which bear directly upon the needs of the trades 
 and industries of the district. 
 
 Besides the evening schools and classes recognised by 
 the Board of Education, many others exist which are 
 doing excellent work and represent volunteer work of high 
 social value. Among these classes should be mentioned 
 the University Extension courses, the circles of the 
 National Home Reading Union, the work at the Univer- 
 sity Settlements, classes at working men's co-operative 
 societies, classes in connexion with Adult Schools, boys' 
 and girls' clubs, and numerous other agencies of an 
 educational character. 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS iii 
 
 Statistics of Evening Schools ttndeii Government 
 Inspection in England and Wales, 1902 — 1905. 
 
 The following table is based upon the Statistics pub- 
 lished by the Board of Education.^ 
 
 1902-3. 1903-4. 1904-5. 
 
 1. Number of Evening Schools recognised 
 
 by the Board of Education 5,624 5,579 5,706 
 
 2. Number of Students who attended at 
 
 any time during the year 657,594 696,882 718,562 
 
 [a student attending more than one 
 school is counted once for each school] 
 
 3. The same in groups of ages. 
 Age at entry : 
 
 Between 12 and 15 years of age 
 
 Between 15 and 21 years of age 
 
 Over 21 years of age 
 
 4. The same divided according to sex : 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 5. Fees : 
 
 Number of students who paid for 
 
 instruction 
 
 Number who received free instruction 
 viz., Number admitted without fees 
 Number whose fees were 
 subsequently returned in full 40,409 39,198 42,067 
 
 6. Amount of Grant paid by Government £285,126 £304,962 £320,762 
 
 7. Number of Students in respect of whom 
 
 these grants were paid 440,718 469,686 487,699 
 
 These statistics show that, in the session 1904r-5, 22'09 
 per 1,000 of the population of England and "Wales attended 
 evening classes which were under inspection by the Board 
 of Education. The total attendance was nearly three- 
 quarters of a million (718,562). It is true that in this 
 total some students may have been counted twice over. 
 Those who attend more than one evening school are 
 counted once for each school. But on the other hand the 
 
 1. " Statistics of Public Education in England and Wales, 1904 — 6." 
 1906. Cd. 3255. 
 
 147,191 
 
 155,623 
 
 155,938 
 
 348,353 
 
 359,503 
 
 359,917 
 
 162,050 
 
 181,756 
 
 202,707 
 
 403,629 
 
 422,478 
 
 441,432 
 
 253,965 
 
 274,404 
 
 277,130 
 
 505,455 
 
 545,624 
 
 549,086 
 
 152,139 
 
 151,258 
 
 169,476 
 
 111,730 
 
 112,060 
 
 127,409 
 
112 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 statistics take no account of tlie very large number of 
 students who attended the numerous classes which are 
 carried on in the evening without recognition or aid from 
 Government. Many of these classes are of high educa- 
 tional value. "When, therefore, all necessary qualifications 
 have been made, the statistics show that a remarkably 
 large proportion of the population avail themselves of 
 opportunities of instruction after the close of the day's 
 work. 
 
 The number of students attending evening classes under 
 Government inspection is increasing. Sixty thousand 
 more attended in 1904^5 than in the corresponding session 
 two years before. For three generations evening school 
 instruction has been one of the most characteristic features 
 of the English educational system. In no other country 
 is greater zeal shown in the attendance at evening classes 
 organised upon a purely voluntary basis. The educational 
 facilities thus afforded are evidently appreciated more 
 than ever by intelligent and vigorous young people, especi- 
 ally in the great centres of industry and commerce. 
 
 Out of every ten students attending the evening classes 
 six were men. Less than one-third, but more than a 
 quarter, of the total number of students were 21 years of 
 age or over. The Government paid in grants about nine 
 shillings per head of the total attendance. But these 
 grants were paid upon 67'8 per cent, of the aggregate 
 number of students whose attendance was registered 
 during the year. Out of every ten students who joined 
 the classes, three failed to complete the full attendance. 
 
 On the teaching stafE, men are in a large majority. In 
 the evening classes conducted under Government inspec- 
 tion in 1904^5, there were more than twice as many male 
 teachers as female. The total number of teachers engaged 
 was 26,588. Of these, 19,149 were men and 7,439 women. 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 113 
 
 Encouraging Developments. 
 
 Much has been done within the last two or three years, 
 especially in London and in the manufacturing districts 
 of the Midlands and the North, to make the work of the 
 evening schools bear more directly upon the industries of 
 the neighbourhood.! There have also been great improve- 
 ments in the grouping and classification of the evening 
 schools in many towns, some of the schools being charged 
 with the duty of providing suitable courses of preparatory 
 instruction, from which the student passes on first to an 
 intermediate evening school and thence to the advanced 
 courses at the Technical Institute. Such improved organ- 
 isation of evening school work in a town makes it possible, 
 as well as expedient, to raise to sixteen or seventeen the 
 age of admission to the Technical Institute, a change which 
 relieves its classes from the juvenile or ill-prepared stu- 
 dents more suitably taught elsewhere. The educational 
 usefulness of the Technical Institutes has also been mat- 
 erially enhanced by an increasing tendency towards closer 
 co-operation between their managing committees and the 
 local employers of labour. This co-operation, which is 
 especially noticeable in the engineering trades, is an out- 
 come of the marked increase of personal interest taken by 
 many employers in the technical education of their appren- 
 tices. Nor is this co-operation confined to the encourage- 
 ment of evening technical classes. "With increasing fre- 
 quency employers so arrange the conditions of employment 
 as to enable some of their apprentices to attend day-classes 
 at a technical institute at convenient times in each week. 
 This change in the attitude of employers towards the teeh- 
 
 1. Details are given in C. H. Creasey's " Technical Education in 
 Evening Schools " (London : Sonnenschein, 1905) ; and in LI. S. Lloyd's 
 (Board of Education Educational Pamphlet, No. 2, 1905). 
 
114 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 nical education of their apprentices, combined with a 
 growing appreciation of the value of educational oppor- 
 tunities on the part of the young men concerned, is giving 
 a strongly marked technical character to the work of the 
 evening classes in many districts. But, though this is the 
 prevailing tendency, there is also a movement of opinion 
 amongst workmen in favour of classes of a non-utilitarian 
 character, in the belief that, in the training of citizens, 
 opportunities for general culture are needed as well as 
 facilities for technical education. This point of view has 
 been effectively represented by the leaders of the Workers' 
 Educational Association, and the Board of Education have 
 recognised many courses of systematic class work in 
 Literature, History, Art and Natural Science, in response 
 to applications made through the local Higher Education 
 Committees. These classes are frequently recognised in 
 connection with courses of University Extension lectures, 
 and as a help towards their organisation the Gilchrist 
 Trustees are prepared to make special grants in aid. 
 
 Encouraging in themselves, these developments derive 
 a greater importance from the fact that they are part of 
 a widespread movement in public opinion. The nation is 
 beginning to concern itself seriously with the social bear- 
 ings and economic effects of its school system. It is 
 already clear that any effective reform of the evening 
 classes will depend upon changes being made in other 
 grades of education and. in the conditions of employment 
 of young persons. The fundamental need is for an im- 
 provement in the elementary schools. The large classes 
 should be reduced in size. Every class should be in the 
 charge of a fully qualified teacher. The leaving age 
 should be raised. There should be more physical training. 
 The curriculum should include much more active and con- 
 structive work, and be siniplified in other directions. In 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 115 
 
 the highest standards there should be greater variety of 
 courses, according to the aptitudes of the pupils and their 
 prospective needs. Beyond the elementary school hut in 
 well-planned continuation of its work, we need a greatly 
 increased number of secondary craft schools both for boys 
 and girls. In these schools the course of training should 
 be practical without being narrowly utilitarian. The 
 secondary craft schools, not less than the secondary schools 
 of another type, should train their pupils in scientific 
 method of observation and reasoning, and by humane and 
 cultivating studies induce a liberal outlook upon life. 
 
 These changes can only be brought about by slow degrees 
 but their effect will be to strengthen the fast-growing sense 
 of the value of well directed education, to encourage parents 
 to make increased sacrifices for their children's welfare and 
 to furnish the evening classes in technical and other sub- 
 jects with larger numbers of well-prepared students. In 
 the meantime, for what has been accomplished in the 
 better organisation of the evening schools within the short 
 space of the last three years, the nation has reason to be 
 grateful to the Technological Branch of the Board of Edu- 
 cation and to many members and administrative officers of 
 the local education authorities. Not the least important 
 result of their labours is the clear perception of the fact 
 that the reform of elementary education must now be un- 
 dertaken upon a comprehensive plan. 
 
 Difficulties. 
 
 The most pressing difficulties with which the organisers 
 of evening continuation schools in England have at present 
 to contend are four in number. The first is the need for 
 closer linkage between the elementary day school and the 
 continuation class which ought to follow it. The second 
 is the educational apathy of most country districts. The 
 
ii6 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 third is the question of teachers. The fourth arises from 
 the long hours of employment which leave too narrow a 
 margin of strength or leisure for the further eduqation 
 in the case of great numbers of young people. 
 
 (1) In the great majority of cases, boys and girls are 
 under no educational supervision during the critical years 
 of adolescence which follow the close of their elementary 
 day school course. This problem, the "continuation school" 
 problem in the primary sense of the term, has not yet been 
 seriously grappled with in this country. Its existence is 
 the most formidable obstacle to the success of the work of 
 those who are engaged in the organisation of evening 
 schools. The official statistics show that, in spite of all 
 that has been done during the last few years to increase the 
 usefulness of the continuation schools, there is reason for 
 disquietude as regards the proportion of pupils who, on 
 leaving the day school, pass beyond the reach of educational 
 influence. The majority of children still leave the English 
 elementary day schools shortly after their thirteenth birth- 
 day. Yet in spite of the increase in the population, the 
 number of evening school students under 15 years of age 
 was hardly any larger in the session 1904-5 than in that 
 of 1903-4. The total for the earlier of the two sessions was 
 155,623 ; that for the later, 155,938. This trifling increase 
 of 315 shows that the local authorities had not succeeded, 
 down to the date at which the statistics were calculated, 
 in doing much to stop the wasteful leakage which takes 
 place at the close of the day school course. Unfortunately 
 the statistics of the Board of Education fail at present 
 to furnish us with the detailed information necessary to 
 an accurate knowledge of the precise position of affairs as 
 regards the attendance of the younger pupils at evening 
 schools. The tables, instead of showing the age of the 
 pupils year by year, .group them under three terms of years, 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 117 
 
 viz., 12 — 15, 15 — 21, and over 21. But what we especially 
 want to know is the number of pupils in attendance at the 
 evening schools who are hetween 13-14, 14-15, 15-16, 
 and 16-17 years of age, and to be able to note the increase 
 under each of these heads from year to year. The statis- 
 tics, however, as at present published, do not enable us to 
 do this. The first heading indeed (12 — 15) is fairly satis- 
 factory for the purpose, though even here greater detail is 
 desirable. But the second heading (15 — ^21 years of age) 
 does not permit us to ascertain whether the evening schools 
 are retaining or increasing their hold upon the young 
 people during the critical years 15 — 17. Yet even as they 
 stand, the figures are discouraging. The number of pupils 
 between 15 and 21 years of age in attendance at evening 
 schools was almost as large in the session of 1903—4 as in 
 the session (the last for which statistics are available) of 
 1904r-5. In the first the total was 359,503'; in the second, 
 359,917. Thus even if the whole of this insignificant in- 
 crease (414) were confined to the number of pupils between 
 15 and 17 years of age, the result would be unsatisfactory 
 when it is remembered that the evening schools have so far 
 touched only a small proportion of the young people of 
 those ages and when the growth of population is also taken 
 into account. But there is nothing to show that the in- 
 crease, such as it is, is an increase of pupils between 15 and 
 17 years of age. The larger total may be due to an 
 increased enrollment of pupils between 17 and 21. That 
 this is likely to be the case is shown by the fact that the 
 really material increase in the number of students attend- 
 ing evening classes in 1904-5 as compared with that of the 
 previous session is under the head of students of 21 years 
 and over. Of these, 20,951 more were registered in 1904r-d 
 than in the previous year. This points to the conclusion 
 that the evening classes are being increasingly recruited 
 
Ii8 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 by older students, and that the strictly continuative side 
 of the work of the evening schools is far from being as 
 strong as the social needs of the community require. At 
 Widnes, however, out of every five boys leaving the public 
 elementary schools, about four at once join the evening 
 classes. And in several other towns in Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire there has recently been la remarkable improve- 
 ment in this respect. 
 
 It is impossible to say with precision how large a pro- 
 portion of that part of the population which is between 
 12 and 17 years of age (3,343,329 in England and Wales 
 at the Census of 1901) is under educational care. Rather 
 more than one-sixth (about 592,000) were on the registers 
 of public elementary schools. Another 200,000 may be 
 estimated as the number at public and private secondary 
 schools. Another 230,000 may be taken as the number at 
 evening schools. If the grand total is placed as high as 
 1,000,000, twice as many others are under no educational 
 care. In other words, so far as it is possible to estimate 
 the figures, out of every three boys and girls between 12 
 and 17 years of age in England and Wales, two are attend- 
 ing neither day school nor evening class. 
 
 Much is now being done in several places to encourage the 
 pupils on leaving the elementary day schools to pass on to 
 a secondary school or to an evening class. The rapid in- 
 crease in the number of state-aided secondary schools 
 shows a growing desire on the part of parents to secure for 
 their children a prolongation of the period of school life. 
 But the official statistics of the attendance at secondary 
 schools in England are still, even as respects the schools 
 under Government inspection, insufficient in point of 
 details of age, and only one return of the number of pupils 
 in attendance at all kinds of secondary schools, public and 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 119. 
 
 private, has yet been published.^ But there are reasons 
 for thinking that the habit of sending children to 
 secondary schools after a preparatory or elementary school 
 course is spreading in England, though it has not yet 
 become so common amongst us as it is in the United 
 States. The secondary day schools, however, are unlikely 
 for many years to come to receive more than a small pro- 
 portion of the children who leave the elementary day 
 schools. Nor would the present types of secondary school 
 curriculum be the best fitted for the great majority of the 
 boys who must begin to earn their living at an early age 
 in some industrial calling. But it is encouraging to find 
 that in many towns great efforts are being made to secure 
 the attendance of these boys at suitable evening classes. 
 At Rochdale, half the boys under 17 who have already left 
 the day school are in attendance at evening schools. At 
 Halifax about 58 per cent, of the children who leave the 
 public elementary schools join the evening continuation 
 schools within a year or two of their ceasing to attend the 
 day school. In both cases, this satisfactory result has 
 been secured by the wise grading of courses of instruction ; 
 by zeal on the part of the teachers in the day and evening 
 schools; by the pains taken by the Borough Education 
 Committee and its administrative officers to bring home 
 to all pupils on their leaving the day school the import- 
 ance of passing on to the evening school without a long 
 break in their studies; and by unity of purpose in the use 
 of the educational resources of the town. The provision 
 of an excellent system of schools and classes is not in itself 
 enough to secure a high rate of attendance at the evening 
 classes on the part of young people who have just completed 
 their day school course. Every boy and girl who leaves the 
 
 1. That issued by the Education Department in 1898 (Cd. 8634). The 
 figures refer to 1897. 
 
120 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 elementary day school must he approaclied individually and 
 urged to attend the evening school. This is illustrated by 
 the case oi the City of Bath. In that city the elementary 
 and secondary schools and the evening classes have been 
 skilfully planned by the Education Committee. Since the 
 Director of Studies (Mr. Godfrey Day) started the present 
 organisation seventeen years ago, a remarkable advance 
 has been made in the educational provision of the town. 
 But of the 148 boys who left the elementary schools in the 
 school year ending July 1906, not more than 24 per cent, 
 joined the City secondary school or the evening schools, 
 though the corresponding percentage (32) of girls was 
 more satisfactory than is usually the case. 
 
 (2) Difficulties of a special kind arise in the organisation 
 of continuation schools in country districts. The farmers 
 as a class dislike the modern developments of education 
 Their objection is based on three grounds. First, that what 
 is ordinarily taught in elementary schools has little bearing 
 on the practical duties of life in the country, and that 
 boys get from it very little that helps to make them shrewd 
 and industrious labourers. Secondly, that the education 
 is driving the people into the towns and giving them a 
 false idea of their abilities and place in the world. 
 Thirdly, that the law of compulsory school attendance 
 interferes with the supply of boy labour in agriculture. 
 In respect of the last-named point there is a conflict 
 between what the farmers believe to be their economic 
 interest and the claim of the labouring population for 
 good educational opportunities for their children. The 
 movement of the population to the towns is due to 
 economic and psychological causes of far wider range 
 than the influence of the village school. But with 
 regard to the first of the three criticisms named above, it 
 would be generally admitted that until recently the course 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 121 
 
 of study, and still more the spirit of the teaching, in the 
 great majority of village schools has failed to grip the prac- 
 tical interest of most of the older boys committed to its care. 
 Within the last five years, however, the local education 
 authorities in many of the country districts, guided and 
 encouraged by the Board of Education, have addressed 
 themselves tO' the task of training village teachers to base a 
 considerable part of their instruction upon practical work 
 and the intelligent study of nature. '^ A change of this 
 kind, however, is necessarily slow in producing its results, 
 and there are still many schools which have not been 
 touched by its influence. 
 
 Another cause of the difficulty in the country districts 
 is that of expense. The rates press with severity upon a 
 form of industry which has been hardly hit by the im- 
 portation of food stuffs from abroad. Thus the poverty of 
 some of the neighbourhoods, combined with the hostility 
 felt by many farmers towards education, results in a pro- 
 vision of education so inadequate. to the real needs of the 
 people as to leave them, if not in apathy towards educa- 
 tional matters, at least in a state of indifference. I am 
 inclined to think, however, that the work of the rural 
 elementary schools in England has been a good deal mis- 
 understood and undervalued. It is just to criticise some 
 parts of their more old-fashioned curriculum, but the 
 country-side owes a great debt of gratitude to the devotion 
 of the good village teachers, and to the parsons and others 
 who have interested themselves in the work of the schools. 
 Different parts of England vary so greatly in social con- 
 dition and in attitude of mind, that it would be difficult 
 for anyone to generalise on this subject. My own experi- 
 
 1. The memorandum, prepared by Mr. T. S. Dymond, H.M.I., for 
 the County Council of Durham, on "Rural Education in South and 
 West Durham ; its suitability to rural needs " (Durham : G. Bailes, 1907) 
 contains many practical suggestions for the curriculum of rural schools. 
 
122 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 ence is limited to three agricultural counties. In two of 
 these I found distinct evidence that during the last twenty 
 years the schools have increased the intelligence of the 
 agricultural population and have made the younger 
 generation more adaptive to the varied tasks of rural life 
 as it is carried on under modern conditions. But even 
 among those most favourable to education, there is a wide- 
 spread feeling that the rural schools might do more to 
 cultivate an intelligent interest in country pursuits. It 
 is thought by some that the present course of education 
 is apt to stimulate the prevailing tendency to restlessness 
 (this probably cannot be helped), and that many of 
 the children receive a good deal of bookish instruction 
 which they are not able to take in or profit by. 
 
 Thus the most urgent need in rural education is not the 
 organisation of continuation schools (useful as these are) 
 but the improvement of the elementary schools. Such an 
 improvement, however, would be a very costly business. 
 What is wanted is an all-round improvement in the pros- 
 pects of the village teacher, so as to attract some of the 
 most capable men and women into rural work. It is also 
 desirable that more of the training colleges should have 
 departments devoted to the special preparation of teachers 
 who desire to learn how to make the fullest educational 
 use of the material that will lie to their hand in any 
 country district. The country teacher ought to be one of 
 the leaders in all the social and economic activities of his 
 village. But the causes which impede any rapid change in 
 this matter are deep-seated in English history. There is no 
 reason, however, for discouragement in the outlook. As 
 the country schools become more practical, they will be 
 more valued. A younger generation will grow up which 
 will realise the importance of education and its direct bear- 
 ing on social welfare and economic prosperity. And there 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 123 
 
 are some signs of a happy change in the old relationship 
 between the village clergyman and the village teacher. In 
 former days, for reasons which were part of the weft of 
 English social life, the relationship was often like that 
 between the parson and the parish clerk. But some of the 
 best hopes for the social welfare of the English country dis- 
 tricts depend upon there springing up between the parson 
 and the teacher a spirit of comradeship in public service. 
 
 In the improvement in the rural schools it would be a 
 grave mistake to give the course of study too utilitarian a 
 cast. The essential thing is to develop the intelligence of 
 the children, to stimulate their imagination, to widen their 
 outlook, to give them a scientific and practical interest in 
 the world around them, to train their sense of its beauty, 
 to give them a clear notion of the laws of health, and 
 greater skill in household management and handicraft, to 
 inspire them with a strong sense of civic and national 
 responsibility and to train them in the spirit of co- 
 operation for common ends. A keen perception of the 
 relation between cause and effect ; better physical develop- 
 ment; esprit de corps; the habit of collective action; and a 
 sense of citizenship and of national duty are the things 
 which the schools should endeavour to cultivate. ^ 
 
 In many agricultural parts of England, the educational 
 improvements which are really needed in the interests of 
 the children cannot be afforded (except in part) unless the 
 Government pays out of the national revenue a much 
 larger proportion of the cost than is at present the case. 
 
 I cannot share the opinion of those who desire to curtail 
 the period of day school training for country children. 
 Admitting to the full the difficulties of the present situa- 
 
 1. A detailed discussion of methods fdr the improvement of rural 
 education in England will be found in the " Report on Secondary and 
 Higher Education in Essex," 1896 (County Offices, Chelmsford), pp. 68 
 and 75. 
 
124 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 tion, I would submit that we ought to aim at keeping all 
 the children in the country at a school with a suitable 
 curriculum until they are 14 years of age. That during 
 part of this time exemption from school attendance should 
 be permitted during certain periods of the year, on con- 
 dition that for twice as long a period attendance is sub- 
 sequently made at the continuation school is a plan 
 regarded with favour by many persons with long exper- 
 ience of country life. 
 
 The Board of Education have recently issued an excel- 
 lent memorandum on courses of work in rural evening 
 schools. It is to be feared, however, that many of the 
 suggestions will for the present remain on paper. It is 
 the rise of a new spirit in the country districts that is most 
 to be hoped for. If that new spirit conies, the interest of 
 the country people will guide them along the new road in 
 education. In the meantime it is satisfactory to note how 
 much is being done by many of the County Education 
 Authorities, aided by many public spirited local residents, 
 to improve rural education. An account of what is being 
 done in several agricultural counties will be found on 
 pp. 209—237. 
 
 (3) The third great diificulty in the organization of even- 
 ing classes in town and country alike arises from the failure 
 on the part of great numbers (it is to be feared the 
 majority) of employers to recognise their responsibility 
 towards the further education of the young persons in 
 their employment. To this general failure of the sense of 
 educational responsibility there have always been numerous 
 and bright exceptions, and it would be unfair harshly to 
 criticise the past in the light of the changed ideas of the 
 present. Within the last few years, moreover, there has 
 been an encouraging increase in the number of employers 
 who take pains to further the education of their younger 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 125 
 
 workpeople. An account (necessarily imperfect) of what 
 is now going forward in this matter will be found in 
 Chapter VIII. But the efforts of the good employers must 
 not lead us to overlook the failure of the bad ones. I have 
 myself been led to the conclusion, which I submit to the 
 consideration of the reader, that the most effective ivar 
 of dealing with the difficulty will be to throw upon all 
 employers by statute the duty of granting, to those of 
 their (employers) male and female workpeople who are 
 under 18 years of age the necessary time for attendance at 
 continuation classes at hours prescribed by the bye-laws of 
 the local education authority. In addition to this, power 
 should be given to the local education authority to make 
 attendance at continuation schools, at hours not incom- 
 patible with the physical well-being of the pupils, compul- 
 sory for young people up to 17 or 18 years of age. The 
 enforcement of such a law would require discretion, but it 
 is not open to the critic to contend that it is an imprac- 
 ticable proposal or incompatible with the industrial and 
 commercial interests of a nation. A law, to the precise 
 effect of that suggested above, has been in force 
 in Germany for several years, and has produced results 
 so excellent that the system meets with general 
 approval.^ The same principle of imposing responsibility 
 on the employer is the key note of the new Apprenticeship 
 Act of the Canton of Zurich, dated November 21, 1905. 
 (4) The fourth group of difficulties which impedes the 
 better organisation of Continuation Schools in England 
 and Wales is connected with the teachers. No 
 one who has studied the work of such schools can forget 
 the impression made upon his mind by the devotion, 
 sympathy and educational skill of very many of the 
 teachers who work in them. In England we have not 
 1. See Chapter XVIII. 
 
126 PRESENT POSITION OF 
 
 yet realised to the full the debt which the nation owes to 
 its teachers. But the conditions under which many of 
 the evening school teachers have now to do their work are 
 incompatible with true efficiency. They often go to their 
 duties wearied and jaded by long hours in the day school, 
 work in which is exhausting to a degree unknown to those 
 who have not undertaken it. Yet the continuation school 
 especially needs fresh ways of teaching and a departure 
 from the routine of the day school. The pupils are older 
 and need a course of instruction different in subject-matter 
 and in treatment from that which is suitable for younger 
 children. There is no way out of the difficulties which 
 at present confront us, except a larger staffing of 
 the day schools and a provision that no one engaged in 
 continuation school work shall teach in the morning, 
 afternoon and evening of the same day. In the 
 continuation schools, it is true, a large and increasing 
 number of the teachers will be persons not engaged in 
 ordinary day school work. But for the continuation school 
 in the strictest sense of the word no one can compare in 
 fitness with the day school teacher. We need to keep the 
 day school and the continuation school in closest relation- 
 ship through personal ties, but to secure in the latter a 
 stimulating change in the courses of study and in the 
 general outlook of the work. If the continuation school 
 is to become a great power in national education we must 
 improve the conditions of day school employment. It is 
 true that there is at present a scarcity of teachers and 
 therefore the proposal here made is not one which can 
 immediately be realised. But can we escape the con- 
 clusion that if national education is to play its true 
 part in our national life we must be prepared to increase 
 materially the financial prospects of the teachers, and 
 especially of the men teachers, whom we desire to attract 
 into its service." 
 
STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 127 
 
 The teacher's work in the day school and in the evening 
 school should be viewed as a whole. In framing the con- 
 ditions of his appointment this double duty (where it 
 exists), should be taken into account. A teacher's duties 
 in the day-school should be so arranged as to enable him 
 to come to the work of the continuation school with the 
 freshness of mind and the previous preparation which it 
 requires. 
 
 The Education Act of 1902 has prevented some of the 
 Local Education Authorities from taking this synthetic 
 view of day and continuation school-work. By the Act 
 evening schools (including even the most elementary form 
 of them) are counted as forming part of higher education. 
 In the work of the Local Education Authorities it is gener- 
 ally found necessary tO' have separate committees for 
 elementary and for higher education. One effect of this 
 is that the problem of the day and continuation schools 
 does not always receive synoptic attention. A further 
 result is that more thought is now being given to the 
 technical type of evening classes than to the continuation 
 school proper. 
 
 The length at which the difficulties of the continuation 
 school in England have been discussed in this chapter 
 "will not, I hope, have led any reader to regard the 
 future of those schools with serious discouragement. On 
 the contrary, at no earlier time in the history of English 
 education has the importance of this part of the educa- 
 tional problem impressed itself more generally on the 
 thoughts of all who are studying the subject. The fact 
 that we realise the difficulties of it is in itself a ground 
 for hope. And when we cast a glance over the rising 
 importance and efficiency of the continuation school in 
 every part of Western Europe, we know that it is not over- 
 
128 STATE-AIDED EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 sanguine to expect the advent of new life to the continua- 
 tion school in England also. Partly through our geo- 
 graphical position, partly through a conservative attitude 
 of mind, we in England (I am speaking of public opinion 
 as a whole, and not of individuals) are a little slow to 
 feel the impulse of a new educational need. But when 
 we see a strong educational movement spreading through 
 Grermany, France and Denmark, we may he fairly certain 
 that in due time the same sort of weather will reach our 
 shores. 
 
 The danger, however, in the present movement for the 
 extension of continuation schools in Germany is the over- 
 emphasis of technical training. Not that technical train- 
 ing is to be deprecated, but no course of further education 
 for young people will be adequate either to the economic 
 or to the spiritual needs of the nation, unless it is at one 
 and the same time practical and humane. 
 
129 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Evening^ Schools in London.^ 
 
 Growth of the Evening Schools. 
 
 The Evening School movement, as we know it, took form 
 in London in 1882. Mght schools had existed before 
 1870. They were very few and very rudimentary. The 
 high ideals of the Working Men's College had inspired 
 few imitators. The mass of the population was not even 
 partially educated. Grants were given only for reading, 
 writing and arithmetic. In 1872 the School Board started 
 some classes for scholars under eighteen. [The code of 
 1871 defined the maximum age of scholars in Day and 
 Evening Schools as eighteen.] But in 1875 these were 
 abandoned. Some successful science and art classes had 
 also been started at the instance of the Science 
 and Art Department, and continued after 1875 as self- 
 supporting classes; but no serious attempt to organise 
 evening education was really possible until the work of 
 the Day Schools began to be felt in a definite demand for 
 continuation schools. 
 
 In 1882 the School Board once more recognised its 
 responsibility, and enrolled some 9,000 scholars in its 
 Evening Continuation Schools. In 1882 the Youths' 
 Christian Institute, which Mr. Quintin Hogg had founded 
 
 1. Throughout this chapter I speak strictly of the Administrative 
 County. The population in 1891 was 4,228,317; in 1901 it was 
 4,536,541. Greater London increased in the same ten years from 
 5,633,806 to 6,581,372. Few of the scholars in the ordinary Continuation 
 Schools live in the outer zone. A considerable number of the scholars in 
 the Polytechnics and Commercial and Science and Art Centres work in 
 Central London, but live in the outer zone. Not seldom they attend 
 the classes on their way home from work. 
 
 J 
 
130 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 in the Seven Dials, ousted Pepper's Ghost from the old 
 Polytechnic, and settled in its place. There are now up- 
 wards of 120,000 scholars on the rolls of our Evening 
 Continuation Schools, and 40,000 on the rolls of the Poly- 
 technics and Schools of Art, besides the students at King's 
 College and University College.. 
 
 Between 1882 and 1890 the work of the Evening Con- 
 tinuation Schools! ^^g gtill virtually restricted to the 
 three R's, and the numbers rose but slowly to 18,000. In 
 1890 the Education Code Act and the new Code abolished 
 the restriction ; the numbers rose at once to 31,000, and in 
 1897 reached 57,000. In 1898 fees were abolished, and the 
 numbers sprang up to 109,000, and advanced in the next 
 two years to 125,000 and 146,000. Since then they have 
 slightly fluctuated with the wavering policy of the Depart- 
 ment and of the Board and Council. In 1905-6 the roll was 
 156,604. This year (1907) there is a drop of about 20,000 in 
 the roll. But the e£&ciency of the work as tested by the 
 " student hours " worked, has increased steadily, as the 
 material has improved, and a tradition has gradually 
 
 grown up.^ 
 
 Types of Evening Schools. 
 
 Our Evening Schools have grown up with little premedi- 
 tation or design, very much as the resources of a district 
 or the genius of an individual has decided. But they tend to 
 
 1. As a matter of convenience I shall try to keep this name for the 
 Continuation Schools proper, whose curriculum is intended to be 
 continuous with that of the Elementary Day Schools ; and to use the 
 name Evening School in the wider sense, for all forms of evening 
 instruction. 
 
 2. The figures are in each case those of the students enrolled. The 
 effective attendance is very variously calculated. Perhaps 60 per cent, 
 would fairly represent the number who work steadily through the 
 session. For the Continuation Schools and Commercial and Science 
 and Art Centres the last detailed figures are those for 1902-3. The 
 figures for the subsequent years cannot be supplied "as they have not 
 yet been submitted to the Committee of the Council." 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 131 
 
 five fairly distinct types. First, the ordinary Continuation 
 School, collecting the old scholars from two or three neigh- 
 bouring Day Schools, staffed as far as possible with teachers 
 from those schools, and mainly concerned to keep these 
 scholars together and to prevent their losing what they 
 have learnt. Second, the Higher Grade Continuation 
 School, often developing into the Commercial School, whose 
 scholars come as a rule from better homes, enjoy better 
 conditions of work, have passed the seventh or ex-seventh 
 standard, and come to the evening school with a definite 
 object. Third, the Polytechnics and Schools of Art, where 
 the apprentice or " improver " is turned into the skilled 
 workman, and the workman finds the means of widening 
 and completing his skill and knowledge. Fourth, the 
 Commercial School, sometimes held in the Polytechnic 
 buildings, usually in the buildings of an Elementary 
 School, where the clerk finds instruction in languages or 
 Commercial Greography or the Machinery of Business. 
 Fifth, the distinctively University work, largely concen- 
 trated in such colleges as King's College, the Birkbeck, 
 and the London School of Economics, but also widely 
 scattered through the Polytechnics and other schools. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that the old type of evening 
 school where adults found instruction in the elements of 
 Beading, Writing and Arithmetic, has practically dis- 
 appeared, though scholars of forty and upwards are still not 
 rare. 
 
 Of the five types the first and second are concerned with 
 the scholars as they leave the Elementary and Lower Sec- 
 ondary Schools. The third and f outh deal with young men 
 and women who have found their definite work in life. 
 The fifth is a sadly small, but most important, class of 
 work which should inspire and crown the rest. At present 
 it is stunted and strangled by the policy of London 
 
132 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 University, which has not yet recognised the essential 
 difference between what can rightly be asked of the 
 leisured student of a residential university and of the 
 working men and women of London. To this I shall 
 return. 
 
 London Conditions. 
 
 Seventy-five thousand children leave the Public Elemen- 
 tary Schools of London every year. Of these the immense 
 majority leave at fourteen. Six or seven thousand leave 
 earlier, to enter Secondary Schools or for some less satis- 
 factory reason; eight or nine thousand leave rather later. 
 About a quarter reach the seventh standard. About a 
 tenth reach the ex-seventh. Three-quarters leave below 
 the seventh standard. 
 
 At fourteen the son of well-to-do parents is just entering 
 his Public School. He will remain a boy for another 
 four or five years. At fourteen the " elementary scholar " 
 starts his life-work, free to stand but prone to fall. Hence- 
 forward he will fend for himself, and not improbably help 
 to support his home. 
 
 The two years which follow are the most difficult and the 
 most dangerous in his (or her) life. The boy or girl is still 
 too young to obtain good employment. The better open- 
 ings, just because they do lead to something permanent, 
 naturally offer the least commencing wage. Errands, 
 shops and baby-minding are the commonest forms of em- 
 ployment. Hours are extremely long and very irregular. 
 At sixteen or seventeen, when good employment begins, 
 the greater part of what was learnt at school has been for- 
 gotten, and the boy or girl is often less apt than when 
 the Day School was left, two or three years previously. 
 
 The first and gravest problem for our Evening Schools 
 is to catch the children as they leave the Day School, and 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 133 
 
 to carry them safely through the next two years. It is 
 far from solved. In fact, barely a third of the names of 
 those who leave the Day Schools appears on the rolls of 
 Evening Schools; and of these perhaps two-thirds make a 
 fairly regular attendance. 
 
 It is commonly assumed by critics of our elementary 
 education that the fault lies with the schools ■, and that the 
 Public School boy of the same age has so thoroughly 
 assimilated what he has learnt, and is fired by so ardent a 
 love of learning, that, if forced to leave school at fourteen 
 or fifteen, he would forget little ; and after hanging behind 
 a cart for ten or twelve hours in the day, would hurry off 
 from his tea to evening classes on three evenings in every 
 week. Our Elementary Schools are very far from perfect. 
 The size of the classes often crushes the individuality and 
 life of teacher and taught. Only their enemies call them 
 complete or satisfactory. But if our critic's conception of 
 the Public School boy is approximately accurate, he is 
 singularly changed, or my memory of Rugby five-and- 
 twenty years ago, is strangely at fault. 
 
 No doubt London offers peculiarly unfavourable con- 
 ditions for evening classes. In cities, where great fac- 
 tories with regular shifts of workmen form a serious 
 proportion of the total industry, shorter and more regular 
 hours prevail. But here at least two-thirds of those who 
 leave the Day School escape the net of the Evening 
 School; and it must be remembered that these two-thirds 
 include just those children who need its guidance and 
 influence most. The Day School has the unique advantage 
 that all are compelled to come in. The Evening School, 
 like the Club or Church or Chapel, reaches only those who 
 choose to come. Those who most need the sermon stay 
 away. 
 
134 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 I. The Oedinaey Continuation School. 
 
 Some day there will perhaps be a Continuation School 
 in connection with every Day School. At present, the 
 break between the Day Schools and the ordinary Con- 
 tinuation School is bridged over by securing teachers so 
 far as possible from each of the contributory Day Schools. 
 A strong club spirit is encouraged. Gatherings for social 
 purposes are frequent. Such subjects as Gymnastics and 
 Swimming, Dramatic Literature, Singing, History (with 
 magic lantern assistance) form a large part of the curri- 
 culum. The attendance is bound to be comparatively 
 irregular. Scholars often attend only for the last hour,^ 
 and will then often miss their tea to come. But solid 
 work is done. Such schools in poor districts are sometimes 
 praised, sometimes sneered at, as " missionary schools." 
 There is truth in the phrase ; but not when it suggests that 
 steady work is not done ; on the contrary, no class and no 
 school succeeds unless the scholars feel that their tim.e 
 is not wasted. 
 
 Much might be done by the Managers to bridge over the 
 gap, and carry on the less willing scholars from the Day 
 to the Evening School. Nowhere is their help more needed. 
 The Council made a disastrous mistake when it swept away 
 the Old Managers of Evening Classes. The Committee of 
 Managers should consist of representatives of each con- 
 tributory Day School, together with others who can spare 
 time in the evening only. 
 
 1. The hours are usually 7-30 to 9-30 on Monday, Wednesday and 
 Thursday. In the Commercial Schools 7 to 10 on the first four or five 
 days in the week. The Polytechnics are open every evening (besides 
 their day work); but in these and in the more developed Commercial 
 Schools scholars attend the particular class rather than the school. 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 135 
 
 II. Higher Grade Evening Schools. 
 
 Tlie Higher Grade Evening School ^ springs from the 
 Higher Grade Day School, as the ordinary Continuation 
 School from the ordinary Day School. In the case of the 
 Day Schools the distinction between the ordinary and the 
 Higher Grade School has only gradually emerged and is 
 still ill-defined. In the case of the Evening School the 
 two are only distinguished in nature when Commercial 
 or Science and Art Schools are huilt on the foundation 
 of the Continuation School. But inside the school the 
 distinction is real. Hereafter it will be recognised in 
 name. The connection with the Day School is still im- 
 portant ; but the scholars come with more definite, usually 
 with more definitely utilitarian, aims. Their hours of 
 work are shorter and more regular. Their homes are better 
 and their prospects more certain. The staff is chosen rather 
 with a view to special skill than to influence and en- 
 thusiasm. The Managers should include representatives 
 of the neighbouring groups of ordinary Continuation 
 Schools, just as the Committee of the Higher Grade Day 
 School should be formed by representatives of the Man- 
 agers of the contributory Day Schools. 
 
 No exact statistics can be given of these two types of 
 evening school. Probably there are about 270 schools of 
 the ordinary type and between 50 or 60 of the higher. 
 Both were conducted by the School Board in Board Schools 
 and Yoluntary Schools alike; and the Council have made 
 no change. Of the ordinary schools about 70 are quite 
 free; a fee of Is. is charged in the others. In the Com- 
 mercial and in the Science and Art Schools, the fees are 
 
 1. The Council's statistics recognise only the two classes of Evening 
 Schools — ^the ordinary Evening Continuation Schools and the Commercial 
 or Science and Art Schools. The Higher Grade Evening School is 
 either reckoned among the ordinary Evening Schools, or merged in the 
 Commercial or Science and Art Centre which has grown out of it. 
 
136 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 2s. 6d. and 5s. In December, 1906, there were 20,681 stu- 
 dents on the rolls of the free and 65,990 students on the 
 rolls of the fee-paying ordinary schools, and 25,904 stu- 
 dents on the roll of the Council's Commercial and Science 
 and Art schools. The figures for the Higher Continuation 
 schools are included partly in the 65,990, partly in the 
 25,904. 
 
 There are also Evening Classes for the Deaf with about 
 400 on the roll; and a few classes conducted by the 
 Council's teachers in social clubs and institutes. 
 
 III. Polytechnics and Schools of Akt. 
 
 Turning now from the Continuation Schools to the Adult 
 Schools, we have the Polytechnics and Schools of Art for 
 the artisan, and the Commercial Sohool. for the clerk; 
 though once more the distinction does not always hold. 
 Schools of Art are found in connection with the Poly- 
 technics and with the Commercial Schools; some of the 
 most advanced comraercial work is done in the Poly- 
 technics. 
 
 But, on the whole, the Polytechnics seem to tend steadily 
 towards supplying the need of the apprentice and artisan, 
 including the architect's drawing-clerks and the like. 
 Ftirther, the different Polytechnics tend to develop special 
 " faculties." Thus the Northampton Institute has de- 
 veloped its faculties of metal-work and technical optics; 
 the Central School of Arts and Crafts its silversmith's 
 work. The Borough Polytechnic, besides its large classes 
 for builders and plumbers, has its school of Bakery. The 
 Cass Institute, growing up near the Mint, is steadily de- 
 veloping its school of metallurgy. Woolwich Polytechnic, 
 growing up beside the Arsenal, has supplied the scientific 
 instruction needed by the workmen there. Battersea Poly- 
 technic has developed a close connection with the Engin- 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 137 
 
 eering works of the London and South Western Railway, 
 supplying a regular course of day classes for their appren- 
 tices, as Woolwich has done for the Arsenal's. So too 
 classes are arranged in dresseutting and tailoring, for 
 Messrs. Selincourt's apprentices. Chelsea Polytechnic has 
 adapted itself rather to a clerkly population, while the 
 E/egent Stre^et Polytechnic, with its 15,000 students, is 
 almost universal in its range. Commerce, Trade, 
 and Art and Science, divide fairly equally nine-tenths 
 of its students, while Literary and University work 
 still find a refuge in the remaining tenth. Lectures 
 on History and Economics still draw large audiences. 
 Nor has its original " missionary " impulse quite died 
 out, as the vigour of its clubs, its organisation of thrift 
 and travel, and of its definitely religious meetings, 
 amply prove. Including the smaller colleges and schools 
 there are some thirty institutions offering this type of in- 
 struction with fees varying as a rule from 7s. 6d. to 20s. 
 
 IV. The Commercial Schools. 
 The Commercial Schools have usually grown out of the 
 Higher Grade Continuation Schools. Where two buildings 
 are available, the Continuation School and the Commercial 
 School are sometimes kept distinct; otherwise they are 
 merged, the Commercial School becoming constantly more 
 important, the Continuation School less important. Here- 
 after they will probably become quite distinct ; the Higher 
 Grade Schools forming junior schools linked with Central 
 Commercial Schools. They are usually held in the build- 
 ings of Elementary Day Schools, and the Headmaster (or 
 responsible teacher) is generally a teacher in an Elementary 
 School. But in many eases they have developed into 
 important colleges with 1000 or 1500 students, demanding 
 the same direction and control as the Polytechnics and 
 Schools of Art. Ofiord Ed. School, Bamsbury, the Oliver 
 
138 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 Groldsmith Scliool, Camberwell, and Queen's Road School, 
 Dalston, are three examples of schools which, starting as 
 simple Evening Classes, grew into great colleges, with 
 highly qualified teachers, and a curriculum, covering the 
 ordinary needs of those engaged in Banks, in the Civil 
 Service, or in Higher Commerce. 
 
 Y. Univeesity Work. 
 Of the University work done this is hardly the place to 
 speak. The most interesting and important development 
 has been the recognition of certain teachers in the Poly- 
 technics as University teachers. Thus a student at Batter- 
 sea Polytechnic may be an internal student of the London 
 University. It is the more regrettable that so little Uni- 
 versity work is in fact done. The students are ready and 
 waiting. The door is barred by a few petty academic 
 requirements, admirably suited to boys of sixteen, utterly 
 unsuitable for working men and women. 
 
 CTJEEICtTLTJM. 
 
 The subjects studied have been indicated in discussing 
 the various types of school. One or two points deserve 
 special notice. 
 
 First, the absence of " humaner studies." I do not mean 
 Latin and Greek, which in fact are sometimes taught ; but 
 the loving study of noble and beautiful things, whether in 
 Literature or History or Art. The student in the Con- 
 tinuation School demands Shorthand and Book-keeping. 
 The efforts of Mr. Stewart Headlam, of Mr. Cyril Jackson, 
 and of Canon Jephson, introduced a little History (with 
 lantern slides) into the curriculum. But their impulse is 
 dying. Efforts at choral singing have by their sporadic 
 success emphasised the general failure. The Schools of Art 
 are probably above reproach; but the curricula of the 
 Polytechnics (excepting Regent Street) show little provi- 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 139 
 
 sion for this side of education. The stimulus which London 
 University might supply is wanting. Probably the smaller 
 colleges, such as the Working Men's College, Toynbee Hall 
 or Morley Hall are really doing most to foster the " hu- 
 maner " spirit. 
 
 Next we may welcome the growth of the various Health 
 lectures. They sprang out of the old Ambulance classes. 
 In the spring of 1903 eighty courses of lectures were being 
 given by doctors and trained nurses. Often, no doubt, the 
 lecture has been over the audience's head. But alternate 
 classes are usually taken by the teacher in charge, and the 
 simpler facts are steadily sinking into teachers and students 
 and becoming common knowledge. 
 
 Lastly, the very real success of many of the Domestic 
 classes both for young girls and for adults deserves notice. 
 
 Co-OEDINATION. 
 
 Innumerable schemes have been suggested for co-ord- 
 inating the different types of Evening Schools, but so far 
 with little result. Not impossibly more harm than good 
 would have resulted from the adoption of any premature 
 scheme. 
 
 A few Commercial and Science and Art Classes at 
 Battersea have been transferred from the Polytechnic to the 
 Plough Road and Lavender Hill Schools or vice versa. 
 But the students will not follow the classes either from 
 school to polytechnic or from polytechnic to school. Sim- 
 ilar transfers have been attempted between the Borough 
 Polytechnic and the Paragon School, between the Padding- 
 ton Institute and Essendine Road School, between Wool- 
 wich Polytechnic and Bloomfield Road School. But 
 natural jealousies, differences of fee, above all the lack of 
 any clear conception of the function of each school, have 
 prevented any real co-operation. Yet where the special 
 
140 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 functions are recognised, as in the case of teclinical classes 
 for meclianics and artisans, a beginning has been made, 
 and some preparatory classes in "Workshop Arithmetic and 
 Drawing, leading up to the Polytechnic classes, have been 
 successfully started in several Continuation Schools. 
 
 But common inspectors, common teachers, and common 
 managers, must be encouraged if the natural and rightful 
 jealousies of school and school are to be avoided. Just as 
 the managers of the Higher Grade School (Day or Evening) 
 should include representatives of the contributory schools, 
 so the Governors of the Polytechnic or Commercial School 
 should include representatives of the managers of neigh- 
 bouring Higher Grade Schools. 
 
 Staff. 
 
 The teachers of Day and Continuation Schools are at 
 present usually the same. In extreme cases a man or 
 woman teaches 30 hours a week in the Day School, and 10 
 or 12 more hours in the Evening School. Great harm is 
 thus being done, chiefly to the Day School; but vested 
 interests have grown up; and when, with the revision of 
 the scale of salaries in Day Schools, the Council's oppor- 
 tunity came for establishing a better system, vested in- 
 terests won the day. But the abuse was freely admitted 
 even by those who dared not vote against it. 
 
 Possibly the solution may be found by limiting the 
 teacher strictly to ten half days' work in the week, and 
 allowing him to teach less than full time in the Day School. 
 The Evening School is not enough alone to occupy the 
 teacher. He must do other work. Besides we need the link 
 which the common teacher forms between the Day and the 
 Evening School. The code of 1862 was right when it 
 allowed teachers to be employed both in the Day and in 
 the Evening School. But hitherto the theory, due largely to 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 141 
 
 obsolete codes and to inspectors, that one teacher is respon- 
 sible for one class, has hindered such co-ordination. But 
 that theory is being sapped. It is found that at least the 
 upper standards of the Elementary Schools are the better 
 for not being taught exclusively by one teacher from week 
 end to week end. Subject teaching is gradually being 
 introduced. Hereafter the teacher, when employed in the 
 evening, may be free in the morning or afternoon. Re- 
 sponsibility for the Evening School may be the test and 
 the stepping stone of the future Head-teacher. But sooner 
 or later the present vested interests in overwork will have 
 to be bought out. 
 
 E-ErOEMS. 
 
 Much has been done. Very much remains undone. Two 
 vital changes I would v^enture to urge once more. 
 I. Age of Leaving Day School. 
 
 In the first place the age at which a child may leave the 
 Elementary School should be raised first to 15 and then to 
 16. During those two years he has run to waste. He 
 spoils himself and spoils the labour-market. At sixteen 
 he would have fairly digested what he had learnt ; he would 
 have strength and skill to secure good permanent employ- 
 ment. 
 
 No doubt public opinion has to be educated up to the 
 mark, and the curriculum of our Day Schools considerably 
 modified. But those who remember the change in 1894 
 from thirteen to fourteen will discount the apparent diflS.- 
 culties. We anticipated almost a revolt. We experienced 
 no difficulty whatever. Within a year parents had for- 
 gotten that they had ever been able to withdraw their 
 children from school at thirteen. 
 
 In the Scotch Education Bill, introduced by the Grovem- 
 ment in March, 1907, but subsequently withdrawn, it was 
 proposed to allow compulsory Evening Schools up to seven- 
 
142 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 teen. In our own Industrial Schools tlie leaving age is 
 fixed at sixteen, and a child may be recalled if necessary 
 up to eighteen. 
 
 The Local Authority for elementary education should 
 have the same power which is entrusted to the Governors 
 of an Industrial School. 
 
 As it is, a great part of what we have spent on the child 
 between five and fourteen is wasted between fourteen and 
 sixteen. Two thirds of those who, leave the Day School 
 never enter the Evening School. Experience shows that 
 even in the Polytechnics voluntary co-operation with em- 
 ployers is only feasible in the case of a few great firms ;^ 
 and that when it is really effective it tends to take the 
 form of Day Classes rather than of Evening Classes. The 
 Engineering Classes at the Northampton Institute, with 
 their alternate half-years in the Institute and in the works, 
 suggest a revised Pupil Teacher scheme. The local auth- 
 ority should have power to supervise the scholar's work up 
 to eighteen, as the Industrial School does now. Up to six- 
 teen no scholar should leave school except under special 
 condition of apprenticeship, duly approved by the Educa- 
 tion Authority. 
 
 II. The University. 
 
 Secondly I would have the London University recognise 
 more fully its peculiar responsibility towards London. 
 There are in London three great classes of men and women 
 who need and who have a right to the University's guidance 
 and encouragement — teachers, clerks, and artisans. They 
 are at present excluded not by the standard of its examina- 
 tions, but by their character. It is perfectly reasonable 
 to ask a boy or girl of sixteen to study French and Latin, 
 
 1. The Association of Technical Institutions has published a very 
 valuable report in an " Enquiry as to the Co-operation of Employers and 
 Technical Institutions." St. Bride's Press, Fleet Street, E.G. 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 143 
 
 English, Mathematics and Chemistry, all at the same time. 
 School means leisure. Is it not unreasonable to ask the 
 same of a man or woman who has first toi earn his own 
 living? But there are in London thousands of teach'Srs 
 thousands of artisans, who would gladly give ten or twelve 
 hours a week for five or six or more years in order to 
 obtain a degree. 
 
 But to make this possible the subjects must be studied 
 and presented for examination one or two at a time^con- 
 secutively, not simultaneously. On the other hand the 
 standard might well be seriously raised. It seems 
 to me that London University has never realised the 
 difference between difficulty and excellence. Instead 
 of setting a high standard she has insisted on 
 difficult conditions. At present a teacher can scarcely 
 obtain a degree without neglecting his school work, 
 His object is necessarily to reach the very nainimum 
 necessary for passing. Yet he could easily reach a very 
 much higher standard than is now demanded, if he might 
 reach it in the various subjects successively. Probably he 
 would work better and forget less quickly. The St. Andrews 
 LL.A. is very much easier to obtain than the London 
 B.A. It requires far less force and concentration. But 
 it offers a better, a more intelligent, course of study to the 
 teacher, and the number of women who work for it is 
 rapidly increasing. 
 
 The case of the artisan is harder than that of the teacher. 
 To the skilled engineer the Physics and Chemistry may pre- 
 sent no difficulty. But the French or Latin and English 
 are a quite insurmountable bar. The standard of the 
 Matriculation is no doubt low. But to the artisan the 
 multiplicity and the character of the subjects are crush- 
 ing. Yet there are, I believe, hundreds of artisans in our 
 Polytechnics, and there might easily be thousands, who are 
 
144 EVENING SCHOOLS IN LONDON 
 
 quite capable of winning a good degree under reasonable 
 conditions. Why, for an adult, should the Matriculation 
 Examination, with its five heterogeneous subjects, be 
 insisted on at all ? Is it not possible to plan out a course 
 of study for an engineer which shall guarantee all the 
 width and depth which a University degree should imply, 
 and yet omit French and English grammar ? 
 
 Once more I do not want the standard lowered ; I want 
 it raised. A low standard and many subjects may be 
 quite right for the school boy : it is quite wrong for the 
 adult. Some years ago I helped to coach some unhappy 
 teachers for the Intermediate Arts Examination. They 
 knew no Grreek. It was not required for Matriculation; 
 it was not required for the Final. But it was required 
 for the Intermediate ; and the book set was the Choephori ! 
 Imagine a German forced to take up English for an inter- 
 mediate pass examination, and given Sordello to study. 
 Their time was wasted ; their intellect brutalised ; but they 
 passed. Could any standard be lower? 
 
 The duty of a University is first to maintain a really 
 high standard of excellence; and next to make its degrees 
 as easy, not as hard, as possible of attainment. If London 
 University would allow evening students to present their 
 subjects successively it might and should materially raise 
 its standard. If, for adult students, who have qualified by 
 practical work, it would further dispense with the matri- 
 culation examination, substituting in the Interm.ediate 
 and Final Examinations further but kindred studies, it 
 might not only raise its standard, but at the same time 
 bring thousands of new students within its influence ; and 
 give to the work of our Polytechnics and Commercial 
 Schools a thoroughness, a width, and a consistency, that 
 would raise our whole conception of education in London. 
 
 G. L. Bkuce. 
 
145 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Evening Continuation Schools of Manchester, 
 Leeds, Halifax, St. Helens, Bootle, and Widnes. — 
 with a note on the Evening Schools of Rochdale.' 
 
 One of the characteristics of many towns in the industrial 
 districts of the North of England has long heen a wide- 
 spread desire for further education among those who had 
 heen compelled to leave school at an early age. This desire 
 was originally met by the institution of night schools, 
 including classes at Adult Schools, Mechanics' Institutes 
 and the like.^ The improved facilities for primary educa- 
 tion provided by the School Boards which was established 
 under the Education Act of 1870 lessened the demand for 
 the elementary kind of evening class. Numbers in atten- 
 dance at night schools rapidly declined between 1879 and 
 1884-5. At that time it began to be seen that a new type 
 of evening school was needed in order to meet the require- 
 ments of children who had passed through the elementary 
 schools. In 1888 the finding of Lord Cross' Commission 
 on the Elementary Education Acts confirmed this view 
 and encouraged the movement among the School Boards 
 to strengthen this side of popular education. Thus in many 
 districts in the later eighties vigorous efforts were made 
 by the School Boards to establish systems of Evening 
 Continuation Schools and their labours were furthered by 
 important changes in the regulations for Evening Schools 
 in 1890 and 1893. The supersession of the School Boards 
 by the Education Act of 1902 and the substitution for 
 them of Education Committees of County or County 
 Borough Councils tended for a time to check the movement, 
 
 1. I wish to express my gratitude to the many teachers and other 
 informants who so courteously assisted me in the inquiries upon which 
 this chapter is based, and especially to the secretaries of the various 
 Local Education Authorities who spared no pains in supplying me with 
 accurate information. — H. B. S. 
 
 2. See pp. 17—36. 
 
146 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 but the Education Committees iu the more progressive 
 boroughs soon definitely faced the problem, and during the 
 last two or three years there has been a great advance in 
 the organisation of the Evening Schools. This advance 
 in organisation has stimulated and guided the demand 
 for evening teaching, with the result that we are witness- 
 ing the early stages of a great popular movement towards 
 this special form of education. Much progress is already 
 visible. With the aid of the Board of Education and 
 its Inspectors courses of instruction have been organised 
 to suit local needs ; existing institutions have been graded, 
 and, where necessary, new ones opened; and efforts have 
 been made to raise the standard of attainment both of 
 the teachers and the students. But what has been accom- 
 plished is but little in comparison with the achievements 
 to which we may look forward in the future, if the 
 movement ever realises its latent possibilities. 
 
 In this chapter I have tried to illustrate the development 
 and present position of the movement by describing the 
 systems of Evening Continuation Schools established in 
 six typical boroughs. The work done in them, and in 
 other equally progressive towns, is now so far advanced that 
 it may serve in some measure as a guide to the organisation 
 of similar systems of schools in districts where the condi- 
 tions are at present less developed. 
 
 Manchestee. 
 
 The Evening Continuation Schools in Manchester have a 
 special interest owing to the magnitude of the numbers 
 with which they have to deal. In a city with an estimated 
 population of 637,520, which has to provide all grades of 
 instruction for thousands of students, with the most varied 
 needs, including many who come in from the densely popu- 
 lated districts outside the municipal area, the organisation 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 147 
 
 must be more detailed and complete than is necessary in 
 smaller towns. Manchester, therefore, provides us with a 
 comprehensive statement of the problem, and of the general 
 lines on which its solution is now being attempted. 
 
 Further, the complexity of the interests involved in so 
 large a centre of population necessitates a slower rate of 
 educational progress, and the fact that Manchester is in 
 some respects less advanced than the smaller towns con- 
 sidered in the sequel renders its example all the more 
 instructive, as representing a critical stage in the process 
 of development. We can also see more clearly than else- 
 where the impossibility of creating a brand new system 
 of Evening Schools without relation to the past. For a 
 widespread desire for serious evening instruction is always 
 of gradual growth, and until such a desire has been evolved 
 no skill in organisation can give success to Evening 
 Schools. Moreover if the schools are to prove attractive 
 to those for whose benefit they are designed, they must be 
 gradually developed to meet particular local needs and in- 
 dustrial conditions. 
 
 Lastly Manchester has long been the scene of earnest 
 educational work.^ TIere, as in other places, young 
 men are found who after a hard day's work spend 
 their evenings in fitting themselves, by real intellec- 
 tual labour, for further responsibilities. Many of the girls 
 and young women employed in offices are equally earnest 
 in their 'efforts at self-improvement, and in every evening 
 school one sees earnest faces and strained attention. It 
 is unfortunately no unknown thing for students to come 
 straight from work, where they have been kept too late 
 to be able to go home to tea. This keenness in the pursuit 
 of knowledge is not peculiar to Manchester, though it is 
 
 1. For the part played by Manchester in the development of technical 
 instruction, see pp. 25-26. 
 
148 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 there more common than in some other towns, but in 
 Manchester it has been met to an unusual extent by an 
 answering desire to provide the requisite instruction. 
 
 A wish to spread the benefits of education in the widest 
 sense among those least able to obtain them for themselves 
 has long been characteristic of many of the citizens of 
 Manchester. It has found expression in a number of 
 institutions, such as the Mechanics' Institution, the Lower 
 Mosley Street Schools, the Lads' Clubs, and the Recreative 
 Evening Schools. 
 
 The history of the Manchester Mechanics' Institution, 
 which was founded in 1824, has already been sketched 
 (pp. 25-26). It has now developed into the Muni- 
 cipal School of Technology. In 1842 the Managers of 
 the Sunday School in Lower Mosley Street began 
 a number of week-day evening classes in such sub- 
 jects as Natural History, Grammar, Geography and 
 Arithmetic. In 1849 these classes were thrown open 
 to those unconnected with the Sunday School, and 
 after a somewhat checquered history they became from 
 about the year 1875 onwards an important centre of educa- 
 tion. At the present time, with the aid of a grant from 
 the Education Committee, the Managers still provide Even- 
 ing Classes in a large number of commercial subjects. 
 
 "With the social work done by the Lads' and Girls' Clubs 
 and Recreative Evening Classes we are not here concerned, 
 but there can be no doubt that both types of institution 
 have done much to spread the tradition of evening classes 
 among a section of the population which too often stands 
 aloof. The Recreative Evening Classes Committee has for 
 the last twenty years provided instruction in such subjects 
 as Drawing, Modelling, Music, Drill, Carving, Cookery, 
 Dressmaking and Laundrywork, cooperating at first with 
 the Salford School Board, and afterwards with the Ragged 
 School Union and other organisations. In the session of 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 149 
 
 1905-6 they maintained, by the help of two hundred volun- 
 tary teachers, 156 such classes with an average attendance 
 of 2,800. 
 
 But these varied efforts to establish classes were not 
 the only expression of Manchester's corporate interest in 
 evening education. The School Board took up the question 
 and gradually evolved a system of Evening Continuation 
 Schools of which the City had good reason to be proud. 
 
 Thus in the session 1889-90, we find that 68 departments 
 were maintained, giving evening instruction in various 
 elementary subjects, and that on December 21st, 1889, these 
 departments had on their books 8,180 students. In addi- 
 tion, there were Science and Art Classes with 3,165 and 
 Commercial Classes with 2,900 students. In the session 
 1895-96, the total number of students had risen to 23,325, 
 of whom 11,969 attended the Elementary Evening Schools. 
 These ifumbers afford no basis of comparison with the atten- 
 dances now made, the conditions being quite dissimilar, 
 but they at any rate demonstrate the existence at that 
 time of a living interest in evening education. ^ 
 
 This success of the School Board in maintaining these 
 Evening Schools would however have been impossible with- 
 out the active cooperation of many of the Day School 
 teachers. The wise policy was followed by giving the Head 
 Master of the Day School charge of the Evening School 
 conducted in the same building, and in most cases these 
 Head Masters took up the work with a keen sense of its 
 importance. With the assistance of an energetic and loyal 
 staff they devoted time and labour to the solution of the 
 various problems that confronted them. In the first place 
 the task of keeping an Evening School together and of 
 adapting the methods of teaching and discipline to the 
 
 1. Further statistics are given in Mr. C. H. Wyatt's interesting paper 
 in the " Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society, 1895-6." 
 
ISO EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 needs of evening students is one requiring not only con- 
 siderable personal gifts but also patience and laborious 
 effort. But again if an Evening Scbool is to be successful 
 the Head Master and his staff must not only teach, they 
 must also know how to attract the students. This can be 
 done only by much personal influence and constant attention 
 to the individual cases. The Head Master in particular must 
 not rest until there has grown up among the children in 
 his Day School a traditional custom of joining the Evening 
 School on leaving. In several of the Manchester schools 
 these conditions have been met. To take two instances of 
 very different types. At one Evening School where the 
 Head Master had charge of the Higher Elementary School 
 carried on during the daytime in the same building, the 
 relations between the teachers and the students were 
 clearly of the most pleasant kind, and the Head Master 
 told me that 80 per cent, of the boys who left his Day 
 School during the last school year had come back to his 
 Evening School this session (1906-7). In another school, 
 situated in one of the poorest parts of Manchester and con- 
 ducted by a Roman Catholic sisterhood, girls from the 
 surrounding slums, when they leave the Day School to work 
 in the mills, have for many years come back in large num- 
 bers in their clogs and shawls to attend school in the 
 evening. 
 
 When, therefore, the Education Committee came into 
 office in 1903, there were already in existence a strong 
 Evening School tradition and also an extensive system of 
 Evening Continuation Schools previously established by 
 the School Board. ^ The next step was to strengthen this 
 
 1. Any reference to evening school work in Manchester should be 
 accompanied by an acknowledgement of the service rendered by Mr. C. 
 H. Wyatt, Director of Elementary Education, and formerly Clerk to the 
 School Board, and by Mr. J. H. Reynolds, Director of Higher Educa- 
 tion, and his assistant, Mr. Cowen. Mr. Reynolds was secretary of the 
 organised classes at the Mosley St. Schools from 1875 — 9, and in the 
 latter year became secretary of the Mechanics' Institution. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 151 
 
 tradition and to develop further the various types of 
 schools. To this work much labour has been devoted and 
 a good beginning has been made. Three points in parti- 
 cular called for serious consideration. The students were 
 often ill prepared ; they took up unsuitable or disconnected 
 subjects and the various types of school were not co- 
 ordinated in a coherent system. ^ 
 
 The first of these deficiencies the Committee attempted to 
 meet by holding out inducements to students to join the 
 classes immediately after leaving the Day School and by 
 providing that no student should be permitted to take the 
 more advanced evening classes without giving proof of 
 his ability to profit by them. The second and third defici- 
 ences they hope to obviate by instituting definite courses 
 of instruction in carefully graded schools. 
 
 The first attempt to attract younger students was made 
 three years ago. An enquiry made in November, 1903, 
 showed that of the Evening Students then in attendance 
 52 per cent, had joined as soon as they had left the Day 
 School, while in the case of 48 per cent, an interval of 
 non-attendance had intervened. With the object of in- 
 creasing the former percentage it was resolved to offer 
 scholarships, in the form of free tuition for one session, 
 to all children who began attendance at an Evening School 
 immediately after leaving the Day School. In 1904-6, 
 4,052 such students took advantage of the offer, of whom 
 3,011 or 74 per cent, were in attendance on December 17th. 
 How far this number was in advance of previous years 
 I have been unable to ascertain. In the session 1905-6 
 a system of guarantors was introduced. Each child ad- 
 mitted free to an Evening School is required to bring a 
 form signed by some person, by preference the employer, 
 who guarantees to the Committee the value of the fees 
 remitted in case the scholar fails to make a satisfactory 
 
152 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 number of attendances. This system lias had a good effect 
 in giving the employer, or failing him the parent, an in- 
 terest in the student's work. Simultaneously with the 
 grant of free admissions, the custom which had previously 
 obtained of returning fees to students making a certain 
 percentage of the possible attendances was curtailed and 
 finally abolished. Prizes are now awarded for regularity 
 in attendance and in homework, combined with success 
 in the sessional examination. In this connection the 
 following statistics are of interest, as giving some indica- 
 tion of the number of students who must have joined shortly 
 after leaving the Day School. 
 
 Ages of Students in Evening Schools, Grade I. and II., 
 during the Session 1906-7. 
 
 Under 16 years 
 
 Between 16 and 18 years 
 Between 18 and 21 years 
 Over 21 years 
 
 The present session (1906-7) has also seen the introduc- 
 tion of organised courses of study, and a great advance in 
 the co-ordination of the schools. There are now three main 
 grades of schools. In the First Grade are the Evening 
 Continuation Schools intended mainly for boys and girls 
 under 17. The Second Grade Schools for somewhat older 
 students, consist of the Branch Technical Schools, the 
 Branch Commercial Schools, and the Evening Institute for 
 Women and Girls, and to the Third and highest Grade 
 belong the Municipal Schools of Technology, Commerce 
 and Art. 
 
 The First Grade Evening Continuation School Depart- 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 ... 4,311 ., 
 
 .. 2,923 
 
 ... 2,086 .. 
 
 .. 1,345 
 
 ... 1,376 . 
 
 912 
 
 ... 2,032 ., 
 
 .. 2,132 
 
 Totals 9,805 
 
 ,. 7,312 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 153 
 
 ments are 75 in number, and in the present s€ssion (1906-7) 
 the total number of students on the books total 7,458. In 
 1905-6 the number was 9,696. The decrease is attributed 
 to the substitution of courses in place of single subjects and 
 to the abolition of the weekly payment of twopence which 
 was formerly in vogue, in favour of a sessional fee of 2/6 
 for scholars under 18 and 3/6 for older students, payable 
 in weekly instalments of not less than 6d. The loss in 
 numbers has, however, been more than counterbalanced 
 by the improvement in the students' work. 
 
 In these schools there is a General Preparatory Course 
 for boys and girls who have left school in a low standard or 
 whose general education is for any reason specially defec- 
 tive. The subjects of instruction are mainly Reading, 
 Writing and Composition, and Arithmetic, and the course 
 extends over one or two years. In 1906-7 there were 2,580 
 backward students taking this course. 
 
 But in addition to this Preparatory Course these schools 
 are also intended to provide a Preliminary Artisan Course 
 for Boys, a Preliminary Commercial Course for Boys and 
 Girls, and a Preliminary Domestic Course for Girls. All 
 these courses involve attendance on three evenings per week 
 for two years. The subjects in the Artisan Course are 
 Workshop Arithmetic and Woodwork with Practical Draw- 
 ing two hours each. Elementary Science and English one 
 hour each. The English consists mainly of Composition; 
 a common exercise is the description of experiments seen in 
 the Science Class. But no literature is read. This Artisan 
 Course is intended eventually to be superseded by 
 a Preparatory Technical Course, which has already been 
 introduced into four schools. This is identical with the 
 Preparatory Course of the Branch Technical Schools des- 
 cribed below. At present boys who have passed through 
 the Artisan Course and wish to continue their studies will 
 
154 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 be normally placed in the Second Preparatory year of a 
 Branch Technical School, but the syllabuses of the two 
 types of schools are not yet completely co-ordinated, and the 
 passage from one to the other is not likely to be frequent. 
 
 The Commercial Course includes Commercial Arithmetic, 
 English, Geography, Book-keeping or Shorthand, and in 
 the second year Correspondence and Office Routine. Stu- 
 dents who have passed through this Course will be iit for 
 the second Preparatory year of the Branch Commercial 
 School, though again the work is only as yet approximately 
 coordinated. 
 
 Boys are placed in the Artisan or the Commercial Course 
 according to their occupations. Girls may take either the 
 Commercial or the Preliminary Domestic Course which in 
 most cases consists of English, Household Accounts, Dress- 
 making and Cookery or Millinery. In the second year 
 Nursing may be taken. The English and Household Ac- 
 counts are confined to the probable practical requirements 
 of a housewife. 
 
 The numbers taking these courses were Artisans 871, 
 Commercial 1,659, Domestic 2,051, Technical 203. There 
 are also in a few schools survivals from the old regime in 
 the shape of special courses for Junior and Invoice Clerks, 
 attended (in 1906-7) by 70 and 24 students respectively. 
 
 Turning now to the Grade II. Schools we find Branch 
 Technical Schools being carried on at six centres. They 
 provide a Preparatory Course and four Special Courses. 
 The Preparatory Course is taken in some schools in one 
 and in others in two, one school having alternative classes. 
 The subjects are experimental Mathematics, Preliminary 
 Physics (i.e., Mechanics, Hydrostatics and that with prac- 
 tical work) and English Composition. To be admitted a 
 boy should have passed Standard VI. of the Day School. 
 
 The Technical Courses proper are those for Engineering, 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 155 
 
 Building Trades, Chemical Industries, and Electrical 
 Work. They will hereafter cover two years, but last ses- 
 sion most of the schools had naturally first year courses 
 only, though one strong centre had courses extending over 
 three years. There is also at two centres a special course 
 for Rail Carriage Builders, and two centres have classes 
 in Physiology and Hygiene. 
 
 In four schools instruction is given in Art. 
 
 The Preparatory and Engineering Courses have the 
 greatest number of students. The total for all the classes 
 in 1906-7 was 928. 
 
 There is at present no co-ordination between the Branch 
 Technical Schools and the Municipal School of Technology, 
 but it is intended that eventually there shall be a third 
 year in the Branch Schools identical with the first year in 
 the School of Technology. 
 
 The Branch Commercial Schools are seventeen in num- 
 ber. Their organisation is similar to that of the Technical 
 Schools, but their Preparatory Course consisting of English, 
 Arithmetic, Geography, and Commercial Correspondence is 
 for one year only. 
 
 When the centres are fully developed they will provide 
 two year courses for Shorthand Clerks. Junior and In- 
 voice Clerks, Book-keepers, Correspondents and Shippers' 
 Clerks, and for the Civil Service. Most of the schools also 
 give a two years' Domestic Course which is identical with 
 that in the Continuation Schools. Many of these courses 
 are well attended and much interest is shown in the work. 
 The total number of students taking group courses is 2,931. 
 
 In the Evening Institutes for Women and Girls the 
 course system is not so rigidly enforced, but the students 
 are expected to take up at least two subjects. There are 
 nine such Institutes providing instruction in Cookery, 
 Dressmaking, and Millinery, Laundry Work, Nursing and 
 
156 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Hygiene. Physical Exercises, Vocal Music and Englisli 
 are also taken at some of the Centres. The instruction is, 
 speaking generally, adapted to the needs of class of students 
 older than those in the Branch Commercial Schools. No 
 one under sixteen is admitted, and a considerable propor- 
 tion of the students are married women. During the 
 session 1905-6 there were over a thousand girls and women 
 in attendance at these Institutes. 
 
 In the schools of the Third or Highest Grade the intro- 
 duction of the course system is not yet complete. All 
 provide teaching in the elementary stages of their respec- 
 tive subjects and a large number of their students are under 
 eighteen years of age. During the session 1905-6 there 
 were in the School of Technology 1,188 students under and 
 4,744 over 18. For the School of Commerce the numbers 
 were 910 and 2,574, and for the School of Art 209 and 
 674.1 Qf these students nearly half come from outside 
 Manchester. The bulk of the work in these central In- 
 stitutions is, however, of an advanced type and as such lies 
 outside my subject. It is enough to say that the very 
 highest type of specialised instruction is given in the 
 senior classes. 
 
 It will be evident from what has been said that the 
 Evening School movement in Manchester is full of possi- 
 bilities. Its organisation is proceeding, and a great im- 
 provement both in work and attendance has already been 
 obtained. But the most certain ground for confidence is 
 the energy with which organisers,teachers and students are 
 giving themselves to the work. The efficiency of the schools 
 evidently varies, but in most of them there is an atmos- 
 phere of serious endeavour which in the earlier days of 
 Evening Schools was too often lacking. The value of a 
 
 1. All the students at the School of Commerce attend in the evening, 
 but at the School of Technology 635 and at the School of Art 410 
 students attend Day Classes only. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 157 
 
 school cannot, however, always be measured by the stan- 
 dard of its work, and schools such as the Roman Catholic 
 Schools in Ancoats and its neighbourhood are doing good 
 service in keeping hold of boys and girls from the lowest 
 social strata. 
 
 The difficulties against which the Manchester schools 
 have to struggle are the usual ones. The indifference of 
 too many of the employers and their foremen, added to 
 much working of overtime, renders regular attendance 
 for many students an impossibility. An adequate supply 
 of really efficient teachers is not easy to obtain, and the 
 students are often too tired, or too ill prepared to gain 
 full benefit from the instruction. Lastly there is the dan- 
 ger of narrowness in curriculum and methods, leading the 
 school to train the workman and to forget the man. 
 
 The Manchester authorities have a magnificent field 
 before them, and their action will be watched with the 
 greatest interest by all who are connected with Evening 
 School administration. 
 
 Leeds. 
 
 In several respects the Evening Schools in Leeds afford 
 an instructive contrast to those in Manchester. The 
 strength of the Manchester schools lies in the traditional 
 interest taken in them, and the energy displayed by those 
 connected with them; in Leeds the strong points are 
 organisation and teaching. In Manchester the schools 
 tend to be more popular, in Leeds more efficient. 
 
 The reasons for this difference are in part historical. 
 When, in 1903, the Leeds Higher Education Sub-Com- 
 mittee undertook the reorganisation of the Evening Schools 
 they found the ground prepared for them by the work 
 of the School Board, of the Mechanics' Institutes and of the 
 
158 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Leeds Institute, but the efforts of these bodies, valuable 
 as they were, had been on the whole less successful than 
 those of corresponding organisations in Manchester. 
 Speaking generally, the interest in evening instruction 
 was less widespread. On the other hand the time was 
 ripe for a reconstruction of the whole system, and on 
 Mr. James Graham's appointment as Secretary for Higher 
 Education, far-reaching reforms were introduced which 
 took effect in the session 1905-6. 
 
 The reforms were largely founded upon the results of 
 a very interesting enquiry instituted by the Leeds Educa- 
 tion Committee in the summer of 1905 into the character 
 and distribution of the industries in Leeds. It was found 
 that the five main industries arranged according to the 
 number of working class heads of families employed in 
 each, were Engineering (Mechanical and Electrical), the 
 Building Trades, Commerce, the Leather and Boot Trades, 
 and the Clothing Trades, and that most of these were 
 centred in definite districts in the City. In addition there 
 were a considerable number of persons employed in Chem- 
 ical Industries, Mining, Textile Industries, and Printing. 
 
 In order that a coherent course of training for these 
 occupations might be provided it was necessary that the 
 work of other educational institutions in the City should be 
 brought into line with that of the Committee's Evening 
 Schools. This has been successfully accomplished ; agree- 
 ments have been entered into with the four old-established 
 Mechanics' Institutes, by which the Committees of the 
 latter continue to conduct the Evening School work of their 
 districts, but they do so as Sub-Committees of the Higher 
 Education Committee of the Borough. Arrangements have 
 also been made with the University and the Committee of 
 the Leeds Institute by which the co-operation of these 
 bodies is secured. In the session 1906-7 all these institu- 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 159 
 
 tions took their share in one co-ordinated system of evening 
 teaching. 
 
 This system includes four classes of schools ; schools in- 
 tended to provide technical training for skilled workers 
 in the principal trades ; schools giving a commercial course ; 
 schools for art students of all kinds ; and schools for girls 
 and women providiitg instruction in domestic subjects. 
 Each of these classes of schools consists of institutions of 
 various grades, coordinated so as to facilitate the passage 
 of a student from one grade of instruction to another; and 
 each class, therefore, calls for separate consideration. 
 
 The Technical Evening Schools are of four grades. In 
 Grade I. are the general Preparatory Evening Schools, in 
 Grade II. the Branch Artisan Schools, in Grade III. the 
 Advanced Technical Evening Schools, while the Leeds 
 University is of the Fourth or Highest Grade. 
 
 The Grade I. Schools are intended for boys who have left 
 the Day Schools without having passed Standard V., and 
 for men whose education is very defective. They are five 
 in number ; three are attended by boys, and the other two 
 mainly by Jews and other foreigners who come for the 
 purpose of learning English. The curriculum of the 
 schools for boys includes English, Arithmetic and Experi- 
 mental Mathematics, Drawing and in two schools Wood- 
 work. In the two schools for foreigners a great deal of 
 English is taken. 
 
 In addition to the Grade I. Schools several of those in 
 Grade II. give elementary instruction to boys who have 
 left school in a low standard, but in all cases the Pre- 
 paratory Coiirse is intended to lead up to the Technical 
 Course proper. This Course is begun in nine Branch 
 Artisan Schools, with first Bind second year courses, and in 
 four Mechanics' Institutes which, for historical reasons, 
 give third year instruction also. The curriculum for the 
 
i6o EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 first year consists simply of Experimental Mathematics 
 (four hours) and English (two hours). The former 
 includes the sketching and measurement of models, 
 decimals, fractions, contracted methods, some algebra 
 and practical geometry involving graphs, and similar 
 subjects. The whole is based on the actual dimen- 
 sions of models and simple pieces of machinery. 
 The English syllabus is a wide one; much practice 
 is given in composition, largely in the form of 
 descriptions of the work done in mathematics, or of 
 essays on subjects arising out of the reading lesson. This 
 session a good deal of reading has been introduced with 
 the happiest results. A comprehensive list of suitable 
 standard books has been drawn up, from which the 
 Headmaster selects two or three likely to be appreciated 
 by his boys. In one school, for instance. Lamb's "Tales 
 from Shakespeare" and a book of ballads were being 
 studied with great interest. When the boys took the 
 books home with them for purposes of homework, they 
 frequently brought them back saying that they had read 
 them through. Boys are encouraged to buy copies for 
 themselves, and this is often done. The reading has 
 proved an aid to the composition. The boys like to write 
 their ideas on what they have read, and hence compose with 
 ease. " They have so much to go at," as one Headmaster 
 expressed it. 
 
 The second year's course is made up of Experimental 
 Mathematics (three hours), a continuation of the first 
 year's work, including logarithms, more algebra and some 
 solid geometry, treated on the same practical lines; two 
 hours in the Mechanical Laboratory, in which the practical 
 value of the mathematics is shown by its application to 
 experiments in mechanics, hydrostatics, and heat; and 
 one hour English of the same character as before. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS i6i 
 
 For the third and fourth year Special Technical Courses 
 have been arranged. These are taken partly at the 
 Mechanics' Institutes, but mainly in the three Third 
 Grade Schools. Apart from classes for Adult "Workers, 
 the Special Technical Courses are intended for Mechanical 
 Engineers, Electrical Engineers, Architects and Builders, 
 Chemical "Workers, Textile Students, Printers, and Leather 
 and Boot Trades. But each course is arranged with a view 
 to further specialisation. For example, in the Mechanical 
 Engineering Course provision is made for Fitters and 
 Turners, Pattern Makers and Boiler Makers. Under the 
 Building Trades Course come special Courses for Brick- 
 layers and Masons, Plumbers, Sanitary Inspectors, Archi- 
 tects, Painters, Cabinet Makers, Plasterers, and the like, 
 some subjects being taken in the School of Art. 
 
 Lastly, advanced students who have either passed 
 through a four years' Evening Course, or can prove 
 equivalent attainments, may receive further instruction in 
 Evening Classes at the University. 
 
 Turning now to the Commercial Schools, we find them 
 organised on similar lines. The same three Grade I. 
 Schools prepare for the strictly Commercial Course, and 
 the nine Branch Commercial Schools also provide, where 
 necessary. Preparatory Courses in English, History, 
 Geography, Mathematics and Drawing. 
 
 In the first two years of the Commercial Course the 
 subjects are English, Commercial Arithmetic, Commercial 
 Practice, Book-keeping, Commercial Geography and 
 History and Shorthand. If the student possesses a suffi- 
 ciently sound knowledge of English, a Foreign Language 
 may be taken, otherwise this is postponed to the third 
 or fourth year. Great stress is laid upon the teaching of 
 English. The complete Course includes the History of 
 English Literature, with the study of selected works, and 
 
i62 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 an outline of the History of tlie Language, as 
 well as Composition and Precis Writing. Many of the 
 schools are affiliated to the National Home Reading 
 Union. The teaching of Foreign Languages is from the 
 beginning partly oral. Advanced students are encouraged 
 to join Modern Language ' Circles,' where lectures are 
 given in the foreign language, followed by discussions or 
 the reading of short essays. 
 
 In the three Advanced Evening Schools of Commerce 
 Professional Courses are given for Bankers, Accountants, 
 Auctioneers, Public Officials, Chemists, Grocers, and 
 Railway Clerks, while in the University, Courses of 
 Lectures are arranged on Economics and Commercial Law. 
 The Commercial Schools are open to both boys and girls, 
 and are equipped with the necessary books and documents, 
 as well as with lanterns, small museums, pictures of 
 foreign life and the like. 
 
 The Evening Schools of Art are of three grades. In 
 the First Grade Schools, three for boys and six for girls, 
 a Preparatory Course is given, intended to train the eye, 
 memory and taste. In the four Branch Schools of the 
 Second Grade, instruction is given in Drawing of Common 
 Objects, Elementary Design, Light and Shade, Clay 
 Modelling, and Wood-carving. The Course in these 
 schools is intended to lead up to the work done in the 
 Central School of Art, with its departments for Architec- 
 ture, Design, Modelling, Life Drawing and Painting, and 
 the various Craft Schools. 
 
 Domestic Courses are also given in three Grades of 
 Schools. In the eight Preparatory or First Grade Schools 
 the curriculum includes Needlework, Dressmaking, Plain. 
 Cooking, House Management, and Household Accounts, 
 and Correspondence. In the eleven Young Women's In- 
 stitutes of Grade II. Millinery, Laundry and Nursing are 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 163 
 
 added, while in tlie Central Institute more advanced in- 
 struction is given in the same subjects, with a special 
 Course for Housekeepers. 
 
 In all these schools regular courses of instruction, in- 
 volving attendance on at least three evenings of the week, 
 are now taken, except in the case of Women's Institutes, 
 where attendance on two or in special cases on one evening 
 is allowed. The effect of the course system on the work 
 is universally acknowledged to have been excellent. Home- 
 work is done and takes on the average one to three hours 
 per week. There seems as a rule to be no difficulty in 
 getting the students to bring it regularly. 
 
 The fees are 2s. 6d. for a course in First, and 4s. in 
 Second Grade Schools. In Advanced Evening Technical 
 and Commercial Schools 5s. or 7s. 6d. is charged; in the 
 Central Women's Institute the fee is 15s., and for a Univer- 
 sity Course 10s. 6d. These fees are remitted on the recom- 
 mendation of the Head Master in cases of poverty. The 
 system of " free passes " which formerly obtained has been 
 abandoned as unsatisfactory; students appreciate what 
 they have to pay for; but there is an extensive scheme of 
 Technical Evening School Exhibitions of which 100 Junior 
 and 65 Senior were awarded last year. These exhibitions 
 are awarded on the result of the session's work as shown by 
 attendance, homework, and general progress. The Junior 
 Exhibitions consist of a grant not exceeding 10s. towards 
 the cost of books, etc., and the Senior of a corresponding 
 grant not exceeding 30s. A condition of tenure is that 
 the exhibitioner should take an approved evening course 
 during the following session. 
 
 The introduction of this organised system of instruction 
 in 1905 produced a striking change in the attendances of 
 the students. This will be clear from the following table 
 of attendances : 
 
I64 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Beginning of End of 
 
 Session. 8th Week. Session. 
 
 1904-5 6,925 ... 6,050 ... 4,169 
 
 1905-6 6,945 ... 9,860 ... 7,937 
 
 1906-7 3,954 ... 5,869 ... 5,733 
 
 It appears from these figures that during the last two 
 sessions the attendance, instead of falling off, has rapidly 
 increased during the first weeks of work, and has continued 
 high up to the end. In 1905-6 the highest attendance 
 was registered on February 24th. ^ 
 
 This result can only be attributed to the excellence of 
 the teaching, and any visitor to the classes can hardly fail 
 to be struck with the serious spirit that uniformly prevails. 
 The Head Teacher in each of the Grade I. and II. Schools 
 is an Assistant in an Elementary School; the other 
 members of the staff may be either Elementary Teachers or 
 Special Subject Teachers. 
 
 The success of the teaching, however, is, I think, due not 
 so much to the choice of teachers, as to the fact that 
 Evening School teaching is recognised in Leeds as a 
 special art, requiring special preparation. Special Courses 
 for Evening Teachers are held by highly qualified instruc- 
 tors in English, Arithmetic and Experimental Mathe- 
 matics, Mechanical Laboratory Work, Commercial Geo- 
 graphy, Commercial Arithmetic, and Commercial Practice 
 and Book-keeping, with the object of helping actual or 
 intending teachers in Evening Schools to gain both the 
 necessary knowledge, and, what is equally important, the 
 right methods of imparting it. These courses have been 
 vigorously taken up, and have introduced into the Evening 
 Teaching a wider outlook and less stereotyped methods. 
 
 The Leeds authorities have thus made a definite attempt 
 
 1. It should be mentioned that the figures given afford no basis for 
 comparison of the numbers in attendance during the different sessions. 
 The numbers in the first two sessions are those of class entries in the 
 last session those of individual students. ' 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 165 
 
 to deal with the problem of obtaining a supply of qualified 
 teachers for their evening classes. They are also success- 
 ful in getting their students at the most appropriate age. 
 Probably as many as 75 per cent, join the Technical Even- 
 ing Schools in the next session after they have left the Day 
 School. But two great difiiculties remain to be overcome. 
 The first of these is the apathy or even antagonism of 
 the employers. A few firms do, indeed, take an interest 
 in the more advanced technical courses, and in a few 
 instances apprentices' fees have been paid, but, speaking 
 generally, no encouragement is given to boys and girls 
 to attend. A great deal of overtime is worked, which 
 often renders regular attendance quite impossible. 
 Promising boys not infrequently stop coming to the 
 Evening School as soon as they are eighteen years of age 
 because they are then put on overtime. Cases have been 
 known in which boys were discharged because they 
 requested permission to attend evening classes. In the 
 case of boys and girls not employed in factories the 
 difficulty begins at an earlier age. It is very often quite 
 impossible for shop boys and errand boys to attend, owing 
 to the long hours during which their services are required. 
 But, apart from any question of working overtime, it is 
 not right for a boy of fourteen or fifteen who has to go to 
 work at 6 a.m. to stay at an Evening School until 9-30 p.m., 
 and it is no use trying to get a large attendance of young- 
 boys at the Artisan Schools until the co-operation of the 
 employers is secured. 
 
 The second difficulty, which unfortunately is by no 
 means confined to Leeds, is connected with the methods of 
 work obtaining in some of the Elementary Day Schools. 
 On this point I speak with diffidence as my opportunities 
 for observation were limited, but I gathered from the 
 testimony of competent observers that a somewhat 
 
I66 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 mecliaiiical system of discipline and teacliing was still 
 occasionally to be met with. This is a survival from the 
 days when the Government, by a system of individual 
 examination and " payment by results," encouraged a 
 certain narrowness of educational aim. The size of some 
 of the classes has also prevented the spread of freer 
 methods of teaching and discipline. This persistence of 
 an older tradition, however, by no means implies any lack 
 of goodwill or strenuous work on the part of the teachers. 
 But, where it obtains, its influence is unfortunate in 
 giving the children a distaste for school, and thus making 
 them both less willing to come back for evening work 
 and less able to adapt themselves to the freer methods 
 necessarily employed in the Continuation Courses. Every 
 year, however, witnesses the growth of more sympathetic 
 and unconstrained relations between the teacher and the 
 taught, and the increasing prevalence of such relations in 
 the Day School, facilitated as we may hope they will be, 
 by a more stimulating curriculum, is one of the surest 
 grounds for hopefulness in regard to the future of the 
 Technical Evening Schools. 
 
 Halifax. 
 
 Our survey of the history and present conditions of the 
 Evening Schools in Manchester and Leeds has shown us 
 some of the main problems confronting any Education 
 Authority desirous of establishing a coherent system of 
 evening instruction. There are in the first place the two 
 closely related problems of adapting the students' work to 
 their industrial or commercial needs, and of providing a 
 properly organised system of instruction, which may facili- 
 tate the student's progress from one grade of instruction 
 to another. These problems have been to some extent 
 solved by the substitution of carefully considered courses 
 of instruction for isolated subjects, and by so arranging 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 167 
 
 the curricula of a number of branch schools that they shall 
 provide the requisite preparatory training for the work of 
 certain central institutions. In the second place there are 
 the subsidiary but most important problems connected 
 with the number and class of students who can be induced 
 to join the Evening Classes; the age at which attendance 
 begins ; the previous training in the Day School ; the effect 
 of their employment in causing fatigue or inability to 
 attend; the supply of suitable and zealous teachers; the 
 attitude of the employers ; and the danger of an illiberal 
 atmosphere in the schools. One or two other questions 
 will be noticed in the sequel, but the above list is both 
 formidable in itself and sufficient for our present purpose. 
 In the following pages I shall try to show how the solution 
 of some of these problems has been attempted in boroughs 
 with a population of roughly 100,000, and in which, there- 
 fore, the conditions are less complex than those obtaining 
 in Manchester or Leeds. The general principles of organ- 
 isation are everywhere the same, though in each case they 
 are modified by local peculiarities. 
 
 Of these smaller boroughs Halifax is a good example, 
 in spite of the fact that its special conditions are not 
 wholly favourable. Its population of about 108,000 is 
 unevenly distributed over an unusually large area, and 
 its industries are very varied, including several different 
 branches of the textile and engineering trades, dyeing and 
 and building, in addition to the usual commercial 
 occupations. Both these circumstances render organisa- 
 tion difficult. Further, the half-time system is very 
 prevalent, nearly 9 per cent, of the children on the 
 Elementary School books being excused from full attend- 
 ance. It is, therefore, all the more remarkable that 
 Halifax is noted for its large number of Evening Students, 
 and for its success in securing their attendance immediately 
 after they have left the Day Schools. 
 
i68 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 As 'might be anticipated, this result is due partly to the 
 existence of a strong Evening School tradition and partly 
 to an excellent system of administration. I also' attribute 
 great importance to the high standard of teaching in many 
 of the Day Schools. The size of the classes is less than 
 in many towns; in 1905-6 there was an average of one 
 teacher to every thirty children in Provided and to every 
 thirty-three children in Voluntary Schools; and though 
 some of the Evening Teachers complained to me of the 
 insufficient preparation of their students, it seems probable 
 that an interest in learning is fostered in many children 
 by the kindly personal relations subsisting in most cases 
 between the Day School teachers and their scholars. 
 
 The beginning of the Evening School movement in 
 Halifax was due to the efforts of a voluntary committee 
 which, in 1886, conducted evening classes in four element- 
 ary schools. The work went on with increasing success 
 until 1901, when these schools were taken over by the 
 Technical Instruction Committee. There were then eleven 
 Evening Schools attended by 1354 boys and 692 girls. 
 
 The Technical Instruction Committee had already 
 assumed control of the Technical School, which had also 
 originated in private effort. Hence when the Education 
 Committee came into office, the field was prepared for a 
 comprehensive scheme of co-ordination. In the session 
 1902-3 such a scheme was put into operation, and, with 
 some natural developments, has since continued in force. 
 
 At the present time there are three stages of instruction. 
 The first stag© consists of a two years' Preparatory Course 
 in Elementary Subjects ; to the second stage belong the 
 Special Courses, also of two years' duration for Industrial, 
 Commercial, Art, or Domestic students; and to the third 
 stage the courses at the Technical College. 
 
 The Elementary Course is taken at thirteen Evening 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 169 
 
 Continuation Schools for boys and girls, and the work 
 done is roughly equivalent to that of the Sixth and Seventh 
 Standards of the day school in "Writing, Grammar, Arith- 
 metic, Geography, History and Drawing. There are also 
 optional classes in "Woodwork and Metalwork. 
 
 Of these thirteen schools eight provide first-year instruc- 
 tion in the Special Courses, and five second-year instruction 
 also. There is thus a pyramid of schools, the thirteen 
 Continuation Schools forming the base, and the Technical 
 College the apex. 
 
 The subjects taken in the Industrial Course are Experi- 
 mental Mathematics, Technical Drawing and Experi- 
 mental Science. In the Commercial Course are 
 included Book-keeping, Business Methods, Shorthand, 
 French and Commercial Arithmetic. In the Women's 
 Departments various domestic subjects are taught; 
 a course is arranged but is not compulsory. The In- 
 dustrial Second Year Course continues the work of 
 the First Year, but instead of Machine Drawing 
 students in the Building Trade are given lessons 
 in Building Construction. The Science takes the 
 form of Practical Mechanics. The Second Year of the 
 other Courses continues the work already begun. After 
 the second year of these Courses students proceed to the 
 Technical College where a large number of specialised 
 courses are arranged. Students who have passed through 
 one of these Second Year Courses at an Evening School 
 are admitted to a Course at the Technical College for one 
 session at half the ordinary fee. That this system of co- 
 ordination is a reality is shown by the fact that 119 
 students who were in the Evening Schools last session are 
 now in attendance at the Technical College. 
 
 One of the most interesting points of organisation at 
 Halifax is the method by which boys and girls leaving 
 
170 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the Day Schools are induced to join the Evening Classes. 
 In the first place, the names of all who leave are sent to 
 the Central Office at the Technical College. A circular 
 signed by the Principal of the College, Mr. J. Crowther, is 
 then sent to them, inviting them to begin attendance as 
 soon as possible at the nearest Evening School, and, more 
 important still, they are visited either by the Head 
 Teacher of the Evening School or by a Clerk from the 
 Office. It is desirable that these visits should thus be of 
 a friendly and semi-official character. Owing to the 
 associations attached to his position, a visit from the 
 Attendance Officer, however tactful, would, for this 
 purpose, naturally be much less effective. By this means 
 all needful information is given and a certain amount of 
 personal influence brought to bear. If a boy does not 
 come after being asked the first time, he is called upon 
 again and not allowed to rest until all efforts are obviously 
 in vain. The Head Masters of the Evening Schools are 
 often tireless in their efforts to save boys from spending 
 their evenings in the streets. 
 
 Regularity of attendance is encouraged by a system of 
 Medals and of Money and Book Prizes. Further, whenever 
 a student is absent from an Evening School the Head 
 Teacher has to report such absence to the Office, at the 
 same time giving the reason. This means that all 
 absentees are enquired after and perhaps visited by the 
 teacher, and in bad cases also communicated with from 
 the Office. 
 
 This system throws a large amount of work upon 
 Principal Crowther and his staff as well as upon the 
 teachers concerned, but it has been abundantly justified 
 by its results. 
 
 The following statistics will give an accurate idea of 
 these results so far as they depend upon the numbers 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 171 
 
 in attendance. They have been kindly supplied by Mr. 
 Crowther and are unusually complete. It is particularly 
 instructive to be able to follow accurately the progress of 
 the Evening Schools, so far as numbers are concerned, 
 during their period of re-organisation 
 
 A. 
 NO. OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN EVENING SCHOOLS SINCE 1900. 
 
 Session. Boys. Girls. 
 
 1900-1 1,354 692 
 
 1901-2 1,342 687 
 
 1902-3 1,173 722 
 
 1903-4 1,435 838 
 
 1904-5 1,395 835 
 
 1905-6 1,430 897 
 
 1906-7 1,416 1,062 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Average No. of 
 
 hours' instruction 
 
 received by each 
 
 pupil enrolled 
 
 during the Session. 
 
 2,046^ 
 
 66 
 
 2,029 
 
 — 
 
 1,895" 
 
 - 
 
 2,273" 
 
 - 
 
 2,230' 
 
 — 
 
 2,327= 
 
 123 
 
 2,478" 
 
 _ 
 
 1. Session 20 weeks only. 
 
 2. Introduction of Systematic Courses, which aiiected the boys to the 
 extent of 169. The following Session, however, this loss was more than 
 compensated for. 
 
 3. Full Commercial Course compulsory. 
 
 4. Full Commercial and Industrial Courses compulsory. 
 
 5. Introduction of Elementary Science into the Industrial Courses. 
 Session increased to 25 weeks. 
 
 6. Second Year Commercial, Industrial and Art Courses begun. Session 
 30 weeks. 
 
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174 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 D. 
 
 NUMBER OF BOYS AND GIRLS ENTERING THE EVENING 
 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS DIRECT FROM THE ELEMEN- 
 TARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Session. 
 1904-5 
 
 Boys. 
 367 
 
 Girls. 
 118 
 
 Totals. 
 485 
 
 1905-6 
 
 358 
 
 199 
 
 557 
 
 1906-7 
 
 374 
 
 269 
 
 564 
 
 As the age of admission to the Evening Classes of the Technical College 
 is now 16 years no pupils proceed direct from the Elementary Day 
 Schools to the evening classes of the College. 
 
 In the year 1906 the number of children who left the Elementary 
 Schools was 1,105. Hence we may infer that about 58 per cent, of such 
 children now join the Evening Continuation Schools within a year of 
 their ceasing to attend the Day School. The Evening School statistics 
 refer to sessions, and the Day School statistics to calendar years, and 
 hence no exact computation of the percentage is possible. 
 
 E. 
 
 NUMBER OF BOYS AND GIRLS FROM THE PREPARATORY 
 COURSES TAKING AMBULANCE, WOODWORK, METAL- 
 WORK, AND PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Session Session Session 
 
 
 1904-5. 
 
 1905-6. 
 
 1906-7. 
 
 Ambulance (Boys) 
 
 ... 272 ... 
 
 ... 145 ... 
 
 .. 134 
 
 (Girls) 
 
 .. 229 ... 
 
 ... 278 ... 
 
 .. 230 
 
 Woodwork 
 
 ... 195 ... 
 
 ... 287 ... 
 
 .. 273 
 
 Metalwork 
 
 43 ... 
 
 99 ... 
 
 .. 101 
 
 Physical Exercises" (Boys) 
 
 ... 300 ... 
 
 ... 222 ... 
 
 .. 307§ 
 
 * Prior to the Session 1906-7 the Physical Exercises were taken for 
 half-an-hour on one evening. This arrangement interfered with the 
 ordinary work considerably; it was therefore decided for the Session 
 1906-7 to make arrangements for the students to have Physical Exercises 
 on a fourth night. This year's experience has led to the conclusion that 
 the demand for serious physical exercises is very small and the Committee 
 have therefore decided to drop this work next Session. At the same 
 time they are making an increased grant to the local gymnasium on 
 condition that facilities are there given to any evening pupils wishing to 
 receive instruction in physical exercises. 
 
 § Number present last week of Session 56. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 175 
 
 St. Helens. 
 
 In St. Helens the educational conditions are in some 
 respects unusual. The town is a County Borough and con- 
 tains ahout 92,500 inhabitants, but has never had a School 
 Board. Until the appointment of the Municipal Educa- 
 tion Committee under the Education Act of 1902 the even- 
 ing instruction was under the control of voluntary 
 managers. Including the schools maintained by the Co- 
 operative Society seventeen Evening Continuation Schools 
 were opened and met with considerable success, in 1898 a 
 total attendance of 1,562 being obtained. The work done, 
 however, was not altogether satisfactory, it was too un- 
 systematic, was unconnected with the classes at the Gamble 
 Technical Institute, and failed to attract students of the 
 unskilled labour class. 
 
 After 1898 the attendance at the Evening Classes 
 declined, until in 1905-6 there were only 931 students on 
 "the registers and an average attendance of 586. 
 
 That session, however, was marked by the introduction 
 of important reforms by the Education Committee. The 
 number of Evening Schools maintained by the Committee 
 -was reduced from fifteen to six, five of which were con- 
 nected with Voluntary Schools and theoretically carried 
 on under the supervision of their managers. All new 
 students were required to attend on three evenings in the 
 "week, one of which was set apart for homework, and definite 
 •courses were introduced. The first three years' work was 
 to be taken at the evening continuation schools, the fourth 
 and following years at the Gamble Institvite. 
 
 During the past session (1906-7) teaching has been given 
 in the evening schools under the Education Committee 
 on three evenings per week, and the system of courses has 
 
176 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 been further developed. The whole of the evening classes 
 both in the continuation schools and the Gamble Insti- 
 tute are now, with few exceptions, organised in courses, 
 and every student is compelled to take one of the courses 
 thus prescribed. No student is allowed to proceed from 
 one stage of a course to the next unless he has passed the 
 sessional examination. In order to encourage attendance 
 at these Evening Classes a comprehensive scheme of 
 scholarships has been adopted. There are scholarships 
 connecting the Day Schools with the Evening Continua- 
 tion Schools by which all boys and girls leaving the Day 
 Schools can attend one session at the Evening Continuation 
 School free, provided they join the Evening School in the 
 session after they have left the Day School. The number 
 of these scholarships is unlimited. The Head Teachers of 
 the Elementary Schools supply the Secretary with a list 
 of the children who have left the Day Schools during the 
 previous year, and a letter is written to each one pointing 
 out the advantages of joining an Evening Continuation 
 School without delay, and offering a scholarship. Approxi- 
 mately 1,300 such scholarships were offered at the be- 
 ginning of the session 1906-7, of which 420 were taken up. 
 
 There are also scholarships connecting the Evening 
 Continuation Schools with the Evening Classes at the 
 Gamble Institute in the form of free tuition for one year, 
 and in the Evening Technical School at this Institute 
 there are Internal Scholarships by which it is possible to 
 proceed to the highest classes without payment of any fees. 
 
 Lastly, the committee assist certain students who have 
 completed the courses at the Gamble Institute to attend 
 classes at the Liverpool University by paying their 
 travelling expenses. 
 
 In addition to these scholarships the fees are returned to 
 students in the Evening Continuation Schools who have 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 177 
 
 attended with regularity, and prizes are awarded for good 
 progress. 
 
 By a somewhat questionable provision scholars still in 
 attendance at the Day Schools are admitted to the Evening 
 Continuation Schools. The number of such scholars in 
 1906-7 was 183. 
 
 These measures under the energetic administration of 
 Mr. J. J. Bromhead, the Secretary for Higher Education, 
 have met with a large measure of success. The standard 
 of work has been raised, and the numbers in attendance 
 have increased. 
 
 The following tables refer to the session 1906-7 : 
 
 No. in No. in 
 
 No. on attendance attendance Avetuge 
 books. in Nov. in Marcli. attendance. 
 
 Evening Cont. Schools 994 613 375 431 
 Gamble Institute 1,001 957 798 — 
 
 The average number of students attending the Technical 
 School on any one evening is about 300. 
 
 In the School of Art each individual student takes on 
 the average between four and five subjects. In the 
 Technical School, allowing for students taking Cookery, 
 Laundry, Millinery, and Dressmaking who generally take 
 only one subject, each student takes between three and 
 four subjects. 
 
 The number of students arranged according to ages is 
 as follows : 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools under the Committee : 
 
 12-13 13—14 14—16 15—16 16—17 Over 17 Total 
 
 Boys 44 106 209 95 38 121 603 
 
 Girls 38 73 128 62 20 73 391 
 
 Gamble Institute : 
 
 Men — — 20 67 76 380 543 
 
 Women .. — — 15 24 25 394 458 
 
 M 
 
t78 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Tlie number of students from the Evening Continuation 
 Scliools who proceed to the Gamble Institute is about 
 ninety per annum. 
 
 The Courses at the Evening Continuation Schools 
 comprise a First Year Preliminary Course for boys and 
 girls who left school in the sixth or a lower standard, and 
 Industrial, Commercial and Domestic Courses. These 
 latter Courses are continued at the Gamble Institute. 
 
 Besides these Courses at the Evening Continuation 
 Schools there is also a Preliminary Course at the Gamble 
 Institute which all its students, except those in Art or 
 Domestic Subjects, are required to take, unless they can 
 give evidence of a sound general education. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting feature of the work is the 
 great attention devoted to the teaching of English. The 
 aim is to enable the student to read with appreciation and 
 express himself with lucidity. Both reading aloud and 
 silent reading are sedulously practised, the favourite 
 authors being Shakespeare and Dickens. Great interest is 
 taken in the lesson, and really good poetry is carefully 
 studied and much appreciated. One Head Master gives 
 monthly lectures on English authors, which have proved 
 attractive. The students' compositions include essays on 
 literary and current topics. 
 
 Many of the employers take a practical interest in the 
 work of the Gamble Institute, but, as in many other towns, 
 the industrial conditions are not altogether favourable to 
 the eificiency of its evening schools. A large proportion 
 of the male population is employed in glass works and 
 collieries. Much of the labour is very heavy, while the 
 three-shift system, which obtains in some of the works, 
 makes attendance practically impossible for many of the 
 boys and men. 
 
 Turning now to the school maintained by the Co- 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 179 
 
 operative Society, we have an instance of a Continuation 
 School, wliich. is successfully maintained by private effort. 
 This Evening School is the largest in the town. In the 
 session of 1905-6 the number of students on the books 
 was 415, and in 1906-7 307. It is ostensibly confined 
 to students of sixteen and upwards, but exceptions 
 are not infrequent. The teaching is on similar 
 lines to that given in the Committee's schools, but 
 the school is open on two evenings only, and fewer 
 subjects are taken. The reasons for the popularity 
 of the school were stated by the Secretary of the Society to 
 be : (1) the bright and airy rooms, with comfortable seats 
 and tables; (2) the social side of the work (there are two 
 social meetings in the year and a picnic in the summer) ; 
 (3) the lighter course of study, though the subjects taught 
 are treated very seriously ; (4) the corporate feeling ; 95 per 
 cent, of the students belong to families connected with 
 the Society. The weekly fee is only half that charged by 
 the Education Committee. 
 
 The example of this school is instructive as showing the 
 value of methods and influences somewhat different from 
 those usually associated with the work of Education 
 Committees. 
 
 BOOTLE. 
 
 Although the local conditions in the County Borough 
 of Bootle differ considerably from those obtaining in 
 St. Helens, the same general type of organisation has been 
 adopted. There are three Evening Schools with Prepara- 
 tory Courses in elementary subjects followed by Com- 
 mercial, Industrial, and Domestic Courses extending over 
 two years. The Courses lead up to the work of the 
 Technical Evening School which is divided into a 
 Commercial Section, an Engineering Section, a School of 
 Domestic Economy, and a School of Art. The fees range 
 
l8o EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 between 6». and 22s. per session, and every student who 
 has entered since 1904, with certain exceptions, is bound 
 to takei a course, though a number of alternative subjects 
 are offered in each section. 
 
 The co-ordination of the Evening and Technical Schools 
 has been facilitated by the formation of a Board of Studies 
 consisting of the Secretary for Higher Education, the 
 principal Masters of the Technical School, and the Head 
 Masters of the Evening Schools. The system has not as 
 yet produced its full effect, but the results so far obtained 
 are quite encouraging. 
 
 Since Bootle is, for industrial purposes, practically a 
 part of Liverpool, it is unnecessary for its Education 
 Committee to provide advanced special teaching. 
 
 Although the population of Bootle is estimated to be 
 69,200 there are only 2,350 in attendance at the Evening 
 and Technical Schools. This not very satisfactory state of 
 things is due partly to the lack of any organised plan for 
 attracting students, such as that existing in Halifax, partly 
 to special difficulties connected with the industries of 
 Bootle. A large amount of labour is employed in con- 
 nexion with the docks and shipping, and the men suffer 
 much from irregularity of work and hours. There is also 
 a considerable population, mostly Irish, near the docks, 
 which is in a state of chronic poverty. 
 
 Again it is difficult to get boys to attend Evening Classes 
 when they leave the Day School, owing to the great 
 demand for boys of 14 to 16 to scrape boilers in the various 
 engineering works. When thus employed they work hard 
 and earn high wages, and so are both too tired, and too 
 proud to attend an Evening School. The case of the girls 
 is not much better. Large numbers are employed in 
 Bryant and May's Match Factory, and these seem to be 
 totally disinclined for evening work. A similar lack of 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS i8i 
 
 interest in evening classes is shown by large numbers of 
 girls wbo are kept at home to mind the bouse while their 
 mothers are at work.^ Of the girls employed in Johnson's 
 Dye Works I shall speak below. 
 
 One of the means by which the Education Committee 
 try to overcome this difficulty is by allowing the attendance 
 at the Evening Schools of certain scholars from the Day 
 School. Most of the teachers favour this arrangement, 
 but I cannot consider it satisfactory. Certainly when I 
 visited the classes most of the younger boys looked much 
 more fit for bed than for mental work. 
 
 On the other hand, the Committee has been successful in 
 obtaining a good deal of co-operation from the employers, 
 though this has naturally been given mainly in connection 
 with the Technical School. The Dock Board remits work 
 before breakfast to boys who attend Evening Classes, and 
 other firms allow their apprentices to begin work an hour 
 later either on the same or the following day. One firm 
 went so far as to make attendance compulsory upon its 
 apprentices, but the result was not entirely satisfactory as 
 the boys evidently attended with reluctance. Again, 
 several firms, particularly in the building trade, pay the 
 boys' fees, or repay half the fees to the parents if the boy 
 attends well. Special mention is due to the efforts of the 
 Messrs. Johnson. They tried sending all their boys to the 
 Technical Evening School for instruction in Chemistry 
 and similar subjects, but found that in four-fifths of the 
 cases it was pure waste of time, owing to the lack of 
 general education. They now hold at the Works special 
 classes in dyeing which are taught by the Head Chemist, 
 and include practical as well as theoretiqal instruction. 
 
 1. There is an unusually large demand in Bootle for the work of 
 charwomen, due, no doubt, to the small number of domestic servants 
 kept by most of the inhabitants. 
 
i82 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Attendance at these is voluntary, but nearly all the boys 
 and men go througli the Course, and a large proportion are 
 very keen. In addition to this, any boy who wishes to 
 attend a Continuation School has his fees paid, and is let 
 off work, however great the pressure of business, but this 
 permission is taken advantage of by very few. Messrs. 
 Johnson also employ about 600 girls, who are encouraged 
 in every way to go to a Continuation School. In the case 
 of a girl who has not passed the seventh standard attend- 
 ance is compulsory; in other cases it is stimulated by 
 the payment of fees, by prizes, and in particular by the 
 personal supervision and interest of a Social Secretary, a 
 lady, whose whole time is devoted to their welfare. It is 
 her intention to hold classes in Swedish Drill, from which 
 she anticipates good results. 
 
 The Secretary for Higher Education (Mr. J. J. Ogle) 
 does much by his personal efforts to foster the interest 
 taken in the schools by employers. He often writes on 
 behalf of individual boys, whose attendance is interfered 
 with by working overtime. In April, 1907, he arranged for 
 a conference between the local employers and the Education 
 Committee for the purpose of making the utility of the 
 evening classes more widely known, and of receiving 
 criticisms and suggestions.'^ The result has been the 
 establishment of an Advisory Board of Employers to aid 
 the Committee in the improvement of education on its 
 practical side. 
 
 Another feature of interest is the part played by the 
 Bootle Public Library, under its energetic Librarian Mr. 
 C. H. Hunt, in the promotion of Evening and other 
 Education. By a system of school lending libraries, by 
 
 1. See pp. 191—193. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 183 
 
 lists of suitable books, by an educational museum, and by 
 free lectures a great deal is done to stimulate independent 
 reading. 
 
 "WiDNES. 
 
 As an example of a town of about 30,000 inhabitants 
 possessing a very complete system of Evening Schools, I 
 shall take the non-county borough of Widnes, the home 
 of many chemical odours, but also of a great deal of quiet 
 educational activity. 
 
 Largely owing to the tactful and unremitting efforts of 
 Mr. G. H. Danby, who has been for thirty years the 
 Secretary to the School Board and the Education 
 Committee, it has proved possible to interest parents, 
 employers, and teachers in the problem of Evening 
 Education. The result is that in spite of one or two 
 serious difficulties a large proportion, probably over 80 per 
 cent., of the boys leaving the schools in the borough at 
 once begin attendance at the Evening Schools, and a 
 system of combined day and evening attendance has been 
 arranged. 
 
 In the years preceding 1902 the proportional attendance 
 was even better, a very large percentage of the boys from 
 the Elementary Schools proceeding to the Evening Schools 
 as a matter of course. But when, by the Education Act 
 of 1902, non-county boroughs were deprived of the right 
 of controlling the finance of their Evening Schools, a blow 
 was struck at the system from which it is only now 
 recovering. 
 
 One of the main conditions of success was ensured when 
 the chief employers, to a great extent influenced by the 
 example of Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Ck)., of Northwich, 
 agreed to make Evening School attendance compul- 
 sory upon their apprentices. At present the United 
 
i84 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Alkali Company, who own the largest works in the district, 
 make it a condition that all apprentices between fourteen 
 and eighteen, whether bound by indenture or not, shall 
 attend classes on three evenings in the week, their fees 
 being paid by the Company. Apprentices over eighteen 
 will then be allowed to compete for Scholarships entitling 
 them to attend Day Technical Classes on two afternoons 
 without loss of wages and at the Company's expense. The 
 other manufacturers have followed this example. In the 
 case of the shopkeepers the situation is not so favourable. 
 They appear to be quite willing that their errand boys 
 should go, but do not always succeed in releasing them in 
 time. The better boys, however, will not stay at shops 
 where their attendance is habitually prevented. 
 
 Another favourable circumstance is the unity of purpose 
 prevailing among the teachers and educational authorities. 
 All the Head Teachers have passed many years in the 
 service of the town and devote themselves unreservedly to 
 furthering the educational system, in the development of 
 which they have borne a part, while the fact that Mr. 
 Danby has always had the whole of the institutions under 
 his control has tended to prevent any lack of co-ordination 
 between the various types of school. 
 
 As an illustration of the intelligent interest taken in the 
 children I may mention that a trained nurse is engaged by 
 the committee, who visits each school once a week, and 
 sees all sick and dirty children. The effect has been a very 
 remarkable improvement in cleanliness and health, the 
 nurse's salary being more than met by the resulting in- 
 crease in the grants. 
 
 Another advantage which must not be underestimated, 
 is that there are no half-timers, and that exemption is 
 allowed to children under fourteen only if they have passed 
 the seventh standard. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 185 
 
 Of tlie two special difficulties with whicli tlie Education 
 Committee has to contend, the first is the impossibility in 
 the Chemical Industry of excusing boys from work before 
 breakfast. Hence young boys have to begin work at 6 a.m. 
 and to attend classes up to nine or half-past nine at night, 
 and are naturally often tired and sleepy. 
 
 The second difficulty seems to be the unwillingness of a 
 considerable number of Roman Catholic boys to take kindly 
 to Evening Schools. An Evening School was established 
 for them during the session 1906-7, but was discontinued 
 owing to the fall in numbers. In the two other Evening 
 Schools the numbers rose from 142 in September, 1907, to 
 145 in February, 1907. 
 
 The Evening Schools for boys consist of three Continua- 
 tion Schools, in which the courses serve as a foundation for 
 the work at the Evening Technical School. The fees are 
 5s. and are remitted for one session to children who take 
 an Evening Course in the next session after they have left 
 the Day School. They are also returned under certain 
 conditions to students making 85 per cent, of the possible 
 attendances. The Head Masters of the Evening Schools 
 are Chief Assistants in the Day Schools. 
 
 In these schools courses are compulsory, and may be 
 either Industrial or Commercial. In both cases the First 
 Tear Course includes English, Arithmetic and History. 
 The English syllabus is based on the study of some good 
 example of English literature, e.g., a play of Shakespeare, 
 and the History is so arranged as to give an insight into 
 the duties of present-day citizenship. Both subjects are 
 taught in such a way as to encourage private reading, and 
 have proved popular and stimulating. A teacher writes 
 of the English lessons : " Interest on the whole was very 
 well maintained, and it was a pleasure to give these hard- 
 worked youths a glimpse into the old romance and the 
 
i86 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 absorbing Shakespeare world. Many of them had been 
 at work from 6 a.m., two or three quietly dropped off to 
 sleep where the ' Tales ' proved less engrossing — but 
 generally the work was worth doing, and had doubtless 
 played its intended part in some slight humanising and 
 education of character." 
 
 The Industrial Course further includes Drawing, and 
 the Commercial Course Geography, Shorthand and Type- 
 writing. The Second and Third Year Industrial Courses 
 consist of English and Experimental Mathematics. In 
 the later years of the Commercial Course the subjects are 
 those of the First Year with the addition of Book-keeping 
 and a foreign language. 
 
 Boys who have passed the Seventh Standard normally 
 omit the first two years of these Evening School Courses. 
 
 The percentage of attendance in these schools from 
 September to February of the Session 1906-7 was rather 
 over 82. 
 
 In the Technical School, Courses are provided for boys 
 engaged in Commerce, the Chemical Industry, Engineering 
 and the Building Trades. There is also a three years' 
 Course in Art. The percentage of attendances was about 
 80, but students come on two evenings only. 
 
 The system of compulsory attendance appears to work 
 quite satisfactorily. A few boys cannot, or will not, make 
 much progress, but they are the exceptions. On the other 
 hand, the able boys rapidly come to the front not only in 
 school, but in the works, and are prepared for positions 
 of responsibility. 
 
 Owing to the absence of any demand for female labour 
 the large majority of the girls go into service as soon as 
 they leave school or can be spared from home. Hence the 
 number attending Evening Schools is small. Rather 
 over thirty attend a Course in Cookery, Home Nursing, 
 and Laundry Work. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 187 
 
 Conclusions. 
 
 Any practical conclusions which can be drawn from 
 the conditions dealt with in this chapter must obviously 
 be provisional only, but I may perhaps briefly call attention 
 to some points which seem to me important. 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools have very great possibili- 
 ties of usefulness before them, but these possibilities will 
 be fully realised only if Evening Schools are recognised 
 as an integral element in our social system. At present 
 they are too often regarded as a superfluous excrescence. 
 It is supposed that attendance at an Evening School makes 
 no difference to a boy's or teacher's capacity for work 
 during the day, and conversely that he can exert himself 
 at night whether he has had a full day's work or not. 
 Day and evening must be brought into relation with each 
 other. If a boy goes to an Evening School he cannot 
 begin work at six o'clock the next morning; if a master 
 has been teaching really hard all day, his evening work 
 is bound to suffer. In the same way the hours of a 
 student's daily employment and of his evening studies 
 must be so adjusted that neither shall encroach upon the 
 other. It is almost useless for a boy to join an evening 
 class if he is frequently kept so late by his employer as to 
 be unable to attend. 
 
 This co-ordination of Evening Schools with the boy's 
 daily work is possible only with the consent of the 
 employers. It is to be hoped that greater efforts will be 
 made by Education Committees to secure this co-operation. 
 In some towns this has already been accomplished, and 
 I am convinced that the need of the moment is an 
 enlightened propaganda rather than any form of legal 
 compulsion. On the other hand, when once a vigorous 
 interest has been awakened, it is very possible that some 
 legal restriction of the hours of juvenile labour up to 
 
i88 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 seventeen or eighteen will prove necessary for tlie equalisa- 
 tion of opportunity. 
 
 Hardly less important is tlie relation between the Day 
 and Evening Schools. Intelligent teaching and pleasant 
 personal relations in the Day School are essential, if the 
 Evening School is to find a reasonable number of students 
 willing to attend. Moreover, the teachers of the Day 
 School can do more than anyone else to induce their 
 scholars to join the Evening Classes at an early age. 
 Further, the curriculum and teaching methods of the Day 
 School have a most important bearing upon Continuation 
 "Work. The teaching in the Evening Schools can never 
 be satisfactory until the reform of the Day School has 
 been carried out. 
 
 Further an arrangement is much to be desired by which 
 Bands of Hope, and the host of similar societies, should 
 mieet on other nights than those appropriated by the 
 Evening Schools. It is to be regretted that the various 
 religious bodies and the Education Committees should 
 conflict with one another in their efforts to attain a common 
 end. There is sometimes a danger that an Education 
 Committee should undervalue the work done by organisa- 
 tions other than its own. Speaking generally the official 
 Evening Continuation Schools are not the best instrument 
 for reaching boys and girls from the lowest social strata. 
 It is here that Clubs of different types prove so effective. 
 Moreover the various churches have a function in relation 
 to young people which should be freely recognised by the 
 Education Authorities. 
 
 The main instrument of the Evening School is neces- 
 sarily technical instruction. This instruction cannot be 
 too closely related to the student's daily work. Several 
 competent observers deplored to me the tendency to make 
 the teaching too ambitious, either owing to a mistaken 
 respect for examination results or from the natural desire 
 to accelerate the student's progress. The least pretentious 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 189 
 
 teaching is often the most useful, and a careful considera- 
 tion of the student's practical needs by no means prevents 
 the education given from heing truly liberal. If the boy 
 learns to appreciate the wider aspects and interests of his 
 work, he becomes not only a better workman but a more 
 cultured man. The low, I should almost say mercenary, 
 ideal of many Evening Schools is fatal to their real 
 efficiency. 
 
 It can hardly be too strongly urged that the atmosphere 
 and methods of the Evening School should not be those at 
 present characteristic of the Day School. The Continua- 
 tion School must be akin rather to the higher Technical 
 Evening School than to the Elem^entary School in whose 
 buildings it may be held. The development of the social 
 side of Evening School is a wide alid proraisirig field in 
 which comparatively little has yet been done 
 
 The Course system has undoubtedly proved a great 
 success, but it is an open question whether in some cases 
 two evenings a week, with a certain amount of homework, 
 are not as much as should be demanded. In the case of 
 adults a large amount of freedom should clearly be 
 allowed. The case of girls not engaged in business has 
 also proved a difficult one. Speaking generally the whole 
 problem of evening instruction for girls is still far from 
 its solution. The danger of over-pressure is very real. 
 
 Lastly, it is a patent fact that the personality of the 
 teacher is all-important. If the teacher takes a personal 
 interest in the students, and is able to foster the spirit of 
 earnest industry which the majority of his students rarely 
 lack, the class will be successful, however small the 
 numbers. The best schools depend little upon free 
 admissions, prizes or the return of fees. Scholarships are 
 needful, and inability to pay the fees ought never to be a 
 bar to admission, but if the students feel that they are 
 deriving benefit from the instruction, they will not need 
 pecuniary inducements to attend. 
 
 H. BoMPAS Smith. 
 
190 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Diagram (prepared by Mr. J. H. Keynolds) illustrating the Graded 
 System of Courses of Instruction adapted to the requirements 
 of the different Classes of Students in the Manchester 
 Evening Schools. 
 
 GRADE III.— CENTRAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Municipal School 
 
 OF 
 
 Technology, 
 
 Specialised instruc- 
 tion in Science and 
 Technology. 
 
 Municipal School 
 
 OF Commerce 
 
 AND Languages. 
 
 Specialised instruc- 
 tion in Commercial Sub- 
 jects and in Languages. 
 
 Municipal School 
 OF Art. 
 
 Specialised 
 strucbion in 
 and Design. 
 
 In- 
 Art 
 
 Municipal School 
 OF Domestic Economy 
 AND Cookery. 
 
 Specialised instruc- 
 tion in Domestic 
 Subjects. 
 
 [Day classes only.] 
 
 GRADE II.— BRANCH TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, BRANCH COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS, 
 BRANCH ART CLASSES, AND EVENING SCHOOLS OF DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 Second, Third, and 
 FourthYearTechnlcal 
 Courses, to meet the 
 requirements of all 
 classes of Technical 
 Students. 
 
 Second, Third, and 
 Fourth Year Commer- 
 cial Courses, to meet 
 the requirements of 
 Juniors in business 
 houses. 
 
 First and Second 
 Year Art Courses. 
 
 leading up to the 
 instruction at the 
 Municipal School of 
 Art. 
 
 Specialised Instruc- 
 tion in Domestic Sub- 
 jects, for Women and 
 GIpIs over 16 years of 
 age. 
 
 GRADE I.— EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. 
 
 First and Second Year 
 Technical Courses, for 
 
 Boys engaged in manual 
 occupations. 
 
 First and Second Year 
 Commercial Courses, for 
 Boys and Girls engaged in 
 commercial or distributive 
 occupations. 
 
 First and Second Year 
 Domestic Courses, for Giiis, 
 desirous of receiving a 
 training in domestic sub- 
 jects. 
 
 PREPARATORY COURSE 
 
 For Boys and Girls who desire to improve their general education or who are not sufficiently 
 
 prepared to take advantage of the above Coarses. 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 191 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 At a meeting referred to on p. 182 the following paper 
 was read by Mr. D. B. Hewitt, Esq., B.A., T.C.D., a mem- 
 ber of tke Education Committee of the Cheshire County- 
 Council, a Director of Messrs. Brunner, Mond and Co., 
 Northwich. 
 
 " The firm begaa to encourage attendance at evening 
 classes twenty-three years ago, at first by voluntary attend- 
 ance, but after a few years made it compulsory and offered 
 prizes to their employees who made at least 75 per cent, 
 of possible attendances in one session. When this rule 
 was made there was trouble in the class-rooms resulting 
 from this pressure ; some of the unwilling ones threw things 
 about to the subversion of discipline. This was stopped 
 by summoning a meeting of the parents of the youths, who 
 were told that the firm intended to employ no boy in 
 future who did not regularly attend the evening school 
 at Winnington or other place, and they were recommended 
 to inform their sons that the matter was no joke, for the 
 firm had determined to have the new regulation properly 
 carried out. From that time forward no difficulty of that 
 kind had occurred, and it is now a very popular arrange- 
 ment both with pupils and parents. 
 
 "In 1904 an advance was made by altering the rule as to 
 employment to read as follows : ' It is a further condition 
 of employment that all youths, not apprentices, under the 
 age of 19, Or who reach the age of 19 during the Session, 
 shall attend the Evening School at least 9 times out of 
 every 10 that the School is open, and that apprentices shall 
 so attend during the whole period of their apprenticeship.' 
 
 " Since 1905 apprentices who had a good record of three 
 years evening school attendance at the Winnington Park 
 Schools or other similar evening classes have been given 
 
192 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 instruction in the acEternoons two days a week in tlie 
 Yerdin Technical School without any deduction from their 
 wages. There are now 24 apprentices in the iirst year's 
 and 19 in the second year's course. This attendance forms 
 part of the week's work of the apprentices. The attention 
 of apprentices to their work is remarkable. From 90 to 
 100 per cent, is the record of their attendance at the School 
 and absences are almost all accounted for by sickness. 
 
 The effect of the example of Messrs. Brunner, Mond & 
 Co. on persons other than their employees has been mark- 
 edly good, so that at the present time, of the pupils in the 
 Evening School at Winnington, only one half are in the 
 service of the firm. The Board of Education grants with 
 the fees for attendance at the Evening Schools for years 
 covered the expense of maintenance, and when the Act of 
 1902 came into force there was a balance in hand of nearly 
 £200, which is being used to provide any extra expense in 
 the future. 
 
 In 1903 the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co., whose the 
 School was, handed it over to Trustees for carrying on the 
 work, and the Evening School now costs the town about 
 30s. a year. 
 
 This system was not commenced by Sir John T. Brunner 
 as a work of philanthropy but as a matter of business, and 
 it must be judged by its effect on the efficiency of the 
 workpeople. 
 
 Here is an extract from the Works Manager's Report 
 in answer to enquiry : — 
 
 " Up to the present we have gained in two things — 
 " 1st. Better understanding of a mechanical drawing ; 
 " 2nd. Greater ability in setting out work. 
 
 " As regards No. 1, up to a few years ago very few 
 " mechanics understood a drawing and still fewer could 
 " make a hand sketch to illustrate an idea. Many of 
 " our lads now show great ability in hand sketching with 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 193 
 
 " chalk or pencil and can be employed in measuring up 
 " for alterations and repairs, placing their measurements 
 "in an understandable form on paper. They all can 
 " grasp the meaning of an engineering drawing. 
 
 " As regards No. 2, amongst the fitters, boilermakers, 
 " and smiths we have certainly felt the improvement in 
 " a marked manner. To give an instance. Take a repair 
 " to a connecting rod end, the smith shows markedly 
 " greater ability in making correct allowances for fitting 
 " shop work, and when the rough forging comes to the 
 " machine tool, the fitter can mark it off to a drawing 
 " or gauge and set up in the machine almost without 
 " assistance. It used to be the most difficult of all 
 " things to teach an apprentice to set up his work, but 
 " now in many cases it comes to him naturally. 
 
 " Amongst the young men who are now in the works, 
 " and who only attended the Evening School classes, 
 " I have some exceedingly clever men, dnd men who take 
 " an interest in the work for the work's sake. 
 
 " I consider that our younger generation of mechanics 
 " show a very marked improvement both in ability and 
 "keenness for work and it is a pleasure to deal with 
 " many of them on account of the interest they display." 
 
 Notes on the Evening Schools of Rochdale. 
 
 Special pains have been taken at Rochdale [population 
 83,112 in 1901. Trades : Cotton and Woollen Manufacture 
 and Engineering] to encourage attendance at the Evening 
 Schools, which are so arranged as to form a link between 
 the Elementary Day Schools and the Technical School. 
 The Evening Courses of Instruction are arranged in three 
 grades and three sections : (1) Commercial ; (2) Industrial ; 
 and (3) Domestic. The Elementary Industrial Course 
 prepares for a more advanced course, called the " Fiist 
 Tear's Techniqal Course," and for Trade Classes which are 
 held in the Central and Technical Schools. The Elemen- 
 
 N 
 
194 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 tary Commercial Course is followed by Intermediate and 
 Advanced Courses held in the Central School. The 
 Secretary of the Education Committee (Mr. J. E. Holden) 
 sends a copy of the following circular to every boy and 
 girl leaving the Public Elementary School : 
 
 COUNTY BOROUGH OF ROCHDALE. 
 Edtjcation Committee. 
 
 The Members of the above Committee very earnestly invite you, and 
 all the Scholars who have recently left the Day School, to attend an 
 Evening School during the Session commencing Monday, September — , 
 19—. 
 
 Your education only begins in the Day School. To be really valuable 
 it must still be continued for several years. 
 
 Your future position depends almost entirely upon it and upon the 
 use you make of the next few years of your life. 
 
 Education courses, which begin in the Evening Schools and end in the 
 Technical School have been arranged, and these courses aim at preparing 
 students for positions in both Workshops and Offices. 
 
 One of these courses will suit you, but it is essential that you should 
 begin at once, before the knowledge gained in the Day School is lost. 
 A few years' delay means that you may spend part of your manhood 
 re-doing the work of your childhood. 
 
 The accompanying prospectus supplies you with particulars of the 
 Schools, the Teachers, and the Subjects taught, and any further informa- 
 tion will readily be supplied either at the Evening Schools or at this 
 Office. 
 
 The Fee must be paid in advance, either in one payment or by such 
 weekly instalments as you may privately arrange with the Head Teacher. 
 
 Scholarships and Prizes are offered for competition and the Students 
 of all Schools are eligible to compete ; by their means an efficient Student 
 should be able to secure a good education free of cost. 
 
 J. E. Holden, 
 
 Secretary of the Committee. 
 Education Office, Baillie Street, 
 September, 19 — . 
 
 Another circular is sent to the Superintendents of Sunday 
 Schools which in Rochdale, as elsewhere in Lancashire, 
 play an important part in the educational life of the town. 
 It is pointed out how important it is that young people 
 who are free from day-school attendance and new to 
 industrial life should be well employed in the evening. 
 Sunday Schools retain most of these young people long 
 after their names have been removed from the day school 
 registers. The Education Committee therefore invite the 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 195 
 
 co-operation of the Sunday School authorities in securing 
 a good attendance at the Evening Schools. 
 
 A prospectus of the Evening School arrangements for 
 the ensuing winter is sent in September to everyone who 
 attended an Evening School during the previous session. 
 Accompanying the prospectus is a circular letter signed 
 by the Secretary of the Education Committee, which 
 expresses the hope that the student will resume attendance 
 at the Evening School or at some of the classes held in 
 connection with the Technical School or School of Art. 
 
 Certificates admitting to combined Evening Classes are 
 given by the Head Master to capable boys on leaving the 
 Day School. The rule is that no class will be continued 
 unless at least twenty scholars (in the ease of Dressmaking 
 fifteen) enter during the first four weeks of the session, 
 but the Committee frequently allow small classes to 
 continue if good work is being done. 
 
 The careful steps thus taken by the Education Committee, 
 together with the cordial efforts of the Elementary School 
 teachers in the town, have produced a remarkable improve- 
 ment in the attendance at Evening classes. The number 
 of persons in Rochdale under 17 years of age who' have left 
 the Day School is 3,600, boys and girls being about equally 
 divided. During the years 1905, 1906 and 1907, the 
 percentage of these persons under 17 who were in attend- 
 ance at an Evening School was 55 per cent, in the case 
 of boys, and 25 per cent, in the case of girls. Previous 
 to the Session 1904r-5, the percentages were — ^boys 40 per 
 cent., girls 20 per cent. 
 
 In Eochdale few scholars stay in the public Elementary- 
 Day Schools after their thirteenth birthday. In March, 
 1907, there were 872 half-timers, or nearly 300 more than 
 in 1904. This rapid increase in the number of half-timers 
 is due to the recent extraordinary prosperity of the cotton 
 trade. 
 
196 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 T]ie Courses in the Evening Schools are held on three 
 nights a week, two hours each night. The session of the 
 ordinary Evening Schools is 25 weeks ; that of the higher 
 Evening Classes, 32 weeks. The time at which the greatest 
 fall takes place in the attendance at Evening Classes is 
 the beginning of February. Recently there has not been 
 as great a fall in the attendance about Christmas as was 
 formerly the case. By the end of February (during which 
 month weak students who are not up to the examination 
 standard drop off) about one-third of those who joined the 
 Evening Classes in the preceding September have left. 
 
 An important influence is exerted in the town of the 
 Rochdale Education Guild, which is a branch of the 
 Workers' Educational Association. It was founded in 
 1904 and is a federation of 74 societies, of which some 30 
 are Trade Union branches. Its object is to assist in pro- 
 moting higher education among the people of Rochdale 
 and district. The Guild consists of over 300 members. 
 It publishes an Educational Calendar showing all the 
 educational fixtures in the town. It acts as a sort of 
 " educational clearing house " for the district, and seeks to 
 prevent overlapping and wastage of educational force and 
 opportunity. At every stage of its work, the Guild has 
 been assisted by the co-operation of the Borough Education 
 Committee. Two Courses of Oxford University Extension 
 Lectures, one of Shakespeare's Historical Plays, and the 
 other on Political and Social Problems, were arranged, and 
 through the influence of the Guild the number of working 
 men in attendance was larger than in any previous session. 
 On the recommendation of the Guild, the Rochdale Educa- 
 tion Committee held classes in connexion with the exten- 
 sion lectures, and pioneer courses of lectures were delivered 
 by members of the Guild in neighbouring townships. 
 The Guild arranged a conference of Sunday School officials, 
 
IN MANCHESTER AND OTHER TOWNS 197 
 
 as a result of whicli four lectures, expressly designed for 
 Sunday School workers, were given, under the auspices of 
 the Manchester University Extension Committee, by an 
 experienced schoolmaster, on "The Principles and Practice 
 of Teaching and School Management." Visits were paid 
 to the Bronte country at and around Haworth and to the 
 Ancoats Art Museum in Manchester. The Summer work 
 of the Guild included the arrangement of lectures to 
 mothers on the care of home and children given by the 
 Lady Health Visitors of the Corporation, and a largely 
 attended Reading and Discussion Class which prepared the 
 student for the "Winter's lectures. Three scholarships, 
 tenable at the Oxford Summer Meeting of University 
 Extension Students, are available for Guild members. 
 Thus the Guild renders valuable service to the town and 
 district in three ways. It stimulates interest in higher 
 education, and especially among working people. It 
 secures closer co-operation between the different bodies 
 which arrange lectures and classes, and serves as a useful 
 ally to the Borough Education Committee. Finally, it 
 helps in supplying those courses of instruction in literary, 
 historical, and economic subjects which are needed in 
 addition to technical classes in a well-balanced scheme of 
 further education. 
 
ipS 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Catholic Evening Schools and Clubs in Manchester and 
 Evening Classes in the Manchester Lads' Clubs. 
 
 The number of Catholic Evening Continuation Schools 
 in Manchester is 15, comprising 25 separate departments. 
 Some few of the schools date back to the early days of 
 the evening school movement in Manchester and their 
 development coincides with the rapid extension of the 
 municipal evening schools with which Mr. Wyatt's name 
 is connected. Before 1892, they led a rather struggling 
 existence. The Government grant earned was not large 
 enough to meet expenses, and initiative was constantly 
 hampered by want of funds. In that year Canon Des- 
 plenter, acting with the consent and approval of the Bishop, 
 arranged with the Manchester School Board that all the 
 Catholic Evening Schools in Manchester should in future 
 be under the jurisdiction of the Board, the latter under- 
 taking the whole expense of the schools, so far as it was 
 not met by Government grants, and the appointment of 
 the teachers. In practice, the teachers continued to be those 
 engaged in teaching in Catholic Schools in the day time. 
 The schools now form part of the regular system of muni- 
 cipal Evening Continuation Schools under the jurisdiction 
 of the Manchester Education Committee. 
 
 The Catholic Evening Continuation Schools are to be 
 found, for the most part, in the poorest districts of the 
 City. The largest and most successful of them all — St. 
 Michael's — is situated in the heart of Ancoats. It is in 
 districts like this that the good influence of the nuns is so 
 
CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 199 
 
 powerfully felt in the schools. Their devotion and their 
 personal interest in the children are the prime causes of 
 the success of the schools, especially those for girls. Those 
 nuns who are in charge of the Catholic Day Schools, exert 
 their influence on the girls who are leaving and persuade 
 many of them to come to the Evening School. Some of 
 the girls attend the latter for years. But, as in other 
 Evening Continuation Schools, the number of pupils in 
 attendance gradually falls as the session proceeds, in spite 
 of the 5s. and 3s. prizes which are given at the end of the 
 session to those who make 95 per cent, and 80 per cent, 
 respectively of the possible attendances. If half the num- 
 ber who enter persevere to the end of the course the result 
 is considered good. This can hardly be a matter of surprise 
 when one takes into account the monotony of the lives 
 of these young people during their working hours and 
 the many potent counter attractions in the cheap and 
 tempting places of entertainment scattered over our City. 
 Owing to the influence of the nuns, the girls attend in 
 larger numbers and more regularly than the boys. The 
 fact that the girls are allowed to bring their own sewing 
 and fancy work is also a powerful inducement to attend- 
 ance. 
 
 The entrance scholarships, giving free tuition for one 
 session, which are offered by the Education Committee 
 to all children who begin attendance at a Continuation 
 School immediately on leaving the Day School, have been 
 largely taken advantage of by Catholic children, but so 
 far, the niimber returning for a second session's work seems 
 to be disappointing. At the Night School attached to the 
 Mission of the Holy Name, the percentage of boys who 
 availed themselves of these free entrance scholarships 
 during the session 1905-6 was 58"6, but of these only 18'3 
 per cent, returned to the school during the session 1906-7. 
 
200 CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 The causes of tMs falling off are several : not only 
 inability to pay the fees, and indifference on the part of 
 the employers, but the fact that a rule has been made by 
 the Education Committee that students at an Evening 
 School m.ust enter for the whole of a specified course and 
 may no longer take only the one subject which they parti- 
 cularly desire to study. This keeps away many who would 
 take up any isolated subject such as woodwork, cookery, 
 dressmaking, etc. 
 
 The pupils, on the whole, seem thoroughly interested and 
 keen in their work. More perhaps might be done in the 
 way of training the girls in tidiness and neatness of person. 
 In a large singing class in Ancoats that was visited, the 
 girls were allowed to keep on their hats and shawls and sat 
 as they liked — on the benches, on the floor or on the 
 window ledges. But they sang remarkably well and cer- 
 tainly gave all attention to the teacher. The fancy work 
 which some of the girls were doing was pretty and tasteful. 
 But it seemed somewhat incongruous to find a girl of 
 about 20 working an elaborate lace collar for Whitsuntide 
 while wearing a very ragged bodice with two pins down 
 the front doing duty for much-needed buttons ! In some 
 schools, material for sewing is provided, and the girls bring 
 so much a week until the work is paid for. 
 
 These Catholic Evening Schools are a distinct element 
 of good in Manchester civic life. They serve the double 
 purpose of keeping growing boys and girls at a difficult age 
 off the streets and of deepening and extending the know- 
 ledge which the children have acquired at the Day School. 
 But beyond all this they have a social and spiritual side. 
 The teachers are here able to inculcate an ideal of life in a 
 way impossible by other means. By their influence they 
 can induce the boys and girls to join some religious guild 
 in connexion with the Church; the children attend a 
 
IN MANCHESTER 201 
 
 Sunday Mass and have a weekly meeting in connexion with 
 the Sunday School.^ The older boys may belong to the 
 St. Vincent de Paul Society, a society of laymen who work 
 amongst the sick and minister to the social and religious 
 needs oi their poorer brethren. 
 
 In some parishes there exist, in connexion with the 
 Church, Boys' Clubs founded for recreation purposes only. 
 The boys have a room where they can play billiards and 
 other games and can have music. In connexion with the 
 Boys' Club attached to Corpus Christi Priory, which 
 is under the direction of the Norbertine Fathers, there 
 are both a cricket and a football club and also a very good 
 drum and fife band and a brass band. The elder boys — 
 often members of the St. Vincent de Paul Society — take 
 an active part in the management of the club and it is 
 very pleasant to see their earnestness and the care which 
 the majority evince in their dress, as soon as they attain 
 to a position of responsibility. 
 
 In connexion with the Mission of the Holy Name, there 
 is a most successful Boys' Brigade, with 200 boys on the 
 books, of whom 180 are in uniform. Observance of religious 
 duties and attendance at evening classes are made condi- 
 tions of membership. If a boy does not attend Mass on 
 Sunday, and has no reasonable excuse to offer, he may 
 not enter the Club room or the Grymnasium for a week. 
 The boys have two drills a week as well as practice for the 
 brass and bugle bands connected with the Brigade. The 
 members are well looked after and are helped to improve 
 their position and to get good situations. At Whitsuntide 
 they go into camp. Towards the expenses of this holiday 
 
 1. There is not much scope for real instruction in the Sunday Schools 
 as at present organised. As in the teaching of secular subjects, trained 
 teachers and graded classes are essential. But in the Sunday School 
 time is short, the scholars are many and the skilled and trained teachers 
 but few. Less is therefore accomplished than would be the case were 
 conditions more favourable. 
 
202 CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 they are supposed to contribute 3d. a week eack througliout 
 tlie year, but the poorest amongst them, if they are de- 
 serving, are not excluded, even if they can pay nothing. 
 The money is found for them. There is also, in connexion 
 with the same mission, a Guild of St. Aloysius which meets 
 on Saturday night and Sunday afternoon. This is largely 
 composed of old Brigade boys, but not exclusively so. It 
 is a purely religious club and is managed by some of the 
 Catholic laymen of the parish. Much good is done by these 
 means. The Brigade boys, when they reach the age of 
 eighteen, are drafted off into the Men's Club, and thus are 
 kept under strong religious influence at the most critical 
 period of their lives. 
 
 The best-known Catholic recreative club for girls is that 
 in connexion with the Home of the Sisters of Charity — in 
 Ancoats. Here about 150 of the poorest girls meet on 
 Saturday nights under the care of the Sisters and do fancy 
 work, play games, etc. 
 
 The number of pupils in the Catholic Evening Continua- 
 tion Schools is still small in comparison with the number 
 of those who ought to take advantage of the instruction 
 offered. The numbers are creeping up surely though 
 slowly, but undoubtedly much must be done in the near 
 future to make evening continuation schools more attrac- 
 tive to the masses. 
 
 It is greatly to be hoped that Education Authorities will 
 continue to do all in their power to encourage those de- 
 nominational evening schools, the result of whose work is 
 so far reaching and productive of good to the whole com- 
 
 i^^iiity- Caroline Coignou. 
 
 Evening Classes in the Manchester Lads' Clubs. 
 
 The founders of the earliest Lads' Clubs in Manchester, 
 more than fifteen years ago, would hardly have claimed for 
 
IN MANCHESTER 203 
 
 their work any directly educational value. Their immediate 
 purpose was to provide a counter attraction to the streets, 
 and few, if any, of them realised the educational possi- 
 bilities of the work which they were initiating. It is true 
 that certain classes of a recreative character were started 
 quite in the early days of the movement. When the first 
 novelty had worn off, the difficulty of keeping hold of the 
 lads who had been induced to enter the clubs was increas- 
 ingly felt, and so classes were formed in subjects combining 
 the minimum of intellectual or physical effort with the 
 maximum of amusement, such as gymnastics, physical 
 drill, bent iron-work, fret-work and the like. 
 
 These classes, except where skilled gymnastic instructors 
 were engaged, were almost invariably taught by the club 
 workers themselves or by, their friends, and were frankly 
 intended as additional attractions to the clubs. The step 
 from these to the first purely educational classes marks the 
 beginning of a fresh idea in the Lads' Club programme. 
 
 Within the clubs themselves, great developments had 
 taken place and, in spite of the continual increase in the 
 provision of public amusements and the general raising of 
 the standard of living among the working classes, they had 
 succeeded in retaining and deepening their hold upon the 
 lads of the city. They had become the homes of very 
 lively societies which not only provided for their members' 
 winter evenings but organis'Sd their games and athletics, 
 arranged their annual summer holiday and in a variety of 
 ways, centred the lives of the members in the clubs to 
 which they belonged. 
 
 With these developments there came naturally to the 
 officers of the Lads' Clubs an increased sense of respon- 
 sibility for the welfare of the members and a desire to 
 make the club more than a mere place for amusement and 
 recreation, and it is not surprising that the question of 
 
204 CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 improving the general education of tlie boys over whom 
 they had now obtained so strong a hold, became for them 
 a vital problem. 
 
 It is true that even twenty years or more ago there were 
 in the city numerous continuation schools where useful 
 work was doubtless done, but the lads attending them were 
 altogether of a different stamp from those who provided 
 the bulk of the membership of the Lads' Clubs. The aver- 
 age Lads' Club member,^ — a boy possessing no exceptional 
 ability, but more than an ordinary amount of rough high 
 spirits, — showed a strong and quite natural disinclination 
 to attend a continuation school where his class mates would 
 be smarter lads than himself, fresh from school, generally 
 better dressed, and engaged in occupations which 
 demanded a better all round knowledge than he himself 
 ever seemed likely to possess. 
 
 In order to provide for such lads as this, and perhaps 
 with an idea of ultimately " feeding " the continuation 
 schools, the Lads' Club officers set out to provide elemen- 
 tary instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic. 
 
 And so, even ten or more years ago, a visitor to several 
 of the larger lads' clubs in Manchester would have found 
 classes in the three R's and other elementary subjects, con- 
 sisting of lads between the ages of thirteen and twenty, 
 taught by men whose days at school or college were long 
 since over but who, in their capacity as Lads' Club workers, 
 seemed, at that time, the most natural teachers of the 
 classes. Amusing stories are told of the severe shocks which 
 the lads' confidence in the knowledge and skill of these 
 amateur teachers sometimes sustained, and it was probably 
 due to the lack of trained teaching power that these early 
 classes did not achieve any very great success. Gradually it 
 became apparent that if the work was to be done efficiently, 
 paid teachers must be employed and it was not long before 
 
IN MANCHESTER 205 
 
 the teaching staff consisted almost entirely of trained and 
 experienced men drawn generally from the elementary 
 schools of the district in which the Club was situated. In 
 one or two cases, a session or two elapsed before the classes 
 were brought beneath the control of the Board of Educa- 
 tion, but generally, with the advent of the paid teacher, 
 the purely voluntary evening classes gave place to an even- 
 ing school recognised, inspected and aided by the Board 
 of Education, but still remaining under the active manage- 
 ment of the club officers. For the past five or six years 
 these classes have continued to attract an increasingly 
 large attendance and to earn a correspondingly larger 
 government grant, and during the winter months of 
 1905-6, no less than 897 working class lads were attending 
 one or more educational classes in the Lads' Clubs of the 
 City, while the grants during the same period reached 
 the respectable sum of £391. lis. 6d. 
 
 Such, very briefly, is the history of the educational work 
 in a Manchester Lads' Club. But it must not be supposed 
 that by any means all the clubs have undertaken this 
 work. From a variety of causes many of them have been 
 either unable or unwilling to attempt it, while a not in- 
 considerable number of club officers hold the opinion that 
 education, in the more restricted sense of the term, does 
 not fall within the proper scope of a Lads' Club. These 
 confine their energies to other work and try to induce their 
 members to attend the municipal continuation schools. 
 
 This view appears however to be less widely held than 
 formerly, and within the past few years two of the largest 
 clubs in Manchester have established regular evening 
 schools, and at the Salford Lads' Club — the most recent 
 institution of this kind — educational classes have from the 
 first been provided. It has already been remarked that the 
 great majority of the lads in the Lads' Club evening schools 
 
206 CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 would not otherwise be attending any educational classes. 
 Generally speaking, it may be said that the Municipal 
 Schools provide excellent opportunities for lads who are 
 willing to attend, while the schools at the Clubs cater for 
 those who seem incapable of realising for themselves the 
 importance of improving their education and who need the 
 pressure and influence which the Club can bring to bear to 
 induce them to make the attempt. 
 
 Practically all the Lads' Clubs provide an annual "camp" 
 for their members, and now it is becoming increasingly 
 the custom to make attendance at some educational class 
 during the winter a condition (at any rate for junior 
 members) of enjoying this privilege, there is no doubt 
 that it forms the strongest possible inducement to atten- 
 dance. This, however, is not the sole means whereby 
 members are persuaded to spend a part of their spare time 
 in improving themselves. The facts that the classes are 
 on the club premises and form an important part of its 
 programme, and that the managers of the school are already 
 closely associated with the boys in the ordinary club work 
 and thus appreciate and sympathise with their difficulties, 
 all assist in securing a remarkably high percentage of 
 attendance, while the lowness of the fees, which can 
 usually be paid weekly, and the prospect of a rebate at the 
 end of the session, appeal strongly to the members, who 
 for the most part are drawn from the poorest parts of the 
 city. A very important element in the success of the work 
 is the small size of the classes, particularly in the more 
 advanced subjects, such as shorthand; a degree of indivi- 
 dual attention is thus possible which has more than once 
 favourably impressed H.M. Inspectors. 
 
 The educational work in the Lads' Clubs is of necessity 
 largely elementary, but the whole spirit of the work is 
 essentially practical, and lads are encouraged to take the 
 
IN MANCHESTER 207 
 
 classes that are most likely to help them in their daily- 
 work. 
 
 For ohvious reasoiis technical instruction is impossible, 
 even if desirable, in the majority of the clubs, but at the 
 Openshaw Lads' Club, where more than half the members 
 are apprentices in local engineering works, a very high 
 degree of mechanical training can be obtained. It is to be 
 deplored that the desire to improve their general knowledge 
 is conspicuously lacking among the members. This is 
 particularly noticeable among the older lads who remain 
 most unwilling to devote any portion of their spare time 
 to head-work even if it be offered to them in the most 
 attractive forms. 
 
 It is however more with their younger members, between 
 thirteen and eighteen years of age, that the work of these, 
 as of many continuation schools, chiefly lies. If they are 
 able to secure from these lads regular attendance and effi- 
 cient discipline during those critical years, even if it be 
 only for a few hours during the week, they are, it is con- 
 tended, performing an exceedingly useful function. 
 
 This is not the place to discuss the elementary school 
 system and its efficiency, but it may be remarked that much 
 of the time of these Lads' Club continuation schools is 
 occupied, not in continuing but in revising, and, too often, 
 in re-teaching what is supposed to have been learnt at the 
 day school. The great ignorance and incompetence fre- 
 quently found among boys who have just left the day school 
 are pathetic. To write a simple letter, to read a simple 
 sentence, to add up a simple sum, this does not seem to 
 be too much to expect from boys who may have spent seven 
 or eight years at school, but it is frequently found to be 
 beyond their powers. 
 
 An improvement in the output from the elementary 
 schools would quickly bear fruit in the continuation 
 schools. 
 
208 CATHOLIC EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties in the way of the success 
 of these continuation schools is the amount of overtime 
 which lads are called upon to put in. In spite of Acts of 
 Parliament limiting the hours of employment of young 
 persons, this blot upon our industrial system still exists, 
 and overtime work frequently prevents attendance at 
 classes; while the late hours which are the rule during a 
 considerable part of the year among errand boys, railway 
 nippers and others, inflict a great and undjie strain upon 
 growing lads, rendering them incapable of benefiting as 
 they might otherwise do from evening classes. 
 
 It would not be right to conclude that, even on the purely 
 educational side. Lads' Club work is confined to the imme- 
 diately practical. To build up character summarises the 
 aim and ideal inspiring the workers, and though this, of 
 course, includes the practical training which is necessary 
 to fit lads for their daily occupation and to enable them to 
 get on in the world, it involves much that is beyond. To 
 induce lads' club members so to spend their time in the club 
 that, when their days there are ended, they may be better 
 citizens, possessing ideals and interests in life, and perhaps 
 hobbies too, outside their everyday work, is the aim of all 
 Lads' Club workers. But in attempting to accomplish this 
 they do not venture to neglect the more distinctly educa- 
 tional work which forms so important a part of the process. 
 
 J. H. Helm. 
 
209 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The work of Continuation Schools in certain rural 
 districts in England — Cambridgeshire, Gloucester- 
 shire, Northumberland, Cumberland, Buckingham- 
 shire, and Yorkshire (East Riding). 
 
 The task of organising evening schools and classes in 
 rural districts is one of special difficulty. The following 
 pages illustrate the manner in which the problem is now 
 being grappled with by the local education authorities in 
 six representative English counties, largely rural in char- 
 acter. 
 
 The Technological Branch of the Board of Education 
 has devoted much attention to this question and has issued 
 a useful memorandum on the subject, from which the 
 following extract is taken. 
 
 " There are well recognised difficulties to be overcome 
 in dealing with the problem of the supply of suitable tech- 
 nical education to the working classes in rural districts. 
 Careful selection of matter and methods of instruction, and 
 active sympathy on the part of people of influence, are 
 alike necessary to overcome the apathy of young men and 
 women towards continuing the education they have re- 
 ceived in the elementary day school. The earlier part of 
 their further education must be sufficiently related to their 
 outside interests to appeal to them as something of definite 
 advantage; and this should be followed by work which in 
 itself increases their wage-earning capacity. Every effort 
 should be made to obtain teachers having a first-hand 
 knowledge of rural conditions and needs; the class-room 
 
210 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 subjects may often with advantage be taught by the ele- 
 mentary school teacher, who in many cases will also be 
 qualified to teach a practical subject ; but in certain prac- 
 tical subjects a special teacher will be necessary, who in 
 most districts will be the county lecturer in that subject. 
 The increasing care which is being taken to connect the 
 work of the public elementary day school with the sur- 
 roundings of the scholars goes to enable the day school 
 teacher who may be called upon to teach in the evening 
 school, to enter into the spirit of the instruction which is 
 there required, while improvements effected in the day 
 school curriculum cannot but render the pupils on leaving 
 school better fitted to enter upon the higher and more 
 technical work of the evening school. 
 
 " Educational economy and educational efficiency are 
 both more easily secured where classes can be concentrated 
 in relatively large and well staffed schools. In any well 
 considered organisation of rural education it is therefore 
 necessary to bestow some thought on the question of the 
 grouping of villages which may be served by one school 
 situated in the most central village, and as easy of access 
 from the remaining members of the group as is possible in 
 the circumstances. To deal efEectively with this matter, 
 as well as with such special difficulties as the poverty of the 
 students, the sparseness of the population, and the want 
 of means of communication, experience has demonstrated 
 the advantage of relying to a considerable extent on the 
 local knowledge and the co-operation of persons living in 
 the district. Indeed, genuine Iccal interest is an almost 
 essential factor in the success of rural evening schools." 
 
 The Board of Education encourage County Education 
 Authorities (with the exception of London) to arrange their 
 evening classes upon a comprehensive plan, by offering to 
 make an inclusive grant in aid of all the " Further Educa- 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 211 
 
 tion " within tlie Comity. A County Education Authority, 
 which desires to receive a grant under this arrangement, 
 submits to the Board particulars of the manner in which 
 it is proposed to meet the educational needs of the area. 
 The Board, if it approves the plan, tells the local authority 
 what is the lowest amount of grant which it is prepaied 
 to pay in aid of the proposed instruction. It then lies with 
 the local authority to accept such inclusive arrangement or 
 to claim grants in the ordinary manner. The grant actually 
 paid under the inclusive arrangement may he in excess of 
 the minimum guaranteed. An instalment of the grant 
 may be paid in the course of the year. 
 
 Cambridgeshire. 
 
 The system of evening continuation schools in Cam- 
 bridgeshire is of comparatively recent growth. Prior to 
 the passing of the Customs and Excise Act of 1890, which 
 made the working of the Technical Instruction Act of 
 1889 possible, there were only eleven evening schools in 
 the whole of the county. At the present time there is a 
 well-equipped and well-attended evening school in every 
 second parish. 
 
 This great advance is due to the efforts of the County 
 Education Committee and of their Secretary, Mr. Austin 
 Keen, co-operating with the various local committees. The 
 constant endeavour has been to find out what subjects 
 would be most useful and to make the teaching thoroughly 
 practical, regard being had to the fact that the schools 
 deal principally with the rising generation of rural workers. 
 The curriculum is supplementary to, not a continuation 
 of, that of the public elementary schools. Since the County 
 Education Committee took over the elementary day schools 
 in 1903, they have introduced into the latter much more 
 manual and practical work (woodwork, gardening, cookery) 
 
212 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 than was formerly taught, and it has been possible, in 
 consequence of this change in the day school curriculum, 
 to raise the standard of the evening school work. The 
 Committee now expect work of a more advanced kind in 
 rural subjects from the evening schools, including some of 
 a practical character. It is interesting to note that the 
 evening school work under the late Technical Instruction 
 Committee paved the way for this beneficial change in 
 the day school curriculum. When the County Education 
 Committee decided to introduce more practical work into 
 the day schools, they found ready to their hand in very 
 many villages, woodwork plant, cookery ranges and utensils, 
 gardens and tools, and have been able to do the work both 
 economically and well, the county rate for elementary edu- 
 cation being only 6jd. in the £. Grreat attention has 
 been paid to the teaching of drawing and designing, 
 especially as applied to wood-work and iron-work. Garden- 
 ing, basket-work, needlework and cookery are also widely 
 taught. In addition to the ordinary evening classes, the 
 Ediication Committee arrange short peripatetic lecture 
 courses on butter and soft cheese making, laundry-work, 
 poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, pig-keeping and veterinary 
 science. 
 
 Perhaps the most notable feature of the evening school 
 work in Cambridgeshire is the Central Village Library 
 It contains about 6,000 volumes on Farming, Dairying, 
 Live Stock, Poultry, Forestry, Horticulture, Natural 
 Science, Domestic Science, and other allied subjects, 
 together with Woodwork, Wood-carving, Metal work, 
 and other handicrafts. From this library boxes of 50 — 60 
 books are lent free of cost to villages or schools for a 
 period of about three months at a time, the books being 
 circulated by a local librarian who makes himself respon- 
 sible for their safe return. This library is intended more 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 213 
 
 particularly for adult students, but it contains seven or 
 eiglit hundred books for young people. 
 
 The system of circulating libraries seems to have origin- 
 ated in a plan set on foot by Mr. Brown of Haddington 
 in East Lothian in 1817. It was strongly advocated by 
 "William Lovett, the Chartist, in 1847. It was subse- 
 quently adopted by the Yorkshire Union of Mechanics' 
 Institutes, the Secretary of which, Mr. Curzon, did much 
 to popularize the idea. Next, it was adapted to University 
 Extension purposes by the Oxford Delegacy for the Ex- 
 tension of University Teaching in 1887. The Universities 
 of Cambridge, London and Manchester subsequently took 
 up the plan. The system of Travelling Libraries was 
 also carried out in the State of New York, and is now 
 playing an important part in the educational work of some 
 of the Southern States. 
 
 The management of the evening classes in Cambridge- 
 shire is in the hands of Local Committees each of which 
 must consist of at least five members. The Governing 
 Body of a Secondary School, the Managers of a 
 Public Elementary School, or similar body, may be 
 recognised as a local committee. When a local committee, 
 as distinct from the Governing Body of a secondary school 
 or the Managers of an elementary school, is formed in any 
 Division of the County, the County Councillor for, and the 
 Alderman resident in, any such division are &x officio 
 members of the committee. The Education Committee 
 of the County retains the Board of Education grant, deter- 
 mines the remuneration of the teachers, approves the time- 
 tables, the subjects of instruction, the appointment of 
 teachers, etc., and under certain conditions, makes grants 
 to the local committees. The Local Committee has among 
 its duties to consider what subjects shall be taught or 
 applied for, to engage teachers, to determine, subject to 
 
214 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 the approval of the Board of Education, what fees, if 
 any, shall he charged, to see that all income is properly- 
 applied, to make suitable arrangements for the custody and 
 circulation of the books (if the Village Library is being 
 made use of) and to visit and have the general supervision 
 of all classes. In determining what fees shall be charged, 
 the circumstances of the different localities are carefully 
 considered. 
 
 All the schools and classes are carried on in accordance 
 with the regulations of the Board of Education unless 
 special exemption is granted when the time-tables are 
 submitted for approval. The teachers, in the majority 
 of cases, are also elementary day school teachers, though 
 the employment of skilled craftsmen for the practical 
 courses is on the increase. The regular teachers are dis- 
 couraged by the Committee from holding any public office 
 or undertaking other outside work, as the practice of so 
 doing has been found in the past seriously to interfere 
 with the success of the evening school work. 
 
 There is in many cases a close connexion between the 
 day and evening schools, as the Managers, as well as the 
 teachers, are often the same for both Better standards of 
 work can thus be obtained and a reasonable amount of 
 correlation can be brought about between the two kinds 
 of school. 
 
 The cost per head for a session of about twenty weeks 
 is nearly £1. This is met partly by the Government grant, 
 which averages lis. per head, partly by contributions from 
 the County Fund. 
 
 The attitude of the farmers towards the evening classes 
 and lectures is favourable, owing, no doubt, to the improve- 
 ment in the quality of agricultural work which has often 
 resulted from attendance at evening schools. Though 
 many of the scholars, on completing the day school course. 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 215 
 
 leave the district altogether and enter domestic service or 
 other employment, quite one third of those remaining 
 find their way to the evening schools. Sometimes the 
 classes have led to the establishment of successful cottage 
 industries, and where this has been the case, the proficiency 
 and industry of the workers have resulted in a considerable 
 addition to their ordinary weekly wages. The Metal-work 
 classes of Newton, a village with a population of about 350, 
 realise a net profit of more than £200 a year, although the 
 Com.niittee discourages the continuance of such classes 
 during the Spring and Summer months. 
 
 On account of the loneliness of the village roads on dark 
 winter evenings, the girls' classes are usually held from 6 
 to 7.30 p.m., while those for the boys meet from 7 to 9. 
 
 It is difficult to gauge exactly the social and educational 
 value of the evening school work in the County, but it 
 is impossible to read Mr. Austin Keen's admirable reports 
 without realising how much has been done to improve and 
 brighten the life in the Cambridgeshire villages. 
 
 Gloucesteeshiee. 
 
 The County is divided into eight areas. In each of 
 these areas there is a Local Higher Education Committee, 
 the constitution of which is fixed by the County Education 
 Committee. The Local Higher Education Committee ad- 
 ministers all grants which are made to the area for the 
 purposes of education other than elementary, with the 
 exception of any grants which may be specifically allocated 
 to other bodies by the County Committee. Subject to the 
 approval of the latter, it determines in what places and on 
 what subjects classes shall be held, and selects the teachers, 
 except such as are supplied by the County Committee. In 
 each locality in which evening schools or classes are organ- 
 ised, a sub-committee of local managers, called the Local 
 
2I6 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 Sub-Committee, is formed under the direction of the Local 
 Higher Education Committee. On the Local Sub-Com- 
 mittee representation is given to such bodies as the Local 
 Higher Education Committee may deem desirable, but in 
 all cases the local elementaiy schools are represented, and, 
 where classes in Domestic Science or Agriculture are held, 
 the Domestic Science and Agricultural Sub-Committees 
 respectively. 
 
 A certain fixed sum is allotted annually to each area 
 for the maintenance of evening schools and classes, and, 
 in addition, all Government grants received in respect of 
 evening schools are paid over to the Local Higher Educa- 
 tion Committee. If this combined sum is exceeded in 
 any area, the excess is deducted from the grant allotted to 
 that area for the following year. Local Higher Education 
 Committees are expected to exercise a similar financial 
 control over Local Sub-Committees working under their 
 direction. Application for classes is made by the Local 
 Sub-Committee to the Local Higher Education Committee. 
 The fees charged must be approved by the Board of Educa- 
 tion and the County Education Committee, and any re- 
 mission of fees which a Local Higher Education Committee 
 may wish to make must be sanctioned in the same way. 
 All the Evening Schools must be conducted in accordance 
 with the regulations of the Board of Education, and the 
 subjects taught must not be of an elementary character 
 only. For certain subjects — Domestic Science, Agriculture, 
 manual instruction, and mining — the County Education 
 Committee supplies Staff Instructors, whose services are 
 given free of charge to the Local Higher Education Com- 
 mittees. 
 
 In the rural districts of the County, evening continua- 
 tion school work has, as yet, been ve ry little organ ised. 
 The Local Higher Education Committees are left very free, 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 217 
 
 and the greater part of the grants is expended in classes 
 of a more or less technical character, or preparatory to 
 classes of a technical character, in the towns, or large 
 industrial villages, such as are found outside Bristol, in 
 the Forest of Dean or in the weaving valleys along the 
 edge of the Cotswolds. Classes which have heen arranged 
 in agricultural villages have had, nearly always, to be in 
 purely elementary subjects, taught by the Head Teacher of 
 the Elementary School. The common experience has been 
 that very little interest is taken in such classes, that the 
 numbers drop, and that it is impossible to continue them for 
 a second year. 
 
 On the subject of these classes, the Secretary to the 
 County Education Committee (Mr. H. "W. Household) 
 writes, " For my part, I hold that at present, with so little 
 money to spend, none should be wasted on classes of this 
 character, which only try once more to do for a few in- 
 dividuals what the elementary school has failed to do. It 
 seems to me that we ought to try instead to put the 
 elementary school right, and that, for many reasons, must 
 take a long time." 
 
 On the other hand, he continues, certain of the classes in 
 technical and practical subjects have been very successful, 
 if allowance be made for the defective preparation of the 
 students coming to them. It is not difficult to get the 
 students interested in such subjects as wood-work or iron- 
 work, building or machine construction, mining, plumbing, 
 gardening, etc., where the instruction is closely related 
 to the industries of the district and is given by men with a 
 practical knowledge both of the subjects they teach and of 
 the industries concerned. " The employers recognise the 
 value of the work and their co-operation goes at once a 
 long way to ensure success. In the same way, the Domestic 
 Science courses, both in day and evening schools, in town 
 
2i8 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 and country, are successful. The girls and their mothers 
 like them and believe in them, and it is proved that girls, 
 who could and would have left the day school but for their 
 introduction, will stay on in order to attend them. The 
 evening classes in this subject will be still more successful 
 when we are able to further develop material which has 
 been already suitably prepared in the " Combined Courses " 
 which we have now been working for nearly a year in 
 several schools, on the lines of the Scotch Supplementary 
 Courses. I am very strongly disposed to try and give a 
 much more manual and practical bent to the curriculum of 
 a number of Central Elementary Schools — at any rate until 
 the age of compulsory attendance has been considerably 
 raised and the quality and numerical strength of the 
 present day school staffs has been improved beyond any- 
 thing which will be possible for a long time to come, unless 
 much more money is to come from the Treasury." 
 
 As to the question of compulsory attendance at evening 
 schools, Mr. Household writes, " I have very grave doubts 
 as to the possibility or expediency of trying to make attend- 
 ance at evening continuation schools compulsory in such 
 a county as this and I cannot see the good of it unless the 
 instruction is to be really worth having, and, if it is worth 
 having, I think the boys will go to it. There is a Poly- 
 technic near Stroud to which boys come down from the 
 hills two or three miles away because the subjects are the 
 right ones and the teaching is good." But, he continues, 
 the teaching would have, for the most part, to be given by 
 the elementary school teachers, and though there are some 
 who can command interest and attention, the training 
 and experience of the majority has not been such as to make 
 them the most suitable teachers for evening schools. 
 
 " I should like to see," he continues, " a great change in 
 the methods of training. I would have the general educa- 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 219 
 
 tion of the teacher completed before the professional train- 
 ing was entered upon, and I should like to see Training 
 Colleges of very varying types — particularly for men. 
 They should be the literary type, training teachers who will 
 prepare boys for a secondary school course to be followed 
 by the University, and the technrological type which again 
 would have several sub-divisions. One of these should have 
 for its special aim the training of teachers for work on the 
 lines of the Memorandum issued by the Board of Education 
 on Courses of Work in Rural Evening Schools and for 
 preliminary work of a similar kind in village day schools." 
 During the coming session, experiments in the organisa- 
 tion of rural evening schools will be tried in two or three 
 centres in the County. A syllabus of work covering three 
 years, has been drawn up, on the lines of the Board's 
 Memorandum, and two schools will begin working in Sep- 
 tember. The first year's course will be taken in each case 
 by the Elementary School Master of the village which 
 has been chosen for the experiment. Both these teachers 
 are thoroughly in sympathy with the scheme and it is 
 hoped that a living connexion between the day and the 
 evening school will be established. One of the day schools 
 in question already has gardening for its boys and the 
 other, carpentry. 
 
 SYLLABUS OP THREE YEARS' COURSE FOR 
 RURAL EVENING SCHOOLS. 
 
 PREPARATORY COURSE. 
 
 1. WINTER. (24 weeks, 2 evenings a week). Alternate nights. 
 
 First night : — Reading, Writing, and Composition. 
 Arithmetic and Mensuration. 
 Elementary Rural Science.' 12 lessons. 
 
 1. This subject could be taken by a County Staff Instructor if 
 necessary. In the trial courses 12 lessons will be given. 
 
220 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 Second night : — Woodwork and Joinery from Scale 
 
 drawings. 24 lessons. 
 
 The above courses could be taken by the Schoolmaster himself, assisted, 
 if necessary, by a Local Instructor. 
 2. SUMMER. (1 evening a week.) 
 
 Gardening (by local Instructor acting under County Instructor). 
 
 SECOND AND THIED YEAR. 
 Technical Course, Starting Second Winter. 
 
 1. WINTER. (24 weeks, 2 evenings a week.l 
 
 First night : — Selection to be made from the following list as suitable 
 to the district. 24 lessons altogether.' 
 
 12 Lessons on Agriculture. 
 
 12 Lessons on Cottage Gardening. 
 
 6 Lessons on Poultry Keeping. 
 
 6 Lessons on Bee Keeping. 
 
 6 Lessons on Principles of Shoeing (practical demonstrations at forge). 
 12 Lessons on Agricultural Machinery (practical work in shop). 
 
 6 Lessons on Dairying (with practical demonstrations). 
 
 Second night : — Constructive Carpentry from Scale Drawings (24 
 lessons). 
 
 The above courses would be taken by County Staff Instructors with 
 the exception of Carpentry which might be conducted by a Local 
 Instructor. 
 
 2. SUMMER. (1 evening a week.) 
 
 Gardening (by Local Instructor under County Instructor). 
 Classes could also be arranged in conjunction with the above for 
 Manual Processes as follows : — 
 
 Hedging and Ditching. 
 
 Thatching. 
 
 Ploughing. 
 
 These experiments will te conducted from the central 
 office at Grloucester and will be closely watched. Though 
 they are only a small beginning it is in the minds of the 
 promoters that they may ultimately develop into a larger 
 scheme similar to that foreshadowed in the following 
 extract from an article which appeared in the Morning 
 Post for June 28th, 1907. 
 
 1. For instance, a course might consist of 12 lessons on Cottage 
 Gardening, 6 on Poultry Keeping, 3 on Bee Keeping, and 3 on 
 Agricultural Machinery. 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 22i 
 
 An Experimental School. 
 
 " Some weeks ago tkere was described in these columns 
 a primary school of a new type for boys between twelve 
 and fourteen years of age. It was started in the buildings 
 of a polytechnic with the object of so preparing the boys 
 that they should be at once fit and anxious to enter the 
 evening classes which lead up to the highest technical and 
 applied art courses that the polytechnic offers. If the 
 school had no other merit — and it has many — it could 
 claim this, that the primary school, the continuation 
 classes, and the technical courses are directed by one head 
 master, who can ensure that each shall fall into its place 
 as a part of a co-ordinated whole, and that there shall be 
 no break of gauge at any point. The boy when he enters 
 at the age of twelve sees the whole course before him and 
 can catch the spirit of the institution of which he has 
 become a junior member. 
 
 " There seems to be a fear in some quarters that, if the 
 direction of the primary school is committed to a teacher 
 of technical subjects, the general education will be ne- 
 glected and specialisation will be attempted too early. 
 Surely the risk is small. There can be no teacher more 
 interested in the sotmdness of the general education than 
 the teacher who is afterwards to initiate the lad in his 
 technical studies. His most bitter complaint at the present 
 time is that the boy comes to him without that general 
 education; that the present system for some reason either 
 cannot impart it or cannot ensure its retention and develop- 
 ment to practical ends. 
 
 "If the Board of Education — ^which on the whole has been 
 sympathetic — will permit the extension of the experiment 
 to other places, and particularly to rural districts, similar 
 schools will speedily be developed. It may be expected 
 
222 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 that the course of development will be somewhat as follows : 
 An area will be selected where a number of primary schools 
 lie within reasonable distances of a common centre. At 
 that centre a school for boys over twelve years of age will 
 be established. It will be well equipped with workshops 
 for wood and iron work, where the boys can learn the use 
 of tools and apply their drawing and arithmetic to design 
 and construction. There will be gardens and experimental 
 plots, which will furnish illustration for a course of Nature 
 study drawn up on agricultural lines, in which the botany 
 will be the botany of agricultural crops and grasses and 
 injurious weeds, in which the zoology will deal with the 
 life history of injurious insects, and the chemistry with 
 plant life and soils and fertilisers. The head master of the 
 school should probably be a man who has had experience 
 in agricultural education, and with him should be asso- 
 ciated, as his chief assistant, a primary teacher who has 
 shown an interest in such work and who is prepared to 
 co-operate heartily in the general scheme. Out of such a 
 school evening classes will spring, naturally and easily, 
 and will develop before long into a rural poytechnic that 
 will give a crown to the scheme and provide the higher 
 technical instruction that the small farmer and the more 
 ambitious of the skilled labourers require. Here will be 
 conducted the farm schools and winter schools of agri- 
 culture that are so much needed. When a county has been 
 dotted with central institutions of this type there will 
 come the time for a group of counties to found an agri- 
 cultural college for the reception of the students from its 
 secondary schools, and the few lads of exceptional ability 
 who have worked their way up from the primary schools 
 through the polytechnics. Thus there will be developed 
 a complete scheme of agricultural education. It would, 
 however, be idle to disguise the fact that there exist ob- 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 223 
 
 stacles at present whicL. it will n^eed time and patience to 
 overcome." 
 
 NOETHUMBERLAND. 
 
 The managers of the Evening Continuation Schools in 
 Northumberland may be the Local Committees for Higher 
 Education or such other bodies as the Local Education 
 Authority may approve. This regulation allows for differ- 
 ences in organisation in different parts of the County and 
 in rural districts two plans have been tried. Before 1903, 
 the system was adopted of appointing, at public meetings 
 held at the Centre or village where the classes were to 
 be organised, a special Committee to control Evening Class 
 Instruction. But since 1903, this plan has been abandoned 
 and the managers of the Elementary Schools have been 
 requested to interest themselves in the work. The Secre- 
 tary to. the County Education Committee (Mr. C. "Williams) 
 feels that it is perhaps too soon to draw definite conclu- 
 sions as to the relative merits of the two plans, but is 
 inclined to think, after experience of both, that, for the 
 effective organisation of evening school work in rural dis- 
 tricts, there is much to be said for the periodical appoint- 
 ment of special local or centre committees at public 
 meetings. 
 
 At certain places in the County, known as district centres 
 (of which there are at present eight), the Education Com- 
 mittee aids evening class work by means of a fixed grant, 
 provided a scheme of instruction is submitted by the Local 
 Committee and approved. Other recognised evening 
 schools and classes (and all schools in rural districts come 
 under this head) are aided according to the grade, suita- 
 bility, continuity and efficiency of the instruction, special 
 consideration being given to those schools which provide 
 progressive courses extending over a period of years. 
 During recent years detached and uncorrelated courses 
 
224 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 have been very largely discontinued and the help of the 
 Local Authority limited more and more to proposals which 
 give some promise of systematic and progressive educa- 
 tional work. But in rural districts the detached class 
 which seems to lead educationally from " nowhere to no- 
 where " may still be of value to those who have not the 
 desire or ability to pursue a systematic course of study, 
 but who may wish to enlarge their interests or increase 
 their knowledge of a particular subject, such as Ambu- 
 lance, Woodcarving, Gardening, Poultry keeping, etc. In 
 organising evening class work in rural districts it is found 
 necessary to distinguish between those who need this kind 
 of instruction and the much smaller number who have 
 the desire and ability to pursue a progressive course of 
 study, and for whom different provision should be made. 
 Whether this provision should be by means of evening 
 classes at all, or whether some more effectual way could 
 not be devised of meeting the needs of these individual 
 cases, seems to Mr. Williams to be an open question. He 
 discusses this and other matters in a report which has just 
 been issued on " Evening Class Instruction in the County 
 of Northumberland " from which two especially interesting 
 passages are given below. 
 
 It is the rule in Northumberland to charge fees, which 
 must be suitable to the circumstances of the locality, in 
 all evening schools, but the Education Committee are pre- 
 pared to approve in certain cases the remission of fees 
 to individual students. 
 
 Mr. Williams thinks that any form of compulsory attend- 
 ance at continuation schools is both undesirable and im- 
 practicable in country districts and gives his reasons as 
 follows : — " I believe it to be undesirable because it would 
 still further aggravate the evil of neglecting to ' differ- 
 entiate ' in our educational policy ; impracticable, because 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 225 
 
 the schools would be expensive to maintain and attendance 
 thereat would seriously interfere with, employment, and 
 would be difficult and costly to enforce. Moreover the 
 work of continuation schools would degenerate into a repe- 
 tition of part of the work of the 4th Standard of an 
 Elementary School, to the exclusion of higher elementary 
 teaching for the few who desire it." 
 
 But Northumberland is not by any means exclusively 
 a rural county and in the report referred to above Mr. 
 Williams discusses the general question of the object and 
 justification of evening class instruction in both urban 
 and rural districts and gives some of the results of the 
 fifteen years experience of the County Council in organ- 
 ising such instruction. The passages given below have a 
 much wider application than to one county alone, and no 
 apology is needed for quoting them at length — 
 
 " As in the sphere of elementary education, there are 
 (in evening class instruction) different although not per- 
 haps conflicting ideas as to aims, which may be summed 
 up thus : — 
 
 (a) That evening class instruction is required in order 
 to afford a necessary educational opportunity for those 
 who leave the day school at the age of 14, or 
 
 (b) that by attendance at evening classes the intelligence 
 and the efficiency of the worker is increased, or 
 
 (c) that it is desirable to encourage evening classes of 
 all kinds on social and civic grounds. 
 
 To provide equality of educational opportunity in an 
 administrative county by means of evening schools is not 
 possible without incurring a large expenditure, and it 
 is doubtful whether the results would justify such expen- 
 diture. In the agricultural districts, the limited number 
 of children who require, or who merit, systematic education 
 beyond that given in the elementary school can be perhaps 
 
226 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 more effectually and economically provided by (i) scholar- 
 ships to be held at secondary schools, and by (ii) the 
 establishment of upper divisions in certain elementary 
 schools. In the centres of larger population, evening 
 class instruction does not. represent a necessary educational 
 opportunity for those who begin the business of life at 
 14 years of age. But the number of persons who desire, 
 and who possess the determination to pursue for a series 
 of years, a systematic course of instruction, is small — 
 smaller, probably, than it is commonly believed to be. 
 Much might be said in favour of the idea of encouraging 
 attendance at evening lectures or classes of all kinds on 
 social grounds. The activities and occupations of leisure 
 are, in the interests of the commonwealth, as important 
 as efficiency during working hours, and it would be unwise 
 to dismiss as educationally valueless, any form of teaching, 
 " detached " or " systematic " which enlists the voluntary 
 attention of a number of young people." 
 
 " The fifteen years' experience of the County Council in 
 the organisation of evening class instruction," the report 
 continues, " appears to point to the necessity for more 
 definitely distinguishing between the conditions, and con- 
 sequently the requirements, of different localities, land 
 of determining whether certain forms of instruction are 
 entitled to continued support out of public resources. 
 Intelligence is of value in all industries and under all 
 conditions, but book or school knowledge is not of equal 
 industrial importance. The essential efficiency of manual 
 workers in any industry moreover, does not depend upon 
 their book or school knowledge, although such knowledge 
 may increase their interests and enlarge the horizon of 
 their lives. But there are certainly some employments 
 in which the skill and experience to be acquired only in 
 the workshop, should be supplemented by instruction. 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 227 
 
 This may be said of nearly every trade where the tradition 
 of apprenticeship survives. It is perhaps doubtful whether, 
 for the rural population, the attempt to provide the means 
 of systematic education "other than elementary," by means 
 of evening classes, is productive. Individuals here and 
 there, no doubt, have derived substantial benefit by reason 
 of the facilities afforded, but it seems to be an open question 
 whether a more effectual means could not be devised to 
 reach these individual cases. In the mining, engineering, 
 and shipbuilding districts, however, and in the towns where 
 young men are employed in building trades or in commer- 
 cial undertakings, a well-devised course of evening class 
 instruction should be of definite and productive educa- 
 tional value. It was suggested earlier in this report that 
 the number of persons who desire, and who possess the 
 determination to pursue for a series of years, a systematic 
 course of instruction, is smaller probably than it is com- 
 monly believed to be. It is one of the functions of the 
 elementary school " while making children conscious of 
 the limitations of their knowledge, to develop in them 
 such a taste for good reading and thoughtful study as 
 will enable them to increase their knowledge in after 
 years by their own efforts." And it is a matter of some- 
 what serious concern that under present conditions elemen- 
 tary school teaching does not appear to produce this result. 
 In the County of Northumberland each year there will be 
 approximately 10,000 boys and girls over 14 and under 16 
 years of age. The number between these ages in regular 
 attendance at evening schools ten years ago was about 
 500, or 5 per cent. ; for the session just concluded (1906-7) 
 the number was not larger. The generally consistent 
 character of the statistics relating to the ages of evening 
 students emphasises the conclusion. The following is an 
 analysis of the ages of pupils in evening schools; the 
 
228 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 figures for 1896-7 relate to average attendance, and those 
 for the other years to pupils presented for examination : — 
 
 
 Under 14 14-16 
 
 16-18 
 
 18-20 
 
 Over 20 
 
 1896-7 
 
 236 
 
 519 
 
 248 
 
 122 
 
 146 
 
 1903-4 
 
 49 
 
 464 
 
 303 
 
 162 
 
 214 
 
 1905-6 
 
 58 
 
 422 
 
 317 
 
 167 
 
 214 
 
 1906-7 
 
 28 
 
 338 
 
 309 
 
 121 
 
 168 
 
 
 
 Cumberland. 
 
 
 
 The Evening Continuation Schools in Cumberland are 
 managed by Local Comittees for Higher Education who are 
 either 
 
 (1) The Urban District Council or Parish Council or 
 
 (2) A Committee appointed by the Urban District 
 Council, Parish Council or Parish Meeting or 
 
 (3) In cases where these bodies do not act, persons nom- 
 inated by the locality and approved by the County Auth- 
 ority. 
 
 All Local Committees must contain a fair proportion of 
 women and of other persons interested in education. 
 
 Subject to the conditions laid down by the County 
 Authority, Local Committees make their own arrangements 
 for the conduct of the classes, including the engagement 
 of the teachers and the payment of all local expenses. 
 The County Authority makes, to any approved class, a 
 grant sufficient to meet the salary of the teacher, rent of 
 room, etc., according to the fixed scale, but subject to the 
 condition that in no case is any County grant given unless 
 the minimum grant of the Board of Education has been 
 earned. Prizes are given by the County Education Com- 
 mittee and special grants may be made towards estab- 
 lishing classes in manual work, etc., towards the provision 
 of lanterns, slides, etc., towards the cost of courses in 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 229 
 
 gardening, towards the expenses of organisation in rural 
 districts. In order to give managers and teachers of even- 
 ing schools an opportunity of ascertaining the progress 
 made by the pupils under their charge, an Optional Ex- 
 amination has been instituted at the close of each Winter 
 Session. In March last 34 schools entered and 778 papers 
 were worked, of which 570 reached a Pass Standard and 
 218 failed to do so. The number of papers worked at 
 each evening school averaged about 23. Upon the results 
 of this examination County Prizes are awarded (a) for the 
 best paper in each subject and (b) to the student in each 
 class gaining highest aggregate of marks. The subjects 
 examined in were Arithmetic, Mensuration, Algebra, Geo- 
 graphy, History, Euclid, Elementary Chemistry, Domestic 
 Economy, Hygiene, Dressmaking, Woodcarving, Drawing. 
 
 Some fee is required in the ease of all evening classes 
 but, within approved limits, the Local Committees are free 
 to fix the amount according to local circumstances. 
 
 In the opinion of the Secretary to the County Education 
 Committee, Mr. C. Courtenay Hodgson, M.A., a competent 
 and really interested Local Committee can do very much 
 to make the evening school work in a rural district success- 
 ful. But even where Committees are competent and in- 
 terested, constant supervision and encouragement from 
 head quarters are necessary, and personal visits from a 
 sympathetic officer from the Central Office are very desir- 
 able, though not always possible owing to the pressure of 
 other work. A good supply of lanterns and slides, dia- 
 grams, specimens etc., is a great aid to success, but the 
 most important factor of all is the teacher. Given an 
 energetic and interested teacher, the class will prosper: 
 without a good teacher, no amount of appliances will make 
 it successful. Much may be done by means of Saturday 
 
230 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 lectures and by personal talks to stimulate and help the 
 evening class teachers, who in the majority of cases are 
 the teachers of the elementary day schools. 
 
 With regard to the subjects best adapted to the needs 
 of boys and girls who have just left the village school, it 
 is not, in Mr. Hodgson's opinion, possible to generalise 
 for a whole county. Each case should be considered in the 
 light of the social position and surroundings of the child- 
 ren and their probable future avocations. The teacher, 
 who is generally the village schoolmaster, should know 
 best what his old scholars need, if he be not misled by the 
 natural desire to teach those subjects with which he him- 
 self is best acquainted, rather than those which will be 
 most useful to his pupils. Speaking generally, classes in 
 manual work, e.g., carpentry and smith work, with the 
 drawing incidental thereto, should be useful for boys ; and 
 cooking, laundry, sewing and simple hygiene for the girls. 
 Nature study and botany are suitable for both boys and 
 girls, and with both, a good English classic should be 
 read and the habit of reading fostered. 
 
 Special steps are taken by Local Committees in some 
 districts in Cumberland to ensure that the older day 
 scholars shall pass on into the evening classes. The im- 
 portance of securing their attendance there without a 
 break is increasingly felt, and Mr. Hodgson thinks that, on 
 the whole, opinion is growing in favour of some form of 
 compulsion. For his own part, he is inclined to think 
 that, in rural districts, a better plan would be to have a 
 winter day school session for older scholars, at any rate 
 for boys, prolonged beyond the present compulsory school 
 age, but allowing the boys to be free for agricultural work 
 in the summer months. 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 231 
 
 Buckinghamshire. 
 
 The Evening Continuation Schools in Buckinghamshire 
 are managed by Local Committees, appointed in different 
 ways according to the nature of the smaller local govern- 
 ment areas into which the County is divided, but always 
 including some women and, in country districts, the man- 
 agers, or representatives of the managers, of the elementary 
 school or schools. The County Education Committee 
 retain the Board of Education grant, fix the remuneration 
 of the teachers and the limits within which fees may be 
 charged, and make grants, on certain conditions, to the 
 Local Committees. Subject to their approval, the Local 
 Committees choose the subjects of instruction, appoint and 
 dismiss the teachers and decide what fees shall be charged. 
 The latter must be not less than a penny a week, nor more 
 than a penny a night, for continuation schools proper; 
 for special evening classes, not more than twopence a 
 meeting. There are no free schools or classes, but, on the 
 application ai a Local Committee, the Education Committee 
 is prepared to consider the remission of fees in individual 
 cases. Fees are returned to those pupils who make 90 
 per cent, or over of the possible attendances. 
 
 The number of evening schools in Buckinghamshire has 
 grown considerably since the first County Council grants 
 were given. In 1899-1900, the last year before the County 
 Scheme came into operation, there were only 26 schools in 
 the whole area ; in 1905-6, the last year for which complete 
 statistics are available, the number was 81, with a total 
 average attendance of 2,590. Of these 81 schools, 44 were 
 continuation schools proper, conducted under the regula- 
 tions of the Board of Education and, for the most part, 
 taught by the teachers of the Elementary Day Schools; 
 the remaining 37 were special schools and classes, generally 
 
232 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 under special teachers, and, wherever possible, working 
 under Board of Education regulations. The subjects taken 
 in these special classes included Science, Art, Manual In- 
 struction or woodcarving, commercial subjects. Ambulance, 
 domestic subjects. Lace-making, Agriculture, Horticulture, 
 etc. University Extension Lectures are also allowed to 
 count as special classes. The total average attendance at 
 the Continuation Schools proper, the number of which is 
 on the whole declining was 866 ; at the special classes, 1724. 
 
 In the rural parts of Buckinghamshire, as in similar 
 districts elsewhere, it is found that the success or other- 
 wise of the evening school depends upon the personality of 
 the elementary day school teacher. There are other im- 
 portant factors no doubt, such as the co-operation of those 
 who have influence in the district, adequate remuneration 
 for evening school work, etc., but unless the right teacher 
 is found, these are of no avail. 
 
 The subjects found to be best adapted to the needs of 
 boys and girls in villages during the years immediately 
 following the day school course are : — 
 
 Foe Boys : — 
 
 English, especially standard works of fiction (Stead's 
 penny novels have been found useful). 
 
 Carpentry, together with drawing to scale. 
 Mensuration, applied to rural requirements. 
 
 For Girls : — 
 
 English, in the same way as for boys. 
 Domestic Economy, including cookery and housewifery. 
 Needlework, especially applied to the mending of gar- 
 ments. 
 
 During the session ending July 31st, 1907, the number 
 of evening schools has increased to 101. Fifty-eight of 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 233 
 
 these were continuation Bchools proper and forty-three 
 special schools or classes. All the schools and classes have 
 this session been conducted under the regulations of the 
 Board of Education, and the special classes have generally 
 been under staff teachers. 
 
 Consulted as to the desirability of some form of compul- 
 sory attendance at evening schools, the Secretary to the 
 County Education Committee, Mr. C. G. Watkins, gives 
 it as his opinion that some form of compulsion is, no 
 doubt, ideally desirable. The work of the day school needs 
 supplementing; it is wasteful, both of energy and money, 
 to spend millions annually upon the education of children 
 up to about thirteen years of age and then to make no 
 determined effort to continue their instruction. " But," 
 he adds, " I feel that public opinion is not yet ripe for 
 compulsory attendance. The cost would be very great, 
 defaulters would be numerous, the average Bench of Mag- 
 istrates would either not convict or impose a trifling fine, 
 and to coerce unwilling youths to receive instruction, 
 especially under women teachers in the villages, would be 
 a menace to discipline." 
 
 The County Education Committee have availed them- 
 selves of the Board's offer of an inclusive grant for "further 
 education," and are now working under the new regulation 
 described at the beginning of this chapter. 
 
 YoEKSHiEE, East Eiding. 
 
 The County Council are themselves the managers of the 
 evening continuation schools in the East Riding. It has 
 been found difficult to arouse interest amongst local man- 
 agers, although as a rule the correspondent of the day 
 school gives much help. Consequently, except for the 
 correspondent, the services of local managers for the even- 
 ing schools have been dispensed with; the Council are 
 
234 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 directly responsible for all expenses of salaries, heating, 
 lighting and cleaning, and the schools are managed, in 
 most respects, directly from the Central Office at Beverley. 
 Every village is given the chance of having an evening 
 school, if the schoolmaster or some other person will try- 
 to arouse the necessary interest. In the session 1906-7 
 evening schools were held in 17 centres, 13 of which are 
 small villages. The total cost was £430., 10 per cent of 
 which was covered by students' fees. Fees are everywhere 
 insisted upon — as a rule Id to 3d a week, or about 2s. for 
 the whole session. Formerly half fees were returned to all 
 those who made 80 per cent, of the possible attendances, 
 but during the last session this practice was discontinued 
 and the Council offered instead prizes for good attendance 
 combined with *good work. Regular weekly returns of 
 attendance are received at the Central Office and if the 
 number in a class falls below 10 on three consecutive 
 nights, the class is, as a rule, discontinued. There is the 
 same difficulty here as elsewhere in keeping up the attend- 
 ance after Christmas. As the evenings get lighter, the 
 farmers keep the boys longer in the fields and attendance 
 at evening school becomes very difficult. So much so, that 
 during the past winter, the Council have for the most part 
 been satisfied with a short session of twelve weeks from 
 October to December. To have the schools open on two 
 evenings a week is generally considered sufficient, but there 
 are some successful evening schools in the County which 
 meet three times a week. Mr. A. W. Priestley, the In- 
 spector of Schools for the East Riding County Council, 
 writes, " The difficulties (as to attendance) are great in 
 small villages. We have one or two exceptional cases 
 where boys have walked nearly three miles twice a week 
 to an evening school. In remote villages it is the rule to 
 hold public meetings only at the time of the full moon. 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 235 
 
 Scholars regularly attending evening scliools must often 
 Have long walks through dark lanes, and in bad weather. 
 We ought not to compel them to undertake these journeys, 
 though we should attract them if we can. Then, when the 
 school has been formed, attendance is often interfered 
 with by such things as local fairs, a special concert in the 
 village, a club feast, a bazaar or a revival at the chapel or 
 a special lecture at the village institute. Or the school may 
 be the only meeting place in the village and it may be 
 required for a political meeting or even a dance. Where 
 most of the students are engaged on farms, the Martinmas 
 hirings, held in the month of November, often reduce the 
 number of students just enrolled in an evening school." 
 Everything depends, he continues, upon the teacher. 
 Personal interest on the part of the teachers will do much. 
 Some arrange a social evening once or twice during the 
 session, others provide a supper at the close, but the best 
 rely chiefly on making the teaching worth coming for. 
 Any form of compulsion he feels to be impracticable. "We 
 can only cater for those who desire self improvement. We 
 must depend on this incentive, and if the day school work 
 is well done, I think we can rely on it." But when there 
 is a poor day school and a master without enthusiasm, it 
 is is impossible to make the evening school succeed, for 
 a poor day school master will not be able to draw his old 
 scholars back to the evening school, or to keep them there, 
 even if they are persuaded to come. But, if the attendance 
 is to remain voluntary, the schools must be made really 
 good. They can only flourish when the teaching is on 
 a very high level and the subjects are attractive or such 
 as are felt to be practically useful. And in this connexion 
 he emphasises the importance of enlisting the sympathy 
 of local employers of labour. Unfortunately the farmers, 
 who are the chief employers of labour in rural districts. 
 
236 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN 
 
 are not always in sympathy with the work in the East 
 Riding. They feel themselves already overburdened by 
 the education rate and are often unwilling to be parties 
 to any schemes involving expense. The co-operation of 
 enthusiastic helpers who are not professional teachers 
 is recommended by Mr. Priestley. " In one village," he 
 says, " we have had a successful class in bench work (car- 
 pentry) taught by the clergyman, whose hobby was bench 
 work. The schoolmaster^taught the drawing. In another 
 village, the local doctor, a man of wide reading and a 
 fine enthusiasm, took quite a large class in home nursing, 
 ambulance, and the care of the body. In a third village, 
 the schoolmaster himself, who is a good musician, made 
 vocal inusic his chief subject and kept together a good 
 evening school." 
 
 He adds that mathematics of a practical kind, i.e., arith- 
 metic, mensuration and geometry, jvith special reference 
 to stack-measuring, sale of cattle and garden produce and 
 the occupations of the district, generally succeed. The 
 same is true of needlework, if skilfully taught. Geo- 
 graphy, if taught by someone of wide reading, and if 
 well illustrated by lantern or otherwise, is an excellent 
 subject. A good course in drawing, by a specially quali- 
 fied art master, has also been successful and so have one or 
 two evening school gardens. English literature has not, 
 so far, been a good subject, chiefly, he thinks, because 
 there are so few people qualified to teach it ; and the same 
 applies to agriculture (soils, crops, etc.) and to nature study. 
 Everything, in evening schools, even more than in day 
 schools, depends upon the teacher. 
 
 During the session 1897-8, it is proposed by the County 
 Education Committee to make certain changes in their 
 regulations for the conduct of evening schools. With a 
 view to making each locality feel more direct responsibility 
 
RURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND 237 
 
 for tlie working and success of the school, a local managing 
 committee, consisting of at least tliree persons interested 
 in evening school work, is to be appointed, and no evening 
 school ■will be sanctioned unless the local committee can 
 raise and pay down, before the session begins, a contribu- 
 tion (which may include students' fees) equal to at least 
 20 per cent, of the gross estimated cost of maintaining 
 the school during the session. 
 
238 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Result of an Inquiry into the Working of Continuation 
 Schools in England. 
 
 With a view to ascertaining the opinions of those who 
 are actually engaged in the work of the evening continua- 
 tion schools, the following form of questions was widely 
 distributed amongst teachers and others : — 
 
 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. 
 
 The following answers are based on experience of years in 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools of one or more of the following types : — 
 [Strike out those of which you have no personal experience.'] 
 (a) Strictly continuative of work done in day school, and immedi- 
 ately following close of day school coiurse, or reviving, after 
 a gap, knowledge of Elementary Subjects (1) for Boys; 
 (2) for Girls. 
 (6) Teaching Scientific and Technical Subjects to youths and adults, 
 (c) Teaching Commercial Subjects (1) for Boys; (2) for Girls. 
 {d) Teaching Domestic Subjects, 
 (c) Recreative Evening Schools. 
 
 (/) 
 Please state also whether your experience has been in Evening 
 Continuation Schools : — 
 
 (1) In country districts. 
 
 (2) In small towns. 
 
 (3) In cities, or other large centres of population. 
 
 1. What do you think should be the aims of Evening Continuation 
 Schools of the different types ? 
 
 2. In what respects do you feel that the work of the Evening Con- 
 tinuation Schools has been successful in accomplishing these aims ? 
 
 3. With what special difficulties have the Evening Continuation 
 Schools had to contend? 
 
 4. Do you think that the Evening Continuation Schools are doing 
 (1) on the intellectual, (2) on the moral and social side, work com- 
 mensurate with the labour and funds now devoted to them? 
 
 5. Do you think that the teachers in Day Schools should be en- 
 encouraged to take Evening School work? Have arrangements been 
 made, in your experience, for excusing Evening School teachers from 
 part of their Day School work, with a view to their duties in the 
 Evening School? 
 
 6. Are there any difficulties with regard to discipline? 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 239 
 
 7. What is the attitude of the employers of labour towards the 
 Evening Schools? Do you know of any cases where employers en- 
 courage or require attendance, on the part of apprentices or work- 
 people, at Evening Schools ? If so, please give details and results of 
 experience. Do you know of cases where employers excuse apprentices 
 from day-work in order that they may attend Technical Classes in the 
 daytime? If so, please give details. 
 
 8. What is the attitude of the workpeople towards Evening Con- 
 tinuation Schools, especially those of a technical character? Do you 
 see any disposition on the part of working-men's organisations towards 
 arranging Technical Classes, on their own account, or in conjunction 
 with employers, for the better education of their apprentices ? 
 
 9. What is the attitude of parents towards the Evening Continuation 
 Schools ? Do they encourage their children to attend ? 
 
 10. What is the attitude of the rising generation towards Evening 
 Continuation Schools ? Do you see signs of increased keenness, or the 
 reverse ? 
 
 11. Have you had any experience of requiring all students at an 
 Evening Continuation School to take a prescribed group of subjects 
 instead of isolated courses ? If so, with what results ? 
 
 12. What plans have you found most successful in increasing and 
 maintaining the attendance at Evening Continuation Schools ? 
 
 13. Could more be done to make the Evening Continuation Schools 
 feeders and auxiliaries to the Technical Schools? What arrangements 
 would you suggest for this ? 
 
 14. Are you in favour of making attendance at Evening Continua- 
 tion Schools compulsory : (a) for Boys, (6) for Girls ? If so, under 
 what conditions ? 
 
 15. Do you see signs of increased desire on the part of adults to 
 avail themselves of Evening Continuation Schools in order to make up 
 for deficiencies in their early education? 
 
 16. Do you think that more should be done to arrange, as part of 
 the Evening School system, well illustrated . evening courses on 
 History, Geography, Science, etc., with a special view to the needs of 
 adult students? 
 
 17. Could more be done to grade the Evening Continuation Schools 
 in a given district, according to their different types and standards of 
 work? 
 
 18. Have you had experience in combining Evening Continuation 
 School work with other forms of social and educational effort, e.g., 
 Social Clubs, University Extension Courses, Adult Schools, etc. ? 
 
 Please add any further information or suggestions which you are 
 able to give for the purpose of the enquiry: — 
 
 Signature 
 
 Address 
 
240 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 Seventy-nine forms liave been returned filled up (71 by 
 men, 8 by women), and the answers to tlie various 
 questions are summarised below. The great majority 
 come from teachers, but a few are from local administrators 
 and managers, and one is from an old evening school pupil. 
 The forms were distributed, for the most part, through 
 the Education Department of the Victoria University of 
 Manchester, and the answers, as was to be expected, refer 
 largely to schools in the North of England, though other 
 parts of this country are also represented, as will be seen 
 from the following list of the places from which they were 
 received : — ^Accrington, Birmingham, Blackburn, Bolton, 
 Bradford, Brighton, Burnley, Burslem, Bury, Chorley, 
 Dearham, Ebbw Vale (Mon.), Eccles, Fleetwood, 
 Grange-over-Sands, Leeds, Llandilo, London, Manchester, 
 Maryport, Oswaldtwistle, Oxford, Peterborough and neigh- 
 bourhood, Preston, Rochdale, St. Helens, Sale, Salford, 
 Shefi&eld, Smethwick, Stockport, Walsall, Worcester, 
 Workington ; a few were also received from country places 
 in Cumberland, Devonshire, Oxfordshire and Westmor- 
 land and (one each) from Dublin and Kilmarnock. 
 
 The number of years' experience is given in 62 out of 
 the 79 cases, the average for the 62 being between seven 
 and eight years. 
 
 The experience has been gained in all types of schools, 
 but principally in types (a), (b) and (c) (see form above). 
 It has, as will be seen from the list of places already given, 
 been for the most part in large centres of population, 
 though a good many of the writers have also had experi- 
 ence in small towns, and a few in country districts. The 
 actual numbers (some having had experience in more than 
 one place) are : — 
 
 Cities and other large centres of population — 65 
 
 Small towns 20 
 
 Country districts 12 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 241 
 
 SUMMAKY OF ANSWERS. 
 
 Question 1. What do you think should be the aims of 
 evening continuation schools of the different 
 types ? 
 
 Answered by 72 out of 79. 
 
 Of these 72, 39 answer the question in general terms 
 and 33 refer definitely to one or more of the types of school 
 mentioned in the introductory paragraphs of the form. 
 
 Two aims stand clearly above all others : (1) the making 
 of good citizens; (2) the training of skilled artizans and 
 workers, including in the latter term clerks and business 
 assistants. 
 
 With regard to the first, it is felt that the schools have 
 great opportunities of influencing the boys and girls who 
 will be the citizens of the next generation, and that those 
 opportunities should be used to fit them, so far as may be 
 possible, faithfully to discharge the duties and respon- 
 sibilities which will devolve upon them. 
 
 With regard to the second point, it is urged that the 
 schools, while not neglecting other more humanising sub- 
 jects, should so arrange their courses as definitely to 
 prepare the students for the trades and occupations which 
 they propose eventually to follow. In schools of types 
 (6) and (c) this should be the dominant aim. In type (a) 
 schools, while most of the work would necessarily be of 
 a more general character, promising pupils should be 
 prepared for entrance to technical schools or other higher 
 classes. In this connexion stress is laid tipon the de- 
 sirability of keeping in touch with local industries. 
 Even in schools which are mainly recreative in character, 
 much may be done in this way to make the teaching of 
 real practical use to the pupils. 
 
 Q 
 
242 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 Other points mentioned are: — (1) The need for 
 physical training in evening schools. In recreative even- 
 ing schools especially, one of the chief aims should be 
 the improvement of the physique of the pupils. (2) In 
 all schools the reading of good books and the use of the 
 public libraries should be encouraged. (3) In recreative 
 schools much training of hand and eye should be given 
 with a view to providing healthy leisure pursuits. (4) 
 The importance of the moral and social side of the work 
 should never be lost sight of, even in those schools which 
 are most definitely practical in their aims. 
 
 Question 2. In what respects do you feel that the work 
 of the evening continuation schools has been suc- 
 cessful in accomplishing these aims ? 
 
 Answered by 64 out of 79. 
 
 Six consider that the schools have not been successful; 
 66 are, on the whole, of opinion that they have had a 
 qualified success. This success would appear to have been 
 greatest in the direction of preparing for a particular 
 trade or occupation, and of securing some advancement 
 in life, but even so, only to a moderate extent and with 
 the few. In continuing the work of the elementary day 
 schools, in filling the gap between the latter and the tech- 
 nical schools and in reviving forgotten knowledge, they 
 woidd seem also to have had a moderate success. A few 
 speak of some success in spreading a general desire for 
 knowledge and love of reading, in developing powers of 
 expression, in giving artistic manual training, in teaching 
 domestic subjects, in training for citizenship, in improving 
 the industries of a district, and in work on the social, 
 moral and physical sides; but the general impression is 
 that the success has almost everywhere been partial and 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 243 
 
 limited to a comparatively sm.all nTim.l)er of the pupils. 
 Two answers are too vague to be counted. 
 
 Question 3. With what special difficulties have the 
 evening schools had to contend? 
 
 Answered by 73 out of 79. 
 
 Tbe difficulty most often mentioned is tbe indifference 
 of the students themselves, their unwillingness to come to 
 school after leaving the day school, and their objection 
 when there to doing any home work. The unwillingness 
 to come to evening school is said to be sometimes due to 
 fear of betraying lack of education. This is especially 
 the case with adults. Next comes the difficulty of ir- 
 regular attendance, and, connected with it, the haphazard 
 choice of subjects which leads to loss of interest and con- 
 sequent falling off in attendance. Want of leisure, the 
 working of overtime and consequent fatigue of students 
 comes next. Then come the indifference of employers and 
 parents, and difficulties of classification owing to differ- 
 ences of age. Among other difficulties mentioned are 
 those of discipline (including large classes) ; want of 
 preparation in the day school or elsewhere; the gap 
 between leaving the day school and joining the evening 
 school, which makes the schools not "continuation," in 
 any real sense, but "revision" schools; the long gap 
 between the sessions; want of funds (for scholarships, 
 prizes, payment of teachers, etc.) ; the want of proper 
 fittings and apparatus; the apathy of the public and 
 lack of influential support; difficulties of staffing (jaded 
 and incapable teachers) ; attractions of the streets and of 
 entertainments (including meetings of religious societies), 
 and, in the case of country schools, the drift of population 
 from the villages and the easier means of access to towns ; 
 
244 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 bad effects of prize and retiimed-f ee schemes ; overlapping 
 of schools in a given district; the unsympathetic attitude 
 of some day school teachers; lack of compulsion. 
 
 Question 4. Do you think the evening continuation 
 schools are doing (1) on the intellectual, (2) on 
 the moral and social side, work corm/mensurate 
 with the labour and funds now devoted to them ? 
 
 Answered by 74 out of 79. 
 
 37 answers to (1) and 29 answers to (2) are in the nega- 
 tive, though several speak of the good work being done on 
 both sides. 
 
 33 answers to (1) and 35 to (2) are in the affirmative, 
 though often with qualifications. The social side is said 
 sometimes to be overdone at the expense of the intel- 
 lectual. 
 
 4 answers to (1) and 10 to (2) were too doubtful to be 
 counted either as negatives or affirmatives. 
 
 Question 5. Do you think that the teachers in day 
 schools should be encouraged to take evening 
 school work ? 
 
 Have arrangements been made in your ex- 
 perience for excusing evening school teachers 
 from part of their day school work, with a view 
 to their duties in the evening school ? 
 
 Answered by 78 out of 79. [The second part of the 
 question left unanswered by 10, who have been counted as 
 answering in the negative.] 
 
 The answers to the first part of the question may be 
 classified as follows : — 
 
 Decided and unqualified negatives, 17. 
 
 Decided and unqualified affirmatives, 30. 
 
 In addition to these, 7 say " No, unless excused day 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 245 
 
 work," making altogetlier 24 negatives; and 9 say "Yes, 
 if excused day work," or " within reasonable limits," 
 etc., making altogether 39 affirmatives. 
 
 Fifteen give doubtful or qualified answers, such as, that 
 it should depend on the character of the teachers; that at 
 present they are often the only qualified teachers avail- 
 able ; that it is good in one class of school, where the sub- 
 jects are similar to those taught in the day school, but not 
 in more specialised schools ; that it is good in the country 
 and small places, but not in large towns, etc. 
 
 The answers to the second part of the question are almost 
 all in the negative : — 
 
 Sixty (including the 10 who do not answer) give an 
 unqualified negative. 
 
 Twelve say No, except in the case of higher classes and 
 technical schools, and in the latter, as one of the answers 
 points out, the arrangement is one of the conditions of 
 tenure, not a case of excuse from day-work 
 
 Two have heard or known of such an arrangement, but 
 have not experienced it. 
 
 Four only have had personal experience of such a plan. 
 
 Question 6. Are there any difficulties with regard to 
 disci'pline ? 
 
 Answered by 78 out of 79. 
 
 In 56 cases no difficulty, or very little, has been ex- 
 perienced. 
 
 In 22 cases difficulty has been experienced, but in three 
 cases it is said to be confined to elementary continuation 
 schools (type (a)), two out of the three distinctly stating 
 that there is no difficulty in science classes. On the other 
 hand, one answer speaks of difficulty in connection with 
 practical science teaching, the necessary liberty degen- 
 erating into licence. 
 
246 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 Good discipline, of course, depends almost entirely 
 upon the tact, considerateness, and experience of the 
 teacher. He must recognise the difference between the 
 day and the evening school, and must not only teach, 
 but be the friend of his pupils, ready to advise 
 in difficulties and to know them out of school. But he 
 must also be firm and have the power to expel the rowdy 
 and undesirable element. One of the great difficulties 
 as to discipline has arisen from the desire on the part 
 of managers and teachers to have a large attendance, and 
 from the fear of lessening numbers by enforcing order in 
 the classes. Connected with this is the students' lack of 
 interest in serious work ; they come, many of them, because 
 forced to do so by parents, or because they think they can 
 have a good time, and they leave if order and work are 
 enforced. Classes should be smaller. 
 
 Question 7. (a) What is the attitude of employers of 
 labour towards the evening schools ? 
 
 (b) Do you know of any cases where erwployers 
 encourage or require attendance, on the fart of 
 apprentices or worhpeople, at evening schools ? 
 If so, please give details and results of experience. 
 
 (c) Do you know of cases where employers excuse 
 apprentices from day-work in order that they 
 may attend technical classes in the day-time ? 
 If so, please give details. 
 
 Answered (wholly or in part) by 75 out of 79. 
 
 On the whole, though opinions are very nearly balanced, 
 the answers seem to show that the attitude of employers 
 is encouraging, or at least not adverse, and that they are 
 becoming more alive to the necessity of technical training 
 for their apprentices. ^ But it is thought that they might 
 
 1. The considerable and growing interest taken in the evening schools 
 by many large employers in England is shown by the returns given in 
 Chapter VIII 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 247 
 
 do mucli more than at present strongly to advise, if not 
 compel, apprentices to attend teclinical classes. Several 
 of the answers speak of their attitude as that of indiffer- 
 ence and a few describe it as hostile. Even when 
 favourable to science and technical classes, they are 
 sometimes indifferent to, the ordinary continuation schools. 
 In answer to (b) several instances are given of the 
 payment of apprentices' fees by employers; of employers 
 making the attendance of apprentices at technical classes 
 compulsory; and of various methods by which attendance 
 is encouraged, such as excusing apprentices a few hours' 
 work on the morning after attendance at evening school 
 (arrival at 9 instead of 6), extra wages or prizes given on 
 the results of examinations. The results of experience 
 are very rarely given, but would, seem to be favourable 
 so far as known. 
 
 (c) Few instances are actually known to the writers of 
 apprentices being excused day-work in order to attend 
 day technical classes. Engineering firms in the Man- 
 chester district and other firms in several places, e.g., 
 Bradford, Bolton, are mentioned as making such an 
 arrangement. 
 
 Question 8. What is the attitude of worhpeople 
 towards evening continuation schools, especially 
 those of a technical character ? Do you see any 
 disposition on the part of worlting-men' s organisa- 
 tions towards arranging technical classes, on their 
 own account, or in conjunction with ernployers, 
 for the better education of their apprentices ? 
 
 Answered (wholly or in part) by 61 out of 79. Of these 
 61, 9 do not answer the first part of the question. 
 
 The majority of the 52 answers to the general question 
 speak of the attitude of the workpeople as, for the most 
 
248 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 part, indifferent, though it would seem that the interest 
 is growing, and that the younger men, at any rate, are 
 heginning to see the need of technical training. A 
 minority are already keen about it. Some few speak of 
 the attitude of the workpeople as favourable, but two or 
 three, on the other hand, describe it as contemptuous or 
 even adverse, the reason given for their hostility being 
 that the new apprentices know too much. Scientific and 
 technical classes, especially when in connexion with local 
 industries, would seem to be more appreciated than 
 ordinary continuation schools. 
 
 Except in the case of co-operative societies, hardly any 
 instances are known of technical classes arranged by 
 working-men's organisations. In one case a society of 
 workmen has established a complete equipment of textile 
 spinning machinery and conducts weekly meetings for 
 studying the problems connected therewith. Trade 
 unions are said by one writer to have brought pressure 
 to bear on Town Councils, etc., to organise technical classes 
 in districts where they were specially needed, but he 
 thinks as a rule that the organisations, like the men them- 
 selves, are still indifferent to technical instruction. One 
 reason given for this is the opinion that the increased 
 efllciency of apprentices benefits employers more than 
 workpeople. 
 
 Question 9. What is the attitude of parents towards 
 the evening continuation schools ? Do they 
 encourage their children to attend ? 
 
 Answered by 75 out of 79. 
 
 Although the attitude of the majority of parents is said 
 to be that of indifference to evening continuation schools, 
 there seems to be a considerable and growing minority 
 who acknowledge their usefulness and encourage their 
 children to attend. This is especially the case among the 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 249 
 
 better class parents. But they still, even wlien encourag- 
 ing attendance, take too little interest in the work done 
 by tbeir cbildren, and the school is often looked upon as 
 a means of keeping the boys and girls off the streets rather 
 than as a place of education. With regard to girls, 
 the parents' attitude might be expressed, according to 
 one writer, by saying the " girls have enough else 
 to do, and do not need learning so much as boys." 
 Parents, as a rule, are too eager to get their children 
 to work, and, according to one opinion, do not care to 
 encourage attendance at continuation schools unless 
 some direct monetary advantage is in sight. More- 
 over, when once the children are earning their own 
 living, they get beyond the control of home, and parents 
 cannot, even' if they would, enforce attendance at evening 
 schools. 
 
 Question 10. What is the attitude of the rising 
 generation towards evening continuation schools ? 
 Do you see signs of increased keenness, or 
 the reverse ? 
 
 Answered by 74 out of 79. 
 
 On the whole there seems to be an increase of interest 
 on the part of the rising generation in evening continuation 
 schools, especially in those of a scientific and technical 
 kind. One or two, who note increased interest in this 
 type of school, mention a falling off of interest in schools 
 of type (a). But there is still a great mass of indifference, 
 and some few answers speak of positive decrease in interest. 
 The raising of the day school leaving age is said to have 
 been one cause of this decrease of interest. The children 
 who leave school at fourteen think that they know all that 
 is necessary for life, and it is only after two or three years 
 that they find out their mistake. Then they come to 
 
250 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 evening scliool, but often give up disappointed because 
 of tbe difficulty of mental application which has grown 
 upon them with neglect. On the other hand, one writer 
 speaks of the pupils who come from fifteen onwards, after 
 finding out their own deficiences, as the most satisfactory; 
 they have grit. According to another, though the scholars 
 show more appreciation than formerly of the advantages to 
 be gained from attendance at evening school, they show 
 less power of self-help when there; want short and easy 
 ways to knowledge, rely too much on the teacher, and do 
 not take the trouble to look things up for themselves. Some 
 just come for amusement and to get prizes, and take no 
 real interest in their work, or, as one answer describes it, 
 they accept attendance when insisted upon by parents or 
 employers as one of the incidental worries of youth, and 
 minimise it as far as may be by getting as much fun out 
 of the situation as it is capable of yielding. 
 
 Much depends on the attitude of the day school 
 teachers towards the evening schools. 
 
 Question 11. Howe you had any experience of requiring 
 all students at an evening continuation school to 
 take a prescribed group of subjects instead of 
 isolated courses ? 
 
 Answered by 70 out of 79. 
 
 Of these, 24 have had no experience of the kind. The 
 remaining 46 have had experience, or can give instances, 
 of either requiring or encouraging students to take a 
 prescribed group of subjects instead of isolated courses. 
 Only in three cases where the plan has been tried is it 
 said to have led to a falling ofE in the attendance. The ar- 
 rangement would seem, from the instances quoted, to be 
 more general in connection with the classes at technical 
 schools than in the evening continuation schools proper. 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 251 
 
 Almost all speak of the results as excellent ; in one instance 
 not only is tlie general tone of the work said to be 
 improved, but tbe plan has led to definite science work 
 and real literary study on the part of students. But, in 
 the opinion of some, there is danger of requiring too many 
 subjects and of pressing the students beyond their powers, 
 in which case all the work suffers. 
 
 Question 12. What plans have you found most success- 
 ful in increasing and maintaining the attendance 
 at evening continuation schools ? 
 
 Answered by 67 out of 79. 
 
 Various plans for keeping up the attendance are given. 
 Prize schemes and retumed-fee schemes are very general, 
 but there seems to be a good deal of objection felt to these 
 as forms of bribery, and as failing to attract students of 
 any worth. One teacher says that the girls come only 
 for the prizes, and that if, through some accident, the 
 chance of a prize is lost, the girl in question will cease to 
 attend for the rest of the session. The essential things 
 would seem to be to have first-rate teaching in classes of 
 reasonable size, and an attractive curriculum bearing as 
 much as possible on the daily work or future prospects of 
 the pupils. The work should be progressive. Regular 
 and carefully corrected home-work is also a good thing, 
 and one plan which has been found useful is to have 
 printed notes of lessons and directions for home-work, so 
 that students obliged to be absent may not fall hopelessly 
 behind. It is good to supplement the curriculum with 
 occasional lantern lectures on popular subjects. The in- 
 fluence of the teacher also counts for a very great deal. 
 He must take a personal interest in the pupils and their 
 individual difficulties, and be willing to keep in touch with 
 them out of school. Social gatherings (including summer 
 
252 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 outings, dancing, etc.), are also useful, especially if 
 students are themselves encouraged to take part in tlie 
 organisation of any entertainments given. But they must 
 be used with discretion, lest they degenerate into another 
 form of bribery, and must not be allowed to interfere with 
 the regular work of the school. 
 
 Other means which have been found effective are : — 
 Scholarships and certificates; encouraging the students 
 to work for recognised examinations, and to form them- 
 selves into associations ; the introduction of physical exer- 
 cises ; the giving of much time to drawing ; the intro- 
 ducing of recreative subjects, such as wood-carving; pro- 
 vision of reading and games' room; exhibitions of work; 
 the interesting of parents and employers ; and last, though 
 not least, prompt inquiry after absentees, and the interest- 
 ing of the students themselves in the general well-being 
 of the school and the formation of a committee of students 
 and others, whose business it shall be, amongst other 
 things, to visit absent members. Some would combine, 
 in greater or lesser degree, almost all these plans. 
 
 Question 13. Could, more he done to maJce evening 
 continuation schools feeders and auxiliaries to the 
 technical schools f What arrangements would 
 you suggest for this ? 
 
 Answered by 64 out of 79. 
 
 All the answers but two are in the affirmative. These 
 two refer to country districts and are doubtful on account 
 of the isolation of many country evening schools. The 
 principal arrangements suggested are : — The better 
 grading of the various schools in a given locality, certain 
 ones preparing definitely for the more specialised work of 
 the technical school; or the better classification of the 
 work in each individual evening school, certain classes 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 253 
 
 in tlie school being organised in definite preparation 
 for tlie technical school. The technical schools, in the 
 opinion of many, should give up doing elementary 
 work and refuse admittance to students not sufficiently 
 advanced to take up technical work at once. Admission 
 might be by examination based on evening school work, 
 or there might be an evening school leaving certificate, 
 which should admit to the technical school. In this 
 connection stress is laid on the need at present for 
 good training in elementary mathematics at evening 
 continuation schools. Several mention the need of 
 scholarships and bursaries from the evening school to 
 the technical school, and instances are given of scholarship 
 schemes already in existence Better staffing, buildings 
 and equipment are also needed before the evening schools 
 can properly prepare scholars for the technical school, 
 and a higher standard of admission to the former should 
 be made possible by a better grounding of the children in 
 the day schools. One writer would have all the evening 
 schools in a given locality under the control of the tech- 
 nical school; but, short of that, it is considered that 
 much might be done by more co-operation between the 
 teachers in the two classes of school. The technical school 
 teachers should make known what they think a lad ought 
 to know when he comes to them, and the evening school 
 teachers should do more to encourage their pupils to 
 proceed to the technical school. 
 
 Question 14. Are you in favour of making attendance 
 at evening continuation schools com'pulsory — (a) 
 for hoys, (h) for girls ? If so, under what con- 
 ditions ? 
 
 Answered by 75 out of 79. 
 
 42 are, on the whole, in favour of compulsion for both 
 boys and girls. 
 
254 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 8 are in favour of it for boys, but against it, or doubt- 
 ful, for girls. 
 
 25 are against it for both. 
 
 The. following are some of the objections felt to making 
 attendance compulsory : — 
 
 (1) The general objection to State compulsion : the only 
 justifiable form of compulsion is that exercised by parents 
 and employers. [One writer has such a rooted objection 
 to compulsion that he looks with suspicion even on the 
 encouragement given by employers to their apprentices 
 to attend evening continuation schools.] 
 
 (2) The difficulty of enforcing attendance and of 
 making the scholars work when you have got them. 
 
 (3) The difficulty of getting teachers. 
 
 (4) The increased cost. 
 
 (5) The strain on delicate children (especially girls) who 
 have to work for their living. 
 
 (6) If the attendance at day school up to fourteen 
 were everywhere compulsory, that ought to be sufficient 
 preparation for the technical school. Better raise the 
 compulsory age for the day school than enforce attend- 
 ance at the evening school. 
 
 (7) Those whom the evening schools can benefit will 
 come voluntarily ; compulsion will only bring in the stupid 
 and undesirable. 
 
 The conditions suggested by those who approve of 
 compulsion are mainly concerned with the upper age limit 
 and the number of evenings and hours per week for which 
 attendance should be required. The lowest age suggested 
 is fifteen, and the highest eighteen. Sometimes certain 
 conditions are added, such as " unless an examination of a 
 certain standard is passed at an earlier age " or " until re- 
 ceiving a certificate of proficiency showing that they are 
 fit to benefit by the courses at a technical or other higher 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 255 
 
 scliool." One writer would double tlie number of years 
 during wbicb attendance is compulsory at an evening 
 scliool for every year lost at tbe day scliool, thus, if a child 
 left the day school at 13, two year's attendance at even- 
 ing school would be required; if at 12, four years. The 
 conditions of compulsion, according to another, should 
 be similar to those for half-time attendance at day schools, 
 viz., the permission to work should depend on evening 
 school attendance. 
 
 Six hours per week, or three evenings of two hours each, 
 is the longest time suggested. Others say only two 
 evenings a week, and one writer would have only one 
 evening, but that all the year round. Some would have 
 the hours shorter for girls than boys, and would divide 
 the time each week between general and trade or 
 professional (or, for girls, domestic) education. One writer 
 would make this division according to the standard of 
 general proficiency attained by the child at the day school, 
 and would have him, as far as possible, complete his 
 general education before beginning his special training. 
 Thus, those boys who were up to Standard VII. on leaving 
 the day school would be allowed to devote themselves to 
 commercial or technical subjects after one year devoted 
 to general improvement; those not up tO' the required 
 standard would be obliged to give two years to general 
 subjects before taking the special courses. The arrange- 
 ment for girls would be somewhat similar, but domestic 
 subjects would take the place of commercial or technical 
 courses, and would be taken up by the girl at once on 
 joining the evening school, the proportion of time 
 devoted to them varying according to the standard of 
 general knowledge, and to the length of time spent in 
 the evening school. 
 
 Other conditions insisted upon are : — 
 
256 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 (1) That the normal hours of daily work should be 
 shortened, especially in the case of girls; that overtime 
 should be made illegal for apprentices ; and that time spent 
 at evening school should not have to be made up by work 
 at other times. 
 
 (2) That the evening schools should be free; or free to 
 the very poor, with a low fee for others. 
 
 (3) That the period of compulsory attendance should 
 follow immediately on the day school course. [One writer, 
 on the contrary, would establish a day-school leaving- 
 certificate which should exempt from attendance at evening 
 school for two years, and would then, when the boy had 
 fixed on his trade, require attendance until he could pass 
 an examination in a group of subjects specially bearing on 
 that trade.] 
 
 (4) That there should be a graded course of study at 
 evening schools preparing for the technical schools, and 
 scholarships to the latter or to other higher schools. 
 
 (5) That there should be a day-school leaving-certificate, 
 awarded by the headmaster, which when shown at the 
 evening school would enable the pupil to be properly 
 placed ; and that, evening schools being better graded, tTie 
 pupils should be sent to those best suited to their needs. 
 
 (6) That there should be an evening-school leaving- 
 certificate, and that prizes should be given for progress 
 and efficiency instead of attendance. 
 
 (7) That adequate provision should be made for 
 enforcing attendance, independently of the teachers. 
 
 (8) That voluntary attendance should be allowed after 
 the legal age for compulsion was passed. 
 
 (9) That physical exercises, and (for girls) household 
 management, should form part of the curriculum. 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 257 
 
 Question 15. Do you see any signs of increased desire 
 on the fart of adults to avail themselves of 
 evening continuation schools in order to make 
 uj) for deficiencies in their early education ? 
 
 Answered by 72 out of 79. 
 
 Opinion on this subject is just about equally divided. 
 Thougli instances of increased keenness are given, it would 
 seem that any desire on the part of adults to avail them- 
 selves of evening schools is still confined to a small 
 minority. Adults are said to be shy of coming to school 
 with their juniors, and some writers are of opinion that 
 they would avail themselves of the schools to a greater 
 extent if more were done to arrange separate classes 
 specially suited to their needs. Others, on the contrary, 
 say that even when such arrangements are made, the 
 classes are not always successful. Adults are said by one 
 writer to be too tired after their day's work to care for 
 anything in the evening save sensational amusements; 
 also to be indifferent to anything in the way of self- 
 improvement which will not bring them higher wages. 
 One teacher of ten years' experience in East London says 
 that the interest has decreased except in the case of aliens, 
 mostly Germans and Jews. Adult foreigners in London 
 often attend evening classes to learn English. 
 
 Question 16. Do you think that nnore should he done 
 to arrange, as fart of the evening school system, 
 well illustrated evening courses on history, 
 geografhy, science, etc., with a sfecial view to 
 the needs of adult students ? 
 
 Answered by 71 out of 79. 
 
 The answers are, with a few exceptions, in the affirma- 
 tive. But the difficulty of getting suitable slides is spoken 
 
258 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 of and tlie necessity for thorouglily competent teachers 
 and lecturers. One fault of the evening schools, until 
 lately, has been their too great similarity to the day schools, 
 and more lectures, etc., would help to remove the prejudice 
 thus created against them. One writer pleads for 
 illustrated courses on music as likely to be attractive, 
 especially amongst a Celtic population, and another for 
 courses on citizenship. Great care should be taken that 
 such lectures do not generate into popular magic-lantern 
 shows — the illustrations should be used to supplement 
 definite instruction not to supplant it. They should 
 not be held on the same night as the classes for boys and 
 girls. 
 
 Question 17. Could nnore he done to grade the evening 
 continuation schools in a given district, according 
 to their different types and standards of worlt ? 
 
 Answered by 63 out of 79. 
 
 All but two or three are of opinion that something more 
 could be done in the way of grading schools, though one 
 or two, who are in favour of it in large centres of 
 population, think that in the country it would be 
 impossible, owing to the distances between schools, etc. 
 The question of distance from the school is always some- 
 what of a difficulty, even in large towns ; each school must 
 more or less provide what the immediate neighbourhood 
 requires. The difficulty of classification has been, 
 according to one writer, one of the chief causes of the 
 comparative failure of evening schools, and he would 
 have all boys who leave the day school below a certain 
 standard sent to special evening schools until they have 
 reached it. It is difficult to see how this could be secured 
 without some form of compulsion, and more than one 
 writer is of opinion that the proper grading of evening 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 259 
 
 selioQ'ls must go hand in liand with a measure of 
 compulsory attendance. At present the scholars go either 
 to the nearest school, or to the school where their friends 
 go, or to the school they attended as day scholars, or to 
 the school where they know and like a particular teacher. 
 
 Question 18. Have you had experience in combining 
 evening continuation school work with other forms 
 of social and educational effort, e.g., social clubs. 
 University Extension courses, adult schools, etc. ? 
 
 Answered by 70 out of 79. 
 
 Counting the nine who have not answered as negatives, 
 64 out of the 79 have had no experience of the kind 
 mentioned. Eight answers are ambiguous; only seven are 
 in the affirmative. Of these, four speak of the usefulness 
 of social clubs. They are said to be more successful than 
 societies with a specific purpose, to be a help in keeping 
 up the attendance at evening schools, and to be especially 
 useful in the case of adults, who will come to the club 
 meetings without any feeling of loss of dignity such as 
 they are apt to experience when they attend evening 
 schools. The Crossley Lads' Club and the Heyrod Street 
 Boys' Club, in Manchester, which combine systematic 
 evening school work with their other activities, are 
 spoken of with high praise for their work both on tlie 
 intellectual and on the social and moral side. 
 
 Additional Infoemation and Suggestions. 
 
 Several writers, besides answering the above questions, 
 furnished valuable additional information and made 
 various suggestions of interest which are summarised 
 below. 
 
 (1) In connection with the question of the encourage- 
 ment given by employers to their apprentices and work- 
 
260 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 people to attend evening schools, one writer emphasises 
 the need for more co-operation between employers and 
 teachers. One of the great difficulties of the teacher, he 
 says, is to get home work done, and if the lads could be 
 encouraged to undertake it by some prospect of advance- 
 ment in their work, more real good would be done than by 
 the giving of attendance prizes, etc. 
 
 Another writer speaks of the difficulty of home study 
 from the point of view of the scholar, and of the need for 
 providing accommodation for private study, where home 
 lessons could be done with opportunity for getting help on 
 points not understood, and under conditions of quiet and 
 comfort often not obtainable at home. 
 
 (2) The failure of the day school to give the children a 
 real desire to learn is emphasised by another. 
 
 ' ' To my mind, ' ' he says, ' ' one of the great difficulties in attracting 
 students to the evening school begins in the day school. Not for a 
 moment do I advocate a return to payment by results in day schools. 
 But since the downfall of that system there has been a slipping away 
 from exactness on the scholars' part. Also, there has been a great 
 overcrowding of the codes of the past few years, giving the child a, 
 smattering of many subjects without any serious attempt to master 
 one. He is hurried the year through, given no time to exercise his 
 own intuitiveness, and leaves without a great desire to proceed. . . . 
 As I have said before, the reason for the failure in the elementary 
 evening schools can be found in the day school. It is there that the 
 child should get a desire to learn." 
 
 The lack of a thorough groimding in the day school is 
 dwelt upon by another. In his opinion this has been 
 especially noticeable since individual examination was 
 abolished. 
 
 ' ' Under the old system scholars had to acquire a sufficient know- 
 ledge of the three R's before they were allowed to proceed from one 
 standard to another ; now teachers have freedom of classification . 
 and children often move up who under the old system of external 
 individual examination would be compelled to remain in the same 
 standard another year." 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 261 
 
 He goes on to say tliat under tlie present system children 
 are allowed to take extra subjects before tbis grounding 
 is complete, and pass from stage to stage of tbese subjects 
 without ever having their knowledge of back work tested. 
 
 " The inspection," he continues, " is superficial as compared with the 
 individual examination — the grant depending to a great extent (pro- 
 vided discipline is satisfactory and the staff large) upon excellence of 
 apparatus and equipment. . . . My experience in a science school has 
 been that since the substitution of inspection for examination, instead 
 of commencing in October, as I should, to prepare for science 
 and commercial examinations of the following May and June, it has 
 been necessary, in order to obtain good results, to devote the time from 
 October to Christmas to putting in the groundwork which pupils were 
 supposed to have on reaching my division — the time proving all too 
 short in many cases. The same is seen in Evening Schools : the 
 groundwork has to be supplied, leaving, as the session only lasts 
 during the winter months, little time for additions and development." 
 
 (3) The need for more brightness and pleasantness in 
 the evening schools, particularly in the ordinary con- 
 tinuation schools, is urged by another writer. 
 
 " If you could see," he says, " some of the dismal rooms in which 
 night classes have to be held, crowded with desks, often without fires 
 and utterly comfortless, you would not be surprised at non-attendance." 
 
 Classes, too, in subjects in which individual teaching is 
 essential should be much smaller than is often the case. 
 
 (4) The effects of the old system of payment by 
 
 results in day schools are still, it is said by another, felt 
 
 in the evening schools. To quote his own words : — 
 
 " Boys come along incapable of self -effort, with a certain amount of 
 undigested knowledge, and what is worse, an idea that the teacher is 
 the source of all learning. Earnest teachers, too, often take up even- 
 ing work with wrong ideas : the old grind of the day school is intro- 
 duced, the teacher judges of his work by wrong standards and the 
 scholar is soon disgusted. On this question of method the success of 
 evening school work seems to hang. I feel sure that if teachers would 
 hasten slowly and direct the studies of their pupils rather than con- 
 stitute themselves into lecturers, much better results would follow." 
 
 (5) The desirability of introducing a simpler method 
 of registration is evidently strongly felt by teachers. The 
 
262 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 present complicated system of registration necessary for 
 grant earning hampers them and causes great waste of 
 time. 
 
 (6) With regard to evening schools in country districts, 
 
 one local organiser of long experience writes : — • 
 
 "There has been, of late years, a tendency to introduce far too 
 much stiffness into the management of evening schools and to press 
 regulations which may be worked well in towns upon country 
 districts also. I plead for freedom and elasticity in the latter, and 
 ■for a, franker recognition of the fact that where the parson and the 
 schoolmaster do not work, the work will not be done. Elaborate com- 
 mittees are, in country villages, a mistake.'' 
 
 It is pointed out by another writer that the diflB.culty 
 of getting teachers in the country is sometimes very great. 
 If a small place, as is most litely, cannot be self-supporting 
 in this respect, it must rely on outsiders, generally teachers 
 from a neighbouring town or village. The train service 
 may very likely be inconvenient for these visiting teachers, 
 and they do not know the young people out of school and 
 get very little hold upon them. The personal interest of 
 teachers who know their scholars is essential in the country 
 as elsewhere. 
 
 (7) According to one writer, it should be recognised that 
 the gap between day and evening school is natural. The 
 boy puts away school with other childish things. His 
 hours of work are long, ajid he feels the strain of the new 
 conditions. Moreover, he does not yet see the use of con- 
 tinuing his education. But later on, competition makes 
 him realise his need. In the opinion of this writer, the 
 only good work done in evening schools is done by students 
 fired by this zeal for getting on. 
 
 (8) It is urged by another that some subject of general 
 culture should always be insisted upon in evening schools. 
 Too little attention, it is contended, is given to the 
 broadening of the scholars' outlook. 
 
INTO CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 263 
 
 The following suggestions of the Rev. Spencer J. Gibb, 
 of Stockport, with regard to evening continuation schools, 
 will be read with interest : — 
 
 Suggestion with Eegard to Evening Continuation Schools. 
 
 " The success of continuation schools depends upon the radical 
 reform of elementary education in the day school. At present they 
 can only be partially successful, owing to the very slender foundation 
 upon which it is possible to build. 
 
 " Necessary factors in such improvement of elementary education 
 are the following : — 
 
 "(1) The concentration of skilful, thorough and intelligent teaching 
 in the elementary schools upon reading, writing and arithmetic. 
 
 " Boys at present leave the elementary schools, and leave them 
 with good records, who have so imperfectly assimilated what they 
 have been taught that, although they can read, write and "do sums," 
 they are without taste for reading or any appreciation of good litera- 
 ture; their writing is formless, and they are unable to write a letter 
 or even address an envelope ; and they are wholly incapable of apply- 
 ing the arithmetical rules underlying the sums they work to the 
 practical needs of business. 
 
 " Concentration, therefore, upon these necessary subjects, to the 
 exclusion of subjects which in the nature of the case can only be 
 glanced at, seems the present wisdom; and in the hands of intelligent 
 teachers such subjects, liberally interpreted, would be adequate instru- 
 ments of mental development. 
 
 "(2) The stern limitation, during school age (under the provisions of 
 the Employment of Children Act), of child labour of such a kind as 
 unfits children to receive the full benefit of education. 
 
 "(3) The training of teachers in such keen and discriminating obser- 
 vation of individual pupils as to enable them to determine broadly the 
 department of the working world into which particular boys would 
 enter with the best prospect of success. 
 
 "Elementary education being rendered more efl&cient on these lines, 
 the following suggestions are ofiered for the organisation of continua- 
 tion schools : — 
 
 "(1) The general school exemption age would be fovu'teen; but ex- 
 emption would be granted at the discretion of the schoolmaster or of 
 a committee appointed for the purpose of such investigation, in the 
 case of a boy who might before that age have the opportunity of 
 entering upon suitable work, with good prospects, which it might be 
 desirable that he should begin at once. 
 
 "(2) A boy leaving school before fourteen, however, would attend 
 compulsorily a night school devoted to the practical teaching of 
 elementary subjects until he had reached the age of fourteen; this 
 
264 RESULTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 implying also such adjustment by the employer of the boy's working 
 hours as to enable him to attend school without overstrain. 
 
 "(3) Leaving school at fourteen, the next year would be occupied 
 in learning practically the routine of the work upon which the boy 
 had entered ; and generally attendance at a night scho'ol during that 
 year would not be required ; ' but at the discretion of the schoolmaster 
 a boy might be required under certain conditions to attend during 
 that year, or a portion of it, a course in a night school in any 
 elementary subject or subjects in which he had in the day school 
 shown noticeable weakness. 
 
 " (4) At fifteen the boy would attend continuation classes devoted 
 to technical or commercial subjects — the course taken up being sug- 
 gested by his employer, 
 
 " Thus there would be two distinct types of continuation schools 
 for boys : — 
 
 "(1) Schools in which elementary subjects would be practically 
 taught, in strict continuation of the elementary school course. 
 
 " (2) Schools devoted to technical or commercial subjects. 
 
 " Useful work might also be done by ' Hobby Schools,' which boys 
 might attend while still in attendance at day school, and in which 
 under direction they might be encouraged to develop their character- 
 istic bents — ^mechanical and manual work; photography; the collection 
 of such things as boys love to collect ; music ; drawing ; and above all 
 reading." 
 
 1. Because during the first year of work it is well for the boy to grow 
 familiar with new surroundings, overcome the strain necessarily involved 
 in making this new departure in life, and learn such practical matters as 
 an intelligent boy would pick up in his daily routine, before being re- 
 quired to study theoretically on the same lines. 
 
265 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 English Employers and the Education of their 
 Workpeople. 
 
 A LETTEE was addressed to the chief railway companies 
 of England asking them for information as to the facilities 
 granted to their employees (both clerks and apprentices 
 and workpeople) for attending classes at technical schools, 
 continuation schools or elsewhere for the study of subjects 
 bearing on their daily work. The following four definite 
 questions were asked as an indication of the kind of in- 
 formation desired, and in addition it was stated that an 
 expression of opinion as to the results of the practice 
 would be valued : — 
 
 1. To whom are facilities granted? 
 
 2. Are apprentices excused from part of their day work 
 in order that they may attend technical classes in the 
 daytime ? 
 
 3. Is any assistance given towards fees? 
 
 4. What are the subjects taken and where? 
 
 The letter was addressed to seventeen railway companies 
 and information was furnished by sixteen of these. 
 
 A similar inquiry was addressed to 195 firms, repre- 
 senting some of the chief trades and industries of the 
 country, and 67 of these supplied particulars. 
 
 The information received from sixteen railway com- 
 panies and fifty-six firms is tabulated on pp. 266 — 305 
 below. The chief points are summarised on pp. 306 — 8. 
 
 Further cases of co-operation between employers of 
 labour and technical institutions are given on pp. 308 — 317. 
 
266 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Name of Company 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Apprentices 
 
 and 
 Workpeople 
 
 Day-work excused. 
 
 Alexandra Docks and Railway 
 Co., Newport, Mon. 
 
 Cheshire Lines Committee. 
 
 Great Central Railway Co. 
 
 Great Eastern Railway Co. 
 
 No special ar- 
 rangemen ts . 
 Office hours 
 allow of attend- 
 ance at evening 
 classes. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices allowed one afternoon 
 free a week without deduction^ 
 from wages to attend classes at 
 Technical Institute. Expected to 
 attend one Evening Class a week 
 as well. 
 
 The company's staff. 
 
 The clerical staff. 
 
 No applications received fromn 
 apprentices for excuse from day 
 work. 
 
 All persons connected with the 
 Company are admitted as mem- 
 bers of the G.E.R. Mechanics 
 Institute for a small subscription 
 of 2/2 per quarter or 2d. a week 
 (under 18, 1/1 a quarter or Id. a 
 week.) 
 
 Many members 
 of the Clerical 
 Staff attend lec- 
 tures at the 
 London School 
 of Economics. 
 
 Day classes in connection with 
 the Institute are also held in the 
 works for employee students 
 between the ages of 17-21. They' 
 must have attended classes at 
 the Institute for 2 sessions and 
 have passed certain examina- 
 tions. No deduction is made 
 from their pay. 
 
 Leave of absence is also granted 
 under certain conditions to 
 employee students between 18 
 and 20, for one or more winter 
 sessions of about 6 months ea«h, 
 in order that they may pursue 
 their technical studies elsewhere. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 267 
 
 ilRailway Companies. 
 
 ii Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 lalegular wages of apprentices 
 libegin at 5/- and rise to 15/- a 
 ijweek. Upon combined reports 
 Eijof master of technical classes 
 Isand superintendent of work- 
 shops, an addition of 1/- or 2/- 
 per week is made to wages of 
 best boys. Fees at Technical 
 School low, and assistance not 
 regarded as necessary. 
 
 Technical Institute, Newport. — 
 Machine Drawing, Applied 
 Mechanics, Steam, etc. 
 
 Apprentices are taken at the age 
 of 16 for 5 years, and are given 
 an all-round training in the 
 locomotive, hydraulic, and 
 marine departments of a docks 
 and railway undertaking. A 
 year in the drawing office is open 
 to anjr apprentice who shows 
 capacity in that direction. 
 
 The arrangements with regard to 
 apprentices are regarded both 
 by themselves and the Company 
 as very satisfactory. 
 
 rfalf-fees paid by Company. 
 
 Victoria University of Man- 
 chester. — Evening Lectures on 
 Eailway Transport. 
 
 '"ees paid by Company. 
 
 London School of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Economics. 
 
 Victoria University of Man- 
 chester. — Evening Lectures on 
 Railway Transport. 
 
 iClasses. 
 
 I?ees for attendance at London 
 j'iSchool of Economics paid by the 
 
 'Company. 
 
 j^embers of the Institute pay G, E. R. Mechanics Institute, 
 ^reduced fees for the various Stratford New Town, E. — 
 ' Classes are held in Machine 
 
 Construction and Drawing, 
 Theoretical and Applied Me- 
 chanics, Steam and the Steam 
 Engine, Mathematics, Electrical 
 Engineering, Magnetism and 
 Electricity, Drawing, etc., etc. 
 The different classes are very 
 largely attended, principally by 
 employees of the Company. The 
 aggi-egate number of students 
 during the session 1905-6 was 
 998. 
 London School of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Economics. 
 
 The Institute was established by 
 the Company in 1851. It was 
 built and furnished, and is, to a 
 large extent, maintained at their 
 expense. 
 
 Membership of the classes is not 
 confined to employees of the 
 Company. 
 
268 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 
 Name of Company 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Apprentices 
 and 
 
 Workpeople 
 
 Day-work excused. 
 
 Great Northern Kailway Co. 
 Great Western Railway Co. 
 
 The clerical staff 
 at Manchester 
 and Liverpool, 
 
 Members of the 
 clerical staff in 
 or near London 
 and else were. 
 
 riie locomotive 
 engineering 
 staff at Don- 
 caster. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Facilities are granted to a limited 
 number of selected apprentice?, 
 between 17 and 18 years of age, 
 to attend Day Glasses at the 
 Technical School, Swindon, with- 
 out loss of wages. They must 
 have been one year in thefactoiy 
 and have attended for at least 
 one session the preparatory 
 group of Evening Classes at 
 the Technical School. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 269 
 
 Assistance towards fees, etc. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 es paid by Company. 
 
 London Soliool of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Economics. 
 
 Victoria University of Man- 
 chester. — Evening Lectures on 
 Railway Transport. 
 
 Liverpool School of Commerce. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Subjects. 
 
 Doncaster Technical School and 
 Evening Schools. — Evening 
 Classes. 
 
 meal Staff. — London School of Clerical Staff.— (\) London School 
 
 ieonomics and Victoria Univer- 
 
 ty, Manchester. Fees paid by 
 
 le Company. 
 
 ^prentices. — Fees paid by the 
 
 onipany. 
 
 of Economics. Evening Lectures 
 on Railway subjects, including : 
 Law of Carriage by Railway; 
 Law relating to Railway Com- 
 panies ; Railway Statistics, com- 
 paratively treated; The Econo- 
 mic Factors in Railway 
 Administration. (2) Victoria 
 University, Manchester. Even- 
 ing Lectures on Railway Trans- 
 port. (3) School for the instruc- 
 tion of the Clerical Staff in Train 
 Signalling Arrangements at 
 Paddington. Lectures delivered 
 by members of Company's Staff. 
 Course consists of 20 weekly lec- 
 tures. (4) Classes for instruction 
 in Signalling and other working 
 railway arrangements at Read- 
 ing, Swindon, Bristol, Newton 
 Abbot, Plymouth. Birmingham, 
 Chester, Shrewsbury, Worcester, 
 Gloucester, Pontypool Road, 
 Cardiff, and Swansea. 
 Apprentices. — Swindon Techni- 
 cal School. (1) Evening classes 
 in Practical Mathematics ; 
 Practical Mechanics; Geometri- 
 cal and Machine Dra^ving; 
 Heat ; Electricity and Chemistry. 
 (2) A three years' course of day- 
 classes in the same subjects. 
 
 Clerical Staff. — About 250 attend 
 the London School of Economics 
 lectures as students. At Pad- 
 dington, 120 students are dealt 
 witn.in each course. 
 
 Apprentices. — The number of 
 day-students is limited to 30 at 
 any one time. 
 
270 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Apprentices 
 
 and 
 Workpeople 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire Rail- 
 way Co. 
 
 London and North Western Rail- 
 way Co. 
 
 London and South Western Rail- 
 way Co, 
 
 All persons over 14 years of age 
 in the employ of the Company 
 are admitted as members of the 
 Horwich Mechanics' Institute 
 for a small subscription varying 
 (according to wages received) 
 from l^d. to 3d. a week. 
 
 Employees attend 
 lectures at Vic- 
 toria University. 
 
 Facilities for the Company's em- 
 ployees generally exist at Crewe, 
 Wolverton, and Earlstown. 
 
 Members of the 
 clerical staff in 
 or near London 
 attend lectures 
 at the London 
 School of Econ- 
 
 Clerical Staff of 
 the Company in 
 their London 
 Offices. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Students studying Physics and 
 Electricity at Crewe are allowed 
 time off (one half -day per week 
 with pay) to attend their classes, 
 
 Apprentices are excused fruui 
 their work on two mornings a 
 week until 9-30 or 10 o'clock, on 
 condition that they attend classes 
 at the Battersea Polytechnie 
 from 8 a.m. Wages paid as 
 though they were at the works 
 at 6 a.m. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 271 
 
 Assistance towards fees, etc. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Eemarks 
 
 1. The fees at the Institute are : 
 For Evening Science, Art, Music, 
 Shorthandand Technical Classes, 
 1/- per subject for complete 
 session. For Elementary Con- 
 tinuation Classes, 6d. per month. 
 
 No assistance given. 
 
 2. By co-operation of the Com- 
 pany with the University Au- 
 thorities, employees admitted to 
 Victoria University lectures at 
 half price. 
 
 The classes at Crewe are open to 
 the Company's employees at 
 very moderate fees. The highest 
 fee charged (in two classes only) 
 is 7/6 per session ; as a rule, the 
 fees range from 1/- to 5/- per 
 subject per session. The class 
 fees are devoted to the benefit 
 of the Institution, the money 
 thus raised being supplemented 
 by the Company each year. The 
 fees at Wolverton are similar to 
 those at Crewe. Scholarships and 
 prizes are offered at both places, 
 but not assistance towards fees. 
 
 Fees for attendance at the London 
 School of Economics paid by the 
 Company. 
 
 Mechanics Institute and Techni- 
 cal School, Horwich. — Various 
 Science, Art, Technical, etc., 
 subjects. 
 
 Victoria University of Man- 
 chester. — Evening Lectures on 
 Kail way Transport. 
 
 Mechanics Institute, Crewe. — 
 Classes in Literary and Com- 
 mercial, Science and Art, and 
 Technological subjects. 
 
 Science and Art Institute, Wol- 
 verton. — Science and Art Classes 
 but no special facilities for prac- 
 tical Technical instruction. 
 
 Science and Art Classes, Earls- 
 town. — Science and Art Classes, 
 but no practical Technical 
 instruction. 
 
 London School of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Rail\^^ay 
 Economics. 
 
 Out of 2093 members of the 
 Horwich Institute (1903-4) 2,029 
 were in the employ of the Com- 
 pany. A special scheme of 
 work has been drawn up at 
 the Institute for the guidance 
 of engineering apprentices in 
 their choice of a continuous 
 course of study, but has not been 
 made compulsory. 
 
 The Company are, to a large 
 extent, the proprietors of the 
 Institute at CS-ewe, and control 
 that at Wolverton. Both are 
 largely attended by the Com- 
 pany's employees. 
 
 Out of 350 to 400 students at 
 Earlstown, only about 70 or 80 
 are the Company's servants. 
 One of the chief reasons for this 
 small proportion is perhaps the 
 comparative nearness of Man- 
 chester, with its various evening 
 classes open to all. 
 
 All fees for day classes paid by Clerical Staff.— LoMon School of The arrangement for day classes 
 Comnanv Economics, Lectures on Rail- at the Polytechnic was started as 
 
 Company 
 
 way Economics. 
 Apprentices. — BatterseaPolytech- 
 nic. Engineering Classes,Machine 
 Construction and Drawing. 
 
 an experiment for three years in 
 1903-4. At the end of the three 
 years the most successful appren- 
 tices will be allowed to continue 
 their studies as day students at 
 an approved Engineering Col- 
 lege of University rank. Prizes 
 are awarded and success in the 
 classes is allowed due weight 
 in questions of promotion. 
 88 apprentices are in attendance 
 at tne day classes during the 
 present session (1905-6). Most 
 of the apprentices attend even- 
 ing classes in machine construc- 
 tion and drawing, for which they 
 pay their own fees. 
 
272 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Apprentices 
 
 and 
 Workpeople 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Metropolitan Railway Co, 
 
 Metropolitan District RailwayCo. 
 Midland Railway Co. 
 
 North Eastern Railway Co. 
 
 North London Railway Co. 
 
 South Eastern and 
 Railway Cos. 
 
 Chatham 
 
 Clerical Staff. 
 
 No special facilities granted. 
 
 Certain members Pupils in Loco- 
 of Staff in Goods motive Works 
 and Coaching at Derby. 
 Departments at 
 Manchester and 
 Traffic Depart- 
 ment at Liver- 
 pool. 
 
 All persons in the employ of the 
 Company at Gateshead and 
 York and neighbourhood can 
 join the Railway Institutes, 
 established by the Company at 
 these two places, on payment of 
 an annual subscription : Gates- 
 head 4/- a year ; York 5/- and 
 3/- a year or 5d. and 3d. a month. 
 The Clerical Staff in the London 
 Office of the Company attend 
 lectures at the London School of 
 Economics. 
 
 Junior Clerks. Apprentices. 
 
 Pupils in Locomotive Works at 
 Derby are given, two days a 
 week, leave to attend morning 
 lectures on engineering subjects 
 or to obtain private lessons. 
 
 All classes are in the evening, and, 
 no day work is therefore excused 
 
 On occasions when students are 
 attending day classes with a 
 view to obtaining scholarships, 
 they are excused from theh' 
 ordinary day work. 
 
 Classes at Ashford are open to all Classes held in the evening, and 
 the employees of the Company. no excuse from day work neces- 
 sary. 
 
 No special facilities granted. 
 
 The Company have made a grai 
 who attend classes at the scho 
 and, except in certain speci 
 
 ' Name withheld at desire of Company. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 273 
 
 Assistance towards fees, etc. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 J'ees paid by Company 
 
 London School of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Economics. 
 
 fees for lectures at Victoria 
 University and the Liverpool 
 School of Commerce paid by 
 Company. 
 
 Derby Technical College. 
 
 Victoria University of Man- 
 chester and Liverpool School of 
 Commerce. — Evening Lectures 
 on Railway Transport (members 
 of staflf in Goods and Coaching 
 Departments at Manchester and 
 TraflSc Department atLiverpool). 
 
 Joth Institutes are assisted by 
 Subscriptions from the Company 
 (York £200, Gateshead £100). 
 At Gateshead no fees are charged 
 beyond the annual subscription ; 
 it York the fees are only two- 
 [ifths of those charged to mem- 
 bers of the general public. The 
 Company contribute to the 
 London School of Economics a 
 lura much more than sufBcient 
 .o cover the fees of those of their 
 staff who attend the lectures. 
 
 North Eastern Railway Literary 
 Institute, Gateshead ; "York Rail- 
 way Institute. — Science, Art, 
 and Technical Subjects. 
 
 London School of Economics. — 
 Evening Lectures on Railway 
 Economics. 
 
 Railway Institutes have also been 
 established at less important 
 places. The servants of other 
 railway companies running into 
 York, viz. : — London and North 
 Western, Great Northern, Great 
 Eastern, Great Central, Midland, 
 and Lancashire and Yorkshire, 
 are eligible for membership of 
 the Institute, and beingmembers 
 may attend all or any of the 
 
 lie Company provide the tuition 
 gn Pitman's Shorthand free of 
 gharge to their junior clerks and 
 Apprentices, 
 gie classes at the East London 
 
 'echnical College, and at the 
 
 'eople's Palace, are also free to 
 
 pprentices. 
 
 Pitman's System of Shorthand 
 (junior clerks and apprentices in 
 the ofiSoes of the several depart- 
 ments). 
 
 Evening Glasses at the East 
 London Technical College, and 
 Classes at the People's Palace. — 
 Various Science, Art, and Tech- 
 nological subjects (apprentices 
 in Bow Works). 
 
 ily small fees are charged. Arithmetic, Geometry, Short- 
 
 -je Company gives financial hand. Machine Construction, 
 Jisistance to the classes. Drawing and Railway-carriage 
 
 Building. 
 
 a local technical school of prizes for apprentices and others employed in the locomotive works 
 jiengineering and mathematical subjects. But the arrangement subsists only for a limited time 
 '7(es,°students are not excused their daily work in order to attend the classes. 
 
274 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Table II 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 I 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 (1) Engineers, Shipbuilders, 
 Steel and Iron Workers, etc. 
 
 W. H. Allen, Son & Co. Ltd., 
 Queen's Engineering Works, 
 Bedford. 
 
 Working apprentices. 
 
 Working apprentices are pei 
 mitted to attend techmca 
 classes on two evenings pe 
 week, and are excused attend 
 ance at the works, without los 
 of wages, for the first quarter o 
 each day on which the classei 
 are held. 
 
 Baxendale & Co., Miller Street 
 Works, Manchester. 
 
 All apprentices and young people 
 in the employ of the Firm. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 275 
 
 Other Employers. 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Fees paid by the Company. 
 
 Bedford Technical School Even- 
 ing Classes, — Mathematics, 
 Mechanics, Mechanical Drawing, 
 Steam and Electricity. 
 
 A-U fees paid by Firm. 
 
 The scheme for working appren- 
 tices is working well and is 
 greatly appreciated by the 
 apprentices. No special facilities 
 are granted to pupils and pre- 
 mium apprentices outside those 
 provided by the Firm. The 
 courses laid down for pupils and 
 premium apprentices are the 
 outcome of twenty-five years 
 experience, and have been found 
 very successful in training men 
 for the mechanical and electrical 
 branches of engineering, the 
 object being to train young men 
 who will subsequently occupy 
 positions of responsibility in the 
 profession. A course of Science 
 lectures is arranged for them at 
 the works during the winter 
 months. Many of them attend, 
 in addition, evening technical 
 classes in Bedford. There are no 
 day technical classes in Bedford, 
 The Firm are of opinion that it 
 is impossible for apprentices to 
 do any serious study in the 
 evening after ten hours in the 
 workshop, and always do their 
 best to impress on parents the 
 desirability of sending their sons 
 to a science college, or similar 
 institution, either before or after 
 commencing their apprentice- 
 ship. The Firm award prizes 
 to pupils and apprentices, and 
 remit the premium when in their 
 opinion it seems desirable. 
 
 Municipal School of Technology, Most of those taking advantage 
 Manchester (chiefly).— Evening of the facilities are boys from 14 
 classes ; subjects not stated. to 18 years of age. Kesults of 
 
 practice satisfactory. 
 
276 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 Belliss & Morcom Ltd., Ledsam 
 Street Works, Birmingham. 
 
 Clayton and Shuttleworth, Ltd., 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Daimler Motor Co. Ltd., Daimler 
 Works, Coventry. 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Both pupils and apprentices. 
 
 Pupils and apprentices whose pro- 
 gress and timekeeping at the 
 works are satisfactory and whoat- 
 tend evening classes three nights 
 a week are allowed to begin work 
 one morning a week at 9 instead 
 of 6 o'clock, without loss of pay, 
 In cases of exceptional ability, a 
 few of the more advanced youths 
 are allowed to attend technical 
 classes at the Technical School 
 on two afternoons per week, In 
 order to qualify for a two-years' 
 free scholarship at a University. 
 
 A new system of apprenticeship has been adopted by the Firm with 
 under which master and man lived in close contact, and youths 
 in view in drawing up the scheme are (1) to supplement the shop' 
 deserving apprentices a varied shop experience. Apprentices are 
 being held to constitute a claim for transference to another oto 
 far as possible avoided. All apprentices are under a Superintendeat 
 the works, and all apprentices can attend classes free. Bool^' 
 deal with the subjects in which they are specialists. It is among 
 report to the Firm cases of merit or dement. The trades taught 
 Making ; (5) Joinery, Wheelwrighting, and Woodworking^ 
 trades when starting, and in general is not transferred to another 
 portion of his apprenticeship at various classes of work allied to 
 are likely to become fit for responsible positions are given special 
 of seven years' apprenticeship (from 14 to 21 years of age) is 
 Apprentices are taken on at any age from 15 to 22. It is hoped 
 college beyond the usual period. Courses of instruction are 
 it is hoped that there will be a considerable number of apprentices 
 and win be able to derive advantage from more advanced courses, 
 they had begun work at 15. No premium is asked and no preminffl'' 
 
 No special facilities, but appren- 
 tices and pupils attend evening 
 classes. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 277 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 I 
 Subjects taken and where | 
 
 I 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Assistance in the matter of fees 
 is given when necessary. 
 
 About £40 annually is given in 
 prizes, and in the award of 
 these the technical studies of 
 the pupils and apprentices are 
 taken into consideration, reports 
 being obtained from their class 
 masters. Special advances in 
 wages are made to apprentices 
 for exceptional mechanical 
 ability during the last two years 
 of their time. 
 
 Birmingham Technical Schools 
 (chiefly). — Machine Drawing, 
 Mathematics and Applied Me- 
 chanics. 
 
 The evening continuation classes 
 are, in the opinion of the Firm, 
 of very great use to youn^, 
 intelligent and self-reliant arti- 
 zans, and, moreover, give oppor- 
 tunities to youths of marked 
 ability for fitting themselves for 
 more responsible work. They 
 hope, with the special technical 
 classes on two afternoons per 
 week for a selected few, and one 
 scholarship at a, University 
 annually, to educate a useful 
 class of assistant engineers. 
 
 a view to combining with the modem factory system the advantages of the old system of apprenticeship 
 were educated mentally as well as manually in their trade. The two chief aims which have been kept 
 work with courses of mstruction directly Dearing on the work in the shops, and (2) to give to all 
 moved from one class of work to another at the discretion of the Firm, diligence, skill and proficiency 
 of work. Keeping a boy for months on routine work simply because he has become skilful at it is as 
 whose sole duties are to supervise, teach, promote, and advise. The Firm maintains its own school in 
 and utensils are provided by the Firm. Officials of the Firm take ^art in the teaching and in general 
 the duties of the Superintendent to prevent an apprentice from "drifting" through the works, and to 
 are : (1) General Machinery and Turning ; (2) Fitting and Erecting ; (3) Tool Making ; (4) Pattern 
 (6) Moulding ; (7) Smiths' Work ; (8) Boiler Making. An apprentice is placed in one or other of these 
 trade during his apprenticeship. But, so far as possible, he is given opportunities of spending a certain 
 the trade to which ne becomes atttaohed. Those who show by their efforts and natural ability that they 
 opportunities in the higher branches of modern works' management and administration. The old term 
 altogether abandoned, as being obviously too long a time to serve for any trade under modern conditions, 
 that this will induce many boys to become apprentices who have the opportunity of attending school or 
 arranged to suit boys whose parents cannot afford to keep them at school beyond 15 years of age, but 
 entering the works at from 16 to 18 years of age who have received a thoroughly good school education, 
 In order to. encourage the entry of those older boys, the same wages are given them at starting as if 
 apprentices are taken. 
 
278 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 William Denny and Bros. , Leven 
 Ship Yard, Dumbarton. * 
 
 Dobson & Barlow, Ltd., 
 Street Works, Bolton. 
 
 Kay 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices and clerks. 
 
 Dorman, Long & Co., Ltd., 
 Steel and Iron Manufacturers, 
 Middlesbrough. 
 
 Apprentices and workmen. 
 
 Holders of bursaries from the 
 local Academy and Science and 
 Art Classes entitling to attend- 
 ance at Glasgow University fir 
 West of Scotland Technical 
 School Day Classes, are taken 
 into the yard or engine works 
 and allowed to work at their 
 trade in the summer andtoatteiiii 
 the day classes in the winter; 
 the time at college counting ,|s 
 part of their apprenticeship, but 
 no wages being paid while at 
 college. Ordinary wages and 
 conditions while in yard or works. 
 
 Apprentices not permitted to 
 attend technical classes in tlie 
 daytime. 
 
 Apprentices excused part of day- 
 work in order that they may 
 attend technical classes one 
 afternoon a week for 9 months 
 of the year. 
 
 * In view of the special interest of the educational arrangements made by this firm, the details 
 are included in a table otherwise confined to English employers. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 279 
 
 Assistance toward fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Fees refunded to any boy who 
 attends evening continuation 
 or Science or Art class and 
 has gained proper certificates 
 and been satisfactorily reported 
 upon by teachers as to atten- 
 dance and progress. 
 
 Entrance to the Brawing Office 
 is by competitive examination. 
 Should an apprentice gain an 
 entrance he is excused one out 
 of the five years apprenticeship 
 in the office, his pay beginning 
 as with the second year. 
 
 Dumbarton Academy and Science 
 and Art Classes. Glasgow Univ- 
 ersity. West of Scotland Tech- 
 nical School. 
 
 Before a boy starts as apprentice 
 in the yard he has to pass a 
 simple examination in Reading, 
 Writing and Arithmetic. En- 
 trance to the counting house is 
 also safeguarded by examination 
 
 The Firm are quite satisfied with 
 the results of their system. The 
 College and Technical School 
 Scheme has been in operation 14 
 years, and 8 students have taken 
 advantage of it, all of whom, 
 with one exception, have either 
 gained their diploma at the Tech- 
 nical School, or their B.Sc. at 
 the University. 
 
 Scholarships given annually in Bolton Technical School, Evening 
 technical subjects to apprentices, Classes. 
 
 and in commercial subjects to Clerks. — Shorthand, Bookkeeping 
 clerks, tenable at Bolton Tech- Languages, Cotton Spinning, 
 nical School. The scholarship Apprentices. — Machine Calcula- 
 includes fees and books and tions, Theory of Cotton Spinning, 
 instruments. Obtained, in first Mechanical Drawing, etc. 
 instance, by passing an easy 
 preliminary examination, and 
 retained by passing, in due 
 course, examinations of higher 
 
 frade. If a boy is -regular and « 
 
 iligent at the classes, he may 
 go on using the Firm's scholar- 
 ships from the the age of 14 to 21. 
 
 Assistance towards fees given to Apprentices. — _Middlesbrough So far as the classes attended by 
 apprentices ; to workmen prizes 
 are given in connection with 
 evening continuation schools. 
 
 High School, Technological De- 
 partment, — Applied Mechanics, 
 Steam Mathematics, Chemistry 
 and Electricity. 
 Workmen. — Evening Continua- 
 tion Schools. 
 
 the apprentices are concerned, 
 the work done is found to be 
 very beneficial from the Firm's 
 standpoint. The attendance of 
 workmen at evening schools is, 
 however, extremely small, only 
 a very few availing . themselves 
 of the opportunity to compete 
 for the prizes offered by the 
 Firm. 
 
28o 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Ebbw Vale Steel, Iron and Coal 
 Co. Ltd., Ebbw Vale, Mon. 
 
 John Fowler & Co. (Leeds) Ltd., 
 Steam Plough and Locomotive 
 Works, Leeds. 
 
 Andrew Handyside & Co. Ltd., 
 Britannia Iron Works, Derby. 
 
 The Company provide 1.5 scholarships, tenable for three years, 
 possible in filling the junior positions on their office staff to the 
 and to a very substantial amount to the maintenance and 
 others) and encouragement offered to students showing application!, 
 at Cardiff or other University. In many changes of position or' 
 
 Premium apprentices. 
 
 Day-work not excused. 
 
 Apprentices and pupils and other PupUs allowed, by specialarrangesij 
 youths in the employ of theFirm. ment, to attend classes in %] 
 
 daytime. 
 
 Hardy Patent Pick Co. Ltd., 
 Mining Tool Works, Heeley, 
 Sheffield, 
 
 Thomas Larmuth & Co., Todle- 
 ben Iron Works, Salford. 
 
 Facilities granted to all who ask 
 for them. 
 
 Apprentices would, if neoessaryaii 
 be excused from day-work. 
 
 All apprentices under the age of Apprentices not excused day- 
 21. work. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 281 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Kemarks 
 
 ^Dpen to the sons of employees, at the Ehbw Vale Intermediate School, and give preference as far as 
 %olders of such scholarships on the expiry of their term. The Firm also contribute in various ways 
 *;onduct of the local Literary and Scientific Institution, where prizes are given (both by the Firm and 
 fend intelligence. In special cases the Company have contributed to the expenses of a collegiate course 
 Promotion in the concern, the results obtained by students in the classes carry due weight. 
 
 ' <!o assistance given. 
 
 ""Lny boy taking a three years' 
 Bcourse in the evening at the 
 Technical School in any or each 
 of the subjects given in the next 
 column, will, at the end of each 
 year, receive the equivalent of 
 one half the cost of the necessary 
 books and instruments for each 
 subject in which he has passed 
 the college examinations for that 
 year. Boys who pass all their 
 examinations during the three 
 years will, at the, end of that 
 time, receive a bonus to cover 
 the total cost of their instru- 
 nents. 
 
 Derby Municipal Technical 
 College, Evening Classes, — 
 Mathematics, Plane and Solid 
 Geometry, Machine Construction 
 and Drawing. 
 
 At the end of each session, the 
 Firm hold an examination of a 
 practical kind covering the work 
 of the year, and an increase in 
 wages is allowed as follows — 
 
 1st year 2/- increase per week. 
 
 2nd year 2/6 „ ,. 
 
 3rd year 3/6 ,, ,, 
 
 I jj'ees paid by Firm. 
 
 Various subjects are taken at Too many of those who join 
 centres convenient to the the various classes drop off and 
 students. do not go through with them. 
 
 Jl fees paid by the Firm. 
 
 Royal Technical Institute, Sal- 
 ford ; Municipal School of Tech- 
 nology, Manchester. Evening 
 classes. — Workshop Arithme- 
 tic, Machine Drawing, Geome- 
 try, Mathematics, Applied Me- 
 chanics, Steam, Magnetism and 
 Electricity. 
 
 Practice only begun last year. 
 Results not so satisfactory as 
 the Firm would have liked. 
 
282 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 J, & H. McLaren, Midland 
 Engine Works, Leeds. 
 
 No special facilities granted Apprentices do not attend ds 
 beyond excuse from overtime classes, but those who take tl 
 when attending evening classes, course at the Leeds Universif 
 
 are relieved from attendance i 
 the works for two years or moi 
 as the case may be. 
 
 Mather & Piatt Ltd., Salford 
 Iron Works, Manchester. 
 
 All apprentices are obliged, as a 
 condition of their employment, 
 to attend one or other of the 
 Municipal Technical Schools in 
 Manchester, Salford, or the 
 surrounding towns. 
 
 A certain number of carefull 
 chosen and deserving apprenticf 
 are free on Mondays each wee' 
 to attend the special iay conrs 
 for apprentices at the Minicipa 
 School of Technology, Man 
 Chester. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 283 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 I 
 
 |.o assistance given towards fees. Subjects various, left entirely to The heads of the Firm give per- 
 ! option of individual student. sonal advice to their apprentices 
 
 with reference to their technical 
 ^ studies. 
 
 Vith the exceptions named be- 
 
 *ow, each student pays a nominal 
 
 ?"ee of Is. per subject per session, 
 
 'vhe remainder of the fees being 
 
 *oaid by the Company. The 
 
 ■Company also provide prizes for 
 
 iuccesses gained at any of the 
 
 nstitutes attended by their 
 
 jmployees. 
 
 o assistance towards fees is 
 illowed to journeyman-work- 
 nen, and the apprentices at- 
 .ending the day course at the 
 Manchester School of Tech- 
 lology pay their own fees. 
 
 Subject to the approval of a 
 Committee appointed for the 
 purpose, apprentices may attend 
 any one of the Municipal Tech- 
 nical Schools in Manchester, 
 Salford, or the surrounding 
 towns, according to convenience 
 of situation with regard to their 
 homes. 
 
 The younger and more imper- 
 fectly educated amongst them 
 are sent to the ordinary Evening 
 Continuation Classes of the 
 district. 
 
 Various science and technological 
 subjects are taken up, 
 
 As early as 1873, the Salford Iron 
 Works Science and Technical 
 School was established by Sir 
 W. Mather for the purpose of 
 enabling the apprentices of the 
 Salford Iron Works to study 
 technical subjects allied to their 
 trade, and was maintained by the 
 Company until 1905. In that 
 year they decided to discontinue 
 their own institution and to 
 give their support to the various 
 Municipal Technical Schools of 
 the neighbourhood by making 
 attendance at the latter a con- 
 dition of employment with their 
 apprentices. During the 32 
 years that they have maintained 
 their own school the Company 
 have found that the instruction 
 given to the apprentices in class, 
 in close correlation with their 
 practical work, and given for the 
 most part by those who are also 
 engaged in practical work, has 
 been of the utmost advantage 
 in developing general intelli- 
 gence, accuracy, and a desire to 
 know more of the scientific 
 foundations on which their 
 practical work is based. They 
 have passed some 1,200 young 
 men through the school, the 
 after-careers of many of whom 
 are evidence of the soundness of 
 the training given. 
 
 Since the change in 1905, a greater 
 range of subjects has been 
 taken up by the apprentices, 
 and the Directors of the Com- 
 pany are of opinion that the 
 new arrangement will be of 
 advantage to the students. 
 
284 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Meldrum Bros., Ltd.,Timperley, 
 Manchester. 
 
 North Eastern Marine Engineer- 
 ing Company, Ltd., Wallsend 
 and Sunderland. 
 
 Samuel Osbom & Co., Ltd. 
 Sheffield. 
 
 Oceanic Steam Navigation Co., 
 White Star Works, Liverpool. 
 
 Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron 
 Company, Ltd., .Jarrow. 
 
 Hans Renold, Ltd., 
 Works, Manchester. 
 
 Progress 
 
 Apprentices only. 
 
 Apprentices and workmen. 
 
 Apprentices are excused da 
 work in order that they mi 
 attend day classes in technio 
 subjects. 
 
 In some instances, apprentices ai 
 granted leave of absence I 
 attend day classes at the Dui 
 ham College of Science; i 
 others, they are allowed to leav 
 their work before the usiia 
 stopping time to enable them't 
 attend certain classes. 
 
 Employees generally. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 The following inducements, art 
 (a) Any apprentice who parses 
 over the usual rate during hji 
 suration). Applied Mechanics, 
 of his 4th year, 2/- extra pe^ 
 Drawing — all advanced stage. 
 20th birthday, and whose record 
 in the drawing office. Th< 
 Subjects may be modified to 
 in not being required to work 
 advantage of. 
 
 Apprentices and others (including Apprentices are always exousff 
 
 young women). 
 Apprentices are confined to the 
 Engineering Departments. 
 
 overtime when attending eVejjj 
 ing classes. In addition, tlj;j 
 of the best qualified apprentj^ 
 are allowed to be away ,tB 
 whole of every Monday, withoffl 
 loss of wage.s, to attend an eig|| 
 hours day-class attheMnnioipl 
 School of Technology. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 285 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 "ssistance is given towards fees. 
 
 Municipal Technical School, 
 Manchester, and Altrincham 
 Technical School. — Mathema- 
 tics, Steam, Machine Drawing, 
 Mechanics, etc. 
 
 The system has not been long 
 enough in operation to speak 
 definitely as to results, but the 
 Firm think they should be good. 
 
 -, the end of the session, prizes 
 l,re given to apprentices whose 
 ; ttendance at the classes has 
 ;,een a certain percentage of the 
 i jighest possible, and who have 
 jjassed a satisfactory examina- 
 ,,on. 
 
 i^orkmen are not eligible for 
 grizes, 
 
 es refunded to those who make 
 5 per cent, attendance at a 
 )urse. Premium of 1/- per sub- 
 let for 100 per cent, attendance 
 nus of 1/- a week given to 
 jprentices after their second 
 3ar provided they attend local 
 :chnical classes and pass in at 
 ast two subjects, and are good 
 mekeepers, etc. 
 
 Students are allowed to take any 
 subjects they choose, and may 
 attend any properly organised 
 school. 
 
 Approved courses at the Univer- 
 sity of Sheffield and Evening 
 Continuation Schools. 
 
 Local technical classes. 
 
 Only a small proportion of the 
 apprentices attend the classes 
 and compete for the prizes 
 offered by the Firm ; but on the 
 other hand, a number of those 
 who have done best in the 
 classes have since attained to 
 positions of responsibility, both 
 in the works of the Firm and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Prizes are also given by the Firm. 
 Ambulance classes are held at 
 the works. 
 
 Only those apprentices thus qual- 
 ified are admitted to the Draw- 
 ing Office. 
 
 !red by the Company to encourage their apprentices to take more interest in technical classes : 
 certain subjects before the end of his 3rd year (19th birthday) shall receive 1/- extra per week, 
 "*B. and 5th years. Subjects— Practical Geometry, Mathematics (Algebra, Euclid, Arithmetic, Men- 
 JKam — all elementary stage. (6) To any apprentice who passes in certain subjects before the end 
 l«sk during his 5th year. Subjects — Practical Geometry, Mathematics, Machine Construction and 
 p To the apprentice who obtains the best results in all the above subjects before reaching his 
 tl time-keeping and conduct in the shops is good, the privilege of spending the last year of his time 
 lite of apprentices over 19 who wish to take up the above studies will receive special consideration.' 
 eit circumstances at any future time. Every facility will be given to apprentices attending classes 
 jpirtime on class evenings. The scheme has not, up to the present time, been largely taken 
 
 s fees of the three apprentices 
 tending day classes are paid 
 ,i|if the Firm. 
 
 , iijhe case of otherapprentices and 
 I, i;ung persons attending evening 
 jjiliisses, the fees are repaid them 
 I, I the end of session if they 
 wve made a high percentage of 
 '..^endances, and entered for the 
 jj)sing examinations. 
 
 Municipal School of Technology, 
 Manchester(for the most part). — 
 Subjects for day classes for 
 apprentices. 
 
 Any approved evening class in 
 Continuation or Council Schools. 
 
 A report as to the attendances 
 and marks of the three appren- 
 tices attending day classes is 
 sent to the Firm every month, 
 and the result so far is very 
 satisfactory (the day class for 
 apprentices was started about 
 three years ago). 
 
 Each year a new selection is 
 made. 
 
 Regular reports are also obtained 
 as to the marks and progress of 
 the other apprentices. 
 
286 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Name of Company or Firm | To whom facilities are granted. | 
 
 I 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Biohardsons, Westgarth & Co. 
 Ltd., Marine and General En- 
 gineers, Middlesbrough. 
 
 Tlios. Kobinson & Son Ltd., 
 Railway Works, Rochdale. 
 
 William Ryder, Ltd. , Bee Hive 
 Works, Bolton 
 
 Siemens Brothers. Dynamo Works, 
 Ltd, Stafford. 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Employees generally. 
 
 Day classes for apprentices ar 
 held at the Middlesbrough Hio] 
 School one afternoon a week 6 
 42 weeks in the year. Appren 
 tices are excused day-work 
 without loss of pay, to atteni 
 these classes. 
 
 Apprentices and all other lads 
 employed in the works. 
 
 Apprentices and all youths in 
 the works are encouraged to 
 attend evening classes. 
 
 All apprentices under 18 years Ol 
 age were alio wed to leave workat 
 3-30 instead of 5-30 p.m. on two 
 days a week, in order that they 
 might' attend special olassen in 
 the early evening, say, from 5 to 
 8-30 o'clock. But this arrange- 
 ment has not been renewed as 
 the apprentices prefer to go to 
 the ordinary evening classes. 
 
 In one case, a successful engineer- 
 ing student has been allowed to 
 attei(d the Manchester School of 
 Technology in the daytime, 
 wages bemg paid as if he were 
 working. 
 
 Day-work not excused to appren- 
 tices, but overtime not expected 
 from them when 
 evening classes. 
 
 Thequestionofexcusingday-worl 
 does not arise, as there are no daj 
 classes in engineering siibieeti 
 at the Stafford Municipal Sciiool 
 A certain amount of leave 
 granted, when necessary, to 
 enable apprentices and otherBto 
 attend theearliereveningclasses- 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 287 
 
 "* Assistance towards fees, &c. | Subjects taken and where | 
 
 -, I I 
 
 Remarks 
 
 'Mssistance towards fees is given 
 ■'iwhen the circumstances of the 
 l^iparents render it desirable. 
 'Mie Firm have a special scheme 
 ^*' for the advancement of appren- 
 'Bitices, wages being increased in a 
 certain proportion according to 
 marks gained for time-keeping, 
 good conduct, perseverance and 
 progress in the workshops, and 
 for each approved examination 
 in science or in practical mathe- 
 matics passed during the year, 
 or for satisfactory attendance at 
 an evening continuation school. 
 Promotion in the workshops de- 
 pends on these marks, at least 
 one vacancy per annum in the 
 drawing office being filled under 
 the scheme. 
 
 j^'o all employees attending 
 ,j|l,l,the Municipal Technical School 
 jjj.the Firm oners : (1) The loan of 
 
 ■ ^text-books and drawing instru- 
 J ^ments. (2) Prizes of equal value 
 
 '"to the aw^ards of the Municipal 
 "||Technical Committee and a 
 
 certificate. 
 
 itsp 
 
 Inilii 
 Slaiils 
 
 I ilB 
 
 ,11 fees paid by the Firm con- 
 otinHitionally on the boys making 
 iieifc^rant-earning attendances. 
 1 it> (rawing inaterials, instruments, 
 0. itc, paid for by Firm. 
 
 o assistance given towards fees. 
 
 tod J* 
 am"" 
 
 Middlesbrough High School, 
 Technological Department. — 
 Day Classes : Steam. Applied 
 Mechanics, Practical Mathe- 
 matics, Applied Electricity. 
 Evening Classes ; Various sub- 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools. 
 
 In connection with the day classes 
 for apprentices at the Middles- 
 brough High School, monthly 
 reports as to regularity, punc- 
 tuality and progress are sent to 
 the employers, and students are 
 required to take the examina- 
 tions of the Board of Education 
 in the subjects of their classes. 
 
 Rochdale Municipal Technical With regard to the attendance at 
 
 School. 
 
 Municipal School of Technology, 
 Manchester. 
 
 day classes in Manchester, the 
 Firm say that two-thirds of the 
 time of the apprentice has been 
 taken up attending the classes, 
 only one-third being left for 
 work in the drawing office. 
 They cannot say whether the 
 experiment will be repeated. 
 
 Bolton Technical School. — Book- 
 keeping Shorthand, Machine 
 Drawing, Applied Mechanics, 
 Mathematics, Electrical Light- 
 ing, Steam, and Metal Turning. 
 
 Stafford Municipal School of 
 Science and Technology, — The 
 subjects usually taken are those 
 connected with Engineering and 
 Electricity. 
 
 Notices are put up in the works 
 to the effect that a lad, to get 
 on, must take up technical 
 work, and it is implied that the 
 better his technical education 
 record the better will be his 
 prospects. 
 
 The Firm are decidedly of opinion 
 that the young men who attend 
 the classes benefit by them, and 
 are always willing to give 
 facilities so far as the work in 
 the shops allows. 
 
 eadicf* 
 
288 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 James Simpson & Co. Ltd., 
 Engine Works, London and 
 Newark-on-Trent. 
 
 Swan, Hunter, and Wigham 
 Richardson, Ltd., Wallsend 
 Shipyard, Wallsend-on-Tyne. 
 
 Thames Iron Works, Shipbuilding 
 and Engineering (Jo. Ltd., 
 London, E. 
 
 John I. Thomycroft and Co. 
 Ltd., Basingstoke. 
 
 To whom facilities are granted, i 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 All boys employed in the yard, 
 whether apprentices or not, must 
 attend at least one approved 
 evening science and art class, 
 give satisfaction, and show 
 satisfactory progress, or be 
 liable to dismissal. 
 
 [The above has been put in prac- 
 tice since July 1 st, 1 904. Formerly 
 the Company did all in their 
 power to encourage all boys in 
 their employ, especially appren- 
 tices, to attend evening classes]. 
 
 Employees generally. 
 
 Many of the Company's appren- 
 tices attend evening classes. 
 
 Day-work not excused. 
 
 Apprentices whoshow exceptioasl 
 ability, and are wishful to attend 
 college for a term, will be 
 allowed hj the Company to do 
 so,_ the time spent at college 
 being reckoned as part of their 
 apprenticeship. 
 
 Day-work not excused. All 
 classes in the evening, and near 
 at hand. 
 
 So far as the Company are awaWj 
 there are no day technical 
 classes in Basingstoke. If there 
 were any, they would probably 
 encourage apprentices to attend 
 them, and afford the necessaij 
 facilities. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 289 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. \ Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 rhe Firm have instituted a 
 special scheme for theeneourage- 
 ment of apprentices, wages being 
 increased in a certain proportion 
 according to marks gained for 
 time-keeping, conduct, regular 
 attendance at science classes, 
 and examinations passed in 
 science or mathematics. Pro- 
 motion in the works depends on 
 the marks gained, and access to 
 the drawing office is opened up 
 to the best apprentices. 
 
 tfvening-class fees paid by the 
 
 nCompany for boys who are 
 
 ^fatherless or who are otherwise 
 
 j'finable to pay their own fees, 
 
 irhe Company have instituted a 
 
 special scheme for the advance- 
 
 nent of apprentices, wages being 
 
 ncreased in a certain proportion 
 
 iccording to marks gained by 
 
 /ime-keeping, good conduct, 
 
 jerseverance and progress in 
 
 ,he workshops, and for each 
 
 ipproved examination passed 
 
 luring the year in science, a 
 
 echnical subject, art, or practi- 
 
 al mathematics. Une vacancy 
 
 n the drawing office will, if 
 
 lossible, be offered to the 
 
 pprentice from the yard who 
 
 btains the highest marks and 
 
 i otherwise suitable 
 
 iHie Company ^ive four elemen- 
 iiCiry scholarships of £3 3s. per 
 nnum for two years, to be 
 warded to their employees after 
 le first year's course at the 
 i'est Ham Municipal Technical 
 istitute. They also provide 
 mr prizes to be given annually 
 y the Institute. 
 
 i assistance towards fees. 
 
 Any science class at a polytechnic 
 
 or school recognised by the 
 
 Board of Education. 
 In London. — The Battersea 
 
 Polytechnic (largely). 
 In Newark. — School of Art 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Wallsend Technical Classes (for 
 the most part). — Subjects : En- 
 gineering, Naval Architecture, 
 Machine Construction, Mech- 
 anics, Steam, Mathematics, 
 Drawing, Ship Carpentry, Ship 
 Joinery, etc. 
 
 The special scheme for the ad- 
 vancement of apprentices has 
 been in practice since July 1st, 
 1904. The Company say that 
 about 80 or 90 per cent, of 
 their apprentices have attended 
 the classes more or less, and 
 that many of them are show- 
 ing great improvement as the 
 result. The Company have, 
 in the past, rendered financial 
 assistance towards the teaching 
 of special science subjects in the 
 locality. 
 
 West Ham Municipal Technical 
 Institute. — Mechanical En- 
 gineering, Electrical Engineer- 
 ing, Civil Engeering, and Naval 
 Architecture. 
 
 For some years prior to 1898, 
 the Company carried on its own 
 classes in applied science and 
 mathematics, primarily for the 
 benefit of its own employees but 
 open to outsiders. J"he classes 
 were given up as unnecessary 
 when the West Ham Municipal 
 Technical Institute was opened 
 in 1898. 
 
 Basingstoke Council School 
 Evening Classes. — Machine 
 Construction, Applied Mecha- 
 nics, Steam, Mathematics. 
 
290 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Tweedales & Smalley, Ltd. , Mach- 
 inists, Castleton, nr. Manchester. 
 
 Apprentices and other employees. 
 
 Viokers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd., 
 Kiver Don Works, Sheffield. 
 
 Apprentices and other employees, 
 
 Apprentices are, in some fei 
 cases, excused from part of tliei 
 day-work, in order that the' 
 man attend Manchester teclini 
 cal classes. 
 
 The Firm haveinitiatedthefolloiv- 
 ing scheme, for co-operation mth 
 the Technical Department of the 
 University — 
 
 1. For youths with Public Schdoi 
 or college education : Those who 
 enter the works direct from 
 school will spend the six winter 
 months in the Technical Depart- 
 ment (or other approved equival- 
 lent institution) and the ^ix 
 summer months in the workshops 
 of the Firm, for at least three, 
 years. The examination at the 
 end of the Technical School tera 
 must be passed before they can 
 resume work in the shops. 
 
 2. For youths with higli school 
 or grammar school education; 
 Special arrangements mil 1« 
 made for these to go through a. 
 two years' course in the TeMni- 
 cal Department (or equivalent 
 institution) either by entering 
 their apprenticeship two yeais 
 later than the normal time or by 
 a grant of two years leave oi 
 absence later on in their appren- 
 ticeship. In such cases, the 
 apprentices will enter or re-enter 
 at the rate of pay they wonlj 
 have had if the two years ' " 
 been spent in the shops. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 291 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where | 
 
 Kemarks 
 
 The Firm refund to their 
 employees all fees paid through- 
 out the year at any technical 
 school for any subject. They 
 also offer 10/- for every first-class 
 pass and 5/- for every second- 
 class pass in the following 
 subjects, which are intimately 
 connected with their business : 
 cotton-spinning, ]nagnetism and 
 electricity, machine construc- 
 tion, mathematics, plane and 
 solid geometry. 
 
 Municipal Technical Scliools, 
 Rochdale, Manchester, and 
 elsewhere. — Cotton -spinning. 
 Magnetism and Electricity, 
 Machine Construction, Mathe- 
 matics, Plane and Solid 
 Geometry. 
 
 The experience of the Firm is 
 that the benefits offered are 
 pretty largely taken advantage 
 of by employees. 
 
 ■Apprentices attending approved 
 evening classes in teclmical 
 subjects, and who pass the 
 examinations laid down, are 
 paid for one year following the 
 examination at the rate of one 
 shilling a week extra for each 
 subject, not exceeding three, the 
 extra pay being subject to good 
 conduct and reasonable pro- 
 ficiency in practical work. The 
 Firm also return the fees at the 
 end of the term to those who 
 enter for the examinations, and 
 have a record of 75 per cent, or 
 more attendances at the classes. 
 
 TechnicalDepartmentof Sheffield 
 University, or any evening 
 council school where classes in 
 the approved subjects arc pro- 
 vided. — Recommended subjects : 
 Mathematics, Stage I. and II., 
 or Practical Mathematics (ele- 
 mentary or advanced). Practical 
 Plane and Solid Geometry (ele- 
 mentary or advanced). Machine 
 Construction and Drawing (ele- 
 mentary or advanced). Mag- 
 netism and Electricity (elemen- 
 tary or advanced), Applied 
 Mechanics (elementary or ad- 
 vanced). Steam (elementary or 
 advanced). Apprentices may 
 select other subjects not on the 
 recommended list, but assistance 
 is only given in respect of three 
 of them. 
 
 Results of two examinations 
 since the scheme was formulated 
 have been received. Of the 107 
 persons from the works who 
 attended classes in the session 
 1903-4, 24, or 22 per cent., 
 satisfied the conditions entitling 
 them to remission of fees varying 
 from 1/8 to 21/- and additions to 
 their weekly wages for the en- 
 suing year varying from 1/- to 3/- 
 a week ; and, of the 107 persons 
 who attended classes in the 
 session 1904-5, 49, or 47 per cent., 
 satisfied the conditons entitling 
 them to remission of fees varying 
 from 1/3 to 24/9 and additions to 
 their weekly wages for the 
 ensuing year varying from 1/- to 
 3/- per week. The subjects in 
 which examinations were success- 
 fully passed were steam; applied 
 mechanics ; machine drawing 
 and mathematics in stages 1 to 
 3; electrical engineering lectures, 
 tutorial and practical, for 1st 
 and 2nd years ; practical metal- 
 lurgy ; practical plane and solid 
 geometry. 
 
292 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 Yarrow and Co. Ltd. 
 
 B.* 
 
 C* 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. | 
 
 I 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Pupils and apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices, and some pupils are 
 expected to study on at least 
 two, and perhaps three evenings 
 a week, conditionally on their 
 retiring to rest at 10 o'clock. 
 
 Pupils may, on cei-tain condition! 
 spend the winter months at i 
 University or technical collegi 
 and the summer months u 
 practical work in the shops. 
 
 Overtime is not required on thf 
 days when evening classes are 
 attended. Ordinary workino 
 hours are from 6 a.m. to 5 p.!!!." 
 
 (2) Other Firms. 
 
 Burroughs, Wellcome & Co. . Lon- 
 don, B.C., and Dartford. Kent 
 (Drug Manufaoturerh). 
 
 Brunner Mond & Co., Northwioh 
 (Chemical Manufacturers). 
 
 * Name withheld at desire of Firm 
 
 Apprentices only. 
 
 Apprentices only. 
 
 Permission is given to approved 
 apprentices to leave their worl 
 during the winter time to attend 
 the session of the Durham 
 College of Science. 
 
 Day-work not excused, 
 
 All employees in the works and Work is on the 8 hours a day 
 laboratories are encouraged to system, and ceases at 5 o'clocli, 
 attend evening technical classes. AH classes are in the evening, so 
 
 that there is no need to exiiiiSe 
 day-work. 
 
 In 1884 this firm began to encourage the attendance of its apprentii»| 
 on apprentices and all youths under 19 to attend the eveuiSgi 
 three years evening school attendance, receive instruction iM 
 see p. 190 above. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 293 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. | Subjects taken and where 
 
 I 
 
 Remarks 
 
 No assistance given towards fees, 
 because the Firm consider that 
 the arrangements they make 
 [they take no jjremiums] and the 
 wages thev give to pupils are 
 exceptionally liberal. 
 
 Durham College of Science, New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. — Engineering 
 subjects. 
 
 Fees are paid for those apprentices Apprentices choose their own Results so far not very pro- 
 who are successful in passing subjects. nouuced. 
 
 a preliminary examination. 
 
 The Firm pay the fees for every 
 student, who makes a sufficient 
 number of attendances to allow 
 him or her to sit for the examina- 
 tion. 
 
 Dartford Technical Institute. — 
 No restriction made as to sub- 
 jects, which range from Dress- 
 making and French to Building 
 Construction and Chemistry. 
 Employees may choose whatever 
 subjects they prefer from the 
 syllabus of the Institute. 
 
 The Firm consider that the 
 classes as a whole are of un- 
 doubted benefit in tending to 
 produce more intelligent and 
 self-respecting workpeople. In 
 their own case, the classes are 
 more directly useful when they 
 have a bearing upon their 
 particular busljiesg, and in a 
 number of cases the usefulness 
 of employees has been increased 
 and tneir progress advanced on 
 account of the knowledge gained 
 at these classes, But workr 
 people, as a whole, are indifferent, 
 and amongst their own em- 
 ployees, though the number 
 attending classes is considerable, 
 the proportion is small, 
 
 -it evening classes. A few years later such attendance was made compulsory. It is now obligatory 
 : school nine times out of every ten that the school is open. Apprentices who have a good record of 
 >ifternoons a week at the Verdin Technical School without deduction of wages. For further details 
 
294 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 Cadbury Bros. Ltd. , Bournville, 
 Birmingham (Manufacturer.s of 
 Cocoa, Chocolate, etc.). 
 
 J. & J. Colman Ltd.. Carrow 
 Works, Norwich (Mustard, 
 &c., Manufacturers). 
 
 The Coalport China Co. Ltd.. 
 Coalport, Salop. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 All employees under 16 are 
 required to attend evening 
 classes during the winter for two 
 evenings a week and two hours 
 per evening. Students are ad- 
 vised as to which courses should 
 be taken. 
 
 All employees over 16 are en- 
 couraged to attend technical 
 classes held at the various 
 schools in the neighbourhood. 
 Lists of classes are posted in the 
 works at the beginning of each 
 Session. 
 
 Parents or guardians of appli- 
 cants for appointment are re- 
 quired to sign a form which 
 agrees that the boy or girl in 
 question shall attend evening 
 continuation classes regularly 
 up to 16, and shall receive in- 
 struction in gymnastics and 
 swimming during work hours 
 up to 16 or 15 years of age 
 respectively. 
 
 All boys under 16 are required t( 
 attend Physical Training Classes 
 held at the AVorks for two 
 periods, each of half an houi', 
 per week in the Firm's time.' 
 The classes are in Swimming 
 and Gymnastics. 
 
 All girls under 15 are required to 
 attend classes in Swimming or 
 Swedish Gymnastics held at the 
 Works for three periods, each of 
 half an hour, in the Firm's time. 
 
 There is very careful medical in- 
 spection of employees health hy 
 a resident doctor. 
 
 The Physical Training Classes 
 are under the inspection' of 
 the Board of Education. In 
 connexion with the Swimming 
 instruction are life-saving 
 classes. 
 
 All workpeople 
 prentices. 
 
 including ap- 
 
 Apprentices allowed to 
 the Coalbrookdale School of Art 
 in the Company's time without 
 loss of wage. Leave of absence 
 granted to others when re- 
 quested. 
 
 Before the opening of the large Technical and Science Schools 
 their employees, in which instruction was given in Carpentering, 
 jects. These classes were closed as unnecessary when the City 
 September to April, open to employees and children of employees 
 punctual and regular attendance. This class has been 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 295 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 I 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Bemarks 
 
 The students pay their own fees, 
 but the Firm refund the latter 
 (up to 7/6) to all employees under 
 19, if the subjects taken are 
 approved by the Works Edu- 
 cation Committee, if the 
 teacher's report as to conduct 
 and progress is satisfactory, 
 and if 85 per cent, of the 
 attendances nave been made. 
 Reports as to attendance, con- 
 duct, and progress at evenino' 
 classes are entered in the Record 
 Book, to which reference is made 
 when questions of promotion 
 arise. 
 
 The attendance at the classes is 
 highly satisfactory. The Session 
 e.'ctends over about 23 weeks 
 from September to March. The 
 fee charged for the whole session 
 at the Evening Continuation 
 Schools is 2/-, returnable by the 
 Worcestershire County Educa- 
 tion Authority to those who 
 make a certain average of 
 attendances with satisfactory 
 progress. 
 
 Technical and Continuation 
 Classes in the neighbourhood, 
 but mostly in Bournville itself. 
 At the Evening Continuation 
 School two alternative courses of 
 sessional instruction — {a) Com- 
 mercial and (6) Industrial and 
 General — each in two stages, 
 are suggested for boys and girls 
 respectively. 
 
 The Firm have themselves pro- 
 vided gardening classes on the 
 estate for boys and girls. 
 
 Ambulance and sick nursing 
 classes are held throughout the 
 winter. Many of the older em- 
 ployees attend Physical Train- 
 ing classes in the evening at the 
 Works. 
 
 The results of the system are very 
 satisfactory. For children living 
 at a distance the Firm provides 
 tea at the cost of Id., so that 
 attendance at the Continuation 
 School is made convenient. 
 After the evening school, 
 children living at a distance are 
 conveyed home under the care 
 of suitable guardians, appointed 
 and paid by the Firm. 
 
 There are gymnasiums for both 
 men and women employees, 
 and there is a large covered 
 Swimming Baths in the Works. 
 
 There is a Boys' Club in connec- 
 tion with which weekly lectures 
 of an educational character are 
 organised during the winter. 
 
 There is a Prize Scheme, awards 
 being based on three favourable 
 reports, viz., from the Evening 
 Continuation School, the Gym- 
 nasium, and the Woiks. 
 
 The Company invariably contri- 
 i bute something to apprentices' 
 i fees at School of Art, but do 
 1 not make it a recognised rule to 
 do so. 
 
 Coalbrookdale School of Art. 
 
 Opportunities for continuation 
 work in the neighbourhood are 
 very limited. The Company do 
 not know of any schools or 
 classes except the Coalbrookdale 
 School of Art. 
 
 by the Corporation of Norwich, the Firm for many years maintained classes for the benefit of 
 iPlumbing, Iron-work, Venetian Iron-work and Shorthand, in addition to the usual elementary sub- 
 :Evenihg Classes were established. A successful class in Art Leather Work has since been held from 
 at a weekly fee of Id., returned at theend of the session in the form of rewards for good work and 
 appreciated, and many of the members have attended several years in succession. 
 
296 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 Joseph Crosfield & Sons Ltd., 
 Warrington. 
 
 (Soap Manufacturers). 
 
 I 
 To whom facilities are granted. | 
 
 I 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 All employees under 20. At- 
 tendance compulsory for boys 
 under 17, optional from 17 to 
 20. In 1904-5 the same rule 
 was applied to girls. (The only 
 exception made to the compul- 
 sory rule is in the case of a, 
 few boys living out of town.) 
 
 Debenham & Co. and Debenham 
 & Freebody (constituent 
 companies of Debenhams 
 Limited), London W. 
 (Drapers, Milliners, Dress- 
 makers, etc.). 
 
 Apprentices 
 
 No day-work excused, but the 
 Firm have always desired to re- 
 duce hours of labour as far as 
 possible without diminishing the 
 earnings of their workpeople,aiiid 
 have been able to avoid vem 
 early and late hours in many 
 departments. In these depart- 
 ments the general rule is to 
 begin work at 7-30 or 8 a.m. 
 (breakfast having been had pre- 
 viously), and to finish at 5-30 
 or 5 p.m. (Saturdays 12 noon), 
 the wages being the same for 
 the 8 or 85 hours as tor the 
 10 hours which were formerly 
 the rule. 
 
 Two afternoons a week allowed 
 to certain dressmaking ap- 
 prentices for a two years' 
 course under special scheme. ' 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 297 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where 
 
 Remarks 
 
 lU fees are returned to those 
 who make a certain percentage 
 of attendances, and in addition 
 a. money prize, equal in value to 
 the fee, is given to all who get 
 a. satisfactory report for progress 
 and behaviour. When first the 
 scheme was started the percent- 
 age was fixed at 60, then raised 
 (1903-4) to 85. In 1904-5, 84 
 per cent, of the lads made over 
 35 per cent, of attendances. 
 
 Warrington Evening Continuation 
 Classes. 
 
 Girls. — Needlework, dressmaking, 
 cooking and domestic economy. 
 
 Boys. — Arithmetic, writing, 
 general knowledge, reading, 
 drawing. 
 
 As laundry work is not taught 
 in the town Evening Schools the 
 Firm arrange lessons in this sub- 
 ject in the Works for all the 
 girls. 
 
 Technical School, Warrington. 
 
 Boys. — Steam, applied mechanics, 
 machine construction, bookkeep- 
 ing, French, English, shorthand, 
 drawing, theoretical and applied 
 electricity, chemistry, organic 
 and inorganic, theoretical and 
 applied. 
 
 Evening Classes. — Bookkeepiag, 
 Arithmetic, English Grammar 
 and Composition, French or 
 German, Commerce, Commercial 
 Geography and Business 
 Routine. 
 
 I These classes are for warehouse 
 apprentices only (mostly boys), 
 
 The Firm consider the results 
 very encouraging both from a 
 statistical and an educational 
 point of view. When they 
 started their scheme for return- 
 ing fees, only 14 per cent, of 
 their employees were attending 
 Evening Classes. In 1902-3 
 (before attendance was made 
 compulsory for boys under 17) 
 the attendance had risen to 73 
 per cent. They contemplate a 
 compulsory limit of " under 20 " 
 in the future. All the young 
 people of both sexes in the 
 employ of the Firm are made 
 well acquainted with the Metric 
 System, which is now universal 
 within the Works. The Firm 
 also, from time to time, supply 
 courses of lectures on subjects 
 of technical importance (e.g., 
 electricity), and there are 
 popular ' lectures on scientific 
 subjects at intervals. The Firm 
 also possess an Ambulance 
 Brigade, and all lads and men 
 are encouraged to learn Am- 
 bulance Work, free lectures 
 being given by a qualified 
 doctor. 
 In addition every lad of 15 (30 
 per annum) is sent once a week 
 during the summer to the 
 town swimming baths to learn 
 swimming under a teacher from 
 the Works. The same arrange- 
 ment is made for 25 girls. AH 
 the expense, even of the time 
 absent, is borne by the Firm. 
 All the boys and a large pro- 
 portion of the girls learn to 
 swim in the thirteen weeks 
 during which the lessons last. 
 
 Attendance at evening classes is 
 compulsory for all apprentices. 
 The Firm consider the classes 
 held on the premises to be very 
 successful. 
 
 Special Scheme. — Dressmaking 
 apprentices, whose premiums are 
 paid by the Merchant Taylors' 
 
298 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Debenliam & Co. and Debenham 
 & Freebody. 
 
 Eyre 
 E.G 
 
 & Spottiswoode, London 
 
 Johnson Brothers (Dyers) Ltd., 
 Bootle Dye Works, Liverpool. 
 
 Apprentices encouraged to attend 
 Technical Classes at St. Bride's 
 Institute. 
 
 Employees generally. 
 
 Apprentices are not excused day 
 work, but they may get oS halt 
 an hour earlier on class evenings, 
 and are excused overtime if tlm^ 
 have a class to attend. The 
 Works are run on an eight-hour 
 day system. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 299 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 Subjects taken and where i 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Fees paid by Firm. 
 
 (a) The Firm offer to pay all 
 fees for their male employees, 
 including books. 
 
 Prizes are given in connection 
 with the Firm's own classes. 
 
 (b) The fees charged for the 
 classes in cooking, dressmaking, 
 etc., attended by the female 
 employees, are so reasonable as 
 to render assistance unnecessary, 
 but as a matter of fact, the 
 fees are refunded to anyone 
 who attends a fair number of 
 classes and does good work. 
 One or two prizes are also given 
 by the Firm for the best work 
 done. 
 
 and are held on the Firm's pre- 
 mises.] 
 
 Day Classes : Special Scheme. — 
 Classes specially arranged to 
 suit the needs of the apprentices 
 at the L.C.C. Technical In- 
 stitute, Paddington. 
 
 Company and the Clothworkers' 
 Company, and who are selected 
 by the London Education Com- 
 mittee from amongst the pupils 
 in their Domestic Economy 
 Schools, are allowed two after- 
 noons a week free during the 
 two years of their apprentice- 
 ship, and classes are specially 
 arranged for them at Technical 
 Institutes, the fees being paid 
 by the County Council. The 
 Firm's report on this experi- 
 ment is as follows : " These 
 girls are not so useful to us 
 during the period of apprentice- 
 ship as other girls who do not 
 attend classes. Other things 
 being equal, however, they are 
 destined for better work later 
 
 St. Bride's Institute Technical 
 Classes. 
 
 (a) Male Employees : 
 Technical Schools and Con- 
 tinuation Schools of the neigh- 
 bourhood. — Principally Mathe- 
 matics and Chemistry. 
 
 Those attending Continuation 
 Schools are urged by the Firm 
 to study Mathematics with a 
 view to being able, later on, 
 thoroughly to master the work 
 in the Chemistry Classes at the 
 Technical School. 
 
 The Firm's own classes. — Classes 
 in Dyeing are occasionally held 
 on the premises, conducted by 
 the Firm's chief chemist. Both 
 men and boys attend one night 
 a week in the winter for 
 theoretical and one night for 
 practical work. An examination 
 is held at the end of the six 
 months' course and prizes given 
 to the two students who have 
 done the best work. 
 
 (b) Female Employees : 
 Continuation Schools of the 
 neighbourhood. — Cooking, 
 Dressmaking, etc. 
 
 The Firm have given much 
 thought to the social welfare of 
 their employers, and have 
 appointed a Lady Social Secre- 
 tary, whose sole duty it is to 
 attend to matters connected 
 with the social welfare of the 
 female employees. Their scheme 
 includes {besides the provision 
 of gardens and recreation 
 ground, dining rooms, a pension 
 scheme, etc.) an arrangement 
 with the Bootle Corporation 
 whereby the Works are treated 
 as a Branch Distributing Office 
 of the Corporation Library, and 
 the books collected and delivered 
 as often as necessary. The 
 employees are thus enabled to 
 avail themselves of the large 
 collection of books in the 
 Library with the minimum of 
 trouble to themselves. 
 
 In the opinion of the Firm, the 
 attendance of their employees 
 at Chemistry Classes held at 
 the Technical School is prac- 
 tically of very little value, 
 owing to the lack of proper 
 grounding in arithmetic and 
 mathematics. For this reason 
 they have themselves established 
 a class, combined with practical 
 work, which bears more directly 
 upon the daily work of the 
 employees. 
 
300 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 1 
 To -whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 Lever Brothers Ltd., Port Sun- 
 
 Apprentices. 
 
 Apprentices may apply for per- 
 
 light, Cheshire. 
 
 
 mission to leave early, in order 
 
 (Soap Manufacturers). 
 
 
 to attend Classes, without de- 
 duction from wages. 
 
 Rowntree & Co. Ltd., York. 
 
 Engineering apprentices, clerks 
 
 Day-work not excused except 
 
 (Manufacturers of Cocoa, 
 
 and other employees of both 
 
 that on Monday evening any 
 
 Cliocolate, etc.). 
 
 sexes. 
 
 apprentice having classes ' csn 
 leave work at 5 instead of 6. 
 All girls imder 17 are required 
 to attend classes at the Firm's 
 Domestic Economy School for 
 two hours per week during 
 work-hours. 
 
 t 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 301 
 
 « Assistance towards fees, &c. 
 
 I 
 Subjects taken and where | 
 
 Remarks 
 
 ;Xo assistance towards fees is 
 t.i given, but employees of the 
 liiFirm, together with other resi- 
 . dents of Port Sunlight and the 
 neighbourhood, are admitted to 
 the Technical Institute without 
 entrance fee, and the fees for 
 the courses (each of 24 or more 
 lessons) are low, viz., 2s. 6d. 
 for the first subject (except 
 wood-carving and millinery) and 
 Is. for each additional subject. 
 Che Firm have also adopted a, 
 scheme providing for the pay- 
 ment of a higher rate of wages 
 (from 6d. to 3s. increase over 
 standard rate) to those ap- 
 prentices employed in the 
 Handicrafts and Mechanical 
 Trades in Port Sunlight, who 
 pass certain examinations in 
 specific subjects. Those en- 
 gaged in the Printing, Mechani- 
 cal and Electrical Engineering, 
 Building and Engraving trades 
 alone are eligible, and with the 
 certificate a satisfactory report 
 from their Departmental 
 Manager as to work and general 
 conduct is required. 
 
 4.pprentices' fees paid by the 
 Firm, the only limit being the 
 number of classes which it is 
 -'considered that a particular ap- 
 f prentice can satisfactorily tackle. 
 '' Shorthand fees up to £1. Is. 
 '[paid for junior clerks, and fees 
 ?! for all subjects voluntarily 
 * taken up by clerks refunded 
 wholly or in part according to 
 attendance and examination. 
 Book and money prizes are also 
 given. Boys who attend Even- 
 ing Continuation Schools under 
 the Local Education Authority, 
 and can produce evidence of 
 satisfactory attendance and 
 work, have their fees refunded 
 and the cost of text-books paid 
 to the value of 5s. Similar 
 arrangements are made with 
 regard to organised gymnastic 
 classes, and students attending 
 
 Technical Institute, Port Sun- 
 light. 
 
 Various technical, commercial, 
 science, art and domestic sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Apprentices. — ^Railway Institute, 
 York (for the most part). 
 Machine Construction and 
 Drawing, Applied Mechanics, 
 Electricity, Steam, Physics, 
 Practical Mathematics. (All 
 elementary and advanced.) 
 
 Clerks. — Subjects almost invari- 
 ably strictly commercial, viz., 
 Bookkeeping, Commercial Pro- 
 cedure, Shorthand, etc. 
 
 Girls' Day Classes, Domestic 
 Economy School. — Cooking, 
 Dressmaking, Hygiene. 
 
 Other Classes. — Part Singing, 
 Swinuning, Gymnastics. 
 
 Boys Evening Continuation 
 Classes. — Various subjects. 
 
 The Port Sunlight Technical In- 
 stitute, which is one of the best 
 equipped in the neighbourhood, 
 was established by the Firm, 
 and for some years maintained 
 entirely at their expense. They 
 still own the building, but the 
 classes are now carried on under 
 the management of the ad- 
 ministrative Sub-committee of 
 the Bebington and Neston area 
 of the County of Cheshire, the 
 premises being lent to the Com- 
 mittee for the purpose. 
 
 As an indirect outcome of 
 Classes in wood carving, etc., 
 formerly held on the estate, 
 and with a view to fostering a 
 taste for handicrafts, an Arts 
 and Crafts and Home Arts 
 and Industries Exhibition has 
 been held at Port Sunlight. 
 
 A Free Library and Museum are 
 provided by the Firm for the 
 use of their employees and of 
 other residents in Port Sunlight. 
 
 The system is considered to have 
 a beneficial effect upon the work 
 of apprentices, especially when 
 drafted into the drawing office 
 during later years of apprentice- 
 ship. With regard to clerks 
 the results are satisfactory in 
 office work. There is a special 
 prize-scheme to encourage the 
 acquisition of Shorthand, and it 
 is intended shortly to extend 
 the system of 'payment for 
 Shorthand and practically cover 
 the cost of tuition in this 
 subject. The firm have estab- 
 lished on the premises of the 
 Haxby Road Factory a 
 Domestic Economy School 
 which is under the super- 
 vision of the Board of Educa- 
 tion. All girls under 17 are re- 
 quired to attend for two hours 
 a week during work hours. The 
 
302 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm [ To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 I 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 ilowntree & Co. Ltd., York. 
 
 rhe Salt Union Ltd., Liverpool. 
 
 D.* 
 [Piano Manufacturers.] 
 
 [Cocoa Manufacturers.] 
 
 F.* 
 [Linen Manufacturers.] 
 
 G.* 
 [Cotton Spinners.] 
 
 Facilities afforded to apprentices 
 only for attendance at evening 
 classes, such apprentices being 
 expected to put in not less than 
 75 per cent, of possible attend- 
 ances, and to sit for the ex- 
 aminations. 
 
 Apprentices chiefly. 
 
 [Other hands work by the piece, 
 and if they wanted time off 
 would simply mention it with- 
 out giving reasons.] 
 
 There are no apprentices in the 
 schoolmistress respectively, but 
 the city which are nearer their 
 
 Apprentices to designing only. 
 
 Day-work not excused. 
 
 Works close to apprentices • at 
 7 p.m. If for one or two even- 
 ings a week apprentices requiied 
 an extra hour in order to at- 
 tend classes, it would be granted 
 without reduction of wages. 
 
 Works. For some years the Finn 
 
 for the last few years the 
 homes, and can give a more 
 
 Apprentices excused day-work.' 
 
 All younger male employees. No day-work excused. 
 
 •"Name withheld at desire of Firm. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 303 
 
 Assistance towards fees &e. 
 
 I 
 Subjects taken and where | 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Dniversity Extension Lectures 
 bave cost of course tickets and 
 manuals refunded on evidence 
 being given of satisfactory 
 work. 
 
 'rovided 75 per cent, of possible 
 attendances are made and ex- 
 aminations taken, the Company 
 pay the fees for two subjects 
 bearing on the particular trades 
 followed by the apprentices. 
 
 Winsford and Northwich Techni- 
 cal Schools. — Machine Construc- 
 tion, Woodwork, Building Con- 
 struction, Mathematics, Iron 
 Work. 
 
 ■To assistance given towards fees. 
 
 Principally music, taken pri- 
 vately. 
 
 Other subjects in Council Even- 
 ing Schools. 
 
 subjects taught are Cookery, 
 Dressmaking, and Hygiene. 
 There are three teachers, and 
 about 520 girls are under in- 
 struction. These classes are 
 quite apart from those under 
 the Local Education Authority, 
 some of which are attended by 
 employees over 17. The School 
 is too new to speak yet of 
 results, but so far as can be 
 seen at present the Firm have 
 every reason to be satisfied. 
 
 The opinion of the Superintendent 
 of the Company's Cheshire 
 works is as follows : — 
 
 " The directors' decision to pay 
 the fees of all apprentices at- 
 tending the evening classes must 
 without question have had a 
 beneficial effect both to the ap- 
 prentices themselves and to the 
 Company, as it is generally 
 conceded that it has had the 
 result of making the youths 
 more efficient in their respective 
 trades, and we have had not a 
 few instances of those who have 
 attained high honours in the 
 subjects taken." 
 
 The Firm's opportunities of 
 judging results have been 
 limited, but where these have 
 been known they have been 
 most satisfactory. 
 
 lad night schools in the AVorks for boys and girls presided over by a schoolmaster and 
 ttendance has declined, owing, no doubt, to the pupils attending the Continuation Classes in 
 'aried and useful training. Both schools have, therefore, been given up. 
 ■Jo assistance given towards fees. Advanced Freehand, Model and 
 
 Light and Shade. 
 
 Company return fees to all those 
 who have made a percentage of 
 75 attendances at the classes for 
 which they are entered. 
 
 Bolton Technical 
 Machine Drawing, 
 Mechanics, Steam 
 Spinning, Shorthand 
 Mathematics. 
 
 School. — The Company are of opinion that 
 Applied the assistance given by em- 
 Cotton ployers is of definite value in 
 and securing a better attendance at 
 Evening Continuation Classes 
 than would otherwise be the 
 case. In 1903-4 their employees 
 attended 95 per cent., and in 
 1905-6, 87 per cent, of the 
 classes for which they originally 
 entered. 
 
304 
 
 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 Name of Company or Firm 
 
 To whom facilities are granted. 
 
 Day-work excused 
 
 H. 
 
 [Silk and Velvet Manufacturers.] 
 
 [China Manufacturers.] 
 
 K.* 
 
 [China Manufacturers.] 
 
 L.* 
 
 [Large Textile Association.] 
 
 National Telephone Company 
 
 United Alkali Company, Widnes 
 
 Apprentices and others. 
 
 Facilities granted with regard to 
 
 Day-work not excused to i 
 tices. 
 
 Works close at 5-40 p.m., giviuj 
 ample time for apprentices anc 
 others to attend evening classes, 
 
 Art Classes, and one half of fees 
 
 Apprentices encouraged to attend Day-work not excused. 
 Art Classes. 
 
 A scheme of education has been adopted by the Association, having 
 
 A. — Branch Managers. — Those who have full charge of the Branches 
 the Branch Managers in the, selling departments of the business. 
 
 Inducements are offered to youths who have already had a good 
 producing end of the business at a Works, and with the metnods, 
 or University it is intended that they should take a course at 
 general knowledge of commercial questions, but so far this part of 
 preliminary training — some three years — have further advantages 
 time, paying expenses and a salary, and in certain cases Eas 
 six students have been or are still abroad, and several Public School 
 
 Assistance is also given, by the payment of fees, etc., to the juniors 
 lessons as will enable them to cfo their work more intelligently and 
 
 Commercial subjects (Book-keeping, 
 Political economy 
 Dyed and printed goods (Lectures to 
 
 B. — Works and Mill Managers. — Those who have full control at the 
 Managers. 
 
 Generous arrangements are made to enable young Works employees 
 facilities for an extended course of special study, to incnide 
 The scheme works in the following way : upon the recommendation 
 the Sub-Committee appointed to consider such applications 
 the Association. In addition to this, he is allowed, when it is j 
 Frequent reports of his progress are received from the Teehnicai| 
 development. 
 
 The Association possesses a fully equipped Research Laboratory anc 
 not obtainable at an ordinary Works, is given. 
 
 This scheme has worked very successfully, as -ndll be seen from th( 
 School fees paid (approx.), £91; Subjects taken: Chemistry, 56: 
 Spinning and Weaving, 11; Mathematics, 11; Geometiy, J: 
 students during the Session 1906-7 was about 250. 
 
 Has a system of correspondence classes, preparing for the examlM 
 extending over two years, are also arranged at the Manchestei 
 Company. 
 
 All apprentices between 14 and 18, whether indentured or not, an 
 over 18 will be allowed to compete for scholarships entitling them 
 expense. 
 
 *Name withheld at desire of Firm. 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 305 
 
 Assistance towards fees, &c. Subiects taken and where I Remarks 
 
 To assistance given towards fees. Bradford Technical College and Results believed to be highly 
 
 Continuation Classes. — Various beneficial both to employers and 
 subjects. students. 
 
 aid by Firm. 
 
 'ees paid by Firm for students The local Institute. The usual 
 who attend regularly. art classes and modelling. 
 
 )r its object the training of the following classes of men : — 
 
 ad occupy the highest positions under the Directors and Executive ; and Salesmen, wno work under 
 
 iucation to qualify for leading positions. Facilities are given for becoming familiar mth the 
 nd organisation of the AVarehouse or Selling Department. Unless they have been to a Public School 
 ictoria University with a view to obtaining the degree of B. Comm. , or at least of acquiring a good 
 le scheme has not been operative. Youths who acquit themselves satisfactorily during the period of 
 Tered to them. The Association has, in several instances, sent them abroad to foreign markets for a 
 [ranged for a further term to be spent at an Atelier of Design in Paris. During a pei'iod of four years 
 [id University men are now in traming at home. 
 
 ; the selling end of the business in order that they may improve their general education and take such 
 lalify for Salesmen, Head Clerks, etc. The following courses were taken during the 1905-6 session : — 
 rencn, Shorthand, etc., etc.) 18. 
 
 1. 
 uyers and Salesmen) - 10. 
 
 I'^orks or Mills ; and Under-Managers and Fm-emen, who have departmental control under the 
 
 1 improve themselves, and in the case of exceptional ability the Association is prepared to give 
 itendance at day classes, without loss of wages, at the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 
 ' his Works Manager, any boy or youth in any department may apply for the advantages offered. If 
 insents, he then has all his railway fares and fees for classes or lectures bearing on the trade paid by 
 msidered advisable, to attend day lectures or classes in working hours without loss of wages, 
 ihool and the Manager of the Works is expected to take a personal interest in his studies and 
 
 xperimental Works which are under the supervision of a Chemical expert, and where special training, 
 
 llovraig figures for the Session 1905-6: — Number of Students, 153; Railway fares paid (approx.), £209; 
 [eaching and Dyeing, 23; Machine Construction, etc., 22; Engraving, 15; Calico Printing, 14; 
 iiilding Construction, 4; Finishing, 2; Electrica,l Engineering, 1; Plumbing,!. The number of 
 
 3ns, success in which leads to promption in the service. Special courses of instruction in Telephony, 
 unicipal School of Technology to meet the requirements of persons employed in the service of the 
 
 quired to attend classes on three evenings a week. Their fees are paid by the Company. Apprentices 
 attend day technical classes on two afternoons a week without loss of wages and at the Company's 
 
 U 
 
306 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 NOTES TO TABLES. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 (1) Out of the sixteen Railway Companies, seven excuse day-work, 
 under certain conditions, to apprentices and pupils, to allow of their 
 attending technical classes in the daytime. 
 
 (2) Fourteen out of sixteen either give direct assistance towards fees 
 or contribute to the expenses of the classes, so that their employees may 
 attend them either free or at very low fees. In one case the wages of 
 the best apprentices are increased upon the combined reports of the 
 Master of the Technical Classes and the Superintendent of the 
 "Workshops. 
 
 (3) Special mention should be made of the Mechanics' and Railway 
 Institutes established or largely assisted by some of the great Railway 
 ■Companies : notably the Mechanics' Institute at Stratford New Town 
 (G. E. Ry.); the Mechanics' Institute at Swindon (G. W. Ry.); the 
 Institutes at Crewe, Wolverton and Earlstown (L. & N. W. Ry.); the 
 Hallway Institutes at Gateshead and York (N. E. Ry-); and the 
 Mechanics' Institute at Horwich (L. & Y. Ry.). 
 
 (4) Attention should also be called to the arrangements lately entered 
 into between many of the chief Railway Companies and the Victoria 
 University of Manchester, the Liverpool School of Commerce and the 
 London School of Economics, respectively, whereby members of the 
 Companies' staffs are encouraged to attend lectures specially arranged to 
 meet the needs of those engaged in railway work. 
 
 Table II. 
 
 (1) Engineers, shipbuilders, etc. 
 
 (a) Out of a total of thirty-four firms, eighteen excuse day-work to 
 apprentices or pupils to allow of their attending technical classes in 
 the daytime, or have done so in exceptional cases. Sometimes one day 
 or one half-day a week is allowed to these apprentices. Sometimes 
 the free time is arranged for on the " sandwich " system, the winter 
 months being spent at the Technical School or College, and the summer 
 months at the works. In other cases a, definite period (one term to 
 two years) is allowed off for attendance at College courses. 
 
 (6) Ten out of the thirty-four firms grant special facilities for 
 attendance at Evening Classes. These take the form of (1) excuse 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 307 
 
 from overtime work on the night of the class; (2) permission to leave 
 work early on class nights; (3) permission to come to work late one 
 morning in the week if so many classes are attended. 
 
 (c) Help in the matter of class fees, or other similar inducements 
 to attend classes, are offered by twenty-four out of the thirty-four 
 firms, the privileges being sometimes confined to apprentices and 
 pupils, sometimes extended to all employees. The assistance given 
 takes various forms. 
 
 (1) Fees paid without any condition. 
 
 (2) Fees paid in cases of necessity. 
 
 (3) Fees refunded {generally on condition of satisfactory attend- 
 ance and examination). 
 
 (4) Increase of wages and access to drawing office. 
 
 (5) Payment for, or loan of, books, instruments and drawing 
 materials. 
 
 (6) Scholarships, prizes, etc. 
 
 In addition mention should be made of the fact that for thirty- 
 two years (1873 — 1905) one firm (Messrs. Mather & Piatt) maintained 
 their own Technical School, at which all apprentices were obliged 
 (unless following an approved course elsewhere) to attend at a 
 nominal fee of Is. per subject per session. Although the school has 
 now been given up, the obligation to attend technical classes is still 
 enforced in the case of all apprentices. One other firm, Messrs. 
 Swan, Hunter, and Wigham Richardson, make attendance at ap- 
 proved science and art evening classes a, condition of continued 
 employment. Several firms encourage attendance at classes by in- 
 creased prospects of promotion, 
 (rf) Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim's scheme for co-operation 
 
 with the Technical Department of Sheffield University and Messrs. 
 
 Clayton and Shuttleworth's new system of apprenticeship are of 
 
 special interest. 
 
 (2) Other Firms. 
 
 (a) Out of a total of twenty-two firms, nine excuse day work to 
 apprentices or other employees to allow of attendance at technical 
 classes in the day-time; six (Messrs. Brunner Mond & Co., Cadbury 
 Bros., Jos. Crosfield & Sons, Debenham & Co., Rowntree & Co. and 
 the United Alkali Company) make attendance at certain classes com- 
 pulsory for special categories of employees ; ' nearly all the others 
 encourage attendance at evening classes. 
 
 1. The particulars of the arrangements made by these firms will be 
 found above. 
 
308 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 (6) Seventeen out of the twenty-two give help in the matter of fees 
 or offer other similar inducements to attend classes. 
 
 (c) Special mention should be made of the various facilities for 
 further self-improvement placed within reach of their employees by 
 Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Jos. Crosfield & Sons, Johnson Bros., Lever 
 Bros., and Eowntree & Co. At Messrs. Cadbury Bros., physical training 
 is compulsory for all boys under 16 and girls under 15. At Messrs. 
 Crosfield's, the boys and girls are taught to swim. The Domestic 
 Economy School for girls established by Messrs. Rowntree, in their 
 Haxby Road Factory at York is an educational experiment of great 
 interest. Messrs. Lever Bros, established and for several years 
 maintained a Technical Institute entirely at their own cost. They now 
 lend the building to the local Education Authority. Before the estab- 
 lishment of the Norwich Technical School, Messrs. J. & J. Colman 
 for many years maintained classes for the benefit of their employees. 
 The scheme for the education of girl apprentices to the dressmaking, 
 which is being tried by the London Education Committee with the help 
 of Messrs. Debenham, is also of special interest. 
 
 The Association of Teclmical Institutions issued in De- 
 cember, 1905, a valuable report as to tbe co-operation of 
 employers and teclmical institutions. This contains several 
 additional instances of facilities granted by employers to 
 their apprentices. The particulars given below are taken 
 from this report, supplemented, in one or two cases, by 
 information received from other sources. Following the 
 scheme of the Association's Report the particulars are 
 arranged alphabetically under towns. 
 
 [N.B. — As the names of individual firms are not always 
 given in the report it is possible that one here and there 
 may be included twice over — once in the table, once below. J 
 
 Barrow-in-Furn ess . 
 
 Messrs. Vickers, Sons and Maxim co-operate in the edu- 
 cation of apprentices with the Barrow-in-Furness Technical 
 School. All apprentices are advised to become students 
 at the school, the inducements offered being leave to com- 
 pete, under certain conditions, for entry into the drawing 
 office, and, if a four years' course is taken and regularly 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 309 
 
 attended, extra allowances for successes in the different 
 subjects. Those who attend evening classes are allowed 
 to begin work at 7 instead of 6 on mornings following 
 classes, for three days a week. 
 
 Permission is also granted to apprentices, who have 
 pursued a satisfactory course of evening study, to attend 
 a technical college, the time spent at college counting 
 towards the completion of their apprenticeship, on con- 
 dition that, at the end of the course, the apprentices will, 
 if required, agree to serve the firm for a period equivalent 
 to that spent at college, regular wages being paid to them 
 by the firm during this period of service. Some 720 of 
 the firm's apprentices attend the classes at the technical 
 school. 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Afternoon courses for engineering apprentices were 
 started at the Municipal Technical School in October, 
 1904. The classes are held on three afternoons a week, 
 from 2-30 to 5-30. In February, 1905, thirteen students 
 employed by six local firms were attending one, two or 
 three afternoons a week, and most of them were attending 
 certain evening classes as well. Admission is restricted 
 to students actually engaged by engineering firms and 
 recommended for admission by theip employers. 
 
 Bolton. 
 
 A certain number of apprentices attend the Technical 
 School two days a week and work three days a week in the 
 mills. They all come from the Fine Spinner's Combine, 
 and are all youths who have had a good secondary educa- 
 tion. Their fees are paid by the Company. 
 
 A large number of textile and engineering firms in 
 Bolton offer scholarships to their apprentices, tenable at 
 evening classes in science and technology. The scholar- 
 
310 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 ship carries with it books for each subject taken up. 
 Apprentices pay their own fees, but these are returned if 
 they make 75 per cent, of total possible attendances in 
 each class and if conduct and progress are satisfactory. 
 About 130 apprentices take advantage of these arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 Bradford: 
 
 By arrangement with the firms composing the district 
 branch of the Engineering Employers' Federation, ap- 
 prentices who have attended the three years' day college 
 course will be accepted by such firms to complete their 
 workshop experience until twenty-one years of age, the 
 time spent at the college being included as a part of their 
 apprenticeship. 
 
 With a view to providing a special course of instruction 
 for the apprentices in their shops, the same firms have 
 made an arrangement with the Bradford Technical College 
 whereby apprentices are permitted to attend the College 
 one half-day a week without loss of wages, the fees (£3 
 per session per student) being paid by the employers, who, 
 in deserving cases, provide books and instruments as well. 
 Apprentices are also required to attend on two evenings 
 a week classes forming part of the course, the fees (10s. 
 per session) being paid by the students, but remitted by 
 the employer at the end of the session if a satisfactory 
 report is obtained. In really des'Srving cases the fees are 
 paid by the employers in the first instance. The complete 
 course covers five years and the student who succeeds in 
 passing the qualifying examinations is allowed, during the 
 last year of his apprenticeship, to attend the College as a 
 regular day student in order to study some special branch 
 of engineering work. During this time he receives the 
 usual wages and the firm pays his fees. Reports of pro- 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 311 
 
 gress are sent regularly to employers and examinations are 
 held in each subject at the close of the session. So far the 
 scheme is working well and results are encouraging. Some 
 60 or 70 apprentices participate in it. 
 
 Other A f prentices . In other departments of the Tech- 
 nical College (textile industries, chemistry and dyeing) 
 there have been several instances of local firms paying 
 fees for promising apprentices to attend day classes, but 
 no general scheme has been arranged. 
 
 At the School of Art there is a class composed of ap- 
 prentices, in the painting and decorating trade, in which 
 the Association of Masters and the majority of the masters 
 individually take a great interest. Many send their 
 apprentices to day classes five afternoons a week for one 
 year; the apprentices also attend three evenings a week 
 during this year, and until the end of their apprentice- 
 ship. The masters pay the wages of those attending day 
 classes at the same rate as if they were in the shops, and 
 they are admitted to day classes without fee. In many 
 cases the masters pay the fees of painter-decorator ap- 
 prentices and journeymen who attend in the evening only, 
 and insist on their attendance. The Masters' Association 
 also gives £10 in prizes to evening-class students. 
 
 There are a few cases in other trades where masters 
 send apprentices to day classes, and it is hoped to extend 
 the system of day teaching to other trades. 
 
 It is noted that apprentices who attend day classes make 
 far greater progress than those who attend in the evening 
 only. 
 
 Coventry. 
 
 Day classes are held at the Technical Institute in engin- 
 eering subjects and form a three years' course, consisting 
 of six hours per week for a session of forty weeks each 
 
312 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 year. Each student attends one morning and one after- 
 noon a week. 
 Derby. 
 
 Messrs. H. and J. Coles, engineers, give on the result 
 of the College examination (Derby Technical College) a 
 bonus of £1 to a student in Class I., and 10s. to a student 
 in Class II., the maximum bonus obtainable in one year 
 being £3. The students, who are trade apprentices, attejid 
 evening classes. The firm pays fees and provides materials, 
 including books and instruments. 
 
 Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, printers, pay fees, provide 
 some materials and pay examination fees for their ap- 
 prentices at evening classes. 
 
 Certain other employers (lace manufacturers, printers, 
 etc.) pay fees for apprentices. 
 Halifax. 
 
 At the Halifax Municipal Technical School there are 
 two schemes in operation for students engaged or intending 
 to engage in engineering industries: — (1) Boys enter the 
 Technical School at fourteen and spend two or three years 
 in the apprenticeship course. The number of hours in- 
 struction is thirty per week during a session of forty weeks. 
 The employers count the time spent at the school as part 
 of their apprenticeship. (2) Apprentices attend school one 
 day a week. They are admitted at sixteen and pay their 
 own fees. Employers do not deduct anything from their 
 wages for time spent at school. 
 
 House painters allow apprentices to attend the school 
 two half-days per week without loss of wages. They must 
 also attend three evenings during the winter session. As 
 a rule they pay their own fees. 
 Leeds. 
 
 Eighteen engineering employers have agreed, in res- 
 ponse to a suggestion from the Committee of the Institute 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 313 
 
 of Science, Art and Literature, that apprentices attending 
 evening classes shall, unless in exceptional circumstances, 
 be exempted from overtime; and five out of the eighteen 
 have expressed their willingness to consider applications 
 from apprentices requiring to leave work earlier on the 
 days fixed for attending evening classes. 
 
 Leicester. 
 
 Boot and Shoe Trade. At the Leicester Technical School 
 there is a full day course extending over two years. The 
 departmental trade instruction is given in the afternoons, 
 and employers send students on one, two, or perhaps three 
 afternoons a week for special subjects. 
 
 Building Trade. Apprentices are sent by employers for 
 one afternoon per week. At present carpenters and joiners 
 only are taken, but arrangements are to be made in future 
 for bricklayers. 
 
 House Painters. Apprentices come for a full day a week 
 during the four months (November, December, January 
 and February) when trade is slackest. 
 
 Hosiery. Apprentices attend two afternoons a week 
 during the winter. 
 
 London. 
 
 Five engineering firms in the neighbourhood of the 
 Battersea Polytechnic have agreed to encourage and advise 
 apprentices to attend classes at the Polytechnic or else- 
 where. Of these the Projectile Company makes attend- 
 ance at classes a condition of employment; and Messrs. 
 Simpson and Co., of Pimlico, give a special increase of 
 wages based on the report from the Polytechnic and pro- 
 gress at the works. The number of apprentices attending 
 the Battersea Polytechnic under this arrangement, during 
 the session 1905-6, was 53. Messrs. Selincourt and Sons, 
 wholesale dress and mantle makers, of Pimlico, give their 
 
314 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 girl apprentices the opportunity of attending evening 
 classes, specially arranged to meet their needs, at the 
 Battersea Polytechnic. The girls are allowed to leave work 
 an hour earlier in order to attend classes of two hours once 
 a week, without loss of wages. The employers pay half 
 the class fees, provide material for a dress or coat, and 
 offer prizes for the best work in each class. During the 
 session 1905-6, sixty-three apprentices were attending six 
 special classes. 
 
 The Borough Polytechnic Institute has an arrangement 
 with the Master Printers' Association wherehy the mem- 
 bers of the Association allow their apprentices time off 
 one day a week to attend an early evening class, which 
 meets at 5-30 p.m. 
 
 By arrangement with the employers in the letterpress 
 and lithographic printing trades, about 75 apprentices 
 attend day classes at the St. Bride's Foundation Institute, 
 and about 48 attend evening classes. The class fee is 
 generally paid by the employer, and leave of absence from 
 work is granted without loss of wages. 
 
 The Woolwich Polytechnic has an arrangement with the 
 Woolwich Arsenal whereby some 250 trade apprentices in 
 the Arsenal attend classes — partly day, partly evening. 
 Leave of absence for day classes is granted without loss 
 of wages, and fees are returned to those students whose 
 attendance and progress is satisfactory. 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 At the Manchester School of Technology a special course 
 of day instruction has been arranged to meet the needs 
 of engineering apprentices, of whom 83 were in attend- 
 ance during the session 1905-6. The classes are held on 
 Mondays, from 9-15 a.m. to 1-15 p.m. and from 2 to 6 
 p.m. (eight hours in all). They continue throughout the 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 315 
 
 whole session of forty weeks, and are arranged for first 
 and second year students. The course comprises mathe- 
 matics, engineering lectures, mechanical laboratory exer- 
 cises and engineering drawing. The apprentices are not 
 expected to attend evening classes, and consequently have 
 time for homework and reading. The employers pay wages 
 as if at work, and count the time as part of the appren- 
 ticeship. 
 
 House painters and decorators also attend special day 
 classes at the School, and some 150 apprentices attend 
 evening classes by arriangement with the employers. 
 
 Preston. 
 
 Messrs. Horrockses, Crewdson and Co. pay the fees for 
 any of their employees (men or women) who desire to 
 attend evening classes at the Harris Institute. 
 
 Rochdale. 
 
 Engineering apprentices from three firms are released 
 from work early on two days a week without loss of wages, 
 in order to attend afternoon classes at the Rochdale 
 Technical School. 
 
 Sunderland. 
 
 At the Sunderland Technical College two schemes — one 
 for day, and one for evening, students — are in operation. 
 The scheme for day students has been subscribed to by 
 twenty-seven shipbuilding and engineering firms in 
 Sunderland and district. Some 40 or 50 students attended 
 the classes during the session 1904-5, and the number is 
 rapidly increasing. 
 
 Messrs. George Clark Ltd., Southwick Engine Works, 
 is the firm chiefly concerned in the scheme for evening 
 students. 
 
 The main principles of the day scheme were agreed 
 upon at conferences, held in 1903, between the associations 
 
3i6 ENGLISH EMPLOYERS AND 
 
 of shipbuilders and engineers of Sunderland and district 
 and representatives of tlie Technical College. In the first 
 place it was laid down : — 
 
 " That the essential principle of the system of training 
 engineer apprentices consists of a combination of practical 
 training in the firm's workshops and drawing-ofi&ce and 
 a scientific training in the technical college." 
 
 The chief features of the scheme are as follows : — 
 
 1. That two years shall be spent by the apprentice, after 
 leaving school and before beginning the college course, in 
 the workshops of the firm. 
 
 2. That during those two years the apprentice shall 
 attend evening classes in mathematics and other pre- 
 liminary engineering subjects under the control of the 
 Technical College. 
 
 3. That each year a number of free apprentice-student- 
 ships, not exceeding twenty-five, shall be offered for com- 
 petition among apprentices employed by shipbuilders and 
 engineers of Sunderland and district who satisfy certain 
 conditions as to age, length of time served in the shops, 
 ability and conduct, and attendance at evening classes. 
 The studentships to be awarded on the results of a com- 
 petitive examination in subjects of general education 
 (including mathematics, drawing and English) held at 
 the Technical College. 
 
 4. During the three or four years following their selec- 
 tion the apprentice-students will be allowed leave of 
 absence from the works to attend day classes at the 
 College from October 1st, to March 31st each year. No 
 College fee will be charged; wages will be increased at 
 the same rate as if they were continuously at the works; 
 and the time spent at College will count as part of their 
 apprenticeship. During the summer months special 
 facilities for becoming familiar with all the stages of the 
 
EDUCATION OF THEIR WORKPEOPLE 317 
 
 work will, so far as possible, be arranged for these ap- 
 prentices by the firms concerned. 
 
 5. The continuation of the privileges accorded by the 
 scheme is subject to satisfactory work and progress, both 
 in the College and the workshop. 
 
 Wo Iverhampton. 
 
 The Electric Construction Co. Ltd., Bushbury Engi- 
 neering Works, recommends its young employees to attend 
 evening classes during the winter months at the Wolver- 
 hampton Education Committee Schools, for instruction 
 in subjects bearing on their daily work. A certain 
 number of scholarships, awarded on the results of the 
 session's work, both in the schools and the shops, and 
 covering class fees for the following year, are given by 
 the firm, and attendance at evening classes will be taken 
 into consideration when questions of promotion arise. 
 
3i8 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Half-Time System in the Textile Trades. 
 
 " Half-time " is the name given to a system under which 
 children may at the age of 12 (in agricultural districts at 
 the age of 11) claim partial exemption from school in 
 order to go to work during certain hours of the day. The 
 question of half-time in the textile trades is only a part 
 — but perhaps the most important part of the larger prob- 
 lem of child labour. The problem of elementary educa- 
 tion is bound up with an industrial problem ; and neither 
 of these can be neglected in a work on continuation schools. 
 When should elementary education cease? when should 
 wage-earning begin ? The solution of the problem of con- 
 tinuation schools ultimately depends upon what answers 
 are given to these questions. It is just because the system 
 known as half-time tries to find a single solution to a 
 double difficulty by attempting to satisfy the rival claims 
 of Education and Industry, that it is dealt with in the 
 present Chapter. But the phrase " rival claims " suggests 
 an antithesis which is perhaps unreal; and if it could be 
 shown that there is no necessity for the employment of 
 children during their elementary school-life, then there 
 would be no problem to be solved. Hence in testing the 
 merits or defects of the half-time system, it will not only 
 be necessary to ask whether that solution is a good one, 
 but whether any solution in the nature of a compromise 
 is necessary ; whether, in fact, partial exemption cannot be 
 abolished without serious detriment to industry. 
 
 But there is another reason why an enquiry into half- 
 time is of importance in the present context. It is im- 
 
THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 319 
 
 portant frtiin a strictly educational point of view. Do 
 the evening continuation schools gain or suffer from the 
 system? What are the effects of the attendance of half- 
 timers on the organisation and general school-life of the 
 elementary schools? What are the effects on the half- 
 timers themselves of a life divided between the school and 
 the workshop ? These are some of the questions which will 
 have to he answered in the course of the inquiry before a 
 judgment on the system as a whole can be formulated. 
 
 Finally a word of explanation is required as to why the 
 range of inquiry is limited to Lancashire and Yorkshire. 
 There are three reasons for this. In the first place four out 
 of every five of the total number of half-timers in England 
 and Wales are employed in the textile industries of these 
 counties ; secondly, the numbers are here so large that the 
 system has local consequences of great social importance ; 
 thirdly, it is in these districts that legislative interference 
 with the system has always met with the keenest oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 The investigation, of which this Chapter is the outcome, 
 was carried out during March and April, 1907, in the chief 
 textile manufacturing centres of Lancashire and York- 
 shire. Several schools in each of the towns of Bolton, 
 Rochdale, Burnley, Blackburn and Bradford were visited ; 
 1,200 half-timers were seen at their lessons and three 
 hundred of these were personally cross-examined. 
 Teachers, directors, and other officials of education com- 
 mittees, eight mill-managers, four secretaries of operative 
 trade unions, a " knocker-up " and the head-salesman of 
 a leading Lancashire firm of cotton spinners a,nd weavers 
 were approached on the question. Six factories were 
 visited in order that half-timers might be seen at their 
 different employments, and the conditions under which 
 they worked, might be studied. The views expressed are 
 
320 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 based partly upon expert local opinion and partly upon the 
 personal observations of the writer. 
 
 A half-time scholar is defined in the annual Code of 
 Regulations issued by the Board of Education as follows : 
 
 " The terra ' partial exemption scholar ' means a scholar who is 
 certified by or on behalf of the Local Education Authority to be 
 qualified by age and attainments or previous attendance for employment 
 in conformity with the bye-laws." 
 
 This definition is the outcome of a series of enactments 
 with regard to school attendance passed during the last 36 
 years. The first of these, the Elementary Education Act 
 of 1870, empowered every school board to pass from time 
 to time bye-laws as to school a,ttendance. Freedom to 
 frame the bye-laws within certain wide limitations was 
 granted to school boards, and the principle so established 
 has been observed in all subsequent legislation. The 
 amending Act of 1876 forbade the employment of children 
 under ten and so fixed a. minimum age-limit at which 
 children could become wage-earners. The Act also de- 
 clared that no person shall take into his employment any 
 child who, being of the age of ten years and upwards [i.e., 
 until 14) has not obtained a certificate either of his pro- 
 ficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic, ^ or of previous 
 due attendance ^ at a certified efficient school. 
 
 The Act of 1880 by declaring it obligatory upon all local 
 authorities to frame bye-laws made attendance at school 
 up to ten years of age compulsory for the whole country. 
 Under these bye-laws a certificate of previous due attend- 
 ance was only given for total exemption to a child between 
 the ages of thirteen and fourteen, while partial exemption 
 was granted to a child between the ages of 10 and 13 on 
 
 1. The standard to be that -of Standard IV. or any higher standard. 
 
 2. Two hundred and fifty attendances after five years of age in not 
 more than two schools during each year for five years, whether con- 
 secutive or not. 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 321 
 
 Mb passing a special labour examination, the standard of 
 which was fixed by the bye-laws. Subsequent legislation 
 (if the Act of 1893 which raised the school age to 11 be 
 excepted) introduced no fundamental change until 1899. 
 The Act of that year (associated with the name of Sir W. S. 
 Robson) raised the school age to 12 and made it possible 
 for children from 12 to 13 to qualify for partial exemption 
 by obtaining an attendance certificate.'^ The attendances 
 required were 300 ^ in not more than two schools after 
 five years of age for each of five years whether consecutive 
 or not. The object of the Act was twofold. In the first 
 place, by raising the age for partial exemption, its inten- 
 tion was to diminish the number of half-timers and thus 
 to relieve the schools of some of the ill-effects which the 
 half-time system entailed. These ill-effects had been set 
 forth in the evidence given before the Royal Commission 
 on Labour which sat from 1891 to 1894. Secondly, it 
 brought the method of qualifying for partial exemption 
 into harmony with the new methods of school inspection. 
 In 1890 the system known as " payment by results " (i.e., 
 the giving of Grovernment grants to schools for proficiency 
 of scholars in individual examination) had been abolished 
 and grants on average attendance substituted. With its 
 abolition schools were freed from the evils of cramming for 
 examinations and greater latitude in choice of curriculum 
 was given to the teachers. 
 
 But in those districts where many or most of the scholars 
 were intending to become half-timers, the labour examina- 
 
 1. For children engaged in agriculture, the local authority may fix 
 thirteen as the age for total exemption and eleven for partial exemption 
 in the case of children who have reached the standard fixed by the 
 bye-law of the district. 
 
 2. The Robson Act allowed the attendances for total exemption to 
 remain at 250. This number was raised to 350 by the Act of 1900. 
 Thus for one year (1900-1) a scholar could obtain total exemption for 
 250 attendances, while 300 were required for partial exemption. 
 
322 
 
 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 tion was producing exactly the same results as the old 
 individual examinations for grant. There seemed to be 
 good reason, therefore, for introducing an alternate ar- 
 rangement. The minimum of 300 attendances, however, 
 was too low. It means that a child has only to make 8 
 attendances per week for five years out of seven. Although 
 local education authorities are empowered to pass school 
 attendance bye-laws which make no provision for half- 
 timers, statistics show that only two out of forty-four 
 Lancashire Committees, Bootle and Widnes, avail them- 
 selves of this power. 
 
 Since the requisite number of attendances are obtained 
 by the average scholar as a matter of course and since 
 application for exemption can be made at any time, it is 
 not surprising to find that only a small percentage of child- 
 ren continue to qualify for exemption in the old way. The 
 following table gives the number of half-timers in Bolton 
 who qualified in either way during the last two years. 
 
 How Qualified 
 By attendance 
 By standard 
 
 Totals 
 
 Half-timers in Bolton. 
 
 Year ending 
 December 31st, 1905 
 
 Standard 
 
 IV. 34 
 
 V. 36 
 
 VI. 3 
 
 VII. I 
 
 Total 
 
 1609 
 
 74 
 1683 
 
 Year ending 
 December 31st, 1906 
 
 Standard 
 
 IV. 31 
 V. 24 
 VI. 2 
 
 Total 
 
 1605 
 
 57 
 
 1663 
 
 At the time of the passing of the Robson Act (1899) the 
 half-time system was in rapid decline. According to Board 
 of Education returns (which though not absolutely correct 
 are useful for comparison) the falling off in the number of 
 half-timers during the ten years 1890 — 1900 was equiva- 
 lent to 45 per cent. The Table given below shows the 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 323 
 
 fall in numbers for the chief cotton manufacturing towns, 
 
 between 1891 and 1901. 
 
 Figures showing decrease in number of half-timers in 
 
 the cotton industry in 19 typical Lancashire towns in 1891 
 
 and 1901. 
 
 No. of half No. of half 
 
 Town. timers in 1891. timers in 1901. 
 
 Burnley 3539 1392 
 
 Accrington 1536 715 
 
 Eochdale 2625 1011 
 
 Bolton 3519 1643 
 
 Nelson 1141 563 
 
 Preston 3537 1204 
 
 City of Manchester 863 196 
 
 Salford 753 182 
 
 Stockport 1694 1010 
 
 Oldham 3912 1386 
 
 Clitheroe 341 157 
 
 Great Harwood 160 255 
 
 Heywood 931 448 
 
 Hyde 381 279 
 
 Leigh 1043(1893).. 522 
 
 Eadcliffe 553 333 
 
 Haslingden 952 334 
 
 Blackburn 5147 2528 
 
 Eawtenstall 1556 496 
 
 The above table is taken from Prof. S. J. Chapman's " Reply to the 
 Report of the Tariff Commission on the Cotton Industry.'' 
 
 This decline may be ascribed to various causes. The 
 school age for partial exemption had been raised from 10 
 to 11 in 1893; parents found it troublesome to make the 
 necessary arrangements at the time of entering their child- 
 ren for the labour examination, and improvements in mach- 
 inery were constantly diminishing the need for the less 
 
324 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 skilled forms of labour. But the decline ceased in 1900. 
 Many towns including Ashton-under-Lyne, Clitheroe, Lan- 
 caster, Preston, Rochdale, Stockport, Wigan and Bradford 
 show a progressive increase in the number of half-timers. 
 The diminution in the nvimber of half-timers in the other 
 towns engaged in the textile industries during the period 
 1903 — 6 is to be attributed not to the working of the 
 Robson Act but partly to the depression of trade during 
 those years and partly to improvements in machinery. 
 
 The recent return of good trade has been accompanied 
 by a corresponding increase in the numbers everywhere. 
 Yearly returns for the last eleven years and monthly returns 
 for the last 12 months of the number of half-timers in 
 typical textile manufacturing towns are given below. 
 

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326 
 
 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 Diagram to illustrate the average number of half- 
 timers IN Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Oldham and 
 EocHDALE from 1897 — 1907. 
 
 2100 
 
 -i 
 
 H 
 
 2050 
 
 o 
 
 'f-i 
 
 l> 
 s> 
 
 S-l . 
 
 ID 
 
 IPSO 
 
 PI 
 
 i8so 
 
 i8oo 
 
 
 r^ 1750 
 
 o 
 
 
 1700 
 
 !-i 
 <1 
 
 1650 
 
 1905 
 
 1. In 1900 the Eobson Act came into force. 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 327 
 
 The half-time system has so far been described only from 
 the legal standpoint in order to make clear the present 
 state of the law and to estimate the effects which legislation 
 has had upon the number of half-timers employed. I pro- 
 pose now to approach the question from the social and 
 ediicational standpoint, and, as a preliminary, to describe 
 at some length the environment and daily life of a half- 
 timer who works in a cotton factory or woollen mill. 
 
 The usual daily time-table of a half-timer is as follows : 
 Sometime between 4.45 and 5.30 a.m. the whole family is 
 awakened by an alarum clock or more frequently by the 
 " knocker-up." This man (usually an old factory operative 
 but sometimes a tradesman) carrying a long pole to one 
 end of which a bunch of wires is attached, visits each 
 customer in turn and rattles a bed room window until a 
 preconcerted signal announces that the occupant is awake. 
 He charges 2d. and 3d. a week to each customer for the 
 service. The half-timer has just time to take a little bread 
 and butter and tea (which has often been left to " stew " 
 overnight in the oven) before hurrying in wooden-soled 
 " clogs " to the factory in order to be there before the 
 bell rings at six.^ 
 
 A long two hours ^ in the spinning room, the weaving 
 shed or at the knotting benches are spent under the direc- 
 tion of the master or mistress. These are ordinary adult 
 workpeople who engage, pay, teach the trade to, super- 
 intend and dismiss any non-adult workers under their 
 charge. 
 
 At eight comes the breakfast interval of half-an-hour 
 when (unless the home is very near to the factory) food, 
 
 1. The older workpeople are "pennied" and "twopenced," i.e., fined 
 Id. or 2d. if they are only a, minute or two late. 
 
 2. The half-timers often described the time between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. 
 as a long two hours ; it seemed as long as the other four from 
 8.30 to 12.30. 
 
328 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 brought from the home in a tin box, is eaten in the stuffy- 
 room where they (the children) have Just been working. 
 The next four hours ane again spent at work. After the 
 dinner interval (12.30 — 2 p.m.) the half-timers go to after- 
 noon school for another 2^ hours. It is not surprising that 
 they are too tired to do school-work or even to play games 
 (unless, curiously, it is football) for they have already had 
 six hours of toil. This routine is reversed in alternate 
 weeks, and the half-timer goes to school in the morning 
 and to work in the afternoon. The evenings are spent in 
 various ways, generally in some form of recreation, such as 
 playing football in the open spaces, going to music-halls 
 and other places of entertainment, or wandering aimlessly 
 about the streets. It is only in a small percentage of cases 
 that the evening is spent in domestic work, at the evening 
 continuation school or in reading at home. The usual 
 bed-time is 9 p.m. 
 
 Such in outline is the daily life of the half-timer. His 
 work in the factory may be of various kinds. He may be 
 employed as a little-piecer, a doffer or a bobbin-ligger in 
 the spinning rooms, as a tenter in the weaving shed or as 
 a knotter at the knotting benches. Spinning is the final 
 process by means of which cotton is pulled out and twisted 
 into the form of thread. The machinery used is known 
 as a spinning jenny and consists of two parts, the frame 
 and the carriage. The frame contains the supply of cotton 
 (wound upon bobbins in thick coils) which is drawn out and 
 twisted into threads and afterwards wound into reels known 
 as " cops." In the drawing-out process the threads often 
 break and it is the duty of the little-piecer to run with 
 the carriage and " piece " them together so that the thread 
 in the cop is continuous. The doffers work behind the 
 frames and replace any of the big-bobbins which have 
 become empty. The bobbin-liggers {i.e., bobbin-layers) 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 329 
 
 bring up and " lay " a plentiful supply of tte full-bobbins 
 on the top of the frame. 
 
 The temperature of the spinning rooms is 90 "F. in 
 winter and 100 "F. in summer. This high temperature of 
 the atmosphere, combined with excessive humidity, causes 
 the fibres of the cotton to stick together and makes it pos- 
 sible to spin them into exceedingly fine threads. In con- 
 sequence of this heat only the lightest of clothing is worn 
 by the workpeople. The dress of the men and boys consists 
 of calico drawers and shirt ; while the women discard their 
 ordinary outer clothing and substitute a grey calico overall. 
 In addition to the damp heat the air is charged with an all 
 pervading smell of oil. There is oil everywhere, and the 
 oily slippery floor makes it necessary for all to go barefoot. 
 
 In the weaving-shed the threads made in the spinning 
 rooms are woven into cloth by means of looms. Those 
 threads that run the length of the cloth are called the 
 warp ; the others which run across them at right angles, 
 the weft. The warp threads are hundreds of yards in 
 length; the weft threads, varying in length from 28 to 72 
 inches, are inserted by means of a cop in a shuttle which is 
 thrown to and fro in the loom as the threads of the warp 
 move up and down to form the texture. The work of the 
 little tenter is to see that none of the warp threads break 
 and to shuttle cops (i.e., insert cops on the spindles of the 
 shuttles). Each shuttle has an eyelet through which the 
 thread passes, and before a cop is completely shuttled the 
 thread must be drawn through this eyelet by a rapid draw- 
 ing in of the breath. The weaving shed, though compara- 
 tively cool, has its own peculiar discomfort in the shape of 
 a deafening clang and clatter which drowns even the 
 loudest shouting and makes the use of a simple sign lan- 
 guage among the weavers indispensable. The noise is 
 caused by the mechanism of the loom jerking the shuttle 
 across. 
 
330 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 At the knotting benches sit rows of nimble-fingered 
 knotters whose business it is to tie knots on the fringes of 
 towels, table cloths and quilts. This requires small fingers 
 and the manufacturers state that the young half-timer is 
 absolutely necessary to this branch of the trade. As the 
 knotters become older they are drafted off to other branches, 
 weaving being generally chosen. In the woollen mills 
 the conditions are better, as the machinery works much 
 more slowly and the temperature need not be so high. 
 
 Most half-timers in the woollen industry work in the 
 spinning rooms as bobbin-liggers, doffers and sweepers-out. 
 They are not strong enough for the large woollen looms 
 until the age of 16 is reached. Many of the boys who 
 begin work in the spinning room afterwards become dyers, 
 wool-sorters and wool-combers. 
 
 The system of piece-work which obtains throughout the 
 whole of the textile trades forces the workers to acquire 
 great dexterity and surprising quickness. They rarely 
 stop for a rest ; for inaction generally means loss of wage. 
 A group of half-timers in the Baillie Street Schools, Roch- 
 dale, when asked if they had any time for rest in the 
 factory answered, " No — we'se got to be spry or else we 
 are sworn at." "What would happen if you fell asleep in 
 the factory? "We should very soon be kicked up," was 
 the answer. One lad said that he " often stood on one leg 
 to give the other a rest." 
 
 All evidence tends to show that the physical strain is 
 considerable ; but the health of the half-timers suffers also 
 in other ways. Certain complaints, prevalent among the 
 workers, are directly traceable to particular processes. 
 From the point of view of health, the spinning room is 
 worse than any other department. The dust and fluff 
 (called " fly") from the unfinished cotton are the cause of 
 asthma, and the heated atmosphere produces a kind of 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 331 
 
 low fever known as mill-sickness. In tlie weaving sheds 
 the sucking up of the weft causes bad teeth and the noise 
 of the machinery sooner or later affects the hearing. 
 Complaints such as these are the more easily contracted 
 when, as is often the case, the half-timers, as well as the 
 adult workers, are in an anaemic condition. "^ 
 
 The causes of anaemia must be sought for partly in the 
 early upbringing. Many of the children in the textile 
 districts suffer from, bad or improper feeding during 
 infancy. If the mother^ works in a factory all day, the 
 child is put out to nurse and brought up on the bottle and 
 the meals given to it during childhood are often hurriedly 
 prepared. For example it was found that 166 of the 
 mothers of children attending the Furthergate Council 
 School, Blackburn, went out to regular employment ten 
 hours a day. Since the average attendance at the school is 
 only 471, it may be inferred that at least half the children 
 were brought up in the way described.^ 
 
 The following tables giving the relative heights and 
 weights of half-timers and day scholars in Bolton were 
 prepared by Mr. F. Wilkinson the director of education for 
 the borough. The same weighing and measuring machines 
 were used throughout. All the half timers in Bolton of 
 the ages shown were taken; the selection of full-timers or 
 day scholars was made by taking the requisite number of 
 names in rotation order from the alphabetical list of 
 
 1. The system of medical inspection seems to be lax and inadequate. 
 Stunted children and even one who was suffering from hernia were 
 seen who had been passed by the doctor without demur. A headmaster 
 in Blackburn had the utmost difficulty in preventing a mentally defective 
 child from being sent to the mill as a half-timer. 
 
 2. According to the Census of 1901 there were 196,898 males and 
 332,233 females employed in the cotton industry ; included in these 
 numbers are 14,663 boys and 18,201 girls of ages 10 — 14 years. In the 
 woollen industry there were 89,671 males and 122,069 females; boys and 
 girls under 14 years of age numbered respectively 6,253 and 6,612. 
 
 3. An interesting point in connection with this school is that facilities 
 have to be given during each school period for scholars to return home 
 and replenish the fire. 
 
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IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 333 
 
 scholars, and seeing that the ages exactly corresponded. 
 Similar confirmatory results have been obtained by Arch- 
 deacon Wilson ^ in Rochdale, by Dr. Torrop ^ in Heywood, 
 and by Dr. Crowley in Bradford. 
 
 The results show that a distinct physical deterioration 
 sets in immediately a child goes to work half-time. 
 
 Other ill effects of half-time employment are less per- 
 manent in character but perhaps even more potent in 
 their consequences. To say that the half-timer loses one 
 half his school education at an age when he most needs 
 educational discipline, is only to begin to state the disad- 
 vantages. Teachers seem to be agreed that afternoon 
 school is very little use for half-timers. After six hours 
 work, the children are too exhausted to learn and, in sum- 
 mer time especially, often fall asleep. Mr. A. E. Pickles, 
 M.A., President of the National Union of Teachers, and 
 Headmaster of the Burnley Wood Council School, says : 
 
 ' ' Half-timers are undoubtedly duller ; there is no comparison with th& 
 full-time children ; it is painful to see the conscientious efforts they 
 make to breast the tape with the other children." 
 
 Mr. Draycott, Headmaster of the Pikes Lane Council 
 School, Bolton, says : 
 
 " Generally speaking, as the afternoon wears on they become very 
 tired and inclined to be sleepy. Indeed at times some of them actually 
 fall asleep. The school lessons become irksome to them ; very few of 
 them ever take much interest in school work." 
 
 Mr. Whittick, Ex-President of the Half-time Council 
 states : 
 
 " The half-timers are not naturally duller, but deficiency of teaching 
 causes a steady deterioration, and they fall back in the class. They 
 very often show signs of fatigue, much being dependent on the weather." 
 
 If it be objected that the opinions quoted apply only to 
 afternoon instruction and that in the morning school there 
 
 1. See the " Children's Labour Question," a reprint of articles con- 
 tributed to the "Daily News" by Mr. Clement Edwards, M.P. 
 " Daily News " Office, 1899, o.p. 
 
334 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 should be a complete absence of mental inertia due to 
 over work, the reply is that the attention is interfered with 
 in other ways. It is not merely a question of fatigue. 
 The half-timer is prematurely occupied with thoughts of 
 wage-earning. He feels that his school life has passed ; 
 and with it school interests have passed also. The nature 
 of this change in character is indicated in the following 
 observations. 
 
 Mr. T. P. Sykes, M.A., Ex-President of the National 
 Union of Teachers states that 
 
 ' ' The half-timers become clever at repartee and in the use of 
 ' mannish ' phrases which sound clever when they dare use them. They 
 lose their childish habits, stop playing at marbles, spend much of their 
 time with hands in pockets at street corners, and though they play 
 football as vigorously as the others they will not take part in any other 
 game. ' ' 
 
 Mr. Draycott says : 
 
 " They domineer over other children, and although it can hardly be 
 said that they lose their child-like habits, they are fond of aping older 
 people. Some of the boys commence to smoke and to use bad language, 
 and girls become extremely rough in their play. It is very sad to 
 observe the great change that comes over girls in particular within 
 a few weeks of their going half-time. Girls who were models of neatness 
 .of attire and personal appearance, and whose conduct was modest and 
 becoming — most lovable children, are suddenly transformed into loud- 
 voiced, coarse, vulgar girls with their finer instincts blunted." 
 
 This behaviour, variously described as " owd-fashioned " 
 {precocious) and " straight-forrad " often degenerates into 
 vulgarity, pertness and even insolence. The self-import- 
 .ance of the half-timer is marked by his substituting a 
 muffler for a collar; and by his contracting the mannish 
 habits of swearing and smoking. As to the girls many 
 women teachers state that a peculiar look in the eye betrays 
 a certain loss of delicacy and reserve. 
 
 But it is not only the half-timer himself who suffers; 
 the whole school is affected by his presence. If the half- 
 iimers are present in large numbers in a class, repetition of 
 ihe lessons is necessary in order to catch both the morning 
 .and afternoon sets, with the result that the day-scholars 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 335 
 
 have to mark time in the meanwhile. Thus the presence 
 of half-timers in the ordinary classes keeps hack the rest of 
 the children. If on the other hand the half-timers are 
 grouped by themselves in a separate class, they may be 
 themselves in such different stages of mental development 
 that the educational evils of imperfect classification ensue 
 in another form. 
 
 As Mr. Whittick says : 
 
 " The half-time system is the chief hindrance to the extension of the 
 curriculum of the upper classes of the primary school — the only school 
 likely to be attended by the majority of the children of the country. 
 The mixing of half-time and day-scholars in the higher classes — a 
 common practice — is an evil ; it hinders and disheartens an earnest class 
 teacher and makes the best day-scholars mark time. To make separate 
 provision for half-timers is to recognise and perpetuate an evil system." 
 
 A unique solution of the difficulty as far as girls are 
 concerned has been found in a Yorkshire town on the 
 borders of Lancashire. As soon as a girl becomes a half- 
 timer she is transferred to the boys' department. This 
 arrangement has the effect of limiting greatly the number 
 of half-time girls. 
 
 Sometimes an employer for the sake of convenience com- 
 pels all half-timers in his employ to attend one school. 
 Perhaps it might be thought that this indicates the way to 
 a solution of the whole difficulty of school disorganisation. 
 Why not have special schools for half-timers with a special 
 staff and a special curriculum suited to their needs? It 
 may be granted that such special schools would meet part 
 of the educational difficulty if the methods of teaching 
 and the choice of subjects were carefully adapted to the 
 needs of the half-timers. But it is to be feared that, 
 in point of fact, they would be in danger of becoming 
 inferior in every way to the ordinary schools. Moreover 
 there are many practical objections to the plan. For in- 
 stance, the distance between the special school and the 
 half-timer's home would in many cases be excessive. And 
 
336 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 also a system of segregating half-timers in a school by 
 themselves would tend to deprive them of many of the 
 humanising influences exerted hy a good elementary school 
 imder ordinary conditions. 
 
 It might be thought that the half-timer would in many 
 cases, make up for his loss of education by attending even- 
 ing schools. This however is not the case. The loss of 
 interest in school-work continues throughout adolescence 
 (and probably throughout life) and half-time scholars on 
 becoming full-time workers do not attend continuation 
 classes to the same extent as their contemporaries whose 
 school-life has not been interfered with by premature em- 
 ployment. Mr. A. E. Pickles has kept a record of over a 
 thousand children who have left the Burnley "Wood Council 
 School during the last five years. Of the half-timers, 40 
 per cent, have commenced to attend evening schools, where- 
 as 90 per cent, of the day scholars continue their education 
 in this way. These large percentages are no doubt due 
 to the fact that in Burnley, as in Bolton, Manchester and 
 elsewhere, the system is in force of granting a year's free 
 education at the continuation schools to each child at the 
 close of his elementary day school career. In Blackburn, 
 where no such scholarships are given, only 400 children 
 out of the 2000 who annually leave the elementary schools 
 find their way into the evening continuation classes, so 
 that the leakage is 80 per cent. 
 
 Further it may be noted that evening schools suffer from 
 the presence of the ex-half-timer. Many teachers state 
 that the ex-half-timer does not take evening school work 
 seriously; the evening spent in the continuation school is 
 looked upon as " a night out." The present inquiry con- 
 firms what is said in the Special Reports on Educational 
 Subjects by Messrs. Campagnac and Russell ^ as to the 
 
 1. Supplement to Vol. viii. Cd. 1867. "Report on the School 
 Training and Early Employment of Lancashire Children," by Mr. 
 E. T. Campagnac and Mr. C. E. B. Russell. 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 337 
 
 reading, or rather lack of reading, of toys who have been 
 engaged in half-time employment. 
 
 It is argued that the training which a half-timer receives 
 in the workshop is a sufficient compensation for the loss 
 of school education and especially for the loss of the tech- 
 nical instruction given by the evening schools. Some sort 
 of education is received through the dexterity gained, but 
 most of the work in a factory or mill is purely mechanical 
 for many years, and this is one of the most serious features 
 of the whole system. The half-timer receives no training 
 which will enable him to rise to a responsible position later 
 on; he is practically condemned (unless unusually intelli- 
 gent) to unskilled and low-paid labour for life. "What 
 instruction he receives, is given in a casual and hap-hazard 
 fashion by any operative who happens to be his master or 
 mistress for the time being. There are many arguments in 
 favour of the suggestion that half-timers should learn their 
 trades under competent instructors and efficient craftsmen. 
 Nevertheless no such training as ordinarily given would 
 compensate' for the loss of the educationally graded courses 
 in manual exercise and in house-craft which are provided 
 in increasing numbers in connexion with the elementary 
 day schools but from which most Education Committees 
 find it necessary to exclude the half-timer in order that 
 the latter may not fail to receive instruction in the ordinary 
 subjects of the curriculum.^ 
 
 This loss to girls is in many cases made greater by 
 indulgent mothers who from mistaken kindness do not let 
 
 1. The Bradford Education Committee, however, recognising the fact 
 that the half-time girls are being trained for employinent rather than 
 for motherhood, and recognising also that this loss of training is the 
 chief cause of infantile mortality, permits half-timers to attend the 
 special classes, although such- attendance is detrimental to the acquire- 
 ment of the three or four subjects which form the basis of elementary 
 education. 
 
 W 
 
338 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 their daughters perforin any liouseliold duties after they 
 have returned from work. 
 
 The next subject for investigation is the attitude of the 
 various parties immediately concerned in the half-time 
 system. These are the half-timers themselves, the teachers, 
 the Textile Trade Unionists, the employers, the parents of 
 the half-timers, and lastly the parents of the day scholars 
 and the other ratepayers in half-time districts. 
 
 My inquiry convinced me that half-time employment is 
 popular among the half-timers themselves. Only seven 
 cases were met with in which school was preferred to the 
 mill. Many reasons were given for this, such as, " like to 
 earn money " ; " like to help Mother " ; " like to help to 
 keep th'ome and th' family " ; " there is no cane if we 
 lake (play) about " ; " because we get spending-money " ; 
 " because it makes us sharp " (this from a boy half asleep) ; 
 " because we get a good trade in our fingers," etc. 
 The commercial instinct is undoubtedly a powerful in- 
 centive. The half-timers receive from their parents or 
 employers pocket money or " 'sel-brass " (i.e., brass or 
 money for themselves) to the amount of 3d. or 6d. per 
 week. 
 
 Some owned that they received as much as Is. per week 
 but in most cases a portion of such a large sum would be 
 saved week by week, in the Lancashire fashion, for the 
 annual August holiday. Another factor of importance is 
 that the immediate prospects of half-timers are extremely 
 good. The little-piecer earning 5s. per week becomes at 
 thirteen years of age a full-timer with 14s. to 18s. per 
 week ; and at 24 to 26 years of age, if fortunate, attains the 
 position of minder with an average weekly wage of 45s. 
 The big-piecers and side-piecers are looked upon as appren- 
 tices but their numbers cause a glut in the market which 
 prevents their wage from ever rising much above 18s. 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 339 
 
 Cases are by no means uncommon of a married man of 
 forty being employed as a side-piecer at this wage. The 
 girl-tenter naturally becomes a weaver with two, three, four 
 or even six looms under her care. The boy-tenter may 
 rise still further and become an " overlooker," but the 
 highest wage attainable does not exceed £2 per week. 
 
 Neither the immediate nor the distant future prospects 
 in the woollen trade are quite so good as in the cotton 
 industry; the wages seem to be ■!■ to -f less. 
 
 Probably the fundamental reason, for the popularity of 
 the work with the children is more subtle than any that 
 are usually given ; it is that, being a wage-earner, the half- 
 timer has more independence and liberty at home. Seeing 
 his elder brother and sister at 16 years of ages earning 
 sufficient wage to become " boarders " at home, he envies 
 their complete freedom. And even supposing that he has 
 no such examples to follow, still the important step — from 
 dependence to partial independence — has been taken and 
 he is no longer treated as a child. 
 
 Less explicable is the strongly conservative attitude of 
 the Textile operatives in the matter. The Bolton Opera- 
 tive Spinners Association with a membership of 5000 may 
 be taken as representative of their opinion. This Trade 
 Union is opposed to the abolition of the half-time system, 
 to an extension of school-life, and to the exclusion of 
 women and girls from the spinning rooms, and has recently 
 almost unanimously rejected the following resolution: — 
 " That in view of the fact that only one child out of every 
 hundred remains at school until fourteen years of age, 
 the time has now arrived when no child should be either 
 partially or totally exempt from school before fourteen 
 years of age." This unanimity on the part of Textile 
 Operatives has also been maintained at the Annual Trade 
 Union Congresses. 
 
340 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 It is, however, only the rank and file of the textile trade 
 unionists who are opposed to any change. Many of their 
 leaders, especially those who represent them in Parliament, 
 openly express their disapproval of the system and advocate 
 as a practical measure of reform an extension of the mini- 
 mum age for partial exemption to 13. "^ 
 
 Somie experienced observers ^ favour a development of 
 the half-time system which would make it impossible for 
 a child to obtain full-time employment before reaching 
 the age of 18 years. There is nothing reactionary in this; 
 the proposal is that all employers should be compelled to 
 send their youthful employees to technical classes during a 
 considerable part of the day. In this way it is hoped that 
 a practical substitute for the old apprenticeship training 
 would be found. 
 
 But why is the average textile trade unionist in favour 
 of the status quo ? The reason is easily given. If the 
 trade unionist is a parent, the half-timer's wages increase 
 his weekly income ; if he is not, he still obtains useful child 
 labour at a cheap rate; for it is he rather than the mill- 
 manager who engages and employs the half-timer. 
 
 The reader will have already gathered that the teachers 
 are not in favour of the present system; indeed, of all 
 parties, they are the most strongly opposed to it. A Half- 
 time Council ^ representing 10,000 teachers in Lancashire, 
 Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Cheshire, and reflecting the 
 unanimous opinion of 60,000 teachers in England and 
 
 1. cf. Speech of Mr. D. J. Shackleton, M.P., at Eoohdale on April 
 20th, 1907. cf. Also the opinion of Mr. W. C. Robinson, General 
 Secretary to the Amalgamated Association of Beamers, Twisters and 
 Drawers, who says : " I don't think the feeling is growing in favour of 
 abolition ; I would raise the age to 13 years, but the majority of our 
 members are against any increase." 
 
 2. See Sidney and Beatrice Webb. "Industrial Democracy," 1902 Ed., 
 pp. liv.— Ivi., 769, 770. 
 
 3. The Half-time Council. Secretary, Mr. T. L. Roberts, R«dcross 
 Street School, Rochdale. 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 341 
 
 Wales has been formed with, the avowed aim of abolishing 
 of child labour. Furthermore this Council challenges the 
 claim of the textile operatives to settle this question for 
 themselves; they are the interested parties and only one- 
 third of the half-timers are their sons and daughters. ^ 
 
 The attitude of employers does not seem to have changed 
 since the sittings of the Royal Commission on Labour 
 (1891 — 4). So far from being keenly in favour of the 
 system they are, for the most part, indifferent and apathetic. 
 Being primarily concerned with out-put and having little 
 to do with the actual engagement of the half-timer, they 
 do not feel that their interests are vitally affected. Since, 
 however, injury to employers brings into operation the 
 Workmen's Compensation Act and leads to searching en- 
 quiries from Factory Inspectors, and since the carelessness 
 of youth often leads to accidents, several employers have 
 banished half-timers from their mills. During the recent 
 " boom " the scarcity of adult work-people has induced 
 many managers to increase the number of child-labourers 
 in their factories. In Rochdale and Bradford it was found 
 that places were being reserved in the mills for children 
 who were not yet old enough to claim partial exemption, 
 and that managers were constantly writing to teachers 
 asking them to send any children who held the necessary 
 qualifications. It is not to be supposed that half-^;ime 
 is, as a rule, necessary, for many successful mills have no 
 half-timers at all and there are a few mills running at 
 night from which children's and women's labour is ex- 
 cluded by law. 
 
 Below are given 17 typical returns of good, bad and 
 indifferent cases representative of the whole 300 seen. 
 
 1. See "Children's Labour Question," p. 140. The present enquiry 
 shows the proportion to be much more nearly i than i. 
 
342 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
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344 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 There is a good deal of difference of opinion as to the 
 reasons why parents send their children to the mills as 
 half-timers. In about 75 per cent, of the cases, examined, 
 poverty can not be pleaded. The " crippled father and 
 widowed mother " argument, so prominent nine or ten 
 years ago, has almost disappeared. Mr. G. Edwards con- 
 clusively proved in 1899 that the average wage of half- 
 timer families is quite as great as that of non-half-timer 
 families. In Yorkshire the average weekly wage per 
 family was about- £3., while that of Lancashire families 
 was as much as £3. 10s. Od. The recent inquiry confirms 
 these conclusions ; indeed, if anything, the present average 
 wage is slightly higher. 
 
 Again, the argument that the system is the outcome of 
 conscious greed on the part of parents is unsatisfactory. 
 In some cases, perhaps, where thrift has become a vice or 
 where the parents are short-sighted and ignorant, greed is 
 the predominant motive. It is to be remembered that pro- 
 motion in the factory is partly gained by length of service, 
 so that the half-timer obtains an advantage of a year (in 
 Bradford it is two) over the other children and " kails " 
 them as the saying is. This fear that their children will 
 be " kailed " or outstripped in the race for promotion 
 certainly acts as a powerful incentive to some parents. 
 Among less ambitious parents who are not themselves em- 
 ployed in the industry (and most parents are not) mere 
 custom or habit is the chief reason. Teachers, education 
 officials, mill-managers and trade union secretaries are all 
 agreed that custom and custom, alone is operative in the 
 majority of cases. One half-timer in a school makes many, 
 not only because he is, as it were, a centre of infection but 
 also because the parent of a day scholar in a school in which 
 half-timers form a large percentage of the whole, knowing 
 that the curriculum is fitted to the needs of the half-timer 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 345 
 
 and knowing that tlie lessons are necessarily duplicated, 
 sees no reason why his child should not follow the example 
 of others. 
 
 The parents of the day scholars together with the other 
 ratepayers suffer financially from the presence of the half- 
 timer. The grants of the Board of Education are assessed 
 on the average attendance of scholars. The remainder 
 of the cost of education is raised by an education rate. 
 The Elementary Day School Code (Section 43 (6) and (c)) 
 requires in the case of older scholars that an " attendance " 
 to be counted for grant must comprise two hours of secular 
 instruction, inclusive of the necessary recreation. An 
 ordinary day-scholar can make two of such " attendances " 
 on each full school day. Half-timers can only make one 
 " attendance " in a day but in their case the Code allows 
 each such attendance to be counted for purposes of grant 
 as an attendance and a half. Thus, even with this con- 
 cession, the half-timer can only earn 75 per cent, of the 
 possible attendance grant. This entails a loss to the rates. 
 In Bradford the loss amounts to £500 per annum and in 
 many other places it necessitates an additional Id. or 2d. 
 on the rates. Consequently the parent of the half-timer 
 not only receives the half-timer's wage but is helped by the 
 other ratepayers to make up the deficiency in the Govem- 
 ment grant caused by his child's intermittent attendance at 
 school. 
 
 Enough evidence has now been given to enable one to 
 balance the relative merits and defects of the present half- 
 time system and to judge on which side the scale turns. 
 Of all the arguments urged in favour of the system by 
 far the strongest are those of the half-timers themselves. 
 In the others — the arguments of the trade unionists and 
 parents — ^there is either an irrational element or else a 
 sordid element not justified by the considerations of 
 
346 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 poverty. No one can doubt that the love of independence, 
 the desire to help others in the home, are splendid motives 
 deserving of the greatest encouragement. It must not be 
 forgotten that the half-timer is being fitted at an early 
 age for a career which he will probably continue to pursue 
 throughout life. Th« advantage of this accrues to the 
 whole community considered as an industrial society. On 
 the other side are certain grave disadvantages. There is 
 the physical deterioration which half-time employment 
 often entails ; there is the loss of education reflected 
 throughout life in the absence of the desire for intellectual 
 pleasures and there is the helplessness which must neces- 
 sarily ensue if the health fails and another profession has 
 to be adopted. It is by no means uncommon for young 
 operatives to leave the cotton industry after a few years' 
 employment. Receiving 16s. — 18s. a week and seeing no 
 immediate prospect of attaining a higher position (that 
 of ' minder ') they leave their employment in the hope of 
 obtaining better wages elsewhere. Again there is the grave 
 disorganisation of the schools ; the imperfect education 
 that the day-scholar as well as the half-timer receives 
 in half-time schools and the unjust financial burden which 
 falls upon ratepayers who have nO' interest in the system. 
 No one weighing carefully the disadvantages and reflecting 
 upon other consequences which have been but barely in- 
 dicated in the course of this chapter, will hesitate to ack- 
 nowledge that the system is on the whole both evil and 
 unjust. No doubt improvements could be introduced (such 
 as the special schools already discussed) which would do 
 away with some of the defects. The danger is that other 
 faults would be strengthened and perpetuated by such 
 change. 
 
 Can the half-time system be abolished? Do economic 
 or industrial considerations demand its continuance ? Will 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 347 
 
 the balance between profit and loss be upset if the half-time 
 is abolished? Does the cotton industry depend for its 
 success in international competition on this form of em- 
 ployment ? The fact that many mills dispense altogether 
 with half-time labour and that other mills run at night 
 (when half-time labour is prohibited) indicates that this 
 form of labour is not indispensable. Furthermore the 
 steady decline in the numbers of half-timers during the 
 decade 1890 — 1900 was to a great extent a natural result 
 of improvements in machinery and not wholly due to 
 decline in trade. Real wages have continuously risen and 
 hours of labour have steadily fallen; the decrease in the 
 number of half-timers has been compensated by an in- 
 crease in the number of adults. Professor S. J. Chapman 
 says 1 : "if the most moderate allowance be made for the 
 greater efficiency of adults as compared with children (i.e., 
 half-timers and others) and young persons, it will be found 
 that there is no diminution in the amount of labour power 
 used in the cotton industry, reckoned in adults and their 
 equivalents." He further adds that " there is no evidence 
 of any appreciable displacement of labour having occurred 
 to the serious loss of any section of the operatives." ^ 
 
 Statements such as these, based on full and carefully 
 prepared statistics, point to the conclusion that half-time 
 labour is not necessary on economic grounds. On the other 
 hand the immediate abolition of the system might cause a 
 temporary dislocation of trade and is therefore to be depre- 
 cated. The history of the past twenty years proves that the 
 path of gradual reform is the safest, for the reason that it 
 arouses the least amount of opposition. What is necessary 
 
 1. "A reply to the Report of the Tariff Commission on the Cotton 
 Industry," p. 39. 
 
 2. p. 54. 
 
348 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 is not that the reform should be revolutionary but that it 
 should originate from the Central Authority. It is time 
 to abandon the principle of leaving the question to the 
 local authority to settle in its own way. The physique, 
 the educational and moral advancement of any section of 
 the nation are a national concern and ought to be dealt 
 with from a national point of view. Moreover it is almost 
 impossible for a local authority to take any strong line in 
 the face of local interests and the desire to outstrip neigh- 
 bouring towns and competing mills. Six months before 
 the passing of the Robson Act there was disorder at a town's 
 meeting in Rochdale, convened to discuss the raising of 
 the minimum age of partial exemption, owing to the hos- 
 tility which the motion excited. But although the Robson 
 Act very soon afterwards actually raised the age from 
 eleven to twelve, not the slightest discontent was then 
 exhibited. This promises well for future legislation. A 
 strong government, earnestly grappling with the problem, 
 could find a solution which would occasion but transient 
 opposition and which would undoubtedly be a great step 
 forward in the social and educational progress of the 
 people. Peter Sandiford. 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Recent Votes of Labour Councils in the Textile 
 Districts on the Half-time System. 
 
 In February, 1907, the Half-time Council (Lancashire, 
 Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire) desiring to be informed 
 of the collective opinion of the trades unions upon the 
 half-time system, requested the Trades Unions and Trades 
 Councils in the textile districts to submit to the vote of 
 their members the following resolution : 
 
 " That in view of the fact that only one child out of every hundred 
 remains at school until 14 years of age, the time has now arrived when 
 no child shall be either partially or totally exempt from school before 
 14 years of age." 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 349 
 
 The Hon. Secretary of the Half-time Council (Mr. T. L. 
 Eoberts, Eedcross Street School, Eochdale) writes that, 
 to April 20, 1907, the Labour Councils in the following 
 towns had decided in favour of the abolition of the half- 
 time system and of 14 years being fixed as the minimum 
 age for leaving school : — Oldham, Rochdale, Burnley, 
 Hyde, Leigh, Eawtenstall, Nelson, Accrington, Stockport, 
 Wigan, Keighley, Manchester and Salford, Huddersfield, 
 Glossop, Ramsbottom and Tyldesley. 
 
 APPENDIX 11. 
 
 The Desirability of Abolishing the Half-time System 
 IN THE Textile Trades. 
 
 Mr. Walter Nield, President of the North-Western sec- 
 tion of the Co-operative Educational Committees' Associa- 
 tion, who is himself engaged in the cotton industry, writes 
 as follows on the subject of the half-time system. His 
 letter refers to a discussion which took place at a conference 
 of the Co-operative Educational Committees' Association 
 at Manchester on March 2, 1907. 
 
 " . . . . One of the speakers at the Conference on March 2 stated 
 that the work in the cotton mills to-day was less exacting than it was 
 twenty years ago. I disputed the statement at the meeting, and have 
 since consulted quite a number of intelligent factory workers, who, I 
 knew, would give a fair answer without any bias either one way or 
 another. In every case their reply was that to-day the work is more 
 exacting than ever it was owing to the high speed of the machinery. 
 
 Take my own case. When I was a half-timer, the speed of machinery 
 was nothing like what it is to-day. The length of the spinning mule was 
 shorter by a fourth, and we were allowed thirty minutes for a breathing 
 space in the mill yard. But to-day such a thing would not be tolerated 
 in any of the mills in Oldham, and I presume that we are only a fair 
 sample of the rest of Lancashire. 
 
 One question asked at the meeting was what effect the abolition of 
 half-time would have upon the industries of the country. The principal 
 employers of half-timers are the cotton mills. During the last week I 
 have put this question very often to those employed in the mills. The 
 answers I have received have been very similar, though obtained from 
 many sources. In the main, they have stated that the abolition of the 
 
350 THE HALF-TIME QUESTION 
 
 half-time system would hardly have any material effect upon the 
 efficiency of the mills. In most of the more modern mills the manage- 
 ment refuse to take half-timers, preferring lads of about fourteen. 
 From the standpoint of injury to trade, there need be no fear of 
 abolishing the half-timer. 
 
 Another important question is what would be the effect on the 
 welfare of the families from which the half-timers come. I am bound 
 to confess that in many cases, for example, of widows and of men in 
 receipt of small wages, it would entail a little hardship. But, to their 
 credit be it said, these are not the people who clamour more for the 
 retention of the half-time system. The worst offenders are the best paid 
 operatives in the cotton mills. This is not a rash statement, for during 
 the past few weeks the question has been before the various branches 
 in membership with the Oldham Trades Council, comprising spinners, 
 weavers, cardroom hands, iron and metal trades, etc. Each branch 
 was requested to take a vote as to whether the members were in favour 
 of abolishing the half-time system. The result of their decisions was 
 taken on Tuesday last, March 5th. One branch of spinners, the most 
 highly paid workers in the cotton mill, sent in their resignation on the 
 ground that this question was being repeatedly discussed. The other 
 branches in the cotton trade, while not taking this extreme course, 
 decided not to support the abolition of the half-timer. The only 
 exception was the weavers who supported the principle of doing away 
 with half-timers. This course was also taken by every branch in the 
 iron and metal trade. This is in striking contrast to the action of 
 cotton operatives, as in the iron trade lower wages are earned. In 
 the discussion at one branch a carter with a wife and seven children, 
 receiving a wage of 26s. per week, said : " You know it's hard for me 
 to make ends meet, but I want my children to receive as good an 
 education as other children, and I shall go in for abolishing the half-time 
 system." This is typical of many who are in similar circumstances. 
 
 One of the main reasons urged by those who favour the half-time 
 system is that keeping a child at school too long tends to make it want 
 to shirk work. Such reasons are unsound, as every observer knows who 
 has had any experience in the workshop. Another thing to be borne in 
 mind is that the cotton operatives as a rule are indifferent as to whether 
 their children attend evening school or not, while, on the other hand, 
 the workers in the iron trade seem more anxious for their sons to attend 
 technical schools. But there is more call upon the educational resources 
 of the individual in the workshop than in the mill, and this may account 
 in some measure for the different attitude of the workers in the two 
 trades. 
 
 But the most important point to my mind is what effect the half-time 
 system has upon the child. Those who have gone through the mill know 
 best what happens. I have seen the ruddy-cheeked boys and girls enter 
 the mill in high glee at the prospect of receiving wages. But as a rule 
 
IN THE TEXTILE TRADES 35i 
 
 they have not been there long before the colour is gone, and it is a 
 painful sight, to me at least, to see them before six o'clock in the 
 morning dragging their weary feet towards the mill half awake. Think 
 of that child's condition, after working for six hours in an atmosphere 
 ranging from 75 to 80 degrees, taking its place in the afternoon in the 
 schoolroom to compete with children devoting the full day to school life. 
 What results can you expect? The child is at a disadvantage, and 
 becomes discouraged, feeling that it is the dullard of the school. There 
 is only one topic of conversation : ' I shall be full-time in so long, then 
 I shall have done with school.' Can we reasonably expect such a child 
 to be fond of school? The result is that, unless their parents are alive 
 to the need of education (which when the children are sent to work 
 half-time is very seldom the case), the child never enters school again. 
 Is it any wonder if this is so, for what must the memories of school life 
 be but of a time of weary toil with poor results? Often, with the 
 exception of the art of reading, the little learning which the child 
 received at school is soon lost. But it often happens that one day, 
 like the son who went into a far country, these young people realise that 
 they have lost their educational substance, and they fain would fill their 
 minds with the husks of learning. They find themselves hampered in 
 promotion, as those who are better educated are given the preference. 
 Thousands to-day in Lancashire are in this condition owing to the 
 half-time system. 
 
 If half-time were abolished and 14 fixed as the leaving age from the 
 elementary school, I believe it would be quite possible for both girls 
 and boys to attend school in the evening twice a week in the winter 
 months without any undue physical overstrain after a long day in the 
 mill. I have arrived at this conclusion from observations I have made. 
 I have noted many who have been kept at school until they were 
 14 years of age, and have been struck with their physical condition as 
 compared with those who have worked half-time. They have seemed 
 to stand the strain a great deal better, and their attendance at evening 
 school has seemed to have no ill-effect upon them, while their superior 
 intelligence has been marked. Therefore I have not the slightest doubt 
 that about nine-tenths of them would be able to stand the strain of 
 attendance at evening school. 
 
 As to the suggestion that young persons should be allowed to work 
 shorter hours in the mills on certain days in the week, I am afraid this 
 cannot be done. There are various reasons for this. In the first place, 
 mill work is so arranged that, if a young person were called away, it 
 would make a vast difference to the production as the equipment is so 
 bare from the standpoint of the hands that with the withdrawal of a 
 young person the machines could not be kept in motion. And the 
 stopping of the machinery in a modern mill is out of the question. 
 True, it might be arranged for additional help to take the place of those 
 away at school. But this would add to the cost of production, and that 
 could hardly be done, for in normal times the margin is very fine in the 
 cotton trade. I quite agree that if this course could be adopted it would 
 be the better course, but am inclined to think it is not practicable at 
 present." 
 
352 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Laws Regulating the Employment of Children and 
 Young Persons in Factories and Workshops in the 
 United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland.* 
 
 In reading the following table showing the legal 
 limitations to the employment of yoimg persons and 
 children in factories and workshops it should be noted that : 
 
 (1) The laws given for Germany and Switzerland are 
 those applying to the whole country. The Imperial and 
 Federal Laws represent the minimum common to all, but 
 each State of Germany and each Canton of Switzerland 
 may enact more stringent regulations. 
 
 (2) In the provisions for overtime and nightwork in the 
 German and Swiss laws the term " necessary " is never 
 clearly defined. This renders difficult, and possibly mis- 
 leading, any comparison of the clauses regulating overtime 
 and nightwork in those countries with similar clauses in 
 the laws of the United Kingdom, where every exception is 
 rigidly defined. 
 
 Children under 14 in Workshops and Factories. 
 
 Definition of Factoey and Workshop. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 The terms are defined 
 so as to include any 
 premises or places in 
 which manual labour is 
 carried on by way of 
 trade or for purposes of 
 gain in making, repair- 
 ing, or adapting any 
 article for sale. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 The terms are un- 
 defined. The Indus- 
 trial Code relates to 
 ' ' factories, mills, and 
 workshops using 
 power, mines, salt- 
 pits, quarries, found- 
 ries, timber yards, 
 ready-made clothing 
 workshops, etc. 
 
 Domestic work- 
 shops are exempted. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 A factory is any 
 establishment em- 
 ploying more than 10 
 workpeople, or using 
 motor power or em- 
 ploying persons under 
 18, and employing 
 over 5 people, or em- 
 ploying less than 6 
 but on work danger- 
 ous to health. 
 
 * This chapter has been kindly supplied by the Labour Department of 
 the Board of Trade. 
 
EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN 
 
 353 
 
 one under 13 years. 
 
 Employment in Factoeies and Woekshops. 
 United Kingdom. Germany. 
 
 Prohibited to anyone Prohibited to any- 
 under 12 years. 
 
 HOUES OF WOEK. 
 
 Children of 12 years 
 may only work half- 
 time, dhildren of 13, 
 unless they have obtain- 
 ed a certificate of having 
 reached a certain stand- 
 ard of proficiency, or 
 of having made tlie 
 prescribed number of 
 attendances, may only 
 work half-time. 
 
 Children of 13 years 
 with an educational 
 certificate of total ex- 
 emption from scliool 
 attendance may work 
 under the same regula- 
 tions as young persons 
 of U. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 Prohibited to any- 
 one under 14 years. 
 
 Children of 13 if 
 they have passed pri- 
 mary education stand- 
 ard may work half- 
 time. In " power- 
 using workshops" 
 they may work under 
 the same regulations 
 as young persons of 
 14, 
 
 Half-Time. 
 
 Maximum Houes (exclusive of Meals) permitted in. 
 Textile Factories. 
 
 554 hours a fortnight. 72 hours a fortnight. 
 
 Non-Textile Factories and Workshops. 
 60 hours a fortnight. 72 hours a fortnight. 
 
 Domestic Workshops. 
 74J hours a fortnight. 
 
 Overtime. 
 
 Prohibited, except for 
 half hour to complete a 
 process in bleaohmg and 
 dyeing works, print 
 works and iron mills, 
 foundries and paper 
 mills in which male 
 young persons are not 
 employed at night ; but 
 the weekly total must 
 not be exceeded. 
 
 Night Work. 
 Prohibited. 
 
 Not regulated. 
 
 Allowed (under 
 ''permit" of factory 
 inspector) for a period 
 of four weeks in cases 
 of break-down. In 
 ' ' necessary " cases 
 (e.g. seasonal work) 
 the Federal Council 
 may permit overtime 
 but the weekly total 
 must not exceed 36 
 hours. 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 Not regulated by 
 Federal Law. 
 
354 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 Compulsory Holiday and Sunday Rest. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Sunday rest compul- 
 sory without exception. 
 Six whole days (or their 
 equivalent) per annum. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Sunday rest and 
 fgte day rest compul- 
 sory. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Young Persons in Factoeies and Workshops. 
 
 Definition of Young Person. 
 
 Germany. 
 All of 14 and under 
 16 years and those of 
 13 years who have 
 passed primary edu- 
 cation standard. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 All of 14 and under 18 
 years and those of 13 
 years of age with educa- 
 tional certificate of total 
 exemption. 
 
 Hours of Work. 
 
 Maximum Hours (exclusive of Meals) permitted in. 
 
 Textile Factories. 
 Week 55i. 60. 64. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 All of 14 and under 
 18 years. 
 
 Day 10. 
 
 10. 
 
 Non-Textile Factories and Workshops. 
 
 Week 60. 60. 
 
 Day lOi. 10. 
 
 Domestic Workshops. 
 
 Week 60. Exempted. 
 
 Day lOi. Exempted. 
 
 Overtime. 
 
 Prohibited, except as 
 in the case of children ; 
 in water mills and in 
 Turkey red dyeing and 
 open air bleaching under 
 special conditions. 
 
 11 (9 on eves of 
 holidays). 
 
 64. 
 
 11 (9 on eves of 
 holidays). 
 
 Allowed in the 
 same cases and sub- 
 ject to the same pro- 
 viso as in the case of 
 children. 
 
 Night Work. 
 
 Prohibited entirely to 
 girls. 
 
 Prohibited to boys but 
 with certain exceptions. 
 
 Prohibited gener- 
 ally but allowed for a 
 period of four weeks 
 in cases of break 
 down. 
 
 Exempted, 
 Exempted. 
 
 Allowed when 
 necessary, e.g. for 
 stoppage of the ma- 
 chinery ; can only be 
 granted for two weeks 
 by the Local Author- 
 ity, for longer by the 
 Cantonal Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Prohibited to girls. 
 
 Permitted to ooys 
 where uninterrupted 
 work is necessary. 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 355 
 
 Compulsory Holiday and Sunday Best. 
 
 United Kingdom. Germany. Switzerland. 
 
 A short day must be Sunday and f§te Sunday rest com- 
 be given one week-day day rest compulsory, pulsory except to 
 a week. Six whole boys in same circum- 
 
 week-day holidays (or stances as allow of 
 
 their equivalent) per night work, 
 
 annum. 
 
 Sunday rest compul- 
 sory except for male 
 young persons working 
 by relays in blast furn- 
 aces and paper mills . 
 
 Legislation Regulating the Employment of Children 
 AND ToTJNG Persons. 
 
 (a) The United Kingdom. 
 
 The following laws contain provisions affecting the 
 employment of children and young persons : — 
 
 I. Factory and Workshop Acts (1878—1901). 
 II. Employment of Children Act (1903). 
 III. Education Acts (1870—1901). 
 IV. Coal Mines Regulation Acts (1887—1900). 
 V. Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts (1872—1900). 
 VI. Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act (1904). 
 VII. Shop Hours Act (1892). 
 
 Summaries of the most important of these provisions, 
 now in force, are attached. 
 
 I. Factory and Workshop Acts (1878 — 1901). 
 
 Age of admission of children into textile and non- 
 textile FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS AND QUARRIES : The 
 
 age of admission is twelve, if an educational certificate is 
 obtained. In factories a medical certificate is necessary 
 under 16 and shall not be given unless a certificate of 
 birth or other sufficient evidence of age be produced. 
 Children of 12 and 13 years must attend school either twice 
 
356 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 on alternate days or once every day when working in the 
 morning or afternoon sets. Children of 13 who have 
 obtained a certificate of haying made the prescribed number 
 of attendances at school or of having passed the prescribed 
 standard of proficiency are classed with young persons, 
 i.e., with those of 14 years old. When a child becomes a 
 young person a fresh certificate of fitness must be obtained. 
 
 Duration of working day. Children : — In textile 
 factories, non-textile factories and workshops the ordinary 
 working period is defined as between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., or 
 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., or 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. In certain cases in 
 non-textile factories the Secretary of State may alter hours 
 to between 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. Hours for meals are fixed. 
 Children of 12 — 14 work on alternate days or on the half 
 time system. Hours of alternate days in textile factories, 
 non-textile factories and workshops are 10 exclusive of 2 
 hours' rest, except on Saturday. In the morning and after- 
 noon set system : — Children in the morning set must cease 
 work at the dinner hour, but not later than 1 p.m. Children 
 in the afternoon set begin at the end of the dinner-time, 
 but not earlier than noon. Children in textile factories 
 may work 55^ hours a fortnight. Children in non-textile 
 factories and workshops may work 60 hours a fortnight. 
 Children in domestic workshops may work 74^ hours a 
 fortnight, in all cases exclusive of meals. 
 
 ToTJNG Persons : — In textile factories young persons 
 (14-18) may work 10 hours a day except on Saturdays and 
 bbj hours a week. In non-textile factories and workshops 
 they may work IO5 a day except on Saturdays and 60 a 
 week. In domestic workshops young persons may work 
 between 6 a.m. and 9 p.m., and on Saturdays between 6 a.m. 
 and 4 p.m. ; they may work 10| hours a day, except on 
 Saturdays and 60 a week. 
 
 Exceptions as to duration of vs^ork. Children : — Over- 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 357 
 
 time is never allowed in textile factories. The only excep- 
 tion with regard to children is the occasional half hour 
 to complete a process in bleaching and dyeing works, print 
 works, and iron mills, foundries and paper mills in which 
 male young persons are not employed at night, but the 
 hours a week are not to exceed the legal limit. 
 
 Young persons : — (1) The same exception on the same 
 conditions is mad© with regard to young persons under 18. 
 (2) Water mills : one hour overtime may be granted under 
 certain conditions to factories liable to be stopped by 
 drought or floods. (3) Turkey red dyeing and open air 
 bleaching : overtime permitted so far as is necessary to 
 prevent damage under certain conditions. 
 
 TfiGHT-wOEK : — Night-work forbidden to all under 18, 
 subject to special exceptions. 
 
 Exceptions as to night- work. Young persons : — 
 Subject to certain special conditions, male young per- 
 sons over 14 may be employed on night-work in : 
 Glass works. Blast furnaces. Iron mills, Letterpress 
 printing works and Paper mills. Male young persons 
 over 16 may be employed on work in : Lace Factories, 
 between 4 a.m. and 10 p.m., Bakehouses, between 5 a.m. 
 and 9 p.m., factories or workshops where printing of news- 
 papers is carried on not more than two nights a week, — 
 during not more than two nights a week. On night work 
 in electrical works, in the part of a factory in which rever- 
 beratory or regenerative furnaces are used, in the process 
 of galvanising sheet metal and wire, of calcining and 
 stamping in mineral dressing floors in Cornwall, in china- 
 clay works and certain other scheduled factories and work- 
 shops. 
 
 COMPULSORT HOLIDAY AND SuNDAT REST. CHILDREN AND 
 
 YOUNG PERSONS: — Sunday rest is compulsory subject to 
 special exceptions. A short day must be given on one week- 
 
358 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 day in every week. In textile factories this must be Satur- 
 day; but in certain non-textile factories and worksbops 
 anotber week-day may be substituted. Tbere are six com- 
 pulsory bolidays in England, viz. : Cbristmas Day, Good 
 Friday and four Bank Holidays, but by due notice other 
 equivalent bolidays may be substituted; similar regula- 
 tions adapted to local circumstances are prescribed for 
 Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 Exceptions as to Sunday eest : — Male young persons 
 working day and nigbt by relays in blast furnaces and 
 paper mills may work on Sundays. Jewish occupiers who 
 close the whole of Saturday may employ young persons 
 either one hour more every working day or on Sunday. 
 
 Fish and fruit peeseeving and creamemes : — These 
 industries are under special regulations. 
 
 Restrictions as to dangerous and unhealthy trades. 
 Children : — Employment of a child in cleaning machinery, 
 or under machinery in motion, is prohibited. A child is 
 not to be employed in : (1) The silvering of mirrors by the 
 mercurial process.^ (2) Making of white lead.'^ (3) Melt- 
 ing or annealing glass. ^ (4) Dry-grinding in the metal 
 trades or where lucifer match dipping is carried on. (5) 
 A child must not be employed in wet spinning unless 
 certain precautions are taken. ^ 
 
 Young persons : — Employment of young persons in 
 cleaning dangerous machinery and mill-gearing in motion 
 is prohibited. A female under sixteen is not to be em- 
 ployed in making or finishing bricks or salt. 
 
 N.B. — In addition to these restrictions there are many 
 dangerous trades under special rules, some of which 
 especially affect children and young persons. 
 
 1. Applies also to young persons. 
 
 2. Applies also to female young persons. 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 359 
 
 II. Employment of Childeen Act (1903). 
 
 General eesteictions on employment of children : — 
 (1) A child (i.e., under 14 years) shall not be employed 
 between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. (2) A child under 11 shall not 
 be employed in street trading. (3) A child if employed half 
 time under Factory and Workshop Act 1901, not to be 
 employed in any other way. (4) A child shall not be 
 employed to lift heavy weights. (5) A child shall not be 
 employed in any occupation likely to be injurious to his 
 health or education, having regard to his physical condition. 
 
 (Sections 1 and 2 of this Act enable local authorities to 
 make bye-laws regulating the employment of children and 
 young persons under 16, but these bye-laws do not apply 
 to children above 12 employed in factories or workshops or 
 mines.) 
 
 III. Education Acts (1870-1902). 
 
 Every person who takes into his employment a child of 
 the age of 10 and under the age of 14 years, before the 
 child has obtained a certificate of having reached the 
 standard of education fixed by a bye-law in force in the 
 district for the total or partial exemption from school 
 attendance, is liable to a penalty. 
 
 A certificate of partial exemption from school attend- 
 ance may not be given to children under 12 years of age. 
 
 A certificate of total exemption from school attendance 
 may not be given to children under 13 years of age. 
 
 In parishes where 13 years is fixed as the minimum age 
 for partial or total exemption from school attendance in 
 the case of children to be employed in agriculture, children 
 between 11 and 13 years who have passed the standard fixed 
 for partial exemption from school attendance need not 
 attend school more than 250 times in any year. 
 
360 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 In Scotland (Education (Scotland) Act, 1901) no child 
 under 14 may be employed, except in any casual employ- 
 ment, unless he has obtained a certificate of exemption 
 from the obligation to attend school. A child over 12 may 
 however be employed casually without such certificate up to 
 9 p.m. in summer and 7 p.m. in winter. 
 
 IV. Coal Mines Eegulation Acts (1887-1900). 
 
 (Including Mines (Prohibition . of Child Labour under- 
 ground) Act). 
 Boy = male under 16 years, Grirl = female under 16 years. 
 
 Employment below ground : — Employment below 
 ground of boys under 13 and of girls of any age prohibited. 
 Subject to conformity with Education Acts boys over 13 
 may work 54 hours a week and 10 hours a day. 
 
 Employment above ground : — Employment above 
 ground of boys and girls under 12 prohibited. Subject to 
 Education Acts boys and girls of 12 and under 13 years may 
 work six hours a day for six days a week, or ten hours a day 
 for three days a week. Boys and girls of 13 and upwards may 
 work 10 hours a day and 54 hours a week. They may not 
 be employed more than 5 hours continuously without an 
 interval of half an hour for a meal, nor for more than eight 
 hours in a day without intervals amounting to 1^ hours. 
 Employment of boys and girls in moving railway waggons 
 prohibited. 
 
 V. Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts (1872 — 1900). 
 
 (Including Mines (Prohibition of Child Labour 
 
 underground) Act, 1900). 
 
 Employment below ground : —Employment below 
 ground of boys under 13 and of girls of any age prohibited. 
 Subject to the Education Acts, boys of 13 and under 16 
 may work for 10 hours a day and 54 hours a week. Male 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 361 
 
 young persons under 18 employed on work in connexion 
 with engines are subject to special regulations. 
 
 Emplotment above ground : — This Act does not regulate 
 the employment of children employed ahove ground. Such 
 employment therefore comes under the category of employ- 
 ment at " pit-banks " which are scheduled as factories or 
 workshops under the Factory and Workshop Acts. 
 
 VI. Prevention of Crueltx to Children Act (1904). 
 This Act regulates the employment of children in public 
 entertainments etc., and restricts street-selling or perform- 
 ing by boys under 14 or girls under 16, to the hours between 
 6 a.m. and 9 p.m., with powers to the local authority to 
 extend these hours by bye-law (in addition to all regula- 
 tions in Education Acts). 
 
 It permits licences to be granted for any child exceeding 
 10 years of age to take part in public entertainments at 
 any hour the licensing authority deems suitable under 
 certain conditions. It forbids the employment of children 
 under 11 years without such a licence. 
 
 YII. Shop Hours Act (1892). 
 
 Under this Act the employment of young persons under 
 18 is restricted to 74 hours per week, including meal times, 
 and no young person may be employed in a shop and a 
 factory on the same day if the total hours worked exceed 
 the number permitted under the Factory Acts. 
 (6) Germany. 
 
 In Germany the federal legislation regarding the em- 
 ployment of children and young persons consists of (1) 
 certain provisions contained in the Industrial Code of June 
 1st, 1891, as modified by subsequent enactments, and (2) 
 the law of March 30th, 1903. 
 
 The provisions in the Industrial Code relate to the em- 
 ployment of children and young persons in " factories " ; 
 
362 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 in mills and workshops using power; in mines, saltpits; 
 in underground quarries ; in surface quarries and brick- 
 yards in which work is more or less regularly carried on; 
 in foundries, shipyards, and timberyards ; in ready-made 
 clothing workshops and in workshops in which tobacco 
 processes are carried on. In these provisions " children " 
 are those under 14, and "young persons" those from 14 
 to 16. The term " Factory " is not defined. 
 
 The following is a summary of the provisions under this 
 Law in so far as they affect child labour : — 
 
 Age of Admission of Children into Factories, Mines, 
 etc. : — Thirteen. Those over 13 may only be admitted 
 if they have passed the " primary " education standard. 
 
 Duration of working day : children : — Six hours,^ cut 
 by a regular rest of at least half an hour. Young persons : 
 ten hours, cut by three regular rests of half an hour 
 (morning), 1 hour (mid-day) and half an hour (afternoon).^ 
 If not more than eight hours be worked the two half hour 
 pauses need not be given but not more than four hours 
 must be worked on either side of the mid-day break. If 
 not more than six hours be worked only one pause need 
 be given. Its length must be at least half an hour. Should 
 the nature of the work or the interest of the workers require 
 it, the pauses may be shortened or omitted. But not more 
 than 6 hours must be worked if the pauses do not amount 
 to at least one hour. 
 
 Exceptions as to duration of work. Children and young 
 
 1. In "power-using" workshops other than those engaged in glass, 
 stone and metal polishing, and tobacco processes, children between 13 
 and 14 whose primary education is complete may be employed 10 hours. 
 Also boys under 16 may be employed for more than 10 hours in certain 
 specified " handicrafts " when working in workshops with less than 
 10 workers. In certain workshops using hydraulic power also in smaller 
 bakeries, and corn mills, the hours of young persons are unrestricted 
 except in so far as night work is prohibited. 
 
 2. In certain workshops a l^-hour pause at mid-day may replace the 
 3 above-mentioned pauses. 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 363 
 
 persons : — Overtime is allowed for a period of 4 weeks in 
 cases of break-down; for longer only by authority of the 
 Chancellor. In necessary ^ cases the Federal Council may 
 permit overtime, but the total work must not exceed 36 
 hours per week for children (under 14 years) and 60 for 
 young persons (14 to 16). 70 in tile works. 
 
 Restrictions on night work : — (Hours constituting night 
 work are 8.30 p.m. to 5.30 a.m.). Forbidden to children 
 and young persons. 
 
 Exceptions as to night work. Young persons : — Night 
 work allowed for a period of 4 weeks in cases of break- 
 down ; for longer only by authority of the Chancellor. 
 
 Compulsory Sunday and holiday rest. Children and 
 young persons : — Sunday and fete day rest compulsory and 
 employment also prohibited during hours fixed for religious 
 teaching. 
 
 Restrictions as to dangerous trades : — The Federal Coun- 
 cil may forbid or regulate employment in any dangerous 
 trade. Children and young persons employed in certain 
 works and factories are protected by special regulations 
 (see Appendix). 
 
 The above regulations concerning (1) night work, and 
 (2) pauses, are replaced by the following, in the case of 
 certain young persons employed in those coal mines of 
 Prussia, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine whose shifts are of 8 
 hours duration. Boys over 14, employed in surface trans- 
 port work must not start work before 5 a.m. or finish later 
 than 11 p.m. ^ They m.ust have at least 15 hours rest be- 
 tween shifts (13 on the days preceding and following 
 Sundays and holidays). Pauses during the day's work 
 (included in the shifts) must amount to at least an hour. 
 
 1. e.g., Work which is seasonal or in connexion with which the fur- 
 naces must be kept constantly alight. 
 
 2. Certain exceptions on the days preceding and following Sundays 
 and holidays. 
 
364 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 If more than one pause be taken two must last at least a 
 quarter of an hour each or three at least 10 minutes each. 
 Boys over 14 may be employed in surface work suited to 
 their strength in 6-hour shifts without having a pause of 
 half an hour, provided the nature of the mine involves 
 interruptions of work. In each of the above cases a cer- 
 tificate of fitness is required. 
 
 Appendix — Dangerous Trades. 
 The following industries are subject to special regula- 
 tions regarding the employment of children and young 
 persons. In some cases the presence of children under 16 
 is altogether prohibited. 
 
 Coal Mines (see above). 
 
 India Rubber Works. 
 
 Glass Works. 
 
 Sugar factories and refineries. 
 
 Zinc Foundries. 
 
 Forges and Rolling Mills. 
 
 Thomas furnaces. 
 
 Work with animal hair, fibres, etc. 
 
 Brush, etc., making. 
 
 Brick and tile works. 
 
 Stone Quarries. 
 
 Printing offices and type foundries.* 
 
 Chicory Works. 
 
 Lead Foundries. 
 
 Use of lead paints and other lead products. 
 
 Corn Mills.* 
 
 Bakeries.* 
 (2) The law of March 30th, 1903, which came into force 
 on January 1st, 1904, regulates the employment of children 
 in many industrial undertakings not subject to the pro- 
 * In this case the special regulations refer to apprentices. 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 365 
 
 visions of the Industrial Code. Under this law children 
 are persons under 13, or over 13 if they are still obliged to 
 attend a primary school. Their employment is prohibited 
 in building (including sewer-making, etc.), in surface 
 quarries and brickyards not subject to the provisions of 
 the Industrial Code, cleaning of steam-boilers, stone- 
 breaking, chimney sweeping, the mixing of paints, 
 in cellars and in workshops in which certain speci- 
 fied industrial operations are engaged in; nor may 
 children take part in public performances except in 
 those of special interest to science or art. In workshops in 
 which the employment of children is permitted ; in restaur- 
 ants and commercial and transport trades ; and as carriers 
 and messengers, children under 12 must not be employed. 
 Those over 12 must not be employed for more than 3 hours 
 a day (4 in school vacation) and 2 hours' rest must be 
 taken at mid-day. They must do no work between 8 p.m. 
 a,iid 8 a.m. and in the afternoon must not work for the first 
 hour after school. Girls, who come under the above 
 definition of children, must not be employed as waitresses 
 in restaurants. The above provisions are relaxed in cer- 
 tain respects in the case of children related to their 
 
 employers. 
 
 (c) Switzerland. 
 
 The labour legislation of Switzerland divides itself into 
 
 two groups : — 
 
 1. Federal. 
 
 2. Cantonal. 
 
 It should be noted that the power of the Federal Govern- 
 ment to regulate the employment of children, etc., is re- 
 stricted to work in factories.^ All regulation of labour 
 
 1. A factory is (1) any establishment employing more than 10 work- 
 people, or (2) any establishment employing less than 11 but more than 5 
 which either uses motor power or employs persons aged less than 18 or 
 involves danger to health, or (3) any establishment employing less than 
 6 which involves exceptional danger to health, or (4) any establishment 
 employing less than 11 which is "evidently of the factory type." 
 
366 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 outside factories belongs to tlie Cantons which, have power 
 to make laws for their districts so long as these do not 
 conflict with the Federal enactments. Mines are exempt 
 from regulation. 
 
 In the following analysis some of the more important 
 cantonal decrees are given in addition to the general 
 Federal provisions. 
 
 (a) Fedeeal. 
 
 Date of present law : — March 23rd, 1877, completed 
 by law of April 1st, 1905 (with special decrees since 1891). 
 
 Age of admission of childeen : — Must have completed 
 14 years. 
 
 Duration of working day. Children 14 — 16 : — Eleven 
 hours cut by a rest of at least 1 hour; but this must 
 include time for instruction. Saturdays and Eves of 
 Holidays, 9 hours. Young persons 16 — 18 : — Eleven hours 
 cut by a rest of at least 1 hour. Saturdays and Eves of 
 Holidays, 9 hours. 
 
 Exceptions as to duration of work. Young persons : — 
 Temporary concessions may be allowed when necessary, 
 e.g., stoppage of the machinery. But they must not cause 
 night work to children and young persons (14 — 18). They 
 can only be granted for two weeks by the local authority, 
 if for longer the Cantonal Government must grant them. 
 
 Restrictions on night work. (Hours of night are 8 p.m. 
 to 5 a.m. during June, July and August ; 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. 
 during remaining months) . Young persons : — Forbidden 
 to those under 18. 
 
 Exceptions as to night work : — No concessions to girls. 
 Young persons : — Night work is permitted to hoys of 14 — 18 
 in industries where uninterrupted work is necessary, but 
 the duration of work is to be below the normal 11 hours. 
 It can only be granted for 2 weeks by the local authority. 
 
OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS 367 
 
 if for longer, by the Cantonal Government, but must 
 remain temporary. 
 
 CoMPULSOBT StTNDAT AND HOLIDAY REST : — Sunday rest 
 compulsory (under 18). No concessions allowed to girls. 
 Boys 14-18 may be employed in cases of absolute necessity 
 and in continuous trades under terms similar to those for 
 concessions to young persons in night work. 
 
 Restrictions on dangerous trades : — ^Dangerous, etc., 
 work may be absolutely forbidden to those under 18 by the 
 Federal Council. Employment of children 14-16 is pro- 
 hibited in many occupations dangerous to health or safety, 
 e.g., match-making, lead works, electrical works, etc., etc., 
 see Appendix). The Federal Council may shorten hoars 
 where their length endangers the health of the worker. 
 
 Dangerous Trades. 
 
 The employment of children from 14 — 16 is prohibited 
 in work connected with : — 
 
 (1) Boilers used for boiling under pressure. 
 
 (2) Motors. 
 
 (3) Dynamos, etc., in which high tension currents are used. 
 
 (4) Cranes and drawbridges. 
 
 (5) Transmission of power. 
 
 (6) Circular or band saws, planing machines, etc. 
 
 (7) Calenders, etc., if not perfectly guarded, crushing 
 
 machines, etc. 
 
 (8) Explosives. 
 
 (9) Heating of easily inflammable materials. 
 
 (10) Cement, etc., works where much dust is produced. 
 
 (11) Mordanting and shaping in hat factories. 
 
 (12) Chemical works where poisons are employed or 
 
 poisonous gases are generated. 
 
 (13) Tinning and galvanising. 
 
 {14:) Manufacture of paints containing lead. 
 
368 LAWS REGULATING EMPLOYMENT 
 
 Tlie above were defined in a Federal Decree of December 
 31st, 1897. 
 
 On March lOtb, 1899, the employment of children under 
 16 in match factories was prohibited. Those over 14 are, 
 however, permitted to be employed in the making of boxes 
 in the factories. 
 
 (b) Cantonal Provinces. 
 
 The following Laws relate to establishments not covered 
 by the Federal Law and employing women. 
 
 Neuchatel. Childl-en : — ^The law of this Canton permits 
 employment of children of 13 in certain cases. Girls under 
 15 work only 10 hours a day. Young persons : — Girls 
 under 18 prohibited employment as waitresses in inns, etc. 
 (unless they are members of the proprietor's family). ^ The 
 apprentice law of Neuchatel lim.its the hours of apprentices 
 to 10 per day. 
 
 Zurich. Children and young persons : — Hours of labour, 
 10 per day for all females. Eves of Sundays and holidays, 
 9 hours. Pause at noon 1| hours. Time required by girls 
 under 18 to perform obligatory educational duties is in- 
 cluded in work period. Girls under 20 and boys under 16 
 may not be employed as waitresses and waiters in inns. 
 
 1. A similar prohibition is also in force in St. Gall, Lucerne and 
 Soleure. In the case of Bale-ville the prohibition extends to boys under 
 16, and in that of St, Gall to boys under 15. 
 
369 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Working Men and Continuation Schools. 
 
 There is at present a strong current of interest in education 
 among the skilled workers in England. It is felt that 
 more must be done not only to improve the conditions of 
 work in the ordinary elementary schools, but to provide 
 some form of further education for boys and girls who 
 have completed the elementary school course. So far as I 
 can judge, however, the idea of enforcing attendance at 
 evening continuation classes without also limiting the 
 hours of employment of all young people up to 17 years 
 of age is regarded with less favour than was the case 
 two or three years ago. Discussion of the question has 
 disclosed many practical diflB.culties. 
 
 For the purpose of an inquiry into the attitude of 
 working men towards evening continuation schools, the 
 term " working men " may be held to include not only 
 artizans and those who work for an hourly wage, but 
 desk clerks and those who work for a salary; not only 
 those whose skill alone is their necessary qualification, but 
 those who, when changing employment, need written 
 references. 
 
 If the term " working men " be considered in its narrow 
 and legal aspect, then those embraced by it can be isolated 
 only through the trade unions of the country, which 
 themselves include but a part of those eligible to join 
 them. 
 
 The Friendly Society Movement cannot be considered 
 " working class " unless the whole body of clerks be 
 
370 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 included in the term. The Co-operative Movement has in 
 it representatives of all classes. 
 
 To turn to another aspect of the question, artizans may 
 be divided into three classes : those whose intention it is 
 to become foremen, those who are filled with the spirit of 
 combination — trade unionists before all else — and those 
 who are satisfied simply to do their day's work. The first 
 class will secure technical education at all costs; it is 
 represented in our polytechnics by many keen students 
 who study the theory of their trades. The best of the 
 representatives of the second class are frequently to be 
 found amongst those who study economics, industrial 
 history and citizenship. An artizan seldom finds his 
 interests in both of these classes ; if so, it is not for long. 
 In the third class the great body of artizans may be 
 placed. It supplies the rank and file of the trade unions. 
 It is the class that, even above the others, needs the 
 influences of a wise and careful propaganda. It has 
 seldom expressed itself educationally. It is far in the rear 
 of its leaders. From it, the general impression that artizans 
 are careless of their higher educational interest has been 
 gained. Men of this class are unwilling to submit 
 themselves to any definite educational influences, but when 
 they are organised they will fall into line with that modern 
 working class movement which is definitely and distinctly 
 educational. This movement, clearly expressed, as it is, 
 by the leaders, is to be counted upon as a factor in the 
 future. Workpeople as a whole are seeing more and more 
 clearly that education is the great thing and the real thing, 
 making all things possible for the man who has it. 
 
 The desk clerk, who is often a member of an artizan's 
 family, demands consideration. His work is simply to 
 write plainly; to add correctly; to use a ready-reckoner; 
 and to exercise the ordinary virtues of punctuality and 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 371 
 
 amenability to discipline. More thoughtful members of 
 this class attend continuation schools for the purpose of 
 gaining proficiency in shorthand, typewriting and book- 
 keeping. In this way they increase their value during 
 the early years of their employment, and are better 
 equipped when opportunities for promotion occur. The 
 ordinary clerk is not studious. He does not attend 
 continuation schools and does not desire to do so. It 
 may be argued that he must be quite aware of the fact 
 that wage-earning power increases with knowledge, but 
 this fact is oft«n obscured by the conditions of work in a 
 large office, and by the lack of necessary inspiration in a 
 small one. Moreover, the obtrusively studious type of 
 clerk seldom gets promotion, certainly not more rapidly 
 than the man who does not study. It is the well balanced 
 clerk who succeeds; the clerk who is educated in a real 
 way, so that the facts of his knowledge and his certificates 
 do not obtrude themselves ; his knowledge showing itself — - 
 as all true knowledge should — in character and general 
 efficiency. The average clerk does not understand this. 
 He sees the man who is obviously studious, still working at 
 the desk, and fails to see that the man who succeeds has 
 been, of necessity, studious also, though in a different way. 
 In a large office in London, directly connected with the Co- 
 operative Movement, it was found that only a very small 
 proportion of the clerks had ever attended evening 
 continuation schools, and these, almost without exception, 
 for the purpose of studying shorthand and book-keeping. 
 The organisation, in this case, true to its profession, 
 directly encourages employees, offering to pay their fees 
 for classes in general and technical subjects at University 
 Extension courses, colleges and polytechnics. The applica- 
 tions made are few. In 1903-4, only 28 applications were 
 received from over 1,000 employees, and even when there 
 
372 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 was a direct technical connection between the classes and 
 the daily work, the same state of affairs prevailed. Those 
 who had attended evening continuation schools were asked 
 what they thought necessary to increase the efficiency of 
 such schools. The unanimous answer was " more social 
 opportunities," although some felt that the efficiency of 
 evening school work depended to a very great extent upon 
 smaller classes and more individual instruction. It must 
 be remembered that book-keeping, shorthand and type- 
 writing classes are always well filled and frequently 
 over-crowded. 
 
 This brief consideration of the conditions of artizans and 
 desk clerks leads directly to the conclusion that there is 
 great need for a propaganda which would insist upon its 
 being the duty of every artizan to educate himself to 
 the utmost of his capacity in order to be of greater 
 service to the community. It should appeal to him 
 to continue his education, to increase his efficiency, to 
 add to his possibilities, not only for himself, but for 
 the sake of the community to which he belongs. Much 
 educational propaganda in the past has failed, because its 
 expressions have been unintelligible to working men. 
 Moreover, there is great danger of the materialistic appeal 
 being given undue prominence. Artizans and clerks have 
 been appealed to for many years to educate themselves 
 with the object of improving their positions. Where the 
 appeal has been answered, it has certainly not been 
 followed by the same success that a larger appeal might 
 have induced : an appeal directed not to motives which 
 might easily become selfish, but to such motives as are 
 included in the man whose measure and stature are perfect. 
 
 The efforts of working men in connection with evening 
 continuation schools must be treated entirely as the work 
 of co-operators. The Trade Union Movement, as such, has 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 373 
 
 had until late years no direct connection with educational 
 movements.! The reason for this is not far to seek. The 
 work of the trade unions has been peculiarly definite. 
 They have concerned themselves with such matters as 
 the improvement of the status of their members, the 
 maintenance of the standard rate of wages and the 
 financial operations of sick and other benefits. The very 
 definiteness of those objects has prevented the conception 
 of a larger ideal. Owing, however, to the influence of 
 trades councils, and the advanced position of many of 
 their leaders, they are now associating themselves with 
 educational movements. They are to be counted upon as 
 factors in any work which tends to increase the efficiency 
 of popular education ; their representatives are to be seen at 
 educational conferences ; their support has been generously 
 given to the Workers' Educational Association and to 
 such institutions as the Ruskin College at Oxford; more- 
 over their papers and magazines are always open to 
 educational influences. When occasion demands the 
 leaders never fail to express the importance of education 
 to working men. The educationist who would estimate 
 the forces of the future, would be wrong if he omitted the 
 trade unions, although in his estimate of the past he is 
 unable to grant them, in this immediate connexion, high 
 place. 
 
 Working men's clubs have, in many instances, main- 
 tained work of an educational character, although more 
 frequently their work has been in connexion with local 
 or national politics. Friendly Societies of all types have 
 been usually content with the excellence of their flnancial 
 
 1. Some branches of the Northern Counties Weavers' Association, 
 however, have for many years encouraged the attendance of their younger 
 members at technical classes by payment of fees and by rewards. This 
 action has been successful in stimulating the educational interest of the 
 younger members concerned. 
 
374 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 operations. On the other hand, the Social Democratic 
 Federation, the Fabian Society and Clarion Clubs, have 
 never failed to propagate their ideals by means of definite 
 teaching. Fabian book-boxes have always been in great 
 demand ; socialist Sunday schools for adults have done use- 
 ful work, and of late years the Adult School Movement 
 has made much progress, even inducing the suggestion 
 that continuation school education might in some way be 
 attached to Sunday schools. 
 
 In a recent speech Mr. D. J. Shackleton, M.P., stated 
 that he received his early education at classes in connexion 
 with a co-operative society. This is a significant and 
 typical fact. The Co-operative Movement has been in 
 contact with popular education at many points. It has 
 been frequently a pioneer. Its work in connexion with free 
 libraries ceased only when the municipalities commenced 
 to take action. A large number of co-operative societies 
 have kept true to the old ideal, " Educate your members," 
 clearly expressed by the Rochdale Pioneers in 1844. Their 
 work in connexion with evening continuation schools has 
 sometimes been sufficient for the locality, and has often 
 paved the way for municipal action. The admission must 
 be made, however, that most of the educational work of 
 the co-operative movement during later years has been 
 propagated, not by working men co-operators, but by men 
 of the educated class who have become co-operators. 
 
 The educational report of the Co-operative Union would 
 mislead an inquirer who was not alive to the fact that only 
 a portion of the educational work of the movement is 
 recorded therein. It is customary to base criticisms on 
 this report. The report, however, deals only with such 
 work as lies immediately within the sphere of influence of 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 375 
 
 the Central Education Committee of the Union. During 
 the year 1905, the sum of £83,266 was voted for educational 
 work by co-operative societies, independently of the Central 
 Committee. A great part of this sum, no doubt, was 
 spent upon advertisements and social functions, but many 
 societies paid continuation school fees for their members 
 and their members' children. Some societies expend a 
 large amount every year in this way. 
 
 Turning directly to the subject of the inquiry, it is 
 interesting at the outset to take a few typical examples 
 of societies which pay fees. During the session 1902-3, 
 Norwich Society paid the fees of 75 students; but in the 
 session 1903-4, no fees were paid unless the students had 
 been approved by examination. Only ten students were 
 so approved. The Ipswich Co-operative Society agreed to 
 pay fees at the Technical Institute during 1903-4. The 
 fees of twelve men studying technical subjects and the 
 fees of twenty women studying domestic subjects were 
 paid. The Oldham Industrial Society (Lancashire) pays 
 half of the fees charged to members and their children, 
 but the amount paid for each individual is not allowed 
 to exceed five shillings. The York Co-operative Society 
 paid, in 1903^, for over 600 students, who, for the most 
 part, attended science classes. It may be remarked that 
 very few co-operative societies of standing exclude them.- 
 selves from the educational work of the town or district 
 in which they are situated. It is especially satisfactory to 
 record that their approval of evening school work is 
 supplemented so often by financial assistance. This 
 assistance has been generous and genuine, and it may 
 safely be inferred that if the municipality had not taken 
 steps to establish classes, the co-operative society would 
 often have done so. The cases in which co-operative 
 societies have acted as evening continuation school 
 
376 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 authorities for the town are not numerous. The minutes 
 of the Grays Co-operative Society (Essex) are instructive. 
 In 1884 — it may be noted that the London School Board 
 did no evening school work between the years 1875 and 
 1882 — free elementary classes were held in the Co-operative 
 Assembly Rooms at Grays on two evenings per week. 
 These were continued up to 1887, but no Government 
 grant was claimed. In 1885-6 a teacher was engaged to 
 teach technical subjects. In 1887 classes were commenced 
 by the Society in connexion with South Kensington. The 
 subjects taught were geometry, building construction, 
 drawing, mathematics, magnetism and electricity, botany 
 and geology. The teachers were duly qualified men. The 
 outcome was that a Technical Instruction Board was 
 formed in the town, which purchased the whole teaching 
 stock of the Co-operative Society. The Plymouth Society, 
 another interesting example, gained Government grants 
 up to the year 1897-8, when it voluntarily relinquished 
 them, while continuing the education of its members in 
 the study of industrial history and economics. Its classes 
 have been for many years the most successful held under 
 the auspices of the Education Committee of the Co-operative 
 Union. The schools of the Local Authority at Plymouth 
 are also well attended and successful. 
 
 Some co-operative societies which held continuation 
 schools up to the passing of the 1902 Act have now handed 
 them over to the local authority. Of these the Preston 
 schools demand special notice, not only because of the 
 large attendance, but because of the excellent way in 
 which the schools were arranged to prepare students 
 for the instruction given at the Harris Institute in the 
 town. The children were caught by the Co-operative 
 Society, before they had time to forget what they had 
 learnt at the day school, and numbers were passed on to 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 377 
 
 the Higher institution, frequently assisted by the payment 
 of their fees. The status of the Committee as an educa- 
 tional body was admitted by the inclusion of its 
 representative on the Preston Education Authority. The 
 ideal of the Society was expressed in its official " Record " 
 for AprH, 1903: — 
 
 " For the last six years half the householders (co- 
 operators) of Preston have agreed to open evening schools 
 each winter for the benefit, not merely of those belonging 
 to the Society, but for all the young people in the town 
 who chose to attend them, or adults whose education had 
 been neglected. Time, money and thought have been freely- 
 expended, but we have never grudged the outlay of any 
 of these valuable commodities ; for we have fondly dreamt 
 that we were building up a fair structure on a good and 
 lasting foundation. We believed that the present and 
 future generations of young people, through our efforts 
 on their behalf, would, when they grew to man and 
 womanhood, raise the standard of knowledge, honour and 
 purity in our town." 
 
 The grant from the Board of Education in 1902-3 
 amounted to £1,000; in 1903-4 to £1,936. The Secretary 
 reported that the average attendance for 1902-3 was 2,129, 
 while the largest attendance on one evening was 2,492. In 
 1903-4 the average had increased to 2,500. This, says 
 the Secretary, was probably not excelled by the record of 
 any other classes in the kingdom. It may be noted that the 
 average attendance at 33 Liverpool schools was, in 1903^, 
 4,780. The estimated population of Liverpool in 1903 was 
 716,810, of Preston 114,404. The high average at Preston 
 was no doubt to a great extent induced by a carefully 
 graduated system of rewards, ranging from " thirty-one 
 attendances, trip for a shilling " to " forty-two attendances 
 
378 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 (highest possible), all fees returned, prize and trip free"; 
 but this is a consideration that may be passed over in 
 view of the fact that 712 students sat for the examination 
 of the Lancashire and Cheshire Union in 1904, and of 
 these 596 passed, 326 of them in arithmetic. Such 
 excellent results fully justified the remarks of Sir William 
 Tomlinson, who, taking " London " as his text at the close 
 of the 1902-3 session, said : — 
 
 " It was evident that the evening continuation schools 
 in Preston were supplying a great want in our English 
 system of education. Sir John Gorst had devoted much 
 ■time to the review of the work accomplished in the evening 
 schools in connexion with the London Board Schools, 
 and the result of his research had not been altogether 
 satisfactory. Possibly this was due to the quality of 
 the teaching in the London Board Schools ; possibly it was 
 not quite in touch with the future life of the scholars. 
 Frequently there was a total break when they left the 
 day schools, and the result was that what had been learned 
 was quickly forgotten. A great difficulty was found in 
 inducing these young people to attend the evening schools, 
 or, when they did so, to pay proper attention. One reason 
 for this probably was that they had had a hard day's work 
 previously, and were half asleep, and unable to apply 
 themselves to serious study. There was a want, too, of 
 organisation, which evidently was not the case in Preston, 
 and the Co-operative Society was to be congratulated 
 on the serious manner in which its members and the 
 Educational Committee had taken up the cause of 
 education, and supplied the link in the chain which the 
 half-time system so often broke. It was pleasing to find 
 that the Society had been able to bring so many young 
 people to see the advantage of a better education, and 
 the harmony which existed between these classes and those 
 of the Harris Institute was another excellent feature.'' 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 379 
 
 The record attendance for any one evening was made 
 in the 1903-4 session, when 3,246 students attended sixty- 
 nine classes, an average of 47 students per class. The 
 future of continuation school work in Preston has been 
 placed beyond all doubt by the action of co-operators. 
 The Secretary's manifesto, published upon the opening of 
 the seventh session, ran as follows : — 
 
 " It is our pleasure to be able to record a very large 
 increase in the number of students in attendance. 
 
 "As the new Education Authority in Preston do not 
 feel themselves in a position to take over the classes at 
 present, they have expressed a desire that we should 
 continue them for the present session. What the future 
 has in store for our classes we cannot say. Should the 
 new Authority take them under their own control we will 
 endeavour to assist them in every possible way."^ 
 
 " The future of evening classes will be very much what 
 the students make it. It will be the duty of the new 
 Authority to satisfy the educational requirements of our 
 town ; therefore we desire to impress upon all students who 
 have enrolled themselves at our schools this session the 
 importance of attending as regularly as possible, in order 
 to show that there is a demand for such classes in Preston. 
 
 " It is a pleasing feature to notice the large number of 
 youths and maidens who have lately left the day schools 
 attending our evening schools. This is as it should be ; we 
 feel sure that when they arrive at years of discretion they 
 will be better men and women for their early studies." 
 
 1. Tlie Schools were handed over to the Local Authority at the com- 
 mencement of the 1905-6 session. Writing on May 22, 1906, the Director 
 of Education for Preston gave the average attendance for the session as 
 1250 at 66 classes held in 16 schools. This showed a serious falling off 
 from the average attendance of 2,500 in 1903-4, to be accounted for, no 
 doubt, partly by the discontinuance of the system of rewards described 
 above, as also by the necesary leakage occasioned by the transfer to a 
 new authority and the withdrawal of the idea of the Co-operative Store 
 behind the schools. 
 
38o WORKING MEN AND 
 
 At St. Helens the Co-operative Society, whicli has 
 carried on its classes for several years, decided to continue 
 them under the existing Act. In 1903-4 300 students of 
 upwards of sixteen years of age, attended the classes. The 
 teachers are those chiefly employed in day schools, and 
 the annual cost to the Society is from £80 to £100. 
 The Secretary reports " that the classes have been very 
 successful, and the students, who are mostly the sons and 
 daughters of working men, have manifested great interest 
 in the work, and the higher Government grant has always 
 been earned." ^ 
 
 A successful evening school, with an average attendance 
 of 355 during 1903-4, is conducted by the Coventry 
 Co-operative Society. The Government reports are 
 consistently congratulatory in tone. Professor Hughes 
 stated that "the schools constitute a distinct benefit to 
 the whole city." ^ Among the subjects taught are " hand 
 and eye training," " knowledge of common things," 
 citizenship and literature. It is satisfactory to note the 
 praise awarded to these classes by His Majesty's Inspector. 
 The objects of the Society in carrying on these evening 
 schools are clearly expressed : — 
 
 (a) To continue and supplement the elementary teaching 
 
 of the day schools, and 
 (6) To form a connecting link between the day schools 
 
 and the more advanced science, art, language and 
 
 technology classes of the Municipal School of Art 
 
 and Technical School. 
 Amongst other societies which have carried on evening 
 school work earning Government grants are Mirfield 
 (Yorks.), Langley Mill, Leigh (Lanes.), Oldham Industrial 
 
 1. An account of the Continuation Schools of St. Helens will be found 
 on pp. 175 — 9 above. 
 
 2. Report on the Educational Resources of the City. Coventry, 1904. 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 381 
 
 (Lanes.), Rugby, and Roclidale Pioneers (Lanes.). The 
 Oldham and Rochdale Societies discontinued their work 
 some time ago, expressing the opinion that such work be- 
 longed to the municipality. It is not probable that any 
 co-operative society will, in the future, set up continuation 
 schools. At the Stratford Congress, May, 1904, Mr. "W. R. 
 Rae, Chairman of the Education Committee of the Co- 
 operative Union, said : — "As to evening schools and science 
 and art classes, I advise societies not to rush into the supply 
 of either. The local authority for education may undertake 
 to do it, and levy a rate for maintenance. Our duty is 
 plain, viz., to see that they do theirs, and perhaps also 
 to see that we are adequately represented on the body and 
 our views made known." In the discussion which followed 
 this view was endorsed, and the resolution passed at 
 the conclusion contained these words : — " This Congress 
 earnestly recommends societies to concentrate their efforts 
 on the formation of co-operative character and opinion, 
 rather than to carry on work or any portion of work which 
 is more correctly the work of the local or municipal 
 authority." 
 
 Although but few societies will be directly represented 
 on local education authorities, and these probably confined 
 to Lancashire, there is a strong tendency on the part of 
 co-operators, as such, to strive at local elections for 
 representation. This tendency will probably merge itself 
 into the general movement for labour representation, 
 which is making it possible for an increasing number of 
 workmen to sit upon bodies that control education, from 
 Parliament downwards. The Workmen's bench in the 
 London County Council is well represented upon the 
 working sub-committees on education. Very many working 
 men are doing similar work in different parts of England. 
 Labour men who condemned the provisions of the London 
 
382 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 Bill before it was passed, are now endeavouring to secure 
 that it shall be administered in the light of a progressive 
 theory. They stand for smaller classes, and for free evening 
 schools. Labour will not be parsimonious in educational 
 policy. Imperial taxation must pay for it {vide resolution. 
 Trade Union Congress, September, 1907). The defence 
 it would have for the nation is " brains " in preference 
 to " armaments," but it must again be remembered that 
 the policy is expressed by the leaders, and not by the 
 rank and file. 
 
 Now that apprenticeship is practically a dead letter, 
 there is a strong feeling that something should take its 
 place, and the something must surely be a system of 
 education persisted in after the boy has begun to work at 
 his craft. Yery quickly after he begins work a boy forgets 
 "what he learned at school, and often at eighteen or nineteen 
 turns to the evening school master and to the technical 
 instructor, destitute of the elements of arithmetic. No 
 greater waste in an educational system can be imagined 
 than that which in ours takes place between the ages of 
 fourteen and eighteen, or, it may be said, after fourteen; 
 because many lads never even ask the technical schools to 
 teach them elementary arithmetic. Out of fourteen lads 
 ■who presented themselves at the book-keeping class of a 
 London evening school in September, 1904, two were 
 unable to decide the total cost of three articles at eleven 
 shillings each. The ignorance of students who desire to 
 study shorthand and typewriting, if not so obvious, is not 
 less real. In one of the excellent Preston schools, the 
 Inspector suggests that " it would be a great advantage if 
 instruction in shorthand could be preceded by a thorough 
 grounding in English." 
 
 It is not the healthy, strong, energetic boy who readily 
 attends evening school ; it is often the boy of unenterpris- 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 383 
 
 ing temperaiaent. Tte former boy attends, if anything, 
 the Church Guild or the Lads' Brigade. He finds complete 
 satisfaction in the social intercourse provided by the 
 members of his cricket or football club. He follows 
 healthy, clean courses, but is out of line with systematic 
 intellectual training at the most critical period of his life. 
 
 It has been an interesting experience to work in a large 
 office during the day, and to teach in a continuation 
 school at night. The result has been to assure one over 
 and over again that the lad who has really the greatest 
 need of school seldom attends. The great majority of 
 the boys who leave the elementary day schools never come 
 on to the evening school at all, or only do so when they 
 have forgotten much that they learnt, and find that their 
 future advancement is blocked unless they recover lost 
 ground. Many of the brightest boys are amongst those 
 who thus stay away. One must confess that some of those 
 who meritoriously come on to the evening school directly 
 after leaving the day school are a rather tame and 
 uninteresting type, though it seems a shame to say so. 
 Sometimes a sharp junior, whose employer has suggested 
 shorthand to him, is there; sometimes a man of mature 
 years, who works patiently and frequently successfully, 
 and is a real joy to the teacher. It sometimes happens 
 that a social group which usually exists outside the school, 
 drifts in, and an unpopular class, such as " commercial 
 history," may suddenly find itself augmented by a round 
 dozen. The great disadvantage is, that if one member 
 leaves the whole group follows. 
 
 It has frequently been suggested that the type of 
 education given in elementary schools to working lads, 
 with its strict discipline and on occasion its personal 
 coercion, induces a distaste for school surroundings that 
 nothing but compulsion can be expected to overcome ; and 
 
384 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 it must not be forgotten tliat to a lad it is a great thing 
 to gain even that moderate freedom to move about and 
 talk which a workshop or an office affords. Such a state 
 of affairs is in itself a new life. 
 
 But after all, cannot more boys and girls be led to attend 
 evening schools irrespective of compulsion? We think 
 they can, and a few suggestions as to the means may fitly 
 close this inquiry. But first let us say that we do not 
 blind our eyes to the disabilities placed in the way of 
 many young people by the conditions of their employment. 
 Only " compulsion," exercised through the employers, can 
 remove such disabilities, and it is for this reason, chiefly, 
 that we should support a measure of statutory obligation 
 to remove them. 
 
 No scholars should be allowed to leave the day school 
 without distinct attempts being made to ensure that they 
 have ideas suitable to their age upon the importance of 
 education. 
 
 First, they should possess the sheet-anchor of a clear 
 knowledge as to the precise meaning and importance of 
 the three R's. The door of the treasure-house of the world 
 should be opened before them, and the key to it, they 
 should understand, is education. It should be impressed 
 upon them that they have hardly begun to " know " ; 
 that copy-book maxims and statements such as "knowledge 
 is power" are profound truths. The distinct benefits of 
 evening school education should be explained to them, 
 together with the reasons why it has been set on foot, what 
 it has done, and all in the light of the great principle that 
 it is a boy's duty to use his brains for the sake of his 
 country. 
 
 Secondly, the municipal spirit should be fostered; it is 
 always ready to spring into growth. The evening school 
 should be, as far as possible, the instrument of a social 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 385 
 
 institution for whicli the boy or girl has already a liking or 
 respect. Evening schools in connexion with co-operative 
 societies have heen successful, in part because there was 
 the idea of the store behind them. In like manner the 
 idea of the municipality must be behind the school. The 
 experiment made by the late London School Board of 
 teaching local history to scholars was a step in this 
 direction. 
 
 Thirdly, the theory of discipline and the dignity of 
 voluntarily submitting to it as organisation should be 
 explained. 
 
 With these principles thoroughly instilled, there is no 
 reason why the average boy should not normally pass to 
 the evening school, especially if guilds, lads' brigades and 
 clubs can be induced to work together with the education 
 authority. Above all things boys and girls must never be 
 urged to study merely for their own advancement. Those 
 who have a personal ambition can be trusted to look well 
 after their opportunities. 
 
 The curriculum of the evening schools should conform 
 as nearly as possible to a line drawn somewhat higher than 
 the line of daily work. For example, a carpenter's boy 
 should not be taught merely to plane and chisel, but he 
 should be educated in the true spirit of the craft. He should 
 be steeped in its tradition, and shown old and beautiful 
 work, being taught at the same time how to appraise it. 
 The relation of his craft to other crafts and to the world 
 of industry should be clearly demonstrated. Again, the 
 commercial evening school, besides training the young 
 clerk to be a good shorthand writer and a good book-keeper, 
 should try to kindle his interest in economic questions and 
 his sense of citizenship. Working lads must be educated 
 as whole boys, not merely as sections. It is desirable that 
 education authorities should arrange to have placed at 
 
386 WORKING MEN AND 
 
 least once a session before evening scliolars a clear 
 statement as to the history, meaning and purpose of 
 evening school education. This would tend to steady the 
 attendance, because it would give definiteness of aim to 
 pupils who previously lacked it. Evening schools should 
 always have at least one room where workmen and boys 
 can, without hindrance, work independently of the teacher 
 — do homework in fact. Many homes in which respectable 
 artizans live — not over-crowded — are inconvenient for the 
 purpose. In two-room tenements one would imagine work 
 to be impossible. A bright room — and the expectation 
 that the responsible teacher would look in to solve the 
 knotty problems — would help working men in their studies 
 to an extent which they only could appreciate. 
 
 To carry out the reforms which these suggestions 
 indicate would involve some expenditure of public money. 
 It would become increasingly necessary that a staff of 
 evening school teachers should be raised. The quality 
 of the teaching in day and evening schools must suffer 
 when the work is carried on by the same people. A 
 number of business men teach in evening schools and, 
 although they gather freshness and strength from the 
 change of employment, the teaching and the teacher suffer 
 if both teaching and business are persisted in. It is a 
 present-day problem how to secure sufficient day school 
 teachers. The greater problem of evening school teachers 
 must inevitably be faced. Evening school teachers might 
 suitably teach their special subjects in day schools for a 
 portion of the day. 
 
 "Working-class opinion is developing on the subject of 
 further education, and the efforts of the Workers' Educa- 
 tional Association (office : 24 Buckingham Street, Strand, 
 London), have been not without influence in giving defini- 
 tion to somewhat vague educational ideals. The chief 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 387 
 
 object of the Association is to arouse among the workers 
 greater interest in higher education and to direct their 
 attention to the facilities already provided. Its branches 
 are at work ascertaining the needs and wishes of the 
 workers, and in many places (notably in Rochdale, Read- 
 ing, Birmingham and High "Wycombe) have co-operated 
 with the local authorities and with tJhiversity organisa- 
 tions in securing the better provision of educational oppor- 
 tunities congenial to the industrial classes. At the Preston 
 Co-operative Congress in 1907 a speaker thus described 
 the aims and work of the Association : — 
 
 " Necessary as it is for England to develop, in every way that may be 
 possible, the technical training of the worker for his work : necessary 
 as it is that such training should be closely associated with the workshop 
 and with the practical conditions of the trades ; we believe that side 
 by side with this technical training, there should go, for the workers 
 not less than for the leisured, an education in the Humanities, an 
 education which touches the imagination, the heart and the conscience. 
 The Workers' Educational Association stands for this broad and 
 humanising ideal, and in striving for that ideal it is being faithfully 
 and unselfishly served. It has, moreover, a further claim on our regard. 
 It does not emphasise educational differences : it seeks rather to appease 
 and assuage them. It does not set itself up as a rival and as a, 
 competitor with other kinds of educational effort. On the contrary, it 
 draws attention in each district to the various forms of educational 
 opportunity which already exist. It brings together, to a united work, 
 the isolated men and women who are ready to respond to the claims 
 of education for social duty, and who wish to learn in order that they 
 may be more effective in the work of social reform." 
 
 Albert Mansbeidge. 
 
388 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Rank and File in our Public Elementary Schools.^ 
 
 In the recent enthusiasm for educational reform there is 
 hope for the future, and yet there seems to me to be a class 
 of children largely neglected — I mean those attending the 
 public elementary schools. I do not ignore the " ladder to 
 the University," nor the generous schemes of scholarships 
 provided for the fortunate few with brains and with a 
 sufficiently advantageous environment to enable them to 
 use these brains. We may, perhaps rightly, pride our- 
 selves that we are beginning to make provision for the 
 education of those who are to be in the future the sergeants, 
 if not the captaiiis of industry. We may, for the present, 
 assume that these are receiving good training for their 
 future work, and that the nation will in due time reap an 
 interest of efficiency for the principal invested in their 
 education. But there still remains the rank and file of the 
 children of the nation, the 90, 95, or in some cases the 100 
 per cent, of the children beginning life in an elementary 
 school. When the " capacity-catching " scheme has 
 carried off the more intellectual children there still remains 
 not only the larger number, but those constituting the 
 nation's greatest problem. " To him that hath shall be 
 given " is exemplified in the child to whose ability there 
 is added opportunity. " From him that hath not shall be 
 taken away " is the fate of the school and of the child of 
 ordinary type. The educational interests at stake in the 
 
 1. The substance of one section of a lecture on " The Irreducible 
 Minimum in Education," delivered to the Fabian Society. 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 389 
 
 elementary school thus depleted of its cleverest children 
 axe too generally ignored by the public. Yet in London 
 and elsewhere the right working of these schools is still 
 of vital importance. 
 
 The children remaining in these schools fall into two 
 divisions. In the first place there are the children under 
 eleven or twelve years of age as yet undifferentiated, re- 
 ceiving in common the groundwork of education, the super- 
 structure still undecided. The training of these children 
 should, it seems to me, be not only as at present the main 
 aim of the primary school but its only work. On the other 
 hand, there are also at the present time in these schools the 
 children above the age of eleven, who have been weighed 
 in the scholarship balance and found wanting, who are to 
 finish their education as elementary school children. 
 These children of the older section have educational needs 
 which deserve very careful treatment. They form a class 
 distinct from the ' primary ' children and are perhaps even 
 more ready for a change in their training than the more 
 favoured ones selected for ' secondary ' education. They 
 constitute the class on which I should like for the present 
 to concentrate attention. 
 
 A slight provision is made for a small proportion of these 
 children in the Higher Grade or Higher Elementary 
 School ; and this, it may be argued, affords the solution of 
 the matter. By no means — the more children that are taken 
 away for higher education from the ordinary schools, the 
 worse is the lot, educationally, of those that remain. They 
 have very varying needs these children from eleven to 
 fifteen, and yet in many cases they are not numerous 
 enough to form more than one or two classes. Their work 
 brings no kOSos to the school, there is nothing to be gained 
 professionally from special care bestowed on their training 
 — they are in a sense " nobody's children." And yet they 
 
390 RANK AND FILE IN 
 
 are tlie coming generation, the parents, potentially, of most 
 of tlie succeeding generation ; in' fact they will largely con- 
 stitute the London of the twentieth century. It is in this 
 stage that our schools seem to me, as I think of the typical 
 London hoy or girl, to have failed in the past. In this 
 stage there lies, from the increasing depletion for higher 
 education, the great danger, and, at the same time, the 
 great opportunity for the future. 
 
 Among these boys and girls are the admitted failures, 
 the semi- or wholly-defiant, roughly talking, coarsely 
 acting ones — whose fourteenth birthday is welcomed by 
 themselves as a release from school restraint, by their 
 parents as the full entrance into the wage-earning period, 
 and even by the most conscientious teacher as a relief from 
 ever-present responsibility and fruitless anxiety. They 
 seem to carry on the reckless, savage irresponsibility of 
 the child stage of development, and to add to it the lower 
 grade powers of youth without the control of the dawning 
 sense of reason. Others, a second class, hardly less dis- 
 couraging, pass through and out of our schools without 
 appearing to reach any degree of power or life. And what 
 even of the successes? the bright well-drilled, intelligent 
 boys and girls? They are found later in the lower clerk- 
 ships, and as intelligent warehousemen, or skilled workers, 
 as shophands and typists — passable in their business 
 hours, but in their recreations hardly more refined than 
 their duller comrades who are the drudges of the London 
 labour market. Surely some one has blundered ! 
 
 The schools cannot do everything. It is unfair to lay 
 on them responsibility which belongs to the crushing 
 influence of the machinery of industry and commerce, and 
 to the deadening environment of lower and even middle- 
 class London life. And yet under different conditions of 
 organisation and administration much might be done. 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 391 
 
 There must be some powers of body and mind to which 
 between the ages of eleven and fourteen appeal can be 
 made, some faculty which can be so developed as to give 
 boys and girls an interest in something outside themselves 
 and their animal needs, a respect for themselves and their 
 bodies which shall show itself in stronger and purer lives. 
 To these powers and faculties, it is the duty of the School 
 to appeal. 
 
 Improved teaching in the ' primary ' part of the school, 
 such as should become possible even under present condi- 
 tions if the " Suggestions to Teachers " now issued by 
 the Education Department are adopted, such as will be 
 still more possible when the physical needs of the child are 
 met by suitable food and clothing, by the opportunity for 
 exercise and cleanliness afforded by a daily bathe or swim 
 - — will lighten the task of the older section. Yet there will 
 always remain special problems very different from the 
 problems of earlier school life. 
 
 These children (12 to 14 or 15) are as different from 
 those of the primary stage (8 to 12) in the treatment they 
 require, as they are in size and build of body. And even 
 their change in size and form does not indicate at all 
 adequately the deeper changes physical and psychic. The 
 earlier period has been one of but slow growth for the 
 fundamental bones and muscles of the body, whilst the 
 accessory muscles, e.g., those of hands and fingers, face 
 and throat have been at a most susceptible stage for train- 
 ing in accuracy of movement, manipulation and speech. 
 On the other hand, the period under consideration is one 
 of rapid increase in height and weight for both boys and 
 girls, the most active growth-period coming a little earlier 
 for girls (11 — ^13) than in the case of boys (13 — 15). It is 
 again, as it was at the Kindergarten age, the turn of the 
 larger muscles — a fact which indicates that there should be 
 
392 RANK AND FILE IN 
 
 a corresponding change in employment. Mucli of the 
 work of the smaller muscles requiring fine muscular ad- 
 justment which was rightly undertaken in the primary 
 stages may now, we are told, he harmful to the nervous 
 system if unduly pressed. 
 
 The brain, which had almost reached its full size at the 
 age of about seven years, now practically ceases growth in 
 size, and prepares for that change in complexity of struc- 
 ture which corresponds to the power of reasoning — a power 
 which may still be considered, as it was in the days of 
 Aristotle, to be little developed till about the age of fourteen. 
 Surely there is in this psycho-physiological fact an indica- 
 tion that when provision has been made for exceptional 
 cases, nothing is gained by pressing on the average child 
 an intellectual training for which he is not yet ready. 
 The failure of the ordinary school course already alluded 
 to in the case of the average town child bears out this view. 
 
 The p^aMpDi before us is to consider what training 
 shojild, for the typical child, replace o rdinajTy linnL-wr^T;1r 
 Unfortunately, no such course of training seems yet to 
 have been framed on an adequate scale. Unfortunately, 
 too, those whose duty it is to devise such a scheme, have 
 not as a rule the experience requisite. Being themselves 
 highly endowed intellectually, they have not passed 
 through such a stage of intellectual pause in their own 
 history; nor, as framers and administrators of codes and 
 regulations, do they come into touch directly with those 
 whose school-days end in this dreary twilight. The pity 
 of it for the children whom we are considering, is that with 
 the age of fourteen closes their intellectual opportunity 
 for life. This is perhaps some excuse for the stress that 
 has in the past been laid on the would-be intellectual type 
 of education. But alas ! the well-meant kindness has 
 merely caused a re-action. Not only has the door been 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 393 
 
 closed, but against it lies the great stone of the school- 
 formed distaste for mental application. The same result 
 is to be seen in much the same form in all walks of life, but 
 in other eases the door of intellectual hope is not so early 
 closed. 
 
 Two interesting questions rather apart from our main 
 consideration, though not without bearing upon it, may be 
 raised here. Their solution is left to the reader. In the 
 first place, is it entirely due to different endowment of 
 brain power, that intellectual life is at such different levels 
 of intensity in different people ? Secondly, do we find here 
 the reason for the zest, unparalleled to-day, shown by the 
 untaught artisan of the thirties and forties for matters 
 political, .scientific and intellectual? the reason for the 
 emptiness deplored in our Evening Continuation Schools 
 and the cold reception of University Extension by the 
 working classes, whilst many men and women of the past 
 generation, without ' schooling,' have educated themselves 
 even in the world of books ? 
 
 The first step towards solving our problem would be to 
 recognise that a period of special importance has been 
 reached, and to transfer from the primary school, not only, 
 as at present, the children destined for secondary and higher 
 elementary schools, but those also who are unprepared for 
 education according to either of these types. This would 
 mean the formation of a new kind of school ; although 
 re-ad j ustment of departments might obviate the necessity 
 for new buildings. It would mean a new departure — the 
 recognition that it is worth the nation's while to give 
 careful thought and special attention to the apparently 
 less gifted of her children. The nation needs that each 
 child should be developed just in the manner that he 
 requires ; and it may be that from the more slowly matur- 
 ing brains of these children there may be produced as good 
 
394 RANK AND FILE IN 
 
 an adult type as from more precocious ones. To get the 
 best out of these slowly developing brains needs, in view 
 of the stress of the economic struggle, educational fore- 
 sight and special care. 
 
 To such a new kind of school, the term secondary should, 
 I thini, be applied, as well as to the schools now known 
 as Higher Elementary. The term ' secondary ' now con- 
 notes schools which provide, at least, a regular course 
 for pupils from twelve to sixteen years of ,age. The prac- 
 tical limit of the elementary school career whether in an 
 ordinary or higher elementary school is fifteen years, an 
 optional limit it is true, (the compulsory age not going 
 beyond fourteen) but one which should in the near 
 future be universal.^ Hence the crucial distinction 
 between the Elementary and the Secondary School is this 
 one year of school life from 15 to 16. Far be it from me 
 to underrate its value, or minimise its effect on curriculum 
 and methods. But the distinction is a small one, and 
 artificial, as compared with the great physical and psycho- 
 logical one which separates the child of primary age from 
 the boy or girl entering on the stage preparatory to 
 adolescent development — ready, that is to say, for the 
 secondary stage of his education. ^ 
 
 This is not merely a question of name. It involves an 
 alteration of focus, perhaps even a new way of looking 
 at things. It involves the recognition of the right of 
 every child to education, not merely in a vague sense, but 
 to the education fitted to his age and capabilities — (1) to 
 
 1. The Education Act, 1902 (Section 22 (2)), limits the power to provide 
 instruction under the Elementary Education Acts, except where they 
 expressly provide to the contrary, to scholars who at the close of the 
 school year will be not more than sixteen years of age. But, with the 
 consent of the Board of Education, a local authority may extend this 
 limit in the case of any public elementary school if no suitable higher 
 education is available within a reasonable distance of the school. 
 
 2, The recognition of fifteen as "the normal leaving age" for Secondary 
 Schools in certain areas under certain exceptional conditions strengthens 
 my case, and takes away the last argument for maintaining a distinction 
 in name between schools for children in the same stage of educational 
 development. [See Regulations for Secondary Schools, §2b, 1907.] 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 395 
 
 primary, i.e., undifferentiated, education up to the age of 
 about eleven or twelve; (2) to secondary education of the 
 type which., having due regard to the time which he is to 
 remain at school, makes the best possible use of that time 
 for the development of his po'irers. For the child who can 
 be kept at school till the age of sixteen either by his 
 municipality or' by his parents, this will be found in the 
 Secondary School. For the m.ore intellectual of the 
 children who must leave school at fifteen it may be found 
 in the really Secondary School now known as Higher 
 Elementary ; for all others the new type of Secondary 
 School now to be considered must riiake careful provision. 
 
 Let me now indicate something of the lines on which 
 such a school might, in the first case, be planned for 
 London or one of the larger towns, leaving later develop- 
 ments and variations to develop as experiende is gained. 
 It is assumed that a good foundation, physically and 
 mentally has been laid in the primary school; and that 
 (let me repeat it) the more intellectual children have been 
 drafted ofE into the Secondary Schools, whether of the 
 ordinary or of the Higher Elementary type, leaving the 
 majority, the rank and file, for the new kind of Secondary 
 School. Such a school must deal largely with concrete 
 things, the everyday objects of various departments of 
 life, not in order that their study should be an end in 
 itself, but that it may at once stiniulate the mental powers 
 and afford them matter to work on. In the case of these 
 scholars the brain requires stimulation through the senses 
 in a manner unnecessary for those with greater power of 
 abstract thought The object of the school being to send 
 forth citizens who shall be responsible members of society 
 leading thoughtful, self-respecting lives, the spirit of 
 responsibility and self-reliance must be fostered wherever 
 possible. Since these children are to go into the world 
 
30 RANK AND FILE IN 
 
 early they should, earlier than in other schools, be trained 
 to govern and control themselves, not merely to keep order 
 Tinder the eye of a teacher. Such training will not be so 
 difficult of attainment as at first sight appears, if the work 
 of the school is so contrived that the children may enjoy 
 it for its own sake. If we succeed in finding the right 
 work, this will almost necessarily be the case. 
 
 Since, as will be seen later, mental work is to arise 
 from technical in the new kind of school under con- 
 sideration in this paper, there can be but little doubt 
 that for boys and girls the curriculum should be different. 
 "Whatever the value of co-education for all, under ideal 
 conditions or even under present conditions, for the 
 somewhat similar mental training of intellectual boys 
 and girls, co-education seems to me unsuitable for boys 
 and girls of the type under consideration — as things are 
 now in our great towns with their complex economic 
 conditions, and with the staffing at present allowed for 
 schools. 
 
 As regards boys, I must, ' to a large extent, content 
 myself with general principles, leaving details to those 
 who have specialised in the training of boys. Much might 
 be learned from industrial and reformatory schools, 
 perhaps even from the experiments in vacation schools. 
 
 In physical training, it must be remembered that this 
 is a period for the larger rather than for the smaller 
 muscles to develop. Who does not know the awkwardness 
 and angularity of both boys and girls at some part of this 
 stage unless the right exercise is provided? The small 
 muscles must not be wearied with fine manipulation ; while 
 for the larger there should be a continuation of the free 
 exercises and daily swim of the primary school, with the 
 addition of suitable gymnasi\im work. In connexion 
 with this there might be simple instruction in physiology, 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 397 
 
 dietetics, and the laws of health. Wood and metal work 
 might be taken up as well as simple drawing from nature 
 and design; these things lending themselves to simple 
 mathematical calculation, and, above all, tending towards 
 good and beautiful craftsmanship. In music, the work of 
 the primary school in teaching claas-singing and giving 
 the opportunity of listening to good music should be 
 continued. 
 
 Intellectual work should be comparatively simple, but 
 with difficulties to be honestly faced. The nature lesson 
 of the primary school would give place to work in a class- 
 room or laboratory specially fitted for a simple physical 
 course, in connexion with which a few fundamental mathe- 
 matical ideas would be developed, geometrically and 
 arithmetically. This would involve simple use of easy 
 decimals and percentages — the whole of the arithmetic 
 necessary, unless practice in accurate addition of money 
 were considered advisable. 
 
 The ordinary history or geography lesson might resolve 
 itself into an introduction to the growth of the British 
 Empire and its institutions, with special reference to 
 London (or the place where the school is situated) and the 
 duty of its citizens. The Guildhall, Westminster Abbey 
 and places of similar historic value, with others of local 
 interest, should each be visited once or twice in the three 
 or four years' course; and some form of election, parlia- 
 mentary or municipal, might once a year be carried out to 
 initiate the boys into the mysteries of voting-paper and 
 ballot-box. 
 
 The study of Ejaglish should aim at making wholesome 
 literature a pleasure. Opportunity for listening to good 
 reading, or for browsing in a library, might as a rule 
 replace the ordinary reading lesson; whilst occasional 
 
398 RANK AND FILE IN 
 
 elocution lessons would discover the dramatic powers of 
 some and improve the enunciation of all. 
 
 Here in literary as before in manual and musical work, 
 we may cross the boundary line and pass into the regions 
 of art. In each case the boy must be put in the path to- 
 wards the best in art, and even led some steps of the way so 
 that he may, if he have eyes, see something of its charms, 
 and that he may not leave school ignorant of the possibili- 
 ties of his nature. 
 
 For girls — a considerable part of the course would be 
 similar. Their science, however, and much of their mental 
 work would centre round the domestic rather than the 
 mechanical arts. As at present, there would be laundry- 
 and needle-work, also cookery ; hygiene and dietetics being 
 taught in connexion with these subjects. A little un- 
 technical physiology might also be linked to this work, 
 and to the physical exercise of the girls. For this there 
 should be simple gymnasium work, and a course including 
 organised games and well-balanced movements, leading up 
 to suitable forms of dancing. The revival of the old- 
 fashioned custom of reading aloud during the practice of 
 needlework would give the opportunity of making acquaint- 
 ance with a considerable range of interesting literature. 
 As I write there arises the pleasant recollection of my 
 schoolgirl introduction in this way to Evangeline, the 
 Idylls of the King, Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic, 
 Ethics of the Dust, and other books for which there was no 
 other place in the school course. 
 
 In mathematics the demands would be even simpler than 
 in the case of boys. The keeping of accounts and the cal- 
 culation of interest, the measurement of areas and working 
 to scale in garment cutting, the calculation of dietaries 
 and of prices — these seem to be all that is necessary. 
 
 Direct preparation for the responsibilities of maternity 
 
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 399 
 
 is often demanded from.tlie schools. But I think tliat 
 their work will be done if, in addition to the rousing of the 
 girl's mental faculties, they teach her the care of her own 
 person and of her household surroundings. The former is 
 provided for in the work already mentioned : the latter 
 would be possible in a domestic laboratory or living room 
 of the following type. The capital cost of such a labora- 
 tory would not be great, and only a small amount, perhaps 
 20s. to 50s. per annum, would be needed for upkeep. 
 
 This class-room would be fitted as a living room, and 
 used as such during afternoon work. It should, in the 
 first place, with certain limitations, be furnished according 
 to the judgment of the senior girls, and should be kept in 
 order and repair for a year at a time by successive classes of 
 girls. Cheap oilcloth, such as would doubtless be selected 
 for the floor, would contrast with the good linoleum now 
 supplied to some rooms in the schools — chairs and tables of 
 the ordinary household type of the neighbourhood, used 
 along with a few simple well-made ones specially provided, 
 would soon show the weakness of bad workmanship. In 
 the first year the allowance for upkeep would supply 
 curtains, crockery (for use at school functions, e.g., for an 
 At Home to parents in this room), a kettle, and such 
 conveniences as shelving. As time went on, the allowance 
 would, by consultation and decision of the class in charge, 
 be spent in replacing and mending worn-out furniture and 
 utensils ; and the lesson of cutting one's coat according to 
 the cloth might thus be practically inculcated. Accurate 
 accounts would be kept for comparison and criticism from 
 year to year. The keeping of these accounts would in itself 
 be a useful exercise, but their importance would lie in the 
 possibility of their teaching the value of quality in 
 comparison with quantity, showing the frequent connexion 
 between the cheap and the nasty, and proving the truth of 
 
400 PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 the not sufficiently familiar saying, " All that glitters is 
 not gold." 
 
 As sketched, the scheme for the proposed new Secondary 
 Schools may appear dogmatic, but it is put forward merely 
 as suggestive. It is by no means ideal, but nothing to 
 meet existing conditions could be so. It is admittedly 
 limited in intellectual scope, but surely the admission of 
 our future citizens to the ante-chamber of the temple of 
 thought is something — at present they seem repelled from 
 even approaching its precincts. It is far from my intention 
 to set up artificial barriers or to 'exclude any from the 
 privileges of intellectual life. The great joy, the one all- 
 compensating moment for the teacher is when he welcomes 
 some young initiate into the brotherhood of thought. He 
 must not be deprived of one such opportunity. But for 
 the most part, the children sitting in the market place 
 do not respond. We pipe unto them and they do not 
 dance ; we mourn and they lament not. Why ? Because 
 our instruments are strange, our speech unfamiliar. We 
 must no longer speak in an unknown tongue, the language 
 of books, we must learn the language of the market place, 
 and introdtice it into our schools. Then there will be a 
 response. We shall be able to build up from recruits, at 
 present irresponsive, an army whose rank and file shall be 
 fit for the work of our generation; whose successors shall 
 be worthy citizens of " no mean city." 
 
 M. O'Brien Harris. 
 
401 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Trade Schools for Boys and Girls. Their Economic 
 Value and their Place in a National System of 
 Education.! 
 
 During the last few years there has been a general con- 
 sensus of opinion that better results would be obtained if 
 some reforms were made in our elementary school education 
 and system, so that it would form a really effective pre- 
 paration for the battle of life, especially for those children 
 who may take up industrial work. The time is now ripe 
 for the discussion of this question and that of the education 
 which may be given beyond the elementary school stage 
 which will have a bearing on the future work of the pupils. 
 There is an increasing number of persons in all grades of 
 life who feel from experience that in the education given 
 in elementary and secondary schools much care has been 
 given to the preparation of children for clerical occupa- 
 tions, and too little attention has been paid to the require- 
 ments of children intending to enter various trades and 
 industries. Our education has been too bookish, has 
 unduly increased the taste for mere clerical work, has not 
 impressed the children with ideas of the dignity of labour, 
 and by some is thought to have helped in some way to 
 increase the number of unemployed. The bright children 
 have had opportunities of being passed on to a Secondary 
 School if they wished to be prepared for Offices, Civil 
 Service, teaching and other professions, but if they desired 
 to enter trades or industries they were left broadly speaking 
 
 1. Part of this chapter was read as a paper at the meeting of the 
 British Association (Section L) at Leicester, August, 1907. 
 
 2 A 
 
402 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 without scliolarships to assist them or proper schools to 
 enter in which they could continue their education on 
 practical lines that would help them in their future work. 
 
 I fear that this is the result of an idea that a sound 
 education preparing children for skilled trades is not suffi- 
 ciently educational because it is of a practical character. 
 But surely mathematics and science useful for the young 
 engineering workman and builder are at least of equal 
 value to the same subjects when taught for purposes of the 
 counting house or for examinations, or for the teaching 
 profession and universities, even though the subjects may 
 be treated in some cases in a more elementary form. 
 Stocks and shares are in my opinion not educationally on 
 the same level as geometrical problems worked out in wood 
 or other material in connexion with manual work. 
 
 The training which leads to being an efficient workman 
 is not in any derogatory sense a "bread and butter subject" 
 any more than the humanities themselves, if the former 
 is properly given, and with the right aims in view. In all 
 schools broad views of life should be given, but in no day- 
 school can the teachers do as much for the pupils, as is or 
 should be done by the home life, the hours of leisure there 
 spent and the religion there taught. The contribution of 
 the school to this ideal of a broad or humane outlook on 
 life comes from the character of the men teaching there, 
 their attitude towards the work and subject matter of their 
 lessons, and the general tone of the School. What are 
 called utilitarian subjects may form the chief part of the 
 curriculum, but these may be taught in the humane spirit, 
 even as philosophy and history may be taught in the 
 utilitarian spirit, that is as a means of piling up marks and 
 securing coveted positions in the professional world. The 
 humane and utilitarian subjects of education are not 
 mutually exclusive; each has the power to make noble 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 403 
 
 characters, with, high ideals of work ; and education has no 
 other object. 
 
 "We have disposed then of the objection that clerical 
 occupations and training are more educational than 
 manual; and may repeat our criticism that for the latter 
 our elementary schools at present do but little, if anything- 
 Some people say that the country is losing its industries, 
 and there is much diversity of opinion as to the reason. 
 One thing is certain, that unless our young people are 
 trained to the highest point of efficiency in industrial work 
 it may come about in the course of a few years that we 
 shall not be as well able to cope with foreign competition 
 as regards the qualilty of work which we produce. Given 
 sound training, the workpeople of this country will, I am 
 sure, be as well able to produce good work in the future 
 as in the past, and be as eagerly sought after as ever before. 
 We have now to face new conditions in our industrial 
 system. Before the introduction of machinery and sub- 
 division of labour the older system of trade instruction was 
 beneficial, in so far as it provided by apprenticeship a broad 
 training in all branches of a trade, and we are all proud 
 of the old race of British workers. It is different now, 
 and something wider in our educational work is needed to 
 give a broad basal training to those who are to be skilled 
 workmen. It is felt that training is required which will 
 not only discourage young workmen from being content 
 with a knowledge of one or at most ,two branches of a 
 trade whatever it may be, but will render them more 
 efficient all round men, able to cope with the ever-varying 
 conditions of manufacturing industries. 
 
 Many members of " Unemployed Committees " have 
 stated that the larger number of cases with which they 
 have had to deal were persons unable to do any work 
 which required skill or special training. People who are 
 
404 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 only capable of doing one thing and cannot readily turn 
 to other branches of the same trade are practically un- 
 skilled. 
 
 Probably this question of unemployment is a little more 
 acute each year, seeing the number of boy clerks who are 
 turned adrift at the age of eighteen, either because of 
 their own inefficiency or because of the insufficient number 
 of vacancies in the higher branches of the Civil Service. 
 Such boys find themselves heavily handicapped for the 
 rest of their lives. It is too late to think of employment 
 other than clerical ; they must accept work such as that of 
 a light porter or junior wareshouseman, which is a 
 wretched prospect for middle age. That attempts are 
 being made to deal with this side of the question is shown 
 by the formation of Apprentice and Skilled Employment 
 Committees, by Reports of various Education Authorities, 
 and by the establishment of a few Trade Schools. 
 
 I would mention three or four of the interesting reports 
 and pamphlets which have been issued within the last year 
 or two; that of the London County Council Education 
 Committee on questions affecting Apprenticeship, that of 
 Mr. Edric Bayley, late of L.C.C., on Industrial Training 
 in Elementary Schools, and the Beport of a Committee 
 appointed by the Gloucestershire Education Committee 
 to consider certain proposals for the creation of an 
 Apprenticeship Fund and Labour Bureau. Also Circular 
 604 issued by the Board of Education. 
 
 The Apprenticeship Report of the L.C.C. is now so well 
 known to all interested in the subject that I need only 
 state that it dealt with the decay of apprenticeship and 
 with the question of providing training in Day Trade 
 Schools to assist children to enter skilled trades better 
 prepared and at a later age than they do now. Due 
 consideration was given to the founding of scholarships. 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 405 
 
 Mr. Bayley's pamphlet, of whicli an amended edition lias 
 just been issued, is an extremely illuminating account of 
 tlie present defects in our system, and is a plea for co- 
 ordinating the school work from the first with the natural 
 surroundings and future of the children. He draws 
 attention in a pertinent way to the advantages now 
 possessed by children in Industrial and Special Schools. 
 The Grloucestershire Report is well worth reading as it 
 deals with several important questions and schemes. The 
 Board of Education Circular 604 is a Memorandum to the 
 Inspectors of Technical Institutions, Evening Schools, and 
 Schools of Art. The Circular describes how in the main 
 the funds devoted to technical instruction may be rendered 
 more profitable by co-operation between teachers, employers 
 and employees. This naturally deals chiefly with evening 
 or part time classes, and does not touch upon the day 
 school training. 
 
 In fact there is a general feeling of unrest, due probably 
 to two main causes, the failure and almost complete dis- 
 appearance of the apprenticeship system, and the con- 
 sequent unemployment of the large number of unskilled 
 workers. As regards the encouragement of apprenticeship, 
 there are in London many Committees with this object 
 in view, notably the Apprenticeship ,and Skilled Employ- 
 ment Association, co-ordinating the experience of all the 
 rest, the Charity Organisation Skilled Employment Com- 
 mittee, the Whitechapel Apprenticeship Committee, the 
 1^. Lambeth and Southwark Apprenticeship Committees, 
 and other local Committees founded for the purpose of 
 preventing, by funds and influence, boys and girls from 
 falling into the ranks of unskilled labour. There are also 
 corresponding Committees in Liverpool, Hove, Hastings, 
 Oxford, and Cambridge. '^ Their method is, generally speak- 
 1. See Chapter XV. 
 
406 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 ing, to choose carefully suitable firms, to help when neces- 
 sary with the premiums, and to keep watch over the appren- 
 tices and employers to see that both are doing their part. 
 But such efforts as these, excellent as they are in intention 
 and result, can only touch the fringe of this question. 
 The vast number of children leaving school every year, 
 the number of firms where this kind of apprenticeship has 
 died out, never to be revived, but where new hands are 
 constantly needed, the sub-division of labour more and 
 more prevalent, all require that there shall be a preliminary 
 or supplementary education, normal and open to every 
 child who intends to take up manual labour, put somehow 
 into the English system of Education. The outcome of 
 this belief is seen in the Trade Schools. 
 
 I deal with London chiefly, because here I have personal 
 experience, and because London developments are very signi- 
 ficant. There the problems in question are most insistent, 
 and in consequence more effort has been made to grapple 
 with them. I know from correspondence that there is in 
 the provinces a growing interest in such schools and many 
 are soon to be founded, so that the experience of Londoners 
 may be of value. The provinces, except in the very large 
 towns, are not blessed, or cursed, with the same quantity 
 of enormous factories and huge distributing agencies 
 where machine-like accuracy, not intelligence, are 
 demanded of the workers, and where for various reasons 
 one has little chance of becoming efficient all round. The 
 part time school has been useful in the country, where 
 definite industries are localised ; in London, where they are 
 very much varied and spread over a large area, the problem 
 is not so easy. The number of young men attending 
 evening classes is a very tiny fraction of the great army of 
 workers, increasing every day under the influx of men 
 from the provinces, and suffering from their superior 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 407 
 
 efficiency. How many of those liolding the higher posi- 
 tions in London firms are London men ? They come from 
 the country, where there are still smaller shops, and men 
 can learn more than one branch of their trades. This fact 
 was clearly brought out in the London County Council 
 Eeports on Apprenticeship and the Building Trade. 
 
 In London then we have three types of trade school, 
 endeavouring to remedy this inequality — (a) Trade Schools 
 for Girls, (6) Technical Day Schools for boys giving a 
 special training in certain trades, e.g., the Paddington and 
 Poplar Engineering Schools, and the Bakery School at the 
 Borough Polytechnic Institute; (c) Preparatory Trade 
 Schools for Boys, such as the Stanley Trade School and 
 those at Shoreditch and at the Borough Polytechnic 
 Institute. I do not mention the Industrial Schools, Poor 
 Law Schools and Special Schools for physically defective 
 children in all of which there is a certain amount of tr;ade 
 instruction given, because they lie outside the scope of 
 my paper. 
 
 (a) Girls' Trade Schools. There are Schools for Dress- 
 making at the "Woolwich Polytechnic and the L.C.C. 
 Paddington Technical Institute; for Upholstery and 
 Ready-made Clothing at the L.C.C. Shoreditch Technical 
 Institute ; for Dressmaking, Ladies' Tailoring, and Corset- 
 making at the L.C.C. Westminster Technical Institute 
 (now in temporary premises) ; and Waistcoatmaking, 
 Dressmaking, and Upholstery,at the Borough Polytechnic 
 Institute. The training i^hese Schools is highly special- 
 ised, and modelled more or less on that given in the French 
 Schools. These are at I present the only trades open to 
 girls. They enter the School between the ages of 14 and 
 15 for a course of 2 years, in most cases holding a L.C.C. 
 Scholarship with maintenance grant of £8 to £12, though 
 a few paying pupils are taken. In my own Institute each 
 of the three trades mentioned has an Advisory Committee 
 
408 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 of trade experts, wMch examines the work each month, 
 advises the Governors where necessary, and assists in 
 placing out the pupils. Many of them have found suitahle 
 employment, and have made excellent starts towards being 
 efficient, well-paid workwomen. At all the Institutes I 
 have named these Advisory Committees exist, and in all of 
 them the hours are the same, 22 hours practical work, the 
 remainder heing given to English subjects and drawing. 
 
 (6) Special Schools for Engineering. Two Schools of 
 this character are held in the L.C.C. Technical Institutes 
 at Poplar and Paddington. They provide a two years' 
 course of instruction for boys leaving the Higher Elemen- 
 tary or Secondary Schools at not less than 14 years of age, 
 who hope to attain to positions of responsibility as foremen 
 or managers, and to whom a preliminary scientific and 
 technical training is necessary before entering works or 
 offices. Boys from elementary schools may be admitted, 
 if on examination they appear to possess the requisite 
 education. The instruction here is much less specialised 
 in the direction of trade practice than is the case with the 
 Girls' Trade Schools, and is not intended as a substitute for 
 apprenticeship or workshop practice. The fees are at 
 Paddington £2. 5s., and £4. 10s. at Poplar. The Council 
 offers 25 Scholarships for boys between 14 and 16 giving 
 free tuition and maintenance grant of £10 the first year, 
 and £15 the second. 
 
 (c) Preparatory Trade Schools. 
 
 (1) Stanley Trade School. This was built by Mr. 
 W. F. Stanley at South Norwood, and only opened in 
 March last ; it is a public-spirited effort and an experiment 
 which will be watched with interest. The primary object 
 of the School is to teach manual dexterity by plenty of 
 workshop practice. It is suggested that the expense of 
 practical instruction may be defrayed by the making of 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 
 
 409 
 
 boxes of bricks and toys, such as now come from Grermany, 
 and also models of trucks, cranes, etc. Tbe material to 
 be used is fragments of wood now either burnt or wasted 
 in tbe works of Mr. Stanley. Fee Is. a week, first year; 
 free when parents are out of work. 
 
 One or two experimental schools of this type have been 
 established recently by the Gloucestershire and other 
 County Councils. 
 
 (2) Shoreditch School. This has a definite bias towards 
 the cabinet-making, furniture and other woodworking 
 trades. The boys who enter must be working in Standard 
 YI. or a higher standard, and between 12 and 13 years of 
 age. Briefly, the instruction is as follows : 
 
 First 
 
 Year. 
 
 English Subjects 4| 
 
 Art Drawing and Modelling ... 6 
 
 Mathematics .'.... 6 
 
 Science and Technical Lectures 6 
 Workshop and Drawing Office.. 7-| 
 
 * 6 hours Metal "Work. 
 
 The fees are £1. 10s. a year. 
 
 Scholarships tenable at this School are offered by the 
 
 London County Council to boys who must not be less than 
 
 13 years of age, and are working in Standard VI. or a 
 higher standard. The Scholarships are for two years, but 
 m.ay be extended for a third, provided that the holder will 
 not be over 16 at the end of the year. They provide free 
 tuition and maintenance, £10 under 14 years, £15 between 
 
 14 and 15, and £20 between 15 and 16 years of age. 
 
 (3) Borough Polytechnic Institute Day School. Here 
 boys must be over 12 years of age and have passed in the 
 subjects of at least Standard YI. They must have made 
 up their minds to enter some handicraft trade, and not a 
 clerical occupation. The course of instruction covers three 
 years, and in a few cases of boys showing special aptitude 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 Year. 
 
 Year. 
 
 .. 3 ... 
 
 n 
 
 .. 4i ... 
 
 3 
 
 .. 3 ... 
 
 H 
 
 .. ^ ... 
 
 H 
 
 .. *15 ... 
 
 *19A 
 
410 
 
 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 four years. At present the school course is planned 
 principally for the engineering and various metal-working 
 trades, as the majority of boys appear to choose this line of 
 work. It is hoped to prepare for other trades as the school 
 develops and the demand enlarges itself in other fields. 
 Early specialisation is avoided, for all boys take the same 
 subjects in the first year. In the second year the course is 
 slightly varied to suit the requirements of boys who have 
 decided upon their future trades; for example, those 
 wishing to enter the bookbinding, bakery, printing, or 
 other trades will devote more time to art subjects or 
 chemistry than those who intend to be engineers ; while in 
 the third year a more real specialisation to particular 
 trades or groups of trades is allowed. The fee is £3 a year, 
 and the London County Council has just given twenty 
 Scholarships tenable at the School for three years for boys 
 who will be 13 years of age on entering the School. The 
 Scholarships give free tuition, and a grant of £Q for the 
 first two years and £15 for the third year. There are also 
 Free Tuition Scholarships, and other Scholarships giving 
 free education with £8 in the second year and £11 in the 
 third year for boys in Council Schools residing in the 
 district. The following is a summary of the hours of 
 
 instruction : — First Second Third 
 
 Year. 
 
 Mathematics 5 
 
 English Subjects, including 
 
 Special Lectures and Visits 
 
 to Museums and Works 6 
 
 Science 4 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 4 
 
 Art 2 
 
 French - 
 
 Workshop Instruction 5 
 
 Physical Exercises 1| 
 
 Tear. 
 4 
 
 4A 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Year. 
 
 41 
 
 ^2 
 
 3 
 6 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 V 
 
 27i 
 
 271 
 
 30 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 411 
 
 Due attention is paid throughout the three years to 
 physical development ; gymnastics, and in the summer term 
 organised games in the Institute's field, are provided. 
 An Advisory Committee has been formed in order to link 
 the work of the School with the industries of the neigh- 
 bourhood, so that boys on leaving may be fit to enter works, 
 and be readily admitted to them. 
 
 We have now to note the special features of the three 
 types of school sketched above. The instruction in the 
 Girls' Trade Schools is highly specialised trade instruction. 
 They are as yet in the stage of an experiment, and it has 
 to be seen whether they are the best form of school for 
 girls of all grades of ability, and not only for those train- 
 ing for some highly skilled branch of trade. The great 
 specialisation is less dangerous in the case of girls than in 
 that of boys, because the basis of all women's trades is 
 needlework, of which they learn the principles more or less 
 thoroughly in their school work and at home, while the 
 basis of the boys' trades, manual accuracy and skill, does 
 not fall to the lot of all boys in the same way. Moreover, 
 the recognised periods of learning are in the girl's work- 
 room much shorter than in the boy's. The instruction 
 really only takes the place of apprenticeship and leads to 
 the stage of a good improver or an assistant, who will, how- 
 ever, be competent later to hold a higher position as a 
 skilled worker. The danger of specialised instruction, i.e., 
 that of turning out more workers than are required in the 
 market, has to be avoided, and is done in the case of the 
 Girls' Schools I have described, by the active co-operation 
 of Advisory Committees of trade experts, who are closely 
 acquainted with the labour market. In my own opinion, 
 the specialised instruction would be of more benefit to the 
 girls if they had a year's preliminary training to bridge 
 the work of the elementary school over to the trade work ; 
 
412 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 this could be given in the Institute from the ages of 13 to 
 14, but far better in the elementary school during the 
 girls' last year, by which time would be saved, and a 
 thorough co-ordination of ideas and work secured. The 
 maintenance scholarship system is rendered necessary by 
 the later age at which girls are enabled to start work, for 
 they may not enter the Trade School before 14, and in the 
 case of poor parents this may be a hardship. 
 
 We now turn to the (b) type, the Paddington and Poplar 
 Engineering Schools. No doubt these form a useful part 
 of our educational scheme, but it will be seen that they 
 only deal with a tiny fraction of our future trade workers. 
 They are intended for boys leaving the higher elementary 
 schools and secondary schools, in fact for the " stream of 
 boys " in the words of the L.O.C. Apprenticeship Report 
 in speaking of scholarships " who, having won Junior 
 County Scholarships and completed their course at the 
 Secondary School, will compete for Trade Scholarships 
 either from choice or from inability to win Intermediate 
 Scholarships, and from this class of students will be drawn 
 the future managers and foremen of industrial under- 
 takings." Intermediate Scholarships are competed for by 
 boys between 14 and 17, so it will be seen that some of such 
 trade scholars will enter industrial life very late. In my 
 opinion boys leaving school at a later age than 16, even 
 if they succeed at that age in getting taken into a 
 workshop, may very possibly be no better off than their 
 fellows starting at 16 ; they may only be junior draughtsmen 
 for m.any years. Older boys with marked talents may do 
 themselves no hkrm professionally by entering the technical 
 school at such a late age, as they will pass on to the 
 technical college or perhaps the University; but these can 
 be only the very few. Parents of limited means will do 
 well to recognise this fact. It would have been surely 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 413 
 
 better for theni to make up their minds at tlie beginning 
 wbether their sons were going into clerical occupations or 
 the teaching profession or not, before competing for the 
 junior county scholarships. This broad decision can be 
 made at an early age, and many places would thereby be 
 saved in the secondary schools. Junior County Scholars 
 who after a year or two are " from choice " going to turn 
 into technical students, or who are not likely to gain inter- 
 mediate scholarships should not be encouraged to enter 
 secondary schools. In fact, great care should be exercised 
 not to allow boys to postpone the entry into the workshop 
 too long. The conditions of work in most of these make 
 entry after 16 disadvantageous to boys and employers. 
 Boys do not care to adapt themselves to workshop condi- 
 tions at the comparatively late age; they dislike going 
 back to the beginning, which they must do if they are to 
 be " foremen and managers " of the best kind ; and most 
 certainly they must do so if they have not the character 
 to attain to these positions, which all cannot have, and 
 many in consequence remain in the position simply of 
 skilled workers. On the age question from the point of 
 view of entry into works, there is much to be learned from 
 letters of employers quoted in Mr. Blair's Report in the 
 Report of the Mosely Commission. 
 
 Schools of the Paddington and Poplar Institute type, 
 then, appear to cater for a picked class — those who can 
 venture to continue their studies to an age which we have 
 seen is dangerously late for the mass of skilled workers. 
 They receive boys who come from Higher Elementary and 
 Secondary Schools, with a few of the best boys from the 
 primary schools. "We still need something for the great 
 mass of workers, with no specially marked scientific or other 
 talents, who nevertheless must not be allowed to become 
 the unskilled or defectively trained men, for want of the 
 proper facilities for foundation science and trade training. 
 
414 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 Schools of the type of the Day School for "Woodwork at 
 Shoreditch and the Technical Preparatory School in my 
 own Institute are, in my opinion, the best fitted and, under 
 modern conditions of employment, the safest for the great 
 mass of pupils of average ability. They avoid the dangers 
 of too early specialisation, and so plan their courses as to 
 give the children an opportunity of leaving at an age 
 when they will take their places naturally in the workshop, 
 with plenty of the fundamental knowledge which gives 
 men of character the chance of raising themselves to the 
 coveted position of foreman, and can be increased to an 
 indefinite extent at evening classes. At the Borough 
 School boys with no special aptitude are prepared to enter 
 the rank and file of the workers, and encouraged to become 
 thoroughly efficient in that line, not to aspire after posts 
 as inefficient draughtsmen or designers. Boys who show 
 signs of exceptional ability may stay a fourth year and 
 specialise after the age of 16, but t'his is never allowed 
 unless it is quite clear that their future will not be 
 prejudiced by it. Care is exercised lest boys and parents 
 be misled into the belief that all are destined to be foremen 
 or managers ; it is pointed out that all must begin at the 
 beginning, and by their own character and perseverance 
 those possessing grit and tact will rise in time. A great 
 mistake would be made in restricting such schools as these 
 to boys who already show signs of more than ordinary 
 ability. Their object is to make the vast mass of workmen 
 really intelligent students of their trades, starting from the 
 very beginning with a broad outlook and an acquaintance 
 with the fundamental principles underlying the work, 
 which will, it is hoped, save them for ever from sinking 
 into the rut of unthinking routine, and from being in- 
 capable of movement from one branch of trade to 
 another, should industrial conditions so require. Boys who 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 415 
 
 enter works in tlie neighbourhood are urged to continue 
 their attendance at the building with which they have 
 already become familiar, by joining evening classes. The 
 fact is, we need scientifically trained men at the bottom as 
 well as at the top ; workmen trained broadly will be more 
 independent of change, and worth more, than the narrow 
 specialist " one-branch " worker who is but little removed 
 from the unskilled worker. It is a fallacy to imagine that 
 sound training on scientific lines is not needed for our 
 trades and industries because of the introduction of 
 jnachinery and sub-division of labour. On the contrary, 
 these are causes which render such training more necessary 
 than ever both for our industrial welfare and for the 
 mental and bodily welfare of the individual workers 
 "themselves. 
 
 In support of this view I have the opinions of members 
 of Advisory Committees on Plumbing and Boot and Shoe 
 Manufacture, of which I am. a member, and I may quote 
 from a letter written by Mr. Henderson, a manufacturer of 
 "boots and shoes in Leicester, who says in referring to a 
 proposed scheme of examination : — 
 
 " During all my experience there has been a scarcity 
 of educated, trained men, capable of rising to the 
 positions of foremen, salesmen and managers, and the 
 •dearth is just as great at the present time as ever, taking 
 into account the enormous expansion of the' trade. If 
 the City and Guilds of London Institute can see their 
 way to adopt a standard of examination laid down, I am 
 ■convinced that it will improve the education and in- 
 telligence of our students, and I am confident that it will 
 improve the training of men for the higher positions for 
 -which there is an ever-increasing demand. There are 
 3nany firms who would pay much higher salaries to in- 
 
4i6 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 telligent, well-trained men, but the difllculty is to obtain 
 them. With the ever-increasing sub-division of labour 
 the boot trade will present greater opportunities in 
 future to trained men of industry and ability." 
 
 Mr. Callard, a Master Baker of Leicester, a Vice- 
 President of the National Association of Master Bakers 
 and Confectioners, Examiner to the City and Guilds of 
 London Institute, and a Member of the Advisory Com- 
 mittee of the Bakery School in my own Institute, has ex- 
 pressed to me similar opinions regarding the Bakery and 
 Confectionery trades ; and I could quote to the same effect 
 many persons engaged in other trades. 
 
 It is interesting and instructive to trace the evolution of 
 trade education (under State management) in this country, 
 and to note the indecision of policy that has prevailed, 
 now encouraging the encroachments of the purely bookish, 
 and now of the manual, ideals of education. It is in this 
 connexion that we shall see the part played by the Higher 
 Elementary School. 
 
 For the last 30 years we seem to have in a haphazard 
 way been trying to give better opportunities to the future 
 industrial worker, and we are still in the thick of the 
 struggle. First in 1872, as one result of the experience 
 gained through the teaching of science and art subjects. 
 in the evening, the Science and Art Department created 
 a special order of classes called Organised Science Schools, 
 in order to encourage systematic courses of scientiiic in- 
 struction, chiefly in day schools, the work of which followed 
 the ordinary elementary school course. In 1895 there was 
 an improvement in the lot of these schools, as they were- 
 then remodelled and termed in 1897 Schools of Science. 
 In 1900 the Science and Art Department was merged in 
 the Board of Education, and the name "School of Science"^ 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 417 
 
 changed to " Secondary School, Division A," in 1902-3. 
 From about 1903 the ordinary Secondary Schools were 
 allowed to squeeze out of existence the Secondary School 
 Division A type, and the latter gradually disappeared. 
 The friends of technical education then began an agitation 
 which resulted in the appearance in 1904-5 of Section 42 
 of the Evening Schools Regulations, i.e., the Clause allow- 
 ing in special cases grants to be made in respect of instruc- 
 tion of students in Day Technical Classes. Lastly, in 
 1905-6 came the revised Minute for Higher Elementary 
 Schools. Schools under Section 42 of the Evening Schools 
 Regulation are under the South Kensington Branch of the 
 Board, and th^se under the Higher Elementary School's 
 Minute are governed from Whitehall. We must take care 
 not to fall between two stools, and must never again allow 
 the secondary school of an industrial type (if I may give 
 that name to our new trade schools), to he lost. There can 
 be no doubt that the technical school had better be man- 
 aged in close connexion with technical institutes and poly- 
 technics, under the Regulations of the South Kensington 
 branch of the Board of Education, rather than under the 
 elementary schools branch from which the Higher Ele- 
 mentary School is managed. The former is in touch with 
 the work of technical institutes and colleges, and is there- 
 fore better adapted for the work of technical schools than 
 the latter. 
 
 The Higher Elementary School, as at present constituted, 
 will do little to solve our technical education problem. 
 We want more preparatory trade schools of type (c) both 
 for boys and girls, managed in full connexion with, or as 
 part of, our technical institutes. These with their equip- 
 ment and staff are specially fitted for such work, as Higher 
 Elementary Schools can never be. But we must at the 
 same time sedulously guard against any suggestion that 
 
 2 B 
 
4i8 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 the preparatory trade school is inferior in dignity to the 
 secondary school of what used to be called Division B type ; 
 both are necessary parts of the whole system, and therefore 
 neither is before or below the other. The founding of such 
 schools in sufficient numbers would have most beneficial 
 effects (1) in enlisting a greater interest among parents, 
 who will see that work of a rational character which they 
 can understand, and bearing on their children's future, is 
 being taught; (2) in shortening the period of apprentice- 
 ship and learning of a trade ; and (3) in bridging over the 
 gap between the elementary school and the factory. The 
 hostility of trade unions will not be incurred, for no 
 attempt will be m.ade to push boys into skilled trades with- 
 out passing through a recognised course of modified pre- 
 liminary apprenticeship or " learning." It will be re- 
 membered that no specialisation or attempt to teach more 
 than the fundamental principles of a trade is permitted. 
 Nor need we fear that too many boys are going to be put 
 into skilled trades, only to find themselves unemployed 
 afterwards. The object of such schools is to train boys 
 who in any case would have gone in for industrial work, 
 and to give them a real training, not to send them out so 
 inefficiently prepared, that with the first change of 
 machinery they are incapable of adapting themselves. We 
 must open up a whole trade to the eye of a pupil, and teach 
 him to say, " I am not a cabinet-maker if I can only make 
 a piece, or part of a piece, of furniture " ; "I am not an 
 engineer if my skill is restricted to looking after an auto- 
 matic machine " ; or " I am not a carpenter if I can only 
 make one kind of toy or athletic requirement which may 
 fall out of fashion to-morrow." 
 
 We are now in a position to affirm certain general 
 principles regarding the methods, limitations and dangers 
 to be considered in the establishment and management 
 of the true type of trade school. It is important, 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 419 
 
 1. To plan the school course so as to permit pupils to 
 
 enter any given trade at the right age. 
 
 2. To arrange the last period of work in the elementary 
 
 school course and the first stage of the trade school 
 course in close co-ordination. 
 
 3. To co-ordinate the last year's work of the trade school 
 
 with the system of apprenticeship or learning 
 followed in the trade, in order to avoid waste of 
 time in starting work. 
 
 4. To watch the state of the market, as to the number of 
 
 persons employed in various trades, and the possible 
 dangers of too early and too definite specialisation 
 in schools; this can only be done by keeping in 
 touch with trade requirements, by the help of 
 employers and trade unionists. 
 
 5. To appoint the right kind of teacher. 
 
 Co-ordination indeed is the note of the whole solution, 
 co-ordination between elementary schools, trade schools, 
 factories, the attitudes of teachers, parents, employers, and 
 trade unionists. First of all, to get the full value out of 
 such schools as I have been advocating there must be 
 effective co-ordination between the work of the elementary 
 and the trade school, and we need here the sympathy of 
 teachers, parents and employers in deciding the best course 
 to be given in the eleinentary day schools. Care must be 
 taken in the future not to devise any scheme on a rigid 
 pattern, nor slavishly to copy any Continental or American 
 methods, but to consider the genius and temperament of 
 the nation. The intensely practical character of our race 
 and its incapacity under systems of too great uniformity 
 and drill must always be kept in view. 
 
 No efficient co-ordination between elementary and trade 
 schools can be carried out without reform in the elementary 
 
420 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 school system, and here the Board of Education 
 Elementary Schools Branch can help, as I ieel sure it will. 
 The reforms most needed are, smaller classes, correlation 
 of school subjects, reduction in the number of those taught 
 as " special subjects," and, most important of all, reform 
 in the teaching of arithmetic, which must from the 7ery 
 first be connected with the elements of geometry, and with 
 manual work. These subjects should form a unity in the 
 child's mind, not be regarded as separate or " special " 
 subjects. In short, the science teaching and manual 
 training must be correlated to the mathematics of the 
 school, so that the children may see that there is an 
 intimate connexion between them.. In this way many of 
 the difficulties experienced by children in entering 
 technical schools and institutes will be removed, as they 
 will be the more readily able to take up new work. As a 
 preparation for trade schools we need sound knowledge of 
 decimals, clear ideas of proportion in relation to simple 
 problems in mechanics, rather than ordinary Rule of Three 
 problems on interest, etc., and we are not at all concerned 
 with algebra so long as the arithmetic and geometry are 
 clearly understood as an introduction to mathematics. 
 This practical system of teaching arithmetic in connexion 
 with geometry and manual work cannot justly be criticised 
 as being too special in application or as leading in the 
 direction of trade work only. The race of boys should 
 know how to measure and use tools, just as the race of 
 girls should know how to use a needle. No one is afraid 
 of teaching needlework in the elementary school, or that 
 girls who have learnt that and other domestic economy 
 subjects will find themselves incapable of being anything 
 but dressmakers or upholstresses. It is the same with 
 boys. I have no fear that the needful supply of clerks 
 will run short. Our present system indeed, as I have said, 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 421 
 
 makes too many under-clerks, and the existence of County- 
 Council Scliolarslups exaggerates this evil, both as 
 suggesting to the youthful mind that industrial work needs 
 no preparation, and hinting also that the State sees no 
 need to encourage it in comparison with teaching. Civil 
 Service, or other clerical work. I do not mean that the 
 future trade worker ought to have scholarships offered to 
 him at 11 years of age, on the model of the Jimior County 
 Scholarships; that would be far too young, but I do wish 
 to see the elementary school plan arranged with at least 
 an equal attention paid to him as to his clerkly brother. 
 The last two years of his time at the elementary school 
 should have a direct relation to the work of the two or 
 three years which should follow in the preparatory trade 
 school. This means that parents should be encouraged to 
 make a decision about their boys' future much earlier than 
 at present, but I do not see why this should be impossible. 
 The particular kind of trade need not be known till the 
 boy's last year at the preparatory trade school, but that he 
 is to go into some handicraft trade can be known with the 
 teacher's help some time before that. At about ll-g or 12, 
 the children in all our elementary schools should begin to 
 divide into groups, according to talents shown, and, within 
 the elementary school, should work with a bias to this or 
 that direction. The difference in the work done by the 
 various groups need not be very great, provided the 
 reforms in the elementary school curriculum are carried 
 out on the lines suggested above. But this re-organisation 
 of the studies in the elementary school will give an 
 opportunity of seeing, what is now very difficult to find 
 out, the kind of bent which the various children have, and 
 whether it is worth while to follow it up. 
 
 If the work of the last two years in the elementary school 
 is arranged so that it will fit in with the educational re- 
 
422 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 quirements of the trade school, then children can postpone 
 the age of entry into the latter till between 13 and 14 years 
 of age. In other words, the first year's work which is now 
 done in the Trade school up to the age of 14 could equally 
 well be done by the pupils before entering, provided that 
 the courses in the Elementary and Trade Schools had been 
 effectively co-ordinated. In this way the course of instruc- 
 tion in a School of the Shoreditch wood-working type or of 
 the Borough Polytechnic metal-working type would be 
 shortened by one year. The course in the elementary 
 school up to the age of 14 would then be suitable both for 
 those who are going on to the trade school, and also for 
 those who are for any reason obliged to go to work at 14, 
 and must continue their education solely at evening classes. 
 Another, though less efficient, way of producing the effect 
 required in districts where there are no specially equipped 
 technical institutes, would be to have the same elementary 
 school course for all children up to 12 years of age, and 
 preparatory technical or trade schools in the neighbourhood 
 for children from 12 to 16 years of age. Teachers in 
 elementary schools should be encouraged to visit the trade 
 school in their neighbourhood and find out what their 
 pupils will be expected to know when they enter. The 
 experience gained would be of great value in preventing 
 wastage and overlapping in changing from one school to 
 another. 
 
 I have already referred to the importance of a year's 
 preparatory training -for girls going into trade schools. 
 For the benefit of those who may be desirous of opening 
 preparatory technical or trade schools for boys, it may be 
 useful to consider the first year's course in my own Insti- 
 tute's school, which it will be remembered is planned for 
 boys of about 13 years of age. Such ,a course (p. 410) could 
 easily be taken in an elementary school, provided that it 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 423 
 
 was arranged to fit in with what is now the Trade School's 
 second year's course, but would then become the Trade 
 School's first year. It consists of English and Practical 
 Mathematics for about half the time, while the remainder 
 is devoted to Art, Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, 
 Elementary Physics on the Mechanics side, and Manual 
 "Work. None of these require any special equipment. The 
 metal work is of a simple character, dealing with the work- 
 ing of sheet iron, zinc, brass and copper in the making of 
 gauges, templets, hinges, geometrical solids in wire and 
 sheet metal, and bringing in the use of simple soft solder- 
 ing. The main feature of the manual work is its con- 
 nexion with the mathematical and drawing-office work of 
 the course; and it is treated as a real part of the school 
 course. 
 
 As showing the value of close co-ordination between the 
 elementary school and the trade or technical school, to 
 which the boy will go on and in which the nature of his 
 future employment will be taken into consideration 
 throughout the course, I may mention what has been done 
 for many years in Birmingham for silversmiths and other 
 metal workers at the Municipal School of Art. By a wise 
 arrangement the Art School is kept in touch with the 
 drawing done in the elementary schools, and bright boys 
 are passed on at about 13 to be day students at the Art 
 School, where they spend a year or two receiving instruc- 
 tion under the art masters in drawing and in various 
 branches of metal work under skilled craftsmen-teachers. 
 The result is that these boys are eagerly sought after by 
 the metal workers of the town, very many rising to excel- 
 lent positions with good wages. This would not have been 
 possible but for the liberality of Alderman Kenrick, who 
 paid out of his own pocket 5s. a week wages to boys attend- 
 ing the school, an allowance which enabled them to be kept 
 
424 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 from going out to work during the requisite period of Art 
 School training. Though not certain on this point, I 
 believe that this was the first form of industrial scholarship 
 providing maintenance fgr young workers in this country. 
 We come now to the important question of the staff. 
 On the system pursued in this m^atter the success of any 
 trad© school depends. My own Day School at the Borough 
 Polytechnic may supply a helpful example. This School 
 is under my general direction as one possessing some 
 knowledge of trade requirements, and as Principal 
 of the Institute; the Senior Master, who is a Graduate 
 in Arts and Science of London University, is my 
 principal assistant, responsible for the English sub- 
 jects and for the discipline of the School. The 
 School is divided into forms under qualified masters for 
 English subjects and practical mathematics, these subjects 
 being taken throughout the School; while the physics, 
 chemistry, drawing and workshop instruction are under 
 the charge of instructors who all possess special acquaint- 
 ance with actual workshop conditions. For example, 
 geometry, machine drawing and applied mechanics are 
 taught by men who have worked in the shops and have 
 received a sound training in those subjects, and the work- 
 shop instructors in wood and metal are expert craftsmen 
 capable of earning their living in the factory. The School 
 is so arranged that the boys on entering come under the 
 control of the Senior Master. It is a most important point 
 that the first year's work should be done under the 
 superintendence of the most responsible master. The 
 comparatively specialised third year is spent chiefly with 
 the engineering and workshop stafE, so that during their 
 last year at the school the boys come into contact with 
 men who know what workshop conditions are, and can 
 therefore better advise them what branch of trade they are 
 best fitted to enter. 
 
FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 425 
 
 Tlie obvious and first qualification of the trade teacher 
 is of course that he should have been actually a worker at 
 some handicraft trade among the group of which he is to 
 teach the principles. The ideal teacher will further have 
 received a sound training in the science subjects cognate 
 to his trade. A proper combination of theory and practice 
 is essential. As to who is to take the science connected 
 with a trade (i.e., whether it should be taken by the 
 technical teacher, or by a teacher who has devoted his 
 time to science entirely), it is difficult to lay down a hard 
 and fast rule. Other things being equal, the trade teacher 
 would probably be the better. The objection is sometimes 
 heard that as a rule it is not safe to entrust the science 
 teaching to such a man, as he will not have a sufficient 
 grasp of principles and will look at the trade work in a 
 narrowly practical way. To my mind, the way to prevent 
 this is not to place a science teacher above the trade 
 teacher, as, if this is to be the custom, trade teachers will 
 not trouble to make a thorough study of science. The 
 better plan, I think, is to give the trad© teacher a dignified 
 position and to expect him to take his subject in a 
 thorough and scientific manner. All over the country the 
 practical engineer has shown himself a good teacher of 
 engineering subjects including science; his workshop 
 experience has made him a better teacher of them. We 
 must, of course, guard against the danger that our 
 practical man, caught with the glamour of science 
 teaching, may be tempted to forget that the great object 
 of his work is to make good workmen, not laboratory 
 dilettanti. We want a new race of technical instructors, 
 corresponding to those in the mechanical and electrical 
 trades. Men of the latter type are needed in all branches, 
 wood work, metal work, leather work of all kinds. Sir 
 Philip Magnus in his last presidential address to the 
 
426 TRADE SCHOOLS 
 
 Manual Training Teachers' Association spoke of the 
 teachers of the future, and reference to that address will 
 repay anyone interested in the question. 
 
 In this paper, I have dealt with what I believe to be one 
 of the most important educational problems with which 
 our community has to deal. Part-time attendance and 
 evening class work at technical institutes has been and will 
 continue to be a necessary means of training for those who 
 are already engaged in the works, but adequate preparation 
 at school must be added to our system. We need good 
 citizens, but good citizens must be good workers. If educa- 
 tion could but cease to be a question of party politics, if 
 education authorities and teachers would plan it on 
 rational lines and secure the co-operation of parents and 
 employers, in it would be found the great solution of many 
 of the riddles of our social system, of which unemployment 
 is not the least. Imagine for a moment the awfully deaden- 
 ing effect on a man of the discovery that he has been flung 
 into the industrial market so ill prepared that he must be 
 tied for ever to one small branch of a trade without the 
 ability to broaden his knowledge and to turn to fresh 
 aspects of it ! Can we not realise the necessity for giving 
 boys a broad training at the outset, before intelligence and 
 versatility have been deadened? No one who knows any- 
 thing about present-day industrial conditions can be satis- 
 fied with the existence of the one-branch worker, nor can 
 fail to wonder that there is not greater unrest both here 
 and abroad than has yet shown itself. Whatever the 
 necessities of the methods of production, we have no right 
 to cramp the minds and lives of the producers. 
 
 C. T. MiLLIS. 
 
427 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Certain Trade Schools and Pre-apprenticeship Schools 
 
 in England. 
 
 A brief review of their aims and courses of study. 
 
 The reader of the preceding chapter may find it convenient 
 to have for reference a summary of the aims of some of the 
 trade schools and pre-apprenticeship schools which have 
 recently been founded in England. 
 
 It has long been characteristic of educational thought in 
 this country to approve those forms of school training 
 which stimulate the application of the pupil by a constant 
 sense of the practical utility of his or her intellectual 
 efforts. Nor has this been a mere matter of theory. Side 
 by side with our public elementary schools there has been 
 built up a system of industrial schools, in which the course 
 of instruction is based upon practical work done in and for 
 a community, under influences which appeal to a boy's 
 pleasure in seeing the work of his own hands, and to his 
 instinctive response to smart and just discipline. What 
 is best in the spirit of these schools came in great measure 
 from the example of Pestalozzi. For a time it seemed 
 likely that our system of elementary education in England 
 would comprise, under one Department, the industrial and 
 the more literary types of school. Dr. Kay (afterwards 
 Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth) and his colleague, Mr. E. 
 Carleton-Tufnell, established, in 1840, at Battersea, a 
 training school with an elementary school attached to it, 
 in which education was to have a practical bent. In 1846 
 the Education Department offered grants to day schools of 
 industry by the same Minute which gave grants to certain 
 teachers in ordinary elementary schools. But in 1860, the 
 
428 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 industrial schools were transferred to the care of the 
 Home Secretary. In the following year the hurtful 
 action of Mr. Eohert Lowe imposed upon the ordinary 
 elementary schools of the country a system by which 
 Government grants were paid according to the results of 
 the individual examination of children in reading, writing 
 and arithmetic. This act of the Central Authority 
 thwarted the efforts of those elementary school teachers 
 who might, if they had been allowed, have worked out a 
 form of school training liberal in its influence and at the 
 same time strong on the manual and constructive side. 
 The tendency to booMshness in school work, which Mr. 
 Lowe's Code caused his Department to encourage and the 
 teachers in self-protection to adopt, might have been cor- 
 rected by the influence of the industrial school, had not 
 the latter been transferred to the remote region of another 
 Department, having been previously marked off as suitable 
 only for the less fortunate or more unruly children. The 
 separation of the two types of school' soon accentuated the 
 defects of each. 
 
 In 1870, however, a Hoyal Commission on Scientific 
 Instruction was appointed, and in its reports, which ap- 
 peared in ten parts between 1871 and 1875, dealt with the 
 plan of scientific teaching in all grades of education. From 
 this time onwards (Mr. T. Twining's Technical Training 
 was published in 1874) the movement for more practical 
 education grew apace. In 1877 the Livery Companies of 
 London formed a committee to prepare a scheme for a 
 national system of technical education. As a result of 
 this the City and Guilds of London Institute was incor- 
 porated in 1880, with great benefit to the interests of tech- 
 nological instruction throughout the country. 
 
 Gradually with the help of Mr. J. R. Diggle and others 
 and under the influence of ideas from ISTaas, manual 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 429 
 
 training found a place in the ordinary elementary seliool. 
 And it fortunately happened that all liberal axid human- 
 izing influences in the industrial schools met with en- 
 couragement (though at no sacrifice of practical training 
 and discipline) on the part of their Chief Inspector, Mr. 
 J. G. Legge, now Director of Education at Liverpool. 
 Thus the way was opened for an interchange of influence 
 between the two types of school, and such interchange was 
 hastened by the educational exhibitions held in 1899 and 
 1900. Since that time the idea of introducing more prac- 
 tical work into the elementary schools has gained ground. ^ 
 Concurrently there has been a growing disposition to 
 establish what are really day continuation schools, designed 
 to give practical training in preparation for apprenticeship 
 in skilled trades. Owing to the difference in the economic 
 position of women workers, the trade schools for girls are 
 planned, much more definitely in most cases, to take the 
 place of apprenticeship. 
 
 In the following pages are summarised the aims and 
 courses of sixteen schools in England and of one school, 
 which is of unique interest, in the City of New York.^ 
 The names of the schools are : 
 
 For Boys : — - 
 
 Technical Day School, Paddington Technical Institute, 
 London. 
 
 Day Technical Classes, Central School of Arts and Crafts, 
 London. 
 
 Technical Day School, Shoreditch Technical Institute, 
 London. 
 
 Technical Day School, Borough Polytechnic, London. 
 
 1. It has been furthered by the publication of the Report on " Studies 
 Most Suitable for Elementary Schools," issued by a Committee (of 
 which Sir Philip Magnus was Chairman) appointed at the Southport 
 meeting of the British Association in 1893. 
 
 2. The summaries are based for the most part upon papers supplied 
 by the Local Education Authorities or institutions concerned. 
 
430 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 Stanley Technical Trade Schools, South Norwood, London. 
 Day Preparatory Trade School, Cockburn High School, 
 
 Leeds. 
 Holbeck Day Preparatory Trade School, Leeds. 
 Pre-apprenticeship Day School, Bootle. 
 Day Craft School, Brimscombe, Gloucestershire. 
 
 For Girls : — 
 Day Trade School, Borough Polytechnic, London. 
 Day Trade School of Dressmaking, Woolwich Polytechnic, 
 
 London. 
 Day Trade School of Dressmaking, Paddington Technical 
 
 Institute, London. 
 Day Trade School, Shoreditch Technical Institute, London. 
 Preparatory Trade School, Cockburn High School, Leeds. 
 Manhattan Trade School, City of New York. 
 
 And (in illustration of another type of practical 
 training for girls) 
 
 Domestic Science School, Prince's Road, Liverpool. 
 Domestic Economy School, Dallington, Northamptonshire. 
 Special mention should also be made (though its course 
 of study is not given here) of the Craft School, 137 — 141, 
 Globe Road, Bethnal Green, London E., which has done 
 pioneer work of importance in this branch of education. 
 It has owed much to the guidance of Mr. H: Llewellyn 
 Smith, now Secretary of the Board of Trade. 
 
 A. Trade and Ckaft Schools fob Boys. 
 
 (1) The Technical Day School for Boys at the L.C.C. 
 Paddington Technical Institute. 
 
 The object of this school, which was opened in 
 September, 1906, is to provide for boys a course of scientific 
 and technical training preparatory to their entering the 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 431 
 
 engineering and building trades. Tlie course is planned 
 to meet the needs of boys, coming for the most part from 
 Higher Elementary and Secondary Schools, who hope to 
 attain to positions of responsibility as foremen and 
 managers, and who need a preliminary, scientific and 
 technical training, before entering works or offices. It is 
 not intended that the training received at the school shall 
 be a substitute for apprenticeship or workshop experience. 
 The pupils must be not less than 14 years of age at entry, 
 and must bring a recommendation from the Headmaster 
 of the last school attended. Boys from elementary schools 
 are admitted if, on examination, they appear to possess the 
 necessary education and intelligence. 
 
 The full course lasts two years. The boys receive in- 
 struction in the use of tools and in construction work, with 
 special reference to the industry which they expect to enter, 
 and are made familiar with ordinary workshop practice, 
 the latter being closely co-ordinated with the work of the 
 drawing office. The curriculum includes Mathematics, 
 Physics, Chemistry, Applied Mechanics, English Composi- 
 tion, Commercial Correspondence and business methods. 
 
 The school keeps the ordinary three terms, and is open 
 from 9-30 a.m. to 12-30 p.m., and from 2 to 5 p.m. on five 
 days a week. The fee is 15s. a term or £2. 5s. a year. 
 
 The County Council offers a certain number of scholar- 
 ships tenable at the school by boys between 14 and 16 
 years of age. These give free tuition and a maintenance 
 grant of £10 the first year and £15 the second year. 
 
 (2) Day Technical Classes at the L.C.C. Central School of 
 
 Arts and Crafts, Regent Street, London. 
 
 These classes were established in September, 1906, in 
 
 order to provide a suitable preliminary training for boys 
 
 intending to enter the silver smithing or kindred trades. 
 
432 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 The numter of pupils is limited to 20. The fee is £1. 10s. 
 a year, and the County Council offers ten free studentships. 
 
 (3) The Technical Day School for Boys at the L.C.C. 
 Shoreditch Technical Institute. 
 
 This school was opened in January, 1902. Its object is 
 " to enable boys who intend to enter some branch of the 
 furniture or other wood-working trades, as cabinet makers, 
 carpenters, joiners, shop-fitters, pattern-makers, turners, 
 wood-carvers or draughtsm.en, to continue their general 
 education, and at the same time to acquire such a know- 
 ledge of the artistic principles of design and the scientific 
 principles of construction, of the properties of materials, 
 and of the use of tools, as will enable them at the end of 
 a two or three years' course to enter a workshop with a full 
 appreciation of the points to which they are expected to 
 direct their attention, and with an intelligence so trained 
 as to make them immediately of substantial use to an 
 employer." 
 
 The school is open to boys who are capable of doing the 
 work of Standard YII. of the Elementary School, and who 
 are fourteen years of age. Younger boys are admitted by 
 scholarship. 
 
 The course lasts for two or three years. During the first 
 year the subjects of instruction are: — English Subjects 
 (Composition, History, Geography) ; Arithmetic and Men- 
 suration (General) ; Geometry and Geometrical Drawing ; 
 Freehand and Model Drawing; Modelling in Clay; Ele^ 
 mentary Experimental Science (class-work and laboratory 
 work) ; Workshop and Technical Drawing ; Technology of 
 woods, metals and tools (Note-book lessons); Bench-work 
 (use of wood- working tools and use of metal-working tools). 
 
 The Second and Third Year Courses are on similar lines, 
 but during the third year a higher degree of specialisation 
 is permitted. 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 433 
 
 Tlie fee is £1. 10s. a year. The Council reserves to itself 
 the right to remit the fee wholly or in part in the case of 
 any boy whose parents are in receipt of not more than £2 
 a week. The Council also offers annually twenty-five 
 scholarships tenable at the school. These are open to boys 
 who are resident in the County of London, who are not 
 less than 13 years of age, and are working in the Vlth or a 
 higher standard. The Council must be furnished with a 
 statement of the past career and future intentions of the 
 candidate, and the application must be supported by re- 
 commendations from the Headmaster and the Manual 
 Training Instructor under whom the boy has been working. 
 
 The scholarships are awarded on the results of a qualify- 
 ing examination in English and Arithmetic, combined 
 with a competitive examination in (a) Freehand and Model 
 Drawing or Clay-modelling; (6) Elementary Workshop 
 and Geometrical Drawing ; (c) Manual Training in Wood- 
 work. These scholarships are tenable for two years with a 
 possible extension for a third year, but no scholarship can 
 be retained after the end of the school year in which the 
 scholar reaches the age of sixteen. They provide free 
 tuition at the school, travelling and maintenance allow- 
 ances, graduated according to the age of the scholars. 
 Those under 14 receive £10 a year for travelling and other 
 expenses ; those between 14 and 15, receive a maintenance 
 allowance of £15; and those between 15 and 16, a main- 
 tenance allowance of £20. No candidate is eligible for a 
 scholarship whose parents are in receipt of more than £120 
 a year. 
 
 There is an Advisory Sub-Committee for the whole 
 Institute (including the Technical Day School for Boys), 
 consisting partly of members of the London County 
 Council, partly of employers and others interested in the 
 work. 
 
 2 c 
 
434 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 (4) The Technical Day School for Boys at the Borough 
 Polytechnic Institute. 
 
 The Technical Day School for Boys at the Borough 
 Polytechnic was opened in 1897, ,and re-organised in 1906 
 to afford opportunities for preparatory trade training 
 which would give London hoys better chances than 
 they had hitherto had of becoming skilled workers. 
 At present the work of the school is planned with a view 
 principally to the needs of boys desiring to enter the 
 engineering and various metal-working trades, but it is 
 intended to prepare for other trades {e.g., chemical, book- 
 binding, tailoring, bakery and confectionery trades) as 
 opportunity offers. Boys are eligible for admission who 
 are over 12 years of age and have passed the Vlth Standard 
 of an elementary school, or have received an equivalent 
 education, and can show that they possess sufficient ability 
 to profit by the instruction. They must also have made 
 up their minds that they intend to enter some handicraft 
 trade. A certificate of good conduct is required from the 
 school last attended. 
 
 The course ordinarily lasts for three years, but may be 
 extended to four years. The subjects of instruction in- 
 clude General English Subjects (including special lectures 
 and visits to museums and works) ; Practical Mathematics 
 (including mensuration and geometry) ; Freehand and 
 Model Drawing (including the making of dimensioned 
 sketches from actual objects in use, such as pieces of 
 apparatus, parts of machines, etc.) ; Mechanical and 
 Engineering Drawing ; Mechanics ; Physics and Chemistry ; 
 "Wood and Metal Work; One Modern Foreign Language 
 (French or German) ; Physical Exercises. 
 
 During the first year the course of instruction is common 
 to all boys. In the second year, slight modifications are 
 allowed when it is known what the future requirements of 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 435 
 
 individual boys are likely to be, but no real specialisation 
 is permitted until the third year, when the pupils are 
 allowed to devote considerable time to workshop and other 
 instruction suitable to the particular trade or occupation 
 they wish to follow. For boys of special aptitude who 
 wish to take a fourth year's course, further specialisation 
 can be arranged. A reasonable amount of home work is 
 required of all the pupils. The physical development of 
 the boys is well cared for, and organised games are played 
 in the field belonging to the Institute. 
 
 The fee is £1 a term or £3 a year. Twenty scholarships, 
 giving free tuition and a maintenance allowance (£6 for 
 the first two years, £15 for the third) are offered by the 
 County Council to boys who will be 13 years of age on 
 entering the school. In addition, a limited number of 
 entrance exhibitions giving free tuition, and renewable 
 year by year, are awarded by the Governors. Certain local 
 exhibitions and scholarships are also tenable at the school. 
 
 An Advisory Council of employers has been formed in 
 connexion with the school, so as to link the education given 
 with the industries of the neighbourhood, and to help the 
 boys to find suitable positions on leaving. 
 
 (5) The Stanley Technical Trade Schools. 
 
 The Stanley Trade School, founded by Mr. W. F. 
 Stanley, of the firm of optical and scientific instrument 
 makers, was opened in March, 1907. The aim of the school 
 is to teach the rudiments of mechanics, science and applied 
 art to boys having a taste for these subjects, in order to 
 prepare them for entering into apprenticeships in 
 mechanical trades with considerable knowledge of the 
 work they may have to do. The school, which has been 
 built and equipped at Mr. Stanley's expense, is situated in 
 South Norwood. It has been placed by Mr. Stanley under 
 
436 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 a Board of Governors, consisting of the Mayor of the 
 Borough and others interested in educational work. 
 
 Boys between 12 and 13 years, of age are eligible for 
 admission, and it is proposed to take fifty such boys into 
 the school every four months until the number reaches 
 four hundred. Should the number of candidates exceed 
 the number of vacancies, choice will be made of those boys 
 who seem most likely to profit by the special training — the 
 sons of mechanics, for instance, and boys who have already 
 shown special mechanical or artistic ability. Good work 
 in the public elementary schools from which the candidates 
 come, will also be taken into account. The boys must be 
 of good character and are expected to be punctual and 
 regular in attendance. The right is reserved of termin- 
 ating the attendance of any boy who, either through want 
 of intelligence and special aptitude, or through lack ■ of 
 interest and application to his work, proves himself unfit 
 to profit by the training given at the school. 
 
 The subjects of instruction will depend partly upon the 
 intelligence and needs of the individual boys, who will so 
 far as possible be pushed forward in that branch of 
 mechanics in which they are capable of doing the best 
 work. They will begin with different forms of wood- 
 work — flatwork, turning and rough carving, — and will go 
 on to work in metals^fitting, turning, casting, soldering, 
 and electro-deposition. All pupils will take drawing, in- 
 cluding freehand and mechanical drawing, and more ad- 
 vanced students will have opportunities of learning print- 
 ing, painting, modelling, designing, chasing, engraving, 
 and carving in wood and stone. Half the time each day 
 will be devoted to subjects of general education, and half 
 to technical and artistic training. In his address at the 
 opening of the school, Mr. Stanley suggested that the ex- 
 penses of the practical instruction in this and similar 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 437 
 
 schools might be partly met by the manufacture for sale 
 of toys, boxes of bricks, etc., such as are now imported 
 from Germany, and also of models of machinery, cranes, 
 trucks, etc. The material used for this purpose in the 
 Stanley Schools consists of small pieces of wood which 
 would otherwise be burnt or wasted at Mr. Stanley's works. 
 It is hoped that in the future the students will be able to 
 construct pieces of scientific apparatus which are now im- 
 ported from abroad for teaching purposes. 
 
 The practical technical instruction is to be given by 
 intelligent mechanics — joiners, engineers and others, — but 
 the general work of the school will be in the hands of 
 certificated teachers. 
 
 The fee has been fixed at Is. a week for the first year, 
 or until such time as the pupil's work becomes of com- 
 mercial value. In the second year the instruction will 
 be free and in the third, the pupils are to receive a value 
 consideration for their work. It is not proposed as a rule 
 to keep boys at the school after they are fifteen, but an 
 exception will be made in the case of those who may wish 
 to become teachers. 
 
 (6) The Day Preparatory Trade School for Boys at the 
 Cockburn High School, Leeds. 
 
 The object of this school, which was opened in 1906, is 
 to provide, for boys who propose to enter the engineering 
 trade, a brief period of thoroughly practical training and 
 instruction such as may help to counteract the effects of 
 the disappearance of the old system of apprenticeship. It 
 is open to boys of fourteen years of age, or of thirteen, if 
 they have obtained, or are entitled to obtain, a labour 
 certificate. The normal length of the course is one year, 
 and a formal undertaking is required on behalf of each 
 pupil that he will not be withdrawn, except with the con- 
 
438 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 sent of the Education Committee, before the completion of 
 the one year's course. No pupil is retained in the school 
 after it has been definitely ascertained that he is unlikely 
 to profit by the course so as to develop ultimately into a 
 skilled worker. Fifteen hours a week are devoted to work- 
 shop practice, drawing office work and practical mechanics, 
 and five hours to workshop calculations and practical 
 mathematics. Instruction is given by practical men who 
 have themselves been through the engineering shops. The 
 fee is 7s. a term. All books, stationery and apparatus re- 
 quired for use in the school are supplied free of charge, 
 but parents are strongly recommended to buy such articles 
 as reading-books and drawing apparatus for independent 
 home use. 
 
 Every endeavour is made to keep in touch with the re- 
 quirements of the engineering shops of the city, so that 
 there may be no difficulty in placing the boys when they 
 leave the school. Several employers in the neighbourhood 
 have signified their approval of the scheme, and their in- 
 tention to accept boys who have been through the course of 
 training, and are recommended by the school authorities 
 as efficient. 
 
 (7) The Holbeck Day Preparatory Trade School, Leeds. 
 
 A two years' course of training for the engineering 
 trades is given at the Holbeck Day Preparatory Trade 
 School in Leeds, which was opened in February, 1906. 
 The curriculum is planned with the object of improving a 
 boy's general education, developing his common sense and 
 reasoning power, and of enabling him to acquire the 
 manual dexterity necessary to ensure that he shall be put 
 at once to useful work when he enters the engineering 
 shops. The course of instruction includes, for the first 
 year : — 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 439 
 
 ical). 
 
 Mathematics (pract 
 Mecliaiiics 
 Technical Drawing 
 Metal Work 
 Wood Work 
 English . . . 
 Drill 
 
 Total 
 
 5 hours per week. 
 3 
 
 6 
 2 
 6 
 1 
 
 . 271 
 
 Visits to worksj rambles, etc., are also arranged. 
 
 The second year's course is on similar, hut more ad- 
 vanced lines, and students of exceptional promise are 
 encouraged to specialise in their work. 
 
 The school is open to any boy who has attended an 
 elementary school regularly and is thirteen years of age. 
 Parents are required to give an undertaking that they will 
 not withdraw a pupil within one year without the consent 
 of the Education Committee, and regular and punctual 
 attendance are insisted upon. 
 
 The fee is 7s. a term or £1. Is. a year. All books, instru- 
 ments and apparatus are provided free of charge. 
 
 (8) The Pre- Apprenticeship Day School at the Bootle 
 Technical School. 
 
 The principal aim of the Pre-Apprenticeship School at 
 Bootle is to provide a special form of training for the sons 
 of artizans, tradesmen and others who intend to enter 
 industrial occupations. While due regard is paid to the 
 general education of the pupils, special attention is devoted 
 to giving a sound training in the elements of science 
 applied to the industries of the district, e.g., mechanical 
 engineering and the building trades. The full course, 
 which extends over two years, is intended to lead to 
 apprenticeship at about 16 years of age. Class-room in- 
 
440 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 struction is given in drawing; practical mathematics and 
 workshop arithmetic; elementary chemistry, physics and 
 mechanics, with experimental work; geometrical and 
 mechanical drawing, with practice in making dimensional 
 hand-sketches; and English, with a special view to good 
 and clear expression. In addition, ten hours a week are 
 spent m the school workshop acquiring skill in handicraft 
 work, chiefly in metals. To be eligible for admission boys 
 must be not less than thirteen years of age and must have 
 passed the Vllth standard in a public elementary school. 
 The fee is Is. a week. 
 
 (9) The Day Craft School at the Brim^combe Polytechnic, 
 near Stroud. 
 
 An interesting account of this school, which was opened 
 in September, 1906, is given by Mr. J. C. Medd, in an 
 article published in School for April, 1907. Arrangements 
 were made, so long ago as 1901, for utilising the workshops 
 at the Brimscombe Polytechnic for the purpose of giving 
 manual instruction in the daytime to the elder pupils 
 from the neighbouring elementary schools, and the success 
 of these classes encouraged the authorities to try the 
 further experiment of a day craft school for boys. The 
 course of studies is arranged principally with a view to 
 preparing the boys to enter one or other of the various 
 wood-working industries of the neighbourhood — the 
 making of umbrella and walking-stick handles, carpentry, 
 joinery, cabinet-making, wood-carving, inlaying and 
 marquetry, wood-staining and imitation marquetry. All 
 the practical work is associated with drawing. Half 
 the time of the pupils is devoted to some form of manual 
 instruction and half to more general subjects. The whole 
 curriculum is carefully arranged so as to meet the practical 
 needs of the pupils, and includes (in addition to the 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 441 
 
 manual wort in wood or metals) commercial geography, 
 simple accounts, mensuration, the nature and properties of 
 material, elementary experimental science, essay writing 
 and physical culture. 
 
 Boys of 12 years of age are eligible for admission, and 
 the course extends over two years. The school is recognized 
 by the Board of Education as a public elementary school. 
 
 The experiment is entirely due to local initiative. The 
 manufacturers of the district have realized the value of 
 such a school, and have co-operated with managers, teachers 
 and parents to make it a real preparation for the after life 
 of the pupils. The results, even in the short time the 
 school has been open, have been so satisfactory that the 
 County Education Committee have decided to establish 
 another school of the same kind at Stroud. 
 
 B. TuADE Schools fob, Giels. 
 
 (1) The Day Trade School for Girls at the Borough Poly- 
 technic Institute. 
 
 The first of the Day Trade Schools for Girls to be estab- 
 lished in London is the school for teaching Waistcoat- 
 making, Dressmaking and Upholstery at the Borough Poly- 
 technic. The aim of the school is to give the pupils a 
 thorough preliminary training in a skilled trade, and at 
 the same time to continue their general education so as to 
 develop their intelligence and to enable them, after two 
 or three years of workroom experience, to become the 
 skilled intelligent workers for whom there is always 
 demand. The course of instruction includes one of the 
 three trade subjects — ^Waistcoat-making, Dressmaking or 
 Upholstery — according to the choice of the pupil, and 
 English, practical arithmetic, geometrical drawing, design 
 with reference to the trade work of each section and 
 physical exercises. About twenty-two hours each week are 
 
442 
 
 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 given to the trade subject. For each of the three trades 
 there is an advisory committee of trade experts, which 
 examines the work, advises the governors and helps in 
 placing out the pupils. The length of the course is two 
 years, and pupils are expected to be willing to stay that 
 length of time at the school. They may, however, be per- 
 mitted to leave sooner if, in the opinion of the Advisory 
 Committee, they are ready for the workroom. Admission 
 is either by industrial scholarships awarded by the London 
 County Council or by payment of a fee of 9d. a week or 
 10s. a term. Candidates for admission without scholar- 
 ships must be at least 14 years of age, and must have 
 passed Standard VII of the elementary day school. They 
 must also bring a recommendation from the headmistress 
 of the school last attended, and must give evidence of 
 ability to sew well. The scholarships provide free instruc- 
 tion, and a grant for maintenance of £8 for the first year 
 and £12 for the second year. Candidates must be between 
 14 and 16 years of age, and if coming from, a public ele- 
 mentary school must be working in the Vlth or a higher 
 standard. 
 
 (2) The Day Trade School of DresSTnaJcing at the Woolwich 
 Polytechnic. 
 The Trade School of Dressmaking at the Woolwich 
 Polytechnic was opened on April 23rd, 1907. The course 
 of instruction includes : — 
 
 Trade Work (dressmaking) 
 
 English 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Geometrical Drawing ... 
 Design and Art Needlework 
 Physical Exercises 
 
 Total 
 
 20 hours per week. 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 291 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 443 
 
 Tlirouglioiit the trade work instruction is given in the 
 suitability of materials of various kinds for carrying out 
 the different processes of dressmaking; in calculation of 
 quantities and cost; in adaptation of styles to various 
 figures ; and in the blending of colours. The aim through- 
 out the whole course is to train the eye and cultivate the 
 taste of the pupil as well as to make her an efficient hand 
 worker. All the trade instruction is given by teachers who 
 have had practical experience of trade work. The English 
 teaching is planned with a view to enabling the girls to 
 express themselves intelligently in conversation, and in 
 letter writing. But at the same time as much as possible 
 is done to give the girls an interest in books and to culti- 
 vate a taste for reading. 
 
 Admission to the school is by means of scholarships 
 given by the London County Council or by the payment of 
 a small fee. A certain number of free places are granted 
 by the governors. The scholarships which give free 
 tuition, and carrying with them maintenance grants of £8 
 for the first year and £12 for the second year, are awarded 
 on the results of a qualifying examination in English, 
 arithmetic and composition, combined with a competitive 
 examination in drawing and needlework. Candidates 
 must be resident in the County of London, must be between 
 14 and 16 years of age, and must be working in the Vlth 
 or a higher standard of an elementary school. 
 
 A Consultative Committee of trade experts supervises 
 the work of the school. They meet at the Polytechnic 
 and look through all the work done by the girls, criticise 
 it and where necessary make suggestions for its improve- 
 ment. 
 
 As time goes on, it is hoped that it may be possible to 
 encourage social activities in connexion with the school. 
 
444 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 (3) The Day Trade School of DressTnaking of the L.C.C. 
 Paddington Technical Institute. 
 
 The object of the Day Trade School of Dressmaking at 
 the Paddington Technical Institute is to afford to girls 
 leaving the elementary schools an industrial training in 
 dressmaking which shall take the place of apprenticeship. 
 About five half days each week are devoted to trade in- 
 struction, the rest of the time is given to the improvement 
 of the general education of the pupil, but with special 
 reference to the requirements of the trade. The subjects 
 of instruction in addition to the trade subject of dress- 
 m.aking are : — 
 
 English literature and composition. 
 
 Vocal expression. 
 
 Arithmetic and bookkeeping. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 French. 
 
 Domestic economy. 
 
 Physical exercises. 
 
 The length of the course is, as a rule, two years, with a 
 probationary period of three months. 
 
 The school is intended primarily for girls leaving the 
 public elementary schools between 14 and 16 years of age 
 who desire to become dressmakers, but other girls are ad- 
 mitted without reference to age on the payment of a fee of 
 10s. a term or £1. 10s. a year. 
 
 Scholarships giving free tuition and carrying a main- 
 tenance grant are awarded by the County Council on the 
 same conditions as those described in connexion with the 
 Woolwich School. No charge is made to pupils for 
 material, but the finished work cannot be taken away with- 
 out payment of the cost of materials. 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 445 
 
 A Consultative Committee of trade employers and social 
 workers, who are experts, is attached to the school, with 
 the duty of advising the Council on all matters affecting 
 its welfare. 
 
 (4) The Day Trade School for Girls at the L.C.C. Shore- 
 
 ditch Technical Institute. 
 
 The Girls' Trade School at the Shoreditch Technical 
 Institute was opened on April 30th, 1906, with the ohject 
 of affording an industrial training in skilled trades to girls 
 on leaving the elementary school. It is intended that this 
 training shall take the place of apprenticeship. The trade 
 subjects taken are the designing and making of ready- 
 made clothing and upholstery. Ahout half the school 
 time is given to practice in one or other of these trades 
 according to the choice of the pupil and the other half to 
 general subjects in the teaching of which the requirements 
 of the particular trade are always kept in view. The 
 general side of the curriculum includes English composi- 
 tion, arithmetic, freehand and geometrical drawing, 
 design, some domestic subjects and physical exercises. The 
 course extends over two years. Admission is by payment 
 or by scholarship as at the Paddington School. The work 
 is under the supervision of a Consultative Committee of 
 experts. 
 
 (5) Preparatory Trade School for Girls at the Cockburn 
 
 High School, Leeds. 
 
 The Preparatory Trade School for Girls in Leeds was 
 opened in February, 1906. The aim of the school is to 
 provide for girls a brief period of thoroughly practical 
 training such as will help to counteract the effects of the 
 disappearance of the old system of apprenticeship. Every 
 effort is made to enlist the sympathy of employers so as to 
 
446 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 establish a connexion between the school and the work- 
 room. About fifteen hours a week are given to practical 
 work, drafting, drawing and design, and hygiene; the re- 
 mainder to housewifery, to the more mechanical details of 
 business methods and to general education. The normal 
 length of course is one year, and a formal declaration is 
 required on behalf of each pupil accepted that she will not 
 be withdrawn, except with the permission of the Education 
 Committee, before the completion of the one year's course. 
 !N"o pupil is retained in the school after it has been 
 definitely ascertained that she is unlikely to profit by the 
 training given, so as to develop into a skilled worker. The 
 school is open to girls of 14 years of age and to those of 
 not less than 13 years of age, who have obtained, or are 
 entitled to obtain, a labour certificate. A fee of 7s. a term 
 is charged to all pupils. This includes books, stationery 
 and apparatus for use in school, but parents are strongly 
 recommended to buy for home use such articles as drawing 
 apparatus and reading books. 
 
 This school seems to be more general in its scope than 
 the London Trade Schools. The nature of the practical 
 work is not specified, and the intention seems to be to 
 adapt the course either to the needs of girls who intend 
 afterwards to become cooks, pastry-cooks or confectioners, 
 or to the needs of those who will afterwards enter one of 
 the industries based upon needlework. The close con- 
 nexion of the Trade School with the School of Housecraft 
 at the Cockburn High School, makes it possible to meet 
 these two needs in the same school. 
 
 (6) The Manhattan Trade School for Girls, City of New 
 York. 
 
 The Manhattan Day Trade School was opened in 1903, 
 with four very definite aims. It purposed to offer to a 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 447 
 
 girl wIlo must work for her living, and whose intention it 
 was to enter either the dressmaking, millinery, or fancy 
 box-making trades : 
 
 (1) A training that would make her highly skilled in a 
 specific trade as quickly as her individual ability would 
 allow, and so help her to earn a better wage. 
 
 (2) A training that would enable her to enter more than 
 one group of allied trades, because she understood the 
 principles underlying the trades included in this group. 
 
 (3) A training that would fit her mentally and physically 
 to cope with the conditions of shop life and shop work in 
 the trades open to women. 
 
 (4) A training that would enable her to understand her 
 relation to her employer, to her fellow worker and to her 
 work. 
 
 It is claimed for the school that it has all the advantages 
 of the apprentice system with none of its narrowness and 
 wastefulness. As a trade learner a girl frequently becomes 
 an employer's handy assistant rather than a trade appren- 
 tice, but at the school the whole of a girl's time is spent 
 in gaining trade efficiency. All the more general and 
 artistic training that the school offers is properly co- 
 ordinated with the trade work. At the same time it is not 
 forgotten that a girl's training should fit her for the home 
 as well as for industry. Though no training is given in 
 house-keeping, the school, by encouraging habits of 
 accuracy, of regularity and of observation, is indirectly a 
 valuable training for home-keeping. It endeavours to be 
 a preparation for life as well as for industry. 
 
 The school, which is independent of the public school 
 system of the city, is under a Board of Administrators, and 
 has attached to it an influential Advisory Board. Its 
 Director, Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, is also Director of 
 the Domestic Art Department of Teachers' College, 
 
448 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 Columbia University. In the new building whicli has 
 lately been secured for the school, it is calculated that from 
 500 to 800 day pupils can be accommodated. During the 
 year 1906, the number of girls admitted to the day classes 
 was 385, and to the evening classes 60. In the old building 
 the expense per head has been as high as |168 (£33. 12s.), 
 but it is hoped that in future the cost per head may be 
 reduced as low as |80 (£16). 
 
 The trade work school is organised in four departments, 
 viz. : — 
 
 (1) The Power Operating Department, in which all 
 kinds of machine work (buttonholing, hemstitching, em- 
 broidery, straw-sewing, etc.) are done. 
 
 (2) The Hand-sewing Department, in which all kinds of 
 hand-sewing from elementary work to advanced dress- 
 making are taught. 
 
 (3) The Pasting Department, in which instruction is 
 given in silk and cretonne novelty work, and in jewellery 
 and silver ware case making. 
 
 (4) The Millinery Department, for instruction in frame- 
 making, advanced hat making, and in the expert uses of 
 malines, chiffons, and other materials in hats and neck- 
 ware. 
 
 There is also a Business Shop, where trade orders are 
 received. The taking of order work is felt to be an ad- 
 vantage to the school in that it helps to give seriousness to 
 the work of the classes, but the difficulties connected with 
 it are serious. Such orders must be finished to time, while 
 the hours of trade work in the school are limited, and the 
 constant repetition of the same process ceases after a time 
 to be of value to the student. To obviate these difficulties a 
 business shop with its own paid workers doing the work 
 which the students cannot or should not do, has been found 
 necessary. 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 449 
 
 In the Store, whicli is a new departure made possible by 
 the acquisition of the larger building, the various kinds of 
 departmental work are displayed so as to facilitate the 
 taking of order work. In connexion with this branch of 
 the school it is hoped in future to develop another kind of 
 business training. Girls occasionally come to the school 
 who have no aptitude for work in any of the special trades, 
 but who show ability in caring for the stock and in the 
 keeping of accounts. By giving these girls training in 
 business methods in connexion with the Store, they may 
 be helped to become valuable clerks and saleswomen. 
 
 In addition to the four definitely trade departments of 
 the school there are (1) an Academic-Trade Department, 
 in which the general education of the students is carried 
 forward and correlated with and brought to bear upon 
 their trade work, and (2) an Art Department where the 
 problem of giving practical art training which may be 
 directly helpful in the many trades of the school is being 
 worked out. There is a Reading Room for the use of the 
 girls at the mid-day break and a gymnasium. In con- 
 nexion with the physical training, the health of the girls 
 is carefully watched, and a weekly period is set apart for 
 discussions of practical hygienic subjects such as know- 
 ledge of the body and its activities, the value of fresh air, 
 proper food, regular bathing, sanitary conditions and 
 temperate living. The Director has the assistance of a 
 Social Secretary, whose duty it is, amongst other things, to 
 come into contact with and know every student personally, 
 so that wise financial assistance may be given when 
 needed and that the girls may be placed in positions suit- 
 able to their abilities. In this work she has the assistance 
 of the Students' Aid Committee, whose business it is to 
 investigate the conditions of the families of those students 
 who apply for aid, and to decide upon the amount of 
 assistance to be given in each ease. 
 
 2 D 
 
450 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 The positions whicli the students are taking, and the 
 salaries which they can command, show that the work of 
 the school is appreciated by the employers. The latter 
 show their confidence hy allowing the school to indicate 
 the money value of the students, and to say under what 
 conditions they should work. During the year 1906 the 
 following positions have heen filled by students from the 
 school : Dressmaking, 80 ; Hand Sewing, 6 ; Operating, 38 ; 
 Straw Sewing, 7; Millinery, 18; Pasting and Novelty 
 Work, 38; Miscellaneous, 2. Total 189. 
 
 C. Domestic Science Schools foe Girls. 
 
 (1) The Domestic Science School, Prince' s Road, Liverpool. 
 This school, which is an offshoot of the work of the 
 Liverpool Training School of Cookery and Technical 
 College of Domestic Science, was opened in 1896. Its aim 
 is to enable girls from the elementary schools to obtain a 
 course of training in all the duties of home life before 
 entering on their different occupations. In a course extend- 
 ing over twenty weeks, the girls are instructed in cookery, 
 laundry work, household sewing, home dressmaking, 
 domestic millinery, hygiene and housewifery. The school 
 is open daily, except Saturday, from 9-30 to 4. There is 
 accommodation for 70 pupils, and all the places are filled. 
 The girls are divided for practical work into five classes, 
 no class having more than fifteen pupils. Cookery, sewing, 
 housewifery, dressmaking and laundry are taken in rota- 
 tion, a week at a time, the cycle being repeated four times 
 in each session. What specially distinguishes this from 
 most day schools of domestic science is that the teaching 
 is given in a house which is actually lived in and used. 
 The Principal and four teachers are resident, and the girls 
 do the regular work of the house, including the cooking of 
 a large dinner every day for themselves and the teachers. 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 451 
 
 Experience in purchasing and managing for small house- 
 holds is given by a plan of small dinners for two or four 
 persons. Each girl in turn plans a bill of fare at a given 
 cost, buys the food with the sum allowed, and then cooks 
 and serves the dinner. In dressmaking, each girl is 
 measured for her own pattern, draws it, cuts it out and 
 makes the garment herself. The practical work is done 
 in the morning, and in the afternoon the girls are taught 
 the principles of their work in demonstration lessons. 
 
 The fee for instruction charged to girls from the 
 elementary schools is Is. a week. Others pay 2s. 6d. a 
 week. Dinner is charged for at 3d. a head. The City 
 Council gives a grant to the school, and in return nomin- 
 ates a certain number of scholars each year from the 
 elementary schools. 
 
 The girls are greatly interested in the work of the school 
 and never stay away except in case of illness. Sometimes 
 they return for a second course of instruction. The best 
 age for entry is between 14 and 15, and none are taken 
 above 18. 
 
 The chief difficulty is to persuade parents to forego the 
 wages which at that age their daughters might be earning. 
 But the work of the school is much appreciated as is shown 
 by the attendance of one daughter after another of the 
 same family. 
 
 (2) The Domestic EconoTny School at DalUngton, North- 
 amptonshire. 
 
 The Northamptonshire County Council's School of 
 Domestic Economy at Dallington was founded in 1896, 
 with the object of " giving to girlsj most of whom will 
 become wives and managers of households, a thorough 
 training in all branches of a housewife's or domestic ser- 
 
452 AIMS AND COURSES OF 
 
 vant's duties, with special regard to economy of materials 
 and time." It is a residential school, and the premises 
 (which in all cover some two acres) comprise a house, 
 which was originally built as a private residence but has 
 been extended and adapted for the work of the school, a 
 good-sized lawn, a flower garden, a small kitchen garden 
 and a paddock. The leading idea in its organisation is 
 that the pupils shall themselves do all the work necessary 
 for the upkeep of the establishment. Ko servants are kept, 
 and the girls are thus bound to go fully into all the 
 domestic work of a large household. The school is never 
 closed for holidays. The number of girls who can be 
 accommodated is thirty. The pupils are in all cases girls 
 who have been through the elementary schools. They are 
 selected at the age of about 14, and during their residence 
 at the school are boarded and taught free of all expense. 
 In the case of each applicant for admission the Committee 
 require to be informed of her age and of the occupation of 
 her parent or guardian, and to be furnished with par- 
 ticulars of her school attendances during the previous 
 three years. The Head Teacher of the school which she has 
 last attended is requested to report upon the candidate's 
 conduct, diligence, progress and standard of attainment. 
 The medical officer inspects all girls on their entry. 
 
 Originally the course was planned to last six months, 
 but it was soon found that this period was too brief, and 
 since January, 1899, the course has been extended to eight 
 months. As fifteen girls are admitted every four months, 
 and all stay for eight months, it follows that there will be 
 in the school at any one time fifteen " old " and fifteen 
 " new " girls. As far as possible they work in pairs, an 
 old and a new girl together. The average course is 
 about thirty-four weeks, and is generally divided as 
 follows between the different branches of domestic work. 
 
TRADE SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 453 
 
 Eatchen and scullery 9 weeks. 
 
 Laundry 9 „ 
 
 Housework (upstairs) 9 „ 
 
 Housework (downstairs) 7 „ 
 
 Regular instruction is given in cooking, washing and 
 ironing, house-cleaning, bed-making, lighting and clean- 
 ing lamps, sewing, mending and dressmaking, and the 
 use of household remedies for cuts, bruises, burns and 
 other small ailments. Each girl makes for herself while 
 at the school one dress, in addition to other. garments. She 
 also does her own mending. 
 
 Up to September, 1905, 407 girls had passed through 
 the school. Of these fifteen left, either on account of ill- 
 ness or of changed home circumstances, without com- 
 pleting the course. Of about one-third of the remainder 
 (134) nothing is known, and the probability is that most 
 of them remained at home. Of those concerning whom 
 anything is known, a few (25) have become teachers in 
 elementary schools; and a few (14) have taken up dress- 
 making, but the large majority (203) have gone into 
 
 domestic service. 
 
 M. E. Sadleb. 
 
 M. S. Beaed. 
 
454 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Committees, 
 with an Account of the Work of the Cambridge Boys' 
 Employment Registry. 
 
 It is only ■within the last few years that attention has been 
 directed to the sudden step which children of the working 
 classes take when they leave the elementary school to 
 enter work. They pass at once from the discipline and 
 care of the school to the freedom of the wage earner, and 
 while still mere children in disposition and knowledge of 
 the world, are allowed to act as adults, finding their own 
 work and making their own way, without the advice of 
 any friend or feeling of responsibility to any one. It is 
 only in exceptional cases that we now find that happy 
 state of affairs depicted by the older school of economists, 
 of the father seeking for work for his son in his own trade, 
 and of the daughter following in her mother's footsteps. 
 The growth of large towns with a multiplicity of occupa- 
 tions and varieties of processes, the numerous openings 
 for juvenile labour, and the interference of machinery 
 with adult labour in some trades, have all united to con- 
 fuse the minds of parents, and make them feel how difficult 
 it is to select suitable occupations for their children. Any 
 one parent may know a great deal about one or two occupa- 
 tions, but nothing about the many others which are 
 possible, and it is probably this ignorance, rather than a 
 deliberate selfishness, which makes parents leave the choice 
 of work for their children to chance. Most school teachers 
 deplore the way in which the children drift off to any kind 
 of work on leaving school, but few have the knowledge or 
 time to spend on placing them and following up their 
 career, and so it is that both boys and girls have been 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 455 
 
 allowed to enter whatever work they have first heard of, 
 often with unfortunate results. For the occupations 
 which are easiest to find by both boys and girls, and which 
 are best paid at the start, are generally those which have 
 no prospects for the future, " blind-alley " occupations 
 which lead to nothing. No one definite occupation can be 
 classed as such, but there are many openings in work like 
 that of errand, van or messenger boy, or for girls in 
 factories, which are of this kind. At the age of 18 or 19, 
 when permanent work is most important, the lad is dis- 
 missed in order that a younger one may take his place, and 
 he has learnt nothing which can assist him in finding work 
 elsewhere ; his intelligence and abilities have not been 
 awakened and developed, but have usually been dulled by 
 work which requires no power of application and little 
 intelligence, and he is thenceforth only able to do un- 
 skilled work. With girls it is often the same. Openings 
 for learning skilled trades are more difficult to find, and 
 generally demand some sacrifice of wages at first, a sacri- 
 fice which the parents do not always care to make, and 
 sometimes when a good start is made, some little difficulty 
 or dissension will make the child throw up his work and 
 turn to something else because there has been no one to 
 advise him or speak for him at the critical moment. Thus 
 it is that many a one who has shown great promise at 
 school becomes in after life an unskilled and often a 
 casual worker. 
 
 It was the appreciation of these facts which led to the 
 formation of Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment 
 Committees. The movement, which is entirely voluntary, 
 aims at encouraging the entry of children into good trades 
 and occupations with prospects, by offering advice to 
 parents and by finding definite and suitable openings for 
 the children. Forty years ago, the pioneer society, the 
 
456 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 Industrial Committee of tlie Jewish Board of Guardians, 
 first began to arrange for the apprenticeship of Jewish 
 children to trades, and started a loan fund in order that 
 the premiums might be lent to the parents and repaid out 
 of the wages of the apprentice. In 1886 the East London 
 Apprenticing Fund was started to work among the 
 Christian children of East London in the same way, and 
 these two bodies have continued their work without altera- 
 tion, and have up to June, 1907, apprenticed 4,730 and 806 
 children respectively. 
 
 During the last few years local committees ■'• have been 
 formed in various parts of London, which work on slightly 
 different lines, since they receive applications from the 
 children leaving the elementary schools of the district, 
 and place them at work as apprentices or as learners with- 
 out indentures (in which case the boy or girl has to be 
 generally useful, but in a well organised firm has oppor- 
 tunities of learning the trade), or occasionally as pupils at 
 the recently started L.C.C. Day Trade Schools. The 
 methods of work followed by the different local committees 
 are on very much the same lines. No child is placed with- 
 out the application of one or both the parents ; particulars 
 of the family circumstances are asked for, and of the 
 child's health, age and school career. The schoolmaster 
 or mistress is always consulted as to his character and 
 abilities, and then, after a consideration of all these points 
 and further consultation with the parents, a suitable 
 occupation is selected, and an opening sought for, if one is 
 not known at the moment. The committee exercises a 
 watch over the case, conducting all the negotiations with 
 the employer, and supervising the arrangements for the 
 apprenticeship when the child is placed with indentures. 
 
 1. See Appendix, page 462. 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 457 
 
 When possible, the Committee uses its own form of in- 
 dentures, which contains a special clause allowing a repre- 
 sentative to act as fourth party with power to cancel the 
 agreement, should it be necessary either through the 
 failure of the employer to fulfil his contract to teach the 
 trade, or through the bad behaviour of the apprentice. As 
 few parents have sums of money in hand with which to 
 pay the premiums of apprenticeship, many local com- 
 mittees have a certain sum which may be used as a loan 
 for this purpose, to be repaid weekly out of the appren- 
 tice's wages, after the manner followed by the Industrial 
 Committee of the Jewish Board of Guardians. Occasion- 
 ally, where special circumstances make a gift desirable, 
 the case m.ay be referred to some endowed apprenticeship 
 charity for the help required. Children are placed as 
 learners without indentures when the home circumstances, 
 conditions of the trade or custom of the employer make it 
 desirable. 
 
 The work of the Committee does not cease with the 
 placing of the boy or girl. A watch is kept over his pro- 
 gress throughout the time of apprenticeship or period of 
 learning the trade. This is often done through a "visitor" 
 or " guardian," who is asked to take a generally friendly 
 interest in the progress of his charge, and to report on it 
 to the Committee. Any steps are taken which can help to 
 make the boy or girl a better worker. Attendance at suit- 
 able evening or technical classes is urged, the joining of a 
 thrift club or juvenile friendly society suggested, and 
 perhaps of an evening recreation club, while a short 
 holiday in the country may be arranged for. Periodical 
 reports are received from the employer as to progress, and 
 some member or representative of the committee is always 
 ready to act as guardian not only of the children's in- 
 terests, but also of the employer's, by giving advice or 
 
458 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 reproof to unsatisfactory apprentices or learners. Many 
 a time in my own experience, the presence of an outside 
 individual who is sympathetic to both parties, has 
 smoothed over little difficulties which might otherwise 
 have caused an abrupt cessation of the boy's or girl's career 
 in a skilled trade. By this work and watching the Com- 
 mittee not only aims at securing a good industrial training 
 for the children, but, if a careful choice of applicants is 
 made, supplies the employer with suitable learners who 
 should afterwards become skilled and really efficient 
 workers. 
 
 For the question must be looked at not only from the 
 point of view of the children, but also from that of 
 employers and of the needs of industry. In the first place 
 a great amount of industrial information must be col- 
 lected about the conditions obtaining in the different 
 trades of the locality, the methods of training in vogue, 
 and the prospects for the future, so far as they can be 
 determined. The Committee undertakes to recommend 
 the entry of each boy or girl into some particular occupa- 
 tion, and it must therefore have the information so that 
 it can really ascertain what is best. Secondly, if the 
 movement is to succeed it must receive the co-operation of 
 employers, since entry to the trade is made through the 
 workshop. This co-operation might perhaps be secured 
 by the payment in every case of premiums of apprentice- 
 ship, but it is hardly necessary to refute that as an un- 
 sound policy. Rather, they must be induced to co-operate 
 by the proved usefulness of the work of the Committees. 
 For it is clear that by assisting in the careful selection of 
 the children, and by keeping a watch over them during 
 their apprenticeship, the Committees should be able to 
 supply the employers with just the intelligent, adaptable, 
 and well-trained workers that they need. Occasional mis- 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 459 
 
 takes have been made in tte past with unfortunate results, 
 but' from experience there is every evidence that the 
 committees' work is looked on very favourably by em- 
 ployers. The present conditions of industry make it 
 impossible for them to know the home conditions of their 
 workers, and all considerate firms are therefore glad to 
 know that there is an outside and responsible body to 
 whom these conditions are known, and who will act as 
 intermediary or connecting link whenever necessary. 
 
 But possibly my readers may be most interested in the 
 question from the children's point of view. On this side 
 the effects may be far reaching. To begin with, the rule 
 that no child is placed without the application of at least 
 one of the parents does much to make them realise their 
 responsibility to their children, a, sense of which is apt to 
 die away directly the age for leaving school is reached. 
 When the child is placed with indentures, the contract to 
 serve exercises a wholesome influence over him. He is 
 kept to a certain extent in " statu pupillari " and under 
 discipline. The interval between childhood and manhood 
 is bridged over. When not apprenticed, the fact that he 
 has been placed by an outside society and that he 
 will be held responsible to them for misbehaviour, or for 
 leaving his place without due cause, must have a salutary 
 effect. 
 
 Then again, many boys and girls will not trouble to 
 attend evening classes of any sort, and many employers, 
 though believing theoretically in technical education, will 
 not take steps to press attendance on their younger 
 workers. These Committees consult the employers as to 
 the best classes, and in their own indentures they insert a 
 clause allowing for reasonable time off from work for 
 attendance without loss of wage. They urge attendance 
 and enquire as to progress. In this way they secure a 
 
46o APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 combination of theoretical instruction, and of that prac- 
 tical work, which when it is done tinder good conditions and 
 requires intelligence is truly educative. By the interest 
 which the Committees take in the progress made in work- 
 shop and in class, they spur the young worker on to put 
 forth his best and may do much by this alone, to aid in 
 training efficient workers for the future. 
 
 In order to secure co-operation among the local com- 
 mittees and to promote unity of work, a central association, 
 the Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Association,^ 
 has been formed. This body aids the formation of new 
 committees and centralises information. During 1906, 
 the London Committees affiliated to it placed 100 boys and 
 159 girls in skilled work.^ 
 
 The general movement is at present young, and from 
 these figures it is seen that, so far, only the fringe of the 
 question has been touched. The potentiality of the move- 
 ment seems to me great, but owing to the difficulty of the 
 work, it can grow but gradually. I hope that we may see 
 great developments in the future, and that eventually 
 there may be a committee in touch with every school 
 throughout England. The movement has so far been con- 
 fined to children suitable for skilled work, but there must 
 always be many who will enter the humbler paths. May 
 we not look forward to a time when there may be an 
 "after-care" committee in touch with every school which 
 shall see that each child who needs the help shall be placed 
 in the best work possible, skilled or unskilled where 
 necessary, and that each shall receive a continuance of 
 education, so that the promise shown in school life may be 
 fulfilled, and the opportunity be given in every case for 
 the full development of ability, intelligence and character. 
 
 H. W. Jevons. 
 
 1. See Appendix, page 461. 
 
 2. A list of the trades in which these boys and girls were placed as 
 apprentices, and learners is given in the Appendix, pages 464—6. In 
 addition, 96 girls were placed as improvers and assistants in various 
 trades. 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 461 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A. The Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment 
 Association, 55 Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge 
 EOAD, S.W. 
 
 President : Lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 Vice-President : Mr. H. Llewellyn Smith, C.B. 
 Hon. Secretary : Mrs. M. Beer, M.A. 
 Secretary : Miss Dalglish. 
 
 The object of the Association is the promotion of 
 thorough industrial training for boys and girls, by appren- 
 ticeship and other methods, including arrangements for 
 attendance at Trade Schools and at Technical Classes. 
 
 The work is carried on by means of Local Committees, 
 which are closely in touch with Elementary Schools and 
 working boys' and girls' clubs within their districts. The 
 Committees collect industrial information, find suitable 
 openings for boys and girls who apply to them for help, 
 and make terms between the employer and the apprentice 
 or " learner," with a view to securing fair conditions to 
 them, and satisfactory workers to the employer. 
 
 The Central Office of the Association exists in order to 
 bring all local agencies, dealing with the skilled employ- 
 ment of boys and girls into co-operation with each other. 
 
 Its functions are : — 
 
 (1) To receive, co-ordinate and supplement, when 
 
 necessary, the industrial information obtained 
 by the local committees, and to give affiliated 
 Committees access to all such information. 
 
 (2) To encourage the formation of new Committees, 
 
 by acquainting their promoters with the 
 methods of those already in existence, and by 
 placing the industrial information already col- 
 lected at their disposal. 
 
462 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 (3) To arouse public interest in tlie objects of the 
 Association, by organising Meetings and Con- 
 ferences, and to issue such, literature as may be 
 useful, e.g., pamphlets on trades, suggestions 
 to new Committees, etc. 
 
 B. List of Local Committees affiliated to the Appren- 
 ticeship AND Skilled Employment Association and 
 OF Corresponding Committees in the Provinces. 
 
 1. Southwark (West) Apprenticeship and Registry Com- 
 
 mittee, Women's University Settlement, 45 Nelson 
 Square, Blackfriars Road, S.E. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss F. H. Durham. 
 
 Assistant Secretary : Miss M. E. King. 
 
 2. Hampstead Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment 
 
 Committee, Wells Buildings, Oriel Place, Hamp- 
 stead, N.W. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss L. C. Jevons. 
 
 Secretary : Miss H. E. Matheson. 
 
 3. Stepney Skilled Employment Committee, 52 High 
 
 Street, Whitechapel, E. 
 
 Hon. Secretaries : Miss Jevons. 
 
 Miss H. S. Weaver. 
 
 4. Bethnal Green and Shoreditch Skilled Employment 
 
 Committee, S. Hild's East, Old Michal Street, 
 Bethnal Green, E. 
 
 Hon. Secretaries : Miss Anson. 
 
 Mr. F. Mount. 
 
 Captain Morse. 
 
 5. Central Apprenticeship Committee, Invalid Children's 
 
 Aid Association, 69 Denison House, Vauxhall 
 Bridge Road, S.W. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Mrs. Nairne. 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 463 
 
 6. Employment Bureau, West Central Jewish Girls' Club 
 
 (Girls only), 8 Dean Street, Soto. 
 
 Hon. Secretaries : Miss L. H. Montagu. 
 Miss C. Lewis. 
 
 7. Union of Jewish Women (Girls only), 59 Gloucester 
 
 Place, Portman Square, W. 
 
 Secretary: Miss K. Halford. 
 
 8. Shoreditch Trades Registry and Apprenticeship Com- 
 
 mittee (Girls only), Maurice Hostel, 51 Herbert 
 Street, Hoxton, N. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss Morley. 
 
 9. HoUoway Skilled Employment Committee, 457 Hollo- 
 
 way Road, N. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss Bray. 
 
 10. North Lambeth Apprenticeship and Skilled Employ- 
 
 ment Committee, 131 Kennington Road, S.E. 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss Sheepshanks. 
 
 Corresponding Committees in the Provinces. 
 
 1. Liverpool Registry and Apprenticeship Committee. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss Forman, 294 Netherfield 
 Road North, Liverpool. 
 
 2. Hove Skilled Employment Committee. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Mr. J. Freeman Dunn, 52 
 Lansdowne Place, Hove. 
 
 3. Hastings C.S.U. Employment of Children's Committee. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss A. E. Newill, 2 Anglesea 
 Terrace, St. Leonards-on-Sea. 
 
 4. Council for the Industrial Advancement of Young 
 
 People in Oxford. 
 
 Hon. Secretaries : Mrs. Denniston, 6 St. Mar- 
 garet's Road, Oxford. 
 Mrs. Lewis, 13 Rawlinson 
 Road, Oxford. 
 
 5. Cambridge Boys' Employment Registry, 82 Regent 
 
 Street, Cambridge. 
 
 Hon. Secretary : Miss Jebb. 
 
464 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 C. List of Trades and Industries to which Boys and 
 Girls were Apprenticed, or in which thet were 
 placed out as Learners, by the Committees 
 affiliated to the apprenticeship and skilled 
 Employment Association during the year 1906. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Apprentices 
 
 Art Metal Work 
 
 Bookbinding 
 
 Bootmaking 
 
 Billiard Table making 
 
 Carpentry 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery ... 
 Coachbuilding (body-making) 
 
 Colour-printing 
 
 Compositing 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Engineering (electrical) ... 
 
 Engraving 
 
 French-polishing 
 
 Furniture Decorating 
 Glass and Sign Writing ... 
 
 Jewellery 
 
 Joinery and Shopfitting ... 
 
 Leather Case making 
 
 Machine Coopering 
 
 Military Musical Instrument making 
 
 Mechanical Dentistry 
 
 Motor-body building 
 
 Pattern-making (Engineers) 
 
 Pianoforte making 
 
 Plumbing 
 
 Printing 
 
 Printer's Reader 
 
 Pulley Blocks (fitting and turning). . 
 Smithing and Hot-water pipe fitting 
 
 Shoemaking 
 
 Tailoring 
 
 Upholstery 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 465 
 
 Watclimaking 
 
 Wheelwriglit and Vanbuilder 
 Woodcarving 
 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 56 
 
 Learners. 
 
 Bookbinding 
 
 Brass Foundry 
 
 Boxmaking 
 
 Bootmaking 
 
 Clerk ... 
 
 Candied Fruit work 
 
 Chemical Works 
 
 Cork Trade 
 
 Country Work 
 
 Draughtsmanship 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Engineering (electrical) ... 
 
 Hospital Porter 
 
 House and Garden Boy ... 
 
 Laboratory Boy 
 
 Librarian and Library Boy 
 
 Messenger Boy 
 
 Officers' Uniform making . . . 
 Optical Instrument making 
 
 Page Boy 
 
 Packing 
 
 Packing-case making. 
 
 Repairing 
 
 Service 
 
 Stationery 
 
 Tin Smithing 
 Ticket-writing . . . 
 Wheelwright 
 Weighing-machine making 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 Total 
 
 Total Boys 
 
 100 
 
 44 
 
 2 E 
 
466 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 GlELS. 
 
 Affrentices 
 
 Boxmaking 
 
 Compositing 
 
 Corset-making 
 
 Drapery 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Embroidery and Lacemaking 
 
 Peather Curling 
 
 riorist 
 
 Gold Lace Embroidery ... 
 
 Ironing 
 
 Millinery 
 
 Relief Stamping 
 
 Typewriting, etc 
 
 Upbolstery 
 
 Total 
 
 Learners. 
 Art Cushions and Cosy Work 
 
 Book Folding 
 
 Belt and Blouse making ... 
 
 Blouse m.aking 
 
 Boot-work 
 
 Bookbinding 
 
 Boxmaking 
 
 Confectionery 
 
 Clerksbips ... 
 
 Corset-making 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Embroidery 
 
 Jewel-case lining and covering 
 
 Laundry-work 
 
 Leather- work 
 
 Machining 
 
 Mantle-making 
 
 Millinery 
 
 Magazine sorting 
 
 Service 
 
 Technical Scholars 
 
 Upholstery 
 
 Vellum sewing 
 
 Total 
 
 Total Girls 
 
 2 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 43 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 7 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 70 
 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 
 18 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 17 
 1 
 6 
 1 
 
 11 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 159 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 467 
 
 Cambridge Boys' Employment Registry. 
 
 The aims and methods of skilled em^ployment com- 
 m.ittees are described by Miss Jevons in her article upon 
 the subject in this volume. The Cambridge Committee 
 have organised their office upon lines which have now 
 become usual (though it may be observed that they have 
 no fund at their disposal from which to advance premiums 
 for apprenticeship), and it will be understood that the 
 aims and nature of the work can vary but slightly whether 
 it be undertaken in London or in the provinces. The pre- 
 sent article must therefore be regarded as merely supple- 
 mentary; much is omitted which would involve needless 
 recapitulation, while those points are emphasized which, 
 owing to the industrial characteristics of the town, have 
 more especially forced themselves upon the attention of 
 the Committee, in the early days of their work. 
 
 The Cambridge Boys' Employment Registry was started 
 in the spring of this year (1907) about the same time that 
 work of a similar character was being initiated at Oxford. 
 Here it was started experimentally, in connexion with one 
 school only, but as the utility of the work in part depends 
 upon the area covered, it is hoped that its scope will very 
 soon be extended. The school chosen was a higher grade 
 school. The headmaster kindly undertook the task of 
 drawing up a complete list of the boys who had left during 
 the last two years, stating the occupations thiey had since 
 pursued. Of those who had left between September, 1906, 
 and March, 1907, in number 59, 10 had become errand 
 boys, 7 clerks, 4 greengrocers' assistants, 4 printers' appren- 
 tices, 3 grocets' assistants, 2 telegraph boys, 2 office boys. 
 The trades of booksellers, harness makers, bakers, bicycle 
 makers, butchers, milkmen, drapers were each being 
 entered by 2 boys, and each of the following by one : tailor, 
 
468 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 plumber, hatter, chemist, sugar boiler, watchmaker, picture 
 frame maker, basket maker; one had become a page boy, 
 one was working in a coal yard, another in a bus yard, 
 another in an oil shop, one had become a library assistant. 
 
 The work proposed by the Committee was then made 
 known to all parents, who, as it was thought, might wish 
 to avail themselves of the help afforded in placing their 
 sons. The majority proved only too eager to do so. The 
 proportion of boys, however, who appeared to be in more 
 or less unsatisfactory employment, to the total number of 
 those who had left the school, was but small; in a poorer 
 school it would be, of course, far higher. 
 
 The chief difficulty in connexion with the work which is 
 anticipated in Cambridge lies in the comparative scarcity 
 of opportunities, for boys of average abilities, of securing 
 training in work which offers a reasonable prospect of a 
 good livelihood. There are, indeed, for intelligent boys, 
 some exceptional opportunities for training, such as, for 
 instance, those afforded in connexion with the work in the 
 university laboratories and by the Cambridge Scientific 
 Instrument Company. There are also many shops of a 
 good standing, where a boy may advantageously begin his 
 career. These are, however, only for the few, and for the 
 many it will no doubt be difficult to find satisfactory open- 
 ings. There are no large factories where employment 
 may be sought. The staple industry of the town, the 
 building trade, has, of recent years, so much declined that 
 parents are generally averse to their sons entering it or the 
 allied trades. Possibly the printing trade offers as large 
 a field for employment as any other industry in the town, 
 but, on a rough calculation, perhaps not more than a 
 hundred boys are engaged in it. In respect of the school 
 we have mentioned, about one-eighth of the total number 
 of boys who had left between the dates mentioned had 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 469 
 
 become clerks. During the same period, a sixth, of the 
 total number had become errand boys. This proportion of 
 errand boys, high as it seems, would probably be low, if 
 comparison were made with other schools, while amongst 
 the boys from this higher grade school there were none 
 who had been attracted into the casual employment which 
 is the bane of a university town. The work of an errand 
 boy tends indeed, under ordinary circumstances, to absorb 
 the years which are educationally the most valuable, while 
 failing to qualify him to earn his livelihood in adult life, 
 but it is infinitely worse when boys live on the odd six- 
 pences of undergraduates and acquire idle and loafing 
 habits which quite unfit them for any regular occupation. 
 Yet amongst the many boys who drift into this purposeless 
 life there must be many who are, both physically and in- 
 tellectually, quite capable of being taught to do useful and 
 remunerative work. The difficulty will probably lie not so 
 much in getting hold of them as in providing them with 
 the chance of receiving such teaching as they need. 
 
 Difficult, however, as the committee may find it to obtain 
 really satisfactory training for average boys in work afford- 
 ing them good prospects, the mere establishment of a 
 centre of information can hardly fail to be of use to 
 parents. Without it, they are not in a position to choose 
 well the work of their sons. In any case an ideal choice 
 may not always be open to them, but they cannot even 
 choose what is relatively best under the given circum- 
 stances without such full information as is at present very 
 difficult, if not impossible, for them to obtain. A man 
 may know the conditions of labour in a few other trades 
 besides his own, but his knowledge cannot extend over the 
 whole field of industry open to his son. The size of this 
 field, even in a small town, is exemplified by the number 
 of different occupations entered by the boys from the 
 
470 APPRENTICESHIP AND 
 
 school mentioned, each trade figuring in the list being re- 
 presented by an average of two boys only. In the course of 
 this routine work and also by means of special investiga- 
 tions, the committee will accumulate little by little a great 
 quantity of information regarding the conditions of labour, 
 wages, etc., in various trades, and the qualifications needed 
 by those entering them. But besides such general know- 
 ledge, parents require information as to the actual open- 
 ings available, and this is again impossible without some 
 sort of registry office. Without it, indeed, it remains a 
 matter of chance whether the right boys get into the right 
 places ; the fitting of our boys into the places they are 
 destined to hold in the world of industry is reduced to a 
 kind of game of musical chairs : the boys leave school, the 
 music stops, each flings himself into whatever vacancy he 
 is fortunate enough to secure. No doubt it is the sharpest 
 of the boys who seize the best openings, but the number of 
 square pegs that get jumped into round holes can hardly 
 tend to strengthen the total fabric. Say that a vacancy 
 occurs in a good firm. It is known at once without adver- 
 tisement to a number of parents. They do not know, 
 however, of perhaps six other vacancies that have occurred 
 at the same time, vacancies more suitable possibly, but 
 in regions remote from their knowledge. Knowing, how- 
 ever, that good openings are few and good lads many, they 
 send their sons to take their chance at the particular firm 
 they know about. The employers will get quite as many 
 applications as they can deal with, without advertisement. 
 Many of the applicants are, however, so obviously un- 
 suitable that their application is a mere waste of time, 
 nor is it possible to go very carefully into the circumstances, 
 or perhaps even the qualifications, of the remainder. The 
 one that appears best is picked out, but all the time the 
 probabilities are that the employer would have been better 
 
SKILLED EMPLOYMENT COMMITTEES 471 
 
 and more easily suited if Ms choice had not been confined 
 to the chance lot of unknown lads who rushed in to apply. 
 Thus the limitation of choice both on the part of employers 
 and parents militates against the interests of both. 
 
 It may therefore be hoped that even in a town where the 
 chances of obtaining instruction in remunerative employ- 
 ments are more than usually limited, the work of the 
 Committee will be of use in establishing a centre of in- 
 forma,tion. It is evident that everything that can be said 
 in favour of ordinary registries for domestic servants or 
 others, applies with much greater force tO' a registry office 
 for boys, because their first employment so often determines 
 the employment of a life time. It is of the highest im- 
 portance that everything should be done to facilitate this 
 momentous step in their life, and to secure its being 
 a step, not downhill, but on to the first rung of a 
 ladder. Those also who devote themselves to this work can 
 hardly fail to make the boys more aware that whether they 
 acquit themselves well or ill in their industrial life is a 
 matter of no small conoern to others besides themselves. 
 Indirectly they may help to widen the current conception 
 of the claims and possibilities of industrial life by keeping 
 before those who are just entering upon it chivalrous ideals 
 and high standards in regard to the work which they 
 
 undertake. 
 
 E. Jebb. 
 
472 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Organization of Continuation Schools in Scotland. 
 
 In Scotland tlie question of encouraging the further edu- 
 cation of hoys and girls who have completed their course 
 at the elementary day school has been approached from 
 two directions. First, encouragement has been given to 
 children to remain longer in the day schools by an im- 
 provement in the course of instruction in the closing years 
 of the course. Secondly, there has been a re-grouping of 
 the evening classes and a systematic effort to make the 
 instruction which they provide bear more directly upon 
 the industrial and commercial callings in which the pupils 
 are engaged. The first of these two reforms has been 
 facilitated by the change in the law of school attendance 
 which was made by the Education (Scotland) Act of 1901, 
 and by the encouragement given by Government to the 
 development of higher grade schools and of supplementary 
 courses in the elementary day schools. The second has 
 been furthered by the general movement of public opinion, 
 especially in the industrial districts, in favour of extended 
 facilities for the different grades of technical education. 
 The result of this combined effort to encourage prolonged 
 attendance at the day school, and to systematise the work 
 of the evening classes has been a steady rise in the attend- 
 ance at continuation classes, especially at those of a more 
 technical character. But this improvement has for the 
 most part been confined to the larger towns. In the 
 country districts the work of the continuation classes shows 
 little advance. The Act of Parliament which now regu- 
 lates the employment and attendance of children at school 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 473 
 
 in Scotland was passed 1901. It declares it to be " the 
 duty of every parent to provide efficient elementary educa- 
 tion in reading, writing and arithmetic for his children 
 who are between 5 and 14 years of age." It forbids any 
 person to take into his employment any child (1) who is 
 under the age of 12 years or (2) who, being of the age of 
 12 years and not more than 14 years, has not obtained 
 exemption from the obligation to attend school from the 
 School Board of the district. Thirdly, it gives power to 
 any School Board, where after due inquiry in each case 
 such exemption seems to be justified, to grant to individual 
 children over 12 years of age, exemption from the obliga- 
 tion to attend school for such time as the School Board 
 shall think fit, and with such further conditions as to the 
 amount and manner of further attendance at school which 
 the child shall give imtil it reaches the age of 14, as the 
 School Board in question shall think it desirable to impose. 
 But each School Board which grants exemption is required 
 to enter the names of the children so exempted in a register, 
 and to record a statement of the circumstances in which, 
 and the conditions upon which, such exemption has been 
 granted in each case. Moreover the Scotch Education De- 
 partment is empowered by the Act to call upon any School 
 Board, at any time, for a return of the children to whom 
 such exemption has been given, and of the circumstances 
 relating to each case. If, after due inquiry, the Depart- 
 ment finds that the attendance of scholars within the dis- 
 trict of a School Board, or in any part of its district, is 
 unsatisfactory, and that exemption from school attendance 
 has been granted unjustifiably or with insufficient condi- 
 tions, it may call upon the School Board to recall exemp- 
 tions thus granted, or to take steps to improve the school 
 attendance in its district. If the School Board fails to 
 comply with these requirements within a reasonable time. 
 
474 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the Department has power to withhold or reduce the Parlia- 
 mentary grant payable to the School Board in question. 
 The results of the working of this Act are satisfactory. In 
 1905 the estimated population of Scotland between the ages 
 of 12 and 14 was 186,901 ; the number of scholars of 12 
 to 14 years of age on the Registers of all schools in Scot- 
 land was 178,521; the number of children aged 12 to 14 
 who, whether conditionally or without conditions, were 
 exempted from school attendance by the School Boards was 
 7,822. Thus the proportion of children who do not remain 
 at school till they are 14 years of age is small. The steps 
 which have been taken to make the work of the elementary 
 schools more valuable to the scholars who thus remain 
 under systematic instruction in the day-time till they are 
 14 years of age or over, have consisted partly in the pro- 
 vision of new courses of study, partly in the institution 
 of the merit certificate. An important factor in the organ- 
 isation of the system is what is known as the qualifying 
 examination which is usually taken by pupils of from 12 
 to 13 years of age. When a scholar has been placed in the 
 highest class of the senior division of the school, and has 
 been in regular attendance at that class for not less than 
 6 months, he may, if certified by the teacher of the class 
 and by the headmaster of the school to be of good pro- 
 ficiency in the work of the class, be presented to the in- 
 spector for approval of his enrolment either in a supple- 
 mentary course or in a higher grade department. The 
 code of regulations lays down on broad lines the standard 
 of attainment to which every pupil presented for this quali- 
 fying examination (which need not be an examination of 
 individual children) is expected to attain. The scholars 
 who pass this qualifying examination may receive instruc- 
 tion in what are known as supplementary courses in the 
 elementary day school. The aim of these classes is, while 
 
IN SCOTLAND 475 
 
 continuing and developing tlie previous studies of the 
 cliildren, to give a fresh interest to their work and to make 
 the instruction bear upon the probable practical require- 
 ments of the pupil's after-school life. But the aim of the 
 supplementary courses is not narrowly utilitarian. "School 
 work has for its end and aim objects more important than 
 preparation in the narrow sense for any particular occupa- 
 tion. It should aim at producing the useful citizen, im- 
 bued with a sense of responsibility and of obligation to- 
 wards the society in which he lives ; it should render him 
 (so far as the school can do so) fit in body and alert in 
 mind, and should prepare him for the rational enjoyment 
 of his leisure time as well as fit him for earning his living. ""^ 
 The supplementary courses may be arranged in one or more 
 of three divisions; a commercial course, an industrial 
 course and a household management (girls) course. There 
 is also a course for rural schools. Freedom, however, is 
 allowed to individual schools to submit alternative schemes 
 of study. Certain subjects of instruction are common to 
 all elementary classes. These include (1) the study of 
 English, the main object of which is to create a taste for 
 good literature; and (2) certain studies bearing upon 
 matters which it is of concern that all the pupils should 
 know, whatever their occupations in after life are to be. 
 Under this head the code specifies : — • 
 
 (a) The laws of health. 
 
 (6) Money matters — thrift, investment, insurance. 
 
 (c) The conditions of trade and employment. 
 
 (d) The institutions of Government under which we live. 
 
 (e) The Empire — its history, growth and trade; our 
 
 Colonies, and the openings for enterprise which 
 they afford. 
 (/) Nature study, drill, singing. 
 
 1. Circular 374 of Scotch Education Department, Feb. 16, 1903. 
 
476 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Grants are paid at a higher rate in respect of the child- 
 ren over 12 years of age who are enrolled in supplementary 
 courses. In the industrial and household management 
 courses special encouragement is given to manual instruc- 
 tion, workshop practice, and practical methods of teaching 
 generally. 
 
 Any scholar over 14 years of age who has followed a 
 supplementary course for not less than a year, and is cer- 
 tified by the headmaster to be of good character and con- 
 duct, receives a certificate of merit if he is shown to the 
 satisfaction of the Inspector to have made good progress 
 in the studies of the approved course. Thus the certificate 
 of merit is awarded on the judgment of the teacher of the 
 class, confirmed by the headmaster of the school, subject 
 to the approval of the Inspector. The code requires that 
 each pupil enrolled in a supplementary course shall keep 
 an individual record of the work done by him. This 
 record must be submitted to the Inspector for verification 
 and test on any of his visits. The accuracy of the record 
 is vouched for by the teacher and becomes the basis of 
 entry upon the merit certificate. This arrangement for 
 the award of the merit certificate to scholars over 14 years 
 of age is designed to avoid the evil of cramming for a 
 special examination at the end of the day school course. 
 
 Further encouragement is given to the prolongation of 
 the day school course by the provisions of the Scotch Code 
 relating to higher grade schools. 
 
 A school or a department of a school may be re- 
 cognized as a higher grade school or department where a 
 special staff of duly qualified teachers is provided for the 
 instruction of pupils who have passed the qualifying 
 examination mentioned above, and where the school pro- 
 vides a well-defined course of instruction approved by the 
 department and extending over not less than 3 years. In 
 
IN SCOTLAND 477 
 
 the liigher grade schools there must he one duly qualified 
 teacher for every 30 pupils on the roll. The course must 
 provide for the instruction of all the pupils hy a well- 
 graduated scheme in the following subjects; namely, 
 English (including history and geography), mathematics 
 (including arithm.etic), at least one language other than 
 English, and instruction in experimental science and in 
 drawing. It will he observed that the general tendency of 
 all these regulations is to encourage prolonged attendance 
 at the day school, as being (when the schools are good) 
 the soundest foundation for further education in later 
 years. 
 
 The continuation classes which provide further instruc- 
 tion for those who have left school are, in Scotland, 
 grouped in four divisions : — 
 
 (1) Preparatory classes for the completion of general 
 
 elementary education. 
 
 (2) Classes for specialized instruction — elementary. 
 
 (3) Classes for specialized instruction — advanced. 
 
 (4) Auxiliary classes. 
 
 The preparatory classes in Division 1 are open without 
 restriction to any pupils who are free from the obligation 
 to attend school. The general practice of remaining at 
 the day school till 14 years of age makes this branch of 
 continuation school work of minor importance. 
 
 The object of the classes in Division 2 is to give ele- 
 mentary instruction in special subjects, particularly such 
 as may be of use to pupils who are engaged in, or preparing 
 for, any particular trade, occupation or profession. Dis- 
 cretion is given to the managers in the admission of pupils 
 to these classes, but higher grants are confined to pupils 
 who are over 16 years of age, or who, if under 16, have 
 obtained a certificate of merit, or have satisfactorily passed 
 through a preparatory continuation class, or have been for 
 
478 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 at least one year at a higher grade school or a secondary 
 school. The subjects of instruction are classified as 
 follows — 
 
 (a) English subjects. 
 
 (b) Languages. 
 
 (c) Commercial subjects. 
 
 (d) Art. 
 
 (e) Mathematics. 
 (/) Science. 
 
 (g). Applied mathematics and science. 
 (h) Handwork. 
 
 Division 3 includes organized courses of instruction ex- 
 tending over several years in the subjects named in 
 Division 2, or in other subjects of a more advanced char- 
 acter which may be regarded as a development of the sub- 
 jects in Division 2. The conditions of admission to the 
 first year of any course of Division 3 are the same as the 
 corresponding classes in Division 2. Students who have 
 passed certain examinations may be registered for the 
 second or third year's course without passing through the 
 first. 
 
 Division 4 (Auxiliary Classes) includes courses of in- 
 struction in physical exercises, military drill, vocal music, 
 wood carving, fancy needlework, and other subjects ap- 
 proved by the Department. These classes are open to all 
 pupils who are free from the obligation to attend school, 
 but it is a condition of grant that the Department must be 
 satisfied that the managers are using all reasonable endea- 
 vour to encourage the attendance of the pupils at classes 
 in other divisions also. 
 
 Within the last two or three years a noticeable increase 
 has taken place in the number of technical classes, specially 
 in the advanced grade. This increase has been furthered 
 by the efforts of the Central Institutions which are specially 
 
IN SCOTLAND 479 
 
 recognized by the Department as places of advanced in- 
 struction in technology, agriculture and art. These 
 Central Institutions are ten in number and conveniently 
 placed in different parts of Scotland. Their influence ex- 
 tends over a wide area. Besides proyiding systematic 
 courses of day and evening instruction within their own 
 walls, they send out Instructors to the neighbouring dis- 
 tricts. The Central Institutions, recognized in 1905-6, 
 
 were as follows : — 
 
 Session 1905-1906. 
 Number of 
 Students Grant 
 
 instructed. from the 
 
 NAME. Day. Evening. Department. 
 
 Aberdeen and North of Scotland College £ s. d. 
 
 of Agriculture 168 22 2,251 14 5 
 
 (Central Classes 
 only) 
 Aberdeen Gordon's College and Gray's 
 
 School of Art 65 834 1,432 10 2 
 
 Dundee Technical Institute — 1,095 1,291 10 5 
 
 Edinburgh and East of Scotland College 
 
 of Agriculture 113 185 2,030 14 2 
 
 (Central Classes 
 only) 
 
 Edinburgh Heriot-Watt College 182 3,539 3,361 13 8 
 
 Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical 
 
 College ... 
 
 Glasgow Athenaeum Commercial College ... 
 
 Glasgow School of Art 
 
 Leith Nautical College 
 
 The West of Scotland Agricultural College 
 (including Kilmarnock Dairy School). 
 
 Totals 1,743 11,824 25,290 7 9 
 
 A characteristic feature of the recent organization of 
 technical evening classes, in Scotland as in England, has 
 been the adoption of the "course system." This system 
 requires the pupils to attend a carefully arranged group 
 of courses of instruction instead of taking up different 
 branches indiscriminately and without coherence of plan. 
 Employers of labour, especially in the engineering trades, 
 
 535 
 199 
 
 3,812 
 983 
 
 8,446 17 
 698 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 241 
 
 1,052 
 
 2,415 8 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 171 
 
 330 17 
 
 8 
 
 90 131 
 (Central Classes 
 only) 
 
 3,031 1 
 
 2 
 
48o CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 are taking increased interest in the work of the evening 
 classes, hut there are frequent complaints of serious inter- 
 ference with the attendance, owing to young lads having 
 to work overtime. Many firms not only pay the class fees 
 of their apprentices hut offer a small bonus or give a slight 
 increase in wages in cases where attendance and progress 
 are reported as satisfactory. An engineering firm (Messrs. 
 Cochran and Co.) at Newbie, near Annan, take the entire 
 management of the technical instruction of their appren- 
 tices. They have organized a three years' course in prac- 
 tical mathematics, machine construction and boiler making 
 practice. Accommodation is provided for the classes 
 within the works and the students attend on two mornings 
 per week. The teachers, who are well qualified in mathe- 
 matical and engineering methods, are members of the firm's 
 staff. No apprentice is admitted to the works drawing 
 office unless he has attended the classes for two years. The 
 certificate of service given to each apprentice at the end 
 of his apprenticeship makes special mention of his work in 
 the classes.^ 
 
 In the commercial centres the classes in shorthand, book- 
 keeping and typewriting are largely attended, and the 
 women's classes in dressmaking and millinery are popular. 
 The question of staffing in the evening classes presents 
 difficulties . In the technical classes many of the teachers 
 are men practically engaged in the trades. But for the 
 more general forms of continuation class work the elemen- 
 tary day school teachers are not only the best, but often 
 the only, teachers available. Their practice in keeping 
 discipline and in registering attendance, and their know- 
 ledge of educational method, naturally fit them for evening 
 
 1. "Eeports and Statistics relating to Continuation Classes and 
 Central Institutions in Scotland for the year 1905-06." London • 
 Wyman and Sons, 1907. Cd. 3472. 
 
IN SCOTLAND 481 
 
 work. But it is impossible for a teacher who has been 
 hard at work all through the day in the day school to come 
 to evening classes with great freshness of mind. Opinion, 
 therefore, is tending towards some arrangement which 
 would excuse the elementary day school teacher from part 
 of his day work in order to leave him fresh for the evening 
 work. In the rural districts the difficulties in the way 
 of establishing continuation schools are serious. The 
 country School Boards are reluctant to undertake the ex- 
 pense which the efficient organization of continuation work 
 would involve. It has been suggested that all exemptions 
 from school attendance granted to children under 14 years 
 of age in rural districts should be made conditional on 
 attendance at continuation classes for a further period of 
 years, and in order to provide an adequate staff for the 
 continuation work it has been further suggested that 
 special grants should be given to School Boards in rural 
 districts to enable them to strengthen the stafE of the day 
 school by one fully certified teacher, who would only 
 teach part of the day in the day school on those days when 
 he was required for continuation work in the evenings. 
 
 It is significant that in the Education (Scotland) Bill, 
 which was introduced by the Government in the session of 
 1907 but subsequently dropped, there was a clause which 
 would, if enacted, have given power to School Boards to 
 make bye-laws requiring the attendance at continuation 
 classes, until the age of 17, of young persons not otherwise 
 receiving a suitable education. The clause did not apply 
 to the case of any person who would have to go more than 
 two miles to a continuation class. The Bill further pro- 
 posed that if any person should knowingly employ any 
 young person at any time when his attendance at a con- 
 tinuation class was required by a local bye-law, he (the 
 employer) should be liable on summary conviction to a 
 
482 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 penalty not exceeding forty shillings, or in case of a second 
 or subsequent offence, not exceeding £5. It was also pro- 
 vided that a like penalty might be inflicted upon any 
 parent or guardian who, by neglecting to exercise due care, 
 should conduce to failure on the part of a young person 
 to attend a continuation class as required by such bye-law. 
 
 It was also proposed by the Bill to give powers to School 
 Boards, in granting to children exemption from the obliga- 
 tion to attend school, to impose (as a condition of such 
 exemption) attendance up to an age not exceeding 17, 
 either for part of the year at a day school or, where a 
 special continuation class is provided, at a continuation 
 class. This was especially intended for country districts, 
 in some of which public opinion favours the granting of 
 exemption at 12 years of age from day school attendance 
 in the summer, provided that the boy attends in the winter 
 till he is 16. 
 
 Proposals have been made from time to time that special 
 efforts should be made to encourage physical exercises in 
 the case of lads over school age in attendance at continua- 
 tion schools. It is clear, however, that any such require- 
 ments would need discriminating application.^ A further 
 matter which is engaging the attention of those engaged 
 in Scottish education is the desirability of combining some 
 literary element with the other work of the technical 
 classes, but here again exigencies of time make it difficult 
 to exact an ideal course of evening study. 
 
 1. See " Report of Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), 
 1903." Vol. i., p. 20. 
 
483 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 The People's High Schools in Denmark. 
 
 The first object that meets the view of the. visitor to 
 Copenhagen, as he steps from the Central Station, is an 
 obelisk of sandstone, standing in the middle of the street 
 and called Friheds Stotte (Freedom's Pillar). It com- 
 memorates the freeing of the serfs in 1788, and bears on 
 the side facing the city these words : " The King saw that 
 Civic Freedom fixed in righteous law gives Love of 
 Country, Courage for its Defence, Desire for Knowledge, 
 Longing for Industry, Hope of Prosperity"; and on the 
 side toward the country, "The. King bade that Serfdom 
 should cease; that to the Landlaws should be given Order 
 and Might, that the free Peasant may become brave and 
 enlightened, industrious and good, an honourable citizen, 
 in happiness." 
 
 The immediate results of these changes were such as to 
 justify these confident anticipations. They were, justified 
 still more fully when these emancipated peasants, becoming 
 small freeholders, began to flock to some novel schools for 
 grown-up folk of modest means, which were begun in a 
 humble way half-a-century after the erection of this 
 pillar, and have in an unwonted degree fostered the love 
 of country, given a thirst for knowledge, imparted to 
 industry a marvellous ingenuity and success, and made 
 life in many simple homes fuller of nobler interests and 
 higher cares. 
 
 I shall never forget my first visit, one December morn- 
 ing, thirteen years ago, to Askov, the earliest and the most 
 famous of these schools. I had landed that morning at 
 
484 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 Esbjerg early enough to catcL. the first train across Jut- 
 land ; and reached the station at Vejen — half way between 
 the west and east coasts— just as the sun was rising. 
 Half-an-hour's walk in a south-western direction easily 
 brought me to the school. The way, through a flat, some- 
 what uninteresting country, was easy to find, for I had 
 the telegraph wires for my guide. The buildings seemed 
 to me unpretending enough, but they had been more un- 
 pretending still, when, twenty-seven years before, the 
 school had had to move here, after the war of 1864, from 
 its former position at Rodding in North Schleswig. I 
 had had some slight correspondence with the Principal 
 the year before, and received a warm welcome. The 
 buildings were arranged around a square courtyard, and 
 the chief entrance, with the words Flors Hojskole over 
 the doorway, was in the west side. The whole of the 
 south side was occupied by the gymnasium and its tower. 
 The buildings on the other two sides furnished smaller 
 class-rooms, laboratories, museums and some out-houses. 
 Those on the north side have since disappeared to make 
 room for the new Red House, with its fine Dagmar 
 Sal. On the west side of the school is a spacious 
 pleasant garden with shrubberies. At some little distance 
 from the school are teachers' houses dotted about here and 
 there. In two of them there is room to board seventy or 
 eighty women students. Close by a third is a windmill, 
 which generates electric light and power. 
 
 If we enter by the chief door of the school, we find 
 ourselves in a small hall. To the right is the dining-room. 
 Pacing us is a staircase leading to dormitories. There 
 are two, three or, in some schools, four beds in a room. 
 At the foot of the staircase is the entrance to the 
 Principal's private apartments. On the left is the 
 students' common-room, with newspapers and some 
 
IN DENMARK 485 
 
 reference books. As we pass through this, we come to the 
 old lecture-hall and so to the gymnasium and the library 
 with its 15,000 to 20,000 volumes. The library has since 
 been removed to the handsome new White House, built out 
 in the garden. About the same time a church was built 
 for the school and its friends on the far side of the pond 
 beyond the Red House. 
 
 My visit fell on Christmas Eve, when work was sus- 
 pended for some days. But I returned for a week a 
 fortnight later, and had many opportunities both then and 
 afterwards of seeing what a day at Askov was like. 
 
 From the beginning of November to the end of April, 
 there are about ninety-five men and sixty-five women 
 students. More than four-fifths are first-year and the rest 
 second-year students.^ Nearly all are between 18 and 25 
 years of age ; sometimes as many as one-fifth are over that 
 age. Their parents are farmers, cottars, artisans, civil 
 servants, teachers, tradesmen and merchants. I must 
 further premise that the instruction at Askov is of a 
 higher kind than at the other high schools — that it begins 
 where most of the. others leave off, except from May to 
 the end of July, when there is a course of an ordinary 
 character for about two hundred young women. 
 
 The bell in the morning rings for prayers at 7-45 with 
 the Principal and his family. The attendance is good, 
 though entirely voluntary. After breakfast classes begin. 
 The students take either a first-year or a second-year 
 course. Let us follow one of the first-year men in his 
 work through the day. From 8 to 9 there are on two days 
 of the week lectures in historical geometry (i.e., geometry 
 taken in the order in which the different parts of , the 
 
 1. The exact numbers last winter were 125 men and 95 women, fifty of 
 whom were second-year Students. 
 
486 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 subject were discovered) ; on two other days there are oral 
 examinations in physics, in order to see whether the lec- 
 tures on that subject have been understood; the other two 
 hours are given to lectures on the industrial life of 
 Denmark. From 9 to 10 the subject four days a 
 week is the mother tongue. Here the students are 
 broken up into smaller groups for class instruction; on 
 the other two days there is an oral examination in the 
 lectures on the history of the world. Then comes a short 
 break with opportunity for slight refreshment. From 
 10-30 to 11-30 there are lectures on the history of the 
 North on three days, and on historical physics the other 
 three days. The lectures this hour as well as those the 
 last hour of the day are attended by the whole school 
 both first year and second year, both men and women. 
 The lecturer uses neither manuscript nor note. His whole 
 object is to secure the intelligent interest of his hearers; 
 and when that is secured, they give him both eyes and 
 ears, and no question of note-taking arises. The use of 
 text-books is reduced to a minimum; before the oral ex- 
 amination comes off next day, some short handbook or 
 brief printed outline is read by the student. Every 
 such lecture begins and ends with a song; and if 
 the subject be historical or literary, there is no difficulty 
 in choosing a song appropriate to the occasion, for out of 
 the 579 songs in the song-book in most general use more 
 than one-half are national songs in great variety, or songs 
 which range over the whole field of history. Such songs 
 are sung in unison; and both tunes and words seem 
 familiar to all. The next hour is always given to gym- 
 nastics on Ling's system. Then comes the mid-day meal, 
 consisting always of two dishes, one with the spoon (soup 
 or grod) and the other a dish of hot meat and vegetables. 
 There can be no luxuries when tenpence a day has to cover 
 
IN DENMARK 487 
 
 the cost of board; but there is always an abundande of 
 good, appetizing food. 
 
 The first lesson after dinner is, on four days, one in 
 drawing, and on the remaining two in book-keeping; and 
 the second is in singing. There is then a short break for 
 afternoon coffee. The next hour is devoted to English 
 two days a week ; oral examination in history of the North 
 two days; hygiene one day; interpretation of the Bible 
 one day. Prom 4-30 to 5-30 geography two days; arith- 
 metic two days; oral examination in geometry two days. 
 The last hour, from 6 to 7, is given to a general lecture for 
 the whole school in the history of the world, or on some 
 scientific subject. Then comes the evening meal. Lights 
 out soon after ten."^ 
 
 It will be seen that in the six months' course more than 
 300 lessons are given in the chief subject — history. 
 Physical science (in this particular school) comes next, 
 whilst mathematics and the mother tongue come not far 
 behind. In history is included scripture history and 
 church history. And so religious instruction is given 
 historically rather than dogmatically. 
 
 There must have been more than nine thousand pupils 
 at Askov since the school was begun in 1865. 
 
 The father of these People's High Schools (Folkehoj- 
 skoler) was N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783—1872), to whom 
 was given the honorary title of bishop on the fiftieth 
 anniversary of his ordination. Though he was ordained 
 as minister in the Danish Church in his twenty-seventh 
 year, it was not until he was fifty-six years of age that he 
 settled down for the remaining three and thirty years of 
 his life to regular, continuous pastoral work. His career 
 
 1. There are slight differences in this time-table from year to year. In 
 that for 1906-7, the morning's work is one hour longer and the after- 
 noon's one hour shorter than before, i.e., dinner one hour later. 
 
488 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 in tlie meantime was a somewhat chequered one; but the 
 varying experiences and struggles through which he 
 passed, brightened indeed by the sympathy and help of a 
 few attached and sometimes powerful friends, gave him 
 both insight and enthusiasm — insight enabling him to 
 lay down in firmest lines the plan of a kind of school 
 unheard of before, and enthusiasm with which to inspire 
 the long series of workers in the service of that school. 
 He was distinguished as poet, historian, theologian and 
 worker in education. His educational work was not a 
 thing by itself, but had its precise form determined by 
 his poetic activity, his historical researches and his theo- 
 logical views. And so it becomes very difficult to describe 
 it in few words. One of his historical works bears as its 
 motto a quotation from a Swiss historian, "Where th«re 
 is most life, there is the victory." And that may well 
 enough stand as the motto also of what he did as the 
 founder of the People's High Schools in Denmark. He 
 felt deeply the depressed state of his country during and 
 after Napoleon's wars. He was indignant at the cold in- 
 difference which characterised the rationalism of the time, 
 and wished to awaken his countrymen from their sleep, 
 to recall them to a sense of the spiritual realities that 
 underlie the events of life. At no period of his earlier 
 career was he able to swim with the stream. His very 
 first sermon after ordination procured him a rebuke. His 
 vivid conception and bold realisation of Christian doc- 
 trines, while securing for him the ardent attachment of a 
 few, much more often brought on him the suspicion and 
 bitter opposition of the many. Pulpits were closed to 
 him, preferment became impossible; and time after time 
 he had to turn to other tasks. Six years he employed in 
 putting the old chroniclers of Norway and Denmark — 
 Snorre and Saxo — into a modern dress, thus seeking to 
 
IN DENMARK 489 
 
 awaken Ms countrymen to all that was noble in the ideals 
 of their forefathers. But books, he found, could not do 
 it; and, after nianj years, when at last he and his friends 
 were able to realise their High School plans, he was led 
 to rely upon " the living word that goes from the heart to 
 the heart" as his chief instrument. "The living word," 
 "the living voice," are expressions to be found on page 
 after page of Grundtvig's religious and controversial 
 writings. The ordinary Lutheran view bases Christianity 
 upon the written word ; but in Grundtvig's day, almost as 
 much as in our own, controversies raged round our sacred 
 books both with regard to their number, their origin and 
 interpretation — controversies that shake the position of 
 those who trust in a " book religion." It was in the interest 
 of such that Grundtvig cast about for some other co- 
 ordinate foundation for Christianity. With one foot at 
 least upon such an independent foundation it would be 
 possible to examine more calmly and dispassionately the 
 other foundation that had hitherto been found all sufficient. 
 And just as the Quaker finds such an independent founda- 
 tion in the " inner light " quite apart from any sacrament, 
 so a Lutheran like Grundtvig found in the sacrament, 
 and especially in the baptismal confession or apostles' 
 creed, to which he assigned a much earlier date than that 
 generally given, a "living voice," summoning men to new 
 life. With his religious view we can here have nothing 
 to do. But it will be seen how his religious doctrine has 
 suggested and reinforced his educational method and led 
 his friends and followers to make the most of the gift of 
 speech within them. And if I may anticipate a little, I 
 would say that lively, witty, terse and often eloquent and 
 moving speech, in which facts and ideas bear an unuslially 
 large proportion to the merely hortatory matter, is the 
 distinguishing element in the work of the successful high 
 school teacher. 
 
490 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 From 1821 to 1825 Grundtvig was again in clerical em- 
 ployment ; but in the latter year a controversy with a young 
 theological professor had an unexpected result. He called 
 upon the professor either to retract his views or to resign 
 his position in the Danish Church. His opponent, in- 
 stead of answering his arguments, sued him for libel. 
 And the law of libel was then of such a kind that 
 Grundtvig was cast in damages; and anything he pub- 
 lished must first be approved by the Public Censor. When 
 he found the sympathies of people in authority were not 
 with him, he threw up his living, and for the next thirteen 
 years scarcely held any regular office in the Danish 
 Church. He had a pension of sixty or seventy pounds a 
 year for prosecuting historical research; in addition to 
 which one generous friend among his brethren kept him 
 supplied with money, in the hope, which was not disap- 
 pointed, that the freedom from wearing anxiety on 
 account of wife and children would make it 
 possible for Grundtvig to make large additions to 
 Church psalmody and natipnal song.i In these years of 
 leisure he made further brilliant researches into Scandi- 
 navian mythology; wrote a book on the history of the 
 world, which inspired Kristen Kold and many others who 
 afterwards made their mark in high school work ; and with 
 the help of a travelling stipend from the King, devoted 
 the summers of 1829, 1830 and 1831 to the. study of Anglo- 
 Saxon manuscripts in England. He not only succeeded 
 in awakening the British Museum authorities, who re- 
 garded him, he says, " as a half-mad poet," to the unique 
 importance of the Exeter book, of which, at his sugges- 
 tion, they had a copy made ; but was also deeply impressed 
 
 1. Grundtvig was a brilliant ballad writer. His son Prof. Svend 
 Grundtvig inherited the same tastes, and has given his countrymen a 
 version, alike exquisite and scholarly, of the early English and Scottish 
 ballads. 
 
IN DENMARK 491 
 
 by the energy of our public life. He refers to it again 
 and again in the occasional writings of the next twenty 
 years. That energy he wished to transfer to his own 
 countrymen, who seemed to him to be asleep in com- 
 parison. But if he wished to produce an English result, 
 he had no idea of doing it in the English way. "When, 
 twenty years later, Denmark obtained her constitution, 
 Grundtvig could not be said to be one of the first in the 
 movement. At the most, it won his passive assent. His 
 method, which he urged with great eloquence and per- 
 sistence, was quite different; he called for high schools 
 for grown up folk. 
 
 "It is," he says, "my highest wish as a citizen that 
 soon, and better to-day than to-morrow, there may be 
 opened a Danish high school accessible to young people 
 all over the land, where they may readily get leave and 
 opportunity to become better acquainted, not only with 
 human nature and human life in general, but with them- 
 selves in particular, and where they could receive guidance 
 in all civic relations and become well acquainted with their 
 country's need in all directions, whilst their daily life and 
 love of country are nourished by national speech and his- 
 torical information, by mutual intercourse with one 
 another, and by the lively songs, which are heard through 
 all periods of Denmark's history, and inspire admiration 
 for what is great, warm love for what is beautiful, faithful- 
 ness and affection, peace and unity, innocent cheerfulness, 
 pleasure and mirth. In truth, if King Christian VIII., 
 as I gladly hope, opens such a Royal Free School for Life, 
 for popular life in Denmark, he will be able, not merely to 
 smile at the papers when they praise or blame him, but 
 also to rejoice in a popular remedy just as wonderful as 
 our absolute kings; for he has therein opened a well of 
 healing in the land, which will be sought by crowds from 
 
492 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 generation to generation and will win tkis renown, even in 
 distant lands and in far future days, that therein, past count- 
 ing, blind people received their sight, the deaf their hear- 
 ing, and the dumb their speech, and that there the halt 
 cast away their crutches and showed clearly that the 
 dance trips it lightly through the wood." 
 
 It was evidently Grundtvig's opinion that "divine 
 philosophy," even for working men and women was 
 
 N'ot harsh and crabbed, as dull fools suppose. 
 But musical as is Apollo's lute." 
 
 At the King's desire, he further developed his plans in 
 a letter that bears date February 9th, 1843. In such a 
 school, he says, grown-up young people should "learn to 
 know and to love Fatherland and mother tongue, and have 
 light thrown upon the society of citizens in which they 
 live, as marvellously constituted for the common good, 
 wherein all conditions can be alike honourable and joyous, 
 if people remember their dependence upon one another, 
 and learn from experience that true human development 
 and enjoyment of our powers as rational creatures can be 
 united with all conditions and accomplished in them all." 
 The teachers he desired were — (1) one who was a master 
 in the mother tongue, not merely as found in books, but 
 as spoken by the people, and could help his pupils to 
 understand what they hear, to think in an orderly way, 
 and speak clearly and fluently of what they think and 
 know; (2) one who knew and loved his country's history, 
 and could tell it in lively fashion; (3) one who knew 
 and loved the popular songs, both in old and newer form, 
 and could either lead the singing or get someone to do it ; 
 (4) one, who could give an orderly account of his country's 
 condition, its business activities and sources of wealth; 
 aaid (5) it was also desirable some expert should give the 
 
IN DENMARK 493 
 
 pupils a true and living representation of the national 
 constitution and laws. 
 
 He also suggested, with a view to pupils a little more 
 advanced, the benefit of some knowledge of languages, 
 mathematics, natural science and history of the world. 
 And, "above all, some acquaintance with popular litera- 
 ture, especially the poetry and history of one's own coun- 
 try, will create a brand-new world of readers all over the 
 land." But "all is not for all," he adds, "and book- 
 reading not even for professional men, still less for the 
 whole people, can be the principal thing, if every one is 
 to be capable at his own work and fill his place in society, 
 and life's varying daily tasks are to be executed with 
 zest and industry." 
 
 Grundtvig's pupils were wont to sum up his teaching in 
 three brief sentences : — Spirit is might ; Spirit reveals 
 itself in speech; Spirit works only in freedom. There is 
 often a great difference between the sketch of a plan and 
 its execution, and a still greater between the first sketch 
 and its development in the course of an activity extending 
 through two generations. It is a great tribute to Grundt- 
 vig's sagacity that, whilst no high school is in all details 
 exactly like another, each still bears stamped upon it his 
 own clear, sharp impress. 
 
 At Soro, in the middle of Zealand, on the site of a former 
 monastery, where Archbishop Absalon, the founder of 
 Copenhagen, is buried, stands a richly-endowed academy, 
 to which the dramatist Ludvig Holberg bequeathed his 
 property. It seemed not unlikely that the King, 
 Christian VIII. (who, many years before, when 
 Statholder in Norway, had subscribed the ISTorse Con- 
 stitution of 1814), might accede to Grundtvig's earnest 
 pleadings and turn this academy into a university for the 
 people. Had he done so, Grundtvig must have been 
 
494 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 clLOsen to a leaxiing position on the staff. But tkere were 
 difficulties in the way; and with the King's death in 1848 
 all hope of carrying this particular plan into execution 
 receded into the background. Meanwhile Grtfiidtvig was 
 ready to support any and every means of erecting such 
 schools in a humbler and more private way, but with every 
 advantage, as it afterwards turned out, to their freedom, 
 elasticity and wide success. 
 
 The opportunity came at last in 1844, at Eodding, in 
 North Schleswig, where the magistrates and officials 
 spoke German, and the population at large spoke 
 Danish. It was to help these Danish-minded folk that 
 Christian Flor, who was professor of Danish at the Uni- 
 versity of Kiel, with other friends, established the school 
 at Rodding. And Flor himself, to fill a vacancy in 1846, 
 directed the school for two years ; and when it had to move, 
 after the war of 1864, to Askov, north of the new border, 
 he helped more than once to adapt and extend the build- 
 ings there, which were humble enough in their first be- 
 ginnings. It is in memory of this varied help that the 
 words Flors HojsJcole may still be read over the chief 
 doorway. 
 
 Askov is in a very real sense an alTna mater, not only 
 to the other high schools in Denmark, but to those in 
 other lands. Every winter it can boast students from the 
 sister countries as well as from Finland, Iceland, the 
 Faroes or the United States. This is due to the fact that 
 in 1878 a second-year course for men (and in 1885 for 
 women) was added to the first-year course. And this 
 necessitated both a larger and more efficient staff than was 
 previously required. The school has since been known 
 as the Extended High School at Askov. For forty-three 
 years (two of them at Rodding) Ludvig Schroder has 
 guided its fortunes; and it is on his life of Grundtvig 
 
IN DENMARK 495 
 
 (1901) and Nordiske Polkeliojskole (1905) that all accounts 
 of the movement must largely draw.^ 
 
 Next comes Kristen Kold (1816 — 1870), who must, as 
 much as possible, be described in his own words. He was 
 the son of a poor shoemaker in North Jutland ; and, as his 
 fingers were not nimble enough for his father's work, and 
 as, too, he was successful in gaining the good-will of his 
 first pupils (some of them taller than himself), he became 
 a schoolmaster. At the seminary he made little progress 
 until, to use his own words, Peder Larsen (a well-known 
 lay-preacher) " made me see that our Lord loves mankind, 
 and it was frightful I had not managed to learn that all 
 the years of my life. ... I had never seen the like to 
 the life, the zest, the strength and energy that sprang up 
 in me," aud henceforth made all lessons easy. "Fresh 
 life, fresh light ! '" became his watchword, first for him- 
 self and then for others. Ingemann's historicaL romances 
 at the same time awakened a rare patriotism in him. A 
 year or two after leaving the seminary, he became a house- 
 teacher in Schleswig, and there one of his pupils almost 
 cried her eyes out because she could not learn the long 
 answers in the Catechism. So, he remembered, it had 
 been with himself as a child. And he asked himself, "Can 
 it really be God's will that children be thus tortured with 
 learning by rote?" So, putting the Catechism aside, he 
 talked its contents to the children, and was overjoyed to 
 find how easily they could un.derstand and remember what 
 he told them. But his methods were regarded as an un- 
 warrantable interference with established usage, and he 
 came into collision with archdeacon, bishop and depart- 
 ment. Everyone fought shy of him, and any public 
 
 1. In May 1906 Professor Schroder resigned his office as principal, 
 whilst still continuing his work as chief teacher and chairman of the 
 board of management. He is succeeded as principal by his son-in-law 
 Mr. -Jacob Appel. 
 
496 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 employment became impossible. So he spent the next five 
 years of his life in Smyrna, helping a Danish missionary 
 there in his spare time, and supporting himself by book- 
 binding. He was home again in 1847, with thoughts of 
 settling in America. But next spring the war about 
 Schleswig-Holstein broke out, with such an outburst of 
 national feeling as had never been seen before. He offered 
 himself as a recruit ; but the fingers that were good enough 
 for bookbinding, at which he could take his own time, 
 were not good enough for musket drill. The movements 
 "always came half a second too late." His work plainly 
 lay elsewhere. But his few weeks' service had not been 
 in vain. The spirit of enthusiasm which he had often seen 
 communicated by one individual to another could, as he 
 now perceived, be spread to large numbers of his fellow 
 countrymen. And it now became the object of his life 
 to spread such a spirit, not here and there only, but 
 amongst masses of his countrymen. 
 
 In engaging himself as house-tutor in the family of a 
 well-known sympathetic clergyman (Vilhelm Birkedal) in 
 the centre of Fiinen, he stipulated that in addition to his 
 pupils in chief he should be allowed to receive three or 
 four peasants by way of experiment. The. experiment 
 was so far successful as to justify a repetition on a larger 
 scale. Out of his modest savings, more than doubled 
 by gifts from Grundtvig ^ and his friends, he built 
 a house large enough for twenty pupils. In the course of 
 
 1 In the interview lie had with Grundtvig on this occasion there was a 
 sharp discussion as to the best age for the pupils. Kold wanted to have 
 them immediately on their leaving school, at fourteen, fifteen or sixteen 
 (as in the Norse Amtsskoler 25 years later). Grundtvig demurred, 
 holding that the work they both had in view required an age of 18 years 
 at least. Kold held his ground, perhaps supposing that his experience in 
 such a matter went further than Grundtvig's. But in his next batch of 
 pupils, some were over 18 and others under ; and his varying experiences 
 with them taught him that Grundtvig was right. There are, however, 
 in Denmark many evening continuation schools for such as are hardly ripe 
 for a high school. 
 
IN DENMARK 497 
 
 the year 1851 he issued his proposals for a "Higher 
 Folkeskole in Ryslinge," and offered instruction, mostly 
 of an oral character, in the history of 'the world, in Scrip- 
 ture history, northern mythology and history of Denmark 
 and geography, along with readings in Danish literature, 
 practice in singing, especially the old ballads, and some 
 recapitulation of the subjects they had learned at school, 
 which were now to be taught with greater reference to the 
 needs of daily life. When it is borne in mind that the 
 charge for five months was 20 kr. for instruction and 40 kr. 
 for board and lodging (less than £4 altogether), we shall 
 not be surprised to hear that the pupils had to bring bed- 
 clothes with them. But even these small amounts were 
 grudged. People asked what offices the school would fit 
 them for and whether they would be excused their mili- 
 tary service and the like. Just before the school opened 
 on the 1st November, only one pupil could be counted on ; 
 but happily there were as many as fifteen on the first day. 
 After two years at E,yslinge, the school removed for nine 
 years to Dalby, in N.E. Fiinen, and for the last eight 
 years of Kold's life it was continued with ever-increasing 
 fame at Dalum, near Odense. Here there were a hundred 
 students at a time. Four years before his death, he was 
 at a meeting at Copenhagen of Grrundtvig and his friends, 
 and was asked to unfold to the gathering, at any length 
 he chose (an amount of tether never granted to anyone 
 else), the secret of his work of popular enlightenment. 
 And the result was a piece of lively characteristic auto- 
 biography, which still remains, notwithstanding many 
 printed reminiscences, our chief source of information. 
 He was a stimulating, inspiring power of the first order, 
 with the readiest command of forcible idiomatic speech 
 and a store of varied illustrations, calculated to 
 arrest the attention of the man in the street and leave 
 
 2 G 
 
498 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 an abiding impression in his memory. He was 
 not only tJbie instructor, but also the friend and comrade, 
 of his pupils. He' had remained unmarried until past 
 middle age; and occupying the same sleeping-room as his 
 pupils, he often continued discussions with them until 
 they fell asleep. He lacked the academic training of 
 those who had begun the movement at E-odding seven 
 years before, but was able to carry it among wider masses 
 of the population than they. It seemed at first as though 
 the two streams were not likely to mix; but only at first, 
 for they both acknowledged Grundtvig as their source; 
 and now it is their entire union which has produced the 
 Polkehojskole of to-day. It was Kold also who made the 
 women's high school a living success. His pupils often 
 asked that they might bring sister or sweetheart with them 
 to lecture; and this led to his instituting a three months' 
 summer course for women at the close of the men's course 
 — a step which eventually doubled the number of high 
 school pupils. 
 
 There is one other institution due to Kold. We have 
 seen how he became the determined foe of everything that 
 was merely mechanical in the teaching of children. This 
 was a feeling most of his pupils shared with him. The 
 ordinary school presented such a contrast to the home 
 that it seemed like sending their children to a treadmill 
 to let them go there. And so in the wake of Folkehojskole 
 for adults grew up the Dauish free school for children — 
 a school where their powers might develop under sunniest 
 influences. Once a year pupils must present themselves 
 to the inspecting authority and show that they have 
 reached the same standard as other children of their age. 
 But so long as they do this, the schools are left entirely 
 free in their methods, though they receive both central 
 and local grants. Such schools are especially numerous 
 
IN DENMARK 499 
 
 in Fiinen, and indeed wherever the Folkehojskole 
 is strong. The two kinds of schools have acted and 
 re-acted on one another to their mutual advantage. The 
 common school has had more life infused into it; the 
 free school has had its range of subjects made more com- 
 plete. The vivifying influence of the private school, when 
 it has any soul of goodness in it, is one of the salient 
 facts in the history of education in the north of Europe. 
 But Denmark is the only one of the four countries in which 
 this may be said of the elementary schools as well as of the 
 secondary. 
 
 When the war of 1864 broke out, there were not more 
 than seven or eight Folkehojskoler in Denmark. But 
 after the war they sprang up in greater numbers and with 
 added life. They had many diflB.culties, much ill-will and 
 much misrepresentation to contend against. The pupils, 
 it was said, had their heads filled with useless 
 nonsense, and had in consequence exaggerated ideas of 
 their self-importance. In the eighties, when political 
 feeling ran high, the schools were accused of being hot- 
 beds of political agitation. But after the State inspector 
 (Dr. M. Steenstrup), himself a conservative, issued in 
 1886 a pamphlet of sixty-five pages opposing to these pre- 
 judiced views his sixteen years' experience, other views 
 began to prevail; and the State support became mucli 
 more adequate. It is strange that when the amount of the 
 grant was doubled at one stroke in 1892, the State control 
 was not increased at the same time, for the Minister of 
 Education, in speaking against a proposed reduction of 
 the grant in 1885, acknowledged that the schools, not- 
 withstanding theit great merits, had "many faults and 
 defects," and declared that "the right way to improve 
 them is to do aJl that can be done to put them somewhat 
 more under State control than they hitherto have been. 
 
500 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 to lead them in a juster, less fantastic, more every-day 
 and reasonable direction than many of them have yet 
 followed." But, seven years later, it was actnowledged 
 in Parliament that it was "no use feeding the birds if at 
 the same time you tied them up with a string." 
 
 According to the returns published in 1905 there were 
 in the previous year 66 Folkehojskoler in receipt of State 
 support. To these must be added three other recognised 
 schools, which had sent no returns that year, and several 
 others on the way to recognition. These Folkehojskoler 
 are of two kinds, according as they do or do not unite 
 with the main instruction an ajnount of technical work 
 that varies indefinitely from school to school. Prom the 
 very first it had been the custom at some schools to offer 
 some technical training as a side subject in the school. 
 The two commonest subjects have been agriculture and 
 building construction. It is a moot point amongst high 
 school teachers whether such union is wise. Mr. Alfred 
 Povlsen, of Ryslinge, who has tried both ways, each for 
 seven years, declares for the high school pure and simple. 
 "If we are to exercise influence on a man's character," 
 he says, "we require, first and foremost, stillness and 
 quiet in the mind. Wherever there is bustle, the spoken 
 word loses its power. But the technical school naturally 
 brings bustle with it, and leaves the high school only the 
 hours of rest. And therewith the latter is not content. 
 It must have the whole attention if it is to exercise its 
 full effect." But there is no authority that strives to force 
 the schools in one direction or the other. Each school is 
 left free to develop itself in its own way. But the fact 
 that 38 out of the 66 schools are pure high schools shows 
 that the balance of opinion goes with Mr. Povlsen. 
 
 Some of the leaders of these technical departments have 
 given a wider scope to their instruction by founding 
 
IN DENMARK 501 
 
 scliools entirely teclmical upon the same lines and in the 
 same spirit as the high schools, so that the late Captain 
 J. C. La CoTir was wont to say: "The Danish agricul- 
 tural school is the child of the Danish Folkehojskole, and 
 must, like this, have Christian faith and national life for 
 its basis." And there are now thirteen of these schools 
 entirely technical (twelve agricultural and one horti- 
 cultural) that have sprung mainly out of the high schools 
 and are carried on upon the same lines. The close union 
 between the two kinds of school has had the happiest 
 effect. Nearly one-half of the stiidents at these thirteen 
 schools (484 out of 1,054) have previously had a winter at 
 an ordinary high school. And it has been found, with 
 regard to these, that the rousing influence of the 
 high school has produced a receptivity of spirit which leads 
 to a more thorough appropriation and a more independent 
 application of what they have learnt in the agricultural 
 school. So much so, that the principal of one of these 
 schools, reviewing in 1890 his work for the previous nine- 
 teen years, makes the recommendation that " all the young 
 men who intend to avail themselves of the instruction in 
 an agricultural school should stay at least one winter at a 
 high school." Ladelund, Dalum and Tune are the largest 
 of the agricultural schools; and some of their dairy 
 methods have had results far outside Denmark and her 
 sister lands. It was the principal at Ladelund, who was 
 formerly on the staff at Askov high school, that trained 
 the first Control Assistants ;^ and both Ladelund and the 
 rest have had a powerful influence the last twenty-five 
 years in spreading the co-operative dairy over the land. 
 
 1. There are in Denmark nearly 200 Control Unions which engage for 
 the use of their members a trained assistant to help in the oversight of 
 their herds. It is with his assistance that tables are drawn up showing 
 the fat-content of each cow's milk and the cost of the food for each pound 
 of butter yielded. These particulars enable the farmer to weed out his 
 herd, and to select the best stocks to breed from. 
 
502 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 The. latest of these thirteen schools, opened in 1903 at 
 Ringsted, in the centre of Zealand, differs somewhat in 
 aim from the rest, being a school intended mainly for the 
 cottars who are so numerous in Denmark. It is a school 
 of minor husbandry, where instruction, both theoretical 
 and practical, is given in making the best use of holdings 
 of five, eight or twelve acres. The conditions of admis- 
 sion are somewhat easier than usual in this school, and 
 the bursaries for pupils of small means somewhat larger, 
 so as to secure as large an attendance as possible. Pro- 
 vision has been made for the erection of a corresponding 
 school in the centre of Jutland. 
 
 All these 69 Folkehojskoler and 13 agricultural schools 
 are members of a Union formed in 1891, which has a 
 general meeting once every three years. This meeting, 
 held at one of the schools whilst the students are away, 
 lasts over three days and has had a great influence in 
 developing the schools and in formulating the proposals 
 for any additional legislation that may be needed. 
 
 From the last published return it appears that in 
 1903-04 there were 3,151 men and 3,186 women at the 
 high schools and 1,054 men and 7 women at the agricul- 
 tural schools. The largest of the high schools (Vallekilde), 
 since its beginning in 1865, has had an aggregate at- 
 tendance of 11,416 pupils. The entire number that has 
 passed through these various schools can scarcely fall short 
 of 150,000 — a number. Professor La Cour calculates, that 
 amounts to 16 per cent, of the men and women between 
 20 to 50 years of age engaged in agriculture in Denmark. 
 
 Such results could not have been obtained unless the 
 schools had been ordered in such a simple inexpensive 
 way that the charges could be defrayed by men and women 
 of modest resources. Most of the schools conform to the 
 scale of fees fixed by the Union of High Schools and 
 
IN DENMARK 503 
 
 Agricultural Schools. The men pay for hoard and lodg- 
 ing for the five, winter months 20 kr. a month ; and for 
 instruction 20 kr. for the first month, 15 kr. for the 
 second, 10 kr. for the third, 5 kr. for the fourth, and 
 nothing for the fifth, or 150 kr. altogether. The necessary- 
 books and appliances may cost other 10 kr. ; and in some 
 schools each pupil pays 2kr. to provide for the expenses 
 of any cases of illness. This brings the total to 162 kr., or 
 about £9 for the five months. The corresponding ex- 
 penses for the three months' course of the women are 
 102 kr. (a little under £6). Askov, with its wider courses 
 and fuller staff, has charges about 25 per cent, higher than 
 these. 
 
 These fees are somewhat lower than they would be, in 
 consequence of the Government grants to the schools ; but, 
 low as they are, they would be beyond the means of many 
 of the students were it not for the still larger grants 
 made by the State through the County Councils to students 
 of limited means. The relation of the State to the schools 
 is fixed by the law of 1902. A school that seeks public 
 support must, after investigation by the department, 
 appear as approved in the annual budget. And before a 
 school can be approved, it must have been working at 
 least two years and must have had, both those years, at 
 least 10 twelve-months' pupils (or 20 six-months', or 40 
 three-months', as the case may be). No pupil may be 
 under 16 years, and only one-fourth of the men pupils 
 may be between 16 and 18. 
 
 The State expenditure on these schools consists chiefly — ■ 
 (a) of grants to the schools themselves, and (6) of bur- 
 saries to the pupils that need help. Before. 1892 the 
 amounts for these objects were only 50,000 kr. and 
 90,000 kr. respectively (18 kroner = £1). For the next 
 ten years they were more than doubled (120,000 kr. and 
 
504 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 180,000 kr.). And in the new law of 1902 they were 
 again increased, in consequence of the great rise in the 
 numher of pupils, to 140,000 kr. and 250,000 kr., in addi- 
 tion to which 10,000 kr. was contributed to a pension fund, 
 and 8,000 kr. for the expense of inspection (less than 
 £23,000 altogether). A grant of 500 kr. is given every 
 year to each school, and a second grant that corresponds 
 to the usual working expenses of the school during the 
 past year in salaries, equipment, repairs and interest on 
 capital. This second grant amounts to a sum not far 
 short of one-third of the total expenses in these directions. 
 But if, in the interval between one law and another, the 
 number of schools seeking help much increases, this latter 
 grant m.ay fall considerably below one-third. With re- 
 gard to bursaries, the State allows 20 kr. per month to not 
 more than half the number of pupils in any year, if the 
 fixed sum allowed for that purpose will go so far. It is 
 the State that provides the bursaries, but the Education 
 Committee of the County Council which receives the 
 applications and makes the decision. 
 
 The Government returns in 1905 show with great ful- 
 ness what classes of the population are eager to obtain 
 these bursaries. In 1903-04, 1,172 men (at Folkehojskoler 
 5 months) received 114,065 kr. ; 1,472 women (at Folkehoj- 
 skoler 3 months) received 90,156 kr. ; 257 men and 1 
 woman (at Agricultural schools, 5-| months) received 
 34,734 kr.; in all, 2,902 pupils received 238,955 kr. 
 (£13,275). 
 
 There are two things to be noted here before we pass on : 
 (1) There are actually more women than men in attend- 
 ance at the Folkehojskoler, the full number being in 
 1903-04 3,151 men and 3,186 women. On the other hand, 
 the men stay five months at school and the women cannot 
 stay more than three. And (2) the movement has not yet 
 
IN DENMARK 505 
 
 reached its full development, for there were bursaries for 
 only one-half of the men applicants and only two-thirds 
 of the women. 
 
 With regard to the occupations of the bursary holders, 
 512 out of 1,172 men were in service (for the most part 
 upon farms), 381 were artizan journeymen or apprentices, 
 and 100 were still at home with their parents. And of the 
 1,472 women bursary holders, 1,088 were in service, and 
 219 were still living at home. Of the 257 men who ob- 
 tained bursaries for the agricultural school, 159 were in 
 service. 
 
 Of the 2,092 bursary holders, men and women, 1,134 
 were sons or daughters of cottars, 604 of farmers, 414 of 
 labourers, and 317 of artizans ; 2,417, or 83 per cent., were 
 between 18 and 25. Only 192 came from towns. Nor is 
 the proportion from towns any larger among the non- 
 aided pupils. For out of the entire number of 7,398 
 pupils in 1904 the towns furnished only 419. It would be 
 wrong to suppose from this that the Danish Folkehojskole 
 is especially designed for workers on the land or for any 
 one class of the population. It is a school of general civic 
 development. And so Professor Schroder finds in these last 
 figures a "problem which we must desire to solve better 
 and better as time goes on, if the new Danish school for 
 youth is to have the good fortune to blend the various 
 classes of the people into one." 
 
 In these ways and to this extent has the humble man 
 become a "paxtner in the best happiness in the world." 
 Such an effect must produce other effects also, and amongst 
 them may be mentioned — (a) a greater productiveness of 
 industry; (b) progress in religious freedom; (c) a wider 
 and deeper interest in the government of the country. 
 
 (a) Co-operation began in England earlier than in Den- 
 mark, but in the latter country it has had a more striking 
 
S06 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 success. A correspondent, who was formerly a liigli- 
 school pupil, thinks the success is due to the confidence 
 which the Danes feel in each other's words and doings; 
 and he adds, " I do believe that the high schools have been 
 reaJ hot-beds for the seeds from which this has developed. 
 This development of the character of (I trust) the greater 
 part of the population is the finest result of the work of the 
 high schools, and it forms really the basis for the whole 
 future development of the nation." And this co-operation 
 is especially active in the field of agriculture. Agricul- 
 tural societies, societies for the breeding of horses, cattle 
 or poultry, for the purchase and sale of farm products and 
 for the control of dairy herds are spread all over the land. 
 But it is in the production of butter that the most wonder- 
 ful effects of co-operation are seen. It was imperative 
 that, if agriculture in Denmark in the seventies was to 
 regain its prosperity, less attention should be paid to 
 corn-growing and more to the raising of stock and to dairy 
 produce. In 1880 and the succeeding years came a fur- 
 ther change. The agricultural population changed as 
 with one accord to co-operative methods in making butter 
 and cheese. If the reason of this promptness be sought, 
 it will perhaps be best to give it in the words of Professor 
 Povl La Cour to the Agricultural Congress at Stockholm 
 in 1897 : " The resoluteness and capacity with which 
 Danish farmers passed over from making a quantity of 
 poor butter on the smaller farms and holdings up and down 
 the country to the manufacture in co-operative dairies of 
 a butter of almost uniform fineness is no doubt a conse- 
 quence of their having had expert leaders like the late 
 N. J. Fjord, without whom no progress could have been 
 made. But," he adds, "the question remains how a 
 great agricultural population in so short a time could be 
 induced to follow directions and carry the matter 
 
IN DENMARK 507 
 
 throTigli." ^ In order to answer the question statistically, 
 he sent out schedules along with one of the issues of a 
 leading dairy journal to 970 co-operative dairies and 260 
 butter factories (following the same methods as the first, 
 but not on co-operative lines). Though, unfortunately, 
 he received answers from only 436 of these, which em- 
 ployed altogether 436 managers, 723 dairymen, and 470 
 dairywomen, the result was sufficient to give a picture of 
 the situation. He found that, of the managers, 47 per 
 cent, had been at a high school, 24 per cent, at an agri- 
 cultural school, 62 per cent, at a dairy school, and gener- 
 ally 90 per cent, had been at one or more of such schools 
 as we saw were included in the Union of High Schools and 
 Agricultural Schools. The corresponding percentages for 
 men helpers were 18, 2, 11, 28; and of women helpers, 
 29, 0, 2, 30. He concludes : " Just as an enrichment of 
 the soil gives the best conditions for the seeds sown in it, 
 so a well-grounded humanistic training provides the surest 
 basis for business capacity, and not the least so in the case 
 of the coining farmer." 
 
 A similar account is to be given of the 28 co-operative 
 bacon factories, which began seven or eight years after the 
 dairies, and of the Co-operative Egg Export Society, with 
 its 400 affiliated societies.^ 
 
 It would not be easy to exhaust the significance or 
 exaggerate the importance of these facts. In 1881, just 
 before the co-operative dairies began, the net export from 
 Denmark of bacon, butter and eggs was valued at 
 £2,402,000 ; but in 1904 the value had reached £13,614,000 
 — about half that of the entire exports. The leading 
 
 1. Mffilkeritidende (Odense) No. 31, 6 Aug., 1897, p. 511. 
 
 2. The fullest particulars of these movements are to be found in a 
 Report issued by the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc- 
 tion for Ireland in 1903 on Co-operative Agriculture and Bural Con- 
 ditions in Denmark. 
 
508 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 factors in this rapid increase have been a state of the 
 land laws producing peasant proprietorship and the 
 existence of a suitable form of education for adults. 
 Under such conditions the rural exodus in Denmark has 
 been much less serious than in other countries. The 
 country village with its lecture hall, gymnasium and one 
 or more co-operative undertakings, has interests and 
 occupations of its own, such as the town often lacks. 
 Perhaps no more striking instance could be adduced of 
 education spelling prosperity. It has not, however, been 
 a code-controlled and inspector-guided education, but one 
 which has been so free and elastic in its methods that 
 there has been fullest room for character and enthusiasm, 
 sometimes approaching to genius, to develop themselves 
 and awaken in hearers and beholders a fitting response 
 that has been all important for their after life. 
 
 It is almost a shock to our English prepossessions to 
 learn that these high schools are entirely private. In 
 Denmark they are nearly always the property of a single 
 individual. But it is a happy sign that of late years there 
 has been a constant stream to them of English visitors. 
 For, along with many secondary schools in the four 
 countries of the North, they are calculated to raise in 
 public estimation an educational instrument which is even 
 more English than Danish, to show its indispensable 
 position and true function in a public system, and to 
 suggest in great variety ways and means of dealing with 
 it, which will reduce its defects to a minimum and draw 
 from it the maximum of public service. 
 
 (6) In the wake of the Folkehojskoler has gone a Free 
 Kirk movement, whose influence is not to be measured by 
 its extent. So long as the appointments of parish min- 
 isters are made by a Government department, it will 
 happen sometimes that they are unacceptable to the 
 
IN DENMARK 509 
 
 paTishioners. Some cases of tliis kind were met by a 
 new law passed in 1868, whicli enables twenty heads of 
 families in a parish, so long as they are able and willing 
 to provide the necessary means, to erect their own church, 
 and out of the number of those qualified to serve in the 
 national church to choose their own clergyman. And 
 as such an appointment is ratified by the King, they still 
 retain their place within the national church. The laws 
 relating to this matter were consolidated in 1903, with the 
 addition that such a community might under fitting 
 regulations use the parish church for its services at such 
 times as it was not used by the ordinary congregation. In 
 such churches laymen take of necessity a much more active 
 part than usual; and fresh developments of church 
 activity come into existence. The most striking instance 
 is to be found in the Valgmenighed Church in Copen- 
 hagen. Not long ago the church stood alone. Now, with 
 its associated buildings, it surrounds three sides of a 
 square open towards the street on the west. At right 
 angles to the church and joined to it by an arch is a 
 spacious gymnasium with a church hall over it on 
 the first floor. At the comer of the gymnasium nearest 
 the church is a handsome campanile. Further on in the 
 same line is a four-storey building, the ground-floor of 
 which is devoted to an evening continuation school for 
 young men. This school differs from others of a like 
 kind by the attempt made to put a high-school impress 
 upon all the work done, i.e., quite as much stress is laid 
 upon the promotion of all friendly influences as on the 
 extent of the acquirem.ents that may there be made. The 
 upper floors are devoted to the High School Union and the 
 High School Home which constitute respectively a simple, 
 inexpensive club for 600 young men and women in the neigh- 
 bourhood and a modest hotel for high school people from 
 
510 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 the country and their friends. Tlie two institutions are, 
 in fact, a continuation of the work which the late Folke- 
 tingsmand Harald Holm and his wife conducted for thirty 
 years with such spirit in Helgolandsgade.^ Of such high 
 school homes there are more than thirty to be found 
 scattered over Denmark.^ As some are erected by unions 
 or committees, and others by individuals, there are wide 
 differences in the extent and kind of their accommodation 
 and also of their usefulness. 
 
 The building on the third side has its ground floor de- 
 voted to continuation classes of a high school character 
 for seventy or eighty young women. On the first floor 
 are the offices where the church business is attended to; 
 on the second is the clergyman's residence ; and on the 
 third a school of housekeeping and cookery. 
 
 (c) Though the Danish high schools avoid anything like 
 political agitation or party politics, it will be readily 
 understood from the fact that history is their chief sub- 
 ject, that they develop in their pupils a keen sense of 
 public duty. In the new Danish Parliament of 1901 it 
 was found that no less than 30 per cent of the members 
 of the two Houses had passed through such schools as I 
 have been describing. 
 
 It was not long before the Danish high school passed to 
 the neighbouring countries, in all of which it has won 
 for itself devoted friends and workers. The high school 
 first made its appearance in Norway in 1864, and was for 
 years somewhat of an exotic. The movement led in 1875 
 to the establishment of State Amtsskoler as well as high 
 schools proper. An Amtsskole, like the high school, is a 
 
 1. See Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. i., p. 598. 
 
 2. There is a list of twenty of these to be found year by year in the 
 Teachers' Guild Holiday Resorts (74 Gower Street, London, W.C., Is.). 
 
IN DENMARK 511 
 
 scliool in wMch. the whole time of the pupil is given for 
 several months to instruction; hut its pupils are younger 
 and it lacks the higher instruction in history and litera- 
 ture, which is the special feature of the high school. The 
 two schools were at first rivals, but now exist peacefully 
 side by side. And it is often found that the Folkehoj- 
 skole pupil becomes the most successful director of the 
 Amtsskole. In 1900 there were 634 pupils in the high 
 schools, and 1,717 in the Amtsskoler. 
 
 In Sweden the movement began in 1868, and has gone 
 on since with uninterrupted success. There are 30 schools 
 at work; and it is calculated that there have been 31,480 
 pupils in them — 19,177 one-year men pupils, 3,552 two- 
 year men pupils (the second year is devoted almost entirely 
 to technical subjects such as farming and forestry), and 
 8,751 women pupils. Since 1900 the Riksdag has granted 
 120,000 kr. a year to these schools and 25,000 kr. in bur- 
 saries for students in need of help.^ 
 
 It was in 1889 that Sofia Hagman began the first 
 People's High School in Finland; and there are now 16 
 in which Finnish is the language of instruction and 7 for 
 Swedish-speaking students. Inasmuch as each of them 
 also gives instruction in agriculture and domestic economy, 
 the State gives a grant to each school of 2-3,000 mrks. 
 They are all co-education schools. In 1897 there were 
 560 pupils at the Finnish, and 165 at the Swedish, schools. 
 
 There have been five general meetings of the teachers 
 and friends of the high schools in the North. The first 
 
 1. Dr. J. V. Jonsson has written in English a, brief account of " The 
 People's High Schools in Sweden'' (Orebro, 1904, pp. 30). There is 
 a copy of this in the British Museum. The largest of the schools is in 
 the extreme south of Sweden, at Hvilan, near Akarp, halfway between 
 Limd and Malmo; and can easily be reached from Copenhagen. Dr. 
 Leonard Holmstrom has been its principal since its foundation in 1868. 
 
512 PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 was lield, in 1883, at Testrup, in Jutland; at the last but 
 one, which was held in 1900 at Seljord in Norway, there 
 were present more than 250 persons from the four countries. 
 It is more than twenty-five years since the first People's 
 High School was begun amongst Danish colonists in the 
 United States ; and there are still three at work — Nysted, 
 in Nebraska; Danebod, near the southern boundary of 
 Minnesota; and Des Moines, in Iowa. 
 
 J. S. Thornton. 
 
 Reference may be made to the following accounts of the People's 
 High Schools in Denmark : — 
 
 Alfred Povlsen. The Danish Popular High School, in the Oxford 
 
 University Extension Gazette, September 1904. 
 J. S. Thornton. Recent Educational Progress in Denmark, in Special 
 
 Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. i. London : Eyre and 
 
 Spottiswoode, 1897. 
 Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe. Special Reports 
 
 on Educational Subjects, vol. xvii. London . Wyman & Sons, 
 
 1907. 
 T. S. Dymond. Report on the Visit of the Essex Farmers' Party to 
 
 Denmark. Chelmsford, 1900. 
 L. Schroder. Den Nordishe Folhehojskole. Copenhagen, 1905. 
 
513 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Compulsory Attendance at Continuation Schools in 
 Germany.^ 
 
 The German Empire comprises twenty-five states and the 
 Eeichsland of Alsace-Lorraine. In twenty-one out of these 
 twenty-six constituent parts of the Empire, attendance at 
 continuation schools is now compulsory for the whole or 
 part of the younger population during a period of time 
 (which varies in length in different districts) immediately 
 following the conclusion of the elementary day school 
 course. The five states in which attendance at continua- 
 tion schools still remains wholly voluntary contain only 
 one-forty-sixth part of the population of the empire. 
 Broadly speaking, Germany has within the last thirty years 
 declared herself decisively in favour of extending the edu- 
 cational care of the community over the individual during 
 the critical years of adolescence. The idea of collective 
 responsibility for individual welfare has grown in power. 
 Step by step the authority of the State has advanced. The 
 principle of compulsion has been pushed beyond the some- 
 what narrow limits of the elementary school (6 — 14) into 
 the period of adolescence, during which (as is justly con- 
 
 1. I desire to acknowledge the valuable help which I have received, in 
 collecting materials and statistics for this chapter, from Mr. G. Huth of 
 Breslau, from the late Dr. Otto Beyer of !Leipzig, from Mr. B. Lasker 
 of the Manchester Art Museum and University Settlement, and from 
 Mr. A. E. Twentyman, Librarian of the Board of Education, whose 
 knowledge of educational work in Germany is of a kind to which few 
 other Englishmen could make claim. But for the views expressed the 
 responsibility is mine alone. — M. E. S. 
 
 2 H 
 
514 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 tended) there is no less need of educational direction and 
 care. In bringing about this extension of the compulsory- 
 principle economic interests have combined with moral 
 considerations. The view that technical training following 
 upon a good general education has become indispensable 
 to the industrial and commercial success of a nation com- 
 mands the unreserved assent of the German people. In 
 no other country is this principle more consistently applied. 
 And therefore as soon as it was realised that modem con- 
 ditions of industry and commerce threatened to deprive 
 young people of the educational care which was formerly 
 provided through apprenticeship, the idea of compulsory 
 attendance at suitable continuation schools rapidly grew 
 in favour among the workpeople and, though more slowly, 
 among the mass of employers also. But it was not to econ- 
 omic interests alone that the growth of this opinion was 
 due. Moral considerations supported it. Fears were felt 
 that the moral welfare of the nation would suffer if no 
 measures were taken to counteract the deteriorating in- 
 fluences of town and city life during the first years of a 
 youth's freedom from the discipline of day-school life. 
 The idea of extending the principle of compulsion was not 
 uncongenial to the habit of mind induced by familiarity 
 with the enforcement of discipline by the State through 
 compulsory military service. . Nor was there practical diffi- 
 culty in enabling the local education authorities to keep 
 themselves informed of the whereabouts of all the young 
 people who had already passed through the elementary 
 schools. For reasons of military organisation, the ad- 
 ministrative machinery, necessary for the supervision of 
 every male adult member of the community, was ready 
 to hand. And obedience to constituted authority was 
 habitual in all classes. The foundation of the system lies 
 in the fact that in Germany the individual citizen is made 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 515 
 
 to feel, in a way iinknown in England, his personal duty 
 towards the organised State. 
 
 That there is a had as well as a good side to this form of 
 national organisation will he admitted, even hy those who 
 heartily endorse the German system. But the latter con- 
 tend that discipline enforced hy authority is necessary 
 to the strength, and perhaps to the existence, of the nation. 
 And it is further argued that within the framework of 
 sternly enforced national organisation there is secured for 
 the individual a measure of economic and moral freedom 
 which is denied to many of the victims of competition 
 in a more individualistic society. In any case, the ohserver 
 can hut record the fact that the principle of compulsory 
 attendance at continuation schools, which is hut the logical 
 development of compulsory attendance at the elementary 
 school, meets with the approval of the great majority of the 
 German people. 
 
 The extent to which this compulsory attendance is re- 
 quired varies in different parts of the Empire. In nine 
 States (including the greater part of Prussia^) and in 
 Alsace-Lorraine attendance is compulsory only in those 
 towns or districts where it is imposed hy local hye-law."^ 
 In eleven states, attendance is compulsory hy State law 
 hut for periods varying in different localities. In five 
 States attendance at continuation schools is still voluntary, 
 hut in one of these (Bremen) it will hecome compulsory in 
 April 1908. 
 
 Attendance at continuation schools is compulsory where 
 required hy local hyelaw in the following States. The 
 practice of requiring it has hecome increasingly frequent 
 in urhan districts during recent years. 
 
 I. In the Prussian provinces of Posen and West Prussia attendance is 
 compulsory by State law. The population of Posen in 1900 was 
 1,887,275; that of West Prussia, 1,563,658. 
 
5i6 
 
 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 Population, 
 State. Dec. 1, 1900. 
 
 Prussia (excluding Posen and West Prussia 
 where attendance is compulsory by State 
 
 law) 31,021,576 
 
 Saxe Altenburg 194,914 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotlia 229,550 
 
 Anhalt 316,085 
 
 Brunswick 464,333 
 
 Oldenburg 399,180 
 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 102,602 
 
 Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt 93,059 
 
 Lippe 138,952 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine 1,719,470 
 
 A minimum period of attendance at continuation schools 
 is compulsory by State Law in the following : — 
 
 
 Population, 
 
 State. 
 
 Dec. 1, 1900. 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 . 6,176,057 
 
 Saxony 
 
 . 4,202,216 
 
 "Wiirttemberg 
 
 . 2,169,480 
 
 Baden 
 
 . 1,867,944 
 
 Hesse 
 
 . L119,893 
 
 Saxe Weimar 
 
 362,873 
 
 Saxe Meiningen 
 
 . 250,731 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 
 . 607,770 
 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ... . 
 
 80,898 
 
 Waldeck 
 
 57,918 
 
 Eeuss, Junior Branch 
 
 . 139,210 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 517 
 
 In tlie following, attendance at continuation schools is 
 still voluntary : — 
 
 Population, 
 State. Dec. 1, 1900. 
 
 Hamburg 768,349 
 
 Bremen ^ 
 
 Liibeck 
 
 Eeuss, Elder Brancb 
 Schaumburg-Lippe . . . 
 
 224,882 
 96,775 
 68,396 
 43,132 
 
 Attendance at continuation schools is compulsory for 
 girls as well as for boys in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Saxe- 
 Meiningen, Waldeck and in some parts of Prussia. In 
 all other cases compulsion applies to boys only. 
 
 The work of the continuation schools for boys is increas- 
 ingly of a technical character, and bears directly upon the 
 industrial occupations of the pupils. By the Imperial 
 Industrial Law of June 1, 1891 (as amended June 30, 1900) 
 employers of labour are obliged to grant to their appren- 
 tices or other workers (including all male persons, and 
 female clerks and female apprentices) who are under 18 
 years of age the necessary time for such attendance at con- 
 tinuation classes as is required by the local authority of 
 the district. 
 
 The arrangement of continuation classes in the day time 
 is rapidly becoming general where the exigencies of the 
 trade allow. The Decree of the Minister of Industry and 
 Commerce (of August 20, 1904) sternly discourages con- 
 tinuation classes on Sunday and the practice of requiring 
 attendance at any time after 8 p.m. on a week day. Classes 
 are only permitted on Sundays (when allowed at all on 
 that day) at hours which do not interfere with attendance 
 at Divine Service. 
 
 1. Attendance to be compulsory from April 1, 1908. 
 
5i8 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 
 
 The movement for compulsory attendance at continuation 
 schools is by no means exclusively confined to the towns. 
 But, as might be expected, it is in industrial and com- 
 mercial centres that the recent developments have been 
 most striking. The organisation of continuation schools 
 effected in the City of Munich by Stadtschulrat Dr. Georg 
 Kerschensteiner (whose writings on the subject have had 
 widespread influence in Germany and elsewhere) calls for 
 special mention as combining in an exceptionally high 
 degree care for artistic and technical training with regard 
 for liberal culture and for the duties of citizenship. 
 
 II. 
 
 The following tables, which have been prepared by Mr. 
 G. Huth of Breslau, show the conditions of attendance at 
 continuation schools in the different parts of the German 
 Empire and give the statistics of schools and attendance. 
 
I. — Table Showing the Conditions of Attendance at Continuation Schools in Different Parts of the German Empire. 
 
 state. 
 
 Compulsory or Voluntary. 
 
 Stipulations 
 
 regarding 
 
 Boys and Girls. 
 
 Age limit for 
 Compulsory 
 Attendance. 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Number of 
 
 weeks per year 
 
 and of hours 
 
 per week. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 IJavaria ... . 
 
 Saxony ... . 
 Wiirttemberg. 
 
 Baden ... . 
 
 Saxe- Weimar 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen ... 
 Saxe-Altenburg ... 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt ... 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 
 Waldeok 
 
 Eeuss, Junior Branch 
 
 Reuss, Elder Branch 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe 
 
 Lippe 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Liibeck 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1874 ... 
 
 Compulsory by State law since 1803 
 
 CompuLsory by State law since April 24, 1873 
 Compulsory by State law of May 2'2, 1895 ... 
 
 Sunday ScliooKs compulsory by State law since 1706; Industrial 
 Continuation Schools since February 18, 1874 
 
 Compul.sory by State law of June 16, 1874 
 
 Compulsory by State law of June 24, 1874 
 
 Compulsory by State law of March 22, 1895 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since February 12, 1889 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since October 27, 1874 
 
 Compul.sory by local bye-law since 1874 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law, for commercial employees since 1878, 
 
 for young men in industries since 1904 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1874 
 
 Compulsory by State law of April 18, 1905 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1873 ... 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1875 
 
 Compulsory by State law since 1874 
 
 Compulsory by State law since July 9, 1855 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1874; by State law since 1900 .. 
 
 Voluntary 
 
 Voluntary 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1874 
 
 Voluntary 
 
 Voluntary 
 
 Voluntary, but will be compulsory from April 1, 1908 
 
 Compulsory by local bye-law since 1873 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys and ;;irls 
 if stipulated 
 by lo(tal bye- 
 Ill w 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys and girls 
 
 For boys only 
 
 (^ompulsory for 
 boys aiul {;irls 
 
 ("oMipulsory f(U- 
 boys and jjirls 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys iind t;irls 
 
 Coui|iulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 boys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 buys only 
 Compulsory for 
 
 b(jys and j;irls 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 Compulsory for 
 boys only 
 
 17 to 18 years 
 as stipulated 
 by local bye- 
 law 
 
 Boys up to 17th 
 year ; <;irls up 
 to 1 6th year 
 
 Up to 17tli year 
 
 lioys up to 18 
 years; {;irls up 
 to 16 years 
 
 Hoys up to 16 
 years; ;;irls up 
 to 15 years 
 
 Up to 17th year 
 (3 years) ' 
 
 Up to 16 years 
 for (ieneral C. 
 Schools 
 
 Up to lOtli year 
 
 Up to 16th year 
 
 Up tol7th year 
 
 Up to 16 and 
 17 years 
 Up to 18 years 
 
 I'p to 18 years 
 
 I'p to 18 years 
 Up to 17 years 
 Up to 16 years 
 Up to 18 years 
 
 Boys up to 16 
 years; f,'irls up 
 to 16 years 
 
 Up to 16 years 
 
 Up to 17 years 
 
 Up to 18 years 
 11 p to 18 years 
 
 40 weeks, 4-6 
 lessons per 
 week 
 
 Boys 40 weeks 
 of 8 hours per 
 week ; ^irls 3 
 hours 
 
 40 weeks, 2 
 hours per wk. 
 
 li)0!) Law pre- 
 scribes mini- 
 nnim 280 hrs. 
 
 42 weeks, 2 
 hours per wk. 
 
 40 weeks, 6 
 hours perwk. 
 
 40 weeks, 4 
 hours per wk. 
 
 40 weeks, 2 
 
 hours [lerwk. 
 2 years of 40 
 
 weeks with 6 
 
 hours perwk. 
 40 weeks of 
 
 2-6 hours per 
 
 \\eek 
 4-6 hours per 
 
 wk., 42 wks. 
 42 weeks, 6 
 
 hours perwk. 
 4 to 8 hours 
 
 per week, 40 
 
 \veeks 
 No stipulation 
 
 42 weeks, 4-8 
 hours perwk. 
 
 42 weeks, 2-6 
 hours perwk. 
 
 42 weeks, 4 
 hours perwk. 
 
 24 weeks of 4 
 hrs. for boys, 
 2 hrs. for j;irls 
 
 42 weeks of 2 
 hours perwk. 
 
 42 weeks, AVin- 
 ter 10 hours; 
 Summer 2 
 houre 
 
 40 weeks of 
 4-6 hours per 
 \\eek 
 
 40 weeks of 6 
 hours per wk. 
 
 Attendance compulsory by local bye-law except in the provinces of 
 Posen and West Prussia, where compulsory attendance is established 
 by State law. 
 
 No lessons allowed after 7 p.m. 
 
 Some towns have the privilege of a 2 years' compulsory attendance with 
 a minimum of 6 hours per week for 40 weeks. 
 
 The General Continuation Schools compulsory for boys and girls up to 
 16th year. Minimum number of les.';ons = 80 per annum. The 
 Industrial Continuation Schools compul.sory for boys till 18 years. 
 Minimum number of hours now 180; from 1909 = 280 hours per 
 annum. Afternoon lessons, no evening lessons. 
 
 Commercial Continuation Schools compulsory since 1902 at Karlsruhe. 
 Usual number of le.ssons for boys and girls 3 per week. No evening 
 lessons. Girls' compulsory Continuation Schools 1 year's attendance. 
 
 No lessons on Sunday, Monday and Saturday. Establishment of Con- 
 tinuation Schools for girls left to the communities. No lessons after 
 7 p.m. 
 
 General Continuation Schools compulsory for 2 years ; Industrial Con- 
 tinuation Schools compulsory for 3 years. The former compulsory 
 by State law, the latter by local bye-law. 
 
 Rural communities winter schools only. 
 
 The local bye-laws date generally from 1900 and 1902. 
 
 Since July 24, 1897, girls can be compelled to attend Continuation 
 Schools. 
 
 There are winter schools with compulsory attendance 8 hours per week. 
 
 Most of the Industrial Schools compulsory since 1892. 
 
 Most of the schools compulsory since 1897. 
 
 Lessons must take place not later than 9 p.m. 
 Compulsory Schools mostly established since 1894. 
 
 The State law compels every community to have compulsory Continua- 
 tion Schools. 
 
 For girls there are only .sewing lessons. Continuation Schools compulsory 
 only during winter months. 
 
 In 1900 the State law compelled the communities to establish compulsory 
 Continuation Schools. 
 
 Attendance at Continuation Schools is voluntary for boys, but employers 
 are compelled by the law of June 30, 1900, to grant their employees 
 the necessary time up to their 18th year. 
 
 The Guilds have to compel the apprentices to attend the Continuation 
 
 Schools. 
 Compulsory through guilds. 
 Attendance will be made compulsory from April 1, 1908. 
 
 Strassburg introduced compulsion in 1898, Mulhansen in 1883, Metz in 
 1890. 
 
 To face p. 518. 
 

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520 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 III. 
 
 The German continuation school is not a modern 
 creation. It springs from an old root. It has developed 
 from the Sunday school. In certain parts of Germany 
 such Sunday continuation schools have existed for several 
 centuries. In one diocese in the Baltic district they 
 date back as far as 1569. Originally their main purpose 
 was to strengthen and deepen the religious knowledge of 
 the children ; and the instruction in the Church Catechism, 
 which was given after the pupils had left the elementary 
 school, was regarded as the first step towards this end. 
 The first German States to make attendance at these schools 
 compulsory on young people of both sexes were Wiirttem- 
 berg (in 1739) and Bavaria (in 1803). In Bavaria, a young 
 man could not marry unless he first produced a certificate 
 that he had gone through the course at a Sunday school. 
 Up to their sixteenth year (sometimes till their eighteenth 
 or twentieth year, or even until marriage) the young 
 people received, from the clergyman or schoolmaster, on 
 Sunday afternoons, instruction in religious knowledge, and 
 in reading and writing. Sometimes, too, these Sunday 
 schools replaced the regular elementary schools for those 
 children who were prevented by domestic duties from 
 attending school on week-days. The regulations for com- 
 pulsory attendance, however, were never strictly enforced ; 
 indeed such enforcement was out of the question owing to 
 the lack of teachers and school accommodation. The 
 results were poor, as was only to be expected from the 
 miserable educational conditions then prevailing. 
 
 It was in the Kingdom of Saxony that the modern de- 
 velopment of the continuation school began. The growing 
 industrial power of England was watched from afar. " "We 
 have all looked on idly while England gathered strength ; 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 521 
 
 slie now enjoys tte fruits of her labours. . . . Nothing 
 remains for us but to win these fruits, and nothing can 
 stop us as soon as we have learnt tO' sow the seed and reap 
 the harvest. This seed is nothing more than the prepara- 
 tion of knowledge, and this we must scatter with no sparing 
 hand."'^ These were the words of a Bavarian advocate of 
 technical instruction in 1829. And the same vigorous 
 spirit of commercial and industrial emulation moved men 
 in Saxony also. 
 
 There sprang up a vigorous movement on the part of the 
 town councils and trade associations for the establishment 
 of continuation schools, and in 1835 the local authorities 
 in Saxony were given statutory power to enforce attendance 
 at such schools. ' But in the fifties the current of feeling 
 changed. Elementary education was now universal. There 
 were many who held that the work of the continuation 
 schools had therefore become unnecessary. And the air 
 was charged with the theories of individualism, which were 
 supposed to explain British initiative and success. Com- 
 pulsory attendance went for a time out of fashion. In 1859 
 the power of enforcing attendance at continuation schools 
 was withdrawn from the local authorities in Saxony, as 
 had already been the case elsewhere. The attendance at 
 the schools and (individualistic theories notwithstanding) 
 their efficiency declined. Many years later, a resident in 
 a neighbouring State reminded his hearers of what had 
 happened. " In Weimar, in 1850, we had a continuation 
 school which was largely attended, and the source of great 
 benefit to the town. . . . Then cam« the new law, and com- 
 pulsory attendance was abolished. Our school died. No 
 one attended any longer, because all our young men 
 
 1. "Kunst-und Gewerbe Blatt. Munchen," 1829, p. 507. Quoted by 
 A. E. Twentyman in article on " The Earlier History of Technical 
 Hi^h Schools in Germany," in " Special Breports on Educational 
 Subjects," vol. ix. p. 467. 
 
522 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 thought they had learnt quite enough. Then the council 
 formulated another decree. They could not compel^ but 
 they decided to urge, the young men of 14 to 18 years of 
 age to help in re-establishing the school. The appeal was 
 backed by cogent arguments. But what was the result? 
 There reported himself for the first-class, one student ; for 
 the second-class, one more. Two scholars in all." ^ 
 
 But the tide soon turned. The new spirit of collective 
 action asserted itself in Germany. Complaints of the de- 
 fective training of the younger workers in industry, in com- 
 merce and in agriculture took the ear of the public. In 1867 
 when universal suffrage was introduced and the sphere of 
 work of educational authorities was extended, it was felt 
 on all sides that the masses must be educated for their 
 civic duties and that to this end the period of education 
 must be extended beyond the fourteenth year. 
 
 A decisive step was taken two years later. Under the 
 terms of the "Eegulation of Industry" of 1869, employers 
 were compelled to allow their workmen under eighteen 
 years of age to attend a recognised continuation school, and 
 the communes were empowered to frame bye-laws making 
 attendance at such schools obligatory on all workmen under 
 eighteen. Continuation schools were established in many 
 places, very frequently through the influence of the " So- 
 ciety for the Extension of Popular Education," which was 
 founded about this time. A vigorous propaganda in favour 
 of continuation schools was made in the great towns and 
 public opinion was stirred. Then followed the great events 
 of 1870-71. The force of national feeling was irresistible. 
 The power of education had been proved in the war. It 
 was felt that the schools had helped to make Germany 
 united and victorious. To go forward along the same road 
 
 ■ \. f ^® ?', ^' ^^'e's article on " The Continuation Schools of Saxony " 
 m bpecial Eeports on Educational Subjects," vol. i. p. 484. 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 523 
 
 was the way to consolidate what had been won and to attain 
 yet further success. The national genius for industrial 
 and commercial organisation asserted itself with double 
 power. Scientific method in research and in the applica- 
 tion of research to manufacture was at the disposal of the 
 nation. What remained was to improve the education 
 of the people and to give a practical turn to the training 
 of youths. This pointed towards a great development of 
 technical and commercial continuation schools. A Society 
 for the Extension of National Education was founded. Its 
 work met with quick response. Petitions for continuation 
 schools poured in from all classes. In 1873 Saxony passed 
 a law enforcing attendance at such schools. In the next 
 year, Baden, Saxe Weimar, Hesse and other States fol- 
 lowed suit. Prussia allowed compulsion by local bye-law. 
 The new era of continuation schools had begun. 
 
 Since that time the movement has gone steadily forward, 
 but never so rapidly as within the last few years. ^ Years 
 of practice and of carefully watched experiments have 
 produced an expert body of trade teachers on a scale un- 
 matched elsewhere. What may be called the science and 
 art of technical instruction have advanced, and the results 
 show themselves in the ease with which town after town 
 can provide itself with the large staff of skilled teachers 
 necessary to the success of any widely extended system 
 of practical continuation schools. But many Germans 
 were quick to see the danger of giving a too ex- 
 clusively technical character to the new classes. An 
 educational movement which has powerful economic in- 
 terests behind it is apt to become too narrowly utilitarian 
 
 1. In furthering public knowledge of the working of the continuation 
 school system, valuable service was rendered, from 1890 onwards, by 
 the writings of Herr Oskar Pache of Leipzig. The first volume of 
 his " Handbuch des deutschen Fortbildungsschulwesens" (Herrose, 
 Wittenberg), appeared in 1896. 
 
524 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 in motive, and to lose that ideal element which gives all 
 education its chief power over character, and alone can 
 command the loyalty and self-devotion of the most in- 
 spiring teachers. At the critical moment Dr. Kerschen- 
 steiner struck the needed note. In 1900 he happened to 
 see in a newspaper the announcement by the Academy of 
 Erfurt of a prize for an essay upon the best way of train- 
 ing youths for the responsibilities of civic life during the 
 critical years which intervene between the close of their day 
 school course and their military service. He sent in an 
 essay which was crowned by the Academy and won the 
 prize. During the last six years this little book of seventy- 
 eight pages ^ has moved opinion in every part of Germany. 
 Nor is its influence confined to Europe. Much of what is 
 now being done to develop practical continuation schools 
 in New England can be directly traced to Dr. Kerschen- 
 steiner's work. 
 
 Educational opinion was ready for a new departure. 
 School work and school theories had got too far from the 
 actual tasks of modern industrial life. The tacit implica- 
 tion was that general culture and technical utility 
 were on different planes of value, and that school studies 
 must remain as remote as might be from the vulgarising 
 touch of practical work. The practical duties of life would 
 come soon enough in any case with their exacting claims. 
 Let the schools do what they could to secure even for the 
 humblest some years of shelter from thoughts of wage 
 earning, and a period, however short, of training in the 
 things of the mind. But the theory had been better than 
 the practice. All the time, thousands of elementary school 
 children were working out of school hours early and late. 
 Much of the work of the elementary, like that of the 
 
 1. " Staatsbiirgerliche Erziehung der deutschen Jugend," von Dr. 
 Georg Kerschensteiner. Erfurt : Carl Villaret, 1901. 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 525 
 
 higher, schools was (and is) too abstract, too remote from 
 reality, too little related to life. And when the stint of 
 elementary education had been given, the children were 
 (and are) too often allowed to pass out into casually chosen 
 employment, at a critical stage in their moral develop- 
 ment, without care or guidance or technical training. And 
 the work of the schools, excellent in itself, admirable in 
 discipline and exemplary in its accurate skill, had done 
 (and still does) little to prepare them for life as they would 
 find it. This was felt, is still felt, by increasing numbers 
 of teachers and by many others who watch with 
 sympathy the painstaking efforts of the schools. Somehow 
 or other things were wrong. One by one, readers of Pesta- 
 lozzi began to see in his teaching a deeper meaning than 
 they had at first perceived. Men like Professor Natorp 
 threw into new relief the social significance of education, 
 and emphasised the necessity for a closer relationship 
 between education and the realities of life.^ Professor 
 John Dewey endeavoured, in his experimental school at 
 Chicago, to make it ' an embryonic community life,' active 
 with types of occupation that reflect the life of the larger 
 society, and permeated throughout with the spirit of art, 
 history and science. " When the school," he wrote, " in- 
 troduces and trains each child of society into membership 
 within such a little community, saturating him with the 
 spirit of service, and providing him with the instru- 
 ments of effective self-direction, we shall have the 
 deepest and best guarantee of a larger society which 
 is worthy, lovely and harmonious. "^ In England, 
 Dr. Armstrong, Sir P. Magnus and others con- 
 tended for practical studies in the elementary and 
 
 1. Paul Natorp, " Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Sozialpadagokik. " 
 Stuttgart : Fr. Frommann's Verlag, 1907. 
 
 2. " The School and Society," p. 44. Chicago Univer^ty Press, 1900. 
 (London : P. S. King and Son.) 
 
526 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 secondary schools. Dr. Stanley Hall pressed upon the 
 thoughts of all students of education the need for dealing 
 in a new spirit with the complex needs of adolescence. 
 And at the same juncture has comie Dr. Kerschensteiner's 
 work, which, on its literary and administrative sides alike, 
 has thrown new light upon the problem of continuation 
 schools, and points towards a synthesis of technical and 
 ethical studies in their course. 
 
 These are some of the chief elements in the new influence 
 which is at work in the movement for making the continua- 
 tion school a more powerful instrument in social education. 
 The forces behind the movement are more complex than at 
 first appears. It is an expression of social tendencies which 
 are still undefined in words even by many of those who feel 
 most strongly the push of the tendencies in their mind and 
 work. To a great extent, perhaps to a undue degree, the 
 desire for technical skill and for increased wage-earning 
 capacity is the motive power to-day in the system of con- 
 tinuation schools of Germany, as in the less perfectly 
 organised systems of other countries including our own. 
 But from a social as well as from an economic point of 
 view, the continuation school is an important factor in 
 national life. It prevents the waate, through neglect, of 
 much that has been learnt in the elementary school. It 
 gives help to self-discipline during the critical years of 
 adolescence. It aims at making every youth realise that 
 increased skill in his trade and deeper knowledge of the 
 scientific principles which underlie it, will not only enable 
 him to hold his own in the economic struggle but will also 
 enhance his personal dignity as a member of the com- 
 munity. Therefore, if the continuation school is to do its 
 complete work, it must aiford a training in citizenship as 
 well as impart purely technical skill. In furthering tech- 
 nical instruction, it must not forget the claims of general 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 527 
 
 education. In order to attain this double purpose, it needs, 
 and lias a claim upon, voluntary assistance and public 
 subsidy. Ignorance is the dearest thing in the world, and 
 iunds laid out upon the skilful development of in- 
 dustrial and commercial aptitudes and upon the deepening 
 of the sense of personal duty and responsibility towards 
 the community, bring in a large return both as regards 
 material prosperity and national well-being. 
 
 IV. 
 
 A governing fact in the development of the technical 
 continuation school in Germany is the duty which the 
 law throws upon the employer of giving to his younger 
 workpeople the necessary time for attendance at the con- 
 tinuation classes which the local education authority may 
 prescribe. 
 
 This duty is imposed by the following sections in the 
 Imperial Law of Industry of June 1, 1891 : — ■ 
 
 Sect. 120. Employers of labour are required to grant to those of 
 their employes ' under 18 years of age who attend a continuation school 
 arranged by the Government or by the local authority the necessary 
 time for school attendance as prescribed by the authority in question. 
 Classes are only allowed on Sundays if they do not interfere with 
 attendance at Divine Service. 
 
 Sect. 142. By the bye-law of a district or Town Council attendance 
 at continuation schools can be made compulsory for male persons under 
 18 years. The regulations necessary to enforce compulsory regular 
 attendance at such schools may be fixed by the local authority, and 
 the duties of pupils, parents, guardians and employers may be so 
 defined as to ensure the regular attendance, the discipline and the 
 orderly behaviour of the pupils. Those pupils are relieved from the 
 attendance at such compulsory schools who attend a guild-or " Fach " 
 school, provided that such a school is recognised by the superior 
 administrative authority as equivalent in status to the said continuation 
 school. 
 
 Sect. 150. A fine of 20 marks (£1) or, if this is not paid, imprison- 
 ment up to three days for every offence, is imposed upon anyone 
 contravening any of the above regulations. 
 
 The view taken by the Prussian Grovemment upon the 
 merits of the system of compulsory attendance at continua- 
 
 1. By the Industrial Law of 30 June, 1900, Sect. 120 is altered to in- 
 clude the following : male persons, female clerks, female apprentices. 
 
528 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 tion schools is illustrated by the following Decree of the 
 Minister of Trade and Commerce, dated Berlin, August 31, 
 1899. 
 
 " There are still some who think that voluntary attendance at 
 industrial continuation schools is preferable to compulsory attendance. 
 I consider it my duty to draw attention to the recognised fact that, 
 according to all experience down to the present time, the continuation 
 school only flourishes and fulfils its purpose if attendance is made 
 compulsory by a local byelaw. The opponents of compulsory attendance 
 maintain that it lowers the standard of the schools. It is contended 
 that the voluntary pupils are willing and ready to learn, whereas those 
 who are compelled to attend are refractory and lazy, and thus impede 
 the progress of the better pupils and make it difficult to maintain school 
 discipline. I admit that among the number of industrial labourers 
 under 18 years of age who are brought to school by compulsory 
 attendance, there may be some undesirables who cannot be brought 
 under school discipline. But this drawback can be obviated by a proper 
 classification of the pupils, especially by rigorously enforcing the 
 grading system and by employing suitable teachers. Moreover, the 
 difficulty can be overcome if, in the initial stage of the compulsory 
 system, those young persons who have been out of school for several 
 years are not admitted. In the earlier stages, the bye-law should only 
 be enforced for the lowest stage of the continuation school and should be 
 extended in operation year by year. Experience shows that attendance 
 at the continuation school will soon be regarded as a matter of course, 
 just as is the case with attendance at the elementary schools. This 
 plan has the further advantage of gradually building up the school stage 
 by stage. This meets another objection, viz., that any sudden increase 
 in the number of pupils would make too great a demand for school 
 places and that the expense of providing them would be beyond the 
 means of most of the communities. 
 
 The critics of the compulsory system further maintain that schools 
 with voluntary attendance show better educational results. This 
 statement is certainly wrong, and the tests lately instituted by me prove 
 the contrary. Irregular and unpunctual attendance is a standing 
 complaint with nearly all the schools when attendance is voluntary. 
 In some instances it has happened that schools with voluntary attend- 
 ance have had to waste half the time appointed for a lesson because 
 sufficient pupils had not arrived to make it possible to begin. 
 
 Another drawback connected with voluntary attendance which 
 seriously impairs the success of the teaching is that pupils cannot be 
 got to attend those classes in German and arithmetic which they need 
 in consequence of their defective preparation. They either refuse to 
 attend such a class, or stop away entirely and pretend that they are 
 needed in workshop or office on the days when such lessons are given. 
 The consequence is that even in schools with a large number of pupils 
 it is impossible to grade the classes in suitable forms. It is also 
 inaccurate to say that a continuation school with voluntary attendance 
 offers sufficient opportunity to all diligent young workmen to extend 
 their knowledge. Under the voluntary system, an employer, who is 
 opposed to the increase of educational opportunities, will, in spite of 
 Sect. 120 of the Imperial Law of Industry, which compels him to grant 
 his young men the time necessary for attendance at these schools, find 
 ways and means to retain them. But even supposing that such unlawful 
 means were not used to exclude diligent young men to their great 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 529 
 
 detriment, the all important purpose of the continuation schools, viz., 
 that of raising the standard of education among the masses, would 
 thereby be disregarded. There cannot be the slightest doubt that most 
 of the young people who leave the elementary school at 14 years of age 
 are neither in knowledge nor in character ripe to go out into life. With 
 the loosening of the personal ties between master and workman, the 
 danger grows that young people after leaving the elementary school 
 will have to go without any further educative influence. Here the 
 continuation school steps in with its purpose of forming the character 
 of the young and of helping them to resist the temptations which are 
 certain to present themselves to them in so many forms. This purpose 
 can only be attained if the masses of the people, and not only the 
 apprentices of certain favoured industries, are brought under the 
 influence of these schools. 
 
 I hereby request you to use every endeavour to introduce compulsory 
 attendance through bye-law wherever this is possible, and with all 
 petitions for State aid either for new schools or for additional aid for 
 existing schools to send in a report stating the result of the negotiations 
 with the local authorities on the subject of introducing the system of 
 compulsory attendance." 
 
 The following decree on the subject of holding continua- 
 tion classes on Sundays or in the later hours of week day- 
 evenings was issued by the Minister of Industry and Com- 
 merce on August 20, 1904. It lays stress upon the im- 
 portance of avoiding, so far as possible, the requirement 
 of attendance at evening continuation classes in the case 
 of youths who have had a heavy day's work. 
 
 "It is the custom of the continuation schools in most of the smaller 
 towns and in a number of the larger towns to hold the classes in the 
 late evening hours, generally from 8 to 10 p.m. My predecessor has 
 already tried to alter this practice by his decree of February 3, 1900, 
 which says that the lessons should take place during the daytime or 
 close not later than 9 p.m. Quite apart from the fact that this decree 
 has not had the desired effect, my experience has induced me to go even 
 further and to decree that the classes in compulsory continuation schools 
 shall be held during the daytime or close not later than 8 p.m., and that 
 they shall be open on working days only. Objections which have 
 reached me from various quarters lead me to state clearly the 
 principle upon which I take my stand. 
 
 The continuation school aims at supplementing practical teaching by 
 such theoretical teaching as will educate the pupils to be capable men 
 and useful members of the community. 
 
 In order to fulfil this aim, the school must demand from its pupils 
 much intellectual vigour and hard work in the classes, as the time 
 available is very limited and home lessons are out of the question. It is 
 clear that growing boys, after having worked in the shop from the early 
 hours of the day, will scarcely be able to do justice to such requirements 
 if the classes are held in the late hours of the evening. A continuation 
 school working late will therefore incur the risk of failing to achieve 
 its purpose and will not give an adequate return for the money spent 
 on it. There is also a serious danger of overstraining the young pupils. 
 
530 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 There is, further, the danger that after the close of late classes the 
 young men will stroll about the streets and commit excesses to which, 
 as experience has shown, they are inclined. I lay further great stress 
 on the point of keeping Sundays free from any lessons. The Sunday 
 belongs to devotion, to the family, to recreation and to voluntary work, 
 but not to compulsory learning. I have sometimes heard the opinion 
 expressed that the compulsory continuation school has for one of its 
 objects that of preventing young people from making an improper use 
 of their time by imposing on them evening and Sunday lessons. I 
 certainly do not share this view, and expect no good results from merely 
 keeping them out of the streets or public-houses. The life of the 
 working classes can only be lifted to a higher level by improving their 
 spiritual and moral education. It is therefore advisable to bring young 
 men into touch with educated people by providing clubs with reading 
 rooms, by arranging lectures, excursions and outdoor games, by 
 instructing them in the best ways of using their time and by giving 
 them an opportunity of healthy enjoyment. Such arrangements may 
 be connected with the continuation schools but without any compulsion. 
 
 It is my firm belief that the changing of the evening classes into day 
 classes, as is now general in the Grand Duchy of Baden, would not 
 hinder but advance industry. This view has been confirmed by experi- 
 ence and by the resolutions of quite a number of leading industrial and 
 commercial corporations, as, for instance, by the Fourth Congress of 
 the Chambers of Industry, by the Elders of the Berlin Union of 
 Merchants, by the German Union of Mercantile Associations, etc. 
 I am ready to meet the difficulties which at present stand in the way of 
 a general adoption of my proposals by granting permission for the 
 drawing lessons still to take place on Sundays, but only in cases 
 where local conditions (e.g., badly-lighted rooms or the crowding of 
 the compulsory classes by the voluntary attendance of pupils from the 
 neighbourhood) make it impossible or very difficult to convert the 
 evening classes into day classes. It is of course understood that the 
 hours of Divine Service and Sunday afternoons are to be kept free in 
 any case. I decline further concessions, and request you to work 
 energetically in conjunction with the Chambers of Trade and Commerce 
 and with the guilds and trade societies, to abolish the compulsory 
 evening and Sunday classes. I shall grant subsidies to new schools only 
 on condition that they fulfil my requirements in this respect. 
 
 I shall not fail at a later time to call for a report of the result of 
 this decree, which refers in all its points only to compulsory and not to 
 voluntary schools." 
 
 V. 
 
 A few remarks may be m.ade in conclusion. 
 
 The continuation school system of Germany is a modern 
 development of an old educational tradition which has had 
 a continuous history of several centuries. Its revival is 
 due in two ways to the Industrial Revolution. Fear of the 
 economic effects of the factory system, which sprang up in 
 England in the last decades of the eighteenth and early 
 years of the nineteenth centuries, soon forced the master 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 531 
 
 workmen of industrial Germany to increase the efficiency 
 of tkeir apprentices and journeymen by encouraging their 
 attendance at continuation classes. This self-protective 
 movement on the part of the German master- workmen, 
 which may he dated 1830 onwards, gave a new turn to the 
 continuation school system and forms the historic link 
 between its past and present phases. Secondly, in the 
 years immediately following the Franco-German War of 
 1870-71, the national genius showed itself in masterly 
 applications of scientific method to industrial processes and 
 organisation. In order to win its way to the front rank 
 in world-wide competition, the German people threw itself 
 with characteristic energy into plans for extending educa- 
 tional opportunity. The industrial aptitudes of the work- 
 men must, it was seen, be developed by special training. 
 And the social evils, which arise from want of regulation 
 of the factory system, must be averted by far-seeing local 
 government and by the enforcement of educational and 
 physical discipline. Hence came encouragement from the 
 State to systematic efforts for the establishment of con- 
 tinuation schools chiefly of a technical or commercial char- 
 acter, and approval of plans for compulsory attendance at 
 those schools on the part of youths during the critical years 
 of their adolescence. 
 
 To a degree which English political and social con- 
 ditions would have made impossible, this new educational 
 movement was furthered by the direct authority of the 
 State. In the new policy the workmen themselves have had 
 but little voice. They have indeed approved the establish- 
 ment of the schools and seem to have willingly acceded 
 to compulsion in spite of the immediate pecuniary loss 
 resulting to themselves through the diminution of the earn- 
 ings of the family. But no organisations precisely ana- 
 logous to the English trades unions seem to have borne 
 
532 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT 
 
 an influential part in planning the new educational de- 
 velopments. 
 
 The council of a continuation school (Schulvorstand) is 
 generally composed as follows : (1) a member of the town 
 council, in smaller places the hurgomaster, (2) the director 
 of the school, and (3) representatives of those corporations 
 (e.g., chambers of commerce or of trade and trade guilds 
 of master workmen) which contribute towards its mainten- 
 ance. It appears that representatives of employed work- 
 men are not included. In England the movement for tech- 
 nical instruction has had to encounter a different situation. 
 
 It may also be observed that the main impulse tO' the 
 movement for the increase of technical continuation schools 
 has come from those towns in which the small workshop 
 has held its own against the factory system. The small 
 independent worker, employing a few skilled assistants and 
 apprentices, has for centuries been a characteristic feature 
 of German industry. In self protection against the threat- 
 ening advance of the factory system he has wisely helped 
 in developing forms of technical training which may enable 
 himself and his fellow workers to hold their own by means 
 of constructive and artistic skill against the competition of 
 factories organised upon a large scale. 
 
 Those employers who regard their apprentices as a source 
 of cheap labour, naturally object to the law requiring at- 
 tendance at continuation schools. In several places where 
 compulsory attendance was introduced for boys, employers 
 of this type began, as opportunity offered, to replace their 
 boy-apprentices by girls. This was especially the case in 
 commercial offices. When, therefore, compulsory attend- 
 ance is proposed for girls also, these employers are among 
 the bitterest opponents of the idea. At the present time 
 a brisk agitation is being carried on in many districts by 
 commercial employees and by women's organisations in 
 
GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 533 
 
 favour of the compulsory attendance of girls at continua- 
 tion scliools in commercial or domestic subjects. There are 
 two currents in the agitation : one is the outcome of the 
 desire of women workers to iind opportunities of improving 
 their wage-earning capacity, the other proceeds from a 
 widespread feeling that more should be done to train girls 
 for the duties of the home. 
 
 Established and made successful mainly by the support 
 of the more intelligent and public-spirited master workmen 
 in towns where the smaller industries were influential and 
 prosperous, the continuation schools quickly spread 
 into the factory districts, where there were obvious social 
 reasons for welcoming an agency which helps the worker to 
 resist the deadening influence of work too minutely special- 
 ised or carried on under conditions allowing little scope for 
 initiative or artistic invention. 
 
 The history of the continuation school movement in 
 Germany conflrms the view that system and scientific pre- 
 cision in educational policy are secured when, but hardly 
 until, the great majority of the employing class has itself 
 received a thoroughly good general education. The reform 
 of secondary education in Germany during the first half 
 of the nineteenth century prepared the way, as nothing 
 else could have prepared it, for the intelligent application 
 of educational measures to social problems. In England 
 the m.iddle classes failed in the heyday of their power 
 to organise secondary education. They dreaded the State 
 as a burnt child dreads the fire.. German social organisa- 
 tion to-day, apart from its military aspect, is in its main 
 lines an organisation established and carried on under the 
 influence of the middle classes. And the intellectual 
 foundation of it was laid in the State-aided secondary 
 schools. 
 
534 GERMAN CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Short List of Books which will be found useful by 
 Students of the Continuation School Question in 
 Germany. 
 
 Paclie, Oskar. " Handbuch des deutscheu Fortbildungs- 
 schulwesens." Wittenberg : Herrose, 1896. 
 
 Yer-waltungsbericlit des koniglich preussiscbeii Landes- 
 gewerbeamts, 1905. Berlin : Carl Heymann, 1906. 
 
 Kerscbensteiner, Georg. " Staatsbtirgerliche Erziebung 
 der deutscben Jugend." Erfurt: Carl Villaret, 1901. 
 
 Kerscbensteiner, Georg. " Gnindfragen der Scbulorgan- 
 isation." Leipzig : Teubner, 1907. 
 
 Lyon, Otto. " Die Foirtbildungsscbule ftir Madcben." 
 Leipzig : Teubner, 1906. 
 
 Mumm, Elizabeth von. " Die Pflicbt-fortbildungsscbule 
 des weiblicben Gescblechts in bygieniscber Bezie- 
 bung." Bonn : Martin Hager, 1906. 
 
 Special Eeports on Educational Subjects (Board of Edu- 
 cation). The Continuation Scbools in Saxony. By 
 F. H. Dale. Vol. I., 1897. London : Eyre & Spottis- 
 woode. 
 
 Eose, Dr. F. " Commercial Instruction in Germany." 
 London : Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1904. Foreign Office 
 Series of Diplomatic and Consular Eeports No. 619. 
 (and otber reports in same series.) 
 
 Educational Pamphlets (Board of Education). No. 6. 
 Continuation School "Work in the Grand Duchy of 
 Baden and in Canton Zurich. By Florence E Barker 
 1907. ■ s . 
 
 Germer, B. " Die Fortbildungs- und Faebschulen in der 
 grosseren Orten Deutscblands." Leipzig: Alfred 
 Hahn, 1904. 
 
 Germer, B. "Die Bedeutung der Unterricbtsfacber in 
 der Fortbildungsscbule." Leipzig: Alfred Hahn, 
 1906. 
 
 Mehner, Max. " Fortbildungsscbulkunde." Dresden- 
 Hans Schulze, 1903. 
 
 Shadwell, Dr. A. "Industrial Efficiency." London- 
 Longmans, Green & Co., 1906. 
 
535 
 
 CHAPTER XIX, 
 
 The Continuation Schools of Munich. 
 
 In the year 1900, the population of the City of Munich 
 was 499,932. Its industries are various. Brewing of 
 course predominates. The leather and glove trade, the 
 manufacture of machinery, the making of artificial flowers, 
 and of furniture, the production of metal ware, printing 
 and lithography, painting on glass, are all strongly repre- 
 sented. There is also a world-famous brass foundry. The 
 building trade and other similar trades, the invariable 
 accompaniment of a large town, employ many workmen. 
 The workers are mostly engaged in small workshops. The 
 factory system is comparatively undeveloped. With its 
 strong artistic tendency and vigorous communal life, 
 Munich affords an exqellent opportunity for the organisa- 
 tion of a system of continuation schools, designed to culti- 
 vate industry and artistic skill and to raise the standard 
 of industrial efficiency. This opportunity has been skilfully 
 seized by the Director of Education for the City, Dr. 
 Greorg Kerschensteiner who, in his re-organisation of the 
 system of continuation schools since he entered upon the 
 duties of his office in 1895, has achieved a success which is 
 now recognised throughout Germany as one of national 
 importance. 
 
 Industrial continuation schools for youths and men 
 (gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen) have existed in Munich 
 since the year 1877. They were reorganised, under Dr. 
 Kerschensteiner's direction, in 1900. Two main groups are 
 to be distinguished — (1) obligatory continuation schools 
 
536 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 for apprentices who attend from tkeir fourteenth to their 
 eighteenth year, and (2) voluntary continuation schools for 
 journeymen and master workmen. 
 
 The industrial training of apprentices forms the ground- 
 work of the new system. The apprentice is to be made 
 industrially efficient. With this end in view, it is not 
 sufficient for the young people to receive instruction in the 
 purely technical side of their particular calling and to 
 learn something of its commercial and economic aspects. 
 The young apprentice is to become a worthy citizen and 
 must know something of his duties and responsibilities to 
 the State. Any such system of training must not be 
 limited to the apprentice alone. Opportunities must be 
 afforded the journeyman and master workman for further 
 improvement. The whole trade must benefit. The prac- 
 tical instruction, which the apprentice gets in the work- 
 shop, is apt to be one sided, owing to specialisation in the 
 particular trades. It is absolutely necessary for the 
 apprentice to receive supplementary instruction, either in 
 a continuation school or in some technical school, organised 
 by the members of the particular calling in which he is 
 engaged. (Innungs-fachschule.) Where such a private 
 institution existed, it has been (amalgamated with the 
 municipal institution. The aim of such schools is not 
 to afiord the apprentice a general education. The instruc- 
 tion is in all cases technical. As far as 'possible the con- 
 tinuation schools are grouped according to trades. Attend- 
 ance at a continuation school is compulsory for the appren- 
 tice for the whole period of his apprenticeship and for 
 at least three years after leaving the elementary school. 
 For journeymen and master workmen respectively, attend- 
 ance at " journeymen technical schools " (Gehilfenfach- 
 schulen) and at courses for master workmen is voluntary. 
 The course of instruction for journeymen extends for a 
 
OF MUNICH 537 
 
 period of at least sis months. Courses for master workmen 
 may be for a shorter period. 
 
 The organisation of the technical continuation schools 
 (fachliche Fortbildtrngsschulen) is to deepen the interest 
 of the apprentice in his trade. Education must not tend 
 to drive him out of the trade or make him despise manual 
 labour. A craft school forms a part of every such indus- 
 trial continuation school. In the craft school, care is taken 
 to supplement the instruction given in the workshop, as 
 the latter is apt to be one-sided. Instruction in drawing 
 is subordinated to the practical work done in these craft 
 schools. 
 
 Dr. Kerschensteiner is strongly of opinion that a care- 
 fully devised schem.e of manual instruction should form 
 part of the curriculum in the highest class of the elemen- 
 tary school, in the interest both of general education 
 and of the needs of any particular trade to which the 
 scholar may devote himself after leaving the elementary 
 school. 
 
 Compulsory instruction is given for at least eight hours 
 per week. It includes German literature, commercial cor- 
 respondence, commercial arithmetic and book-keeping, 
 knowledge of tools and machinery, instruction in civics 
 and hygiene, drawing and practical work. Apprentices 
 for whom drawing and practical work have not been ar- 
 ranged attend for six hours per week. Each apprentice is 
 also compelled to attend a course of religious instruction. 
 The whole of the instruction is adapted to the various 
 trades. There is no compulsory instruction after 7 p.m. 
 An effort is being made to hold as many classes as possible 
 during the day-time. Sunday is quite free from com- 
 pulsory classes. Apart from the obligatory course, the 
 apprentice is able to take up other subjects in which he may 
 be interested. Gymnastic exercises form part of the curri- 
 
538 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 culum. Throughout the school the pupil is encouraged to 
 develop the sense of responsihility and initiative. 
 
 Boys under 18 years, who cannot be accommodated in any 
 of the existing continuation schools, are collected in special 
 continuation schools where a general training is given (all- 
 gemeine Fortbildungsschulen) . The curriculum of these 
 schools is somewhat like that of the technical continuation 
 schools (fachliche Fortbildungsschulen) and comprises 
 German literature, commercial correspondence, arithmetic, 
 gymnastics, civics, drawing and manual work. 
 
 For master workmen and journeymen' there exist Sunday 
 and Evening Trade Schools (Sonntag-und-Abendfach- 
 schulen). The object of these institutions is to create a 
 deeper interest in the trade in which the students are en- 
 gaged and not to raise them above it. As in the case of the 
 schools for apprentices the civic aim of technical instruction 
 is kept in view. The technical courses comprise instruction in 
 Freehand and Geometrical Drawing, Painting, Modelling, 
 Beater's-work, Chased work. Commercial Products, Chem- 
 istry, Physics, Geometry, Workshop and Laboratory In- 
 struction. Instruction in Commerce and Economics in- 
 cludes Arithmetic, Book-keeping, Theory of Exchange, 
 Commercial Law, Preparation of Estimates and Commer- 
 cial Correspondence. There are in addition general courses 
 on the History of Industry, History of Handicrafts, Com- 
 mercial Geography, Hygiene, Trade Union System (Genos- 
 senschaftswesen). Insurance Laws, and the Constitution. 
 
 If a Trade Guild exists, it is asked to cooperate in the 
 formation and maintenance of the Sunday and Evening 
 Technical Schools. It has the right to suggest suitable 
 teachers to give instruction in those branches of the curri- 
 culum which are concerned entirely with trade matters. 
 The members of the committee of any such trade organisa- 
 tion have the right, after giving due notice to the head of 
 
OF MUNICH 539 
 
 the scliool, to be present at the instruction and to make 
 any recommendations they deem necessary. But these 
 privileges carry duties with them. The Trade Guild is 
 pledged to support the efforts of the school by urging its 
 members to avail themselves of the facilities afforded and 
 by providing models for use in the instruction. The trade 
 guild meets the cost of the materials for practical work 
 and places at the disposal of the school any objects which 
 may be useful for teaching purposes. Instruction is given 
 on Sundays and holidays in the forenoon and afternoon, 
 and on workdays in the evening. At least five hours per 
 week must be given to instruction in these Sunday and 
 Evening Technical Schools. 
 
 There is, in addition, another system of continuation 
 schools for master workmen and journeymen. There are 
 the Day Trade Schools (Tagesfachsschulen). They fall 
 into three groups — • 
 
 (a) Day Trade Schools with a definite curriculum, in 
 which practical instruction forms only a subordinate part. 
 This type of school was created to meet the needs of master 
 workmen and journeymen, who desire further instruction 
 in drawing to fit themselves for such posts as clerk of 
 works, architect, machine designer, pattern maker, designer 
 of furniture, etc. 
 
 (6) Day Trade Schools with a definite curriculum, in 
 which practical instruction preponderates. These schools 
 are designed to meet the needs of those master workmen 
 and journeymen, who require further training in their 
 craft. 
 
 (c) Day Trade Schools for journeymen who are tempor- 
 arily unemployed. 
 
 The needs of the trades concerned are specially 
 considered in drawing up the curriculum for {a) 
 and (6), but the curriculum for (c) is necessarily 
 
540 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 less specific. The Day Trade Schools of the type (a) and 
 (b) are designed for master workmen and journey- 
 men of distinct callings or groups of callings. The 
 schools of type (c) receive pupils of various callings. The 
 schools of type (a) and (6) have a curriculum of at, least 
 30 and at most 48 hours a week. In the schools of type (c) 
 the course extends over 30 — 36 hours a week. The school 
 year for type (a) extends from October to July 15, a period 
 of nine and a half months. For type (b) there is a special 
 organisation without any long interval for holidays. 
 
 Por the purpose of educating the public to appreciate 
 artistic workmanship, periodic exhibitions are held and 
 explanatory lectures given. 
 
 The new regulations for continuation schools in Munich 
 have been in force since 1900. In the city there are about 
 6,000 apprentices. These are divided among 48 technical 
 continuation schools. For the young unskilled workers 
 provision is made in 12 " general " continuation schools. 
 The 48 technical continuation schools are housed in four 
 central buildings situated in different quarters of the town. 
 Each technical continuation school has its own craft school, 
 and in all cases there is provision for practical work for 
 apprentices. In the " general " continuation schools, 
 manual training, gymnastics, and instruction in the laws 
 of health and in the duties of citizenship, play an im- 
 portant part. A well planned scheme of manual instruc- 
 tion has been found extremely useful for many un- 
 skilled workers, who, often through no fault of their own, 
 have not been able to adopt any particular calling. It 
 forms a basis for further technical and general training up 
 to their eighteenth year. 
 
 The two groups of industrial continuation schools for 
 journeymen and master workmen (the Sunday and Evening 
 Trade Schools and the Day Trade Schools) are housed in 
 three special buildings. These schools are attended by 
 
OF MUNICH 541 
 
 about 2,000 pupils. In accordance with the plan laid down 
 there will eventually be for every compulsory trade-school 
 for apprentices a voluntary trade school for journeymen 
 and master workmen. At the present time the most im- 
 portant Day Trade Schools for journeymen and master 
 workmen are those for the building trades, locksmiths, 
 woodcarvers, goldsmiths, chasers, stonemasons and decora- 
 tive painters. All of these schools have corresponding 
 craft schools. In the course of the next few years further 
 schools will be founded for printers and lithographers, for 
 mechanicians engaged in the finer grade of work, for those 
 engaged in electro-technical work and for cabinet makers 
 and carpenters. 
 
 For women there are various opportunities for further 
 training, after the elementary school course is completed. 
 Every girl who does not proceed to a higher type of school 
 is compelled to attend a continuation school up to the age 
 of sixteen years. This compulsory attendance arises from 
 the statutory duty, dating from 1803, to attend a Sunday 
 school (Sonntagsschulpflicht) but for most girls the com- 
 pulsory instruction is now given on weekdays. In Munich 
 it consists at present of three hours instruction per week. 
 
 In 1905-06 there were 6,955 girls in 211 classes in these 
 " Sunday " schools. In addition to this organisation, which 
 hardly affords sufficiently advanced instruction for the 
 needs of the girls of the town, the authorities established 
 in 1894 a further institution, the so-called " weibliche 
 Fortbildungsschule." This school is divided into two 
 groups, (1) " domestic " with 1025 scholars in 38 classes, 
 (2) " commercial " with 544 scholars in 16 classes. In- 
 struct'* on is given for from 6 to 10 hours per week, in each 
 class. Attendance is compulsory for every girl who has 
 registered. In addition to the obligatory courses, other 
 branches (such as handicraft and modem languages) are 
 
542 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 open for tlie voluntary attendance of those who care to 
 avail themselves of the facilities offered. 
 
 Both " Sunday " schools and " domestic " continuation 
 schools concern themselves primarily with instruction bear- 
 ing on the future calling of the girls as mothers and house- 
 wives. The three years' course comprises instruction in 
 matters relating to hovising, clothing and diet, the duties 
 of the family, the bringing up of children, the duties of 
 woman in the State, and the care of the household. There 
 is also practical instruction in cookery. 
 
 There are two other institutions which concern themselves 
 with the technical education of women after the completion 
 of the elementary school course. These are the (municipal) 
 Eiemerschmid Commercial School and the Frauenarbeits- 
 schule founded by the Popular Education Society (Volks- 
 bildungsverein). Each of these schools has about 600 
 scholars. The Riemerschmid Commercial School trains 
 women for higher commercial occupations in three gradu- 
 ated courses, each with 25 hours instruction per week. In 
 connection with this institution there is a training school 
 for teachers of commercial subjects. The Frauenarbeits- 
 schule provides instruction in all branches of handicraft 
 for women. It has a department for training teachers of 
 handicraft for elementary and higher grade schools (Volks- 
 und Mittelschulen). The yearly cost of the Riemerschmid 
 School, which is borne by the municipality, amounts to 
 £2,400. The municipality bears part (£3,200) of the cost 
 of the Frauenarbeitsschule. 
 
 In the course of the preparation of this chapter a number 
 of questions were put to Dr. Kerschensteiner on the broader 
 issues raised by the application of the principle of compul- 
 sion to attendance at continuation schools. These ques- 
 tions, with the answers which he was so good as to make to 
 them, are given below : 
 
OF MUNICH 543 
 
 (1) Is it your opinion that, when all the circuTnstances 
 
 are taken into account, a system of compulsory 
 attendance at continuation schools is preferable 
 to a systeTn of voluntary attendance ? 
 
 Answer : The question, as to whether compulsory or 
 voluntary continuation schools are preferable, has, after 
 a struggle of many years' duration, been decided in favour 
 of the compulsory system in nearly the whole of Germany, 
 at least for young people up to the age of 16, 17 or 18 years. 
 All the largest towns in Germany have now such compulsory 
 continuation schools. The compulsory system affects not the 
 scholar alone but above all the master-workman who em- 
 ploys him. If there is no compulsion, many capable boys 
 and girls, keenly desirous of self improvement, are pre- 
 vented from attending continuation school through the 
 carelessness or greed of their employers. Moreover, unless 
 the law enforces a wider course of training, most of the 
 scholars take advantage only of the technical training 
 afforded and neglect the courses bearing on the duties and 
 responsibilities of the individual to the State and to his 
 fellows. 
 
 (2) Do you think attendance should be compulsory for 
 
 girls as well as for boys? 
 Answer : Compulsory attendance is as necessary for girls 
 as for boys; indeed, for girls it is really more necessary. 
 Care should be taken that no girl goes out into the world 
 inadequately equipped for the duties which are likely sooner 
 or later to devolve upon her as mother and housewife. As 
 things are at present, most girls have to go out to earn 
 their living at an early age. If attendance at the con- 
 tinuation school is not compulsoiy, a girl is, in many cases, 
 prevented from receiving the training which is of the 
 greatest value for her future duties. 
 
544 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 (3) Between what ages would you have attendance com- 
 
 pulsory 
 
 (a) for hoys? 
 
 (b) for girls f 
 
 Answer: In Municli attendance is compulsory (a) for 
 boys up to the eighteentli, (b) for girls up to tlie sixteenth 
 year. 
 
 (4) Is it possible to secure the attendance of female 
 
 domestic servants at continuation schools ? 
 
 By means of strict School Attendance Regulations the 
 attendance of domestic servants of every kind is assured 
 in Bavaria. Every girl has to attend a continuation school 
 for at least three hours per week until she has attained her 
 sixteenth birthday. In case of her absence without ade- 
 quate excuse, the parents and the employers are punished. 
 
 (5) Do employers complain of inconvenience through 
 
 having to send the hoys in their employment to 
 continuation schools ? Do you think that such 
 complaints are reasonable ? 
 
 Is public opinion Tnore favourable to com/pul- 
 sory attendance than it used to be 
 
 (a) among employers, 
 
 (b) among workmen, 
 
 (c) among apprentices ? 
 
 Answer: Business people and employers in general no 
 longer complain in any way of the compulsory continuation 
 school system. Many regard it as a burden, it is true, 
 but those who are liberal-minded feel that it is a burden 
 which ought to be borne. 
 
 Speaking generally, public opinion among employers, 
 workpeople and apprentices alike is entirely favourable to 
 
OF MUNICH 545 
 
 the compulsory contiiLuatioii schools. The apprentices 
 especially approve the system because the schools are 
 grouped according to trades. Their appreciation of the 
 system is proved by the fact that a large number of them, 
 continue to attend the schools voluntarily when their period 
 of compulsory attendance is over. 
 
 (6) Have you any difficulties in regard to order and dis- 
 
 cipline in the continuation schools through the 
 presence of unruly pupils, who attend unwill- 
 ingly ? 
 
 The reorganisation of the continuation schools has not 
 caused the slightest difficulty in regard to school attend- 
 ance. The greatest interest is taken by the pupils in 
 the various classes. Of course, there are always some lazy 
 ones, but the general interest in the work is shown by the 
 fact that there have never been fewer absences without 
 excuse than during the last five years. 
 
 (7) How do you enforce attendance at the continuation 
 
 schools ? Are there many cases of prosecution on 
 account of truancy ? 
 
 Answer: In general there is no need of regulations to 
 enforce attendance. The pupils come willingly and gladly. 
 If a scholar does play truant, he is made to appear before 
 the Education Authority (Schulbehorde) and cautioned. 
 If the offence is repeated a money fine is imposed, and, 
 if need be, the offender is imprisoned. 
 
 (8) Do you think that compulsory attendance at con- 
 
 tinuation schools causes physical overstrain dur- 
 ing adolescence to boys or girls, when their 
 work in school is additional to long hours in shop, 
 office or workshop? 
 
 2 J 
 
546 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Answer: The continuation schools (at any rate those 
 established in Munich, or those which exist in most of the 
 Prussian towns) impose no new burden on the apprentice. 
 Attendance is required during the working day from. 7 a.m. 
 to 7 p.m. In Munich the apprentices come between 7 and 
 9 a.m. or between 1 and 7 p.m. There is no instruction 
 after 7 p.m. Many trades accord a complete day for the 
 attendance of apprentices at the continuation school. 
 
 C. E. Stockton. 
 
 Cost of the Continuation Schools of Munich, 1906-7, 
 with numbers of pupils on the eegistees. 
 
 [The totals given below do not include interest on cost 
 of buildings.] 
 
 (1) Continuation Schools for Apprentices. 
 
 [Attendance at which is compulsory.] 
 
 Cost, £28,042. 10s. Od. ... Number of pupils, 7,333. 
 Cost per pupil, £3. 16s. 6d. 
 
 (2) Schools for Master Workmen and Journeymen. 
 
 [Attendance at which is voluntary.] 
 
 Cost, £15,459. Os. Od. ... Number of pupils, 2,500. 
 Cost per pupil, £6. 3s. 8d. 
 
 (3) Voluntary Continuation Schools for girls and women. 
 
 [Voluntary attendance 6 — 10 hours per week.] 
 
 Cost, £3,571. Os. Od. ... Number of pupils, 1,817. 
 
 Cost per pupil, £1. 19s. 3d. 
 
 (4) The compulsory continuation schools for girls (Feier- 
 tagschulen) at which attendance for three hours a week is 
 
OF MUNICH 547 
 
 required from those who do not attend the schools under 
 (3) above. 
 
 Cost, £1,941. Os. Od. ... Number of Pupils, 7,202. 
 Cost per pupil, 5s. 4d. 
 
 (5) Thus the total cost of the Continuation Schools of 
 Munich for 1906-7 (excluding interest on capital expen- 
 diture) was £49,013. 10s. Od., or including the cost of the 
 Riemerschmid Commercial School for "Women and the 
 municipal contribution to the "Wom.en's Work School 
 (Frauenarbeitsschule), £54,613. 10s. Od. 
 
548 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The Continuation Schools of Switzerland. 
 
 The educational organisation of Switzerland is marked by 
 tlie absence of centralisation in the hands of one Federal 
 authority. This characteristic is due to the strong 
 traditional dislike of anything which might interfere with 
 cantonal freedom. The Federal Constitution of 1874 
 states that education throughout Switzerland must be 
 obligatory, free and under the supervision of the canton, 
 and that the public schools must be such that they can 
 be attended by children of all religious beliefs without 
 hurt to their freedom of belief or conscience. This general 
 rule governs the educational policy of all the cantons. 
 But each canton has its own educational system from the 
 primary school up to the gymnasium, or in some cases to 
 the university. It decides for itself the limits as to age 
 and attainments within which the law as to compulsory 
 attendance shall apply; and it makes its own regulations 
 as to the distribution of grants to State-.aided schools. 
 Subject to the general control of the central cantonal 
 authority, which is a very real control, each locality is 
 free to rate itself and spend its own money on education 
 of all grades. The systems vary considerably from canton 
 to canton, some being more centralised than others. 
 
 But, directly and indirectly, the Federal Government 
 influences ieducation in more ways than one. The Federal 
 law forbids the employment of children in factories before 
 the completion of their fourteenth year, and provides that 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 549 
 
 TiBitil they are sixteen the time given to work in the factory 
 together with that which may he devoted to purposes of 
 instruction shall not exceed eleven hours a day. This 
 latter regulation is especially important from the point of 
 view of the suhject in this chapter. Instruction in military 
 drill and exercises is made by Federal law a part of the 
 compulsory school programme for all youths between ten 
 and fifteen years of age, and a Federal contribution is 
 made towards the expense of its provision. The Federal 
 Grovernment also prescribes, and itself holds, a universal 
 examination for recruits entering the army at twenty years 
 of age. The highest form of technical education is 
 provided by the Federal Grovernment at the Polytechnic 
 at Zurich. Moreover, Federal grants are given for 
 industrial, agricultural and commercial education and for 
 domestic economy and other forms of technical training 
 for women and, since 1903, subventions have been given 
 to the cantons to help them to fulfil their obligations 
 concerning elementary education. Subject to the general 
 condition that they are to be expended on public primary 
 schools only (including ecoles coTwplementaires and 
 compulsory schools for adults) these subventions may be 
 used for any of the following purposes : — (1) The 
 establishment of new classes; (2) new buildings and 
 improvements in existing buildings ; (3) gymnasiums ; (4) 
 training of teachers and normal school buildings; (5) 
 increase in teachers' salaries and pensions; (6) school 
 furniture and equipment; (7) distribution to pupils (free 
 or at low price) of obligatory school books and materials ; 
 (8) feeding and clothing of poor children (where the 
 canton undertakes this) ; (9) education of feeble-minded 
 children of obligatory school age. The canton decides to 
 which of the above objects the subvention shall be applied, 
 and if it hands over all or part of the sum to a commune 
 
550 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 it (the canton) fixes liow it shall be spent. The canton is 
 responsible to the Federal Glovemment for the legal 
 spending of the money by the commune. 
 
 I. — Eecetiits' Schools. 
 
 In Switzerland majority is attained on the twentieth 
 birthday. About this time the men are called up for 
 military (militia) training, and must undergo a literary 
 examination in the three E,'s and a knowledge of the con- 
 stitution. 
 
 The recruits' examination was instituted in order to 
 exclude the unteachable from the army. It is now re- 
 garded as a test of the primary education of a canton, and 
 cantonal rivalry makes it an instrument of moral pressure 
 on backward districts. Every year a list of cantons in order 
 of merit is published, and supplementary lists refer to 
 districts, parishes, specific subjects and aggregate per- 
 formances. 
 
 In ten cantons, attendance at a Recruits' School, a kind of 
 continuation school which prepares pupils for this Federal 
 examination, is compulsory, but exemption is granted to 
 those who have attended secondary schools and to those 
 attending higher continuation schools, industrial or 
 commercial. 
 
 As an example of the Rekrutenschulen let us consider the 
 schools of Lucerne. The course covers two consecutive years, 
 in each of which forty hours' tuition is given. Attendance 
 is compulsory. No class contains more than forty pupils. 
 Two-thirds of the lessons are given in winter, and the 
 remainder immediately before the recruiting season opens. 
 In winter, instruction may not be given on Sundays or 
 Church holidays. In summer, work may be taken on 
 these days, but not during morning service. If the school 
 be far from the pupils' homes, evening classes are forbidden. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 55i 
 
 The teacher draws up the time-table and the Director 
 of Education chooses the text-books. The school is a 
 military school, and the pupils are under military discip- 
 line both as to attendance and conduct. The teacher 
 must be present at the federal examination, and squad 
 sergeants must see that their men are sober. 
 
 II. — Elementaky Continuation Schools. 
 
 The scope of the general continuation school is well shown 
 by the following programme of work issued by Canton 
 Zug: — 
 
 Reading and Writing, one hour per week. The sub- 
 jects are chosen from patriotic literature, natural history, 
 and reports on agriculture or industry. The object is to 
 ensure a clear understanding of the text. Questions on 
 the context and reproduction of the subject matter, orally 
 and on paper, are freely employed. The pupils are given 
 essays and letters to write, and are taught how to make 
 out receipts and invoices. Patriotic songs are taught. 
 
 Arithinetic and Simfle Book-keeping, one hour per 
 week. The syllabus includes vulgar and decimal frac- 
 tions, simple proportion, interest and elementary men- 
 suration. Book-keeping deals with the day-book, ledger 
 and balance-sheet. 
 
 Knowledge of the Constitution, one hour per week. The 
 political and physical condition of Switzerland ; history of 
 the Federation ; the political organisation of parish, canton 
 and Federation. 
 
 The civil and commercial relations of the cantons 
 (speech, commerce, religion, climate and trade routes). 
 
 The State : — Poor-law, registration, mortgage law, 
 finance, agriculture, the licensing acts, taxes. 
 
 The citizen : — Liberty of the subject, protection of pro- 
 
552 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 perty, tke franchise, tlie "law of association" (Vereinsreclit), 
 freedom of religion, of thought and of the press, military- 
 duties and obedience. 
 
 In Canton Vaud the programme is drawn up with a 
 view to supplementing defective primary education, but 
 "the mode of instruction is suited to the young man of 
 eighteen and not to a child of ten. It is less didactic and 
 more conversational. The desire is to develop personal 
 initiative, precision and clearness of thought, and to 
 cultivate reason and the sympathies rather than the 
 memory." 
 
 Reports from various cantons indicate that as regards 
 the continuation schools the best results are obtained when 
 instruction is given in the daytime and for a period of 
 three consecutive hours. In Vaud " discipline and work 
 have been satisfactory, owing to the fact that the courses 
 were held in the afternoon in many parishes." In St. 
 Gall a number of schools meet from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m., and 
 others dismiss at 10 p.m. The earlier period is decidedly 
 more advantageous. In Appenzell one period of three 
 hours is preferred to two periods of one hour and a half. 
 In Aargau the time for dismissal is fixed at 7 p.m. ; in 
 Thurgau it is 8 p.m. At various industrial centres day 
 continuation classes have been started, so that apprentices 
 can attend for one afternoon per week with a minimum 
 loss of time, but these schools belong more properly to 
 the specialised continuation schools, about to be described. 
 
 In some cantons attendance at continuation schools is 
 compulsory, in some the question is left to the decision 
 of the commune, and in some it is optional. ^ When 
 attendance is optional, a higher standard of learning is 
 expected and a deposit is usually required as caution 
 money; every unexcused absence entails a fine, and when 
 1. See pp. 569 — 574 for full particuLara as to compulsory attendance. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 553 
 
 the deposit is exhausted the offender must leave. In 
 Solothum, where attendance is voluntary, the village 
 schools are amalgamated into district schools and pupils 
 are classified as to trades. 
 
 III. — Illustration of the General Organisation of 
 Continuation and Technical Schools in a Canton. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe in detail the various types 
 of specialised continuation school, it may be well to give 
 some idea of the general organisation of continuation and 
 technical schools in a canton. The Neuchatel schools, of 
 which a description is given below, are a good illustration 
 of cantonal organisation. The population of Neuchatel 
 in 1904 was 131,304. The canton has an area of 312 
 square miles. 
 
 (i.) Ecoles de perfectionnement. 
 
 (ai) Ecoles coTnpleTnentaires, recruits' school. Com- 
 pulsory attendance for four months in winter 
 for two sessions, from 7-30 p.m. to 9-30 p.m., 
 twice a week. 
 
 (6) Ecoles professionnelles, held from 7-30 to 9-30 
 p.m. For boys and girls. Five schools, 750 
 pupils. 
 
 (c) Domestic economy schools, day courses of thir- 
 teen weeks' duration. Two schools, 410 
 pupils, 
 (ii.) Ecoles d'ap-prentissage, day courses [Trade Schools]. 
 
 Three commercial schools, at Neuchatel, Le Locle, 
 La Chaux de Fonds; 480 boys, 100 girls. 
 
 Holiday commercial course at Neuchatel; 280 boys, 
 60 girls. 
 
 Two watch-making schools; 72 pupils. 
 
554 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Three technical schools; 133 pupils. 
 
 Instrument makers' school ; 80 pupils. 
 
 School of industrial art; 235 boys, 40 girls. 
 
 Agricultural school; 32 pupils. 
 
 Viticultural school; 9 pupils. 
 
 Courses for adults at Le Locle ; 30 courses, 520 pupils. 
 
 IV. — Specialised Continuation Schools and Classes. 
 
 The specialised continuation schools in Switzerland fall 
 into three main groups : — 
 
 [a) Conimercial Continuation Schools, 
 
 (&) Technical Continuation Schools, 
 
 (c) Continuation Schools for Girls. 
 They are managed hy the cantons, by chambers of com- 
 merce, by private societies, or by trade unions. 
 
 (a) Convmercial Continuation Schools. 
 
 For admission to the railway and the post office service, 
 and to the minor professions, six years primary education 
 and three years higher education are usually demanded. 
 This would make a nine years' course at the day school. 
 But in lieu of the last year of the course, the pupil may 
 attend a commercial continuation school, the work of 
 which is generally done in the evening. There are many 
 of these schools maintained by school boards and societies, 
 the chief society being the Union of Swiss Merchants. 
 
 In 1861 societies were formed in Bern and Zurich to 
 organise continuation courses for clerks. In time a com- 
 mercial union, to which the Federation gave gracats in 1891, 
 was formed for the maintenance of commercial classes. 
 A new period of prosperity then began, as cantonal and 
 communal aid followed. In 1904 there were 64 schools 
 earning Federal grants amounting to £5,530. One school 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 555 
 
 was in London. It liad 18 pupils, tke expenses amounted 
 to £56 and th.e Federal grant to £31. In 1904 there were 
 6,629 pupils in these schools. 
 
 There were in addition eighteen schools not belonging 
 to the Union. These were attended by 2,800 pupils, and 
 received Federal grants amounting to £753. One of the 
 schools, with 155 pupils, was in Paris and received a grant 
 of £200. 
 
 The Central Committee of the Union has hitherto given 
 most of its attention to the extension of schools and has 
 left the construction of curricula to local effort. It is 
 aware that a rational curriculum, with obligatory subjects, 
 must be drawn up if the results are to correspond with the 
 outlay. At large centres a curriculum is already pre- 
 scribed. It usually covers six half years, in each of which 
 four subjects are studied, two hours per week being given 
 to each. Special courses and lectures are arranged for 
 older persons. 
 
 In cantons where attendance at some kind of continua- 
 tion school is compulsory, the commercial classes are 
 popular and business houses give their apprentices facili- 
 ties to attend. Where no compulsion exists, it is rare to 
 find more than half the apprentices in attendance, but in 
 Zurich Town, the largest centre of population in Switzer- 
 land, this proportion is reached. 
 
 In general no one under fourteen years of age is ad- 
 mitted. Ijistruction is usually given in the evening from 
 7 p.m. to 10 p.m. The alternatives are the early morning 
 and mid-day, but no arrangement is as yet completely 
 satisfactory. The best solution would be to make some 
 sacrifice of office time, as was done at 24 centres in 1900. 
 Branch societies have recommended the inclusion of a 
 clause to this effect in the articles of apprenticeship. 
 
 The Union holds an annual examination in which the 
 
556 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 following subjects are obligatory : composition in tbe 
 mother tongue, commercial correspondence in the mother 
 tongue and in one foreign language, commercial arith- 
 metic, mental arithmetic, book-keeping, commercial law, 
 practical knowledge of commerce, commercial geography 
 and writing. The following are optional : correspondence 
 in other foreign languages, shorthand, special knowledge 
 of a branch of commerce. The organisation of the 
 examination is left to local committees composed of official 
 representatives and competent business men. A successful 
 candidate receives a diploma and a certificate. In 1904 
 there were 291 diplomas awarded. Business houses give 
 preference to men holding these distinctions. 
 
 The Department of Trade and Industries distributes the 
 Federal grants to these schools, and exerts, in consequence, 
 some influence on the organisation. It wishes to see the 
 maximum size of a class reduced to ten pupils, a necessity 
 when time is limited and intensive methods must be used. 
 
 As a rule fees are paid in all classes; experience shows 
 that free tuition causes laxity of attendance. Fees vary 
 from 5 to 30 centimes per hour. Teachers of commercial 
 subjects, must have had business experience. Many of 
 those employed are State teachers, a few are business men 
 with leisure. 
 
 An attempt was made to organise a day commercial 
 school with a time-table of eight hours per week,- of which 
 four were granted by employers from office work. This 
 arrangement was not successful and was soon modified, so 
 that the course extends over five half-years, in each of 
 which two subjects are obligatory. In the obligatory 
 curriculum those subjects are included which need special 
 attention. At present languages are not included, as the 
 examination shows that they are not neglected. The hours 
 fixed are from 7 to 9 a.m., 1 to 3 p.m., and 6 to 8 p.m. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 557 
 
 Each period includes one hour of business time. An 
 apprentice wishing to enrol himself must be over fifteen 
 years of age and must possess the attainments equivalent 
 to three years' attendance at schools other than primary. 
 
 In Canton Vaud the Union now manages the cantonal 
 continuation schools of commerce. In Freiburg a school 
 has been founded with the Union's co-operation. The 
 Union is now publishing text-books for use in its schools. 
 As an indication of the work of the schools we may state 
 that Spanish, Russian, Actuarial, Mathematics and 
 Political Economy are among the subjects taught. 
 
 (6) Technical Continuation Schools. 
 
 These schools are being remodelled in many cantons. 
 In St. Gall the regulations date from 1892. "We will 
 first discuss the actual state of affairs in this canton. 
 
 In 1902 there were 31 schools with 128 teachers and over 
 1500 pupils. Cantonal grants amounted to £595 and 
 Federal grants to £947. The schools were inspected by 
 Federal and Cantonal experts. Three teachers received 
 bursaries to enable them to attend holiday courses in 
 machine drawing. Five visiting teachers were employed 
 for about 2,000 hours. One visited eight schools. The 
 average visit lasted three hours. 
 
 The payment of teachers varied from 1'50 to 3 francs 
 per hour; an attempt is being made to fix a minimum of 
 2 francs. The commune is responsible for the maintenance 
 of the classes. The cantonal grant amounts to 55 centimes 
 per hour, the federal grant to 90 centimes. Over sixty per 
 cent, of the lessons are in drawing. Other subjects are 
 modem languages, book-keeping, mathematics, chemistry 
 and physics. 
 
 In St. Gall town the school is open in summer from 
 
558 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 8 a.m. to noon, from 2 to 5 p.m., from 6 to 9 p.m., on week- 
 days, and from 8 a.m. to noon on Sundays. 
 
 In Basel Town tlie schools are being reorganised, and a 
 discussion of the steps taken will throw light on many 
 questions. In 1886 a technical continuation school was 
 formed by amalgamating a number of private courses. In 
 1896 it was decided to reorganise the school. The teachers 
 of the school presented a memorial recommending the forma- 
 tion of a two years' preparatory course of general education, 
 a day art and a day technical school, public workshops and 
 continuation classes for apprentices, journeymen and 
 masters. The Council of State looked on the day technical 
 school and the public workshops as unnecessary, and an- 
 nounced that their policy was to supplement the work of a 
 master not to replace it. The Council brought in a Bill 
 providing for the establishment of public technical and 
 professional continuation schools which should give 
 apprentices, journeymen and masters the instruction in 
 theory and practice and the general artistic culture which 
 could not be given in a workshop. In each year there 
 were to be two sessions of twenty weeks. Day and evening 
 classes were provided for and, in winter, Sunday classes 
 too. The courses thus contemplated were : — 
 
 I. Supplementary- courses, extending the work of the 
 
 primary school. 
 
 II. Preparatory classes, for technical courses, in mathe- 
 
 matics, chemistry, physics and drawing. 
 
 III. Technical and Art Classes, to suit local tastes. 
 
 Among the subjects are book-keeping, practical 
 
 geometry and the history of art. 
 Provision is made for short periodical courses and for girls' 
 classes. Admission is granted to residents over 14 years 
 of age and to schoolboys over 13. Candidates under 18 
 years of age must show that their education is equivalent 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 559 
 
 to that of the average pupil in higher public schools of 
 13 years of age before they are admitted to the preparatory 
 courses. For such pupils a minimuin curriculum is drawn 
 up. It demands eight hours per week in summer and ten 
 in winter. Firms are bound to give their apprentices 
 leave to attend classes — ^this legalises what was regarded as 
 a moral obligation, — but not more than four hours before 
 6 p.m. are demanded. Classes must not exceed 25 pupils 
 for practice or 35 for theory. 
 
 A sum of eight francs must be deposited as caution 
 money. Reports are issued every term to pupils and em- 
 ployers. The officials are — a rector, who is also custodian 
 of the museum, at a salary of £340, a prorector and a 
 secretary. The teachers are either State teachers or work- 
 men who hold diplomas. In 1904 the Federal grant 
 earned by the school was £1,890. 
 
 Legislation on the subject of apprenticeship was a 
 natural sequel to a revision of the Act of Dec. 20, 1886. 
 In France the law of 1851, in Austria the Gewerbeordnung 
 of 1860, and in Germany the code of 1897 deal with 
 apprenticeship. In Switzerland the Federal Government 
 has passed no special Act, except in so far as the Factory 
 Act and the Law of Contracts apply. 
 
 A number of cantons are considering their statutes 
 relating to apprenticeship. Three main questions come 
 up for consideration : — 
 
 1. Shall the employer be bound to afford his apprentices 
 time to attend continuation classes? 
 
 2. Shall the apprentice be bound to attend continuation 
 classes ? 
 
 3. Shall the apprentice be bound to attend an examina- 
 tion? 
 
 In Obwalden, Glarus, Zng, Freiburg, Yaud, Valais, 
 
S6o CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Neuchatel, Bern, Zurich, Basel Town, and Greneva, Acts 
 have already been passed. Measures relating to the ex- 
 amination of apprentices and the whole question of 
 apprenticeship are under consideration in Lucerne, 
 Schwyz, Solothurn, Aargau and Thurgau. 
 
 These Cantonal Acts and Bills differ in details. In 
 general they give an affirmative answer to all three of the 
 questions mentioned above. For example, in the Appren- 
 ticeship Act of the Canton of Zurich (1905) it is declared 
 to be " the duty of the master to give the greatest possible 
 attention to the physical and mental well-being of the 
 apprentice and to educate him in the principles and skill 
 required for the business." The master is required " to 
 conduct the training of the apprentice either in person or 
 through the medium, of a suitable substitute." He is 
 bound to allow the apprentice at least four hours a week 
 for attendance at such industrial, commercial or general 
 continuation classes as raay take place during his hours 
 of work. 
 
 After considering these examples, the Basel Council of 
 State decided to attach more importance to the training 
 of an apprentice than to the award of a diploma. They 
 approved of the principle that leave should be given to 
 attend classes as in Yaud, Obwalden, Lucerne and 
 Zug. (In Zug five hours ; in Zurich and in Lucerne, four 
 hours a week were fixed as the maximum. In Bern three 
 hours per week is a minimum.) But the Basel Council 
 wished it to be understood that they considered the work 
 of the continuation classes valuable as a means of general 
 education. This general education, they believed, would 
 enable the apprentice to profit, to a greater extent, by the 
 
 1. The Gewerbeverein is a voliuitary association receiving a subsidy 
 from tbe State. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 561 
 
 instruction of the master. So mucli importance did they 
 attach to the teaching of the master that they thought 
 incompetent masters should be denied the right to receive 
 apprentices. This principle is enforced in other cantons 
 by direct legislation. 
 
 The Basel Chamber of Commerce opposed the extension 
 of the Act to commercial apprentices on the ground 
 that evasion was easy. The Union of Basel shopkeepers, 
 while not withholding approval, submitted a draft of their 
 own. The Union of Mechanics and Artizans, which has 
 for a long time advocated that the apprentices' examina- 
 tion should be obligatory, considered the extension abso- 
 lutely necessary for th-e promotion of trade efficiency. 
 
 The Bill drawn up by the Council of State contains the 
 following provisions : — 
 
 1. Apprentices are placed under cantonal control. 
 
 2. A committee of supervision is appointed. Five of 
 the fourteen members must be employers, five must be 
 workpeople and two must be women. 
 
 3. The right t6 engage apprentices may be withdrawn 
 from an employer convicted of neglect or ill-treatlnent. 
 
 4. An apprentice must be over 14 years of age. 
 
 5. A written contract signed by the master, the guardian 
 and the apprentice must be executed. Each party receives 
 a copy and a third is filed at the Home Office for approval. 
 
 6. The contents must specify the nature of the trade, 
 the length of the apprenticeship, the time of probation, 
 the length of the day's work and the consideration given 
 and received. 
 
 7i A master is responsible for the teaching of his ap- 
 prentice, to whom he must give time : 
 
 (i.) to attend classes for religious instruction. 
 ' ■ (ii.) to attend classes and examinations, 
 (iii.) to prepare for the latter. 
 
 2 K 
 
562 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 8. The apprentice must attend continuation classes. 
 The Act applies to minors of either sex who wish to 
 
 learn a certain trade in a workshop or in a commercial 
 estahlishment or with a private individual; but it does 
 not apply to establishments coming under the Federal 
 law regulating work in factories. 
 
 9. A week's work for boys shall not exceed 60 hours 
 in which time 6 hours of class work is included : that 
 for girls under 15, not more than 54 hours per week. 
 
 10. The Council of State may make attendance at an 
 examination obligatory for apprentices in particular trades. 
 The examination shall be open to all apprentices on the 
 termination of their articles. 
 
 11. Neglect of duty towards master, school or teacher 
 on the part of an apprentice is punishable by fine or im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 The Act became law on June 14, 1906. 
 
 In Neuchatel, Freiburg, Geneva and Obwalden, the 
 examination is held conjointly by the cantonal and the 
 local authorities and prizes are given by»the cantons. It 
 is proposed to follow this example in Zurich, Bern, 
 Lucerne and Zug. A private society, the Swiss Gewerbe- 
 verein, holds an annual examination. In 1905 there 
 were 2,080 candidates drawn from 90 trades. This 
 examination is open to boys and girls, provided their 
 articles fix a reasonable length of apprenticeship. For 
 bakers, slaters and butchers the minimum is two years ; for 
 printers, stonemasons and engineers the minimum is from 
 3^ to 4 years. Each candidate must have regularly attended 
 a technical continuation school for two half-years and must 
 have completed a general education. The examination in 
 the latter includes the mother tongue, arithmetic, simple 
 book-keeping and drawing. School certificates of equal 
 value exempt. The professional examination includes an 
 oral examination in technical subjects and a practical 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 563 
 
 examination in a worksliop to test manual skill and 
 dexterity. 
 
 Recently the question of giving a cantonal character to 
 these exam.inations has been debated. The step has been 
 taken in Neuchatel, Glarus, Yaud, Freiburg, Obwalden and 
 Geneva. In ten other cantons a motion to do so is being 
 considered. Already the Society distributes annually over 
 15,000 forms of articles of apprenticeship, and over 20 
 per cent, of the total number of apprentices take the 
 examination. This proportion is likely to increase rapidly 
 now that several populous cantons have made the examina- 
 tion compulsory. In 1903 there were 1,991 candidates 
 (1,447 men, 544 girls). Of these 38 per cent, had attended 
 secondary schools, including day technical schools, and 
 72 per cent, had attended continuation classes. Over 1,600 
 passed as "excellent" or "good," and 1,909 in all gained 
 certificates. The Society issued 17,826 certificates from 
 1877 to 1903. It receives a Federal grant of £520 per 
 annum, which nearly meets the expense of the examina- 
 tion. 
 
 The following statistics relate to the Basel schools : — 
 
 Lessons peb Week. 
 
 Time 7a.m.-12. 2-5p.m. 5-7p.m. 7-9p.m. 
 
 Summer 38 ... 63 ... 135 ... 130 for men. 
 
 30 ... 16 ... 4 ... for women. 
 
 Winter 80 ... 107 ... 188 ... 210 formen. 
 
 25 ... 18 ... 4 ... for women. 
 
 Summer. Winter. 
 
 Number of pupils {men only) 853 1114 
 
 ,, "visitors" ' (men only) 80 108 
 
 933 1222 
 
 Of these : 
 
 Number of journeymen 174 312 
 
 ,, ,, teachers 8 11 
 
 „ „ apprentices 674 798 
 
 „ ,, University students 7 21 
 
 ,, schoolboys 70 80 
 
 933 1222 
 
 1. A " visitor " is a student attached to the University, or some other 
 place of instruction, who attends, by arrangement, for special purposes. 
 The nuriibers in brackets refer to these visitors, and in each case indicate 
 the number of the latter included in the figure immediately to the left. 
 
564 
 
 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Previous Education : 
 
 "Defective" less than 7 years 61 
 
 "Moderate" 7 years only 288 
 
 "Good" 8 years 376 (18) 
 
 "Very Good" over 8' years 208 (62) 
 
 Pupils in first term 260 (33) 
 
 second term 189 (23) 
 
 third term 150 (9) 
 
 fourth term 110 (5) 
 
 fifth term 78 (2) 
 
 sixth term 50 (1) 
 
 over six terms 96 (7) 
 
 75 
 
 287 (6) 
 
 587 (28) 
 
 273 (74) 
 
 373 (56) 
 
 246 (25) 
 
 181 (12) 
 
 131 (3) 
 
 96 (4) 
 
 74 (2) 
 
 121 (6) 
 
 Summer. Winter. 
 
 Number of women in attendance 139 131 
 
 Engaged in art 16 13 
 
 Engaged in teaching 60 68 
 
 Total number of pupils 1072* 1353t 
 
 Natives of the Canton 882 1127 
 
 * 933 men, 139 women. 1 1222 men, 131 women. 
 
 In attendance (men only) 
 from : — 
 
 Summer. 
 
 M''inter. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 2 to 4 hrs. per week 340 
 
 5 to 6 hrs. per week 154 
 
 7 to 8 hrs. per week 195 
 
 9 to 10 hrs. per week 59 
 
 over 10 hrs. per week ... 105 
 
 Visitors. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 ... 69 . 
 
 . 384 ... 
 
 ... 6 . 
 
 . 212 ... 
 
 2 . 
 
 . 224 ... 
 
 1 
 
 80 ... 
 
 2 . 
 
 . 214 ... 
 
 Visitors. 
 96 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 The certificate of a teclmical contmuation school 
 receives value if the holder proceed to a day technical 
 institute. A promising apprentice may be admitted as a 
 second-year student if his certificate shows a sufficient 
 standard of attainment. 
 
 (c) Continuation Schools for Girls. 
 
 Much is done over a great part of Switzerland to give 
 training in needlework, cookery and household manage- 
 ment to girls who have completed their course in the 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 565 
 
 primary schools. Most of this activity is due to private 
 effort, aided in many cases by grants from public funds. 
 The classes thus arranged attract a large attendance of 
 pupils and their work is heartily supported by public 
 opinion. 
 
 Sewing is carefully taught to girls in the primary 
 schools. In many cantons lessons in domestic economy 
 also form part of the primary school course. In Canton 
 Thurgau girls continue to attend the primary school for a 
 ninth year for instruction in sewing. In Solothurn girls 
 are obliged to remain at the primary school for a ninth 
 year unless they attend a housekeeping school, of which 
 there are ten in the canton. These housekeeping schools 
 are district schools, serving a number of neighbouring 
 parishes. The courses include sewing, washing, starching 
 and ironing, domestic economy, cookery and housekeeping. 
 The pupils attend in the mornings and afternoons 
 alternately. 
 
 Attendance at continuation schools in the usual sense 
 of the term is not compulsory in the case of girls except 
 in Canton Freiburg, and there only since 1904.^ 
 
 The importance of providing instruction in domestic 
 subjects for girls and women in town and country districts 
 is universally recognised in Switzerland. The need for 
 such teaching in the industrial districts is especially felt. 
 When a girl works in a factory the home training is often 
 lost. She leaves the public school too young to gain any 
 benefit from the housekeeping and cookery classes and has 
 barely completed the sewing course. 
 
 The following are the chief varieties of school which offer 
 
 1. In Canton Vaud, under the apprenticeship law, attendance at 
 teehnical classes, for a period of two years, is compulsory for girls 
 apprenticed to the tailoring, dressmaking, underclothing and laundry 
 trades. 
 
566 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 instruction in domestic subjects to girls beyond the 
 primary scliool age : — 
 
 [a) Continuation Schools. 
 
 (6) Needlework Schools (Arbeitsschulen or Ecoles 
 prof essionnelles) . 
 
 (c) Housekeeping Schools (Haushaltungsschulen or 
 Ecoles menageres). 
 {a) Continuation Schools. Since the passing of a Federal 
 resolution, December 20, 1895, which declared that 
 continuation schools for girls were eligible for Government 
 grants, provided they gave instruction in needlework, 
 cookery and laundry work, the progress of these schools 
 has been rapid. Within eight years the attendance in 
 Canton Zurich increased a hundredfold. The continuation 
 school for girls at Winterthur is especially interesting and 
 complete. It offers day and evening classes in branches 
 of knowledge indispensable for housekeeping and in 
 commercial subjects. The subjects taught include, on the 
 domestic side, sewing, cutting out, dressmaking, embroidery, 
 cookery, domestic economy and laundry work, and on the 
 commercial side, letter writing, book-keeping, French, 
 Italian and shorthand. There are also classes in hygiene, 
 drawing and gymnastics. More than 600 students are in 
 attendance, the day and evening students being about 
 equally divided and about one-third being over twenty 
 years of age. 
 
 The programme for the schools of Freiburg, issued in 
 1901, is Its follows : — 
 
 1. Clothing: General and hygienic observations ; cutting 
 out and making; washing; calculation of cost. 
 
 2. Cookery : Value of different foods ; soups, meat, 
 vegetables, eggs, milk, puddings, sweets; invalid cookery; 
 calculations of cost. 
 
 3. The Garden : "Vegetables, herbs, flowers. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 567 
 
 4. Hygiene : The house, the skin, the sick-room, the 
 care of infants. 
 
 In large towns it is easy to arrange courses. In the 
 country, to avoid difficulty of communication, cookery 
 vans are sometimes fitted up, and they travel a beat of six 
 groups of villages, spending a day or a night at each per 
 week. 
 
 (b) Needlework Schools. These schools provide (1) 
 courses of from three to six months for girls and women 
 who wish to gain special skill in some particular branch of 
 needlework, and (2) in many cases, apprenticeship courses, 
 lasting from one and a half to four years, for those who 
 intend to earn their living by dressmaking or sewing. 
 Some of the schools are managed by the public school 
 authorities, others by societies of public utility. Grants 
 from public funds are given to both. There are important 
 needlework schools in Basel, Neuchatel, Lausanne, Geneva, 
 St. Gall, Freiburg, Aarau, Zurich and Bern. The last 
 two are under the management of private societies 
 assisted by public grants. At the schools in Ziirich and 
 Geneva, courses of instruction in French, German, book- 
 keeping, drawing, etc., are given in addition to those in 
 different kinds of needlework. 
 
 (c) Housekeeping Schools. Some of these are boarding 
 schools, the pupils doing all or most of the work in the 
 house. They are small, and the courses vary in length 
 from three months to a year. The fees vary according to 
 the class of student for which the school is intended. Some 
 are for girls from well-to-do families, some for peasant 
 girls and for others intending to enter domestic service. 
 
 The other type of housekeeping school is for day pupils 
 who live at home. In some cases the attendance is from 
 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. In Basel Town such a school has been 
 established as a bran.ch of the needlework school with the 
 
568 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 object of giving theoretical and practical, instruction in 
 housekeeping. There are similar schools in Neuchatel and 
 Lucerne. That in Neuchatel provides yearly three courses 
 of three months each. An interesting form of the day 
 housekeeping school is found in the country villages of 
 Aarau and in the canton of Basel Land.^ 
 
 Y. — Continuation Coueses foe Teachers. 
 
 In 1899 the Federal Department of Trade and Industries 
 issued the report of a special commission on training 
 courses for teachers of drawing, in which a hope was ex- 
 pressed that , cantons would arrange holiday courses, so 
 that the difficulty of providing efficient elementary in- 
 struction in country schools might be overcome. In the 
 towns there are sufficient teachers. In some districts a 
 , system of visiting teachers meets the case. But , so far 
 the country teacher has not shown suffipient skill, and this 
 the department believes could be gained at special holiday 
 courses. 
 
 The usual arrangement observed with a holiday 
 course is for a society to organise it and the cantons to 
 grant aid. The Swiss Society for Promoting Manual 
 Training, for example, receives a Federal grant of 1,000 
 francs in addition to cantonal aid. There are courses for 
 teachers at technical continuation classes at Aarau, for 
 teachers pf weak-minded children, for teachers of commer- 
 cial subjects and for drawing masters, at various centres. 
 The various teachers' associations arra,nge courses for their 
 members, and recently a summer meeting was held in 
 connection with the University pf Zurich. Trade TJnions 
 also arrange practical courses for journeymen to which 
 
 1. A valuable jjaper by Miss M. C6cile Mathesoh on The Teaching of 
 Domestic Science in Switzerland, is printed in Vol. 16 of Special Reports 
 on Educational Subjects, issued by the Board of Education (Wvmans. 
 1906). \ J . 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 569 
 
 public support is given. "Without entering into de- 
 tails we may state one general result : — It is found better 
 to give a teacher a knowledge of special technical work 
 than to ta]s;e a skilled workman and endeavour to train 
 him as a teacher. 
 
 VI. — CoMPULSOEY Attendance at Continuation Schools. 
 
 A proposal was made in 1874, when the I'ederal consti- 
 tution was revised, that attendance at continuation schools 
 should be declared obligatory. The proposal was not 
 carried, nor was another giving the Federal Government 
 power to appoint Federal inspectors of primary schools. 
 Some cantons have, however, declared attendance com- 
 pulsory; in a few, Bern and St. Gall for example, the 
 question is left for decision to the commune. It is necessary 
 to warn the reader that he must interpret the word obligatory 
 with some reservation. A commune inay declare enrol- 
 ment to be voluntary, but ihay compel all who have enrolled 
 to attend. A detailed description of the regulations must 
 be sought by the student in the annual reports of the 
 cantonal authorities and in the various issues of the Jahr- 
 buch des Erziehungsweseus in der Schweiz.^ 
 
 The following particulars are taken from the proof-sheets 
 of the new edition of the Jahrbuch, kindly placed at the 
 disposal of the writer by the editor, Dr. Huber. The 
 regulations refer to boys only, except where otherwise 
 stated. 
 
 Zurich,. ITo obligatory schools. 
 
 The general Continuation schools and the continuation 
 schools for girls are plabed under an inspector who visits 
 each school once a year. The inspector assists in the for- 
 mation of new schools and courses, and , conducts classes 
 
 1. A list of Cantonal Acts and Begulations is given at the end of the 
 Jahrbuch for 1902. 
 
570 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 for persons intending to become teachers in continuation 
 schools. He may also be called on to prepare text-books 
 for use in the schools. (Circular, 24 Oct., 1900.) 
 
 In 1904, an attempt was made to make the continuation 
 schools for girls more uniform in syllabus and programme. 
 Eight district schools have now taken the place of twenty- 
 two small village schools. 
 
 In the Gewerbeschule of Zurich Town a pupil must now 
 pass a preliminary examination in German, arithmetic 
 and book-keeping before he is admitted to advanced 
 courses. 
 
 Bern. The commune decides the question of com- 
 pulsory attendance. Speaking generally it may be said 
 that all communes declare attendance compulsory for boys 
 for two winter sessions of 60 hours each. Manual work is 
 taught in the schools. 
 
 Between the age of leaving the primary school and that 
 of presenting himself for military service a boy is con- 
 sidered to be of continuation school age. In hill com- 
 munes, where the numbers are small, the continuation 
 school may only be open for alternate periods of two years. 
 Exemption from attendance can be obtained by passing an 
 examination. Reports are sent out once every half-year 
 to parents. 
 
 Lucerne. No compulsory continuation school. The 
 Wiederholungsschule is a half-timers' school, at which 
 certain boys must attend up to the sixteenth year at least 
 two courses of 30 full days or 60 half days each. The 
 recruits' school is compulsory for pupils between 17 and 19 
 years of age. Two courses of 40 hours each. 
 
 Uri. Attendance obligatory. All young men must 
 attend three annual courses of 40 hours from the age of 16. 
 The recruit's preparatory course is abandoned. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 571 
 
 Schwyz. Attendance obligatory for recruits. Two 
 years' course of 40 liours each year from 17th year. No 
 other regulations for continuation schools. 
 
 Ohwalden, No obligatory general continuation school. 
 The name Fortbildungsschule is given to a winter course for 
 half-timers which replaces the VII. and VIII. standards. 
 Recruits' courses of 40 hours obligatory. 
 
 Nidwalden. Obligatory recruits' course of 48 hours. 
 
 Glarus. No obligatory school. The continuation schools 
 are organised as [a) general, (i) industrial, (c) domestic. 
 Attendance is optional. Higher grade pupils not enrolled. 
 Instruction given in winter for 20 weeks. Summer courses 
 permissible. Work must cease on weekdays at 9 p.m. On 
 Sundays not more than two hours' instruction may be 
 given, and that not during morning service. Caution 
 money 3 francs per head. Fine for absence 50 centimes. 
 After six absences pupil is expelled. Jtlinimum salary 
 for each hour per week of instruction 40 francs per course 
 for men, 25 francs for women. Maximum number of 
 pupils in a class 25. No fees. Free books. 
 
 Zug. Attendance obligatory between 17 and 19 years of 
 age. Two winter courses from 1st November to 31st March, 
 three hours per week. Communal School Board holds 
 an examination at the end of the course. A member of 
 School Board must inspect the work once a month. School 
 Board sends an annual report to Cantonal Education Com- 
 mittee. Three days' obligatory course for recruits before 
 enlistment. 
 
 Fine for absence, one franc. Punishment for breach of 
 discipline may be fine or imprisonment. 
 
 School must be held on weekdays and in the daytime. 
 
 Freiburg. Obligatory schools for at least three winters. 
 Course of 70 hours in each. 
 
572 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Obligatory recruits' revision course of ten hours before 
 examination. 
 
 Attendance at continuation schools will in future be 
 compulsory for girls in accordance with Act of May, 1904. 
 
 Soloihurn. Obligatory school up to completed eigh- 
 teenth year; three courses of 21 weeks and 3 hours per 
 week since 1873. Optional courses for recruits. 
 
 Basel Town. ISTo obligatory school. Optional courses 
 free. 
 
 A bill was introduced in 1904 to make attendance com- 
 pulsory for young men between the ages of 17 and 20. 
 This bill did not pass. 
 
 Basel Land. Attendance obligatory for two years (17 — 
 18 years of age) for 17 weeks and 4 hours per week. 
 Recruits' course of 12 hours optional. Instruction must 
 be given on two separate days of the week and must 
 conclude by 9 p.m. 
 
 S chaff haus en. Attendance obligatory for two years 
 (17-18 years of age). Pupils who complete 8 standards 
 at primary schools are exempt. Two courses of 13 weeks 
 and 4 hours per week. 
 
 Appenzell-a-Rh. Attendance compulsory if the com- 
 mune so decides. Attendance has been obligatory for boys 
 in all communes since 1897. Two courses yearly of 
 60 hours each. 
 
 Appenzell-i.-Rh. Attendance compulsory for 3 courses 
 of 20 weeks and 4 hours per week for all boys immediately 
 on leaving the seven-standard primary school. 
 
 St. Gall. Attendance compulsory if commune so decides. 
 In 1904 it was compulsory at 57 out of 123 schools. 
 
 Attendance at technical continuation schools (of which 
 there are 31, 27 being open all the year round) is voluntary, 
 unless prescribed in articles of apprenticeship. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 573 
 
 Cantonal grants are paid to schools wliicli give 50 hours 
 of instruction per annum and hold an examination at 
 end of course. 
 
 Grisons. Attendance compulsory if commune so decides. 
 The continuation schools take pupils from leaving the 
 primary school up to the end of their 17th year. Usual 
 session twenty weeks, three meetings per week of 1-| hours 
 duration. No pupil admitted to continuation schools who 
 has not obtained exemption from attendance at a primary 
 school. Attendance must be maintained till the end of a 
 session. 
 
 Two kinds of continuation school are recognised, obli- 
 gatory and optional. The former is a school which all 
 males must attend on leaving the priniary school until 
 they complete their eighteenth year. At the optional 
 school attendance is compulsory for all, males and 
 females, who enrol. 
 
 The Cantonal Treasury makes a grant of from 80 to 120 
 francs a month to obligatory schools, and one of from 60 
 to 80 francs to optional schools. 
 
 Aargau. Obligatory school; 3 courses of 80 hours; for 
 young men between 17 and 19. Classes do not exceed 30. 
 Work terminates at 7 p.m. Exemption can be gained. 
 
 Thurgau. Attendance obligatory for three sessions 
 from 15th year. Thirteen weeks of 4 hours per session. 
 
 Ticino. Obligatory courses up to 18th year, from 180 
 to 240 hours spread over 3 or 4 years.' Obligatory recruits' 
 course 12 days and 4 hours per day. 
 
 Vaud. Obligatory school from 16 to 19 years of age. 
 Thirteen weeks of 3 hours per session. Obligatory recruits' 
 course of 6 hours per week for 20 weeks. 
 
 Yalais. Obligatory school from 15 to 20 years. Four 
 courses of 17 weeks and 6 hours per week.- Obligatory 
 
574 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 course for recruits, 30 periods of 2 hours before enrol- 
 ment. 
 
 Neuchdtel. An annual examination is held at which 
 all young men must present themselves on attaining the 
 age of 17. The standard is little higher than the recruits' 
 examination. Candidates who fail must attend classes for 
 two winter sessions of 64 hours each. These classes are 
 for the most part equivalent to those of a recruits' school. 
 
 Geneva. No compulsory continuation schools. Op- 
 tional classes, 10 hours per week, for boys and girls. 
 
 Obligatory course for recruits who fail at the cantonal 
 preliminary examination, 36 hours spread over five or six 
 weeks. 
 
 SUMMAEY. 
 
 From which it follows that : In 19 cantons attendance 
 at the continuation schools is obligatory for boys ; in 15 of 
 these by vote of the canton (Zurich, TJri, Zug, Freiburg, 
 Solothum, Basel Town (for some apprentices), Basel Land, 
 SchafEhausen, Appenzell-i. Rh., Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, 
 Vaud, Valais, Neuchatel) ; in 4 by vote of the commune 
 (Bern, Appenzell-a-Rh., St. Gall, Orisons). 
 
 In one canton (Freiburg) attendance is obligatory for 
 girls as well as boys, and in Ziirich and Basel Town for 
 girl apprentices. 
 
 Obligatory recruits' courses are held in 10 cantons 
 (Lucerne, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Freiburg, 
 Ticino, Vaud, Valais, Geneva). 
 
 Optional courses (other than recruits' courses, and some- 
 times organised side by side with obligatory courses in the 
 same canton) are to be found in 4 cantons (Glarus, St. 
 Gall, Grisons and Geneva). 
 
 There are optional recruits' courses in 2 cantons 
 (Solothum and Basel Land). 
 
 Many reasons combine to make Switzerland the educa- 
 tional laboratory of Europe. The political constitutions 
 
OF SWITZERLAND 575 
 
 allow great freedom, and the administrative talents of the 
 nation are directed towards education in the absence of 
 large external interests. From the preceding pages the 
 reader will learn that, throughout the Federation, great 
 progress is being made with the continuation schools, and 
 that the Swiss spare neither money nor efEort in perfecting 
 them. In Switzerland the deserving apprentice does not 
 find his instruction left to the chance events which modify 
 a daily routine, for continuation schools are always within 
 reach. And, for their maintenance and success, he must 
 thank the co-operation of the State, the employer, the 
 trade union, and the teacher. 
 
 A. J. Peessland. 
 
576 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Continuation^ Classes and Social Education in France. 
 
 A. Classes for young people and adults. 
 
 "With the exception of, some attempts in the 16th, 
 17th and 18th centuries, {e.g., St. J.tB. de la 
 Salle's in Paris in 1690) movements in the direc- 
 tion of classes for young people and adults dates 
 from the Revolution. Rousseau and Condorcet had 
 given expression to the idea; the Convention in 
 1792 and 1793, inspired by their theories, prepared 
 numerous legislative proposals dealing with the 
 subject; during the whole of the 19th century these 
 theories were more or less put into practice. But the 
 various forms of government which succeeded one another 
 in France during this period had great influence on the 
 development of the classes. Under the Empire the 
 plans formed during the Revolution were entirely 
 dropped; with the Restoration, however, they re- 
 appeared. In 1816 the fonner pupils of the Ecole Poly- 
 technique at Metz opened public classes for working men. 
 In 1820 and 1821 the Prefect of the Seine started the first 
 two such classes for adults held in Paris, and during the 
 next few years the number of such classes increased both 
 in Paris and Metz. After the Revolution of 1830, the 
 Government of July encouraged them ; classes were started 
 at Lyons and Mulhouse. In 1837 they numbered 1,586 
 with 36,964 students in attendance ; in 1848, 6,913 with an 
 attendance of 117,000. They were, however, immediately 
 
 1. The term "post-scolaire,'' which is best translated by "continuation," 
 is used to designate the instruction given to young people above the 
 compulsory school age and to adults. In France free compulsory public 
 elementary education ends with the obtaining of the Oertificat d'etudes 
 primaires generally taken between 12 and 13 years of age. 
 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN FRANCE 577 
 
 affected by the political reaction : in 1850 their numbers 
 went down; from 1851 to 1863 the Department of Public 
 Instruction published no statistical information concerning 
 the state of Primary Education, and only an absurdly 
 small sum, 2,000 francs a year, was granted to this branch 
 of the work. Under the liberal influence of the Second 
 Empire, and thanks above all to the efforts of the then 
 Minister of Public Instruction, Victor Duruy, the classes 
 revived, and in 1869 their number had increased to 28,172 
 with an attendance of 800,000. The turmoil of the years 
 1870-1 stopped their progress, but the Third Republic paid 
 special attention to the question of primary education; 
 since the peace and the resumption of social life, laws and 
 decrees have followed one after another, efforts have been 
 multiplied, and the work, notwithstanding a temporary 
 crisis, has continued to extend rapidly. In 1875 Monsieur 
 Greard, afterwards vice-rector of the University of Paris, 
 published a scheme for the general organisation of Adult 
 Classes (Cours d'Adultes) ; the Prefect of the Seine carried 
 out his ideas in an order dated August 20th, 1877. On 
 March 28th, 1882, the law making Primary Education 
 compulsory was passed, and on July 22nd, 1884, a 
 ministerial order was promulgated making regulations for 
 Cours d'Adultes throughout the country. Notwithstand- 
 ing this, the number of classes diminished considerably 
 from 1884 to 1895, the figures being, 1883-4, 24,378; 
 1884-5, 9,338; 1894-5, 8,228. The reason for this may be 
 found in the fact that experience had not yet pointed out 
 the limited function of the Primary School. Everything 
 had been hoped from compulsory attendance at school, 
 and it was expected with an astonishing naivete, that the 
 education of the whole nation could be accomplished in a 
 few years. The reality soon dissipated these illusions ; the 
 school went slowly on with its limited work, and the 
 
 2 L 
 
578 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 necessity became more and more urgent of prolonging and 
 completing this short period of instruction, which was 
 proving itself to be so insuificient a preparation for life. 
 In 1895-6 the number of Cours d'Adultes rose again to 
 15,778. According to the official report of Ed. Petit the 
 number, in 1903-4, was 46,868 (30,209 men and boys, 
 16,659 for women and girls). In 1904r-5 the number of 
 courses had risen to 47,600. In addition, about 5,000 
 technical classes (cours professionnelsj were organised by 
 Syndicats, Bourses du Travail, etc., making a total of 
 over 52,000 courses, with an attendance of nearly a million. 
 The organisation of these classes is quite simple. Under 
 the July Monarchy, they could not be started without the 
 authorisation of the central authority, but since the decree 
 of January 11th, 1895, anyone who wishes may open a 
 class provided he have the approval of the Mayor, the 
 Prefect and the Academy Inspector. Under the Republic 
 the classes have also been made more accessible to those 
 for whom they are intended. The minimum age, which 
 was fixed under Louis-Philippe (1836) at 15 for boys and 
 12 for girls, and was raised to 18 in 1850, has been lowered 
 to 13 by the decree of January 13th, 1887. Nearly all the 
 classes are for boys or girls only; mixed classes do not 
 exist except in some of the large towns. The length 
 and frequency of the class meetings which were at 
 first left unregulated, and then fixed by the decree of 
 July 22nd, 1884, at an hour and a half at least three times 
 a week for not less than five months in the year, have again 
 by the order of January 11th, 1895, been left to the de- 
 cision of the local organisers, in order that local needs 
 and the wishes of different categories of students may 
 be the more easily met. It should be added that though 
 there is a considerable movement of opinion in favour 
 of compulsory attendance up to 17 years of age, there is at 
 
IN FRANCE 579 
 
 present no legal obligation to attend the classes. Anyone 
 comes who likes and attends as he likes. A scholar who 
 has attended regularly receives simply a statement or 
 certificate of the fact from the master, and these certificates 
 are generally taken into account by employers. Occasional 
 prize distributions, aided by the municipalities, also help 
 to stimulate the interest of the scholars, and on the whole 
 their attendance and work are satisfactory. The financial 
 side of the question is of the greatest importance. Light- 
 ing and heating must, of course, be paid for, and it 
 would be only just that the masters and mistresses 
 who bear all the responsibility of the work should re- 
 ceive proper remuneration. But the scholars, accustomed 
 to free education in the primary day schools, are unwilling 
 to pay fees in the evening : ten years ago only the sum of 
 50,000 francs was realised from this source, and this figure 
 diminishes year by year. The State grant, although there 
 has lately been a slight increase, does not even now amount 
 to more than 350,000 francs. Private subscriptions come 
 to about the same sum. All this would be very insufficient 
 without the subsidies given by the towns and depart- 
 ments — 700,000 francs in 1865-6; 1,188,000 francs in 
 1895-6; 1,751,211 francs in 1903-4,— and without the 
 devotion of the primary school teachers. The laws of 
 1867, 1882 and 1884 secured remuneration at the rate of 
 not more than 150 francs, per course, per year, to every 
 teacher who was willing to undertake this extra, voluntary 
 work, but these payments were abolished by the decree of 
 January 11th, 1895, which is still in force to-day. The 
 Department of Public Instruction does all it can to for- 
 ward continuation school work. Teachers who are active in 
 evening classes receive from the Department either an 
 extension of holiday, or letters of recommendation, or some 
 purely honorary reward, such as congratulatory letters, 
 
58o CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 diplomas, medals, decorations, etc. Certain small subsidies 
 are assigned by the municipalities for the payment of the 
 teachers in continuation 'alasses. But there is striking in- 
 equality in the distribution of these awards, and as many as 
 thirty departments still refuse all help to the masters and 
 mistresses who add continuation school work to their daily 
 labour. There are even cases of teachers who are them- 
 selves obliged to defray the cost of heating and lighting. 
 Is it surprising that they are asking that such a state 
 of things shall be put an end to by the creation of a dis- 
 tinct and paid teaching staff for continuation schools? 
 The difficulty is to decide on whom the duty of payment 
 ought to be laid. The State, and even the towns, plead 
 in excuse their already heavy budgets; perhaps the 
 best hope is that the various voluntary associations and 
 patronage societies should take over both the organisation 
 and the financing of the classes. At the present moment 
 the fate of the Cours d'Adultes depends upon the self- 
 sacrifice of teachers who are either not paid at all or are 
 badly paid for their extra work. 
 
 The Continuation Class (Cours d' Adultes) is usually held 
 in the evening between 7 and 8-30 o'clock; it is open two 
 or three times a week, and lasts from the autumn, or the 
 beginning of winter, until Easter, that is, for from three 
 to five months. Some of the masters organise summer 
 courses on Sunday afternoons. " Half-an-hour is given to 
 an informal talk on agriculture, history, geography, some 
 point of common law, the events of the day, etc. ; half-an- 
 hour to regular study : spelling, composition, the writing 
 of business letters, mental arithmetic, explanation of the 
 principles of land valuation and taxation, making out bills 
 and invoices, square and cubic measurements, the price of 
 stocks, the organisation of savings banks . . . and so on 
 with endless variety. The last half-hour, which is one of 
 
IN FRANCE 581 
 
 semi-recreation, is devoted to reading, with explanations, 
 or to singing." ^ 
 
 Experience soon showed the :Jecessity of dividing the 
 Cours d'Adultes into (1) classes for the illiterate, (2) con- 
 tinuation classes proper (cours coTnplementaires) , and (3) 
 technical classes (cours frofessionnels), and this division 
 was sanctioned by the Education Acts of 1882, 1884 and 
 1895. The slow growth of the first of these, the classes for 
 the illiterate, is due to the attitude of the people them- 
 selves. The grown-up man is ashamed to own his 
 ignorance, and will not go and sit again on a school bench. 
 In the Central Provinces and the West (Massif Central 
 and Brittany) there are regimental classes in the garrisons, 
 under the direction of soldier-teachers, which make up, to 
 a certain extent, for the grievous evasion of the law for 
 compulsory attendance at school. More classes for women 
 are needed in order to lessen the proportion of illiterates 
 which is still very high amongst them. The object of the 
 Cours CoTnpleTnentaires, which may be compared to the 
 Higher Primary Schools (Ecoles Primaires SupSrieures) , 
 just as the classes for the illiterate correspond roughly to 
 the primary schools proper (Ecoles Pri'maires Elementaires) , 
 is to continue and develop the work of the primary school. 
 This need seems to be best met by giving the scholars some 
 idea of history, particularly of contemporary history, and 
 of economic and colonial geography. Side by side with these 
 general subjects, more exact instruction is given in other 
 branches according to the needs of the scholars and their 
 surroundings. In towns, it is found that classes in in- 
 dustrial drawing and arithmetic appeal for the most part 
 to boys, while English, German, book-keeping, stenography 
 and typewriting are more attractive subjects to women. 
 In the country, agriculture holds the first place; then in 
 1. Ed. Petit, Rapport sur I'Education Populaire en 1897-8. 
 
582 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 order of preference come geography, French, composition, 
 the metric system and science, rural law, hygiene, land- 
 surveying, temperance instruction, etc. Almost every- 
 where, a certain number of classes in hygiene, domestic 
 economy, the care of infants, cookery and needlework are 
 organised for girls, and the number is increasing rapidly. 
 Less than a thousand in 1894-5, the number of classes had 
 increased to 14,341 in 1901-2, and, in 1902-3, to 15,354— an 
 increase of a thousand in one year. For technical training 
 special provision is made in the Ecoles Professionnelles ^ 
 and the Ecoles de Coirvmerce et d'lndustrie,^ but in 
 addition to these State schools, the Syndicats, Bourses du 
 Travail and various working men's organisations have 
 opened 5,000 aprenticeship classes. It should be observed 
 that the E cole Prof essionnelle with its (often) old-fashioned 
 methods, its stereotyped and theoretical teaching, yields 
 disappointing results; employers and working men are 
 equally loud in their complaints, the former on the ground 
 that it turns out apprentices who do not know their busi- 
 ness, the latter on the ground that when the pupils leave the 
 school it is necessary to begin all over again and give them 
 a practical knowledge of their trade. No body of men, it 
 would seem, is better qualified to determine the technical 
 needs of each trade than the workers themselves, and their 
 Syndicats are well fitted to take upon themselves the work 
 of organising practical classes for apprentices. 
 
 Moreover, the Ecoles Professionnelles, which are day 
 schools, and the number of which is necessarily limited, 
 can only accommodate a very small proportion of those 
 needing a technical education. The interesting attempt 
 
 1. There are 12 Ecoles Professionnelles in Paris, 6 for boys and 6 for 
 girls, mostly founded since 1884, all free, and each with at least 300 
 pupils. 
 
 2. There are 50 Ecoles de Commerce et d'Industrie, 42 for boys and 
 *> for girls, and their number is increasing every year. 
 
IN FRANCE 583 
 
 whicli is being made in Paris, under the guidance of 
 M. Jully, Inspector of Manual Instruction, to meet the 
 need for a more widespread and accessible form of training 
 for apprentices in the wood and iron industries, should be 
 mentioned here. These cours techniques are held in the 
 evenings and on Sunday mornings, and are conducted by 
 artizan teachers. The leading idea of the experiment is to 
 improve an already educated artizan class by helping them 
 to a knowledge of the scientific principles underlying the 
 practice of their various trades. This idea has been 
 adhered to throughout, but the detailed organisation of 
 the classes has been considerably modified by experience. 
 From the first they have included lessons in geometry and 
 industrial drawing, but it has been found necessary, on the 
 one hand, to give more training in experimental science 
 than was at first contemplated, and on the other, to adapt 
 the practical manual work more exactly to the industrial 
 needs of the different categories of students. This last was . 
 no easy matter but, under the guidance of M. Jully, the 
 artizan teachers have attacked the problem and now each 
 class is provided with a series of appropriate models and 
 drawings which is added to constantly as new needs arise. 
 Moreover, as the classes have grown, it has become 
 necessary in some cases, to divide them definitely into sec- 
 tions, according to the trades of the students, and to pro- 
 vide each section with its own special equipment. On 
 January 1, 1905, cours techniques had been organised in 
 the manual training workshops of twelve Paris schools; 
 there were 1,300 applicants for admission, of whom 300 
 had to be refused. According to M. Eocheron, assistant 
 inspector of manual instruction, the success of these 
 courses is largely due to the excellence of the teaching staff, 
 " who, thanks to their careful training and to their steady 
 enthusiasm, have been able to adapt the teaching to the 
 
584 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 requirements of the different categories of students attend- 
 ing the classes. Mucli as they differ from one another, and 
 adapted as they are to the needs of apprentices and artizans 
 of various trades, different ages and unequal attainments, 
 the technical classes are all animated by the same spirit 
 and by a unity of aim and method which ensures their 
 success, and which must be attributed to the careful pre- 
 paration of the teaching staff. Every Thursday, the 
 artizan teachers who have charge of the classes, receive 
 from their inspector, M. JuUy, a lesson in drawing, 
 mechanics or geometry, which prepares them for their 
 work both from the pedagogical and the trade point of 
 view. Learners and teachers by turns, they are dis- 
 couraged by no difficulty, for they are enthusiastically 
 attached to the work. Having had personal experience of 
 the difficulties with which the apprentices are struggling, 
 they know better than anyone how useful and profitable 
 the instruction can be. They spare neither trouble nor 
 devotion in the interests of the classes. They are literally 
 swamped by the number of students; some have as many 
 as 60 in a class — an almost overwhelming number when 
 the different trades and attainments of the pupils and the 
 consequent impossibility of giving any collective instruc- 
 tion are remembered." ^ 
 
 B. Libraries. 
 
 An indispensable addition to the class is the library. 
 Although the aim and organisation of the different libraries 
 are identical, it may be convenient to distinguish between 
 those which exist in the primary schools (public school 
 popular libraries), and those which are independent of the 
 school (municipal popular libraries and free libraries^). 
 
 1. See R6n6 Leblanc, L'Enseigneinentprofessionnel en France au debut 
 du xaf- SUcle (Paris, Cornely, 1905), pp. 23—31. 
 
 2. The term " Free Library " is not used in the English sense, but 
 means free from State or Municipal aid and control. 
 
IN FRANCE 585 
 
 The idea of tlie first dates from 1860, and the regulations 
 wticli still govern them, from 1862. According to the 
 order of June 1st of that year, all public primary schools 
 should be furnished with a lending library for scholars, 
 adults and fam.ilies. A few years later, a permanent 
 central committee at the Ministry of Public Instruction 
 was charged with the duty of compiling a list of recom- 
 mended books for these libraries and it still continues its 
 work. Part of the funds are also provided by Government, 
 but it should be borne in mind that the sum allowed for 
 this purpose is not only notoriously insufficient, but is 
 getting less year by year — ^250,000 francs in 1884, 110,000 
 francs ten years later, and less than 100,000 francs to-day. 
 The amount granted by the municipalities remains almost 
 stationary at about 25,000 francs. A few societies, especi- 
 ally in the north of France, have been founded with the 
 special object of assisting libraries (tlasSou des Adolescents, 
 the Sou des Bibliotheques, for example), but, in spite of 
 this, the funds remain insufficient for their needs. The 
 books of a school library are obtained from three sources : 
 the State or the Ministry of Public Instruction, which 
 furnishes text books and reading books; the funds voted 
 by the Conseih Generaux or Municipalities; and lastly 
 gifts by individuals, subscriptions, etc. With only these 
 resources, it is not possible to make up a rich and varied 
 collection, nor to renew the books as often as is desirable, nor 
 to subscribe to reviews and periodicals which might refresh 
 and renew the life of the library. Notwithstanding these 
 unfavourable conditions> the number of school libraries 
 has increased five-fold in thirty years, and the number of 
 books and of loans ten-fold. In 1863 there were 8,356 
 libraries with 684,344 books; there are no statistics as to 
 loans in 1863, but in 1882 the number was 1,337,156. In 
 1902 there were 43,411 libraries with 6,978,503 books and 
 
586 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 8,082,936 loans. But we must not be deceived by these 
 figures. " If we take into account the large towns which 
 possess an average of more than 12 (school libraries), and 
 the smaller towns with 5 or 6 etc., then it follows that 
 there must be thousands of communes which are still with- 
 out them. Moreover, we must reckon that, though there 
 are only 36,000 communes in France, there are nearly 
 70,000 schools, which leaves nearly 30,000 without 
 libraries."'- The first popular libraries, unconnected with 
 the schools, date from 1834. Since 1862, the Franklin 
 Society, by serving as a centre of information and by 
 means of its moral and financial support, has con- 
 tributed very largely to the successful development 
 of these libraries. At the present time, some receive 
 a subsidy from Government, others are free and left 
 entirely to their own resources. In 1874, they num- 
 bered 773, with 838,032 books. In less than thirty 
 years these figures have increased more than three-fold. 
 In 1902 there were 2,911 libraries with 4,166,417 volumes, 
 without counting the 78 municipal libraries of Paris, the 
 richest of all. Mention should also be made of certain 
 technical and special libraries in the large towns. The 
 Fornay Library in Paris, for instance, which was founded 
 in 1886, possesses, besides a considerable number of works 
 relating to the industrial arts, 4,905 models and 63,700 
 engravings, photographs and drawings. Unfortunately, 
 this kind of library is still very little developed. Taking 
 them all together, the popular libraries, whether subsidised 
 or free, are all suffering from two main difiSculties : in- 
 sufficient funds make it impossible to buy books as often 
 and in as large numbers as is desirable ; and the relatively 
 high postal rates prevent the steirting of travelling 
 libraries which might do something to make up for the 
 scarcity of new books and of periodicals. 
 1. Ed. Petit, Rapport 1897-98. 
 
IN FRANCE 587 
 
 C. Lectures and Public Readings. 
 
 Side by side with tie class {cours), tut less academic in 
 character, is the lecture {conference). The idea, and even 
 the practice, goes back to the Revolution, but, together 
 with the political regime, they both disappeared for more 
 than half a century. Towards the close of the Empire, 
 certain literary and political people started informal 
 lectures (causeries) in one or two towns, and these, though 
 more eloquent than instructive, were nevertheless highly 
 successful. Following their example, the then Minister of 
 Public Instruction, Victor Duruy, encouraged the giving 
 of lectures by the regular teaching stafE of the schools. In 
 1863, the lectures numbered only 20, but in 1866 had 
 already increased to 1,003. In 1894-5 there were 10,379, 
 and in 1903-4 as many as 110,842 with an audience of 
 3,000,000. This rapid success is explained in part by the 
 use during the last ten years of lantern illustrations. In 
 1895, a central committee at the Ministry of Public 
 Instruction obtained the privilege of free postage for 
 the boxes of slides used in illustrating the lectures, on 
 condition that these became the property of the State. 
 This free carriage made the fortune of the system. The 
 Societe Nationale d,es Conferences Populaires and tTie 
 Societe Hdvraise d'Enseignement par I'aspect handed over 
 their collections of slides, which thus formed the first 
 nucleus of the large collection at the Musee Pedogogique 
 in Paris. Since that time the work has been carried on at 
 the Musee by officials specially appointed for the purpose. 
 Instead of the somewhat haphazard purchases of former 
 times, regular and methodical additions are made to the 
 collection, and the slides are properly classified and cata- 
 logued. The grant of some thousands of francs (6,000 
 in 1903) would seem to be sufficient for the current ex- 
 penses (replacing breakages and new acquisitions) of the 
 
588 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 415 existing series, the circulation of which has increased 
 from 8,859 in 1896-7 to 31,104 in 1903-4. Special men- 
 tion should he. made of the growing success of the lectures 
 given in barracks. But, notwithstanding all the progress 
 made, the work as a whole is far from being perfectly- 
 satisfactory. Where the sole responsibility for the lecture 
 rests with the local school teacher, there is some risk, not- 
 withstanding the formation of a central committee which 
 suggests subjects and appropriate books, of his bringing 
 with him into the lecture-room too much of the atmo- 
 sphere of the schoolroom; if, on the other hand, the 
 lecturer comes from outside and is not used to teaching, 
 the probability is that he will not know how to accommo- 
 date himself to his audience. Moreover, all sorts of lec- 
 tures, on different subjects, by different people, are too 
 desultory to be of much educational value. To remedy 
 these defects, the subjects should be arranged in courses, 
 and there should be organised, side by side with the school 
 teachers, a non-local body of lecturers, who do not 
 belong to the regular teaching profession. Sufficient 
 variety to meet the needs of different localities and 
 audiences should then be allowed in the lectures. 
 
 The public reading serves a purpose very similar to that 
 of the lecture. Although such readings have been given 
 ever since 1848, it is only quite recently that they have 
 been developed and have become general. Maurice 
 Boucher, the poet, conceived the idea of getting together 
 artizan families in Paris in order to read and explain to 
 them passages from, or the entire works of, our great 
 writers. These readings, in which one or more persons 
 take part, have had such a rapid success that permanent 
 societies of readers (men and women) have been estab- 
 lished. Tours are made in all parts of the provinces, 
 and the reading is gaining ground even in rural districts 
 
IN FRANCE 589 
 
 whicli liave hitherto been completely indifferent to litera- 
 ture. The same plan is carried out in hospitals for the 
 benefit of the patients; indeed the work, is advancing with 
 great strides. The most popular subjects are, for lec- 
 tures : geography and travels and contemporary history ; 
 for readings: Moliere, Victor Hugo, Edgar Quinet, 
 Miehelet and the modern novelists and dramatists. 
 
 D. Societies for the Education of the People. 
 
 It would not be right to speak of the classes and lectures 
 without giving credit to the various private societies for 
 the initiative they have taken in the work. But these 
 societies are so numerous and so various that, notwith- 
 standing the interest attaching to them, we must be con- 
 tent, within the limits of this article, to mention only the 
 most influential and the most exceptional amongst them. 
 Their history corresponds to that of other democratic insti- 
 tutions : founded at the beginning of the century, they 
 remained practically stationary until the end of the Second 
 Empire, occupying themselves, during this first half cen- 
 tury of their existence, in increasing facilities for 
 elementary instruction and in reducing the number 
 of illiterate persons. With the impetus given by 
 Victor Duruy, they entered upon a new path and 
 made it their aim to develop technical education; 
 and this tendency was encouraged by the education 
 laws of 1881-2. During the last few years, the 
 idea of social education seems to be slowly gaining 
 ground amongst them. The oldest of these societies ap- 
 pears to be the SociSte pour V Instruction Elementaire, 
 established by Lazare Carnot in 1815. At the time of its 
 foundation, it helped to introduce and spread the 
 Lancastrian system in France, to organise the teaching of 
 singing, of gymnastics, of geometrical drawing and of 
 
590 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 geography and national history. Since 1865, this society 
 has devoted itself chiefly to the education of young girls 
 of the poorer classes. In 1902-3, its various classes — 
 general, technical, art applied to industry, moderi] 
 languages — had an attendance of 4,000 girls. The 
 Association Poly technique is the child of the Revolution 
 of 1830. After the struggle, certain old students of the 
 Ecole Poly technique went to the temporary hospitals to 
 hold classes for their companions in the fight, the wounded 
 artizans. The growth of the work from these modest 
 beginnings is shown in the following figures : in 1835, 24 
 classes were held each week, in 1880 the number had in- 
 creased to 285, and in 1903 there were 850 classes compris- 
 ing 17,000 lessons and attended by 305,000 persons. By 
 means of fourteen affiliated societies, its work has been 
 spread into the provinces and a general union of poly- 
 technics is in course of formation. The Association 
 Philotechnique is only a branch of the preceding, estab- 
 lished as a separate society in 1848. At that time 
 it had 13 classes; in 1900 the number had increased 
 to 714, and in 1902 the attendance was 13,000. The 
 courses are for the most part technical or trade : 
 typography, dressmaking and millinery, cutting out 
 for tailors, the strength of materials, etc. It 
 organises educational lectures for its teachers, and 
 readings, visits to workshops and museums, excursions, 
 travelling scholarships (for the study of modern languages), 
 for its students. With its affiliated provincial societies it 
 has already realised the idea of a general union of philo- 
 technics. The Societe d'Enseigneinent Moderne is making 
 rapid progress. It consists of 54 sections with 726 classes 
 and 14,211 students. To it belongs the credit of starting 
 colonial sections, musical sections, sections for auto- 
 mobilism, a school of stenography, etc. The Union 
 
IN FRANCE 591 
 
 Frangaise de la Jeunesse is responsible for 479 classes with, 
 an attendance of 9,070, not to mention either lectures or 
 visits to manufactories. It has started a shooting section 
 and classes in hygiene and first-aid. The building section 
 is attended by artizans. The Association Philomaihique 
 has 480 classes with 7,500 students. It has opened a 
 school for naval engineers, and has organised agricultural 
 and horticultural classes in government barracks in Paris ; 
 it has started a bureau to give free legal advice, 
 and three free hospitals. But it is difficult to find space to 
 mention even the most interesting of these organisations, 
 which rival one another in good works of all kinds. 
 Amongst those of a special character mention should 
 be made of the Societe AcadeTrdque de ComptabilitS 
 with its three centres — Paris, Marseilles and 
 Valenciennes — and its 59 "faculties," containing nearly 
 3,000 pupils. The Societe Nationals pour la Propagation 
 des Langues Etrangeres has 47 classes, with 2,000 regular 
 students and 3,000 others in more or less regular at- 
 tendance; it organises international correspondence, 
 conversation classes and travelling scholarships. The 
 Union Democratique pour VEducation Sociale arranges 
 lectures and concerts in hospitals; the Societe populaire 
 des Beaux Arts provides the schools which belong to it 
 with engravings and with negatives for lantern illustra- 
 tions of the history of art. The Societe pour VEducation 
 Sociale " has for its object to bring about a better under- 
 standing, both as regards education and future employ- 
 ment, between the school and the various organisations 
 for after-school education, and the workingmen's syndi- 
 cats." 1 The Bourbouze Laboratories are open on 
 Sunday mornings to apprentices and artizans, etc., etc. 
 The Association des Instituteurs pour VEducation et le 
 
 1. Ed. Petit, Eapport 1902-3. 
 
592 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Patronage de la Jeunesse deserves special notice,, with its 
 15,133 members, 12,036 of whom are scholars. It has 
 started shooting galleries and shooting competitions; but 
 its chief claim to attention is its work in connection with 
 children's country holidays (1,382 boys and girls were 
 sent to the sea-side in 1902) and with the placing out 
 of apprentices. 
 
 All the foregoing refers to Paris alone. The provinces, 
 besides the branches affiliated to the central societies, 
 boast nearly 700 different societies of their own. Some 
 of these are older than those of Paris. The Societe libre 
 d' Emulation du Commerce et de I'Industrie de la Seine 
 Inferieure traces its origin back to the last years of the 
 18th century, and from the 18th century also dates the 
 Philomathique de Bordeaux, which, not content with the 
 4,000 students in its technical classes, took the initiative 
 in the foundation of the Ecole Swperieure de Commerce et 
 d'lndustrie in 1874. The Societe d'Enseigneinent fro- 
 fessionnel du Rhone, which has grown steadily since its 
 foundation, had 156 classes and 7,162 regular students in 
 1902. It has 32 sewing and dressmaking classes, classes 
 in Esperanto, etc. Amiens and Rouen are especially 
 active. Only six departments, four of which are in the 
 Massif Central, are quite without any sort of educational 
 society. It is not possible to close this list, which must 
 in any case of necessity be far from complete, without 
 pointing out the important part which has been played in 
 the midst of all this rivalry in good works by the Ligue 
 de I'Enseignement. Founded in 1866, in imitation of a 
 Belgian Society, by a man whose name will never be for- 
 gotten by the French democracy, Jean Mace, it has now 
 celebrated the three thousandth addition to its list of 
 affiliated branches, the number of which has risen 
 to 8,050. It is responsible for the distribution of 
 
IN FRANCE 593 
 
 1,869 series of slides, e.g., 43,725 slides and 51,365 loans 
 from October, 1902, to the end of March, 1903. It 
 organises both lectures and clubs for soldiers [Foyers du 
 Soldat, temperance cafes, etc.). A recently formed sec- 
 tion deals exclusively with questions relating to female 
 patronage societies — their establishment, growth, etc. 
 But, in the opinion of the writer, the great merit of the 
 league is that for the last twenty years or more — since 
 1881 — it has organised annual congresses which, besides 
 giving encouragement to its own active members, have 
 directed public attention to important and essential 
 qxiestions of public instruction and social education, and 
 have thus led to further investigation and to a 
 continuous improvement in that after-school education 
 which is the indispensable complement of the primary 
 school. Another service which it has rendered to the 
 cause of popular education is that of having proclaimed 
 with the double authority which it derives .from the 
 number and permanence of its institutions, and from the 
 political character of one of its Directors, M. Leon 
 Bourgeois (formerly Minister of Public Instruction and 
 President of the Chamber of Deputies) the fundamental 
 principle tinderlying all these democratic undertakings, 
 the principle of solidarity which, together with the modern 
 idea of justice, must constitute the basis of the society of 
 the future. 
 
 To ensure the future prosperity of these various organisa- 
 tions several reforms seem desirable. Although they are 
 generally prosperous ^ their number is increasing too fast 
 for strength and permanence. They need to draw together 
 and to strengthen their present position, in a word, to con- 
 
 1. Many of these societies have an annual income of, 25,000 to 
 30,000 frs., while some reach 50,000, or even 100,000 frs. The Ligue de 
 VEnseignement, without counting its provincial branches, has an income 
 of three and a half million francs. 
 
594 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 centrate their forces. Moreover, their future development 
 will depend largely upon the welcome which they are pre- 
 pared to give to modern ideas of social reconstruction, and 
 upon their attitude towards the belief that it is education 
 rather than instruction that the people need ; also upon the 
 part which they are prepared to allow the artizans them- 
 selves to take, through their organisations, in the work of 
 technical education. Whatever the future may be — and it 
 rests partly in their own hands to determine it — the past 
 must command our admiration. During the last hundred 
 years over 2,000^ societies have come into existence, and 
 liave covered France with their ramifications, extending 
 everywhere and contriving to adapt themselves to divers 
 local needs, with a constantly increasing volume of effort 
 and a corresponding subdivision of work. Much remains 
 to be done, the work is neither complete nor perfect, but 
 the present seems to guarantee a future, and, however that 
 may be, the figures quoted above may serve to give some 
 idea of a great but unassuming work of which Prance has 
 a right to be proud. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of classes and lectures, two 
 failures should be noted. The first is that of the free 
 classes opened at the Hotel de Ville by the Municipality of 
 Paris in 1889. The aim was to give higher primary in- 
 struction, the subjects being history, anthropology and 
 biology. A small number of students, about a hundred, 
 responded to the appeal, but they were all clerks or 
 teachers, not artizans. After ten years of miserable exist- 
 ence, political events — the nomination in 1900 of a muni- 
 cipal council which was nationalist and unfavourable to 
 the idea — gave them the final blow. It does not seem 
 likely that under any circumstances they would have had 
 any great success. The other failure, more definite and 
 
 1. The number in 1903-4 was 2,228. 
 
IN FRANCE 595 
 
 complete, is that of the University Extension movement. 
 Both the name and the system came from England. 
 Plants and animals, when transplanted into new 
 surroundings, have to adapt themselves to the fresh 
 conditions and modify themselves according to new 
 needs, but it was thought possible to transplant a 
 foreign institution into France just as it stood, without 
 any change. The result was a foregone conclusion and 
 was not long in coming. The French Universities, created 
 by the Act of July 10th, 1896, did not begin to 
 take up University Extension work until 1898 and 
 1899. This was just the time of the foundation of 
 the first University Populaires which grew rapidly 
 during 1899 and 1900. This second movement, which 
 owed its origin to political events, entirely killed whatever 
 timid and isolated attempts were made in the direction of 
 University Extension. 
 
 E. School Scuvings Banks, Muttudite Scolaire, Patronage 
 Societies, Petites A. 
 
 The organisations of which we have hitherto been speak- 
 ing, although not always purely scholastic in character, 
 agree, nevertheless, in giving to instruction, properly so- 
 called, an exclusive or at least a preponderating place in 
 their programmes. Those with which we are now about 
 to deal can only be regarded as complementary to the 
 school if we attribute to the latter a wider role than that 
 of the mere dispenser of learning, and regard it as part of 
 the larger social life of the nation and its work as a pre- 
 paration for that life. It is on these grounds that it 
 seems desirable to include here some mention -of the 
 various efforts made to encourage thrift, mutual aid 
 (mutualite) and association. 
 
 England was the first country to start school savings 
 
596 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 banks. In France the movement grew slowly during the 
 19th century, and it is only during the last thirty years 
 that it has made any real progress. The highest point was 
 reached in 1887, when the number of banks had risen to 
 22,642, with 483,727 depositors and 12,773,879 francs 
 deposited. Since then the number has begun to decrease, 
 and they seem to be giving way to an institution of a 
 broader character — School Mutual Societies (MutualitS 
 scolaire). In 1881, M. Cave, one of the judges of the com- 
 mercial court of the Seine, founded a bank, in the XlXth 
 arrondissement of Paris, into which each child paid a 
 weekly sum of 10 centimes. The 5 francs 20 centimes thus 
 subscribed yearly vas to go towards furnishing help in 
 case of illness and, a provision for old age. The society 
 prospered and ten years later had a capital of 87,000 francs. 
 A few others were started in im.itation of it, but the move- 
 ment as a whole made hardly any progress. A whole 
 campaign of lectures on the subject of mutual aid was 
 necessary before the nature of the work was really Under- 
 stood and the opposition disarmed. These mutual aid 
 societies, the "petites Cave" as they soon came 
 to be called, only numbered 10 in 1895-6, but by 
 1903-4 their number had risen to 3,991, with 620,000 
 members and nearly four million francs of deposits. 
 Various systems are in use amongst them : some have 
 separate accounts for each laember and give simply an 
 old-age pension; some combine the system of separate 
 accounts with a common fund; others have simply a 
 common fund, and keep the two sides of their work (mutual 
 aid and old-age pensions) entirely separate. ; Some of these 
 societies are already federated by departments, but a 
 National Federation is still only a dream. There is great 
 need for such societies amongst young girls who have just 
 left the primary school, but so far, though they are 
 
IN FRAlsTCE 597 
 
 spoken of, none have actually been established. On the 
 other hand the State children {enfants assistes) are 
 beginning to join the Petites Cave. Mutual societies 
 amongst apprentices and amongst soldiers are also things 
 of the future. Indeed, though some progress has been 
 made and results achieved, the idea, in spite of all en- 
 deavours to spread it, makes way slowly ajid with 
 difficulty. Notwithstanding this, the movement has 
 assumed various and interesting forms in different parts 
 of the country. In the Vosges and the Jura the societies 
 undertake re-foresting. " During 1900, -fifty Petites Cave 
 in the Jura planted nearly 200,000 forest trees 
 and have brought a vast extent of country 
 under cultivation." ^ This example has been followed in 
 the Departments of Ain, Doubs and Ardeche. The Society 
 of Fontenay le Comte, and the great school mutual 
 society of La Lande (with its 13,139 members, of whom 
 two-thirds are girls) give dowries to their members, and 
 the former also makes provision for orphans. With the 
 same objects in view, relief funds are organised, and 
 reductions of premium in the case of large families are 
 allowed. In Indre, finding employment for members is 
 undertaken as well as mutual aid. 
 
 It is easy to describe the working of the various mutual 
 societies, but the definition of "patronage" is singularly 
 difficult. The word itself has been borrowed from the 
 sphere of Catholic activity — for the Catholics were not only 
 the first in the field but are still in the forefront of the 
 movement.^ The word is not well-chosen, as it over 
 emphasises the idea of guidance being forced upon young 
 people by their elders. Moreover, the same word is 
 used to describe organisations which differ very much 
 
 1. Ed. Petit, Eapport 1902-3. 
 
 2. See pp. 628—32. 
 
598 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 one from another. It may safely be said, how- 
 ever, that one feature common to all is the gathering 
 together, either hy people who do not belong to 
 the school or by members of the teaching staff, of 
 youths or girls of from thirteen to twenty years of age, 
 or older, with a view to providing them with healthy re- 
 creation while at the same time developing a co-operative 
 spirit amongst them. Sometimes classes for music, sing- 
 ing, etc., which are partly recreative in character, are added. 
 To be complete, a patronage society ought to be divided 
 into classes for the care of little children and associations 
 of young apprentices. This division is not always made, 
 and difficulties are consequently felt on both sides. 
 The Association des Instituteurs four VEducation et le 
 Patronage de la Jeunesse has concerned itself specially 
 with patronage societies. In 1899 it had started twenty-one, 
 with 3,000 pupils and, through its affiliated societies, was 
 exerting its influence over as many as 9,000 persons. It 
 organises classes for physical development, gymnastics, 
 swimming, shooting, and has started children's country 
 holidays, partly free, partly paying. Some patronage 
 societies in Paris and Bordeaux have already joined 
 together to form a central federation. But the most 
 active and prosperous part of the movement is that which 
 concerns itself with work amongst girls; and it is also 
 here, as we shall see, that the task to be accomplished is 
 greatest and that Catholic efforts are also most extensive. 
 Through the initiative of a ladies' committee of 
 the Ligue de VEnseigne-ment and of a recently formed 
 association. La Cooperation fenninine (founded 1900), 
 several new societies for girls have been started both in 
 Paris and in the provinces. There is as much variety 
 amongst them as amongst the corresponding patronage 
 societies for boys, but, as a whole, they differ from the 
 
IN FRANCE 599 
 
 latter ch.iefly in being more given to insurance for various 
 objects, sucb as providing clothes for the poor and 
 help in case of illness. Amongst societies of this 
 kind one of the most original is the (Ewvre du Trousseau 
 which was founded in Paris in 1899, and has spread 
 rapidly in the provinces. It supplies to its members, 
 after they have been at work a few years, 72 articles of 
 underclothing for quite a small sum — 30 to 50 francs. These 
 girls' patronage societies also arrange classes in hygiene, 
 including in one instance at least (Auhermlliers) training 
 in the care of children and housewifery for girls who have 
 to look after their little brothers and sisters, and in 
 cooking; they also provide country holidays for some of 
 their members. Many exert themselves to find places 
 for the girls. Others try to interest the parents of the 
 school children, both while the latter are at school and 
 afterwards, by means of entertainments of various kinds. 
 The Cercle des Parents at E.heims is an example of this 
 kind. In short, a very wide field of activity is open 
 to these societies. Patronage is work which calls for 
 constant care and personal devotion and example, and 
 depends less for its success on the good-will of school 
 masters and mistresses than on efficient help from outside ; 
 yet, it is just this outside, help which is so often wanting. 
 The growth of the movement (in 1896, 437 societies, 34 
 in Paris and 403 in the provinces; in 1903^, 2,125), which 
 is due in part to the new societies for girls, must not 
 make us blind to the true state of the case : the grants 
 in aid are scanty;^ work carried on exclusively by 
 the efforts of school teachers lacks both the breadth 
 and the social character which are necessary to true 
 
 1. The grants in aid amounted in 1899-1900 to less than 100,000 francs 
 in Paris for 15,931 members ; to half that amomit at Lyons and Bordeaux 
 for 7,255 and 5,326 members respectively; and at Lille, for 10,889 mem- 
 bers, to less than 20,000 francs. 
 
600 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 success; and, finally, the development of the movement 
 is slow and lags far behind the urgent needs of the 
 situation. 
 
 School mutual societies are associations amongst children 
 attending the primary schools, membership of which 
 is often continued even after they leave school; 
 patronage societies are arranged by others for the 
 benefit of the young people; the Petites A, as they 
 are called, or associations of former pupils of the primary 
 schools, are started by the young people themselves 
 for themselves. The idea of connecting the Petites A 
 with the schools came from the lycees and colleges, but 
 except for a few scholarships and prizes these middle-class 
 societies do not trouble themselves with anything beyond 
 social meetings. The old scholars of the Ecoles Normales 
 Primaires (for men teachers), and those of the Ecoles 
 Primaires Superieures, had formed themselves into^ associa- 
 tions about 1880. Although started later, the Petites A 
 have shown more capacity for growth and greater activity ; 
 622 in 1895-6, their number had grown in 1903-4 to 
 6,252, the boys' societies being about twice as numerous as 
 those for girls. The tendency is to organise according to 
 communes, cantons and departments, and by this means 
 the influence of the societies is increased. The Federation 
 of Haute-Garonne opened, in 1902-3, a free competition 
 in art and industry. Those of Saone et Loire and of 
 the town of E-heims endeavour to secure employment for 
 their members. Everywhere they encourage and help 
 forward the work of the school. Their aim is to co-operate 
 with the similar societies of the lycees and colleges in 
 order to secure that a better qualified and larger propor- 
 tion of their members shall pass on to the secondary schools. 
 They have in view one vast national federation uniting 
 the district federations. Their funds are provided by the 
 
IN FRANCE 6oi 
 
 members' subscriptions which are rarely under three francs 
 a year. Paris and Lille have each an income of about 
 200,000 francs, the former with 35,886 members, the latter 
 with 60,604; Toulouse, Poitiers, Bordeaux and Caen had 
 each more than 15,000 members in 1899-1900. "With 
 these funds the Petites A arrange classes — principally 
 in art and physical training, but sometimes also in book- 
 keeping, modem languages, domestic economy, house- 
 wifery and the care of infants — and also amusements and 
 various organisations for mutual help. Besides en- 
 couraging games in the open air (skittles, football, etc.), 
 country rambles and excursions, every Petite A likes to 
 give dramatic entertainments, and the members are first 
 the scene-painters and then the actors in the piece to be 
 represented. That there should sometimes be faults of 
 taste and a tendency to burlesque is not very surprising 
 amongst young people whose artistic faculty has been little 
 developed either by the primary school or the workshop. 
 But the performances appeal to the younger members and 
 to parents, and are a means of drawing closer 
 the bonds of good fellowship. The younger mem- 
 bers also benefit by the gifts of books and pictures, 
 the school restaurants, the scholarships, the placing out in 
 situations (though this branch of the work needs develop- 
 ing), the patronage societies and country holidays. For 
 the older members the societies provide help when the time 
 comes for compulsory military service; help toward rent; 
 help in time of illness and when out of work. All share 
 in the mutual societies. Some of the Petites A 
 are beginning to carry out the co-operative idea, and we 
 find examples of this in the co-operative agricultural works 
 to be seen in various parts of France, in the transformation 
 of swamps into allotment gardens at Saint Maurice 
 (Somme), in the reforesting work in the Jura and in the 
 
602 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 co-operative bakery which has been started at Lorient. 
 Before leaving the subject of Petites A, we must notice 
 the part taken by the girls' associations. The Thursday 
 and Sunday meetings, which are a kind of embryo 
 Petite A for girls, are the occasion not only for music, 
 games and dancing, but for cutting out, sewing and cook- 
 ing. " In more than a hundred Petites- A for girls, in 
 Paris, Havre, Draguignan, Agen, Yalenciennes, Cette, 
 Aubervilliers, it has become the custom for the elder girls 
 to make dresses for those of the new comers who are in 
 poor circumstances."^ By means of this threefold influence 
 of the class, of recreation and of mutual aid, a new 
 democracy, conscious of itself and of its powers, is gradu- 
 ally being formed. True, it still lacks many necessary 
 qualities, and the work is open to many criticisms of 
 detail, but it is alive, and in many directions its future is 
 rich in possibilities. 
 
 Hitherto, we have spoken only of associations connected 
 more or less directly with the school and always, or nearly 
 always, showing the influence of the school teacher. We 
 now come to independent and autonomous institutions — 
 the People's Universities {JJniver sites Populcdres). 
 
 r. The Universites Pofulaires? 
 
 None of the preceding organisations have had such a 
 rapid growth followed by such a sudden check as 
 
 1. Ed. Petit, Rapport 1897-8. 
 
 2. It seems to be impossible, at the present time, to collect full in- 
 formation concerning all the U.P. in France, and for the following 
 reasons : many of them had not, by the end of 1903, sent information 
 concerning their work to the Secretary of the Federation of U.P. and 
 many of them are not mentioned in the pamphlets given in the list of 
 authorities at the end of this article. The latter take us down to the 
 end of the first six months of 1901, but a number of U.P. have been 
 founded since that time, and those which were then in existence are 
 bound, by the very fact of their continuance, to have undergone some 
 change and modification. The only means of following the later develop- 
 ment of the movement are the notices which appear in the Coofiration 
 des Idies, the monthly magazine of the U.P. of the same name (Paris, 
 
IN FRANCE 603 
 
 the Universites Populaires; none perhaps have owed 
 their origin to a more sincere enthusiasm and none 
 have been exposed to more searching criticism 
 or have suffered a more rapid discouragement. Yet, 
 during the last four or five years the Universites 
 Populaires (U.P. as they are commonly called) have 
 spread into all parts of France and, notwithstanding 
 the crisis through which the movement is now pass- 
 ing, a very large number of them are sure to live and 
 to continue their work. It seems desirable, therefore, 
 to explain in some detail the origin and development of 
 these institutions, to point out in what respects they differ 
 from one another, what results have already been accom- 
 plished, what are their weaknesses and what their legiti- 
 mate hopes. 
 
 Unfortunately, it is not an easy task, nor even perhaps 
 a possible one, to give any general idea of the U.P. 
 as a whole. We must distinguish, in the first place, 
 between Paris and the provinces, not for the sake of a 
 mere arbitrary classification, but because of the very 
 nature of the case. Indeed, the U.P. of Paris and of 
 the provinces have such different characteristics, there is 
 such a wide, divergence between them, that we should 
 almost be justified in placing them in entirely separate 
 
 Xllth arr:) and the information which is occasionally published by 
 the Association Ouvriere, a. weekly journal. The Bulletin des V.P., the 
 organ of the U.P. Society, has ceased to appear. Moreover it must be 
 remembered that, in the case of organisations for social education, still 
 more than in the case of teaching societies, it is not only, or even chiefly, 
 the details of organisation that matter, or the working of the different 
 parts of the machine, but the spirit of the members and the influence of 
 the group. On this account it will always be difiicult to get together 
 accurate information as to the part played by the U.P., nothing being 
 so diflScult to measure or estimate exactly as the influence and bearing 
 of social work. 
 
 For the purposes of this article inquiries have been made and informa- 
 tion received concerning about half the U.P. of Paris and the suburbs, 
 and two-thirds of those in the provinces. 
 
604 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 categories. Those of the suburbs of Paris, again, 
 have features peculiar to themselves, and cannot 
 properly be classified either with those of Paris, from 
 which they are differentiated by their environment and 
 the conditions of their existence, or with those of the 
 provinces, although perhaps they resemble the latter more 
 nearly than the former. They form a sort of connecting 
 link between the two main classes. Moreover, besides 
 these main divisions, there are smaller differences, caused 
 by environment, which must be taken into account. In 
 Paris itself, the character of the several arrondissements 
 varies very much : those of the centre (1st and Ilnd) 
 are inhabited mainly by tradespeople and their em- 
 ployees; those of the circumference, at the south and 
 east (Xlllth, XlVth, XVth, XVIIIth, XlXth, XXth) 
 by artizans; at the west (Vllth and XVIth, Passy, 
 Auteuil) by the aristocracy. These different elements can- 
 not fail to have their influence on the nature and 
 development of the U.P. But it is in the provinces 
 that such influences make themselves chiefly felt : there 
 the great natural features of the country, the nature of 
 the industries, commerce or agriculture of each district, 
 the aptitudes and needs of the people, are so many 
 factors making for a fundamental differentiation accord- 
 ing to local groups. It is not possible to disengage 
 from all this variety either one uniform type of U.P. for 
 the whole of Prance, or even a number of representative 
 types; nor is there space to include mention of all 
 the U.P., from the small associations in hamlets of 
 200 souls to the large societies in towns of several hundred 
 thousand inhabitants. All that can be done is to point 
 out certain characteristics common to them all, and to 
 describe in detail a certain number of institutions which 
 are particularly interesting either on account of the 
 
IN FRANCE 605 
 
 vitality or the originality of tlieir work. But even 
 STicli a choice presents difficulties; for it must be evident 
 to anyone who considers the subject that there may be 
 U.P. whose field of work seems limited and which do 
 not attract public attention by any specially interesting 
 organisations, but which m.ay be doing more active and 
 important work than some other institutions larger and 
 more powerful, perhaps, but animated by a less enthusi- 
 astic spirit and lacking the same clear perception of their 
 particular tasks. We must always bear in mind that the 
 work of the smaller and more obscure societies is as 
 necessary to the well-being of the whole as that of the 
 larger and better known organisations. 
 
 What is a Universite Populaire? The following is 
 the official definition, authorised by the Secretary 
 of the Society of TJ.P. in his report of Feb. 28th, 1900 : 
 "It is a secular association which has for its object the 
 development of the higher education of the people, which 
 seeks to further the mutual education of citizens of every 
 condition, which provides places of meeting to which the 
 worker can come when his day's task is ended, to learn, to 
 rest and to amuse himself." ^ The U.P. were nearly all 
 founded during the years 1899 and 1900. Some few are of 
 earlier date, but, though the objects of these earlier in- 
 stitutions were practically the same, they were called by 
 other names. Thus we find that in Paris, as early as 1884, 
 1886 and 1891, there' were lectures and study-clubs 
 which may be regarded as the first beginnings of the 
 movement. But, leaving these on one side, the real 
 veterans amongst the Paris TJ.P. would seem to be 
 the artizans' societies of Montreuil-sousrBois (in the 
 suburbs), started in November, 1895, by a cabinet. maker, 
 Emile .Mereaux, and developed into a U.P. in July, 1898; 
 
 1. Bulletin des U.P., No. 1, p. 6. 
 
6o6 
 
 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 and the. Cooperation des Idees, which was started by 
 G. Deherme, a man who took perhaps a more active part 
 than any other single individual in the movement for the 
 foundation of U.P. As early as 1886, he had begun to 
 organise social meetings for the people, and in 1894 he 
 founded a newspaper, the Cooperation des Idees (converted 
 into a monthly review in 1896), and in 1898 gave the same 
 name to the U.P. which was opened in the Faubourg St. 
 Antoine on May 1st of that year. Certain other of the Paris 
 institutions go back as far as 1897 (e.g. VEnseignement 
 Mutuel, XVIIIth arrondissement) or to the first few 
 months of 1899 (e.g. V Emancipation, XVth arrondissement, 
 and the Fondation Universitaire de Belleville) and certain 
 provincial U.P. (Beauvais, Montpellier, Rennes) to 1898, 
 but there are quite a large number which have only come 
 into existence since 1900. The growth of the movement 
 since the latter date is shown in the following table : — 
 
 Date. 
 
 Number of U.P.'s in 
 Paris. Suburbs of Paris. Provinces. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1900 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 
 12 
 21 
 24 
 24 
 
 6 
 16 
 19 
 19 
 
 21 
 56 
 75 
 95 
 
 39 
 93 
 118 
 138 
 
 In February, 1900, a U.P. Society was formed with 
 the title of Societi pour VEnseignement superieur popu- 
 laire et VEducation jnutuelle, and a Bulletin was started. 
 There is also a Federation of U.P., which contains about 
 forty Paris societies and hopes to gain the support of those 
 in the provinces. The first Congress of U.P. was held in 
 Paris on May 22nd, 1904. 
 
 The Paris U.P. 
 
 In Paris the initiative in the matter of the foundation 
 of U.P. came in some cases from, members of the Uni- 
 versity, professors and students, in others from working- 
 
IN FRANCE 607 
 
 men and workingmen's syndicats. Examples of tte 
 first are tlie Union Mouffetard, Ytli arr., tlie Solidarite, 
 Xllltli arr., and the Fondation Universitaire de Belle- 
 ville, XlXtli arr. ; examples of tlie second are to be found 
 in the Xllth and XVIIth to XXth arrondissements and 
 in some of the suburbs. The. funds are derived from 
 the members' subscriptions, which are fixed at from 
 50 to 75 centimes a month, or from 6 to 9 francs a 
 year, and from donations. But renis are so high in 
 Paris that the subscriptions have never covered expenses, 
 and it is only through the generosity of a few bene- 
 factors that is has been possible to carry on the work. 
 Donations are becoming fewer and smaller year by 
 year; subscriptions do not increase though the expenses 
 remain about the same, and the consequent financial 
 difficulties make the situation of the Paris U.P. a 
 very critical one. Those of the suburbs suffer from 
 the same difficulty, but in a lesser degree. The U.P. 
 of the Faubourg St. Antoine is almost the only one 
 - — if not the only one — which can show a satisfactory 
 balance-sheet with some thousands of francs in hand (5,067 
 francs on February 1st, 1904). Some have sought 
 a way out of the difficulty in the establishment of a 
 bar (Belleville) or a refreshment room (Nanterre), or a 
 co-operative restaurant (Emanci'pation, XVth arr.). 
 Both from the point of view of raising money and of 
 social education these attempts are much more hopeful 
 than the usual ineans adopted to remedy the evil, viz., 
 increasing the ainount of subscriptions, collections, 
 extra payment- f6r seats at entertainments, etc. But 
 even so, the Universite Populaire ■ of Paris and the 
 suburbs is struggling against financial difficulties for 
 which the remedies hitherto proposed seem quite in- 
 adeqiiate. If the institution is to be a permanent one. 
 
6o8 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 some stronger measures will have to be adopted: 
 either it m.ust itself start a co-operative society or 
 must he. directly connected with one already in ex- 
 istence. This last plan has already been tried in 
 some instances. Thus the Fraternelle (U.P. of the Ilird 
 arr.) shares its premises with a co-operative society and 
 various syndicats and political organisations; the TJ.P. 
 of the XlVth arr. shares in the same way with the Engi- 
 neers' Syndicat; the Foyer de la Menagere at BatignoUes 
 (XVIIIth arr.), and the Semailles at Belleville (XlXth 
 arr.), are housed by co-operative societies, and others in 
 the suburbs have followed their example. 
 
 Most of the U.P., both in Paris and the provinces, 
 have organised classes, lectures, dramatic performances, 
 concerts, excursions, rambles — in fact, various institu- 
 tions for mutual improvement and recreation. 
 
 Classes, properly so-called, are not common in Paris. 
 The most numerous are those in modern languages — 
 principally English — in hygiene, including hygiene and 
 cookery under the direction of a doctor at the Solidarite 
 (Xlllth arr.), and hygiene for women and the care 
 of children — taken by ladies — at the Education Sociale 
 at Montmartre (XVIIIth arr.) ; in music and various 
 accomplishments, including at the Cooperation des Idees, 
 the mother university of the Eaubourg St. Antoine, 
 violin, piano, singing and mandolin, dramatic diction 
 and declamation, drawing and modelling, and at the 
 Maison Comrrmne (XlXth arr.), drawing and needlework 
 for girls and women and recitation for men. There are 
 also well attended classes in photography. Sometimes a 
 laboratory is attached to a class as at the Cooperation des 
 Idees (Xllth arr.). Fencing is regularly taught at 
 the Cooperation des Idees and at the Fondation 
 Universitaire de Belleville. But, taken altogether. 
 
IN FRANCE 609 
 
 these attempts are not numerous, the class does not 
 seem able to attract a regular body of students, 
 and it is often found necessary to turn it into a lecture. 
 It should be noted that, in spite of their connection with 
 working men's organisations — syndicats aiui co-operative 
 societies — ^the Paris U.P. have not yet organised any 
 technical classes, and do not seem favourably inclined 
 towards this branch of teaching. The only exception 
 seems to be the classes in cutting-out at the U.P. of Pre 
 St. Gervais in the suburbs. 
 
 Groupes d'etudes and lectures are more successful than 
 regular classes. Groupes d'etudes, or series of lectures on 
 the same subject, are most often found in those U.P. where 
 the influence of the teaching profession is strongest, as at 
 the Union Mouffetard, the Solidarite and the Fondation 
 Universitaire de Belleville. The Union Mouffetard, which 
 owed its origin to the joint action of the pupils of the 
 Ecole Normale Superieure and a temperance society, 
 retains to a marked degree its original university char- 
 acter. The teaching is methodical and regular; lectures 
 are held there every evening on some special subject con- 
 nected with physical or natural science, literature, history 
 and the history of art, philosophy, or some economic or 
 trade question; its library consisted in 1901 of 2,500 
 volumes in addition to periodicals and newspapers. The 
 Solidarite, which arose from a connection between 
 the professors of the Sorbonne and certain artizans, 
 offers very much the same subjects, with the addition of 
 geography. The Fondation Universitaire de Belleville 
 is unique in character. It was started in imitation of the 
 English University Settlements, and at first adopted 
 the plan of residents who lived at the university and 
 undertook the general supervision of its work. But after a 
 trial of two years the plan was given up, as the practical 
 
 2 N 
 
6io CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 utility of residents, whose only "business consisted in help- 
 ing at lectures, etc., was considered doubtful. But the 
 study circles, with lectures and discussions on a given 
 subject, like the Elizabethan and Shakespeare Societies of 
 Toynbee Hall, have been kept up, the most flourishing 
 being the Philosophy Circle. Indeed the tendency at this 
 university seems to be towards the study of intellectual 
 questions divorced from their practical applications. It is 
 U.P. of this sort, and particularly the last named, which 
 come nearest to the University Extension ideal. In other 
 quarters the lectures are often far from having this 
 coherence and sequence, neither lecturers, professors 
 nor students come to them with the same regularity 
 and the personnel of the audience changes oftener. Of 
 the lectures generally it may be said that they are rarely 
 held more than two or three times a week, that they attract 
 audiences of from 20 to 50, that they last from an hour to 
 an hour and a half (8-30 or 9 to 10 p.m.), and are either 
 single or in very short courses. In Paris the most popular 
 subjects are history, geography and travels, natural 
 history, literature and, to a certain extent, social ques- 
 tions, such as hygiene, law, and working-men's organisa- 
 tions in Prance, in Germ.any, in England and the United 
 States. The problems and difiB.culties of political and 
 social life also provide material for informal talks at which 
 the discussion is more within the reach of the audience. 
 The discussion of topics suggested by the lecturers is, it 
 must be owned, rare with these audiences, but, on the 
 other hand, it must be remembered that the whole tone of 
 the conference is less that of a solemn and prepared 
 lecture than of a familiar and intimate talk. Lectures on 
 art and music are popular, and lead straight from theory 
 to practice. How is it possible to lecture adequately od 
 
IN FRANCE 6ii 
 
 music or singing wittout giving illustrations of what is 
 described by means of songs and chamber music? These 
 in their turn give rise to fresh explanations, and 
 the first step is taken towards securing a series of 
 musical recitals at which classical music can be discreetly 
 introduced and may gradually achieve popularity. Thus 
 the lecture is yielding place to music ; not, however, to the 
 isolated and occasional concert, but to musical gather- 
 ings which have an influence on the social life of 
 the students. Again, how can lectures on architecture 
 and sculpture be enjoyed without illustration? Lectures 
 on the history of art must perforce make use of 
 lantern illustrations, but such illustrations, even when they 
 are good, w«ll chosen and well explained, can never take 
 the place of a sight of the masterpieces themselves. More- 
 over, Paris is exceptionally rich in examples of this form 
 of art. Not only are her museums and galleries very 
 ntxmerous, but the city itself is full of artists' studios 
 and of monuments of architecture and sculpture. The 
 Parisian public, too, seems to have a particularly keen 
 appreciation of these forms of art, and we should expect 
 therefore to find, as is actually the case, that expeditions 
 are organised to museums, churches, cemeteries, ancient 
 and modern buildings and statues. But artistic feeling 
 and taste are the outcome of a long education and must 
 depend on time for their development. A single expedi- 
 tion of this sort, even a series of such visits, unless accom- 
 panied by explanation and criticism, is of very little 
 use. What is wanted is a complete artistic educa- 
 tion. Various attempts, outside the U.P., have been 
 made in this direction. One of the most active associa- 
 tions is VArt 'pour Tons, which, though it started in a very 
 humble way, has now 2,000 members and receives a grant 
 of public money. It organises regular lectures in the 
 
6i2 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 museums of Paris and tlie neighbourliood, arranges popular 
 concerts, has special children's sections and possesses an 
 organ of its own, the Revue de I' Art pour Tons. But the 
 influence of art teaching would be very much limited if it 
 had to do only with the great masterpieces which are shut 
 up in museums. Art should not be outside our everyday 
 life, but should penetrate and colour it, and the object of 
 an artistic education should be not so much to awaken 
 appreciation of pictures and statues already known and 
 classified, as to develop a taste for the beautiful in the 
 smallest things of everyday life. Already a few U.P. 
 are exerting themselves to decorate their dull and bare 
 premises with reproductions of the masterpieces of 
 sculpture. But this is not enough : life should be 
 beautiful not only in places of public meeting but in every 
 detail which concerns the home and the individual. 
 
 In the same way the lecture may lead insensibly to the 
 theatre. In a talk on a great writer, the lecturer, like the 
 musical or artistic critic, naturally gives his audience 
 examples of the beauty of the passages or works 
 which he holds up for their admiration; reading aloud 
 becomes necessary, and finally it comes about that the 
 roles ar-e changed and the reading occupies the principal 
 place, while the lecture is confined to explanations of, or 
 comments on, the masterpieces read. Before the 
 Universites Pofulaires existed, the poet, Maurice Boucher, 
 had organised his Saturday evening popular readings, 
 readings whose success is not yet a thing of the past even 
 in Paris. The Universites Populaires of Paris have gone 
 a step further and have tried to improve upon the reading 
 in which several people take part and to organise regular 
 acting. The need for a people's theatre is very strongly 
 felt and various attempts have been made to start one. 
 Maurice Pottecher, with this end in view, became actor 
 
IN FRANCE 613 
 
 as well as author, and gave popular open-air representa- 
 tions of his plays first at Bussang, in the Yosges, to a very- 
 large audience of peasants, and afterwards in Paris in the 
 IT. P. The TI.P. of Paris are now trying, in face of 
 considerable obstacles, to meet this need. The princi- 
 pal difficulty is to get together a satisfactory com- 
 pany. Sometimes the U.P. have relied entirely upon 
 their own members, sometimes the help of professionals 
 has been called in. Both plans have disadvantages. In 
 the first case, the actors, being for the most part young 
 and inexperienced, are apt to be weak in technique, 
 and their acting tends to degenerate into burlesque. 
 The services of professionals, on the other hand, are 
 always difficult to obtain. With a view to meeting 
 this difficulty an attempt has been made to start 
 an amateur dramatic company, devoting itself to per- 
 formances in U.P., and the employment of the pupils 
 of the Conservatoire has also been tried with the same 
 object. Possibly there may have been other efforts, but 
 all are too recent to allow of any judgment as to their 
 success. Certainly, no final and perfectly satisfactory 
 plan seems as yet to have been found. But something 
 has been done : classical authors have been represented 
 (either read or acted), and have been enjoyed and 
 applauded; amongst modern writers social pieces, or 
 worts on social subjects, are almost the only ones 
 which have a chance of success. It is not possible to 
 forecast the effect which this choice may have upon 
 the public taste of the future, but to have provided rooms, 
 a public capable, of aesthetic enjoyment, and a homely 
 environment, is surely to have contributed something to- 
 wards the solution of the question of a people's theatre 
 which shall be something better than mere extravagant 
 melodrama. These dramatic and musical performances 
 
6i4 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 are usually held, the soirees ahout once a week, and the 
 matinees about once a month, aad constitute, to- 
 gether with the lectures and classes, a healthy form of 
 recreation, the good effects of which are felt hoth by those 
 who have the trouble of organising them and by the 
 general public. Other forms of social enjoyment are the 
 expeditions into the country, the rambles and open-air 
 excursions which are so much appreciated in Paris by 
 artizan families. These open-air entertainments are usu- 
 ally very successful, and are almost the only gatherings at 
 which the working-class element is represented in any 
 numbers. But it is not only through amusements that the 
 Paris TJ.P. contribute to the social education of the 
 people. Many of them have opened bureaus for giving 
 legal and medical advice which have done useful 
 work. Some have organised patronage societies for 
 children (Union Mouffetard) or meetings for women 
 (Education Sociale at Montmartre). The Cooperation 
 des Idees in the Faubourg St. Antoine, has succeeded 
 in buying a People's Palace in the midst of the 
 Bois de Boulogne, with a cheap restaurant and amuse- 
 ments, and the Education Sociale, at Montmartre, has 
 built comfortable and healthy workmen's dwellings. 
 Other plans have been proposed at various times for 
 forming a Benefit Society, for founding a Social Art 
 Museum, for starting a Union of Co-operative Societies, 
 etc. 
 
 Provincial U.P. 
 
 When we come to study the U.P. of the suburbs, we 
 are struck at once by certain essential differences which 
 distinguish them from those of Paris. The question of 
 premises which, as has been pointed out, is extremely 
 serious in Paris, is much less acute in the suburbs, where 
 
IN FRANCE 615 
 
 the Municipal Council is generally found willing to allow 
 the use of a hall or to give a small grant of money. 
 Working men, who are never seen in large numhers at 
 the Paris TJ.P., except on the occasion of some open-air 
 entertainment or excursion, take a much more active part 
 in the movement in the suburbs. Lastly, the proportion 
 in which the two elements of education and instruction 
 are combined in the two institutions differs to a consider- 
 able degree. These peculiarities, which are only slightly 
 noticeable in the suburbs of Paris, become very marked 
 indeed in the provinces. 
 
 In order to understand this it is necessary to realise 
 how different is the environment in Paris and in the 
 provinces. In Paris the. artizans find a crowd (the word 
 is not too strong) of societies and organisations ready to 
 employ all their spare activity. They are brought con- 
 stantly into close relationship with one another. Political 
 life, too, is perhaps more intense in the capital than in 
 the provinces.- Then, owing to the development of the 
 great shops, and the various branches of public adminis- 
 tration, the number of employees and clerks in Paris is 
 very great. But life in the provinces is quite different. 
 Both artizans and employees are less numerous and more 
 scattered than in Paris. Some towns have their suburbs 
 at long distances from one another and from the centre. 
 Meetings and amusements are rare. The bourgeois class, 
 less closely hemmed in than in Paris by masses of working 
 people, forms an important element in provincial society. 
 It is often bound by ties of friendship to the clergy, who 
 are very influential in the small provincial towns and 
 in some parts of the country. And thus a party is formed 
 which is unfavourable to some aspects of the new move- 
 ment for the emancipation of the worker, and more or less 
 openly hostile to parts of the theory of social progress for 
 
6l6 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 which that movement seeks expression. These difficulties, 
 which might at first sight be looked upon as an obstacle to 
 progress, have on the contrary, helped to consolidate the 
 work of the U.P. Criticism, above all unjust criticism, 
 has only proved its importance ; opposition has called forth 
 fresh energy ; danger has proved a certain guarantee that 
 those who started the work would persevere in it. It 
 is because they have had more diflaculties to contend 
 against at the outset, and have been longer in attaining 
 their full development, that the Universites Populaires of 
 the provinces are more firmly established than those of 
 Paris. Their history tells neither of brilliant beginnings 
 nor of prodigious growth, nor of premature decline; it is 
 rather a somewhat tame story of repeated effort and of 
 continuous struggle against difficulties, many of which 
 are the same now as in the past. Unlike the majority of 
 the Universites Populaires of Paris, the provincial U.P. 
 almost always owe their origin entirely to the initiative 
 of working men's syndicats or of individual working men. 
 Sometimes members of the University have helped in 
 the movement, and sometimes the two elements have 
 been mixed, the artizan class and the educated class 
 working together. Some U.P. in the departments of 
 Deux -Sevres and of Gard have been established 
 amongst peasants in villages situated in the depth of the 
 country. At Lyons women seem to have taken a promi- 
 nent part in the movement, and in the south generally the 
 Protestant ministers have had a share in the work. The 
 provincial U.P. is much more working-class than that 
 of Paris in its management, as well as in its origin, many 
 of the administrative councils including a large propor- 
 tion — sometimes as high as two-thirds — of working men. 
 Indeed, it might safely be said that in the provinces the 
 U.P. has been made by the working -people and looks to 
 
IN FRANCE 617 
 
 tliem for its support. The movement began in the pro- 
 vinces just about the same time as in Paris or perhaps 
 a little earlier. The Societe d'Economie Populaire, 
 which was a kind of TJ.P. before the institution actually 
 existed by name, was founded at Nimes by a co-operative 
 B'loiety (the Aheille Nimoise) as early as 1889. Gener- 
 ally speaking, however, the provincial U.P. were not 
 started until 1899 and 1900. Some societies, amongst 
 them those of Le Puy and Marseilles, have decided not 
 to form themselves definitely into U.P. until they have 
 gone through a probationary or experimental period. 
 Premises are nearly always provided by the Municipality, 
 or, at any rate, do not cost the TJ.P. anything. Being 
 thus free from what is the heaviest item of expense in 
 Paris, they are able to fix their subscriptions at a lower 
 rate. Three francs a year is the usual amount, but it is 
 sometimes as low as two francs or one franc, and in one 
 case the U.P. is entirely free. Taking the provincial 
 societies as a whole, it is true to say of them, as of those 
 of Paris, that their work falls into three main divisions — 
 •classes, lectures and various social-educational activities — 
 but these three constituent elements are combined in such 
 varying proportions, and the forms they take in the pro- 
 vinces are so new and diverse that it will be necessary to 
 enter into some detail concerning them. 
 
 One important function of the provincial U.P. is to 
 ■co-ordinate the various educational societies and work- 
 ing men's organisations of a neighbourhood, and thus, 
 by supplying a common centre of activity, to unite, and 
 by uniting to double the force of, scattered and isolated 
 efforts for the good of the people. Montpellier, Nimes, 
 Marseilles and Toulouse are all examples of this. If the 
 societies and the people do not come to the U.P., the latter 
 goes out of its way to find them. Sometimes, in a town 
 
6i8 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 such as Lyons which covers a large area, sectional branches 
 have been organised. As a rule, however, the different 
 parts of the town are visited turn by turn by the members 
 of the TJ.P., which thus forms a sort of central hearth, 
 sending out its light and warmth to a distance. At Tours, 
 which like Lyons covers a large area, a district committee 
 has been established in each working-class quarter of the 
 city. At Beziers the Bourse du Travail, the Town Hall, 
 the school and the theatre are all centres of work. 
 Bourges sends its lecturers not only into the schools of the 
 town but out into the surrounding country. From Mont- 
 pellier propagandists go out into the neighbouring villages, 
 and examples of this kind might be multiplied. These 
 local lectures sometimes deal with subjects of purely local 
 interest (for example, at Lorient fishing and navigation, 
 the making of cider) sometimes, though still perhaps 
 not so often as would seem desirable, they are given by the 
 working men themselves. Generally speaking, however, 
 lectures on social subjects seem to be preferred by working- 
 class audiences. The country TJ.P. of Gard, Herault 
 and Deux-Sevres have succeeded in gaining a footing 
 amongst agricultural labourers. But what is most 
 noticeable about the provincial audiences, as dis- 
 tinguished from those of Paris, is the number of women 
 and soldiers which they contain. In Paris both are 
 conspicuous by their absence, but in the provinces both 
 are present in large numbers. Women form an important 
 element of the audience at Lyons, Montpellier, Nancy and 
 Toulon; they are to be found in nearly all the TJ.P. of 
 Gard and of Herault (St. Pargoire, Anduze, St. Pons) ; 
 the members of the TJ.P. of Marsillargues are almost all 
 women. The Lyons TJ.P. owes its very origin and its 
 powerful organisation to a woman. These facts stand out 
 in still greater relief and their importance is still more 
 
IN FRANCE 619 
 
 emphasised when we rememher how limited and restricted 
 a woman's life (especially in the country) has been on the 
 intellectual and social side until quite recent times. Most 
 of the patronage societies and other Catholic institutions 
 are for the benefit of young girls and women and their 
 influence is not limited to women of the bourgeois class; 
 peasant women and artizans' wives have been so stamped 
 with the impress of traditional ideas, that the intellectual 
 and social enfranchisement of women in the provinces, 
 indeed in France itself, will be a long and arduous under- 
 taking, and the first indications of change which we have 
 noted in the provincial TJ.P. only mark the beginning 
 of a period of effort, of difficulty and of struggle. There 
 is a conflict between two social ideals. One is closely 
 connected with the influence of the clergy ; the other seeks 
 expression for new ideas of solidarity upon an ethical but 
 purely secular basis. The clash of these two social ideals 
 shows itself in work done for the benefit of those who are 
 serving under the colours. For many years numerous 
 well attended and flourishing Catholic clubs have existed 
 for the benefit of the soldiers and have been encouraged 
 by the military authorities. It will be a difficult task 
 to win over this clientele in face of the suspicion and ill- 
 will of the small garrison towns. But on all sides the 
 U.P. are already beginning to attract and win over the 
 young soldiers. Besan§on, Bourg and Toulouse have been 
 amongst the first in the field, and there is no doubt that 
 the movement will by degrees become stronger and more 
 general. Concentration on the one hand and expansion on 
 the other may be said to be the two watchwords of the 
 provincial TJ.P. ' 
 
 In their special institutions the provincial U.P. have 
 shown themselves no less original. A certain number have 
 started hygienic bars, and carry on a campaign against 
 
620 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 drunkenness by means of temperance cafes. Brest sells 
 beer, Firminy and Versailles bave establisbed bars on tbeir 
 premises. Lasalle. (Grard) has fitted up a temperance cafe. 
 Sauve (Gard) bas opened a refresbment room wbere 
 neitber gambling nor drinking are allowed, and bas 
 been tbe means of appreciably lowering tbe consumption 
 of alcobol in tbe commune in tbe course of a few years. 
 Several U.P. bave gardens of tbeir own witb games 
 and refresbments (Bar le Due, Montauban, etc.), and 
 in tbe soutb some bave succeeded in building Maisons 
 du Peuple wbicb are tbeir own property. Gallargues 
 (Gard) owns one of tbese, founded by a scboolmaster of 
 Nimes in October, 1899, and built at a cost of 26,000 francs. 
 Valleraugue (Gard) bas founded a Foyer du Pewple witb a 
 room for games, a reading room, and a room for tbe use of 
 villagers coming in to market. And it bas accomplisbed 
 tbis in spite of tbe attitude of the autborities wbicb sougbt 
 to levy a tax on tbe meetings as constituting a gaming 
 club, and in face of mucb opposition from tbe local cafe 
 keepers, to say notbing of tbe indifference of tbe muni- 
 cipality. Montpellier bas its " Mazet" of wbicb we sball 
 speak again later. 
 
 In addition to tbis general activity, tbe provincial U.P. 
 seeks to unite its members by means of recreation and 
 mutual societies. Vitry ,and Briaux-sur-Boutonne (Deux- 
 Sevres) organise sbooting practice; Marseillan (Herault) 
 gymnastic exercises; everywhere different forms of re- 
 creation are to be found. Musical associations are par- 
 ticularly flourishing in tbe provinces : choral societies are 
 being started everywhere — at Cbalons-sur-Marne, Epernay, 
 Firminy, Pennes, Beziers, etc. "Witb tbe help of local 
 poets, certain rural U.P. in Deux-Sevres bave given 
 theatrical performances in patois. At Obey (also in Deux- 
 Sevres) a woman bas taken the chief part in organising a 
 
IN FRANCE 621 
 
 mutual society for school children. Beauvais has founded 
 a patronage society for 100 boys and 100 girls, and Ver- 
 sailles has started a fund from which free loans are made. 
 But it would be dangerous to generalise from such 
 particulars concerning institutions which differ so 
 much from one another as the U.P. of provincial 
 France. A better idea of their work will be gained 
 from a more detailed description of a few of the 
 most important and characteristic amongst them. The 
 Societe Populaire of Bar le Due, which was founded in 
 January, 1900, numbered as many as 400 artizans' and 
 small employees' families among its members in 1901. The 
 yearly subscription is two francs. The town has con- 
 tributed 600 francs, one of the banks 500, a brewery 750, 
 and other gifts have come in to help the finances. The 
 town has also given over for the use of the society an 
 ancient almshouse for old men. According to its rules, the 
 administrative council must include seven artizan mem- 
 bers out of a total of eleven. Classes in German and 
 domestic economy (the latter for women and including 
 amongst the subjects taught, the care of children, food, 
 women and alcoholism, domestic hygiene, etc.) have at- 
 tracted from thirty to forty regular students. A weekly 
 lecture includes a short informal talk, reading and music. 
 A monthly Bulletin summarises the instruction given in 
 the classes. Every three months a gala night is arranged, 
 with the help either of local artists or of artists from a 
 distance — Nancy or Paris. There is a labour bureau, 
 which has plans for starting trade classes. Politics are so 
 rigidly excluded that the daily papers are not even allowed 
 in the reading-room. — The Lyons U.P. was started in 
 December, 1899, under the name of Societe d'En- 
 seignement Superieur Libre. It was founded by the 
 Directress of the Girls' Lycee, with the idea of bringing 
 
622 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 together the various philanthropic agencies already exist- 
 ing in the city, and inducing them to organise fewer 
 entertainments and a large number of serious classes. 
 Her object was not only to teach the working-class popu- 
 lation the truths and methods of science, but also to 
 give them practical knowledge of administration and 
 experience in the management of affairs. She hoped to 
 set an example which would be followed by others both 
 in the town itself and in the department. This pro- 
 gramme has been carried out point by point. The branch 
 U.P. the Croix-Rousse, which is situated in a suburb of 
 Lyons, has 200 members paying an annual subscription of 
 two francs each. The municipality supports it and has 
 provided it with spacious premises lighted by electricity 
 and including, on the ground floor, a hall to hold 500 
 people and, on the first floor, two smaller rooms, a library 
 and a museum. Its affairs are in the hands of a committee 
 of management consisting of sixteen working people — 
 eight men and eight women — each member of which has 
 charge of some special branch of the work. Classes con- 
 sisting of from eight to sixteen lessons are held on such 
 subjects as working-class legislation, hygiene, the history 
 of labour, etc. Lectures are also given on general sub- 
 jects or on the events of the day. The aggre- 
 gate attendance at these classes and lectures is as high 
 as 6,000 to 8,000. The library contains 400 volumes and 
 several periodicals and subscribes to four Paris magazines 
 and three newspapers. Plays bearing on social subjects 
 are acted by the working men and women. Several clubs 
 for the study of social subjects have been established in 
 different parts of the town in imitation of it. The Etienne 
 Dolet club has a well attended course in working-class 
 legislation. The Emile Zola and the Guillotiere bor- 
 
IN FRANCE 623 
 
 row tteir lecturers from tlie Croix-Rousse ; the neigh- 
 bouring departments also apply to it for help, and a 
 federation of twelve societies of the. district has just been 
 formed in connection with it. — The Foyer du Peuple 
 at Marseilles, which is now in a state of decadence, was 
 above all things a travelling university, at the service 
 of already existing societies and in particular of the 
 Southern Federation of Co-operative Societies. — The Societe 
 d'Enseignement Populcdre, at Montpellier, which was the 
 result of informal lectures given at the Bourse du Travail 
 in 1898, had 803 members in 1902-3. The subscriptions 
 are graduated for members of the same family. ^ The 
 town gives a grant of 1,000 francs, and the Conseil 
 General grants another 200 francs; class-rooms, light- 
 ing and heating are furnished by the municipality. 
 Each branch of the work is under the direction of 
 its own head, who is a member of the Central Com- 
 mittee. There are classes in hygiene, in singing for girls, 
 in drawing, etc. At the headquarters of the society two 
 weekly lectures are given and attract a regular audience 
 of 200 people, more than half of whom are artizans and 
 a large number women. A few lectures have been given 
 by working men and by women. The programmes for 
 each naonth are given to the children in the schools, and 
 3,000 to 5,000 leaflets are distributed in this way. The 
 naones of the lecturers are never announced. These lec- 
 tures go the round of the town, and as many as 120 
 were given outside the town in 1902-3. Musical enter- 
 tainments are also very popular with an audience which 
 has a natural gift for music and is fond of part-singing. 
 Yisits to the town museums, to laboratories and factories 
 have also been successfully organised. Lastly, in addi- 
 
 1. 50 centimes a year for each of the two first members; 25 centimes 
 for the two next; 10 centimes for each of the' others. 
 
624 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 tion to country ramfcles and expeditions, the society- 
 has set Tip the Mazet du Pewple, or People's Summer- 
 house, on a little bit of land which it rents in the 
 neighbourhood. It is above everything a place for 
 out-door recreation, consisting of a beautiful avenue of 
 pine trees, a wild garden, where there are various games 
 and where temperance drinks as well as wine and beer can 
 be had, and a house which serves as a shelter and cloak- 
 room. Artizans' families come and spend their Sundays 
 there and have their dinner on the grass. From seventy 
 to eighty people regularly take advantage of these 
 opportunities for out-door recreation. Altogether the 
 Montpellier Society is prospering. — The Institut Popu- 
 laire at Nancy, besides having a fairly good library, 
 devotes special attention to the artistic side of life, 
 decorating the walls of its rooms with drawings, pastels, 
 engravings and mouldings, and beautifying them with 
 flowers. The feminine element is strong. Two-thirds of 
 the Central Committee are working men. — The U.P. at 
 Rennes, which was founded in 1898, at the Bourse du 
 Travail, and is supported by syndicats and co-operative 
 societies, has also a council of which two-thirds are work- 
 ing men. A class in machine construction has been 
 attended by railway men, and lectures, in short courses 
 of three or four, have had an attendance of 150 
 while concerts have attracted audiences of over 
 350. An artizan has sometimes been known to 
 give a lecture and the whole spirit of the work, in close 
 relationship as it is with workingmen's organisations, 
 is democratic and appeaTs to be full of life. — The 
 Cooperation des Idees at E/Ouen, which was inaugurated 
 on April 5th, 1900, has been presented by a benefactor 
 with an ancient unused church in one of the artizan 
 quarters of the town, which has been converted into an 
 
IN FRANCE 625 
 
 assembly liall and temperance restauraat. The society- 
 has organised a library, classes and lectures, and has 
 spread into all parts of the town and suburbs. Visits to 
 the observatory and open-air excursions have been equally 
 successful. But the most popular forms of entertainment 
 seem to be family gatherings, music and singing. There 
 are a large number of women members. — The Foyer du 
 Peuple, at Toulouse, owes its origin to the united efforts 
 of the P elites A} and the artizans' syndicats. It has 
 brought the various existing societies together by in- 
 ducing them to subscribe in their collective capacity to 
 the U.P. From 1900 onwards, regular classes have been 
 arranged for the study of working-class legislation, 
 political economy, hygiene, etc., and a secular club for 
 soldiers has been started. But the mention of even the 
 best known and most original of the TJ.P. would occupy 
 much more space than is here available, and the more 
 obscure societies and those of which particulars are 
 necessarily omitted here are far from being the least 
 active and interesting. 
 
 JSTotwithstanding all this, the. " crisis of the TJ.P." 
 is spoken of on all sides, and their enemies even go so far 
 as to talk of failure and ruin. An impartial examination 
 of the facts shows that the work has been checked and has 
 fallen back in Paris and in the south, indeed, to a certain 
 extent everywhere. At a recent Congress of U.P. the 
 whole question was discussed. What is the real truth 
 of the matter? In the jB.rst place a distinction should 
 be made between Paris and the rest of the country. 
 In Paris, no doubt, there is a crisis and a serious 
 one. In the provinces the condition of affairs varies very 
 much in different localities : in some it is full of difficulty, 
 in others quite the reverse. The present unrest is 
 1. See above, pp. 600—2. 
 
626 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 due to several causes. If the dates at whicli tlie TJ.P. 
 were founded are recalled, it will be seen that they are 
 contemporary with, or a little earlier than, the Dreyfus 
 case. From the storm of feeling aroused by that case, came 
 either the burst of enthusiasm which founded them or 
 the impulse which gave them fresh life. Then was formed 
 the alliance between the " intellectuals," as they were at 
 first contemptuously called, and the working men. The 
 enthusiasm of a section of the liberal bourgeoisie and the 
 efforts of University men, professors and students, went 
 more than half way to meet the desire of the working-men 
 for instruction, instruction which, according to their ideas, 
 was a necessary condition of their emancipation. To 
 this generous movement, set on foot by the pressure of 
 public events, the TJ.P. for the niost part owe their origin. 
 But the cause once won in principle and the battle over, 
 the troops were allowed to scatter, enthusiasm died down, 
 some of the University men returned to their studies and 
 the working-men, only half convinced even in the days of 
 hottest struggle, gave up a work the beginnings of which 
 they had watched with curiosity but which had never 
 really satisfied them. Lectures little suited to a working- 
 class audience, often over their heads, and almost always 
 lacking the interest given by discussion, were condemned 
 as "sleepy" by the Paris artizans. The lower middle- 
 classes, on the other hand, took fright at the liberality of 
 the ideas involved in the movement and pronounced 
 the work revolutionary. Further, the Paris U.P. are 
 struggling against very great financial difficulties. The 
 high rent which they have to pay for their premises is an 
 overwhelming burden ' and the members' subscriptions are 
 both insufficient and irregular. This precarious financial 
 situation is one of the chief causes of the present crisis. 
 In the provinces, on the other hand, one of the greatest 
 
IN FRANCE 627 
 
 difficulties is that of the hostile environment. Although 
 this is sometimes an incentive to fresh effort, sometimes 
 it proves to be an insurmountable obstacle and is the 
 ruin of the U.P. The provincial U.P. have against 
 them the clergy, the well-to-do middle-classes and 
 the large companies. And there are other difficulties 
 of various kinds which have to be surmounted, 
 e.g., persuading various people to work together, 
 choice of lecturers, distance, etc. The provincial U.P., 
 moreover, has not always been successful in adapting itself 
 to its surroundings — it has hesitated between the idea of 
 an educational society and a political league. There is 
 indeed no generally accepted definition of what a U.P. 
 should be. Take, for example, the views of two of the 
 most authoritative representatives of the movement. 
 Mons. Guieysse, general secretary to the U.P. Society, con- 
 ceives it to be a militant institution, a weapon in the 
 hands of the working man in the struggle of class against 
 class. Mons. Deherme, the founder of the original U.P. 
 of the Faubourg St. Antoine, and one of the most energetic 
 promoters of the movement, would like to see in it, on the 
 contrary, only a drawing together of the classes, a peaceful 
 institution for promoting education and recreation.^ Both, 
 perhaps, are right. The first may point to the conditions 
 to which the Paris U.P. will have to conform if it is going 
 to live and become a permanent institution. Certainly, if 
 it is to continue, it will have to undergo radical change. 
 The type of institution outlined by the second, though 
 
 1. At the Congress held in Paris in May, 1904, which was called to- 
 gether by the Federation of the U.P. of Paris and the suburbs, and at 
 which three district federations and 69 U.P. were represented, it was 
 decided that the U.P. should "hbld themselves aloof from politics, 
 and should concern themselves directly with co-operative undertakings 
 and with patronage societies, in imitation of what the U.P. of Nancy has 
 done in organising a Colonie de Vacances (Country holidays)." (Congrfes 
 des U.P. (Mai 1904) textes et documents: Cahiers de la Quinzaine. 
 Quoted by Ed. Petit, Raport 1903-4). 
 
628 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 exceptional in Paris, is common in the provinces, where 
 the U.P. has been able to draw together scattered 
 forces and to organise, not only classes, but courses of 
 lectures and various kinds of social work. Be this 
 as it may, the U.P. have already done good service. 
 In Paris country expeditions and open-air enter- 
 tainments appear to be the most successful part of 
 the work, and their influence, from our point of view, is 
 just as far-reaching and important as that of lectures. In 
 the provinces, frequent lectures are accustoming the mem- 
 bers to a more serious form of recreation and teaching 
 them respect for the opinions of others. The work, with the 
 help of the district federations, is making its way into 
 hitherto inaccessible quarters — amongst peasants, soldiers 
 and women, — and is extending its influence far and wide. 
 Everywhere, in Paris as well as in the provinces, a change 
 seems to be taking place in the nature of the U.P. — • 
 the "intellectuals" are taking a smaller and smaller part 
 in the work, and are being replaced by co-operators. May 
 it not be that the present unrest is but the temporary 
 sign of this change, a change from which the U.P. will 
 eventually gain in strength and force what it may perhaps 
 lose in width of view and in individual talent ? 
 
 G. Work connected with Religious Bodies. 
 
 (i.) Roman Catholic. The Roman Catholics can right- 
 fully claim to have been first in the field in the matter 
 of continuation work as in the matter of schools. Jean 
 Baptiste de la Salle organised classes for adults as early as 
 1690, and the first patronage societies date from 1799. 
 These patronage societies, always a favourite form of 
 activity with the Catholics, have multiplied rapidly : few 
 in number until the middle of the 19th century, they 
 began to increase under the Empire, and have spread with 
 
IN FRANCE 629 
 
 great rapidity during the last few years. In 1901 they 
 mimbered 4,168 (2,351 for boys and 1,817 for girls), while 
 the lay patronage societies only numbered 2,125 in 1903-4. 
 In 1889 a central association of Patronage Societies was 
 formed which has held several congresses and publishes 
 two papers. Patronage and Patronage des Jeunes Filles, 
 which are important propagandising agents. Side by 
 side with the patronage societies connected with the 
 Ecoles Chretiennes and continuing the work begun in 
 those schools, there have existed, ever since religious 
 teaching was withdrawn from the curriculum of the 
 secular schools by the law of March 28th, 1882, equally 
 active patronage societies for the benefit of the pupils in 
 the latter. These 32,574 Catechismes de Perseverance 
 (the number in 1901) seem to be a purely religious work. 
 But the distinction between education and instruction is 
 even more difficult to draw here than it is in the case of 
 secular organisations. No one can fail to see that the 
 character of the director or of the organisers of the 
 Catholic patronage societies — cures, masters and mistresses 
 of denominational schools, " sisters" and " brothers" of the 
 Christian Schools — ^must have its influence on the minds 
 of the children. Moreover, although the outward appear- 
 ance of the patronage society is very much the same 
 whether it be secular or Catholic, though they both include 
 social gatherings with games, physical exercises, excur- 
 sions, lectures and recreation,^ they are very different in 
 spirit, and in work of this sort it is mutual understanding, 
 moral hold over the young people and a common atmos- 
 phere which are the essential things. If this is borne in 
 mind it will help to explain the nature of some of the 
 •religious work, between which and patronage proper it is 
 
 1. To these the Catholics almost always add an employment bureau 
 for apprentices. 
 
630 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 sometimes difl&cult to distinguish, and will also enable the 
 reader to understand why patronage societies are so much 
 in favour and make such progress in Catholic circles. Add 
 to this that there is a strong element of religious enthu- 
 siasm in the work, that it has gained a footing am.ongst 
 the children of peasants, and that the girls' patronage 
 societies have been in existence ever since 1851, and some 
 idea will be gained of the size and strength of the move- 
 ment. One of its distinguishing features is the place 
 given, to physical training and gymnastics and latterly to 
 technical education. Side by side with the patronage 
 societies are the Catholic popular libraries. In 1900 
 their number was estimated at 30,000, and one of them 
 (Boulogne-sur-Mer) possessed 52,000 volumes. About 
 10 per cent, of them have circulating libraries, the 
 earliest of the kind to be started in France. A central or- 
 ganisation, the Societe Biblio^raphique des Bihliotheques, 
 which was founded in 1868, issues a bulletin and publishes 
 a magazine, the Polybiblion. Lastly, there is the Societe 
 Generale d'Education et d'Enseignement which dates from 
 1867 and which, through its various committees, directs 
 the whole movement. These committees are three : the 
 education committee which deals with questions of peda- 
 gogical, social and religious improvement ; the consultative 
 committee, whose business it is to help new organisations ; 
 and the administrative committee, which deals with ques- 
 tions of finance, etc. The Society also publishes a bulletin 
 which is very useful for purposes of propaganda. Above 
 the patronage societies are certain institutions analogous 
 to the Universites Pojmlaires — the People's Institutes and 
 Study Clubs. These study clubs, intended for young 
 artizans whom the patronage societies have cared for as 
 children, are, like the latter and for the same reasons, very 
 widespread and flourishing. They are organised according 
 
IN FRANCE 631 
 
 to districts, frequent district conferences strengthen the 
 ties which unite them, and a National Congress hrings 
 them all together once a year. At the Tours Congress, in 
 February 1903, 500 were represented. In Paris a quarterly 
 conference serves to hring together the fifty cluhs, or there- 
 abouts, of the city and suburbs, and a club visitor, sent by 
 the Central Bureau, pays each club a visit at least once a 
 quarter. These weekly gatherings of young people (gener- 
 ally about fifteen in number) for the discussion of social 
 questions under careful guidance, form little centres of 
 Catholic influence and educate their members to be disci- 
 ples, propagandists and apostles of the Catholic social ideal. 
 The People's Institutes, on the other hand, the TJ.P. of tTie 
 Catholics, have not had any great success. They are 
 rather later in origin than the first TJ.P., and remain very 
 much behind them in numbers — in the year 1903 there 
 were not more than twenty in existence. They are kept 
 together, however, by a strong central organisation in 
 Paris, the Sillon,^ which is a model institute and centre 
 of propaganda. But it is clear, and Catholics themselves 
 recognise the fact, that in this direction Catholic effort has 
 had but little success. It is a question here, not of child- 
 ren and young people, but of adults, of working-men, with 
 opinions already formed, and the Church uses other means 
 to win them over. She has been wise enough to multiply 
 agricultural syndicats. Side, by side with the secular co- 
 operative societies and syndicats, she has raised up 
 syndicats and co-operative societies animated by her own 
 spirit. Before the Petites Cave existed, she had organised 
 mutual societies both for school children and for adults; 
 she has cared for the well-being of peasants and of artizans, 
 starting lectures on agriculture for the benefit of the 
 former and supplying the latter with cheap dwellings, 
 allotment gardens and a labour bureau. Last, but not 
 
 1. For a good account of Catholic Social Effort in France, and par- 
 ticularly of the work of Sillon, see article in the "Dublin Review," July, 
 1906 (London : Burns and Gates). 
 
632 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 least, slie has known admirably how to adapt her work to 
 district and local needs, varying her methods, bringing 
 together the various branches in frequent conference, and 
 animating the whole with one spirit. The Catholics may 
 rightfully claim to have been first in the field in almost 
 all directions. But few efforts are now peculiar to them, 
 except perhaps — and the exception is noteworthy — the 
 place given to physical exercises, particularly to gym- 
 nastics. Side by side with the secular institutions, the 
 Church raises hers, of earlier origin, strongly organised, 
 and well adapted to their surroundings. The thing which 
 is common to them all, and which constitutes their strength 
 is discipline, backed by considerable financial, resources, 
 (ii.) Protestant. The chief characteristics of the Pro- 
 testant work would seem to be a combination of secular 
 and clerical activities, breadth of view and consequent 
 tolerance, and the originality of some of its organisa- 
 tions. The Sunday schools which grew up during the 
 whole of the 19th century were founded upon this 
 close connection between religious teaching and gen- 
 eral instruction and education. The President of 
 the Sunday School Society, which is their central 
 organisation, declared, in 1887, that every town where 
 Protestants were to be found, and most of such villages and 
 hamlets, possessed a Sunday school. The Thursday 
 schools, established since the passing of the Act of 
 March 28th, 1882, are the Protestant counterparts 
 of the Catechismes de Perseverance. The Religious 
 Tract Society of Paris (Societe des Traites religieux) 
 and the Religious Book Society of Toulouse (Societe 
 des Livres religieua;) furnish them with a plentiful 
 supply of religious books. A central society for the 
 encouragement of primaxy education amongst French 
 Protestants has existed since 1829. But the real glory 
 
IN FRANCE 633 
 
 of tlie Protestants in this connection are their country- 
 holidays, their temperance work and their Young 
 People's Christian Associations. Started in 1881, the 
 country holidays movement has had a rapid success. Its 
 founder in Paris was Monsieur le Pasteur Lorriaux, but 
 the original idea came from another pasteur, Mons. Bion, 
 of Zurich. The CEuvre des Trois-Semaines has established 
 two country houses (one for boys and one for girls), three 
 sea-side houses, two centres in Seine-et-Oise and five in 
 Somme. In 1901 this society sent 6,130 children into the 
 country. The (Euvre de la Chaussee du Maine, founded 
 in 1882 by Madame Pressense, admits children of all 
 nationalities and of all forms of religious belief. It has 
 several establishments in Loiret and one by the sea. " It 
 combines the two systems of the ' colony ' and the 
 ' home ' ; after inquiry, certain peasant families living 
 in the villages and hamlets near the colony are chosen 
 out and children are sent to them, so that a larger 
 number in all can be provided for." ^ The number of 
 children helped in 1902 was 1,378, and during twenty 
 years the society has been the means of providing a fresh- 
 air cure for as many as 9,192. In the Midlands and 
 South (St. Etienne, Alais, Clermont-Ferrand, Lyons, 
 Toulouse) a similar society, the (Euvre des Enfants a la 
 Montagne has been started through the initiative of the 
 pasteurs of the district, and throughout the provinces 
 country holiday societies have been organised in imita- 
 tion of those of Paris. In the temperance movement the 
 Protestants have from the first shown great ardour, and 
 the earliest temperance societies were founded by them. 
 In other directions the origin of certain happy ideas 
 may be traced to them : the society Passez-revue 2 
 
 1. Pellisson. 
 
 2. There is a similar secular society called Journeaux pour Tous. 
 
634 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 circulates periodicals; in sixty towns free public reading 
 and writing rooms liave been opened for soldiers, and 
 one pasteur has extended these soldiers' clubs to China 
 and Tonquin. Lastly, the Christian Associations seem 
 to be the very prototypes of the Universites Populaires. 
 Started from 1850 onwards for moral and religious instruc- 
 tion, they have made the greatest progress since they 
 enlarged their programme in 1889, and gave themselves 
 more to social work. They bring together people of 
 different classes and provide for them, besides regular 
 teaching, lectures, libraries, physical exercises and recre- 
 ation; also shower-baths and the necessary equipment 
 for hydropathic treatment and for gymnastics — and all 
 this in premises which are their own property. The Paris 
 Association possesses a co-operative restaurant, a fencing- 
 school, a soldiers' common-room, etc. The Alliance 
 Nationale Frangaise, which was founded in 1867, is a 
 federation of Christian Associations embracing ten dis- 
 trict groups and a central committee, and holding a 
 National Congress every three years. In 1902 the Alliance 
 included 103 associations, nearly 6,000 full members, and 
 1,070 junior members. Its work already includes patron- 
 age societies for wards (83 in 1902), and at the last 
 Congress, held in 1902, attention was called to the need 
 of doing something more to bring together the children 
 and young people. 
 
 (iii.) Jewish. The Jewish organisations bear the mark 
 of a liberal charity. The (Euvre de la Communaute, 
 founded in 1873 and supported by subscriptions and 
 donations, is their central organisation. It has started 
 a circulating library, and has opened kitchens for the 
 provision of meals for children. Scholarships are 
 granted to boys and girls who wish to enter the Ecoles 
 professionnelles. The Jews have also promoted country 
 
IN FRANCE 635 
 
 holidays; the CEuvre des Sejours a la Campagne has two 
 country houses and organises country excursions. The 
 Association des anciennes Sieves de I'Ecole BischoffsheiTn 
 and the Societe des anciens Sieves de VEcol'e du Tramail, 
 have started patronage societies and benefit funds. In 
 Paris and in some of the large provincial towns (Lyons, 
 Marseilles, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Algiers) there are also 
 independent patronage societies. The Union Scolaire, 
 which lias existed in Paris since 1891, endeavours to bring 
 together all the old Jewish scholars from the various 
 types of school, and has organised for their benefit classes, 
 lectures, a medical branch and an employment bureau. 
 A Jewish U.P. h.as also been attempted. 
 
 H. Conclusion. 
 
 If we consider only the figures quoted in the course 
 of this article, France has a right to be proud of the 
 continuation work which has been accomplished 
 in a century. Let it be remembered that there are 
 to-day in France — and some of these statistics, dating, 
 as they do, from a year or two back, must be taken as an 
 under-statement of the actual figures — over 52,000 con- 
 tinuation classes with an aggregate attendance of nearly 
 a million, and more than 40,000 popular libraries, with 
 from seven to eight million books ; that, without including 
 the Universites Populaires and the religious or other 
 special agencies, over 110,000 lectures were organised in 
 1903-4, and attracted an aggregate audience of three million 
 people ; that 2,228 societies for the education of the people 
 are officially registered, many of them with several thousand 
 students, and some, as for instance the Poly technique and 
 the Philotechnique, with, as many as 700 and 800 classes 
 each week; that the Ligue.de VEnseignement has enrolled 
 more than 3,000 branches and societies, its annual income 
 
636 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 amounting to 3,000,000 francs; that there are nearly 
 6,000 Petites A, keeping up the connection between past 
 and present scholars of the primary schools; and 2,125 
 Patronage Societies helping in the development of the 
 democratic spirit. Add to these 150 Universites Poimlwires, 
 and we have a fairly complete list of the various agencies 
 which are at work for secular teaching and social education. 
 Notwithstanding all this activity, there is a widespread 
 feeling of discouragement ; the teachers say that the con- 
 tinuation classes are a failure ; the syndicats declare that the 
 Ecoles Professionnelles are useless; the "crisis of the U.P." 
 is talked of. How is all this to be explained ? We might 
 fall back on the traditional theory of the fickleness of the 
 French people, starting institutions with a quick 
 enthusiasm and abandoning them with an equally rapid 
 discouragement, but such an explanation would be too 
 general to be just, and it is possible to state the causes of 
 the present unrest more exactly. In the first place, the 
 uneasiness itself has brought to light certain gaps in the 
 work and has shown the urgent need for improvement. 
 Enlightened public opinion, which recognises the need 
 for after-school education, is ready for the necessary 
 changes. If they are to continue and flourish, the Cours 
 d'Adultes must cease to depend on the self-sacrifice of the 
 teachers; they must be organised as part of the public 
 provision of education, on the same footing as the regular 
 primary schools. The teachers ought to receive a fair 
 remuneration for their labours, or, if this would mean, all 
 at once, too heavy a charge on the State, the suggestion 
 of the Union fedagogique du Rhone might be adopted and 
 the. ordinary school work of a teacher be reduced by one 
 hour a day, so that he might be able to devote five hours 
 a week to evening continuation work. As to compulsory 
 attendance, it has been so difficult of enforcement 
 
IN FRANCE 637 
 
 even in tlie case of children at day schools, that there 
 can hardly be any serious thought of imposing it upon 
 adults ; and it would be equally impossible to force it upon 
 young people so long as the laws concerning the conditions 
 of juvenile work remain as they are.^ 
 
 Further, in considering this whole question, we must 
 distinguish between those institutions which are firmly 
 established and whose future seems to be assured — Mutual 
 Societies, Lectures, Readings — and those whose future 
 seems uncertain — Ecoles Professionnelles, and the Univer- 
 sites Populaires of Paris. These last are just those upon 
 which the artisans can exert the strongest influence, and it 
 seems as if we might find in the consideration of their 
 case an indication of a change which, is gradually coming 
 over all these institutions. Started and supported by the 
 radical party, they have, until now, borne the stamp of its 
 ideas, as is shown by the part taken in the work by the 
 teaching profession, and by the development of a certain 
 military spirit. The existence of so many gymnastic 
 societies, whose work is showy rather than solid, and which 
 compete with other more modest organisations, is to be 
 attributed to the influence of the period when they were 
 started — just after the Franco-Prussian war — quite as 
 
 1. The Ligue de V Enseignement recently instituted a commission of 
 inquiry into technical education which was presided over by M. Rene 
 Leblanc, Inspecteur General de I'Enseignement Primaire, and which 
 issued a report drawn up by MM. Baudrillard and Eocheron. This 
 report was discussed at the Congress held at Amiens in September 1904, 
 and the following demands were formulated : — 
 
 1. That the instruction of adults (technical, agricultural, industrial, 
 commercial or general) shall be compulsory; 
 
 2. That technical education shall be of a practical character adapted 
 to the locality and to the needs of the different agricultural, com- 
 mercial and industrial interests ; 
 
 3. That the obligation shall extend to at least three sessions of six 
 months each spread over three years between the ages of 12 and 18 ; 
 
 4. That the instruction shall be given in the day-time without loss 
 of salary to the apprentice, and without any increase in the length of 
 his working day or of his apprenticeship. 
 
 (Ed. Petit, Rapport, 1903-4). 
 
638 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 much as to the young Frenchman's natural love of parade. 
 But are we not now at the beginning of a new period of 
 activity? Artizans are taking the place of schoolmasters, 
 University men and liberals. The activity of the artizans 
 showed itself first in politics, but side by side with their 
 political work, they have been developing their social 
 work — Bourses du Travail, Syndicats, Co-operative Socie- 
 ties, associations for various objects. Now it is in tTie 
 field of popular education that their progressive movement 
 is beginning to make itself felt. They are bringing that 
 movement home to the people, teaching them to stand on 
 their own feet, animating and directing them. Lastly, we 
 must rejoice to see a strong movement towards freedom 
 springing up amongst peasants, on behalf of children and 
 amongst women, classes hitherto unsympathetic to the new 
 ideas, but amongst whom the work of instruction and social 
 education has now a wide field thrown open to it. We 
 should not, therefore, allow ourselves, in considering this 
 question, either to be blinded by the past success and pre- 
 sent imposing dimensions of the work, or to be too easily 
 discouraged. To be just, we must take into account both 
 the weakness and the strength of the whole movement, 
 and must feel that the present time of unrest and change, 
 although it may be long and painful, is, after all, a sign 
 
 of life. 
 
 Georges Cahen. 
 
IN FRANCE 639 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Finance. 
 
 The following particulars of the financial resources of 
 what are grouped together in France as (Euvres Comple- 
 mentaires de I'Ecole (Continuation Classes, Petites A, 
 Mutual Societies, Patronage Societies, etc.) are taken from 
 M. Ed. Petit's Report on U Education PopttZaire for 1903-4. 
 
 The funds are derived from three main sources : — 
 
 (1) Private initiative. 
 
 (2) Municipalities and Conseils Generamx. 
 
 (3) The State. 
 
 Under the first heading (1) we have : — 
 
 (a) Donations and legacies, the amount of which, as 
 officially declared, is 42,274 francs. Taking every- 
 thing into account, however (subscriptions to 
 Educational Societies, Petites A, Patronage 
 Societies, etc.) the total under this sub-head may 
 be estimated at 2,000,000 francs. 
 
 (b) Paying Courses. Evening, like day schools, are 
 free, and the total amount paid by the audiences 
 towards the remuneration of the teachers is only 
 16,032 francs. 
 
 Under (2) we have : — 
 
 (a) Classes paid for by the municipalities. Total 
 amount 1,694,852 francs. 408,530 francs of this 
 refers to Paris and the Department de la Seine, 
 thus leaving about 1,200,000 francs from this 
 
640 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 source for the remuneration of the provincial 
 teachers of whom, deducting 1,700 for Paris and 
 the Seine from the total of 63,661 engaged in the 
 work in 1903-4, there are 61,961. In 30 depart- 
 ments (mountainous regions in the centre, west 
 and south-east) heating and lighting are still paid 
 for by these voluntary educators, 
 (h) Conseils Generaux, 56,359 francs. 
 
 (The Conseils Generaux of 54 departments give 
 no subvention at all.) 
 
 (3) The State. 
 
 The amount of State grant voted for "(Euvres 
 auxiliaires de I'Ecole '' is 350,000 francs. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 (1) Private initiative : — 
 
 (a) Legacies, donations, subscrip- 
 
 tions, etc. (about) 2,000,000 
 
 (b) Payments by those attending 
 
 the classes 16,032 
 
 2,016,032 
 
 (2) Municipalities and Conseils Generaux : — 
 
 (a) Payments made for classes by 
 
 municipalities 1,694,852 
 
 (b) Grants by Conseils Generaux 56,359 
 
 1,751,211 
 
 (3) The State 350,000 
 
 Total (francs) 4,117,243 
 
 = £164,690 
 
IN FRANCE 641 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 List of Authoeitibs. 
 
 Tlie most important complete works on the subject 
 are : — 
 
 Pellison, Maurice : Les OEuvres auxiliaires et comple- 
 mentaires de I'Ecole en France. Paris, Imprimerie 
 Nationale, 1903, pp. 181. (An accurate, full and 
 excellent book.) 
 
 Petit, Edouard : Rapports sur I'Education populaire. 
 These have appeared at the end of every school year 
 (July-August) since 1895 in the Journal Officiel de 
 la Republique frangaise. Published separately at 
 the Imprimerie Nationale. (Complete official report 
 giving information as to the continuation school 
 movement year by year. Indispensable.) 
 
 Besides numerous articles which have appeared in the 
 different periodicals dealing with elementary and higher 
 education — such as the Bulletin ad/ministratif du Ministere 
 de V Instruction Publique, the Revue Pedagogique, the 
 Revue Internationale de VEnseignernent Superieur, the 
 Pages Libres, etc., etc. — and various reports and mono- 
 graphs, some of them published for the Paris Exposition 
 of 1900, mention should also be made of the following : — 
 
 For the Universites Pofulaires : — • 
 
 Les Universites Populaires 1900-1901. I. Paris et 
 
 Banlieue. II. Departements. Cahiers de la 
 
 Quinzaine, 8, rue de la Sorbonne, Paris. 
 
 10th and 20th cahiers of the 3rd series — ^pp. 17 
 
 and 155.1 
 
 1. The transactions {textes et documents) of the Congres des U.P. 
 held in Paris in May, 1904, have been published in the Cahiers de la 
 Quinzaine. 
 
 2 P 
 
642 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN FRANCE 
 
 L'Enseignement populaire dans les departements de 
 I'Herault et du Gard. Montpellier, 1903, pp. 211. 
 (A pamphlet containing a clear account of the 
 condition of the U.P. in two southern depart- 
 ments.) 
 
 Por the Roman Catholic work : — 
 
 Almanach du Sillon. Paris, 34, Boulevard Raspail. 
 
 Annales de la Jeunesse Catholique. Pans. 
 
 Guide Sociale de I'Action Populaire. Paris. (Annual 
 publication, giving a conspectus of all the Catholic 
 social work that is being done or projected in 
 France, together with some information about 
 social progress in other countries and a biblio- 
 graphy). 
 
 The above are indispensable, but the literature of the 
 subject is abundant, particularly on the purely educational 
 side — Cours d'adultes, etc. 
 
 Mention should also be made of the following books : — 
 
 Turmann, Max : Au Sortir de I'Ecole : les Patronages. 
 Paris, V. Le Co&e, 3rd ed., 1901. 
 
 Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Yol. 7. 
 (London: Wyman & Sons, 1902). Reports on 
 Rural Education in France. By Cloudesley 
 Brereton and J. C. Medd, pp. 196—211 and 261-2. 
 
 Turmann, Max : L'Education Populaire. Les OEuvres 
 eomplementaires de I'Ecole. Paris, V. Le Coffre, 
 2nd ed., 1904. 
 
 Leblanc, Rene : L'Enseignement professionnel en 
 France au debut du xxe Siecle. Paris, Comely, 
 1905. 
 
 In the preparation of this article use has also been made 
 of information obtained privately and of certain un- 
 published documents. 
 
643 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Evening Schools in the United States.' 
 
 The position in the world of education occupied by the 
 School systems of the United States of America is in many 
 respects of intense interest. 
 
 The past twenty years have seen great changes in the 
 character of the people ; and the nation itself is becoming 
 curiously polyglot. The great number of foreign families 
 constantly arriving in the country forms one of the most 
 difficult social and educational problems which the Govern- 
 ment must solve. In addition, constant demands are 
 being made on the educational administration by a keenly- 
 striving and progressive commercial community, as well 
 as by the calls of a huge industrial body, which claims for 
 its artisan members a broader instruction in the arts and 
 crafts than they can get in their ordinary daily experience. 
 
 It will be readily conceded that any system endeavour- 
 ing to cope with such varied needs must be interesting; 
 and the educational methods seen in the United States can 
 be justly admired for their courage and enterprise, even 
 when these very qualities give opportunity for criticism. 
 
 By the system of education in the public day schools, a 
 good deal is done to lay the foundation of American char- 
 acter and of intelligent citizenship. The evening school 
 system is scarcely so thorough or so fully organised; but 
 
 1 This chapter is based upon observations made in the cities of New 
 York, Boston, Springfield (Mass.), Rochester (N.Y.) and Buffalo, in 
 February and March, 1907, when, as one of the teachers for whom 
 arrangements were made by Mr. Mosely, the writer was visitmg the 
 United States for the purpose of studying methods of teaching and of 
 educational administration. 
 
644 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 teachers and pupils alike seem to have great faith in its 
 efficacy, and are striving towards more perfect attainment 
 of their aims. 
 
 The most difficult prohlem in the administration of 
 evening schools in America lies, as in England, in securing 
 regular attendance from the pupils. Everywhere the 
 experience is the same : — 
 
 (a) A considerable enrolment ("enrolment" signifying 
 the number of students who apply for admission, and 
 whose names are placed upon the records). 
 
 (b) A great diminution in the number of students who 
 actually attend the classes for one night or more. The 
 students so attending are spoken of as being on the 
 " register." 
 
 (c) A still greater drop in the average attendance. 
 
 As a general statement, it is true to say that only one- 
 half of the enrolled students complete more than one-half 
 of the possible attendances. This is a very serious weak- 
 ness, and if in this respect a comparison were possible 
 between similar schools in America and England, it would 
 probably be to the advantage of England. 
 
 The official figures for ISTew York City for 1905-6 illus- 
 trate this. For evening elementary schools the percentage 
 of average attendance as compared with the " register " 
 seems to be 68 per cent., and for evening high schools 71 
 per cent., but when the percentage is taken on the " enrol- 
 ment," the records of 32 subjects taught show that only 
 in one school did the percentage reach 50 per cent., in four 
 it was over 40 per cent., in twenty-one it was over 30 per 
 cent., and in six it was below 30 per cent. The system of 
 evening schools in New York is admirable, as is also the 
 case at Springfield in the neighbouring State of Massachu- 
 setts. Yet the same weakness in regard to attendance is 
 manifest in the two cities. In the Springfield Evening 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 645 
 
 High Schools the attendance in 1905-6 was 79 per cent, of 
 the numbers on the register, and 72 per cent, of the 
 numbers "enrolled." But in the elementary eveniag 
 schools of the same city, the attendance was only 49 per 
 cent, of the number of students on the register and only 
 36 per cent, of the number enrolled. 
 
 Throughout the United States, the evening school 
 system is based on the organisation of the public day 
 schools. It must be noted that (with exceedingly rare 
 exceptions), the whole of the education given till the 
 termijiation of the high school course is entirely free, both 
 in day and evening schools. 
 
 By the new compulsory education laws of New York 
 State and Massachusetts every child must attend a 
 " grammar " [i.e., elementary) school till the age of 14, or 
 until he or she has " graduated " ; that is, until he or she 
 has earned the official certificate of having satisfactorily 
 completed Grade VIII or Grade IX in that school. Occa- 
 sionally, this is accomplished at 13, but more generally at 
 15, or even later. The child may then proceed to employ- 
 ment without hindrance; or he may enrol in the public 
 " high " {i.e., secondary) school where is offered a course 
 of four years' academic or manual training. Thus a 
 student can " graduate " from, i.e., complete the course at, 
 a High School at from 17 to 20 years of age. 
 
 But neither in the elementary nor in the high schools 
 do the majority of pupils complete their full course. 
 Hence, in further extension of the principle of compulsion, 
 the State of New York has enacted that children below 16 
 years of age who do not possess their graduation certificate 
 from the " grammar " {i.e., elementary) school may not 
 engage in any occupation on leaving school at 14 years of 
 age, except on the understanding that they are conipelled 
 to attend evening classes, till the age of 16, or until the 
 
646 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 required certificate of attainment is obtained. The em- 
 ployer is jointly responsible witb the student for the ful- 
 filment of this condition. 
 
 It is to be regretted, however, that the existing 
 machinery of local government in the United States seems 
 unable to secure the enrolment of these backward pupils 
 in adequate numbers upon the evening school registers, 
 and still less their regular attendance at evening schools. 
 In order to bring about the continued attendance of su.ch 
 pupils in accordance with the existing law, record would 
 have to be kept of the place and nature of the employment 
 up to 16 years of age of every pupil who had left the day 
 school without completing the full course,- and as careful 
 a record of his or her attendance and progress at evening 
 school. This could only be done by requiring the school 
 attendance officer to keep in touch with every case coming 
 under the law, and by making the responsibility of the 
 masters for the continued education of their employees 
 more real and effective. Every employer should be obliged 
 by law to afford opportunity for attending evening school 
 to every young person in his or her employment who had 
 not completed the course at the day school. 
 
 But so far is the law from being at present enforced 
 that in the large cities there are hundreds of cases of 
 evasion. 
 
 It is further admitted that there is at present no 
 systematic enforcement of the law in the case of young 
 persons who are unemployed, or who are working in 
 occupations (such as boot-blacking and newspaper- vending) 
 which are more or less casual and irresponsible. 
 
 The evening schools in the United States may con- 
 veniently be grouped into three main sections : — 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 647 
 
 A. The Elementary Evening Schools. 
 
 B. The Evening High Schools. 
 
 C. The Evening Technical and Trade Schools. 
 
 A. The Elementaet Evening Schools. 
 
 The elementary evening schools are somewhat limited 
 in scope, being mainly preparatory to more complete and 
 liberal work in the evening high and technical schools. 
 They are usually grouped in three main divisions. 
 
 (a) Classes for completion of the day school course 
 
 (" graduation classes "). 
 (6) Classes for foreigners desirous of learning to speak 
 
 and Write English, 
 (c) Classes for adult students not qualified for admission 
 
 to the evening high or technical schools who 
 
 desire to study one or two special subjects, usually 
 
 commercial in character. 
 
 (a) The immediate purpose of these so-called " gradua- 
 tion classes " in the evening schools is to give as full an 
 educational equipment as possible to those who have 
 failed to reach the final day school standard either through 
 lack of mental alertness, or through lack of opportunity to 
 complete the full course. Many qualify during their first 
 session, and can then elect to be drafted into the evening 
 high school, or into the special classes of the elementary 
 evening school. Both alternatives are widely taken, and 
 it is a decided advantage to the teachers of the more 
 advanced subjects that these students should come to them 
 well prepiared, e.g., in Arithmetic (for Bookkeeping) and in 
 English (for Stenography). 
 
 (6) The classes in the second division are doing a great 
 work in assimilating the foreign element. One City 
 Superintendent of Schools says, "Our evening schools are 
 
648 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 not only giving education per se, but they are also 
 making American citizens." Thus in one evening school 
 with over 600 male students on the hooks, I found that 
 there were three classes of students belonging to Division 
 (a), i.e., completing their day school course; six classes of 
 students belonging to Division (c), studying various com- 
 mercial subjects ; but no less than twelve classes of students 
 belonging to Division (6) learning to speak and write the 
 English language. Amongst these twelve, were classes 
 of Germans, Greeks, Italians, Russians, Turks and 
 Rumanians. Such classes are found in the smaller cities 
 as well as in the larger centres of population. The work 
 is full of human interest owing to the varied life history 
 of the students. In one case I saw am.ong the pupils who 
 were learning to speak and write English a student who in 
 his own country had graduated with distinction. The 
 method adopted in these classes is mainly conversational. 
 An admirable set of readers is in use. The teachers en- 
 gaged in this branch of the work struck me as especially 
 capable, and their sympathetic and kindly manner with 
 their pupils left a very pleasant impression. 
 
 All the teachers in the evening schools must hold 
 evening School Teachers' licenses. These are granted by 
 the City Board of Education, but only after a practical 
 test of the applicant's knowledge and capacity for the 
 work to be undertaken. This method of recruiting the 
 teaching force for the evening schools seems to work well. 
 In the classes for foreigners, the teachers are, as a rule, not 
 engaged in day sphool work. In the City of 'New York, 
 for example, out of a total of 1833 teachers, in elementary 
 schools and evening high schools, 1,321 were specially 
 licensed for evening school work only, and, of these, 523 
 were for the classes for foreigners. 
 
 (c) The Evening Classes in Division (c) mainly provide 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 649 
 
 for elementary instruction in commercial subjects. Those 
 who complete one session's work in them are qualified for 
 admission to the evening high or technical schools. 
 
 The best basis on which to judge of the general success 
 of these elementary evening schools is regularity of attend- 
 ance. Looked at from that point of view, the schools, 
 though useful work is being done in many cases, cannot 
 be said to attain a high standard. All the supervisors 
 regret this weakness. The effects of it go further than 
 mere irregularity. The progress of the class is retarded 
 by the less earnest among the students, who discourage 
 their more serious-minded fellows. The attendance in 
 each of the three above-mentioned divisions of elementary 
 evening schools is apt to be irregular. 
 
 In some cities, the evening classes are held on five nights 
 in each week. In favour of this system it is urged that 
 the habit of regular attendance is encouraged by it. The 
 facts, however, seem to show that five nights a week are 
 too many. The strain becomes too great. It is un- 
 reasonable to expect the student to attend evening school 
 on five nights out of seven during the only hours of leisure 
 which remain over from the claims of business. Business 
 hours in America are as a rule longer than in England. 
 To require attendance at the evening school for five nights 
 a week is therefore an even more onerous demand there 
 than it would be here. For this reason, the City of New 
 York has reduced the required attendances at evening 
 classes to four nights a week. I am inclined to think that 
 the attendance would be improved if the number were still 
 further reduced to three nights a week. 
 
 B. The Evening High Schools. 
 To the Evening High School every student comes with a 
 fair minimum of educational equipment. The schools 
 
650 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 have as a rule a large niembersliip, and are on a higli plane 
 of excellence. Some schools whicli I visited in tlie City of 
 New York had enrolments of 2,200, 2,800, and 2,500 
 students. Enrolments in other cities were proportionately 
 large. 
 
 The evening high schools are in a very real sense " con- 
 tinuation " schools. Students are asked to study two sub- 
 jects, and usually make choice of such " subjects " as will 
 help them to secure advancement in their daily work. 
 The tone and atmosphere of these schools are good. The 
 pupils may be sometimes indolent, but one never sees any 
 roughness or rowdyism. As a rule the students give the 
 impression of being thoroughly in earnest in their work. 
 
 The classes are commendably small. An attendance of 
 fifteen students secures a permanent teacher, while in the 
 elementary evening school an attendance of twenty is 
 required. In the evening high school of Springfield 
 (Mass.) an enrolment of ten students with an average 
 attendance of seven is considered to be enough to justify 
 the formation of a separate class, with responsible teacher. 
 
 The public high school buildings, in which these classes 
 are held, are furnished with all the educational apparatus 
 that modern requirements demand. The laboratories and 
 workshops are made good use of, not only by chemists, 
 electricians, and apprentices, but by many workmen who 
 attend these classes in order to gain fuller practice and in- 
 formation than they can obtain in the workshops in which 
 they are employed. 
 
 The subjects of study for which there is most demand, 
 are, in order of choice: — (a) Commercial Subjects, (6) 
 English, (c) Mathematics, [d) Drawing. 
 
 The extent of the course in the State of New York is 
 now determined by a State Examination Board appointed 
 by the Regents of the University of the State, and com- 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 651 
 
 posed of representatives of the colleges, and higli schools, 
 and of the administrative officers of city school systems. 
 One of these evening high schools may be described as 
 characteristic of the rest. The number of enrolled 
 students was 2,200; but attendance had dropped to 600. 
 There were 34 separate classes and teachers. The classes 
 included in branch (a) Stenography, Book-keeping, Busi- 
 ness Arithmetic, and Com.mercial Law, these being directed 
 not only to make good book-keepers, but also to give a 
 broad general training which would enable the students to 
 take honourable positions in public life ; in branch (b), 
 English Grammar, Business Letter Writing, English 
 Composition, Literature (including guidance in the use 
 of Reference Books and of the Public Library), Rhetoric, 
 Oratory, and Debate (aiming at training the power of 
 vigorous thought and expression, with a study of great 
 examples of eloquence); in branch (c). Algebra, Geometry 
 (Solid and Plane), and Trigonometry; in branch (d), 
 Architectural, Mechanical, and Freehand Drawing. There 
 were also classes in Latin, French, German, Spanish, 
 Practical Chemistry, Practical Physics, and History (in- 
 cluding Political Economy and Civics). 
 
 Throughout my journey, I made careful enquiries as to 
 the relation between employers and the evening schools. 
 In the case of the Colleges and Universities, this connexion 
 is particularly close. Especially is this so in the engineer- 
 ing industry. Last year the engineering schools at the 
 Universities did not turn out a sufficiently large number 
 of graduates to meet the demand of the employers. But 
 in the case of the evening high schools there is at present 
 no such close connexion with the employers of labour. It 
 was therefore interesting to find that in the Drawing and 
 Commercial departments of two of these schools, a Bureau 
 of Industry was being formed, through which, it is hoped, 
 
652 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 the students may be enabled to find employment in local 
 worksbops or offices. Such an attempt to strengthen the 
 connexion between the schools and practical life deserves 
 hearty encouragement. 
 
 In the evening high schools the work for girl and women 
 students proceeds on the same genera,! lines as that for 
 youths and men. There is a preponderating demand for 
 instruction in commercial subjects; but one satisfactory 
 feature of evening high school work is the presence of 
 miany married women, as well as girls, learning Dress- 
 making, Millinery, Household Economics and Cooking, 
 and attending those scientific courses which bear especially 
 upon women's work in the home. But classes in house- 
 wifery, including the study and care of children, a form 
 of instruction which is now much encouraged in English 
 cities, do not seem to be in vogue in America at the 
 present time. 
 
 C. The Evening Technical and Trade Schools. 
 
 The evening technical and trade schools form the highest 
 branch of evening school work and are at once the most 
 specialised, and in many ways the most interesting. The 
 work in these institutions is purely technical, and appeals 
 to men and women more forcibly than any general course. 
 All provide opportunity for practical work. Most distinc- 
 tive among them are the schools usually named trade 
 schools, although of these there are scarcely so many as 
 might have been expected from the almost unexampled 
 industrial competition in the United States. The trade 
 schools at present existing are mostly experimental, but 
 there is no doubt that the next few years will see a great 
 development in this direction. These schools are mostly 
 provided from public funds, but in many cases have been 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 653 
 
 founded by wealthy citizens for the instruction of the 
 people in special directions. 
 
 Among the immigrants arriving daily in the United 
 States, there is always a fair number of intelligent adult 
 artisans, fully equipped for their work as done in their own 
 country, but strange to many of the conditions of their 
 trade as they find it practised in the United States. These 
 men have, as a rule, left their native land through dis- 
 satisfaction with their prospects, and feel a strong deter- 
 mination to achieve success in their new home. To such 
 men, the existence of evening technical schools is especially 
 important, and the schools are likely to prove in this way 
 increasingly valuable to the community as their organisa- 
 tion is more widely known. A further object of these 
 evening technical schools is to give a more thorough train- 
 ing to American workmen. The present need in an in- 
 dustrial community is to have mechanics who not only 
 know how to work a machine, but also understand the 
 machine itself. The evening technical schools therefore 
 aim at giving the workman a wider range of knowledge. 
 They thus enable him to rise higher in his trade. Those 
 in charge of the schools can give many instances of men 
 who have risen to better paid positions and to posts of 
 higher importance in their trade through the instruction 
 received at the school. Usually such schools receive the 
 approval of the local associations of workmen. Thus at 
 Springfield (Mass) the Master Plumbers' Association gives 
 preference to those who hold the trade school's certificate 
 of satisfactory study. The iron workers and wood workers 
 cordially approve of the trade school, and support it to the 
 fullest extent. In the City of New York two new trade 
 schools have lately been opened. The need for more is 
 already felt. The attendance at the trade schools is as 
 a rule remarkably good. Springfield, with 300 students. 
 
654 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 has an average attendance of about 84 per cent. The cor- 
 responding percentages are in Buffalo ahout 63 per cent., 
 in Boston about 78 per cent., and in Kisw York between 
 50 and 60 per cent. The teachers are all practical men. 
 The classes most in demand are machine-shop practice and 
 tool-making. The classes in mechanical and architectural 
 drawing, in plumbing, and in applied electricity come next 
 in order of popularity. In the toolmaking, patternmaking, 
 and electricity sections a fee of about £1. is demanded to 
 cover the cost of necessary tools. At the end of the session 
 the school's certificate is accepted by the workmen's organ- 
 isations as showing the holder to be a fully practised work- 
 man. The schools are therefore a great advantage to the 
 individual workman, in that they improve the quality of 
 his work by giving him a wider range of practical know- 
 ledge, and enable him to obtain a higher and better paid 
 position in his trade. 
 
 A full list of the subjects taken in some such schools 
 includes shop-mathematics, mechanical and architectural 
 drawing, industrial chemistry, applied physics, electricity, 
 joinery and woodturning, blacksmithing, printing, and 
 typesetting. 
 
 In each section of the technical evening school, a satis- 
 factory session's work entitles the student to a sessional 
 certificate. In some cities, the completion of an approved 
 course of study in evening high schools extending over 
 three (or in some cases, four) years entitles a student to 
 a diploma from the City Board of Education. 
 
 I was unable to investigate personally the character of 
 the evening classes carried on by more independent com- 
 mittees in institutions such as the branches of the Young 
 Men's Christian Association. But in every city the 
 Y.M.C.A. has branches, in connexion with which classes 
 in both practical and literary subjects are held. These 
 
IN THE UNITED STATES 655 
 
 appear to be well attended. Other privately managed in- 
 stitutiona like tlie Cooper Institute of 'New York, have a 
 waiting list of applicants for many classes. At the Cooper 
 Institute, as in some similar institutions, the diploma won 
 by persistent study is almost of the rank and value of a 
 University Degree. 
 
 In many evening schools there are libraries quite dis- 
 tinct from those for use in the day schools. These libraries 
 are of great value to the students in the literary classes. 
 They are worked in connexion with the public library of 
 the city. 
 
 To sum up, the work of evening schools in the States of 
 New York and Massachusetts is carried on with great 
 vigour of purpose. It enjoys the support of the Boards of 
 Education, of the general public and, to some extent, of 
 the employers. The advantages offered to the students are 
 many : the buildings are excellent and well equipped, the 
 classes are small ; the teachers are admirable and desirous 
 of doing their best for their pupils. The great blot is the 
 irregularity of the attendance. When this has been im- 
 proved by a closer connexion between the schools and the 
 trades, the future of the American evening school system 
 
 should be a bright one. 
 
 William Scott. 
 
 Shobt List of Books. 
 
 Dexter, E. G. " History of Education in the United States " (New 
 
 York, Macmillan Company, 1904), pp. 541-5 (Evening Schools), pp. 
 
 545 — 9 (Correspondence Schools), p. 549, Bibliography. 
 "U.S. Commissioner of Education, Eeport of" (Washington, 1907), 1907, 
 
 vol. i, pp. 502 — 6 (Statistics of Evening Schools). 
 " National Educational Association, Journal of Proceedings " (Winona, 
 
 Minn.), 1905, pp. 570 — 576. "Industrial Training in Public Evening 
 
 Schools, • by C. F. Warner. 
 

 
 
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657 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Trend towards Industrial Training in Continuation 
 Schools in New England. 
 
 At several points in our educational history the experience 
 and judgment of New England have exerted a strong in- 
 fluence upon English opinion. Any marked trend of 
 educational thought in Massachusetts is likely to prove, 
 sooner or later, of significance to ourselves. At the pre- 
 sent time two aspects of the school problem are command- 
 ing special attention in the industrial and commercial 
 centres of New England. The first is the need for more 
 manual and practical education for boys intended for in- 
 dustrial callings. The second is the social and economic 
 danger of leaving young people without continued educa- 
 tional care during the years immediately following the 
 day-school course. Mr. James Phinney Munroe, President 
 of the Social Education Club of Boston, who, as chairman 
 of the Executive Committee of the Social Education Con- 
 gress held in that city on November 30 — December 2, 1906, 
 has exceptional opportunities of gauging the force of 
 public opinion on these matters, writes : " There is a very 
 general interest throughout the State in the question of 
 the better education of children who are to go into in- 
 dustrial pursuits, and especially in the problem (more 
 moral than industrial) of making provision for the army 
 of boys and girls between the end of the compulsory school 
 period (14 years) and the time (18) when most of the 
 skilled industries are willing to take them in. It is during 
 those four years that most of our social shipwreck occurs, 
 
 2 Q 
 
658 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 witli enormous loss to the community. Substantially all 
 the important writing and speaking in Massachusetts upon 
 educational matters now refers to this general problem and 
 never, as it seems to me, has there been such a cordial and 
 thoughtful response from the public." The same ques- 
 tions are engaging close attention in Scotland, Germany 
 and France, the three other countries from which waves of 
 educatioiial influence have repeatedly reached England. 
 It is therefore not hazardous to predict that with us also 
 these questions, already much discussed, will soon demand 
 legislative treatment. 
 
 Within the last two years there have been in Massachu- 
 setts several significant expressions of opinion upon the 
 need for more industrial training in continuation schools 
 for boys and girls. The first is that contained in the 
 report of the commission on Industrial and Technical 
 Education, published in 1906. The second is a paper 
 written by the Superintendent of Schools in one of 
 the towns most renowned for educational efficiency in 
 Massachusetts. The third was at the Social Education 
 Congress in Boston in December, 1906. The fourth was 
 an address given by Dr. Paul Hanus, Professor of Educa- 
 tion in Harvard University, to the members of the National 
 Association of "Wool Manufacturers at Boston on February 
 6, 1907. It is noticeable that the successful work of the 
 continuation schools in Germany, and especially of those 
 organised under the guidance of Stadtschulrat, Dr. 
 Kerschensteiner at Munich, is producing a deep impressiop 
 upon American opinion. The Governor of the State of 
 Massachusetts has appointed a special commission for 
 Industrial Education which will take further and practical 
 steps for the extension of industrial training. Of this 
 Commission, Professor Hanus has been appointed Chair- 
 man. 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 659 
 
 In this chapter these indications of a fast-maturing 
 opinion are briefly reviewed. 
 
 II. 
 
 A Commission on Industrial and Technical Education 
 appointed by the State of Massachusetts, in 1905, presented 
 its report in April, 1906.^ In the course of their inquiry 
 the Commissioners held twenty public hearings in the chief 
 cities of the State and received oral testimony from 143 
 witnesses. Among the latter were Sir William Mather of 
 Manchester and Mr. E. Swaysland of ^Northampton. 
 
 The investigation disclosed a widespread conviction that 
 there is need for more industrial training in the school 
 system of Massachusetts. 
 
 " The Commission was made aware of a, growing feeling of the 
 inadequacy of the existing school system to meet fully the need of 
 modern industrial and social conditions. The opinion was expressed by 
 many speakers that the schools are too exclusively literary in their 
 spirit, scope and methods. When there was not a pronounced opinion, 
 there was a vague feeling of dissatisfaction with results. This does not 
 imply hostility. Everywhere the Commission found the people loyal 
 to the purpose of the schools and proud of the advanced position which 
 the State has held, and they do not complain of the cost. They 
 hesitate to criticise and are far from desiring any revolutionary change; 
 but they are inquiring whether some modifications may not be possible, 
 by which the schools may reach in a more practical way the great body 
 of children and youths."^ 
 
 The view that more industrial training is required was 
 held by many different kinds of witnesses. Manufacturers 
 and wage earners felt the personal need. 
 
 " The Commission was told at almost every hearing that in many 
 industries the processes of manufacture and construction are made more 
 difficult and more expensive by a lack of skilled workmen. The lack 
 is not chiefly a want of manual dexterity, though such a want is common, 
 but a want of what may be called industrial intelligence. By this is 
 meant mental power to see beyond the task which occupies the hands 
 for the moment to the operations which have preceded and to those 
 which will follow it — power to take in the whole process, knowledge of 
 materials, ideas of cost, ideas of organisation, business sense and a 
 conscience which recognises obligations. . . . Manufacturers confidently 
 
 1. Boston (Wright aild Potter Printing Co., 18, Post Office Square), 
 1906. 
 
 2. Report, p. 5. 
 
660 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 believe that a system of industrial education wisely planned would tend 
 to develop such intelligence, while if. increased technical skill. That 
 large' numbers among wage earners have the same faith was shown to 
 the Commission by numerous representatives who testified before it, and 
 by the statistics showing the number of men and women who are now 
 availing themselves of existing opportunities. The number of workmen 
 in the everting 'classes of the textile schools in the State ; the experience 
 of the Evening Trade School in Springfield and of those in New York 
 and Philadelphia; the large classes maintained by the Young Men's 
 Christian Association; and the enormous number seeking to advance 
 themselves through technical education in the Correspondence Schools 
 (a number estimated at fifty-five thousand in Massachusetts) prove that 
 the interest is real and vital." ' 
 
 The same view was held hy witnesses who approached 
 the question from another standpoint. 
 
 ' ' Men and women who have been brought into intimate contact 
 with the harder side of life as it appears among the poorer people in the 
 cities, who are grappling with the variety of problems of childhood to 
 which city life gives rise, think they see in some form of industrial 
 education a means of securing earlier and greater efficiency as wage 
 earners, more self-reliance and self-respect, steadier habits of industry 
 and frugality, and through these the opening of avenues to better 
 industrial and social conditions. 
 
 The broader-minded students of education, nien who look at their 
 own work in the light of all its relations to society and to individuals, 
 are coming more and more to feel that education is more than schooling 
 of the old-fashioned type ; and that for the fullest development of a 
 child he must early and continuously be regarded as a member of the 
 whole community, must be familiar with all its activities, and must be 
 taught progressively to share in those activities, giving as well as 
 receiving, producing as well as consuming, doing as well as learning. 
 They see that this sort of training is used in the education of the 
 feeble-minded, in the reformation of wayward and vicious children at 
 reform and truant schools, and that it is being used to elevate the 
 coloured race in the south ; and they ask why it may not be equally 
 efiicient in stimulating and directing the higher orders of mind, in 
 preventing as well as curing juvenile delinquency, and in improving the 
 social conditions of white as well as black children." 
 
 The Commissioners reviewed the present status of voca- 
 tional training in Massachusetts in the following words : 
 
 "All the callings in life for which children and youth need to be 
 specially prepared may be roughly grouped into four classes — pro- 
 fessional, commercial, productive and domestic. 
 
 Of these, the professional callings are sufficiently provided for, partly 
 at public and partly at private expense. A large part of the burden of 
 high school maintenance is incurred in the interests of professional 
 callings. 
 
 The activities which may be classed as commercial, including all that 
 
 1. pp. 4-5. 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 66i 
 
 have to do with the processes of distiibution and exchange, are provided 
 for largely at public expense. The schools send out salesmen, clerks, 
 book-keepers, typewriters and stenographers in ever-increasing numbers. 
 These are the occupations which allow clean hands and good clothes. 
 If anything is lacking in this business training, it is special education 
 in the principles and practice of expert salesmanship. A beginning of 
 such instruction has been made in Boston. 
 
 Turning to the occupations engaged in production, in distinction from 
 distribution, we find that these are only touched educationally in their 
 most advanced and scientific forms. No instruction whatever is burnished 
 at public expense in the principles or practice of farming, dairying, 
 gardening, the building trades, cabinet making, machine shop practice, 
 boot and shoe making, tanning, printing, book-binding, dressmaking, 
 millinery, embroidery, design. 
 
 Agriculture is recognised by the State in its aid to the Agricultural 
 College at Amherst ; but there is no preparatory work leading up to it, 
 in the same way as the high schools lead up to the other colleges. 
 
 Manufacturing is recognised by the State in so far as it aids by 
 scholarship and direct grants the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. These institutions train 
 mechanical and electrical engineers, manufacturing chemists, and 
 architects — men in the highest ranks of productive industrial life. 
 
 For these institutions the high schools offer some preparation in their 
 scientific courses. The institutions themselves have fully justified all 
 that they have cost. Their fam« is world-wide, and the State is 
 honoured by them. 
 
 Manufacturing interests are still further aided by the recently- 
 established textile schools at Lowell, opened in 1897 ; at New Bedford, 
 opened in 1899 ; and at Fall River, opened in 1904. These schools, in 
 their organisation, mode of support and general methods, might well 
 serve as models for higher technical schools in other industries. The 
 schools have been established by the State and the city. They are 
 supported partly by annual grants by the State and the city, and 
 partly by tuition fees from the students. They are governed by bodies 
 of permanent trustees, some of whom represent the Commonwealth. 
 The cities are represented in the government by certain ex-officiis 
 trustees. 
 
 Further efforts of >•■ private and benevolent nature are as follows : — 
 
 The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association maintains an 
 evening trade school for young men, most of whom are regularly 
 employed as apprentices or helpers in the trades they are studying. 
 
 There are classes in masonry, carpentering, plumbing and sheet metal 
 work, including about one hundred students. A small part of the 
 expense of the school is met by fees from the students. 
 
 The Woman's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston maintains 
 day classes in millinery, dressmaking and salesmanship. Some of these 
 are distinctly trade classes ; others are of a more general character. 
 
 The Boston Trade School for Girls is supported by a society of women 
 who rely upon donations from interested people to meet the expenses. 
 There are no fees from the students. Girls are instructed in dress- 
 making, millinery and machine operating in all-day classes. 
 
 The Wells Memorial Institute maintains free evening classes in 
 electricity, steam and steam engines, mechanical and machine drawing, 
 household science, millinery, dressmaking and photography. There were 
 registered in these classes in 1905 twelve hundred and twenty persons. 
 
 The Boston Young Men's Christian Association maintains what it 
 calls an evening institute, which includes four separate schools of a 
 
662 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 technical character — a school of commerce, a polytechnic school, a school 
 of applied electricity and steam engineering, and an automobile school. 
 Each of these schools includes numerous departments. The number of 
 students is large. The Young Men's Christian Associations throughout 
 the State support evening classes in various technical subjects. In all 
 these classes the students pay a part of the cost of the instruction. 
 
 The Boston North End Union, a charitable organisation, maintains 
 evening classes in plumbing and day classes in printing. The North 
 Bennet Street Industrial School conducts evening classes in sewing 
 and printing, reaching in all about forty men and two hundred women. 
 
 Besides these, instruction in wood-working, printing, clay modelling, 
 cooking, sewing and other forms of industrial training is given to classes 
 of children by churches of different orders ; and there are in different 
 parts of the State private schools or classes for persons employed in 
 different trades, as in some of the sub-divisions of boot and shoe making, 
 steam and electrical engineering, etc." ' 
 
 The Commissioners conclude that as compared wibh the 
 opportunities ailord&d in sorde parts of Europe for acquir- 
 ing knowledge and skill in productive industry, the work 
 which is being done in Massachusetts is " strikingly and 
 painfully inadequate. 
 
 They point out that in former times the general training 
 given in the schools of New England and the vocational 
 training given through apprenticeship were mutually co- 
 operative with and supplementary to one another. It is 
 true that the training then given would be inadequate to 
 present needs. But it is desirable to restore the balance 
 in a manner appropriate to modern conditions. The dis- 
 appearance of apprenticeship has left the school training 
 isolated and one sided. Moreover changes in social con- 
 ditions have aggravated the evil. 
 
 " The effects of the giving up of the apprentice system have all been 
 aggravated by the congestion of population in cities. City life instead 
 of rural life, life in tenements and flats instead of in houses, together 
 with the increase of wealth, have combined to deprive great numbers of 
 children of those opportunities for industrial activity which were 
 inseparable from life on the farm. Well-to-do people are everywhere 
 lamenting that there is nothing for the children to do. The children 
 are always receiving and never giving. Food, clothing, shelter, 
 education, amusement — all come to them as freely as the air and the 
 sunshine. 
 
 1. Eeport, pp. li-15. 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 663 
 
 The effects of these changes repeatedly brought to the attention of 
 the Commission are not most serious where we might naturally expect 
 in a lack of manual efficiency, though that is marked, but on the 
 intellectual and moral side. There is a one-sided sense of values, a 
 one-sided view of life, and a wrong attitude toward labour. Not having 
 any share in productive labour, and being out of touch with it, the 
 youth have no standards by which to measure time or possessions or 
 pleasures in terms of cost. Many persons believe that about this point 
 centre some of the gravest of present-day social problems." ' 
 
 The Commissioners found that their purpose and work 
 " encountered the suspicion and hostility of many of the 
 labour unions of the State." 
 
 ' ' This was expressed by individual members and by accredited 
 representatives, and was evidently due to misapprehension. It was 
 suspected that the Commission was created to formulate a plan for trade 
 schools supported at public expense. The opposition to such schools is 
 based on the fear that they would furnish workmen in numbers 
 sufficiently large to affect the labour market, and bring about a 
 lowering of wages. These schools are also opposed on the ground that 
 they might furnish workmen ready to take the place of union men 
 during the existence of a strike. ' Scab hatcheries ' is the significant 
 term by which such schools are characterised. To such schools the 
 labour unions declare themselves totally and unalterably opposed. 
 
 The objection urged by the unions is fully met by the closing 
 paragraph of Sir William Mather's address : — 
 
 Please take notice of what I said about the avoidance of teaching a 
 trade to the extent of causing a lad to say, after leaving the industrial 
 school, 'I am a printer,' 'I am a cotton spinner,' 'I am a mechanic 
 or a carpenter.' In the first place, it is detrimental to the lad's own 
 interests. He becomes somewhat conceited before he has got through 
 the proper training by actual practice. It tends to deterioration of 
 skill and intelligence in trades, which can only be fully acquired 
 through work done on a commercial scale. It will tend to discredit 
 industrial education. 
 
 To technical schools in distinction from trade schools the Commission 
 found little opposition. In fact, many of the union men expressed 
 themselves heartily in favour of schools which would offer to men 
 already engaged in industries the opportunity to broaden their know- 
 ledge of the principles of their trade. This would tend to increase the 
 efficiency of the workers in a, given trade, while the closed door was 
 maintained against outsiders. 
 
 At one or two of the hearings, individuals, while not opposed to 
 technical education in this narrow sense, would not favour it, believing 
 that American workmen are already sufficiently skilful and sufficiently 
 intelligent. It was declared that they have nothing more to learn." ^ 
 
 The Commissioners arrived at the following conclusions, 
 which were based in part upon a special and detailed in- 
 vestigation into the relations of children to industries. 
 
 1. p. 10. 2. pp. 6-7. 
 
664 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 "1. For the great majority of children who leave school to enter 
 employments at the age of fourteen or fifteen, the first three or four 
 years are practically waste years so far as the actual productive value 
 of the child is concerned, and so far as increasing his industrial or 
 productive efiiciency. The employments upon which they enter demand 
 so little intelligence and so little manual skill that they are not 
 educative in any sense. 
 
 For these children, many of whom now leave school from their own 
 choice at the completion of the seventh grade, further school training 
 of a practical character would be attractive and would be a possibility 
 if it prepared for the industries. Hence any scheme of education which 
 is to increase the child's productive eflSiciency must consider the child of 
 fourteen. 
 
 2. Children who continue in school until sixteen or eighteen, especially 
 if they complete a high school course, are able to enter upon employ- 
 ments of a higher grade, usually in mercantile pursuits, and they are 
 able by reason of greater maturity and better mental training to learn 
 the technique of their employment in a shorter time; but they are 
 wholly lacking in manual skill and in what we have called industrial 
 intelligence. For the purpose of training for efficiency in productive 
 employments the added years they spend in school are to a considerable 
 extent lost years. 
 
 In the cases of both classes of children the employment upon which 
 they enter on leaving school is determined by chance. 
 
 3. The productive industries of the State, including agriculture, 
 manufactures and building, depend mainly upon chance for recruiting 
 their service. A few apprenticeships still exist in a few industries or 
 parts of industries, but very few apprentices are indentured, and 
 many so-called apprenticeships are falsely named. 
 
 The knowledge and skill which the new men bring to the service of 
 any industry is only what they have picked up in a haphazard way. 
 Some bring much and many bring little. 
 
 4. This condition tends to increase the cost of production, to limit 
 the output in quantity and to lower the grade in quality. Industries so 
 recruited cannot long compete with similar industries recruited from 
 men who have been technically trained. In the long run that industry, 
 wherever in the world it is located, which combines with general 
 intelligence the broadest technical knowledge and the highest technical 
 skill, will command the markets of the world. 
 
 5. The industries of Massachusetts need, in addition to the general 
 intelligence furnished by the public school system and the skill gained 
 in the narrow fields of sub-divided labour, a broader training in the 
 principles of the trades and a finer' culture in taste as applied to 
 material, workmanship and design. Whatever may be the cost of such 
 training, the failure to furnish it would in the end be more costly. 
 
 6. The State needs a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a 
 foundation for the highest technical success, and this can only be 
 acquired in connection with the general system of education into which 
 it should enter as an integral part from the beginning. 
 
 The latest philosophy of education re-enforces the demands of pro- 
 ductive industry by showing that that which fits a child best for his 
 place in the world as a producer tends to his own highest development 
 physically, intellectually and morally. 
 
 7. The investigation has shown the increasing necessity for a woman 
 to enter the industrial world for the sake of self-support, and hence 
 that she should be prepared to earn a respectable living wage, and at 
 the same time that the attempt should be made to fit her so that she 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 665 
 
 can and will enter those industries which are most closely allied to the 
 home. 
 
 The investigation has shown . that that vocation in which all other 
 vocations have their root, namely, the care of the home, has been 
 overlooked in the modern system of education. In order that the 
 industrial life of the community may be vigorous and progressive, the 
 housekeepers need to be instructed in the laws of sanitation, in the 
 purchase, preparation and care of food, and in the care of children, 
 that the home may be a home, and not merely a house." 
 
 The Commissioii therefore recommended that industrial 
 education in Massachusetts should now be further 
 developed, partly through the existing school system and 
 partly through independent industrial schools. In the 
 elementary schools of cities and towns the work for boys 
 and girls should include instruction and practice in the 
 elements of productive industry including the mechanic 
 and domestic arts (and, where local conditions require, 
 agriculture also) but this instruction should be of such a 
 character as to secure from it cultural as well as industrial 
 value. In the high schools, the instruction in mathe- 
 matics, in science and in drawing, should show the applica- 
 tion and use of these subjects in industrial life, with 
 especial reference to local industries, and new " elective " 
 courses of instruction in the domestic and industrial arts 
 (and, where desirable, in agriculture) should be provided. 
 Evening courses should be arranged for persons already 
 employed in trades. And provision should be made for 
 the instruction, in part-daytime classes, of children 
 between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, who may be 
 employed during the remainder of the day. The Com- 
 mission makes this last recommendation with a view to 
 instruction in the principles and practice of the industrial 
 arts going on together. 
 
 They also recommend that a Commission on Industrial 
 Education should be appointed, to serve for five years 
 without pay. This Commission, they advise, should be 
 charged with the duty of extending the investigation into 
 
666 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 methods of industrial training and into local needs. It is 
 recommended that the Commission should be given power 
 to establish and maintain industrial schools for boys and 
 girls in various centres of the State with the co-operation 
 and consent of the municipality or concerned municipali- 
 ties. Money appropriated for the purpose by the State or 
 Municipalities should be expended under the direction of 
 the Commission. There would thus be distinctively in- 
 dustrial schools, separated entirely from the public school 
 system. 
 
 III. 
 
 The School Superintendent, to whom reference has been 
 made above, maintains that the public elementary schools 
 of to-day fail to furnish opportunities for the kind and 
 extent of education which the present industrial and social 
 conditions, demand. 
 
 " Pupils who have only completed the elementary school course (and 
 that is more than the great majority do even in Massachusetts) are in 
 no way fitted to profit by the instruction given by the institutions for 
 higher technological instruction. So they must enter with no training 
 the great industrial army of the country. They enter it, of course, 
 as unskilled labourers, and such many remain all their lives. The more 
 fortunate, more able, or more persevering, learn in years what they 
 might have learned in weeks or months under suitable systematic 
 instruction. 
 
 The usual maximum age prescribed in compulsory attendance laws is 
 fourteen years. At this age the average pupil can complete the usual 
 elementary school course. Teachers, ambitious parents, and educational 
 enthusiasts, are wont to urge the young people to continue their 
 education through the High School, and to go on to college, if possible. 
 The only excuse for urging this particular kind of schooling so 
 indiscriminately, is the inaccessibility of any other. Even at present, I 
 believe it is often a, mistake. Many a pupil in our High Schools, and 
 some in our elementary schools, would be getting what would be for 
 them a better education if they were in some useful occupation. They 
 would be getting an education, a training, better adapted to 'the 
 preservation of a free government ' than the ' knowledge and learning ' 
 afforded by the schools. A much larger number would certainly be 
 better educated in suitable elementary industrial schools than in our 
 present scholastic schools. Such elementary industrial schools would 
 unquestionably raise the general level of public intelligence." 
 
 The writer points out that the great demand for practical 
 instruction through the " correspondence schools " proves 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 667 
 
 the need for the further provision of industrial ' training 
 in properly equipped institutions. 
 
 " The independent efforts which the people are making to supply for 
 themselves that kind of education which the times demand, but which 
 the public schools fail to furnish, are indicated by numerous thriving 
 correspondence schools which have recently sprung up in many places. 
 They already enrol hundreds of thousands of students, more than all 
 the colleges and universities combined. A single one offers ' training by 
 mail ' for the following score of occupations ; — 
 
 Advertising Writer, 
 
 Show Card Writer, 
 
 Window Trimmer, 
 
 Mechanical Draughtsman, 
 
 Architectural Draughtsman, 
 
 Illustrator Draughtsman, 
 
 Carpet Designer, 
 
 Bookcover Designer, 
 
 Civil Service, 
 
 Chemist, 
 
 Commercial Law for Clerks and Stenographers, 
 
 Bookkeeper, 
 
 Stenographer, 
 
 Electrical Engineer, 
 
 Mechanical Engineer, 
 
 Civil Engineer, 
 
 Surveyor, 
 
 Mining Engineer, 
 
 Architect, 
 
 Building Contractor, 
 
 Sanitary Engineer. 
 A large majority of these correspondence school students are mechanics 
 and labourers, trying to. fit themselves for better and higher service in 
 the industrial world. 
 
 Instruction by correspondence, when met with the intense earnestness 
 of the student, can do a great deal. It must, however, suffer from 
 serious handicaps, in most subjects, when compared with what can be 
 done in a properly equipped school. Such schools we have, here and 
 there, just enough to demonstrate their efficiency, but totally inadequate 
 to supply the demand for their product. Such schools are the Textile 
 Schools at Lowell, Fall River, and Philadelphia ; the New York Trade 
 School, the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, and the 
 Manhattan Trade School for Girls. The director of one of these Trade 
 Schools reports it no uncommon thing to see young apprentices, with 
 instruction equivalent in hours to only three weeks' work at their 
 trade, do things that journeymen mechanics, with four or five years of 
 experience, cannot equal. Six months in the Manhattan Trade School 
 for Girls has increased the girls' earning power 100 per cent., and put 
 them in the way of further advancement." 
 
 Professor Hanus of Harvard University in his address to 
 the JSTational Association of Wool Manufacturers at Boston 
 on February 6th, 1907, urged that there is " need to supple- 
 ment the existing educational system with a new kind of 
 
668 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 educational provision to meet new educational needs." The 
 years of adolescence are too often wasted years. 
 
 " The great mass of our youthful population leave school at about 
 fourteen or fifteen years of age. For the next few years these boys 
 and girls drift about in various kinds of youthful occupations where they 
 learn nothing that increases their earning capacity. As economic units, 
 as productive units, they have very little value indeed at fourteen 
 or fifteen years of age. And, having chosen the occupations which they 
 have, or rather having drifted into them, by the time they are eighteen 
 or nineteen years of age their economic value is little more than it was 
 when they began. Those years are, as far as their economic eflSciency 
 is concerned, wasted years; because the children have learned nothing 
 that will develop productive efficiency, and because they are not pre- 
 paring to meet the demand for skilled labour which is constantly 
 increasing. And, worse than that, not having been under any systematic 
 educational influence, certainly not under any beneficial educational 
 influence, speaking generally, what they have learned up to the time 
 they are fourteen or fifteen years of age has been dissipated 
 by the time they are eighteen or nineteen ; and they are actually more 
 ignorant when they reach the age of citizenship than when they left 
 school. Some of these boys, of course, go on to the high school and 
 there receive a kind of education which, with increased maturity, 
 renders them able to master more easily the processes and methods of 
 any occupation to which they go. But neither the grammar school nor 
 the high school meets any specific vocational end. 
 
 The result is, that there is in Massachusetts to-day an army of not less 
 than 25,000 boys and girls from fourteen to sixteen years of age who are 
 not in school but either at unskilled work or idle ; and for whom those 
 years, therefore, which I have referred to are lost or wasted years. 
 Moreover, there is an increasing demand for skilled workmen. I have 
 been told repeatedly during the last few months by employers that if 
 they could find the skilled workmen they need, they could greatly 
 enlarge their plants and output, to say nothing of improving the 
 quality of the goods which they produce. There is, therefore, on the 
 side of the producer and on the side of the workman an increasing need, 
 an imperative need for the kind of education that will, first of all, make 
 prominent the vocational purpose to which I have referred; and which 
 will, in the next place, carry out that purpose or help the youth to 
 carry it out before he gets beyond the reach of the trade. 
 
 The existing public schools very naturally are bookish. They are 
 bookish because at the time when they started, book education was all 
 that was necessary in the schools. The home' conditions, whether on 
 the farm, in the village, or in the city, supplied u, kind of education 
 which to-day is for most boys and girls impossible. Our population is 
 becoming an urban population. The boys no longer do the chores they 
 used to do. The girls, many of them, are no longer required to do the 
 work which they used to do as an inevitable part of their experience. 
 They are, consequently, losing a kind of education which they got a 
 generation or two ago. They are losing all that opportunity for what 
 we call ' practical education ' and are securing only the bookish education 
 of the schools with all their academic traditions of the schools. My 
 point is that, alone, those traditions are inadequate to meet the conditions 
 which face us to-day. There is a great mass of our population which 
 must go to work early. For that mass of population we are not 
 providing the kind of education that . will make them the sort of 
 progressive economic units that we desire. And, consequently, the need 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 669 
 
 of supplementing the existing educational provision by a kind of school 
 which may be called an industrial school or a school of trades exists." 
 
 Professor Hanus proceeded to show how successfully this 
 educational problem had, been grappled with at Munich, 
 " a city about the size of Boston without its suburbs." He 
 then summed up his conclusions in the following words. 
 
 " 1. The progressive development of all high grade industries requires 
 skilled workmen possessing industrial intelligence, that is, comprehensive 
 insight into and intelligent interest in their several trades, as well as 
 skill. 
 
 2. The present conditions of production are unfavourable to the 
 training of such workmen in the shop or factory, and sometimes render 
 such training impossible. 
 
 3. All industries, whatever their grade, need more men than are now 
 obtainable who are capable of acting as foremen, superintendents or 
 managers — men possessing the comprehensive insight, interest and skill 
 necessary for the organisation and direction of a department or a shop. 
 
 4. Such men, whether workers, foremen or superintendents are now 
 developed only by chance — and they are then only self-made men, 
 possessing the merits, but also the conspicuous shortcomings of their 
 training. 
 
 5. Meanwhile, boys and girls, young men and young women are 
 not only not directed toward the trades in our existing schools but are 
 often actually directed away from them by the bookish education of 
 those schools and their purely academic traditions. The manual 
 training high schools or so-called technical high schools were intended 
 originally to train recruits for the trades, but they have not done so 
 and cannot do so. And I may add they need not do so. The manual 
 training of the manual training high school is too general to be of use in 
 the trades ; but it serves a very valuable purpose indeed in general 
 education. Manual training is an educational instrument, just as 
 chemistry is, just as history is; with materials of its own to work with, 
 with methods of its own to use, with problems of its own to be solved. 
 Experience has shown that an insignificant number of the pupils who 
 go through the manual training high school enter the trades. Most of 
 them go into business or to an engineering school. And those schools, 
 therefore, serve a very valuable purpose, because many of the boys who 
 seek an education in the manual training high school would not get a 
 high school education at all except for the manual training. And the 
 academic studies become intelligible to them when they are presented in 
 connection with certain concrete problems. Manual training high 
 schools, then, have not recruited the trades, and cannot. They are 
 institutions for general education, like the academic high schools, but 
 unlike them serve to give a certain class of pupils a general high school 
 education with the help of manual training, or like them to prepare 
 their pupils for professional training in some college or engineering 
 school. Moreover, the great majority of our youth must, or think they 
 must, begin to be wage-earners at an early age. 
 
 6. Boys are not wanted in the industries until they are sixteen years 
 of age. The result is an army of young men and young women (in 
 Massachusetts not less than 25,000 every year) from fourteen to sixteen 
 years of age, most of whom are either at work in various kinds of 
 juvenile occupations in which they learn no trade, or subject to little, 
 
670 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 if any, beneficial general education, and often to much harmful education 
 from shifting experience and environment. The majority of these 
 children would be in school if the school promised preparation for some 
 life pursuit. That is a fact ascertain by investigators and clearly shown 
 by the Industrial Education Commission, which reported to the Legisla- 
 ture of Massachusetts last year. These years are of little economic 
 value to such children, and there is little increase in the economic 
 value of most of them as time goes on. Hence these are at present 
 ' lost years ' — lost to the children because of non-progressive economic 
 growth, and to the industries because the children are not fitted to 
 satisfy the demand for skilled labour by the time they are old enough 
 to be employed in such labour. 
 
 7. These years, and the subsequent years, are, however, valuable for 
 industrial education, but there is at present no agency whereby this 
 education is provided save to a limited extent by philanthropy, or by an 
 occasional municipality, or large manufacturing establishments, or by 
 correspondence. The superintendent of the Stanley works at Pittsfield 
 told me that out of their seventeen hundred employees, three hundred 
 were taking correspondence courses. I do not wish to decry corre- 
 spondence courses, but they are obviously only a makeshift. Moreover, 
 they frequently fail to enable the pupil who enrolls in them to realise 
 the results which he could secure through a prescribed course with a 
 teacher at hand. 
 
 8. Hence the need of industrial schools to supplement the existing 
 school system and to meet a new educational need which has evolved 
 with the evolution of our industry and commerce. Such schools would 
 receive pupils fourteen or fifteen years of age who declare their 
 intention to learn a trade ; and would, therefore, be parallel to the 
 existing public high schools but independent of them. 
 
 9. Such schools must be independent schools because the motive or 
 end for which they exist, namely, vocational training as contrasted with 
 the general training of the existing public schools, determines the value 
 of the instruction in every detail. 
 
 10. Such schools would offer a course of study covering four years. 
 The first two years would comprise general shop instruction with 
 related drawing, mathematics, natural science, the nistory of industry 
 a,nd commerce, shop and business English, and the reading of appropriate 
 articles and books. The last two years would give the shop instruction 
 for particular trades ; and for each trade represented the drawing, 
 mathematics, physics, chemistry of that trade, the history of that trade, 
 treated both as special history and as a branch of general history, 
 civics treated as concretely as possible, and English as before. The 
 result of training in such schools would be workmen who, at eighteen 
 or nineteen, have learned a, trade, though they would not be skilled 
 journeymen ; they need practice to fully develop the skill which is 
 required of journeymen. Each such workman would have command of 
 his trade and not merely of a part of it ; and he would have the 
 industrial insight and interest on which progressive efficiency is based. 
 An evening school of trades for men and women already employed would 
 be an important part of every such school. 
 
 Massachusetts has taken the lead, as a, State, to secure such schools 
 throughout the Commonwealth. Governor Guild, empowered by a 
 statute, appointed a Commission on Industrial Education in September 
 of last year ; and this Commission is now engaged in promoting the 
 establishment of State subsidised industrial schools in the towns and 
 cities of the State."' 
 
 1. "Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers," 
 Boston, March 1907, pp. 29. 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 671 
 
 IV. 
 
 During the past half-century, the signal achievement of 
 the public elementary school in its best democratic form 
 has lain in its work of social liberation and of social 
 encouragement. It has given new opportunities of self- 
 realisation. Its economic service, at a period when in- 
 dividual buoyancy and initiative were especially needed, 
 has been immense. But still greater has been its work 
 in stimulating a belief in ideals among great multitudes 
 of people who would otherwise have been in danger of 
 falling into a state of intellectual indifference bordering 
 on materialism. At a period of rapid intellectual and 
 social transition, it has furnished new motives of action 
 and new hopes for the future. It has helped forward 
 those who were economically and morally strong enough 
 to avail themselves of the new opportunities to which it 
 has opened the door. It has scoured away many pre- 
 judices and unreal distinctions. It has cleared the ground 
 for new foundations. But its work has been least success- 
 ful among the morally weak and among those lacking in 
 vigour of personal initiative. 
 
 Side by side with the public elementary school we in 
 England have had the industrial school. Its training has 
 been in the main through handicraft, combined with the 
 brisk discipline of a strictly-ordered but not unhappy form 
 of community life. It has succeeded, and that to a re- 
 markable degree, with the very children in whose case the 
 education given in the ordinary schools had failed. Should 
 we not now make wider use of the experience which the 
 industrial schools have gained? Is it not desirable that 
 trial should be made in certain districts of a new type of 
 elementary school with far more practical and constructive 
 work in its curriculum, with a great deal of physical train- 
 ing, with an active corporate life, and with simpler aims 
 
672 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 in regard to more literary studies? For many of the 
 children in our elementary schools in England the present 
 curriculum is too ambitious, and something simpler and 
 more practical would stand them in better stead. Those 
 men will be in the long run among our sanest citizens and 
 firmest characters who have learnt to do their day's work 
 as well as it can be done, and who have gained at the 
 elementary and continuation school a desire to be good 
 engineers, good carpenters, good plumbers, good builders, 
 good farmers, or good servants; finding in piiactical effi- 
 ciency the best preparation for the tasks of citizenship 
 in a self-governing community. 
 
 At the same time it is essential to watch for signs of 
 special talent among all the children attending the nation's 
 schools, and to provide for every boy and girl of marked 
 intellectual or artistic promise, however humbly born, the 
 fullest opportunity for the highest and most fitting educa- 
 tion. England has always drawn some of her finest ability 
 from humble homes, and we should do more, far more, than 
 is done at present to help very liberally, and very long, 
 the best talent when we find it. The " educational ladder " 
 is a necessary part of a nation's educational ideal; but 
 skilled manual labour and craftsmanship are not dark 
 caverns out of which every boy of bright intelligence 
 should be encouraged to climb. 
 
 Again, let us not identify the world for which we 
 seek to train every child solely with the world of material 
 interests and of visible things. Let us not forget, in 
 our educational plans, the weight that should be attached 
 to the claims of the spiritual realm, whose frontiers 
 transcend political frontiers and whose commonwealth is 
 in heaven. 
 
 Those who are now engaged in teaching and in educa- 
 tional administration feel on their minds the pressure of 
 
IN NEW ENGLAND 673 
 
 three different claims. They feel the pressure of the claim 
 of the individual for the development of personality and 
 for such training as will secure economic independence. 
 They feel also the pressure of the claim of the State for 
 national organisation and for the economic strength which 
 comes through individual energy and trustworthiness in 
 associated effort. Thirdly, they feel the pressure of the 
 claim of one or other of the great international hrother- 
 hoods of like-thinking or like-feeling men and women. 
 "We must admit the justice of each claim. Any one of the 
 three, if pressed alone, is hurtful and mischievous. But 
 each claim, rightly understood and seen in due proportion, 
 is vialid, and it is by a fine tact and sympathy that the 
 teacher will decide what weight must in any given case or 
 at any given time be attached to any one of them. All 
 true education combines opposites, and is a unity made up 
 of many diverse forces. The three claims may be hiar- 
 monized by that give-and-take which is of the essence of 
 political wisdom and also of true education. 
 
 Shobt List of Books. 
 " Industrial and Technical Education, Report of Commission appointed 
 
 by State of Massachusetts on." (Boston, Wright and Potter 
 
 Printing Co.), 1906. 
 " Social Education Quarterly " (Colin A. Scott, Boston Normal School, 
 
 Boston), March 1907, especially "Trade Schools, an Educational and 
 
 Industrial Necessity," by Mary Schenck Woolman. 
 " What a City owes to its Boys," by G. H. Martin. 
 "New Duties and Opportunities for the Public Schools," by S. McC. 
 
 Lindsay. 
 
 2 R 
 
674 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Limits of Compulsory Education in the United 
 States. 
 
 The planning and provision of courses of further training 
 for boys and girls during the critical years which follow 
 the elementary day-school course bids fair to become one 
 of the chief educational problems in all countries where 
 the population is largely urbanised, and where the in- 
 dustrial system is highly developed. In the discussion of the 
 question, however, economic and industrial considerations 
 call for as close inquiry as the purely educational. Among 
 the data which need to be taken into account are the laws 
 which now fix the limits of compulsory school attendance 
 and those which protect children and young persons from 
 premature or excessive labour. In view of the variety of the 
 laws of school attendance, etc., in different parts of the 
 United States, the following summary and accompanying 
 tables may be found useful for reference. At the end of 
 the tables will be found a statement of the number of 
 children between 10 and 16 years of age who were found 
 by the enumerators engaged in the United States Census 
 in 1900 to be " earning money regularly by labour, con- 
 tributing to the family support, or appreciably assisting 
 in mechanical or agricultural industry." 
 
 In twenty-one out of the forty-seven States included in 
 the following table (which refers to the period ending De- 
 cember 31st, 1906) the upper age limit fixed by law for 
 compulsory attendance at school is 14. These twenty-one 
 States are Arizona, California, District of Columbia, Idaho, 
 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION 675 
 
 Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, 
 Montana, Nevada, New Hampskire, New Jersey, New 
 Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, "West 
 Virginia, and Wisconsin. In seven States — Kansas, 
 Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, Rhode Island, Yermont and 
 Washington — ^the upper age limit is fixed at 15 ; in five — 
 Colorado, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and Utah 
 — at 16; in one — Minnesota — at 18; and in one — ^Wyoming 
 — at 21. In the remaining twelve States — Alabama, 
 Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mary- 
 land, North Carolina,! South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas 
 and Virginia — there is no general compulsory attendance 
 law. 
 
 But these figures must not be accepted, without some 
 qualification, as representing the exact state of the case 
 as regards compulsory attendance in the United States. 
 Certain other facts require to be considered along with 
 thein. 
 
 (1) The school attendance laws are, generally speaking, 
 in advance of the laws which regulate the employment of 
 children. There seems to be a general tendency to make 
 the minimum age for employment in the Northern States 
 14 years (16 in mines) and about two years less in the 
 Southern States. 
 
 (2) There are various recognized exceptions to the com- 
 pulsory attendance laws in several States, especially in 
 those with a high age limit. In Rhode Island, for in- 
 stance, the upper age limit of 15 is not applicable to 
 children over 13 who are lawfully employed. In other 
 States, where the limit is 16, similar exceptions are 
 allowed, e.g., to children from 14 to 16 whose labour is 
 necessary to their own or their parents' support (Colorado) ; 
 
 1. North Carolina has recently adopted a compulsory education law. 
 
676 COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 to children over 14 lawfully employed to labour at home 
 or elsewliere (Connecticut) ; to children over 13 who can 
 read and write English and are regularly employed in 
 useful service (Pennsylvania). 
 
 (3) In some cases the annual period of compulsory atten- 
 dance is very short {e.g., Arizona, 12 weeks, 6 consecutive; 
 Idaho, 12 weeks, 8 consecutive; Nevada, 16 weeks, 8 con- 
 secutive), but it is becoming general to require attendance 
 during the whole time the schools are open, and this is 
 now the case in 24 States. 
 
 (4) In three out of the twelve States where there is no 
 general compulsory attendance law there are special atten- 
 dance laws applying to particiilar districts (Maryland, 
 North Carolina and Tennessee) ; and in five others (Arkan- 
 sas, Delaware, Louisiana, iS. Carolina and Texas) a certain 
 amount of indirect compulsion is exercised by means of 
 educational restrictions on child labour. Similar restric- 
 tions will come into force in Georgia after January 1, 1908. 
 
 (5) In the case of illiterates, attendance up to 16 years 
 of age at day or night school is frequently required even 
 in those States where the general age limit is 14. The 
 same extension of the age limit is sometimes made in the 
 case of children not regularly employed. 
 
 (6) The strictness with which the law as to compulsory 
 attendance is enforced varies very much from State to 
 State. In Michigan (age limits 7 — 15) the compulsory 
 attendance law was reported in 1905 to be enforced in 
 only 3,360 districts out of 7,267. In Nebraska (age limits 
 7—15) there were, in 1904, 206,302 children of compulsory 
 school age, and of these, 148,984 (72^21 per cent.) made the 
 required attendances. In Iowa (age limits 7 — 14) reports 
 from country superintendents in 1903 stated that 49 of the 
 counties enforced compulsory school attendance in part ; 8 
 "were trying to enforce it" ; 31 counties report that "it is 
 
IN UNITED STATES 677 
 
 enforced" ; 2 that "it has had good effect" ; 1 that "senti- 
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 1905 states that closer supervision of superintendents has 
 secured a better enforcement of the compulsory laws; the 
 Washington (age limits 8 — 15) report for 1904 says that 
 the law seems to have worked well and to have accom- 
 plished the desired object wherever county superintendents 
 have faithfully performed their duties in regard to it; 
 from Indiana (age limits 7 — 14) it was reported in 1904 
 that " the compulsory education law has accomplished the 
 work intended, and has increased the enrolment percep- 
 tibly " ; the Vermont (age limits 8 — 15) School Eeport for 
 1904 gives the number of children of compulsory school 
 age as 43,359, and the number not enrolled in school as 
 2,690 (62 per cent.). 
 
 Many States, in general terms, forbid, or permit only under 
 restrictions, occupations dangerous to the life, limb, morals or health of 
 children. In some States the employment of children in begging, 
 theatrical and circus exhibitions, on dangerous machinery, in occupations 
 requiring the handling of intoxicating liquors, nightwork, etc., is 
 specifically forbidden. Where the employments forbidden are not 
 specifically enumerated the enforcement of such provisions of law is 
 difficult from lack of judicial interpretation as to what constitutes an 
 employment dangerous to life, etc. 
 
678 
 
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IN UNITED STATES 687 
 
 Employment of Childhen of between 10 and 16 yeahs 
 
 OF AGE IN THE UnITED StATES. 
 
 In the United States Census of 1900, the enumerators 
 were instructed to report the occupations of all children 
 of between 10 and 16 years of age who were " earning 
 money regularly hy labour, contributing to the family 
 support, or appreciably assisting in mechanical or agri- 
 cultural industry." 
 
 The total number of children employed as above was 
 1,750,000. Of these, 60 per cent, were engaged in agri- 
 culture. Four-fifths of the children employed in agricul- 
 ture were boys. Most of them were employed on farms 
 belonging to their own families. A large proportion of 
 the boys and a great majority of the girls employed on 
 farms were negroes. 
 
 The number of children engaged in other occupations 
 was 688,000. Of these 186,000 (boys 110,000, girls 76,000) 
 were between 10 and 14 years of age. Of the 110,000 boys, 
 59,000 were messenger and office boys, servants and waiters 
 or labourers ; 12,500 were employed in textile factories and 
 9,000 were employed in mines and quarries. Of the 
 76,000 girls mentioned above, 50,000 were servants, wait- 
 resses, laundresses, etc., 14,000 were employed in textile 
 factories and 4,000 as dressmakers and tailoresses. 
 
 Four-fifths of the children of between 10 and 16 years 
 of age who were employed in cotton mills, resided in two 
 comparatively small areas. One of these areas (that com- 
 posed of the New England States) reported three-tenths of 
 the total number of children employed. Half the total 
 number was reported from the second area, which consisted 
 of liorth Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. The 
 tendency to employ children in cotton mills is greater in 
 the Southern States than in the Northern. The number 
 
688 COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 of operatives employed in cotton mills in the Northern 
 and Western States is half as large again as the number in 
 the Southern States, but in the North only one cotton mill 
 operative out of every ten was under 16 years of age, while 
 in the South, the proportion was about three times as large. 
 Massachusetts reported the largest aggregate of mill opera- 
 tives, but the smallest percentage of employed children 
 under 16 years of age. The highest percentage was in 
 North Carolina. Only a very small number of negro 
 children are employed in the cotton mills. Of the children 
 of between 10 and 14 years of age employed in the cotton 
 mills, 86 per cent, were native white with both parents 
 native. 
 
 (See Board of Trade Labour Gazette, 1907, and Bulletin 
 No. 69 of the United States, 1900 Census Bureau.) 
 
689 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Should Attendance at Continuation Schools be made 
 Compulsory in England ? 
 
 In this chapter I propose to discuss the question whether 
 it is desirable that attendance at continuation schools 
 should be made compulsory in England and, if so, (1) 
 within what limits of age, (2) whether for girls as well 
 as for boys, (3) whether in the case of those engaged 
 in agricultural occupations and in domestic service, as 
 well as in the case of boys and girls engaged in factories, 
 in the transport trades, in shops, in offices and in the 
 various forms of unskilled employment, and (4) with what 
 further limitation of the hours and times of employment 
 of children and young persons, and with what degree of 
 statutory obligation upon the employers of juvenile labour 
 and upon the parents of the young people concerned. 
 
 In preface to the discussion, it is desirable to define 
 the aim of continuation schools and the place which 
 they occupy in the system of national education. 
 
 The purpose of the continuation school is to provide at 
 convenient hours further instruction for those who have 
 already left the day school and have entered upon the prac- 
 tical work of life whether as .apprentices or as independent 
 wage-earners or in the duties of the home. It endeavours 
 to meet the needs of both sexes. It presupposes a sufficient 
 basis of elementary education but, where that is defective, 
 attempts to supply it. The lower age limit of its pupils 
 varies according to the age at which boys and girls are 
 released from compulsory attendance at the elementary day 
 school. In the more advanced stages of its work the 
 
 2 S 
 
690 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 continuation school includes many different forms of adult 
 education. The higher age-limit of its province is there- 
 fore undefined. The task of the continuation school thus 
 falls into two main, though not clearly demarcated, divi- 
 sions — the elementary and the advanced. Its work is in 
 part general education, hut increasingly (though by no 
 means exclusively) technical. Its function is two-fold : to 
 prepare its pupils for the efficient discharge of the duties 
 of citizenship and to increase their power and skill in bread- 
 winning occupations. For those who leave the elementary 
 school at thirteen or fourteen years of age and cannot pro- 
 ceed to a secondary day school, the continuation school 
 attempts to give during adolescence and early manhood 
 or womanhood such opportunities of further training 
 as the exigencies of employment may permit. 
 
 The discussion which follows is arranged under three 
 heads, viz. : — 
 
 (1) Is there need, on social and economic grounds, to 
 encourage increased attendance at continuation schools 
 in England ? 
 
 (2) Would it be expedient in any circumstances to 
 apply to continuation schools the principle of compulsory 
 attendance ? 
 
 (3) If the answer to both of these questions is in 
 the affirmative, in what manner is it desirable that the 
 principle of compulsory attendance should be applied? 
 
 I shall endeavour in dealing with these questions to 
 lay the arguments on both sides before the reader as 
 fairly as I can, seeking rather to furnish him with 
 materials for a judgment than to press him towards a 
 foregone conclusion. At the same time, he would not 
 wish me to conceal (whether he assents to them or no) 
 the conclusions to which our inquiry has led me. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 
 
 691 
 
 I. Is there need, on social and economic grounds, to 
 encourage increased attendance at continuation 
 schools in England ? 
 
 The attendance at evening classes and at other forms 
 of " further education " in England and Wales is large. 
 In the session 1904-5, the evening classes under inspection 
 hy Government (and there were many others which, 
 because not so inspected, did not come into the statistics) 
 were attended by nearly three-quarters of a million 
 (718,562) students,^ six out of ten of whom were males. 
 Thus, as many as 22 per 1,000 of the population of 
 England and Wales attended evening classes under Gov- 
 ernment inspection in the session 1904-5.^ No statistics 
 exist which enable us accurately to compare the number 
 of students in evening classes in different countries but, 
 
 1. This figure is, ijf anything, below the mark but for a necessary 
 qualification of it, see pp. Ill — 112. 
 
 2. It is interesting to compare with this figure, 22 per 1,000, the corre- 
 sponding number per 1,000 of population of pupils who at about the 
 same time were attending secondary day schools in different parts of 
 England. The figiires given below were obtained in the course of 
 inquiries made during 1904^-5. 
 
 Pupils in all Secondaky Day Schools, Public and Private. 
 
 Boys 
 per 1000 of 
 population 
 
 Girls 
 per 1000 of 
 population 
 
 Boys and Girls 
 
 together 
 
 per 1000 of 
 
 population 
 
 Percentage of 
 Girls in the 
 number of 
 
 pupils 
 receiving 
 Secondary 
 Education 
 
 Essex (Administrative 
 
 County) 6-11 .. 
 
 Hampshire (Admini- 
 strative County) .. . 6-85 . 
 
 .. 5-76 . 
 .. 3-88 
 
 ... 11-87 . 
 ... 10-73 . 
 
 .. 48-5 
 .. 36-1 
 
 Derbyshire (Admini- 
 strative County) .. . 3-53 
 Exeter 11-14 . 
 
 .. 1-54 
 .. 13-73 
 
 ... 5-07 . 
 ... 24-8 . 
 
 .. 30-3 
 .. 55-19 
 
 Birkenhead 659 . 
 
 .. 8-72 
 
 ... 15-3 . 
 
 .. 56-94 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne.. 6-79 
 Liverpool 4-14 . 
 
 .. 5-88 
 .. 3-70 
 
 ... 12-67 . 
 ... 7-84 . 
 
 .. 46-4 
 .. 47-1 
 
 Huddersfield 3-99 . 
 
 .. 3-46 
 
 ... 7-45 . 
 
 .. 46-4 
 
692 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 so far as is known, there is a larger attendance at such 
 classes in England and Wales than in any foreign country 
 in which attendance is voluntary. Second to England in this 
 regard stands France. But the weak spot in the system 
 of continuation schools both in France and England lies 
 in their failure to carry forward without break the in- 
 tellectual and moral discipline begun in the elementary 
 day school, to attendance at which alone, in both countries, 
 legal compulsion now applies. 
 
 In England and Wales the limits of compulsory atten- 
 dance at school vary (a minimum being laid down by 
 statute) according to the bye-laws of different districts. 
 The main provisions of the present law may be thus 
 summarised. 
 
 (a) Children may be employed in agriculture at the 
 age of eleven (if the local bye-laws contain a special 
 provision to this effect) provided that they attend school 
 250 times a year up to the age of thirteen. 
 
 (b) With this exception, no child under the age of 
 twelve can obtain either partial or total exemption from 
 the duty of attending school. 
 
 (c) A child between twelve and thirteen (or, if the 
 bye-laws so provide, between twelve and fourteen) can 
 only obtain total or partial exemption upon the conditions 
 which the bye-laws of the district prescribe. 
 
 (d) In those districts in which the bye-laws are still 
 restricted to children under thirteen years of age, a child 
 between thirteen and fourteen can obtain total exemption 
 either on passing the fourth standard or on having made 
 (since reaching the age of five years) 350 attendances in 
 not more than two schools during each year for five years, 
 whether consecutive or not. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 
 
 693 
 
 (e) A cliild Letween twelve and fourteen may claim 
 partial exemption (if such exemption is allowed by the 
 bye-laws of tbe district in which the child resides) on 
 having made 300 previous attendances in not more than 
 two schools during each year for five preceding years 
 whether consecutive or not. 
 
 The general effect of this complex system is illustrated 
 by the following table showing the proportion of the popu- 
 lation of England and Wales of elementary school age on 
 April 1, 1901, which was on the register of public 
 elementary schools in the year ending January 31, 1901, 
 these figures being taken as the nearest comparable to one 
 another. 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 and 
 
 under 4 
 
 ,. 5 
 
 „ 6 
 
 „ 7 
 
 „ 8 
 
 „ 9 
 
 „ 10 
 
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 „ 12 
 
 „ 13 
 
 „ 14 
 
 „ 15 
 
 „ 16 
 
 „ 17 
 
 Totals 
 
 CENSUS. 1 April 1, 1901. 
 
 Estimated Population in England 
 
 and Wales at each year of age. 
 
 Boys. Girls. Total. 
 
 357,881 
 361,731 
 344,861 
 346,327 
 347,433 
 346,726 
 342,512 
 325,967 
 334,449 
 329,213 
 336,080 
 332,578 
 328,482 
 336,180 
 
 359,959 
 362,455 
 348,027 
 347,016 
 347,958 
 348,345 
 343,993 
 327,450 
 335,903 
 330,130 
 335,632 
 332,931 
 337,400 
 344,703 
 
 717,840 
 724,186 
 692,888 
 693,343 
 695,391 
 695,071 
 686,505 
 653,417 
 670,352 
 659,343 
 671,712 
 665,509 
 665,882 
 680,883 
 
 Board op Education 
 Statistics. » 1900—1. 
 (YearendingJan.31,1901) 
 No. of children on School 
 registers on last day of 
 school-year. Boys and 
 Girls not given separately 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 Boys and population 
 Girls of that age 
 
 201,270 or 
 
 413,770 or 
 
 586,923 or 
 
 627,385 or 
 
 631,501 or 
 
 632,933 or 
 
 626,345 or 
 
 608,446 or 
 
 593,317 or 
 
 532,692 or 
 
 250,126 or 
 
 46,989 or 
 (15 or over) 
 
 6-446 or 
 
 4,770,420 4,801,902 9,572,322 5,758,143 
 
 2803% 
 5713% 
 84-7% 
 90-48% 
 9081% 
 91-06% 
 91-23% 
 9311% 
 88-5% 
 80-79% 
 37-23% 
 706% 
 
 -96% 
 (of pop. 
 between 
 (16—16) 
 
 1. Census of England and Wales, 1901. 
 Appendix A, Table 20, page 212. 
 
 2. Statistics of Elementary Day Schools, 
 Table 9, page 31. 
 
 General Report (Cd. 2174). 
 etc. (Cd. 1139), 1900-1. 
 
694 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 So far as we know, the attendance at the day school is 
 being prolonged to a more advanced age than was formerly 
 the case. The last figures are found in an appendix to 
 the Board of Education Report for 1904-5. But, they 
 have been left out of the Board's Report for the last year. 
 It is true that the arrangement of the figures was am- 
 biguous, but they were better than nothing, and all we can 
 now do is to fall back upon them, though they are getting 
 a little out of date. They seem to show that the number 
 of pupils who remain at the elementary schools till they 
 are between 13| and 14^ had more than doubled in the 
 ten years 1894 — 1903 inclusive. During the decade the 
 totals show steady annual increments from 135,524 to 
 298,775. This is satisfactory, and all the more so because 
 an increasing number of children pass on to secondary 
 schools at 12 years of age or earlier. ^ The number of 
 children leaving the public elementary schools between 
 14| and 15| years of age rose from 33,748 in 1894 to 
 
 1. All available evidence points to this conclusion, but the number of 
 pupils attending secondary schools in England is not precisely known. 
 The only comprehensive return in existence is that issued by the 
 Education Department in 1898 [cd. 8634. London . Wymans]. This 
 showed that on June 1, 1897, there were 291,544 pupils (158,502 boys; 
 133,042 girls) in the schools comprised in the return. But many schools 
 were included in it which (in point of the age of their pupils) were 
 elementary rather than secondary in character. During the years 1903-7 
 statistics have been published showing the total attendance of boys and 
 girls at secondary schools of all types in a number of selected areas. 
 For a summary of some of these, see Sadler Secondary and Higher 
 Education in Essex (County Education office, Chelmsford, 1906), page 7, 
 and the Kent Education Committee's Special Report on Higher Educa- 
 tion in Kent (Kent Education Committee, Caxton House, Westminster, 
 1906), page 9. The statistics issued annually by the Board of Education 
 are confined to those secondary schools which are in receipt of grants 
 from the Board of Education. Thus they omit the great Public Schools 
 and the private preparatory and many other schools. The number of 
 pupils in the state-aided secondary schools in England increased from 
 85,973 in 1903-4 to 94,698 in 1904-5. (Statistics of Public Education in 
 England and Wales, 1904^6, cd. 3255. London ; Wymans.) 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 695 
 
 47,681 in 1903.1 The last figure is 8-09 per cent, of the 
 total number of children who left public elementary- 
 schools in that year at the age of 10^ years and over. 
 
 The general result of these calculations may be stated 
 as follows. In England and Wales on April 1, 1901, 
 there were estimate to be 1,996,564 children between 12 
 and 15 years of age. In the school year ending January 
 31, 1901, there were on the public elementary school 
 registers on the last day of the school year 829,807 
 children between the same ages. This leaves a difference 
 of 1,166,757 to be accounted for. The number of children 
 between 12 and 15 who were in the secondary schools on 
 June 1, 1897, as shown by the " Return of Pupils in 
 Public and Private Secondary and Other Schools " ^ (the 
 only census of the kind to which we can refer) was 
 106,764. That return indeed was not exhaustive and 
 during the following years a great (but not fully recorded) 
 increase took place in the number of pupils in secondary 
 schools. It would, however, be sanguine to estimate that 
 the number was more than doubled. This leaves nearly a 
 million children between 12 and 15 who were not receiv- 
 ing education in day schools. But in the session 1902-3 
 the number of pupils between 12 and 15 years of age who 
 
 1. By Section 22 (2) of the Education Act 1902, it is provided that a 
 local education authority may furnish instruction in a public elementary 
 school to scholars who, at the close of the school year, will not be more 
 than 16 years of age. But with the consent of the Board of Education 
 the local authority may extend those limits in the case of any school if 
 no suitable higher education is available within a reasonable distance of 
 the school. 
 
 By Section 11 of the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act 1907 
 a local education authority has power to aid by scholarships and bursaries 
 the instruction in public elementary schools of scholars from the age of 
 twelve up to the limit of age fixed by the section quoted above from the 
 Education Act 1902. 
 
 These changes in the law have not yet had time to produce consider- 
 able results, but their probable effect will be an increase in the number 
 of elder scholars in many public elementary schpols. 
 
 2. C. 8634, 1898, p. 11. 
 
696 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 attended evening classes Tinder Government inspection 
 was only 147,191. Let us add about 50,000 (a generous 
 allowance) in order to cover those who were in classes 
 not included in the Government statistics. The conclu- 
 sion is that not more than one in five of the children in 
 England and Wales regularly attend the continuation 
 schools during the years immediately following the ele- 
 mentary day school courses. But a large proportion of 
 these children live in country cottages with no evening 
 school within convenient reach, or are otherwise so circum- 
 stanced that they could not fairly he expected to attend 
 an evening school during the winter months. It will he 
 fair, therefore, to state that not more than one out of every 
 three of the children in England and Wales, who might 
 be expected to do so, regularly attend a continuation 
 school during the years immediately following their course 
 at the elementary day school. This leakage is serious. 
 And there is some reason to fear that it is more serious 
 still. 
 
 But though there is practically no doubt about what is 
 happening, official statistics throw curiously little light 
 upon the exact state of the case. We need two tables — 
 one showing year by year the number of children who left 
 the public elementary schools, precisely classified accord- 
 ing to age ; the other showing year by year the number of 
 pupils (also classified according to each year of their age) 
 who were in attendance at continuation schools. In each 
 case boys and girls should be shown separately. The first 
 of these tables would show us whether the elementary 
 school leaving age is rising, and, if so, in what degree; 
 how many boys and girls leave between 12 and 13, how 
 many between 13 and 14, how many between 14 and 15, 
 and how many over 15. The second of the tables would 
 show how far the continuation schools dovetail into the 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 697 
 
 close of the elementary day scliool course and to what 
 extent the continuation schools catch the boys and girls 
 when their day-school course is over. But the statistics 
 of the Board of Education, admirable in nearly all 
 respects, fail to furnish us with this information, 
 necessary though it is to a clear knowledge of the social 
 and economic bearings of our present educational law. 
 There are no tables which give the precise number of the 
 ages of the pupils who have left the elementary schools 
 in each successive year; and the statistics giving the 
 number of pupils in attendance at continuation schools, 
 instead of showing the precise ages of the pupils, group 
 them under terms of years, viz., 12 — 15, 15 — 21, and over 21. 
 It is desirable that these groups should be broken up and 
 classified according to sex and to yearly intervals. As 
 things are, we cannot measure with any precision the 
 growth or decline of the number of those in attendance 
 at continuation schools during the years which follow the 
 close of the day-school course. The Board of Education 
 would render a great service by giving the country more 
 detailed statistical information about this frontier region, 
 in which elementary school life abuts upon the period 
 of early wage-earning and of adolescence. 
 
 In some towns successful efforts have been made to 
 strengthen the link between the elementary day schools 
 and the evening continuation schools. At Widnes about 
 four out of five boys who leave the day schools begin at 
 once to attend the evening schools. At Rochdale, during 
 the years 1905-7, 55 per cent, of the boys under 17 who 
 had left the day school, and 25 per cent, of the corres- 
 ponding category of girls, were in attendance at evening 
 classes. At Halifax about 58 per cent, of all the children 
 (boys and girls) who left the elementary day schools in 
 1906 joined the evening continuation schools within a 
 
698 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 year. At Littleborough, in the session 1906-7, half the 
 children (boys and girls) went on straight to the evening 
 classes on completing the elementary day school course. 
 These results show what can be done, even under our 
 system as it stands, by attentive and skilful administra- 
 tion and with the goodwill of the parents and of influential 
 employers of labour, to mortise the work of the con- 
 tinuation classes to that of the public elementary day 
 schools. Many local authorities and the representatives 
 of the Board of Education have worked' hard to improve 
 the intellectual efficiency and practical usefulness of the 
 evening classes. Public interest in the matter, especially 
 in Lancashire, in Cheshire and in the West Riding, has 
 recently become much keener than it used to be, and with 
 encouraging results. An increasing number of employers, 
 especially in the engineering trades, encourage their 
 younger workpeople to attend evening classes, and a 
 number of firms in other branches of industry have set 
 an excellent example by the care which they have shown 
 for the educational welfare of the lads and girls employed 
 by them.i There is every reason to believe that that 
 among thoughtful working men and women the conviction 
 grows that a more prolonged education, practical in its 
 methods but humanising in its ideals, is one of the 
 greatest boons which their children can receive. And 
 the moie intelligent among the young people themselves 
 are convinced that they have much to gain from a good 
 education. But in the great majority of English towns 
 the continuation schools are still in a disappointing state. 
 We are at present only ,at the beginning of what may 
 grow into a great movement of national opinion in favour 
 of improved education for the masses of the people. The 
 
 I. See Chapter VIII., and especially pp. 306—8. The reader will 
 understand that the list given in Chapter VlII. is very far from being 
 exhaustive. The employers who encourage their workpeople to attend 
 evening classes may now be numbered by hundreds 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 699 
 
 great majority of parents and employers are still in- 
 different. The old habit of mind, which led English 
 people to pay little heed to the power of education, is 
 hard to shake off. In some cases education is regarded 
 with hostility rather than with contempt. Many men 
 of the foremen class make difficulties in the way of lads 
 in the works getting opportunities for technical instruc- 
 tion. And in the course of our inquiry we heard of cases 
 in which boys had actually been threatened with dismissal 
 if they went to the evening school. 
 
 There is mischief in the present state of things, 
 moral mischief as well as physical and intellectual. 
 City life is making the danger worse. Unskilled 
 employment at thirteen with good money tempts a boy 
 like a baited trap. He is drawn into a way of life which 
 leaves him at sixteen or seventeen without a trade to 
 his fingers and with the habit of steady learning gone out 
 of his head. If we ask the elementary school master about 
 it, he says that much of what he and his colleagues have 
 succeeded in doing for such a boy disappears during the 
 two or three years immediately following the day school 
 course. If, on the other hand, we ask the teachers of the 
 technical evening classes, we find them hampered by the 
 fact that many of those who wish to enter have forgotten 
 much of the knowledge which they require as a foundation 
 for technical work. Thus, inquiries which begin at oppo- 
 site ends of the line lead to one and the same conclusion — 
 that the years between thirteen and sixteen or seventeen 
 are the point of educational leakage; that we have, as it 
 were, laid down a costly system of water supply, but have 
 left badly leaking pipes just behind the tap; and that some 
 change is needed in our educational regulations in order to 
 clench the work done in the elementary day schools and 
 to provide a sounder foundation for efficiency in skilled 
 trades and in the duties of home life. 
 
700 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 This is how the question presents itself to a group of 
 writers who well know the conditions of city life and the 
 nature of the London boy. 
 
 " The type that will be needed in the future is the type of skilled 
 and versatile minds; the problem of to-day is how we are to produce 
 this type. Will anyone who knows the town boy claim that we are 
 flow producing it ? Versatile he certainly is, but his is a superficial 
 and mercurial versatility, produced with fatal certainty by the unstable 
 life of the street. He is master of a thousand tricks . . . but in- 
 telligent he certainly is not, in the way he must be if he — and his 
 nation — are to prosper. It would be foolish to blame the elementary 
 schools for this; considering his difficulties — especially the migratory 
 habits of the families, and the necessarily large classes — the elementary 
 school teacher produces very wonderful results ; but the moral results 
 are perhaps more wonderful than the mental. And, however good 
 the teaching may be, however successfully the brighter children may 
 be taught a great deal more than is learned by the children of the 
 wealthier classes by the time they are fourteen, there can be no 
 question that the average boy, still more the stupid boy, is turned out 
 to live his life and earn his wage without the equipment he now 
 needs. His education stops at the most critical point ; he has not yet 
 learned to apply his little knowledge to any practical use; has not yet 
 brought it into rotation to any purpose — even an easy sum in arith- 
 metic, stated in an unaccustomed way, will seem to him insoluble,^ 
 and the habits of observation, of which the foundations have been 
 well enough laid in the school, soon fall to pieces for lack of continued 
 stimulus and training. His employment as errand boy or van boy, as 
 messenger, bottlewasher, or what not, sharpens his wits in a few 
 directions, but leaves his mind unworked in many and untrained in 
 all. At the age of eighteen, he is usually rather more ignorant than 
 he was at thirteen — a matter of small importance ; but also much less 
 capable of learning — a matter of the very greatest importance. Five 
 years of idleness has had its effect; half his mind, the working half, 
 has lost, not gained, in strength. How is this loss to be prevented? 
 . There is only one conclusion — either the day-school education 
 must be prolonged beyond the age of fourteen, or the evening school 
 must be made compulsory. Of the two alternatives the former is for 
 the present out of the question ; public opinion is not likely to agree 
 to raise the age limit still further for some years to come. There 
 remains, then, the second alternative, that evening schools should be 
 made compulsory for all boys and girls between the ages of fourteen 
 and seventeen who are not being efficiently taught during the day; 
 and this step we venture to advocate as strongly as possible, in the 
 interests both of the boys and girls of the present and of the citizens 
 and workers of the future.'" 
 
 In 1904 the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical 
 Deterioration came to the same conclusion, and stated it 
 in language which is less racy but more official. 
 
 " The period of adolescence is responsible for much 
 
 waste of human material and for the entrance upon 
 
 1. "Studies of Boy Life in our Cities." Edited by E. J. Urwick; 
 pp. 283—6. London: J. M. Dent & Co., 1904. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 701 
 
 maturity of permanently damaged and inefEective persona 
 of both sexes. The plasticity of the physical organization, 
 the power it possesses of yielding rapidly towards de- 
 generative or recuperative influences, appears to terminate 
 at eighteen, and the records of the years preceding that 
 age are in the great majority of cases decisive for self- 
 improvement or the reverse. Unfortunately, it is a period 
 of which too little account is taken. With the classes 
 under consideration, education in the ordinary sense of the 
 word is over just when in its full significance it becomes 
 most necessary. Parental discretion is almost entirely 
 absent, and in lieu of it very little supervision is exercised 
 in any other quarter over physical or moral development."^ 
 Part, at any rate, of our urgent difSciilty in regard 
 to unemployment (though no one, except perhaps the 
 members and investigators of the Poor Law Commision 
 can at present say with confidence whether the part is 
 small or large) is traceable to the fact that in large towns 
 great numbers of boys drift, after leaving the elementary 
 day schools, into occupations in which it is no one's 
 business to see that they get any technical or general 
 education which will help them to enter .a skilled trade 
 at Sixteen or seventeen. That some of the boys themselves 
 realise this may be shown by a piece of first hand evidence. 
 Mr. D. B. Kittermaster, who is in charge of the Shrews- 
 bury Lads' Club in Liverpool, set himself to ask the club- 
 members about their work for the purpose of a paper 
 which lie was under promise to read at the Congress of 
 the National League of Workers with Boys,^ held in 
 Manchester on November 26, 1906. A lad in the club 
 heard him asking questions and wanted to know why 
 
 1. Report of the Committee, vol. i, paragraph 366. London : Wyman 
 & Sons, 1904. Cd. 2175. 
 
 2. Hon Sec, Mr. J. H. Whitehouse. Toynbee Hall, Commercial St., 
 London E. 
 
702 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 he was doing it. Mr. Kittermaster explained. The hoy 
 at once demanded writing materials. " I'll write you a 
 paper on unemployment," he said. He produced the 
 following, which is all the more interesting because it 
 comes from a lad whose father is usually one of the 
 unemployed and who himself in the course of fifteen 
 months made trial at four different places of work. 
 
 " There would not have been half so many unemployed men walking 
 about the streets of our large towns as there are now, if those men, 
 when they were boys, were apprentices to some suitable trade. There 
 are at present in Liverpool many boys who work at coalyards for 
 seventy-six hours weekly, and also errand-boys who work nearly as 
 
 many hours as the above-mentioned By-and-by, as they 
 
 grow older, they just begin to realise their folly of not trying 
 to get a situation in which they might have learned a trade that 
 would have been some use to them in after life, instead of having 
 to go out and swell the ranks of the unemployed. Many of the boys 
 in Liverpool, as soon as they leave school, first look out for a, job as 
 a printer's errand-boy. After a while they get tired of that particular 
 job, and they either get dismissed or they leave. They go on like this 
 for a long time, until (say) they are about eighteen years of age, and 
 at that age they are too big to work as errand-boys, and they get 
 jobs as dock-labourers, or some join the Army or Navy." ' 
 
 In the discussion of the question of continuation schools 
 the special needs of girls must be remembered as well as 
 those of boys. Male administrators are a little apt to 
 overlook them. Some of the points which must be kept 
 in mind in considering the case of girls, have been well 
 put by Miss Catherine Webb, ex-secretary of the Women's 
 Industrial Council. 
 
 "The trend of our modern system of education has been to unfit 
 the working girl to take her natural place as the helpmeet of the 
 working-man, without fitting her for an independent economic and 
 civic responsibility. . . To-day the girl has become as much a wage- 
 asset to her parents as the boy. 
 
 " The education given has, admittedly, not been of a character to fit 
 girls tor skilled employments, and early wage-earning has prevented 
 them from learning at home the domestic arts which could make them 
 efiicient housewives. Their training as potential citizens has been 
 almost wholly neglected, both by parents and educationalists. After 
 the first careless years of maidenhood have passed no one deplores 
 more deeply than the working woman herself the errors of training 
 
 1. Saint George, January 1907, article " Unemployed and Boy 
 Labour," by D. B. Kittermaster. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 703 
 
 through which she is handicapped at every point. The valiant 
 struggles of the young untrained housewife to ' manage her household ' 
 and her husband's limited income to the ' best advantage ' are amongst 
 the unrecorded deeds of heroism which go to make our nation truly 
 great. They present the obverse of the dark picture of ignorance and 
 pitiful inefficiency which troubles us so deeply. 
 
 "Another remarkable change in the outlook of working women is 
 also worthy of more consideration than is given to it by the majority 
 of people. Through the associations of the work-room, of girls' clubs, 
 temperance and political organisations, trade unions, co-operative and 
 other mutual associations, a vigorous and by no means small minority 
 of working women have sought and found a system of self-education 
 in citizenship of a quality little short of marvellous considering their 
 initial disabilities. Economic responsibility as a wage-earner has 
 brought to working women a corresponding realisation of her civic 
 responsibility. 
 
 " The danger of reaction against which I wish to utter a word of 
 warning, lies in the neglect of this new economic value of girls, and 
 this new civic spirit in working women. In the well-meant desire to 
 promote the physical well-being of the nation, physicians and educa- 
 tionalists alike are inclined to insist that, willy-nilly, working-class 
 girls must specialise as housewives and mothers, whilst parents still 
 require that they shall become industrial wage-earners at the earliest 
 possible age. The consequence is an unrecognised clash of interests 
 between which the child is, in my opinion, likely to suffer, unless the 
 normal elementary school life can be made to overlap into the wage- 
 earning period, until the girl herself arrives at some intelligent 
 appreciation of the true meaning and intent of education and its bear- 
 ing upon her future life. This development rarely happens before 
 the age of sixteen, if as early. 
 
 "At present the control of the educational authority over the ele- 
 mentary school-girl ceases at the age of thirteen or fourteen, and for 
 the vast majority of children all definite mental training is then at 
 an end. What happens then is usually an interval of from six to 
 twelve months spent at home waiting for the fourteenth or fifteenth 
 birthday, when the factory, the shop or the ' place ' is open to receive 
 the worker. Sometimes the girl acquires a, certain store of household 
 handicraft — of a sort — at her mother's side; but more often she spends 
 the time in some form of unremunerated drudgery, losing the larger 
 portion of the mental training gained at school, and acquiring instead 
 an aimless vacuity of mind, restless improvident habits, and a distaste 
 for any form of mental exertion. She is fit only for one of the un- 
 skilled subordinate manufacturing processes waiting to use her labour 
 as that of a cheap machine. A few years of blighting factory life, 
 and the girl becomes the wife of some labouring man, and the mother 
 of children who perish in infancy, the while we rail at her complete 
 ignorance of the first laws of motherhood. 
 
 " My contention is that compulsory school life should not and need 
 not cease at the age of thirteen. It should be prolonged in the com- 
 pulsory continuation school up to the age of sixteen. All thought of 
 sex specialisation should be banished from the curriculum for children 
 under twelve, and only introduced in the broadest social sense after 
 that age. At fourteen, when the normal elementary school period 
 ends, the work of preparation for special duties may begin with 
 advantage in the day or evening continuation school; broadened and 
 steadied on an assured basis of character building through efficient 
 training in civic responsibility. A few years of this method and our 
 
704 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 industrial life would be free from the menace of cheap unintelligent 
 girl labour. One may even hope that a new appreciation of domestic 
 service as an industry might follow the training in the compulsory 
 continuation school, if, at the same time, self-respecting ideas con- 
 cerning the dignity of home life were inculcated. One of the most 
 curious social-industrial phenomena of our day is this revolt of the 
 working girl against the subordination of herself in domestic service, 
 whilst she rushes in her thousands into industries which subordinate 
 her to a machine. 
 
 " In making this plea for compulsory continuation schools I make no 
 claim to speak authoritatively concerning the past mistakes in our 
 elementary school methods. They are recognised by all educationalists, 
 they are f&lt by all workers. My only claim to a hearing is that of a 
 worker and a student of the industrial, economic and social conditions 
 surrounding the lives of women workers. I venture, however, to 
 assert that the comparatively less liberal standard of education deemed 
 fitting and sufficient for girls of all classes as compared with that 
 given to boys, is largely responsible for the admittedly lower standard 
 of efficiency required of girls as workers and the contemptuously 
 lower estimate in which they are held as citizens. 
 
 " If the State wants intelligent mothers to safeguard the health of 
 its future citizens the State must be prepared to meet the cost in no 
 niggardly spirit. The present disastrous educational gap between 
 childhood and early womanhood must somehow be bridged, and the 
 parents must be induced to forego some portion of the gains of 
 early wage-earning, and to co-operate with the physician and the 
 educationalist in preparing their girls for a worthy place in the social 
 life of the nation and in the democracy of labour." ' 
 
 At this point it is well to face a difficult question, 
 namely : Is the technical instruction given in evening 
 classes at technical institutes likely to be of any real 
 advantage to the great mass of labourers? Is it 
 from a sound instinct of its probable lack of practical 
 value to them that so many are indifferent to the oppor- 
 tunity of getting it? Many experienced men are of 
 opinion that under present conditions of employment a 
 very large proportion of labourers and other workers (men 
 and women) have no opportunity of applying scientific 
 principles to their work. They admit that from the point 
 of view of ultimate national welfare we may be sacrificing 
 human interests to the rapid production of what Ruskin 
 calls " possessive wealth," and neglecting to nourish that 
 truer form of wealth which is life, " life including all its 
 
 1. University Review, June 1906 : " The need for compulsory con- 
 tinuation schools. A plea on behalf of girls." 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 705 
 
 powers of love, of joy and of admiration."^ But they 
 hold that, as things are, technical education is for the 
 great multitude inevitably useless because the conditions 
 of work make it impossible for them to make scientific 
 application of it. " Give technical education " (they 
 argue) " to the future officers and non-commissioned 
 officers of industry. But for the rank and file it is dis- 
 cipline that is needed, not science." 
 
 It must be admitted that under, present conditions of 
 industrial organization the knowledge gained from courses 
 of technical instruction is not, in many cases, capable of 
 being directly applied to their work in the factory by 
 men or women engaged in some grades of labour. Yet 
 the conditions which cause this to be so are in some 
 measure psychological and alterable, and by no means 
 always economic or necessarily permanent. It is often 
 because employers and foremen (especially foremen) 
 and the leading workers in the workshop are not interested 
 in, or are sceptical of, the practical application of science 
 to industry and because they are indisposed to appreciate 
 the indirect and collateral value of such application, that 
 more opportunities are not found of making profitable use 
 of the results of technical education and also of profiting 
 by the adaptive and waste-saving habit of mind which 
 is the best result of a good scientific training. In a town 
 in Germany there is a technical class for stokers, and 
 the men who have gone through the course get good em- 
 ployment readily, because they are found to make more 
 economical use of the coal than those who have not been 
 so trained. It is in reducing the margin of waste — waste 
 of time and of effort as well as waste of material — that the 
 value of scientific training for the mass of workers will 
 
 1. Unto this Last, edition of 1877, p. 156. 
 2 T 
 
706 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 he found. And, thougli it may possibly be true that, in 
 some trades or in parts of some trades, tecbnical classes 
 are not of much direct value tO' the ordinary worker so 
 far as skill in his trade is concerned, it is in all cases 
 true that a worker will profit (if the conditions of em- 
 ployment are just) by the development of intellectual 
 power and general intelligence which will result from 
 a well-planned course of training. N^or must the ques- 
 tion be regarded only from the point of view of the 
 workshop or factory or farm. We have to think of 
 training the man and the citizen, not only of training 
 those dexterities which will secure rapid and profitable 
 production. " The great product of England," as 
 Creighton said, " is not so much its institutions, its empire, 
 its commerce or its literature as it is the individual 
 Englishman who is moulded by all these influences and 
 is the ulti7nate test of their value."^ 
 
 In certain trades, the practical instruction which can 
 be given under the somewhat artificial conditions of the 
 technical school is admitted to be of direct practical value 
 in wage-earning to workers of all grades. ^ This is the 
 case, for example, in the cabinet making trades, in some 
 branches of metal working, and in dressmaking and 
 millinery. The observation is true of all industries in 
 which artistic skill finds scope, or might find scope, in 
 the actual work of those persons who are engaged in 
 making things. But under conditions of factory pro- 
 duction for a keenly competitive market, such oppor- 
 tunities are comparatively rare, so far as the rank and 
 file of the workers are concerned. And this would prove 
 a difficulty in the way of the planning useful courses of 
 
 1. Romanes Lectures, 1896, "English National Character." 
 
 2. In another department of technical education, this holds good of 
 shorthand and typewriting. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 707 
 
 technical instruction, not as at present for a self -selecting 
 minority bnt for nearly all the male population of between 
 fourteen and seventeen years of age. It does not follow, 
 however, that methods even of factory production need 
 he even for the rank and file as devoid of artistic oppor- 
 tunity, as is now usually the case. The nature of demand 
 affects the conditions of supply. The two things inter-act. 
 Improve the quality of the demand and you influence the 
 conditions of production under which the demand is 
 met. It will be agreed that the more callings a nation 
 offers in which artistic power and individual gift can 
 show and exert themselves in constructive work, the higher 
 is likely to be the plane to which, if they have character 
 and refining ideals and economic opportunity, the masses 
 of a people may rise. " Men who have no pleasure in 
 the work by which they make their bread, will look to 
 wealth as the only means of pleasure." As Euskin said, 
 it is not through the degradation of the operative into a 
 machine that nations win the kind of wealth that is most 
 worth the winning. 
 
 In many of its new developments, however, modem 
 machine-industry does not by any means necessarily 
 degrade the operative into a machine. On the contrary, 
 one of its chief characteristics is to sieve out the workers 
 into grades according to the degree in which they possess 
 the required kinds of ability and alertness. An automatic 
 machine does not want mere automata to look after it. 
 It sifts the workers according to their capacity of skilfully 
 watchful service. There is a greater demand than ever 
 for m.en possessing good judgment, trustworthiness of 
 character and the power of dealing intelligently and 
 thoughtfully with new conditions. In fact one of our 
 most pressing problems is how to deal with the human 
 waste which has come about through the discarding of 
 
708 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the services of workers unable to adjust themselves to the 
 new requirements. The characteristic quality which has 
 most " selection-value " under the most advanced con- 
 ditions of modern industry is an adaptive mind anchored 
 to a rock of moral principle. This is the characteristic 
 quality which a well-planned course of education, com- 
 bining discipline and stimulus, can develop in those whose 
 inbred capacities respond to such a training. It is for 
 this reason that by a sure instinct the thoughtful members 
 of the working classes are beginning to demand for their 
 children a more effective and prolonged course of school 
 training than they themselves received. They know 
 that under modem conditions scientiiic training in 
 the technical class, if it has been preceded by an intellec- 
 tually thorough and stimulating course of general educa- 
 tion, fits young people of both sexes, provided they have 
 intelligence and character, for promotion to more respon- 
 sible positions, because it makes them quicker in per- 
 ception, more self-adaptive, and more balanced in prac- 
 tical judgment. Many of the skilled workers believe 
 that the period of compulsory attendance at the day 
 school should be extended first to 15 and ultimately to 16 
 years of age, the course of training during the last three 
 years to consist largely, though not exclusively, of hand- 
 work of different kinds. If such a plan were economically 
 possible (a point in regard to which opinion is divided) 
 it would be desirable on educational grounds. But any 
 such extension of the period of compulsory attendance at 
 the day schools would press heavily upon the poorer 
 families, especially on those engaged in unskilled labour, 
 unless it were accompanied by very large expenditure 
 on maintenance allowances, an expenditure which would 
 form a charge on public funds so heavy as perhaps to be 
 prohibitive. The public advantage, however, of securing 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 709 
 
 for tlie rising generation a prolonged and suitable course 
 of training in day schools would be very great, mueli 
 greater indeed than that wbicli would result from requir- 
 ing attendance at evening schools after working hours are 
 over. The feasibility of the plan, therefore, calls for 
 careful inquiry and detailed discussion. It cannot be said 
 that public opinion is at present ripe for any such exten- 
 sive change, but as the economic and social value of 
 improved national education is more clearly realised many 
 diflSculties which now look serious may prove to be not 
 insuperable. Possibly some carefully devised plan of 
 half-time attendance at day continuation schools between 
 the ages of fourteen and sixteen may be found practicable. 
 There are, at present, many trades or parts of trades 
 in which boy or girl labour is employed in ways involving 
 premature strain, arrested education and long hours of 
 deteriorating routine. In some of these cases it is the 
 workmen, and not the employer, who engage and employ 
 these boy and girl workers. But the evil consequences 
 are the same. Custom and habit of mind may prevent 
 us from realising the social injury which is being done by 
 such employment, in many cases (it should never be for- 
 gotten) without those who are directly responsible being 
 conscious of the mischief caused by their action. Yet 
 this use of adolescent labour, unless accompanied by much 
 educational care and regulation, interrupts at a critical 
 point the course of physical, intellectual and moral de- 
 velopment which is required to produce the efficient adult 
 citizen. In other words, it wastefuUy interferes with a 
 course of development which it is the main task and 
 purpose of civilised government to shelter and promote. 
 Such forms or conditions of employment may be imme- 
 diately profitable to some individuals or groups of in- 
 dividuals, but are parasitic upon the national life as they 
 
710 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 inflict grave and irreparable loss upon the young people 
 concerned and upon the community to which they belong. 
 They injure the young people by depriving them, at the 
 most critical period in their life, of the further training 
 necessary to qualify them for skilled employment. They 
 injure the community in two ways : first, by depriving it of 
 the full increase in economic eflS.ci'ency which might result 
 from the public outlay upon education, if the course of 
 training were not brought to a premature close; and, 
 secondly, by increasing the number of persons who become 
 once more a charge upon the community at a time of life 
 when they might have continued capable of self-support- 
 ing industry. 1 
 
 In England public opinion on educational matters has 
 of late been moving in a new and more hopeful direction. 
 There has been a significant change in our attitude of 
 mind. 
 
 First, the importance of the physical condition of the 
 children is becoming more prominent in our thought 
 about the scope and purpose of school work. Book- 
 learning is seen to be only part, and not always the 
 most important part, of a good school training. Science 
 is making us realise that hitherto we have paid far too 
 little regard to the physical side of education and to 
 the connection between the mind and the body. 
 
 Secondly, the stint of education which, till lately, was 
 thought sufficient for the masses of the people is beginning 
 to look meagre and inadequate. We do not forget the 
 great work which, through the devotion of teachers and 
 managers and members of education authorities, the 
 public elementary schools have accomplished for England 
 during the last twenty years. But we are becoming con- 
 
 1. Cp. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Industrial Democracy, pp. 749 — 
 753, and Introduction to the 1902 -edition, pp. liv — Ivi. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 711 
 
 vinced that tlie time lias come for a further advance. 
 All the children in the nation (and not least those who 
 are growing up under adverse conditions of home life) 
 should be given the good foundation of a liberal training 
 — a training which will invigorate and discipline the 
 bodily powers, touch and cultivate the imagination and 
 the sympathies, and help in forming a purposeful, stead- 
 fast and disinterested character. But this cannot be done 
 unless every child remains at school till fourteen at least 
 (a much higher limit of exemption being desirable, if 
 economically possible), and unless the elementary schools 
 are well staffed and the large classes reduced in size. 
 
 Thirdly, the national aspect of the problem of education 
 stands out more clearly year by year. We see that 
 education is but one aspect of a many sided social problem. 
 Our notion of what is a fitting system of education de- 
 pends upon our social ideal. In our national life there 
 has to. be both freedom and discipline. Therefore, a 
 sound system of national education must endeavour to 
 produce vigorous personalities prepared to submit them- 
 selves to the claims of national service — a service which 
 should embrace a variety of forms of social duty, practi- 
 cally and morally ameliorative, as well as, in the 
 narrower sense of the word defensive. Education should 
 favour the development of individuality and of strong 
 personal conviction upon th* deeper matters of life and 
 duty, but it is not less essential toi stir up thTough national 
 education a sense of national duty and of obligation 
 towards the State. 
 
 Thus, greater stress than heretofore is likely to be laid 
 upon these three things — the physical side of education; 
 the national and collective (as distinguished from the 
 purely individual) advantage which is derived from the 
 healthy and intelligent upbringing of the children and 
 
712 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 youth of the people; and the urgency of the need for 
 better and more systematic training for the duties of 
 citizenship and for home-making and family claims — a 
 training which must consist of a sufficiently long course 
 of liberal education, blended towards its end with the 
 practical duties of life, whether in the workshop or tJie 
 home. 
 
 Beyond doubt there has been a quickening of the sense 
 of educational responsibility in England. We realise, 
 more clearly than heretofore, how critical, alike in their 
 effect upon physical health and upon character, are the 
 years of adolescence, and how much more might be wisely 
 done, by private effort and by public authority, to ward 
 off the perils by which, in unwatched and unguided lives, 
 those years are beset. 
 
 These new currents of national thought and feeling 
 converge upon the problem of the continuation school — 
 that is, upon the difficult question, what kind of educa- 
 tional care it is expedient that the community should 
 extend over boys and girls during the three or four critical 
 years immediately following the close of their present 
 day-school course. 
 
 The evidence before us points to the conclusion that 
 this problem cannot be satisfactorily salved without (1) 
 further limitation of the hours of juvenile and adolescent 
 labour, (2) the imposing upon employers legal obligations 
 in regard to the further education of their younger work- 
 people, and (3) trenchant interference with certain forms 
 of industry which are parasitic upon the body politic. 
 
 These conclusions, however, have special reference to 
 the needs of industrial and commercial districts. In the 
 rural districts the conditions are different. We have seen 
 that the present trend of educational thought is towards 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 713 
 
 some form of training in which practical employment is 
 combined with part-time instruction. Agricultural call- 
 ings lend themselves naturally to such an arrangement. 
 Half-time work in the open air is healthy for growing 
 boys and girls, if the labour is not too arduous and if 
 the conditions of work are really educational and morally 
 elevating. It is to be feared, however, that in many rural 
 districts in England the conditions of field work are at 
 present far from being either morally elevating for boys 
 and girls or, in any true sense of the word, educational. 
 The worst evil in many English villages is a low moral 
 tradition which injures boys and girls alike. And many 
 who employ them have in view cheap labour, not the 
 careful training of the next generation of workers in the 
 land. Great numbers of tenant farmers of the old- 
 fashioned type are hostile to anything which will make 
 the labourer more independent, and they regard what 
 has too long passed under the name of " education " as 
 a cause of unsettlement and difficulty rather than of 
 increased efficiency and skill. How far the prevalence 
 of this view of the matter is due to the unsatisfactory 
 results of the poorer sort of village school ; how far to the 
 influence of social prejudices connected with the English 
 system of land tenure; how far to the farmer's own de- 
 ficiencies in regard to education ; and how far to economic 
 embarrassment caused by a long struggle against the 
 competition of imported foodstuffs, are questions upon 
 which judgments differ widely. Whatever the cause, the 
 educational opportunities of most English rural districts 
 are, as a rule, far below the level of those which an 
 intelligent town workmen would wish his children to 
 enjoy. They are also, as a rule, quite insufficient for 
 the training of a generation of country workers capable 
 of that concerted action, based upon mutual trust and 
 
714 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 enligliteiied by science, which is the secret of the success 
 (under favourable economic conditions) of prosperous agri- 
 cultural communities in Denmark to Germany. We 
 cannot be surprised, therefore, at the pretty general failure 
 of continuation school work in most rural districts in 
 England. The young people grow up in an atmosphere 
 which, as a rule, nips educational ambitions in the bud. 
 What is really wanted in most country districts is a new 
 attitude of mind towards education. There is all the 
 difference in the world between the way in which the 
 Danish agricultural communities and the English look 
 upon educational organisation and opportunities. 
 
 On the other hand, there are reasons for encouragement 
 and hope. If educational opportunities are adequately 
 organised and if the social atmosphere is invigorating 
 and conducive to independence of character, it is far 
 better for children to grow up in the country than under 
 the artificial conditions of city life. For the im- 
 provement of methods of teaching in rural schools 
 more has been done in the last ten years than 
 in the previous fifty. The Board of Education and 
 many of the County Education Authorities have encour- 
 aged practical studies in country day schools with energy 
 and success. Continuation schools are by no means uni- 
 versally a disappointing failure. In Cambridgeshire, for 
 example, there is an evening school in every second 
 parish. The local influence of such a school as the Lady 
 Manners School at Bakewell, in Derbyshire, gradually 
 changes the point of view from which farmers look upon 
 secondary education. They see the benefit that their 
 sons and daughters gain from good teaching. No State 
 in North America is more convinced from practical ex- 
 perience of the value of education, none more liberal in 
 the public support of it, than the farming State of 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 715 
 
 Wisconsin. The advantages of the consolidated schools 
 which have been established in many rural districts of the 
 United States (notably in Ohio and in Massachusetts) and 
 in each province of the Dominion of Canada through the 
 munificence of Sir William Macdonald and the educa- 
 tional insight of Professor Robertson, are realised by an 
 increasing number of administrators in our agricultural 
 counties. The wort of the People's High Schools in 
 Denmark has become widely known and is heartily ad- 
 mired. Hundreds of country clergymen are, as they long 
 have been, the unwearied friends of the village school. 
 And the town populations are beginning to realise that an 
 intelligent and prosperous country side is a necessary part 
 of national welfare and a reservoir from which urban 
 England may draw supplies of strength. The time is 
 ripe in England for a few striking object lessons in the 
 equipment and staffing of highly efficient rural schools. 
 Three or four such working experiments in different parts 
 of an agricultural county would set people thinking and 
 diffuse a new idea of the part which well-planned education 
 can play in furthering the interests of agriculture and of 
 country life. Motor transport may help towards a solu- 
 tion of the difficulty of bringing elder children from a 
 group of villages to a central school. At present there 
 is great waste of intellectual power in English rural 
 districts through the inadequate staffing of the upper 
 classes in the elementary schools. The Board of Educa- 
 tion is not unlikely to encourage in English rural schools 
 the " supplementary classes " which have proved success- 
 ful in Scotland. If the Government grants were propor- 
 tionate to the real working cost of such institutions, higher 
 elementary schools with an appropriate curriculum might 
 do for some country neighbourhoods what the ecoles 
 primaires superieures have done (though less effectively 
 
7i6 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 than miglit liave been hoped) in some parts of rural France. '^ 
 And the system of excusing pupils from school attendance 
 during several summer months, on condition that they con- 
 tinue day-school attendance during the winter up to a much 
 later age than is now required, deserves a trial wherever 
 the schools are sufficiently well staffed to ensure a suitable 
 training for such elder pupils. When these preliminary 
 steps have been taken, the fortunes of the rural continua- 
 tion schools will grow brighter. What is needed is a 
 comprehensive treatment of the whole problem of rural 
 education in England. Administrative improvement must 
 be accompanied by a vigorous propaganda and by materi- 
 ally increased subsidy from the State. At present, many 
 rural districts in England cannot possibly afford to pro- 
 vide out of local rates the kind of education which the 
 people need and which, when they learnt its benefits, they 
 would heartily appreciate. 
 
 There is good ore in the country districts, but it is not 
 being properly worked. It is to the national interest that it 
 should be worked energetically and well. The children in 
 our villages, in spite of all the educational advantages of 
 country life, have but slender opportunities compared with 
 those enjoyed by their contemporaries in the large towns. 
 In the re-organisation of schools now going forward in 
 England, it is just that country-bred children should have 
 a better share. Modern business of all kinds, agricultural 
 and urban alike, demands the power of organization. 
 The welfare of an agricultural community under 
 modern conditions depends in great measure upon readi- 
 ness to combine, upon the prompt and intelligent use of 
 scientific methods of organization, and upon co-operative 
 effort in putting produce upon the market at the right 
 
 1. "Special Reports on Educational Subjects," vol. vii (1902). "Rural 
 Education in France," by Cloudesley Breretou and J. C. Medd, pp. 
 182—192 and 302—4. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 717 
 
 time, in convenient and attractive forms, in sufficiently 
 large quantities to secure cheap rates of carriage, and 
 witli a steady maintenance of even quality. It will 
 therefore be a chief part of the task of rural education 
 in England and elsewhere to induce, in place of the old 
 temper of isolated effort, the new spirit of association and 
 of mutual trust. In order to accomplish this, the schools 
 must be intellectually stimulating, scientific in method 
 and skilful in the combination of hand work with literary 
 training. But their greatest task will lie in moral train- 
 ing and in forming in the hearts of young people a definite 
 moral ideal of individual duty performed for the common 
 good. A training of this kind, however, must extend 
 beyond the ordinary limits of attendance at the elementary 
 day school. It will involve a continuance of educational 
 care during adolescence. And, as in Denmark, it may 
 lead to some form of adult schools for young men and 
 young women engaged in agriculture. 
 
 The answer to the first of the three questions propounded 
 in this chapter seems therefore to be that it is desirable 
 to encourage increased attendance at continuation schools 
 in England both in town and country, but that in order 
 to secure this four things will be found necessary — the 
 power of a social ideal, an active propaganda inspired by 
 that ideal, further limitation of the hours during which 
 young people are employed and considerable improvement 
 in the ordinary conditions in which the work of the 
 elementary day schools is at present done. 
 
 2. Is it desirable to extend to continuation schools the 
 principle of compulsory attendance ? 
 
 During the last few years four Bills, dealing with com- 
 pulsory attendance at continuation schools, have been 
 introduced into Parliament. 
 
7i8 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 (i.) The first was that introduced in the House of Lords 
 in July, 1904, by the Bishop of Hereford, Dr. Percival.^ 
 It proposed to give power to local education authorities 
 to make total or partial exemption from attendance at a 
 public elementary day school conditional, in the case of 
 boys or girls, on their attending some recognised evening 
 continuation school or class until they should attain the 
 age of sixteen years, or should reach (in reading, writing 
 and arithmetic) " the standard of Standard VII as fixed 
 by the elementary day school code." The Bill proposed 
 to fix twelve as the minimum age for total exemption 
 from attendance at a public elementary school in the case 
 of boys who had definite agricultural or horticultural em- 
 ployment and whose parents desired that they should be 
 so employed, provided that boys so exempted should attend 
 some recognised evening continuation school for at least 
 three evenings a week from October to March inclusive 
 (with a total number of attendances equal to ninety 
 hours), until they should attain the age of sixteen years. 
 Any failure so to attend an evening continuation school 
 was to necessitate their return to the day school until 
 they should attain the age of fourteen or reach the 
 required standard. The term " evening continuation 
 school " or " class " was defined to mean " a school or 
 class meeting at or after six o'clock; or on Saturday or 
 a,ny other day observed in the locality as a half-holiday, 
 at or after two o'clock in the afternoon ; or at such earlier 
 hour as may in any particular case be allowed by the 
 Board of Education." But it was provided that " if 
 the parent of the boy or girl so requires, attendances at 
 a Sunday school or Bible class not exceeding in the 
 aggregate thirty hours' duration in any one year shall 
 
 1. Bill 161, 1904. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 719 
 
 be reckoned for the purpose of calculating the required 
 number of attendances, as if they were attendances at an 
 evening continuation school or class." The administrative 
 machinery of the Bill was as follows : — ^Whenever a boy 
 or girl became subject to an obligation to attend an 
 evening continuation school or class in accordance with 
 the conditions on which total or partial exemption from 
 day school attendance was granted, the local authority 
 would be required to grant tO' the boy or girl in question a 
 certificate, to be called a " continuation school certificate." 
 This certificate would remain in force for three months, 
 but was to be renewable from time to time by the school 
 inspector for the area in which the boys or girl resided 
 or was employed. Before renewing the certificate the 
 inspector would be required to satisfy himself that the 
 holder had made the prescribed number of attendances at 
 the continuation school during the year. The certificate 
 thus renewed was not in any case to remain in force for 
 more than five months, at the end of which period the 
 inspector would again assure himself whether the required 
 attendance at the continuation school had been raade. 
 It was provided that no person should employ any boy 
 or girl who might be required under the Act to attend 
 an evening continuation school, unless the boy or girl 
 should hold, diiring the time of the employment, a con- 
 tinuation school certificate. Employers were also for- 
 bidden to employ such boys and girls in a manner which 
 would prevent them from attending the continuation 
 school. The penalty proposed was a fine not exceeding 
 forty shillings for each offence; but it was provided that 
 no person should be deemed to have acted in contravention 
 of the law if it were proved to the satisfaction of the 
 court that there was no evening continuation school, which 
 the boy or girl could attend, within a distance of one 
 
720 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 mile and a half, measured according to the nearest road, 
 from his or her residence. Subject to these conditions, 
 attendance at an evening continuation school was to be 
 enforced in the same manner as attendance at a public 
 elementary school. The Bill also provided that " A local 
 education authority shall take care to make the m.ethods 
 of teaching in evening continuation schools bright, in- 
 teresting and instructive, and adapted to the practical 
 needs of the scholars; and the Board of Education, in 
 making any grant in respect of any such school, shall 
 take into consideration whether the authority have com- 
 plied with this direction." It was further provided that 
 the Board of Education should, by order, make regula- 
 tions for the examination of any boy or girl attending an 
 evening continuation school or class and desiring to reach 
 the required standard, and that the persons having the 
 management of the school or class should comply with 
 regulations so made. 
 
 (ii.) In 1905, Mr. Lambert and others introduced in 
 the House of Commons a Bill ^ on lines similar to those 
 previously adopted by the Bishop of Hereford. The 
 minimum amount of attendances at a continuation school 
 for boys exempted at twelve years of age from day school 
 attendance for " definite and regular agricultural employ- 
 mient " (horticultural employment not being referred to), 
 was reduced from three to two evenings a week and from 
 a total of ninety hours of instruction to seventy. The 
 section as to the method of teaching in continuation 
 schools was omitted, and there was substituted for it a 
 clause providing that " a special grant, not exceeding 
 fifty per cent, of the cost, shall be made to local education 
 authorities by the Board of Education towards the ex- 
 penses incurred in the formation of continuation school 
 1. Bill 168, of 1905. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 721 
 
 gardens and in the proper equipment of continuation 
 schools with apparatus, models and specimens suitable to 
 the instruction to be given in them and in the gardens, 
 provided that (1) the methods of instruction are adapted 
 to the practical needs of the scholars, and (2) the estimated 
 cost and full particulars are submitted to and sanctioned 
 by the Board of Education." The provision that atten- 
 dance at a Sunday school or Bible class should be reckoned 
 as equivalent to part of the required attendances at a 
 continuation school was omitted. 
 
 (iii.) In 1906, Sir John Brunner and others introduced 
 in the House of Commons the Education Acts Amendment 
 Bill.i This Bill differed from that introduced by Mr. 
 Lambert in the previous session (1) by the omission of 
 the section which allowed partial exemption from day 
 school attendance to be made conditional on attendance 
 at a continuation school, (2) by the omission of the 
 section providing for the examination of boys and girls 
 attending evening continuation schools, and (3) by the 
 omission of any definition of a standard of attainment in 
 reading, writing and arithmetic required to be attained 
 by pupils attending continuation schools as a condition 
 of partial or total exemption.^ 
 
 (iv.) In 1907, the Education (Scotland) Bill,^ introduced 
 in the House of Commons by Mr. Sinclair and the Lord 
 Advocate on behalf of the Government but subsequently 
 dropped, contained two important sections dealing with 
 
 1. Bill 220, 1906. 
 
 2. A letter by Mr. J. C. Medd in support of the principle of Sir J. 
 Brunner's Bill appeared in the Spectator of September 28th, 1906. 
 Appended to it was the following editorial note : " We are convinced 
 that the need of continuation schools to supplement our present system 
 of elementary schools is a vital one. We sincerely trust that the principles 
 underlying Sir John Brunner's Bill may be accepted. We would follow 
 the continuation school by three months' military training." 
 
 3. Bill 130, 1907. 
 2 U 
 
722 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the question of attendance at continuation schools. The 
 clauses are as follows : — 
 
 7. — (1) It shall be lawful for a school board in granting exemption 
 from the obligation to attend school to children under section three of 
 the Education (Scotland) Act, 1901, to impose as a, condition of such 
 exemption (in addition to any other lawful conditions) 
 
 (a) attendance at a day school, or 
 
 (6) where a suitable continuation class is provided, attendance at a 
 continuation class 
 after the age of fourteen, and until such age not exceeding seventeen as 
 the school board shall think fit, and that for such part of the year in 
 the case of a day school or for such number of attendances in the case 
 of a continuation class as the school board shall prescribe. 
 
 (2) If any person knowingly employs a young person above the age of 
 fourteen at any time when his attendance is required by a condition 
 imposed under this section at a day school or a continuation class, he 
 shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding forty 
 shillings, or in case of a second or subsequent offence not exceeding 
 five pounds. 
 
 (3) If any parent or guardian of a young person above the age of 
 fourteen by wilful default or by habitually neglecting to exercise due 
 care has conduced to the commission of an alleged offence under the 
 immediately preceding subsection or otherwise to failure on the part of 
 the young person to attend at a day school or a continuation class at a 
 time when his attendance is required by » condition imposed under this 
 section, he shall be liable on summary conviction to the like penalty. 
 
 8. — (1) It shall be lawful for a school board from time to time to 
 make, vary, and revoke byelaws for requiring the attendance at con- 
 tinuation classes until the age of seventeen of young persons who are not 
 otherwise receiving a suitable education, and that at such times and for 
 such periods as may in such byelaws be specified : 
 
 Provided that no young person shall be required to attend a continua- 
 tion class held beyond two miles measured along the nearest road from 
 the residence of such young person. 
 
 (2) Byelaws so made shall not take effect unless and until they have 
 been submitted to and confirmed by the Department, who are hereby 
 empowered to allow, or disallow the same, as they may think proper, 
 nor shall any such byelaws be confirmed — 
 
 Unless notice of intention to apply for confirmation of the same has 
 been given in one or more of the newspapers circulated within or by 
 handbills posted throughout, the district to which such byelaws 
 relate, one month at least before the making of such application; 
 and 
 Unless for one month at least before any such application is considered 
 a copy of the proposed byelaws has been kept at the office of the 
 school board and has been open during office hours thereat to the 
 inspection of the ratepayers of the district to which such byelaws 
 relate, without fee or reward. 
 Any person aggrieved by any proposed byelaw, or by any proposed 
 alteration of a byelaw, may within such last-mentioned month, forward 
 notice of his objection to the Department, which shall consider the same 
 before granting confirmation. 
 
 The clerk of the school board shall, on the application of any such 
 ratepayer, furnish him with a copy of such proposed byelaws or any 
 part thereof, on payment of sixpence for every hundred words contained 
 in such copy. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 723 
 
 A byelaw when confirmed by the Department shall not require con- 
 firmation, allowance, or approval by any other authority. 
 
 (3) If any person knowingly employs a young person at any time 
 when his attendance is by any such byelaw required at a continuation 
 class he shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding 
 forty shillings, or in case of a second or subsequent offence not exceeding 
 five -pounds. 
 
 (4) If any parent or guardian of a young person by wilful neglect, or 
 by habitually neglecting to exercise due care, has conduced to the com- 
 mission of an alleged offence under the immediately preceding subsection, 
 or otherwise to failure on the part of the young person to attend a 
 continuation class as required in any such byelaw, he shall be liable on 
 summary conviction to the like penalty. 
 
 (5) Title Department shall not allow any byelaw unless they are 
 satisfied that there is a suitable provision of continuation classes within 
 the parish or burgh to which it bears to be applicable. 
 
 (6) The production of a written or printed copy of a byelaw, if 
 authenticated by the signature of the clerk to the school board, shall, 
 until the contrary is proved, be sufficient evidence of the due making 
 and existence of the byelaw, and, if it is so stated in the copy, of the 
 byelaw having been allowed by the Department. 
 
 9. All prosecutions for offences under either of the two immediately 
 preceding sections of this Act shall take place before the sheriff in the 
 manner provided by the Stunmary Jurisdiction Acts, and penalties shall 
 be recoverable by imprisonment in terms of those Acts. ' 
 
 The expression " continuation class " means a class conducted in 
 accordance with the Code of Regulations of the Department for 
 classes providing further instruction for pupils who have left school : 
 
 The proposals thus made in a succession of Parlia- 
 mentary Bills show that in Great Britain there is a 
 current of opinion in favour of requiring attendance at 
 continuation schools during the years following the ele- 
 mentary day school course. There have been many other 
 signs of the same trend of thought. 
 
 In 1904, the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical 
 Deterioration recommended (1) that boys should be 
 obliged to attend continuation classes in which drill 
 and physical exercises should take a prominent place, 
 and (2) that, subject to the exercise of a judicious discre- 
 tion on the part of the school authority, the attendance of 
 girls should be made obligatory, twice a week during cer- 
 iain months of the year. In the girls' classes the course 
 •of instruction should include (o) physical exercises of a 
 recreative character and (6) teaching in domestic hygiene, 
 ■" including the preparation of food, the practice of house- 
 
724 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 hold cleanliness, the tendance and feeding of young 
 children, the proper requirements of a family as to 
 clothing, everything, in short, that would equip a young 
 girl for the duties of a housewife." ^ 
 
 In May, 1904, on the motion of Sir Henry Hibbert, the 
 Blackburn and District Chamber of Commerce adopted a 
 resolution to the effect that " the time has arrived 
 when steps should be taken to ensure a period of attend- 
 ance at evening continuation classes in the case of all 
 scholars under 17 years of age who are not in attendance 
 at a day school. The Blackburn Chamber of Commerce 
 has given close and careful attention to the question of 
 evening continuation school education, and is firmly con- 
 vinced that a large proportion of the money spent on the 
 scholars in the elementary day schools of England and 
 Wales is wasted owing to the fact that the education of a 
 large proportion of these children actually ceases when they 
 leave the elementary day school. . . . The main advantages 
 to be derived from the legalising of our resolution 
 would be, first, the prevention of a great waste of public 
 money; second, an improvement in the general education 
 of our people; third, a diminution of the loafers at our 
 street corners; fourth, the cultivation at a critical age 
 of wholesome discipline and restraint." 
 
 In March, 1905, the Monmouthshire Education Com- 
 mittee resolved " that attendance should be made com- 
 pulsory at evening classes for all boys under 16 years of 
 age, for two nights per week and for not less than one and 
 a half hours per night." 
 
 In June, 1906, on the motion of Col. Fishwick, of 
 Rochdale, the Association of Education Committees re- 
 solved 
 
 1. Report, vol. i, paragraphs 230, 372 and 380. London : Wyman & 
 Sons, 1904. Cd. 2175. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 725 
 
 (a) That every child under fourteen should be rec[uired by law to 
 
 attencf school every time and the whole time the school is 
 open. 
 
 (b) That no person under sixteen should be entirely exempt from 
 
 the obligation to attend for instruction at classes held either 
 during tiie day or the evening. 
 
 (Carried by 496 votes to 50.) 
 
 In July, 1906, at the largely attended annual conference 
 of school managers and teachers in Surrey, a resolution 
 was carried by an overwhelming majority in favour of 
 making attendance at continuation classes twice a week 
 during the winter months obligatory on all boys and girls 
 up to seventeen years of age, and of placing all employers 
 of young persons under seventeen under a statutory ob- 
 ligation so to arrange their hours of labour as to enable 
 the pupils to attend continuation classes without undue 
 fatigue. 
 
 Mention should also be made of some weighty expres- 
 sions of individual opinion. Mr. and Mrs. "Webb, in 
 the 1902 edition of their Industrial Democracy write as 
 follows : " We see no reason why the present prohibition 
 to employ a boy in a factory or workshop for more than 
 thirty hours in a week should not be extended to all 
 occupations and at least up to the age of eighteen. The 
 twenty or thirty hours per week thus saved from indus- 
 trial employment should be compulsorily devoted to a 
 properly organised course of physical training and tech- 
 nical education, which could, under such circumstances, 
 be carried out with a thoroughness and efficiency hitherto 
 undreamt of. Meanwhile, employers would remain free 
 to engage boys but, as they could get them only for half- 
 time, they would not be tempted to hire them except for 
 the legitimate purpose of training up a new generation of 
 craftsmen." ^ Mr. C. H. Creasey, in his Technical Educa- 
 tion in, Evening Schools, published in 1905, declared it 
 
 1. Industrial Democracy, new edition. Longmans, 1902, p. Ivi. 
 
726 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 to be " practically certain that the failure of all ordinary 
 methods to secure regular attendance at continuation 
 schools will necessitate State interference as the only 
 remedy." But he urged that " before public opinion 
 could be brought round to view the innovation kindly, 
 it would be necessary to demonstrate its feasibility in 
 particular cases." This, he pointed out, could be done 
 by giving local education authorities the option of ex- 
 tending the principle of compulsory attendance to the 
 continuation school.^ 
 
 In November, 1905, a deputation of working men and 
 women (including Mr. W. Crooks, M.P., Mr. D. J. Shackle- 
 ton, M.P., Miss Catherine Webb, Mr. Joseph Ernes, C.C, 
 and others) submitted to the Board of Education the 
 following resolution (adopted at a conference held in 
 Oxford) which, it will be observed, does not in itself 
 aflB.rm the principle of compulsory attendance at evening 
 continuation schools. 
 
 " That this Conference, representative of Co-operative Societies, Trade 
 Unions and educational organisations, having regard to the educational 
 wastage consequent upon young people of both sexes either neglecting, 
 or being prevented by conditions of employment from utilising, the 
 facilities afforded by the Education Authorities for instruction in the 
 evening, urges the Board of Education to ascertain from the Local 
 Education Authorities how far, and under what conditions, employers 
 and employed in their respective areas would welcome legislation having 
 for its ultimate object compulsory attendance at evening schools." 
 
 In the report of the deputation, issued by the Workers' 
 
 Educational Association,^ there will be found memoranda 
 
 in favour of compulsory attendance at continuation schools 
 
 written by Messrs. J. and J. Colman, Ld., of Norwich, 
 
 Mrs. J. W. Bury, Mr. W. Meld, and Mr. D. J. Shackleton, 
 
 M.P. 
 
 1. Technical Education in, Evening Schools (London : Sonnenschein), 
 pp. 33 — 35 and (for an estimate of the cost of compulsory continuation 
 schools), pp. 297 — 300. Reference may also here be made to the discus- 
 sion of the question of compulsory attendance at evening schools in the 
 Report on Secondary Education in Liverfool. (London : Eyre & Spottis- 
 woode, 1904), pp. 131—2. 
 
 2. 24 Buckingham Street, Strand W.C. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 727 
 
 In February, 1906, at a meeting of the London branch 
 of the Christian Social Union, Canon Barnett advocated 
 " compulsory evening schools to which pupils of day 
 schools should pass without a break and attend three 
 nights a week until they were seventeen years of age." ^ 
 
 Such an extension of the period during which the State 
 watches over the educational welfare of young people 
 would involve no new principle in English law The 
 Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf children) Act, 
 1893 (section 11), extends the period of compulsory educa- 
 tion in the case of such children to sixteen years. The 
 same extension of the period of compulsory education up 
 to sixteen is made, in the case of defective or epileptic 
 children, by section 11 of the Elementary Education 
 (Defective and Epileptic children) Act, 1899. In an In- 
 dustrial School a pupil may be detained up to the age 
 of 16, and the managers have power of supervision up to 
 the age of 18. 
 
 Those who propose that boys should be required to at- 
 tend continuation schools for a few years after the close 
 of their elementary day school course can quote many 
 striking examples of the success of such an arrangement. 
 In nineteen out of the twenty-five cantons of Switzerland 
 attendance at continuation schools is obligatory for boys 
 up to seventeen years of age, and in one canton it is 
 obligatory for girls as well.^ In twenty out of the twenty- 
 six constituent parts of the German Empire, the atten- 
 dance of boys at continuation schools is compulsory (either 
 throughout the State or in districts adopting a special 
 bye-law) while in four States and in some districts of 
 a fifth it is compulsory for girls also.^ In all these cases 
 
 1. Times report, February 7, 1906. 
 
 2. See p. 574. 
 
 3. See pp. 515—517. 
 
728 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the results appear to be on the whole satisfactory and 
 to command general, though not unanimous, approval. 
 In France there is no compulsion to attend continuation 
 schools but there is some weight of opinion in favour of 
 introducing it.^ In seven of the United States (Colorado, 
 Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Minnesota 
 and Wyoming) the upper age limit of compulsory school 
 attendance is 16 or over. But in those States there does 
 not exist (at least so far as I am aware) any organised 
 system by which all the children in the State are required 
 to attend continuation school from fourteen years of age to 
 sixteen or over. In cases of illiterary or non-completion 
 of the regular elementary school course, continued attend- 
 ance is enforced. ^ But otherwise the child is free. In 
 practice, that is to say (except in States in which there 
 is no law of compulsory attendance at all), the normal 
 leaving age from the elementary school is 14. But there 
 is at present a current of opinion in Massachusetts in favour 
 of the adoption of something like the German system of 
 compulsory attendance at continuation schools.^ 
 
 Whatever may be our opinions as to the ultimate 
 necessity for compulsion, it will be agreed that without 
 immediate recourse to such a remedy much could be done to 
 improve the attendance at continuation schools in England 
 and Wales. The success of Widnes, Halifax, Rochdale 
 and other towns shows that, when close personal attention 
 is paid to this difficult problem in educational administra- 
 tion, a very considerable percentage of boys and girls will 
 come to the evening continuation schools, voluntarily and 
 without a break, after the close of their elementary day- 
 school course. But it must be admitted that this success 
 
 1. See pp. 578 and 637. 
 
 2. See pp. 675 ff. 
 
 3. See pp. 666 and 669—70. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 729 
 
 in evening school administration is easier of attainment in 
 industrial districts (especially where large employers of 
 labour encourage attendance at evening classes) than in 
 towns where boys of fourteen years of age find it difficult 
 to obtain openings in skilled trades, or than in commercial 
 cities where office boys are often kept late at their work. 
 It is also easier everywhere in the case of boys than in the 
 case of girls,- and in the towns than in the country. 
 
 Nor is the question one of educational administration 
 only. An effective treatment of it must involve in some 
 cases further limitation of the hours of adolescent 
 labour and some statutory recognition of the educational 
 responsibilities of employers towards their younger work- 
 people. The great development of continuation schools 
 which has taken place in parts of Germany and Switzer- 
 land during recent years is due, not entirely but in great 
 measure, to a clearer legal definition of the duties of 
 employers in regard to the further education of the 
 apprentices. By the German Imperial Law of Industry, 
 1891 (as amended in 1900), employers of labour are re- 
 quired to grant to those of their employees under 18 years 
 of age (female clerks and apprentices being included), who 
 attend a continuation school the necessary time for such 
 attendance as may be demanded by the bye-laws of the 
 district.^ The similar trend of legislation in parts of 
 Switzerland is illustrated by the Apprenticeship Act of 
 the Canton of Zurich which became law on November 21, 
 1905. By that Act an apprentice is defined as " any 
 minor, male or female, who wishes to learn a definite 
 trade in a workshop or industrial establishment, in an 
 apprenticeship workshop, or technical school, or in a 
 commercial business." " It shall be the duty of the 
 
 1. See p. 527. 
 
730 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 master to give the greatest possible attention to . the 
 physical and mental well-being of the apprentice and 
 to educate him in the principles and skill required for 
 the business, with a view to his development, on the 
 following system : He shall conduct the training of the 
 apprentice either in person or through the medium of a 
 suitable substitute. The apprentice shall not be employed 
 in other than the business of the trade, except in so far 
 as the contract expressly allows it and provided that his 
 acquisition of the trade is not thereby prejudiced." 
 (Section 6). "Where there are industrial, commercial or 
 genera,! continuation schools situated at or near the 
 master's place of residence, the apprentice shall be bound 
 to attend the school or any faculty thereof which would 
 be of use in advancing his technical training. His 
 master shall allow him time, amounting to at least four 
 hours a week, for such classes as take place during his 
 hours of work. Time spent on such instruction shall be 
 regarded as part of the legal hours of work. The appren- 
 tice shall also be allowed the time necessary for religious 
 instruction," (Section 11). "The right to keep appren- 
 tices may be withdrawn from persons who are repeatedly 
 found guilty of gross neglect of duty towards the appren- 
 tices entrusted to them or if there is evidence showing 
 them to be morally unsuited for educating apprentices." 
 (Section 16.) " Every apprentice shall undergo an ex- 
 amination at the end of his period of apprenticeship as 
 a test of his technical knowledge and skill." (Section 19.) 
 " The State Council shall draw up the necessary forms of 
 procedure for the conduct of the examinations and for the 
 appointment of the managing committees and examiners. 
 The expenses of the examinations shall be borne by the 
 State." (Section 20.) " Every candidate who succeeds in 
 passing the apprenticeship examination shall be furnished 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 731 
 
 with a certificate on tlie conclusioii of his period of 
 apprenticeship." (Section 23.) ^ 
 
 The Apprenticeship Act of the Canton of the town of 
 Basle which became law June 14, 1906, contains similar 
 provisions, but their effect is limited by a section which 
 causes them not to apply to establishments coming under 
 the Federal law regulating work in factories. An appren- 
 tice is defined as " any minor of either sex who wishes 
 to learn a certain trade in a workshop, an apprenticeship 
 workshop, a commercial establishment, or any undertaking 
 carried on on commercial lines, or with a private indivi- 
 dual, and who shall to this end make a contract of a 
 definite duration with his master. Persons in receipt of 
 a salary shall also be considered as apprentices when it is 
 clear from the conditions of the employment that they are 
 in the position of apprentices." (Section 4.) 
 
 No person shall enter into apprenticeship before the end 
 of the school year wherein he has completed the fourteenth 
 year of his age, unless the competent authorities shall have 
 already freed him from the obligation to attend school. 
 In no case, however, shall a child enter into apprentice- 
 ship before completing his fourteenth year Section 8). 
 
 The master shall do his utmost to give the apprentice 
 a complete training, both theoretical and practical in his 
 trade, in accordance with the system agreed upon in the 
 contract. The instruction shall be given to the apprentice 
 either by the master himself or by a qualified substitute. 
 (Section 13.) 
 
 The master shall allow the apprentice leisure in which 
 to attend classes for religious instruction. He shall, 
 moreover, require the apprentice to attend the continua- 
 tion schools and finishing classes organised or subsidised 
 
 1. Bulletin of the International Labour Office, vol. i, pp. 58—62, 1906. 
 (London : Labour Representation Printing and Publishing Co., Ltd., 
 3 New Road, Woolwich.) 
 
732 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 by the State, as well as the preparatory and technical 
 classes which concern his trade. The master shall allow 
 him, during work-hours, full time to attend these classes, 
 and to take part in the apprenticeship examination. 
 
 In accordance with the regulations made by the State 
 Council for each trade, the Apprenticeship Committee 
 shall fix the number of hours, not exceeding six per week, 
 to be allowed by the master to the apprentice for atten- 
 dance at preparatory or technical classes. (Section 15.) 
 
 The State Council may, at the request of the Appren- 
 ticeship Committee, require the apprentice to attend cer- 
 tain preparatory or technical classes organised or sub- 
 sidised by the State, taking into consideration the trade 
 to be learned and the prescribed examination. (Section 17.) 
 The hours of work of apprentices shall not exceed ten 
 hours a day or sixty hours a week, including the hours 
 allowed by Section 15 for religious instruction, and for 
 attending the various classes and the apprenticeship ex- 
 amination. 
 
 Similarly, female apprentices not having completed 
 their fifteenth year shall not work more than nine hours 
 a day or fifty-four hours a week. 
 
 Over and above the hours prescribed above, apprentices 
 may be employed for not more than a quarter of an hour 
 a day in clearing up after work. (Section 21.) 
 
 All apprentices bound, by Section 17, to attend certain 
 preparatory and technical classes, shall at the end of their 
 time, undergo an examination on their theoretical and 
 
 practical knowledge of the trade 
 
 The Department of the Interior shall confer a diploma 
 on the apprentice who has successfully passed the ex- 
 amination. (Section 26.) 
 
 Infractions of the law of apprenticeship, and regulations 
 pursuant thereon, shall be punishable by fines ; and in the 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 733 
 
 case of serious or repeated offences by a fin/e or by im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 Penalties shall be inflicted in the case of — 
 
 (1) Masters who keep apprentices illegally, or keep more 
 than the legal number of apprentices, or admit apprentices 
 under the prescribed age, or violate the provisions relating 
 to the notification to apprentices of the contract of appren- 
 ticeship, or to hours of work, or who do not allow the 
 apprentice the time necessary for his religious instruction, 
 or for attending the continuation schools, the finishing, 
 preparatory and technical classes, or who have not com- 
 plied with the instructions of the inspectors by taking 
 proper measures to protect the health and life of the 
 apprentice. 
 
 (2) Apprentices who, for a length of time, or repeatedly, 
 neglect, without good cause, to attend the com.pulsory 
 classes aforeaid, or who absent themselves from the com- 
 pulsory examination.^ 
 
 It may be said that in German-speaking Europe the 
 principle of enforcing attendance (at any rate in the case 
 of boys) at the continuation school up to sixteen or seven- 
 teen years of age has won the day. In England, there is 
 a body of opinion, which seems to be growing from year 
 to year, in favour of a prolongation of the period of 
 compulsory attendance at school. But many experienced 
 administrators feel strong objection to any plan which 
 would make attendance at evening schools compulsory 
 for young people. It is desirable therefore to state and 
 examine the arguments to which they attach especial 
 weight. 
 
 In the first place, it is argued that one student who; 
 comes to an evening class of his own free will is worth 
 
 1. Bulletin of the International Labour Office, vol. i, 1906, pp. 202— 
 207. 
 
734 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 many of those who would come only because they were 
 compelled by law. It is possible that some of those who 
 lay stress upon this argument misapprehend the actual 
 working of a system for compulsory continuation schools. 
 Such a system does not involve any uniform course of 
 instruction through which all students are required to 
 pass, irrespective of the degrees of their ability and the 
 needs of the occupations which they are engaged. On the 
 contrary, a highly organised system of continuation 
 classes, such as that of the city of Munich, presents a 
 variety of opportunities for " further education " at least 
 as great as can be found anywhere in Great Britain. The 
 system of compulsory attendance enforces a minimum, 
 but does not prescribe any uniformity of course. The 
 keen student finds as much opportunity for pursuing his 
 favourite studies under a well organised compulsory 
 system as he does under a voluntary system like our own. 
 Those who have studied the working of compulsory con- 
 tinuation classes in parts of Germany and Switzerland 
 will agree in thinking that there is as much keenness 
 among the students there as there is in England. But 
 this answer does not meet the real force of the argument 
 advanced by the supporters of the principles of voluntary 
 attendance. They mean that it is expedient to offer 
 further educational opportunities only in such a way as to 
 help those who are making special efforts to help themselves. 
 For this contention much more may be said than coUec- 
 tivist thinkers are generally willing to admit. Just as great 
 saints appear when the world is defiantly evil, so perhaps 
 are the most vigorous personalities shaped in the midst 
 of a wasteful, trampling scramble of life. It does not 
 follow that the vigorous personality thus produced is 
 always a pleasant thing or a good example for the young ; 
 but the shepherding and protection of average, common- 
 place people may be secured at too high a price. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 735 
 
 Secondly it is argued that, if attendance at continuatior 
 schools were made compnlsory in England, great dift- 
 eulties would arise in regard to discipline in the classes. 
 Experience shows, however, that no serious difficulty need 
 be apprehended on this score. When the compulsory system 
 is adopted, it comes into operation gradually. In the areas 
 where attendance is made compulsory, all children on 
 reaching the appointed age pass naturally into the con- 
 tinuation classes if they do not proceed to a secondary 
 day school. They and their parents regard the legal ob- 
 ligation as a matter of course. This has been the case 
 in Germany and Switzerland, where practically no diffi- 
 culty has arisen in regard to discipline at the continua- 
 tion classes. We have also some experience of the working 
 of compulsory attendance in England. It is not found at 
 Messrs. Cadbury's or at Messrs. Rowntree's that any diffi- 
 culties of discipline arise in the classes which they require 
 their younger workpeople to attend. At Messrs. Cadbury's 
 the parent of every applicant admitted to employment by 
 the firm is required to sign the following Authorization 
 
 Form : — 
 
 AUTHORIZATION FORM. 
 
 Z agree that 
 
 Address shall 
 
 Evening Continuation Schools. 
 
 Attend from the date of admittance to your employment for two 
 
 evenings weekly at Evening Continuation Classes held during the winter 
 
 months until he (or she) becomes 16 years of age, no student being 
 
 allowed to leave school until the end of the Session in which they have 
 
 commenced. 
 
 ****** 
 
 Physical Culture. 
 
 That he or she shall receive instructions in Gymnastics and Swimm- 
 ing during work hours until the end of the term in which she reaches 
 her 15th birthday. 
 
 Signed 
 
 Date 
 
 The boys attend Gymnastic and Swimming classes until the end of 
 the terms during which they reach their 16th birthday. 
 
736 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 "When Messrs. Brunner, Mond and Co., of Nortliwich, 
 first made attendance at evening schools compulsory for 
 the lads in their employment, there was a little trouble 
 in the class-rooms through the unruliness of some of the 
 boys who came unwillingly. But the disorder was quickly 
 stopped. The parents of the youths were summoned to a 
 meeting at which they were plainly told that the firm 
 intended to employ in future no boy who did not regularly 
 attend the evening school. They were recommended to 
 tell their sons " that the matter was no joke, as the firm 
 had determined to have their new regulation properly 
 carried out. From that time forwards," adds Mr. Hewitt, 
 " no difficulty of the kind occurred and the compulsory 
 attendance at evening classes is now a very popular ar- 
 rangement both with pupils and parents." 
 
 Wherever the requirement of compulsory attendance 
 at continuation schools is supported by the most influential 
 employers of labour in the locality, it is found that the 
 sympathies of most of the parents are on the side of the 
 new system. Regularity of attendance at the classes 
 improves the prospects of obtaining more responsible em- 
 ployment. Moreover, the tendency to fall into step and 
 do as everybody else does, is strong in matters of this 
 kind. 
 
 Thirdly, many feel strong objection to the plan of 
 compelling attendance at evening classes on the groujid 
 that such an arrangement might unduly strain the health 
 and powers of growing boys and girls. This aspect of the 
 question needs to be very carefully examined. In 1904, 
 the Prussian Minister of Industry and Commerce issued a 
 decree condemning late hours of work in continuation 
 schools on the ground that growing boys, after having 
 worked in the shop from an early hour, were not able to 
 put forth much intellectual effort in the late hours of the 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 737 
 
 evening. The Minister announced ttat his experience 
 had led him to decide that classes in compulsory con- 
 tinuation schools should be held during the day time or 
 should close not later than 8 p.m. 
 
 To compel a growing and delicate boy, tired with a 
 long day's work, to attend classes late in the evening 
 would be indefensible. It would be even less excusable 
 to require attendance in the case of young girls, weary 
 with long hours of work in shop or office. 
 
 In many cases, however, the boys and girls are quite 
 strong enough to bear two evenings a week of continuation 
 school without over-strain. Discriminating treatment of 
 individual cases would be necessary. Moreover, the intro- 
 duction of compulsory attendance at continuation schools 
 would need be accompanied by a statutory obligation 
 upon the employer to enable his younger workpeople to 
 attend continuation classes at hours fixed by the local 
 authority in accordance with the convenience of the trade. 
 It would be found possible, in many shops and in a large 
 number of trades, to allow the young people either to 
 leave early on two evenings a week during the winter 
 months or to attend classes at those hours in the day-time 
 at which in each calling the claims of business are gener- 
 ally least severe. 
 
 Fourthly, it is justly urged that, at present, great 
 numbers of the teachers in evening schools are jaded by 
 long hours of previous work in the day-school. This is 
 certainly the case, and is one reason why in many towns 
 the continuation schools flag and fail to attract the young 
 people. Many of our evening continuation schools would 
 need to be much improved if any system of compulsory 
 attendance were introduced. One result of any thorough- 
 going reorganisation of our continuation schools (like that 
 which would follow from the adoption of the principle 
 2 V 
 
738 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 of compulsory attendance) would be a great improvement 
 in the staffing of tlie evening schools. To improve the 
 present conditions, much could and should be done without 
 delay. It is desirable that no teacher should be allowed 
 to give instruction throughout the morning, afternoon 
 and evening of the same day. If the teaching is to be 
 fresh, two periods out of the three are enough. 
 
 Of the cost which would be entailed by a system of 
 compulsory attendance at continuation schools, it is im- 
 possible to form any accurate estimate. In 1904-5 the 
 amount of Government grant for evening classes worked 
 out at about nine shillings per head of the total atten- 
 dance. It is not known how many of those who attended 
 were under 17 years of age, as the statistics are not 
 sufficiently detailed to show this. Probably about 256,000 
 were under 17, which age may be taken as the higher 
 limit of the period that might be fixed for compulsory 
 attendance. If this estimate is sound, the Government 
 grant in respect of the student who would fall under the 
 rule of compulsory attendance was in 1904^5 about 
 J115,200. In 1901 there were 2,012,274 persons between 
 14 and 17 years of age in England and Wales. About 
 53,000 of these were in public elementary day schools. 
 If 200,000 more were taken as the number likely to be 
 in secondary day schools, about 1,750,000 would be under 
 obligation to attend continuation schools if the latter were 
 made compulsory. Even if we strike off 750,000 of these 
 as perhaps living too far away from a continuation school 
 to come within the requirement of compulsory attendance, 
 the charge upon the national revenue (apart from the 
 charge upon rates) would be four times larger than at 
 present and would therefore amount to, at least, £460,000. 
 If this amount were doubled in order to include contribu- 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 739 
 
 tions from local rates, the cost would be £920,000 as com- 
 pared with £230,400 which may be estimated as that part 
 of the present cost incurred in respect of pupils under 
 17. But any reasonably effective system of evening school 
 teaching would cost more per head than the present outlay, 
 and any effective system of compulsion would not allow 
 so many as 750,000 out of 175,000 possible students to 
 escape the net. If therefore 300,000 more were added to 
 the aggregate attendance and five shillings per head to 
 -the average cost, the total annual expenditure, central 
 and local, in respect of students up to 17 years of age, 
 would be about £1,495,000. Mr. Creasey estimates 
 that "nearly £1,000,000 per annum" would be the 
 total cost of requiring every boy and girl to attend 
 a continuation school (three evenings a week during the 
 ■six winter months) for double the time that their day- 
 school course fell short of extending to 15 years.^ This 
 estimate, when its less extended basis is taken into account, 
 is not far off that which is suggested above. But any very 
 highly organised system of technical continuation schools, 
 adjusted to trade needs and taught by expert trade teachers 
 in buildings suitably equipped, would entail a much larger 
 expenditure than twenty-three shillings a head. In the 
 continuation schools in Munich, in 1906-7, the average 
 cost per student was £2. 17s. Od., or more than twice as 
 much as the average cost estimated in the above calculation 
 ior England and "Wales. 
 
 Whether so large an expenditure upon continuation 
 schools would be remunerative to the nation through the 
 enhanced industrial skill of the workers and foremen must 
 be a matter of opinion. In Germany the judgment of the 
 manufacturing and trading classes, as well as of the work- 
 jnen, seems on the whole distinctly favourable to the 
 1. Technical Education and Evening Schools, pp. 34-35 and 297-299. 
 
740 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 system of compulsory attendance at continuation scliools. 
 Nor must we forget- the civic and social betterment wliicli 
 would accrue from so carefully organised a system of 
 educational discipline. The Germans regard it as an asset 
 of high value. On the other hand, the enforcement of 
 compulsory attendance at continuation schools, and with 
 it the further restriction of the hours of adolescent labour, 
 would almost certainly curtail the money-earning power 
 of many young people during the years 14 to 17. This 
 would undoubtedly be a hardship to great numbers of 
 families and would involve a temporary shrinkage of the 
 margin of comfort in the case of many more. But this 
 obligation applies to the first results of any raising of the 
 national minimum of educational requirement. In all 
 such cases, therefore, changes can only be made gradually 
 and by instalments. The 'economic life of the nation as a 
 whole would be invigorated by better technical education 
 and by the restriction of hours of deteriorating employ- 
 ment during the years of adolescence. The intellectual 
 and moral gain derived from any judicious form of such 
 restriction would be followed, gradually but almost cer- 
 tainly, by a material gain. 
 
 Por my own part, therefore, I should answer in the 
 affirmative the question " Is it desirable to extend to 
 continuation schools the principle of compulsory atten- 
 dance ? " But such an answer needs many qualifications. 
 In England much can be done to improve our continuation 
 schools without having recourse to any universal system 
 of compulsion. That compulsion will ultimately be ap- 
 plied, in order to toixch that residuum of the population 
 which will not respond to an appeal for voluntary atten- 
 dance, seems probable. That local authorities, which 
 feel that their areas are ripe for such a change, should be 
 allowed to adopt a system of compulsory attendance at 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 741 
 
 continuation schools, seems reasonable and (to judge from 
 German and Swiss experience) likely to be a successful 
 experiment. But it will not suffice merely to pass a law 
 compelling all young people under 17 to attend sucli even- 
 ing schools as now exist. Great improvements are needed 
 in the majority of evening schools in England, if they 
 are to meet the educational needs of the students who 
 would attend them. Great improvements are also needed 
 in the elementary day schools where the foundations of 
 the whole training must be laid. Mr. Pickles, of Burnley, 
 put the matter admirably at Oxford, at Easter, 1907, in 
 his address as President of the National Union of 
 Teachers. 
 
 " We want experiments tried in selected schools, with far more active 
 and constructive work in the curriculran, with much more physical train- 
 ing, and with a simpler course in certain other subjects. We want more 
 handicraft for boys throughout the whole school, instead of the small 
 amount of manual instruction a few lads get now ; and more systematic 
 training in housecraft for girls, instead of the snippety cookery classes 
 so often arranged primarily (owing to the uneducational regulations of 
 the Board) with a view to earning of grants. But to do this we must 
 continue to urge the three most needed administrative reforms : (a) A 
 reduction in the size of large classes : ,(b) every class under the charge 
 of a fully-qualified teacher ; (c) abolition of factory half-time and of rural 
 early employment, for a longer school-life and a happier child-life before 
 the hurly-burly of work begins. With classes of sixty and more — ^with 
 two million out of the six million children still taught by uncertificated 
 teachers — with so short and broken a, school-life for so many children — 
 improvement is difficult, if not impossible." 
 
 At present, our elementary school-teaching cannot be 
 individual enough. It does not give the children 
 their fair chance. In England we ought to endeavour 
 to individualise every school in our educational system 
 and to individualise every child in every school. 
 An effort should also be made to try a more prac- 
 tical kind of course in some of the schools, with far 
 more manual work, with a great deal of physical training, 
 and with simpler aims in regard to the more literary 
 studies. Much may be learnt in this matter from 
 
742 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 the industrial schools. With all the good intentions 
 in the world, the present curriculum of many of our 
 elementary schools is too ambitious for the real needs of 
 some of the children. Many of the children would get 
 more good from something simpler and more practical. 
 
 A new kind of day continuation school seems also 
 to be needed. The trade or day technical schools, now 
 being established under Section 42 of the Technical 
 School Regulations, may guide us towards a kind of 
 day secondary education more suitable for many of the 
 children than is the more literary type of school. If we can 
 improve the elementary schools and provide a new kind of 
 secondary education (at once practical and intellectually 
 stimulating) to follow it, we shall probably find that a 
 great many children will stay on at the day school longer 
 than it at present the case. And it is by longer attendance 
 at the day school, if the course of training given it is 
 suitable to the children's needs, that the best results will 
 be gained. 
 
 In short, we need a period of educational experiment, 
 generously helped and carefully watched. The new Day 
 Technical Schools are one such experiment, wisely per- 
 mitted by the Board of Education and liberally aided by 
 several local authorities. In the sphere of elementary 
 education, experiments are not less needed. The Board 
 of Education, in the Suggestions for the Consideration of 
 Teachers and others concerned in the work of Public 
 Elementary Schools, issued in 1906, " strongly recom- 
 mend local education authorities to give opportunities 
 in one or two selected schools for experimental work 
 within definite limits."^ The two Demonstration Schools 
 which have been established by the liberality of Mrs. 
 Fielden and others in connection with the department of 
 
 1. Page 6. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 743 
 
 education at the University of Manchester are undertaking 
 such work with encouraging results. What Professor 
 John Dewey and the late Mr. Jackman did at the Uni- 
 versity Elementary School in Chicago; what Dean Russell 
 and his colleagues are doing in the schools connected with 
 Teachers College at Columbia University in the City of 
 New York, may and should be done in England also, with 
 special regard to the needs of English schools. 
 
 No great advance has ever yet been made in the develop- 
 ment of continuation schools without a strenuous propa- 
 ganda. A strong current of public interest must be set 
 flowing before the attendance at such schools can be largely 
 increased, still more before such attendance can wisely be 
 made a matter of Legal obligation. The value of con- 
 tinued education during the years of adolescence must be 
 impressed upon the minds of parents. The magnitude 
 of their educational responsibilities towards their younger 
 workpeople must be brought home more clearly to the 
 minds of employers. The omens are favourable. Public 
 interest is already aroused. But the appeal in respect 
 of continuation schools must not be merely to the hope of 
 larger profits or of higher wages. What is really con- 
 cerned is the civic welfare of the nation. The boys 
 and girls themselves will respond more readily to this 
 claim than to an appeal based exclusively upon their 
 personal interest and advantage. 
 
 The continuation classes in England are becoming more 
 efficient, and the Board of Education and the Local Edu- 
 cation Authorities (with the co-operation of many enlight- 
 ened employers) have done much within the last three 
 years to give the work of the classes a more systematic and 
 practical form. The obligation of the public to them for 
 their efforts is great. But the obligation will be greater 
 
744 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 if they succeed in making tlie work of the continuation 
 schools both practical and humane. 
 
 3. How should compulsory attendance at continuation 
 schools be enforced? 
 
 It remains to consider how, when the time is ripe for 
 such a step, compulsory attendance at continuation schools 
 would most wisely be enforced. 
 
 As a first step, which cannot be taken too quckly, 
 the present half-time system in the textile trades 
 should be, by stages, abolished. It is difficult to read 
 Mr. Sandiford's chapter in this volume without being 
 forced to the conclusion that, when every consideration is 
 taken into account, the system, as it now exists, has bad 
 results physically and intellectually, and that it ought to 
 disappear. 
 
 It deserves consideration (though there is much to be 
 said on both sides) whether it would be well to get rid 
 of the complexities of our present bye-laws of school 
 attendance (in Lancashire, in March, 1907, the bye-laws 
 of only seven out of forty-four areas agreed in their 
 entirety) and to make 14 the leaving age for the 
 elementary school. In that case, the local authority, as 
 in Scotland, should be given discretionary power to grant 
 exemption in individual cases from twelve years of 
 age onwards (1) after due inquiry into the circumstances 
 of each case, and (2) for reasons duly recorded in a register, 
 and (3) with power to the Board of Education to interfere 
 if exemptions were unsuitably granted. But some local 
 authorities might make too profuse use of the power of 
 exemption, and the Board of Education might find itself 
 victually powerless to check them. In this, as in other 
 parts of educational policy, we have to consider the spirit 
 of the country before we can decide whether a particular 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 745 
 
 measure would work as we should like it to work. We in 
 England have not the long tradition of respect for educa- 
 tion which prevails generally in Scotland. In Scotland 
 the system works well. The few children who are granted 
 exemption under 14 are usually required hy the School 
 Board to attend evening continuation classes twice a week, 
 at any rate during the winter months, till they are 14 years 
 of age. 
 
 An effort should be everywhere made, as already is the 
 case at Halifax and Rochdale, to follow up in a tactful 
 way every boy and girl who leaves the elementary school 
 and persuade them to join the continuation school. More 
 careful watch should be kept on the boy after he has left 
 school. The headmaster of his elementary school is, as a 
 rule, the man who can do most towards inducing the lad 
 to see the advantage of continuing his education. ^ But 
 in order to keep in touch with the boy and his parents and 
 to know about his education needs, more systematic regis- 
 tration is needed. In School (London : Murray) for 
 October, 1906, an experienced writer made an excellent 
 suggestion for the better registration of students in 
 evening schools in urban districts. The gist of his proposal 
 was as follows : — 
 
 " The headmasters of all elementary schools should have supplied to 
 them cards similar to that in the diagram below, and should fill in the 
 name, date of birth, leaving standard, and future occupation of each 
 boy. Any other notevirorthy facts, such as his excellence in a particular 
 subject, or his apprenticeship by indenture to a trade, should also be 
 entered. These cards should be sent once a month to the office of the 
 local education authority, where they would be filed in alphabetical 
 order in the usual way. At the beginning of each evening school session, 
 the headmaster of each evening school would, on the day following the 
 first night of the session, send a list of the boys who had entered their 
 names as pupils to the education office and would receive their cards. 
 He would then, from the information at his disposal, be able to divide 
 them into classes and to see that the curriculum taken was suitable to 
 
 1. If given clerical assistance, the headmasters would have more 
 leisure to form skilled employment registries in the schools in order to 
 form a closer connexion between the schools and the skilled trades. 
 
746 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 their occupations. As soon as possible, he would enter on the card 
 (possibly with a rubber stamp) the date of the session, the name of the 
 school, and the course taken. At the end of the session, he would fill in 
 remarks as to progress, attendance and examination successes, with any 
 remarks he might wish to make, and would then return the cards to the 
 office, where they would again be filed. 
 
 " This would be done each year, until finally when a student reached 
 the technical school, the principal there would have the fullest details 
 as to his past career. 
 
 "If a boy left the elementary school and never attended an evening 
 school, his card would be kept for five or six years and then destroyed, 
 after particulars as to his leaving standard, occupation, etc., had been 
 extracted for the purpose of making an annual summary. 
 
 " In the case of boys entering an evening school from an elementary 
 school outside the area of the L.E.A., the headmaster would be able to 
 enter such particulars as he could gather from the boys themselves. 
 
 " It is possible that if this system were adopted much other valuable 
 information might be added, such as particulars of weighty chest 
 measurement and height, or details as to apprenticeship, if it were 
 thought desirable. 
 
 " In any case, the records made would be useful to those engaged in 
 research as to the progress of industrial education." 
 
 A. — Name 
 
 Born 
 
 Address 
 Left School 18 in Stan- 
 dard 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Remarks 
 
 B. — Session 
 
 Name of Even- 
 ing School 
 
 Course taken 
 
 Address 
 
 Remarks on 
 Progress, etc. 
 
 A. — To be filled up by Headmaster of Elementary School. 
 B. — To be filled up by Headmaster of Evening School. 
 
 It should also be made obligatory on all employers (as 
 is already the case in the German Empire, and as was 
 proposed in the Scotch Education Bill, 1906) to allow 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 747 
 
 tlieir younger employes, male and female, to attend con- 
 tinuation classes arranged by the local education authori- 
 ties. And power should be given to any local authority 
 to require all young persons resident within its area and 
 not otherwise under educational care, to attend continua- 
 tion classes during the winter months up to the age of 
 seventeen years. Any local authority availing itself of 
 this permissive power might well receive grants from 
 Government at a double rate. The various courses of 
 technical instruction in the continuation schools should be 
 arranged by the local education authority after consulta- 
 tion with the employers and workmen in each trade. The 
 fact that in England we have a much less complete organ- 
 isation of the master workmen and employers in each trade 
 than is the case in Germany will make it more difficult for 
 us to carry out this plan. But the difficulties are not in- 
 superable. The hours of labour for boys and girls in 
 shops and offices should be more closely regulated by law. 
 The continuation classes should be arranged at latest 
 in the earlier hours of the evening, and, when possible, 
 in the daytime at hours convenient for the trade or calling 
 in question. 
 
 In the country districts, where compulsory attendance 
 at evening schools must always be difficult and often un- 
 desirable to enforce, especially in the case of girls, efforts 
 should be made to organise educational institutions on 
 the lines of the People's High Schools in Denmark. In 
 the work of the Co-operative Holidays Association there 
 are already the germs and the spirit of such a patriotic 
 undertaking. 
 
 My conclusion is that we in England have still much 
 to do before we shall be ready to use the weapon of com- 
 pulsion so far as attendance at continuation schools is 
 
748 ENGLISH CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 concerned. Skilful organisation and personal interest 
 will do much. And do not let us cnisli out the spirit of 
 voluntary zeal and of variety of educational endeavour 
 by prematurely invoking compulsion. The teaching in 
 our continuation schools must, if it is to form character 
 and to inspire a sense of personal duty towards the com- 
 munity, have moral power and be kindled by ideals. It 
 must, therefore, be the outcome of personal conviction 
 and must deal freely with many matters in regard to 
 which English people are not, and never have been, 
 agreed. Our sense of national unity comes through free- 
 dom of utterance and endeavour, not through plans of 
 imposed uniformity. Therefore, there will always be 
 need for a great variety of agencies in the work of "further 
 education " in England. Neither the State nor the muni- 
 cipalities will gain by any monopoly in providing it. 
 Technical or commercial instruction they can provide. 
 But there is need for something more than that in a 
 national system of education for young people. The 
 teaching must have heart in it, and must make a moral 
 appeal. 
 
 But I am convinced that in the end some form of 
 compulsion to attend day or evening continuation classes 
 between 14 and 17 years of age will be found desirable, 
 not so much in the interest of the picked individuals 
 as in that of the rank and file. Many of the present evils 
 of unemployment may be traced to the lack of educational 
 care and of suitable technical training during the critical 
 years of adolescence. Compulsion, however, should be 
 accompanied by reduction in the hours of juvenile and 
 adolescent labour where those are now excessive. In 
 working out the details of the technical courses, the local 
 education authority should regularly consult the employers 
 in each trade, and the workers' associations. Compulsory 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE? 749 
 
 attendance at continuation schools is likely to come in the 
 towns long before it can be adopted in remoter country 
 districts. It will be best introduced by slow instalments 
 on a principle of local option. Those cities or districts 
 which find local opinion ripe for the change should be 
 empowered by law to make attendance compulsory at con- 
 tinuation schools within such limits as may seem to them 
 expedient. Yariety of experiment should be encouraged. 
 In some districts it might be found possible to raise the 
 age of exemption from attendance at the day school first 
 to fifteen and ultimately to sixteen years of age. In some 
 places a form of half-time attendance at the day school 
 might be arranged for boys and girls up to sixteen. In 
 the majority of cases, it would not be found possible, at 
 present at any rate, to go beyond requiring attendance at 
 evening schools during the two or three years following 
 the elementary day school course. But the educational 
 success of any of these plans will depend upon reforms 
 being made in the adverse conditions under which teachers 
 and pupils in the elementary day schools have now, too 
 often, to do their work. The root of the matter lies in the 
 reform of the elementary schools. 
 
750 
 
 SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Books and Papers which will be found useful by Stu- 
 dents OF THE Continuation School Question in 
 Great Britain. ^ 
 
 (1) Official Reforts and Regulations : — 
 
 (Government Publishers : Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter 
 Lane, London E.G.). 
 " Minutes and Reports of the Committee of Council on 
 
 Education," 1839-40, and onwards. Continued down 
 
 to present time as "Annual Report of the Board of 
 
 Education." 
 " Report of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire 
 
 into the Elementary Education Acts, England and 
 
 Wales." 1886—8. 
 " Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Educa- 
 tion." 1895. 
 " Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training 
 
 in Scotland." 1903. 
 " Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical 
 
 Deterioration." 1904. 
 " Special Reports on Educational Subjects." (Board of 
 
 Education.) Especially the following papers : — 
 
 (1) "The London Polytechnic Institutes." By Sidney 
 Webb. (Vol. 2, 1898.) 
 
 (2) "The Education, Earnings and Social Condition of 
 
 Boys engaged in Street Trading in Manchester." By 
 E. T. Campagnac and C. E. B. Russell. (Vol. 8, 1902.) 
 ■" Report on an Enquiry into the working of Evening 
 Schools in the Administrative County of Cheshire," 
 January 1907, by J. Thomas. (Issued by the Cheshire 
 County Education Committee, Chester.) 
 
 1. Short lists of books on Continuation Schools in Germany and in 
 France will be found on pp. 534 and 641-2 respectively; and on Evening 
 and other Continuation Schools in the United States on pp. 655 and 
 673 ; a short list of books on the People's High Schools in Denmark is 
 given on p. 512. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 751 
 
 Educational Pamphlets (Board of Education): — ISTo. 2. 
 "The Organisation of Certain Artizan Evening Schools 
 in East Lancashire." By LI. S. Lloyd. 1905. 
 
 " Regulations for Technical Schools, Schools of Art, and 
 other Schools and Classes (Day and Evening) for 
 Further Education." (Board of Education. Annual.) 
 
 " Syllabus and Lists of Apparatus applicable to Technical 
 Schools, Schools of Art, and other Schools and Classes 
 (Day and Evening) for Further Education." (Board 
 of Education. Annual.) 
 
 " Memorandum on Courses of Work in Rural Evening 
 Schools." (Board of Education.) 
 
 " Statistics of Public Education in England and "Wales." 
 (Board of Education. Annual. Latest, 1904-5-6.) 
 
 " Code of Regulations for Continuation Classes, providing 
 Further Education for those who have left School." 
 (Scotch Education Department. Annual.) 
 
 " Reports and Statistics relating to Continuation Classes 
 and Central Institutions in Scotland." (Annual.) 
 
 Reformatory and Industrial Schools of Great Britain; 
 Annual Report of the Inspector. (Home Office. 
 Annual.) 
 
 (2) Other works. 
 
 Balfour, Graham. " The Educational Systems of Great 
 Britain and Ireland," 2nd edition. Clarendon Press, 
 1903. 
 
 Owen, Sir Hugh. "The Education Acts Manual," 20th 
 edition. Knight and Co., 1903. 
 
 Evans, Rev. David. " The Sunday Schools of Wales, their 
 Origin, Progress, Peculiarities and Prospects." The 
 Sunday School Union, 1883. 
 
 Pole, Thomas. "A History of the Origin and Progress of 
 Adult Schools." Bristol, 1814. 
 
 Hudson, J. W. " The History of Adult Education, in 
 which is comprised a full and complete History of the 
 Mechanics' and Literary Institutions, etc." Long- 
 mans, Green & Co., 1851. 
 
752 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Rowntree, J.W., and H. B. Binns. "A History of the 
 Adult School Movement." Headley Bros., 1903. 
 
 "The Working Men's College, 1854—1904. Records of 
 its History and its "Work for Fifty Years." By Mem- 
 bers of the College. Edited by the Rev. J. Llewelyn 
 Davies. Macmillan, 1904. 
 
 Maurice, Rev. F. D. " Learning and "Working. Six 
 Lectures delivered in Willis's Rooms, London, in 
 June and July, 1854." Cambridge : Macmillan, 1855. 
 
 " The Life of Sir George Williams." By J. E. Hodder 
 Williams. Hodder and Stoughton, 1906. 
 
 " Quintin Hogg. A Biography." By Ethel M. Hogg. 
 Constable, 1906. 
 
 Mackinder, H. J., and M. E. Sadler. " University Ex- 
 tension. Past, Present and Future." Cassell & Co., 
 1891. 
 
 Roberts, R. D. " Eighteen Years of University Exten- 
 sion." Cambridge, University Press, 1891. 
 
 Campbell, Lewis. " The Nationalization of the Old En- 
 glish Universities. London : Chapman and Hall, 
 1901. 
 
 Creasey, C. H. " Technical Education in Evening 
 Schools." London : Swan Sonnenschein, 1905. 
 
 Shadwell, Dr. A. "Industrial Efficiency," 2 vols. London : 
 Longmans, Grreen & Co., 1906. 
 
 Meakin, Budgett. " Model Factories ,and "Villages : Ideal 
 Conditions of Labour and Housing." London : T. 
 Fisher Unwin, 1905. 
 
 Webb, Sidney and Beatrice. " Industrial Democracy." 
 New Edition, especially Introduction, pp. liv. — Ivi. 
 Longmans, Green & Co. 
 
 Gibb, Rev. Spencer J. "The Problem of Boy Work." 
 
 London : Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co., 1906. 
 " Studies of Boy Life in Our Cities." Written by Various 
 
 Authors for the Toynbee Trust. Edited by E. J. 
 
 Urwick. London : J. M. Dent & Co., 1904. 
 Russell, Charles E. B. " Manchester Boys. Sketches of 
 
 Manchester Lads at Work and Play." Manchester 
 
 University Press, 1905. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 753 
 
 Bray, Reginald A. " The Town Child." London : T. 
 Fisher TJnwin, 1907. 
 
 Paton, Rev. J. B. " Continuation Schools from a Higher 
 Point of View " (Social Questions of the Day, No. 5). 
 London: James Clarke & Co., Fleet Street, E.G. 
 
 Cadbury, Edward, M. Cecile Matheson & George Shann. 
 " Women's "Work and Wages. A Phase of Life in 
 an Industrial City." Especially, Chapter XI, Girls' 
 Clubs, Classes, etc. London : T. Fisher Unwin, 1906. 
 
 Sadler, M. E. " Report on Secondary Education in Liver- 
 pool." Chapter X.— The Central Technical School 
 and the Evening Continuation Schools and Technical 
 Classes. Chapter XL — Suggestions and Recommen- 
 dations : 4. Manual Training School. London : Eyre 
 and Spottiswoode, 1904. 
 
 Sadler, M. E. " Report on Secondary and Higher Educa- 
 tion in Essex." Chapter III. — The Need for Higher 
 Departments to Public Elementary Schools and for 
 Higher Elementary Schools. The Secretary, Esses 
 Education Committee, Chelmsford, 1906. 
 
 " Report of the Special Sub-Committee of the London 
 Technical Education Board on Technical Instruction 
 for Women." London : P. S. King & Son, 1903. 
 
 " The Apprenticeship Question. Report of the Section of 
 the London Education Committee appointed to con- 
 sider the Question of Apprenticeships." London : 
 P. S. King & Son, 1906. 
 
 " Report of an Enquiry as to the Co-operation of Employers 
 and Technical Institutions." Issued by the Associa- 
 tion of Technical Institutions, December, 1905. St. 
 Bride's Press, Fleet St., E.C. 
 
 Bayley, Edric. " Industrial Training in Public Element- 
 ary Schools." T. Cornell, Southwark, S.E., 1907. 
 
 Webb, Catherine. " The Need for Compulsory Continuia- 
 tion Schools. A Plea on behalf of Girls." University 
 Review, June, 1906. (London : Sherratt & Hughes.) 
 
 Sadler, M. E. Presidential Address to the Educational 
 Science Section of the British Association at York, 
 1906. 
 
 2 w 
 
754 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Hartley, S. B. "The Lads' Club Movement," in St. 
 George. October, 1906. London : George Allen. 
 
 Kittermaster, D. B. " Unemployment and Boy Labour " 
 
 in St. George. January, 1907. 
 Sandiford, Peter. " Compulsory Continuation Schools." 
 
 University Review, April, 1907. 
 
 Reynolds, J. H. " Evening Schools ; A Plea for their more 
 Systematic Organisation." A Paper read at the South- 
 port Meeting (1907) of the Union of Lancashire and 
 Cheshire Institutes. Manchester: C. Sever, 1907. 
 
 (3) Parliamentary Bills. 
 
 (i.) A Bill to amend the Education Acts 1870 to 1903 with 
 respect to School Attendance and to secure further 
 attendance under certain conditions at Continuiation 
 Schools. Presented to the House of Lords, July, 1904, 
 by the Lord Bishop of Hereford. (Sessional number 
 161.) 
 
 (ii.) A Bill to amend the Education Acts 1870 to 1903. 
 Presented to the House of Commons, April, 1905, by 
 Mr. Lambert, supported by Mr. Henry Hobhouse, Mr. 
 Eve, Sir Edgar Vincent and Mr. Yerburgh. (Bill 168.) 
 
 (iii.) A Bill to amend the Education Acts 1870 to 1903. 
 Presented to the House of Commons, May, 1906, by 
 Sir John Brunner, supported by Sir William Anson, 
 Mr. Burt, Mr. Butcher, Mr. Cameron Corbett, Mr. 
 Crooks, Mr. Eve, Mr. Ramsay Macdonald, Mr. Master- 
 man, Mr. G-eorge White, Mr. Whitley and Mr. Toxall. 
 (Bill 220.) 
 
 (iv.) A Bill to amend the Laws relating to Education in 
 Scotland. Ordered by the House of Commons to be 
 brought in by Mr. Sinclair and the Lord Advocate in 
 March, 1907. (Bill 130) 
 
755 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen and North of Scotland College of Agriculture, 479. 
 
 ,, Gordon's College and Gray's School of Art, 479. 
 Acland, A. H. D., 63. 
 Administration of Evening Schools, 68. 
 
 Adolescence, Critical importance in education of the years of, xii. 
 Adolescents, Need of transference from the primary school of, 393 — 395. 
 Adults and Evening Continuation Schools, 257, 258. 
 Adult School, Birmingham, 18, 19. 
 „ School Movement, 16, 17—21. 
 „ Schools, 4, 17—21, 110, 145, 259. 
 ,, ,, Leicestershire, 20. 
 
 „ Night Schools, 15, 16. 
 Age limits of pupils in public elementary schools in England, 694 — 697. 
 Agricultural Schools in Denmark, 500 — 504. 
 Aim of Continuation Schools, 241 — 242. 
 Allen, John, 52—53. 
 „ William, 6. 
 
 „ W. H. Son and Co., Ltd., Bedford. Education of apprentices 
 by, 274-275. 
 Alliance Nationale Frangaise, 634. 
 Ancoats Art Museum, 197. 
 ,, Becreation, 46. 
 ,, Working Men's College, 45. 
 Anderson, Dr. John, 9, 24. 
 
 Anderson's Institution, Glasgow (University), 24, 25. 
 Appel, Jacob, 495. 
 Apprentices and Evening Schools, 165, 192, 193. 
 
 „ Technical Instruction, 114, 124, 125, 246, 247. 
 ,, Education of, 265, et seq. 
 
 „ Munich, 536, 537, 546. 
 " „ „ Switzerland, 558—562. 
 
 Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Association, 460—462. 
 
 ,, Committees, 454 — 471. 
 
 inLondon, 461— 463. 
 J, ,, „ the Provinces, 463. 
 
 Committees, Work of, 456—460, 464—466. 
 Act, Canton of Zurich, 729—731. 
 
 the Town of Basle, 731—733. 
 Efforts to encourage, 405-406. 
 
756 INDEX 
 
 Apprenticeship, System in Massachusetts, decay of, 662 — 664. 
 
 ,, ,, of Clayton and Shuttleworth, 276 — 277. 
 
 Apprenticing Fund, East London, 456. 
 Armstrong, H. E., 525. 
 Arnold, Dr. Thomas (of Rugby), 10. 
 Askov People's High School, 483—487, 494, 501, 503. 
 Association des Instituteurs pour I'Education et le Patronage de la 
 Jeunesse, 591, 592, 598. 
 ,, of Education Committees, and compulsory continuation 
 
 schools, 724-725. 
 Philomathique, 591. 
 ,, Philotechnique, 590, 635. 
 
 Polytechnique, 590, 635. 
 Attendance at Evening Schools, 53, 55, 60, 68, 69, 111, 112, 116—120, 
 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 183, 195, 196, 199, 231, 
 251, 252, 379, 693—696. 
 ,, ,, High and Agricultural Schools (Denmark), 502 — 504. 
 
 ,, (compulsory) in English Elementary Schools, present limits 
 
 of, 692—693. 
 
 Baines, Edward, 27. 
 
 Bakewell, Lady Manners School, local influence of, 714. 
 
 Bar, Le Due, Societe, Populaire, 621. 
 
 Barnett, Canon and Mrs., 80, 727. 
 
 Basel Schools, Statistics of attendance in, 563, 564. 
 
 ,, Apprenticeship Act of the Canton of the town of, 731 — 733. 
 Bath, Schools in, 120. 
 Battersea Polytechnic, 271, 289. 
 Bayley, Edric, 404, 405. 
 
 Eev. R. S., 32, 33, 34. 
 Beard, Miss M. S., xxi. 
 Bedford Technical School, 275. 
 Bentham, Jeremy, 5. 
 Beyer, Otto, 513. 
 Bible Society, The, 16, 18. 
 
 Bibliography of Books and Papers relating to the Continuation School 
 
 Question in France, 641 — 642. 
 
 „ ,, Continuation School Question in Grermany, 534. 
 
 „ in U.S.A., 655, 673. 
 ,, ,, Danish High Schools, 512. 
 
 ,, ,, Books and Papers relating to the Continuation School 
 
 Question in Great Britain, 750 — 754. 
 
INDEX 757 
 
 Bion, M., 633. 
 
 Birkbeck, Dr. George, 9, 24, 25, 39. 
 
 „ Institute, 30, 131. 
 Birmingham and Midland Institute, 28. 
 ,, Artisan's Library, 24. 
 
 ,, Municipal School of Art, 423. 
 
 Technical Schools, 277, 309. 
 ,, University of, 101. 
 
 Blackburn Chamber of Commerce and compulsory continuation schools, 
 
 724. 
 Blair, E., 413. 
 
 " Blind Alley " occupations, xxiv. 
 Blind and Deaf Children, age limits for compulsory attendance at 
 
 school, 727. 
 Board of Education, xxi, 210, 211. 
 
 „ „ Technological Branch, 115, 209. 
 
 Trade, Labour Department of, xxi. 
 Bolton Technical School, 279, 287, 303, 309, 310. 
 Bootle, Evening Schools in, 179—183. 
 „ Technical School, 181. 
 
 ,, Technical School : Pre-apprenticeship Day School at the, 439, 440. 
 Bordeaux, Philomathique de, 592. 
 Borough Polytechnic Institute, 407, 409—412, 414, 422. 
 
 „ „ Institute, Day Trade School for Girls, 441, 442. 
 
 „ „ „ Technical Day School for Boys, 434^-435. 
 
 Technical Day School, 409—412, 424. 
 Bouchor, Maurice, 588, 612. 
 Bourgeois, Leon, 593. 
 Bo wen, E., 44. 
 
 Boy and Girl Labour, socially hurtful forms of employment of, 709-710. 
 Boys' Brigades, 4, 84^91. 
 
 „ Brigade, Holy Name, 201. 
 „ Clubs, 201, 202. 
 ,, League of Honour, 85, 91. 
 „ Life Brigade, 89, 90. 
 Boys, Currioultmi for adolescent, 396 — 398. 
 
 Technical Day Schools for, in London, 408—410, 412 — 416. 
 Bradford Masters' Association, 311. 
 School of Art, 311. 
 Technical College, 310, 311. 
 Bray, Dr. (S.P.C.K., 1698), 14. 
 Brewer, 44. 
 
 Brigades, Boys' and Girls', 84 — 91. 
 Brighton, xiii. 
 
758 INDEX 
 
 Brimscombe Polytechnic, near Stroud. Day Craft School at the, 440, 
 
 441 
 Bromhead, J. J., 177. 
 Brougham, Lord, 5, 23, 25, 27. 
 Brown, Ford Madox, 44. 
 
 „ (of Haddington), 213. 
 Bruce, G. L., xx. 
 Brunner, Mend & Co. (Northwich), 183, 191—193, 736. 
 
 „ ,, „ „ Education of employees under 19, 
 
 191—193, 292-293, 307. 
 
 „ Sir John T., 192. 
 
 ,, ,, Education Acts Amendment Bill (1905), 721. 
 
 Buckinghamshire Continuation Schools, 231 — 233. 
 
 Cadbury Bros., Ltd., Bournville. Education of employees, 294-295, 307, 
 
 308, 735. 
 Cahen, M. Georges, xxi. 
 
 Cambridge Boys' Employment Registry, 467 — 471. 
 ,, University of, 73, 213. 
 
 ,, Working Men's College, 44. 
 
 Cambridgeshire Continuation Schools, 211 — 215, 714. 
 Campagnac, E. T., 336. 
 Camps, Summer, 86, 90, 201, 206. 
 Carleton-Tufnell, E., 427. 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 10, 11. 
 Carnot, Lazare, 589. 
 Carpenter, Miss Mary, 54. 
 Cass Institute, 136. 
 
 Catechismes de Perseverance, 629, 632. 
 Cave, M., 596. 
 Central Institutions for Technical Instruction, Scotland, 478, 479. 
 
 „ School of Arts and Crafts, London. Day Technical Classes at 
 the, 431, 432. 
 
 „ Village Library, Cambridgeshire, 212, 213, 214. 
 Cercle des Parents, Eheims, 599. 
 Chapman, Prof. S. J., 323, 347. 
 Charity Schools, 14. 
 Charles, Thomas, of Bala, 16. 
 Chartist Movement, 36—38, 48. 
 Child Labour, Problem of, 318, 319. 
 Christian VIII., of Denmark, 491, 492, 493, 494. 
 
INDEX 759 
 
 Church Lads' Brigade, 86—87. 
 
 „ of England Sunday School Institute, 17. 
 Circular 604, 404, 405. 
 
 ,, to total exemption scholars, 194. 
 Circulating Schools, 14, 15, 16. 
 City and Guilds of London Institute, 26, 415, 428. 
 Clark, George, Ltd., Sunderland. Education of apprentices, 315—317. 
 Classes for young people and adults in France, 576 — 584. 
 Clayton and Shuttleworth, Ltd., Lincoln. Apprenticeship, system of, 
 
 276—277. 
 Coal Mines Begulation Acts (1887 — 1900), 360. 
 Cobden, Eichard, 27. 
 Cochran and Co., 480. 
 
 Cockburn High School, Leeds. Day Preparatory Trade School for 
 Boys at the, 437-438. 
 ,, ,, School, Leeds. Day Preparatory Trade Schools for 
 
 Girls at the, 445, 446. 
 Cockerton, Barclay, 65, 66. 
 
 Judgment, 65 — 67. 
 Code, Evening School (1893), 63. 
 „ of (1860), 59. 
 „ of (1890), 62. 
 „ of (1897), 63. 
 „ Eevised, of (1862), 60. 
 Co-education, Adolescents and, 396. 
 
 Colman, J. and J., Ltd., Norwich. Education of employees, 294-295. 
 Commercial Continuation Schools, Switzerland, 554 — 557. 
 
 „ Schools, London, 137, 138. 
 
 Commission, Lord Cross's (1886), 62, 145. 
 Committee of Council on Education, 52, 56, 58, 60, 63. 
 
 „ „ Public Instruction, 35. 
 
 Compulsory Attendance at Continuation Schools in Germany, 513 — 534. 
 
 in Munich, 537, 541, 543, 54?, 
 545, 546. 
 „ „ „ in Switzerland, 569 — 574. 
 
 „ in U.S.A., 645-646. 
 „ at Evening Schools, 68—71, 120, 125, 141, 181, 
 
 182, 183, 184, 186, 191, 218, 224, 225, 233, 
 235, 253—256, 258, 263, 307, 383, 384, 481, 
 482, 689-749. 
 cost of, 738—740. 
 ,, enforcement of, 744 — 749. 
 
 „ Education in U.S.A. Limits of, 674^688. 
 
 Conclusions upon Evening Schools, 187 — 189. 
 
76o INDEX 
 
 Consolidated rural schools in Canada and U.S.A., 715. 
 Continuation Classes in France, 576 — 642. 
 
 Schools and Social Education, 524 — 527. 
 
 ,, Main conclusions to which thought is moving in 
 
 regard to, xviii, xix. 
 ,, definition of the purpose of, 689. 
 ,, should attendance at, be made compulsory in Eng- 
 land, 689—749, 717—744. 
 ,, in majority of English towns still in a disappointing 
 state, 698-699. 
 and Technical Schools, Switzerland. Cantonal organisation 
 
 of, 553, 554. 
 Schools in France. Conclusions upon, 635 — 638. 
 
 in France. Financial arrangements of, 639-640. 
 
 in Germany. History of, 520—524, 530—533. 
 
 in Rural Districts, 209—237. 
 
 Scotland. Organisation of, 472 — 482. 
 
 Necessity for, 382—384. 
 
 of Munich. Cost of, with numbers of pupils on 
 
 the registers, 546, 547. 
 of Switzerland, 548—575. 
 of Switzerland. Federal and Cantonal Control of, 
 
 548—550. 
 of Switzerland. Specialised, 554 — 568. 
 ,, Courses for Teachers, Switzerland, 568-569. 
 
 Cooper-Walter, 37. 
 
 Go-operation des Idees, 606, 608, 614. 
 Co-operation in Denmark, 505 — 508. 
 Co-operative Holidays Association, 4, 96 — 100, 747. 
 
 Movement and Education, 371-372, 374—382. 
 Co-operators and Evening Schools, 4, 48—50, 110, 175, 179, 248, 374—382. 
 Corpus Christi Priory, 201. 
 
 Country Districts, Educational apathy of, 120 — 124. 
 Cours d'Adultes, 577, 578, 580, 581, 636, 642. 
 
 ,, techniques, 583. 
 Courses, Art, for Evening Schools, 106. 
 „ Leeds, 162. 
 Commercial, Leeds, 161, 163. 
 ,, Manchester, 155. 
 
 Widnes, 186. 
 Domestic, for Evening Schools, 108, 217, 218. 
 „ Leeds, 162, 163. 
 ,, Manchester, 155. 
 for Evening Schools, 105—110, 189, 250, 251. 
 
INDEX 761 
 
 Courses for Evening Schools, Literary and Commercial, 106. 
 » J) „ Preparatory, 105-106. 
 
 .. ,. ,, Illustrated, 257-258. 
 
 ), School Teachers, Leeds, 164. 
 Industrial, Widnes, 185, 186. 
 „ Manual Instruction, for Evening Schools, 106. 
 „ of Work in Rural Evening Schools, Memorandum of, 219. 
 ,, Preparatory, Gloucestershire, 219, 220. 
 „ „ Halifax, 168. 
 
 » „ Leeds, 159. 
 
 „ Manchester, 152 — 154. 
 
 „ Science, for Evening Schools, 107-108. 
 ,, Technical Gloucestershire, 220. 
 „ „ Leeds, 161. 
 
 „ ,, Manchester, 154 — 155. 
 
 Coventry Technical Institute, 311. 
 Cowen, Peter, 150. 
 Co wens, Robin, 9. 
 Crabbe, 1. 
 
 Craft Schools, Globe Road, London, E., 430. 
 Creasey, C. H., xxiii, 113, 725-726, 739. 
 Creighton, quoted, 706. 
 Crooks, W., M.P., 726. 
 Crosfield, Joseph & Sons, Ltd., Warrington, Education of employees, 
 
 296-297, 307-308. 
 Crossley Lads' Club, Manchester, 259. 
 Crowther, J., 170, 171. 
 Ctmiberland Continuation Schools, 228 — 230. 
 Curriculum for Artisan Evening Schools, Leeds, 159, 160. 
 for Evening Schools, 93, 385, 386. 
 „ „ London, 138—139. 
 
 for Rural Evening Schools, 120—121, 123, 124. 
 Customs and Excise Act (1890), 211. 
 Curzon, ¥., 213. 
 
 D 
 Dale, David, 6, 7. 
 „ Dr. R. W., 95. 
 „ F. H., 522, 534. 
 Dallington Domestic Economy School, Norlhamptonshire, 451 — 453. 
 Dalum Agricultural School, 501. 
 Danby, G. H., 183, 184. 
 
 Danish Folkehojskole (see People's High Schools in Denmark). 
 „ War with Germany (1864), 496, 499. 
 
762 INDEX 
 
 Dartford Technical Institute, 293. 
 
 Darwin, Charles, 12. 
 
 Davies, J. Llewelyn, 44. 
 
 Day Continuation Schools in Germany, 517. 
 
 „ Schools and Evening Continuation Schools, 3, 116—120, 132, 133, 
 134, 135, 165, 166, 188, 230, 244, 245. 
 
 ,, Schools and Evening Schools (Scotland). Connexion between the, 
 474—477. 
 
 „ Trade, Pre-apprenticeship and similar Schools. List of, 429-430. 
 
 „ Trade Schools, L.C.C., 456. 
 Deaf, Evening Classes for the, 136. 
 
 Debenhams, Ltd., London. Education of Apprentices, 296 — 299, 307. 
 Defective and Epilectic children, age limit for compulsory attendance at 
 
 school, 727. 
 Degrees at Evening Classes, 143-144. 
 Deherme, G., 606, 627. 
 
 Denny, William, and Bros., Dumbarton, 278-279. 
 Derby Technical College, 273, 281, 312. 
 Desplenter, Canon, 198. 
 Detention Schools, 103. 
 
 Development of Evening Schools, 113 — 115 . 
 Dicey, Prof. A. V., 44. 
 Dickinson, Lowes, 44. 
 
 Difficulties in the Organisation of Schools in U.S.A., 643 — 646. 
 ^, ,, ,, in Manchester, 157. 
 
 of Evening Schools, 115—128, 180, 243-244. 
 Diggle, J. E., 428. 
 
 Discipline in Evening Schools, 245, 246, 545. 
 Dock Board, Mersey, 181. 
 Ddmestic Servants (female) and Continuation Schools, 544. 
 
 ,, Training tor Girls, Switzerland, 564 — 568. 
 Doncaster Technical Schools, 269. 
 Draycott, J. W., 333, 334. 
 Duff, Mountstuart Grant, 44. 
 Dumbarton Academy, 279. 
 Dundee Technical Institute, 479. 
 Duruy, Victor, 577, 587, 589. 
 Dymond, T. S., 121. 
 
 E 
 
 Ecole Polytechnique, 590. 
 Ecoles, Chretiennes, 629. 
 
 ,, de Commerce et d'Industrie, 582. 
 
 ,, Professionnelles, 582, 634, 636, 637. 
 
 ,, Superieures de Commerce et d'Industrie, 592. 
 
INDEX 763 
 
 Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, 479. 
 
 „ Heriot-Watt College, 479. 
 
 Education and the State, 12, 13. 
 
 Act of (1870), 10, 13, 23, 61, 62, 145, 320. 
 (1876), 320. 
 (1880), 320. 
 
 (1889), 321, 322, 326, 348. 
 (1902), 67, 105, 127, 175, 183, 192, 695. 
 (1907), 695. 
 Acts (1870—1902), 359-360. 
 Act (Scotland), (1901), 472, 473, 474. 
 ,, (Scotland) Bill, 1907, clauses dealing with continuation schools 
 
 in 721—723. 
 ,, increasing desire of workmen that their children should have 
 
 a better and more prolonged, 708-709. 
 „ in England rural districts, 713 — 717. 
 ,, Department, 11, 12, 58, 210, 211. 
 ,, ,, and Science and Art Department, 64. 
 
 Educational Calendar, 196. 
 
 ,, Progress in populous districts, 147. 
 
 „ Work connected with Religious bodies in France, 628 — 635. 
 
 Edwards, M.P., Clement, 332, 344. 
 
 „ Edward, 80. 
 
 Elementary Continuation Schools, Switzerland, 551 — 553. 
 
 ,, Day School, Need for co-ordinating course in, with Trade 
 
 School, 419—423. 
 ,, „ Schools, Scotland. Supplementary Courses in, 474 — 477. 
 
 „ Education, Need for reform in, 263, 264, 401. 
 (Blind and Deaf) Act (1893), 727. 
 „ „ (Defective and Epilectic) Act (1899), 727. 
 
 „ „ of scholars (from 11—14), 389—400. 
 
 Evening Schools, U.S.A., 647—649. 
 „ Schools, Improvement of, 114, 115, 122-123. 
 
 ,, (England and Wales) number of children on school 
 
 registers of (1901), 693, 738. 
 ,, (England and Wales), present limits of compulsory 
 attendance at, 692-693. 
 ^, ,, Massachusetts, Need for reform in, 666. 
 
 Public, 388—400. 
 Employers, Advisory Board of, 182. 
 
 „ and Evening Continuation Schools, 124, 125, 165, 182, 217, 
 
 246, 247, 259, 260, 265—317, 479, 480, 517, 522, 544, 545, 
 651, 652. 
 and Half-timers, 341. 
 
764 INDEX 
 
 Employers and Technical Instruction, 308 — 317. 
 Employment of Children (10—16) in U.S.A., 687, 688. 
 
 Act (1903), 359. 
 Engineers, Shipbuilders, Steel and Iron Workers, etc.. Educational 
 
 facilities granted to employees by, 274 — 292. 
 Evening High Schools, U.S.A., 649—652. 
 
 Schools; First Period of Development (1780—1833), 5—9. 
 Fourth ,, „ (1870—1907), 13. 
 
 in U.S.A., 643—657. 
 ,, ,, Regulations respecting, 105 — 110. 
 
 „ „ Second Period of Development (1833—1848), 9-10. 
 
 „ Third Period of Development (1848—1870), 10—13. 
 ,, ,, under Government, 52 — 71. 
 
 „ Technical and Trade Schools, U.S.A., 652—655. 
 Ewart, William, 80, 81. 
 Exemption ages in U.S.A., 674 — 677. 
 
 „ of Day Scholars, xi, xii, 123-124, 141, 142, 320, 321. 
 ,, Scholars, Partial, 320, ei seq. 
 
 Exhibitions for Evening Classes, 163. 
 Experimental School, Gloucestershire, 221 — 223. 
 
 F 
 
 Factory and Workshops Acts (1878—1901), 355—358. 
 
 Fairbairn, William, 25. 
 
 Farmers and Evening Schools, 120—124, 235, 236. 
 
 Fishwick, Col., 724. 
 
 Fjord, N. J., 506. 
 
 Flor, Christian, 494. 
 
 Flors Hojskole (see Askov High School). 
 
 Foreign element in U.S.A. Assimilation of, 647, 648. 
 
 Fornay Library, Paris, 586. 
 
 Foundation Universitaire de Belleville, 606, 607, 608, 609. 
 
 Fox, Samuel, 16, 17. 
 
 France, xviii, xxvi, 576 — 642. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 21. 
 
 Frauenarbeitsschule, 542, 547. 
 
 Free Kirk Movement in Denmark, 508 — 510. 
 
 „ Schools in Denmark, 498-499. 
 French Revolution of (1848), 9, 10, 38. 
 Friheds Stotte (Freedom's Pillar), 483. 
 Furnivall, Dr., 41, 42, 43, 44. 
 
INDEX 765 
 
 G 
 
 Gamble Technical Institute, St. Helens, 175, 176, 177, 178. 
 
 Geary, 53. 
 
 Germany, The systematic organisation of continuation schools in, xvii, 
 
 XXV, 513—534. 
 Gibb, Rev. Spencer J., 263, 264. 
 
 Girls, Continuation Schools for, Switzerland, 564 — 568. 
 „ Curriculum for adolescent, 398, 399 
 ,, Education of, 249. 
 
 ,, need of good continuation schools for, 702 — 704. 
 ,, should be compelled to attend continuation schools up to 16, 703. 
 „ Trade Schools for, 407, 408, 411-412. 
 Girls' Life Brigade, 90-91. 
 Glasgow Athaneum Commercial College, 479. 
 ,, Mechanics' Institution, 25. 
 „ School of Art, 479. 
 Gloucestershire Continuation Schools, 215 — 223. 
 
 ,, Report on Apprenticeship Fund and Labour Bureau, 
 
 404, 405. 
 Goderick, Lord (Marquis of Ripon), 40. 
 Gorst, Sir John, 378. 
 Gradation of Evening Schools, 258, 259. 
 Graham, James, 158. 
 Greard, Monsieur, 577. 
 Growth of Evening Schools, 145, 146. 
 
 ,, of the London Evening School, 129, 136. 
 Grundtvig, Bishop, N.F.S., 487—494, 496, 498. 
 Guieysse, M., 627. 
 Guild of Courtesy, 85. 
 St. Aloysius, 202. 
 
 H 
 
 Hagman, Sofia, 511. 
 
 Half-time Council, 340, 341, 348, 349. 
 
 Educational effects of, 333, et seq. 
 Popularity of, 338, 339. 
 Half-timer, Daily Time-table of a, 327, 328. 
 Half-timers and Evening Schools, 336. 
 
 Laws relating to, 320, 321, 322, 355—361. 
 Numbers of, 322—326, 347. 
 ,, Occupations of, 328 — 330. 
 
 Physical conditions of, 330 — 333. 
 
766 INDEX 
 
 Halifax Evening Schools, 119, 166—174, 697, 728. 
 
 ,, Municipal Technical School, 312. 
 
 „ Working Men's College, 45. 
 Hall, Dr. Stanley, 526. 
 Hanus, Professor, 658, 667—670. 
 Harris, Mrs. O'Brien, xxi. 
 
 „ Institute, Preston, 315, 378, 379. 
 Harrison, Frederic, 44. 
 Headlam, Stewart, 138. 
 Heller, T. E., 95. 
 Ht^vetius, 6. 
 Hereford, Bishop of (Dr. Percival), Continuation School Bill (1904), 
 
 718—720. 
 Hervey, Lord Arthur, 76. 
 Hewitt, D. B., 191. 
 Heyrod Street Boys' Club, 259. 
 Heywood, Benjamin, 25. 
 Hibbert, Sir H., 724. 
 
 Higher Grade Evening Schools, London, 135 — 136. 
 Historical Review of Evening Schools in England, 1 — 104. 
 History of Evening Schools in Lads' Clubs, Manchester, 202 — 205. 
 Hodgson, C. Courtenay, 22^-230. 
 Hogg, Quintin, 30, 31, 129. 
 
 Holbeck Day Preparatory Trade School, Leeds, 438, 439. 
 Holberg, Ludvig, 493. 
 Holden, J. E., 194. 
 Holm, Harald, 510. 
 Holmstrom, Leonard, 511. 
 Holy Name Night School, Manchester, 199. 
 Hose, 44. 
 
 Household, H. W., 217—223. 
 Housekeeping Schools, Switzerland, 567-568. 
 Huber, Dr., 569. 
 Hudson, J. W., 24, 27. 
 Hughes, T., 44, 49. 
 
 Professor, 380. 
 Hunt, C. H., 182. 
 Huth, G., 513, 518. 
 Huxley, Thomas H., 12. 
 
 Industrial and Provident Societies' Act (1852), 37. 
 
 ,, and Technical Education in Massachusetts. Conclusions of 
 
 Commission of, 662 — 666. 
 
INDEX 767 
 
 Industrial and Technical Education in Massachusetts. Report of Com- 
 mission of, 658—666. 
 Classes at Evening Schools, 57. 
 Revolution, 9, 530, 531. 
 
 ,, and Evening Schools, 3, 5. 
 
 School, age limits for detention at, and for subsequent super- 
 vision, 727. 
 Training in Continuation Schools of New England, 657 — 673. 
 ,, in Elementary Schools. Need for, 671 — 673. 
 Massachusetts. Need for, 659, 660, 665—670. 
 ,, in Massachusetts, Review of, 660 — 662. 
 Worker, History of Training of, 416-417. 
 Institute, North Eastern Railway Literary, 273. 
 Institution for Instructing Adult Persons to read the Holy Scriptures, 18. 
 
 J 
 
 Jackson, Cyril, 138. 
 
 Jebb, Miss E., xxi. 
 
 Jephson, Canon, 138. 
 
 Jevons, Miss H. W., xxi. 
 
 Jewish Board of Guardians, Industrial Committee of, 456, 457. 
 
 Jews in France, Educational work of, 634^635. 
 
 Johnson Brothers Ltd., Bootle, 181, 182. 
 
 „ Education of Employees, 298-299, 308. 
 William, 40. 
 Jones, Griffith, 14, 15, 16. 
 
 „ Harry Longueville, 72. 
 Jonsson, J. V., 511. 
 JuUy, M., 583, 584. 
 
 Juvenile Unskilled Employments, Need for counteracting evils of, 454— 
 455, 469. 
 
 K 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, 427. 
 
 Keen, Austin, 211, 215. 
 
 Kennedy, Rev. W. J., 54, 57. 
 
 Kenrick, J. H., 423. 
 
 Kerschensteiner, Dr. Georg, 518, 524, 526, 534, 535, 537, 542—546, 658. 
 
 Kilmarnock Dairy School, 479. 
 
 King's College, London, 72, 131. 
 
 Kingsley, Rev. Chas., 37, 40, 44. 
 
 Kittermaster, D. B., quoted, 702. 
 
 Kold, Kristen, 490, 495—499. 
 
768 INDEX 
 
 L 
 
 Labour Unions and Industrial Training in Massachusetts, 663. 
 
 La Cour, J. C, 501, 502, 506. 
 
 Ladeluud Agricultural School (Denmark), 501. 
 
 Lads' Clubs and Evening Schools, Manchester, 202 — 208. 
 
 „ Drill Association, 84, 87, 88. 
 Lambert, M.P., Mr., Education Acts Amendment Bill (1905), 720-721. 
 Lancashire, 698, 744. 
 Lasker, B., 513. 
 Laws, Industrial, Germany, 517, 522, 527 — 530. 
 
 ,, relating to the employment of children in Germany, 361 — 368. 
 Leakage, Educational, after close of elementary day school course, 699. 
 
 ,, ,, social evils of, 699. 
 
 Leblanc, Rene, 642. 
 
 Lectures and Public Readings in France, 587 — 589. 
 Leeds, Evening Schools in, 157 — 166. 
 
 ,, University of, 158. 
 Legge, J. G., 429. 
 Leicester Technical School, 313. 
 
 ,, Working Men's Institute (College), 45. 
 Leith Nautical College, 479. 
 Leonard, T. Arthur, 96. 
 Lever Brothers, Ltd., Port Sunlight. Education of employees, 300-301, 
 
 308. 
 Libraries and Elementary Education, 81, 82. 
 Free Public, 4, 80—84. 
 in France, 584^586. 
 Library, Bootle Public, 182. 
 Ligue de I'Enseignement, 592, 593, 598, 635, 637. 
 Litchfield, R. S., 44. 
 
 Literary and Philosophical Societies, 21, 22. 
 Littleborough, 698. 
 
 Liverpool Domestic Science School for Girls, 450, 451. 
 ,, Mechanics' and Apprentices' Library, 22, 25. 
 
 School of Commerce, 269, 273. 
 ,, Shrewsbury Lads' Club at, 701. 
 
 ,, Working Men's College, 45. 
 
 Lloyd, LI. S., 113. 
 
 Local Committees, Buckinghamshire, 231. 
 East Riding, 233, 237. 
 
 for Higher Education, Cumberland, 228, 230. 
 ,, ,, ,, Gloucestershire, 215, 216. 
 
 ., Taxation Act, 64. 
 
INDEX 769 
 
 Locock, 44. 
 
 London, Condition of Education in, 132, 133. 
 ,, Evening Schools in, 129—144. 
 ,, Institution, 22. 
 ,, Local Committees affiliated to the Apprenticeship and Skilled 
 
 Employment Association, 462-463. 
 ,, Livery Companies of, 428. 
 „ Mechanics' Institution, 25. 
 ,, Philomathic Institution, 22. 
 ,, Russell Institution, 22. 
 
 „ School of Economics, 267, 269, 271, 273, 306. 
 Schools of Art, 136, 137. 
 University of, 72, 138, 139, 142—144, 213. 
 ,, ,, Extension Society, 78. 
 
 Working Men's College, 10, 11, 38, 40, 45, 49, 129. 
 Lorriaux, M. Le Pasteur, 633. 
 Lovett, William, 9, 34, 36, 213. 
 Lovett's Committees of Public Instruction, 35. 
 Lowe, Robert, 428. 
 
 Ludlow, John Malcolm, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44. 
 Lushington, Godfrey, 44. 
 
 Lyons, Universite Populaire (Societe d'Enseignement Superieur Libre), 
 621. 
 
 M 
 Mace, Jean, 592. 
 McLennan, 44. 
 
 Machinery (automatic), its effect in grading ability, 707. 
 Macdonald, Sir W., 715. 
 Macmillan, A., 40. 
 Magnus, Sir Philip, 425, 429, 525. 
 Maison Commune, 608. 
 Maisons du Peuple (Montpellier), 620. 
 Managers, Committee of, 134. 
 Manchester Branch Technical Schools, 154. 
 
 Evening Schools, 68—70, 146—157, 190, 198. 
 History of, 148. 
 ,, Free Public Library, 81. 
 
 Mechanics' Institution (Technical School), 25, 26, 148. 
 Municipal School of Technology, 26, 148, 156, 275, 281, 285, 
 
 287, 291, 304-305, 315. 
 University of, xx, 72, 76, 213, 267, 269, 271, 273, 306. 
 Education Department, 240, 742, 743. 
 ,, Working Men's College, 45. 
 
 2 X 
 
770 INDEX 
 
 Manhattan Trade School for Girls, City of New York, 446 — 450. 
 Mansbridge, A., xx. 
 
 Manufacturers and Trade Schools, Stroud, 441. 
 Marsh, Eev. James, 7, 8. 
 Massachusetts, 715, 728. 
 
 Mather and Piatt, Ltd., Education of Apprentices at Salford Iron 
 Works, 282-283, 307. 
 Sir William, 26, 659, 663. 
 Matheson, M. Cecile, 568. 
 
 Maurice, F. D., 10, 11, 23, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 80. 
 Mazet du Peuple (Montpellier), 620, 624. 
 Mechanics' Institute, G.E.R., 267. 
 
 Institutes, 4, 10, 17, 21—31, 39, 45, 76, 77, 145, 306. 
 
 ,, Institution, Birmingham, 24, 28, 29. 
 
 „ ,, Crewe, 271. 
 
 ,, ,, Horwich, 271. 
 
 ,, „ Liverpool, 25. 
 
 ,, ,, London, 25. 
 
 ,, ,, Manchester, 25, 26, 148. 
 
 „ Institutions, Lancashire and Cheshire Union of, 27, 57. 
 
 ,, ,, Lancashire Union of, 57, 58. 
 
 „ „ Leeds, 157, 158. 
 
 ,, ,, Yorkshire Union of, 213. 
 
 Medd, J. C, 440, 721. 
 Mereaux, Emile, 605. 
 
 Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts (1872—1900), 360, 361. 
 Middlesborough High School, 287. 
 Millis, C. T., xxi. 
 
 Minimum National Standard of School Training and attainment. First 
 adopted in English Law (1876), xi, 320. 
 
 „ Raised successively (1880), (1893), (1900), xii, 320, 321. 
 
 ,, More generous interpretation of, by the elementary day school 
 code since (1903), xii. 
 Monmouthshire Education Committee and compulsory continuation 
 
 schools, 724. 
 Morgan, Jenkin, 15. 
 
 Munich, The Continuation Schools of, 535 — 547. 
 Munroe, James Phinney, 657, 658. 
 Musee Pedogogique, 587. 
 Mutualite Scolaire, 595, 596. 
 
INDEX 771 
 
 N 
 
 National Home Reading Union, 4, 82 — 84, 96, 97, 110, 162. 
 
 „ League for Physical Education, 4, 104. 
 
 ,, Organisation of Continuation Schools in Germany, 513 — 515. 
 
 ,, Service League, 84, 88, 89. 
 
 ,, Telephone Company. Instruction in Telephony, 304-305. 
 Natorp, Professor, 525. 
 Neale, E. Vansittart, 37, 40, 44, 49. 
 Needlework Schools, Switzerland, 567. 
 Newman, John Henry, 10, 23. 
 Newton Metal Work Classes, 215. 
 Nield, Walter, 349—351. 
 Noel, Rev. Baptist, 53. 
 
 Northcote, Sir Stafford and Trevelyan, Sir Charles, 12. 
 Northumberland Continuation Schools, 223 — 228. 
 
 
 
 Oeuvre de la Chaussee du Maine, 633. 
 
 ,, ,, Communaute, 634. 
 
 ,, des Enfants a la Montague, 633. 
 
 ,, ,, Sejours a la Campagne, 635. 
 
 ,, ,, Trois-Semaines, 633. 
 
 ,, du Trousseau, 599. 
 Ogle, J. J., 182. 
 Openshaw Lads' Club, 207. 
 Opinions of Evening School Teachers, 238 — 264. 
 Overend, 33. 
 Owen, Robert, 5, 6, 48. 
 Owens, John, 11, 72, 76. 
 Oxford University, 73, 75. 
 Oxford Working Men's Educational Institution, 45. 
 
 Pache, Oskar, 523, 534. 
 
 Paddington Engineering Schools, 407. 
 
 L.C.C. Technical Institute, 299, 407, 408, 412, 413. 
 
 ,, Technical Day School for Boys, 
 
 430, 431. 
 
 Dav Trade School of Dress- 
 ,• )t " -^ 
 
 making at the, 444, 445. 
 Parasitic Trades, 709-710, 712. 
 
772 INDEX 
 
 Parents and Evening Schools, 248, 249. 
 
 „ ,, Half-timers, 344, 345. 
 Paris, Universites Populaires, 606, 614. 
 Paton, Dr., 46, 83, 85, 91, 93, 97. 
 Pellison, Maurice, 641. 
 People's College, General Bules of, 34. 
 
 ,, ,, London, 36 — 44. 
 
 „ ,, Teachers and Classes, 43, 44. 
 
 „ Colleges, 32—48. 
 
 ,, ,, and Universities, 43. 
 
 ,, ,, in various towns, 44, 45. 
 
 ,, ,, London and Sheffield, Connexion between, 37 — 39. 
 
 ,, High Schools in countries other than Denmark, 510 — 512. 
 in Denmark, 483—512, 715, 747. 
 
 ,, ,, ,, Success of, xvii, xx, 500 — 505. 
 
 „ ,, ,, Age limits in, xvii, 485. 
 
 ,, ,, ,, hardly touch town population, xvii, 
 
 505. 
 
 ,, Institutes, work of, 45, 46. 
 
 „ Palace, London, 30, 31, 273. 
 Perkin, Sir William Henry, 12. 
 Pestalozzi, Heinrich, 11, 427. 
 Petit, Edouard, 578, 639, 641. 
 Petites, A., 595, 600, 601, 602, 625, 636, 639. 
 
 Cave, 596, 597, 631. 
 Physical Deterioration, Interdepartmental Committee on (1904), 103, 
 700-701, 723-724. 
 Training, 98-99, 102—104, 109. 
 
 ,, ,, in Continuation Schools, 482. 
 
 ,, ,, in Denmark and Sweden, 103, 104. 
 
 Halifax, 174. 
 Physiocrats, 6. 
 Pickles, A. E., 333, 336, 741. 
 Place, Francis, 5. 
 Pole, Dr., 18. 
 
 Polytechnics, London, 28, 30, 31, 130, 131, 134, 136-137, 313, 314. 
 Poplar Engineering Schools, 407, 408, 412, 413. 
 
 Population (England and Wales) in 1901 at each year of age (3 — 17), 693. 
 Port Sunlight Technical Institute, 301. 
 Post Office Telegraph Messengers, Technical Classes for, Brighton and 
 
 Stockport, xiii. 
 Pottecher, Maurice, 612. 
 Povlsen, Alfred, 500, 512. 
 
INDEX 773 
 
 Preparatory Trade Schools, Social and Economic value of, 418. 
 ,, ,, ,, True principles of organisation, 419. 
 
 Pressense, Madame, 633. 
 Pressland, A. J., xxi. 
 
 Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act (1904), 361. 
 Priestley, A. W., 234, 236. 
 
 ,, Joseph, 21. 
 
 Prmce Consort, The, 12. 
 
 Protestants in France, Educational work of, 632 — 634, 18. 
 Prust, Stephen, 18. 
 
 Q 
 Questions put to Evening School Teachers, 238-239. 
 
 R 
 Eae, W. R., 381. 
 Ragged Schools, 54, 55. 
 Raikes, Robert, 15. 
 Railway Companies, English, Educational Facilities to Employees, 
 
 granted by 266—273. 
 Reading Circles, 83-84. 
 Recreative Club of the Sisters of Charity, Ancoats, 202. 
 
 ,, Evening Classes, 4, 91 — 96. 
 
 ,, ,, Schools' Association', 91 — 96. 
 
 Recruits' Schools, Switzerland, 550, 551. 
 Religious Bodies and Evening Schools, 188. 
 
 ,, Instruction in Boys' Brigades, 90, 91. 
 
 in Evening Schools, 8, 50—52, 55, 84, 200. 
 
 ^, „ in Working Men's Colleges, 39, 40. 
 
 Renold, Hans, Ltd., Manchester. Education of Apprentices at, 284-285. 
 Responsibility of Employers, 124, 125, 265—317. 
 Reynolds, J. H., 150, 190. 
 Richard, Henry, 95. 
 Ringsted Agricultural School, 502. 
 Rimmerschmid Commercial School, 542, 547. 
 Rising Generation and Evening Schools, 249, 250. 
 Roberts, T. L., 340, 349. 
 Robertson, Andrew, 9. 
 
 ,, Professor, 715. 
 
 Robinson, W. C, 340. 
 Robson, Sir W. S., 321. 
 
774 INDEX 
 
 Rochdale Education Guild, 196. 
 
 Evening Schools, 102, 119, 193—197, 697, 728. 
 „ Municipal Technical School, 193, 287, 291, 315. 
 „ Pioneers, 48. 
 Rocheron, M., 583. 
 Roman Catholics and Evening Schools, 185,* 198 — 202. 
 
 ,, ,, in France, Educational Work of, 628 — 632. 
 
 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 44. 
 Rowbotham, T., 33, 34. 
 Rowntree and Co., Ltd., York. Education of Employees, 300 — 303, 307, 
 
 308. 
 Royal Commission of (1886), 93, 94, 95, 96. 
 
 „ ,, „ Minority Report, 95. 
 
 „ „ on Labour (1891—4), 321, 341. 
 
 „ „ on Physical Training (1903), 102. 
 
 Rural Districts (England), Education in, 120—124, 713—717. 
 Ruskin College, Oxford, 46—48, 49, 373. 
 
 „ John, xvi, 10, 11, 43 (quoted), 704, 707. 
 Russell, C. E. B., 336. 
 Ryslinge People's High School, 497, 500. 
 
 S 
 Salford Lads' Club, 205. 
 
 ,, Royal Technical Institute, 281. 
 ,, Working Men's College, 45. 
 Salle, Jean Baptiste de la, 628. 
 Sandiford, Peter, xxi. 
 
 Scholarships for Evening Schools, 151, 152, 176, 177, 199, 252, 253, 271, 
 279, 289, 299, 317, 336. 
 Trade School, 410, 412, 413, 431, 433a, 435, 442, 443, 445. 
 Schools for Master Workmen and Journeymen, 537, 538, 540, 546. 
 School Savings Banks, etc., in France, 595 — 602. 
 Schroeder, Ludvig, 494, 495, 505. 
 Science and Art Department, 11, 12, 27, 58, 64, 129. 
 
 ,, ,, Institute, Wolverton, 271. 
 
 Scientific Instruction in Evening Schools, 12, 21, 27, 58, 59. 
 Scott, William, xxi. 
 
 Secondary School, Proposed new Type of, 389 — 400. 
 Serfs, Freeing of, in Denmark (1788). Results of, 483. 
 Secondary and other Schools (England), number qf pupils in (1897), 695. 
 Section 42 of the Evening Schools Regulations, Educational Importance 
 
 of Schools under, 417. 
 Sewell, William, 76. 
 Shackleton, M.P., D.J., 340, 374, 726. 
 
INDEX 775 
 
 Shaftesbury, Lord, 51. 
 
 Sheffield People's College (1842), 10, 32—35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42. 
 
 ,, University of, 285, 291. 
 Shipton, George, 95. 
 Shop Hours Act (1892), 361. 
 Shoreditch L.C.C. Technical Institute, 407, 409, 414, 422. 
 
 » >> „ ,, Technical Day Classes for Boys at 
 
 the, 432, 433 
 J, >> ,, ,, Day Trade Schools for Girls at 
 
 the, 445. 
 Shuttle-worth, Sir J. P. Kay, 57. 
 Sillon, 631, 642. 
 Singleton, William, 16. 
 Slagg, John, 26. 
 Smith, Adam, 5. 
 
 ,, H. Bompass, xx. 
 „ H. Llewellyn, 430. 
 „ William, 18. 
 Societe Academique de Comptabilite, 591. 
 
 „ Bibliographique des Bibliotheques, 630. 
 „ d'Economie Populaire (Nimes), 617. 
 ,, d'Enseignement Moderne, 590. 
 ,, ,, professionnel du Rhone, 592. 
 
 Generale d'Education et d'Enseignement, 630. 
 Havraise d'Enseignement par I'aspect, 587. 
 ,, Libre d'Emulation du Commerce et de I'lndustrie de la Seine 
 
 Inferieure, 592. 
 ,, Nationale des Conferences Populaires, 587. 
 ,, ,, pour la Propagation des Langues Etrangeres, 591. 
 
 ,, pour I'lnstruction Elementaire, 589. 
 Society of Arts, 21, 34. 
 
 ,, for Bettering the Condition of the Poor, 7. 
 ,, for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 14, 15. 
 ,, for Promoting Working Men's Associations, 37. 
 „ of Friends, 6, 16, 17, 18, 19. 
 Societies for the Education of the People, France, 589 — 595. 
 Solidarite, 607, 608, 609. 
 Soro Academy, 493. 
 
 Spectator, The, and compulsory attendance at Continuation Schools, 721. 
 Spencer, Herbert, 10, 11, 12. 
 Stanley of Alderley, Lord, 95. 
 
 Technical Trade Schools, 435—437. 
 Trade School, 407, 408—409. 
 W. F., 408, 409, 435—437. 
 
776 INDEX. 
 
 states with Compulsory Attendance Laws, Germany, List of, 516. 
 
 Statistics of Evening Schools, U.S.A., 656. 
 
 Statutory Provisions relating to Compulsory Attendance and ChUd 
 
 Labour, U.S.A., Tables of, 678—686. 
 St. Helens, Evening Schools in, 175 — 179. 
 ,, Michael's Catholic Evening School, Ancoats, 198. 
 ,, Vincent de Paul Society, 201. 
 Steenstrup, Dr. M., 499. 
 Stevenson, George, 9. 
 Stock, Thomas, 15. 
 Stockport, xiii. 
 Stuart, James, 77. 
 Sturge, Joseph, 18, 19. 
 
 Subjects of Instruction, Buckinghamshire Evening Schools, 232. 
 Success of Continuation Schools, 242, 243, 244. 
 Suggestions for Improvement of Evening Schools, 259 — 264. 
 Sunday Schools, 4, -5, 13—17, 194, 197. 
 
 ,, ,, in France, 632. 
 
 „ „ Union, 90, 91. 
 
 „ ,, or Bible Classes, mentioned in Bishop of Hereford's 
 
 Continuation School Bill, 1904, 718. 
 Sunderland Technical College, 315 — 317. 
 Surrey, Conference of school managers and teachers and compulsory 
 
 continuation schools, 725. 
 Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Ltd., Wallsend-on-Tyne, 
 
 Educational regulations of, 288-289, 307. 
 Swaysland, E., 659. 
 Swindon Technical School, 269. 
 Swiss Gewerbe-verein, 562, 563. 
 Switzerland, xvii, 548 — 575. 
 Sykes, T. P., 334. 
 
 Tables of Conditions and Statistics of German Continuation Schools, 518, 
 
 519. 
 Teachers and Evening Schools, 56, 57, 149, 150. 
 „ „ Leeds, 164, 165. 
 
 Continuation Courses for, in Switzerland, 568-569. 
 Day, and Evening Schools, 480, 481. 
 for Evening Schools, 125—128, 244, 245. 
 ,, „ ,, London, 140 — 141. 
 
 in ,, ,, opinions of, 238 — 264. 
 
 ,, Danish High Schools, Qualification of, 492-493. 
 
INDEX 777 
 
 Technical Classes in rural districts, 217. 
 College, East London, 30, 273. 
 Continuation Schools, Switzerland, 557 — 564. 
 Education, Hostility of some employers and foremen to, 699, 
 705. 
 „ increasing encouragement given to, by employers 
 
 and working men, 698. 
 Institute, Newport, 267. 
 Institutions, Association of, xxi. 
 
 Instruction, 25—26, 114, 124, 125, 154—156, 188, 246, 247. 
 Act (1889), 64, 211. 
 ,, Commission, 26. 
 
 ,, Committee, Cambridge, 212. 
 
 ,, in Evening Schools, 64. 
 
 ,, in Lads' Clubs, 207. 
 
 Schools and Continuation Schools, 252, 253. 
 Training, Germany, 128. 
 Textile operatives and Half-time, 339, 340, 341. 
 Thornton, J. S., xx. 
 Tomlinson, Sir William, 378. 
 Toynbee, Arnold, 80. 
 
 Hall, 139. 
 Trade Guilds and Continuation Schools in Munich, 538, 539. 
 „ School, Nature of teaching staff required in, 424-425. 
 ,, Schools and Ee-apprenticeship Schools in England. Aims and 
 Courses of Study of certain, 427 — 453. 
 ,, ,, and Pre-apprenticeship Schools in England. Historical 
 
 review of, 427—429. 
 ., „ Evening and Sunday Schools, Munich, 538 — 542. 
 
 „ ,, Day, Munich, 539, 540, 541. 
 
 „ „ for Boys and Girls, 401—426. 
 
 ,, ,, in London, Three Types of, 407. 
 
 Tremenheere, 52. 
 
 Trevelyan, Sir Charles and Northcote, Sir Stafford, 12. 
 Types and Courses of Continuation Schools, Scotland, 477, 478. 
 ,, of Evening Schools, 264. 
 
 „ ,, London, 130—132. 
 
 ,, ,, Manchester, 152. 
 
 ,, of Working Men considered Educationally, 370—372. 
 Tyndall, 12. 
 Turgot, 6. 
 Turmann, Max, 642. 
 Twentyman, A. E., 513, 521. 
 Twining, T., 428. 
 
778 INDEX 
 
 u 
 
 United Alkali Company, Education of Apprentices, 183-184. 
 „ States, 643—673. 
 ,, ,, Less done in evening classes than in Great Britain or 
 
 France, xviii. 
 ,, ,, Growing sense of evils caused by lack of continued 
 
 training during adolescence, xvii. 
 Unemployment, Need of Industrial Training to lessen, 403 — 406. 
 
 partly traceable to lack of technical training during 
 adolescence, 707. 
 Union Democratique pour I'Education Sociale, 591. 
 Fran9aise de la Jeunesse, 590, 591. 
 Mouffetard, 607, 609, 614. 
 of Swiss Merchants, 554 — 557. 
 Pedagogique du Rhone, 636. 
 Scolaire, 635. 
 Universites Populaires, 595, 602—628, 630, 631, 634, 635, 636, 637, 641. 
 
 „ Provincial, 614—628. 
 
 Universities and University Colleges, List of, 73, 74. 
 University Evening Classes, 161, 176. 
 ,, College, London, 72. 
 
 Extension Teaching, 45, 71—80, 110, 114, 196, 213, 232, 259, 
 610. 
 ,, ,, ,, in France, 594, 595. 
 
 ,, Local Examinations, 77. 
 
 „ Settlements, 79, 80, 110, 609. 
 
 Urwick, E. J., quoted, 700-701. 
 
 Vallekilde People's High School, 502. 
 
 Vahnenighed Church, Copenhagen, 509. 
 
 Verdin, Technical School, 192, 293. 
 
 Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness. Educational regula- 
 tions, of, 308-309. 
 ,, ,, ,, Sheffield. Educational regulations of, 
 
 290, 291, 307. 
 
 W 
 
 Wallsend Technical Classes, 289. 
 Warrington Evening Schools, 297. 
 Walsh, T., 44. 
 Watkins, C.G., 233. 
 
INDEX 'jn^ 
 
 Webb, Sidney, 325, 340, and Beatrice, on compulsory continuation 
 
 schools, quoted, 725. 
 West Ham Municipal Technical Institute, 289. 
 Westlake, John, 40, 44. 
 West of Scotland Agricultural College. The, 479. 
 
 ,, ,, Technical School, 279. 
 
 Whatton, W. R., 72. 
 White, William, 19. 
 Whitworth, Sir Joseph, 26. 
 Widnes, Evening Schools in, 183—186, 697, 728. 
 
 „ Technical School, 185-186. 
 Wilkinson, F., 331. 
 Williams, Hodder, 52. 
 C, 223—228. 
 ,, Sir George, 11, 50. 
 
 Wills, Mr. Justice, 65. 
 Winnington Evening Schools, 191, 192. 
 Wisconsin, hearty support of education by agricultural population of, 
 
 714, 715. 
 Women, Education of (see also girls), 74, 75, 147, 156. 
 
 ,, „ of, in Munich, 542. 
 
 Women's Co-operative Guild, 50. 
 Wolverhampton, Working Men's College, 45. 
 Woolman, Mrs. Mary Schench, 447. 
 Woolner, Thomas, 44. 
 Woolwich Polytechnic, 136, 407. 
 
 ,, ,, Day Trade School of Dressmaking at, 442, 443. 
 
 Workers' Educational Association, 4, 49, 100—102, 114, 196, 373, 386, 
 
 387, 726. 
 Working Men and Continuation Schools, 247, 248, 369, ei se,q. 
 Men's Colleges, 4, 10, 11, 32—48, 139. 
 ,, College, London, 38, 40, 41, 45, 49. 
 Workpeople and Evening Schools, 247, 248. 
 Wyatt, C. H., 149, 150, 198. 
 
 Y 
 York Domestic Economy School, 308. 
 
 „ Railway Institute, 273, 301. 
 Yorkshire, East Riding Continuation Schools, 233 — 237. 
 
 {West Riding), 698. 
 Young Men's Christian Association, 11, 45, 50 — 52, 654. 
 ,, Persons, Laws relating to, 354 — 361. 
 
 Z 
 Zurich, Apprenticeship Act of the Canton of, 729 — 731. 
 
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 (Publication No. 2, 1904, Second edition, 1906.) 
 " The whole of the matter bears the impress of that technical skill 
 and thoroughness with which Mr. Kirkby's name must invariably be 
 associated, and the book must be welcomed as one of the most useful 
 recent additions to the working library of prescribers and dispensers." 
 
 — Pharmaceutical Journal. 
 " Thoroughly practical text-books on the subject are so rare, that we 
 welcome with pleasure Mr. William Kirkby's ' Practical Prescribing and 
 Dispensing.' The book is written by a pharmacist expressly for medical 
 students, and the author has been most happy in conceiving its scope 
 and arrangement." — British Medical Journal. 
 
 " The work appears to be peculiarly free from blemishes and particularly 
 full in practical detail. It is manifestly the work of one who is a skilled 
 chemist, and an expert pharmacist, and who knows not only the re- 
 quirements of the modern student but the best way in which his needs 
 may be met." — Medical Press. 
 
 "This is a very sensible and useful manual." — The Hospital. 
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 of practical dispensing." — St. Bartholomew's Hospital Journal. j 
 
 " The book is a model, being tutorial from beginning to end." 
 
 — The Chemist and Druggist. 
 
 No. III. HANDBOOK OF SURGICAL ANATOMY. By G. A. 
 Wright, B.A., M.B. (Oxon.), F.R.C.S., Professor of Systematic 
 Surgery, and C. H. Preston M.D., F.R.C.S., L.D.S., Lecturer on 
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 " We can heartily recommend the volume to students, and especially to 
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 No, IV. A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN OPERATIVE 
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 No. V. A HANDBOOK OF LEGAL MEDICINE. By W. Sellaes, 
 
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 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 14, 1906.) 
 
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 No. VL A CATALOGUE OF THE PATHOLOGICAL MUSEUM 
 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. Edited by J. 
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 Crown 4to, 1260 pp. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 15, 1906.) 
 
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 character, and, apart from its value for teaching purposes in an im- 
 portant medical school such as that of the University of Manchester, it 
 is capable of being of great assistance to others as a work of reference." 
 
 — Edinburgh, Medical Journal. 
 
 " In conclusion we need only say that Professor Lorrain Smith has 
 
 performed the most essential part of his task — the description of the 
 
 specimens — excellently, and an honourable mention must be made of the 
 
 book as a publication." — British Medical Journal. 
 
 No. VIL HANDBOOK OF DISEASES OF THE HEART. By 
 Gbaham Steell, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of Medicine, and 
 Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Crown 8vo, 
 pp. xii. 389, 11 plates (5 in colours), and 100 illustrations in the text. 
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 " It more truly reflects modern ideas of heart disease than any book 
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 our readers." — Treatment. 
 
 " We regard this volume as an extremely useful guide to the study of 
 diseases of the heart, and consider that no better introduction to the 
 subject could possibly have been written." — Medical Times and Hospital 
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 PHYSICAL SERIES. 
 
 No. I. THE PHYSICAL LABORATORIES OF THE UNIVER- 
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 pp. 142, 10 Plates, 4 Plans. 5s. net. (Publication No. 13, 1906.) 
 
 This volume contains an illustrated description of the Physical, 
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 ment of the University during the past 25 years. 
 " The book is excellently got up, and contains a description of the 
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 through Dr. Schuster's hands. Alumni of Owens will welcome the 
 volume as an interesting link with their alma mater." — Glasgow Herald. 
 "This interesting and valuable contribution to the history of the 
 Manchester University also contains several illustrations, and forms the 
 first of the "physical series" of the publications of the University of 
 Manchester." — The Times 
 
 "A record of achievement of which no man need be ashamed" — 
 Westminster Gazette. 
 
 " It is a memorial of which any man would be justly proud, and the 
 University of which he is both an alumnus and a professor may well 
 share that pride," — Manchester Gaurdian. 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH SERIES. 
 
 No I ARCHIVES OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORY 
 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. Edited by 
 A. Sheridan Del£pine, M.Sc, M.B., Ch.M., Director of the 
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 editorship of Professor Sheridan Delepine, the first volume of a series 
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 the medical profession and to those of the laity. . . . Original communica- 
 tions bearing upon diseases which are prevalent in the districts sur- 
 rounding Manchester, or dealing with food- and water-supplies, air, 
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 interest to the profession but of supreme importance to the public." — 
 
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 " It is safe to say that as these volumes accumulate they will form 
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 THEOLOGICAL SERIES. 
 
 No. I. INAUGURAL LECTURES delivered during the Session 
 1904-5, by the Professors and Lecturers of the Faculty of Theology, 
 viz. : — 
 
 Prof. T. F. Tout, M.A. ; Prof. A. S. Peake, B.C. ; Prof. H. W. 
 Hogg, M.A. ; Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids, LL.D. ; Rev. W. F. 
 Adeney, D.D. ; Rev. A. Gordon, M.A. ; Rev. L. Hasse, B.D. ; Rev. 
 Canon E. L. HICKS, M.A. ; Rev, H. I). Lockett, M.A. ; Rev. R. 
 Mackintosh, D.D.; Rev. J. T. Marshall, D.D. ; Rev. J. H. Moulton, 
 D.Litt. 
 Edited by A. S. Peake, B.D., Dean of the Faculty. 
 Demy 8vo, pp. xi. 296. 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 (Publication No. 9, 1905.) 
 " The lectures, while scholarly, are at the same time popular, and will 
 be found interesting and instructive by those who are not theologians. 
 . . . The entire series is excellent, and the volume deserves a wide 
 circulation. " — Scotsman. 
 
 " This is a very welcome volume . . . All these lectures were delivered 
 to popular audiences, yet they are far from superficial, and will be 
 found of great value to busy pastors and teachers." — Christian World. 
 
 " We welcome the volume as a most auspicious sign of the times." 
 
 — Spectator. 
 
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 THEOLOGICAL SERIES. 
 
 " The lectures themselves give a valuable conspectus of the present 
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 made for their more or less popular form." — Examiner. 
 
 " The whole volume forms a very important and valuable contribution 
 to the cause of Theological learning." — Record. 
 
 " This is a most interesting and valuable book, the appearance of which 
 at the present moment is singularly significant. . . . But it is impossible 
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 read which carefully is to be introduced to the varied wealth of modern 
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 " This volume is of the most exceptional value and interest." 
 
 — Expository Times. 
 
 "This is a book of more than common interest." 
 
 — Review of Theology and Philosophy. 
 
 " The writers of these lectures do not attempt to offer more than 
 samples of their wares ; but what is given is good, and it may be seen 
 that theology without tests is destitute neither of scientific value nor of 
 human interests." — Athenieum. 
 
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 The following are in preparation and will be issued shortly : — 
 
 Celtic Series. No. I. 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO EARLY WELSH, By the late Prof. 
 J. Steachan, M.A., LL.D. Demy 8vo. 
 This work will comprise a Grammar of Early Welsh with special 
 reference to Middle- Welsh prose. To the grammar will be added 
 selected passages from Early Welsh texts in prose and verse, together 
 with notes and a vocabulary. [In the Press. 
 
 A GLOSSARY TO THE BLACK BOOK OF CHIRK MANU- 
 SCRIPT OF THE WELSH LAWS. By Timothy Lewis, B.A. 
 Demy 8vo. 
 This will include the oldest copy of a complete glossary to the " Laws 
 of Howel Dda," contained in the " Black Book of Chirk," and will be 
 based on the photographic facsimile of that manuscript which is about to 
 be published by Dr. J. Gwenogvryn Evans in his collection of Welsh 
 texts. [In Preparation. 
 
 Ols-Ssic^l Series 
 A STUDY OF THE BACCHAE OF EURlipIDES. By G. Norwood, 
 M. A., Assistant Lecturer in Classics. Demy 8vo. [In the Press. 
 
 Educational Series. 
 THE DEMONSTRATION SCHOOL RECORD. No. L Being 
 Contributions to the Study of Education from the Department 
 of Education in the University of Manchester. By Professor J. J. 
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 THE CROMWELLIAN CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT OF 
 
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 MELANDRA CASTLE, being the Report of the Manchester and 
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