CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ,, ,.,, . Gift of Mrs. Idmin W. Dans FINE ARTS Cornell University Library 'NA3060.R84 Staircases and garden steps, 3 1924 015 370 970 DATE DUE §^fligg»fWP* H¥tf^ IvIJU ilwHT fnsjz GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A. Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015370970 ZU house Decoraiion dcric» STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS THE HOUSE DECORATION SERIES Uniform with thit Volume Ceilings and their Decorations Chimneypieces and Inglenooks Staircases and Garden Steps House Antiquities and Curios STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS By GUY CADOGAN ROTHERY AUTHOR or •'CEILINGS AND THEIR DECORATIONS," "CHIMNEYPIECES AND INGLENOOKS," ETC. LONDON T. WERNER LAURIE CLIFFORD'S INN FAL KJA 20(^0 RC4 PHESS NOT/CMS— Ceilings and their Decorations " Is valuable not only because it deals with a subject of considerable interest, but also because, in treating the various styles ... it helps us to realise the inherent defects of certain modern methods which we are apt to idly acquiesce in " (a). " As a monograph on the later Re- naissance . . . is a valuable addition to the literature of the period "(*)• "Well written, instructive and interesting monograph" {c). "Has dealt with his subject in a pleasant chatty style, and has imparted much information which will be interesting to the amateur and useful to the professional artist " {d). " A very excellent work " («). "Should appeal to all householders " (/). " Has studied the subject to some purpose "(f). (p) Morning Post, ii) The Athenaum. (c) The Connoisseur. (d\ The Architect. \e) The Decorator. (/) Bookman, Ig) The Builder. Chimneypieces and Ingle Nooks "A book of high educational value " (a). " A pleasing book. . . . We look forward to others of the series" (i). "The author in liis earlier book on ' Ceilings ' awakened many of us to the beauty or (more commonly) to the lack of beauty in our own ceilings and the possibil- ities there. In ' Chimneypieces ' he touches a subject with an appeal quickened by poetry and story . . . The book as a whole is an excellerif" one and will give the ordinary householder some really useful deas" [c). (a) The Architect. (V) The Builder. (c) Manchester Guardian. PREFACE. In this, the third of The House Decor- ation Series, the same evolutionary plan as adopted in the preceding volumes has been adhered to. An endeavour has been made to show how the staircase developed in importance with the advance of art, suffered an eclipse when architecture was at a low ebb, and now gives evidence of receiving renewed attention. While adopting the historical form, the aim in writing the book has been to point out that which is good in past work and present tendencies, and that which is bad, or carries the signs of weakness that leads to decadence. It has been thought necessary to add a brief glossary of technical terms. CONTENTS CHAP. I. EARLY BEGINNINGS , II. THE CASTLE TYPE , III. SPIRAL STAIRCASES OF THE GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE PERIODS . IV. SPIRAL STAIRCASES (CONTINUED) V. STATE AND OTHER STAIRCASES OF THE GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE VI. LATER RENAISSANCE VII. THE TUDOR AND JACOBEAN VIIL THE GEORGIAN ERA . IX. THE BALUSTRADE . X. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY XI. PRESENT DAY PRACTICE . XII. GARDEN STEPS . GLOSSARY .... BIBLIOGRAPHY . INDEX . . . PAGB I 1 7 46 61 77 9S 114 131 148 170 189 315 233 241 247 vn LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Staircase Hall, Grand Opera House, Paris, by Charles Garnier . , Frontispiece Spiral Staircase, Colchester Castle, Romanesque work of the nth cen- tury (From Britton) . . Facing page 8 Staircase in Roman Amphitheatre „ 1 5 Romanesque Staircase, Painted Chamber, Westminster Palace (From E, W. Brayley) „ i8 Foot of Spiral Staircase, Castle of the Comtes de Dunois, Chateaudun, France (From De Chapuy) . , „ 22 Corbelled Steps, Carpentras (From Violet le Due) ,,25 Wedge-shaped Steps, St Nazaire" . . „ 26 Head of Spiral Stairs, Castle of the Comtes de Dunois, Chateaudun, France (From De Chapuy) . . „ 28 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plan of Stairway, Montargis . Facing page 3 1 Norman Staircase, Round Tower, Wind- sor Castle (From W. H. Pyne) . „ 34 Threaded Drum for Spiral Stairs . . „ 3^ Spiral Step, with portion of Newel . „ 37 Spiral Step, with segment of hollow newel » 38 Gothic Staircase, Windsor Castle, by Sir Jeffery Wyatville (From W. H, Pyne) ,,42 External Spiral Staircases : {a) Chateau de Blois, {b) Old House, Chartres, (c) Chateau de Chambord . . „ 50 Spiral Staircase and Landings, from Morlaix, France (Victoria and Albert M useum, South Kensington) „ 58 Balustrade from Great St Helens, Lon- don, 17th century (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington) „ 64 Tudor Staircase, Godinton, Kent (From H. Shaw) „ 72 Tudor Staircase, Burton Agnes (From C. J. Richardson) . . . . „ go Tudor Staircase, Crewe Hall (From J. Britton) ,88 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi Jacobean Staircase, Bickling Hall, Nor- folk (From H. Shaw) . Facing page 96 Jacobean Staircase, Hatfield House, Herts (From P. F. Robinson) . . „ 104 Rood Loft Stair Screen (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington) „ 1 10 Escalier des Ambassadeurs, Versailles (From Le Fdvre) . . . . „ 1 16 Grand Staircase, Palais Royal, Paris . „ 124 Grand Staircase, Hampton Court Palace, by Sir Christopher Wren, with paint- ings by Verrio ,,132 Marble Staircase, Palazzo Braschi> Rome (From Le Tarouilly) . . . „ 140 Flemish Newels, 17th century (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensing- ton) ,150 Flemish Newels, 17th century (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kens- ington) ,,156 Balustrade from Great St Helens, Lon- don, 17th century (Victoria and Albert Museum) , . . . „ 164 Wrought Iron Balustrades, by Jean Tijou „ 1 27 English Wrought Iron Stair Panels (Victoria and Albert Museum) . „ 180 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Hall and Staircase, formerly in Hatton Garden, London . . Faning page i86 Staircase, formerly in St Botolph's Lane, London, 17th century (Victoria and Albert Museum) . , . . „ 192 Georgian Staircase, Trinity House, Tower Hill, London . . . „ 198 Ground Floor Plan, with staircases, Palazzo Barberini, Rome (From Le Tarouilly) „ 204 Hall and Staircase (Elevation and Plan) 18th century Palace, Rome (From Le Tarouilly) 212 Scala Santa, St John Lateran, Rome . „ 218 Staircase Landing, by M. A. Winter Rose 226 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS CHAPTER I " EARLY BEGINNINGS V In Babylonia, that wonderful region of mud and sun-dried brick buildings, we find traces of well-designed stairways dating back to at least circa 6000 b. c. It must be re- membered that the civil engineers and architects of those far-off days, in that cradle of civilization, went about their work with considerable deliberation. Their first care was to provide huge platforms of baked clay, platforms which were often staged, and whereon they erected a palace, a temple, or a group of dwellings clustering in orderly array around the public edifices. These platforms were usually many feet above the ground. For instance, at Tel-lo (Sirpula) the platform is 36 feet high. Not only were these reached by inclined planes, but also by broad ranges of steps. At Tel-lo the barrel- I 2 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS vaulted palace standing on its pedestal about 656 feet long, 139 feet broad and nearly 40 feet high, was approached both by inclined planes and steps. But that was not all. Tall towers of many stories were a feature of the local architecture, and these were served sometime by inclined planes winding heliacally round the outside. In other instances the successive floors were con- nected by means of short flights of stairs rising from storey to storey, usually clinging to the side of the walls. Both methods showed a stage of constructional art far in advance of those which gave us many types of staircases still prevailing in Europe until well past the Middle Ages. They were methods, however, which were the natural outcome of human dealings with far - stretching flat expanses and plastic building materials. In ancient Egypt outside stairways were used for domestic purposes placed inside the courts against the dwellings. Sometimes there were two flights, right and left, flanking the building from one side to the other, meeting in the middle of the first floor on a common platform. In many cases, the stairs, steep and at right angles, EARLY BEGINNINGS S are Echeloned along the face of the rock, superposed the one on the other. The habitations are either partly or wholly caves, they do not reach half-way up the rock which overhangs to the west. In the face of the cliff are two castles built into its recesses : one pertained to the Bishop of Sarlat, and the other to the Fdnelon family. Both were ideals of a stronghold in the Middle Ages, impossible to escalade or to undermine. The principal castle, that which belonged to the Bishop of Sarlat, occupies one of the profound horizontal furrows in the face of the rock, that are so common in the limestone and chalk formations. It consists of three towers, two of which are square, and one round, with curtains uniting them and a gate-tower, to which a flight of steps cut in the rock gives access for a part of the way. But to reach this ilight one has to mount by a series of posts serving as steps driven into sockets in this rock, with only here and there a sustaining iron bar." He dealt with the subject even more picturesquely in his novel " Noemi," where he tells us : "To make the position — the eagle nest B 6 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS in the rock — absolutely inaccessible to an enemy, the stair had been contrived so that it could be wrecked by those flying up it with facility, and that thereby they might cut off possibility of pursuit. The method adopted was this. Holes had been bored into the rock face in gradual ascent from the platform at the foot of the rock to the gate- tower of the castle, nestled on the platform in the precipice. In each such hole a balk or billet of wood was planted, sliced away below where it entered, and this end was then made fast by a wedge driven under it. From each step, when once secured, that above it could next be made firm. To release the steps a tap from underneath sufficed to loosen the wedge and send it and the balk it supported clattering down." At La Roche Corail, just below Angou- Idme on the river Charente, there are the remains of a once extensive cliff castle. Originally it was approached by steps cut in the face of the rock, most of them having openings communicating with internal gal- leries, so that unwelcome intruders could be pushed off with pikes or swords. Much the same practices were adopted in other countries and other ages. Not only EARLY BEGINNINGS 3 interrupted by frequent small square landings. In other regions other limitations led to the evolution of quite different modes of attacking the problems of ascent. Arboreal builders, whether they placed their dwellings on platforms above the forest undergrowth, or amidst the forked branches of trees under the canopy and screen of foliage, resorted to the ladder method of access, suggested by the inter- twined Hanes and the stepped trunks of palms, with their spirally disposed diamond- shaped butt ends of fallen leaves. These, starting from much the same point, would eventually evolve along quite opposite lines, as we shall soon see. Then troglodyte man in many parts of the world imitated Nature in another of her moods, turning the "accidental" to his own ends. In all geological formations where caverns occur there is a tendency either towards stratification of rocks or a pitting of the cliffs surface, both of which iniequalities assist man in his aspirations, and may be improved upon without much difficulty. Indeed it is not alone the Giant's Causeway in County Antrim, that presents 4 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS us with a stairway on a grandiose scale ; other basaltic outcrops, lime and chalk deposits provide the same lesson. With practical modesty cave-dwellers toilsomely carved deeper the crevices, systematised the pittings to provide foot and finger hold, so that they might gain their rocky refuges. This primitive step-making of the Ligurian troglodyte may be seen on the Riviera, where prehistoric dwellings are found on the shore, some close to the waves, others high up, and only approachable by pre- cariously following clefts in the almost perpendicular face, with occasional assistance from man-made footholes. ^, The Pyrenees and Dordogne afford examples both of prehistoric and historic cave - dwellings side by side. In "Cliff Castles " the Rev. S. Baring Gould, writing of La Roche Gageac, on the Dordogne just below Sarlat, says : " The white Pirassic limestone dappled orange, fawn colour, and silver grey, rises 250 feet above the river, the lower portion is in terraces, very narrow, in which are the houses clinging to the rock, cramped between the Dordogne and the cliff which rises 140 to 160 feet above The old houses EARLY BEGINNINGS 7 so, but we even find the principle adapted to more regular forms of architecture, as, for instance, when we see an outside stair- way, supported on successive arches and clinging to the castle wall, break off abruptly, the void of the unfinished arch being bridged by a removable wooden platform. A great deal of controversy has raged about the subject of the Round Towers in Ireland. Although the reason why the cir- cular form (a difficult one in masonry) was adopted remains obscure, and suggests some observance of a forgotten religious custom, their actual use need leave no doubt what- ever. They are always found either directly connected to or in close association with churches or monastic buildings. Clearly they were the storehouses and places of refuge for the clergy and monks. Windows are small, placed high up, and in the great majority of examples the doorways, seldom very large, are many feet above the ground. The fact that there are no signs of any means to reach these doorways long puzzled investigators, but it is evident that some rudimentary form of stairs in wood, probably little more than ladders, easily destroyed or hauled up, were used. Thus these Round 8 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Towers may be looked upon as the ecclesi- astic counterparts of the rock castles and refuges of the bishops and seigneurs, the remains of which are still to be seen on the Continent. Yet another phase of the troglodyte de- velopment is to be seen not only in the rock villages of the Riviera and certain parts of Asia, but even in our own hilly districts and seaside cliff towns, where we see some- times considerable buildings clinging to the declivity, each storey entered from a separate level. In such cases the need for stairways is obviated by a serpentine road with branch approaches.- A house of this kind looked at from the front may be said to have four, five, or six storeys, yet each is truly a ground floor, with its direct outside com- munication, though frequently enough with- out any internal intercommunication. We may take Nottingham as an example, where the Long Stairs are cut in the perpendicular face of the rock, reaching from the old church to the summit, and having houses stepped one above the other, with access from the stairs. The Short Stairs are alto- gether artificial, and have houses on both sides. SPIRAL STAIRCASE, COLCHESTER CASTLE. EARLY BEGINNINGS 9 In an elementary and varied form this may be seen in the valley of the Hindu Kush, where underground dwellings on a steep hillside are brought into communi- cation by a "corded way," consisting of ladders placed on the ground, and, naturally, constantly changing gradients. Of course the ladder and the vertical notched pole have their limitations, although they are still extensively used as means of communication in buildings. A ladder, unless it be of the rope variety, cannot be lengthened indefinitely, and if carried beyond a certain length must tend to become ver- tical. Hence the breaking up of the flights, placed successively with the same inclina- tion or with alternating inclinations, as in the Babylonian towers and our own quarter-turn straight flight staircases. Then the notched pole, while suggesting the yoke newel, or central support for steps, also brought about a recognition of the advantages in gyratory advance, or in other words, the greater practicability of the spiral over the direct vertical ascent. It is curious to observe that our notions of safety in staircase building are not always apparent to the undeveloped mind. Semi- 10 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS savage dwellers in the beehive type of hut, although quite familiar with tree climbing, when first brought into contact with our commodious broad flights of indoor stairs have felt it incumbent to go up and down on all fours, which, by the way, is the atti- tude assumed to the staircase by that '• primitive " creature the baby, all the world over. The ladder or notched pole, practically vertical, where both hands and feet are utilised, is comprehensible, but the easy flight of stairs appears awful in its ambitious course. Indeed, there seems to be something fundamental in this feeling, for the waking terrors of the savage are very much akin to widely prevailing conditions in the dream state. Thomas De Quincey in hisi " Confessions of an English Opium Eater," describing his fantastically troubled slumber says : " Many years ago I was looking over Piranesi's ' Antiquities of Rome.' Mr Cole- ridge, who was standing by, described to me a set of plates by that artist, called his Dreams, which record the scenery of his own visions during the delirium of a fever. Some of them represented vast Gothic halls . . . Creeping along the sides of the walls EARLY BEGINNINGS li you perceived a staircase, and upon it, groping his way upwards, was Piranesi him- self; follow the stairs a little farther and you perceive it came to a sudden, abrupt termination, without any balustrade, and allowing no step onwards to him who had reached the extremity except into the depths below. Whatever is to become of poof Piranesi ? You suppose, at least, that his labours must in some way terminate here. But raise your eyes, and behold a second flight of stairs still higher, on which again Piranesi is perceived, by this time standing on the very brink of the abyss. Again elevate your eye, and a still more aerial flight of stairs is beheld, and again is poor Piranesi busy in his aspiring labours, and so on, until the unfinished stairs and Piranesi both are lost in the upper gloom of the hall. With the same power of end- leSs growth and self-reproduction did my architecture proceed in dreams. In the early stages of my malady the splendours of my dreams were indeed chiefly architec- tural, and I beheld such a group of cities and palaces as was never yet beheld by the waking eye, unless in the clouds." Many who have never read " The 12 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Eng-lish Opium Eater," who have never studied architecture in its dizziest moods, have suffered from these nightmares. The terrible sinking that overwhelms as the broken stairways, the unbridged chasms are revealed, is apt to haunt the troubled or overwrought brain when it swoons into that "brother of death," which " exacteth a third part of our lives," as Sir Thomas Browne hath it. Fundamentally the stairway is an outside accession, as with the Babylonia spiral inclined plane. The same idea appears to have prevailed in Greece, v\?here the exiguous first floors were reached by out- side stairways, either opening into the streets or the inner courts. In Rome somewhat more attention was given to staircases. Both the inclined plane and the spiral staircase were used in public buildings ; for instance, for the ascent of the triumphal columns. It is probable also that staircases of some magnitude were in use in such palaces as the Golden House of Nero. But so far as direct evidence is concerned staircases in domestic buildings were few, narrow and steep. Vitruvius is quite silent on the point, which is rather EARLY BEGINNINGS 13 significant. It would appear, however, that in Rome itself and in other populous towns, each storey in the tall houses was ap- proached by a separate staircase. As a rule these were built in the house itself, having an outlet into the street, but no communication with other parts of the house. The outside staircase was ex- ceptional. In some instances, where the building consisted of a ground floor and first floor, with an inner court, the staircase led from the ground floor itself or the court. Examples of this arrangement are to be seen at Pompeii, where, however, we must remember that Greek influence was very much felt. Nevertheless one of these examples furnishes most interesting if some- what indirect evidence as regards design and structural detail. Only rough indica- tions remain as to the exact position of the staircase in the court, but luckily the decorative artist at work was anxious to achieve not merely good balance, but actual symmetry, so he painted a staircase opposite the real one. This pictured make-weight shows us narrow, steep steps with high risers, protected by a severely plain balus- trade, a mere wooden paling under a square 14 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS handrail. Yet the house was evidently one of some pretentions to elegance. Vestiges of longer flights, supported on vaultings, are also extant. Sometimes a succession of arches were used, one end of the steps being engaged in the * side wall. When narrow, the staircases were generally carried up between two walls, the steps being engaged on each side. This was the type prevailing in the insulae, or blocks of many storeyd buildings, of Rome, the soffits usually being barrel-vaulted. Roman practice as modified by local conditions away from the Imperial centre are interesting, especially as shown in Syria, when we remember the ancient methods pre- vailing there. A house at Shakka of the Romanised type, belonging to the 2nd or 3rd century, has a remarkable flight of ex- ternal stairs. Broad stone steps are carried from the ground at a gentle inclination about half way up one flank of the building, where it reaches a landing, thence the flight rises again, turns the corner and is carried half way along the broad fagade to a platform, with a final short, steep flight to the flat, parapeted roof. A doorway is provided on each platform. The steps jut out and EARLY BEGINNINGS 15 have no other support than their engage- ment in the wall. No signs of parapet exist, but it is possible that a wooden balustrade originally finished off this curious exposed work. Another house at Dama, belonging to the same period, has short external flights to the first floor, and then an internal flight to the second floor, a system which we find common among Mediaeval builders. STAIRCASE IN ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES For public buildings stairways were given due consideration. We have already re- ferred to the inclined planes and spiral i6 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS staircases. In amphitheatres a common practice was to provide alternate opposed flights separated by a curtain wall, one flight leading to the principal gallery and the others to the upper seats. Both the Greeks and Romans, and indeed also Asiatic peoples, provided their temples with broad flights of deep, low steps, generally in uneven numbers, so that those who mounted them began and ended with the right foot, which, no doubt, had some- thing to do with the ritual of approaching the altar with the right hand uplifted in submission and supplication, Palladio states that the number usually chosen was eleven or thirteen. If more were used, then a broader step, a half-way platform for rest, was provided to break up the flight into two sections. CHAPTER II THE CASTLE TYPE Builders of the Romanesque period, like those of antiquity, t reated staircases some- what in the light of ne c essary e vils, or at all events merely as contrivances for reaching upper floors. All notion of their monu- mental and artistic value, any idea of their being treated otherwise than from the purely utilitarian point of view came very much later. It is well, however, to emphasise the fact that this applies to domestic economy only ; both the Greeks and Romans perfectly well understood the charm of nobly pro- portioned flights of steps as a setting for their temples and other public buildings. But even with them it was a question of outside effect alone. In our Norman castles, and even in those constructed down to the 13th century, we find 17 i8 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS a curious combination of two principles in building. One of the main preoccupations of the builders both in connection with the castle dependencies and the keep or tower itself, was to render them as nearly im- pregnable as possible. They were masses of masonry intended to repel rather than to attract the stranger. For this reason the ground floors were practically dungeons, that is to say they rarely had any direct communication with the outside. At this level the walls were of immense thickness, and probably originally were never pierced except by rare narrow embrasures, mere slits of windows, placed high up and con- structed with a skyward slant. It was the first floor which formed the real entrance level. It was reached by way of an outside stairway and used as a kind of vestibule or guardroom. These outside staircases were often entirely open, though sometimes roofed over with wood, and in the later centuries even enclosed by wooden walls. They were generally very narrow. Quite commonly such stairways commenced abruptly, at other times the foot was pro- tected by a porch. At the top of this flight was usually a landing leading into an outer ROMANESQUE STAIRCASE, PAINTED CHAMBER, WESTMINSTER. THE CASTLE TYPE 19 vestibule ; or the stairs passing under a machiolated and embrasured gateway opened straight into the guardroom. Inside, a winding staircase, or a succession of straight flights, led from the ground floor to the top of the edifice. In very many cases there were supplementary stairs linking different floors or particular sets of chambers. Such were the chief points so far as perpendicular communication from the ground to the crenelated terrace were concerned. Now let us consider more in detail how these several features were dealt with by the Mediaeval builder. Happily for our purpose we have many existing relics and fairly good records of those which have passed away. We can still trace the outside stairways which were at one time the only approaches to the interiors of the castles and keeps of Canterbury, Colchester, Conisborough, Dover, Guildford, Norwich, Porchester, Rochester and many others scattered up and down the country. At Rochester the stairs were planned in two flights. They were placed parallel to the castle walls, commencing on one face. 20 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS turning the corner and ending on the second side. At the angle of the castle and stair- case there was a landing under an arched gatehouse ; then the open flight continued along the second face and ended abruptly some distance from the fortified portal. A drawbridge provided the necessary com- munication. The arched gateway gave access to a short corridor and a second portal barred the way to the guardroom. Possibly the whole staircase may have been covered by a timber pent-house, or even a hipped roof supported by wooden pillars, for such could be speedily removed in the event of danger. At all events we know that there was a wooden porch outside the first portal, for we read in the Liberate Rolls of 24 and 25 Henry III. the instruc- tions : " To renovate the stair before the outer gate of the tower at Rochester Castle and make certain pent-house above the stair aforesaid." Referring to another outside staircase connected with the same strong- hold, further instructions are given : " To cause to be made certain iron trellis on the staircase before our chambers towards our berbery." Evidently this was originally an open THE CASTLE TYPE 21 stairway with unprotected side, and the iron trellis was a guard or balustrade, added at a more polished period. From these Liberate Rolls and other sources it appears that towards the 13th century additional outside stairways were provided, possibly to connect the tower with the dependencies, when these wooden structures were replaced by more permanent edifices of stone or bwck. It is instructive to observe elaborate development along these lines at quite an early date. For evidence of this it is significant that we have to go to another Kentish castle, the magnificent ancient pile at Dover. This great Norman stronghold originally had an open flight of stairs, spreading slightly fanwise at base, and placed at right angles to the building. At the top of this first flight is a landing and an arched doorway, but to the right of the landing another flight was run up parallel and clinging to the wall of the castle. It leads through an arched portal to a crenelated vestibule. Thence forward the staircase is covered in, and turning the angle of the building leads to a second vestibule on the third floor level, where there was a fine doorway (afterwards 22 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS blocked) giving entrance to the State apartments, which were thus very well protected, for adequate precautions were taken to isolate internally each separate storey. One evident advantage of this extended outside staircase was that it gave a semi-private entrance to the State apart- ments, which could be reached without going through those parts of the castle occupied by the garrison. At Norwich the arrangements were quite elaborate. The exceptionally large propor- tioned external stone staircase, running along the south-eastern front, had to pass under two fortified archways. Probably when erected there was a drawbridge near the gate-house tower, which was pierced by an archway leading into the guardroom. Conisborough keep possessed a straight flight of stone steps, which led to a square vestibule built outside the tower. Through this entrance was gained to the main apart- ment on the first floor. At Bolton Castle, Yorkshire, originally there was an external staircase to the first floor, and, curiously enough, another one on the north side, reaching to the second floor. In this latter case there was a short FOOT OF SPIRAL STAIRS, CHATEAUDUN, FRANCE. THE CASTLE TYPE 23 flight leading to a long terrace, thence a right and left steep flight led up to the arched door. Bolton Castle was erected by Richard Scrope, Chancellor to Richard II., and took eighteen years to build, according to Leland. It seems almost certain that this second entrance, with its rudimentary grand perron, was an addition of much later date. At Scarborough Castle there was a pit in the ground immediately below the first floor entrance. It would appear, therefore, that the stone landing must have replaced an earlier drawbridge or wooden platform. Over its doorway was a shute for discharg- ing stones, molten lead or boiling water. Hedingham Castle, a Norman keep in Essex built by the de Veres, is interesting in many ways. The keep is a lofty square tower of stone, five storeys high. The entrance was placed on the western side, where there was a flight of steps to the first floor. At the head of the stairs was a lofty doorway flanked by columns sup- porting a semi-circular arch, decorated with zigzag ornaments. On the sides were grooves for a portcullis, so that apparently the landing was in the form of a draw- bridge. 34 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS In some cases these external stairs were built at right angles to the castle. We have here the beginnings of the grand staircase leading to a terrace, the perron of the Continental chateaux builders. More often, however, the stairs were built parallel to the outer walls, clinging to the side of the castle, which was an evolution from the primitive protruding isolated steps used, as we have seen, by cave-dwellers. Dacre Castle, Cumberland, offers us a curious and not unhandsome combination of the two methods. From the first floor there is a flight of steps clinging to the side of the castle, and leading to a considerable plat- form, jutting out at right angles. This is approached by short right and left flights at right angles to the landing, and conse- quently parallel to the building. This is distinctly the perron in a modest form. Farther stages in the evolution from the cave-dwelling type are to be seen in several old castellated structures. For instance in the Tour d'Orange at Carpentras Castle there is a very ornamental set of protruding steps. They project a fair distance and run up a considerable height. Each step is flat on the top and rounded at the base. THE CASTLE TYPE 2S The steps are placed close together, one below the other, and are supported by three rows of similar projections. This quaint stairway, therefore, is in the form of a diagonal band of four courses of corbelling. CORBELLED STEPS, CARPENTRAS It was a decorative way of treating an exceedingly crude contrivance. While quite pretty to look at, the way is narrow, steep, without parapet, without even a handrail on the perpendicular wall face. But doubtless in the way of comfort and safety it was an improvement on the isolated steps with gaps between. A safer method, also taking its origin from cave -dwellings and early masonry work, was to build an extra thickness on 26 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS the wall, diminishing it gradually from bottom to top and then placing steps on the inclined plane. While in later times stairways of this pattern were made of great width and with some regard to monumental effect, they were often narrow and extremely steep. An example of this can be seen at Belsay Castle, Northumber- land, built about 1320. WEDGE STEPS, ST NAZAIRE To > obviate the disadvantages of this steepness and the consequent height of THE CASTLE TYPE 27 the individual steps, an ingenious device was adopted. The method hit upon was to cut away half of each step diagonally, the broad side of the top wedge being against the wall, and the broad side of the lower wedge outside. By this simple means each step was made dual, the steepness being divided by half, and thus while as- cending was made easier, descent was rendered less dangerous, so that the prac- tical utility of the stairs was greatly in- creased. On giving the matter a very little consideration it will be Seen that the arrangement of these wedges in zigzag formation is directly in accordance with the natural movements of man, who, under normal conditions, only places one foot at a time on one step, it therefore provides an admirable solution of a difificult problem. Examples of this kind of step may be seen in the galleries of the transept of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, and also at the Church of St Nazaire, Carcassonne. As we shall see later on, the zigzag system of stepping is a natural and favourite way to soften the sharpness of declivities in gardens. Returning to the plan of building stair- 28 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS ways parallel to outside walls, it will be found on examining the very numerous examples of old work still existing that considerable diversity of treatment prevailed. The supporting wall was often so contrived as to merge into the general body of the structure, so that the stairway was merely a more or less wide and comfortable stepped vertical course. Quite as frequently, how- ever, it was frankly an addition, the whole mass protruding from the building. In either case it seems to have been early realised that where the steps were to be of considerable width, economy of material and labour, with a very welcome gain in the diminishing of weight, could be secured by building not a solid supporting wall, but a series of blind arches. This suggested many possibilities for improvement. For instance, at one point, either at the intermediary resting-place or on the top landing, the arch could be left uncompleted, the void being crossed by a platform of wood, or by a drawbridge. In this way the approach could be interrupted by producing a gap whenever attack was threatened. Another outcome of this was the carrying up of a curtain wall, to form a guard or HEAD OF SPIRAL STAIRS, CHATEAUDUN, FRANCE. THE CASTLE TYPE 29 parapet. At first these guards were solid screen walls. Later they were arcaded, the pillars being more or less decorated. Many of these external stairways, besides having porches at the base and pent-houses over the top landing, were protected by roofs, some even more or less completely boarded in. Wood was used for this pur- pose originally, with a view to prompt removal in times of warfare of anything that could prove useful to an enemy as " cover " in an assault on the castle. When the buildings were not of a military nature greater pains were taken to make these stairways convenient and even hand- some. Thus within the precincts of Can- terbury Cathedral, as an adjunct to the Augustinian Monastery, a fine external stairway was erected in the nth century, leading to the Strangers' Hall, It has an upper landing and a roof supported by double arcading, with diminishing columns as the stairs ascend. At the old Chambre des Comptes, Paris, built in the reign of Louis XII,, there was a beautiful external staircase running parallel to the wall. It commenced v^ith an ornamental porch, and after an easy ascent opened direct into the 30 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS large hall on the first floor. This porch, with its entrance placed at right angles to the flight, had an arched entrance, with grooved pillars supporting an elaborately pinnacled roof, the pediment being orna- mented with the sculptured arms of France between two winged antelopes gorged with royal crowns. A pent-house roof protected the stairs, and was supported by three pillars united by arches, both the columns and pendentives being powered with fleur- de-lis. A parapet formed of panels was carved in high relief, with lis enfiled by crowns, alternating with crowned dolphins. This superstructure, as well as the stairs, was of stone ; as was the equally beautiful stairway of the same type at the no very distant Sainte Chapelle. When the stairs were placed at right angles to the building they naturally as- sumed a more monumental appearance. An original, and what under certain circum- stances might prove a decidedly useful treat- ment of this sub-variety was formerly to be seen at the Castle of Montargis, erected early in the second half of the 13th century. It was of stone, the steps supported on a series of semi-arches diminishing in altitude. THE CASTLE TYPE 31 A pointed roof of wood was supported by a series of pillars. But the remarkable feature of this stairway was that it was in the form of a Latin cross, the three short limbs furthest away from the building affording three separate communications with the courtyard. The middle and right and left flight rose at a fairly steep angle PLAN OF STAIRWAY, MONTARGIS to a common platform, whence there was a long flight at an easy gradient to another rest, and then a final set of low steps to the entrance portal. A modification of this scheme was later used for internal staircases 32 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS leading from entrance halls to State apart- ments. It can easily be understood that the approach to the first floor by an external stairway had its practical purpose in the castle type of architecture, and some excuse when used in connection with public build- ings even down to the i6th century, when precautions had to be taken against the dangers of sudden assault. Clearly an enemy attempting to scale an exposed stair- way overlooked by embrasures, through which defenders could shower down arrows, stones, or discharge firearms, was at a serious disadvantage. But when this precaution became less urgent the progress of the arts caused the dignity that a well designed external stairway could give to a building to be recognised, and this modified style persisted long after the state of affairs that had called it into being had ceased to operate. Indeed, as we shall see, it continues to be appreciated not only where an imposing addition to a fagade is desired, but even in the domestic architecture of quite a modest order in such divergent regions as Flanders and Italy. Leaving this phase of the development THE CASTLE TYPE 33 for later consideration, we must return to the castles in order to examine the methods adopted internally in the Romanesque and Gothic structures for perpendicular inter- communication. We have already pointed out that if an enemy succeeded in gaining the first floor of a castle keep, they had by no means completed their task. The stronghold was far from being at their mercy. The narrow- ness, steepness, and the position of the internal staircases made them easy to de- fend. They could be blocked without much trouble, and a single armed man at the upper landing could keep at bay a whole string of assailants forced to mount in single file. Many of these staircases were also protected by arched and loopholed portals. How effectually such an internal defence could be organised will be realised by anyone con- sidering the grand flight of stone steps, one hundred in number, leading up steeply be- tween two walls and under vaulted ceiling in the Round Tower at Windsor Castle. This is a straight flight of very unusual breadth. Still, the upper landing would have been an awkward place to capture in the face of a few resolute pikemen or arque- 34 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS busiers, A very similar arrangement is to be seen at Castle Rising, Norfolk, At La Rochebrune, a tiny rock castle near Brantdme, there is an internal spiral staircase leading from the lower to the upper chamber, with pierced steps, to be used as meutrieres. While the common rule was to have an internal staircase mounting from the ground floor to the top storey or the parapets, this method was not universally adopted. In some cases the descending steps leading to the dungeon-like ground floor were not directly connected with the ascending flight. In the early castles staircases were built in the thickness of the wall, a tubular shaft being fitted with steps. In the most primi- tive type of structures these steps were merely projecting slabs of stone, isolated as in the cliff caves, or, in more advanced form, placed close together, so as to form a con- tinuous stair. With these steps straight flights from storey to storey were formed ; in such cases the shafts being planned at an angle, or the steps merely jutted out from the wall. More usually the steps wound round the circular shaft in spiral formation. An instance of this is seen in the mono- ROUND TOWER, WINDSOR CASTLE. THE CASTLE TYPE 35 Hthic church of St Emilion, Dordogne, carved out of the solid rock, where there is a hole in one of the aisles giving access to the crypt below, a spiral stairway being cut in rock forming the walls of the shaft. It must have early occurred to builders that the open shaft was a danger to the garrison which could be surmounted without great difficulty, first, by providing a sustaining wall for the straight flights, and, secondly, by placing a central column or newel for supporting the inner ends of the spirally disposed steps. As a rule, with narrow, straight flights of steps, the plan was to adopt the old Roman method, and run them between two walls, as we see at Windsor Castle, the steps being engaged in the masonry on each side. This was a natural style of building, but it had the dis- advantage of requiring much space, and making the stairs awkwardly abrupt, even if the flights were only carried from storey to storey. With the spiral stairs the first improvement appears to have been to build up the central column, . inserting the thin end of the steps into its body and the broad end into the wall. But this was only done with quite narrow stairs; with the more 36 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS important ones a spiral inclined plane, vaulted beneatli and flat on top, was thrown from the vertical columns to the walls, and on this the steps were placed. A masonry of small stones, often little better than rubble, was used. Subsequently the drums THREADED DRUM FOR SPIRAL STAIRS of the newel were provided with a spiral ledge, like the flat thread of a screw, as a kind of key for the vaulting. Towards the thirteenth century, possibly owing to improved methods of quarrying, vaulting was suppressed, and steps of single slabs re-introduced, but now of considerable width. Each step was made to carry its own section of the newel. This was accom- plished by cutting the thin end of the step in such a way as to leave a circular swelling, generally grooved in some fashion both at top and bottom. The result of this was that as each step was placed in position, the THE CASTLE TYPE 37 outer broad end engaged in the wall of the cage, the lower end of the upper step resting on the upper edge of the lower one, the spiral thus opening out fan wise, solid columns were built up, the inner parts of the steps providing their own support. This was a very considerable advance in simplification, but an even greater improve- ment came when the cutting out of the SPIRAL STEP WITH PORTION OF NEWEL Steps was elaborated, the drum end being carved with a spiral groove or thread, above the step, in order to furnish a handrail. This led to further elaboration and to an evolution towards decorative carving. In order to lighten construction, the solid drum was replaced by a segment of a circle calculated in accordance with the demen- sions of the staircase. In this way the newel became a hollow cylinder instead of a solid column, which rendered certain forms of decoration and central fighting possible. 38 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS The Gothic architects went even farther, designing isolated spiral staircases, with solid or hollow newels, and the outer ends of the steps supported on colonettes, which SPIRAL STEP WITH SEGMENT OP HOLLOW NEWEL also served 'the purpose of a cage. When desired these colonettes could be united towards the base by panels of pierced tracery, or by a simple handrail. We must not now follow this advance in design and constructional practice, but must return for the present to a considera- tion of the old castles and what they have to teach us. At Colchester Castle, which some anti- quaries have attributed to the Saxon period, a peculiar plan was adopted. The original outside stairway was on the north side and led up to the first floor, passing under an arched gate. Adjoining this gateway was THE CASTLE TYPE 39 a narrow gallery and also a circular staircase of small dimensions, leading upwards only. On the opposite side of the castle was a much larger spiral staircase, which reached from the ground floor to the top. The first named has a central newel, is vaulted, and the steps are made of three slabs. Of Anglo-Saxon masonry work another specimen remained in the ancient palace of Westminster, standing at the south-east angle of the Painted Chamber. It is re- produced on plate facing page 18, being particularly interesting as showing the method of construction of the newel. Canterbury Castle, like that at Dover, had two spiral staircases. These were built in the thickness of the walls, at the angles. There was also a gallery running horizontally through the thickness of the wall and con- nected with one of the staircases. Rochester Castle, as might be expected from its magnitude and architectural im- portance, possessed three internal staircases, all built in the thickness of the walls. One of these, of moderate size, placed close to the entrance portal, descended to the ground floor and ascended to the topmost. There was another small staircase, parallel to this, 40 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS but nearly in the opposite angle, which ran from the first floor to the top, and the third and larger one, in the further angle, also ran from this floor to the top. On the third floor there was a gallery in the thickness of the wall as at Canterbury, only here it almost circled the castle, linking up the three staircases. The gallery, although horizontal in general plan, ran at different levels, these being connected by steps, while other steps served to enable soldiers to reach the loopholes. A similar gallery but far less developed, existed in the Guildford keep. At Colchester Castle the spiral staircase occupied a shaft in the thickness of the wall, and was placed in the opposite angle to the first floor entrance. In the keep of Conisborough Castle the method adopted was to have flights of steps encased in the walls, running from floor to floor. At Hedingham Castle, Essex, the placing of the internal staircases much resembled the arrangements existing at Colchester, but with a difference. From the first floor there was a descending flight to the gloomy ground floor. In the north-west corner. THE CASTLE TYPE 41 however, a spiral staircase leads from the ground floor to the summit. It is contained in the thickness of the wall and is exception- ally large for England, being eleven feet in circumference. These walls, by the way, are 14 feet thick at the base and 12 feet thick above, being pierced for doorways and windows (the latter increasing in size and elaborateness of decoration as each successive floor is reached) and hollowed out for the fireplaces and stairs. It will be seen that the aim of the builder was to afford inter-communication without taking up more space than was absolutely^ necessary, and without danger- ously weakening the defensive plans. By encasing narrow spiral staircases in the thick walls themselves space was economised, and each stairhead became a point that could be easily defended. The castle keep was in effect divided into as many strong- holds horizontally as there were storeys, for each floor was a complete apartment, only approached by the narrow ways on its circumference, the otherwise solid walls, floors and ceilings, effectively isolating each storey. Even if the first floor was gainedj the garrison could retreat upwards and 42 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS continue fighting, waiting for relief or for an opportunity for sallying out. It is to be noted that in the oldest castles the State apartments are always on the third or fourth storey, thus being protected by two or three lines of defence below and out of range of slings and bows. But as the centuries progressed greater claims for social comfort were made. Then more staircases were provided, though still comparatively re- stricted in dimensions and hidden away. Another improvement was the introduc- tion of private stairways, not to be used by the garrison or for general service. Thus it is that we see secondary staircases from the first floor to the top storey or even the embattled roof, and more parti- cularly the short flights connecting the State apartments with the floor above or below. They were intended for the ladies and the master of the stronghold. These additions were very necessary, for the castles were little worlds of their own, and so privacy had to be considered. When the keep became merely a kind of forlorn hope refuge, and the castle de- pendencies, no longer built of wood, assumed greater importance, inner courtyards were GOTHIC STAIRCASE, WINDSOR CASTLE. THE CASTLE TYPE 43 formed, the Keep and the Great Hall being two strong points united by curtain walls. This change also brought about multiplica- tion of stairways, and the builders, still anxious to save space internally and to preserve defensive horizontal unity, devised the outside turret to contain the staircase. These were, at all events in the early days, invariably placed inside courtyards. They did not interfere with internal planning of buildings, and for defensive purposes were practically outside of it. Probably such turret -staircases were first introduced in the great monastic establishments. These turrets frequently formed horizontal means of communication between the keep and the hall, or between other parts of the great buildings, the practically isolated spiral stair- case having corridors at various landings branching out in any direction desired. This was the method adopted by Raymond du Temple in the old Valois Louvre. But we have evidence of something of the same sort much earlier in our own country. The Liberate Rolls, temp. Henry HL, already quoted, show that at Rochester Castle and elsewhere there were several staircases reserved for serving different parts of the 44 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS stronghold. We also see this when the hall, detached from the keep, became an integral part of the edifice. Then it was common to have a small circular staircase or a straight flight rising from the hall to the minstrel gallery, whence corridors to the private apartments could be reached. Often, too, a set of small spiral stairs led from the dais, close to the monumental fireplace, to the private apartments. Such stairs might be hidden in the walls, concealed by the arras hangings, or be enclosed in circular or octagonal screens of carved wood or stone. These refinements, however, belong to the period of transition, to the rising refinement brought in with Gothic architecture and ornament. To this period of widening horizons must also be attributed the peculiar arrangements existing at Langley Castle, Northumberland, built in the second half of the fourteenth century. It is a long building with four square towers at the angles, and a smaller turret on the north side, attached by a series of chambers to the north-west tower. This additional turret has an arched portal guarded by a port- uUis, with a passage leading to a circular THE CASTLE TYPE 45 staircase. It is of considerable size and is the only one in the large building, measuring 80 feet by 24 feet internally (the walls are 7 feet thick), and of four storeys. The towers are no less than 60 feet high. A peculiarity of this arrangement of a ground floor entrance close to the staircase is that there does not appear to have been any moat or other outside works. A possible commentary on this lack of precautions is the fact that the castle appears to have been gutted by fire at an early but unre-^ corded period. CHAPTER III SPIRAL STAIRCASES OF THE GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE PERIODS On first attempting a study of a spiral stair- case of the Gothic or Renaissance periods — say those in Tattershall or Fyvie Castles, those at Chambord and Blois, or those in the Belvedere at the Vatican, or in the Palazzo Contarini, Venice — the sensation is one of pleasurable astonishment. There appears to be something well-nigh miracu- lous in such examples of man's daring ambition. Their superb balance, the grace- fulness of the upward curving lines, the beauty of the circumferential envelope causes a suspension of judgment. It is as a whole, as complete works of art, that one contemplates them, admiration for constructional difficulties superbly overcome being only subconscious in the glow of en- 46 SPIRAL GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE 47 thusiasm. This feeling of the exact fitness (in most cases) of all parts is apt to cause the student to look for models outside the habitual field of vision of builders, that is to say, to ignore what has gone before. Yet the masterpiece at Blois, the de- lightful Scala del Bovolo of the Contarinis, with its arcaded and colonetted shell, and each with their convoluted newel, have their prototypes, not in something as intricate as they are, but in the scarred trunk of a palm, the communication pole with its inserted right-angled pegs serving as steps. It is these primitive means of climbing to dwel- lings placed above the ground for safety's sake that suggested the tube-like stepped shafts of the early builders in stone and brick. The evolution was gradual. It was long before the steep, dark circular stair- cases were emancipated from englobation in the mass of castle walls, to be enclosed in less circumscribed attached turrets and then in semi-isolated towers. It is perhaps worthy of note here that just when the spiral staircase was beginning to assume greater intricacy as regards the geometric lines of design, in the craftsmanship of actual construction and in applied decora- 48 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS tion, there was a partial reversion to the tree type. For we find that towards the close of the fifteenth century special steps were no longer made to carry their own portion of the newel. This central column became a solid, isolated affair, in the cir- cumference of which the narrow ends of the steps were engaged.. In fact the steps were nothing more than flat surfaced pegs, though it is true also supported at their external edges. In England examples of the secondary and intermediate stages of this form of planning are fairly numerous, but for the more elaborate developments we have to go abroad. In these islands the type never reached the splendours that it did in Italy and France. The nearest approach to the liberal proportions and beauty of finish associated with French work must be sought for in Scotland ; for instance at Linlithgow Palace with its ribbed vaulted roof, springing from the newel, or at Fyvie Castle, with its vaulted soffit and succession of arched strengthenings. With us probably the most finished specimen is that in Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire, built by William of Wayn- SPIRAL GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE 49 flete, bishop of Winchester, for Ralph, Lord Cromwell, Lord Treasurer of England, soon after the first quarter of the fifteenth century. The spiral staircase is in the south-east turret, which is octagonal on the exterior, is 100 feet high, overtopping the castle, is machiolated and crenelated, with a short pyramidal roof and florated finial. It is a spacious affair, the shaft having a diameter of 22 feet with 175 steps. In many details it presents points of great interest to the antiquarian and artist. While it is typical of the architectural style of the period, it is peculiarly local, inasmuch as in contrast to most other examples it is built of brick, not of stone, the variety used being of a small sized, deep colour. But a stone hand- rail, richly carved, is sunk into the brick- work, producing a distinctly pleasing effect. At Kirkby Muxloe Castle, Leicestershire, belonging to the third quarter of the fifteenth century, there is also a brick vaulted staircase with brick steps. One notable point about the Tattershall stair- case is that it belongs to the sinistral class. In most circular staircases, the dextral spiral is used. That is to say, the spiral so STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS rises from a base point circling upwards towards the right. This is the most con- stant form of the spiral, like the Archimedean helix and those commonly found in nature. But occasionally the sinistral form, a spiral rising from a base upwards in circles towards the left, are met with in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and is also adopted by man. The average right-handed man instinctively traces a spiral with curves towards the right, but a left-handed man has a tendency to reverse the order. It has been conjectured that the comparatively scarce sinistral spiral staircases are due to the efforts of left-handed builders who found this method the easiest for them. There is, however, much to be said in favour of the theory that the sinistral curve was designedly adopted as one of the precautionary measures for providing defences in castles. It will be remembered that the circular newel staircases in the old castles were steep and narrow. Now, a man in ascend- ing these would naturally cling to the column. If he were ascending a dextral staircase to the attack his left hand would be seeking support, leaving his sword hand free, while the defenders descending the p « o n ui S W GARDEN STEPS Renaissance style of the state rooms, but such vagaries were too characteristic of that period, and indeed specially of the architects, Samuel and Benjamin ^ Wyatt, who completed this about the middle of the century. Another mansion in Park Lane, Dor- chester House, built for Mr R. S. Holford, by Lewis Vulliamy between the years 1850- 53, is in more unmixed Italian style, and contains a remarkable staircase. It occupies the centre of the house, in a court lighted from above, surrounded by an open arcaded gallery with balustrade, supported by coupled columns. The arches have coupled columns, placed abreast, not one behind the other as at Londonderry House, while at the angles are splendid clustered columns. These support projecting cornices, above spring the arches. The galleries are vaulted, and adorned on the external walls with pilasters. Above the arcade is a broad band, the ornaments being alternately palmettes and roses, over this is a dentiled moulding and then s\. projecting cornice. On this part rest arched windows, with coupled flat pilasters and decorative panels between. A double cornice connects the THE NINETEENTH CENTURV i;9 whole with the deep framed and painted covings. The staircase itself is of marble, and the steps having broad treads, moderate nosings and very low risers. A flight runs parallel to one side of the gallery to the angle of the wall, where there is a landing, and then another flight parallel to the other side to the first floor, with an intermediate landing supported on small open arches. ' The balustrade is of marble, with a broad flat handrail and dwarf pillars with swelling bases. Square pillars with shaped bases and corniced caps brake up the balustrade at the landings, the handrail joining below the cornice where there is a scrolled leaf. The string is marked out by plain raised mouldings, and beneath this a band of delicate carving. An agreeable feature introduced in stair building for mansions and houses of medium size was the converting of the intermediate landing into a kind of ante-chamber, with alcoves, seats and stands for plants. Oc- casionally these were extended by adjoining balconies, either open with portico, or en- closed with columns and glazing, and adorned with plants. In order to emphasise this arr- angement, arches were sometimes provided. i8o STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Another pleasing innovation was the ad- mission of broken surfaces on the staircase walls and the bolder use of colour. This came well after the sixties, as the result of the art awakening caused by the activities of such men as Ruskin.theHossettis, William Morris, Walter Crane and others. How far this use of colour was sometimes carried may be instanced by a description of a hall and staircase decorative scheme carried out by Mr Andrew Wells in a Glasgow house. The entrance hall, divided into three sections by Corinthian columns, / had the ceiling and walls covered with hand- painted panels. The ground of the ceiling was light blue and gold, with decorations in darker shades of blue. Thin lines of Persian red, orange and gold framed the panels, while the cornice was picked out in pale blue and fawn colour, with smaller en- richments in Persian red and gold. A pale salmon was chosen for the mid-walJs, on which were painted panels of figures repre- senting the Seasons on a background of gold diapered with raw sienna. To har- monise the whole, the panels were framed with broad bands of black, with an inner line of vermilion and an outer line of gold. e> e; m\5 (lAUS ^J'"^ QA r 1 1 fi" '^*''-' '^n tir;j\ f'^lf7)\ (G^l^., /G^ra ,f(? Y' QJ ENGLISH WROUGHT IRON STAIR PANELS. THE NINETEENTH CENTTRY i8i Intermediate spaces were covered with arab- esques carried out in darker shades. A dado of dark brown contrasted with the elaborate cupola painted with figures on gold panels and ornaments in Persian blue. The cornice of the stairway was broad, decorated with groups of boys and Re- naissance columns, floral festoons uniting them. Under the frieze was a broad band of crimson painted with the Greek key design in chocolate and black. For the main walls a scheme of graduated colora- tions was adopted, variations being intro- duced at each landing and every storey, beginning with the soft red in the hall and ending with warm primrose at the top, each division being marked by bands of hand- painted ornaments in harmonising tints. The woodwork was painted a dark Indian red with Prussian blue ornaments, and was highly polished. In the main, the scheme, though perhaps rather bold, coincided with the rules advo- cated by Mr John Dibblee Grace. His advice was to introduce a distinct contrast in the colouring between lower and upper floors, using cornice and decorative bands as bridging links. He claimed that if this N i82 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS were done, the darker shades being used for lower storeys and dados, not only was an air of stability given, but the treadmill effect of continuous flights was overcome. For this reason, too, he advocates breadth- giving horizontal lines and the decoration of soffits with moulded panels or stencilled ornaments. On the Continent of Europe staircase design never fell to quite such a low ebb as it did in Great Britain, partly owing to the greater interest taken in architecture, and partly to the custom of grouping a number of dwellings in large houses. Thus attention to the principal staircases was natural in countries where even the mag- nificent private hotels, the family mansions are generally planned on the grouping system, containing main suites and winges or other suites for bachelors and younger minages. The tradition of the State stair- way is therefore kept alive in every street and in every town. Access to these stair- cases is generally gained through an open or closed court or from under a porte cochere. In private mansions the com- bination of three flights, one and two, or two and one, to the first floor, are the THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 183 rule, but in larger groupings successive flights are generally carried round the walls of a square, oblong, semi-circular or ovoid well. They are generally of easy gradient, with spacious landings. The fault with most of these until recent years, and even now, is the habit of using top or borrowed lights. A cupola rarely gives adequate light in the staircase well of a tall house, and windows looking out into inner courts are quite as unsatisfactory. A quaint and obnoxious feature of the older dwellings is that domestic offices often draw their only light and ventilation from the staircase. In Italy the open staircase, those in towns generally being placed in courtyards, are still the fashion. This brings one to the fact that outside staircases were, and are still, much favoured in country districts. It is a common thing in some parts of Italy and France to see an out- side staircase leading to the first floor, the ground floor being used as store-rooms and offices. Or again, we may find the ground floor forming one residence, and the upper floor approached by an open staircase in the old Roman style, used as another. From this custom many a laughable anec- i84 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS dote has sprung, relating how an architect had built his house, forgetting all about facilities for vertical access from floor to floor, and so being compelled to add an outside stairway. This mischance is popu- larly supposed to have befallen Balzac, who, as the rather doubtfully authenticated story goes, so worried his architect during the fashioning of Les Jardies that the staircase was utterly forgotten. It is far more pro- bable that the then less orthodox method of access had its attractions for the fantastic minded novelist. Of public staircases erected in Paris during the past century one at least de- serves extended notice, and that is Charles Garnier's masterpiece at the Grand Opera, built between 1861 and 1875. It is cer- tainly a thing of marvellous boldness and beauty. A dream, truly. Not like those nightmares of the poor fevered brains of a Piranesi or a De Quincey, but a joyous thought of a Boccaccio translated into an intricate structure of gorgeously coloured stones and metals. For all the world it is as though groups of Graces, awakened by Comedy and the strains of Apollo's lyre, had with the amorini seduced the THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 185 gleaming porphyries, the brilliant marbles all encircled by golden flowers, into joining them in a mazy aerial dance, in the midst of which they had been caught and im- mobilised in a magic trance, so daring is the conception of the flying stairways, the sweeping lines of the balustrades, the bal- conies now hiding behind the pillared arcades, now advancing in bold corbelling. Gamier himself has written of this part of his work that he regarded it as the appropriate scene for masked fairy revels. Thus to its creator it was "a gilded cage, a wide open basket, an immense casket, in which hover, bloom and glitter the fairy world of butterflies, flowers and precious stones." And what, it may be asked, is there to justify all this imagery ? Well, on entering the sub-ground floor the low vaulted vesti- bule is a mass of floral arabesques, carried out in high relief stucco, heavily gilded, and richly coloured. Facing the entrance is an alcove sheltering a graceful figure, with a fountain before it. On either side are two huge mirrors, reflecting in endless vistas the massive garlanded and festooned columns which guard the right and left i86 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS flights, sweeping in gentle curves upwards through a tunnel of splendid arabesques. These stairs debouch on the grand vestibule, on either side of the main stairway, the steps of white Serravezza marble mounting in a gentle slope between a balustrade of greeny white onyx, supported by its 228 balusters of red marble on square bases of green Swedish marble. On pedestals behind this balustrade are groups of female figures in marble with draperies in bronze, and small nude boys holding aloft torches of many branched lights. At the level of the viestibule of the facade a wide landing is reached, and facing the stairway is a monumental doorway in precious marbles flanked by two colossal polychromatic caryatic figures, supporting a heavy pediment, on which are two amorini up- holding a shield of the arms of Paris. Right and left are two flights, carried at right angles on flying bridges over the lower flights. The square cage of this stairway is agleam with marbles, gilding, vivid mosaics, bronze and gold torches and the warm coloured paintings of the soffit. On the first floor level are thirty great monolithic marble columns, alternately HALL AND STAIRCASE,'"rORMERLY IN HATTON GARDEN, W.C. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 187 violet and peach hued, standing on white bases and crowned by snowy capitals. Towards the outer lobby they are ranged in groups of four, elsewhere they are coupled. Each storey is arcaded, with twelve openings. Advancing out from these arcades, hanging over the stairways and lobby, are corbelled balconies with translucent balustrades of fluorspar. On the second storey the balconies, with balustrades of marble, are seen just behind the columns, while a little below the coving of the soffit, with their gaily painted allegorical canvases, are another row of balconies with stone balustrades. Such is an all too succinct account of a work which has been much criticised, but re- mains one of the attractions of a city of palaces. Without going into the intricacies of planning and construction, it may be added that Gamier provided his opera house with five service staircases. Two of these are semi-circular. Two others are practically in duplicate, that is to say the alternate right and left semi-spiral flights meet on common landings, and then diverge left and right, thus forming a kind of criss- i88 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPSJ cross trellis. They are constructed of iron girders imbedded in mortar, and have wooden treads and zinc risers. Garnier made a special study of the handling of crowds and dramatic companies in theatres, and the construction of staircases for this purpose. His remarks contained in his monograph on theatre construction are well worth perusal. It would serve no useful purpose to describe or give a list of the other grand staircases in France and other Continental countries, the general trend as. regards design and decoration having been made sufficiently clear. CHAPTER XI PRESENT DAY PRACTICE When we come to consider work carried out during the past three decades it is evident that staircase building is as in- coherent as is architecture in general at the present day. It is impossible to discern any particular style, or even any signs of a tendency towards the formation of a style, so largely and unmistakably are we; influenced by the bolder characteristics of all ages and countries. Nevertheless there is this much to be recorded as clear gain : it is recognised that the staircase must be made comfortable, if possible picturesque, and, like the hall, should be so handled as to strike a note that will individualise the, edifice, be it a public building or a modest dwelling. In London we see the improvement that 189 190 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS has steadily grown since the eighties of last century by studying a group of buildings at South Kensington, First there is the Natural History Branch of the British Museum, with remarkably good staircases, both as regards planning and blending of materials. Then there is Mr Collcutt's "Free Classic" Imperial Institute, with its broad stepped, easy sloped stairway, passing under columned archways, linking up wide landings which broaden out into corridors right and left. And thirdly there is the even freer classic Victoria and Albert Museum of Sir Aston Webb, with its magnificent staircases of marble steps arranged in alternate flights round square marble-lined cages, leading to various land- ings, opening out into galleries or into arcaded and balustraded corridors. At the Central Criminal Court, Old Bailey, City of London, designed by Mr E. W. Mountford, the grand staircase leading from the marble lined hall to the courts is adorned with alabaster, Verde Antico, and Hopton Wood marble. A flight of broad steps passes up between heavy balustrades through a square doorway to a half-way landing, and then right and left to the PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 191 upper hall, which is surmounted by a dome containing fine paintings and beautifully sculptured pendentives, The handrail is hipped wherever it approaches the massive corniced pillars, which take the place of newels. In the New City Hall, Belfast, designed by Sir A. Brummel Thomas in the Palladian style, the grand staircase is approached under an arch, supported by two massive pillars, having in front quaint consoles. The first approach is by three semi-circular steps, the top one forming a landing, then plain steps without nosings, pass up between balustrades, with slender shaped pillar bal- usters, to a spacious landing, thence branch- ing right and left to the first floor landing, where there is an open, balustraded circular gallery under the dome and looking down on the pillared staircase hall. Carrara, Pavonazzo and Brescia marbles are used, and there are seven three-light stained glass windows to illuminate its grandeur. Fine as it undoubtedly is both as regards design and material, one can but regret that the splendid variety of rich native marbles and granites, with their wide range of colouring, looking so well both rough 192 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS dressed and polished, were not chosen for a public building of this character. In Glasgow there is the recently completed Mitchell Library, designed by Mr W. B. White, who has placed the principal stair- case in a semi-circular turret in the middle of the main fagade. It is of Blackpasture polished freestone, carried up in short flights, with ample half-way landings, provided with dwarf pillar balustrade having a heavy coping. It is adorned with massive columns, coupled on the half landings, has open main landing, passes under a coved ceiling, with project- ing cornice supported on fluted Corinthian pilasters, and is lighted from the cupola. Now, apart from their spaciousness, bold- ness of handling, perfect harmony with their surroundings, there is nothing, not even in the treatment of detail or ornamentation, to stamp any one of these as belonging to a particular age. On the Continent, in France and Italy, the Renaissance as tamed by neo-classicism bears a more distinctive character than it does with us. The style is dignified, especially when applied to public buildings. For then we see a certain severity in deal- ing with broad surfaces, but relieved here PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 193 and there by carved detail, chiefly carried towards the cornices and soffits, while there is a delightful use of sculpture, single figure and groups being more often treated as in- tegral parts of the structure than as inde- pendent works of art placed in an appropriate setting. In Germany the classic style is rather more florid as to decorative detail, and, moreover, shows a curious Byzantine influence, both as regards general outline and ornamentation. Partaking in a measure of the nature of public buildings, large blocks of flats afford the architect exceptional opportunities for displaying his skill in designing staircases. In England the rule to which C. J. Richardson called attention, that in public buildings the tread of each step should be 13 inches deep and the riser 6 inches, or preferably 5I inches, and for private houses the tread izi inches and the riser 6 inches, is generally observed, eVen with a tendency towards greater ease, though the other de- mand that a landing 2 feet 6 inches deep should be placed between every 6 or 7 steps is rarely conceded. Owing to the costliness of sites in London and other big cities, the urgent necessity of making 194 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS the most of space often militates against good planning. While there is a general tendency to make the main entrance and staircase a central architectural feature, too often the well of the cage is occupied by a lift. Now, as Mr Frank J. Verity points out, "The passenger lift, which is mainly used to ascend to the upper floors, should not be placed in the well-hole of the stair- case, for the regulations of the London (^ounty Council require lifts to be protected by an arrangement of ironwork which is unsightly and appears to diminish the size of the staircase."^ Moreover, the practice is not without danger, because in the event of a really serious fire the lift-hole is apt to become a veritable furnace, thus placing the stairway out of service. A shiftless method occasionally adopted is to place both main staircase and service stairs in the same well or cage, merely separated by a partition. No doubt valuable space is thus saved, but again at the expense of safety. It is perhaps too much to expect an architect to carry out the central feature idea by placing the staircase in an exterior ' "Flats, Urban Houses and Country Cottage Homes," edited by W. Shaw Sparrow. PRESENT DAY PRACTICE ^ 195 turret, as Mr White has done at the Mitchell Library. Charles Gamier said that one of the good points of 19th century architecture was the planning of staircases in large houses so that they should not convey cold air from outside all over the building, but rather, thanks to central heating, convey pleasing warmth to every apartment. The outside turret might be thought to nullify the victory gained over wind and fog, but the objec- tion would be met half-way if the entrance was placed in an inside court. The feature praised by Gamier too frequently led to grievous sinning against hygiene, the stair- case tightly packed in a massive block, was badly lighted and still worse ventilated. Mr Edwin T. Hall, in contrasting British and Continental methods of flat-building, says : " I could draw attention to the general feature abroad of staircases planned as semi-circles, ellipses or on other curved lines. The result is artistic and very pleas- ing, and it contrasts favourably with the straight flights of stairs in rectangular spaces so frequently seen." ^ He adds the 1 " Flats, Urban Houses and Country Cottage Homes," edited by W. Shaw Sparrow. 196 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS warning note that " curved flights of stairs should not extend from floor to floor with intermediate landings." However, Richard- son's landings for every seven steps are rarely forthcoming abroad, consequently some of these curved stairs not only look monotonous but are positively tiring, in spite of low risers. A good feature, specially noticeable in Paris, is that the staircases are now placed either against external walls, or overlooking inner courts. A difficulty that frequently arises is the problem of lighting. When staircases reaching above the first floor are placed in the centre of large, tall houses, top lighting is almost always necessary. This is rarely satisfactory when mere cupola glazing is adopted. It is far better to have a coved ceiling, carrying the centre higher on pillars or pierced arches, admitting the light from the side, as is done so effectively at Ashburnham House. It often happens when a staircase is placed against external walls that for the sake of preserving the uniformity of the fa9ade all the windows are identical in size and shape, with the result that the stairs sometimes cut across a window, producing a very bad effect. PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 197 It is far better to mark frankly the presence of the staircase by designing special windows. A very good instance of how to do this is to be seen in Professor Reginald Blom- field's three-light window on the staircase of the Oxford and Cambridge Club, Pall Mall, The tall middle window is arched, the shorter side windows have square tops and are flanked by columns. This looks well both from the interior and exterior. One way of circumventing the difficulty is to go back to the turret, round or square. As Mr T. Raffles Davison says in his " Modern Houses," the turret. is also useful in simplifying planning. "It will be found," he says "that if the staircases were more often treated as an enclosed and separate apartment there would be a gain to the general comfort of the plan." This enclosure need not mean a turret, but that this is his ideal for country use he makes plain by stating his opinion that " if the staircase, bath and conveniences were all arranged together in a tower or gabled projection from the main building, comfort, economy and artistic effect would often result." For many reasons, however, we incline to think that this grouping is 198 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS unwise ; it is certainly not a success as handled by Continental builders of flats. Before we deal with country houses it will be well to consider a few typical or otherwise noteworthy examples of staircase building in town dwellings. Possibly one of the most ambitious and at the same time interesting of recent undertakings in London is due to Mr Detmar Blow and Mr Fernand Billerey, who carried out the internal reconstruction of No, lo, Carlton House Terrace, a mansion built by Nash. It certainly shows considerable originality. On entering the large hall a broad sweep of marble steps is seen under a wide, rather low archway. It is placed laterally to the outer wall, the lower steps curving outwardly into an almost voluted form. This flight leads to a half-way landing, the back wall pierced by two oval openings. From this landing the stairs sweep upwards in a curve, then mounts at right angles to the first floor landing, where the stairhead is marked by coupled fluted Corinthian columns and side pilasters, whence spring vaultings. Facing these columns are a second pair over the half landing, as well as two TRINITY HOUSE, TOWER HILL, LONDON. PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 199 pilasters, these carrying two arches. Through these arches is seen the second- ary semi-elliptical staircase, designed for the more private quarters. The view of this inner stairway is decidedly effective, though perhaps somewhat marred by the balustraded gallery cutting right across the arches on the inner instead of the far side. Over the well of the main staircase is a circular balustraded gallery, through which a handsome electrolier depends from the cupola above. Then upon the right, tall windows pierced in the inner wall of the Salon have corbelled balconies jutting out over the stairs, the wall being adorned with pilasters between each pair. Every- thing harmonises well. Hall and staircases are lined with Caen and Painswick stone, the steps, 7ft. 6 ins. long, are single blocks of Irish black marble, the floors and lan'dings are paved with Irish black and Pentelikon marbles, while the heavy balustrade starting from a massive pillar with upstanding pedestal crowned by a conically covered vase, is of wrought iron and bronze, sup- ported on a strong, rounded kerb, a continuation of the string which hides the steps. Enriched stucco on the ceilings 200 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS and vaultings, the bronze balconies and bold mouldings, all combine to make up a remarkable composition. Another instructive piece of remodelling was carried out by Mr E. F. C. Buckley at 67 Queen's Gate, S. W. Before altera- tions a narrow passage led direct from the entrance door to the foot of the stairs. On the left of this passage was a library, which practically formed an ante-chamber to the dining-room beyond. In the re- arrangement the walls of the library were removed, and that room thus became part of the hall, but as the wall between the library and staircase carried the interior of the house, it was replaced by three free and two engaged columns, supporting arches. The staircase carried against the wall in long, easy sweeps, with spacious half landings, was placed behind the pillars the whole exterior side from string to floor, as well as the walls, being panelled, while the balustrade is of bronze in a light trellis pattern. By this planning semi-privacy is gained, though the architectonic value of the staircase, showing up behind the columns in the shadow of the arches, is retained. The colour scheme is by no PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 20l means the least noteworthy feature. The walls are painted in ivory-white, the columns of dark green Vert des Alpes marble with bronze square flat abacus and plinth, and the electric and the electric and other metal fittings of unlacquered bronze. The use of the arch in giving this semi- privacy with the added charm of half concealed vistas, is well demonstrated at Escourt House, Kensington Palace Gardens, where we find three arches dividing the panelled black and white marble paved hall. The middle and one of the outer arches are filled with square transomed doors, with traceried fanlights over them, while the other outer archway accommodates the stairs. These are of wood, the three lower Steps coming through the arch well into the hall and protected on the outside by two carved newels with pointed terminals. These stairs are carried up between panelled walls to a half - way landing, whence there is a return flight to the first floor landing, which forms a square lobby with centre open circular gallery overlooking the hall, the balusters having thin plain shafts, with top and bottom rings and square abacus and plinth. 202 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS In Mr Horace Field's entrance hall and main staircase at the offices of the ISforth Eastern Railway Company, Westminster, we have a barrel vault ceiling, with strong mouldings, the walls being panelled to the springing of the vault. At the end of the hall is the staircase of wood, the panelling carried up on a level with the balustrade, which has hipped handrail, and three spiral shafted balusters to each step. Another example of the archway and stairs beyond is to be seen in the Earl of Plymouth's house, Mount Street, designed by Mr Fairfax B. Wade. At Averley, Glasgow, Mr William Leiper has a wide entrance hall panelled in oak, a barrel vault enriched with a trellis-work of floral garlands in plaster, springing from the projecting carved cornice. The staircase lobby is seen through an arch, the soffit in carved oak, supported by two Ionic pillars standing on square panelled bases connected with the wall panelling. Three arches supported on two slender pillars are seen in the distance, the stairs skirting the wall, the sides being panelled to the ground. Above the string are panels with mouldings supporting short turned balusters PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 203 and a handrail. The lower part of a large window over the second flight is seen through the middle arch. Many examples might be cited of how an otherwise commonplace staircase has been made interesting by some added fittings. For instance, in a house in Upper Berkeley Street Mr Walter Cave had to deal with ordinary straight flight at the end of a narrow corridor. He placed across the bottom of the stairs two arches in carved wood, supported by a square pillar and two engaged pillars. The arch facing the door- way was filled at the base with a balustrade, the handrail rising into swans' necks at each end, the balusters having turned shafts and round caps and bases. Through the archway, at right angles to the hall, a platform step was placed, the stairs, with plain square newel carried above the hand- rail, leading up from this. At the Marlborough Chambers, Jermyn Street, Mr Reginald Morphew has placed in a panelled hall and stair well a very quaint stair. The newels are square, quite plain, carried up nearly to the ceiling and provided with flat board capitals. A square handrail is supported by broad flat boards, 204 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS with heart-shaped piercing near the top, placed alternately with pairs of square rails. Somewhat akin to this is Mr E. Guy Dawber's staircase in a house in Hollycroft Avenue, Hampstead. Here the end of the straight flight is barred by a plain balustrade standing on a panelled base, the newel carried above the handrail is square with an anvil - shaped terminal. The stair entrance is turned at right angles to the flight, the second square newel is carried up to the ceiling. The string is a broad plank, with top and bottom raised moulding, carried well above the steps, while the balusters are broad, flat slats placed between pairs of square rods. A house on the Hampstead Garden Estate, de- signed by Mr Michael Bunney and Mr C. C.- Makins has a balustrade composed of a handrail with rounded top and sides decorated with mouldings, fairly broad flat balusters and round topped intermediate newels, while on the open balustraded landing the newels, somewhat elaborately turned, are carried up to support a ceiling beam, decorated with small drop pendants and wall brackets. A landing designed by Mr C. F. X. Voysey at Chorley Wood is PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 205 enclosed in a kind of cage formed by vertical slats. Quite a useful and artistic handling of a screen is seen on the Mr Geoffrey Lucas's Jacobean staircase at Padwell Lodge, near Baldock, Herts, It is placed at the end of a small landing reached by three steps, and shuts off the stairs from the adjoining entrance door. It consists of a panel formed of a frame containing two rows of balusters, one on the top of the other, with a horizontal bar between. At Batsford, designed by Mr Ernest George, the long, easy flights of the stair- case and galleried landings, are seen through the arcaded walls of the hall. Describing Mr E. L. Lutyen's work at Little Thakeham, Mr Davison says : " The stairs are so arranged that they give on to a landing looking down and across the hall, and from the landing the main upstairs corridor is revealed. The corridor is crossed with stone arches at intervals, and a door opening from it gives access to a balcony overlooking the hall fireplace, so that one may come out and look down on the hall from above." It is a very picturesque and favourite device, 2o6 STAIRCASES AND GAREEN STEPS well suited to a country house, and seen in endless variations. At Redisham Hall, Eccles, Suffolk, Mr H. M. Fletcher pro- vided an arcaded gallery above the hall, reached by a flight of stairs partly in the hall and partly under the arcaded landing. At Kilbowie, Maidenhead, Berkshire, Mr W. Dunn and Mr R, Watson designed a hall, out of which the main staircase leads, two storeys high, with corbelled balustrade gallery down one side, giving access to the bedrooms. Quite a different arrangement of galleried landing was adapted by Mr Horace Field for his staircase at Hookerel, Woking, Surrey. There is a quite short flight, with plain balustrade, passing through an arch- way to an arched landing, A second arch is fitted with a corbelled balustraded balcony, placed over another arched entrance. Even more thorough in treatment is Mr Sydney D, Kitson's two-storeyed hall at the Red House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds. The staircase is entered through an arch- way, a straight flight leading to a half-way landing, then branching right and left to the open, cantilevered gallery, the stair-head being adorned with two columns and two PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 207 pilasters supporting the heavy decorated cornice which runs round the gallery and separates it from the soffit of the staircase well. Arched doorways open on to corridors serving the upper storey. Twelve square dwarf pillars are used to strengthen the balus- trade, composed of turned balusters and a handrail, hipped on each side of the pillars. Of modern work in the classic style a rather fine specimen is to be seen at Heath- cote, Ilkley, designed by Mr Edwin L. Lutyens. The staircase vestibule is divided from the large main hall by tall fluted Corinthian columns of green Siberian marble. White and fieur de piche marbles are used for the paving, the walls are of cream coloured Ancaster stone and the steps of black marble, while the balustrade is of wrought iron, slightly foliated scrolls alternating with straight bars ornamented with rings* The handrail is rather curiously hipped and decorated with awkward, ineffec- tive covered vases. Three fluted columns are placed at the open first floor landing, and the walls of the staircase well bear fluted pilasters, above which is a heavy cornice, then a flat frieze with the ceiling cornice above. 2o8 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS While a modified form of the Georgian has found favour of late, it is evident that the Jacobean makes special appeal to the builders of country houses. Some examples may be given. At Ewelme Down, Walling- ford, Berkshire, a roomy hall has a low ceiling of white plaster, crossed by numerous oak beams, forming panels of different sizes. The walls are also panelled in oak. In a lobby adjoining this hall the stairs are carried up in long, easy flights. In place of a starting newel there is a large square fluted column reaching to the ceiling. Four broad steps forming the commencement of the stairs are carried across the end of the hall, the top one forming a platform to a kind of alcove. That part of the lobby which is not stepped is cut off from the hall by a balustrade. At Huntercombe Place, Oxon, Mr O. P. Milne makes liberal use of large square newels, with curiously carved finials, carried high above the hand- rail. From the end of an arched hall at East Weald, Hampstead, Mr H. V. Ashley and Mr Winton Newman, carry a broad flight to a midway landing, and then with right and left flights to the upper landing. The interesting feature here is that the PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 209 three lower steps are free, with rounded ends. Then the balustrade starts with square newels, having faceted ball finials. There are two clusters of three newels to the turning on the half landing, decorated towards the top with lozenges in sunken panels ; the balusters are turned, the shafts having a series of rings. While woodwork is sometimes enamelled in colour or varnished, it is more often left plain or with a simple polish. In the same way we find the use of stucco, but in many houses plain bricks are left bare, even used in combination with dressed stone and fine woods. Mr A. Winter Rose's early Georgian houses, Marrowells, Oatlands Chase, Walton -on -Thames, affords an instance of this latter treatment. A plain balustrading is used for the staircase, but is dignified by fine wooden columns, placed however, on plain brick piers. Our illus- tration shows the first floor landing. On the right is the curious open arched fireplace shown on the plate facing page 172 of " Chimneypieces and Ingle-nooks," the pre- ceding volume of this series. At Redlands, Wimbledon, designed by William and Edward Hunt, free use is made of hand-made bricks, 2IO STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS distempered plaster and Suffolk oak, wax polished. The staircase, leading out of a hall with cross -beamed ceiling, low arched fireplace of brick, is not panelled, but has an "open Jacobean balustrade, with tall newels, placed on either side against the walls. It is entered under an archway. The arch, formed of four stepped courses in wedge-shaped strips, alternately of plain plaster and red bricks, springs from two piers of plastered brickwork, with brick capitals. A still freer use ofbrick is seen in a staircase by Mr Lutyens at Barton St Mary, East Grinstead, Sussex. Here the stairs are carried up without balustrade between plastered walls. The steps are of plain brick, placed flat for the treads, and on end for the risers. There are no nosings to the steps, and the ceiling is a brick vaulting. This treatment of brick in combination with more costly materials is not without precedent. At the i6th century Chateau de St Germain-en- Laye, France, built by Androuet du Cerceau and restored by E. Millet, the stone stepped stairs are carried up between walls, under a barrel vaulted soffit of brickwork, strengthened at intervals PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 211 by broad hoops of stone. There are bricl pilasters between the tall windows anc also on the inner wall, A Dutch i6tl: century staircase, in the chancellery at Leeu warden, is treated much in the same way the stairs being under a brick barrel vault but ornamented with tracery and pendants while corbel brackets support the vaulting. In staircases of American public build ings the influence of the later Italiar Renaissance and of Palladio is apparent with perhaps too assertive a use of the stepped parapet. In domestic "Colonial' architecture, the staircases, generally o wood, are well planned, with broad anc easy steps with good, fairly plain balustrades Very effective use is often made of thf dextral and sinistral spirals for alternate balusters, with frequent variations in th< gauge of the thread. Screens for stair end; and landings are also largely resorted to There is, of course, a considerable amoun of imitative work. " Colonial " is Georgian but at its best, modified both as regardi design and the employment of loca materials, such as cedar and cypress woods and excellent combinations of stones anc tiles. Then we have such eccentricities a 212 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS an adaptation of Japanese bamboo joinery for a spacious staircase at Falls River, Massachusetts. But there is also much original planning. Take as an example a house designed by Mr Frank Lloyd Wright, overlooking the lake at Racine, Wisconsin. In a description of this by Mr C. E, Percival we are told that on the street side it is a two-storey and basement house, but on the lake side it becomes a full three-storey house. " From the en- trance hall, whose floor is on the level of the side walk, the visitor ascends a short flight of steps, on either side of the chimneypiece, into the living room, the heart and centre of the house, two storeys high, and measuring i8 ft. by 20 feet. Here he is confronted by a broad expanse of tall windows, giving a compre- hensive view of the ever-changing lake. Facing them is the big fireplace (in red brick), on either side of which are the stairs that lead up from the hall, and the stairs that lead on to the second storey, where the landing expands into a balcony over the fireplace." This is altogether a delightful treatment, where we find novelty, pictur- esqueness and compactness all combined. PRESENT DAY PRACTICE 213 A development that has taken place of late years, practically in all parts of the world, is the enlisting of reinforced concrete for staircase building. The flexibility of the system, the rigidity of the completed structure, its lightness, its fire -resisting qualities, and the economy of space and material have secured for it wide recognition in this direction. Evidence of the rapidity with which construction can be accomplished is furnished by the two outside staircases built at the Crystal Palace for the Festival of Empire in 191 1. They are both L shaped, placed some distance apart, and reversed. They lead from the main floor to the terrace, a height of 32 ft. 6 ins. The upper limbs are 75 ft. long by 24 ft. wide over the balustrading, and the lower limbs 83 ft. long by 21 ft. 4 ins. wide. The whole is of reinforced concrete, except the balustrading, which is of moulded concrete. The steps, without nosing, and with .very low risers, are 14 ins. deep. The flights are carried on arches supported by piers of varying dimensions. A notable point is that these structures were begun on February 16th, the concreting was com- pleted by April 13th, and the stairs open 214 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS to the public on May 12th. Staircases in reinforced concrete of considerable import- ance have been built at the new General Post Office, London; at Evans', Oxford Street, where Mr J. Murray built a straight flight of broad steps, the lower ones with rounded ends, leading to a half-way landing, and then taking a circular sweep right and left to the main landing. It is wonderfully light and elegant. There appears to be every prospect of this type of building coming into more general use for stair building. From the artistic point of view it should be re- membered that concrete itself is capable of a measure of decorative treatment, and, moreover, such structures can be encased in any description of material. CHAPTER XII GARDEN STEPS Two things are requisite in gardens : they must furnish an appropriate framing, de- signed to accentuate such characteristic features as a house may possess, and also agreeable surroundings amidst which hosts and friends may take their ease. Now, the nature of such frame should depend upon the style of the house ; the more formal the architecture, the greater the need for an approximating formality of setting. On the other hand, in order to secure the fullest measure of enjoyment from a garden there must be diversity ; a predominant privacy, cosy ,nooks suggestive of out-of-door apart- ments, of course, but added to this some vantage ground whence prospects of the outer world may be obtained. Clearly, therefore, whatever the nature 2IS 2i6 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS of the immediate setting, whatever system be adopted in planning the pleasaunce, a judicious use of steps will always add charm, whether these be required to link up different sections on varying levels, or, equally important, serving to provide those contrasts of high and low planes so necessary for the satisfaction of eye and imagination. Italy is, beyond dispute, the land of garden steps ; for its civilization has for ages been associated with hilly country. Probably nowhere else has the architectonic value of approach steps been better appre- ciated or more splendidly developed. Con- sider with what unerring art the palazzi and casini crowned hills of Rome, of /Florence, and a hundred and one classic spots have been scaled, now by attacking the declivity boldly with a straight flight, like Jacob's ladder ; now sweeping to right and left, perhaps meeting on a terrace and thence curving outwards again ; making the ascent sideways, or negotiating steps in a series of zigzags. How often their clever designing, their monumental proportions form a fitting introduction to the glories of the marble dwelling and their rich treasures GARDEN STEPS 217 of sculpture and painting. Out of the great number of these delightful combinations we may instance the Villas Colonna and Corsini at Rome, those of Aldobrandini and Tor- lornia at Frascati, the Palmieri at Florence, and quaint Caprarola near Viterbo. At the Villa Palmieri the garden approach to the terrace is by means of fine flights of long semi-circular steps, flanked by a heavy balustrade, its broad, flat handrail sweeping gracefully over vase-shaped balusters, formed into bays by massive vase-capped pillars. As for fantastic Caprarola, whose pen- tagonal lines were laid down by Antonio da San-Gallo, but whose fine achievement is due to Vignola, it is reached by a double stairway, the long course of which is divided by a stepped water ladder, ornamental foun- tains being placed ^t the head and foot. Italian garden-makers, like those of the East, displayed great skill in utilising water so as to appeal both to the eye and ear. Sometimes we have placid canals as at the Palazzo d'Este, wide expanses of pond, though more often babbling waterfalls, or the musically splashing jets dispersed by sculptured groups and single figures into the basins below. Others send up their 2i8 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS filmy water, beautifully iridescent with tender hues in the sunlight, then dissolv- ing into pearly mists. At Caprarola the sun-bathed guest slowly wending his way up the side stairs, is refreshed by water as it tumbles, softly murmuring the while on its broken course to the great stone cup at the foot. Another justly celebrated com- bination 19 at the Villa Aldobrandini, where the stairs and central broad-stepped cascade comes steeply down the hill between avenues of trees, the last vista effectively closed by its notable architectural feature. Hard by, at the Villa Torlonia, the fountain at the stairway foot is served by a semi-circular stepped cascade. Equally good is the ar- rangement at the Villa Corsini, with its parapeted stairway, stepped stream of bubbling water and fountains. At I sola Bella, where there is a pretty little al fresco theatre in the woods, having a semi-circular alcoved curtain wall, with a statue of Hercules, and three broad steps leading up to the stage, there are sets of steps with side water channels, this being a reversal of the usual arrangement. Another set of steps at Isola Bella, joining the upper and lower parterres, is typical of a certain SCALA SANTA, ST. JOHN LATERAN, ROME. GARDEN STEPS 219 rick of contrast. The upper three steps re long with oblique short-sections at ach end. These steps merge into the lope and lead to an oval platform, hence are two outward steps with square eturns. When Salomon de Caus laid out the ;ardens at Heidelberg for Frederick V., he Elector Palatine, he contrived to build lany flights of steps, some of them very urious. Among these we find plans of one et formed of two halves of an ellipse nearly ut asunder by the retaining walls. Here he upper steps are cut with an inward lurve, producing a concave appearance, he lower with an outward reversing ;urve, the two sections being joined to- gether by an elliptical platform. To add o the complexity, the inspringing portions )f the retaining walls are stepped on a riant scale. Bordering the stairs are itepped dwarf parapet walls, each step )eing hollowed out into a basin, and the )uter face pierced with a round hole. Down these inward and outward curving vails a stream of water danced from basin o basin. It must be confessed that this Gallic conceit lacked the natural elegance 220 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS of the Italian examples, giving indeed the impression of ill-spent ingenuity. The Palazzo Barberini which stands at the base of a hill in the heart of Rome, close to the Vatican, is approached by an inclined plane leading to a broad terrace. On the garden front, just outside the col- umned portico, is a square perron, from which there are right and left ascending steps, carried the whole width of the palace to corner platforms, whence other flights at right angles ascend to a series of parterres, bounded by retaining walls, with a fountain facing the perron. Above this fountain a terrace runs, and from this are two long flights of about seventy steps one on each side of a sunk garden, the gradually rising walls of which are adorned with niches and grottoes. On the exterior of these stairs are zigzag inclined planes. Above these is a terrace, and then a smaller sunk garden flanked by steps lead- ing up to a broad terrace, with another sunk garden, square at its base and semi- circular on its upper end, surrounded by two straight and then two semi-circular flights of stairs leading up to a large amphitheatre with ornamental screen wall. GARDEN STEPS 221 On the garden front of the Villa Albani, just outside the Salaro Gate, Rome, there is a magnificent terrace, with two flights running towards each other, adorned with a fine balustrade and its walls with niches, and grottoes. Facing this, at the other end of the long formal garden, is a pavilion with semi-circular portico, and from its terraces are stairways to the lower gardens. At the back of this pavilion is a very lengthy stepped cascade, flanked by stairways. At the Villa Santi, Bagnaia, beyond the formal parterres are two delightful pavilions, right and left, with flights of stairs bordering their walls leading to a broad terrace, which has a circular fountain, partly on its upper level and partly on a lower terrace, reached by two stone stairways. At the further end of the terrace is another large semi-circular ornamented fountain, fed and stepped canal, which passes between gravelled paths, with an elaborate arrange- ment of landings and stairs at the farther end. Beyond this is a sunk garden surrounded by a low balustrade and closing the vista up the hill another fountain with cascade, seen between two small pavilions and two ranges of steps. 222 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Other equally elaborate arrangements are adopted at the Villa d'Este, Tivoli, and the Villa Negroni, on the Esquiline Hill, Rome. While monumental stairways, adorned with balustrades, balconied landings, vases, statuary and fountains were reserved for the approaches, grand terraces and for the purpose of linking up and embellishing the formal parts of gardens, rustic steps in many styles were reserved for the outer, more wooded sections. It was in these wilder parts of the domains that sundry variations of the scala cordonata appeared. The commonest form is that of a baulk of timber, a board, or more or less roughly dressed stones sunk in the ground like a retaining wall, the ground above being sloped gently to the next corded course. Sometimes these long, deep sloping steps were turfed, at others gravelled, and occasionally even paved. When the path is very steep, the corded course instead of running at right angles across is carried obliquely, from right to left and then left to right, thus forming a zigzag. In its turfed form this was a favourite kind of stepped path with the old French gardeners, GARDEN STEPS 223 Le Blond and Le N8tre were fond of placing them on either side of a cascaded canal. Memories of how well such simple "corded ways " may be varied to surmount diffi- culties, and at the same time add the charms of the unexpected, cluster round that wonderful rock garden of Dr. Bennet, just on the Italian side of the deep gorge that marks the eastern extremity of Mentone. It was patiently built up on the steep face of a rugged grey rock, scarred by pockets of red clay. Winding from pocket to pocket, from terrace to terrace were stairs cut in the solid mountain side, serpentine paths and corded ways with steps in endless form leading on to patches aglow with semi- tropical cacti, creepers and palms, almost mingling with Alpine treasures hiding in cavernous" shades, while precious water (brought in an aqueduct from high up the valley), trickled in a circuitous stream, now and again widening out into lily-covered maidenhair-bordered ponds. It is in this spirit that the old-time builders of Italy used steps in their gardens, introducing modifications in accordance with local conditions so that in one small domain you pass from the highest efforts of art^ 224 STAIRCASES AND GAREEN STEPS the majestic flights, to the most primitive of ladder paths with the feeling of fitness. In France greater formality prevailed. We do not find anything quite to equal those splendours of the Renaissance builders in the Peninsula, but a very effective use of terraces with fine stair approaches. Perrons, those spacious terrace landings with flanking grand external stairways, were early made special features of Renaissance chateaux throughout the provinces, and the fashion has remained down to our own time. Apart from these terraces, from the 1 6th century to the i8th century, a good deal of rather pretentious garden step building was indulged in. We have already mentioned de Caus, and those better known masters, Le Blond and Le N6tre, both of whose influence was felt far afield, in Germany, England, and even Russia. Le Notre designed notable garden steps for many of the Royal Palaces. He was fond of making them monumental, forming great bastioned platforms in connection with the retaining walls, massing together blocks of rusticated masonry, bowed terrace landings, sloping parapets, or pillared balustrades, and on occasion introducing GARDEN STEPS 225 sculpture and statuary. One of his stairs in the Tuileries Gardens had five steps up to a platform, then two flights to right and left of six steps each to lower landings with return flights of six steps to a second central platform, overlooked from the parapet of the first. From here six right angled steps, arranged in pyramidal form (the base of the set being greater in all directions than the apex, or top step), led to the lower garden. This plan of di- minishing angled steps was constantly .adopted by him. There was yet another example in the Tuileries, where he placed his steps in a bastioned portion of the wall. There right and left flights protected on the outside by wing parapets led to a platform, the back wall being handsomely panelled. The oblong platform was reached from below by eight angled diminishing steps. Now, if Italian garden architects had gone to the trouble of building such fine sets of steps they would not have failed^ to place equally imposing fountains either recessed in alcoves contrived in the walls at the back of the platform, or projecting therefrom. In this particular our ancestors frequently imitated them quite successfully. 226 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Alexandre Le Blond like Le N6tre was addicted to grandiose designs, but he condescended to introduce delightful little oddities, such as steps placed at angles of terraces. One of these plans of his com- prised two flights of eight steps at right angles descending to an octangular landing, thence eight steps showing five sides of an octangle led down to the garden. In another instance he had a triangular pillar with rounded base on the terrace, on either side of which were straight flights to a square landing, placed diamondwise, with right angled steps to the lower garden. For central positions he adopted the more or less circular form, individualised by such quaint variations as the following. On an upper terrace he had four massive wedge shaped pillars, and between them three flights of curved steps on the convex plan, leading to a circular landing, and then four semi-circular steps to the garden. In another instance he had a screen wall on the upper terrace, right and left curved flights of steps enclosing a curiously shaped basin with a fountain against the wall. Le Blond was a great believer in water stairs, which he placed on declivities between STAIRCASE LANDING, BY MR. A. WINTER ROSE. GARDEN STEPS 227 regular flights of steps, or commonly between zigzag paths when the incline was moderate. He liked to have these latter stepped paths closely turfed, which pro- duced a fine contrast with the parapet of the canal and foaming water. In one plan which he gives we find an effective com- bination, a zigzag path being placed on either side of a monumental fountain, leading to two series of ten flights of four steps each separated by broad landings, the water stairs running in the centre. Many English gardens are noted for their fine terraces, steps, gateways and fountains, often grouped in splendid style. At Bowood, Wiltshire, the extensive grounds are embellished with a great diversity of stairs, some passing down between plain dwarf parapets, in others the parapets themselves are stepped. Marking the termination of the wide central path on the terrace leading from the garden porch to the house is a double flight of curved steps, enclosing a mural fountain, high backed with sculptured group, and a screen of hedges and trees in the rear ; while from the high terrace at i2B STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS the Garden House end is a side flight with a parapet wall, which looks very well. Chatsworth presents much that is inter- esting. From the terrace in front of the house, and overlooking the lawns with their groups of statuary, elaborate flights of long steps are protected by handsome wrought iron balustrades. Then there are the two long, broad flights, with intermediate plat- forms, leading up between groups of statuary on pedestals to a Grecian temple closing the splendid avenue. Wrought iron balustrades are not often used in connection with garden steps in England, even when these connect the house terrace with the lawns or formal parterres. The exceptions are usually found associated with outside stairs. Such is the very beautiful example at Drayton House, Thrapston, where the steps from the house to the garden have balustrades with square panels of slightly foliated strapwork. As a rule stone balustrades or parapet walls are preferred. One of the most admirable groupings of screen walls, gates, terrace, steps and fountain is to be seen at Holland House, Kensington. It is due to the skill of GARDEN STEPS 229 Nicholas Stone, working to the designs of Inigo Jones, and marks the division of the upper from the lower garden. Behind the terrace, with low parapet, is a pierced screen wall, formed of moulded octagons, so placed as to leave smaller octagon openings. A heavy cornice crowns it. At the entrance from the upper garden to the terrace are two pillars, adorned with arched alcoves between two slender columns supporting large pediments crowning the whole, decor- ated with prominent mouldings. Facing this gateway are right and left flights of steps, turning outwards and parallel to the retaining wall, protected by open-work balustrades, ending in large square rustic- ated dwarf pillars. Against the wall, between the two flights, is a wide arch with fountain and a basin jutting out. It is interesting to note that the rustication of the pillars is practically similar to that adopted for the w6od balustrade of the grand staircase in the mansion which, by the way, had a wide balustraded terrace on the main front, approached by a flight of wide low steps. From this terrace a second flight led up to the entrance porch. Q 230 STAIRCASES AND GARDEN STEPS Other typical examples may be cited. At Tissington Hall, Derbyshire, the gardens are laid out in terraces, with masonry retaining walls. These terraces are con- nected by means of numerous sets of steps, some placed at the ends, others in the middle of the terraces. Some of these are parallel to the walls and without parapets or balustrades. Others are placed at right angles, between low parapets ending in pillars bearing vases. These are quite unassuming both as regards dimensions and design, but nevertheless have a distinct artistic as well as a utilitarian value. Derbyshire, by the way, provides many .excellent examples of garden steps, some of these built in triangular pyramidal form in the angles of terraces. We have seen there a recent combination of two forms of semi- circular steps, those giving access to the terrace forming a crescent hollow, just above them reaching to the entrance porch the reverse is presented, the outward curving steps being of the retreating order. At Ingestre Hall, Staffordshire, the long terrace, consists of sets of seven stone steps with low parapet walls, interspersed by long stretches of gravel path, passing between GARDEN STEPS 231 grass plats, arches of yew bridging the avenue at frequent intervals. Brick is in many surroundings to be pre- ferred to stone for this branch of stair building, as may be realised on studying the semi-circular flights at Packwood, Warwickshire, with the pillar terminations crowned by vases. In this, as in other matters, the great art is to adopt suitable materials and designs for the special surroundings. GLOSSARY Abacus, the top part of a baluster. Balanced Step, see Step. Balustrade, the vertical protection on flights, including the handrail, balusters, or rods, and newels, or starting and intermediate posts. A framed balustrade is filled in with panels in place of balusters. Balusters, the vertical rods or panels between the step and the handrail. Bracket balusters are those carried outside the steps, and fastened to the string by means of a pro- jecting bracket. Box, or Boxed Stairs, see Stairs. Brackets, ornamental pieces resting on the string and supporting the steps. BULNOSED, see Step. Circular Staircases, see Spirals. Closed Newel Stairs, see Stairs. Cockle Stair, from the Latin Cochlea, a spiral staircase. Columnated Window Stairs, have steps set on columns, so as to permit light to come in from all sides, 233 234 GLOSSARY Commode, see Step. " Corded " Way or Steps, see Scala Cordonata, Curtail Step, see Step. Dancing Step, see Step. Dog-Legged, see Stairs. ESCALIER A Jour. A French term applied to stairs placed in turrets with open galleries, or in open cages. Flight, a succession of steps, without interrup- tion of landing. A flight may be straight, direct from one point to another; square, winding round a square newel or well ; triangular, winding round a triangular newel or well. Fliers, see Step. Geometrical Stairs, see Stairs. Grees (from the French d^grh, steps), a term applied to dimishing steps rising gradually, one above the other, the lower occupying on plan the greater area. Half-Turn Stairs, see Stairs. Handrail, see Balustrade. Hanging Step, see Step. Helical Staircase, see Spiral Staircase. Hipping, curving the handrail to adjust differ- ences of level. The same as swan-neck. See also Ramp. Inclined Planes may be straight (when they are sometimes termed ramps, q.v.) or wind- GLOSSARY 235 ing, and may be used inside or outside of buildings. Sometimes they are stepped, see Scala Cordonata. Many stairs are based on inclined planes, especially the spirals of the middle period. Landings are platforms connecting the stairs with each floor, and are known as ist or 2nd floor landings, or where there is only one, as the head or starting landing. Half-way landings are placed midway in straight flights to ease the ascent, or at the turn of winding stairs to afford resting-places and to ease or avoid curves. Newel, the starting post, or post placed between two flights. A clustered newel is formed of several balusters grouped into a circle, square, or other form. A continued or continuous newel is one which is carried up as a pillar to support the upper flights, landings, or soffits. The term close or closed newel is applied to a central shaft. A hollow newel is one of cylindrical formation. The term open newel is applied to a newel stair built round a well-hole. Nosing, the edge of a tread projecting over the riser. Return nosing, the edge of the tread projecting over the string. One Turn Stairs, see Stairs. Open Newel Stairs, see Stairs. Perron (French). A balustraded landing to an outside staircase. 236 GLOSSARY Pitch, the relation between the riser and the tread, which determines the steepness and ease of the stairs. Plinth, the base of a baluster or newel. Quarter Turn Stairs, see Stairs. Ramp (i) The handrail, from the French, but usually applied to an easing or hipping, where levels have to be adjusted. If this easing in place of having an upward trend has a down- ward dip, it is termed a knee. A swan-neck is a combination of the ramp and the knee. (2) An inclined plane. Risers, see Step. SCALA CORDONATA, or a Cordini (Italian). In- clined plane with very deep sloping steps, either paved or unpaved, marked by wood or stone risers. Screw Stairs, see Stairs and Spiral Stairs. Scroll Step, see Step. Spandrel Frame, panels sometimes introduced between the string and the floor. Spandrel Step, see Step. Square Step, see Step. Spiral Staircases are those whose steps rise in screw form, either round the walls of a well and having an open centre, or round a central shaft. They may be circular, elliptical, ovoid, triangular, or square. They may have a right (dextral), or left (sinistral) turn. GLOSSARY 23; Staircase, that part of a building set apart for the stairs. Generally understood to comprise the steps, balustrade, and the well. Stairs, a combination of steps. Straight stairs are carried direct from point to point. Turning stairs change their direction in the course of ascent. They are divided into (i) quarter turn, (2) half turn, (3) three- quarter turn, (4) one turn, passing in the course from top to bottom respectively through one, two, three, and four right angles. Newel stairs have starting posts and inter- mediate posts at the commencement and turnings. A closed newel stair is one with newels one above the other, and no open space between the flights. An open newel stair is a well-hole stair with newels. Geo- metrical stairs have no newels, but continuous strings, joined at the curves by wreaths. Box stairs are those with two closed strings, en- closing the steps in a kind of box. Dog- legged stairs have no newels, but have a forward and return flight, whose outer strings and balustrades are immediately over each other. Screw stairs are in the circular form, with steps radiating from a central newel {see Spiral). Columnated stairs {see Columnated Window Stairs). Stairway, Stairs, or a set of steps not enclosed in a well or cage. Sometimes, with doubtful correctness, applied to internal stairs as a 238 GLOSSARY separate portion of the entire combination or staircase. Step, comprises (i) the tread, horizontal or upper part, and (2) the riser, vertical, or upright portion. Steps may be solid (also known as spandrel or square), when the tread and the risers form a right angle ; or they may be provided with a nosing, when the tread projects beyond the riser. These projections may be rounded, chamfered, or moulded. Risers may be solid, or may be open ; in the later case they are in the form of frames, with the centre left open to allow of the passage of light, or, in the Middle Age stairs, to be used as meutrieres. Fliers are steps of uniform width ; windets are narrower at one end, such as those used in spirals, and for forming curves. Balanced, or dancing steps are winders placed between two risers which are not normal to the curve, in order to reduce the reduction of the width. Bulnosed, a step with one end, or both, projecting beyond the string in semicular form. This is somewhat similar to the curtail or scroll step, whose end, or ends, terminate in a scroll or spiral, beyond the string, generally en- closing a newel. Commode, a combination of two or more steps at the end of a flight, projecting beyond the string and surrounding the newel, which it apparently supports. Hanging steps are stone steps with one end GLOSSARY 239 built into the wall, the other end having no other support than that of the step below. A weathered step has the upper surface inclined from the plane. String, or Stringer, the inclined pieces support- ing the steps. Those outside are known as face strings, those against the wall as rough strings. An open or cut string has its upper edge notched to the shape of the step, and the close, closed or kerb string has the upper edge straight. A bracket string is an open one with bracket-shaped pieces seemingly supporting the step. In a cut and mitred string, the vertical ends of the notches mitre into the ends of the risers. Housed strings are carried above the steps. Swan-Neck, the "hipped" part of a handrail, adopted to adjust differences of level. Usually combines the ramp or concave, and the knee or convex bends. The same as hipping. See also Ramp. Three-Quarter Turn Stairs, see Stairs. Tread, see Step. Vyse (from the French vis, a screw), a term applied to newel spiral staircases. Weathered Step, see Step. Water Stairs. Artificial stepped cascades, which may be steep or of very easy gradient, rustic or monumental. In pisciculture a more elementary form is used, called water ladder. The term is also applied to stairways leading 240 GLOSSARY to the level of a lake, river, or other water expanse. Well, or Well-Hole, is the clear space round which the stairs are carried. Wheeling Stairs, are Spirals {q.v^. Winders, see Step. Winding Stairs (sometimes called winders), are Spirals {q.v^. Wreath, is the curved part of a string or hand- rail following a turn in a geometrical stairs, and is used to secure continuity. BIBLIOGRAPHY Banks, Joseph, (i) "An original, independent and liberal treatise on staircasing." London, 1823. (2) " A new and improved treatise on handrailing, in which the various methods of springing the plank in different directions are all reduced to one simple system .... also the construction of staircases in general." Manchester, 1836. CiCOGNARA, L. " Le fabhriche e i monumenti di Venezia," 2 vols. 2nd ed. Venice, 1838-50. Plates by Cicognara, A. Diedo and G. A. Selva, with text by Cicognara. This second edition contains notes by F. Zanotto. Re- markable for its plates of the Scala di Giganti, the Scala d'Oro and other staircases in the public buildings of Venice. COLLINGS, George. "A practical treatise in handrailing, showing new and simple methods for finding the pitch of the plank, drawing the moulds, bevelling, jointing-up and squar- ing the wreath," il London, 1882. Cook, T. A, "Spirals in Nature and Art: a study of spiral formations based on the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, with 241 242 BIBLIOGRAPHY special references to the architecture of the open staircase at Blois, in Touraine, now for the first time shown to be from his designs," il. London, 1903. An interesting scientific and art study, with much information on spiral staircases in general. FOUQUIER, Marcel. " Les Grands Chateaux de France," 2 vols. il. Paris, 1907. The illustra- tions form a valuable collection of architectural and decorative details. De Graff, Simon. "The Modern Geometrical Stair- Builder's Guide," New York, 2nd ed. 1868. Garnier, J. L. C. (i) "6tude sur le Theatre," Paris, 1 87 1. (2) " Le Nouvel Op6ra de Paris," 2 vols, text and 2 vols, plates, il. Paris, 1878. The first book contains a valuable chapter on the theory and practice of staircase building in theatres. The second gives full details, plans and illustrations of the grand staircase at the Paris Opera House. Godfrey, W. H. "The English Staircase: an historical account of the characteristic types to the end of the i8th century," il. London, 191 1. There are 38 plates from photographs and a number of illustrations from measured drawings in the brief descriptive text. Heideloff, Carl. "Der Bau und Mobel— Schreiner oder Ebenist," il. Nuremberg, 1832. Gives excellent working drawings of spiral staircases. BIBLIOGRAPHY 243 Hodgson, F. T. " Stair Buildings Made Easy," New York, 1885. JOUSSE, Mathurin. (i) " Theatre de I'Art de Carpentier," il. Paris, 1627. (2) " Le Secret d' Architecture," il. Paris, 1642. Contain elaborate geometric designs for spiral and other staircases, with many interesting details. Le Fevre, L. C. " Grand Escalier du Chdteau de Versailles, dit escalier des Ambassadeurs, ordonn^ et peint par Charles Le Brun, etc.," il. Paris, 1726. A series of fine plates en- graved by L. Survgue with text by Le F^vre. Le Tarouilly, p. M, " Edifices de Rome moderne, ou recueil des palais, maisons, ^glises, couvents et autres monuments publiques et particuliers les plus remarquable de la ville de Rome," 3 vols. il. Paris, 1840-50. Three large volumes of plates of measured plans and brief descriptive text. Loth, C. Edward, "The Practical Stairs — Builder's Complete Treatise on the art of Building Stairs and Handrails," Troy, New York, 1868, il. A technical handbook, pre- ceded by chapters on geometry. MOWAT, W. AND A. "A Treatise on Stair Building and Handrailing," il. London, 1900. An exhaustive technical treatise, admirably illustrated with working drawings and pictures of old staircases. 244 BIBLIOGRAPHY Nicholson, P. " A Treatise on the Construction of Staircases and Handrails." 39 plans. London: 1820. 2nd ed. 1847. Palladio, Andrea. " I quatro libri dell'Archi- tettura." Venice: 1570. PococK, William. "Modern finishings for Rooms : A series of designs for vestibules, halls, staircases, etc." il. London, 11 81. RiDDELL, Robert, (i) " Handrailing Simpli- fied." 12 plates and 10 pages of text, Philadelphia, 1850. (2) " The Carpenter and Joiner, Stairbuilder, and Handrailer." il. Edinburgh, 1870. Swan, Abraham. "The British Architect: or The Builder's Treasury of Staircases." Lon- don, 1745. TijOU, Jean : (i) "Nouveau livre de desseins . . . contenant plusieurs sorts d'ouvrages de fer, comme portes . . . rampes d'escaliers." London, 1693. (2) "A New Booke of Drawings . . . reproduced with the addition of a brief account of the author and his work, and descriptions of the plates, by J. Starkie Gardiner." London, 1896. Tijou's book appears with both a French and English title-page, and contains a series of plates. Mr Gardiner criticises the designs from a metal worker's point of view, and is also successful in identifying several of the designs. BIBLIOGRAPHY 245 TWISS, William. "Handrailing on the block system : being a simple mechanical method of constructing a wreath from the plan and elevation of the stairs, without the tedious mechanical process hitherto used." Man- chester. 1878. il, ,it% Consult also Britton and Pugin, Chambers, Pyne, Richardson (for particulars see " Ceil- ings and their Decorations "), Garner and Stratton, Georgian Society's Records, Shaw, Turner (for particulars see " Chimneypieces and Ingle-nooks " both in this series). INDEX Adam, Robert, James and William, 139 Albani, Villa, 221 Aldobrandini, Villa, 217 Amboise, Chateau, 55 American practice, 81, 131, 211 Anglo-Saxon work, 39 Arboreal types, 3, 64, 87 Ashburnham House, 107 Ashley, Mr H. V., and Mr W. Newman, 208 Audley End, 109 Babylonia, i "" Bacon, Francis, on building, IIS Barberini, Palazzo, 97, 220 Belfast City Hall, 191 . Be^ajcCastle, 26 Bernmi, 60, 96 Beverley Minster, 70 .BJarnejr Castle, 51 BlickmgHall, 125 Blois, Chateau de, 46, 71 Blomfield, Prof. R., 197 Blow, Mr Detmar, and Mr F. Billerey, 198 Bologna, Garisenda tower at, 58 Borde Hill, 18 Borghese, Palazzo, 60 Borronomi, 60, 97 Bowood, 227 Bramante and the Vatican, 59 Braschi, Palazzo, 98 Bridgwater House, 175 Brickwork, 209 British Museum, 173 Buckley, Mr E. F. C, 200 Bulrgos Cathedral, 87 Burleigh House, 123 Burney, Mr M., and Mr C. S. Makins, 204 Burton Agnes, 119 Canterbury : Castle, 39 ; Cathedral, 29 Caprarola, 60, 217 Carlton House, 143 Carpentras, Chateau de, 24 Carnngton House, 136 Caserta, Palazzo Reale, loi Castles : Cliff, 4 ; Norman, 17 Cave, Mr W., 203 Chambers, Sir W., 137 Chambord, Chateau de, 46, 68 Charlton House, 129, 161 Chateaudun, 63 Chatsworth, 228 Cheetham Hospital, 128 Chesterfield House, 138 Chilham Castle, 127 Cliff Castles, 4 24; 24S INDEX Colchester Castle, 38, 40 CoUcutt, Mr, 190 "Colonial" style, 81, 131, 211 Colour schemes, 92, 98, 104, no, 129, 180, 186, 199, 200, 207 Conisborough Castle, 22, 40 Contarini Palace, 47, 56 Cook, Mr T. A., and "Spirals in Nature and Art," 73 Corbelled steps, 25 " Corded way " of the Hindu Kush, 9 Cordonata, Scala, 54 Crewe Hall,^i22 Cromwell House, 126 Dacre Castle, 152 Davison, Mr T. R., 197, 205 Dawber, Mr E. G., 204 De Quincey's dreams, 10 Dextral spirals, 49 Dorchester House, 178 Dordogne rock buildings, 4. 35 Dover Castle, 21 Dover House, 142 Dublin Georgian staircases, 143. 167 Dunn, Mr W., and Mr R. Watson, 206 Dunster Castle, 152 Eastbury Manor House, 52 Egyptian practice, 2 Eltham House, 152 Escalier k Jour, 70 Escourt House, Kensington, 201 Field, Mr H., 202, 306 Figures on stairs, 65, 82, 90, 1 18-130, 154 Flemish Town Halls, 80 Fletcher, Mr H. M., 206 Florence : Certosa, 52 -, Bargello, 78 ; Lawren- ziana, 89 Fyvie Castle, 46, 48, 63 Galleried Landings, 120 Garnier, Charles, 184, 195 Genoa : University of, 90 ; Palazzo Durazzo, 100 George, Mr Ernest, 205 Giant's Causeway, 3 Gibbon, Grinling, 107, iii, 156 Glasgow, Mitchell Library at, 192 Gould, Rev. S. Baring, on Rock-dwelling stairs, 4, Gothic work, 38, 44, 46, 54, 77. 83, 8s Gothic Revival, 171 Godinton, 118 Grecian practice, 12, 95 Guildford Castle, 40 Hall, Mr G. T., 195 Hampton Court Palace, 109 Hatfield House, 123 Hedingham Castle, 23, 40 Heidelberg Castle, 219 Herrenchiensee Palace, 105 Hipping, 156 Holland House, 228 Hunt, Mr W., and Mr E. Hunt, 209 Inclined Planes, 36 Ingestre Hall, 230 Ironwork balustrades, 163, 228 INDEX 249 Isola Bella, 2i8 Jones, Inigo, io6, 131, 155, 239 Jousse, Mathurin, 67 Kensington Palace, 109 Kersal College, 127 Kirkby Muxloe Castle, 49 Kitson, Mr S. D., 206 Knickerbocker influence, 81 Knowle, 125 Ladder steps, 9 Langley Castle, 44 La Roche Brune, 34 La Roche Corail, 6 La Roche Gageac, 4 Le Blond, 223 Leiper, Mr W., 202 Le N&tre, 223 Le Tarouilly, 99 Lighting, 196 Linlithgow Palace, 48 London : Westminster Pa- lace, 39; Ashburnham House, 107 ; Kensing- ton Palace, 109 ; Crom- well House, 126 ; Car- rington House, 136 ; Chesterfield House, 138; Trinity House, 138 ; Dover House, 142 ; Carlton House, 143 ; British Museum, 173 ; Bridgewater House, 175 ; Dorchester House, 178 ; Old Bailey, 190 j Holland House, 228. See also Victoria and Albert Museum. Londonderry House, 176 Louvre, Paris, 43, 65 Lucas, Mr G., 205 Luton Park, 141 Lutyens, MrE. L., 205, 207 210 Mainz Cathedral, 75 Mansards, The, 102 Meutri^res, pierced steps, 30 Milne, Mr O. P., 208 Montargis Castle, 30 Moreton Hall, 85 Morlaix staircase, 85 Morphew, Mr R., 203 Mountford, Mr E. W., 190 Murray, Mr J., 214 Newels, 35, 39, 48, 154 Norman Castles, 17 Norwich Castle, 22 N&lre Dame, Paris, 37 Nottingham rock hewn steps, 8 Old Bailey, 190 Outside stairways, 18, 80 Palladio'S works and in- influence, 88, 92, 95, 102, 121, 131 Palmieri, Villa, 217 Paris : N&tre Dame, 27 ; Chambre des Comptes, 29 : Hotel de Bour- gogne, 64 ; Church of the Bernadins, 66 ; St Etienne du Mont, 75 ; Palais Royal, 106 ; Grand Opera House, 184 Pierrefonds, Chateau de, 70 Piranesi's staircase dreams 10 Pisa, Leaning Tower of, 57 Pompeian stairs, 13, 146 250 INDEX Rake House, Witley, 117 Raymond du Temple, 43, 6S Remforced concrete, 213 Renaissance work, 54, 62, 87, 95, 102, IS9 Rochester Castle, 19, 39 Romanesque builders, 17, 54,62 Roman practice, 12 Rome : Vatican, 59, 96 ; Palazzo Barberini, 97, 220 ; Palazzo Braschi, 98 ; Modern staircases, 99 Rose, Mr A. W., 209 Rouen : Jacques Cceur's house, 85 ; cathedral. Round Towers of Ireland, 7 St Alban's Abbey Church, S3 Santi, Villa, 229 Saaval and his " Histoire et Antiquit^s de Paris," 66 Scala del Bovolo, 47. 56. 74; Cordonata, 345 dei Giganti, 81 ; Santa, 97 Scarborough Castle, 23 Sinistral spiral staircases, 50,72 Sion House, 141 Slyfield, 122 Spanish staircases, 23 Spiral stairs, 9, 34, 55 ; in columns, 53 Syria, Roman stairs in, 14 Tantallon Castle, u Tattershall Castle, 48, 51 Tel-lo, steps at the Palace of, I Theatre staircases, 184-8 Thomas, Sir A. B., 191 Thorpe, John, 109 Tijou, Jean, no, 166 Torlonia Villa, 218 Trinity House, London, 138 Troglod^es' stairs, 3 Tuileries Gardens, 225 Turin : Palazzo Madama, lOI Upsala, 75 Vatican : Bramante's spiral staircase, 59 ; Scala Regia, 96 Venice : Companile of St Mark, 55 ; Scala del Bovolo, 47, 56, 74; Scala dei Giganti, 81 ; Golden Staircase, 83 Verity, Mr F. J., 162 Versailles, Palace of, 102 Vignola, 60 Victoria and Albert Museum, 84, 85, 112, 162, 167, 190 Voysey, Mr C. F. 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