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^[^ Olotnmonm^altt; of MviSBncl^tteette. 
 
 A REPORT 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 QuAHAUG AND Oyster Fisheries 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Ikcluddtg the Life Histoky, Growth justd Cdlth^ation op the 
 
 QuAHAUG (Venus Meecenakia), and Observations on 
 
 THE Set op Oyster Spat in Wellfleet Bay. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 WBIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 
 
 18 Post Office Square. 
 
 1912. 
 
A Eepoet upon the Quahaug and Oyster 
 Fisheries. 
 
 Massachusetts, from its geographical location as a distributing 
 center and from the character of its shores, is peculiarly en- 
 dowed for securing an enormous shellfish trade. Recognizing the 
 importance of the shores as a source of food and wealth for the 
 people of the State, a natural safeguard against the excessive 
 cost of living, the Legislatures from 1905 to 1910 directed the 
 Commissioners on Fisheries and Game to conduct a series of 
 investigations and demonstrations to determine methods of de- 
 veloping the shellfisheries. In 1906 and 1907 two preliminary 
 statements were published ; in 1909 a general " Report upon the 
 MoUusk Fisheries ; " and in 1910 a special " Report upon the 
 Scallop Fishery." The reports herewith presented relate to the 
 " Quahaug and Oyster Fisheries," and will be followed by others 
 on the " Clam Fishery " and the " Food of the Economic Mol- 
 lusks." 
 
 THE LIFE HISTOEY AND GEOWTH OF THE QUAHAUG 
 (Venus mercenaria) . 
 
 Dr. Gboege W. Field, Chairman, Massachusetts Department of Fish- 
 eries and Game, State House, Boston, Mass. 
 Sir : — I herewith submit the following report upon the life history 
 and growth of the quahaug or hard clam (Venus mercenaria). All in- 
 vestigations herein are supplementary to those made in accordance with 
 the provisions of chapter 78, Resolves of 1905. The work was con- 
 ducted by D. L. Belding, assisted by W. H. Gates and C. L. Savery in 
 1906, "W. G. Vinal in 1907, 1908 and 1909, F. C. Lane and A. A. 
 Perkins in 1908 and 1909. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 David L. Belding, 
 
 Biologist. 
 
 The report on the mollusk fisheries for 1909 presented a preliminary 
 survey of the prevailing conditions in the natural quahaug beds of the 
 Commonwealth, showing by maps and descriptions their extent, con- 
 dition, present production, and possibility of development under cul- 
 tural methods. The aim of the present paper is to complete the 
 
investigation by a final report upon the best methods of increasing the 
 natural supply, as determined by a study of the life history, habits and 
 artificial propagation of this mollusk. 
 
 Object. — The investigation was conducted with four main objects 
 in view : — 
 
 (1) To determine, if possible, a method of successfully raising seed 
 quahaugs on a commercial basis. 
 
 (2) To find the rate of growth under various natural conditions and 
 the length of time necessary to raise marketable quahaugs. 
 
 (3) To demonstrate the value of thousands of acres of unproductive 
 flats along our coast. 
 
 (4) To discover methods of culture which would increase the supply 
 and check the decline of areas now productive. 
 
 In order to satisfactorily determine these points it was found neces- 
 sary to obtain information upon : — 
 
 (1) The distribution and range of the quahaug. 
 
 (2) The anatomy and its relation to the habits of the animal. 
 
 (3) The spawning, early life history, reproduction and propagation. 
 
 (4) The habits of both yoimg and adult. 
 
 (5) The rate of growth. 
 
 (6) The quahaug fishery, — its present extent and possibilities. 
 
 (7) The cultivation of quahaugs. 
 
 As it is the purpose of this paper to present a complete account of 
 the quahaug, it has been frequently necessary to reprint previous works 
 as well as to present new material. No claim for originality is made 
 for the portion on anatomy, which is largely a popular revision of 
 Kellogg (1), (2),^ and of a laboratory manual by Prof. GUman A. 
 Drew at the Marine Biological Laboratories, Woods Hole. 
 
 Courtesies. ■ — The writer is deeply indebted to Dr. George W. Meld 
 for his general supervision and helpful advice in the investigation and 
 in the preparation of the report; to Prof. James L. Kellogg of Wil- 
 liams College for preliminary instructions and kindly encouragement; 
 to the quahaug fishermen of Massachusetts for their ready co-operation ; 
 and to Mr. L. D. Baker of Wellfleet for laboratory facilities. Specially 
 does he wish to commend the work of his assistants, F. C. Lane and 
 W. G. Vinal. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 More general knowledge concerning the quahaug should be spread 
 abroad among the consumers and the fishermen, as the future of the 
 quahaug industry of Massachusetts lies in the hands of her voters, and 
 only by public sentiment can suitable laws be obtained for the preserva- 
 tion of the mollusk fisheries. At the present time relatively few people 
 in the Commonwealth know anything about the quahaug, except that 
 it lives in the mud and can be gathered with rakes. But three papers 
 have been written upon the quahaug from a scientific or commercial 
 
 ' The numbers after the author's name refer to the bibliography preceding the index. 
 
standpoint. IngersoU (8) gives an account of the fishery in 1880; 
 Krause (5) made a preliminary outline report for the Rhode Island 
 Commission of Inland Fisheries; and Kellogg (2) published in 1903, 
 under the auspices of the Museum of the State of New York, the first 
 report on the feeding habits and growth of the quahaug. Unfor- 
 tunately, this important paper, in which the practical importance of 
 quahaug culture was pointed out for the first time, is little known 
 to the fishermen of Massachusetts. With the consent of Professor 
 KeUogg his report was taken four years ago as a basis for this in- 
 vestigation, and the results here given are a continuation and an 
 expansion of the work originally outlined by him in 1903. 
 
 Commercial Experiments. — Our aim has been to make the work 
 thoroughly practical, and it has been undertaken scientifically because 
 science offers the best means of approaching any practical problem. 
 The essential aim has been to develop scientific methods for the ex- 
 tension of the commercial quahaug fishery. 
 
 General Results. — Four years of experiments have demonstrated 
 with convincing force that the only method of permanently increasing 
 the natural supply, which can be applied on a large scale, is artificial 
 culture or quahaug farming. The quahaug grows with suflSeient 
 rapidity to warrant large returns from small capital. Many acres of 
 unproductive flats can be turned into valuable quahaug gardens, and 
 many men given emplojrment by the institution, under proper legal 
 regulations, of a system of individual leases for the planting of qua- 
 haugs. Aside from its remunerative possibilities such a system is the 
 only means so far devised for permanently checking the decline of the 
 natural beds. 
 
 The Quahaug Family. — The quahaug belongs to the class of mol- 
 lusks called the Lamellibranchia, or, to use an older nomenclature, the 
 Pelecypoda. According to the classification given by Pelseneer (6), 
 in which lamellibranchs are classified by their gill structure, the qua- 
 haug is placed with the soft clam {Mya) and the sea clam {Mactra) 
 in the class of the Eulam,ellibranchia, one of the four great orders of 
 the lamellibranchs, which is characterized by the edges of the mantle 
 being generally united by one or more sutures, the presence, as a 
 rule, of two adductor muscles and the union of the gill filaments at 
 regular intervals by vascular junctions. In addition to the many living 
 species the subfamily to which the quahaug belongs is represented, 
 according to Zittel (10), by many fossil forms, extending from the 
 Jurassic to Recent. 
 
 On the New England coast, according to Gould (11), two species, 
 V. mercenaria and V. notata, with possibly a third, V. preeparca, more 
 generally considered a variation of V. notata, are found. Of these 
 forms, V. mercenaria is the most abundant, and the other two are 
 often considered as local variations of this species. 
 
 Names. — The scientific name of Venus mercenaria is supposed to 
 
have arisen from the use of the shell as " black wampum " by the In- 
 dians, as the beautiful purple tinge on the inner side of the shell made 
 it an object of exchange among that primitive people. The common 
 name in the New England States is "quahaug," sometimes spelled 
 "quohog" or '' cohog," while in New York and the south, where the 
 soft clam {Mya arenaria) is not abundant, it is known by the name 
 of "olam," "hard clam" or "hard-shelled clam." The smaU quahaug 
 goes by the commercial name of " little neck," probably to distinguish 
 it from the long-necked clam, Mya, although the claim is put forward 
 that it was originally a local name similar to the " Blue Point " with 
 the oyster. IngersoU (8) states that in New Jersey they caU small 
 quahaugs, only an inch or so in breadth, "tea" clams. The present 
 names are probably derivations of the old Indian names, such as 
 "Poquahock," as given by Roger Williams in "A Key to the Lan- 
 guage of America." Occasionally the monosyllable " quog " is used. 
 The pronunciation of the word quahaug varies with the localities. 
 
 Distribution. — The quahaug, while essentially a southern and warm- 
 water form, is found along the Atlantic coast from the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, where it was reported by Kellogg 
 (3) in the vicinity of the Ghandeleur Islands in 1904. Attempts are 
 now being made to develop the fishery in Louisiana, but there is small 
 demand for this sheUflsh in the local market. Venus nvercenaria is 
 truly an American form, its natural habitat being the Atlantic sea- 
 coast, although a few are reported to have been found in the last few 
 years on the Pacific coast, as the result of accidental transplanting with 
 eastern oysters. 
 
 In Massachusetts the quahaug is confined to the region of Cape Cod 
 and the southern waters of the Commonwealth, practically no speci- 
 mens being found north of the Plymouth section. As can be seen 
 from the distribution map (Fig. 30), a few quahaugs are found in Mas- 
 sachusetts Bay except on the north side of Cape Cod. The same state 
 of affairs exists along the Maine coast, except in a few sheltered bays, 
 such as Quahaug Bay, where the warm water and favorable natural 
 conditions are such as to preserve the remnant of a once great quahaug 
 supply. There is also evidence that a few were formerly taken near 
 Salem, Mass. Passing northward, the quahaug again becomes abundant, 
 and is found, according to Gould (11), at Halifax, Sable Island, Prince 
 Edward Island, on the fishing banks and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 At the present time a considerable number of small quahaugs of pe- 
 culiar color, shape and flavor are shipped from Prince Edward Island. 
 The present distribution, the geological changes along the coast and 
 the evidences of former abundance, such as Indian shell heaps, are 
 evidence, submitted by IngersoU (8), that years ago the quahaug was 
 more widely distributed, and that possibly on account of a decrease 
 in the temperature along the shore of Massachusetts Bay there occurred 
 a corresponding decrease in the supply and distribution of this mollusk. 
 
Thus we find that the quahaug has retreated southward, Cape Cod at 
 the present time marking, with the exceptions above noted, the northern 
 limit of its range. In the warm waters of coast States in the south, 
 where the quahaug develops more rapidly, there are large areas which 
 as yet have not suffered from the effects of overfishing, as has been the 
 ease with the northern beds in New England and New York, but it will 
 be only a short time before the history of ruthless spoliation will be 
 repeated, as already quahaugs from the south are being shipped to the 
 New England markets. Commercially in Massachusetts the hard elam 
 is found both on the north and south side of Cape Cod and in Buz- 
 zard's Bay, the principal fisheries being at Wellfleet, Eastham, Orleans, 
 Edgartown, Nantucket and in the Buzzard's Bay villages. 
 
 The same natural conditions which suit so well the shallow-water 
 scallop (Pecten irradians) are also adapted to the growth of the qua- 
 haug, which is found on the sandy and muddy flats just below low-water 
 mark, although occasionally occurring between the tide lines, particu- 
 larly on the north side of Cape Cod where the great fall of the tide 
 exposes a large area of flats. Oh the southern coast of the State it is 
 mostly confined to the sheltered bays and inlets, in contrast to its more 
 exposed conditions on the north side of Cape Cod. Owing to its nat- 
 ural adaptability for existing on nearly every kind of bottom, and its 
 extensive range from high-tide line to a depth of over 50 feet, nature 
 has provided the quahaug with a vast territory, of which the com- 
 mercial fishery possesses only a small part. Scattering quahaugs are 
 found over the rest of the area, but in paying quantities only in 
 limited places. The possibilities of developing this great natural tract 
 of quahaug ground are especially alluring — far more so than any 
 of the other shellfisheries. The quahaug has a greater area, greater 
 possible expansion and a more profitable market. Nature has equipped 
 the numerous bays of southern Massachusetts with remarkable facili- 
 ties for the production of quahaugs; it only remains for man to make 
 the most of these advantages. 
 
 Methods of Work. — The work was conducted along three main 
 lines: (1) a microscopical study of the early life history, including 
 spawning, reproduction and hatching, mostly carried on by laboratory 
 methods; (2) observations as to habits and distribution, both by labora- 
 tory experiments and by a biological survey of the quahaug territory; 
 (3) growth and cultural experiments by means of about 187 small 
 beds planted under a variety of conditions in the different waters of the 
 Commonwealth. The methods of work are later described in full under 
 each section. 
 
 Experiments have been conducted from 1905 to 1909 ehie&f at two 
 localities, (1) Monomoy Point on the south side and (2) Wellfleet 
 harbor on the north side of Cape Cod, which represent the two classes 
 of quahaug territory in Massachusetts. The Monomoy experiments, 
 particularly growth, have been continued for the entire period, while 
 
the Wellfleet investigations have been conducted only for the two years 
 of 1908 and 1909. Owing to the necessity of concentrating the work, 
 and from the variety of natural conditions obtainable in these two 
 localities, particularly in Wellfleet harbor, the greater part of the work 
 was confined to these sections. The work in other parts of the coast 
 during this period comprised growth and cultural experiments at Plym- 
 outh, Monument Beach, Nantucket, Essex and Ipswich; determinations 
 of the food value of the waters in the different quahauging localities; 
 and a biological survey of the natural quahaug beds in the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 Excellent opportunity for the study of the life history and growth 
 of the quahaug was afforded at Monomoy Point by the Powder Hole, 
 formerly a harbor capable of sheltering many fishing vessels, but now 
 little more than a small enclosed body of water connected at high tide 
 with the ocean by a shifting channel. This natural aquarium of several 
 acres, teeming with shellfish life, was leased for experimental purposes 
 by the Commonwealth, and proved, by its protection and variety of 
 natural conditions in a limited area, a most satisfactory location for 
 the quahaug investigation. In 1906 a small shanty was fitted up as a 
 laboratory, and a raft 20 by 10 feet was anchored in the deeper water 
 of the Powder Hole. Growth experiments for a period of four years 
 were conducted by suspending boxes of sand from the raft at various 
 depths, while several methods of spat collecting were tried. In the 
 flats and waters of the Powder Hole, under different conditions as re- 
 gards current, soil and depth of water, a number of cultural experi- 
 ments were established. 
 
 The conditions at Wellfleet were quite different. The harbor, some 
 5 miles long and nearly 2 miles wide, containing nearly 2,500 acres 
 of quahaug ground, presented a wider and more diversified field than 
 the limited area at Monomoy. Owing to its great rise and fall, aver- 
 aging 10% feet, the tide sweeps in and out of the hsirbor with great 
 swiftness, giving to the shellfish beds, particularly in the lower part 
 of the bay, an excellent circulation of water, and laying bare at low 
 water a vast area of flats. Quahaugs were found over most of this area 
 both between the tide lines and beyond, in water ranging from a few 
 feet to 50 feet at low tide, particularly in the channel. This section 
 of the coast may be considered the home of the quahaug, as a large 
 share of the total production of the Commonwealth comes from these 
 waters. Consequently, it seemed particularly fitting that, after the 
 preliminary experiments at Monomoy Point, this locality should be 
 selected as the best field for the more extensive cultural experiments 
 of 1908 and 1909. Through the kindness of Mr. L. D. Baker of Well- 
 fleet a building was furnished for a laboratory, which served as a 
 central headquarters for the shellfish work, and from its situation on 
 a wharf over the water offered excellent opportunities for hatching and 
 rearing experiments. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 A description of the anatomy necessarily should be included in a 
 report on the quahaug, as a knowledge of the general structure of the 
 animal is essential for the proper understanding of its development 
 and habits. Just as certain words not in everyday use by most people 
 are found convenient to sailors, printers, mechanics and men in any 
 occupation, so a biologist must make use of certain technical terms 
 in his descriptions. Those used in this report, however, are not numer- 
 ous and not hard to remember. They are as f oUows : anterior, posterior, 
 dorsal and ventral. The two former correspond to the terms "fore" 
 and " aft " as used by sailors. In a quahaug the anterior is the end 
 in the direction of which he burrows, the end from which the foot 
 jjrotrudes. The posterior or rear end is that at which the siphon or 
 " neck " is located. This seems a little odd, but is easily understood 
 when we recall that the prefix " ante " means before and " post " means 
 after. In a quahaug the dorsal side corresponds to the hinge, the ven- 
 tral to the side on which the shell opens. 
 
 It is the belief of biologists of the present time that all animals of 
 a similar kind are descended from common ancestors. Thus, the clam, 
 oyster, quahaug, scallop, mussel, etc., are believed to have a common 
 descent, as their early development is strikingly similar. Of these 
 forms there is reason to believe that the quahaug most closely resembles 
 the common ancestor. The study of this typical shellfish is, therefore, 
 especially interesting. 
 
 The Shell. — The quahaug shell is formed of two heavy valves, equal 
 in size and curvature, which enclose the soft parts and may be drawn 
 tightly together for protection. The two valves are joined together 
 on the upper or dorsal side, the hinge line, by a dark elastic ligament 
 surmounting on each side a row of teeth, which fit into corresponding 
 depressions in the opposite valve. This ligament gives the shell a 
 natural tendency to gape, which is offset by the action of the two 
 adductor muscles in bringing the edges in close apposition. The shell 
 of the adult quahaug measures slightly more in length than in width, 
 the average dimensions being: length, 3 inches; width, 2% inches; 
 thickness 1% inches. All sizes, weights and forms can be found, de- 
 pending upon age and environment. Owing to the thickness of the 
 shell distortion is not as common as with the scallop and clam, and few 
 deformed specimens are found. The largest quahaug known to the 
 writer was taken in a scallop dredge off Harwichport, and measured 
 5% inches in length. 
 
 The most prominent features of the external surface are two swell- 
 ings, the umbones, one on each valve, which are directed anteriorly and 
 toward the hinge, forming the so-called beak. Many specimens show 
 imperfect umbones, due to the wearing away of the lime. Just beneath 
 
the beak is a depression, the part on each valve having the shape of 
 a half moon, called the lunule, which is characteristic of the quahaug. 
 The surface of the shell is covered with numerous concentric lines of 
 more or less prominence, forming thin, closely packed ridges at the 
 anterior and posterior margins, and leaving the lateral portion of the 
 shell smooth. These ridges are more prominent in the young and 
 rapidly growing quahaugs than in the large specimens, but they appear 
 too irregularly and too frequently (75 to 100 on an average specimen) 
 to be of any value in determining the age of the quahaug. In old age 
 these growth lines pile up, showing retrogressive development, so well 
 illustrated in the case of "blunts," where growth consists merely in 
 a thickening of the edges. The shell is naturally free from foreign 
 growth, although old specimens are sometimes found with shells honey- 
 combed by the boring sponge, and quahaugs which are out of the sand 
 are often covered with Serpula, barnacles, silver shells, grasses, etc. 
 
 On examining the interior of a valve, one sees a rough, white surface 
 dotted with small granules between two large oval impressions, which 
 mark the attachment of the adductor muscles. The ventral borders of 
 the adductor muscle sears are connected by a distinct line, the palUal 
 line, which is formed by the attachment to the shell of the mantle, a 
 large flap forming the outer part of the body of the quahaug, and 
 separates the white granular portion from a narrow, smooth, shiny 
 surface, sometimes of a purple color. The posterior end of this line 
 is indented to form the pallial sinus in which lies the siphon or neck. 
 Just above the attachment of the adductor muscles can be seen smaller 
 impressions, to which the muscles for moving the foot are attached. 
 Along the hinge line are two kinds of prominent teeth, — the anterior 
 or cardinal, consisting of short elevations; and the posterior or lateral, 
 which extend for some distance along the dorsal margin. These teeth 
 fit into corresponding depressions in the opposite valve, interlocking 
 to form a compact joint. On the margin of the valve are faint vertical 
 elevations which give the inner side a milled effect, as on a coin. 
 
 The shell is made almost entirely of lime, in some specimens crum- 
 bling on pressure in the hand. When dry quahaugs are handled in num- 
 bers, as in the shipping houses, considerable dust arises from the fine 
 particles of lime which are rubbed off the shells, and if these quahaugs 
 are again placed in water a white color is imparted to the fluid. Qua- 
 haugs from different localities vary in the hardness, compactness and 
 thickness of shell, evidently due to the different amount of lime in the 
 water. There are three layers, a rough outer, a fine middle and a thin, 
 smooth inner, the outer being formed by the edge of the mantle, the two 
 inner by secretions from its sides. In external appearance the shell 
 varies from a white to a blue gray, according to the soil in which the 
 animal is found. The heavy shell, so well adapted for the protection 
 of the animal from enemies, makes it an almost stationary form, 
 although it undoubtedly has the power of locomotion. 
 
10 
 
 The Mantle. — The inside of both valves is closely lined by thin, 
 semitransparent mantle lobes, which enclose the body in a fleshy case 
 when the shell is shut. The enclosed space is called the mantle chamber. 
 These folds are united on the hinge line, and are attached to the upper 
 part of the visceral mass, the gills and the adductor muscles. The free 
 border of each lobe is thickened, of white or yellow color according 
 to the age of the quahaug, and folded into a double row of delicate 
 frills. It contains slender muscle fibers which are attached along the 
 pallial line of the shell. The edge of the mantle possesses sensory or 
 tactile organs, as is shown by the withdrawal of the mantle when 
 touched by a foreign body. The consumer can determine whether he 
 is partaking of live or dead shellfish, as only the living form will re- 
 spond in this way. 
 
 The function of the mantle is sensory, protective, respiratory, and 
 assists in feeding. It forms a reservoir for the blood, and secretes, 
 by numerous gland cells on the outer side and edge, a sticky substance 
 which becomes impregnated with lime to form the new shell layers. 
 Other cells at the edge secrete the horny cuticle, which can sometimes be 
 seen reflected over the outer edge of the shell. 
 
 The Siphons. — On the posterior border the lobes are joined, together 
 in the form of two tubes, which axe known as the siphons, or^more 
 commonly as the neck. The siphon is longer and more prominent iiT 
 the soft clam (Mya), and the smaller fleshy extension of the quahaug 
 is not so noticeable. Water passes in at the larger or lower opening 
 and leaves by the smaller or upper, in this way establishing a con- 
 tinual circulation of microscopic food. The muscles of the siphon are 
 heavier than those of the other part of the mantle, and form a V-shapedr- 
 attachment to the shell, the pallial sinus. The siphons are yellow in 
 color, often tinged with pigment, and bear very minute tentacles upon 
 the outer edge, especially on the incurrent. The waste products are 
 extruded into the stream of water passing out the excurrent siphon. 
 
 The Foot. — The quahaug has a large muscular foot resembling a 
 plowshare, or a boat's keel, "which can be thrust outward between the 
 folds of the mantle. Its action is controlled by retractor muscles, 
 anterior and posterior, which are attached to the shell above the ad- 
 ductors, and by the distention of the foot with blood. Although the 
 shape of the foot is suggestive of a crawling existence, the' quahaug 
 makes but little use of this habit. Occasionally a groove can be seen 
 in the sand where the quahaug has traveled a short distance. For the 
 most part the foot is used as a burrowing organ, possibly because the 
 heavy sheU renders traveling diflieult. 
 
 The Gills. — The foot merges into the abdominal portion or visceral 
 mass, on each side of which are two conspicuous folds, the inner and 
 outer gills, which hang free in the mantle chamber as delicate curtains 
 between the visceral mass and mantle. The outer giUs are attached 
 at their base to the inner, which in turn are attached to a part of the 
 
11 
 
 visceral mass and to the inner gills of the opposite side, dividing the 
 mantle chamber into a larger ventral and a smaller dorsal portion, 
 the branchial and cloacal chambers respectively. Through the gills 
 water is passed into the cloaca, and is forced out of the upper or ex- 
 eurrent siphon, which is in direct connection with this chamber, while 
 the incurrent siphon leads only into the lower apartment. The gills 
 may be roughly compared to sieves, by which the solid particles, in- 
 cluding the minute plants, on which the quahaug feeds, are strained 
 from the water. 
 
 The general structure of a gill is excellently described by Kellogg 
 (2):- 
 
 The gills are the most complicated organs in the bodies of lamellibranohs, 
 and must be described here as briefly and as simply as possible, without 
 mentioning their wonderful histological structure. Outer and inner gills 
 are practically the same. Suppose that one of these is carefully removed 
 from its line of attachment to the body, and studied by means of the 
 microscope from the surface and in section; such an examination shows 
 the gill to be not a solid flap or fold, but an exquisite minute, basket-like 
 structure with an outer and inner wall inclosing a space between. These 
 walls are made of extremely fine rods placed side by side. In order that 
 • these rods may retain their position, they are in many forms irregularly 
 fused with each other by secondary lateral growths of tissue. The outer 
 and inner walls of the gills are also held together by partitions which extend 
 across the inner space between them. The gill is thus seen to be basket-like, 
 the walls being made of rods between which are spaces, which put the in- 
 terior chamber in communication with the mantle space in which the gills 
 hang. These rods, or filaments, of which the gill is made, contain an in- 
 terior space into which the blood flows. They were probably primarily 
 developed in order that the blood of the body might be brought in close 
 contact with the water, that, by diffusion, the carbon dioxide of the blood 
 might pass outward through the thin walls, while, by the same process, 
 oxygen, carried by the water, might pass into the blood. But, in addition 
 to performing the function of breathing, the gills have taken on that of 
 collecting minute organisms used for food. 
 
 The Digestive System. — Just behind the anterior adductor muscle 
 on the anterior part of the body is a funnel-shaped opening leading into 
 a more constricted tube, the oesophagus. The mouth is guarded by two 
 pairs of delicate ciliated flaps, triangular in shape, tapering backward 
 toward the anterior part of the gills. These organs are the labial palps, 
 which perhaps may be likened to the lips of higher animals, the two 
 outer uniting to form the upper lip, the two inner the under lip, and 
 have the power of conducting the microscopic food to the mouth. The 
 oesophagus leads back into the stomach situated close to the dorsal wall 
 of the visceral mass and surrounded by the liver, a paired dark-brown 
 gland, which secretes the digestive juices. The intestine leads from the 
 stomach in the form of a narrow tube, which, after making several 
 
12 
 
 convolutions in the visceral mass, passes backward through the heart 
 to end just over the posterior adductor muscle. 
 
 The Circulatory System. — The blood of the quahaug is a colorless 
 liquid passing in definite channels over the whole body, bringing oxy- 
 gen and nourishment to all the tissues, and removing the waste ma- 
 terials. The chief organ of circulation, the heart, is situated on the 
 dorsal part of the body, posterior to the stomach, in a large triangular 
 pericardial space. It consists o£ an anterior ventricle and two auricles, 
 which have a filmy appearance. The intestine passes through the ven- 
 tricle. Blood is pumped from the ventricle through two aortse, anterior 
 and posterior, to the various parts of the body, whence it is returned 
 to the gills, and thence to the auricles, which open into the sides of 
 the ventricle. 
 
 The Nervous System. — The principal nervous mechanis m of the 
 quahaug consists of three pairs of gangKa. The first pair, the cerebral, 
 are little white round organs about the size of a pin head, situated on 
 both sides of the mouth, just posterior to the anterior adductor muscle, 
 and are connected by a thin commissure which passes anterior to the 
 oesophagus. Two other commissures pass from each cerebral ganglion, 
 one to join the visceral ganglion of the corresponding side, the other 
 to the pedal ganglion. The visceral ganglia, pear-shaped bodies, l3dng 
 just beneath the posterior adductor, are also connected by a short com- 
 missure, and supply nerves to the mantle, gill and adductor muscle. 
 The pedal ganglia, also connected with each other and with the visceral 
 and cerebral, are situated just dorsal to the muscular part of the foot. 
 
 The Excretory System. — The excretory organs, the nephridia, con- 
 sist of dark colored tubes of glandular nature lying beneath the peri- 
 cardial chamber, one on each side of the body. By one end these tubes 
 open into the pericardium, by the other, outside the body at the base 
 of the gUls. Their function is essentially the same as the kidneys in 
 higher animals, — the extraction of waste material from the body 
 through the blood. 
 
 The Genital Organs. — In both sexes the light colored reproductive 
 organs are situated in the visceral mass, just dorsal to the tough foot, 
 where they surround the folds of the intestine, extending upward to 
 cover part of the Uver and downward into the cavities of the foot. 
 Kellogg (1) says: "In Venus the generative gland penetrates into 
 spaces between the uppermost bundles of the foot, as is usual in forms 
 with a locomotor foot. The posterior part of the visceral mass has 
 many scattered muscle bundles, generally transverse, running from one 
 side to the other. The sexual gland pushes down among these muscles 
 for a considerable distance." These organs open by small ducts, one on 
 each side, which terminate close to the opening of the excretory system 
 beneath the free border of the inner gill. The ovaries and testes are 
 usually white, but in older quahaugs, particularly "blunts," they have 
 a somewhat reddish or yellow appearance. 
 
13 
 
 THE EARLY LIFE HISTORY. 
 
 Bipening of the Beprochictive Organs. — During the spring the 
 ovaries or testes of the quahaug enlarge in preparation for spawning, 
 and the visceral mass assumes a plump appearance, due to the accumu- 
 lation of numerous eggs and spermatozoa. Jiist when the first for- 
 mation of the sexual products takes place is not known, but presum- 
 ably they are in process of development for several months previous 
 to the time of spawning. 
 
 Method of determmng the Sex of a Quahaug. — As described under 
 anatomy, the sexes are separate, each quahaug probably remaining 
 either male or female, such as it may be, all its life. During the 
 spawning season the male can be distinguished from the female by an 
 examination of the spawn without the microscope. As this process may 
 be of interest to the fishermen, since it applies to all shellfish, it is 
 here described. The quahaug is opened, the sexual organs sliced with 
 a knife, and the spawn, after diluting with water, is spread in a thin 
 layer on a piece of glass. If the animal is a female, this white fluid 
 will be made up of a great number of minute specks, individually 
 visible to the naked eye, — the eggs : if a male, the fluid will be of a 
 uniform consistency, and will have a milky vibrant appearance, due 
 to the invisible spermatozoa. 
 
 The Egg. — The mature egg (Fig. 1), when extruded into the water, 
 is spherical in shape and surrounded, for protection, by a gelatinous 
 membrane three times its diameter. The shape and size of the eggs 
 vary somewhat, even in the same quahaug. Normally they are spheri- 
 cal, though occasionally one axis is slightly longer than the other; 
 but when extruded in masses they possess irregular shapes, owing to 
 the pressure within the ovary. This is especially noticeable in eggs 
 cut from the ovary, and is exceptional in the natural course of spawn- 
 ing. Such eggs soon assume their normal shape in the water. The 
 diameter of the average egg is H2.8 of a millimeter (%25 of an inch). 
 The color of the egg as seen by the naked eye, in mass or separately, 
 is white. Under the microscope it has an opaque appearance, due 
 to the yolk granules, which are packed closely in the cytoplasm. The 
 egg is surrounded by a definite thin membrane, especially noticeable 
 when the polar bodies are formed, differentiating it from the scallop 
 
 egg- 
 
 The large gelatinous covering constitutes a distinguishing featute in 
 
 differentiating the quahaug egg from other forms, as it forms a trans- 
 parent film around the egg. Evidently it is formed of a substance 
 which swells when coming in contact with water until it attains about 
 the size of K02 of an inch, or 3.2 times the diameter of the egg. In 
 observing through a microscope eggs which have been artificially fer- 
 tilized by mixing with spermatozoa, a few eggs will be found free 
 
14 
 
 jErom the covering, the majority surrounded by it, and sometimes 
 empty eases. Usually a single egg is found in a case, but occasionally 
 two eggs may be found in the same covering. In such instances the 
 eggs are separate and of unequal sizes. The spermatozoa can be seen 
 in great numbers clinging to and wiggling about the transparent film. 
 It is interesting to note that apparently no distinction is made between 
 the gelatinous coverings containing eggs and those without, indicating 
 that possibly the covering and not the egg proper has the power of 
 attracting and retaining the spermatozoa. The only noticeable differ- 
 ence is the absence of an inner or more dense covering, which is dif- 
 ferentiated from the outer, when the egg is contained, by the number 
 of spermatozoa which work their way to this second barricade. The 
 cases without the eggs do not have this second layer. 
 
 The capsular covering is also of use to the quahaug as a means of 
 protecting the minute egg and of preventing its sinking to the bottom. 
 Only when the eggs are discharged " en masse " do they sink. These 
 floating bits of protoplasm, although more easily washed ashore in 
 rough weather, are carried farther, and do not stand as great a chance 
 of an early death by falling on poor soil, as, for instance, the scallop 
 eggs. 
 
 The Spermatozoon. — The spermatozoon, or male cell (Fig. 2), is 
 composed roughly of two parts, a wedge-shaped head, the longest diam- 
 eter of which, the length, is about %2 that of the egg, and a long, 
 whiplike tail, the motile part. Nature has so arranged in all life that 
 the egg contains the yolk or nutriment, and is therefore the large 
 stationary form, while the spermatozoon, as a specialized organ of 
 locomotion for finding the egg, has thrown off all useless cell contents. 
 The average size of the spermatozoon is: body %50 of a millimeter 
 by %oo of a millimeter (%,800 by M.5,200 of an inch) ; tail, %o of a mil- 
 limeter (%oo of an inch) in length. Often, variations, such as the 
 reversed shape of the head, described by Kellogg (1), are found. 
 
 Spawning. 
 Spawning can best be defined as the discharge of eggs from the fe- 
 male or of spermatozoa from the male into the water, where fecunda- 
 tion takes place by their union. The sexual ceUs are extruded into the 
 mantle chamber and are carried out the exeurrent siphon in a fine 
 stream, passing into the water by successive puffs. A female quahaug 
 was observed to shoot a fine stream, not more than a millimeter in 
 diameter, with such force as to carry it at least 2 inches from the end 
 of the siphon before the eggs separated into a fine spray, like a jet 
 of smoke, which held together for a time and then spread out in a 
 cloud. This stream ended with the expulsion of stringy chunks of eggs 
 and yellow tissue. Another quahaug shot a continuous jet of spawn 
 for forty-four seconds. The amount of spawn extruded at any one 
 
15 
 
 time was variable. The quahaugs under observation in the laboratory 
 showed a tendency to throw their spawn little by little, although there 
 is reason to believe that in nature it may be possible to discharge 
 all the season's spawn at once. In the laboratory the same lots 
 spawned three different times during the season, indicating that the 
 quahaug is similar in this respect to the scallop. 
 
 Methods of Work. — The spawning was followed during 1909 and 
 1910 by keeping various sizes in tanks freely supplied with running 
 salt water, where they could be under continual observation. For this 
 purpose different grades of quahaugs, as " sharps," " blunts," 
 "mediums" and "little necks," were placed in small lots in different 
 compartments, some in sand, their natural environment, others merely 
 in the water. (A complete description is given under " Methods of 
 "Work in Hatching.") 
 
 The Spawning Season. — The usual methods of microscopical exam- 
 ination, larval counts by means of the plankton net and records of the 
 appearance of the set were used to determine the spawning season. 
 Results also were obtained from the spawning under artificial conditions 
 in the laboratory aquaria in 1909 and 1910. 
 
 From observation of the set, and frOm the size of the small quahaugs 
 in the fall, it at first appeared that the spawning season was later than 
 with the scallop and oyster. Investigation proved that the spawning 
 season practically corresponds in Massachusetts waters with that of 
 the scallop, i.e., from the middle of June to the middle of August, the 
 small size of the young quahaugs being due to slower growth. This 
 is natural, as the quahaug, like the scallop, is essentially a southern 
 or warm-water form, and its habits are directly influenced by tem- 
 perature. Quahaugs in the Wellfleet laboratory extruded spawn in 
 1909 between June 23 and July 13; in 1910 as late as July 29, which 
 further narrows the spawning limits. In the 1909 ease it must be 
 remembered that this occurred in one year, in one locality, with certain 
 quahaugs and under possibly unnatural conditions; all of which are 
 variable factors in the determination of the spawning season. One 
 fact was definitely settled. The season lasts but twenty days, or less 
 than a month, for any special batch of quahaugs; but for Massachusetts 
 waters in general nearly two months. are consumed, the greater part 
 of the spawning, however, taking place during the last of June and 
 the first part of July. 
 
 Temperature and Spawning. — Temperature has great influence over 
 the distribution of all marine animals. It affects mollusks in three 
 important ways; (1) their growth, by regulating the food supply; (2) 
 their distribution, according to the environment; and (3) their devel- 
 opment, as determined by spawning, early life history, etc. The time 
 of spawning is so regulated by nature that it takes place when condi- 
 tions, chiefly temperature, are favorable for the development of the 
 unprotected embryo, which is extremely susceptible to all adversities. 
 
16 
 
 Thus, spawning does not take place until the water has attained a 
 warmth suitable for the development of the offspring. For this reason, 
 the spawning of the quahaug in the southern waters takes place earUer 
 than on our coast, as the requisite temperature has been reached sooner. 
 Whether or not northern quahaugs, by the process of selection, require 
 as warm water for the development of their offspring, and consequently 
 spawn at a lower temperature than the southern forms, is unknown, 
 and can be determined only by a series of observations along the 
 Atlantic coast. 
 
 During the spawning experiments at the Wellfleet laboratory, in 
 1909, the following notes were made : " The first lot of spawn was given 
 off June 23 to 26, during a sudden rise in temperature following a 
 period of extremely cold weather for that season. The temperature 
 of the air in the laboratory between June 23 and 26 during the day 
 averaged from 78° to 80° F., while the water in the aquaria remained 
 at a uniform temperature of 76° F., corresponding with the tempera- 
 ture of the water at the part of the harbor where the laboratory was 
 located. On July 13 spawning again took place, the water attaining 
 a temperature of 77° F., during a warm spell in which the laboratory 
 temperature was 80° F. Between June 26 and July 13 no spawning 
 was observed. It is interesting to note that the water between these 
 dates was only moderately warm, averaging 71° F., and that spawn- 
 ing occurred simultaneously with a rise in temperature of the water, 
 in each case reaching about 76°, which appears to be the ' spawning 
 temperature ' for Wellfleet, although in other localities it may be 
 different." 
 
 In the light of these experiments the act of spawning during the 
 summer may be likened to the operation of an automatic thermostat, 
 which, when a certain temperature is reached, allows the escape of the 
 contents held under pressure in the distended sexual organs. All the 
 writer's observations tend to prove that temperature is the controlling 
 factor in the spawning of the quahaug, and that the variations, either 
 for different years or in different localities, whether on the north or 
 south side of Cape Cod, in Buzzard's Bay or in the States south of 
 Massachusetts, are primarily due to differences in temperature. 
 
 Age and Spawning. — The average quahaug is capable of spawning 
 when two years old, its third summer, as sexual products can be found 
 at that age. The size of the average two-year-old quahaug is between 
 1% and 1% inches. It is well to realize that size, not age, is of im- 
 portance in considering sexual maturity, and that a rapidly growing 
 mollusk reaches reproductive activity sooner than a slowly growing 
 specimen. Observations at WeMeet in 1909 indicate that the quahaug 
 is of little value as a " spawner " until it has attained a size of 2% 
 inches. In the spawning tanks the quahaugs were separated into small 
 lots, according to size. Practically uniform conditions existed as re- 
 gards flow of water, temperature, etc. The large (3 to 3% inches) and 
 
17 
 
 the small " sharps " (21/2 to 3 inches) were the only quahaugs to spawn. 
 The "little necks" (under 21/2 inches) and the "blunts" (old qua- 
 haugs) did not throw any eggs or spermatozoa. This fact, if univer- 
 sally true, has an important commercial bearing on the capture of 
 "blunts," as it would tend to show the fallacy of reserving the old 
 " blunts " for " spawners." Before definite conclusions can be drawn 
 frequent tests should be made to verify this observation. Under the 
 conditions in the Wellfleet laboratory the distinction in size, class and 
 age are sharply marked at three different intervals, quahaugs of the 
 same sizes being the only ones to spawn. If the above observations 
 hold generally true, it means that the quahaug has a period of sexual 
 maturity only during middle life. On the other hand, it is a fact that 
 sexual products are found in varying abundance in both " little necks " 
 and "blunts," when the sexual organs are opened, but no proof that 
 they are discharged can be given. 
 
 Two peculiarities which may be mere chance were shown by the 
 spawning in the laboratory tanks. 
 
 (1) The spawning occurred at night on June 23, 24, 26 and July 13, 
 
 1909. No spawning during the daytime was observed until July 29, 
 
 1910, when the quahaugs spawned at 5 p.m. The spawning on June 
 23 and 24 occurred toward morning, while on June 26 and July 13 
 it took place in the first part of the night; on July 13 beginning at 
 8 P.M. Although it is probably the result of coincidence that almost all 
 the spawning took place at night, it is barely possible that the qua- 
 haug, buried under the sand in the deep water, is not influenced, as 
 the scallop, by sunlight, and that darkness is a factor in natural 
 spawning. 
 
 (2) The quahaugs in the spawning tanks were divided into two 
 classes: (o) those buried naturally in sand; (b) those lying on the 
 bottom of the tank vsdthout sand. The second class alone furnished 
 the spawn. Possibly their unusual position and environment made 
 them more susceptible to changes in temperature, and therefore more 
 responsive. 
 
 Natural Fecundation. — By the act of spawning the parent qua- 
 haug completes its duty to its offspring. But a new individual does 
 not begin even to exist, and no development can take place until a 
 union of the egg and spermatozoon takes place. The reason for the 
 vast number of eggs is now disclosed. The chances of union are ren- 
 dered more and more uncertain as the swift tides bear away the eggs 
 and spermatozoa. No one can answer definitely what per cent, of the 
 eggs are fertilized in nature, as conditions are constantly varying and 
 fecundation depends almost wholly on chance. It is no wonder that 
 the quahaug needs many millions of eggs, unprotected as they are, 
 since they have to pass through a series of adverse conditions, the first 
 of which is ihe element of chance in the union of egg and spermatozoon. 
 
 Between the egg and the spermatozoon is an attraction which scien- 
 
18 
 
 tists tell us is of a chemical nature, and the minute spermatozoon is 
 drawn irresistibly toward the egg, its final goal. How far this attrac- 
 tion zone extends through the water is not known, but under the micro- 
 scope eggs can be observed fairly covered by a circle of spermatozoa, 
 as if held there by some centripetal force. But one of these can gain 
 an entrance, as after the body of the spermatozoon has entered the egg 
 to fuse with its nucleus (germinative part) an impenetrable membrane 
 is formed around the egg, shuttiog out the others. This fusion of the 
 male and female pronucleus gives life to the young quahaug, which 
 now starts through the series of changes described under the heading 
 " Embryology." 
 
 All through its early existence, until it is large enough to settle info 
 the sand, the young embryo is subject to continual danger on all sides. 
 Under natural conditions, if but one out of the millions of eggs laid 
 by a single quahaug reaches maturity, it is sufficient to perpetuate the 
 species. The young embryo is thus forced to lead a continual struggle 
 for existence, with but meager chance of survival. If, favored by 
 chance, the union of the egg and spermatozoon takes place, the new 
 individual is from six to twelve days at the mercy of the natural ele- 
 ments. Sudden changes in temperature or in the salinity of the water, 
 such as cold rains, diminish the number of larvae; the waves and tides 
 wash many ashore; polluted waters may destroy; all manner of sea 
 animals devour them as food; and, finally, the greater part of the 
 remainder fall on poor ground, where they soon perish. The few that 
 fall on good ground are still subject to the attacks of pfedaceous ani- 
 mals until they attain a sufficient size to resist those enemies. 
 
 Hatching. 
 
 Although the young quahaugs, from the time of byssal attachment, 
 had been studied since 1906 in the laboratory, successful fertilization 
 was not achieved until 1909, when several lots of embryos were devel- 
 oped in the spawning tanks. This occasion furnished an opportunity 
 to study the embryology and complete the work on the early life his- 
 tory. 
 
 The essential object in this work was to find, if possible, a method 
 of artificial hatching which would make possible the raising of seed 
 quahaugs on a commercial scale. The question of seed is of the greatest 
 importance to the quahaug culturist, as the natural beds cannot, as 
 in the case of the clam, furnish a sufficient quantity for an extensive 
 industry. The results of the experimental work in this direction so 
 far have been somewhat discouraging. Two methods of obtaining seed 
 seem possible: (1) the catching of the set in spat boxes in a manner 
 parallel to the catching of oyster seed; the work on this point will be 
 discussed under the subject of " Spat Collecting," which has met with 
 more or less success; (2) the artificial rearing of the quahaug from the 
 egg through the larval stages to a size suitable for planting. By pro- 
 
19 
 
 tecting the helpless larva from its enemies during the most critical 
 period of its life, it may be pqssible to reduce the great infant mor- 
 tality, and raise thousands artiflcially to nature's one. So far we have 
 been able to raise only a few quahaugs to the veliger (shell) stage, 
 the majority perishing for various reasons, chief among which seems 
 to be the lack of food and space. Our experiments have been so de- 
 signed that if successful on a small scale they could readily be enlarged 
 to meet the requirements of a business enterprise. The work is dis- 
 couraging from a commercial standpoint from the fact that the chief 
 cause of failure is due to the crowding of the larvae, whereas to give 
 the young quahaugs a sufficient amount of space would so materially 
 increase the expense of production as to prohibit hatching. However, 
 there are many things to encourage continuation of experiments along 
 this line with the hope of ultimate success. 
 
 At the present time it would seem that the liberation in large num- 
 bers of larvae one day old would undoubtedly be of benefit. This could 
 easily be done, as the embryos do not die rapidly, when confined, until 
 the second day. Our experiments have shown that a small number can 
 be raised in the laboratory, enough for the study of the early life 
 history, but that when large numbers are tried the result is unsatis- 
 factory. 
 
 Methods of Work in Hatching. — Attempts were first made to fer- 
 tilize the eggs by abstracting the spawn from male and female quahaugs 
 by artificial cutting, and mixing these in the water. No satisfactory 
 results were obtained by this method, as the eggs would not develop 
 normally. It was finally decided to keep adult quahaugs in tanks sup- 
 plied by running salt water, and to remove the spawn to special rearing 
 tanks as soon as it appeared. > 
 
 No facilities for such work were available until the summer of 1909, 
 when a small one-horse power gasoline engine and pump were installed 
 at the Wellfleet laboratory, which is situated on a wharf over the 
 water. At high tide water could be pumped to a large wooden tank 
 at the top of the building, which served as a reservoir. Prom this 
 tank water was conducted by a large pipe to different parts of the 
 laboratory, where it was supplied to the hatching tanks by rubber 
 hose. 
 
 For hatching purposes we used wooden tubs, made of large hogs- 
 heads cut in two in the middle, through which passed a continuous 
 stream of water. In order that the flow of water might be main- 
 tained without loss of larvae, the water was drained off through sand 
 filters, fitted so that they could be readily cleaned. This arrangement 
 was accomplished by fitting into the bottom of the tub several short 
 pieces of 3-inch galvanized iron piping in a vertical position. Sand 
 was held in the pipes by wire netting on the bottom and could be 
 removed when desired. For the purpose of aeration the salt water 
 was forced in fine streams into the tanks, keeping the young larvae 
 
20 
 
 under uniform conditions as regarded temperature, food supply and 
 flow of water. 
 
 At the beginning of the spawning season the quahaugs were kept 
 in ordinary tanks. When spawn was discharged into the water it 
 was transferred to the special tubs previously described, and efforts 
 were made to rear the embryos under what seemed to all purposes 
 natural conditions. Large glass aquaria and glass hatching jars were 
 also utilized, the eggs in the latter being constantly kept in slow 
 motion by means of a double inflow of water, one on the bottom 
 furnishing the circulation, the other on the top aerating the water. 
 All sorts of combinations, such as varying the amount of spawn, the 
 rate of flow, the kind of jars, and selecting the more active larvae by 
 siphoning, were tried in vain, as the quahaug embryos perished in 
 great numbers, only a few reaching the veliger stage. 
 
 Embetologt. 
 
 The embryology of practically all the LamelUbraneMata is strik- 
 ingly similar, the eggs passing through identically the same stages 
 and differing but little in appearance. This similarity holds true until 
 after the formation of the embryonic shell. During the first part of 
 the veliger (embryonic shell) stage the predominating type of a 
 straight-hinged veliger holds true; and it is only in the last part of 
 this period that differentiation in structure and form between species 
 can be noticed. In the report on the scallop the embryology has been 
 described in detail, and in the following pages, owing to the great 
 similarity of the quahaug and scallop larvae, only a brief description 
 of the general features will be given, emphasis being placed on the 
 points of difference. For a more complete description the reader 
 is referred to the life history of the scallop, published in a previous 
 report. 
 
 The first distinction has been already mentioned, the gelatinous ease 
 which surrounds the quahaug egg, whereas the scallop egg is naked. 
 The majority of eggs remain within this covering until they become 
 ciliated embryos, when by the rotary action of the cilia they break 
 from its folds. It was a frequent occurrence to observe through the 
 microscope embryos rapidly revolving within the eases. 
 
 Polar Cells. — About twenty-five minutes after the egg is laid, two 
 clear transparent bodies, apparently containing no yolk granules, are 
 given off at the flattened animal pole (Fig. 3). The flrst body by its 
 appearance clearly demonstrates the presence pf a membrane about 
 the egg, as it is formed beneath the membrane, which forms part of 
 the adhering strands for the polar cells. 
 
 Talk Lobe. — The appearance of the polar bodies is followed by the 
 formation of a poorly developed yolk lobe (Fig. 3), by no means as con- 
 spicuous as in the case of the scallop. No constriction, such as is 
 found with the scallop, is observed with the quahaug egg; but the 
 
21 
 
 nutritive material is confined to one end, which later becomes the large 
 yolk cell (Fig. 4). Just previous to the first segmentation the egg 
 elongates into a pear-like body, the yolk lobe constituting the broad 
 end. The elongation takes place in a direction horizontal to the polar 
 cells and not vertical, as with the scallop. 
 
 Cleavage. — The quahaug egg develops by the same process of un- 
 equal cell division as the scallop, although the time and form of the 
 divisions are different. The difference in time is probably unimpor- 
 tant, as the warmth of the water has a great deal to do with the 
 rapidity of development in moUusk larvae. The first cleavage (Fig. 5) 
 is noticed thirty-five minutes after fertilization, and at the end of 
 fifty minutes the majority of the eggs are in the 2-cell stage. The 
 actual time from the beginning to the completion of the first cleavage 
 for individual eggs is about three minutes. The average time for the 
 completion of each cleavage after fertilization for the majority of the 
 eggs was as follows: 4 cells (Fig. 10), one hundred and ten minutes; 
 8 cells (Fig. 11), one hundred and forty-five minutes; 16 cells (Fig. 
 13), one hundred and eighty-five minutes; 32 cells (Fig. 14), two hun- 
 dred minutes. 
 
 The principal difference between the cleavage of the quahaug and 
 the scallop egg is found during the first segmentation, and is chiefly 
 due to the elongation in opposite directions. In both cases the first 
 division gives 2 cells, a large and a small; with the scallop the larger 
 cell has an elongated form, due to the construction of the yolk lobe, 
 while with the quahaug both cells are spherical. 
 
 The egg passes through the 16, 32, 64, etc., celled stages, until the 
 primitive ovum has become a compact mass of small cells (Fig. 12) 
 surrounding a group of large cells, containing the nutritive yolk. This 
 is the blastula stage of the embryo, which soon becomes a true gastrula 
 by an invagination which forms the primitive digestive tract. About 
 the age of ten hours the surface cells acquire minute hair-like processes 
 (Fig. 15) called cilia, which enable the animal to move. Up to this 
 period the egg has developed inside the transparent case, but the lash- 
 ing of the cilia soon tears apart the protective covering, and the animal 
 escapes, as a swimming embyro, into the water. 
 
 Trochosphere Lanes. — By the time the embryo is able to break forth 
 from its case the random revolutions of its early ciliated stage have 
 changed, and a new larva, more elongated in form, swims through the 
 water with a definite spiral movement, rotating voluntarily around 
 its longitudinal axis in either direction. The new type of embryo is 
 called a trochosphere (Fig. 16), and reaches that stage at the age of 
 twelve to fourteen hours. It is differentiated from the ciliated gastrula 
 by having an elongated or top-like body; by having the cilia confined 
 to the blunt anterior end; the formation of a primitive mouth; and 
 the appearance of a shell gland opposite the mouth. The trochosphere 
 stage of the quahaug and the scallop are identical in regard to (1) 
 
22 
 
 form of animal; (2) mouth; (3) shell gland; (4) methods of swimming. 
 The only difference lies in the flagellum, or whip-like feeler, formed 
 in the scallop larva3 by the elongation of certain cilia on the anterior 
 end, but probably absent in the quahaug. 
 
 In the course of the next twenty-four hours a thin transparent shell 
 (Fig. 17) creeps slowly over the animal, until it completely envelops 
 the soft parts. During this period the animal can be observed swim- 
 ming through the water with its organs partly covered by two thin 
 valves. The shell is formed by the secretion from the shell gland, 
 which becomes calcified at two points, forming the two valves. With 
 the spreading of the shell various changes of more or less importance, 
 both in the anatomy and habits of the young quahaug, have taken: 
 place, giving rise to a period in its development known as the veliger 
 stage, perhaps the most critical and important period of its existence. 
 
 The Veliger. — The early veliger (Fig. 18), formed about thirty-six 
 hours after fertilization, is a different appearing animal than the swim- 
 ming larva of the early stages. When first formed it has a transparent 
 shell with a straight hinge line, which is nearly always held open at 
 an angle of 45°, whether the quahaug is resting on the bottom or in 
 the act of swimming. The animal at this time is but little larger than 
 the troehosphere larva, the empty space between the soft body of the- 
 animal and the shell constituting the only gain in size. The ciliated 
 velum has no fiagellum, the stomach is prominent, two adductor muscles 
 are present, and teeth are apparently present on the hinge line. The 
 animal swims by means of a velum which is not extruded from the 
 shell. This is the description of an undeveloped quahaug veliger, 
 which has not as yet attained full size, and has not become proficient 
 in the art of swimming with its velum. In the course of a few hours 
 it will have reached the normal size, and will have taken on the attri- 
 butes of a true veliger. 
 
 The straight-hinged quahaug veliger, except for the absence of a 
 flagellum, is similar in every way to the young scallop of this stage. 
 In fact, the majority of lamellibranchs, except Anomia and a few 
 others, pass through the period of the early veliger practically identical 
 in form and habits, so much so that it is impossible to differentiate 
 between species. The first traces of individuality axe found in the 
 late veliger, in which each species develops a shell peculiar to itself. 
 For this reason the reader is referred, for a detailed description of the 
 early veliger stage, to the report on the scallop {Pecten irradicms), as 
 only a snmmarized account is here given. 
 
 The veliger stage may aptly be compared to childhood, placed as it 
 is between embryonic development and the attachment stage or youth. 
 Not until this point in its life does any important increase in size occur. 
 This period is divided into two parts, which are styled, for want of a 
 better title, (1) the early and (2) the late veliger, as several anatomical 
 changes differentiate the two. The veliger derives its name from the 
 
23 
 
 peculiar swimining organ or velum, which during the first part of this 
 period is one of the most important organs of the animal. With the 
 development of the foot, which takes place toward the last paxt of the 
 veliger stage, the velum gradually disappears, while the foot, for a brief 
 period, performs its work. The duration of the veliger period depends 
 largely on the temperature of the water, ranging from six to twelve 
 days, during which the veligers can be taken in numbers in the water 
 by means of the plankton net. When swimming in the aquarium they 
 are sensitive to a sudden jar which causes them to pull in the ex- 
 tended velum and settle to the bottom. This circumstance makes it 
 possible to separate the veligers from other plankton forms. The act 
 of swimming is accomplished by the extension of the velum or ciliated 
 pad, the lashing of the cilia propelling the animal in any direction. 
 The entire veliger stage is passed as a swimming larva in the water, 
 occasionally settling to the bottom, where it runs the risk of destruc- 
 tion. It is only brought to an end by the increasing size of the animal, 
 the loss of the swimming function of the foot, and the acquirement of 
 alternate powers of attachment and crawling. 
 
 The chief characteristics of the early veliger are : (1) an equivalvular 
 shell with a straight hinge line; (2) a velum or ciliated swimming 
 organ; (3) a primitive mouth lined with cilia, leading into a cavity 
 in the center of the body, the stomach, and an abbreviated intestine with 
 posterior anal opening; (4) an inconspicuous mantle; (5) two ad- 
 ductor muscles. The late veliger is characterized by (1) a shell marked 
 by prominent umbones, directed posteriorly; (2) a well-developed foot, 
 with byssal gland, which has taken the place of a degenerate velum; 
 
 (3) a more complex digestive tract, with palps and coiled intestine; 
 
 (4) a conspicuous mantle; (5) two adductor muscles and several primi- 
 tive gill bars. 
 
 The change in the transition between these two forms is quite pro- 
 nounced as regards : — 
 
 (1) Shell. — The straight hinge line of the common ancestral form 
 gives way to one of slight curvature by the bulging of the valves to 
 form the umbones. Both valves are of equal curvature, and the em- 
 bryonic shell has a homogeneous texture which differentiates it from 
 the succeeding growths. 
 
 (2) The Velum. — The swimming organ, situated within the anterior 
 part of the shell, consists of an elliptical pad, with a border of lashing 
 cilia, capable of extension and contraction, whereby it can be thrust 
 out of the shell or withdrawn quickly by means of muscle fibers at- 
 tached near the hinge. When contracted the ciliated edges fold inward. 
 The velum is a modification of the anterior ciliated portion of the 
 trochosphere larva. During the middle and last part of the veliger 
 period a degeneration of the velum, with a simultaneous development 
 of the foot, takes place. The growth of a muscular foot seems grad- 
 ually to obliterate the velum, which can be seen in different stages of 
 
24 
 
 degeneration, the foot with ciliated tip finally assuming the swimming 
 fmietion of the velum. 
 
 (3) Gills. — Several ciliated V-shaped filaments, capable of extension 
 and contraction, arise on each side of the foot, and eventually become 
 the complicated gills of the quahaug. A thin mantle, closely lining 
 the sides of the shell, similar to the mantle of the adult, is noticeable, 
 while the digestive tract has enlarged in size and length, the straight 
 intestine becoming coiled. 
 
 At the beginning of the veliger period we find an animal anatomi- 
 cally equipped to lead a free-swimming life in the water, as is evi- 
 denced by its size, shape, lightness of shell and large swimming organ. 
 At the end of this state we find the animal on the verge of another 
 great change. Its free-swimming days are over, and anatomical changes 
 have taken place which fit it to enter upon a new existence, that of 
 youth. The ciliated swimming organ has been replaced by a long 
 muscular foot, which at first enables the animal to swim through the 
 water, but soon loses that power. The shell has changed in size, form 
 and weight, while the soft parts have enlarged to such an extent that 
 further shell growth of a more substantial nature is required. In brief, 
 its free-swimming existence is ended, and, foUpwing the invisible law 
 of nature, the structure of the animal has become altered, in prepara- 
 tion for a change of life. 
 
 The Attachment Stage. 
 
 The attachment of the quahaug marks the end of its embryology and 
 the beginning of its real life under practically the same conditions 
 which surround the adult. The change is accomplished by the develop- 
 ment in the foot of a byssal gland which secretes a fine, tough thread, 
 anchoring the animal to any object, particularly sand grains. The 
 method of attachment is described in detail under " The Habits." There 
 is some reason to believe that a crawling stage intervenes between the 
 free-swimming and the attachment periods. If so, it is of slight dura- 
 tion, as the functions of crawling and attachment are supplementary, 
 the welfare of the young quahaug depending both on its resting and 
 its migratory powers. At all events, the time of attachment marks the 
 appearance of a new growth, comparable to the dissoconch shell of 
 the scallop as opposed to the prodissoconch (embryonic shell), which 
 forms the true shell of the adult. 
 
 From this time on the changes in anatomy and habits are very simi- 
 lar in the quahaug and the soft clam (Mya arenaria), as the environ- 
 ment of both is the same. The habits of the young quahaug are de- 
 scribed later, and only the changes in structure will be given here. 
 Specimens for study were obtained from spat collectors, in the form 
 of boxes, which were lowered from a raft in the Powder Hole, Chat- 
 ham, Mass. 
 
25 
 
 The Shell. — The new growth is sharply separated from the em- 
 bryonic shell by a definite growth line, and is distinguished by different 
 shell formation, as regards texture, color and lines of growth. The 
 embryonic shell has a smooth homogeneous structure, with fine concen- 
 tric Hues of growth, whereas the new growth is coarser, whiter and char- 
 acterized by concentric ridges occurring at definite intervals. The color 
 is evidently due to the gxeater amount of lime salts. The ridges (Fig. 
 28) are especially prominent in rapidly growing quahaugs less than 1 
 inch in size, and can be observed on well-preserved adult specimens, 
 where the umbones have not worn away. They reach their maximum 
 size when the quahaug is about % of an inch in length, varsdng greatly 
 in prominence on the same and different specimens. In quahaugs 1 
 millimeter in size as many as twelve distinct ridges could be found. 
 No explanation for these prominent lines can be given. In quahaugs 
 % of an inch in size they appear at the rate of two to three a month 
 during the summer, apparently at regular intervals, as the amount 
 of space between ridges seems to depend upon the rapidity of growth. 
 These ridges differentiate the very early stages from Mya arenaria, 
 which at first has a round form, different from the elongated adult. 
 Both valves are equal and have prominent umbones, back of which 
 appear faint lunules, the heart-shaped structure so well marked on the 
 adult quahaug. Unlike the young scallop, no byssal notch is present. 
 
 The Soft Parts. — At the beginning of the attachment stage the ani- 
 mal has all the organs characteristic of the adult in miniature form. 
 The visceral mass and sexual organs are not conspicuous, the foot is 
 more mobile and relatively larger than the plow-shaped structure in 
 the adult, the byssal gland, absent in the adult, is a conspicuous ap- 
 pendage of the foot, and the other organs, differing in size, position 
 and development, are but rudimentary. As the quahaug increases in 
 size these organs take on adult characteristics, and by the end of the 
 attachment period (size, 9 millimeters), they conform in practically 
 every detail with the adult. 
 
 (1) The Mantle. — The mantle appears larger than that of Mya 
 (soft clam), and is pressed into a series of folds at the free margin, 
 which gives the appearance of a number of large knobs or tufts. In 
 the young the margin is ciliated and sensitive to touch, but in form 
 it differs little from the adult, which apparently has maintained the 
 primitive lamellibranch mantle. 
 
 (2) The Siphon. — The mantle edges at the posterior end of the 
 young quahaug, almost at the beginning of the attachment stage, are 
 modified to form the exeurrent and incurrent siphons, which constitute 
 the " neck." The siphon is very similar to the same structure in the 
 clam. The exeurrent part has the same filmy telescopic attachment 
 (Fig. 29) which draws in and out with a folding motion. When a 
 stream of water is shot out, the transparent tube is cautiously un- 
 folded and held as a hose to direct the flow. The average time of 
 
26 
 
 expansion was found to be four seconds, the time of contraction vary- 
 ing from two to eleven seconds. In crawling, there appears to be a 
 certain degree of unison between the outflow of water and action of 
 the foot which may assist the progress. This excurrent attachment 
 gradually disappears as the quahaug grows older, although in one- 
 half or three-quarter inch quahaugs a remnant can be observed on the 
 edge of the excurrent siphon. The edges of the siphons are lined 
 with tentacles, as this is a most important sensory part of the mantle, 
 the incurrent siphon having about three times as many as the ex- 
 current. In a 1-millimeter quahaug twelve tentacles were counted on 
 the incurrent and four on the excurrent siphon, a greater number than 
 on a clam of the same size. These large tentacles are probably of 
 greater use as sense organs to the young quahaug than to the old. 
 Very little color is found on the mantle and siphon, except on the 
 tentacles, which sometimes are strongly pigmented. 
 
 (3) The Foot. — The early foot is a muscular body, capable of an 
 extension equal to two-thirds the length of the shell. At the tip the 
 cilia are somewhat longer, possibly aiding in the strong grip which 
 is exerted at this point, enabling the quahaug to crawl along a surface. 
 On each side of the foot is a circular otocyst or balancing organ. On 
 the ventral side of the foot projects a papilla with a deep cleft, the 
 byssal gland. It is more prominent than the byssal gland of the 
 scallop. 
 
 (4) The Gills. — The few simple filsiments of the veUger stage in- 
 crease in number, forming the inner gill, while new buds repeat the 
 same process to form the outer. As the gills enlarge they become more 
 complicated, taking on adult characteristics. 
 
 (5) The Muscles. — The two adductor muscles remain in the same 
 position, enlarging in proportion to the amount of increased work. 
 
 (6) The Reproductive Organs. — Ths visceral mass is formed above 
 the foot, and is not visible until toward the last of the attachment 
 stage, when the foot becomes relatively smaller and less motile. In 
 this body are the ovaries or testes, according to the sex of the qua- 
 haug. 
 
 (7) The Digestive Tract. — The liver, arising by two ducts from 
 the side of the stomach, enlarges rapidly and takes on a dark brown 
 color. The intestine increases in length by forming tortuous coils in 
 the visceral mass, and after piercing the ventricle of the heart, termi- 
 nates behind the anterior adductor muscle. 
 
 THE HABITS. 
 
 A study of the habits of any animal frequently leads to the discovery 
 of facts which can be utilized for practical purposes. In the ease of 
 the quahaug at least three habits are directly related to artificial cul- 
 tivation: (1) the method of attachment, which furnishes possibilities 
 for spat collecting; (2) the non-migratory life, which makes planting 
 
27 
 
 possible ■without enclosures; (3) the method of feeding, which suggests 
 the probability of increasing the rate of growth, fattening and even 
 producing special flavors. In addition, notes upon other topics are 
 presented, such as enemies and environment, which do not properly 
 come under the definition of habits, but to a greater or less extent 
 influence the life of the quahaug. As far as possible these subjects 
 have been arranged in accordance with the development of the animal. 
 
 Attachment. 
 
 Attachment takes place at the end of the veliger or free-swimming 
 stage, when the young quahaug fixes itself to various objects by means 
 of a horny thread called the byssus (Fig. 28), secreted from a gland 
 in the foot. The objects of attachment are sand grains, shells, boxes, 
 eelgrass, sea lettuce, etc. The period of fixation marks the change from 
 an active swimming existence to a more sedentary mode of life. The 
 gland which secretes the bjrssus in most lamellibranchs is situated in 
 the ventral side of the foot, and varies in size and appearance. Lining 
 the sides of this gland, which has the appearance of a pore, are a num- 
 ber of little cells which furnish a mucus-Hke secretion which, when 
 coming in contact with water, immediately hardens, forming tough 
 threads of conchiolin, a complex chemical substance of horny nature. 
 
 The byssus in the different lamellibranchs has a variety of forms. In 
 some it consists of a number of soft glossy threads bundled together, 
 as in the young of Pecten, the scallop; in the mussel (Mytilus), where 
 it is an important organ of the adult, there is a thick bundle of hair- 
 like threads with disks at the ends which are attached to the object of 
 support; Anomia, the silver or jingle shell, has a calcareous byssus 
 which projects through the lower shell and strongly attaches to the 
 animal; and in the young of the soft clam {Mya arenaria) it consists 
 of a single translucent thread with several branches. In the mussel 
 the byssus in the adult has no connection with the foot, but is situated 
 behind it, forming an almost permanent attachment for the support 
 of that mollusk. Nevertheless, the mussel is reported to be able to move 
 along slowly by the formation of new threads and the destruction of 
 the old strands (Williamson, 13). Certain lamellibranchs seem to 
 have lost the byssus through disuse, some apparently never possessing 
 this organ at any stage of their development. Another class retains 
 the byssus for certain periods, e.g., the clam, which makes use of the 
 power of attachment until it reaches a size capable of burrowing deeply 
 in the sand, and the scallop, which throughout its life retains the power 
 of byssal fixation, but does not use it to any extent after the first year. 
 
 The adult quahaug possesses no byssus as it has no need for that 
 organ. For a long time there has been considerable question as to 
 whether the quahaug in its early life possessed such an organ. Ryder 
 (12) in 1880 found that the young of the soft clam were attached 
 by a single branching thread to seaweed and sea lettuce. This fact was 
 
28 
 
 clearly demonstrated by Kellogg (4) in his report on the " Life History 
 of the Common Clam," in which he gave some excellent drawings of 
 the byssal attachment, and proved that the attachment stage was a 
 necessary part of the life of the young Mya. At this time it was sur- 
 mised that the quahaug likewise had a byssus during the early part of 
 its existence. Proof was first obtained September, 1906, when it was 
 the good fortune of this department to record the attachment of young 
 quahaugs {Yenus mercenaria) in the spat boxes at Monomoy Point. 
 
 The byssus of the quahaug is in appearance so similar to the same 
 organ in the soft clam that if it were detached a person could not tell 
 the two apart. In use, structure and formation the two threads are 
 exactly the same, so that, in describing the attachment of the quahaug, 
 use is made of facts recorded for the clam by Kellogg (4). The byssus 
 consists of a single thread, normally from % to % an inch in length, 
 but so elastic that it can be stretched to a length of 1% inches without 
 breaking. Several branches, usually not more than two or three, ex- 
 tend from the lower part of the thread, and at their distal ends divide 
 into strands like the delta of a river, which spread out on the foreign 
 object, fastening themselves apparently by little suckers or stickers. 
 The thread is of uniform thickness, except at its distal end, where it 
 is slightly finer. Under the microscope the thread has a translucent 
 glossy appearance, similar to strands of prepared gelatine. 
 
 The quahaug first attaches itself at the close of the veUger or free- 
 swimming stage, when a prominent byssal gland is formed on the ventral 
 side of the foot. The quahaug retains the power of attachment until 
 it has attained a size capable of burrowing firmly in the sand. The 
 largest quahaug observed with a byssus measured 9 miUimeters, and 
 was found in a spat box at Monomoy Point, Oct. 13, 1906. 
 
 Many observations on the byssal attachment of the quahaug were 
 made at Monomoy Point, where the quahaugs were obtained in spat 
 boxes suspended from a raft. The attached quahaugs were observed 
 here during August and September in 1906 and 1907, and in 1908 
 as early as July 24. The majority of these quahaugs were buried 
 in the sand and attached to the sand grains by the byssal threads. 
 Occasionally a quahaug was found attached to the sides of the box 
 out of the sand. At Wellfleet small quahaugs were found attached 
 to the shells put down for the capture of oyster spat, and many times 
 quahaugs were raked up adhering to shells and other material. Like- 
 wise young quahaugs were frequently observed to attach themselves 
 to the glass dishes in which they were kept for study in the laboratory. 
 These observations show that, while the majority settle in the sand, the 
 quahaug can " set " on objects such as shells, boxes, eelgrass and sea 
 lettuce, and in the latter cases can be carried such distances as de- 
 scribed for the soft clam by Kellogg (4). Thus, the quahaug is com- 
 parable with the clam, which " sets " both out of and in the sand. 
 Practically all the quahaugs attached out of the sand were between 
 
29 
 
 2 and 3 millimeters in size, no large ones being observed, which indi- 
 cates that the quahaug " sets " but temporarily out of the sand. 
 
 The time of spinning a byssus is comparatively short. No direct 
 observations have been made on this point; but it has been known to 
 break the old and form a new one within a few hours. It is doubtless 
 a much shorter time, as the young scallop has been seen to spin a 
 similar byssus in three minutes. 
 
 The process of attachment has not been studied. In general the 
 embryo, swimming with its foot, strikes a surface, presumably catches 
 hold with its foot, and, after crawling to a suitable place, spins its 
 byssus. In other cases it strikes some object, and closing the shell 
 drops to the ground, where it passes through the same process, only 
 attaching itself to the sand grains. The young quahaug has the power 
 to cast off the byssal thread at will and spin another. The thread 
 separates from the animal at the byssal gland and remains clinging 
 to the object to which it is attached. This is probably of constant 
 occurrence, especially with the smaller quahaugs, as they are quite 
 active at this stage, and in traveling from one resting place to smother 
 must repeatedly break the thread and quickly spin another. At this 
 period the animal alternately leads a traveling and a sedentary exist- 
 ence. 
 
 Unquestionably the byssus is of importance to the young quahaug, 
 as otherwise this organ would have degenerated from disuse. Primarily 
 the function is protective, as it enables the animal, though of small 
 size, to remain in the sand, and prevents its being washed from its 
 shallow burrow. Again, in the earlier stages the attachment to various 
 objects keeps the young quahaug from being smothered in silt, or from 
 being washed ashore to its destruction. Attachment is needed only 
 until the quahaug obtains sufftcient size to protect itself by burrowing 
 more deeply in the sand. The slender thread though small is unusually 
 strong, resisting a considerable pull before it parts, and can be con- 
 sidered as the anchor cable which moors the quahaug. 
 
 The "Set." 
 The time of "set" varies, as it depends upon the spawning sea- 
 son. Usually the young quahaugs are noticed sUghtly later than the 
 young scallops. At Monomoy Point, in the raft spat boxes, small 
 quahaugs have been observed by the naked eye as early as July 24, in 
 1908, while in other years they have not been recorded until the 
 second week in August. The "set" is not abundant, as is the case 
 with the clam, and no quantities of young quahaugs comparable to 
 the heavy " sets " of small clams are found. The fact that the " set " 
 is usually below the low-water mark perhaps explains the failure to 
 find thickly "set" areas, as many beds escape the attention of the 
 quahauger. As it is, but few localities of heavy " set " are known. 
 At the present time the Acushnet Eiver furnishes the greater part 
 
30 
 
 of the small quahaugs, though in some years the Mill Pond in Chat- 
 ham; Tuckemuck Island, Nantucket; Katama Bay, Edgartown, have 
 also contributed considerably. The Katama Bay region maintains the 
 steadiest supply, owing to the protection of the quahaugs under 1% 
 inches by the town of Edgartown, while in the ease of Chatham and 
 Tuckemuck Island the supply is very erratic. The beds have been 
 depleted, have remained barren for a time and have again received 
 other heavy " sets." 
 
 When the first attachment has been made, either to shells or sea let- 
 tuce, there is a later migration to the sand, but usually the " set " 
 comes directly on the soil. The nature of the bottom largely deter- 
 mines the future welfare of the " set," which will soon perish if the 
 ground is unsuitable. An excess of sUt, slimy mud, shifting sand, 
 proves unsuitable for the existence of the young animal, showing that 
 only portions of the sea bottom are favorable for the existence of the 
 young quahaug. 
 
 The same causes which influence the " set " of the soft clam to a 
 large extent determine the abundance of young quahaugs in any local- 
 ity. Its nature depends largely upon the location in respect to the 
 shores and current, and definite combinations are necessary. As with 
 the soft clam, it has been noticed that the " set " often occurs in an eddy, 
 or on the sides of a swift current. In the Mill Pond at Chatham the 
 " set " is found on the bar reaching part way across the entrance to 
 the upper part, over which the tide sweeps back and forth. A similar 
 case is found at the tip of Jeremy's Point, Wellfleet, and on the gravel 
 bar, over which the tide flows with great speed, large numbers of seed 
 quahaugs can be obtained. In the latter case the bar is exposed at 
 low water during the low running tides. 
 
 The quahaug over % inch in length is comparatively free from the' 
 enemies which attack other shellfish, as its hard shell renders it immune 
 from all except the horse-winkle {Fulgur eaniculatus and carica) and 
 the common cockle {Lunatia heros and duplieata). Severe winters 
 and other climatic changes affect the quahaug but slightly, except on 
 the exposed flats between the tide lines. So we find in the quahaug 
 an animal which for the greater part of its life is better protected 
 from enemies than the other commercial shellfish. On the other hand, 
 the female quahaug produces the same quantity of eggs as the other 
 shellfish. Therefore, the struggle for existence must be exceptionally 
 severe during its early life or free-swimming period, furnishing a pos- 
 sible explanation for the frequent failure of the quahaug " set." 
 
 Spat Collecting. 
 In the oyster industry the importance of spat collecting became ap- 
 parent as soon as the natural beds ceased to yield a sufBcient amount 
 of seed for planting purposes. In considering quahaug culture the 
 
31 
 
 question naturally arises as to whether there are any artificial means 
 of raising young quahaugs for planting. The importance of having 
 a good supply of seed is apparent. We have previously stated that 
 at present there is no practical method of raising the young quahaug 
 from the egg, owing to its small size and delicate nature. The other 
 possibility is the collection of the quahaug seed from the water by some 
 method of spat collecting similar to that used for the oyster. 
 
 When the oyster " sets " at the end of the veliger period it attaches 
 itself by a calcareous secretion to shells and rocks. The quahaug, on 
 the other hand, attaches itself by a single-threaded byssus to sand grains 
 or other clean objects. Attempts were made to catch the quahaug at 
 this stage by spat boxes, — small dry goods boxes, partly filled with 
 sand, — which were suspended from the raft at Monomoy Point. In 
 these boxes quahaugs were obtained at the end of the spawning season 
 in more or less abundance, for the study of the early life history and 
 for the growth experiments. In all probability the young larvae, when 
 ready to " set," strike the sides of the box and settle in the sand, where 
 they are held in by the sides of the box. Unfortunately, while these 
 boxes proved useful in obtainuig quahaugs for experimental' purposes, 
 the amount collected was insufficient for commercial purposes. The 
 largest number ever found in one box was 75 per square foot of sur- 
 face, and the majority of boxes yielded less. To make such a method 
 commercially important it would be necessary to obtain several hundred 
 quahaugs to the square foot of surface. For this reason, unless the 
 essential principles of this method can be applied on a large scale with 
 better success, it is hardly practical to obtain the seed in this way. 
 A better solution would be to develop the places which are naturally 
 suited for the catching of seed by the building of gravel bars, and by 
 artificially directing tidal currents, in other words making nature sup- 
 ply the seed. 
 
 Locomotion. 
 
 The organ of locomotion for the adult quahaug is the foot, which is 
 described as situated on the ventral surface of the visceral mass in the 
 form of a keel-like projection. Its shape enables the foot to readily 
 enter the sand in the same manner as a plow, so that the animal can 
 turn over, burrow or even crawl through the sand. The foot is com- 
 posed of comparatively tough muscle fibers, and its action is aided 
 by retractor muscles, anterior and posterior, which are attached to the 
 shell above the fixation of the adductors. As with the soft clam (Mya 
 arenaria), the foot is distended by the influx of blood from other parts 
 of the body. The movements of the adult are confined to two forms, 
 (1) burrowing and (2) crawling, the former being the more common. 
 
 Burrowing is the act of forcing the shell of the quahaug into the 
 sand below the surface, and is accomplished by the action of the foot. 
 Usually this act is performed when the quahaug lies under the water, 
 but it may be possible for the animal, like the sea clam, to enter the 
 
32 
 
 sand when exposed to the air. The soft clam requires to be covered by 
 water before it can burrow properly. The quahaug, resting on the 
 surface, cautiously extends the muscular foot through the slightly 
 opened valves, working it down among the sand grains until a sufficient 
 purchase is obtained to raise the shell on edge. The shell by a series 
 of jerks is pulled down after the active foot, until the animal is en- 
 tirely buried beneath the surface, the external openings of the short 
 siphons remaining in view. The length of time depends upon three 
 factors, (1) the size of the quahaug, (2) its activity and (3) the soU. 
 The large quahaugs take longer to burrow, as they are less active, 
 heavier and require more force to enter the sand. The foot is relatively 
 larger in the small quahaugs th^ in the large, and naturally the young 
 show greater activity in burrowing. Besides age, the activity of the 
 quahaug depends upon the temperature of the water, as below 50° ¥. 
 they burrow slowly, often lying for long periods on the surface. This 
 is an important fact for the planter, as there is danger in winter 
 planting, owing to the exposure from non-burrowing. The nature 
 of the soil, whether compact or loose, hard or soft, determines to some 
 extent the rapidity of burrowing. When conditions are favorable, bur- 
 rowing is usually accomplished within a few minutes. Out of 1,500 
 quahaugs planted at Monomoy Point in sixteen different lots on June 
 4, 1906, and Oct. 10, 1905, when the water was about 62° and 55°, 
 respectively, 92 per cent, had burrowed within twenty-four hours after 
 planting. The quahaugs were small, less than 41 millimeters, and in 
 good condition. The June beds gave 94 per cent., the October beds 
 85% per cent., showing the effect of temperature. 
 
 The power of burrowing is necessary for the quahaug in the same 
 way as for the soft clam. Whenever the animal is forced or torn 
 from its burrow by natural or artificial agencies it can again resume 
 its natural position in the soil. 
 
 The quahaug also possesses the power of crawling, as it is equipped 
 with all the necessary organs for progress through the soil, but does 
 not make use of this faculty to any great extent. The act of crawling 
 is accompHshed in much the same way as the burrowing, which is a 
 modification of the original crawling habits of the young. After bur- 
 rowing in the soil the animal works the extended foot forward, forming 
 a way for the shell, which is puUed after the foot. The movement is 
 anterior, i.e., the siphonal end of the animal brings up the rear, the 
 end of the shell projecting so that a winding trail is left on the surface 
 of the sand, showing the course of the animal. Crawling is effected 
 by the same conditions which influence burrowing, such as tempera- 
 ture, soil and size of the quahaug, the older animals moving very little, 
 while the young forms are more active. In one instance a blunt qua- 
 haug between the tide lines was found to have crawled 7 inches in 
 twenty-four hours. All movements in this bed were in the direction 
 of the retreating tide. While crawling is more often observed between 
 
33 
 
 the tide flats, it also takes place in the natural habitat, below low- 
 water mark. On wet flats the quahaug can possibly crawl without 
 water over it; but most of the crawling is done under the water. 
 
 Various writers have referred to the quahaug as wandering between 
 the tide lines, as if the animal were constantly moving from place to 
 place. In reality the quahaug moves but little, and usually at a slow 
 rate, as by force of habit it is a stationary animal. The writer several 
 times has observed its wanderings, as shown by the marks on the 
 tidal flats, but has never found evidence of its traveling any great 
 distance. On the other hand, from general observations and from 
 planted beds which were left for years, he has invariably found that 
 the quahaugs remained in the same localities where placed. Even the 
 smaller, active quahaugs, % of an inch, which are more prone to crawl- 
 ing, have been observed to remain where planted. Kellogg (2) in 
 1903 was the first to note that there was practically no migration of 
 the quahaugs in his beds, which he found intact several months after 
 planting. All our growth experiments substantiate Professor Kel- 
 logg's observations, as in no case was there any general migration. 
 Therefore, it can be concluded that, while the quahaug has the power 
 of moving, possessing as it does the necessary organs for crawling, it 
 makes use of this habit but little, and when placed on satisfactory 
 bottom will remain within a few feet of its original position. The 
 importance of this fact to planters should not be overlooked, as other- ' 
 wise the prospective culturist will be afraid that his planted crop may 
 move. Such is not the case, and the culturist need never fear any 
 appreciable loss through migration. 
 
 The proofs on which the above conclusion is founded are three: (1) 
 observations on many growth experiments; (2) experiment on move- 
 ment below low-water mark; (3) experiment on movement between the 
 tide lines. 
 
 (1) The facts on this point have already been given. In all the 
 growth experiments the quahaugs were found a year or more later in 
 the immediate vicinity. In no case had there been any marked migra- 
 tion. In several beds, planted between the tide lines at Monomoy 
 Point, which were taken up eleven months after planting, nearly all 
 the quahaugs were found within 3 feet of the original beds. In one 
 bed the quahaugs were of small size, measuring 17 millimeters in 
 length, showing that even the young, active animals were not inclined 
 to wander. 
 
 (2) A means of roughly determining the migratory powers of the 
 quahaug was tried at Monomoy Point in 1906. Short stakes, in width 
 and thickness 3 inches by 1 inch, were driven in the coarse sand in the 
 Powder Hole in front of the laboratory, where there were 2 feet of 
 water at low tide. Six quahaugs were placed in order around the 
 stake, 1 at each end, 2 at each side, with the tips of their shells just 
 
34 
 
 touching the "wood, so that any movement could be readily determined. 
 Four lots of 6 quahaugs each, measuring 28, 29, 40 and 41 millimeters, 
 were placed in position Sept. 14, 1906, and examined three times, at 
 intervals of three, fourteen and thirty-eight days, respectively, at each 
 examination the quahaugs being left where found, so that the final 
 observation recorded the total movement for the entire period. On the 
 first examination after three days 5 quahaugs out of the 24 had 
 moved from their original position, moving from % to 3 inches, on an 
 average of 1 inch. In fourteen days 8 more, 13 in all, had moved, the 
 average distance this time being 1.27 inches, the minimum distance 
 traveled beiag %. inch and the maximum 3 inches, while 1 quahaug 
 was missing. After a period of thirty-eight days 4 were reported 
 missing, 5 remained as originally placed and 14 had moved an average 
 of 2.15 inches, with a minimum of % inch and a maximum of 6 inches. 
 What became of the 4 missing quahaugs was not determined, and it is 
 a matter of conjecture whether they crawled away or were washed out 
 of their burrows in the sand. The distance covered by the 15 that 
 moved is very slight and unimportant. If the quahaug were naturally 
 a migratory form, as the sea clam, within thirty-eight days all would 
 have traveled away; but considering the fact that 83 per cent, of the 
 number remained within a few inches of their original position, it 
 can be concluded that the quahaug leads practically a sedentary Hfe. 
 ' No difference was noticed in the movement of the 28-millimeter and 
 the 41-millimeter quahaugs, as the number of large and small which 
 moved were about the same, although the larger quahaugs covered about 
 twice as much distance as the small. A parallel experiment with sea 
 clams (Mactra soUdissima) was conducted under the same conditions, 
 with the result that all disappeared in the course of a few days after 
 planting. 
 
 (3) A similar experiment was tried between the tide lines at Mono- 
 moy Point on a sand clam flat. Five stakes were driven in the flat, 
 and quahaugs were planted close to these on Sept. 18, 1906. One 
 month later all but 1 out of 57 quahaugs were found within 6 inches 
 of the posts, showing that, even between the tide lines, the so-called 
 wandering zone, the quahaugs showed no tendency to migrate. 
 
 Movement of the Young Quahaugs. 
 (1) Swimming. — The swimming period of the quahaug's life lasts 
 during its embryonic existence, ending soon after the completion of 
 the veliger stage, although the footed larva has for a short period the 
 power of swimming with its muscular foot. The embryo acquires 
 the power of moving through the water at the age of ten hours, when 
 the surface cells are equipped with minute hair-like processes, cUia. 
 The early movements consist of random revolutions of a spiral nature. 
 Two hours later, deflnite direction is efetablished by the elongation of 
 
35 
 
 the animal, which now swims with a spiral movement, rotating around 
 the longitudinal axis. With the growth of the embryonic shell, about 
 thirty-six hours after fertilization, the animal, now called the veliger, 
 swims by means of the velum, a muscular pad covered with long cilia. 
 The velum has been derived from the anterior ciliated area of the 
 ciliated larva. The animal opens its shell, thrusts out the velum, and 
 is propelled by the action of the cilia in any direction. During the 
 summer spawning months the water is full of these small veUgers, 
 which can be taken by a plankton net of silk bolting cloth. When 
 startled, as by a sudden jar, they cease swimming, pull in the velum, 
 close the shell, and settle to the bottom. During the veliger stage 
 occurs the loss of the velum and the appearance of the foot, which 
 takes its place, at first as a swimming, later as a crawling organ. 
 Swimming is accomplished through a kicking movement of the foot, 
 which propels the animal through the water. A similar movement 
 has been seen in adult razor clams, which have been observed to swim 
 through the water for short distances by the kicking with the long foot. 
 
 (2) Crawling. — With the young quahaug crawling is somewhat dif- 
 ferent than with the adult, and is similar to the crawling of the young 
 clam. Observations were made on quahaugs from 2 to 3 millimeters in 
 size. At this age the flexible foot is elongate, and more Kke the blade 
 of a knife than the keel-shaped foot of the adult. Two methods of 
 crawling were observed. 
 
 (a) The Forward or Following Movement. — The forward movement 
 is the common means of crawling, and is similar to the methods ob- 
 served in the young clam and scallop. It consists of extending the foot 
 and dragging the body after it, in the same manner as the adult qua- 
 haug moves through the sand. Fig. 20 shows the foot just appear- 
 ing from the shell. The mantle and siphon are extended, while the 
 angle between the shell and the foot is acute. This is the beginning 
 of the movement. Fig. 21 shows the foot extended to its full length. 
 It has made a twist so that the bottom part of the ciliated tip can 
 get a firm hold. By straightening out this twist the shell is raised 
 on edge to its natural position when in the sand. The usefulness of 
 this movement is explained by the fact that the quahaug, when ex- 
 posed, lies flat on the surface of the sand, and that the shell is thus 
 raised on edge, so that it can enter the sand with a cutting edge. The 
 next movement (Fig. 22) is what might be styled a " downward tip," 
 as this action is likewise of use in entering the sand as a wedge. Then 
 quickly follows an upward tip (Fig. 23). By these two tips the qua- 
 haug has withdrawn within the shell all but the extremity of the foot, 
 and is now ready for another start. The distance covered is three- 
 foirrths the length of the foot. The two tips are caused by the 
 retractor muscles of the foot. In the downward tip the anterior re- 
 tractor pulls on the anterior portion of the foot, resulting in the 
 downward tip to the anterior portion of the shell, and the second or 
 
36 
 
 upward tip is the result of a similar action of the posterior retractor. 
 A S-millimeter quahaug was observed to travel at the rate of an inch, 
 over eight times its length, in two minutes, covering about M.7 of an 
 inch at each movement, the average time of each movement being about 
 seven seconds. 
 
 (6) Backward Movement. — The young quahaugs make use of an- 
 other method of crawling, though less frequently than the first. This 
 movement resembles a Hek, and sends the shell backwards or sidewise. 
 In rig. 24 the foot is turned under the shell until the tip finds a rest- 
 ing place. Then by a jerky motion the shell is raised from the bottom 
 and hurled to the position of Fig. 25 by a direct backward thrust. 
 The foot is then drawn in and the same performance repeated. Some- 
 times the shell rests on the same valve, sometimes it is turned over 
 so that on the completion of the movement it rests on the opposite 
 side (Figs. 26 and 27) . There is a similarity between the forward and 
 the backward movements as they both depend upon the contraction 
 and the expansion of the foot, but they differ in the application of 
 the force, the fljst being a pull and the second a thrust. The average 
 of 12 cases observed gave six seconds as the time consumed from start 
 to finish by this movement, as compared with seven seconds for the 
 other. The longest time observed was ten seconds, the shortest, four. 
 
 It is interesting to note that while in the case of the scallop a direct 
 relation can be noted between the expulsion of water from the siphonal 
 region and locomotion, in the case of the quahaug such cannot be 
 definitely established. Possibly there may be a slight aid during the 
 forward movement, although the flow of water is not co-ordinated with 
 the, contraction of the foot, as with the scallop. In the backward 
 movement there is no assistance whatever. 
 
 (3) Bate of Crawling. — The following observations were made on 
 the distance traveled by small 2 and 3 millimeter quahaugs. Small 
 round glass dishes, 1% inches in diameter, were partly filled with fine 
 white sand. Two quahaugs 2 and 3 millimeters were put in the cen- 
 ter of the dish, which was placed in the aquaria. On examination 
 fifteen minutes later it was found that the 2-millimeter quahaug had 
 traveled 32 millimeters, or sixteen times its own length, i.e., the rate of 
 5 inches per hour. The first 23 millimeters were through the sand, the 
 last 9 on the surface. On a second examination, one and one-half 
 hours later, the quahaug had only traveled 10 millimeters more, this 
 time under the sand. The 3-millimeter quahaug had not moved at all, 
 remaining in the position originally placed in the sand. 
 
 Three other quahaugs, 2 millimeters, 3 millimeters and 3 millimeters 
 in length, respectively, were placed in a dish 3 inches in diameter, 
 filled with white sand. Examined six hours later, they had moved 
 11 millimeters, 26 millimeters and 100 millimeters, respectively. 
 
37 
 
 Recovery fbom Injury. 
 In several cases the shells of the quahaugs have been broken in 
 planting. Unless the break or crack is too large the wound will heal 
 by the formation on the inside of a new layer of shell, the old crack 
 never joining, but merely being held together by the new growth 
 imderneath. It is well for the quahaug culturist to know that slight 
 breaks are not always fatal to the quahaug, and that, in planting, 
 broken ones should not be discarded. 
 
 The Feeding Habits. 
 
 The food of the quahaug, as of all the lamellibraneh mollusks, con- 
 sists principally of diatoms, — minute plant forms which are found 
 in all waters. These little plants vary greatly in size and shape, often 
 the species of one family but faintly resembling each other. Their 
 chief characteristic is a silicious case, which distinguishes them from 
 other plankton forms. The marine diatomaceae are somewhat different 
 from the fresh-water forms, but maintain the same general family 
 characteristics. They are abundant throughout the water, although the 
 lighter and smaller forms are most numerous near the surface. These 
 surface species are naturally of less food value than the large, deeper 
 forms. On the various soils which constitute the bottom, the diatoms 
 are constantly reproducing and adding to the supply in the water. 
 It has been found that mud furnishes better breeding places than sand, 
 and that the color of certain surface soils is often due to the kind of 
 diatomaceous growth. An increase in the temperature of the water 
 results in more rapid reproduction. Other minute forms of plankton 
 life are ingested by the quahaug, unless they are too large, in which 
 case, by a complicated mechanism of the ciliary tracts, they are dis- 
 carded with silt and other foreign material. In this way the quahaug 
 shows a selective power in feeding. Small crustaceans, larvEB of mol- 
 lusks and crustaceans, protozoa, rotifers, bacteria, etc., constitute a 
 part of the quahaug food, the quantity depending on the location and 
 the season. 
 
 The following aecoimt is taken from the work of Prof. James L. Kel- 
 logg, who has ably described the feeding habits of the quahaug in his 
 report upon " The Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria." 
 The subject-matter is presented in condensed form, as only the impor- 
 tant features are given. From the previous description of the anatomy 
 the reader will remember that just inside the shell lies the mantle, 
 enclosing the body in a fleshy q^se. Posteriorly the mantle lobes are 
 fused to form two tubes, the incurrent and excurrent siphons, through 
 which a steady stream of water enters and leaves the mantle chamber. 
 Suspended in the mantle chamber, on each side of the visceral mass. 
 
38 
 
 are two conspicuous folds, the inner and outer gills, which play an 
 important part in the collection of the food. On each side of the 
 mouth, which is on the median line behind the anterior adductor 
 muscle, are the palps, which are similar in appearance to the gills and 
 function in conducting food to the mouth. 
 
 We have seen that a constant stream of water entered the mantle or 
 branchial chamber. What becomes of it? And what is it that causes the 
 current? All of this water in the mantle chamber streams through the 
 minute openings between the filaments of the gill and enters its interior 
 space. It now rises to the base of the gill, and flows into a tube, the epi- 
 branchial chamber, through which it passes backward, leaving the body by 
 the upper or exhalent siphon, which is directly continuous with the epi- 
 branchial chambers of the- four gills. The currents which we first noticed, 
 then, enter the mantle chamber by the lower siphon, pass into the interiors 
 of the four gills, flow to their upper or attached edges, and are directed 
 backward and out through the upper siphon tubes of the mantle. 
 
 The cause of these rapid currents is revealed by a microscopic examina- 
 tion of the rods or filaments of the gills. These are found to be covered 
 on their outer surfaces, which face the water on both sides of the gill, with 
 innumerable short, hair-like structures which project perpendicularly from 
 the surface. These cilia are protrusions of the living protoplasm of the cells 
 which form the walls of the filaments. Each possesses the power of move- 
 ment, lashing in a definite direction, and recovering the original perpen- 
 dicular position more slowly. This movement is so rapid that it cannot be 
 seen till nearly stopped by inducing the gradual death of the protoplasm. 
 It is very effective in causing strong currents in the surrounding water. 
 
 A microscopic examination, and direct experiment with minute, floating 
 particles, will show that other cilia are present on the filaments than those 
 which cause the water to enter the gills. The diagrammatic figure of the 
 gill does not show why the minute food particles may not be taken into the 
 interior of the gill by the entering stream of water, and finally out of the 
 body through the broad water channels. This is prevented by long cilia 
 arranged in bands, which project out laterally between contiguous filaments 
 in such a way as to strain the water which enters the gill, thus preventing 
 all floating matter from entering. These highly specialized cilia tracts of 
 lamellibranch gills I have called the " straining lines." In some forms 
 there is a single line, in others there are two. In some cases the lines are 
 formed by a single row of cells ; or a section across the line sometimes 
 reveals several closely crowded cells bearing the greatly elongated straining 
 cilia. 
 
 That foreign matter is really excluded as the current of water enters the 
 gill, may be demonstrated by direct experiment on a living gill. Carmine 
 may be ground into a fine powder, and suspended in water without becoming 
 dissolved. If a small amount of this ie allowed to fall on the surface of 
 a living gill, it will be seen to lodge there. A wonderful thing now occurs. 
 A myriad of separate minute grains, which may represent the food of the 
 clam, are almost instantly cemented together with a sticky mucus which is 
 secreted by many special gland cells in the filaments, and the whole mass. 
 
39 
 
 impelled by the oscillations of the cilia, begins to .move with some velocity 
 toward the lower or free edge of the gill. On this free margin is a groove 
 into which the material collected on the faces of the gill is turned. This 
 groove is also lined by ciliated cells, and the whole mass is swept swiftly 
 forward in it toward the palps. The natural food of the clam, of course, 
 is carried forward in the same way. It is evident that a large proportion of 
 the organisms floating in the water which enters the mantle chamber must 
 come in contact with the sides of the gills, and be carried forward to the 
 mouth folds, to which they may be transferred. . . . 
 
 If we now examine the palps with a hand lens, we may notice that their 
 inner surfaces — those nearest to the mouth — are covered by a set of very 
 fine parallel ridges. They are capable of many movements. They may be 
 bent and spirally twisted, lengthened or shortened, and, if their inner faces 
 touch the edges of the gills, any material which is being brought to this 
 region is transferred onto the ridges of the palp. This is accomplished by 
 strong cilia which are developed on the ridges. These same cilia carry the 
 foreign matter on across the ridges, and finally force it into the mouth. 
 
 Enemies. 
 
 The adult quahaug is well protected from enemies by its hard shell, 
 while the young larva is at the mercy of both the natural enemies and 
 adverse physical conditions, which make its existence most precarious. 
 We can divide the enemies of the quahaug into two classes: (1) the 
 enemies of the young; (2) the enemies of the adult. 
 
 Enemies of the Young. — Adverse natural conditions, rather than 
 active enemies, destroy vast numbers of the quahaug larvse. Up to the 
 time of attachment the young quahaug is at the mercy of tide, wind, 
 changes in temperature, cold rains, etc., which either wash it ashore or 
 kill the delicate embryo by sudden changes. All manner of fish, crus- 
 tacean and moUuscan life feed on the larvse, even the mother quahaug 
 sucking down her own offspring. The young quahaug must " set " on 
 good ground or perish. In this way nature has reg^ilated the number 
 of eggs in the individual quahaug so that the large number compen- 
 sates for the great destruction. Even when the quahaug has " set " 
 it is not free from enemies. It becomes the prey of ducks and other 
 water fowl if it happens to settle in shallow water. While no actual 
 instances have come to the notice of the writer of taking quahaugs 
 from the crops of water birds, other small shellfish of a similar 
 nature, although adults, have been found. If these moUusks were 
 eaten, it is possible that the small quahaugs would also be taken. 
 Such mollusks as Lavieardium mortoni and young razor dams (Ensis 
 directris) have been found in the stomachs of flounders, and naturally 
 small quahaugs could be taken in the same manner by bottom-feeding 
 fish. Instances have been recorded where small quahaugs have per- 
 ished by washing ashore in storms, showing that even when protected 
 by a shell they are at the mercy of the elements. Starfish, particularly 
 
40 
 
 the young " star," probably prey upon tbe young form, and it is 
 possible for the oyster drill to attack a small quahaug. 
 
 Enemies of the Adult. — The enemies of the adult can be grouped 
 into two classes, — the active and the passive. The active enemies are • 
 given in order of their importance: (1) man; (2) the winkle or cockle 
 (Lunatia dupUcata and heros) ; (3) the conch (Fulgur caniculatus and 
 carica) ; (4) the starfish. The passive enemies are those which feed on 
 the same forms as the quahaug, in certain cases depriving it of its sus- 
 tenance, in others hindering its growth. As such may be renumerated 
 mussels, other shellfish of no economic value, seaweeds, etc. 
 
 (1) Man. — It is hardly necessary to more than mention man as 
 the greatest enemy to the quahaug, because this report has shown in 
 numerous ways, especially in the historical review of the fishery and 
 the description of the quahaug beds, how man, through excessive dig- 
 ging, has gradually reduced the natural supply. It need scarcely be 
 stated that, unless some method of culture is inaugurated within the 
 next few years, the quahaug industry will become commercially extinct 
 through overfishing by man. Man has overthrown the balances of 
 nature both by ill-advised methods of overfishing and by changes in 
 conditions through the pollution of the streams and waters. Man is 
 and will be the greatest enemy of the quahaug unless he repair the 
 damage already done and assist nature in renewing the supply. 
 
 (2) The Winkle. — The common bait winkle or cockle (Lunatia 
 heros and dupUcata) attacks the quahaug by perforating its shell in 
 the region of the umbo by means of a rasping tongue armed with sharp 
 teeth. The animal drills a clean countersunk hole from 1 to 6 milli- 
 meters in diameter, according to the size of the cockle. While the 
 chief prey of the winkle is the sea clam, it will frequently attack both 
 the quahaug, especially the " little neck," and the soft clam. Owing 
 to the thick shell the quahaug is more immune than the sea clam, as it 
 takes the winkle much longer to pierce the shell and suck out the 
 contents. At Monomoy Point numbers of quahaugs were killed by 
 the winkle in the experimental beds. In nearly every case, although 
 variations have occurred, the perforation was made directly on the 
 projecting umbo or beak of the quahaug. Although the winkle, with 
 the exception of man, is considered the greatest active enemy of the 
 quahaug, it can be readily prevented from injuring the quahaug beds 
 by a little care on the part of the culturist. The cockle never appears 
 on the quahaug grounds in such numbers that it is impossible to gather 
 them, and owing to the high price of these snails for bait, $3 to $4 
 a bushel, it is highly profitable for the quahaug planter to capture 
 them for the market, at the same time preventing damage to his 
 quahaugs. 
 
 (3) The Horse-winkle. — The extent of the damage caused by this 
 large gasteropod mollusk cannot be determined, and possibly may be 
 
41 
 
 greater than the destruction hy the cockle. The oystermen claim that 
 large numbers of oysters and quahaugs are destroyed by the horse- 
 winkle. The method of attack, which has not been studied by the 
 writer, is aptly described by Colton (14), who states that quahaugs are 
 eaten in from seven hours to three days; that the meals are far 
 between, and that the winkles spend their time between meals buried 
 in the sand. The method of attack is described as follows : — 
 
 The couch (Fulgur perversa or F. carica) grasps the Venus in the hollow 
 of its foot, bringing the margin of the Venus shell against its own shell 
 margin. By contracting the columellar muscle it forces the margins of the 
 shell together, which results in a small fragment being chipped from the 
 shell of Venus. This is repeated many times, and finally the crack between 
 the valves is enlarged to a width of 3 millimeters or more. 
 
 The proboscis is normally about 5 millimeters to 8 millimeters in diameter. 
 There are three ways in which it may get at the animal First, it may 
 flatten out its proboscis so that it will go through the crack; secondly, it 
 may pour in a secretion between the valves which kills the clam; and 
 thirdly, it may wedge its shell between the valves of the Venus, and by 
 contracting the columellar muscle actually wedge the valves apart. 
 
 (4) The Starfish. — The starfish is the least effective of the four 
 active enemies of the quahaug, as it is not able to readily attack the 
 quahaug in its burrow. A large starfish, which was found in one of 
 the experimental boxes at Monomoy Point, had eaten a number of the 
 quahaugs which were buried under the sand. The starfish evidentlj' 
 was able to get at the animals by working its " arms " in the coarse 
 sand until the quahaug was exposed, and then opening it in the same 
 manner as the oyster, by the steady pressure of the tube feet on the 
 two valves of the quahaug. Quahaugs Is^ing outside the sand are rap- 
 idly devoured by the starfish, which, after forcing the valves apart, 
 passes its everted stomach into the shell and digests the contents. 
 Under natural conditions it is probable that little damage is accom- 
 plished by the starfish, owing to the difflculty of getting at the qua- 
 haugs. 
 
 QUAHAUG CULTURE. 
 The Decline. 
 
 For decades the tidal fiats and waters of the seacoast have yielded 
 valuable harvests of shellfish, and the free-fishing public have continued 
 their campaign of spoliation under the impression that these fertile 
 territories were inexhaustible. As the thickly bedded areas near the 
 beaches were exhausted, the quahaug fishermen ventured into the deeper 
 waters, which greatly increased the cost and difBculties of fishing. 
 The deep-water beds which opened a new era of prosperity for the 
 quahaug industry, are now beginning to show the effects of the severe 
 
42 
 
 systematic fistiery whieli has prevailed for the past few years. There 
 can be but one logical outcome to the present system, i.e., the commer- 
 cial extinction of the quahaug. 
 
 The serious nature of this decline has only recently been brought 
 io the attention of the public, although many have noticed the increased 
 cost of shellfish and at times have experienced dif&culty in procuring 
 a sufficient supply. At present there is a widespread awakening 
 throughout the Commonwealth in regard to the cost of living, and 
 considerable interest has been shown in matters relating to the shell- 
 flsheries, with a view toward checking the decline by developing these 
 important sources of public wealth. • 
 
 The present quahaug industry is of comparatively recent growth. 
 Although known as an article of food by the early settlers ever since 
 the time of the Pilgrims, the quahaug did not attain universal popu- 
 larity until within the last thirty years, when the opening of inland 
 markets increased the demand. The resultant high prices naturally 
 caused a large number of men to venture into the industry, stimulated 
 by the hope of handsome profits. Soon there came a time when the 
 natural increase of the fertile quahaug beds failed to equal the annual 
 harvest, and a gradual decline set in, which' has attained such magni- 
 tude as to threaten the extinction of a most important shore industry, 
 assuming such serious proportions in many of our coast towns as to 
 thoroughly alarm the citizens. In Buzzard's Bay, a natural habitat 
 of the quahaug, the industry in at least half the towns has declined 
 to the point of commercial extinction, and even in the communities 
 where it still retains some foothold, its existence is due to the devel- 
 opment of new areas in the deeper waters. Conditions in many locali- 
 ties on Cape Cod are scarcely better. Wellfleet, one of the leading 
 towns of the Commonwealth in the production of quahaugs, presents 
 a typical case of this kind. Practically the entire population, directly 
 or indirectly, depends upon this industry for a livelihood. The qua- 
 haug fleet, comprising nearly a hundred boats of all sizes, which may 
 be seen • every fair summer day fishing in various parts of the bay, 
 is fast depleting the large natural beds of this region, and already 
 the inhabitants are becoming apprehensive of the exhaustion of these 
 areas. Similar conditions prevail to a greater or less degree in most 
 of the villages of Cape Cod, and serious complications would doubtless 
 follow the destruction of the quahaug fishery. 
 
 Indications of Decline. — So universal has this decline become that 
 it is hardly necessary to enumerate proofs of its existence. As already 
 stated, the industry has been practically exterminated in many of the 
 coast towns, while in others the natural supply is but a remnant of 
 its former abundance, and there are but few localities where the yield 
 of the natural beds has not decreased more or less. No one can ques- 
 tion that the decline in the quahaug industry is general, and that its 
 
proper adjustment, as one of the great resources of the Commonwealth, 
 is an important economic problem. 
 
 Bise in Price. — When the demand for any commodity increases, it . 
 is a law of economics that a rise in price will follow. We have seen 
 how the demand for quahaugs has increased during the psist twenty 
 years. It was inevitable that there should be a rise in price. The 
 development of the " little neck " (small quahaug) trade was the fore- 
 runner of the introduction of the larger quahaug. The increase in 
 the price, while in part the result of an increasing demand, is also 
 a sign of a decreasiag supply. When the supply of a desirable com- 
 modity diminishes, the price advances, until a new equilibrium is estab- 
 lished. Therefore, both supply and demand have combined to place 
 the price of the quahaug at its present high figure. , 
 
 Cause of the Decline. — In considering the present unsatisfactory 
 conditions in the queihaug industry no one cause can be designated as 
 having brought about this decline, but rather it has been the result 
 of the combination of several important factors. The primary reason 
 has undoubtedly been overfishing, a fact generally accepted throughout 
 the fishing communities of the State. So long as the natural increase 
 of the quabaug equals the amount taken from the flats it is clearly 
 evident that the supply will not diminish. As soon, however, as the 
 demand of the market necessitates a constantly greater annual produc- 
 tion, the balance of nature is upset, and a diminution of the natural 
 supply takes place. As we have already seen, the simultaneous de- 
 crease in the supply and increase in the demand caused a rise in the 
 price, suflSeient for a time to lure more men into the industry. This 
 time of prosperity has already passed, and many men are leaving the 
 fishery to seek a livelihood in other pursuits, as, in spite of the high 
 prices, they are unable any longer to make a living. The discovery 
 of large quahaug beds in the deep water was the only factor that pre- 
 vented the destruction of the quahaug fishery long ago. These beds 
 are now being overfished, and when they are depleted the disappear- 
 ance of this great industry will be complete. 
 
 While the immediate cause of the decline is undoubtedly, and always 
 has been, overfishing, the real cause lies in the conditions which tol- 
 erated such a system of spoliation, and allowed it to continue un- 
 checked after its destructive features had long been apparent. 
 
 Under the old laws governing the fisheries of the Commonwealth, 
 the State originally held possession of and exercised authority over all 
 tidal waters as public property for every citizen. Later there arose 
 a widespread feeling that the communities whose lands bordered on 
 the ocean should have first right over these valuable territories. This 
 feeling on account of the conditions of that time, met with little oppo- 
 sition, as transportation was slow and the people from the inland 
 communities had not the same opportunities for utilizing the fishing 
 privileges that the inhabitants of the coast towns possessed. Thus 
 
44 
 
 the rights of the Commonwealth over the shellflsheries came to be' 
 vested in the individual seacoast towns. According to the original act 
 the selectmen of every coast town were given certain privileges of 
 supervision over the shellfish interests within its borders. The Legisla- 
 ture, however, was careful to specify that every inhabitant of the 
 Commonwealth could still continue to take shellfish for family use or 
 three bushels for bait per day in any part of the coast, in this manner 
 reserving an important privilege for the public. 
 
 As this privilege has never been exercised to any extent for market 
 purposes, the towns have had absolute control of the shellflsheries for 
 years. Their authority has been a direct trust from the Common- 
 wealth, and if the decline of the shellflsheries has been attributable to 
 improper legislation, or lack of legislation, this responsibility rests 
 wholly upon the seacoast towns. Let us see in what manner these 
 towns have improved the valuable privileges, and how they have 
 guarded the sacred trust conferred upon them by the Commonwealth. 
 The past record of the majority of the towns fails to show any con- 
 sistent effort on their part to safeguard or develop these industries. 
 A few communities have made certain short-Kved attempts to foster or 
 protect their native resources, but in every important instance these 
 efforts have proved either wholly inadequate, or, if possessing the quali- 
 ties of success, have been abandoned without sufficient trial. The usual 
 type of reform attempted by the towns has been restrictive legislation, 
 which has aimed in an illogical and ineffectual manner to check the 
 exploitation of the natural beds rather than provide methods of in- 
 creasing the supply. Legislation of this kind has never proved a suc- 
 cess in any important " instance. It has been unpopular, difficult to 
 enforce and thoroughly unadapted to effect the intended reform. It is 
 inherently a false or mistaken policy. The sheUfisheries have needed 
 laws of a constructive nature, designed to develop the industry. Re- 
 strictive legislation unless accompanied by constructive is never truly 
 protective, and in the past has proved such an unqualifled failure as to 
 be abandoned by its former advocates. It is not the purpose of this 
 paper to criticise harshly the evidently well-meant efforts of the towns 
 to benefit the sheUfisheries, but it is universally conceded that they 
 have in most cases proved a failure. It is not necessary to go into 
 detail in the investigation of the various attempts of the towns in this 
 direction, as they have taken in almost all cases the form of a close 
 season over some specifled areas, and few attempts to build up the 
 natural resources have ever been honestly attempted. In the ease of 
 the quahaug fishing, we find that the efforts of the towns to keep the 
 supply from becoming depleted have never been more than the most 
 half-hearted attempts, and we are forced to conclude that the towns 
 have dealt badly with the trust reposed in them by the Commonwealth, 
 and have neglected the great opportunities for improving and preserv- 
 ing the natural quahaug beds. 
 
45 
 
 It is only fair to state that the system of town control is. ill calcu- 
 lated to produce the best results. It is not reasonable to suppose that 
 a number of municipalities, working independently, should be able 
 to evolve a unified system. It is, however, just cause for surprise that 
 the Commonwealth has so long allowed such mismanagement. It is 
 certainly a most pressing need that this old, cumbersome policy should 
 give place to a more unified and successful system. 
 
 Under the present system of free fishing no constructive legislation 
 can be applied, as there is no incentive for individual effort. The 
 fishermen who advocate cultural methods and conservation of the 
 natural resources are powerless through the indifference of others, and 
 consequently are forced, against their will, to join the campaign of 
 spoliation under the argument that they may as well get their share 
 as long as the supply lasts. In this way the present system puts 
 a premium on personal greed and discourages individual effort. It is 
 practically impossible for legislation to check lawless exploitation where 
 valuable resources are thrown open to the public. The unreasoning 
 element will inevitably abuse the privilege to the utmost limit, and the 
 more thoughtful will be swept into tacit consent. Naturally it would 
 be for the general welfare for every fisherman to do his best to better 
 conditions, but under the present system this rule could not hold, as 
 no man, no matter how much a philanthropist, will work hard for the 
 betterment of conditions only to see the results of his work appro- 
 priated by another. 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 We have pointed out that the attempts by which the towns endeav- 
 ored to stop the decline of the quahaug supply were all of a restrictive 
 nature, designed to cheek the demand rather than to increase the 
 supply. The true remedy'is to be found in legislation which will per- 
 mit the application of cultural methods. There are only two methods 
 by which constructive laws can operate: (1) seeding the public waters 
 and flats at the expense of the towns or of the State; (2) the intro- 
 duction of a system of private grants. 
 
 (1) While there has never been any effort on the part of the towns 
 or of the State to seed extensive tracts of quahaug territory, there 
 have been attempts in the case of the soft-shelled clam. Such com- 
 munal clam culture has generally failed, as the planting was usually 
 in the hands of men unaccustomed to such work and ignorant of the 
 proper methods. While successful communal culture can be carried 
 on, there will always remain the natural drawbacks to any altruistic 
 scheme of this sort, such as expense, uncertainty and non-co-operation, 
 which tend to make it impracticable. 
 
 (2) The proposed remedy for preserving the native quahaug beds 
 and developing the industry to its normal status is based upon a sys- 
 tem of grants held and operated by individuals. Under this system 
 an inhabitant of the Commonwealth would be permitted to lease a grant 
 
46 
 
 of limited area from the State or town for a term of years, provisional 
 upon the effieiency with .which he improves his holding, and be guar- 
 anteed immunity from outside molestation. For this privilege he 
 would pay a reasonable annual rental to the Conmionwealth or town in 
 addition to the taxes which would be levied by the town upon the value 
 of his holdings. A system of this sort, which would allow a part of the 
 waters in each town to become rented property, while the remainder, 
 at least half the present area, should exist as pubUe property, would 
 so benefit the industry that the annual production for the rented part 
 alone would doubtless exceed the present output for the whole under 
 existing conditions. This proposed remedy has been the outgrowth 
 of a long series of experiments on the part of the Massachusetts De- 
 partment of Fisheries and Game. These experiments have aimed 
 throughout to formulate a practical remedy for the prevailing evils. 
 The experiments in question have shown conclusively that quahaug 
 seed can be successfully transplanted from one locality to another, and 
 that it can be made to grow to a marketable size with a small outlay 
 of capital in a suiSeient time to yield large returns. Not only have 
 these experiments, conducted in varied environments in our coast waters, 
 proved that this remedy contains the necessary elements of success, 
 but a study of the industry as a whole has shown that it is the only 
 remedy which can bring about the desired results. The proposed rem- 
 edy is not a theory evolved on the spur of the moment, but is the 
 outgrowth of several years of careful study of the prevailing conditions 
 along our coast. It is a system based on the results of successful 
 experiments, and has been placed on a practical, commercial basis with 
 the oyster, both abroad and in the United States. 
 
 Benefits. — (1) It will save the declining industry by lessening the 
 drain on the natural beds and by meeting the increasing demands of the 
 market. Moreover, the " spawners " on the grants will in all proba- 
 bility suffice to abundantly seed all the public ground, at least to a 
 gi'eater degree than at present. 
 
 (2) It will increase the supply to more adequately meet the demands 
 of the market. The quahaug has become a popular article of diet and 
 there is no reason why it should not be a far more important item in 
 the food supply of the Commonwealth than it is at present. In Massa- 
 chusetts, where the population is so dense that it has to depend in 
 great measure on other sections of the country for its supply of food- 
 stuffs, any important article of food native to the Commonwealth 
 should be well eared for. 
 
 (3) It would furnish more remunerative and steady work for the 
 fishermen. This result would be accomplished in two ways: it would 
 increase the supply of shellfish on the flats and tidal waters, held in 
 common as already explained, thus increasing the catch of the average 
 fisherman. But of greater value to the fisherman would be the priv- 
 ilege of holding a small piece of territory as his own property, which 
 
47 
 
 should, under favorable circumstances, yield him a considerable annual 
 income. 
 
 (4) It would be a benefit to the coast communities, where the shell- 
 fish industry furnishes the main income of the inhabitants. Under 
 present conditions these communities depend for support on an uncer- 
 tain industry, the revenue from which is extremely variable. Under 
 these discouraging conditions many fishermen live literally from day 
 to day, barely tiding over the severe winters with the money earned 
 during the summer's fishing. The proposed system would do away 
 in a great measure with this unsatisfactory state of affairs, as it would 
 practically assure to every industrious quahauger a steady income. 
 
 (5) It would furnish a more abundant sea food for the public. Any 
 undertaking which will result in increasing the supply is desirable 
 from an economic standpoint. The quahaug as an article of diet has 
 had a favorable reputation for some years. Its popularity is steadily 
 growing and anything which would tend to increase the supply must be 
 considered a public benefit. 
 
 (6) It would utilize thousands of acres of barren land now lying idle 
 and unproductive. It has been a wise policy of this country for many 
 years, fostered by men who have the national interests at heart, to 
 conserve the natural resources and bring them to their highest degree 
 of usefulness. In Massachusetts, not primarily an agricultural State, 
 large tracts of territory, which in the fertile western countries would 
 never be touched, are nevertheless, by careful tillage, made to yield 
 profitable returns. It seems poorly in accord with the prevailing 
 methods of thrift that large areas along our shore, which are more 
 valuable acre for acre than any upland, should be allowed to remain 
 unproductive, when they could, with a comparatively slight expenditure 
 of time and money, be made to yield substantial returns. It is incon- 
 ceivable that such a misguided policy can much longer control the shell- 
 fisheries. Already the matter has attracted popular attention, and will 
 soon be dealt with in the same progressive spirit which Massachusetts 
 has ever shown in the management of her industries. 
 
 Quahaug rAKMiNG. 
 Under the proposed system of quahaug culture the available terri- 
 tory comprising the tidal flats and shallow waters of our coasts would 
 be dotted with small areas imder artificial cultivation. There would 
 be a striking similarity in this arrangement to a tract of agricultural 
 country where fertile gardens are interspersed with stretches of meadow 
 and pasture land. There can be no question that the system which 
 holds sway over the agricultural districts of our coimtry is equally 
 desirable for our extensive shore areas, which now produce but a por- 
 tion of their normal yield. If these tracts could be divided, in part 
 at least, into small plots of cultivated ground^ nature would be greatly 
 assisted in her efforts to render these territories productive. 
 
48 
 
 That we may see to what degree the installation of such a system 
 would affect the industry, let us take one of these proposed cultivated 
 plots or grants to serve as a model. The average fisherman, an indus- 
 trious family man, would take out one of these little grants. At first 
 he would not depend very much on the income derived in this man- 
 ner, but would probably continue to flsh on the public grounds. Grad- 
 ually, as he became accustomed to its management, he would come to 
 look more and more to his own leased territory for a livelihood. He 
 would be constantly on the outlook in his trips around the bays and 
 coves of his home district for little " pocket " beds of small quahaugs, 
 where he could procure seed for his grant. He would carry this seed 
 carefully home with him, and experiment, with" ever-increasing interest, 
 in planting so as to insure the least loss and greatest gain. He would 
 be ever anxious to see how his novel harvest , was maturing, looking 
 over his bed from time to time to note the growth of the seed, and 
 to remove cockles and other enemies. If his little farm were located 
 between tide lines he would be careful to have his seed planted early 
 ill the spring, and would in most eases harvest the entire crop late 
 in the fall or early winter, before it suffered exposure to the ice. If 
 his grant were situated just below mean low-water mark, where it 
 would never be exposed, he could probably allow his seed to remain 
 for two seasons, when it would jdeld a still better profit. But wherever 
 situated, on soil at all suitable, he would possess in his little holding 
 of an acre or more property of such value that he would be able, under 
 normal conditions, to reap enough to support his family in very com- 
 fortable circumstances. He would be able to do this with far less 
 expense of time and labor than enterprises of this sort usually require. 
 While his grant would in every material respect be a miniature farm, 
 and would probably be known as such, it would be entirely free from 
 most of the labor involved in the care of the ordinary farm. No time 
 would have to be devoted to the work of plowing, harrowing or weed- 
 ing, which makes the life of the average farmer such a hard-working 
 existence. There would be none of the expense and labor of fertiliz- 
 ing, so necessary for the success of upland gardening; there would be 
 little or no time required in fighting the natural enemies of the grow- 
 ing crop which the upland farmer experiences. The quahaug has 
 few enemies, and these do little damage, and are, besides, easy to fight. 
 The fisherman-farmer would be free from anxiety on account of the 
 weather, over which his more unfortunate neighbor of the upland so 
 constantly worries. No drought, beating rain or early frost is likely 
 to injure his growing crop. Practically the only labor required is 
 that of seeding and harvesting, which are simpler and easier for the 
 shellfish culturist than for the farmer. The ordinary farmer is fre- 
 quently content to reap from his average acre of cultivated ground from 
 $20 to $50. The quahaug planter on an equal territory could raise 
 
49 
 
 many times that amount as under favorable circumstances $750 net may 
 be realized annually from one acre. 
 
 The comparison is strikingly in favor of the quahaug grant, and the 
 benefit of such a system is sure to follow for all coast communities. 
 The shellflsherman is raised from an uncertain livelihood to a position 
 of secure and comfortable independence, the communities made more 
 prosperous and a decadent industry revived. 
 
 History of Quahaug Farming. — Until within recent years few at- 
 tempts at quahaug culture have been made in Massachusetts, although 
 for some time oystermen in the States directly south have carried on 
 successful planting. The demand for small seed has extended even 
 to Massachusetts, and many thousand bushels have been shipped out 
 of the State for planting purposes. Nantucket, Chatham, and finally 
 New Bedford have taken their turn in this traffic, according to' the 
 abundance of small quahaugs. In 1909 one New York planter is au- 
 thentically reported to have purchased nearly 5,000 bushels of seed 
 from Massachusetts, paying $3 per bushel. During 1909 the shipment 
 of seed from New Bedford and Fairhaven approximated 45,000 bushels. 
 These small quahaugs are replanted in Long Island waters, and in one 
 year's time, according to the results of growth experiments, probably 
 netted the planter at least 4 bushels of marketable little necks for 
 every bushel planted. Lately some of the Massachusetts oystermen 
 have successfully raised quahaugs on their oyster grants, and are ready 
 to engage in a more extensive way. 
 
 The first legislative act permitting the planting of quahaugs was 
 passed for the Narragansett Bay section in 1874. This legislation 
 permitted the giving of licenses for the planting of shellfish in the 
 town bordering on Moimt Hope Bay. Nothing was accomplished, 
 however, as the law was repealed the following year. The second 
 movement took the form of a special law permitting the bedding of 
 quahaugs in Eastham, Orleans and Wellfleet in 1904, which in fact 
 was a semi-license. Finally, in 1909 a general law was passed, which 
 gave local option to the coast towns in the giving of grants. As yet 
 these laws appear to be without result. The " bedding " act was uti- 
 lized to some extent to hold quahaugs for market, and in a few cases 
 for growing purposes. No town has as yet taken advantage of the 
 general law. What culture has been carried on has been done secretly 
 or on the oyster grants, where protection is given. Under these 
 adverse conditions planting has proved remunerative, and there is 
 every indication that, when absolute protection is guaranteed the cul- 
 turist, a flourishing industry will be inaugurated. 
 
 Possibilities of Quahaug Farming.. — While the subject of clam 
 farming has received a great deal of attention, people have failed to 
 see that the same cultural methods can be employed even to greater 
 advantage with the quahaug. A quahaug farm, if properly tended, 
 
50 
 
 should yield more revenue, acre for acre, than any clam flat, and prove 
 a much safer investment for the planter. If it were not for the sear- 
 city of seed at the present time, quahaug culture, although confined to 
 the southern waters of the Commonwealth, would become the greatest 
 of the shellfish industries of Massachusetts. 
 
 The quahaug has a wide range; it is found in all depths of water, 
 from the high-tide line to a depth of more than 50 feet, and in various 
 kinds of bottom. This natural adaptability gives the quahaug a wider 
 area than any other commercial shellfish, as it will live in almost any 
 soil, although the rate of growth depends essentially upon its location 
 in respect to current. Vast areas, over 25,000 acres, on the southern 
 shores of Massachusetts, at present unproductive except for here and 
 there small scattering beds, can be utilized for shellfish farms, which, 
 when placed under cultural methods, should yield many times the pres- 
 ent production and furnish a livelihood for thousands of men. Qua- 
 haugs will grow on such areas as the Common Flats of Chatham, if they 
 are planted and properly cared for. Instance after instance can be 
 cited where the territory is so extensive that if every inhabitant of 
 that pEirticular locality were allotted a grant of two or three acres, the 
 leased portion would be but a small part of the whole area. It is 
 conservation of our natural resources in the truest sense to make use 
 of the great undeveloped possibilities of our shore waters. 
 
 Methods of operating a Quahaug Farm. 
 
 Selecting the Ground. — The planter should have two main ideas in 
 mind in choosing the location of his grant: (1) facilities for work and 
 marketing; (2) productive capacity. The ideal grant combines the two, 
 where the work is easy and the growth rapid, while a near-by market 
 furnishes high prices. Unfortunately, such delightful combinations are 
 few, and the culturist will have to choose a grant with such qualifica- 
 tions as he thinks best suited to his needs. For this reason it is desira- 
 ble to consider these points more in detail. 
 
 (1) Facilities for work comprise three things: (a) The accessibility 
 of the grant to the home of the culturist, where he can get to it with- 
 out loss of time and where he can have a protective oversight. The 
 term " home " is used here in the sense of landing place, boat mooring 
 or shellfish shanty, where the culturist keeps his equipment, (b) The 
 depth of water over the bed, and the nature of the bottom, as raking 
 in shallow water is much easier and less expensive as to time and im- 
 plements than the deep-water quahauging, while the firmness of the 
 bottom increases the work of raking. If, perchance, the grant is be- 
 tween the tide lines the labor of harvesting the quahaugs is less than 
 if they were continually covered by water, but in such a case the work- 
 ing period is limited, and the quahaug culturist risks the destruction 
 of his crop during the winter, (c) The ease of marketing is another 
 
51 
 
 factor, as distance and poor transportation facilities add to the expense. 
 The planter must consider the question of bringing his produce as 
 cheaply as possible to the railroad. 
 
 (2) The most important factor in the selection of the ground is its 
 productive capacity. The prime requisite of a grant is a rapid rate 
 of growth, which, for a grant situated below mean low-water mark, 
 depends upon two conditions, — the current or circulation of water 
 and the nature of the soil. In the case of the few grants existing either 
 permarlently or temporarily between the tide lines, a third condition, 
 exposure, demands attention, as the time of exposure at low tide re- 
 duces the feeding period of the quahaug. As the majority of the 
 g^rants will be below low-water mark the other two conditions are 
 more important. 
 
 (o) Soil. — The nature of the soil affects the quahaug in two ways: 
 (1) if too shifting it buries the quahaug or washes it beyond the border 
 of the grant; (2) soils in which organic acids, caused by the decay of 
 plant life, are present, prove unsatisfactory for any catching of seed, 
 interfere to a slight extent with the growth by destroying the shell, 
 and worst of all, give the quahaug a poor, black appearance, unfavor- 
 able for immediate marketing. While the effect of soils on shell for- 
 mation has never been worked out, and although the quahaug derives 
 its material for its shell from the water, nevertheless, the nature of the 
 soil in some indirect way determines the appearance, the composition 
 and the weight of the shell, as observations on quahaugs from various 
 soils in near-by localities indicate. 
 
 (6) Current. — The growth of the quahaug depends upon the circu- 
 lation of water, as the current is the " food carrier," and therefore, 
 within limits, the more current, the more food. Current also keeps the 
 ground clean, and prevents contamination or disease from spreading. 
 The most important point in choosing the ground is to locate the grant 
 where there is a good current, as growth is directly proportional to the 
 circulation of the water. It is possible, of course, for a place to have 
 so rapid a current that it would cause a shifting of the bottom, and 
 perhaps wash the quahaugs from their burrows, but such a current is 
 found in but few localities in which one would think of planting. 
 
 There are several other factors which do not influence the growth 
 directly but at the same time have more or less influence upon the 
 productive quaKties of the grant. i 
 
 (c) Pollution. — It is hardly necessary to more than mention the 
 danger to public health and the depreciation in the value of the mar- 
 keted quahaugs when it is publicly known that the grant is situated 
 in contaminated waters. Tor purely business reasons the planter should 
 ascertain the purity of the water in "the locality of his proposed grant, 
 as in the future the public will demand the closure of all polluted 
 waters and discountenance the sale of shellfish from such sources. 
 
 (d) The proximity of localities where seed quahaugs may be readily 
 
52 
 
 obtained, should be considered, as the cost of obtaining the necessary 
 stock is an important item. If the grant can be situated in the vicin- 
 ity of a natural quaiiaug bar, where seed can be obtained from the 
 natural set, it will prove advantageous. If a method of artificial 
 hatching of the seed, either from the egg or by spat collecting, is suc- 
 cessfully placed on a commercial basis, such a precaution will not be 
 necessary, as the quahaug culturist, like the oysterman, will be able 
 to raise his own seed. 
 
 (e) Closely connected with the study of the food of the quahaug 
 comes the question of flavor of the meat, an important item in mar- 
 keting. It is a well-known fact that quahaugs from various localities 
 have different flavors, and in the future there will be a greater use of 
 trade names and special brands, based on this fact. The flavor of a 
 quahaug depends upon its environment, and, although it has not been 
 absolutely proved, evidence points to the fact that the different flavors 
 are due to the different kinds of plant food. In the future, when 
 more practical knowledge is obtained about the food of these animals, 
 it may be possible to supply special flavors by artificial cultures 
 of food. Another factor determining the condition of the meats is the 
 presence of oils, chemicals, etc., from factory wastes, which sometimes 
 renders the shellfish unsavory. The soil and the silt in the water may 
 also influence the fiavor. 
 
 (/) The grant should be chosen in a well-protected locality. Nat- 
 ural conditions, such as loose sand, exposure to winds and choppy 
 seas, increase both the loss of stock and difficulty of labor. Masses of 
 floating eelgrass in some places are strewn over the bottom by storms, 
 interfering with the growth and increasing the labor. Fortunately, the 
 quahaug is hardy, and is not affected to any great extent by the ele- 
 ments, except when the grant is located between the tide lines. A 
 grant between the tide lines or close to low-water mark is an uncer- 
 tain investment, as there is always danger of destruction during a 
 severe winter, either by the ice or frost. The danger is not so much 
 in • the freezing of the quahaug as it is in the sudden thawing. If 
 frozen quahaugs are slowly thawed out they will assume normal func- 
 tions, as if nothing had happened, but when thawed out quickly many 
 perish. From observation it can be said that in a fairly protected 
 locality, where the grant is not too high between the tide lines, the 
 chances of loss from winter wUl not be more than one case out of 
 seven. 
 
 In some localities there may occur a slight loss from the winkle, a 
 natural enemy of the quahaug. The culturist can, by more or less 
 labor, according to their abundance, keep them off his property. As 
 the winkle is valuable for bait, the actual loss of time vpill be mini- 
 mized, and even if unmolested the damage will be slight. 
 
 The rule for choosing a grant should be: bottom of a mixture of 
 mud and sand (exact nature of soil not important) ; clear of eelgrass, 
 
53 
 
 especially thick eelgrass; water the depth of 3 feet or more at low 
 tide ; a good current; and such facilities for work as best suits the par- 
 ticular planter. 
 
 Oitaining the Seed. — Nature has not provided so abundant a means 
 of stocking the quahaug farms as is the case with the clam. The set 
 of quahaugs is more scattering and apparently less abundant. In 
 nature this is not necessary, because the young quahaugs after once 
 they have taken refuge in the sand, are more hardy than the young 
 dams, which perish in great numbers. Occasionally natural sets will 
 be foimd in limited localities, as Stony Bar, Wellfleet; Mill Pond, Chat- 
 ham; Acushnet River, etc. Trom these places the seed must be 
 obtained. At the present writing Acushnet River and Tuckernuck 
 Island have large beds of seed, which the inhabitants are industriously 
 shipping to planters outside the Commonwealth. As these beds vary, 
 occurring in different sections in succeeding years, the natural seed 
 must be purchased from the specially favored localities. Small qua- 
 haugs can also be obtained from Prince Edward Island, and probably 
 from the Southern States. 
 
 The planters might experiment in catching seed by simulating the 
 natural conditions of the seed bars on their grants, and turn their 
 grounds into spat collectors. By the combined efforts of interested 
 planters it would not be many years before a practical method of 
 spat collecting could be devised. As the object of most planters would 
 be the production of "little necks," the size for planting would be 
 under the maximum market " little neck." 
 
 Planting. — The grant needs little preparation for planting. After 
 the bounds are marked according to the regulations, thick eelgrass, stones 
 and other debris which would interfere with the raking, and enemies 
 such as winkles, should be gradually removed, either before planting 
 or in the work of harvesting. The planting of the small quahaugs is 
 a simple matter. It should take place preferably before May 1, when 
 the quahaug begins its summer growth, but as seed is scarce, the planter 
 will probably plant whenever he can procure the young. The quahaugs 
 should be scattered evenly from a boat by shovels such as the oyster 
 planters use, or it can be done in any way most convenient for the 
 culturist. Ordinarily the quahaugs will burrow in the sand in a short 
 time after they settle to the bottom. As their activity depends to a 
 great extent on the temperature of the water, it is not advisable to 
 plant in cold weather, as the quahaugs, instead of burrowing, will lie 
 exposed on the surface, where they are in danger of perishing. The 
 amount of seed that can be planted on any given area depends upon 
 the natural conditions, chiefly the current. As many as 20 to the square 
 foot can be bedded when the circulation is good, while the number 
 should be decreased or increased according to the speed of the current. 
 The planter, after a year or two, will be able to determine the exact 
 number he can plant on his grant to the best advantage. 
 
54 
 
 Working the Grant. — The work of earing for the grant ■will entail 
 but slight labor. No cultivation of the ground is required, as in the 
 upland farm, and the quahaug is left undisturbed until it has attained 
 marketable size. A certain amount of oversight -will be necessary to 
 keep off poachers, and time must be given to destroy enemies and clean 
 away any dead seaweed that drifts upon the grant, but further pre- 
 cautions are unnecessary. 
 
 Harvesting. — The principal labor comes in the harvesting of the 
 crop, which must be done by raking or tonging. The location and 
 natural conditions of the grant rtake this a variable factor, as depth 
 of water, hardness of bottom and exposure to rough water increase 
 the difficulty of rdking. While a certain portion of the crop inay be 
 taken at any season, the greater part will be marketed in the fall, 
 when the season of rakihg on the natural beds is nearing a close, in 
 order to get the advantage of the full summer's growth and the better 
 winter prices. The fall work will apply only to the more protected 
 grants which permit work in rough weather. The planter will have his 
 grant divided into sections according to the size of the planted seed, 
 which will be assigned in lots according to size and length of time 
 before marketing. By dividing the ground into three or more parts, 
 planted with quahaugs of different sizes, the culturist will have a sort 
 of rotation of crops, cleaning up and replanting one-third of his prop- 
 erty each year. In this way the planter will be able to place a uniform 
 size on the market and receive a proportionately better price for his 
 goods. There will be less labor in culling, and the " little necks " can 
 be shipped directly in barrels or bags to special customers. 
 
 The Value of a Quahaug Farm. — An acre of " little-neck " quahaugs 
 has a high market value. A conservative estimate of 10 per square foot 
 gives an annual yield of 600 bushels of 2%-inch quahaugs per acre. 
 This assumes that 120 bushels of 1%-inch quahaugs were planted to 
 the acre. The price paid for the same, at the high price of $5 per 
 bushel, would be $600. The price received for the same, at $3 per 
 bushel, would be $1,800, or a return of $3 for every $1 invested. This 
 is a conservative estimate on all sides. Quahaugs could be planted 
 two or three times as thick, seed might be purchased for less money, 
 more money might be received for private shipments, and faster growth 
 can be obtained. Practically the only labor necessary is gathering the 
 quahaugs for market. The quahaug farm requires no such care as the 
 agricultural farm, and offers far more profit. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest advantage to the fisherman, next to the amount 
 of quahaugs he can produce from his grant, is the fact that he is inde- 
 pendent of the market. The value of the present quahaug industry 
 lies chiefly in the production of "little necks," which could be made 
 a specialty under a cultural system. The planter cail market his qua- 
 haugs at whatever size and whatever time he desires, and is not forced 
 to ship during periods of low prices, as he can leave his quahaugs 
 
55 
 
 bedded on his grant. At the present time the quahaugers, except in 
 a few towns where there are " bedding rights," are forced to ship their 
 catch as soon as taken, and receive often a low market price. In this 
 way the planters could regulate, to a great extent, the market price 
 for their own benefit. 
 
 Advantage of a Uniform Size. — At the present time there is much 
 dissatisfaction among the quahaug fishermen who rake on the natural 
 beds because they receive poor prices. From the fisherman's stand- 
 point the dealer is to blame, as it is claimed that he is continually try- 
 ing to increase the middleman's profits. From the point of view of the 
 shellfish dealer the fault seems to be with the fisherman, who does not 
 carefully select his stock for market. A dealer is bound to pay better 
 prices for uniform and selected stock. The common practice is to ship 
 as " little necks " quahaugs of all sizes from 1% to 3 inches, large and 
 small promiscuously scattered through the barrel, or first a barrel of 
 large, then small, with the result that in most cases the dealer knows 
 not what to expect, and naturally gives a minimum price. Perhaps 
 with more care on the part of the quahauger this circumstance might 
 be improved to some extent; but the fault lies rather in the present 
 method of fishing. The logical method of increasing the price is the 
 steady shipment of uniformly selected stock. This is entirely impossible 
 under free-for-all fishing. Steady orders cannot be filled when raking 
 is irregular; a uniform size cannot be shipped, owing to the varied 
 yield of the natural beds; and the quahaugs, unless bedded as in 
 Orleans, "WeUfleet and Eastham, must be shipped for whatever price 
 is ofEered. Quahaug culture with its grant system offers a remedy, and 
 furnishes to the quahauger k means of controlling the market. In 
 contrast to the free fishery, the yield from the quahaug farm is steady 
 instead of irregular; only quahaugs of the maximum market size, nec- 
 essarily uniform, need be shipped, and the best prices obtained for 
 them, while the quahauger is not forced to ship at a low price, but 
 can wait until the market reaches his figure. As an illustration of the 
 difference in price between ordinary shipped " little necks " from the 
 natural fishery and uniformly selected stock from leased area, the 
 following case is cited : from a locality on Cape Cod in 1909 quahaugs 
 were shipped to market, the selected stock bringing $18 a barrel to the 
 planter at any season, the ordinary stock, ranging from 1% to 3 
 inches, only $10. No other proof is needed to show the advantage of 
 a uniformly selected stock, such as can be obtained only by quahaug 
 farming. 
 
 THE INDUSTRY. 
 
 From the standpoint of the fisherman the methods of capture and 
 
 preparation of the quahaug for the market need no explanation; but 
 
 the average reader, perhaps unfamiliar with the practical side, may 
 
 find the following pages of interest. In order to give a complete 
 
56 
 
 report upon the quahaug fishery, owing to the fact that such data may 
 be of use in later years for comparative purposes, it has been neces- 
 sary to include special parts of the mollusk report of 1909. 
 
 The Fishing Gbounds. 
 
 The quahaug is essentially a southern or warm-water mollusk and 
 Massachusetts practically marks the northern range of the fishery, 
 although quahaugs are taken in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. As shown 
 on the accompanying map (Fig. 30), only the southern waters of the 
 Commonwealth are included in this fishery. For greater detail the 
 reader is referred to the " Mollusk Eeport " of 1909. 
 
 The quahaug like the scallop territory can be arbitrarily separated 
 into four main divisions: (1) the north side of Cape Cod; (2) the 
 south side of Cape Cod; (3) Buzzard's Bay; (4) the Islands of Nan- 
 tucket and\ Martha's Vineyard. 
 
 North Side of Cape Cod. — In this section Plymouth marks the 
 northern range, as a few quahaugs are found in this harbor. Passing 
 south, small beds are found in Barnstable harbor, while from Brewster 
 north, in the waters of Orleans, Eastham and Wellfleet, the largest 
 quahaug fishery of the Commonwealth is carried on. A few quahaugs 
 are also found in Provincetown harbor and along the Truro shore. 
 The chief characteristics of this section are: the great rise and faU of 
 the tide, averaging about 10 feet, which leaves large areas of exposed 
 flats; the swiftness of the tides, causing a shifting of the sand bars; 
 and the great depth of the water over the quahaug beds. 
 
 Quahaugs are found both on the flats and in all depths of water, 
 although the commercial fishery is carried on mostly in the deep water, 
 with rakes ranging from 30 to 60 feet in length. The best beds are in 
 the deep water, as the other localities have been fished out, the qua- 
 hauging gradually extending to the deeper or the more exposed waters. 
 Unfortunately, quahaugs can be taken only on moderate days, as rough 
 water interferes with raking, and the quahauger who can average four 
 working days a week is considered fortunate. In this section the 
 basket rake shown in Fig. 59 is used. Quahaugs are taken also with 
 ordinary clam or garden rakes on the flats at low water, especially in 
 the harbors during the low course tides. About 8,000 acres are included 
 in this section. 
 
 {a) Barnstable Harbor. — In Barnstable harbor, on the north side 
 of the town, a few quahaugs are found in isolated patches, which are of 
 small commercial importance. In the future the vast barren flats may 
 be made productive of quahaugs as well as clams, although at present 
 the total area of the quahauging grounds is hardly 5 acres. 
 
 (6) Orleans and Brewster. — The fishery is conducted in the deep 
 water, with the basket rake. The area comprises about 1,000 acres 
 in Cape Cod Bay, and about 500 in Pleasant Bay, on the east side of 
 the two towns. 
 
57 
 
 (c) Eastham. — The quahaug territory comprises about 4,000 acres, 
 extending from the shore for a distance of nearly 3 miles. While 
 scattering quahaugs, largely blunts, are found over the entire area, the 
 fishery is conducted only at certain places. In 1910 a thickly set bed 
 of quahaugs was discovered south of Billingsgate Island. The question 
 of town jurisdiction over this bed has caused the towns of Wellfleet 
 and Eastham much legal dispute, court expense and hard feeling — 
 another instance of the insufficiency of the present method of town shell- 
 fish regulation. 
 
 (d) Wellfleet. — The quahaug territory of Wellfleet comprises about 
 2,500 acres, and approximately takes up all the harbor, wherever there 
 are no oyster grants, running from the " Deep Hole," between Great 
 Lsland and Indian Neck, southward to the Eastham line. Outside these 
 limits a few quahaugs are found on the flats of Duck Creek and along 
 the shore. They are more abundant on the north side of Egg Island, 
 where they are taken in shallow water with ordinary hand rakes. The 
 best quahauging is found in the channel, extending from an imaginary 
 line between Lieutenant's Island and Great Beach Hill south to Bil- 
 lingsgate and beyond. Here the greatest depth at low tide is 4% 
 fathoms, with a general average of- 3 fathoms. Raking is done with 
 long-handled basket rakes. 
 
 (e) Provincetown. — No commercial fishery is carried on. A few 
 quahaugs, chiefly little necks, are found in the tide pools among the 
 thatch on the northwestern side of the harbor. 
 
 South Side of Cape Cod. — This section, comprising the towns on 
 the south side of Cape Cod from Chatham to Falmouth, ranging in 
 order, from- east to west, Chatham, Harwich, Dennis, Yarmouth, Barn- 
 stable, Mashpee and Falmouth, has less territory, about 5,000 acres, 
 and produces only one-fifth of the jdeld on the north side of the Cape. 
 While this section is favorable for the scallop, quahaugs are not found 
 in any great numbers on the exposed waters on the Sound side, and 
 the grounds are mostly confined, except in the case of the Common 
 Flats of Chatham, to the enclosed bays and harbors, such as Pleasant 
 Bay, Lewis Bay, Osterville Bay, Waquoit Bay, etc. Natural conditions 
 are somewhat different than on the north side, as the rise and fall of 
 the tide is slight, about 2 feet, and, owing to the sheltered conditions, 
 raking can be carried on at all times during the summer months. The 
 shallow water permits easier raking and the use of shorter handled 
 rakes. Basket, claw and garden rakes are used, although the greater 
 part of the commercial fishery is conducted with the basket type. 
 
 (a) Chatham. — Chatham is favorably situated in regard to the qua- 
 haug fishery, as this shellfish is found in the waters on the north and 
 south sides of the town. The grounds are extensive, covering about 
 2,000 acres, the greater part of which consists of the vast area south 
 of the town, known as the Common Flats. The quahauging grounds 
 
58 
 
 are in four localities: (1) Pleasant Bay; (2) Mill Pond; (3) Stage 
 harbor; (4) Common Flats. 
 
 (b) Harwich. — Harwich shares with Chatham and Orleans the qua- 
 haug fishery of Pleasant Bay, but has a more limited territory, as only 
 a small portion of Pleasant Bay lies within the town limits. Practi- 
 cally all this territory, comprising 100 acres, is quahauging ground, 
 though the commercial quahauging is prosecuted over an area of 10 
 acres only. Scattering quahaugs are found over an area of 100 acres. 
 In the southern waters of the town, on the Sound side, scattering qua- 
 haugs are found in certain localities, but are not of any commercial 
 importance. The most important of those localities are off Dean's 
 Creek and in Herring Eiver, where quahaugs are dug for home eon- 
 sumption. 
 
 (c) Dennis cmd Yarmouth. — The quahauging grounds, about 200 
 acres in area, are practically all in Bass River, where Dennis and Tar- 
 mouth have equal fishery rights. 
 
 (d) Barnstable. — The greater part of the quahaug industry is con- 
 ducted on the south shore of the town, which is especially adapted, with 
 its numerous inlets, for the growth of this shellfish. The principal 
 fishery is in Cotuit harbor and West Bay, and is chiefiy shared by the 
 ■\'Ulages of OsterviUe, Marston's Mills and Cotuit, which lie on the east, 
 north and west sides, respectively, of the bay. The principal area for 
 quahauging is a fiat along Oyster Island, comprising about 70 acres 
 of sandy bottom, while directly west, in the center of the harbor, is a 
 strip of 80 acres of mud and eelgrass where scallops and quahaugs 
 abound. Scattering quahaugs arg foimd in OsterviHe harbor. West 
 Bay, Poponesset River and East Bay, comprising a total of 1,650 
 acres, of which part only is productive. At Hyannis the grounds are 
 confined to Lewis Bay, where they cover an area of 800 acres. Qua- 
 haugs are found in scattered patches over this area, but in no place 
 is quahauging especially good. 
 
 (e) Mashpee. — The best groimds are found in Poponesset Bay and 
 river, where a territory of 200 acres includes several oyster grants, 
 which are worked but little. On the east side of Waquoit Bay scatter- 
 ing quahaugs are found in Mashpee waters. 
 
 (/) Falmouth. — There is practically no quahaug industry in Fal- 
 mouth. Hardly 100 bushels are dug annually, and those only for home 
 consumption. A few quahaugs are perhaps shipped by the oystermen. 
 Quahaugs are found mostly in scattering quantities over a large area 
 in Waquoit Bay, and in small quantities on the north and west side 
 of Great Pond, comprising a total of nearly 400 acres. Not all this 
 ground is capable of producing quahaugs, but many parts could pro- 
 duce good harvests. 
 
 Buzzard's Bay. — The Buzzard's Bay section comprises the towns 
 bordering on the bay, and includes the towns of Falmouth, Bourne, 
 
59 
 
 Wareliain, Marion, Mattapoisett, Fairhaven and New Bedford, covering 
 an area of about 8,000 acres of quahauging territory. This section is 
 naturally v/ell adapted for the quahaug, as conditions are especially 
 favorable for its habitation. The numerous inlets and bays, the medium 
 rise and fall of the tide, the influx of the water as it courses in and 
 out of the little bays and estuaries, together with its warmth and the 
 abundance of food forms, renders Buzzard's Bay extremely well sit- 
 uated for the growth and propagation of the quahaug. This section 
 shows the greatest effects of overfishing, as part of the beds have 
 been almost exhausted and the remainder are under a severe strain. 
 The quahaug can never be exterminated completely, as when the supply 
 becomes scarce the number of men engaged in the fishery diminish, 
 but it is comparatively easy to ruin the commercial industry. The 
 natural adaptability of Buzzard's Bay will never fuUy be utilized until 
 a system of quahaug planting is inaugurated, whereby nature will be 
 assisted in the restocking of the depleted areas. Fishing is carried on 
 with a variety of rakes, from an ordinary garden to the large basket 
 rake. 
 
 (a) Falmouth. — Small patches of good quahaugs are found at 
 North Falmouth, Squeteague Pond, "West Falmouth harbor on the 
 southeast side, and a few in Hadley harbor, Naushon. 
 
 (6) Bourne. — Situated at the head of Buzzard's Bay, and sep- 
 arated from the adjacent town of Wareham by Cohasset Narrows, 
 Bourne has many advantages for a profitable quahaug industry. It 
 possesses nearly twice as much quahaug territory as Wareham, but, as 
 most of this is unproductive, has a smaller annual output. The terri- 
 tory includes over 2,500 acres of ground, most of which consists of 
 flats of mud, sand and eelgrass, covered with shallow water. It is very 
 sparsely set with quahaugs. Outside the oyster grants practically the 
 entire stretch of coast from Buttermilk Bay to Wing's Neck is qua- 
 hauging territory. Other grounds lie between Basset's Island, Scraggy 
 Neck and Handy's Point. 
 
 (c) Wareham. — Quahaugs are found over practically the entire 
 territory, and comprise a total area of about 1,300 acres. Although 
 much of this area is barren, the commercial fishery is maintained by 
 small isolated beds which occur here and there. The two principal 
 centers of the industry are in Wareham River and Onset Bay. At 
 Onset the whole bay, except the oyster grants, as included between the 
 southeast end of Mashnee Island and Peter's Neck, is used for qua- 
 hauging. A few quahaugs are found in Broad Cove, and fair digging 
 is obtained in Buttermilk Bay and Cohasset Narrows. The Wareham 
 River, outside the oyster grants, and a narrow shore strip from 
 Weweantit River to Tempe's Knob, comprise the rest of the territory. 
 In Onset channel a fine bed exists in deep water, 2 to 4 fathoms, but 
 the ground is so hard that not much digging is done. 
 
 (d) Marion. — The quahaug territory, comprising a total of 400 
 
60 
 
 acres, is chiefly confined to Marion harbor, running in a narrow strip 
 parallel to the shore from Aucoot Cove all along the coast to Planting 
 Island. Almost all the head of the harbor and all of Blankenship's 
 and Planting Island Cove is quahaug area. Small grounds are also 
 found at Wing's Cove and in the Weweantit River. 
 
 (e) Mattapoisett. — QuEihaugs are very unevenly distributed over 
 800 acres. The best quahangs axe found in Aucoot Cove and at 
 Brants. In the main harbor scattering quahaugs are found. 
 
 (/) Fairhaven. — Some 3,000 acres are more or less bedded with 
 quahaugs. Of this, probably not more than one-tenth is very produc- 
 tive. The best quahauging is in Aeushnet River, where digging for 
 market has been forbidden because of sewage pollution (see New Bed- 
 ford), and in Priest's Cove as far as Sconticut Neck. In these grounds 
 " little necks " are numerous. The grounds around West Island and 
 Long Island, once very productive, are now largely dug out. Little 
 Bay and the east coast of Sconticut Neck are fairly productive, while 
 the west coast yields only a small amount. Most of the quahaugs dug 
 for food come from the deep water west-southwest of Sconticut Neck. 
 
 (g) New Bedford. — Good beds of quahaugs, particularly " little 
 necks," exist in Aeushnet River and Clark's Cove, but can be taken 
 only for bait. As several sewers run into the Aeushnet River, and the 
 public health was endangered by the consumption as food of the qua- 
 haugs taken from the river and the waters near its mouth, nearly 400 
 acres of quahaug territory were closed by the State Board of Health. 
 What little available territory there is outside the proscribed area, oS 
 Clark's Point, is free to all. 
 
 The Islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. — This section 
 comprises valuable territory, especially in the production of " little 
 necks." The grounds, approximating 7,000 acres, are found princi- 
 pally in Katama Bay, Edgartown, Nantucket harbor and near the Island 
 of Tuckernuck. Conditions here resemble closely the south side of 
 Cape Cod, as regards exposure, rise and fall of the tide, and depth of 
 water. 
 
 (a) Nantucket. — Nantucket is especially adapted for quahaugs, as 
 Nantucket harbor, Maddequet harbor and the Island of Tuckernuck 
 possess extensive territory. The quahauging territory of Nantucket 
 is divided into three sections: (1) Nantucket harbor; (2) Maddequet 
 harbor; and (3) Tuckernuck. In Nantucket harbor quahaugs are 
 found over an area of 2,290 acres, both scattering and in thick patches. 
 Maddequet harbor, on the western end of the island, has approximately 
 300 acres suitable for quahaugs, running from Broad Creek to Eel 
 Point. On the eastern end of Tuckernuck Island is a bed of quahaugs 
 covering about 200 acres; while on the west side, between Muskeget and 
 Tuckernuck, is a large area of 2,500 acres which is more or less pro- 
 ductive. The Tuckernuck fishery is largely "little necks," and it is 
 from here that the shipment of small seed quahaugs has been made. 
 
61 
 
 (6) Edgartown. — The finest "little neck" fishery in Massachusetts 
 Ls found in Katama Bay, in the town of Edgartown. Two-fifths of 
 the entire catch are " little necks." The most productive grounds are 
 situated in the lower part of Katama Bay, while quahaugs are also 
 found in Edgartown harbor and in Cape Poge Pond, the total area of 
 these localities comprising 1,800 acres. 
 
 Industrial Practices. 
 
 Methods of Capture. — Several methods of taking quahaugs are in vogue 
 in Massachusetts, some simple and primitive, others more advanced and 
 complex, but all modifications of simple raking or digging. These methods 
 have arisen with the development of the industry, and record the historical 
 changes in the quahaug fishery, as each new fishery or separate locality 
 demands some modification of the usual methods. 
 
 (a) "Treading." — The early settlers in Massachusetts quickly leayned 
 from the Indians the primitive method of " treading " quahaugs, which re- 
 quired no implements except the hands and feet. The "treader" catches 
 the quahaug by wading about in the water, feeling for them with his toes 
 in the soft mud, and then picking them up by hand. Nowhere in Massachu- 
 setts is it used as a method of commercial fishery. 
 
 (6) Tidal Flat Fishery. — Often quahaugs are found on the exposed tidal 
 flats, where they can sometimes be taken by hand, but more often with 
 ordinary clam hoes or short rakes. Owing to the scarcity of quahaugs 
 between the tide lines, this method does not pay for market fishing, and 
 is resorted to only by people who dig for home consumption. 
 
 (c) Tonging. — In most parts of Buzzard's Bay and in a few places on 
 Cape Cod quahaugs are taken with oyster tongs. This method is applicable 
 only in water less than 12 feet deep, as the longest tongs measure but 16 
 feet. Four sizes of tongs are used, 8, 10, 12 and 16 feet in length. Tonging 
 is carried on in the small coves and inlets, where there is little if any rough 
 water. A muddy bottom is usually preferable, as a firm, hard soil increases 
 the labor of manipulating the tongs, which are used in the same manner 
 as in tonging oysters. 
 
 (d) RaTcing. — The most universal way of taking quahaugs is with rakes. 
 This method is used in every quahaug locality in Massachusetts, each town 
 having its special kind of rake. Four main types of rakes can be recog- 
 nized: — 
 
 (1) The Digger. — In some localities, chiefly in Buzzard's Bay, the ordi- 
 nary potato digger or rake, having four or five long, thin prongs, is used. 
 Usually it has a back of wire netting, which holds the quahaugs when caught 
 by the prongs. As the digger has a short handle of 5 feet, it can be used 
 only in shallow water, where the quahauger, wading in the water, turns 
 out the quahaugs with this narrow rake. This method yields but a scanty 
 return, and is more often used for home consumption than for market. 
 
 (2) The Garden Sake. — The ordinary garden rake, equipped with a 
 basket back of wire netting, is in more general use in shallow water, either 
 by wading or from a boat, as it has the advantage of being wider than the 
 potato digger. 
 
 (3) The Claw Rake. — This type pt rake varies in size, width and length 
 of handle. It is used chiefly at Nantucket. The usual style has a handle 
 
62 
 
 6 feet long, wMle the iron part in the form of a elaw or talon is 10 inches 
 wide, with prongs 1 inch apart. Heavier rakes with longer handles are 
 sometimes used for deep water, but for shallow water the usual form is the 
 short-claw rake. 
 
 (4) The Basket Bake. — The greater part of the quahaug production is 
 taken from deep water, with the basket rake. These rakes have handles 
 running from 23 to 65 feet in length, according to" the depth of water over 
 the beds. Where the water is of various depths, several detachable handles 
 of various lengths are used. At the end of these long handles is a small 
 crosspiece, similar to the crosspiece of a lawn mower; this enables the 
 quahauger to obtain a strong pull when raking. The handles are made of 
 strong wood, and are very thin and flexible, not exceeding 1% inches in 
 diameter. The price of these handles varies according to the length, but 
 the average price is about $2. As the long handles break very easily, great 
 care must be taken in raking. 
 
 Three forms of the basket rake are used in Massachusetts. These rakes 
 vary greatly in form and size, and it is merely a question of opinion which 
 variety is the best, as all are made on the same general principle, — a 
 curved, basket-shaped body, the bottom edge of which is set with thin steel 
 teeth. 
 
 The Wellfleet and Chatham rake is perhaps the most generally used for 
 all deep-water quahauging on Cape Cod, and finds favor with all. It con- 
 sists of an iron framework, forming a curved bowl, the under edge of which 
 is set with thin steel teeth varying in length from 2 to 4 inches, though 
 usually 2% -inch teeth are the favorite. Formerly these teeth were made of 
 iron, but owing to the rapid wear it was found necessary to make them of 
 steel. Over the bowl of this rake, which is strengthened by side and cross 
 pieces of iron, is fitted a twine net, which, like the net of a' scallop dredge, 
 drags behind the framework. An average rake has from 19 to 21 teeth, 
 and weighs from 15 to 20 pounds. 
 
 The basket rake used at Edgartown and Nantucket is lighter and some- 
 what smaller than the Wellfleet rake. The whole rake, except the teeth, is 
 made of iron. No netting is required, as thin iron wires % inch apart en- 
 circle lengthwise the whole basket, preventing the escape of any marketable 
 quahaug, and at the same time allowing the mud to wash out. This rake 
 has 16 steel teeth, 1% inches long, fltted at intervals of 1 inch in the bottom 
 scraping bar, which is 16 inches long; the depth of the basket is about 8 
 inches. Shorter poles, not exceeding 30 feet in length, are used, and the 
 whole rake is much lighter. The price of this rake is $7.50, while the poles 
 cost $1.50. 
 
 The third form of a basket rake is a cross between the basket and claw 
 rakes. This rake is used both at Nantucket and on Cape Cod, but is not so 
 popular as the other types. The basket is formed by the curve of the prongs, 
 which are held together by two long cross-bars at the top and bottom of the 
 basket, while the ends are enclosed by short strips of iron. This rake ex- 
 emplifies the transition stage between the claw and basket types, indicating 
 that the basket form was derived from the former. Handles 20 to 30 feet 
 long are generally used with these rakes. 
 
 Shallow V. Deep Water Quahauging. — Two kinds of quahauging are found 
 in Massachusetts, — the deep and the shallow water fisheries. This arbitrary 
 distinction also permits a division of localities in regard to the principal 
 
63 
 
 methods of fishing. Although in all localities there exists more or less 
 shallow-water fishing, the main quahaug industry of several towns is the 
 deep-water fishery. In all the Buzzard's Bay towns except Fairhaven and 
 New Bedford the shallow-water fishery prevails ; this is also true of the south 
 side of Cape God. On the north side of Cape Cod the opposite is true, as 
 the quahauging at Wellfleet, Eastham, Orleans and Brewster is practically 
 all deep water fishing. At Edgartown and Nantucket, although there is 
 considerable shallow-water digging, the deep-water fishery is the more im- 
 portant. 
 
 The deep-water fishery is vastly more productive than the shallow-water 
 industry, furnishing in 1907 118,500 bushels, compared to 23,227 bushels, 
 or more than five times as much. The deep-water fishery, i.e., the basket-rake 
 fishery, is the main quahaug fishery of the State, and each year it is increas- 
 ing, because of the opening of new beds. On the other hand, the shallow- 
 water grounds are rapidly becoming barren from overfishing. The deep- 
 water quahauging is harder work, requires considerable capital but has fewer 
 working days. Naturally the earnings from this fishery should surpass those 
 of the shallow-water industry. The deep-water quahauger averages from 
 $5 to $8 for a working day, while the shallow-water fisherman earns only 
 from $2 to $3 per day. 
 
 Both power and sail boats are used in deep-water quahauging, though 
 power is gradually replacing the old method of sailing, because of its in- 
 creased efficiency and saving of time. When the quahaug grounds are 
 reached, the boat is anchored at both bow and stern, one continuous rope 
 connecting both anchors, which are from 500 to 600 feet apart, in such a 
 way that the bow of the boat is always headed against the tide. A sufficient 
 amount of slack is required for the proper handling of the boat, which can 
 be moved along this anchor "road" as on a cable, and a large territory 
 raked. The rake is lowered from the bow of the boat, the length of the 
 handle being regulated by the depth of the water, and the teeth worked into 
 the sandy or muddy bottom. The quahauger then takes firm hold of the 
 crosspiece at the end of the handle, and works the rake back to the stem of 
 the boat, where it is hauled in and the contents dumped on the culling board 
 or picked out of the net. In hauling in the net the rake is turned so that 
 the opening is on top, and the mud or sand is washed out before it is 
 taken on board. The long pole passes across the boat and extends into the 
 water on the opposite side when the rake is hauled in. This process is 
 repeated until the immediate locality becomes unprofitable, when the boat 
 is shifted along the cable. The usual time for quahauging is from half 
 ebb to half flood tide, thus avoiding the extra labor of high-water raking. 
 Deep-water raking Is especially hard labor, and six hours constitute a good 
 day's work. 
 
 Boats. — Nearly aU kinds of boats are utilized in the quahaug fishery, 
 and are of all values, from the $10 second-hand skifE to the 38-foot power 
 seine boat, which costs $1,500. The shallow-water industry requires but 
 little invested capital. Dories and skiffs are the principal boats, costing 
 from $10 to $25. Occasionally a sail or power boat may be used in this 
 fishery. The deep-water industry requires larger and stronger boats. These 
 are either power or sail boats, often auxiliary " cats,'' and their value runs . 
 anywhere from $150 to $1,500. The average price for the sail boats is $250, 
 while the power boats ar^ assessed at $350. At Orleans several large power 
 
64 
 
 seine boats, valued at about $1,500, are used in the quahaug fishery. These 
 seine boats are 30 to 38 feet over all, have low double cabins, and are run 
 by 8 to 12 horse-power gasolene engines. The ordinary power boats have 
 gasolene engines from 2 to 6 horse-power. In this way each method of 
 quahauging has its own boats, which are adapted for its needs. 
 
 Dredging. — So far as known, dredging is never used in quahauging in 
 Massachusetts, although it is sometimes used on sea-clam beds. It has been 
 tried, but without success, chiefly because of the uneven nature of the 
 bottom. The invention of a suitable dredge is necessary, and there can be 
 little doubt that in the future, if this difficulty is overcome, dredging will 
 be used in the quahaug fishery. In 1879 Ingersoll (8) reports in Ehode 
 Island the use of a quahaug dredge similar in structure to our rake. Evi- 
 dently this form was never especially successful, possibly because these 
 dredges could not be dragged by sail boats. 
 
 Outfit of a Quahauger. — The implements and boats used in quahauging 
 have already been mentioned. The outfit of the average quahauger in each 
 fishery is here summarized: — 
 
 Deep-water Quahauging. 
 
 Boat $300 
 
 2 rakes. 20 
 
 3 poles, . ... 6 
 
 $326 
 
 Shallow-water Quahauging. 
 
 Boat $20 
 
 Tongs or rakes, ... 3 
 
 Baskets, ..... 2 
 
 $25 
 
 Season. — The quahaug fishery is essentially a summer fishery, and little 
 if any is done during the winter. The season in Massachusetts lasts for 
 seven months, usually starting the last of March or the first of April, and 
 ending about the first of November. The opening of the spring season 
 varies several weeks, owing to the severity of the weather; and the same is 
 true of the closing of the season. 
 
 As a rule, the Buzzard's Bay industry, where digging is done in the 
 shallow waters of protected bays and coves, using short rakes and tongs, 
 has a longer season than the quahaug industry of Cape Cod, where the 
 fishery is carried on in deep and open waters. With the former, the cold 
 work and hardship alone force the quahaugers to stop fishing, a long time 
 after storms and rough weather have brought the latter industry to an end. 
 
 The actual working days of the deep water quahauger number hardly 
 over 100 per season, while those of the shallow-water fisherman easily out- 
 number 150. The deep-water quahauger's daily earnings are two or three 
 times the daily wages of the shallow-water quahauger, but the additional 
 number of working days in part makes up this difference. 
 
 The quahaug season can be divided arbitrarily into three parts: (1) 
 spring; (2) summer; (8) fall. The spring season lasts from April 1 to 
 June 15, the summer season from June 15 to September 15, and the fall 
 season from September 15 to November 1. These seasons are marked by 
 an increase in the number of quahaugers in the spring and fall. The 
 men who do summer boating quahaug in the spring before the summer 
 people arrive, and in the fall after the summer season is over. The opening 
 of the scallop season, in towns that are fortunate enough to possess both 
 
65 
 
 industries, marks the closing of the quahaug season. These two industries 
 join so well, scalloping in the winter and quahauging in the summer, that 
 a shellfisherman has work practically aU the year. 
 
 Marketing. — The principal markets for the sale of Massachusetts qua- 
 haugs are Boston and New York. In 1879 the Boston market, according to 
 Ingersoll (8), sold comparatively few. At the present time the Boston 
 market disposes of many thousand bushels annually, but nevertheless the 
 greater part of the Massachusetts quahaugs are shipped to New York. This, 
 again, is due to the better market prices offered by that city. Besides pass- 
 ing through these two main channels, quahaugs are shipped direct from the 
 coast dealers to various parts of the country, especially the middle west. 
 This last method seems to be on the increase, and the future may see a 
 large portion of the quahaug trade carried on by direct inland shipments. 
 
 (o) Shipment. — Quahaugs are shipped either in second-hand sugar or 
 flour-barrels or in bushel bags. The latter method is fast gaining popularity 
 with the quahaugers and dealers, owing to its cheapness, and is now steadily 
 used in some localities. When quahaugs are shipped in barrels, holes are 
 made in the bottom and sides of the barrel, to allow free circulation of air 
 and to let the water out, while burlap is used instead of wooden heads. 
 
 (6) "Culls." — Several culls are made for the market. These vary in 
 number in different localities and with different firms, but essentially are 
 modifications of the three "culls" made by the quahaugers: (1) "little 
 necks;" (2) "sharps;" (3) "blunts."' The divisions made by the firm of 
 A. D. Davis & Co. of Wellfleet are as follows: (1) "little necks," small, 
 1% to 2% inches; large, 2% to 3 inches; (2) medium "sharps," 3 to 3% 
 inches; (3) large "sharps," 3% inches up; (4) small "blunts;" (5) large 
 " blunts." 
 
 (c) Price. — The prices received by the quahaugers are small, compared 
 with the retail prices. "Little necks" fetch from $2.50 to $4 per bushel, 
 sharps and small blunts from $1.10 to $2, and large blunts from 80 cents 
 to $1.50, according to the season, fall and spring prices necessarily being 
 higher than in summer. The price depends wholly upon the supply in the 
 market, and varies greatly, although the " little necks " are fairly constant, 
 as the demand for these small quahaugs is very great. To what excess the 
 demand for " little necks " has reached can best be illustrated by a compari- 
 son between the price of $3 paid to the quahauger per bushel, and the actual 
 price, $50, paid for the same by the consumer in the hotel restaurants. 
 
 (d) Bedding Quahaugs for Market. — By town laws in Orleans, Eastham 
 and Wellfleet, each quahauger may, upon application, secure from the select- 
 men a license, giving him not more than 75 feet square of tidal flat upon 
 which to bed his catch of quahaugs. While no positive protection is guaran- 
 teed, public opinion recognizes the right of each man to his leased area, 
 and this alone affords sufficient protection for the success of this communal 
 effort, which is the first step by the people toward quahaug farming. 
 
 The quahauger needs only to spread his catch on the surface, and within 
 two tides the quahaugs will have buried themselves in the sand. Here they 
 will remain, with no danger of moving away, as the quahaug moves but 
 little. The quahauger loses nothing by this replanting, as not only do the 
 quahaugs remain in a healthy condition, but even grow in their new en- 
 vironment. 
 
66 
 
 The result of this communal attempt at quahaug culture is beneficial. 
 While the market price for " little necks " is almost always steady, the price 
 of the larger quahaugs fluctuates considerably, and the market often becomes 
 "glutted." This would naturally result in a severe loss to the quahauger 
 if he were forced to. keep shipping at a low price. As it is, the fortunate 
 quahauger who possesses such a grant merely replants his daily catch until 
 the market prices rise to their proper level. An additional advantage is 
 gained by the quahauger, who at the end of the season has his grant well 
 stocked, as higher prices are then offered. As many as 1,000 barrels are 
 often held this way at the end of the season. 
 
 History of the Fishery. — Although reckoned inferior to the soft clam 
 (Mya arenaria), the quahaug was dug for home consumption for years in 
 Massachusetts, and but little attempt was made to put it on the market. 
 The commercial quahaug fishery started on Cape Cod, about the first of 
 the nineteenth century, growing in extent until about 1860. From 1860 
 to 1890 the production remained about constant. The production in 1870 
 for Massachusetts, as given by A. Howard Clark, totalled 11,050 bushels, 
 valued at $5,525. It is only in the last fifteen to twenty years that the 
 actual development of the quahaug fishery has taken place. The present 
 production of Massachusetts is 144,044 bushels, valued at $194,687. To 
 the popular demand for the "little neck" can be attributed the rapid de- 
 velopment of the quahaug industry during the last ten years. This develop- 
 ment has furnished employment for hundreds of men, and has given the 
 quahaug an important value as a sea food. What it will lead to is easily 
 seen. The maximum production was passed a few years ago, constant over- 
 fishing caused by an excessive demand is destroying the natural supply, and 
 there will in a few years be practically no commercial fishery, unless meas- 
 ures are taken to increase the natural supply. Quahaug farming offers the 
 best solution at the present time, and gives promise of permanent success. 
 
 Not only has there been an increase in production, but also an increase 
 in price, which has more than doubled between 1888 and 1902, and has 
 alone supported a declining fishery in many towns, making it still profitable 
 for quahaugers to keep in the business, in spite of a much smaller catch. 
 The advance in price is due both to the natural rise in the value of food 
 products during the past twenty-five years and also to the popular demand 
 for the " little neck," or small quahaug. 
 
 Statistics of the Quahaug Fishery. — In the following table the towns are 
 arranged in alphabetical order, and the list includes only those towns which 
 now possess a commercial quahaug fishery. In giving the number of men, 
 both transient and regular quahaugers are included. In estimating the 
 capital invested, the boats, implements, shanties and gear of the quahauger 
 are alone considered, and personal apparel, such as oil-skins, boots, etc., are 
 not taken into account. The value of the production for each town is based 
 upon wliat the quahaugers receive for their quahaugs, and not the price 
 they bring in the market. The area of quahaug territory given for each 
 town includes all ground where quahaugs are found, both thick beds and 
 scattering quahaugs. 
 
67 
 
 Town. 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 Men. 
 
 Capital 
 
 in- 
 vested. 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 Boats. 
 
 Num- 
 ber of 
 Dories 
 and 
 Skiffs. 
 
 1907 PEODnOTION. 
 
 Area in 
 Acres. 
 
 Value 
 of Yield 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 per 
 Acre. 
 
 Barnstable, 
 
 25 
 
 $850 
 
 - 
 
 25 
 
 2,500 
 
 13,700 
 
 950 
 
 S3 95 
 
 Botime, 
 
 46 
 
 1,000 
 
 - 
 
 46 
 
 5,400 
 
 8,400 
 
 2,500 
 
 3 36 
 
 Chatham, . 
 
 50 
 
 5,750 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 6,700 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 5 00 
 
 Dennis, 
 
 15 
 
 150 
 
 - 
 
 10 
 
 500 
 
 950 
 
 200 
 
 4 76 
 
 Easthatn, . 
 
 25 
 
 8,000 
 
 12 
 
 - 
 
 10,000 
 
 11,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 2 87 
 
 Edgartown, . 
 
 70 
 
 12,000 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 20,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 1,800 
 
 17 77 
 
 Fairhaven, . 
 
 115 
 
 5,000 
 
 11 
 
 100 
 
 15,000 
 
 16,500 
 
 3,000 
 
 60 60 
 
 Falmouth, . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 -• 
 
 - 
 
 100 
 
 115 
 
 400 
 
 29 
 
 Harwich, 
 
 7 
 
 200 
 
 - 
 
 7 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,550 
 
 100 
 
 25 50 
 
 Marion, 
 
 19 
 
 250 
 
 - 
 
 19 
 
 800 
 
 1,500 
 
 400 
 
 3 75 
 
 Mashpee, 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 250 
 
 285 
 
 400 
 
 71 
 
 Mattapoisett, 
 
 28 
 
 500 
 
 - 
 
 28 
 
 800 
 
 1,500 
 
 760 
 
 2 00 
 
 Nantucket, . 
 
 48 
 
 6,750 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 6,294 
 
 8,487 
 
 5,290 
 
 1 60 
 
 Orleans, 
 
 75 
 
 25,000 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 .33,000 
 
 41,350 
 
 1,500 
 
 27 66 
 
 Wareham, 
 
 50 
 
 1,000 
 
 - 
 
 60 
 
 6,000 
 
 10,600 
 
 1,300 
 
 8 08 
 
 Wellfleet, 
 
 145 
 
 27,500 
 
 100 
 
 - 
 
 33,000 
 
 41,350 
 
 2,600 
 
 16 54 
 
 Yarmouth, 
 
 20 
 
 240 
 
 - 
 
 10 
 
 2,200 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 4 00 
 
 Totals, 
 
 745 
 
 $94,260 
 
 250 
 
 378 
 
 144,044 
 
 5194,687 
 
 28,090 
 
 56 93' 
 
 1 Average. 
 
 The Laws. 
 
 In the past there has been a scarcity of quahaug legislation as there 
 has been little demand for the protection of this moUusk; but within a 
 few years the legal regulation of the quahaug fishery will become a most 
 important part of the shellfish legislation of Massachusetts. The qua- 
 haug industry is entering, upon a new phase of existence, the cultural 
 stage, and the development of the industry along such lines will neces- 
 sarily entail numerous laws governing the leasing, planting, pollution 
 and sale of quahaugs. Tor this reason it may be well to consider what 
 has already been done in a legislative way for the protection of the 
 quahaug fishery. 
 
 Little direct quahaug legislation has been passed, as the quahaug usu- 
 ally has been included in general laws with other commercial shellfish. 
 The reason for the lack of legislation is probably due to the recent 
 growth of the quahaug fishery, which has only in the past fifteen years 
 developed into an important industry. 
 
 Previous to 1904 the quahaug, with the clam, oyster and scallop, 
 came in the general acts under the term shellfish. The general acts were 
 of several kinds: (1) town regulation; (2) permits; (3) seizure in 
 
68 
 
 vessels; and (4) protection of the shellflsheries by limiting the catch, 
 place and time of taking. 
 
 In 1874 occurs the first mention of the word quahaug in a legislative 
 act "to regulate the shellflsheries in the waters of Mount Hope Bay 
 and its tributaries," whereby the selectmen of the towns bordering on 
 Mount Hope Bay were permitted to grant licenses for the cultivation 
 of clams, quahaugs, scallops and other shellfish to any inhabitant. It 
 seems strange that such an advanced and beneficial act should have been 
 passed at that early period, since it was clearly before its time, as is 
 shown by its repeal the following year. It is only within the last two 
 years that similar legislation has been passed for the quahaug, as 
 illustrated by the act of 1909, which permits the granting of leases for 
 the growing of quahaugs by the selectmen provided the town meeting 
 has voted to adopt the general law. The act of 1874, although it 
 applied only to the Narragansett Bay section of Massachusetts, brings 
 out clearly the fact that the cultivation, of shellfish is no new project 
 as it was considered of practical importance thirty-five years ago. 
 
 In 1880 the word quahaug again appears in the general act whereby 
 the Commonwealth gave to the towns and cities their present oversight 
 and power " to control and regulate the taking of eels, clams, quahaugs 
 and scallops." This act was later amended by the Acts of 1889, but 
 the general terms were not changed, and the present law differs but 
 slightly. As the seacoast towns hold their control over the shellfish- 
 eries as a direct trust from the Commonwealth, it is their duty to 
 preserve the fisheries, while the Commonwealth should see that the 
 towns take the proper care of their natural shellfish resources. Cer- 
 tain towns should be deprived of the rights which they are abusing 
 in neglecting one of the great resources of the public wealth, which 
 belongs not only to the inhabitants of the seashore communities but 
 to every resident of this Commonwealth. At the present time, owing 
 to a certain self-satisfaction and fear of outside influence, the ma- 
 jority of fishermen prefer the present system of town control, no 
 matter if the shellflsheries suffer, and until public opinion is favorable 
 for the utilization of the quahaug flshery for every inhabitant of the 
 Commonwealth, both fishermen and consumer, State control is not 
 desirable. 
 
 In 1900 occurred the first special quahaug legislation, in the form 
 of an act forbidding in the towns of Swansea and Somerset the capture 
 of quahaugs less than 1% inches across the widest part. Since that 
 time five other laws relating to the quahaug flshery have been enacted, 
 in all three town and three general. The following features are illus- 
 trated by these acts : — 
 
 Limiting the Size of Quahaugs captured. — The capture of quahaugs 
 under 1% inches across the widest part was forbidden by law in 1900 
 in the towns of Swansea and Somerset, in 1901 in Berkley, in 1903 
 in Edgartown, and in 1904 in Eastham, Orleans and Wellfleet. This 
 
69 
 
 law has also been adopted by other towns under the regulation of the 
 selectmen, and is to be commended for the protection afforded to the 
 home industries, as the gain for leaviag the small quahaugs is many 
 times the profits on the small seed. In this connection attention is 
 again called to the shipment in the past of the small seed from Nan- 
 tucket, Chatham and New Bedford to localities outside the State, where 
 they are replanted, with a return, in one year's time, of about 5 
 bushels for every bushel planted. 
 
 Permits. — In Eastham, Orleans and WeUfleet the selectmen are em- 
 powered to issue permits for the capture of the quahaug, while in 
 Edgartown, Berkley, Swansea and Somerset the permits are issued 
 for shellfish in general. Often the towns are very slack about the 
 enforcement of requiring permits, although Edgartown is to be highly 
 commended for the excellent manner of regulating, by inspectors, her 
 shellfish permits. These permits are given at the discretion of the 
 selectmen, and are supposed to require six months' residence in the 
 town. Different prices are charged for these permits: in Edgartown, 
 $2; in "Wellfleet, $1; in Berkley, although empowered by the Acts of 
 1901, no permits are given; in Somerset and Swansea only clam per- 
 mits are given. The provisions of the Edgartown permit limit the 
 catch to 4 bushels from simrise to sunset, no more than 2 of which 
 can be " little necks.'' The WeUfleet permits limit the daily catch to 
 4 barrels per man. 
 
 Bedding Quahaugs. — In Eastham, Orleans and "Wellfleet the select- 
 men may give, for a period of not over two years, under such conditions 
 as they may deem proper, to any inhabitant of the respective towns, 
 licenses to bed quahaugs in any waters, flats or creeks where there 
 is no natural quahaug bed, not covering more than 75 feet square 
 in area, and not impairing the private rights of any person or ma- 
 terially obstructing any navigable waters. The object of this law was 
 to make possible the advantage of a favorable market, as the qua- 
 hauger could bed his catch until the market brightened and the price 
 went up, otherwise he would be compelled to ship at a low figure. 
 Undoubtedly the originators of this act did not foresee that in this 
 way they had taken the first step toward quahaug farming, as the 
 success of bedding quahaugs has demonstrated to the quahaugers of 
 this section the practical benefits which would be derived from quahaug 
 culture. 
 
 Contaminated Waters. — One of the detrimental results of civiliza- 
 tion has been the pollution of the public waters in Massachusetts, 
 which appears to us most unfortunate, as in the light of present-day 
 knowledge, such a state of affairs could be readily avoided. The ten- 
 dency of the past has been to dispose of sewage, manufacturing wastes 
 and other refuse by allowing it to flow into the nearest streams. In this 
 way some of the finest rivers in the Commonwealth, the Merrimac, Con- 
 necticut, Taunton, Charles and Mystic, have had their fisheries ruined. 
 
70 
 
 Pollution has not been confined to the fresh water alone, but has 
 for eommereial purposes ruined the shellfish beds of many salt-water 
 harbors. In several cases, particularly at Boston, Lynn and New Bed- 
 ford, certain parts of the harbors have been closed by the State Board 
 of Health in the interest of the public health. 
 
 For years the relation of the oyster from infected beds to epidemics 
 of typhoid fever has been known and definitely traced. The same is 
 true of the clam and quahaug, particularly the "little neck," which is 
 consumed raw. The quahaug, when feeding, acts as a living filter, 
 since all the microscopic forms in the water, taken through the incur- 
 rent siphon, are strained out by the cilia on the gills. Thus, if the 
 typhoid bacilli are present in the water, as is the case when sewage 
 from the houses of typhoid patients empties near the shellfish beds, 
 they are collected by the feeding quaiaug. The person partaking of 
 a raw quahaug from this locality would be ingesting a concentrated 
 collection of germs, with perhaps serious results. Cooked quahaugs are 
 more free from germs, and if thoroughly cooked are possibly whole- 
 some, as a certain temperature is fatal to the bacillus. Unfortunately, 
 cooking cannot always be relied upon to reach the requisite temperature. 
 
 In 1901 it was enacted that the Commissioners on Inland Tisheries 
 and Game (now the Commissioners on Fisheries and Game), whenever 
 so requested in writing by the State Board of Health, should prohibit 
 the taking of oysters, clams, scallops and quahaugs from the tidal waters 
 or flats of any part of the Commonwealth for such period of time as 
 the board of health might determine. The penalty for violation was, 
 for first offence not less than $5 and not more than $10, and not less 
 than $50 nor more than $100 for each subsequent offence. Unfortu- 
 nately the beneficial effect of this law, namely, the protection of the 
 public health by the closing of sewage-polluted areas, was rendered 
 void by the passage of a bill in 1907 permitting the taking of shell- 
 fish from these areas for b^t, upon securing permits from the board 
 of health. Although the law provides heavy penalties for buying and 
 selling, experience has shown the impracticability of effective enforce- 
 ment on account of the ease with which (1) proofs are destroyed by 
 the violator, and (2) the difficulty of tracing any lot of polluted shell- 
 fish to prove that their ultimate destination, perhaps a week or two 
 hence, is human food and not fish bait. Very few quahaugs are used 
 for bait, and the absurdity of the situation is shown when in the case 
 of the Acushnet River over 1,100 permits to take quahaugs for bait 
 have been issued by the New Bedford Board of Health. In such cases 
 as the Acushnet River, where seed quahaugs are abundant, a means 
 should be found to permit the sale of the seed for planting purposes 
 within the Commonwealth by the passage of a special act for the town 
 of Fairhaven and city of New Bedford. But until the laws permit 
 the planting of such quahaugs it is impossible to adequately solve the 
 question of obtaining seed from the polluted areas. Transplanted 
 
71 
 
 to pure water these moUusks will readily purify themselves from all 
 contamination. 
 
 Biological Investigation. — In 1905 the Commissioners on Fisheries 
 and Game were empowered to make a biological investigation and 
 report as to the best methods, conditions and localities for the propaga- 
 tion of quahaugs. The results of that investigation are embodied in 
 this report. 
 
 Planting, Cultivation and Bedding of Qudha/ugs. — In 1909 the select- 
 men of towns or the mayor or aldermen of cities, provided the act is 
 approved by the city council or by the voters of the town at an annual 
 or special town meeting, are empowered to issue written licenses for 
 the purpose of planting and cultivating quahaugs upon and in the flats 
 and creeks below mean low-water mark, for a term of not more than 
 ten and not less than five years. The important fact that up to the 
 present time no town has taken advantage of this act, which permits 
 practical quahaug culture being carried on, is another proof of the 
 inability of the coast towns to properly adjust their point of view 
 toward the practical means not only of preserving their natural supply 
 from extinction but also of building up an extensive and profitable 
 business for the inhabitants. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Provisions. 
 
 1900, . 
 
 1901, . 
 1901, . 
 
 1903, . 
 
 1905, . 
 1909, . 
 
 Special town, . 
 
 Special town, . 
 State, 
 
 Special town. 
 
 State, 
 State, 
 
 No qualiaugs less than Ij inolies to be taken in Swansea 
 and Somerset. 
 
 No quahaugs less tliau \\ inches to be taken in Berkley. 
 
 No quahaugs to be taken from the waters closed by the 
 Stato Board of Health. 
 
 No quaiiaugs less tlian X\ inches to be taken in Eastliam, 
 
 Orleans and Wellflcet. 
 Selectmen of these towns empowered to grant permits 
 
 for taking quahaugs. 
 For bedding quahaugs, grants not exceeding 75 feet square, 
 
 given on the flats and creeks. 
 
 Biological investigation of quahaug fishery by the Fishl^and 
 Game Commission. 
 
 Planting, cultivation and bedding of quahaugs. 
 
 The Food Value. 
 The market value of the quahaug except in the case of " little necks " 
 depends rather upon the quality of the meat than on the appearance 
 of the shell. In the growth experiments the ratio of the meats to the 
 shell, in other words, the "fattening," has been little considered. 
 While an increase in shell naturally presupposes a corresponding in- 
 crease in the soft parts, it- does not always follow that the quality of 
 the soft parts has improved. Oyster planters bed oysters to obtain 
 rapid growth, and then transplant the stock to other waters to " fatten " 
 for the market, because localities of rapid growth are not always suit- 
 able for fattening purposes. Naturally the ratio between shell and 
 
72 
 
 meat varies in the different localities, owing to the environment, food, 
 amount of lime in the water, etc. The prospective quahaug culturist 
 should therefore determine not only the growing property of his grant 
 but also the quality of the pi;oduet. 
 
 Owing to the heavy shell the actual amount of food is but a small 
 per cent, of the total weight of the quahaug. To find the ratio between 
 the meat and shell, a series of determinations on various sized quahaugs 
 were made in three localities, Buzzard's Bay, the Islands and the north 
 side of Cape Cod. For this purpose quahaugs were taken from Fair- 
 haven, Nantucket and Wellfleet. Four sizes of "sharps," 10 each, 
 measuring 55, 65, .75 and 85 millimeters, were taken for comparative 
 purposes in each locality. Whenever possible the weight of "blunts" 
 of similar sizes was also recorded for comparison with the " sharps." 
 The method of work consisted in (1) obtaining the correct sizes from 
 the fresh catch, care beitig taken to select no deformed specimens; (2) 
 the determination of the total weight; (3) the removal of the meats and 
 fluid; (4) determination of the weight of the meats; (5) records of 
 the natural conditions of the beds where the quahaugs were taken; 
 (6) determination of the volume of the different parts by water dis- 
 placement to serve as a check on the weighing. 
 
 Chemical Composition. — As a food the quahaug ranks next to the 
 scallop and ahead of the oyster in proteins, carbohydrates and min- 
 erals. The following figures are from the tables of Professor Atwater, 
 rearranged by Langworthy (15). The food value of the quahaug in 
 the shell, removed from the shell and canned is compared with the 
 scallop, oyster and clam. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 !S 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 .-i 
 
 
 (D 
 
 a< 
 
 P*. 
 
 
 
 .g 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 •I 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 .-fe 
 
 n^ 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■a+s 
 
 ^Q 
 
 ^f. 
 
 
 u 
 
 '^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 
 n 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 « 
 
 to 
 
 \f 
 
 Ik 
 
 e 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 f» 
 
 Oysters, solids 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 88.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.3 
 
 .9 
 
 U.7 
 
 235 
 
 Oysters, in shell 
 
 83.3 
 
 - 
 
 15.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 .2 
 
 .6 
 
 .4 
 
 2.3 
 
 40 
 
 Oysters, canned 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 85.3 
 
 7.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 300 
 
 Scallops 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 80.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 .2 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 19.7 
 
 345 
 
 Soft clams, in shell, 
 
 43.6 
 
 - 
 
 48.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 .6 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 8.0 
 
 135 
 
 Soft clams, canned, 
 
 
 - 
 
 84.S 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.3 
 
 15.fi 
 
 275 
 
 Quahaugs, removed from shell. 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 80.8 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 2.3 
 
 19.2 
 
 340 
 
 Quahaugs, in shell, , , . . 
 
 68.3 
 
 - 
 
 27.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 .1 
 
 1.3 
 
 .9 
 
 4.4 
 
 65 
 
 Quahaugs, canned, .... 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 83.0 
 
 10.4 
 
 .8 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 17.0 
 
 285 
 
 Mussels 
 
 49.3 
 
 - 
 
 42.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 .5 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 140 
 
 General average of mollusks (exclu- 
 
 60.2 
 
 _ 
 
 34.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 .4 
 
 1.3 
 
 .9 
 
 5.8 
 
 100 
 
 sive of canned). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
73 
 
 The Meat. — The entire solid contents of the quahaug is used f or 
 food, whereas with the scallop only the adductor muscle or " eye " 
 is taken. The meat is either eaten raw, when the quahaugs are served 
 as " little necks " on the half shell, or cooked in various ways. 
 
 With advancing age, as is shown by the increase in the weight of 
 the meat of the " blunt " when compared with the same sized " sharp," 
 the flesh becomes tough and of a yellow color, which renders it less 
 edible than the tender " little neck." 
 
 Comparison by Localities. — In the following table the average qua- 
 haug of 70 millimeters (2% inches) for "WeMeet on Cape Cod, Nan- 
 tucket on Vineyard Sound, and Fairhaven on Buzzard's Bay is shown. 
 The per cent, by weight of the different parts was determined by the 
 average of the four sizes, as described above. The important factor 
 is the per cent, by weight of the solid contents. 
 
 The average gives the value for the 70-millimeter quahaug for the 
 State. From 100 pounds of quahaugs by weight the consumer would 
 obtain 13.57 pounds of meat. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Total (Per 
 Cent.). 
 
 Shell (Per 
 Cent.). 
 
 Solid 
 
 Contents (Per 
 
 Cent.). 
 
 Fluid 
 
 Contents (Per 
 
 Cent.). 
 
 Ill 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 62.98 
 63.09 
 61.33 
 
 12.12 
 13.63 
 15.07 
 
 24.90 
 23.38 
 23.60 
 
 Average, 
 
 100 
 
 62.47 
 
 13.67 
 
 23.96 
 
 
 The Food Value of the Quahaug and Scallop. — In comparing the 
 food value of the scallop and quahaug by weight it is necessary to 
 eliminate the fluid in the shell from consideration, as it is variable with 
 the scallop. Again, only the adductor muscle is eaten in the scallop, 
 while the entire solid contents of the quahaug is consumed. When the 
 weight of the shell and the edible portion are considered, it is interest- 
 ing to note that the amount of edible materal in both shellfish is 
 practically the same in per cent, by weight, being 17.85 per cent, for 
 the quahaug, and 17.77 per cent, for the scallop. Since the weight 
 of the quahaug's shell is 82.15 per cent, and the scallop's but 49.43 
 per cent., the non-edible soft parts of the scallop amount to 32.80 per 
 cent. 
 
 , Shell. — The amount of lime in the water and age of the quahaug 
 determine the weight of the shell, although the character of the soil 
 appears to have an indirect effect upon the nature of the lime structure. 
 Likewise, the rate of growth is important, as the slow-growing quahaugs 
 apparently have thicker shells than those in more favorable localities. 
 As the size of the quahaug increases from 55 to 85 millimeters the 
 weight of the shell in per cent, of the total weight increases .06 per 
 cent, for each millimeter gain in length, the meats .04 per cent., while 
 
74 
 
 the fluid contents decreases .1 per cent. The shell of a " blunt " weighs 
 over one and one half times that of a " sharp " of the same size. 
 
 Unlike the scaUop the quahaug is seldom put through the process of 
 " soaking," as it is usually shipped to market in the shell. Occasionally 
 when " shucked " the volume is increased by judicious " feeding " with 
 fresh water. The small quahaugs are more responsive to "soaking" 
 than the old tough specimens, but as they are generally served on the 
 half shell this process is seldom used. 
 
 " Soaking " is accomplished by placing the quahaug meats in fresh 
 water, thereby causing a sweUing of the tissues, which increases the 
 bulk about one-thir-d. The principal change is attributed to osmosis, 
 which distends the tissues. It was found that after twenty-four hours 
 of soaking the tissues lost the water and gradually returned to their 
 normal weight. 
 
 THE RATE OF GROWTH. 
 
 Object. — The experiments on growth were conducted with the fol- 
 lowing objects: (1) to ascertain the normal rate of growth; (2) to find 
 the average length of life; (3) to determine the length of time neces- 
 sary for the production of a marketable quahaug; (4) to discover 
 practical methods of artificial culture and propagation in order to 
 replenish the barren flats and to check the decline of the natural supply ; 
 (5) to obtain information of value to prospective quahaug eulturists. 
 
 General Plan. — The principal results of these experiments have 
 already been given in previous reports and this paper merely presents 
 the work in detail showing the general method of obtaining the data. 
 With the limited appropriation available $500 per year it was impos- 
 sible to conduct the investigation in as extensive and comprehensive a 
 manner as could have been desired. In order to obtain satisfactorily 
 the general growth for Massachusetts and the effect of environment, 
 such as soil, current, tide, depth of water, etc., it was necessary to have 
 a large number of experimental plots. As means were limited, the 
 greater part of these beds were of small size, less than ^iooo of an acre, 
 since it was considered advisable to plant a large number of small plots, 
 covering a variety of conditions, rather than a few large costly beds, 
 as small areas seem to furnish, for all practical purposes, a true index 
 of growth in any locality. In accordance with this plan 187 small 
 experimental beds were planted along the Massachusetts coast, and 
 \ records of their growth were taken at stated intervals over a period of 
 ^flve years. By planting quahaugs which were five years old, as well 
 as younger ones, at the beginning of the investigation the growth of 
 the quahaug has been determined not only for the five years but for a 
 much longer period. The growth experiments of Kellogg (2) were 
 taken as a basis for this investigation, and the work carried out upon 
 the lines indicated by that investigator. The experiments have been 
 conducted on a practical commercial basis, as the main object was the 
 increasing of the natural supply. 
 
75 
 
 Methods of Work. 
 
 Localities. — Five places on the Massachusetts coast were chosen as 
 representative localities: (1) the island of Nantucket; (2) Monument 
 Beach on the shore of Buzzard's Bay; (3) Pljrmouth harbor, repre- 
 senting the northern commercial range of the quahaug; (4) Wellfleet 
 harbor, the center of the greatest quahaug area in the Commonwealth ; 
 and (5) Monomoy Point, in the town of Chatham, as representing the 
 south side of Cape Cod. As it seemed best to concentrate the work as 
 much as possible, the greater part of the experiments were conducted 
 in the last two localities, only a few beds being planted in the other 
 three. These two places, Wellfleet and Monomoy, may be considered 
 as fairly representative of the two great quahaug areas, — the north 
 and south sides of Cape Cod. 
 
 Experimental Beds. — The first experimental plots were laid out in 
 terms of the acre, %ooo of an acre being the usual size. The later beds 
 were made even smaller, %ooo of an acre. The number of quahaugs 
 corresponded to the size of the bed, and in most cases they were thinly 
 planted as only in special instances was crowding necessary for experi- 
 mental purposes. The planted quaiiaugs if they were fortimate enough 
 to escape the raids of fishermen and summer residents, were measured 
 annually, and the rate of growth recorded as long as the bed escaped 
 destruction by man or nature. The beds were marked by stakes and 
 protected by signs, which stated briefly that the enclosed plot was under 
 control of the Commonwealth for experimental purposes, as provided 
 by chapter 327, Acts of 1906. Less difficulty was found in protecting 
 the quahaug experiments than similarly planted clam beds, which were 
 often destroyed through human agency. The first beds were laid out 
 in the form of pens, made by sinking boards in the soil so that they 
 projected slightly above the surface. Owing to the difficulty of sink- 
 ing the boards, the use of this type of bed was limited to shallow 
 water. Later, when records of the migration of the quahaug were 
 obtained, such precautions were' found unnecessary, as the quahaug 
 generally remains where planted. 
 
 The method of planting was extremely simple, the quahaugs being 
 evenly distributed over the surface of the bed where, in a short time, 
 according to the temperature of the water, they would burrow in the 
 soil. In shallow-water beds and in special cases where greater accuracy 
 was desired the quahaugs were buried by hand in the soil. 
 
 Owing to the impossibility of obtaining by raking all the quahaugs 
 in beds such as above described, a factor which would make for inaccu- 
 racy, a method of planting was tried in which boxes of various sizes, 
 filled with sand, were used with excellent results. The moUusks, placed 
 in these boxes, could be lowered to any depth in the desired locality, in 
 such a manner that they cotild readily be taken up and all the qua- 
 haugs obtained. 
 
76 
 
 The beds were divided into two classes, below low-water mark and 
 between the tide lines. Each bed was designed to illustrate a particular 
 point in regard to conditions, favorable or unfavorable, which influ- 
 ence the growth of the quahaug, and for this reason different locations 
 were tried. A record of each bed was kept, giving aU facts about its 
 natural location, records of growth, etc. By a comparison of these 
 beds, the favorable and unfavorable conditions for quahaug culture 
 could be ascertained. The beds were put in both good and poor places, 
 on natural quahaug ground and on barren area, as often through the 
 failure of a bed the cause may be discovered and a remedy suggested. 
 
 The Seed, — All sizes of quahaugs were planted in order to obtain 
 data on the growth of the animal for a long period and to arrive at 
 some conclusion as to the length of Ufe. In general, the smallest obtain- 
 able were used, the usual size being 1 to 1% inches. To satisfactorily 
 obtain a complete record of the growth of this animal it was necessary 
 to have quahaugs extremely small. Although "little necks" and even 
 slightly smaller quahaugs could be procured at Edgartown, no qua- 
 haugs of small size could be obtained at the regular quahauging places 
 in sufficient numbers for planting. This was due not so much to the 
 lack of quahaug seed as to the impossibility of raMng them in any 
 great depth of water. This difficulty was encountered only at the 
 start, as later the smaU quahaugs were caught in the spat boxes at 
 Monomoy Point. In the fall of 1905, by a fortunate chance a place 
 was found at Nantucket where quahaugs of extremely small size, run- 
 ning from 6 to 8 millimeters, could be obtained as late as November 1. 
 The seed thus obtained furnished the nucleus for the growth experi- 
 ments at Monomoy Point, and in 1906 another stock was obtained from 
 the same place. 
 
 The following description of the locality at Nantucket where the 
 small quahaugs were obtained in 1905 and 1906 is taken from notes 
 made at that time : — 
 
 Coatou Point, consisting of a narrow strip of sandy beach, lies directly 
 across the harbor from the village of Nantucket. On one side is a salt-water 
 pond, connected with the harbor by a stream through which the tide flows 
 into the pond. The stream has a bed of coarse sand and is protected by 
 a sand bar at its mouth. The sand in the lower part of the stream, which 
 extends for about 50 yards in a crooked course, is fine and clear wEte. Half 
 way up there is a stretch of fine gravel and above this coarse sand. At 
 the upper part of the stream, where it nears the pond, the sides rise abruptly 
 in banks lined with heavy thatch, and are heavily set with the ribbed mussel 
 {Modiola plicatula), while large bunches of the common mussel (^Mytilis 
 edulis) lie in the bed of the stream. In this part of the creek the quahaugs 
 were abundant, and could be exposed by raking the surface of the sand. 
 Many of these small quahaugs had a bit of green algae attached to the beak 
 of the shell, and were especially numerous in the clumps of mussels. Qua- 
 haugs could be obtained as large as 1% inches, but no larger, while the 
 
77 
 
 majority were small (6 to 8 millimeters). The locality is evidently one of 
 slow growth, judging from the appearance of the quahaugs and from the 
 fact that no increase in growth between August and the following spring 
 could be noticed. The method of gathering these small quahaugs was by 
 hand and by sifting the sand through fine mesh screens, a slow process, as 
 only 200 could be gathered per hour by one person. 
 
 In the following year, 1906, the seed under 1% inches was obtained 
 at Edgartown in Katama Bay. The quahaugs were raked in the usual 
 manner with a basket rake of the Edgartown type; but instead of 
 washing the mud and sand from the rake when it was drawn to the 
 surface of the water, as is customary, the contents were dumped at 
 once on the culling board, where the small quahaugs, which otherwise 
 would have slipped through the meshes of the rake, were separated 
 from the debris. 
 
 Another method of obtaining seed was by means of the box spat col- 
 lectors on the raft at Monomoy Point. The subject of spat collecting 
 has already been discussed, and the method of obtaining the young 
 quahaugs described. It was possible to obtain the desired sizes, even 
 very small specimens. In this way a study of the early life history 
 proved advantageous for the cultural experiments, as quahaugs could 
 be hatched for planting purposes. 
 
 Measuring the Quahaugs. — For convenience the measurements were 
 taken in the metric system. Three methods of measuring were used: 
 (1) rule; (2) callipers and rule; (3) triangular measuring instru- 
 ment, such as pictured in the report on the " Scallop Fishery," 1910. 
 The first two were used only for a short time at the beginning of the 
 work and soon gave place to the third method, which proved more 
 satisfactory in speed and accuracy. This instrument consists of an 
 inverted triangle, formed by two strips of metal welded together at 
 the apex of the triangle and joined at the base by a short cross-piece. 
 The whole structure is made of brass, except the braised joint, and 
 can be made as light as desired, although there is danger of a heavy 
 blow rendering a light instrument inaccurate. Several sizes are used in 
 the work, the most convenient having a base measuring 3 inches. The 
 sides of the triangle are scaled in the metric system on one face and in 
 fractions of inches on the other, the divisions corresponding to the milli- 
 meter markings on the ordinary rule, being about 5 millimeters apart, 
 thus enabling the operator to make easier and more accurate readings. 
 When measuring, the triangle is held with the base away from the 
 body, and the object is brought down the narrowing sides until it 
 strikes, at which point the measurement is read. 
 
 Three measurements were made of each quahaug, length, along the 
 anterior posterior axis ; width, from the umbones to the edge of the shell, 
 along the dorso-ventral axis; and thickness, from valve surface to 
 valve surface, along the lateral axis. After a sufflcient number of 
 
78 
 
 measurements were taken, a table was formulated by which the corre- 
 sponding width and thickness for any given length might be calculated. 
 The use of this table eliminated the necessity of taking more than the 
 length measurements. 
 
 An easy method of recording the growth of the planted quahaugs 
 consisted in notching the edges of the shell with a file. The mark thus 
 made would remain permanently on the shell, showing the increase in 
 growth. This eflScient method was originally used by Dr. A. D. Mead 
 of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries in his experiments 
 on the soft clam {My a), and has proved very satisfactory in our 
 quahaug experiments. It has been used not only as a check upon other 
 measurements, but, in connection with the table of length and width, has 
 provided a permanent record for successive yearly growths. 
 
 Tne simple statement of the gain in length does not adequately 
 express the actual increase in the bulk of the quahaug, which should 
 be indicated in terms of volume. A quahaug which grew in one year 
 from a length of 1 inch to a length of 2 inches, a gain of 1 inch, does 
 more than merely double in size, as the figures would seem to indicate. 
 When the gain in volume is considered by comparing the water dis- 
 placement of the two sizes, it is found that the volume of the 2-inch 
 quahaug is over seven times that of the 1-inch, which gives the true 
 increase. The quahaug shuts its shell closely enough to be water 
 tight, and it is relatively an easy matter to accurately obtain its 
 water displacement, a process impossible with the soft clam and scal- 
 lop, which have more or less open shells. A table (see Table 3) of 
 volume by water displacement and number per quart was made for 
 each length from 1 to 88 millimeters, several hundred specimens being 
 used for each size, except for the sizes under 6 millimeters. The indi- 
 vidual quahaugs vary greatly, some being thick, others thin, some nar- 
 row, others wide. For this reason it was necessary to use a large 
 number of quahaugs of each size, and after plotting the results on 
 co-ordinate paper to form a uniform curve for the volume. 
 
 Monomoy Experiments. 
 During the period from 1905 to 1910 growth experiments were con- 
 ducted in the Powder Hole, a sheltered harbor of salt water situated 
 at Monomoy Point, Chatham, at the elbow of Cape Cod. In former 
 years the Powder Hole was a spacious harbor where a hundred vessels 
 could anchor, but the sand bars have so shifted that at the present time 
 nothing remains but an almost enclosed body of water, of perhaps 3 
 aqres, connected with the ocean on the bay side by a narrow opening 
 through which a dory may enter at high tide. The opening changes 
 constantly, owing to the shifting nature of the sand, and has succes- 
 sively worked from the south to the north side, closed and re-opened 
 again at the south at intervals of one and a half years. A large part 
 of the original harbor is now either dry land or salt marsh, while on 
 
79 
 
 the north and west side is a sand flat of 3 acres, -which up to 1910 con- 
 tained an abundant quantity of soft clams. The harbor itself is slowly 
 diminishing in size, due to the encroachment of the sand, and will 
 doubtless eventually become a small pond, not connected with the ocean. 
 By referring to Fig. 31 the location of the flats and experiments can 
 be seen. 
 
 The water on the north and west sides averaged from 15 to 18 
 feet in depth, gradually shoaling to the south and east. In the shallow 
 water the soil was covered with an abundant growth of eelgrass. The 
 rise and fall of the tide was about iy2 feet on the average, but ex- 
 tremely erratic, as the force and direction of the wiod and the posi- 
 tion of the opening were important in determining the amount of water 
 passing through the narrow inlet. The location and depth of the 
 opening made it possible for the clam flat to be constantly under water 
 for weeks, while at other times several days might pass with the water 
 barely covering the flats. At such times the water was over the flats 
 for only a brief period, probably not averaging much over five hours 
 out of the twenty-four. Naturally, the amount and frequency of the 
 tidal flow affected the salinity of the water, which varied somewhat 
 with the influx of the tide. The amount also varied with the high 
 or low running tides, as a certain height had to be reached before 
 water would flow through the inlet. 
 
 The Powder Hole, which was taken by the Commonwealth for exper- 
 imental lobster hatching, proved an excellent locality for experiments 
 on the life and growth of the quahaug, as it was a natural breeding 
 ground. In addition to the quahaugs naturally bedded in this body of 
 water, additional seed was planted for experimental purposes. A small 
 laboratory was erected on the shore, and a raft 20 feet long by 10 feet 
 wide (see report on the " Scallop Fishery,'' 1910) was securely, moored 
 in the deepest part of the harbor. 
 
 Box Experiments. — Two main classes of experiments were under- 
 taken, (1) bed and (2) box, which differ only slightly, the box form 
 being a more convenient modification of the experimental bed previously 
 described. This form consisted of small grocery boxes filled with sand and 
 supplied with rope handles, by which they could be let down in any depth 
 of water, either suspended from the raft or placed on the bottom in any 
 part of the Powder Hole, where they could be raised by a line or a 
 long hooked pole whenever desired. The advantage of the experimental 
 box over the bed lay first, in greater accuracy, as it permitted the 
 operator to obtain each time the same number of quahaugs that he 
 planted, a thing that it is almost impossible to do in a planted bed, where 
 the quahaugs must be raked under water; secondly, it furnished a con- 
 venient means of handling; and thirdly, it permitted the planting of 
 numerous small beds, equally as efficient from a practical standpoint, 
 under a variety of natural conditions in the different parts of the 
 Powder Hole. 
 
80 
 
 The box experiments were divided into four classes: (a) rack boxes 
 placed on posts; (&) boxes in the shallow water near the shore, at a 
 depth of from 1 to 5 feet; (c) boxes in deep water, 10 to 18 feet; and 
 (d) boxes suspended by ropes from the raft. In aU cases, especially 
 on the raft, the boxes were made as strong as possible to withstand 
 the strain of lowering and taking up. The boxes could be used only 
 one year, as the ship worms (Teredo) render the wood unfit for 
 service. 
 
 The method of planting a box experiment is comparatively simple. 
 Rope handles are stretched diagonally from end to end, the number 
 of the experiment carved on the side of the box, and the box filled 
 one-half to two-thii'ds full of clean sand from the shore. The dimen- 
 sions of the box and the height of the sides above the sand are 
 recorded. The quahaugs, which have previously been measured and 
 notched by a file on the edge of the shell, are either placed on the 
 surface of the sand and allowed to burrow when the box is under 
 the water, or are placed in their natural position under the sand. 
 The box is then lowered at the desired locality. 
 
 (1) Back Boxes. — This group comprises the first box experiments, 
 which were started in October, 1905, and continued tmtil October, 1908. 
 These experiments have been grouped together as they comprise all 
 the box experiments of 1905. During the first ten months these boxes 
 were not on the raft, but were located in a different part of the 
 Powder Hole, under circimistances which will be briefly described as 
 follows : — 
 
 Wooden boxes of the same length and as nearly as possible the same 
 size were arranged so as to slide between two upright posts about 8 feet 
 long driven firmly in the bottom in from 5 to 6 feet of water. At inter- 
 vals on, the posts were wooden pins, so adjusted that they could be 
 withdrawn at will. These pins furnished a resting place and support 
 for the boxes. Thus the boxes could be raised or lowered for examina- 
 tion at any time. The posts were driven down so that the tops were 
 from 1% to 2 feet below the surface of the water at low tide, to pre- 
 vent their being carried away by the ice. To the ends of the boxes 
 were attached galvanized iron handles 3 by 4 inches, which, passing 
 over the posts, made the runners for the boxes. Considerable difficulty 
 was encountered in putting down the posts in getting them the right 
 distance apart, so the boxes would slide easily. One box was used to 
 set the posts and the others lowered after the posts were in position. 
 The boxes were placed in sets of two and three, the former being 
 found more advantageous. 
 
 The natural conditions of the quahaugs which were planted in these 
 boxes were especially favorable. The location was in the northeast 
 end of the Powder Hole, as is shown in Fig. 31, at the edge of the deep 
 water, or where the old channel once existed. The bottom was mud 
 covered with thin eelgrass, while the depth of the water at low tide 
 
81 
 
 averaged 5^/2 feet. The sand in the boxes was taken from the exposed 
 flats of the Powder Hole, and was coarse and firm. Raised as they 
 were from the bottom at various heights, the quahaugs were entirely 
 free from the influence of the dead eelgrass, and were able to get a 
 better circulation of water than if resting on the bottom. The sand 
 in the different boxes did not extend flush with the top, but varied from 
 1% to 5 inches from the top of the box, leaving a projecting rim. 
 When taken up the sand in the boxes had a muddy appearance at the 
 surface, due to the settling of matter floating on the water. The depth 
 of water over the boxes varied with their location, since all the racks 
 were below low-water mark, and were never exposed. No means were 
 at hand for obtaining the exact rate of current over these experiments, 
 but the circulation was good, and while perhaps not as swift as at the 
 raft was all that could be desired by the quahaug planter. The den- 
 sity varied with the influx of the tide from 1.021 to 1.025. 
 
 (2) Shallow-water Boxes. — The boxes were somewhat larger than 
 the deep-water boxes, as they could be more easily handled. These 
 boxes were located principally on the south and east sides of the 
 Powder Hole, both on clear bottom and in eelgrass. It is interesting 
 to note that the rate of growth in the boxes was more rapid than for 
 quahaugs in the natural soil in the same locality. 
 
 (3) Deep-water Boxes. — These boxes were of small size, for con- 
 venience in raising. Two methods of raising them were tried. Where 
 the water was sufficiently shallow to permit the box being seen, the 
 pole with hook was used. In the deeper water a rope and small 
 wooden buoy were attached to the box. 
 
 (4) Baft Boxes. — A raft, 20 feet long by 10 wide, was moored in 
 the Powder Hole near the flat on the north side, where the deepest 
 water and best circulation were obtained. It was provided with a cen- 
 tral well and four trap-doors, by means of which the boxes could be 
 lowered to any depth up to 18 feet. The raft was used only during 
 the summer months, and was hauled on land for the winter, the box 
 experiments being transferred for winter to water deep enough to 
 escape the ice. During the winter of 1906 to 1907 a heavy rope frame 
 on posts was placed under the water at a depth of 2% feet from the 
 surface. On this framework, primarily intended for wire scallop cages, 
 were suspended a number of quahaug boxes, while others were placed 
 on the ground in the same locality at a depth of 11 feet. 
 
 The natural conditions on the raft were especially favorable for 
 quahaug growth, and extremely good results were obtained. The posi- 
 tion of the raft was such as to receive the full benefit of the incoming 
 tide as it passed through the opening over the flat, bringing with it the 
 abundant diatomous food accumulated on the sand. In this way the 
 circulation of the water in the vicinity of the raft was the best in 
 the Powder Hole, and accounts for the better growth in the raft boxes. 
 
 In addition to the box experiments, quahaugs were also placed in 
 
82 
 
 wire cages or baskets, and their growth obtained out of the sand. 
 These cages were made of various sized wire mesh, from % to IVi inch, 
 according to the size of the quahaugs, and usually measured 1% by 
 1 by V2 feet. They were suspended from the raft in the same manner 
 as the boxes. Tor the very small quahaugs a series of jars were sus- 
 pended, a few quahaugs in each jar. 
 
 Experimental Beds. — The experimental beds can be divided into 
 two classes, (1) between the tide lines, (2) below low-water mark. 
 The tidal beds were located in the different parts of the clam flat in 
 connection with clam experiments (Pig. 31). The first of these beds 
 was put out in October, 1905, and the last taken up in 1910. The 
 main results are shown by the comparison of growth between the 
 tide lines only one-fifth of the time imder water and on the raft under 
 nearly the same conditions. The first of these beds were in the form 
 of pens made by sinking boards into the sand, but the later ones were 
 planted without bounds of any sort, as it was found that the quahaugs 
 did not travel far. 
 
 The beds below low-water mark were mostly confined to the east and 
 south side of the Powder Hole, in shallow water from 2 to 4 feet 
 deep, both in clear spaces and on eelgrass bottom. The entire number, 
 six, planted in 1905 and 1906, were in the form of pens, and varied 
 in size from M.000 to Vioo of an acre. In all these beds the rate of 
 growth was slow. 
 
 The growth experiments at Monomoy, as already shown, were grouped 
 into the raft and bed classes. The two kinds of experimental beds, 
 between the tide lines and below low-water mark, were continued from 
 1905 to 1910. The raft experiments, however, were separated into 
 two series, the first during the four years from 1905 to 1908, when 
 the main laboratory was at Monomoy Point, and the second during 
 1909 and 1910. The object of the first series was to determine the 
 average rate of growth and methods of planting; the second, the 
 growth of old quahaugs and blunts. 
 
 Plymouth Experiments. 
 Three beds of quahaugs, Nos. 118, 186 and 187, were planted on the 
 flats of Plymouth harbor in connection with experiments on the soft 
 clam {My a arenaria). The experimental beds, situated between the 
 tide lines, were located on Grey's and Egobert's flats in the town of 
 Kingston, on the western side of the harbor. Plymouth harbor pre- 
 sents a vast area of flats more or less covered with eelgrass, with a 
 great variety of soils. Three towns, Duxbury, Kingston and Plymouth, 
 share the fishing rights of this harbor. The general and natural con- 
 ditions are: (1) large rise and fall of tide; (2) good circulation of 
 water, due to the swift currents, except on the shore fiats of the west- 
 ern side; (3) high flats with long exposure; (4) variety of soils from 
 a shifting sand to a soft mud; (5) great area of eelgrass flats. 
 
83 
 
 Egobert's, the larger of the two Kingston flats, has an area of about 
 275 acres, covered by thick eelgrass except for a triangular piece on 
 the mid-southern section, which comprises about 80 acres of smooth, 
 unshifting sand. The greater part of this section is barren, although 
 a few clams are scattered along the edge near the channel. Grey's flat, 
 situated to the west of Egobert's, is of an entirely difCerent type. It is 
 a long flat, with a uniform width of 100 yards. It runs throughout 
 its length parallel to the shore, while on the east side it is separated 
 from Egobert's by a 300-foot channel. Like Egobert's, it is covered 
 for the most part by eelgrass, but is essentially different in the nature of 
 its soil which is mud throughout. Although the total area of the flat 
 is about 115 acres, an irregular section of mud on the southeastern 
 section, comprising 30 acres, is the only available clam territory. This 
 area is composed of soft mud on the north and the south, but the 
 middle section contains several acres of hard mud. Bed No. 118 was 
 planted on the southwest side of Grey's, in the soft mud; the other 
 two on Egobert's, — No. 187 in the eelgrass, No. 186 on the clear sand, 
 with seed obtained at Marion. 
 
 The results, as will be seen by reference to the general table, were 
 briefly as follows : on Egobert's the bed in the eelgrass showed a 
 slower growth than the bed on the bare sand, due to difference in 
 circulation of water. The averages for Grey's and Egobert's flats were 
 about the same, showing that, where the current is the same, the soil, 
 whether soft mud or hard sand^ makes little difference in the growth of 
 the quahaug. Growth between the tide lines, with a good circulation 
 of water, even when the feeding period is limited to ten hours out of the 
 twenty-four, is often better than in beds constantly under water, where 
 there is less circulation of water. Culture on these flats is advisable 
 only through the summer months, a gain of 2.4 bushels for every 
 bushel of inch quahaugs planted being recorded for these two flats, as 
 the planter runs the risk of losing his quahaugs in a severe winter. 
 There are places where quahaugs could be safely bedded in deeper 
 water in Plymouth harbor and Duxbury Bay, and there is reason to 
 look forward to a combination of quahaug and clam culture on these 
 flats. Along the western shore of the harbor the growth would be so 
 slow as to render any culture on those shore flats impracticable, but 
 in other parts of the harbor growth may be faster. As the growth 
 is accomplished only during the summer months, the planter should 
 buy large seed in the spring and sell the " little necks " in the fall, 
 thereby not risking a winter loss. 
 
 Wellfleet Experiments. 
 
 The harbor of Wellfleet Bay, some 4 miles long and nearly 2 miles 
 
 wide, contains approximately 2,500 acres of quahauging ground. The 
 
 greater part of this territory is under water, ranging from a few feet 
 
 in depth to upwards of 5 fathoms at low tide. Particularly in the 
 
84 
 
 channel, where the water is deepest, quahaugs flourish in the greatest 
 abundance. As the mean rise and fall of the tide is 10% feet, the 
 currents flow with great swiftness, both on the ebb and flow of the 
 tide. This may well be considered the natural home of the quahaug, 
 as Wellfleet is the foremost town in the State in the production of this 
 shellflsh. Consequently, it seemed particularly fltting that this place 
 should be made the scene of investigations of this nature. 
 
 The experiments were conducted during the summer of 1908, from 
 the last of June till the first of December. All the beds in this harbor 
 were planted between the tide lines. It was impossible to conduct 
 experiments under yater, as was done at Monomoy, owing to the fact 
 that the tides and currents were so strong at Wellfleet as to make any 
 raft experiments practically out of the question. Furthermore, the 
 large fleet of quahaug boats which was engaged in the industry at this 
 place constantly fished over the whole territory, and might have inter- 
 fered with such experiments. 
 
 The beds were divided into two general divisions: (1) beds planted 
 on staked areas in the sand or mud; (2) beds planted in boxes. The 
 total number of the planted beds was 146, but only 84 were taken up. 
 They were distributed along the coast from a point south of Smalley's 
 bar on the west to a point south of Lieutenant's Island, near the East- 
 ham line, on the east. 
 
 The size of these beds was small, usually not over 3 or 4 square feet. 
 The main reason for this was the fact that the large territory to be 
 studied necessitated the planting of a great number of beds, which 
 could not, therefore, owing to our limited time, be of large size. Our 
 custom was to drive a stake a foot long, more or less, firmly into the 
 soil for about half its length at each corner of the bed. In addition 
 we placed a sign beside the bed, describing the experiment as one con- 
 ducted by the State. In the area enclosed by these stakes 50 quahaugs, 
 averaging 25 millimeters in size, which had originally been obtained 
 from the region known locally as Stony Bar, just south of Jeremy's 
 Point, were planted by hand. These quahaugs were filed on the edge 
 of the shell and accurately measured, so that the increase in length 
 could be readily ascertained when they were taken up in the fall. 
 When these beds were examined after an interval of several months 
 the quahaugs were dug out of the sand with an ordinary clam hoe, 
 their lengths measured, their new edges refiled, and on each the distance 
 from the old to the new file marks accurately taken. This distance 
 registered the increase in width, from which, by means of tables, we 
 could easily compute the increase in length. They were then replanted 
 in the same manner as at first, for comparison at some future date. 
 
 The 146 beds fall readily into ten divisions which are fairly well 
 defined and easily separable. These divisions, beginning at the south- 
 westernmost point in the harbor and extending around the circuit of 
 the coast, are, taking them in order, as follows: (1) Smalley's bar, 
 
85 
 
 (2) the Meadows, (3) Sow Rock bar, (4) Herring River, (5) Egg 
 Island, (6) Indian Neck, (7) the north shore of Blackfish Creek, (8) 
 the south shore of Blackfish Creek, (9) the west shore of Lieutenant's 
 Island, (10) the south shore of Lieutenant's Island, and the neighbor- 
 ing region to the Eastham line. 
 
 Results. 
 
 General Growth. — The shell of the quahaug is taken as the standard 
 in recording growth, as any increase in the soft parts causes a pro- 
 portional enlargement of the shell. Of course, this does not take into 
 account the quality of the meat, so important to the dealer, but no inves- 
 tigation along this line has been practicable at the present time. 
 
 The rate of growth of the quahaug is largely determined by its 
 environment. While this accounts for much of the variation, it is true 
 that individual differences do occur in the same bed under identical con- 
 ditions, thus indicating that power of assimilation and growth varies 
 with the individual. As a rule, the growth in any bed is fairly uni- 
 form, especially when large numbers are planted. The quahaug dif- 
 fers from the higher animals, in that its growth appears to be directly 
 proportional to the amount of food consumed. Curiously enough its 
 automatic feeding apparatus is constantly at work whenever the ani- 
 mal is taking water through its extended siphons, thus causing an almost 
 constant feeding. The food consists of microscopic plant forms, called 
 diatoms, which are distributed through the water. Naturally, the 
 abundance of diatoms in any locality and the circulation of water are 
 the two principal factors in growth. 
 
 Growth of the Young. — The growth of the young quahaug from the 
 time of set or attachment was observed only at Monomoy Point, in the 
 raft spat boxes. Here the small quahaugs were followed during the 
 summers of 1906, 1907 and 1908, until the boxes were taken up in 
 October and November. In 1908 the young quahaugs were visible to the 
 naked eye as early as July 24, but in 1906 and 1907 they were not noticed 
 until the second week in August. Contrary to expectations the small 
 quahaugs in the spat boxes showed a slower growth than larger quahaugs 
 under the same conditions. The average size of 276 quahaugs taken from 
 these boxes by December 1 was only 4.9 millimeters, which seemed 
 rather a slight five months' growth. The general average was proba- 
 bly lowered by the late set of certain quahaugs, since a few of' the 
 early set, when suspended from the raft in jars, showed an average 
 gain of 3.4 millimeters per month, which would give a 9-millimeter 
 quahaug on December 1. From these figures the arbitrary length of 
 5 millimeters has been adopted as the average size of the six-month 
 quahaug on January 1. 
 
 The form of the young quahaug from the time of set is practically 
 that of the adult. The only important difference is found in the prom- 
 inent raised ridges, which readily enable the observer to distinguish 
 
86 
 
 the young from other small moUusks of similar shape. On a 1-milli- 
 meter quahaug as many as 12 of these ridges could be counted (Mg. 
 28). As the quahaug grows these ridges appear at regular periods, 
 evidently intervals of time rather than growth, and, as the animal 
 grows older, gradually disappear. 
 
 Growth of Old and Young. — As can be seen from Table 2, the 
 actual increase in length as well as the relative increase in volume con- 
 stantly diminishes as the quahaug increases in size. In other words, 
 the older and larger a quahaug becomes the more slowly it grows. By 
 placing a series of quahaugs from 1 to 95 milliineters in boxes sus- 
 pended from the raft under similar conditions as regards sand, depth 
 and current, sufficient data were obtained to plot a curve of the year's 
 growth and formulate a table for each sized quahaug from 1 to 100 
 milluneters. It was found from this experiment that a 14-miUimeter 
 quahaug evidenced the greatest gain in length, and that above this size 
 the yearly growth for the larger quahaugs steadily diminished with 
 advancing age. When a 14-miUimeter quahaug showed a yearly gain 
 of 27.7 millimeters, a 20-millimeter would give 25.2 millimeters; a 30- 
 miUimeter, 20.8 millimeters; a 40-millimeter, 17 millimeters; a 50-milli- 
 meter, 13.9 millimeters; a 60-millimeter, 11 millimeters; a 70-miIli- 
 meter, 8.1 millimeters; an 80-millimeter, 5.1 millimeters; a 90-milli- 
 meter, 2.5 millimeters; a 100-millimeter, .6 millimeters. After the qua- 
 haug reaches a certain age or size the gain in thickness of the shell 
 surpasses that of increasing length and width, with the result that the 
 old quahaug becomes what is known by the fishermen as a blunt. 
 
 Blunts. — Quahaugs with shells thickened at the edges or lips, a sort 
 of retrogressive growth typical of old age, are often taken from the 
 fishing grounds. The size alone does not always indicate the age, as 
 the conditions of its environment may be such as to cause a small- 
 sized quahaug to become a blunt. In many respects slow growth is 
 similar to old age, and may cause a thickening of the edges. Retro- 
 gressive growth occurs by a gain in thickness of the shell without a 
 corresponding advance at the edge. Evidently the soft parts of the 
 animal have attained their full development, and therefore the mantle 
 cannot secrete new material for the extension of the shell. 
 
 Our experiments did not substantiate the statement of many qua- 
 haugers that blunt quahaugs, when placed in a favorable condition will 
 become sharps, i.e., attain once more a thin lip. Blunts of various 
 thicknesses and sizes were obtained at Wellfleet and placed in the raft 
 boxes at Monomoy Point, where conditions were favorable for rapid 
 growth. Control experiments of small quahaugs were conducted at the 
 same time. Part of the same lot of quahaugs were planted near the 
 shore, where the conditions were less favorable for rapid growth. The 
 experiments lasted from May 17 to Sept. 14, 1909. The results were 
 briefly as follows: in the raft boxes, five classes were arbitrarily made, 
 the first two irrespective of length and width, the last three of thickness 
 
87 
 
 of lips. (1) Thick blunts; (2) thin blunts; (3) large blunts, 3% 
 inches; (4) medium-sized, about 3 inches; (5) small, 2% inches. 
 
 (1) The thick blunts were divided between three boxes, containing, 
 respectively, (a) broad blunts with ridge in center of edge; (b) square- 
 edged blunts; (c) round-edged blunts. Box (a) showed an increase 
 of 1.8 millimeters in width, as compared with a thickening of 3.22 mil- 
 limeters, giving a ratio of 1.8 millimeters to 3.22 millimeters; box 
 (b) 1.3 millimeters to 2.15 millimeters; and box (c) 1.5 millimeters to 
 2.35 millimeters, making an aVerage ratio of 1.53 millimeters to 2.57 
 millimeters. None of the three boxes showed any definite indication of 
 sharpening, although box (b) showed a thin raised edge of growth. 
 
 (2) The box of thin-lipped blunts showed a true blunting tendency, 
 giving a typical rounded growth at the edge. These showed an in- 
 crease in width of 1.6 millimeters, compared with a thickening of 4 
 millimeters. 
 
 (3) The large blunts were placed in three boxes, in classes of wide, 
 medium and fine edges. The average of the three boxes gave a ratio 
 of .7 millimeters to 2.55 millimeters, showing a slower growth for the 
 large than the small and medium sized blunts. The large blunts with 
 the thick lips showed the slowest gain. 
 
 (4) Two boxes of medium-sized blunts showed a ratio of 2.51 mil- 
 limeters to 4.94 millimeters, one box showing a fairly good ring of 
 growth, which might be considered an attempt at sharpening. 
 
 (5) The two boxes of small blunts showed a ratio of 1.7 millimeters 
 to 3.6 millimeters, indicating that the shell thickened twice as fast as 
 they increased in size. 
 
 The results in the shore experiments were as foUows: the blunts 
 placed under poor-growing conditions showed even slower growth, 
 a gain of .22 millimeter in width, than on the raft boxes, and a corre- 
 spondingly greater thickening. Also, the large blunts showed a slower 
 growth than the ^mall. Experiments were also tried in the opposite 
 direction, i.e., growing blunts from sharps. The sharps over 3 inches 
 showed little gain and great thickening tendencies, but did not evi- 
 dence any decided blunting. Twelve boxes were used on the raft and 
 in the shore beds, the small sharps giving greater gain than the large. 
 
 Length of Life. — Owing to the impracticability of carrying on work 
 for a suflBcient period to determine the length of life of any particular 
 set of quahaugs, any statements regarding the period of existence must 
 necessarily be more or less of an estimate. Nevertheless, by means 
 of Table 2 it is possible to give approximately close flg^ures for the 
 age of any given quahaug up to 4 inches in length. On the raft 
 boxes at Monomoy Point, a very favorable place for growth, the fol- 
 lowing figures were obtained, starting with a 5-millimeter {% inch) 
 quahaug on January 1 at the age of six months. The size of 51.9 
 millimeters (slightly over 2 inches) was obtained in two and one-half 
 years; 74.25 millimeters (slightly less than 3 inches) in four and one- 
 
88 
 
 half years; 89.5 millimeters (slightly over 3% inches) in seven and 
 one-half years; 96 millimeters (slightly over 3% inches) in ten and 
 one-half years; and 101.3 millimeters (about 4 inches) in sixteen 
 and one-half years. The growth during the last six years is more or 
 less a matter of conjecture, but up to the tenth year is approximately 
 correct. In this case the quahaug was under favorable growing con- 
 ditions. There are places where the growth is four times as slow as 
 in the raft boxes, which would place the age of a large quahaug over 
 fifty years. Where the growth was slow, the quahaugs would probably 
 show blunting before they reached the size of 4 inches. Blunts are 
 older than sharps, and their age is still more a matter of guess work, 
 a decided blunt ranging from twenty-five years to an indefinite age. 
 
 The Little Neck. — The eulturist who desires to raise the most profit- 
 able shellfish will inquire the length of time necessary for • producing 
 a marketable quahaug. The following answer, while general, will not 
 apply in every case, since the rate of growth varies according to cur- 
 rent, tide and other conditions of environment. In favorable sur- 
 roundings the quahaug will reach a size of 2 inches in two and one- 
 half years after birth, and at the same rate of growth will attain over 
 2% inches in three and one-half years. In exceptionally favorable 
 situations the size of 2^4 inches may be obtained in two and one-half 
 years, and that of 2% inches in three and one-half years; but such 
 rapid growth is seldom found, and more often is less than that 
 indicated by the first set of figures. In one of the unfavorably sit- 
 uated experiments, where thick eelgrass cut off the circulation of water, 
 it would have taken four times as long to produce the same size 
 quahaug. 
 
 The Growing Months. ■ — The quahaug, like the scallop {Pecten irra- 
 dians)., increases in size only during the summer months, no shell for- 
 mation taking place during the cold weather. Its annual life consists 
 of a period of active growth in the summer and a -.period of winter 
 rest, during which the animal lies practically dormant. As with 
 the scallop, growth begins about May 1, when the temperature of the 
 water has reached 49° F., varying with the seasonal changes of the 
 different years, and ceases during November, when the temperature has 
 fallen below 45°. For all practical purposes growth ceases about 
 November 1, at a temperature of 49°, which is especially true of the 
 exposed Wellfleet flats, but at Monomoy Point there is a slight Novem- 
 ber growth. The decrease in the microscopic food forms (diatoms) in 
 the water about December 1 is not sufficient to explain the cessation of 
 growth, which is due rather to the inactivity or sluggishness of the 
 quahaug during the cold weather. By monthly measurements of the 
 quahaugs in the raft boxes and in the shore beds at Monomoy Point, 
 the comparative value of the different summer months was determined 
 in terms of the gain per cent, as follows: considering the entire year 
 as 100 per cent.. May received 3.78 per cent.; June, 10.81 per cent.; 
 
89 
 
 July, 19.02 per cent.; August, 25.56 per cent.; September, 26.24 per 
 cent.; October, 12.85 per cent., and November, 1.74 per cent. 
 
 Growth on Barren Flats. — There are few areas, no matter bow 
 adverse tbe natural conditions, where quahaugs will not live, but their 
 rate of growth will depend entirely upon the environment. There are 
 many barren flats on which they will grow, if planted, but on which 
 certain conditions prevent the natural set. In the future it will be 
 possible to utilize such areas f or quahaug culture and to make produc- 
 tive localities now practically worthless. 
 
 Comparison of Localities. — The growth experiments were conducted 
 chiefly at Wellfleet and Monomoy Point, a few beds being planted at 
 Plymouth, Nantucket and Monument Beach. Adult quahaugs were 
 planted for spawning purposes in the Essex and Ipswich rivers, but 
 no record of their growth was taken. These quahaugs, one year after 
 planting, were in a thriving condition, but showed no evidence of prop- 
 agation. Nevertheless, under the prevailing conditions of rapid growth 
 in these rivers, in spite of the inability to obtain a natural set, it should 
 pay to plant quahaugs. The following table gives a comparison of the 
 growth in the various localities. From a practical standpoint only the 
 Monomoy and Wellfleet comparisons are of interest, as the other beds 
 are too few in number. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 §1 
 
 a 
 
 Wellfleet. 
 
 Monomoy. 
 
 
 Beds. 
 
 Boxes. 
 
 Raft 
 Boxes. 
 
 Shore 
 Boxes. 
 
 Shore 
 Beds. 
 
 Flat 
 Beds. 
 
 Number of beds, 
 Annual growth, 
 Increase in volume (percent.), 
 
 1 
 
 8.18 
 133 
 
 3 
 
 9.41 
 149 
 
 1 
 
 10. IB 
 163 
 
 80 
 9.69 
 156 
 
 4 
 
 28.62 
 783 
 
 48 
 
 24.02 
 
 B74 
 
 32 
 
 12.60 
 216 
 
 6 
 
 11.16 
 
 183 
 
 3 
 7.63 
 117 
 
 The Monomoy experiments afforded a comparison for the four years 
 1906 to 1910 in the raft boxes and in the shore beds. On the raft the 
 standard growth was as follows: in 1906, 22.84 millimeters; in 1907, 
 24.21 millimeters; in 1908, 18.72 millimeters; in 1909, 24.92 milli- 
 meters. In the shore beds the growth was 5.06 milliineters in 1906; 
 13.27 millimeters in 1907; 10.01 millimeters in 1908, and 17.43 milli- 
 meters in 1909. The slow growth for the shore beds in 1906 is partly 
 due to the effects of transplanting, in 1908 to the closure of the outlet, 
 which for several months interfered with the circulation in the Powder 
 Hole. 
 
 A comparison of the various parts of the Powder Hole gives the 
 following figures for the average growth : raft boxes, 24.02 millimeters ; 
 edge of clam flat near raft, 19.38 millimeters; clam flat, 7.63 milli- 
 meters; eastern part, 17.53 millimeters; east side, 8.92 millimeters; 
 south side, 12.15 millimeters. 
 
90 
 
 Natubal Conditions. 
 
 There is no more convincing illustration of the influence of environ- 
 ment upon the life of the quahaug than the effect of the surrounding 
 conditions upon its growth. Chief among these natural agents may 
 be enumerated current, tide, soil, depth and salinity of the water, 
 arranged in order of individual importance, yet so closely interwoven 
 that their separate actions cannot -always be clearly demonstrated. 
 Their various combinations form a favorable or unfavorable environ- 
 ment for the growth of the quahaug, and govern largely the rapidity of 
 its development. A discussion of these conditions involves their sep- 
 arate treatment, but the reader should realize that there are few, if any, 
 instances where the pure uncomplicated action of a single natural con- 
 dition can be obtained. 
 
 Current. — The most essential condition for shellfish growth is a 
 good current, not necessarily an exceedingly swift flow, but rather a 
 fair circulation of water. Current performs a threefold service: (1) 
 it determines the supply of food for the body and lime for the shell; 
 (2) it governs the supply of oxygen for the gills; and (3) finally, it 
 acts as a sanitary agent. 
 
 (1) The food of the quahaug, as already stated, consists of micro- 
 scopic forms, chiefly diatoms, in the water. The growth of the qua- 
 haug, as with lower animals, is directly proportional to the amount of 
 food, and the animal situated in a current naturally receives a greater 
 supply than one in still water. For all practical purposes current 
 means food, and, within limits, increase in current indicates increase 
 in the amount of food, thus furnishing an index of the growth. The 
 amount consumed likewise depends upon the quantity in the water, the 
 feeding power or capacity of the quahaug, and the absence of silt or 
 other material in the water, which would interfere with the mechanical 
 feeding process of the animal. In a similar way, current aids shell 
 formation by increasing the supply of available lime salts. 
 
 (2) Intimately associated with its value as a food carrier is the no 
 less important service of affording a good supply of oxygen. The 
 quahaug, like man, needs a definite amount of oxygen to perform the 
 normal functions of life, — to transform food into body tissues and 
 energy. Current supplies fresh oxygen, and a quahaug with a good 
 circulation of water is able to assimilate more food and grow faster 
 than one in the still water. 
 
 (3) The work of sanitary agent is performed by carrying away all 
 products of decomposition, thus preventing contamination in thickly 
 planted beds. 
 
 From the standpoint of the culturist, circulation of water is most 
 important, and in choosing a grant selection should be based upon the 
 current. Nearly all our growth experiments, directly or indirectly, indi- 
 
91 
 
 cate its value. A few cases are cited to show the direct experimental 
 relation between current and growth. 
 
 A comparison of the growth in sand boxes at Monomoy Point was 
 made in three parts of the Powder Hole: (a) the raft, which had a 
 good circulation, gave an annual gain of 24.5 millimeters (612 per 
 cent, gain in volume) ; (6) the south side, in front of the laboratory, 
 where there was only a slight flow of water with the rise and fall of 
 the tide, gave a gain of 16.18 millimeters (305 per cent, gain in vol- 
 ume) ; (c) the east side, where eelgrass cut off practically all circu- 
 lation, showed a gain of 13.62 millimeters (241 per cent, gain in 
 volume). 
 
 Wire mosquito netting was placed over part of the jars in which 
 smaU. quahaugs were suspended from the raft. A month later the 
 quahaugs in the jars without netting showed a gain of 3.4 millimeters, 
 compared with 1.21 millimeters for the netting jars, illustrating the 
 effect on g^rowth by restricting the circulation. 
 
 The channel connecting the Powder Hole and the ocean became 
 blocked during the summer of 1908, with the result that there was a 
 stagnation of water in the Powder Hole during part of the growing 
 months. The shore beds showed a slow growth of 10.01 millimeters in 
 1908, as compared with 13.27 millimeters in 1907 and 17.43 millimeters 
 in 1909. 
 
 In our experiments in Wellfleet Bay the greatest growth occurred in 
 Herring Elver, Blackflsh Creek and on Egg Island, which get both 
 the backward and forward sweep of the tide. The various local groups 
 of beds are here arranged in order of rapidity of growth : — 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 
 Per Cent, 
 
 HerriBg Eiver, . . . .100 
 
 West of Lieutenant's Island, 
 
 . 52 
 
 Egg Island, .... 75 
 
 Blackfish Creek (north aide). 
 
 . 51 
 
 Blackfish Creek (south side), . 72 
 
 Sow Eoek bar, . 
 
 . 33 
 
 Indian Neek, .... 68 
 
 South of Lieutenant's Island, 
 
 . 15 
 
 The Meadows, .... 55 
 
 East side of Great Island, 
 
 9 
 
 Tide. — Quahaugs are found between the tide lines, but in less abun- 
 dance than beneath low-water mark, their natural habitat. This cir- 
 cumstance may be the result of exposure to severe winters, since the 
 quahaug lies near the surface of the soil and not at a depth, as the 
 soft clam. The principal effect of exposure, as demonstrated by experi- 
 mental beds between the tide lines at Plymouth and WeMeet, is the 
 retardation in growth from loss of feeding time. The quahaug can 
 feed only when covered with water, and exposure from four to twelve 
 hours daily materially lessens the amount of food consumed, assum- 
 ing that the quahaug feeds continually when under water. Experi- 
 ments have demonstrated that the longer the exposirre, the slower the 
 
92 
 
 growth. Eighty experimental beds between the tide lines at Wellfleet 
 were classified as low, medium and high, according to the length of 
 exposure (Fig. 36). The low beds, 32 in number, having a better 
 circulation and longer feeding period, gave an annual growth of 12.5 
 millimeters (.49 of an inch) ; the 27 medium gave 7.82 millimeters 
 (.31 of an inch) ; and the 21 high beds showed a gain of 7.17 milli- 
 meters (.28 of an inch). Considering the growth of the low beds as 
 100 per cent., the medium would show 61.53 per cent, and the high 
 57.39 per cent. While this evidence is open to the criticism that the 
 faster growth of the low beds was due to a better circulation of water, 
 it is confirmed by an experiment at Monomoy Point, where the annual 
 growth was 24.02 Tni11iin p.tp.ra in the raft boxes, as compared with 7.63 
 millimeters on the near-by clam flat under the same conditions, except 
 for the exposure of the flat. 
 
 Planting between the tide lines entails considerable loss. Only 84 out 
 of 154 beds were recovered at WeUfleet, over 50 of the remaining 70 
 having been washed away, buried or destroyed by cockles, the greatest 
 loss occurring in the exposed portions of the bay, especially near Lieu- 
 tenant's Island. After three months only 42 per cent, of the planted 
 quahaugs were found in the 84 good beds. Life between the tide lines 
 is a difficult existence for the quahaug, especially for the smaller animal, 
 which is forced to maintain a continual struggle against adverse con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Depth. — The depth of water over the grant is of practical interest 
 to the culturist, who desires rapid growth and at the same time easy 
 facilities for harvesting. Owing to the better circulation of water, the 
 average growth in the deep water will exceed that in the shallow; but 
 in localities where the current is approximately the same, any depth 
 beyond 3 feet at low tide (for protection during the winter) gives no 
 increased growth and affords a distinct disadvantage to the planter 
 in taking up his crop. The quahaug appears to live equally well at 
 any depth,, and is occasionally raked in 50 feet of water on the north 
 side of Cape Cod. 
 
 The relation of depth to growth could not be experimentally deter- 
 mined on a large scale owing to the cost and difficulty of planting in 
 deep water. A few observations regarding the rate of growth at vari- 
 ous depths were made from the raft at Monomoy Point, but these apply 
 more to the study of circulating layers of water in the Powder Hole. 
 In 1909, in IS feet of water, boxes containing quahaugs of the same 
 size were suspended from the raft at 5, 10 and 15 feet. The gain in 
 these boxes in terms of the standard for four and one-half months was 
 536 per cent., 554 per cent, and 438 per cent., respectively. The max- 
 imum growth occurred between 5 and 10 feet, and is intimately asso- 
 ciated with the circulation in the Powder Hole, only the upper layer of 
 water, above 10 feet, being disturbed by the inflowing tide. 
 
93 
 
 Soil. — The quahaug is found in nearly every kind of soil, — gravel, 
 sand and mud all seem alike to this moUusk. It is found in hard soil, 
 into which it is difficult to force a rake, and in soft mud, -where the 
 gatherer sinks ankle deep. The best soil, if such can be designated, is 
 a mixture of sand and mud, sufllciently loose to permit easy raking. 
 The important consideration is the effect of the various soils on the 
 growth and condition of the quahaug, rather than whether the animal 
 can live. Organic acids in certain soils affect the composition of the 
 shell, and through their irritating influence retard the growth by 
 increasing the repairing processes. The kind of soil also affects the 
 composition and shape of the shell, coarse, graveUy soil, especially 
 in the case of the soft clam, giving a heavy, rough shell, in contrsist to 
 the thin paper-shell variety of the fine sand clam. In one instance 
 quahaugs on a soft mud bottom had developed an elongate shell. In 
 general, the soil has little influence upon the growth of the quahaug, 
 and acts only as a resting place. The popular idea that the quahaug 
 procures its nourishment from the soU, like a vegetable, is entirely 
 erroneous, as the animal obtains its food from the water. The nature 
 of the soil indirectly modifies the food supply, as certain soils are more 
 prolific breeding grounds of the microscopic forms which make up the 
 food of the quahaug. 
 
 (1) Growth in Wire Cages. — Kellogg (2) first described the growth 
 of quahaugs in wire racks out of sand. Our experiments along this 
 line were made with the view of developing a method of keeping qua- 
 haugs for the market without bedding in the sand. Wire cages, 1% by 
 1 by % feet, of % to 1% inch mesh, were suspended in 1906 and 1907 
 from the raft at Monomoy Point. The annual growth was 12.87 milli- 
 meters, as compared with 23.53 millimeters for quahaugs in the sand 
 boxes under the same conditions. A greater difference was found in 
 1909 with larger quahaugs (69 millimeters), which showed one-fourth 
 the gain of the quahaugs in the sand boxes. The slower growth in 
 the wire cages was due to the unnatural environment, which interfered 
 with the natural feeding habits, and to the encrusting of the shells with 
 barnacles, Serpula, Anomia, Crepidula and oysters, which use the same 
 food. The experiment demonstrates that soil has little effect on shell 
 formation, the quahaug obtaining its food and mineral salts from the 
 water; and that quahaug culture in wire cages is impracticable, because 
 it yields poor returns and is an expensive method of holding the catch 
 for market. 
 
 (2) Mud V. Sand. — A comparison of the growth in mud and sand 
 under similar conditions was made at Monomoy Point by suspending 
 quahaugs of the same size from the raft in two boxes, one containing 
 a sticky, black mud, the other clean, coarse sand. The increase in volume 
 for the mud was 342 per cent, and 424 per cent, for the sand, which 
 shows that the actual type of soil is of little consequence. 
 
&4 
 
 (3) Eelgrass. — The soil exerts an indirect influence on growth by 
 the abundance or scarcity of eelgrass, which if thick prevents the free 
 circulation of water over the bed. In addition to the examples cited 
 under " Current," a comparison of experiments Nos. 186 and 187 on 
 Egobert's Flat, Plymouth harbor, gives an annual growth of 11.73 mil- 
 limeters for the clear and 7.43 millimeters for the eelgrass, although 
 both beds were near together. The presence of eelgrass is not nec- 
 essarily an indication of slow growth, as it only becomes a detriment 
 when thick enough to interfere with the circulation. 
 
 Salinity. — The amount of salts in solution, although it may influ- 
 ence the spawning, does not materially affect the growth of the qua- 
 haug. Experimental beds, located in densities from 1.009 (less than 
 one-half the ordinary salt content) to 1.026 (fairly high salt content), 
 have shown no appreciable effects. In the laboratory, quahaugs have 
 been kept alive in tanks in which the water, by evaporation, reached a 
 salinity of 1.035. They have also been found in rivers with a daily 
 variation in density from 1.015 to 1.022. Salinity, however, indirectly 
 affects growth by modif3n.ng the food supply, brackish waters being 
 more productive of diatoms. 
 
 Dwarf Quahaugs. — Quahaugs, like the higher animals, vary in their 
 individual growth. Occasionally a specimen exhibits a consistently 
 slow growth, either from an unfavorable position or from impaired 
 feeding power. In case of defective nutrition shell formation will be 
 slow for a number of years, and even for life. In one experimental 
 bed a dwarf quahaug showed an annual growth of 6 millimeters, com- 
 pared with an average of 9.35 millimeters in 1907; 4 millimeters, with 
 8.33 millimeters in 1908; and 5 millimeters, with 7.83 millimeters in 
 1909, which was less than two-thirds its normal growth. 
 
 Growth under Adverse Conditions. — In localities where conditions 
 are at all unfavorable, 30 to 40 millimeter quahaugs grow more rapidly 
 than smaller sizes, in direct contrast to growth under favorable con- 
 ditions, where the 15-millimeter quahaug exhibits the greatest growing 
 power. In the shore beds at Monomoy Point, where the environment 
 proved a hindrance to rapid growth, 1,700 measurements gave a gain 
 of 3.93 millimeters for quahaugs between 24 and 30 millimeters, com- 
 pared with 4.93 millimeters for quahaugs between 30 and 40 milli- 
 meters. This difference is best explained by the ability of the larger 
 quahaugs to combat the adverse conditions. 
 
 Growth in Thickly Planted Beds. — Nature regulates thick sets of 
 clams or quahaugs by the simple process of gradually forcing out the 
 superfluous shellfish, and leaving only the maximum number per square 
 foot that the soil will support. If the bed has a poor circulation of 
 water an overpopulation may cause an insufBcient food supply and 
 slower growth than if less thickly planted. The number per square 
 foot which will give the best growth in any locality can be determined 
 
95 
 
 only by experiment, the planter gradually increasing his stock until 
 the maximum production is reached. In the boxes at Monomoy Point 
 various numbers of 1%-inch quahaugs, from 7 to 90 per square foot, 
 gave uniform results. The box containing 90 to the square foot, 
 which was so crowded that several were forced out of the sand, showed, 
 about two-thirds the growth of the others. This experiment only illus- 
 trates the effect of crowding, and has no practical bearing on the max- 
 imum production of a large grant, which is entirely a question of the 
 food supply. 
 
 Transplanting. — Transplanted quahaugs do not at first exhibit their 
 usual rate of growth, as they take some time to become accustomed to 
 their new environment. In planting between the tide lines at Well- 
 fleet, where the quahaugs are exposed to the action of the waves and 
 shifting sand, a sufficient time, about one month, is necessary for the 
 regulation of the feeding habits. This fact should be borne in mind 
 in determining the growth for any locality, as described under 
 " Tables," and no less than two months be taken for the test. It is an 
 advantage to plant in April, which affords an opportunity for the 
 quahaugs to become accustomed to their surroundings before growth 
 begins, May 1. The period of acclimatization is an extremely variable 
 factor, depending on the size of the quahaugs, the date of planting 
 (the period being longer in the fall), length of time out of water, and 
 the change in environment. The decrease in growth from a complete 
 change in environment and late planting is shown in the wire cages in 
 1906 and 1907. The quahaugs were placed in their new surroundings 
 Sept. 18, 1906. The calculated rate of growth for 1906, 6.41 milli- 
 meters, was only one-half that of 1907, 12.87 millimeters, owing to the 
 subnormal growth during September and October. Similarly, quahaugs 
 transplanted from Nantucket to the raft boxes at Monomoy Point gave 
 a calculated rate of 16.58 millimeters for 1906, as compared with 23.13 
 millimeters for 1907. 
 
 Growth in Boxes. — From a comparison of sand boxes and beds 
 under the same condition it was found that growth was invariably 
 faster in the boxes. The same results had been recorded in clam exper- 
 iments on the Plymouth flats, where faster growth was obtained in 
 boarded beds raised above the flat. Near Egg Island, Wellfleet, 3 
 box beds averaged an annual gain of 29.12 millimeters, compared with 
 12.06 millimeters for 13 ordinary beds. The idea that drainage was 
 the cause was disproved by similar results being obtained below low- 
 water mark at Monomoy Point. Boxes with sides of different heights 
 were tried, to determine if these in some way aided the feeding, and 
 boxes large and small, without sides, with and without bottoms, were 
 used, but no appreciable difference was found; yet in every case growth 
 was faster in the boxes than in the control beds. Also, the distance 
 from the bottom, as demonstrated by a series of boxes arranged in the 
 
96 
 
 form of steps, made no difference. An explanation, which in part 
 accounted for this curious result, arose from the situation of these beds. 
 In all cases the beds at certain times were exposed to wave action, 
 which caused a slight shifting of sand, presumably enough to interfere 
 with the feeding. The quahaugs in the boxes were protected from this 
 action and were given better opportunity for feeding. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 The following tables, which were formulated during the investigation, 
 are presented for the use of the quahaug culturist in determining the 
 productivity of new ground. The last, Table V, gives the summarized 
 results from 187 experimental beds. 
 
 The method of procedure in determining the growth on a prospective 
 grant for a series of years by means of these tables is as follows : — 
 
 (1) The culturist must obtain the growth for a definite period of not 
 less than two months by planting a small experimental- bed with qua- 
 haugs of a known size. The simplest way is to notch the edges with a 
 file and the new growth can readily be measured when the quahaugs 
 are taken up. The reasons for having the growing period no less than 
 two summer months is due to the slow growth immediately after trans- 
 planting, as described under " Transplanting." The planter then has 
 at hand the following data: (1) size planted; (2) gain in length for a 
 certain known time, i.e., 40-millimeter quahaugs grew to 48.92 milli- 
 meters, a gain of 8.92 millimeters from July 1 to September 1. 
 
 (2) By means of Table I. (monthly values) we find that the growth 
 during July and August is 44.58 per cent, of the total yearly growth, 
 which is therefore 20 millimeters. 
 
 (3) Table II. reduces the gain of a 40-millimeter quahaug to that of 
 a 25-millimeter, which is used as a uniform standard in the experiments 
 of this department, by multiplying with the factor 1.353, and in this 
 example the result will be 27.06 miUimeters. 
 
 (4) By Table III. the gain in volume is obtained by dividing the 
 water displacement or number per quart of a 52.06-mUlimeter quahaug 
 by that of a 25-millimeter, which gives 709 per cent., or 8 quarts for 
 every quart planted. 
 
 (5) By Table IV. the growth on the grant can be calculated to five 
 and one-half years. In the case of a gain of 20 miUimeters for a 
 25-miUimeter quahaug, the figures would read I/2 year 5 millimeters; 
 11/2, 28.30 millimeters; 21/2, 46.98 millimeters; 31/2, 59.85 millimeters; 
 4%, 69.46 millimeters; 5%, 76.64 millimeters (25.4 millimeters equal 
 1 inch). 
 
 Value of the Different Months. — The quahaug only increases the size 
 of the shell during the summer months, and at a variable rate, the 
 months of August and September showing the fastest growth. The table 
 
97 
 
 is taken from the monthly measurements of quahaugs from the raft 
 boxes and beds at Mdnomoy Point, and the value of the various months 
 is presented in terms of the gain for a standard quahaug of 25 milli- 
 meters. Each month is given a number representing the gain in per 
 cent., the entire year being considered as 100 per cent. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 January, 
 
 
 August, 
 
 25.56 
 
 February, 
 
 
 September, . 
 
 26.24 
 
 March, . 
 
 
 October, 
 
 12.85 
 
 April, . 
 
 - 
 
 November, 
 
 1.74 
 
 May, . 
 
 3.78 
 10.81 
 
 December, . 
 
 
 June, . 
 
 100.00 
 
 July, . 
 
 19.02 
 
 
 
 Size and Growth. — In recording the growth of a large number of 
 various sized quahaugs under the same conditions in the raft boxes at 
 Monomoy Point sufiSeient data were obtained to formulate a table giving 
 the comparative annual increase in length for quahaugs from 1 to 100 
 millimeters in size. If, for example, a 25-millimeter quahaug, which is 
 taken as a standard size in our experiments, gained 23 millimeters, 
 a 50-miUuneter quahaug would gain 13.9 millimeters, and a 75-miUi- 
 meter quahaug 6.6 millimeters in the same time. From these measure- 
 ments factors were obtained which by multiplication would transform 
 the growth of any sized quahaug into terms of the standard 25-milli- 
 meter quahaug. This table was of great assistance in reducing the 
 experimental data to uniform figures when it was impossible to obtain 
 the standard size for planting. 
 
 According to the table the size of 14 millimeters gives the best growth, 
 all larger sizes gradually decreasing. Theoretically, as shown in the table, 
 the sizes below 14 millimeters reversely exhibit slower growth, but prac- 
 tically this is somewhat offset by the increase in velocity, as the quahaug 
 grows toward 14 millimeters in size, i.e., a 5-mUlimeter quahaug prac- 
 tically would gain 26.80 millimeters, although theoretically its initial 
 growing power would only be 20.02 millimeters at the same rate accord- 
 ing to the table. 
 
98 
 
 
 
 
 TaMe II 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 Size in 
 
 MiLLIMETEHS. 
 
 Factor. 
 
 Size ik 
 
 MHiLIMBTEHS. 
 
 Factor. 
 
 Size in 
 
 Mll.LIM£TEBS. 
 
 Factor. 
 
 1, 
 
 2.875 
 
 35, 
 
 1.223 
 
 69, 
 
 2.738 
 
 2, 
 
 1.840 
 
 36, . . 
 
 1.243 
 
 70, 
 
 2.840 
 
 3. 
 
 1.474 
 
 37, ... 
 
 1.271 
 
 71, 
 
 2.949 
 
 4, 
 
 1.278 
 
 38, 
 
 
 1.299 
 
 72, 
 
 3.067 
 
 5, 
 
 1.139 
 
 39, 
 
 
 1.329 
 
 73, 
 
 3.194 
 
 6, 
 
 1.046 
 
 40, . 
 
 
 1.353 
 
 74 
 
 3.333 
 
 7, . 
 
 .979 
 
 41, . 
 
 
 1.377 
 
 75, 
 
 3.485 
 
 8, 
 
 .931 
 
 42, . 
 
 
 1.411 
 
 76, . 
 
 3.651 
 
 9, . 
 
 .895 
 
 43, . 
 
 
 1.438 
 
 77, . 
 
 3.833 
 
 10, . . . 
 
 .868 
 
 44, . 
 
 
 1.465 
 
 78, 
 
 4.035 
 
 11, . 
 
 .849 
 
 45, . 
 
 
 1.494 
 
 79, ... 
 
 4.259 
 
 12, 
 
 .836 
 
 46, . 
 
 
 1.523 
 
 80, ... 
 
 4.510 
 
 13, 
 
 .830 
 
 47, . . 
 
 
 1.554 
 
 81, 
 
 4.792 
 
 14, 
 
 .830 
 
 48, 1 
 
 
 1.S86 
 
 82, 
 
 5.055 
 
 15, 
 
 .833 
 
 49, . 
 
 
 1.620 
 
 83, 
 
 5.349 
 
 16, . 
 
 .849 
 
 50, . 
 
 
 1.655 
 
 84, ... 
 
 5.679 
 
 17, . 
 
 .865 
 
 51, . 
 
 
 1.691 
 
 85, 
 
 6.053 
 
 18, ... 
 
 .881 
 
 52, . 
 
 
 1.729 
 
 86, . 
 
 6.479 
 
 19, 
 
 .895 
 
 53, . 
 
 
 
 1.769 
 
 87, . 
 
 6.970 
 
 20, . 
 
 .913 
 
 54, . 
 
 
 
 1.804 
 
 88, 
 
 7.541 
 
 21, . 
 
 .927 
 
 55, . 
 
 
 
 1.840 
 
 89, ... 
 
 8.215 
 
 22, . 
 
 .947 
 
 56, 
 
 
 
 1.886 
 
 90, 
 
 9.200 
 
 23, . 
 
 .962 
 
 57, . 
 
 
 
 1.933 
 
 91, . . . 
 
 10.000 
 
 24, 
 
 .979 
 
 58, . 
 
 
 
 1.983 
 
 92, ... 
 
 10.952 
 
 25, . 
 
 1.000 
 
 59, . 
 
 
 
 2.035 
 
 93, . . 
 
 12.105 
 
 26. . . 
 
 1.022 
 
 60, 
 
 
 
 2.091 
 
 94, . . . 
 
 13.143 
 
 27 
 
 1.046 
 
 61, . 
 
 
 
 2.140 
 
 95, 
 
 14.839 
 
 28, 
 
 1.065 
 
 62, . 
 
 
 
 2.191 
 
 96, . . 
 
 16.788 
 
 ?9, 
 
 1.085 
 
 63, . 
 
 
 
 2.289 
 
 97 
 
 17.500 
 
 30, . 
 
 1.106 
 
 64, . 
 
 
 
 2.347 
 
 98, 
 
 23.000 
 
 31, . . . 
 
 1.127 
 
 65, . 
 
 
 
 2.421 
 
 99, ... 
 
 28.750 
 
 32, . 
 
 1.150 
 
 66, . . 
 
 
 
 2.600 
 
 100, 
 
 38.333 
 
 33, . . . 
 
 1.174 
 
 67, . 
 
 
 
 2.570 
 
 
 
 34, . . . 
 
 1.198 
 
 68. „ . 
 
 
 
 2.644 
 
 
 
99 
 
 Size omd Volume. — The mere statement of the gain in length does 
 not adequately express the actual increase, which should he stated in 
 terms of volume. The tight shell of the quahaug makes easy the exact 
 determination of the volume by water displacement. A quahaug 25 
 millimeters (about 1 inch in length) displaces 3 cubic centimeters of 
 water, while 51 millimeters (about 2 inches in length) is not merely 
 twice as large, as the measurements indicate, but, displacing 22.8 cubic 
 centimeters, has a volume of 7.6 times the first, a true index of the 
 actual increase. In preparing the following table the water displace- 
 ments of a large number of quahaugs from 1 to 88 millimeters were 
 taken. Owing to the variation in the individual quahaugs, several 
 hundred were used to obtain the displacement for each size, except in 
 the cases of the quahaugs below 10 millimeters, which were difficult 
 to obtain. From this table the gain in volume for any size and growth 
 can be readily determined. 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Size in Millimeters. 
 
 Volume 
 in Cubic 
 
 Cen- 
 timeters. 
 
 Number 
 
 per 
 Quart. 
 
 Size in Millimeters. 
 
 Volume 
 in Cubic 
 
 Cen- 
 timeters. 
 
 Number 
 
 per 
 Quart. 
 
 1, . . . 
 
 .007 
 
 100,714 
 
 25, 
 
 3.000 
 
 235 
 
 2, 
 
 .013 
 
 54,231 
 
 29, ... 
 
 3.400 
 
 207 
 
 3, . . 
 
 .021 
 
 33,572 
 
 27, . . . 
 
 3.820 
 
 185 
 
 i 
 
 .032 
 
 22,031 
 
 28, 
 
 4.250 
 
 166 
 
 6, . . . 
 
 .043 
 
 16,396 
 
 29, . . . 
 
 4.700 
 
 150 
 
 6, 
 
 .056 
 
 12,589 
 
 30, . '. 
 
 5.170 
 
 136 
 
 7. 
 
 .072 
 
 9,790 
 
 31. 
 
 5.670 
 
 124 
 
 8, . . . 
 
 .091 
 
 7,747 
 
 32 
 
 6,180 
 
 114 
 
 9, 
 
 .133 
 
 5,299 
 
 33, . . . 
 
 6.700 
 
 105 
 
 10, 
 
 .191 
 
 3,691 
 
 34, 
 
 7.250 
 
 97.25 
 
 11, 
 
 .255 
 
 2,764 
 
 35, . . . 
 
 7.800 
 
 90.35 
 
 12, 
 
 .313 
 
 2,252 
 
 36, . . . 
 
 8.400 
 
 83.92 
 
 13, 
 
 .393 
 
 1,794 
 
 37, . . . 
 
 9.050 
 
 77.90 
 
 14, 
 
 .490 
 
 1,439 
 
 38, . . 
 
 9.750 
 
 72.31 
 
 15 
 
 .600 
 
 1,175 
 
 39, 
 
 10.500 
 
 67.14 
 
 16, . . . 
 
 .718 
 
 982 
 
 40, 
 
 11.300 
 
 62.39 
 
 17, . . . 
 
 .848 
 
 831 
 
 41, . . . 
 
 12.000 
 
 58.75 
 
 18, . . . 
 
 .998 
 
 706 
 
 42 
 
 12.900 
 
 54.65 
 
 19 
 
 1.210 
 
 583 
 
 43, . . . 
 
 13.800 
 
 61.09 
 
 20 
 
 1.440 
 
 489 
 
 44, . . . 
 
 14.800 
 
 47.63 
 
 21, . . . 
 
 1.680 
 
 420 
 
 45, . . . 
 
 15.800 
 
 44.64 
 
 22, . . . . 
 
 1.970 
 
 358 
 
 46, . . . 
 
 16.900 
 
 41.72 
 
 23, 
 
 2.270 
 
 310 
 
 47 
 
 18.000 
 
 39.17 
 
 24, . . . 
 
 2.600 
 
 271 
 
 48, 
 
 19.000 
 
 37.11 
 
100 
 
 Table III. — Concluded. 
 
 Size ts Milijmetebs. 
 
 Volume 
 in Cubic 
 
 Cen- 
 timeters. 
 
 Number 
 
 per 
 Quart. 
 
 Size in Milumbtebs. 
 
 Volume 
 in Cubic 
 
 Cen- 
 timeters. 
 
 Number 
 
 per 
 Quart. 
 
 49, 
 
 20.200 
 
 34.90 
 
 69 
 
 55.200 
 
 12.77 
 
 50, 
 
 21.500 
 
 32.79 
 
 70, 
 
 
 57.700 
 
 12.22 
 
 51, 
 
 22.800 
 
 30.92 
 
 71. 
 
 
 60.100 
 
 11.73 
 
 52, 
 
 24.200 
 
 29.13 
 
 72. 
 
 
 63.000 
 
 11.19 
 
 53, ... 
 
 25.600 
 
 27.54 
 
 73, 
 
 
 65.700 
 
 10.73 
 
 54, ... 
 
 26.900 
 
 26.21 
 
 74, 
 
 
 68.400 
 
 10.31 
 
 55, 
 
 28.300 
 
 24.91 
 
 75, 
 
 71.100 
 
 9.92 
 
 56 
 
 29.800 
 
 23.66 
 
 76 
 
 74.200 
 
 9.50 
 
 57, . . 
 
 31.300 
 
 22.53 
 
 77, 
 
 77.300 
 
 9.12 
 
 58, 
 
 33.000 
 
 21.36 
 
 78, . . . 
 
 80.400 
 
 8.77 
 
 59, . . . 
 
 34.600 
 
 20.38 
 
 79, 
 
 83.900 
 
 8.40 
 
 60. 
 
 36.300 
 
 19.42 
 
 80, 
 
 87.300 
 
 8.08 
 
 61. 
 
 38.200 
 
 18.46 
 
 81, . . 
 
 90.900 
 
 7.76 
 
 62, . . . 
 
 40.300 
 
 17.49 
 
 82, 
 
 
 95.000 
 
 7.42 
 
 63, 
 
 42.400 
 
 16.63 
 
 83, 
 
 
 99.500 
 
 7.09 
 
 64, 
 
 44.500 
 
 15.84 
 
 84, 
 
 
 104.200 
 
 6.77 
 
 65, . . . 
 
 46.600 
 
 15.13 
 
 85, 
 
 
 109.000 
 
 6.47 
 
 66, 
 
 48.700 
 
 14.48 
 
 86, 
 
 
 114.000 
 
 6.18 
 
 67, 
 
 50.900 
 
 13.85 
 
 87, 
 
 
 118.700 
 
 5.94 
 
 68, 
 
 53.000 
 
 13.30 
 
 88, 
 
 
 123.000 
 
 5.73 
 
 Standard Growth. — The growth in millimeters up to five and one- 
 half years is given for various annual rates of growth, from 1 to 30 
 millimeters, of a standard 25-millimeter quahaug. Knowing the annual 
 growth for a 25-milIimeter quahaug, the reader can determine the size 
 at any period up to five and one-half years by referring to the other 
 columns. 
 
 Talble IV. 
 
 Anntjai. Rates ik Milli- 
 
 
 Size m 
 
 MiLLlMETEBB AT VaSIGUS AGES. 
 
 
 MBTEHS POH A 25 -MnilME- 
 
 TEB Quahaug. 
 
 Y^. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 2ii 
 Years. 
 
 3Ji 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 5^ 
 Years. 
 
 1, 
 
 5 
 
 5.89 
 
 6.84 
 
 7.85 
 
 8.92 
 
 10.03 
 
 2, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 6.93 
 
 9.01 
 
 11.29 
 
 13.67 
 
 16.08 
 
 3, 
 
 5 
 
 8.13 
 
 11.49 
 
 15.08 
 
 18.68 
 
 22.05 
 
 4. . ... 
 
 5 
 
 9.19 
 
 13.68 
 
 18.60 
 
 23.00 
 
 27.16 
 
101 
 
 
 ra6Ze J 7. — Concluded. 
 
 
 
 Annual Katbs in Milli- 
 
 Size in 
 
 MlLLlMBTBBS AT VARIOUS AOES 
 
 
 meters FOR A 25-MlLLI- 
 METER QUAHIMIO. 
 
 Y^. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 2H 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 5, ... 
 
 5 
 
 10.39 
 
 16.34 
 
 22.21 
 
 27.47 
 
 32.21 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 11.63 
 
 18.86 
 
 25.57 
 
 31.50 
 
 36.78 
 
 7, 
 
 5 
 
 12.90 
 
 21.33 
 
 28.78 
 
 35.26 
 
 40.96 
 
 8, . . . . 
 
 5 
 
 14.19 
 
 23.83 
 
 32.03 
 
 38.98 
 
 46.00 
 
 9, 
 
 5 
 
 15.48 
 
 26.19 
 
 34.96 
 
 42.32 
 
 48.66 
 
 10, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 16.65 
 
 28.29 
 
 37.63 
 
 45.39 
 
 52.03 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 17.82 
 
 30.35 
 
 40.23 
 
 48.32 
 
 55.20 
 
 12, . 
 
 5 
 
 18.98 
 
 32.39 
 
 42.74 
 
 51.13 
 
 58.20 
 
 13, . 
 
 5 
 
 20.14 
 
 34.35 
 
 45.11 
 
 53.80 
 
 61.03 
 
 14, 
 
 5 
 
 21.31 
 
 36.31 
 
 47.49 
 
 56.41 
 
 63.75 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 22.48 
 
 38.19 
 
 49.68 
 
 68.80 
 
 66.21 
 
 16, 
 
 5 
 
 23.64 
 
 40.08 
 
 51.88 
 
 61.17 
 
 68.62 
 
 17, . . 
 
 5 
 
 24.81 
 
 41.88 
 
 54.07 
 
 63.47 
 
 70.81 
 
 IS, 
 
 5 
 
 25.97 
 
 43.59 
 
 55.97 
 
 65.52 
 
 72.83 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 27.14 
 
 45.27 
 
 57.92 
 
 67.52 
 
 74.80 
 
 20, 
 
 5 
 
 28.30 
 
 46.98 
 
 59.85 
 
 69.46 
 
 76.64 
 
 21, 
 
 5 
 
 29.47 
 
 48.65 
 
 61.76 
 
 71.40 
 
 78.41 
 
 22, . . 
 
 5 
 
 30.64 
 
 50.29 
 
 63.50 
 
 72.99 
 
 79.88 
 
 23, . . . 
 
 6 
 
 31.80 
 
 51.88 
 
 65.22 
 
 74.44 
 
 81.21 
 
 24, . . . . 
 
 5 
 
 32.97 
 
 63.43 
 
 66.81 
 
 76.20 
 
 82.71 
 
 25, 
 
 5 
 
 34.13 
 
 54.94 
 
 68.54 
 
 ' 77.81 
 
 84.07 
 
 26, 
 
 5 
 
 35.30 
 
 56.45 
 
 70.08 
 
 79.22 
 
 85.25 
 
 27, 
 
 5 
 
 36.46 
 
 57.95 
 
 71.68 
 
 80.52 
 
 86.31 
 
 
 5 
 
 37.63 
 
 59.36 
 
 72.98 
 
 81.75 
 
 87,36 
 
 29, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 38.79 
 
 60.72 
 
 74.36 
 
 82.92 
 
 88.40 
 
 30, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 39.96 
 
 62.15 
 
 75.75 
 
 84.06 
 
 89.32 
 
 The Experimental Beds. — This table gives a summary of the ex- 
 periments of this department. The current is represented by numbers 
 from 1 to 5, according to its velocity, 1 indicating still water and 5 a 
 rapid flow. The average annual growth and increase in volume is 
 given in terms of a 25-millimeter quahaug, which has been taken as an 
 arbitrary standard for the sake of comparison. The size, in terms of 
 the length, at various ages is given in yearly intervals from one-half 
 to five and one-half years, starting with the average length of 5 milli- 
 meters. ' 
 
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112 
 
 BIBLIOGEAPHY. 
 
 1. Kellogg, J. L. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Mor- 
 
 phology of Lamellibranchiate Mollusks. Bulletin United States 
 Fish Commission, 1890. 
 
 2. Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Yenus mercenaria. 
 
 New York State Museum Bulletin No. 71, Zoology, 10, 1903. 
 
 3. Kellogg, J. L. Notes on the Marine Food MoUusks of Louisiana. 
 
 Gulf Biological Station Bulletin No. 3, 1905. 
 
 4. Kellogg, J. L. Observation on the Life History of the Common 
 
 Clam, Mya arenaria. Bulletin United States Fish Commission, 
 1899. 
 
 5. Krause, A. K. Preliminary Report on the Habits and Life History 
 
 of the Quahaug. Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries, 
 1903. 
 
 6. Pelseneer, P. A Treatise on Zoology, Part V., Mollusca. Edited 
 
 by E. Ray Lankester, London, 1906. 
 
 7. Kellogg, J. L. Shellfish Industries, 1910. Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 S. Ingersoll, E. Tie Clam Fisheries. In the Fisheries and Fishing 
 Industries of the United States, United States Fish Commission 
 and Tenth Census, 1887. 
 
 9. Verrill, A. E. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard 
 Sound. United States Fish Commission Report, 1871-72. 
 
 10. Von Zittel, K. A. Text-book of Palaeontology, London, 1900. 
 
 11. Gould, A. A. Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, 1870. 
 
 12. Ryder, J. A. The Byssus of the Young of the Common Clam 
 
 {Mya arenaria, L.). American Naturalist, January, 1889. 
 
 13. Williamson, H. C. The Spawning, Growth and Movement of the 
 
 Mussel. Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for 
 Scotland, 1906. 
 
 14. Colton, H. S. How Fnlgur and Syeotypus eat Oysters, Mussels 
 
 and Clams. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
 Philadelphia, 1908. 
 
 15. Langworthy, C. F. United States Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin 85, 1898. 
 
 During the past four years the investigations at Wellfleet 
 were carried on to determine the practicability of securing a 
 " catch of oyster spat " in Wellfleet Bay. The catching of spat 
 is a very important advantage to the oyster industry. 
 
 The report of Mr. Belding follows : — 
 
113 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SET OF OYSTER SPAT IN 
 WELLFLEET BAY. 
 
 The future success of the Massachusetts oyster industry will de- 
 pend not only upon producing oysters of good quality and accessible 
 markets, but also upon the raising of seed oysters. At the present 
 time the problem of obtaining small oysters is an important factor in 
 the development of the industry, since the greater part of the seed is 
 brought from Long Island Sound, the Massachusetts oysterman paying 
 the added cost of transportation. By raising native seed other diffi- 
 culties, such as the inability to obtain suitably small oysters for plant- 
 ing and the prohibitive prices in years of poor set in Long Island 
 Sound, will be eliminated, and the oyster industry in the Common- 
 wealth placed on a more substantial basis. 
 
 Owing to variable natural conditions the control of the oyster set, in 
 spite of numerous investigations in this country and abroad, has 
 proved a bafiBing problem, which, possibly, may never be satisfactorily 
 solved. At the present time young oysters can be caught, with more 
 or less uncertainty, by placing shells in the water during the spawning 
 season, the planter having no means of foretelling whether he will get a 
 good or a poor set. Except in Buzzard's Bay and the Taunton River, 
 where there were once natural oyster beds, little attempt has been 
 made to catch the natural set, the Cape Cod planters obtaining their 
 seed outside the Commonwealth. The object of this paper is to pre- 
 sent a few facts concerning spat collecting, with the hope that it 
 may arouse renewed interest in the production of native oyster seed. 
 The following observations in Wellfleet Bay, in spite of their limited 
 scope, show that oyster spat can be collected artificially in localities 
 coromonly considered unproductive, and that similar results can be 
 obtained in other sections where spat collecting has not been given a 
 fair trial by the oystermen. 
 
 The following report consists of an introductory section, briefly deal- 
 ing with the natural history of the oyster in as far as it relates to 
 general spat collecting, a description of the conditions in "Wellfleet 
 Bay, and the results obtained from an investigation of the spawning 
 season and from experiments with spat collectors. The methods of 
 work are described under each topic. 
 
 Natural Histobt. 
 Spawning. — The American oyster ( Ostrea virgimca) is unisexual, 
 whereas the European species {Ostrea edulis) is hermaphroditic, i.e., 
 both sexes occur in the same animal. The ripe generative organs 
 (Fig. 62), in either sex, surround the liver and intestine, giving the 
 appearance of branching veins filled with creamy white contents. The 
 eggs or spermatozoa, during the act of spawning, are extruded from 
 
114 
 
 two main duets, opening, one on each side, below the large adductor 
 muscle, and are swept from the mantle chamber into the water, where 
 they imite with the spawn from another oyster of the opposite sex. 
 The oyster ready to spawn is popularly said to be " in milk," owing 
 to the white, milky appearance of the reproductive organs. In Massa- 
 chusetts waters the oyster begins to spawn at the age of two years, 
 but its greatest activity does not take place before the fourth or fifth 
 year. 
 
 Fecundation. — According to the late Prof. W. K. Brooks of Johns 
 Hopkins University the average female oyster is capable of producing 
 16,000,000 eggs per season. The extruded eggs, about Moo of an inch 
 in diameter, can be seen by the naked eye as tiny white specks, which 
 under the microscope have a roimd opaque appearance, due to the 
 yolk granules within the cell. The spawn of the male oyster has a 
 uniform milky consistency, due to the great number of minute sper- 
 matozoa, which mainly consist of a nucleated body and long slender 
 tail. In this way nature has provided a division of labor, since the 
 egg is the inactive form, which contains the nutriment, while the 
 spermatozoon is modified for swimming in search of the egg. 
 
 In order that the egg, which has been cast ofE from the parent 
 oyster, shall develop into a new individual, it must unite with a sper- 
 matozoon, the act of fusion being known as fecundation or . fertiliza- 
 tion. In nature the meeting of these two is often a matter of chance, 
 depending upon the simultaneous spawning of several oysters in the 
 same locality, and probably numbers of eggs are never fertilized. 
 
 Early Life History. — With the completion of spawning the adult 
 oysters have fulfilled their parental duties and the developing embryo 
 is at the mercy of the natural elements. In order to overcome such 
 adverse conditions as sudden changes in temperature, cold rains, 
 storms, frcshets, as well as the active enemies of the young larvae, 
 and in order to maintain the proper equilibrium in spite of this great 
 destruction, nature has provided an enormous number of eggs for 
 every female oyster. 
 
 During the first few hours, if the temperature of the water is not 
 below 70° F., the embryo develops by the usual method of unequal ceU 
 division, and passes successively through 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., celled 
 stages, until it finally becomes a mass of small cells surrounding a few 
 large cells, which are to form the primitive digestive tract. In the 
 course of a few hours these surface cells throw out fine hair-like proc- 
 esses, cilia, which by their lashing enable the animal first to rotate 
 and then to swim through the water. The body soon elongates; cilia 
 are only visible on the front end; the primitive mouth is formed on 
 the under surface; and the shell gland is developed opposite the mouth. 
 Gradually a thin, transparent shell envelops the body, the cilia on the 
 anterior end forming a thick pad, the velum or swimming organ, which 
 permits the little shelled larva to lead a free-swimming existence. 
 
115 
 
 The formation of a mouth, stomach, intestine and anus enable the 
 young animal to digest minute organisms and to obtain its sustenance 
 from the water. During this veliger period the oyster larvae can readily 
 be taken by towings with the plankton net. 
 
 Attaehment. — About the sixth day, the length of the free-swimming 
 period depending upon the temperature of the water, the embryo set- 
 tles to the bottom, and, if fortunate, attaches itself to some hard clean 
 surface by the edges of the mantle, a fleshy fold on the inside of the 
 shell. This temporary attachment is soon replaced by a calcareous fixa- 
 tion which firmly fastens the oyster by its left or deep valve to the 
 object of support. The attachment is caused by a sticky secretion 
 from the mantle which becomes impregnated with lime salts. Several 
 instances have been observed on the gravel bar in Herring River, 
 Wellfleet, where yearling oysters had made a second attachment at 
 the edge of the shell, leaving an interval between the two pebbles 
 (Fig. 68: 16). This fact indicates that the oyster at the age of one 
 year still retains its power of attachment. 
 
 Previous to the attachment the early straight-hinged veliger larva 
 has changed in size and shape to an unequivalvular form, with prom- 
 inent umbones pointing posteriorly, which is readily recognizable under 
 the microscope. During the early attachment period the anterior ad- 
 ductor muscle disappears, the gill filaments increase in number, and 
 a different shell formation takes place. 
 
 Spat Collecting. 
 
 The present system of spat collecting developed from a study of the 
 attachment habit in the young oyster, the planters finding that they 
 could aid nature during the spawning season by placing in the water 
 suitable objects on which the larvae would set. The oyster will fasten 
 to any hard clean surface, often on unusual objects, as old shoes, rub- 
 ber boots, tin cans, clay pipes, glass bottles, and many other articles 
 which occasionally find their way into the water. At Monomoy Point 
 a large lobster was captured with five oysters, two and one-half months 
 old, attached to its shell. 
 
 In America various shells have been utilized for culteh. In Massa- 
 chusetts the oyster shell, most popular in other States, is generally 
 considered second to the scallop, which, of a more fragile nature, read- 
 ily allows the breaking apart of the clustered oysters. The heavier 
 oyster shell does not break as easily, and consequently, unless the clus- 
 ters are separated by hand, the oysters either die or take on an 
 elongate form from lateral pressure. Oyster shells are preferred for 
 exposed waters, scallop for quiet localities where the light shells will 
 not be washed away. Clam, mussel, razor clam, silver or jingle shells, 
 as well as gravel and small stones, are occasionally used. In Europe 
 intensive oyster culture demands more elaborate methods, and various 
 
116 
 
 combinations of brush, bamboo, rope, tile and cement are used to catch 
 the spat. 
 
 In the United States spat is collected both in the deep water and 
 beween the tide lines. The former method is used in Long Island 
 Sound, where the cultch is planted in water as deep as 40 feet; the 
 latter in Massachusetts, where the seed is taken mostly between the 
 tide lines (Pig. 64). The waters at the head of Buzzard's Bay, for- 
 merly the site of several natural oyster beds, yield an abundant har- 
 vest from the planting of shells on the gravel bars in brackish water. 
 Outside of Buzzard's Bay and Narragansett Bay little spat collecting 
 is carried on in Massachusetts, the planters preferring to buy their 
 seed outside the State. 
 
 In placing the spat collectors the planter should have in mind two 
 things: first, the desirability of a hard bottom to support the shells; 
 secondly, the danger of planting the shells too early. In certain cases 
 it is profitable to artificially harden the bottom with stones or gravel 
 before planting. After the shells have been in the water for a short 
 time, they become covered with a slimy growth of microscopic plants, 
 which renders impossible the attachment of the young oyster. Tor 
 this reason, except in favored localities, where the growth of the slime 
 is slow, the oysterman must needs wait until the spawning season is 
 well under way before placing his shells in the water. Even then the 
 conditions determining a set are so erratic that the oysterman does not 
 average more than one good set in every three to four years. 
 
 In Massachusetts the oyster industry is regulated locally by the 
 various coast towns, and spat collecting is permitted under the follow- 
 ing conditions: — 
 
 The mayor and aldermen of a city or selectmen of a town may, by writing 
 under their hands, grant a license for a term not exceeding ten years to any 
 inhabitant thereof ... to plant oyster shells for the purpose of catching 
 oyster seed, upon and in any waters, flats and creeks therein, at any place 
 where there is no natural oyster bed; not, however, impairing the private 
 rights of any person, nor materially obstructing any navigable waters. . . . 
 The shore line of such licensed premises shaU be . . . the line of high water 
 for the planting of oyster shells, but the provisions of this section shall not 
 authorize the placing of such shells upon the land of a riparian owner 
 between high and low water mark without his written consent. 
 
 Conditions in Wellfleet Bay. 
 During the summer of 1908 a series of observations was made upon 
 the oyster set in Wellfleet Bay. In this locality the planters, after a 
 few unsuccessful attempts, had gradually reached the conviction that 
 the capture of oyster spat in Wellfleet Bay was almost an impossi- 
 bility. With the object of possibly discovering a remedy for this con- 
 dition, the following plan of investigation was outlined: (1) a survey 
 
117 
 
 of the natural oyster set in the bay; (2) observations on the spawning 
 and larvsB in the water; (3) experiments with spat collectors in the 
 different parts of the Bay. 
 
 Wellfleet Bay. — Wellfleet Bay, an arm of Cape Cod Bay some 4 
 miles long and 2 miles wide, has an extensive area of flats, owing to 
 the great rise and fall of the tide (10% feet). For this reason practi- 
 cally all the set is found between the tide lines, although spat is occa- 
 sionally noticed on the oysters planted in the deep water. The flats 
 vary in composition from gravel to soft mud, but for the most part con- 
 sist of a dark coarse sand. The tide flows swiftly, causing a slight 
 shifting of the flats, especially in the lower part of the bay, and form- 
 ing numerous sand and gravel bars, such as Stony, Smalley's, Black- 
 flsh Creek and Herring River bars. At the head of the bay, on the 
 east and west sides, are two inlets, Duck Creek and Herring River, 
 whUe half way down on the east side is Blaekfish Creek. At low tide 
 little remains of these tributaries except streams in the channel bed. 
 The two principal sand bars are Smalley's Bar, opposite Blaekfish 
 Creek, and Egg Island, at the northern end of the bay. 
 
 The Wellfleet Oyster Industry. — In any consideration of the set it 
 is essential to know the amount of adult spawning oysters on the 
 beds. In 1908, when the greater part of our observations were made, 
 there were but 70,000 bushels of oysters planted in the bay. Of this 
 number, 68,000 were three-year-old oysters, the remainder seed. Five 
 and six-year-old oysters were found in scattering quantities near Indian 
 Neck, in the northern part of the harbor. In spite of the small num- 
 ber and size of the spawning oysters a comparatively heavy set oc- 
 curred in 1908, which indicates that favorable weather conditions 
 during the spawning season are more important than the number of 
 spawners. In 1909 approximately the same number of oysters were 
 on the beds, but being older were capable of producing more spawn. 
 In 1910 and 1911, owing to the development of the Wellfleet industry 
 by new companies, a considerably larger number of oysters were 
 planted. 
 
 Previous Attempts at Spat Collecting. — The first settlers in Well- 
 fleet found a natural oyster bed in the vicinity of Hitehin's Creek 
 or Silver Spring in 1644. In 1775 this natural bed was completely 
 destroyed and was never replenished, owing to the lack of suitable 
 objects on which the spat could catch. Until 1908 the only successful 
 spat collecting had been in Herring River, where two set, the last in 
 1906, had been obtained by Mr. E. P. Cook of Wellfleet. Various 
 attempts have been made in other parts of the bay by the oystermen, 
 with indifferent success. 
 
 Preliminary Survey. — The main problem was to determine whether 
 the prevailing opinion that unfavorable natural conditions rendered spat 
 collecting impossible was true or whether it had arisen through lack 
 of initiative and erroneous methods. The first step in the solution of 
 
118 
 
 this problem was a general survey of the oyster set of previous years 
 in order to determine the most productive localities. For this purpose 
 an examination of the rocks, gravel bars, wharf pilings, stakes, etc., 
 was made for evidences of set. 
 
 The result of the survey indicated that artificial spat collecting could 
 be carried on successfully, as was later substantiated by the experi- 
 mental collectors. The observations were briefly as follows : — 
 
 (1) The greater part of the oyster set took place between the tide 
 lines, which limited the area for placing the experimental spat col- 
 lectors. 
 
 (2) Sufficient evidence was found of the natural abundance of larvEB 
 in the water, as in the favorable localities whenever a clean surface 
 was presented a few spat could be found attached, the chief difficulty 
 being the lack of suitably raised collectors. The number of oysters 
 from one to three years old, attached to the piling and stones under 
 Commercial and Chequesset Inn wharves (Mg. 66), as well as the 
 quantity of living and dead oysters on the stones, pebbles and large 
 rocks in nearly every part of the bay, gave promise of an abundant 
 natural production. 
 
 (3) The localities of the greatest natural set appeared to be Her- 
 ring River, Blackfish Creek and the bar south of Jeremy's Point, 
 locally known as Stony Bar. 
 
 The Plankton Net. 
 
 The importance of determining the spawning season and time of set 
 in WeHfleet Bay was early evident, since such information not only 
 would show the proper time to put down our spat collectors, but also, 
 when continued through a series of years, would prove of value to the 
 local oyster planters. For this reason the first step in our investigation 
 was directed toward a study of the spawning habits of the 03rster in 
 this locality. 
 
 Methods of Investigation. — Beginning in May examinations were 
 made at definite intervals to determine the condition of the spawn in 
 the adult oysters on the grants. Information was also gathered from 
 the oystermen as to when the oysters were " in milk," and at what 
 times in previous years spat had been observed, a method which, al- 
 though helpful, did not give as definite results as the plankton net, 
 and which, after 1908, was used only for general reference. 
 
 The general usefulness of the plankton net, which has been used ex- 
 tensively in the study of microscopic life in the water, suggested that 
 it might prove of value in determining the presence of the free-swim- 
 ming oyster larvaa previous to the time of set. In the past little 
 attention has been given to the shellfish larvas in the veliger or free- 
 swimming stage, and merely the abundance or scarcity of any year 
 noted. An endeavor was made to make our work roughly quantitative 
 
119 
 
 by using stated distances, same period of tide and a uniform method 
 of counting the larvss with the microscope and Rafter cell. 
 
 The tow net was made of No. 11 silk bolting cloth, supported from 
 a copper ring 12 inches in diameter by a fold of canvas. The net 
 was towed behind a dory near the surface of the water at a uniform 
 rate of speed, which permitted the water to filter through the fine 
 meshes, leaving the plankton or floating organisms. A uniform speed 
 was essential, as too rapid movement would result in the backing of 
 water from the net, owing to the difficulty of filtering, and too slow 
 a rate would allow the net to sink. The variation in current, tide and 
 wind likewise rendered difficult the filtration of the same amount of 
 water at each towing, so that the counting was only roughly comparable. 
 Except in protected inlets any quantitative work with a simple net 
 in sea water necessarily has to allow for these errors. As the same 
 distance, a round trip of '600 feet off Chequesset Inn wharf, was taken 
 for each towing, and only approximate results desired, the value of 
 the work from a practical standpoint was little affected. ' 
 
 The second step was the separation of the oyster and other shell- 
 fish larvse from the miscellaneous plankton forms in the towing, which 
 had been washed into a small pail containing about 3 inches of water. 
 The water was given a whirling motion with a small stick, which forced 
 the larvae by centripetal action to the center of the pail, where they 
 could be easily taken out with a pipette. The operation was repeated 
 several times to obtain all the larvae. If, perchance, sand had been 
 taken in the tawing, it would also settle to the center with the lamelli- 
 branch and gasteropod larvae, but the larger grains could be separated 
 later by proper manipulation in small glass dishes. No satisfactory 
 method of separating the fine sand grains or gasteropod larvae from 
 the lamellibranch veligers could be devised, except the laborious method 
 of picking out the individuals with a fine pipette. However, their 
 removal was not essential, since they did not materially interfere with 
 the counting. 
 
 The method of counting is an adaptation of the Sedgwick-Rafter 
 device for counting diatoms and algae. The larvae are spread evenly in 
 a Rafter cell, consisting of a brass rectangle, 1 millimeter high, 20 
 millimeters wide and 50 millimeters long, fitted onto a glass slide and 
 having a volume of 1,000 cubic millimeters, or 1 cubic centimeter. By 
 means of a ruled square in the ocular of the microscope, covering 1 
 square millimeter of surface on the slide, the larvae are counted from 
 ten different areas and the result multiplied by 100 to give the entire 
 number, which, if the distribution in the cell is even, proves a fair 
 estimate. 
 
 Results. 
 
 The Oyster Larva. — The duration of the veliger or free-swimming 
 period is variable, the temperature of the water having a great influ- 
 ence on the rapidity of larval development. During this stage certain 
 
120 
 
 anatomical changes occur which render the animal capable of forsaking 
 the free-swimming existence and ready to lead a stationary life. It 
 is difficult to distinguish the oyster from the other shellfish at this 
 period, the early veligers of many lamelUbranchs having the same flat 
 hinge line. It is only during the last days of the veliger stage that 
 the final characteristics which differentiate it from the quahaug, clam, 
 scallop and other sheUflsh appear. The oyster just previous to the 
 time of set has an equi-valvular shell with projecting umbones (beak) 
 pointing posteriorly. The convex left valve is larger than the right 
 and forms the greater part of the characteristic hump-like umbones. 
 
 The appearance in the towings of the larva with prominent umbones 
 marks the time for immediately putting down the shell spat col- 
 lectors. Eecognition of the young oyster at this period by the plank- 
 ton net and microscope should prove of value to the oyster planters, 
 especially in the localities where the natural conditions, favorable for 
 the growth of minute animal and vegetable life in the water, render a 
 short submergence of the shells imperative. In Buzzard's Bay the 
 oysterman considers it important to know the exact time of set in order 
 to prevent his shells becoming covered with a slime, which would inter- 
 fere with the attachment of the spat. In this respect conditions are 
 more favorable at WeMeet, the shells sliming but little. It is to be 
 regretted that our method of determining the exact time of set, since 
 it depends upon microscopical examination of the larval oysters, can- 
 not become of popular use among the practical oystermen of the Com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 The Spawning Season. — In Wellfleet Bay the spawning season 
 approximately extends from the middle of June to the middle of 
 August; but the greater part of the spawn is liberated during the last 
 week in June and the first two weeks in July. The actual spawning of 
 the individual oyster is probably of brief duration, and the long season 
 is best explained by the variation in the ripening of the different 
 oysters. Observations of the spawning season for four years gave the 
 following data: in 1908 microscopical examinations of the eggs showed 
 that a few oysters had begun to spawn as early as June 12, but that 
 the season practically did not start until June 23; by July 10 the 
 majority of oysters in the upper part of the bay had ceased spawning, 
 while the oysters in the lower part, where the water was cooler, were 
 not so far advanced. In 1909 the main spawning took place between 
 June 26 and July 10, followed by a second period between July 22 and 
 July 31. In 1910 the first spawning occurred between June 24 and 
 July 1, the second from July 13 to July 22, and scattering larvae were 
 found in the water from July 27 to August 12. In 1911 the first 
 spawning came between June 28 and July 5, the second from July 19 
 to July 22, and scattering larvae were found from July 26 to August 
 24. According to these records the principal spawning takes place dur- 
 ing the last week in June and the first two weeks in July, with a slight 
 
121 
 
 variation for the different years. The subsequent spawning evidently 
 depends upon variable temperature conditions, and exhibits no regu- 
 larity. 
 
 Temperature and Spawning. — The temperature of the water was the 
 chief factor regulating the spawning, which took place at 70° F. or 
 over. The 1911 season was slightly later than 1909 and 1910, owing 
 to the cold weather during June. The temperature of the water in 
 the upper part of Wellfleet Bay followed closely the weather changes, 
 the action of the sun on the flats exposed at low tide rapidly raising 
 the temperature several degrees. The sudden bursts of spawning were 
 invariably preceded by a high temperature of the water, brought on 
 by the hot weather, the month of July, during which most of the 
 spawning took place, averaging 3 degrees warmer than the month 
 of August. In general, the time of spawning could be told from the 
 condition of the weather and the temperature of the water, the observant 
 oysterman invariably predicting an early or late season. 
 
 The Destruction of Larvce. — The numerous offspring of the oyster 
 maintain a continuous struggle for existence against the adverse forces 
 of nature. In our study with the plankton net a few observations 
 were made on the effect of cold rains upon the larval oyster and other 
 shellfish. In most cases the rain either caused the destruction of the 
 swimming larvse or forced them to settle to the bottom. At Monomoy 
 Point, Mass., during a long, cold rain, counts were made of the number 
 of larvsB in a certain amount of water which passed through the plank- 
 ton net : before the rain, 30,000 ; after nine hours, 15,000 ; after fifteen 
 hours, 3,000. After the rain ceased the number of larvae gradually 
 increased, until it was the same as at the first counting. 
 
 The years of the best set have had little or no rain during the brief 
 free-swimmiug period, thus affording no drawback to the development 
 of the larva. The conditions causing set are varied, complex and con- 
 stantly changing. A set is achieved by a happy combination of fa- 
 vorable conditions largely presided over by the element of chance, and 
 for this reason wiU always remain a more or less baffling problem to 
 the oysterman, who in his feeble way is unable to control the mighty 
 forces of nature. 
 
 Spat-collecting Experiments. 
 
 In connection with the use of the plankton net small shell collectors 
 were put down in order to deteiinine the values of the different parts 
 of the bay and to ascertain the natural conditions influencing spat 
 collecting. Seventy-four collectors, consisting of % to 1 bushel of 
 shells, were placed between the tide lines in the selected localities, and 
 covered with galvanized wire netting, 1-inch mesh, securely fastened 
 to the flat by four short stakes, in order to prevent the contents from 
 washing away in the strong currents. The final result showed a little 
 mound of shells, 6 to 8 inches high, covering perhaps 5 square feet. 
 By this simple device it was possible at a small expense to test a large 
 
122 
 
 territory -witli more satisfactory results than by using a few large 
 collectors. In studying any particularly favorable locality, such as a 
 sand or gravel bar, a series of collectors were placed at definite inter- 
 vals to determine the most favorable part. 
 
 Three difficulties which unfavorably influenced the results were en- 
 countered: (1) the shells were difficult to obtain and the greater part 
 of the collectors consisted of razor clam shells, a form less suitable 
 for catching spat than the scallop or the oyster shell; (2) the extreme 
 lowness of the shell heaps, not over 8 inches above the surface of the 
 flat, rendered the small collectors less efficient than larger heaps; (3) 
 part of the collectors were planted late in the spawning season, July 
 11 to July 24, and possibly may have missed the heavier part of the 
 set. They were taken up September 7 to October 14, the more im- 
 portant being taken up first. By this time the young oysters were 
 of a readily discernible size. 
 
 Location of the Collectors. — Seventy-four collectors were placed be- 
 tween the tide lines around the bay, from Billingsgate Island on the 
 west to the south side of Lieutenant's Island on the east, a distance 
 of nearly 7 miles. In Herring River and Blackfish Creek were long, 
 tongue-shaped bars over which the tide flows swiftly. On these a series 
 of collectors from high to low water mark were set out to find at what 
 depth of water the greatest abundance of set occurred. A second 
 series at right angles to the first were placed across the bar in the 
 direction of the tide flow, to determine whether the set took place on 
 the outer edge, mid surface or inner edge of the bar. In the other 
 parts of the bay the more isolated collectors were usually placed in 
 pairs, one near high, the other near low water mark. 
 
 Besvlts. — Of the 74 collectors, 26 were washed away, the greatest 
 loss taking place in Blackfish Creek, near the Chequesset Inn and Egg 
 Island, Jeremy's Point and Billingsgate Island. The condition of the 
 remaining 48 can be classified as follows: (1) good, 14, mostly in 
 Herring River and Blackfish Creek; (2) fair, 18; (3) poor, 16. Only 
 in one place were the collectors a decided disappointment, on the north 
 side of Blackfish Creek, where the entire bar shifted with the early 
 autumn gales, either burying or washing away the smaU shell heaps. 
 
 When taken up only 18 collectors oui of the 48 which were recovered 
 had caught any spat. The following table gives location, the number 
 of collectors, the percentage of shells found and the relative value of 
 the locality in terms of the amount of spat. The collector with the 
 greatest number of young oysters was taken as the standard and given 
 400 per cent. Since a collector which contained 10 per cent, of the 
 original shells could not capture as much spat as one with 50 per cent., 
 it was necessary, in determining the relative value of the locality, to 
 allow for this difference by estimating the catch for the entire collector. 
 
123 
 
 Location. 
 
 Number of 
 CoUeotora. 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Shells. 
 
 Value 
 (Percent.). 
 
 East side of Great Island, 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 2.67 
 
 East side of Great Island 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 5.33 
 
 Herring River 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 6.00 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 i 
 
 25 
 
 400.00 
 
 Herring River, ... 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 266.67 
 
 Herring River, . . ... 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 8.00 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 5.33 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 10.67 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 2.67 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 5.33 
 
 Herring River, 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 .13.33 
 
 Indian Neck, ... ... 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 6.67 
 
 Indian Neck 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 6.67 
 
 Blackfish Creek, . ... 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 6.67 
 
 Blackfish Creek 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 5.00 
 
 Blackfish Creek, 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 6.67 
 
 Blackfish Creek, 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 41.67 
 
 Blackfish Creek 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 13.33 
 
 (1) At what Level between the Tide Lines does the Best Set occur. 
 — The greater part of the set in Wellfleet Bay occurred between the 
 tide lines, which was due in some measure to the height of the tide, 
 10% feet, and the large area of exposed flats. To determine at what 
 height the set of oysters was most likely to take place, three classifica- 
 tions of the collectors were made, (1) high, (2) medium, and (3) low, 
 according to their situation in regard to low-water mark. Of 47 col- 
 lectors, 17 were high, 9 low and 21 medium. Of the 18 collectors which 
 caught set, 3 were high, 13 medium and 2 low, showing a per cent, 
 of 72 for the medium in the productive collectors as compared with 45 
 of the total number. The strip of territory about half way between 
 the tide lines in Wellfleet Bay was the most productive of oyster seed, 
 and recognition of this fact should be taken by the local oyster planters 
 in putting down shells for spat collecting. 
 
 (2) Gravel Bars as Natural Spat Collectors. — When a long bar pro- 
 jects from the land at the mouth or entrance of a bay, creek or river, 
 it seems to act as a natural spat collector for shellfish, particularly 
 oysters, if there are suitable objects, such as shells or pebbles, on which 
 the set can fasten. The top or highest portion of the bar seems most 
 suitable for the attachment of the young oyster, while the clams and 
 quahaugs are deposited around the edges. It is especially noteworthy 
 
124 
 
 that in WeMeet Bay the best grounds for the oyster set are the raised 
 bars swept by the tidal currents in Herring River and Blackflsh Creek. 
 
 (3) Artificial Bars. — The preliminary survey showed that the chief 
 difSculty in obtaining oyster set in WeMeet Bay was due to a lack 
 of raised places for catching the seed. The question then arose as to 
 whether portions of the ordinary flats could not be modified in some 
 manner to afford suitable collecting ground. The problem of raising 
 the level of the chosen locality to make a firm foundation for the shells 
 was considered, and in order to test the efficiency of this plan an un- 
 productive flat of soft mud iu Herring River was selected. Several 
 loads of coarse gravel were dumped upon the soft mud untU a solid 
 raised platform was built. On this the shell collectors were placed. 
 If the shells had been placed on the mud before it had been covered 
 with the gravel they would soon have been covered with silt. A fair 
 set was obtained on the shells, which proved that by proper means 
 many places on the flats of WeMeet Bay could be utilized in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 The Survey. 
 
 About Dec. 1, 1908, a record was taken of the natural conditions 
 in the localities of abundant set and a general survey was made for 
 the purpose of determining the favorable locations of the set in the 
 various parts of the bay, on the bars, flats and large rocks. 
 
 The West Side of the Bay. — Passing north from Billingsgate Island 
 the flrst locality of set was the low gravel bar, locally known as Stony 
 Bar, situated south of Jeremy's Point. The tide passed with great 
 swiftness over the bar, which was exposed only at extremely low run- 
 ning tides, rendering this locality, in spite of its favorable location for 
 an abundant oyster and quahaug set, unsuitable for artificial spat 
 collectors. Here quantities of small oysters were found attached to 
 the gravel and small stones. 
 
 The tidal flats on the bay shore of Great Island consisted mostly of 
 yellow or dark colored sand, furnishing no foundation for the set ex- 
 cept on the large rocks which were scattered along the shore. Occa- 
 sionally stones or pebbles covered with small oysters averaging 19 
 millimeters (% of an inch) in size were gathered. North of the 
 " Meadows," a gravel bed, 40 by 30 feet was covered with a thick set, 
 averaging 14.8 millimeters (% of an inch). The scattering set from 
 this locality to Herring River averaged slightly larger, about 22 mil- 
 limeters (% of an inch). 
 
 The North Side of the Bay. — With the exception of Herring River, 
 which will be described later, the north side -showed a similar condition, 
 — a scattering set on the pebbles and stones ; but, owing to the greater 
 amount of suitable objects for fixation, the natural set was correspond- 
 ingly greater. The average size along this shore was 22 millimeters 
 (% of an inch). The heaviest set was found on the wooden piles and 
 rocks under the Chequesset Inn and Commercial wharves, which were 
 
125 
 
 literally covered with young oysters, averaging 20.48 millimeters. Like- 
 wise the stakes marking the quahaug beds proved miniature collectors, 
 a single stick often holding as many as 50 spat. 
 
 The East Side of the Bay. — The same conditions held true along the 
 entire east shore, a scattering set on all stones and shells exposed from 
 the sand. The rocks on Indian Neck and the west side of Lieutenant's 
 Island were well supplied with spat. On the south side of Blackflsh 
 Creek a gravel bar extending from the shore of Lieutenant's Island in 
 a northerly direction proved one of the best situations in the bay for 
 planting shells. The abundance of the natural set and the results from 
 the experimental spat collectors showed that this region ranked next 
 to Herring Eiver in the production of seed oysters. The average size, 
 13 millimeters (% inch), was less than in the upper part of the harbor. 
 
 The Boohs. — A number of rocks, varying in size from small stones to 
 a circumference of 70 feet, were scattered over the flats along the eastern 
 and western shores. These rocks often occurred in clusters or groups, 
 as at Indian Neck or west of Lieutenant's Island; but occasionally soli- 
 tary specimens rose abruptly from the sands. The larger of the rocks, 
 known to the quahaug fishermen as Old Sow, Blue Rock, etc., furnished 
 evidence of an abundant natural set, and indicated what might be 
 accomplished, by proper spat collectors, since, with few exceptions, 
 their sides, 2 feet above the sand, were thickly covered with oyster 
 spat. In many instances the young oysters had attached to a previous 
 set and could be readily scraped ofE the rocks. 
 
 On the western side of the bay records were taken of the oyster set 
 on six rocks from 2 to 9 feet in diameter. The average number of 
 oysters per square foot was 41, ranging from 28 to 80, and the average 
 size 12.23 millimeters (% inch). 
 
 Blue Rock, the largest in the bay, having a circumference of 70 feet 
 and rising 12 feet above the sand flat west of Lieutenant's Island, 
 had the heaviest set. The rock lies in a favorable location and is com- 
 pletely covered only during the high course tides. The 1908 set began 
 1 foot from the bottom, was thickest from 1 to 4 feet and gradually 
 thinned from 4 to 6 feet. The different sides showed variations in the 
 amount of set: the west side averaged 125 per square foot, size, 9.84 
 millimeters; the east side, 109, size, 6.96 millimeters; the south side, 
 125, size 10 millimeters; the north side, 53, size, 9.44 millimeters. The 
 size of the set on the small rocks near by varied from 8 to 15.5 milli- 
 meters, according to location. 
 
 Herring River. — Herring River emptied into the northwest corner 
 of the bay by a deep bend which almost separated Great Island from 
 the main land. Formerly the incoming tide passed swiftly up the 
 river to flood thousands of acres of salt marsh along its numerous 
 branches ; but in 1909 the passage of salt water above the first bend was 
 prevented by the construction of a dike. The area concerned in the 
 oyster set lay below the dike, and although the river currents were 
 
126 
 
 somewhat altered, the conditions governing the set in this territory 
 remained unimpaired by the construction of the dike. 
 
 Scattering oysters were found on the stones, shells and sedge along 
 the shores. In one instance the projecting sides of a gunning tub, 
 buried in the sedge, had caught 75 spat 15 millimeters in size. Two 
 principal localities of set were found: on the north side of the river 
 were the remains of an old wharf, used in former days for the fishing 
 schooners. Here the old piles and stones were covered with oysters; 
 but owing to the absence of suitable objects for attachment outside 
 the wharf little set was noticeable. 
 
 The second locality was a gravel bar on the south side of the river, 
 which proved the best spat collecting territory in the bay. This bar, 
 covering approximately 500 by 150 feet, ran in a northwesterly direc- 
 tion from a point on the north side of Great Island in such a manner 
 that the incoming tide flowed over it diagonally. Between the outer side 
 of the bar and the channel at low tide was an area of shifting sand, 
 while on the south and west a sand and mud flat separated it from 
 Great Island. A series of spat collectors on this bar gave excellent 
 results. The scattering shells, placed on the gravel area by Mr. E. 
 P. Cook of Wellfleet also received a good uniform set. Over this bar 
 6 shells, averaging per shell 11.5 spat, 18.5 millimeters in size, were 
 found to the square foot. 
 
 The great abundance of the set is due to the location of the bar in 
 reference to the natural conditions of current, tide and shore line. The 
 bar presents (1) a peculiar shore formation, guiding the flow of the 
 tidal currents; (2) a high raised surface; (3) heavy material, such 
 as gravel and pebbles, which offer a suitable foundation for the shells 
 as well as serving as spat collectors; (4) the direction and force of the 
 current, which has full sweep over the bar, affording a chance for the 
 floating larva at the proper time to come in contact with suitable 
 objects for attachment. 
 
 Conclusions. 
 
 (1) The idea of the Wellfleet oystermen that the capture of seed in 
 Wellfleet harbor was impossible has proved erroneous. Our experi- 
 ments have demonstrated that spat can be successfully gathered if the 
 oystermen will use intelligent perseverance. 
 
 (2) At present there is an abundance of natural spat in the waters, 
 but a lack of suitable objects on which it can set. The heavy sets on 
 the gravel bars, rocks and under the wharves are obvious evidence. 
 
 (3) The two localities where set is most certain at the present time 
 are the gravel bars in Herring River and Blackflsh Creek. 
 
 (4) Other localities, particularly on the north end of the bay, can 
 be made productive of oyster set by the formation of artificially raised 
 gravel bars on which to plant the shells. 
 
 (5) The set takes place between the tide lines, only a small part 
 striking in the deep water. The heaviest set is about half tide line. 
 
127 
 
 (6) The spawning season lasts from June 15 to August 15, but the 
 principal spawning takes place during the last week in June and the 
 first two weeks in July. 
 
 (7) A method of determining by microscopical examination the exact 
 time of oyster set has been tried with success. This is important to 
 the oysterman in deciding at what period he should put down his shells 
 to prevent sliming. 
 
 (8) The shell collectors in Wellfleet Bay gather slime slowly, due 
 in part to the long exposure of the flats to the sun and air. Ordi- 
 narily the Wellfleet oysterman should put down his shells during the first 
 week in July. 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Age and spawning, 
 
 Anatomy, 
 
 Attachment, 
 
 Stage, 
 
 Oyster, 
 Baker, L. D., 
 Barnstable, 
 Bedding quahaugs, 
 Bibliography, 
 Boats, 
 Bourne, 
 
 Box experiments, 
 Brewster, . 
 Brooks, W. K., 
 Buzzard's Bay, . 
 Cape Cod, 
 
 North side, 
 
 South side, 
 Capture, methods of, : 
 
 Chatham, 
 Cleavage, . 
 Colton, H. S., 
 Commercial experiments. 
 Conclusions on oyster report, 
 Courtesies, 
 CuUs, 
 Culture, 
 
 Current, .... 
 Decline, 
 Dennis, 
 Depth, 
 
 Digestive system, 
 Distribution, 
 Dredging, 
 Drew, G. A., . 
 Dwarf quahaugs, 
 Eastham, 
 Edgartown, 
 Eelgrass, 
 Embryology, 
 Excretory system, 
 Egg, 
 Enemies, 
 
 Experimental beds, 
 Fairhaven, 
 Falmouth, 
 
 FAQB 
 
 16, 17 
 
 8-12 
 
 . '24^29 
 
 24^26 
 
 115 
 
 3,7 
 
 . 56, 58 
 
 65 
 
 112 
 
 . 63, 64 
 
 59 
 
 79-82 
 
 56 
 
 114 
 
 . 58-60 
 
 56-58 
 
 56,57 
 
 57,58 
 
 61,62 
 
 57 
 
 21 
 
 . 41, 112 
 
 4 
 
 126, 127, 142 
 
 3 
 
 65 
 
 41-55 
 
 90,91 
 
 . 41-45 
 
 58 
 
 92 
 
 11, 12,26 
 
 5,6 
 
 64 
 
 3, 112 
 
 94 
 
 57 
 
 . 60, 61 
 
 94 
 
 20-24 
 
 12 
 
 . 13, 14 
 
 39-41 
 
 . 75, 76 
 
 60 
 
 58,59 
 
132 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Family, quahaug, .......... 
 
 4 
 
 Farming, quahaug, . . . . . . 
 
 47-50 
 
 Harvesting, ... . . . 
 
 54 
 
 History, .... . . . . . 
 
 49 
 
 Methods of operating, ..... . . . 
 
 50-55 
 
 Obtaining the seed, . . . . . 
 
 63 
 
 Planting, .......... 
 
 53 
 
 Possibilities, . ..... 
 
 49,50 
 
 Selecting the ground, ...... 
 
 50-53 
 
 Uniform size, .... .... 
 
 55 
 
 Value of .......... . 
 
 54,55 
 
 Fecundation: 
 
 
 Natural, . . ....... 
 
 17,18 
 
 Oyster, . . .... 
 
 114 
 
 Feeding habits, . . 
 
 37-39 
 
 Field, G.W., . . . ... 
 
 3 
 
 Fishing grounds, .... .... 
 
 56-61 
 
 Food value, ..... . . 
 
 71-74 
 
 Chemical composition, 
 
 72 
 
 Meat ... 
 
 73 
 
 Shell . . 
 
 73,74 
 
 Value, ... . . ... 
 
 73 
 
 Foot, . 
 
 10 
 
 Gills — 
 
 
 Anatomy, . ...... 
 
 10,11 
 
 Development, . . . . 
 
 24,26 
 
 Gould, A. A 
 
 4, 5, 112 
 
 Gravel, oyster set on, ... . . 
 
 123, 124 
 
 Growth:— • 
 
 
 Adverse conditions, ....... 
 
 94 
 
 Barren flats, ....... 
 
 89 
 
 Blunts 
 
 86,87 
 
 Box, 
 
 95,96 
 
 Conditions influencing, . ... 
 
 90-94 
 
 Current, ...... . . 
 
 90,91 
 
 Belgrass 
 
 94 
 
 General, . . .... 
 
 85 
 
 Length of life, . • i • 
 
 87 
 
 Little neck, ... . . 
 
 88 
 
 Methods, ..... ... 
 
 74^85 
 
 Months ... 
 
 88 
 
 Object, ... 
 
 74 
 
 Salinity, . . . . . . . 
 
 94 
 
 Soil, . . . . 
 
 93,94 
 
 Thickly planted, . . .... 
 
 94,95 
 
 Young, ........... 
 
 85,86 
 
 Habits, . . . 
 
 26-41 
 
 Harwich, ........... 
 
 58 
 
 Hatching, 
 
 18-20 
 
 Herring river, oyster set in, . . . . • 
 
 . 125, 126 
 
 History, 
 
 66 
 
 Industrial practices, ... . • . 
 
 61-67 
 
 Industry, . ... 
 
 . 55-74 
 
 IngersoU, E., ..,.■■■ ■ 
 
 . 4, 5, 112 
 
 Injury, recovery from ... 
 
 37 
 
 Kellogg, J. L 3,4,5,11,2 
 
 8, 37, 112 
 
133 
 
 
 FAGEl 
 
 Krause, A. K., . 
 
 . 4, 112 
 
 Tiane, F. C, 
 
 3 
 
 Larva, oyster, . 
 
 . 119-121 
 
 Laws, 
 
 . ' . . . . 67-71 
 
 Life history: — 
 
 
 Quahaug, . 
 
 . 13-26 
 
 Oyster, 
 
 . 114, 115 
 
 Life, length of, . 
 
 87 
 
 Little neck. 
 
 88 
 
 Localities, 
 
 . 75,89 
 
 Locomotion, 
 
 . 31-36 
 
 Mantle, .... 
 
 . 10,25 
 
 Marion, .... 
 
 69,60 
 
 Marketing, .... 
 
 65 
 
 Mashpee, . . . . 
 
 58 
 
 Mattapoisett, . 
 
 60 
 
 Measuring, .... 
 
 77, 78 
 
 Methods of work. 
 
 6,7 
 
 Monomoy experiments. 
 
 78-82 
 
 Names, ..... 
 
 4,5 
 
 Nantucket, 
 
 60 
 
 Natural conditions, . 
 
 . 90-94 
 
 Nervous system, 
 
 12 
 
 Net, plankton, 
 
 118-121 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 60 
 
 Object of report. 
 
 3 
 
 Orleans, 
 
 56 
 
 Outfit of quahauger, . 
 
 64 
 
 Oyster: — 
 
 
 Attachment, 
 
 115 
 
 Conclusion, 
 
 126, 127 
 
 • Gravel, set on. 
 
 : 123, 124 
 
 Herring river. 
 
 125, 126 
 
 Larvffi, .... 
 
 . 119-121 
 
 Life history, 
 
 114, 115 
 
 Net, plankton. 
 
 . 118-121 
 
 Rooks, .... 
 
 125 
 
 Spat collecting, . 
 
 115, 116, 121-124 
 
 Spawning, . 
 
 . 113, 114, 120, 121 
 
 Tide 
 
 123 
 
 Wellfleet industry. 
 
 117 
 
 WeUfleet survey. 
 
 . 117, 118, 124^126 
 
 Pelseneer, P., . . 
 
 . 4, 112 
 
 Plymouth experiments. 
 
 82, 83 
 
 Polar cells. 
 
 20 
 
 Price, market, . 
 
 « . . 65 
 
 Provincetown, . 
 
 57 
 
 Raft, 
 
 81 
 
 Rakes, 
 
 . 61,62 
 
 Remedy, proposed, . 
 
 . 45-47 
 
 Results, general. 
 
 4 
 
 Reproductive organs. 
 
 13 
 
 Rocks, oyster, .... 
 
 125 
 
 Salinity, .... 
 
 94 
 
 Season, ..... 
 
 64 
 
 Seed 
 
 76,77 
 
134 
 
 Set, . 
 
 Sex, method of determining, 
 
 SheU, 
 
 Siphons, 
 
 Son, 
 
 Spawning, 
 
 Season, 
 
 Oyster, 
 
 Temperature, 
 Spat collecting: — 
 
 Oyster, 
 
 Quahaug, 
 Spermatozoon, 
 Starfish, . 
 Statistics, 
 Tables: — 
 
 Experimental beds. 
 
 Monthly value, . 
 
 Size and growth, 
 
 Size and volume. 
 
 Standard growth. 
 Temperature: — ■ 
 
 Oyster spawning, 
 
 Quahaug spawning, 
 Tide, 
 
 Tonging, . 
 Transplanting, 
 Treading, 
 Trochosphere, 
 Veliger, 
 Vinal, W. G., 
 Wareham, 
 Wellfleet: — 
 
 Fishing grounds. 
 
 Oyster industry, 
 
 Oyster survey, 
 
 Quahaug experiments, 
 WinHe, 
 Yarmouth, 
 Yolk lobe, 
 Zittel, K. von. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 29, 30 
 
 13 
 
 8, 9, 23, 25, 73, 74 
 
 10 
 
 93,94 
 
 14-18 
 
 15 
 
 113, 114, 120, 121 
 
 15,16 
 
 115, 116, 121-124 
 
 30,31 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 66,67 
 
 101-111 
 
 96,97 
 
 97,98 
 
 99, 100 
 
 100, 101 
 
 121 
 
 15, 16 
 
 91,92 
 
 61 
 
 95 
 
 61 
 
 21,22 
 
 22-24 
 
 3 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 117 
 
 117, 118, 124t-126 
 
 . 83-85 
 
 . 40, 41 
 
 58 
 
 20, 21 
 
 . 4, 112 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
Fig. 1. — Mature egg ready for union with male cell. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Spermatozoa (male cells). Note length of tail and shape of head. No 
 attempts were made to study the minute anatomy. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Egg, twenty-five minutes after fecundation, showing the two polar cells 
 (pc) and the faintly developed yolk lobe. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Egg just previous to the first cleavage, showing large yolk lobe. Mag- 
 nified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 5. — The two-celled stage at the completion of the first cleavage, fifty 
 minutes after fecundation. The larger cell contains the yolk lobe. Magnified 
 385 diameters. 
 
 Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9. — This series illustrates the process of cleavage in the egg during 
 the change from the two-celled to the four-celled stage. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 10. — The four-celled stage, one hundred and ten minutes after fecunda- 
 tion. Side view. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Figs. 11, 12. — The eight-celled stage, one hundred and forty-five minutes after 
 fecundation. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 13. — The sixteen-celled stage, one hundred and eighty-five minutes after 
 fecundation. Side view. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 14. — The thirty-two-celled stage, two hundred minutes after fecundation. 
 Side view. Note large yolk cell. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
Fig. 15. — Ciliated gastrula, ten hours after fecundation. The embryo can now 
 swim through the water by means of hairlike ciha. The larger cells have become 
 invaginated. Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 16. — Troohosphere stage, twelve to fourteen hours after fecundation. The 
 body has elongated and the cilia are now confined to the front end. The opening 
 of the primitive mouth (pm) can be seen on the lower side, while above is a slight 
 indentation corresponding to the beginning of the shell gland (sg) . Magnified 385 
 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Formation of the shell, which arises at two symmetrical points of 
 calcification, right and left of the median line, and gradually envelops the animal. 
 Magnified 385 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 18. — Early veliger swimming with velum extended from the shell, about 
 thirty-six hours after fecundation, aa, anterior adductor muscle, pa, posterior 
 adductor muscle, s, stomach, a, anus, mt, mouth, v, velum. Magnified 385 di- 
 ameters. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Veliger slightly older than shown in Fig. 18. The intestine (i) has 
 elongated, and the liver (1) is more prominent. 
 
 Figs. 20-27. — Figs. 20-24 illustrate the ordinary method of crawling of the 
 small 2 to 3 millimeter quahaugs. It consists of extending the foot and drag- 
 ging the body in a forward direction. Fig. 20 shows the foot just appearing 
 from the shell; the mantle and siphon are extended, while the angle between the 
 shell and the foot is acute. Fig. 21 shows the foot extended to its full length. It 
 has made a twist so that the bottom part of the ciliated tip can get a firm hold, 
 and thus raise the animal on edge so that the shell can enter the sand with a cutting 
 edge. In Fig. 22 the shell has taken a downward tip, the foot being partly with- 
 drawn into the shell. Fig. 23 shows the animal at the completion of an upward tip, 
 caused by the further withdrawal of the foot, which has straightened the shell into 
 its original position. Figs. 24 and 27 show another method of crawling, the qua- 
 haug being forced backward by a forceful movement of the foot. In Figs. 24 and 
 20 the foot is turned under the shell until the tip finds a resting place ; then by a 
 jerky motion the shell is raised from the bottom, and thrust either to the position of 
 Fig. 25 on the same side or turned over on the opposite side (Fig. 27) . 
 

 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ^'\^ i^i»^ tiif'"' 
 
 15 
 
Fig. 28. — Young quahaug, 1 millimeter (25 inch) in length, attached to sand 
 grains by the byssus (b) . The siphon (s) consists of two parts, an incurrent encircled 
 by twelve tentacles, through which the water enters the mantle chamber of the 
 animal, and an excurrent with four tentacles and filmy telescopic tube, through 
 which the water passes out of the mantle cavity. The byssus arises from a, gland 
 on the under side of the foot (ft) . 
 
 Fig. 29. — Young quahaug, 1 millimeter in size, half buried in the sand. The 
 animal is feeding, water passing in and out of the extended siphon, as shown by the 
 arrows. 
 
Fig. 30. — Map showing the distribution of the quahaug in Massachusetts. 
 The black areas indicate ground where quahaugs are found. 
 
PROVINCETOWN 
 
 WELLFLEET 
 
 ORLEANS 
 
 CH^TH^n 
 
 30 
 
Fig. 31. — Plan of the Powder Hole, Monomoy Point, Mass., showing the shell- 
 fish experiments and laboratory of the Massachusetts Department of Fisheries and 
 Game. The harbor, represented by the dotted lines, is bounded on the north and 
 west by a clam flat of coarse sand. The channel connecting the Powder Hole 
 with the ocean passes across this flat. The deepest water, 18 feet, is found near the 
 clam flat, while in the eastern and southern parts of the harbor the shallow water is 
 filled with a thick growth of eelgrass. (1) Raft; (2) car in which egg lobsters were 
 confined for hatching purposes; (3) scallop pen; (4) scallop pen; (5) scallop pen; 
 (6) winter rack for suspending scallop baskets and quahaug boxes under water as a 
 protection from the ice; (7) quahaug bed No. 3; (8) quahaug bed No. 5; (9) qua- 
 haug bed No. 7; (10) quahaug bed No. 6; (11) quahaug bed No. 8; (12) clam bed 
 No. 19; (13) sea clam bed; (14) clam bed No. 18; (15) clam bed No. 3; (16) clam 
 bed No. 2; (17) clam bed No. 99; (18) clam bed No. 100; (19) clam bed No. 20; 
 (20) clam bed No, 1; (21) laboratory. 
 
/ iJ-s.u.as./ 
 
 31 
 
Fig. 32. — Map of Wellfleet Bay showing the location between the tide lines 
 of quahaug growth experiments 101 to 185. Many acres of flats are exposed, owing 
 to the large rise and fall of the tide, which is about lOJ feet. The average increase 
 in volume for 84 beds in one year was 185 per cent., or over 2j bushels for every 
 bushel planted. 
 
V/ELLELEET 
 
 32 
 
Fig. 33. — The increase in quahaug production for Massachusetts from 1879 to 
 1907 is represented by a series of columns, corresponding to the annual yield for 
 1879, 1888, 1898 and 1907. The figures for the first three years are taken from the 
 reports of the United States Bureau of Fisheries. 
 
 Fig. 34. — The increase in value for the annual production of these years is 
 similarly represented. 
 
 Fig. 35. — ■ The rise in price per bushel for these years illustrates that the in- 
 creased demand and high cost of living have made quahauging a remunerative busi- 
 ness, in spite of the fact that the daily yield of the individual quahauger has become 
 less. 
 
187? 
 
 ^sfs^/ATmvimm^ 
 
 I8SS 
 Lb, Iff- bfcAeb. 
 
 t>3, Sf7 b^s^efs. 
 
 Prod uctton 
 
 33 
 
 '?o7 
 
 
 
 Value, of Production 
 34 
 
 
 ^o.yo 
 
 
 
 R.ise in Pnoe pe"- B«Js/ie/ 
 35 
 
 IQ01 
 
Pig. 36. — Growth between the Tide Lines. — Eighty beds, planted between 
 the tide lines at Wellfleet, were classified as low, medium and high, according to the 
 length of time exposed. The low beds, 32 in number, having a better circulation 
 and longer feeding period, gave a growth of 12.5 millimeters (.49 inch) in one year; 
 the 27 medium beds gave 7.82 millimeters (.31 inch); and the 21 high beds showed 
 a gain of 7.17 millimeters (.28 inch). Considering the growth of the low beds as 
 100 per cent., the medium would show 61.53 per cent., and the high 57.39 per cent. 
 
 Fig-. 37. — Age and Growth. — With age the rate of growth both in actual 
 increase and gain in volume becomes less. The three columns represent the com- 
 parative annual increase in length of 21.2 millimeters (.83 inch), 10.5 millimeters 
 (.41 inch) and 5 millimeters (.20 inch) for quahaugs one and one-half, three and one- 
 half, and five and one-half years old, planted in boxes suspended from a raft at 
 Monomoy Point. 
 
 Fig. 38. — Current and Growth. — The three columns represent the com- 
 parative increase in length during 1909 for small quahaugs planted in three sections 
 of the Powder Hole. The highest column shows the average growth 27.23 milli- 
 meters (1.07 inches), in the raft boxes, where the circulation of water was good; 
 the second column shows a growth of 19.44 millimeters (.77 inch) in boxes near the 
 south shore of the Powder Hole, in front of the laboratory, where there is a slight 
 current; the third column shows a growth of 14.94 millimeters (.59 inch) in boxes 
 near the southeast shore, where there was practically no circulation, owing to the 
 thick eelgrass. 
 
LOW 
 
 MEDIUM 
 36 
 
 HIGH 
 
 Ife 
 
 3Kr 
 37 
 
 5'^ 
 
 GOOD 
 
 HEDlUn 
 38 
 
 POOR 
 
Fig. 39. — The Spawning Months. — The spawning season lasts from the 
 middle of June to the middle of August. This period is represented by the shaded 
 portion. 
 
 Fig. 40. — The Growing Months. — The quahaug increases in size of shell 
 only during the summer months, growth ceasing during the cold weather. The 
 shaded portion represents the period of growth. 
 
 Fig. 41. — The Relative Value of the Growing Months. — The quahaug 
 does not increase with equal rapidity during the seven months of growth. The 
 relative value of these months is represented in terms of the increase during each 
 month for a standard quahaug. Considering the total annual growth as 100 per 
 cent., the following are the values for the individual months: May, 3.78 per cent.; 
 June, 10.81 per cent.; July, 19.02 per cent.; August, 25.56 per cent.; September, 
 26.24 per cent.; October, 12.85 per cent.; November, 1.74 per cent. 
 
 Fig. 42. — The Food Value. — The relative proportion, by weight, of the 
 various parts of an average quahaug of 70 millimeters (2.75 inches) is represented 
 by a series of columns. (1) Total weight, 100 per cent.; (2) shell, 62.47 per cent. 
 (3) meat, 13.57 per cent. ; (4) fluid, 23.96 per cent. 
 
JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG-, SEPT: OCT NOV. DEC. 
 
 SPAWNING MONTHS 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^■ — _. 
 
 
 
 ■-^,>~- 
 
 1 
 
 *--.,.„/'^ 
 
 
 
 JAN. FEB. HAR. APR. MA^ JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT OCT NOV. DEC. 
 
 OROWINa MONTHS 
 
 40 
 
 _^ 
 
 MAY 
 
 JUNE 
 
 JULY 
 
 AUG. 
 
 SEPT. 
 
 OCT 
 
 NOU 
 
 RELATIVE VAiiCB 
 
 OF GROWING MONTHS 
 
 41 
 
 TOTAL SHELL HEAT FLUID 
 
 100% U.M-1% J3.57% ZS.W/- 
 
 FOOD VALUE 
 
 40 
 
Fig. 43. — Growth of a standard 25 millimeters (1 inch) quahaug for fourteen 
 months, showing the cessation of growth during cold weather: — 
 
 May 1, 
 June 1, 
 July 1, 
 August 1, 
 September 1, 
 October 1, 
 November 1, 
 December 1, 
 
 Millimeters. 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 January 1, 
 
 26.00 
 
 February 1 
 
 28.80 
 
 March 1, 
 
 33.50 
 
 April 1, 
 
 39.20 
 
 May 1, 
 
 44.40 
 
 June 1, 
 
 46.70 
 
 July 1, 
 
 47.00 
 
 
 Millimeters. 
 
 47.00 
 . 47.00 
 . 47.00 
 47.00 
 47.00 
 47.65 
 49.47 
 
 Fig. 44. — Growth for Four Years. — The growth of the average quahaug 
 from two series of experimental beds is here given for a period of four years, starting 
 with a quahaug of 5 millimeters (J inch) at the age of one-half year. Note the 
 difference between the rapid growth at Monomoy Point and the slower Wellfleet 
 beds, also the decrease in the rate of growth as the quahaug increases in size. 
 
 Growth in the Raft Boxes at Monomoy Point (Millimeters). 
 
 Month, 
 
 rirst Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 January 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 28.73 
 
 49.11 
 
 62.66 
 
 February 1, 
 
 6.00 
 
 28.73 
 
 49 11 
 
 62.66 
 
 March 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 28.73 
 
 49.11 
 
 62.66 
 
 April 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 28,73 
 
 49.11 
 
 •62.66 
 
 May 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 28.73 
 
 49.11 
 
 62.66 
 
 June 1, 
 
 5.73 
 
 29.50 
 
 49.62 
 
 63.03 
 
 July 1, 
 
 7.93 
 
 31.70 
 
 51.08 
 
 64.10 
 
 August 1, . 
 
 12.42 
 
 35.58 
 
 53.66 
 
 65.98 
 
 September 1, 
 
 19.17 
 
 40.79 
 
 67.12 
 
 68.51 
 
 October 1, 
 
 25.59 
 
 48.14 
 
 60.68 
 
 71.11 
 
 November 1, 
 
 28.38 
 
 48.76 
 
 62.42 
 
 72.38 
 
 December 1, 
 
 28.73 
 
 49.11 
 
 62.66 
 
 72.55 
 
 Annual gain, 
 
 23.73 
 
 20.38 
 
 13.55 
 
 9.89 
 
 Growth between the Tide Lines in Wellfleet Harbor (Millimeters). 
 
 Month. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 January 1, ■ ' 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 February 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 March 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 Aprill, 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 May 1, 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 June 1, 
 
 5.51 
 
 16.72 
 
 27 90 
 
 • 37.04 
 
 July 1, 
 
 6.94 
 
 18.16 
 
 29.07 
 
 38.01 
 
 August 1, . 
 
 9.33 
 
 20.57 
 
 31.04 
 
 39.64 
 
 September 1, 
 
 12.23 
 
 23.49 
 
 33.42 
 
 41 61 
 
 October 1, 
 
 14.89 
 
 26.15 
 
 35.60 
 
 43.41 
 
 November 1, 
 
 16.06 
 
 27.33 
 
 36.56 
 
 44.21 
 
 December 1, 
 
 16 21 
 
 27.48 
 
 36.69 
 
 44.31 
 
 Annual gain. 
 
 11.21 
 
 11.27 
 
 9.21 
 
 7.62 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 MAY 
 
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 A\ir, 
 
 SEPX 
 
 ncT. 
 
 NOV. 
 
 DEC. 
 
 ,TAN. 
 
 FFR 
 
 ^^R, 
 
 ^PR. 
 
 HM 
 
 .TvmE 
 
 t>0 
 55 
 50 
 t-S 
 »fO 
 35 
 30 
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 15 
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 Tn 
 
 
 
 
 
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 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 za*e 
 
 ■ 41891011 IZJ 
 
 L^aiSfciaaiiuiziaaii 
 
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 44 
 
Fig. 45. — The growth of a quahaug in the raft boxes, Monomoy Point, from 
 one and one-half to five and one-half years old, is shown with the corresponding 
 increase in volume. Starting with 1 bushel of one and one-half-year-old quahaugs 
 there would result at the age of five and one-half years approximately 19 bushels. 
 The figures on the left give the size of the quahaug (reduced one-half) ; those on 
 the right represent the volume in bushels corresponding to the various years. 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 Volume 
 (Bushels). 
 
 Age (Yeahs). 
 
 Millimetera. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 One and one-half. 
 Two and one-half. 
 
 Three and one-half 
 
 Four and one-half, ... 
 Five and one-half, ... 
 
 28.73 
 49.11 
 62.66 
 72.55 
 79.90 
 
 1.13 
 1.93 
 2.47 
 2.86 
 3.18 
 
 1.00 
 4.44 
 9.10 
 14.04 
 18.96 
 
^8.13 nn. 
 
 .YEARS 
 
 BU. 
 
 ^+^.11 MM. 2.y^ YEARS V/2. BU. 
 
 L.2,.ctonn. 3KjiYEars s bu. 
 
 // 
 
 7^.55 MM. M-'/^YEf\RS 
 
 -xM^ 
 
 If BU. 
 
 TS.SOnn. 5^^ YEARS IS Bl). 
 
Pig. 46. — Diagram of the method used in experimental hatching of quahaug 
 eggs and rearing of the young larvae at the Wellfleet laboratory. It represents a 
 cross-section of the laboratory, showing a small 1^ horse power gasolene engine 
 (B) , connected by a belt with a pump (C) , by which salt water is forced from below 
 into a tank (A) situated near the roof. The laboratory is located on a wharf over 
 the water, which enables salt water to be obtained directly from beneath the floor. 
 The inlet of the pump is guarded by a strainer (H) , which prevents seaweed entering 
 the pipe. From the tank the salt water is conducted through the laboratory by 
 a large pipe set with small petcocks. From these petoocks pieces of rubber tubing 
 (F) lead to the hatching tubs (E), which consist of half barrels fitted with sand 
 filters (D) . The tubs are placed over a sink (G) which carries off the filtered water. 
 By this arrangement a continuous flow of water is established through the hatching 
 tanks. 
 
■lkkk'^k'.-,'.-.vs.v.^v.v,vf7^ 
 
Pig. 47. — ■ Photograph taken from a model in the Museum of Natural History 
 in New York. The different portions of the anatomy are indicated by the labels, 
 The symbol A. A. and P. A. refer to the anterior and posterior adductor muscles, 
 which hold the two valves of the shell together. The posterior part of the animal 
 is represented by the siphon, which consists of two parts, an incurrent and an ex- 
 current, through which the water enters and leaves the quahaug in the directions 
 indicated by the arrows. In the mantle chamber the food is filtered from the 
 water by the gills, which are here shown cut off near their base. 
 
Pig. 48. — The exterior of the laboratory at Wellfleet, showing the hatching 
 tubs. This building, formerly an oyster house situated on the Chequesset Inn 
 wharf, was provided in 1908 for the use of the department by Mr. L. D. Baker of 
 Wellfleet. One large room, 20 by 30 feet, is used for the laboratory, while two 
 small rooms adjoining are utilized for sleeping quarters. The situation over the 
 water affords satisfactory facilities for experimental work on sea forms. 
 

Pig. 49. — The quahaug farm of Z. A. Howes at Wellfleet. Several hundred 
 bushels of seed quahaugs are planted between the tide lines. The boundaries of 
 the grant are marked with stakes, made of slender saplings topped with brush. 
 The man in the foreground is examining the growth of the quahaugs. 
 
-V 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 ti 
 
 
Fig. 50. — Small grants for the bedding of the catch at Wellfiieet. Under the 
 Acts of 1904 the inhabitants of Eastham, Orleans and Wellfleet have the privilege 
 of staking off not over 75 feet square of fiat for bedding the catch, when the prices 
 are low. During dull seasons many bushels of ' ' blunts ' ' are planted until the price 
 becomes satisfactory. This may be termed the first step toward quahaug culture. 
 Note the quahaugs in the center, which are still uncovered. 
 
4jS4^ jaaBi M s m s i ii W i 
 
 ('•i' 
 
 *^ff^^^ 
 
 
 i,''i:y 
 
 
 
 1 • i- J-" 
 
Pig, 51. — One of the boxes suspended from the raft at Monomoy Point when 
 taken up at the end of the summer. The quahaugs which have been growing in 
 the box are shown in front. On careful examination the notches in the shell, 
 marking growth for three years, can be seen. The box and rope are covered with 
 barnacles and silver shells (Anomia), while the wood has been perforated by a, 
 boring moUusk, the ship worm (Toredo). This illustrates an easy method of obtain- 
 ing the rate of growth of the quahaug. 
 
Tig. 52. — These two sizes illustrate the stimulating effect on growth of current, 
 which acts as a food carrier. In each bed quahaugs of the same size were planted 
 and allowed to remain for three years. The larger quahaugs were planted in a 
 box on the raft, where the circulation of water was good ; the smaller m the south- 
 eastern corner of the Powder Hole, not 75 yards from the raft, in shallow water 
 among thick eelgrass, which shut off all circulation. 
 
Fig. 53. — Quahaugs from an experimental bed at Monomoy Point, showing 
 two years' growth. The two notches or iile marks on the shells indicate the growth 
 per year. The photograph is two-thirds life size. These quahaugs show rapid 
 growth, having gained nearly 1 inch in length per year. 
 
Fig. 54. — The principal enemy of the adult quahaug is the common winkle or 
 cockle (Lunatia duplicata or heros), pictured at the right and left in the illustration. 
 In the corners are quahaug shells, through which a clean countersunk hole has been 
 bored by this mollusk at the umljo. In the center is a starfish, the great pest of 
 the oyster beds, and on rare occasions an enemy of the quahaugs. 
 
Fig. 55. — Scene along the river front at Fairhaven, showing a quahaug shanty 
 and several skiffs, which are used in raking the small seed quahaugs from the 
 Acushnet River. Owing to the pollution within the restricted area, quahaugs can 
 only be taken from this river for transplanting purposes. Since writing this report 
 an act was passed in 1911 whereby the city of New Bedford and the town of Fair- 
 haven by a common board govern the taking of quahaugs from this section by 
 licenses and by restrictions as to selling and transplanting. 
 
Fig. 56. — The quahaug house of the firm of A. D. Davis & Co. at Wellfleet in 
 1907, one of the receiving agencies for the Wellfleet fishermen. A typical quahaug- 
 ing boat of Wellfleet is shown, waiting to unload its cargo of quahaugs. The long 
 handles of the rakes can be seen on the deck of the boat. 
 
Fig. 57. — The Wellfleet quahauging fleet at their moorings in Duck Creek. 
 Practically all these boats are equipped with gasolene engines, a common type 
 being power cat boats without masts. 
 
Pig. 58. — Basket rake covered with fine meshed wire netting, used at New 
 Bedford and Fairhaven in the capture of the small seed quahaugs in the Acushnet 
 River. 
 
Fig. 59. — ^ The type of basket rake used for deep water quahauging on Cape 
 Cod. It consists of an iron framework, forming a curved bowl, the under edge of 
 which is set with thin steel teeth varying in length from 2 to 4 inches, though usually 
 2J inch teeth are preferred. Over the bowl of this rake, which is strengthened by 
 side and cross pieces of iron, is fitted a twine net, which, like the net of a scallop 
 dredge, drags behind the framework. An average rake has from 19 to 21 teeth 
 and weighs from 15 to 23 pounds. 
 
Fig. 60. — The Claw Quahaug Sake. — This rake varies greatly in size and 
 length. Its use is chiefly ccnfined to Nantucket. The general style has a handle 
 6 feet long, while the iron part, in the form of a claw or talon, with prongs 1 inch 
 apart, is 10 inches wide. A heavier rake, as here shown, is sometimes used in the 
 deeper water. 
 
Tig. 61. — This style of basket rake is used at Edgartown and Nantucket. 
 The whole rake is made of iron, no netting being required, as thin iron wires J of 
 an inch apart encircle lengthwise the entire basket, preventing the escape of any 
 marketable quahaugs, while at the same time allowing mud and sand to wash out. 
 This rake has 16 steel teeth, Ij inches long, fitted at intervals of 1 inch on the 
 scraping bar. The depth of the basket is about 8 inches. Short poles not ex- 
 ceeding 30 feet in length are used, as the raking is carried on in water which does 
 not exceed 2.5 feet in depth. Only the iron framework of the rake is shown. 
 
Fig. 62. — Anatomy of the Oyster. — From a model in the American Mu- 
 seum of Natural History. The right valve and mantle have been removed to show 
 the internal organs. The oyster may roughly be likened to a book, the valves of 
 the shell representing the cover, the fleshy mantle closely lining the shell the first 
 and last leaves, and the gills, running lengthwise beneath the large adductor muscle, 
 the inner pages. Between the muscle and the hinge lies the heart, and above the gills 
 the visceral mass, consisting of the cream-colored reproductive organs, which are here 
 pictured as round white masses, and the dark-colored digestive organs. Between 
 the anterior end of the gills and the hinge are the palps, four fleshy flaps, similar in 
 appearance to the gills. The microscopic plants which form the food of the oyster 
 are filtered out by the hairlike cilia of the gills, transferred to the palps, and passed 
 into the mouth. A short oesophagus leads into the stomach, which is surrounded 
 by a dark-green gland, the liver. The intestine passes backward, then folds on 
 itself just below the adductor muscle, passes forward to form a second coil, before 
 it again leads backward, to end above the heart and adductor muscle. 
 
Fig. 63. — ■ The buildings of the Sea Coast Oyster Company at Wellfleet in 1910. 
 The two boats lying at the wharf are typical gasolene oyster dredgers, by means of 
 which the shells are put down for the capture of spat, the grounds are cleared, the 
 seed is planted and the oysters gathered for market. 
 
Fig. 64. — Herring River, Wellfleet, at low water, showing the shells planted 
 for the capture of seed oysters in 1908 on the gravel bar north of Great Island. 
 The shells and pebbles are covered with spat. 
 
Fig. 65. — Near view of oyster shells on the gravel bar in Herring River. The 
 set is about three months old. Notice the clean appearance of the shells. 
 
Pig. 66. — Oyster seed, mostly two-year olds, attached to the wooden piles and 
 the stones beneath Chequesset Inn wharf, Wellfleet, Mass. The abundance of the 
 natural set on such objects indicates that successful spat collecting can be carried 
 on in this locality. During severe winters the mortality is heavy, owing to the 
 exposure between the tide lines; but these oysters have weathered two ordinary 
 winters. 
 
Fig, 67. — Oyster spat, one month old, on the shells of the experimental spat 
 collectors located in Wellfleet Bay, 1908. Various shells, such as oyster, scallop, 
 razor clam, clam, quahaug, silver or jingle shells can be utilized for spat collecting. 
 
Pig. 68. — ■ Figs. 1-20 illustrate the growth of the seed oysters caught on small 
 stones. Figs. 1-10 show three-month-old oysters attached to living snails (Litlorina 
 liltorea). Figs. 11-14 show the oysters of the same age attached to small stones. 
 Figs. 15-18 show oysters one and one-half years old attached to small pebbles, 
 while Figs. 19 and 20 show two and one-quarter-year-old oysters attached in the 
 same fashion. Fig. 16 gives a peculiar illustration of the method of attachment. 
 The young oyster has formed an attachment to a second pebble towards its free 
 end at some distance from the first, indicating that the mantle, even at the age of 
 one year, retains the power of secreting a fixative. 
 
% f^ # 
 
 % 
 
Pig. 69. — Three-month-old spat upon stones, which were gatHered beneath 
 Chequesset Inn wharf, Wellfleet.