Uttiata, Kcw iotk CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 Cornell University Library DS 806.A5 Japan In the beginning of the twentieth 3 1924 023 442 522 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023442522 JAPAN IN THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY COMPILED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. Conten-ts. PART 1. INTRODUCTORY. Chapter I.— Geography. vAtac Position I Area and Administrative Divisions 7 Geographical Formation 13 Geological Formation 39 Climate 40 Chapter II.— Population. History 47 Number 49 Density 51 Urban and Rm-al Fopolation ••• 53 Increase 54 Household 56 Social Divisions 57 The Sexes JS Classification as to Age 60 Marri^e 61 Birth-rate .. ... 6] Death-rate 63 Normal Increase ••• 6$ Emigration 67 Chapter in.— Administrative System. Rights of Sovereignty 71 Legislature and Legislative Organs 73 Executive and Executive Organs 76 Justice and Judicial Organs (with paragraphs on Codes) 81 Chapter IV.— Land as an Institution. History 84 Classification 84 Burdens 8$ Ownership 86 CONTENTS. JPASI II. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. Section I.— Agriculture- Chapter I.— Introductory. yaqm. Position of Agriculture in Natural Polity ^ 88 Features of Japanese Agriculture 88 Free-Holders and Tenant-Farmers 89 Chapter n.— Factors of Tillage. Climate 92 Land 94 Capital 105 Labor ... 113 Chapter III.— Agrioultuial Products. Introductory ny Food-Stuffs ,21 Products of Special Use 125 Horticultural Products im Chapter IV.— Sericulttire. History ,^2 Present Condition Egg-Cards Filature 137 142 145 Chapter V. Tea Manufacturing. History •' • 151 Present Condition of the Industry Kind of Tea Market 156 157 169 170 Chapter VI.— Institutions for Encouraging AgriouLure. Agricultural Experiment Stations , Agricultural Institutions ^ Ambulant Lecturers on Agriculture Sericulture Institutes "' "' '"' '** *•■ ••" ••• •■. 170 Silk Conditioning House ' Imperial Establishment of Tea Industry... Animal Epidemic Laboratory '" '^ State Cattle Breeding-Farms '^5 State Horse Studs and Depots ' 179 CONTENTS. u; Chapter VII.— Stock-Breeding. page. History of Existing Condition 184 Kind of Breed and Number of Live-Stock 190 Register 195 Slaughter 196 Disease of Domestic Beasts 196 Veterinary Surgeons 19$ Use of Live-stock 199 Dairy-Farming and Meat-Preserving 199 CJhapter VIII.— Poultry. History and Existing Condition 20t Breeds and Number 201 Eggs 202 Chapter IX.— Bee Eeeping^. 203 Chapter X.— Farmer's Subsidiary Works 204 Chapter XL— Agricultural Products in Commerce. Exports 205 Imports 207 Chapter XII.— Agricultural Legislation. Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement 211 Provisions Relating to Calamity 218 Section II.— Forestry- Introductory 224 Area and Ownership of the Forests 225 Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions ., 233 Adjustment of the Forests 250 Exploitation and Treatment of Forests 257 Forest-planting and Transport 267 Wood-produce 267 Official Supervision of the Forests 282 Education 284 Legislative Measures 287 See'ioa III.- Mining and M tallurgy. Introductory 289 Geological Formation and Mineral Deposits 2^ Mining and Metallurgy 302 Condition of Mine-Workers ". 307 Mining Legislation 311 Statistics relating to the Mining Industry 320 CONTENTS. Seclioa IV.-Fishery. Introductory Fishing-Grounds Fishery and Fishery Industry Distribution of the principal Fish, etc. Financial Standing of the Fishermen Aquiculture Salt-Refining Markets Fishery Legislature PAGE. .. 32? .. 330 .. 332 -. 337 .. 344 ... 349 ■ •• 351 ... 353 ... 375 PAItT III MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Caiapter I.— General Manufactuting Industry. History Administration ... l.egislative Measures Principal Exports of Manufacturing Goods Principal Imports of Industrial Goods ... Output of principal Manufacturing Goods Chapters ir. III.— Organization of Manufacturii^ Industry. ; Manufacturing Establishments Factories and Workpeople Chapter IV.— Manufacturing Establishments by the Central and Local Governments. Encouragement and Protection by Central Government Encouragement and Protection by Local Offices Chapter V.— Industrial Education. History Existing Condition Apprentice System Chapter VI.— Mauufacturii^f Corporations ~ Chapter VII.— Technical Assoeia'ions Appendix C3iap er VIII.— Protection of Industrial Property. Introductory History relating to Protection of Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks... . Protection of Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks Resume of Existing Regulations Provisions that specially concern Foreigners Statistics of Japanese, and Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks 381 384 385 386 391 396 399 403 414 4i7 418 419 420 422 423 424 . 434 ■ 435 . 436 • 437 . 440 ■ 442 CONTENTS. PAKT IV. FOREIGN TRADE. PAGE. Chapter I.— Tariff. 44S Chapter II.— Development of Foreign Trade. 448 Chapter III.— Distribution of Trade 451 Chapter IV.— Principal Exports 4S8 Chapter V.— Principal Imports 464 Chapter VI.— ProviBions for Encouraging Foreign Trade 473 JPART T. FINANCES. Chapter I.— Finances. Central Finances. ... 481 Local Finances ■■• 508 Chaptsr II.— Loans. National Loans ..; 517 Local Loans ■-■ 535 Chapter III.— Currency System. Existing System and its History 538 Effect of Coinage System on the Finance and Economy of the Country... 543 Chapter IV.— The Condition of the Money Market. Introductory 554 History and Existing Condftion 554 I Prices of Commodities 5^4 Wages ~ 567 Quotation of Stocks and Shares ... "• 5^9 Chapter V.— Banks. History, 572 Banks S8o Chapter VI.— Clearing Houses. Introductory 6°^ Various Clearing Houses ^7 Tables for Reference ^9 CONTENTS. PART vr. ARMY AND THE NAVY. Chapter I.— Anny. page. Introductory — 619. Distributions of the Standing Army 620 The Personnel on Peace Standing 621 Factories g2l Appointments of Officers 622 The Complement of Non-Commissioned Officers 624. Recruiting of Privates 625 Education Punishment and Gaols Medical Affairs ; PART VII. COMMUNICATIONS. Post and TELEGRAfH. Chap'er L— Post. Introductory Official Organization Transmission and Delivery Kinds and Fees of Mail Matter ... Foreign Mail and Parcel Post Receipts and Disbursements Chapter 11. —Postal Mo-iej Orders. Domestic Service Foreign Service Receipts and Disbursements 627 629- 63* C&apter II.— Ths Navy. Introductory g^2 Personnel on Peace Standing ... g,. Naval Works ; s,. "34 Complement of the Personnel g,^ The List of the Imperial Fleet g,. Education .. <-., •■• 042 Punishment ^„ 642 Health and Hygiene g Hydrography and Chart g The Red Cross Society of Japan g^. 649 654 656 6sr 661 66s 66* 669 671 CONTENTS. Chapter III.— Postal Saving Banks Chapter IV.— Telegraph. Domestic Telegraph Organization of the Service Foreign Telegraph Telegraphic Construction Telegraphic Apparatus and IVIaterials Chapter V.— Telephone Service. Introductory Technical Matters Chapter VI.— The Personnel. How the Staff is Recruited PAGE. .. 672 .. 675 .. 678 ,.. 681 .. 684 ,.. 687 ... 694 •• 697 .. 702 TUAXSPOJS TA TION. Chapter I.— Eailroads. Official Organization Legislative Measures Railroad Lines Rolling Stock , Capital Volume of Traffic Receipts and Disbursements Chapter II.— Ships and Shipping Business. Ships Shipbuilding Sailors Life-Boat Business m. » ... Protection to Navigation Nautical Signals Open Forts PART VIII- EDUCATION. Introductory General Education ... Higher Education Technical Education... Libraries 704 70s 707 710 711 714 718 723 729 733 736 737 740 741 ... 742 ... 746 ... 755 ... 762 ... 771 CONTENTS. aVPPLEMEST. FORMOSA. Introductory Agriculture ... Fishery Forestry Mining ... Trade ... Finance Communications . Education, Hygiene and Religion PAGF. ... 77* ... 789- ... 797 ... 799 ... 802 ... 803 ... 809^ ... 819 ... 82a JAPAN IN THE BEGINNING OP THE 20TH CENTURY. PART I INTRODUCTORY. CHAPTER I —Geography. Position — Area and AdministratiYe Divisions — Geographioal Formation— Geological Formation — Climate. I. POSITION. THE TERRITORIES OF JAPAN.— In the north-western cor- ner of the Pacific Ocean and close to the eastern coast of the continent of Asia a chain of islands stretches in an oblique line from north- east to south-west, from the vicinity of the Philippines to the south- ern extremity of the peninsula of Kamchatka, in Russian Siberia. These countless islands large and small constitute the Empire of Japan. To be more precise, the territories of the Empire consist of five large islands and about six hundred smaller ones. Our most southerly degree of latitude is 21° 48' N. at the northern ex- tremity of the island of Formosa, and our most northerly degree of latitude is 50° 56' at the northern extremity of Araito island, Shim- shu district, Chishima province (the Kuriles) ; while, as regards longi- tude, the position of " Flower Island," the most westerly of the Pesca- dores, corresponding to 119° 20' E. Greenwich, is the limit of our Empire on the west ; and the position of Shumshu island, Shumshu district, Chishima province corresponding tP 156° 32' E. Green- wich, is the eastern limit of Japanese territories. In latitude, there- H Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. fore, Japan extends 29 degrees 8 minutes, and in longitude 37 degrees 12 minutes. As the greatest length of each island is, however, gene- rally from south-west to north-east, and as the breadth from east to west is comparatively less, and furthermore, as the whole series of islands from Formosa in the south to Chishima in the north runs from south-west to north-east almost in one continuous line, Japan contains a smaller extent of land than one would expect from the enormous distance separating its northern from its southern extremity. The five large islands mentioned above are Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido and Formosa; then follow as to size the five islands of Sado, Oki, Iki, Tsushima, Awaji and the Pescadores (which are, however, a group of islands), and finally of the three archi- pelagoes of Chishima, Ogasawara (the Bonin Islands) and Okinawa (the Luchu). Of the above islands Honshu is the broadest. In shape it somewhat resembles the figure of a fabulous dragon with its head erect. Honshu. — Honshu is bounded on the north by the Pacific Ocean, ■while on the north-west it looks across the Sea of Japan towards the Korean peninsula and the eastern coast of Siberia. But for the in- tervening Inland Sea it would embrace within the curve of its south- ern extremity the island of Shikoku. As for the lesser islands of Honshu, there are in the Sea of Japan the two islands of Sado and Oki, and in the Pacific Ocean the Ogasawara archipelago which form, in a sense, the southernmost extremity of Hon- shu. In the famous Inland Sea, off" the western coast of the pro- vinces of Kii and Izumi lies the island of Awaji, covering an area of 36 square ri, and forming as it were a connecting link between Honshu and Shikoku. Shikoku. — Shikoku is the smallest of the five great islands. Its north-eastern coast faces, across the Inland Sea, the provinces of Kii, Izumi, and the southern coast of the Sanyo-do route. The island is washed on the south by the Pacific Ocean and is separated at its northern extremity by the Strait of Bungo from the provinces of Buzen and Bungo on the eastern coast of Kyushu. Kyushu. — Kyushu lies to the west of Honslm and Shikoku and is a large island measuring more from north to south tl^.an it does from east to west. The two islands of Iki and Tsushima lie to the Position. 3 north of Kyushu and belong to it geographically as Avell as for administrative purposes. The latter lies opposite the port of Fusan in Korea, from which it is separated by the narrow passage known as the Strait of Korea ■" It may be noted that the western part of Kyushu faces the eastern coast of China, though at a greater distance than Tsushima is from the coast of Korea, the intervening seas being the Yellow Sea and the China Sea. Okinawa lies off the southeru extremity of the island of Kyushu and runs in a south-westerly direc- tion. The most southerly island in the Okinawa group is Hateruma- jima, whose coast-line runs parallel to the eastern coast of northern Formosa and is situated at 24° C N. L. Finally, the western side of the whole archipelago faces the provinces of Chiangsu, Chekiang and Fukien of China, while the eastern side is washed by the waters of the Pacific. Formosa. — Formosa forms the southernmost limit of our terri- tories. It lies due south of the most southern island of the Okinawa archipelago and at no great distance from the northern shore of the island of Luzon, one of the Philippine group, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bashi. The western coast of Formosa faces the province of Fukien, China, and midway between the two lies the Pescadores. The coast is fairly well indented ; its prin- cipal harbors are Tansui (Tamsui). Anpei (Anping) and Takao, all of which ports supply shipping facilities between the island and the interior of China. The eastern coast of Formosa is, on the other hand, a magnificent line of precipitous clifis and affords, therefore, very few, if any, good anchorages. The harbor of Kelung is, it is true, a tolerable port, but it is situated on the northern and not on the eastern coast. The Pescadores group consists of no less than 47 islands, mostly- small ; and owing to the naturally advantageous position of the group lying half-way between Formosa and the eastern coast of southern China, it serves as a place of refuge for ships sailing along the coast of Formosa and between that coast and the opposite shores of China. Hokkaido. — Hokkaido, formerly known by the name of Yezo, is a large island situated to the north of Honshu from which it is separated by the Strait of Matsumaye (or Tsugaru, as it is called in 80me maps). This island is (if we leave out the Kuriles) the north-' 4 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. em limit of our Empire, and its western coast lies opposite the nortli- em coast of Korea and the eastern coast of Russian Siberia, -while its most northerly point comes close to the southern extremity of the- island of Saghalien from which it is only separated by a narrow passage, the Strait of Soya. The coast of Kitami which extend* eastward from Cape Soya to the Bay of Nemuro faces the Chishima group and the promontory of Kamchatka and forms, as it were, the southern boundary of the Sea of Okhotsk. The whole south-eastern coast of Hokkaido proper is washed by the Pacific. Chishima is a volcanic group stretching north-easterly in an oblique line from the Bay of Nerauro in which Etrup, the most southerly of the group lies, and terminating near the southern ex- tremity of Kamchatka. The whole chain separates the Sea of Okhotsk from the northern Pacific, GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS OF JAPAN TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. — To describe briefly the geograpliical relations of our Empire to foreign countries, we find to the east and on the opposite side of the Pacific Ocean the western shores of the British Dominion of Canada as well as those of the United States of America. The harbor of Yokohama lies almost in a straight line with San Fran- cisco, 4,722 nautical miles distant. Then, to the north-west of Japan and on the other side of the Sea of Japan, lies the vast plain of Russian Siberia. Vladivostock lies opposite the southern part of Hokkaido,, •while the northern coast of Korea is saparated by the Sea of Japan from the two main divisions of Honshu, viz., San-in and Hokuriku. The harbor of Fusan which is situated at the southern ex- tremity of the peninsula of Korea lies close to the northern portion of Kyushu ; while, opposite the main bulk of Kyushu, lie the pro- vinces of China that are bordering on the Yellow Sea, the Eastern Sea, and the China Sea. Formosa being the most southerly possession of the Empire, forms an important station for the carrying on of our intercourse •with the islands in the South Pacific and with Australia. Its econo- mic developnjent has, since its , annexation to Japan in 1895 been rosilton. 5 very striking ; and there are great hopes of an increased advance in the same direction. In regard to geographical position, which naturally bears an important relation to national prosperity, Japan may be said to be advantageously situated, her territories extending in the temperate zone from 21° to 50° N. L., and enjoying in consequence a climate -excellently suited for industrial pursuits. It was quite in accordance, therefore, with the nature of things that our forefathers should have -called the land " Toyo Ashiwara no Mizuho no Kuni " (Land of Plenteous Ears of Rice in the Plain of Luxuriant Reeds). More- over the country is, we heed hardly remark, one of great natural beauty and is inhabited by a people who are universally acknowl- edged to possess a singularly refined taste in all artistic matters and whose great attainments in the arts, pure and applied, have always been admitted on all sides. Japan's Unique Nationality. — Owing to its peculiar geo- graphical position our country constitutes a community distinct in several repects, socially and politically, from the adjacent countries of Asia. The most marked of these distinguishing traits is that Japan has, for more than 2,550 years, been ruled by the same Imperial Pamily, without a solitary break in the succession, thus offering a strong contrast to China and Korea, where frequent dynastic changes have taken place. Then the great natural valor of the people has ■guarded like an impregnable wall the coasts of their islands, with the result that never once during these two thousand years and a half has the country been desecrated by foreign aggression. AH these facts have enabled our people to maintain intact their peculiar customs and unique nationality ; but it cannot of course be denied that in culture, in the arts, in political institutions and in other civilizing factors, Japan has, as a natural and invariable result of geographical proximity, learned much from China, Korea, and even from India, exactly as in mediaeval Europe England learned much from France, England and France much from Italy, and Italy much from Greece and Constantinople. The remark just made of Japan's maintaining intact its peculiar customs and its unique nationality, can hardly be made with strict accuracy to-day, for, owing to the opening up of the country to 6 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. foreign intercourse and commerce a little over 50 years ago, a very extraordinary change has come over this Empire, a change which Las affected not only the internal state of the country but its ex- ternal relations as a mefaaber of the family of nations as well. It need not be stated here, for the fact in sufficiently well known, how quite recently the intrinsic strength of Japan began to be suddenly recognized all over the world, and how Japan pushed her way ta the front rack in the comity of nations. American Continents. — In fact our country has become a focus of navigation routes in the Pacific and a great market in the Far East. This is what it should be, for to our east we have Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, and the Pacific coast of South America, with all of which we are engaged, or are about to engage, in active commerce. We build our greatest expectations on the United States of America, which is at present our best customer. The leading harbors on its Pacific sea-board, that is San Francisco and Seattle, together with Vancouver and Victoria of British Colum- bia, are connected with this country by regular steamship lines ; and it is easy to see that Japan's commercial relations with Europe will be altered for the better on the completion of the Panama canal. Asiatic Countries.— Then to our north-west we have, as has^ been already pointed out, the vast extent of Eussian Siberia, whose great trans-continental railroad, just completed, brings Europe and Japan nearer to each other than ever they were before. Further, there is Korea which, owing to its proximity, is inviting us to ex- ploit its resources and to stimulate it by the introduction of our industrial and commercial activity. Of course, our commercial rela- tions with China are far more important. We need not point out that this vast empire covers an area of 760,000 square ri and con- tains about 400 million so"uls. A near relation of ours, this great empire naturally looks to us for help in her endeavors to advance along the path that we have already trodden and to have its vast resources exploited by the money and enterprise of foreign countries. There can be no manner of doubt, therefore, that China's commercial relations with us will become in the future one of far greater im- portance than they are to-day, especially when the comparative proximity of the two lands is taken into consideration, none of the Area and Administrative Divisions. Chinese harbors being separated from our harbor of Nagasaki by more than 700 nautical miles. Hongkong, too, though politically forming part of the British dominions, is a place of importance to us in connection with Chinese commerce, serving as it does as an important market for the goods going from Japan to China or vice versa. Indeed it occupies the second place on our list in regard to the volume of commercial transactions. It is separated from Naga- saki by 1,070 miles, while between it and the port of Anpi;vg, Fui- niosa, the distance is only 300 miles. South Pacific. — Lastly, turning our eyes southward, we find Australia with its fertile fields and rich resources, the Philippines, ' Java, Dutch India, British India and so on promising to estab- lish in the fiiture far more active commercial relations with us than are existing at present. II. AREA AND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. AEEA. — The whole area of our Empire covers 27,063 square ri, corresponding roughly to the 325th part of the entire land sur- face of the globe and to 107th part of the entire land extent of the continent of Asia. The whole area is distributed as follows among our principal islands. No. of minor islands. Principal islands. Honshu 12 150 29 74'A Hokkaido Kyushu Formosa Shikoku Chishima (32 islands) . Okinawa (55 islands) Sado Tsushima 5 Awaji I Oki I The Pescadores 47 Iki I Ogasawara(20 islands).. It will thus be seen that, if 100 represents the whole area of the Empire, Honshu occupies 53.84 parts, Hokkaido 18.70, Kyushu 9.67, Formosa 8.33, Shikoku 4.36, Chishima 3.82 and the rest 1.28. Area (sq. ri). 14,571.12 5,061.90 2,617.54 2,253.24 1,180.67 1,033.46 156.91 56.33 44.72 36.69 21.89 14-33 8.63 4.50 8 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20ft Century. Comparing our area with that of some other countries, it is found to be 1/30 of the area of Kussian Si)>eria, 1/26 of that of China, double that of Korea, 1/22 of that oi the United States of America, II of that of the British Isles, about 26/100 less than that of France, and about 29/100 less that of Germany. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS— For administrative purposes our country is divided into forty-six prefectures together with Hok- kaido and Formosa, these prefectures being as follows :— Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka (these three being called Fu), Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaragi, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyaraa, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, ShLmane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi, Nagasaki, Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, Okinawa (all of which are called Ken). Each Fu or Ken is in turn subdivided into Shi (city or urban district) and Gun (rural district), the latter of which is further subdivided into Cho (town) or Son (village). As the adminis- trative system exists at present, the Shi, Cho and Son constitute the smallest division for administrative purposes forming a self-governing entity, while the Gun and prefectures attend as direct administrative subdivisions of the country to the affairs of state, being at the same time allowed some degree of autonomy. In Hokkaido the local ad- ministrative system was inaugurated in 1897. while in Okinawa the administrative and self-governing system of its own was inaugurated in the preceding year. At present there are throughout the country (exclusive of Formosa) 638 Gun, 58 Shi (the administrative dis- tricts in Hokkaido and Okinawa included), 1,054 Cho, 13,468 Son (exclusive of those of the seven islands of Izu and Ogasawara). The administrative and other matters pertaining to Formosa will be de- scribed later on under a separate heading. HONSHU. ^- r r. r .. » No. of No. of No. of No. of Name of Prefecture. Aiea. ^^^ _s&._ c&d. Son. Tokyo-fu 125.80 8 i 20 158 Kanagawa-ken 155-67 n i 22 206 Saitama-ken 265.99 9 — 42 35° Chiba-ken 326.15 12 — 66 289 Area and Administrative Divisions. Name of Prefecture. Ibaragi-ken Tochigi-ken Gumma-ken Nagano-ken Yamanashi-ken Shizuoka-ken Aichi-ken Miye-ken Gifu-ken Shiga-ken Fukui-ken Ishikawa-ken Toyama-ken Niigata-ken Fukushima-ken ... Miyagi-ken Yamagata-ken Akita-ken Iwate-ken Aomori-ken Kyoto-fu Osaka-fu Nara-ken Wakayama-ken Hyogo-ken Okayama-ken Hiroshima-ken Yamaguchi-ken Shimane-ken Tottori-ken Area. No. of No of No. of No. of Gun. S/i I. Cho. Son. 385-18 14 I 44 336 411.77 8 I 29 146 407.25 II 2 36 171 853-76 16 I 21 372 289.85 9 I 6 241 503.82 13 I 35 307 312-78 19 I 68 602 368.5s 15 2 19 325 671.45 18 I 39 30s 258.44 12 I 7 195 272.40 II I 9 171 270.72 8 I 15 260 266.41 8 2 31 239 824.59 16 I 54 762 846.07 17 I 31 389 540.79 16 I 27 176 600.15 II 2. 24 205 7S4C0 9 I 31 208 899.19 13 I 22 218 607.03 8 2 7 161 296.55 18 I 18 263 115.72 9 2 n 293 201.42 10 I 18 142 310.62 7 I 14 217 556.68 25 2 29 402 420.98 19 I 20 427 520.78 16 2 27 422 389-99 II I 5 226 435-82 16 I 12 321 224.16 6 I 7 228 Total 14,690.53 429 40 866 9.733 SHIKOKU. Toktishima-ken 271.28 10 I 2 «37 Kagawa-ken 113.50 7 2 II 169 Ehime-ken 341.17 12 I 16 28s Kochi-ken 454-72 7 I II 186 Total 1,180.67 36 40 777 10 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. KYUSHU. Name of Prefecture. Area. No. of Gtm. No. of Shi. No. of Cho. No. of Son. Ns^asaki-ken ... .■• •■• 335-15 9 I 15 288 Saga-ken ■•. ••• 160.08 8 I 7 127 Fukuoka-ken ... ••• .■• 317.81 19 4 37 344 Kumamoto-ken ■•. ■■• 465-47 12 I 29 338 Oita-ken 402.73 12 — 25 256 Miyazaki-ken ... ■•• 487-34 8 — 7 93 Kagoshim>ken .•• >.. 602.31 12 80 I 8 120 3S0 Total 2,670.89 1,826 Okinawa-ken ... "... 156.91 5 2 — 563 Hokkaido , 6,095.36 88 3 28 569 Formosa ••• *•• 2,267.57 — — — — Grand Total 27,061.93 638 58 1,054 13,468 OLD ADMINISTRA.TIVE DIVISIONS.— The present divisions are traceable to the first administrative divisions marked out by the Imperial Government in July, 1871. After the surrender of the Regency by the Tokugawa Shogunate in the year 1867 and the reinstatement of the Imperial Government, the local administrative system was established by subdividing the country into the three main divisions of Fu, Han, and Ken, with Fu-Chiji (Governor of Fu) Ken-Chiji (Governor of Ken), or Han-shu (Governor of Han) placed over these divisions respectively. At that time, therefore, the local administration was conducted in conformity with the former Han (or feudal) administrative system. It was in 1872 that the eystem was completely reorganized, though even then the country was subdivided into as many as 1 Do (colonial organization), 8 Fu and 302 Ken. Similar amalgamations and separations have frequent- ly been carried out subsequently, till at last the existing iocal system has been evolved Apart from the present administrative subdivisions there survives from former times another system of local subdivisions of historical importance. These divisions are the Do (or routes) and 85 Kuni (or provinces). In tracing up the development of this particular system, it is found to have originated in the subjugation of the country by the first Emperor Jimmu, who established a feudal Area and Administrative DiriHions. 11 system and placed in important districts followers of his own who had distinguished themselves, conferring upon them the official title of Kuni-no-Miyatsuko or Agata-nushi. It will thus be seen that the local subdivisions of provinces were at first of political origin. The subsequent Emperors followed the example set by their ancestor, and marked out the subdivisions of Kuni and Agata with a Kuni-tiuko appointed over each of them. All these subdivisions were deter- mined by geographical considerations. It was however after the great change carried out by the Emperor Temmu (673-685 A.D.) that the names of Kinai and 7 Do were first fixed upon, while, again, between 717 A.D. of the reign of tlie Empress Gensei (716-723) and the Tencho era (824-833) of the Emperor Junna (824-833) the small subdivisions of Kuni and Gun v.ere first deter- mined upon. According to the system then elaborated, the whole country was subdivided into Kinai and 8 Do and 68 provinces, with the island of Yezo as a sort of outlying territory. The Do com- prised Nankaido, Tokaido, Hokuriku-do, Tosan-do, Sanyo-do, San-in- do, and Saikai-do (or Kyushu). Kinai was, properly speaking, also one of these Do, but this special designation was given to it in view of the fact that the five provinces of Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and Settsu which constituted Kinai were situated round the then capital of the country. Nankai-do comprised Kii, Awaji, Awa, Sanuki, lyo and Tosa (the latter four of which constitute Shikoku). A stretch of land lying on the east of Kinai and extending along the eastern, coast of Honshu was called Tokai-do. It comprised Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Totomi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, Shimosa, and Hitachi, 15 provinces in all. Hokuriku-do was a stretch of land lying along the Sea of Japan and situated to the north of the central portion of Honshu. It con- sisted of the seven provinces of Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, and Sado. Tosan-do lay between Tokai-do and Hoku- riku-ko and extend northward along the centre of Honshu till it reached its northern extremity, the eight provinces of Omi, Mino, Hida, Shinano, Kozuke, Shimozuke and Mutsu composing it. Sanyo- do was the southern strip of land of Honshu to the west of Kinai and lying along the Inland Sea. It comprised the eight provinces of Harima, Mimasaku, Bizeu, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suwo and Nagato. 12 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. San-in-do was situated at the back of Sanyo-do, facing the Sea of Japan and contained Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami and Oki. Lastly Saikaido contained Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzeii, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyuga, Oiurai, Satsuma, and the two outlying islands of Iki and Tsushima. The island of Yezo now Hok- kaido before it was subdivided into provinces subsequent to the Restoration, was known by the collective name of Yezo. J» • Although, as described above, our original local subdivisions owe their existence to considerations of administrative convenience, they lost much of this original significance subsequent to the period of the ascendency of the Genji and Heikfi clans, when the real power of the country passed into the hands of the military classes and feudalism gradually came into existence. The powerful clans began to set themselves up in various parts of the country and while some absorbed several provinces, each of the minor clans had to content itself with holding only a part of one province. Important changes ensued in the local arrangements on the advent of the rehabilitated Imperial Government. In the year 1868 the province of Mutsu was split up into Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen and Rikuchu, and the province of Dewa into Uzen and Ugo. Fur- ther, in 1869, the name Yezo was superseded by that of Hokkaido and the island thus designated was subdivided into the 11 provinces of Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Teshiwo, Hidaka, Tokachi, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami and Chishima. Hokkaido was further subdivided into 86 Oun, and an "Imperial Colonization Commis- sion " (Kaitakushi) was despatched to take charge of the administra- tion of the island. In the year 1872 the Okinawa group was given a collective designation, being called the Province of Luchu, and joined to Nan- kai-do. In 1875 Saghalien was, as the result of a treaty with Russia, exchanged for the Etrup group which was annexed to Chishima. It will thus be seen that according to this special system of local subdivisions the country at present comprises 1 Kinai and 8 Do, with 35 provinces. However this classification no longer pos- sesses any of the political importance which once attached to it, but it is still in vogue, side by side with the existing administrative GeograpJiical Formaiion. 13 system. Being the oldest system of this description, it is of some archaeological interest as it also serves more or less as indicating a natural and geographical boundary for the manners and customs of the different places. III. GEOGRAPHICAL FORMATION. MOUNTAIN RANGES. — Japan is on the whole mountainous, extensive plains being comparatively rare. Owing to the mildness of the climate and the abundance of the rainfall, forests are found everywhere throughout the land, feeding the headwaters of rivers, frhich in turn intersect the country in almost every direction and serve as means of irrigation as well as highways for transportation. Our country also lies along one of the world's most noted volcanic routes, and the volcanic cones that stand in almost every part tend very much to add to the diversity of the natural scenery and to heighten by contrast the natural beauty of the country, however destructive they may be at times. Formation of the Ranges. — The mountain ranges of Japan may be classifietl into two main divisions, namely Paleozoic and volcanic. These two kinds of ranges intersect each other in many places and generally extend along the central portion of the land, dividing it therefore into two sections and also forming its watershed. The mountain ranges may by their general formation be divided into two great systems, the northern and the southern. The former extending from north to south, is known by the name Two Great of the Saghalien system, as it starts from the Russian Systems. island of Saghalien. It passes into our territory at Hokkaido, where it branches out into several subsidiary ranges. It then takes a south-westerly course, and enters Honshu by the northern coast. In the central portion of Saghalien Honshu it spreads out into several high ranges. It is System. here that the Saghalien system encounters the Kunglung system coming from the south. The Kunglung system, otherwise called the Chinese system. 14 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth CenUiry. takes its rise in the Kunglung range in China. After traversing the central portion of the island of Formosa, it divides Kunglung itself into two sub-ranges, one of which enters Kyushu System. from the north-western coast and reaches Honshu via, Shiko^ra and the peninsula of Kii. Finally, it passes through the provinces of Yam*to, Mikawa and Totomi and ends on the borders of Shinano. The other sub-system enters Honshu from its western coast, separates the Saii-in and Sanyo-do regions, and passes along the northern side of Lake Biwa till it enters the province of Hida, where it is met by the other sub-system and also the Saghalien system. The consequence of this meeting is that many lofty peaks are formed in Hida. This encounter of the different systems also results in the sending southward of a chain of volcanic peaks which, beginning in Suruga and Sagami, passes on to the islands of Izu and far into the Pacific Ocean. This chain is known by the name of the Fuji volcanic chain. Hokkaido Ranges. — The Paleozoic mountain system in Hokkaido begins at Cape Soya. After passing along the border of the provinces of Kitami and Teshiwo it meets, in the Paleozoic central part of the island, with the Chishima volcanic System. mountain system that enters the island from its eastern coast. At the junction several high peaks such as Teshiwo (5,247 shaku), Ishikari (6,715 shaku), Tokachi (5,979 shaku) are formed. This Paleozoic chain separates Hidaka from Tokachi and finally extends southward as far as Cape Erimo. The volcanic chain mentioned above originates in the western part of Kamchatka and, after extending to the south-west and forming the volcanic archipelago of Chishima, it enters via Kunajiri island the main island of Hokkaido at the boundary Volcanic between Nemuro and Kitami. This system encounters Chain. another system at the boundary between Kitami and Kushiro and this meeting place of the two mountain systems is marked by such volcanic cones as Raushi-san (5,400) Shari-dake (5,200), Oakan (4,979), and Me-akan (5,336). There is another volcanic chain in the south-western part of the island. It originates in the sea off the coast of northern Teshiwo, enters Kushiro and Iburi, and forms Tarumaye-san (2,929), Noboribetsu Geographical Formation. 15 (3,375) and Usu-dake. It enters by way of Volcano Bay the penin- sula of Oshima where it forms Komagatake (3,626) and Esan (1,386) and iinally crosses over to the main island of Japan via the Strait of Tsugaru. This is called the Iburi volcanic system. Owing to this peculiar geographical formation, the island of Hokkaido surpasses all the other parts in the Empire in possessing extensive forests and plains, these two measuring no less than 8,900,000 clio in area. Hokkaido therefore is noted for its timbers which are excellent for general architecture and shipbuilding. The Yubari coal mines situated at the foot of Mouat Yubari are, together with the Poronai and TJtashinai coal mines, famous for the coal they produce. Northern Ranges of Honshu. — There are two mountain ranges in the northern part of Honshu. One of them takes its rise on the southern bank of the river Hachinohe, Mutsu. BUtakami It then runs southward, enters Eikuchu, and finally Bange. reaches the vicinity of the Bay of Matsushima, after extending along the eastern bank of the river Kitakami. In this range Hayai-dake (6,270), Yakushi-dake, and Murone-san are the highest peaks. The other range arises at the headwaters of the river Abukuma, and after stretching southward it enters Hitachi. Reizan and Hayama (3,548) Yadaijin-san and Akai-dake (2,376), Hakko-san Abukuma (3,323) and Kaba-san (2,531) and Tsukuba-san (2,897) Range- form the crests of the chain. Of the two, the former range is known by the name of the Kitakami range and the latter by that of the Abukuma range. Volcanic Ranges in North-easteen Honshu. — There are two ranges of volcanic cones in the north-eastern part of Honshu, the two together forming the backbone of that island. One originates at Osore-yama at Tonami Peninsula and terminates at Asama-yama, Shinano. Yakkoda-san (5,232), Ganju-san (6,797), Zoo-dake (6,481), Obandai-san (6,072), Hiuchi-yama (6,539), Komaga- take (6,811), Nasu-dake (6,310), Akagi-san (6,431) are the loftiest peaks in this range, which at Nikko spreads out Toto Volcanic into a medley of high peaks. This is called the Range- " Toto central volcanic range." The other is knowa 16 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. by the name of U-yetsu volcanic range and starts from Iwaki- san (5,161), Mutsu. Like the former, it enters ir-yetsu Vol- Shinano, sending up along its route Chokai-san canic Range. (6,885), Haguro-san, Gessan (6,780) Yudono-san, Mikagura-san (4,022) and Shirane-san (7,069). These two ranges form the watershed of the north-eastern section of Honshu and send the rivers taking their rise in it into the Sea of Japan on one hand and into the Pacific Ocean on the other. The forests abounding in the forests of Aomori and Akita-ken are noted for the production of fine timber, while the forests in the Nikko group produce excellent timbers of sugi (Japanese cedar) and hinoM (Japanese cypress). Then in the U-yestu range there is the Ani copper mine in Ugo and the Ozaruzawa copper mine in Eiku- chu, while the famous copper mine of Ashiwo is situated in the Nikko group. Fuji Volcanic Ranges. — The meeting of the Saghalien and the Kunglung mountain systems at the boundary of Shinano and Hida results in great up-heavals of the surface, one of the most noteworthy being the Fuji volcanic range which, with Mt. FujL Mount Fuji as a centre, extends northward to the headwaters of the river Arakawa at Echigo, and extends southward to the seven islakds of Izu, finally terminating in the Ogasawara group. In the northward arm there are, at the boundary between Shinano and Hida, Iwo-zan (10,074 ft.), Norikura-dake (10,447), On-take (10,345). Yatsuga-take (9,675) stands at the boundary, between Kai and Shinano. The upheavals of which we speak culminate at last in Mount Fuji, the highest peak in Japan proper with an elevation of 12,450 shaku above the sea-level. Mount Fuji possesses the typical shape of volcanic cone. Except in the height of the summer season, the summit is covered with snow, and its majestic shape is a good landmark for navigators. It ought to be added that the northern arm contains in the central portion of Shinano an extensive plateau with villages situated over 2,500 shaku above the sea-level. Lake Suwa, which is situated here, is a big extinct crater, and is situated 2,637 skaku above the Bea-level. RANQEa IN Central Honshu. — There are four subsidiary Geographical Formation. ]I7 ranges in the central part of Honshu, of which the Hida, the Kiso and the Akaishi ranges belong to the Kunglung system while the remaining KwantS range forms part of the Saghalien system. The Hida range originates in Mount Katakari which towers at the boundary between Etchu and Echigo. After forming Mount Hida.'^Renge (9,682) and Tateyama (9,372) it enters' Hida Range, and makes that province exceedingly mountainous. The Mozumi and Shikama mines, which are noted for their lead Kiso and silver, are found in this range. The Kiso range Eange. originates in Mount Komagatake (9,934) situated at the headwaters of the river Kiso and extends southward as far as the centre of the province of Mikawa. This range abounds in steep passes and precipitous gorges, as also in dense forests producing the famous " five timbers of Kiso." The Akaishi range starts with Akaiwa-san (10,206) which stands at the boundary between Shinano and Suruga. After Akaishi running southward between the basins of the rivers Oi Range, and Tenryu, it sends up Omugen-zan (7,692) and Kuro- boshidake (7,132), &nA ends at Akiwa-san and Dainichi-san. The Ewanto Kwanto range forms the boundary of Shinano, Musashi, Range, and Kozuke, and runs in a south-easterly direction. Kobushi-dake (8,094) and Kumotori-san (6,603) are the highest peaks in this range. The two passes of Sasago (3,488) and Kobo- toke occur in the ridge of the range. The Kii range comprises the elevations found in Kii, Yamato and Shima. A chain of hills extending from Koya and Hate- nashi-dake (3,399) and the Yoshino group containing Kii Range. T^kamiyama (4,422) and Odaigahara (5,295) may also be mentioned here. The forest of Yoshino are famous for their cedars. Chugoku Rakqes. — ^The Chtjgoku ranges, part of the Kunglung system, enters Honshu and Kyushu, and form the boundary line between the Sanyo and San-in routes as also a watershed for these two regions, sending rivers, on the one hand, northward to the Sea of Japan and, on the other hand, southward to the Inland Sea^ This range extends to the north of Lake Biwa, but its peaks are comparatively low. Mount Jakuji (4,478) on the border of th& 18 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. three provinces of Suwo, Aki, and Iwami, and Hiyei-zan and Hiradake (4,068) rising from the shores of the lake are the highest peaks in the range. Volcanic Eanges in Chugoku. — ^At the same time a chain ■of volcanic cones extends along the western part of Honshu, running almost parallel to the Kunglung range above mentioned. It starts at the northern extremity of the province of Nagato, produces ;Sambe-san (4,049) at the border of Iwami and Izumo, and Daisen Hakii zan C^'^^^) ** Hoki. It passes on to Echizen via Tajima, Volcanic where it is represented by Dainichi-dake (5,979) situated at the border of Echizen and Hida, and finally ends with Haku-zan (8,712) in Kaga. This volcanic chain is therefore known by the name of Haku-zan volcanic chain. Shikoku Eanges. — The mountain range of Shikoku is also a part of the Kunglung system and comes from Kyushu. It starts at the western extremity of Shikoku with Jogashirosan (3,573). After sending up Mount Ishitsuchi (6,920) and some others at the border of lyo and Tosa, and forming Isurugi-zan (7,393) at Awa, ihe highest peak in Shikoku, it passes on to the south of Tokushima, to join the Kii range across the narrow intervening arm of the sea. This range of Shikoku divides the island into two halves, northern and southern, and therefore serves as a watershed for the two divisions. The island has besides, a volcanic chain, also coming from Kyushu. Kyushu Eanges.— Though constituting a link of the Kunglung system in Japan, the mountain range of Paleozoic formation which is found in Kyushu is comparatively low. At the west it rises on the shore of Higo, extends north-eastward, to send up Kunimi-dake -and Obayama (6,550), till, coming to Saga, it crosses over to Shikoku. The volcanic chains, two in number, are JKirishima more noteworthy, one of them being called the and Kirishima chain and the other the Aso chain. The As) chains, former originates at a considerable distance to the south that is, in the sea off the coast of Formosa. After manifesting its presence on the small islands off Satsuma. and on Sakura-jima which is situated in the Bay of Kagoshima, it reaches Kirishima-yama (4,816), after which it disappears into the sea ofi Geographical Formation. 19 Yatsushiro. The Aso chain consists of Tara-dake in the Hizen Peninsula, Onsen-dake (4,470) in the Shimabara Peninsula, and Aso-san (5,577). After proceeding to Bungo, the chain disappears in the sea off Suwo. Formosa Eanges. — Formosa is traversed southward from its central part by the Gyoku-san range which subdivides that fieotion of the island into eastern and western halves. The former district has a coast line composed of abrupt cliffs, while the latter, though on the whole hilly, is fringed by a fertile plain extending as far as the coast and with streams running through 3ttt. Niitaka. it. Gyoku-san or Mount Niitaka (sometimes also called Mount Morrison), which gives its name to this range, is the highest peak in the whole of Japan, rising as it does 14,355 sluiku above the sea-level. Its summit is often covered by snow even in the hottest season, and was formerly called the " Jewel Mount " by the Chinese. To the east of Hozan stands Mount Kato (9,108) and to the north Mount Kantaban (9,956)» the two peaks forming the extremities of' the range. At the northern part of the island, which is also hilly, no regular mountain system is found, excepting a little volcanic group, of which Daiton- san is the most important peak. PLAINS. — Owing to the hilly nature of the land, the plains In Japan mostly consist of mountain or river valleys, and also the slopes of mountains, so that, strictly speaking, they cannot be called plaines at all, at least in the sense in which the term is understood in America, AiflBtralia or Siberia. Even if we do regard them as plains, we find them to be comparatively limited in extend compared with the plains most other countries. Plains in Hokkaido. — Hokkaido has, however, four real plains, namely, the Ishikari plain, the Tokachi plain» Ishikari, Tokachi, the Teshiwo plain, and the Kushiro plain. Of Teshiwo, and these the first, which is the basin of the river Enshiro Plains. Ishikari, is the most extensive occupying as it does an area of about 37 ri by 5 ri. The basin of the lower course of the river is extremely fertile, but that in the upper course is rather sandy and consequently less fertile. The second plain is the basin of the river Tokachi and measures 20 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. about 20 n both in length and breadth. The soil is fertile. The^ two rivers are partly navigable. The valley of the river Teshiwo forms the Teshiwo plain, while the Kushiro plain is situated in the southern part of the province of Kushiro. It is comparatively humid and not quite as fertile as the other three. Plains in Honshu.— There are about eight plains worth men- tioning in the island of Honshu. Of these, two are in the northern part. One of them is formed by the basin of the river Kitakami and lies between the Central volcanic range and the Kitakami range ; the other is the basin of the river Abukuma which lies between the Central volcanic range and the Abukuma Kitakami range. The Kitakami plain extends from the neighbour- Plain, hood of the city of Morioka and extends southward as far as Sendai. The soil is generally fertile, especially in the lower part of the basin. The other extends over the two provinces of Iwaki and Iwashiro. It is liable to be flooded in the rainy season, but the soil is good. The two plains are collectively called the plain of Mutsu and are traversed by the trunk line of the Nippon Railroad. The Aizu plain, though well adapted for cultivation, is ex- tremely limited in extent, being practically the border of Lake Inawashiro. On the other hand the Mogami plain, the _ . valley of the river of the same name, is, though the cold is somewhat severe there in winter, an excellent agricultural district. Its resources are likely to prove far more Hogami valuable in future than a(^ present when the Govern- Plain, ment Southern 0-u Railroad now extending from Fuku- shima to Yamagata via Yonezawa shall have been completed. The plain of Echigo, which measures about 40 ri from north to south and is watered by the rivers Shinano, Akano Echigo and others, is the most important rice-producing district Plain. in the whole of Japan, the soil being well adapted for the cultivation .of what we may well call the national cereal. The Kwanto plain is the widest alluvial plain in our coun- try and is also one of the most prosperous. It extends over the -J. . five prefectures of Tokyo, Saitama, Chiba, Gumma and Pla'n. Ibaragi, and measures between 30 or 40 ri in length Geographical Formation. 21 «nd breadth. This plain is watered by the navigable river Tone, besides possessing lagoons and ponds, and thus enjoys the greatest convenience in the matter of transportation, both by land and water. With the metropolis of the Empire and many other flourishing cities situated in it, this plain is a very important dis- trict both from the industrial and the agricultural points of view. Plains in central Honshu. — The Mino-Owari plain, the most important plain in the central part of Honshu, is the valley of the lower course of the river Kiso and its tributaries. Mino-Owari The land is rather low-lying and is tiierefore subject to Plain. the danger of inundation, but it is extremely fertile and is noted as a rice-producing district. Nagoya, the largest city iu Japan next to the "three cities", is situated in this plain, while to the north lies the city of Gifu. The Kinai plain, the basin of the rivers Yamato and Todo Xinal and the districts of Kyoto and Osaka, may be con- Flain. sidered as the cradle of our old civilisation and therefore the centre of our ancient history. It contains Kyoto and Osaka, the former widely renowned for its natural beauty and fine arts, and the latter for its commerce and manufactures. In the Sanyo and San-in districts there is, owing to the peculiar geographical formation of the land, no wide plain that deserves any special notice. Plains in Shikoku. — In Shikoku the valley of the river YoshLno and the stretch of flat land lying on the northern sea-coast of Sanuki may be mentioned, though both are limited in extent. The soil is good, and the Yoshino plain is noted for the cultivation of the indigo-plant. The city of Tokushima is situated on the lower course of the above-mentioned river. Plains in Kyushu. — The Tsukushi plain, the valley of the river Chikugo, is the most important plain in Kyushu, on account of T iikt hi and ^*® extent, its fertility, and its large production of Chikuzen grain. The Chikuzen plain which faces the Sea of PJaios Genkai is also noted for its agricultural products. Plains in Formosa. — In the western section of Formosa a narrow strip of flat alluvial land extends along the coast from north to «outh, and the section stretching from Sh5ka to Tainan is widely 22 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qtli Century. noted for the production of rice, sugar cane, and other crops. Colo- nization is mcst actively going on in this section. RIVERS.— Owing to the nature of our geographical formation and the consequent lack of any great distance from sea to sea, the rivers found in our country are comparatively short and rapid. However, some of them are comparatively long with wide alluvial basins, and supply great convenience in the way of transportation. They also form deltas at their mouths and hence give rise to pros- perous cities. The case of Osaka at the lower course of the river Yodo is a typical example. At the same time all those rivers are liable to inundations in times of heavy rainfalls, and to lay waste the surrounding districts. Damage inflicted by those inundations on life and property haa frequently proved heavy. RiVEES KiTAKAMi AND Abukuma. — Houshu enjoys more than any other part of the country the benefits to be derived from rivers as means of supplying irrigation and facilities of transportation. Of the rivers that take their rise in the watershed running across this region and empty themselves into the Pacific Ocean, the Kitakami and the Abukuma, already mentioned, are found in the northern section, the former measuring about 79 n in length and the latter about 77 ri. The Kitakami takes its rise in the back part of the province of Rikuchu, and sending ofi" in Rikuzen a branch called the Oinami, empties itself at Ishinomaki into the Bay of Sendai. The Kitakami, flowing from north to south across a plain, is com- paratively slow in current and supplies the people along its banks -with the benefits of irrigation as well as of river trafiic. The Abu- kuma takes its rise in Asahi-dake and Kinome-dake, Iwashiro, and flowing past the city of Fukushima, empties itself into the Pacific Ocean at the boundary of Rikuzen. For about 35 ri in its lower course the river admits of river traffic conducted by boats. River Tone. — The River Tone, otherwise called the Banda Taro, rises in a hilly part of Kozuke and runs for more than 70 ri through the extensive alluvial plain of Kwanto already described. Flowing southward it is joined by the river Watarase at Kurihashi, while at the town of Sekiyado it sends out a branch called the Yedogawa. Running further in a south-easterly direction, it enters Geographical Formation. 23 the ocean at the harbor of Choshi. It is connected with several lagoons as Kasumiga-ura and Kita-ura, and is a great highway of communication and transportation between Tokyo and the provinces of Chiba, Ibaragi and Saitama. This advantage has been greatly increased by the junction of the Tone and the Yedo rivers by a canal measuring 2 ri in length and 20 yards in breadth. The work was completed in 1890. KiVER SuMiDA. — The river Sumida, though only 30 ri in length, gathers importance from the fact that in its lower course it flows through Tokyo, thereby supplying to the city a great benefit for its traffic. River Fuji. — The Fuji (38 ri), which empties itself into the Gulf of Suruga, and the Oi (46 ri) and the Tenryu (60 ri) are a source more of damage than of benefit, owing to fact that they con- tain little water in ordinary times, and become suddenly swollen after rainfalls. EiVER Kiso. — The river Kiso (46 ri), which rises in Nishi Chikuma, a district of Shinano, much resembles the Tone as to its basin and its traffic importance. Its principal tributaries are the river Hida in the upper part of its course and the river Ibi in the lower part of its course, the river finally emptying itself into the Bay of Atsuta. The sediments brought down by it form deltas, and indeed the fine net-work into which the lower course is subdivided has no parallel in Japan. As may be seen by a reference to his- torical records the formation of deltas in this river is extremely rapid. EiVER YoDO. — The river Yodo is an outlet of Lake Biwa : the upper course is called Uji, and the lower part the Aji. It is a comparatively short river, extending only 20 ri, but from its situa- tion it serves, together with the adjoining streams of Kitsu and Yamato, as a valuable factor in the prosperity for this district. The alluvial plain in which Osaka is situated was mainly formed by this river. Kyoto Canal. — A short notice of the Kyoto canal which joins Lake Biwa with the river Kamo may be given here, it being the most important work of the kind recently undertaken in our coun- try. It measures 6,107 Jcen with ramifications altogether measuring 1,620 ken. The canal serves for irrigation, as a highway for the '24 Japan in t/ie Beginning of the 20i/» Century. transportation of goods and produce, and also for generating electri- city for the city of Kyoto. It was constructed in the year 1890 at •a cost of 1,200,000 yen. River Kii. — The river Kii, called also in some places the Yoshino and in others the Kiino, comes from Mount Odaigahara and empties itself into the sea in the vicinity of the city of Waka- yama. It measures 47 ri in length, of which the lower 13 ri admit of being traversed by river craft. RiVEES IN Sanyo and San- in Districts. — ^The river basin being extremely limited both in the Sanyo and San-in districts, owing to the existence of a mountain ridge along their border line, the rivers in this region are short. The Gonogawa, which comes from Aki and empties itself into the Sea of Japan in Iwami, is the longest of them, extending to the length of 50 ri, of which 20 ri are navigated by river craft. EiVEEs KuzuEYU AND JiNTSu. — To centinuB the description of the rivers flowing into the Sea of Japan, there are in Hokuriku the rivers Kuzuryu, Jintsu and Imizu. The Kuzuryu rises at the boun- dary of Mino and, after passing through the city of Fukui, flows into the sea at the seaport town of Mikuni. The Jintsii takes its rise at Mount Kawakami, Hida, and flows into the Bay of Toyama via the city of Toyama. The other river, which rises at Mount Dainichi, Hida, also flows into the same bay. The three rivers afford great convenience in the matter of irrigation and partly admit of river traffic. The Imizu, the longest of the three, measures 50 ri. RiVEK Shinano. — The river Shinano is the largest river in Honshu, its principal tributaries being the Sai-gawa and the TJnuma- gawa. It comes from the eastern part of Shinano and, after flow- ing 100 ri, empties itself into the sea at the city of Niigata. Owing to the fact that a large number of small streams join it, the river is very wide; but it is shallow and only at the lower course north of Nagaoka it admits of being navigated by small river steamers. EiVEK Onga-gawa.— The Onga-gawa flowing to the east of ihe Shinano comes from Lake Inawashiro, Iwashiro. After runnino- 57 ri it empties itself into the sea at Matsuga-saki, Echigo. This current is more rapid than the other, and only at its lower course can it admit of river traffic. These two rivers while watering the exten- Geographical Formation. 25 Bive plain of Echigo, supply it also -with means of irrigation, carry its trafl&c, and yield it fish, so that they may properly be regarded as forming a vital factor in the prosperity of the province. EiVEK MoGAMi.— The Mogami (62 ri) which takes its rise at Mount Dainichi, Echigo, flows into the sea at the harbor of Sakata, after passing near the cities of Yonezawa and Yamagata and col- lecting a number of streams along the way. The alluvial plains in which the two cities are situated are the work of the river. How- ever, the current is rapid, the Mogami being one of the three most rapid streams in our country, so that the river supplies only small convenience, if any at all. in the way of river traffic. EivER IsHiKAEi. — In Hokkaido the existence of an elevation in the central part results in the sending of rivers in four direc- tions, those flowing west being the Ishikari and the Teshiwo, to give only the principal streams, those flowing northward into the Sea of Okhotsk being the minor streams in Kitami, while the Kushiro and Tokachi rivers flow south-eastward into the Pacific Ocean. Those in the provinces of Hidaka and Ibui run parallel to each other and southward into the ocean. The river Ishikari is the largest in the whole of Japan, and watering the wide plain of Ishikari, it extends over 167 ri. As a large number of small streams joins this lordly river, the Ishikari may be considered as conducing to a very large extent to the fertility and prosperity of the western plains of Hok. kaido. For about 50 ri in its lower course the river is navigable by river steamers. It rises in Mount Ishikari and joins the sea at the har. bor of the same name. The river Uryu is its principal tributary. River Teshiwo. ^The Teshiwo, taking its rise in Mount Teshiwo that stands on the boundary of Ishikari and Kitami, flows into the Sea of Japan after running northward for 74 ri. The current is less rapid than that of the Ishikari and is therefore more easily navigable. RiVEE KusHiEO. — ^The river Kushiro comes from Lake Ku- shiro situated in the northern part of the province of the same name. After flowing southward, it empties itself into the ocean at the sea-port town of Kushiro. The current is comparatively slow, and for 20 ri in its lower course it admits of being navigated by river steamers. 26 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. EiVEK ToKACHi.— The river Tokachi rises on the mount of the same name and, after running southward for an aggregate dis- tance of 53 ri, it flows into the sea, one branch at Tokachi and the other at Otsu, as the river divides into two branches before it reaches the sea. Although the basin of the river is wide and sufficiently fertile, it is not yet so extensively opened as the plain of Ishikari. Rivers in Shikokit.— As the area is limited and a mountain range occupies the central portion of the island of Shikoku, the rivers are separated into those flowing northward and those flowing south- ward. AH of them are short, except the river Yoshino, otherwise called the Shikoku Shiro. It measures 43 ri, and waters the plain of Awa. It supplies the means of irrigation and of river traffic, only it often overflows the banks in the rainy season. The river takes its rise in the northern part of Tosa, and, flowing eastward, empties itself into the sea in the vicinity of the city of Tokushima. River Chikugo. — In Kyushu the mountain range of sediment- ary formation and the two volcanic chains of Aso and Kirishima serve as starting points for rivers, and as the island generally abounds in dense forests which constantly feed the rivers, the volume of water in them is large and easily available for purposes of irrigation. However those that serve as highways of river traffic are few and far between, owing to the state of the current. The river Chikugo (35 ri) is the longest and rises in Mount Koko- Boye, Bungo. After running in a north-easterly direction, it passea the city of Kurume and enters the sea of Ariyake at Yenotsu. This river waters the plain of Tsukushi, but is often unruly. RiVEB KuMA. — The river Kuma, though only 25 ri in length, (or perhaps because of its shortness) is noted, together with the Fuji and the Mogami, as being the most rapid streams in Japan. However its lower course admits of being navigated by river craft for about 6 ri. The river rises at the boundary of Hyuga, and after crossing the province of Higo, it empties itself into the sea at Yatsushiro. The river Sendai, which takes its rise at the boun- dary of Hyuga and Higo, flows through the northern part of Satsuma, and then enters the sea. Its valley is fertile and the lower course admits of river traffic for 16 ri. Geographical Formation. 27 Rivers in Formosa. — As the island of Formosa measures more from north to south than from east to west, while the Gyoku-san range crosses through the centre, all the streams run from this watershed either to the east or to the west. They are all of them short. Some of streams in the western half of the island are comparatively well supplied with water, but they are liable to be dried up in time of drought, while a heavy rainfall causes the streams to overflow their banks, and to send down volumes of sand to the mouths. The rivers of Formosa therefore present a peculiar feature of their own, compared with those in other places. Indeed the Chinese used to call them brooks and not rivers. Of these streams the Tansui is the largest in Northern For- mosa. It collects the greater part of the water coming down from the elevations in this section. The two streams of Taiko-kan and Shintsu coming from the south join the Tansui, while the Kelung stream comes from the vicinity of the city of Kelung. The Kelung is navigable by river steamers as far as Daitonei (Twa- tutia), situated about 5 ri from its mouth. The upper part of the Kelung partly admits of the use of native junks. The Tansui measures about 35 ri and empties itself into the Strait of Formosa. The GS Tansui in the southern part of west For- mosa is a stream that flows through the plain in the vicinity of Hozan. Its basin being comparatively wide, it also serves as means of irrigation. It measures 32 ri and the part of T")ko lies at its mouth. There is a stream running across the north of Kagi, but it is of little use for river traffic. Eastern Formosa » being hilly and destitute of any wide plain, has no streams worth mentioning, except, perhaps, the Dakusui which empties itself into the sea at Karenko. Its valley is fertile and it also serves the purpose of irrigation. LAKES AND PONDS.— The lakes and ponds found in our country may be classified into four kinds, according to origin : viz., tectonic, volcanic, choked up, and coastal. Luke Biwa is the most typical example of a lake formed by depression of tectonic origin. The second comprises those that occupy the craters of extinct volcanoea, while the third group consists of those that have been formed by the chocking up of a river basin by certain epigenic 28 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. or hypogenic changes. The last group or lagoons are arms of sea enclosed by sand or shingle spit. The principal lakes belonging to the second group are Lake Ashi in Hakone (2,330), Lake Haruna (3,431) on Mount Haruna, Lake Chiizenji (4,340) at Nikko, etc. Of the lakes, or more properly, ponds, swamps or lagoons belong- ing to the fourth group may be mentioned Kasumiga-ura, Kita-ura, Saruna-ko, Hachirogata and others. Lake Biwa. — Lake Biwa, which lies in the centre of the province of Omi, is the largest lake in Japan, measuring at its widest part 5 ri from east to west and 16 ri from north to south, with a circumference of 73 ri. Its area is 81 sq. ri. It is fed by a large number of small streams flowing into it. Its outlet is the river Seta, which, under the name of the Yodogawa, flows into the Bay of Osaka. The cities of Otsu and Zfeg which stand on the southern shore of the lake with the minor towns of Shiozu and Kaitsu on the opposite coast constitute a centre of collection aiul distribution of goods that are carried over the lake between the districts in the vicinity of Ky5to and Osaka and the districts of Hokuriku and Mino and Owari. However, as a highway of transportation the lake has lost much of its former value consequent on the laying of railways in its vicinity. The lake is also noted for its fine scenery, and the " eight scenes of Onii," together witli the beauties of the island of Chikubu-shima that stands in the lake, are widely celebrated. Othee Lakes. — Kasumiga-ura measures 36 ri in circumference and Kita-ura 15 ri. They are really lagoons. The towns lying on the shore of the first named lagoon are connected with Tokyo hy eteam service. Imba-numa is noted for its fishery and as serving purposes for irrigation to the neighboring fields. There is a scheme afoot for constructing a canal between it and the Bay of Tokyo. c-^ COASTAL INDENTATIONS.— The importance of coastal in- dentations as a factor in the civilization and prosperity of a country gathers special force in connection with such a sea-girt country as Japan, for which those indentations may be considered as organs of respiration. It is exceedingly fortunate that our coast-line is comparatively well-indented, and extends for a considerable length. Geographical Formation. 29 Japan therefore may well be considered as enjoying a great natural gift in this respect and as being well qualified for the carrying on of active commerce with the outside world. Ratio op Coast-line to Area. — The coast-line aggregates 4,432.84 ri, all the islands large and small constituting our country being taken into account. This compared to our whole area of 27,061.93 sq. ri corresponds to 1 ri of coast-line to every 3.64 sq. ri. If the ratio is taken for the larger islands alone, there is 1 ri of coast-line to every 4.79 sq. ri, the aggregate mileage of the coast-line and the area of those islands being 5,556.54 ri and 26,*635.53 sq. ri respectively. The measurement for each of the larger islands is given below : — Names of islands. Honshu Sbikoku Kyushu HokkaidS Chishima (32 islands) Sado Oki Awaji Iki Tsushima Okinawa (S5 islands) Ogasawara (zo islands) Formosa The Pescadores Xotal ••• ■■■ ••■ •.. It may be seen from this table that in length of coast-lin» as compared with area, Shikoku comes first, followed by Kyushu, 'while the ratio is smallest in Hokkaido, Formosa and Honshu, speaking about the principal divisions alone. This explains why the coasts of Shikoku and Kyushu abound in good anchorages, and •why in the islands of Hokkaido and Formosa and on the Japan Sea coast of Honshu this advantage is less. PKiNCiPAii Indentations and Haeeoes. — Brief descriptions of Circumference. Area per I ri coast line. ri. ri. ... 1,952.88 7.42 ... 451-17 2-55 ... 85i.i8 2.68 ... 583-33 8.66 ... 613.21 1.68 ... S3-30 I-S7 ... 74.70 0.56 ... 38.70 0.94 ... 35-44 0.24 ... 186.27 0.23 ... 315.06 0.50 ... 71.58 0.08 ... 299.72 7-52 ... 20.00 040 •.. 5.556-54 4-79 30 Jajtan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. some of the good anchorages that are found in the main island will be given next. Beginning with the northern extremity of Honshu, there is the Gulf of Mutsu standing on the opposite side of the Tsugaru Strait as seen from Hakodate, Hokkaido. This gulf is divided into two parts, the eastern section call the Bay of Nobechi and Aomori. the western called the Bay of Aomori, the harbors of Nobechi and Aomori occupying the head of the bays of the respective names. Of the two, Aomori is far more important and prosperous than the other. It contains over 28,000 inhabitants and has a regular steamship service, run by the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, to and from the harbors of Muroran and Hakodate, while it is also the northern terminus of the Nippon Railway. Between Aomori and along the east coast as far as Kinka-san, the coMst is comparatively straight and possesses anchorages of only local importance. These are, beginning at the north, the port of Minato which is the terminus of the Shiriuchi Branch of the Nippon Eailway ; then Miyako and Kamaishi where the Yusen Kaisha's steamers make a regular call. After passing Kinka-san we have the Bay of Ishinomaki, containing three anchorages, the one at the east being Oginohama, that in the middle, Ishinomaki, and that at the western extremity being Kamaishi, the last being connected by a branch line with the Nippon Eailway. These three ports are centres of collection and distribution for goods coming from the wide plain of Kitakami or into it. The only anchorage existing between the Ishinomaki Bay and Boso Peninsula is' Ch5shi, which lies at the mouth of the river Tone. Steamers regularly ply between it and the places CLoshi. situated along the Tone or on the shore of Kasumiga-ura and Kita-ura, while the Boso Railway connects the place with Tokyo. Moreover, as a line of the Nippon Railway passes Tsuchiura, a port on the shore of Kasumiga-ura, Choshi and its vicinity enjoy great facilities of communication. The Bay of Tokyo that lies on the western coast of the fios5 Peninsula is the most important inlet of Japan, com- mercially and otherwise. It is bounded on the ay y . ^^g^ j^y. ^j^g peninsula of Awa, on the north by the Geographical Formation. 31 stores of Kazusa and Shim5sa, while Tokyo and Yokohama with the places intervening between them constitute the western boundary. The peninsula of Misaki stands at the entrance of the bay. From the shore of Kazusa and Shimosa as far as Tokyo, the water along the coast is comparatively shallow and cannot admit of the approach of a big vessel, but the inlets found south of Yokohama are in general good anchorages. ..^ Yokohama lies 18 miles to the south of Tokyo and is situated on the western shore of the Tokyo Bay. It is a non- freezing port located at 35°26' N. L. and 139°38' Yokohama. E. L. In respect to the aggregate tonnage of the ships that enter it and to the volume of foreign trade, Yokohama stands foremost in the list of our trading ports. It is pro- vided with all the necessary arrangements for overland and marine transportation and communications. Water-works, parks, hotels, Japa- nese and foreign banks, firms and companies of all sorts and all the other provisions for comfort and public convenience and utility are com- plete, while the harbor is provided with piers and breakwaters and is thronged with ships coming from all parts of Europe and America. The water-works supply those ships with wholesome water at a very low charge. Yokohama contains at present over 193,000 inhabitants or 31,700 families. The Gulf of Sagami lies to the west of the Tokyo Bay, with the peninsula of Izu forming its eastern boundary and Cf.pe Ommaye of Totomi forming the western. There is at the western corner of the gulf the little harbor of Shimizu which Shimizu. supplies important shipping facilities to the vicinity. The fact that the Government Tokaido Railroad passes along the coast serves to increase considerably the means of transportation and communication. The shores of the gulf are noted for their fishery, while the narrow projection of Miho, which is seen to the best advantage from the harbor of Shimizu, is often referred to in poetry for its fine appearance. Further westward there is no good anchorage as far as the Sea of Ise, which may be regarded as an extensive bay. It possesses along its coast quite a large number of The Sea of Ise. ports. The ports of Handa and Taketoyo are 32 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. situated on the eastern coast of tlie peninsula of Chita which separates the two eastern inlets of the sea of Ise, namely the Bay of Atsumi and the Bay oi Chita, from the sea proper. The most inland inlet of the sea is called the Bay of Atsuta Bay of Atsuta. and into this bay the river Kiso empties itself, as do also a large number of other streams, the result being the formation of several deltas. Atsuta is a prosperous little port situated at no great distance from the city of Nagoya. Its prosperity will be largely increased when the harbor works now going on shall have been completed. On the western shores of the sea are the ports of Kuwana, Yokkaichi, and Tsu, of which Yokkaichi, being a special export port, is the most important. It is connected by a regular steamship service with Yokohama. The harbor of Toba in the province of Shima is situated at the western mouth of the sea. Its waters are very deep. The Bay of Osaka which lies on the western side of thff peninsula of Kii, is bounded on the west by the island of Awaji, and is encircled by the three provinces of Settsu, Kawachi, Osaka, and Izumi. The city of Osaka, the " Manchester of Japan," surpasses all other cities in the Empire for the prosperity of its trades and manufactures, while the city of Sakai that lies a short distance off may claim the name of " Japanese Sheffield," on account of its cutlery industry. Kobe is situated on the north-eastern shore of the bay men- tioned above, its exact location being 35°37' N. L. and 135°24' E. L. It is the western terminus of the Grovernment Kobe. Tokaido Kailroad and the starting point of the Sany& Railroad, so that both in respect of land and marine communi- catior.s, it is about as well provided as Yokohama, its only rival in the matter of foreign trade. In fact, so far as the volume of the import trade is concerned, Kobe even surpasses Yokohama, though in the gross volume of the trade, however, it still comes below the other city. Kobe has a better anchorage, however, than Yokohama, its water being deep and permitting large ships to come near the shore where contrivances are provided for the loading and unloading of goods. The principal imports are raw cotton, iron ware, sugar» Geographical Formation. 3S cotton yarns and rice, while rice, matche3, fancy matting and tea constitute the principal exports. It may be added that all the conveniences of business and communication, as also those of comfort are as complete in Kobe as in Yokohama. The Inland Sea. (Murotsu, Ushimado, Takamatsu, Marugama, Tadotsu, Kur6, Ujina, Shimonoseki, etc.). — A narrow trip of sea extending westward from Kobe is the celebrated Inland Sea. It is bounded on the north by the Sanyo-do districts and on the south by the island of Awaji and by Shikoku. Besides abounding in inlets and harbors, and dotted by innumerable small islands, many of them covered by pine trees, this sea is generally tranquil all the year round. It unfolds new scenes and new wonders as the steamer threads its way between isles and round the bare or wooded curves, so that a voyage through this far-famed sheet of water is delightful beyond description. The sea is subdivided into four sections, according to the divisions of the coast of Sanyo-do and Harimaoki. the first of these, the " Harima-oki," is continuous as far as the Bay of Osaka, and washes the shores of Harima and Bizen. This section possesses the ports of Murotsu and Ushimado on the Sanyo-do side and Takamatsu on the Bingo-oki. opposite side. The second section called " Bingo-oki " washes Bitchu and Bingo of Sanyodo and Sanuki and lyo of Shikoku. Tamashima and Sasaoka of Bitchu ; Tomotsu, Onomichi, and Mihara of Bingo ; Marugame and Tadotsu of Sanuki, and Imaharu of lyo are the ports lying on both sides Akino-umi. of this section. The third section called " Akino-umi " washes the coast of Aki on the one hand and that of the the north-western coast of lyo on the other. It is distinguished from the other sections by a larger number of small islands, of which Itsukushima, popularly known as one of the " Three Sights of Japan," is the most noteworthy. On the Aki side lie the naval port of Kur^ and the port of Uj'.na, while on the opposite coast are found Mitsugahama and Nagahama. The last Sawo-nada. section at the western extremity of the Inland Sea is " Suwo-nada," with Murotsu, Tokuyama and Mitajiri, and Shimonoseki as its ports, while the port of Moji in Buzen, Kyushu, is situated just at the mouth of the sea. Of 54 Japan in tlie Beginning of the Mtfi Cen.inry. Shimonoseki. these both from a historical and a commercial point of view, ShiraoDOseld is the most important. On the coast of Shikoku there are only two indentations worth mentionting, one being the Bay of Tosa situated on TheBayofTosa, the Pacific side of the island and the other the port ITwajima. o" Uwajima on the Inland Seaside. The latter sup- l^lies an anchorage of local importance. Turning to the northern or the Japan Sea coast of Honshu, the condition of the coast is found to be considerably inferior so far as anchorages are concerned, the coast being al- The Bay of ready described. Only on the coast of Hoki, Tango, Mi-o (Saka- Wakasa, Noto and Ugo are indentations of any im- ye, Yonago.) portance to be found ; while, owing to the prevalence of high waves in winter, voyage along that coast in that season is risky. The inlet on the coast of Hoki is called the Bay of Mi-o. At the bottom of this inlet is the harbor of Sakayfi, to the south is another harbor, that of Yonago. These are the only important anchorages in Sanin-do. The section of the sea bounded on one side by the projection of Echizen and on the other by that of Tango is the Bay of Wakasa. On the western side lie the port of Miyazu The Bay of Wakasa, and the admiralty port of Maizuru, while to (Myazu, Maizuru, the east, round Cape Tateiwa, is situated the Tsuruga.) Bay of Tsuruga with the harbor of the same name. This is the most important shipping •centre in Hokuriku, and, connected by railroad with the provinces in Kiniii and Tokai-do, it is a flourishing place for the collection and distribution of goods coming from the northern sea. The eastern coast of the peninsula of Noto is, in contrast to ithe western, rich in indentations, of which the harbor of Nanao facing to the south, another harJ)or, that of Fushiki, may BTanao, be mentioned. Besides being a regular port of call for Tashiki. the Yusen Kaisha's steamers, Nanao is also connected with Vladivostock by a regular steamship service, and with the provinces of Kinai and Tokai-do by a railroad. Fushiki, with the cities of Takaoka and Toyama situated not far ofi", is an im- portant shipping centre for this district. Geographical Formation. 35 The coast of Echigo has the harbor of Naoyjtsu on the south and the harbor of Niigata on the north, the two cities being con- nected by a railroad, while Naoyetsu is also connected Niigata. with Tokyo by a Government line. Niigata is one of the five open ports first opened to foreign trade. It is situat- ed at 35°39" N.L. and 139°3' E.L. Bat the defective anchorage of the harbor and the remoteness of the district have prevented Niigata from ever becoming a market for foreign trade, and its customs returns are eclipsed by those of other ports opened much later. Owing, however, to the vast output of cereals produced in the fertile plains of the province, Niigata enjoys great prosperity so far as the home trade is concerned. Proceeding further northward along the coast, there are at the mouth of the river Mogami the harbor of Sakata, and a little further to the north of it the harbor of Noiiro, the latter Sakata. . . of which is connected by railroad with Aomori. There are comparatively few indentations in Hokkaido, owing to the nature of its coast-line; in fact there are only three, namely Volcanic Bay in the southern extremity, Ishikari Bay on the western coast and Nemuro Bay on the eastern. Hakodate, one of the five open ports, is situated at 41°45' N. L. and 140°43' E. L. The basin of the harbor covers about 1 rt 6 cho north and south and 21 cho east and west, and, as the water is deep and sheltered on all sides by land, Hakodate supplies an excellent anchorage. The prosperity of the place increased apace with the progress of colonizatioa in the island for whose produces it serves as the most important outlet. The •existence of water-works and the abundant supply, at cheap rates, of excel'e it Hokkaido coal make this harbor an excellent calling place for stjamers. However, owing to its remoteness from the centre of business and political activity, the volume of foreign trade here is not yet so high as in other places. The chief export goods are marine products, sulphur, etc., while iron ware, salted fish, etc, con- stitute the pricipal import goods. With the increased utilization of the Siberian Railroad as a medium of communication between Europe and Asia, Hakodate is sure to become an important calling place for steamers. At the end of 1898, the city contained 78,040 inhabitants. 36 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Otani, situated in the Ishikari Bay, contained over 70,000 inhabitants at the end of 1901, and being the most important out- let for the marine, agricultural and mining products produced Otaru. in the plains of Ishikari and Teshiwo whose coast supplies an excellent fishing ground for herring, its advance has been striking. It is one of the newly opened ports and its harbor- works will be completed a few years hence. Nemuro and the harbor of Akkeshi on the coast of Kushiro, are, though regular calling places of the Yusen Kaisha's steamers, comparatively insignificant commercially on account of U'emuro. their remote situation. Muroran, situated at the eastern entrance of Volcanic Bay, is an excellent anchorage, and, together with Otaru, exports a large quantity of coal. It is con- nected with Sapporo and Otaru by a railroad, while there Muroran. is a regular steamship service between it and Hakodate. Travellers from Honshu who take the way of Aomori in going to Sapporo or Otaru generally go to Muroran via Hakodate. The coast-line of Kyushu is comparatively straight in the south-eastern part, but on the other hand the north-western part is well indented. Moji, standing opposite Shimonoseki, a narrow MojL arm of the sea separating, is the most flouris'hing port in the latter district. Its proximity to the principal coal-mines in Kyushu and the vast export of coal from it has brought about this marked prosperity of the port. It contains over 36,000 in- habitants. The means of communication and transportation are very complete, the Sanyo Railroad running between Shimonoseki and Kobe on the one hand, and the Kyushu Railroad starting on the other from this port of Moji. In the year 1899 it was included in the list of open ports, and already its volume of trade threatens to eclipse that of Nagasaki. The export of coal alone amounts to over 3,600,000 tons in a year. The little port of Wakama'su. Wakamatsu situated close to it has suddenly sprung into importance owing to the establishment of the Government Iron Foundry in its neighborhood. On the northern coast of Kyushu are found Hakata in Chiku- zen, Karatsu in Hizen, and Izuhara in Tsushima, all of them ports of local importance. The admiralty port of Sasebo and the Geographical Formation. 37 Sasebo. ancient treaty port of Nagasaki are found round the western extremity of Hizen, while Kuchinotsu lies at the southern end of the peninsula of Shimabara. Nagasaki is situated at 52°4o' N. L. and 130°29' E. L. It ■was opened to foreign commerce no less than 332 years ago when a treaty of commerce were concluded for the first time Nagasaki, with the Portuguese. From that time till the opening of the country, Nagasaki was the only common ground of trade carried on between Japan and the outside world. Owing, however, to the transfer of the seat of commercial activity to Yokohama and Kobe, the prosperity of Nagasaki as a trading port has not of late made such a marked advance as that of other places. Still it is a regular calling port for steamers destined to or coming from the ports on the continent of Asia, the Philippine?, Australia and Europe, and being providel with railroad conneetionp^ it enjoys great facilities in the matter of both maritime and overland transportation. The basin measares 28 cM wide. It is sheltered on all sides by hills, and the water in the harbor is deep. All pro- visions for the convenience of ships, such as water-works, a plentiful supply of coal, and a dockyard (the calebrateJ Mitsubishi Yard) are complete. In the year 1900 the volume of trade aggregated over 22 million yen, the principal goods imported being raw cotton, sugar, ierosene, etc., and the principal export goods being coal, rice, marine products, etc. At the extremity of the promontory of Udo on the western ooast of Higo is situated Misumi, and at the mouth of the river Kuma the harbor of Yatsushiro, the latter being the KagQshima. terminus of the Kyushu Railroad. At the mouth of the river Chikugo is situated Wakatsu and a little further off Omuda, both of which export the coal of the Miike mine and also other local products. At the southern extremity of Satsuraa is found the Jiarbor of Bonot-iu, a regular station for shipping connection between Kagoshima and Okinawa. The Gulf of Kago- shima lies at the southern extermity of Kyushu and contains at its head the harbor of Kagoshima, the most important anchorage in southern Kyushu. The gulf covers 20 ri north and south and 3 to 8 ri east and west. The water is deep and forms a good anchorage. ^8 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. but the means of communication -with the rest of the island are not 80 complete as they will be shortly, when the Government Kagoshima Railroad shall have been completed, to be connected with the Kyushu Railroad at Yatsoshiro via Hitoyoshi. This line is now partly open to traffic. In contrast to the north-western coast, the eastern coast of Kyushu is devoid of good anchorages. The ports of Olta and Beppu situated at the bottom of Beppu Bay, and the port of Beppa Ba/. Saganoseki situated a little further off to the south- east, and finally the port of Saiki situated still further to the south may be mentioned as anchorages of local importance. They are connected by a regular steamship service with Osaka, Kobe, Moji, etc. The only anchorages to be mentioned on the coast of Hyuga are Ho.sojima on the north and Yunotsu on the southr both being regular calling stations of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha'a steamers. Owing to the comparatively straight, unbroken outline of the coast of Formosa, there are only two harbors, Tansui and Kelung, on the mrth-eaitern coast, and two others, Anping and Takao, on the south. The former two lose much of their importance a» anchorages owing to the fact that they are exposed to strong north- easterly winds in winter, while the two southern ports are subject to the similar disadvantage of being exposed to south-westerly winds in summer. Tansui is situated about 5 ri to the north of Taihoku and at the mouth of the river Tansui. As there are, however, a number of sand-bars in this harbor, steamers of deep draught cannot TansoL enter the basin unless at high-tide. The tea produced lit the island is mostly shipped from Tansui harbor, which is therefore crowded with Chinese junks and steamei-s in the height of the tea season. Tansui is separated from Nagasaki by 640 miles and from Fuchow on the opposite coast of China by 137 miles. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Kelung, about 9 ri to the north of Taihoku and 2-5 miles by se» from Tansui, is the most important shipping station between the island and Japan proper. It is enclosed on three sides by Kelunff. hills, and the Formosan Government has started the work Geograpliical Formation. 39 of sheltering the exposed side. Coal constitutes the principal item of export, the mineral being produced in the vicinity. The com- mercial activity of the city is however eclipsed by that of Daitotei (Twatutia) and Manko (Manka), in the suburbs of the city. The distance from Nagasaki is 637 miles, from Shanghai 776 miles, from Amoy 235 miles, and from Fuchow 150 miles. Tlie city contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Anping which ranks next to Tansui in the volume of trade, is situated about 1 ri to the west of Tainan. Steamers have to anchor at a distance of about 1 ri from the mouth of the harbor, Anping, and they are often cut off from all communications with Takao. the land by the strong trade-wind that blows during the summer. A canal connects the harbor with Tainan. The staple export goods are camphor and sugar. Takao about 10 ri to the south of Tainan and about 3 ri to the south-west of Hozan, is the only harbor in Formosa which is sheltered from the trade-winds. The depth of the basin measures 5 to 7 fathoms. Suwar is the staple export, but the commercial prosperity of the place shows lather a retrogression than an advance. Turning to the eastern coast, there is only one harbor, that of So-o in the northern part, though it is shallow and is poor as an anchorage. The rest of the coast-line ends abruptly and sup- plies no good shelter for ships. lY. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. Generaij Beiuabes. — In general outline Japan may be con- sidered to consist of three arcs, one constituted by the stretch of islands extending from Formosa to Kyushu, the second by Japan proper extending from Kyushu to Hokkaido proper, and ithe third by the Kurile group. The islands composing Japan are apparently a part of the continental system of Asia, but the geological forma- tion is even more complicated than that of the continent. For further particulars on this subject the reader is referred to the section of Mining. 40 Jwpan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Y. CLIMATE. OCEANIC CURRENTS.— Owing to the fact that Japan is situated both in the temperate and tropical zones, the climate is on the whole mild and salutary. It is further influenced by the seas that girdle the country, the nature of the prevail lug winds, etc. Black Cueeent. — Oceanic currents first demand our attention. ■Of these the " Kuroshiwo " or Black Current is the most important, for it is owing to its proxiniity that the climate of Japan, especially of the Pacific districts, is considerably moderated. It is so called from its color, which is deep indigo in fine Aveather and ashy pale on cloudy days. The Black Current takes its rise near the Equator, being produced by the Pacific Trade Wind. It is at the vicinity of the island of Bashi, the northern-most of the Philippine group, and at about 21° N. L. and 135° E. L. that the current, that has been flowing westward as far as that place, turns northward, and thus begins to constitute a Japan current. After running along the eastern coast of Formosa it is divided into a number of currents at about 23° N. L. and 126° E. L. The main current runs E. K E. and along the southern coast of Kyushu and Shikoku. Its velocity is extraordinary at this point and the speed with which it flows between the islands of Mikura and Hachijo, of the Izu group of islands, is as much as 40 knots per hour. Proceeding northwards, it turns in a north-easterly direction, to be again divided into two streams at about 38° N. L. The main current gradually bends more and more eastward, and finally reaches the vicinity of 160° E. L. On the other hand the branch current proceeds northward and finally reaches the Aleutian archipelago and the Behring Sea, and is known by the name of the Kamchatka Current. Ship-S sailing from Yokohama to North America follow the route of this Black Current. The. branch current that is separated from the mail, current at 28° .N. L. passes into the Sea of Japan via the arm of the sea separating Kyushu and Tsushima. From about the central section of Honshu, this current comes closer to the shore of the island; but on proceeding to 41° N. L. and 138° E. L. it is divided into two branches, one of which turns eastward through the Strait of Tsu"-aru Climate. 41 s 57 „ , 1891 59 ). J 53 ., , 1892 58 , 57 „ . 1893 59 J. ) 53 „ , 1894 60 »» 3 59 ., . 189s 60 » . 59 ,. , 1896 Co jt . 59 .. , 1897 61 ». J 60 „ , 1898 61 it ) 60 :, , €0 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. IX. POPULATION AS CLASSIFIED BY AGE. In classifying the population by age there are many points to be considered, such as ages of efficient labor, non-efficient labor, conscription service, voting, school attendance, marriage, procreation, longevity, etc., but here only the three subjects of ages of efficient labor and of non-efficient labor, of procreation and of conscription service shall be dealt with. Ages of Efficient Labor and Non-efficient Labor. — In general our people cannot engage in self-supporting work until they reach the age of about 15, so that the years below 15 must be regarded as age of non-efficient labor, the years between 16 and 65 as ages of efficient labor, and the years above 66 as ages of non-efficient labor. The population of the efficient ajad non-efficient labor as based on the foregoing standard is shown below : — Year. Below 15. 16 to 65. above 66. 1884 ... . . ... 11,842,565 23,458,278 2,142,236 1887 ... . . - 13.087,582 23,826,408 2,152,303 1892 ... . . ... 13,702,107 25,120,236 2,265,046 1897 ... . . - I4,19S>52I 26,602,214 2,429,097 1S98 ... . . ... 14,366,923 26,989,196 2,404,700 In the foregoing three classes of population shown in per centag^ those of non-efficient labor on account of childhood constitute in general 33 out of every 100, those of similar non-efficiency on account of declining age 6, and those of efficient labor the remaining 61. In other words, of every 100 people 81 give support to others and 39 receive support from olhers. These relations are demonstrat- ed as follows: — Year. 18S4 1887 1892 1897 189S Eelow 15 16 to 65 Above 66 years. yea:3. yea:s. Total 3t 63 6 100 33 fi 6 100 33 61 6 ICO 33 61 6 100 23. 62 £ 100 Marriage. 61 Age of Procreation. — Women are not allowed in our Civil Code to marry until they reach full 15 years of age, and hence the age of procreation may be considered as beginning at that age. The years at which sterility commences are not uniform according to persons, the period arriving before 40 in some and after 50 in others. However, the average may be taken as 45 years, so that the period between 15 and 45 years may be regarded as the period of procreation. According to that standard, the child-bearing portion and the non-procreative portion amount to 44 and 56 respectively, as shown below : — VcOT- Women between Women below 15 Pro- Non- xear. 15 and 45. or above 46. creative. Procreative. 18S7 .. . ... 8,498,070 10,838,583 44 56 1892 .. . ... 8,986,358 11,350,172 44 56 1S97 .. . ... 9,517,051 11,887,385 44 56 1898 .. . ... 9.661,749 12,026,561 45 55 Ages of Conscription Service. — The male subjects of the Empire are eligible for military service from full 17 to full 40 years. At the end of 1898 year there were 8,034,098 males of those ages, corresponding to 36 out of every 100 males, as below : — Population available Per 100 Year. for service. males. 1887 7,220,932 36.60 1892 7,477,507 36.03 1897 7,914,181 36.26 189S 8,034,098 36.40 X. MARRIAGE. Marriage Rules. — ^Before giving any data about mar- riage a brief description of the legislation enacted in connection with marriage may be given here. The marriage age as provided by the Civil Code, begins at full 17 years with males and full 15 with females, and in making the marriage contract the consent of parents or of those who legally represent them is necessary. 62 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. However, this consent is despensed with in the case of those males who have reached the full age of 30 or in that of females who have reached 25. The same Code prohibits polygamy under pain of criminal punishment, the system of monogamy having been legally established more than 10 centuries ago. Women are similarly forbidden to make any polyandrous contracts. Number of Maeriage Contracts.— The number of marriage contracts during the ten years ceding 1900, was 372,102 which corresponds to 8.82 per every 10,000 people, this rate being shown in the following table : — Year. 1883 18S7 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 No, of marriage contracts. 337,456 344,149 349.489 358,389 361,319 365,633 501,777 365,207 471,298 297,117 Per 100 people. 9.10 8.55 8.51 8.66 8.64 8.6s 11,75 8.4s 10.77 6.71 Note : — The number of contracts for 1899 covers only those that were reported during tliat year, those that were reported after that year being excUided. This remarli applies also to the tables of birth and death to be mentioned sub- sequently. Number op Married Couples. — The number of married couples subsequent to 1886 are as follows : — No. of married Per. 10,003 couples. people. At the end of 1886 ... 7,289,001 189.29 „ 1887 ... 7,346,670 188.04 „ 1892 ... 7,561,900 184.03 „ 1897 ... 7,892,073 182.56 » 1898 ... 7,979,383 182.34 As shown in the table, 182.34 to 189.29 oat of every 1,000 people are married couples so that in every 1,000 of the population JBirth-Eate. 63 there are 364.68 to 378.58 married people, the rest being single^ This rate is a fairly good record compared with the data in other countries, demonstrating to some extent the easy condition of living in Japan and the domestic stability that obtains there. XL BIRTH-RATE. Average Eate. — During the ten years ended 1899 inclusive, the average births numbered 1,243,014 or 2.95 per 100 people. The birth-rate was larger for males, their birth during the ten years referred to being 104.67 per 100 females. Below is shown a table showing the number of births and the ratio of male and female births from 1872 to 1899. Birth-rate Males per Year. Males. Females. Total, per loo Pop. loo Females. 1872... , ... 290,836 278,198 596,034 1.71 104,54 1877... . ... 455,689 434,829 890,518 2-SS 104,80 1882... ... 474,189 448,526 922,715 2.49 105.72 IS87... ... 542,043 516,094 1,058,137 2.71 105.03 1892... ... 617,234 589,800 1,207,034 2.94 104,65 1893... ... 602,322 579,106 1,178,428 2.85 104,55 1894... ... 620,84,4 588,139 1,208,983 2.89 105.56 1895... ... 638,895 607,532 1,246,427 2.95 105.16 IS96... ... 651,468 630,710 1,282,178 3.00 103.29 iS97-- ... 683,941 650,184 1,334,125 5.09 105,19 1S9S... ... 696,131 673,491 1,396,622 3-13 103.36 1899... ... 705,017 666,120 1,371,191 3.10 105.83 XII. DEATH-RiTE. Average Kate. — During the ten years ended 1899 the average rate of mortality was 880,589 which corresponds to 2.09 per 100 people. Tho rate of mortality is greater in males than in females. 64 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. that of the former being 106.05 per 100 of the latter, as shown below : — Mortality Mortality of Year. Males. Females. Total. per 100 Population. m les per 100 females. 1872... ... 208,092 179,312 405,404 1.22 I05..,6 1877... — 324,732 295,574 620,306 1.78 I09.86 1882... ... 346,112 322,230 668,342 1.S1 107.41 1887... ... 386,132 367,324 753,456 1-93 105.12 1892... ... 452,136 434,852 886,988 2.16 104.82 1893... ... 479,052 458,589 *937,644 2.27 104.46 1894... ... 432,820 407,947 *840,768 2.01 106.10 1895... ... 448,873 403,549 852,422 2.02 III. 23 1896... ... 469,485 443,336 *9I2,822 2.14 105.90 1897... ... 452,383 424,454 876,837 2.03 106.58 1898... ... 459,29s 435,204 *S94,502 2.04 105.54 1899... ... 474,043 453,002 *927,046 2.09 104.64 Note : — The figures marked with an asterisk (*) represent persons whose sex was unknown. Though on the whole the rate of mortality is greater in males than in females, this is not uniformly the case for males of all ages, as the mortality of females is found to be greater than that of males according to age. For instance the data obtain- Average ed for 1899 show that, though the rate of mortal- according ity is greater for males at the age of not less than ten to Ao'e. years, the relative proportion is reversed between 11 and 40 years, to be again restored to the former proportion between 41 and 70. Finally, over 70 the rate of mortality shows a marked decrease for males. Mortality ot Mortality of .^es- males per 100 Ages. males per 100 of females. of females. ito S ... 113.03 51 to 60 .. 132.22 I to 10 104.05 61 to 70 .. 119.58 11 to IS ... 86.34 71 to 80 .. 95-77 lb to 20 84.50 81 to 90 .. 71-49 21 to 30 ... 87.11 91 to 100 .. 51-76 31 to 40 ... 88.6.S above 10 1 .. 25.00 41 to 50 ^■^'im Normal Increase of Population. 65 XUI. NORMAL INCREASE OP POPULATION. General Data. — Though an approximate idea of the normal increase of population may be obtained by comparing the birth-rates with the death-rates, this can by no means be accurate, inasmuch as there happen omissions in the report of births or deaths, or omissions to register and subsequent corrections. In fact the rate of increase of the population as statistically recorded is much greater than the difference between the birth-rates and the rate of mortality. The rate of yearly increase from 1872 to 1899 and the rate of increase per 100 population are recorded in the following table. Year. Jan. 29, 1872 to Jan. I, 1S73 Jan. I, 1873 to Jan. I, 1874 Jan. I, 1874 to Jan. I, 1875 Jan. I, 1875 to Jan. i, 1876 Jan. I, 1876 to Jan. I, 1879 Jan. I, 1879 to Jan. i, 1880 Jan. I, 1880 to Jan. I, i88l Jan. I, l88l to Jan. i, 1882 Jan. I, 1882 to Jan. I, 1883 Jan. I, 1883 to Jan. i, 1884 Jan. I, 1884 to Jan. I, 1885 Jan. I, 1885 to Jan. I, 1886 Jan. I, 1886 to end of 1886 End of 1886 to end of 1887 End of 1887 to end of 1888 End of 1888 to end of 1889 End of 1889 to end of 1890 End of 1890 to end of 1891 End of 1891 to end of 1892 End of 1892 to end of 1893 End of 1893 to end of 1894 End of 1894 to end of 1895 End of 189s to end of 1896 End of 1896 to end of 1897 End of 1897 to end of 1898 End of 1898 to end of 1899 As may be seen from the foregoing table, the rate of increase is Increase Increase. per 100 Population. 189,850 0.57 325.003 0.98 37i>77i 1. 11 340,955 1. 00 1,430,180 4.16 160,475 0.45 429.934 1.20 341,124 0.94 3i7,iS4 0.86 434,462 1.17 417,222 I. II 282,230 0.75 355,960 0-93 562,514 1.46 537.543 1.38 464,786 1.17 381,441 0.9s 265,216 0.66 371,263 0.91 298,373 0.73 424,902 1.03 457,405 1.09 437,644 1.04 520,599 1.22 534,290 1.24 497,451 1.14 66 Ja^an in the Beginning of the 20th Century. extremely irregular, being in some years less than i, in others 1 and in still others 1 and a fraction. However in 1879, 1885, 1886, Average. 1891 and 1894 when the rate stood very low, various causes, such as the spread of epidemic diseases, the rise in the market price of commodities, etc. prevented the progress of the population. The average rate of increase during the preceding 28 years amounted to over 1.04 per 100 of the population. In the relative rate of increase between urban and rural popula- tion, that of the former is, as already explained, considerably higher than that of the latter. This increase is however due to an abnormal cause which is operative in all civilized countries, that is to say, the emigration of villagers to towns and cities. As to the normal increase, the rate is higher in rural districts, because there the birth-rate is higher and the rate of mortality lower than the same rates in the urban districts. During the ten years ending 1897 inclusive, the birth-rate in cities possessing an actual population of not less than 25,000 was 2.30 and the rate of mortality 2.18, per 100 of the popu- JRate in lation, the increase of population corresponding therefore Cities, to 0.12. For the whole country the birth- i-ate was 2.92 and the rate of mortality 2.07, the balance in favor of increase being 0.85. Thus the rate of increase in cities is less by 0.73 than that for the whole country, as shown below: — For cities of over 25,000 For the whole country. Population. ^ - Balance bet- Balance bet- Births per Deaths per ween births Births per Deaths per ween births Year. 100 Pop. 100 Pop. and deaths. 100 Pop. 100 Pop. and deaths, 1888 ... 2.96 1.90 1.06 2.40 1.70 0.33 1S89 ... 3.02 2.02 1. 00 2.38 2.15 , 0.23 1890 ... 2.83 2.04 0.79 2.49 2.37 O.I2 1891 ... ,2.67 2.10 0.57 2.13 a.2S CIS 1892 ... 2.94 2.16 0.78 2.32 2.37 0.05 1893 ... 2.85 2.27 0.58 2.23 2.19 0.04 1894 ... 2.89 2.01 0.88 2.29 ;.oo 0.29 1895 ■■■ 2.95 2.02 0.93 2.23 2.19 0.04 l8j6 ... 3.00 2.14 0.86 2.86 2.02 ■' 0.14 1897 ... 3.09 2.03 l.o5 2.41 2.14 0.27 Average 2.92 2.07 0.85 2.30 ' j.rt; ,-,_,j Emigration and Immigration. XIY. EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION. 67 Males. Females. Total. — — 13,655 — — 2,539 2,903 2,636 5,539 4,278 3,509 7,787 24,289 18,419 42,708 36,457 27,893 64,350 37,271 26,358 63,629 25,182 20,212 45,334 26,475 21,643 48,118 Emigkation at Home. — Apart from the emigration of country people to towns and cities, the emigration to Hokkaido from the rest of Japan proper deserves special notice, Hokkaido, tens of thousand of settlers proceeding thither every year since the work of colonizing that northern island was started soon after the advent of the rehabilitated Imperial regime. This migratory movement is shown in the following table : — Year. 1872 ... 1877 ... 1882 ... 1887 ... 1892 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1S99 ... 1900 ... According to the returns of the settlers for 1900, 25,927 ■were engaged in farming, 4,620 in fishery, 1,743 in manufacture, 3,38o in trade and the rest in miscellaneous occupations. Emigration Abroad. — The emigration to foreign coun- tries is comparatively insignificant, for those that go abroad gen- erally stay there for a limited period, on official duty, for the purpose of proceeding their studic s, with the object of carrying on some business, or as laborers. This remark may also be applied to foreigners in Japan, so that in the present paragragh a few words may be said of the Japanese staying abroad and of the foreigners staying in our country. Japanese staying Abroad. — With increase of intercourse with foreign countries, the number of Japanese going abroad is steadily advancing, so that while in 1889 the number was only 18,688 it grew to .58,785 in the year 1897, to be still further in- <;reased to 123,971 in 1900. A review of the preceding 12 years *hows the following figures : — 68 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i Century. Year. 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1S97 Males. Females. .Total. 13,815 4,873 18,688 17,519 6,031 23,950 23,681 8,46s 32,146 29,615 9,388 39,003 31,147 10,05s 41,202 31,632 9,958 41,590 34,332 11,945 46,277 40,348 13,994 54,342 43,707 15,078 58,785 53,114 17,687 76,801 76,633 22,406 99,039 98,985 24,986 123,971 1899 1900 According to the returns for the last year in the above table, the majority of those temporary emigrants went to the United State- of America and its colonies especially Hawaii, also to Korea, Engg^ land and its colonies, Russia and its colonies, China, France, Peru and Germany. During the same year those temporary emigrants were employed thus : — Country. For pro- On official secuting Engaged duty. studies, in trade. Others. Total United States and colonies ... 52 554 2,851 86,689 90,146- England and colonies ... ... 133 40 512 7,530 8,2IS Russia and colonies IS 65 286 3,587 3,953 Holland 4 2 — — 6 France and colonies 44 36 18 799 897 Portugal and colonies — I — 9 10 Germany 33 162 S 14 214 Belgium ., 10 S 5 I 21 Italy 7 — — 6 «J Spain 2 — — — 2 Austria 8 13 10 5 36 Peru I — — 693 694 Brazil 7 — — 2 9 Mexico 6 3 4 32 45 Siam 7 3 29 39 78^ Korea ... 538 16 9,669 S,6o5 15,829 China 202 40 1,931 1.630 3,803. Total 1,063 940 15,320 106,642 1 23,97 1 Emigration and Immigration. 69 Foreigners in Japan. — The number of foreigners coming to Japan has been on the increase since the treaty was concluded with the United States of America in 1854 A. D. In 1873 the number stood at 4,190, increased to 4,536 in 1877, to 6,335 in 1882, 7,560 in 1887, and so on, as detailed below. Year. Year. 1889 9,062 1895 8,2<5 1890 ... 9,707 1896 9,238 IS9I . ... 9,550 1897 10,531 1892 ... 9,803 1898 11,589 •893 - 9,633 1899 11,684 1894 - 5,875 1900 12,664 In the number of foreigners in 1900 as classified according to nationality, the Chinese came at the top of the list, followed by the English, Americans, Germans and French, and so on, as shown in the following table : — Subjects of Males. Females. Total. United States of America ... - 833 629 1,462 Hawaii (U. S. A.) 2 — z England ••. ... 1,260 784 2,044 British Dominion in Canada 15 29 44 Russia 88 89 177 Holland 42 23 65 France ■•• 313 145 458 Portugal 112 61 173 Germany •■■ 395 145 540 Belgium 15 7 22 Italy 31 12 43 Spain 30 7 37 Austria-Hungary 51 27 78 Denmark 42 18 60 Switzerland ... 56 32 83 Sweden and Norway ... 36 14 50 Greece 10 2 12 Turkey 14 6 20 Peru I — I Chili 2 — 2 Romania 5 3 8 Argentine Confederation — 2 2 Philippines (U. S. A.) I — I 70 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Subjects of India (England) Korea China Unknown Total 8,983 3,553 12,536 The total of this table does not coincide with the other on^ because 128 persons forming the diplomatic and consular staff wera excluded from the table. Males. Females. Total. 7 — 7 184 9 193 5,394 1,496 6,896 44 13 57 Righla of Sovereignty. 71 CHAPTER m— Administrative System. Bights of Sovereignty— Legislatare and Legislative Organs- Execntive and Executive Organs— Justice and Judicial Organs (with paragraphs on the Codes.) I. RIGHTS OP SOVEREIGNTY. Administeative System in Olden Days. — Our Empire of Japan is ruled over by an Imperial House of unbroken lineage from the remotest antiquity, for though during the period of more than 2,000 years that has elapsed since the founding of the Empire, the nation has undergone various changes, this glorious dynasty has always remained unchanged. The Militaey Ascendency. — ^The administrative system was very simple in ancient times. There was no distinct line of demar- cation drawn between military and civil affairs, and the whole nation was considered as one big army with the Emperor over it. It was during the " Middle Ages " and after the adoption of the Chinese system of administration, or more especially that of the then dynasty of Tung, that for the first time military and civil affairs were distinctly separated. Soon, however, the warrior classes began little by little to atxjuire the supreme authority, and to thrust the Court into the background. For more than seven cen- turies the real sovereignty of the country was vested in one or other of the Regencies that appeared in succession, till, in 1867, the Regency of Tokugawa was made to surrender the power to its rightful and original possessor, and thus the Imperial regime was firmly re-established. One thing that nuist be strictly kept in mind in this connexion is the fact that, in theory at least, the Emperors remained even during those periods of military ascendency, the supreme beads of ths country and were always regarded as sacred and inviolable. 72 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The Imperial Prerogative. — The restoration of the Im- perial Government was at once followed by many striking changes in the administrative system of the country, as may be inferred from the fact that Japan promulgated her constitution 22 years after and soon began to blossom forth as a constitutional monarchy. This great change naturally led to the sovereign rights of the Em- peror in the three domains of legislative, juridical and executive affairs, being strictly defined in the manner given below. The Emperor's prerogative now consists in the 1. Right of convoking, opening, closing or proroguing the Imperial Diet, and of dissolving the House of Bepresenta- tives. 2, Eight of issuing, in case some urgent necessity demands, the exercise of thf.t right when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, Imperial Ordinances which take the place of regu- larly enacted laws. S. Eight of issuing or of causing to be issued the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws or for the maintenance of public peace and order, and for the pro- motion of the welfare of the subjects. 4. Eight of determinning, excepting those cases especially provided for in the Constitution or in other laws, the organization of the different branches of the administration, the salaries of all civil and military oflScers, and of ap- pointing and dismissing the same. 5. Eight of taking the supreme command of, and determining the organization and peace standing of^ the Army and the Navy. 6. Eight of declaring war, making peace and concluding treaties. 7. Eight of proclaiming a state of siege. 8. Eight of conferring titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor. 9. Eight of declaring an amnesty, as well as the right of pardon, commutation of punishments, and rehabilitation. Legislature and Legislative Organs. 73 II. LEGISLATURE AND LEGISLATIVE ORGANS. Codification in Eaely Days. — As provided in Art. VII. of the Imperial Constitution, the right of legislation belongs to the Emperor who exercises that right with the approbation of the Imperial Diet. To briefly review the history of our legislature, the first thing that demands attention is the compilation of a code of laws by Prince Shotoku during the reign of the Empress Shomu (724-'48 A. D.) and the compilation of the celebrated Taiho code daring the reign of the Emperor Mommu (697-718). Though considered very important in those days, these legislative measures were necessarily very simple, at least when they are viewed from the standpoint of to-day, so that their value is mainly historical. During the periods of military ascendency and the prevalence of feudalism, the legislature was in an almost chaotic condition and it was not until after the Restoration that this fundamental organ of the administration was brought to a state of some perfection. The First Legislative Work After the Eestora- TION. — The first noteworthy legislative work accomplished by the reinstated Imperial Government was the issue, soon after its installation, of an Imperial Rescript by which the first corner-stone of the present Constitutional regime may be said to have been laid. That Rescript proclaimed, among other things, that " conferences shall be convoked all over the country and the afitiirs of State shall be determined by public discussion." The first legislative organ established in pursuance of that policy was the dual Eifht House body consisting of the " Right House " and the and Left House. "Left House" created in 1871. The "Right House " was composed of the Heads of Executive Offices of State and the other oflicials specially nominated by the Government. The " Left House " had to take charge principally of legislative work at the instance of either the Prime Minister or on its own initiative, while the " Right House " had to advise the Prime Minister as to the fitness or otherwise of the resolutioni passed by the other House. 74 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century: The two Houses were abolished in 1874, to be superseded by the Senate (Genro-in) and the Local Governor's Council. The former was composed of Peers and of men who had The Senate, rendered distinguished service to the country or who ■were eminent on account of their erudition, and was to take charge of legislative matters either emanating from the Cabinet or introduced at the instance of the Senate itself. The Senate was also entitled to receive petitions about legislation, so that it may be regarded as a precursor of the present House of Peers. The Local Governor's Council was something like a national assembly, composed as it was of officially nominated members ; for as announced in the Emperor's Rescript addressed Ths Local Goyer- to the Council on the occasion of its first sitting uor's Council. its object was " to attend to the affairs of Statg as the representative of the people's interests. " In the same Rescript the Emperor declared that he had called together the said Council " in pursuance of the solemn promise.^ given by Us on the occasion of Our accession to the Throne, to summon delegates of Our subjects, to assist Us in the conduct of affairs of State, to make with those delegates arrangements cal- culated to cement the amicable understanding that prevails between rulers and ruled, and to enable both to co-operate for the com. men good of the country." The Governors who attended the Council " were under no danger of incurring the displeasure of the Government for any opinion enunciated by them at the meeting." Organs op Popular Representation. — The Council thus organized was abolished in 1880, but as meanwhile the system of local and jnunicipal assemblies had been established, the organs for voicing popular opinion were now more satisfac- torily arranged. A change in a similar direction was made in the following year when the institution of a national represent- ative assembly in the year 1890 was proclaimed. On the 11th February of 1889 the Imperial Constitution, the Imperial House Law, the Law of the House, the Law of Election of the House of Representatives etc., were promulgated, and in October of the fol- lowing year the first memorable session of the Imperial Diet was Legislature and Legislative Organs. 75 convoked. In this manner did Japan obtain from her Emperor the great boon of a Constitution. Legislative Peoceduee. — Projects of laws originate either in the Cabinet or in the Diet, and become law when they obtain the approval of the Emperor and the consent of the Diet. A project coming from t,he Government is introduced to the Diet after it has been submitted to and discussed by the Cabinet and the Legislative Bureau, and finally receives the sanction of the Emperor. Any project relating to a law connected with the Im- perial Constitution must first pass through the hands of the Privy Council. Legislative Oegans. — Strictly speaking, the legislature may be said to be composed by the two Houses of the Diet, though in a larger sense the Cabinet, the Legislative Bureau, and some- times the Privy Council may be regarded as forming part of the legislative machinery. House op Peees. — This House consists of Princes of the Blood, Peers, men of distinguished services or of remarkable erudition, and representatives of the highest-tax paying section of the people. It enjoys practically identical rights in the legislature with the other House. House of Representatives. — This House consists of members elected by the people ; and all male subject of over thirty years old are now eligible for election, there being at present no property or other qualification in consequence of the amendment of the Law of Election. Owing to the same amendment the electorates are no longer divided into small sections as they were before, and at pre- sent each prefecture is divided into urban electorates which are independent and rural electorates which return between them a fixed number oi members determined according to the number of inhabi- tants contained in the rural districts. Rights and Peivileges of the Diet. — It must not be sup- posed that the Diet enjoys part of the rights of sovereignty, for, as we have already pointed' out, these belong exclusively to the Em- peror. The rights and privileges enjoyed by the Diet consists of the right of deliberating on legislative measures and of approving of such measures if they are considered to merit such approbation. 76 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Those rights and privileges may be briefly summed up as follows :-— (1) the right of receiving petitions from the people, (2) the rights of submitting memorials to the Throne and of representations to the Government, (3) the right of demanding explanations from the Oovernment about administrative affairs, (4)- the right of supervising the finance. Legislative Forms. — There are six legislative forms, name- ly. Laws, Imperial Ordinances, Ordinances of the Cabinet and of the departments of State, and Kules and Instructions. All these measures are published in the Official Gazette, and the date of the coming in force of a law is, unless otherwise specially determined, after the lapse of full twenty days from its promulgation, while all others are to come in force seven days after the issue of the number of the Official Gazette containing them. A law may supersede an Ordinance, but under no case can an Ordinance supersede a law. III. EXECUTIVE AND EXECUTIVE ORGANS. Genekal Kemaeks. — As already mentioned above, the organization of the executive was extremely simple in ancient times, and that the encroachment of the military classes reduced the Court during a long period of over seven centuries to a mere figureihead. The feudal system attained its greatest perfection under the Tokugawa Regency which extended over about three centuries of prosperity. The Administeative Policy of the Tokugawa Regency. — The Regency adopted a policy of decentralization and, unless required by special occasion, it left the feudal princes to rule their own dominions with perfect freedom. The administrative system of the Regency, a system copied by the feudal princes, was extremely simple. The principal officials who conducted it were the Tairo (Premier), Roju (Ministers) and Bugyo (Magistrates). The system followed by the Regency was not of much value theoretically but, in the amount of the practical benefit it accomplished, it wis a good system, resembling in this the British constitution. It was after the disappearance of the Regency and the ushering Executive and Executive Organs. 77 in of the present Meiji Government that Japan began for the first time to possess a regular and efficient system of administration organs. • THE EXISTING ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM.— In the ex- isting administrative system there is the Privy Council as the sup- reme advisory organ to the Emperer, while on the other hand there is the Cabinet as the central administrative headquarters, having under it nine Departments of State, that is, to say, the Departments of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Finance, War, the Navy, Justice, Education, Agriculture and Commerce, and Communications. A Minister of State presides over each DeiDartment, and the Govern- ment establishes Special Offices to deal with affairs relating to the auditing of the State finances, administrative matters, litigation and police. Each Department has under it a greater or less number of subordinate offices, and in this connection the Home Office stands out most conspicuously as it controls all the local offices and the- various civic corporations. The main points in the three administrative organs, central, local and civic corporations will be described below. Central Executive Organs. — The central administrative organ is divided into executive bodies and advisory bodies. The former consist of the Cabinet, the Departments of State, and special offices, while the Privy Council, Codes Investigation Commission and similar commissions make up the latter. First about the higher executive bodies with the Cabinet at their head. The Cabinet is composed of the Ministers of State presided over by the Premier who, in obedience to the Emperor, deals with all matters relating to administration. The principal matters to be determined by the Cabinet are as follows : — a. Drawing up of projects of laws and compilation of Budgets and Settled Accounts. b. Matters i-elating to treaties with foreign countries and to international questions. c. Imperial Ordinances relating to official organization or the operation of lavvs. 78 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. d. Disputes betweeen the Departments of State as to jurisdiction. e. Petitions of people sent in either by the Emperor or by the Diet. /. Disbursement not covered by the Budget. g. Appointments and other movements of officials of chokunin rank and of local Governors. Matters of importance coming under the direct supervision of the Ministers of State may also be laid before a Cabinet Council. Attached to the Cabinet is the Legislative Bureau which deals ■with matters relating to the drafting of projects of law or of Ordin- ances or their amendment or revocation, whether such drafting or amendment is done at the instance of the Cabinet, or of a Depart- ment of State or at its own initiation. It is also entitled to express its own opinion about those matters. The Minister who has charge of a Department of State is empowered to issue Departmental Ordinances and to issue orders to Departments ^^^ chiefs of the Metropolition Police, the Hokkaido of State. Administration Office and provincial Offices in connec- tion with matters coming under his direct control. There are two kinds of special Offices, one independent of the Departments of State while the other is subordinate to them. The BoarJ of Audit and the Administrative Litiga- fipecial Administra- tion Court belong to the first class. On the tive Offices. other hand there are quite a number of Special Offices subordinate to one or another of the Departments, these being as follows, to mention only those that are important : — Those that are subordinate to the Home Office : — Metro- politan Police Office, Ise Great Shrine and Great Shrine C-'n- struction Offices, Hokkaido Administration Office, Provincial Offices, Formosan Governor General's Office, Sanitary Laboratorj, Blood-serum Laboratory, Vaccine Laboratory, Public Works Inspection Offices, Epidemic Diseases Laboratory. Those that are subordinate to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce are as follows : — Forest Inspection Offices, Mining Inspection Offices, Agricul- tural Experimental Farms, Industrial Laboratory, Geological Executive and Executive Organs. 79 Surveying Office, Steel Foundry, Yokohama Silk-Conditioning House, Mineral Fertilizer Surveying Office, Horse Breeding Pastures and Studs, Cattle Breeding Pastiires, Sericultural Training Schools, Fishery Training Schoola. Those that are subordinate to the Department of Finance are : — ^Inland Revenue Offices, State Monopoly Offices, Customs House. There are, besides. Post and Telegraph Offices and Telephone Offices under the Department of Cmmunications ; Prisons and Penitentiaries under the Department of Justice ; legations and consulates under the Foreign Office, various kinds of educational institutions under the Department of Education, military or naval schools under War Office or the Admiralty. Advisory Organs of the Higher Executive Boimes. — The Privy Council is the supreme advisory body to the Emperor and attends to (a) matters relating to the Imperial House Law ; (J) matters relating to projects Privy Council, of laws and Ordinances with reference to clauses in and laws and Ordinances per- taining to the Constitution ; (c) matters relating to the declaration of a state of siege, to the issue of urgency Ordinances to take the place of laws when the Diet is not sitting, and to punitive provisions of the Constitution ; (d) matters relating to treaties and international agree- ments, matters relating to the organization and rules of the Privy Council ; (e) other matters on which it is ordered by the Emperor to deliberate. Subject to the control of the Prime Minister, the The Codes Investiga- Commission draws up drafts relating tion Commission. to the Codes and Laws and Ordin- ances appertaining thereto, and also investigates matters relating to the putting in force of treaties. Subject to the control of the Home Minister, this Central Sanitary Association submits its opinions on points Association. referred to it by the Minister in regard to public hygiene and epidemics among domestic animals. Subject to the control of the Home Minister, the 80 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2()th Century. Public Works Commission submits its opinions on points Commission. referred to it by him in regard to various .public works. Subject to the control of the Educational Minister, the Hieher Educational Commission submits its opinions on Commission. points referred to it by him in regard to higher education. Subject to the Minister of Communications, the Council submits its opinions on points referred Railroad Council. ^^ .^ ^^ j^.^ ^^ ^.^^^^^ ^.^ railroads- Local Administeative Organs. — The local administration system adopted by the Tokugawa Eegency was based on the de- centralization principal, and the local daimyos were left to do' what they liked in the governing of their own dominions. With the abolition of the feudal system and the re-establishment of the Imperial Government, the administration policy was one of centra- lization, with the object of bringing afiairs in the provinces to a state of uniformity. This policy was attended by some evil, as it did away with some beneficial local customs, but of course this evil was outweighed by the immense improvement effected in the local administration. Meanwhile the Government saw that the time had arrived for starting the contrary programme of decentralization of authority, and of allowing people to take part in administrative affairs. - Thus in 1880 the Provincial Assembly Regulations were enacted, followed in 1884 by the Civic Corporation Regulations. In 1888 the self-govern- ment system was in thorough working order, as it exists to-day. The local administration system is divided into prefectural ad- ministration and sub-prefectural ((rtm) administration. It combines two functions, that of being, on one liand, a part Frefectnral of the great administrative organ of State, and, on Administration, the other, of acting as a self-governing mechanism. As of the former all matters are in the charge of the Governor who has to carry out, under the supervision of the various Ministers of State, Laws and Ordinances, also to attend to all the administrative affairs in his prefecture, and to keep peace and order therein. He is therefore authorized to summon Justice and its Organs, with Paragraphs on the Code. 81 military help from the nearest headquarters whenever- an emergency requires it. In regard to the self-government arrangement, it may be stated that every prefecture has a prefectural assembly composed of mem- bers who represent the people in the urban and rural districts. It discusses and deliberates on financial and other important matters of the locality. The assembly is convoked by the Governor at fixed periods, and the Local Council, which is a permanent institution, takes part on behalf of the asssmbly in administrative affairs, and attends to all affairs which the assembly cannot see to when it is not in session. It was in 1878 that the sub-prefectural administrative arrange- ments were first elaborated in definite form. At presnt this administration does not differ in its procedure and Sub-prefeotural principles from the prefectural administration of Administration, which it forms a part, and, just like the other, its^ system is twofold, that is it combines ordinary administrative business and self-government business. The Self-Government System as developed in 1888 is divided' into three grades, Prefectural, Sub-Prefectural and Civic Corporations (cities, towns and villages). Of these three divisions Self-Government the last one relating to municipal and rural System. communities represent the self-government mecha- nism in its most striking form, for in the other two higher divisions, owing to the greater part they have to play in administrative affairs their self-government function does not lie so distinctively on the surface as in the other. Both legislatively and also practically the municipal and rural communities are bona fide self-governing bodies for they are entitled by law to enjoy the rights of juridical persons, also to incur obligations as such, and to arrange all public matters relating to their own communities. lY. JUSTICE AND ITS ORGANS, WITH PARAGRAPHS ON THE CODES. General Kemakks. — ^The only authentic record worth notmg in the history of justice in this country is the existence in the " Middle 82 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Ages" of a special office for dealing with criminal affairs, while during the period of military ascendency those matters were taken charge of by Censors. Coming down to the Tokugawa Kegency, magistrates were made to deal with civil and criminal affairs. They had not, however, any laws to follow, but were obliged to judge each case according to the lights of their own understanding and in con- formity with the broad principle of chastising wrong and of uphold- ing right. The first regular court of justice established by the Meiji Government was the Tokyo Court of Justice established in Tokyo in 1871. Within the following four years one Supreme Court and four Courts of Appeal, besides a number of lower tribunals were estab- lished. Several improvements were subsequently carried out, till at last by tlie Law of Organization of Courts, the present system was ■developed. Abolition of the Extra-teeeitoeial System.— The most noteworthy chapter in the history of our judicial system is the doing away in 1899 with the extra-territorial rights which the AVestern Treaty Powers retained in virtue of the treaties concluded before the Restoration, and the bringing of foreign residents in Japan under the Japanese laws. Organization. — Our judicial system is divided into four grades, that is Supreme Court, Appeal Courts, Local Courts, and District Courts. The last is the lowest tribunal and is conducted by a single Judge, while in the Local Courts three collegiate Judges sit on a case, in the Appeal Courts five collegiate Judges, and in the Supreme Court seven collegiate Judges. Public Procurators are attached to each Court, on commission from the Minister of Justice. It is needless to state that ordinary Judges represent the right of sovereignty of the Emperor and that their function is held sacred and inviolable. Hence their tenure of office is securely guaranteed by the Constitution. Judges are also amenable to special disciplinary laws. Number of Courts. — Both the Judges and Public Procurators secure their appointments by passing the regular examination of Judges and Public Procurators. The following table shows the number of courts and the staffs as ethy stood at the end of 1901. Justice and its Organs, with Parhgraphs on the Codes. 83 No. of No. of pro- Population per Area of district No. Judge.s. curators. one Court. per one Court. Supreme Court i 25 7 45.i93>583 24,998.80 Appeal Court 7 121 29 6,456,227 3,571.26 Local Court .., ... 49 399 140 922,319 510.18 District Court 310 557 159 I4S)7?6 80.64 Barristers. — It may be added that the barristers are regulated by the Barrister's Law, and that various strict measures are in force with regard to their qualifications, rights and privileges, obligations, etc. They are amenable to the same disciplinary law as that en- forced in the ease of Judges. Work of Codification. — Japan had no written code of laws properly speaking till about CO years ago. The first attempt made in this direction was the. compilation of a criminal code in the year 1870 to be amended three years after. The code was far from being perfect, having been mainly based on our ancient customs modified more or less by Chinese laws. In 1882 year the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Pro- cedure were enforced. The latter was subjected to a thorough a iiendment in 1889, and similarly the former is about to be ameiK e I with the consent of the Diet. The principal statute laws thus far enforced are as follows : — Imperial Constitution (issued in 1889) Law for the Application of Laws (in 1898) Law of Nationality (in 1899) Criminal Code Criminal Procedure Civil Code Civil Procedure Commercial Code .. Insurance Law (in 1898) (in 1890) (in 1896-1898) (in 1890) (in 1890-1898) (in 1900) Law relating to the Registration of Real Estate (in 1899) Law relating to the Organization of Courts of Law ... . .. (in 1890) Law regarding Ships (in 1S99) Law regarding Crews of Ships ( do. ) Si Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Cenftmj. CHAPTER rV.— Land as an Institution. History— Classification— Burdens— Ownership. History.— The history of the land in this country especially as regards the ownership of it, may be briefly divided into three parts. (1) The period of the ancient Imperial regime, (2) the period of military ascendency and feudalism, and (3) the modern period of the reinstated Imperial regime. During the first stage all the land belonged theoretically to the Court, but, coming to the period of feudalism and military ascendency, ■we find that this power was practically held by the feudal barons. It was by a very precarious tenure that people were allowed to own their own land, but after the Restoration that right of the owner- ship of land by private individuals was firmly established by law. In 1867 the Imperial Government issued a proclamation to the effect that the land in the villages should belong to the villagers; in 1874 the land was subdivided into State land and the land belonging to private individuals ; and, finally, in the following year it was proclaimed that the title deeds should bear the names of the owners. Classification ov Lands. — State land and private land are classified, the former into four and the latter into two categories. The four categories of State land are as follows : — 1. Land belonging to the Imperial Court, and land belonging to Shinto shrines. 2. Land belonging to Princes of the Blood and land belong- ing to the central and local Government offices. 3. Mountains, hills, woods and forests, plains, rivers, seas, lakes, ponds, swamps, drainage ways, ditches, embankraentSr roads, cultivated fields, etc. not belonging to private in- dividuals ; also land occupied by railroad tracks, telegraph and telephone posts, premises of lighthouses, places con- History. 85 taining historic remains, public parks, graveyards, and all other such land not belonging to private individuals. 4. Land occupied by temples, schools, hospitals, etc. not be- longing to private individuals. The two kinds of private lands are as follows : — • 1. Arable land, places of residence, woods and forests covered by title deeds ; lands occupied by schools, hospitals, store- houses, pastures, shrines, temples, etc. owned by private individuals or by several persons or by one or several village communities. 2. Land occupied by shrines, graveyards, sewer-ways, reser- voirs, embankments, wells, ditches, highways, etc. not be- longing to the State. There are five kinds of land registers, namely national registers, prefectural registers, provincial registers, district registers and town and village registers. Special rules exist for regulating the deter- mination of the various kind of land. BuEDENS ON Land. — State land is of course exempted from taxation, and title-deeds are only issued to land coming under the 2nd category. For private lands the title-deeds are given for lands of both kinds, but those under the 1st category alone are subjected to taxation. Taxable lands are divided into two classes as follows : — 1. Arable lands, dwelling lands, salt-fields, mines and mineral springs. 2. Lakes, ponds, woods, pastures, plains and miscellaneous lands. Lands newly reclaimed are exempted from taxation during a certain period of years. The Land Tax which stood at 2.5 per cent, of the assessed value until a few years ago was raised for a period of five years beginning from 1895 to 3.3 per cent, in order to meet the increased Government expenditure occasioned by the so-called post-bellum measures. The limits of five years having expired it was rescinded in 1902. The assessed value of course differs according to local circumstances, relative fertility, and other accidental causes. It is the principle of the Land Tax not to make any alteration according to the relative success of crops. 86 Japan in the Beginning oj tlie 2Qth Century. The Land Tax carries with it two kinds of rate, Local Eate and Municipal or Town or Village Rate. Unless with the approval of the Minister of Home Affairs the former cannot ex- ceed 1/3 and the latter 1/7 of the main tax. The two rates are collected from the owners of the lands, except in some special cases. Right op Ownership op Land. — The owner of a piece of land is of course entitled to do whatever he likes with his land, provided his act is not illegal and does not infringe on the rights of others. The owner of a piece of land has special privileges and obligations with regard to neighboring pieces of land, these being the right of way and the right of using other's land when one has to build or repair his house or fence, etc. On the other hand a space of 1} sliaku from the common boundary- line must be left in building a house on one's land, while a window or veranda placed within the distance of less than 3 shaku from the common boundary and from which the neighbor's premises can be seen, must be provided with a shutter. Then there are provisions for getting rid of superfluous water on one's land, but of course when such water happens to injure property of any kind in adjacent land situated on a lower level, the owner of the land from which the water came must pay for the damage done. Besides the right of owership, there are also the right of superficies, of perpetual lease and of emphyteusis attached to land, but these being dealt with minutely in the Civil Code need not be explained here. It may, however, be stated that land is liable to be requisi- tioned when the interests of the public render such a step necessary. For particulars on this head, the Law for the Requisition of Land should, however, be referred to. A special arrangement exists for the convenience of the trial extraction of minerals, an arrangement which is far more con- venient than the relating to the ordinary process of requisition, for in this case of trial extraction the whole business is left under the case of the Chief of the Loc^l Mining Inspection 0£Sce in the juris- diction of which the case has occured. History. 87 Land may constitute the hereditary estate of a Peer, and no land of this kind can be sold, transferred, mortgaged or hypothecated. §8 Japan in tlie Beginning of tJie 20lh Century. PART 11. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION I. AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER I— Introductory. Position of Agriculture in National Polity — Features of Japanese Agriculture— Free-holders and Tenant-farmers. Position of Agriculture in National Polity. — The history of agriculture in Japan is coeval with the history of the country itself, for the sovereigns that have successively ascended the Throne since the accession of the first Emperor devoted all their attention to the prosperity and progress of this most important industry of the realm; so that agriculture, though subjected more or less to viscissitudes during that long purioJ, still remains the bulwark of our national prosperity and power. In short, Japan is still essen- tially an agricultural country. The development of agriculture has been markedly accelerated since the introduction of the Western sciences and arts after the throwing open of the country to foreign commerce and intercourse fifty years ago. It need not be pointed out that Japan's traditional policy of fostering agriculture will be continued in the future. Feature of Japanese Ageicultdre. — In describing the condition of agriculture in this country there are two points that stand out prominent. They are (1) agriculture, as it is carried on here, is essentially tillage, and has little to do with stock-farming; Position of Agriculture in National Polity. 89 (2) and, as compared with agriculture in Europe and America, the Ecope of our farming operations is extremely small. The fact is that our forefathers who mainly sul^sisted on cereals were further led by religious prejudices to eschew animal food. Then the absence of wide plains, comparatively speaking, naturally obliged our farmers, then as now, to conduct their business on a small scale. Foreigners not well acquainted with the state of affairs in Japan may be puzzled on being told that the average extent of land tilled by one farming family does not exceed one hectare. They may even wonder how our farmers can subsist on such a small patch of cultivated land ; but this surprise, though quite natural for foreigners, will practically disappear when they remember that the svstem of tillage carried on by our farmers is extremely thorough and careful, and that, as two even three crops are raised on the same field in one year, even a farm measuring only one hectare is really equivalent in productive capacity to a farm of two or three hectares in most other countries. Besides, our farmers are not re- quired to attend to field work all the year round and when the field work makes no great demand upon their time, they can undertake other job work, while the women and children in their families also make themselves useful by raising silkworms, reeling silk or doing other such suitable work. As the natural result of the peculiar geographical formation of Japan, that is, of its extending so far north and south and includ- ing therefore so many degrees of latitude, our system of agriculture presents diverse and distinct features. Moreover, this tendency to diversity was further enhanced during the pre-Restoration days by the division of the country into a large number of practically independent communities. The consequence is that, while in some districts sericulture is predominant, in others tea demands the most attention, while still others have sugar or other products as the staple farm produce. However, owing to the reasons mentioned above, stock-farming is as yet comparatively backward, though the rearing of live stock for tillage or draught work is carried on to no small extend in some districts. Free-holders and Tena-nt-Farmers.— Accurate data about the land tilled by independent farmers and tenant farmers are 90 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. not procurable, and the latest returns available are those for 1888. The ratio between the two kinds of farmers stood as follows in 35 prefectures. Land tilled by Land tilled by Independent farmers. Tenat farmers. Puddy fields 6o per cent. 68 per cent. Upland fields 40 „ 32 „ According to the same returns there were in 38 prefectures about 1,470,000 independent farmers and about 2,000,000 farmers who were partly independent and partly lessess of land belonging to others, while the bona fide tenant farmers numbered about 950,000. In other words, the farmers who were partly or wholly tenant farmei-s aggregated about 3 millions, and therefore about double the number of free-holders. As matters have become less favorable since that time for small free-holders, the ratio of tenant farmers and tenant farms must have grown more. Indeed the condition of tenant farming is far from being satisfactory, for, according to the investigations made in 1887, out of ten parts of the products of puddy fields throughout the country the landowners obtaines about six and the tenant-farmers only four, while in regard to the upland fields the relative ratio was four and a half parts and five and a lialf respectively. The steady increase of population at a rate far beyond that of tillage land constitutes an important factor in keep- ing the rents high, for tenant farmers are obliged from sheer neces- sity to compete for leases, and in raising of course the rents as the natural result of their competition. In extreme cases the share of harvest that falls to the lot of tenant farmers is barely sufficient to pay the cost of the manure applied to the fields. Such being in general the condition of our tenant-farmers, in most cases they are obliged to depend in tillage on the labor of their own families, while the limited funds they have at their disposal for getting fertilizers or farm implements further bumpers them in their work. Under these circumstances, they find it hard to keep up with the progress of the times, and this hard lot is also shared by small free-holders. But the evil does not end here, for our farming classes which constitute 60 per cent, of the whole population, are steadily increasing in number, so that those who can afford to do so are Posiiion of AgrioitUure in Nalional Polity. 91 migrating to cities and towns. In view of this circumstance botli the Government and tiie general public are doing their best to improve the mode of tillage, to encourage the use of laboi-saving machines and devices, and also to provide various conveniences to encourage their settlement in unexploited places. It may safely be expected that the condition of our farmers will become much better in the near future than it is now. 92 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER II.— Factors of Tiflage. Climate — Land — Capital — Labor. L CLIMATE. General Remarks. — Owing, as has been already described, to the peculiar geographical formation of the land, the climate of Japan is naturally very much diversified. A somewhat detailed account about the climate being given in the preceding part, it is enougli to explain here the special influence which the climate exerts on the agriculture of the country. Average Yearly Temperature. — The average yearly tempera- ture in Okinawa and Formosa is above 20° C, while in Hokkaido where the other extreme is to be found, the average is not more than 5°, according to places. The difference betv.-een the maximum and minimum temperatures is greater in the north than in the south, for while in summer the temperature stands comparatively high in the north, in winter, owing to the influence of the severe climate on the continent, the thermometer falls in many places below zero. The prevailing wind in summer is a moist southerly wind, but in winter the cold northerly wind coming from the continent reigns supreme. The season during which one of these two kinds of wind is exchanged for the other presents a peculiar meteorological aspect. Early in summer the moist southerly wind that begins to prevail brings about the rainy season, while in autumn when the northerly wind begins to take the place of the southerly, the low atmospheric pressures that frequently make their appearance in the south are liable to invade the country and to cause storms. The northerly wind coming from the continent in winter deposits its moisture borne from the Sea of Japan on the districts bordering that sea. Humidity. — As a rule the moisture is greater in the southern provinces and less in the northern, the rate in the latter being about one half that in the former. It is natural, therefore, that rain VHmaie, 93 should be copious in summer in tlie southern districts and that snow should fall to a considerable extent in winter in the northern pro- vinces. The average amount of rain and snow during 1901 or la succeeding year is shown below : — ni.m. m.m. Taihoku 2,228 Niigata 1,765 Kagoshima 2,061 Fukushima ^!^33 Oita 1,614 Aomori 1,282 Nagasaki 1,951 Sapporo 979 Numazu 1,836 Crops as Influexced by Climate. — The crops raised in Japan are naturally influenced by its climate, and it is principally on account of the copious rain-fall and the high temperature in summer tliat rice is so universally grown throughout the country. The only drawback is the coming of storms between summer and autumn. Other tropical and sub-tropical plants besides rice are well suited to QUr country owing to the great heat in summer ; but, on the other hand, owing to the rather sudden fall of temperature in winter, even plants growing in the temperate zone can not easily ctand the rigor of climate in that season. In winter, fi'ost comes on almost everywhere throughout the country, while snowfalls are heavy and frequent in the north-eastern districts. It is in these disti'icts, that barely and wheat and rape can be grown with success. However, the weather is apt to become humid at the ripening season of barely and wheat, thereby impair- ing to no small extent the quality of those grains. The buds of the mulberry and tea plants, too, are frequently damaged by the frost that comes in early spring. The cultivators of those important plants are therefore devising various measures to prevent this injury. In warmer places the better decomposition of manures and the vigorous growth of plants make it possible to raise in a year two or even three crops on the same field, but the farmers in cooler districts must be contended with only one. The two most convenient crops for puddy fields are rice in summer and barley or c/enge (Astragalus siniens. L.) in winter. When only one crop can be raised, the choise falls on rice. The choice of crops bears of course an important relation to the economy of farmers, for while their time is occupied rll the year 94 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 'IQth Century. round when the tillage can be carried on throughout the year, they can have more or less time at their disposal when farming operations are suspended in winter. As a general rule our farmers are least busy in winter, and this leisure they employ in repairing their tools and implements or making other arrangement against the coming season. Stock-farming also bears an ireiportant relation to climate, but, as mentioned above, this branch of farming is decidedly secondary, both from traditional custom and from the lack of space available for it. It is, however, gradually coming to the front in the northern districts. II. LAND. General Remarks. — Classified according to the nature of mother-rocks from which it is derived, the soil of Japan is divisible into several kinds ; but according to geological formations onl}' two kinds of soil exist in Japan, generally speaking ; these soils being igneous and sedimentary. Soils derived from igneous works occupy about one-third of the whole area of the country, and as these generally exist on hilly places only a small portion of them can be brought under cultivation. The soil of these cultivable areas is generally loamy and fertile. Alluvial Soil. — Soils of sedimentary formation are more widely distributed than the others, generally occupying plains and theref)re easily accessible for purpose of cultivation. Of the various kinds of soils of sedimentary formations, those belonging to the Tertiary, Diluvium or Alluvium system occupy a very wide area and generally form the most valuable arable land in the country, while the remainder belongs to Paleozoic or Mesozoic formations and is limited in extent. The soils of Tertiary or Diluvium formations,- existing in the northeastern parts of the Main Island in larger proportion than in others, are generally clayey, containing, as we proceed towards the north, a larger quantity of organic matter. They are moderately fertile. The soils of Hokkaido, also belonging to these two for- mations, are richer in organic matter which has accumulated for Land. 95 many centuries. They are therefore far more fertile than same kind of soils found in the Main Island. The soils belonging to Alluvium formation are widely distribut- ed throughout the country, and as they occupy level places easily admitting irrigation, they are well adopted for the cultivation of rice. The presence of great number of streams, short in length and rapid in current, explains the wide distribution of alluvium soils in Japan, and why it has a tendency to be sandy. However, owing to the comparative abundance of rain fall, the soil is fairly productive. Natural Classification op Land. — The land in Japan pro- per (exclusive of Formosa) occupies an area of 24,794.36 sq. ri which corresponds to 38,555,229 did. This laud can be classiiied jsj follows as to ownership and kind : — iST KIND. (Private Land). Area c/w. Land owned by private individuals 14,272,339 (a.) TAXABLE LAND. Puddy or upland fields 5,045,278 Dwelling land 3^4)635 Salt fields 7.09° Forests 6,997,571 Plains and pastures l,o7S>246 Mineral springs, ponds, swamps and mi;;celIancous land. 20,967 Total 13,530,788 (b.) LAND EXEMPTED FROM TAXATION FOR SOME YEARS. Newly opened land 'O.SS^ ■Wasteland 232,730 Puddy fields 7i,72i Upland fields 133.164 Dwelling land 3.23» Salt fields 8-90o Plains and pastures 11,865 Mineral springs, ponds, etc 3,236 Total 243,286 96 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20 2 \ Kyushu ... ". 3,676,347 1,102,666 883,008 219,656 Hokkaido... ... 7,848,783 2,383,889 215,595 2,068,294 Total... - 35,952,05s 9,429,012 5,181,874 4,247,136 Note : — In the foregoing figures the data for Okinawa and the Izu archipelago at not included. Capital. 105 III. CAPITAL. Land.: — The arable land that forms the basis of our farming covers over 5 million cho yielding about 1,000 million yen worth of crops every year. Of that sum rice constitutes about 400 million yen in value. The value of a rable land is estimated at above 7,000 million yen. Buildings. — Farm buildings and outhouses generally form part, in consequence of our farming system, of the farmers' dwelling- houses, and as the farming carried on is on a comparatively small «cale, the capital invested on this account is not large. If, how- ever, the dwelling houses of 6 million farming families are included, this particular capital may be estimated at about 290 million yen. WORKING CAPITAL.— Apart from the capital invested in land and buildings for farming purposes, farmers require working capital existing in the following shapes : — • „ I'j » J f Tools and implements. Consolidated {Livestock. •« . . ( Manure. ^°^t'°g \Fodder. I. Tools and Implements.— From the limited scope of farm- ing and also from the abundant supply of labor, farming in Japan is chiefly carried on by manual labor, partly supplemented by the use of cattle. Implements of any elaborate nature are not, therefore, employed to any great extent, and the tools used are not always made of metal. The tools and implements used in Japan may be divided into these kinds, namely, (1) those for tillage, (2) those for carriage, and (3) those for horses and other domestic animals used for field-work. While the tools and implements employed are so limited both in kind and in labor-saving capacity, even the number of those tools and implements possessed by our farmers is comparatively small. The farming implements generally possessed by a family cultivating 1 cA5 of wet and dry fields may be something as follows in value : — 106 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. ysn. For field work 2-75 For use in-doors ll" For use in storehouse 12.65 Total 16.50 Intimated at the foregoing rate, the value of the farming tools for the whole cultivated area of 5 million cho amounts to 82,500,000 yen. However, this estimate applies to districts where tillage is ex- clusively done by manual labor, so that it is to be raised to some extent when live stock are counted in. II. Live Stock. — The beasts used in farming are cattle and horses, and their use is greater in the southern districts where horses are generally used, and less in the northern districts in which oxen predominate. On the whole, the number of horses is larger than that of oxen. These beasts are used principally for tillage and as beasts of burden, though to some extent they are also useful, as in other countries, for supplying manure. Though at present farming chiefly depends on human labor, it is inevitable that this state of things must change with the progress of the times and that our farmers must be prepared to make use to a greater extent of the cheaper labor supplied by machinery and beasts. The utilization of beasts in the field of the labor is all the more necessary in a hilly country like ours, where the employment of any large labor-saving machines is not easily possible. Horses- and oxen are in part employed largely in agricultural operations in districts where agriculture has had a greater development than in other districts. In such go-ahead localities, every farmer keeps one or two or even three farm beasts. At present the number of live stock in our country is out of all proportion to that in Western countries, but this state of things will be radically changed for the better at no distant time, for the public and especially the farrners have become convinced of the necessity of utilizing the labor of beasts. III. Makuke. — Night soil and stable manure play a most im- portant part as fertilizers, though recently farmers have begun to supplement them with other kinds of fertilizers. These fertilizers Capital 107 are generally of four kinds, namely, artificial feritlizers, vegetable manures, animal jiiauures, and miscellaneous fertilizers. Of the vegetable manures, rape-seed cakes and beau-cakes are espcL-ially predominant. Next to them come animal manures, among ^vhick tish guano is most conspicuous. Artificial manures are also employed to no small extent. These fertilizers are either made at home or are imported, and of the imported fertilizers rape-seed and bean-cake-j from China are the most important item both in quantity and value, (a) Output op Feetilizeks.— The following figures show the output of the principal fertilizers made at home in 1902 : — Quantity. I^i"S33 Slaughtered beast 12,540,104 Cattle and horses killed by disease 256,831 Dairy products 4,128,017 Staple manure 23,672,628 Poultry and eggs 17,281,416 Total 1,023,587,239 Sucli is the general states of our agricultural industry, and in jnquiiing into the relation betv,'een supply and demand of our principal agricultural products, it is observed that though in food- stuffs the supply at home can generally satisfy the demand, this is not always the case with regard to the raw materials used for in- dustrial purposes, as cotton, hemp, etc. These come, therefore, to no small extent froni foreign countries. II. FOOD-STUFFS. 1. Rich. —There are two varieties of rice, ordinary rice (Onta rdiUssima, Keke) and glutinous rice (O. ghitinose, Lour). Both are cultivated in \\et and upland fields. The ordinary rice may be (.-oii- sidered as the rice, for it constitutes the bulk of the output of this staple cereal. It is used as ordinary diet and also for brewing the national beverage of saie, while the other rice is used for making rice dumplings (inochi) and is theiefore very limited in use. Eicc being cultirated in every place where its cultivation is Acreage. Output. cho. kohl. 2,760,662.1 41,429,676 2,775,233-9 37,267,418 2,736,494-6 41,859,047 2,784,682.5 39,960,798 2,792,499-4 36,240,351 2,787,181.3 33,039,293 2,817,624.0 47,387,666 2,839,550-2 39,698,258 2,828,479-3 41,466,734 2,847,395-0 36,947,091 122 Japan in the Beginning of the 20<7t Century. possible, from Hokkaido in tlie north to Formosa in the south, the area under cultivation is immense as may be seen from the follow- ing table : — AREA (FRACTIONS BELOW DECIMAL ARE tnn) OF CULTIVATION AND OUTPUT OF RICE. Year. 1892 1893 1894 1S95 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 lyOZ ••« ■•• ••• •■■ ••• The principal centres of rice cultivation are Niigata, Hyogo, Fukuoka, Aichi, Chiba, Toyama, and Fukushima. Both the acreage and output may confidently be expected to become larger with the improvement of farming and the completion of various improvement measures. 2. "MuGi." — The Mugi is the staple product for upland fields as rice is for wet fields. Barely and wheat are also cultivated in wet fields as the second crop after rice. Their cultivation is uni- versal, but that of rye is generally confined in the districts of Kiiiai and in the more southern places. Barely and rye are used as- food-stuffs by farmers, who use them mixed with rice. They are also used to some extent as food for cattle and horses. Wheat is used in manufacturing soy and for making confectionary and various sorts of macearoni, except buckwheat maccaroni for which buckwheat flour is used. The flour made of Japanese wheat is however not quite so good for bread and superior kind of confectionary, and for those purposes the American flour is extensively imported. In a simi- lar way our barley is not so well adopted for making malt for lieer, and the bulk of this fermenting ingredient comes from therefore abroad. An attempt has been made with some success to cultivate in Food-Stuffa. 12a Japau certain varieties of foreign barley. The acreage and output during the last ten years are shown below : — « Mugi " Acreage. Output (koku). Barely. Rye. Wheat. Total. Barley. Rye. Wheat. Total. Year. (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- Cin thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- (in thou- sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). sand). 1892 ... .. 6S3 650 435 1,739 6,811 6,811 6,060 15,951 1893 ... 654 654 437 1,746 7,193 6,148 3,294 16,636 1894 ... 648 661 442 I.7S3 8,533 7,316 3,972 19,822 1895 ... 654 672 447 1,774 8,541 7,107 3,987 19,537 1896 ... .. 6S1 672 443 1,767 7,853 5,927 3,559 17,340 1S97 ... 639 651 458 1,749 8,028 6,165 3,8" 18,005 189S ... 659 &81 46s 1,806 8,913 7,366 4,i8i 20,462 1899 ... .. 657 6S7 465 1,809 8,512 6,682 4,141 19,335 1900 ... 644 692 468 1,80s 8,659 7,495 4,236 20,391 1902 ... 64s 476 682 1,804 8,146 3,907 6,372 18,425 The principal m,ugi districts are Hokkaido, Saitama, Ibaragi, Aichi, Fukuoka, etc. Especially in Hokkaido the growth of these crops is excellent, the comparative scarcity of rainfall during the ripening season being favorable for it. 3. Beans. — The use of beans is extensive in Japan. They are used as subsidiary article of diet, also as food for cattle, and as manure. A large import of beans and pancakes from China and Korea explains their extensive use in Japan. Eeaus of su* perior quality are largely grown in Hokkaido, and they are also extensively cultivated in Saitama, Ibaragi, Nagano, Miyagi, etc. There are two principal varieties, namely soja beans and red beans, and both are cultivated during the seasons intervening between the different crojH of cereals. The latter is used for making confec- tionary, etc. ACREAGE AND OUTPUT. Soja Beans. Red Beans. Year. Acreage {cho). Output {koAu). Acreage [chd). Output {kokuy 1894- ■ . ... 435,852.3 2,943,478 101,428.9 560,277 1895.. ... 431,240-4 3,163,683 105,630.7 615,675 1896.. ... 440,780.2 2,999,490 103,957-7 576,724 1897.. ... 435,604.8 3,100,973 109,280.7 618,804 1898.. ... 482,044-1 3,108,708 112,313.6 654,885 1899- ... 45S,6ol-2 3,410,693 120,675.0 822,775 1900.. ... 457,673-7 3,562,176 122,786.1 866,448 1902.. ... 466,149.1 3,136,909 129,290.9 708,712 124 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. 4. Millets, Sokqhum, Buckwheat. — Millets are cultivated in the hilly districts and are used as food, being eaten mixed with rice. Sorghum is used for making dumplings and buckwheat for making maccaroni. ACREAGE. Year. Millet. Italian Millet. Sorghum. Buckwheat. 1894 235.164-2 84,144.4 26,286.9 172.334-0 1895 247,276.7 77,228.9 26,29,5.3 175,991.8 1896 248,131.7 75.124-4 28,156.8 171,215.5 1897 250,387.7 74,567-6 27,674.9 174,138.2 1S98 245,641.3 77.366.3 31.683.5 180,039.6 1899 238,742.0 76,618.8 35.741-8 176,144.4 1900 245,738.6 72.538.3 34.414- 1 168,996.0 1902 226,239.8 70,510.7 OUTPUT. 34,536-6 165,750.2 Year. Millet. Italian Millet. Sorghum. Buckwheat. 1894 2,144,839 999,209 250,474 1,202,372 1S9S 2,331.506 923,862 243,066 1,192,377 i8g6 2,548,458 912,154 245.734 1,090,254 1897 2,395.158 806,274 260,414 990,19s 1898 2,626,588 901472 291,852 1,192,807 1899 2,217,154 861,318 377,768 999,410 1900 2,487,187 864,601 384,452 1,285,394 1902 ml 2,003,317 _ _i? _._ *'l^ -J. 567,299 •_ • 1^ 286,734 948,886 The ordinary millet is grown in larger quantities in Kyushu than in colder districts and Italian millet is found more in the colder districts than in Kyushu. Sorghum is chiefly grown in Hokkaido, Aichi, Gifu, etc. and buckwheat in Kagoshima, Kana- gawa, Ibaragi, Nagano, Iwate, Aomori, etc. 5. Sweet Potatoes. — TRis root-crop is raised as food-stufi' both for men and beasts, also for brewing liquor and making starch. It is extensively grown in Kyushu and Okinawa. Fani Produeta of Special Use. 125 Acreage, {cho.) Output, {kwamme.) ■ 238,942.9 495,948,701 , 340,797-0 711,813,132 • 255,655.2 725,942,023 , 259,166.7 662,391,590 ■ 267,252.3 716,956,146 . 268,070.5 661,444,862 . 271,440.4 756,935,532 . 276,970.6 712,126,037 Year. 1894 1895 1896 1S97 1595 1899 1900 1902 6. Potatoes.— Potatoes are used in Japan for food both for the men and beasts and for making liquor and starch. It is grown extensively in Hokkaido and other districts. Year. 1894 1895 1596 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 The acreage was^ only 8,850 c/to in 1882, and it reached about 42,000 in 1902. The root grown in Hokkaido largely goes to Siberia and Australia, being of superior quality. The appearance of the potato blight in 1900 in the districts lying about Tokyo inflicted serious damage on the crop. The disease has been stamped out. reage. (f/;o.) Output, [kwamme:) 23,116.3 49,752,903 23o'4-4 44,273,903 25,276.9 44,220,605 28,996.0 58,528,287 36,898.6 34,088,550 37,650.6 64,594,705 38,261.8 71,775,433 42,139-7 53,832,873 III. FARM PRODUCTS OP SPECIAL USE. 1. Rape. — Rape is grown everywhere in Japan as the second crop after rice or other crops. The rape-seed oil was universally used formerly for purposes of illumination, and even now this is still the case in remote corners of the land. The oil is now largely exported abroad, where it is used as a lubricant. The value of rape-seed cake as manure is univer- sally appreciated and is largely used for that purpose. 126 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. This crop is cultivated in all those districts where the second crop is possible, and also in Hokkaido. The acreage and output are as follows : — Acreage, (c/io.) Output (koku.) ... 152,400.2 1,006,581 ... 158,858.2 969,917 ... 157,738.8 971,198 ... 154,167.0 1,011,004 ... 150,825.9 1,079,594 ... 148,663.3 1,114,614 ... 153,069.5 1,193,839 - I57P4S-I 1,110,446 Year. 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 igo2 2. Indigo. — The indigo-plant (Polygonum tinctorium Lam.) is a special product of Shikoku, especially Tokushima prefecture where the growth of this crop was encouraged by the local GovernmeDt during the pre-Kestoration period. It is of the variety of Poly- ;gonum. Since the introduction from abroad of a cheaper and more convenient indigo, the sale of home-grown indigo has somewhat declined. But the native indigo still retains a fair sale owing to the permanent nature of the dye ; and especially since a new mode of preparing indigo in a less costly way was discovered a few years ago by a Japanese expert, the industry has began to recover its former prosperity. In Okinawa and Formosa a special variety of indigo is produced. The acreage and output during the last few years are as follows: — Year. 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 The principal places of production are Tokushima, Aichi, -Fukuokii, Okinawa, Saitama, Miye, etc. Acreage, (cho.) Output, [kwamme.) ■ 46,851-7 16,087,377 • 49,079-0 17,373.344 • 49,190.3 17,918,863 - 50,712.3 19,415,593 • 48,872-4 17,758,510 . 47,824-8 17,044,410 46,180.4 16,582,230 ■ 37,193-3 12,495,151 Farm Produets oj Special TJse. 127 3. Tobacco. — The cultivation of tobacco was formerly car- ried cut, partly with the object of selling the leaves and partly with that of supplying tobacco for home consumption. The le.ives in those days were exclusively used as cut tobacco and never as cigars or cigarettes. With the advent of the Tobacco State Mono- poly in 1898, a radical change came over the economy of this crop, and the cultivation is now subject to strict official super- vision, while at the same time special pains are taken for improv- ing the quality. Here are the figures representing the acreage and output during the last few years : — Year. 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 Ibaragi, Tochigi, Kagoshima, Kanagawa, Fukushima, Okayama, Aichi, Hiroshima, Kumamoto, Shizuoka are the chief centres of this crop. 4. SuGAE Cane. — This industry is not flourishing as it was formerly, or, more properly speaking, it has not succeeded in keeping up with the progress of the times. Its prosperity in the province of Sanuki, formerly the largest centre of production, has declined very much owing to the comparatively higher cost of production ask compared with that in foreign countries. The beet-root cultiva- tion started some time ago in Hokkaido has not been a success. The consumption of sugar has been largely increased recently, and naturally the import of this article of diet now reaches enormous figures. However, as the industry is steadily growing extensively in Formosa, Okinawa and Kagoshima, the output of home-made sugar may soon show a striking increase. The returns for the .last two years are as follows : — Year. Acreage, {cho.) Output, (kwamme.) 1900 23,179.2 154,181,460 1901 24,744.7 134,278,261 Acreage, (cho.) Output, (iioammi.) . 35,393-8 9,541,304 ■ 35,135-1 8,873,911 . 32,519-2 8,393,507 . 31.477-5 8,871,370 . 29,45°-8 9,302,560 . 41,647-2 10,609,531 . 37,182.8 10,846,452 . 23,946.3 8,349,679 128 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 5. Rushes. — The cultivation of various varieties of rushes is extensively carried on in Hiroshima, Okayama, Fukuoka, Oita, Okinawa, Kagoshima, etc, as they are in enormous demand for, the making of mats universally used in Japanese houses as carpets are in Europe and America. The export of fancy mattiii;.^ is nlso active. 6. Cotton. — Cotton is another crop that has sufFeied from foreign competition especially since the spinning business has grown active, for the fibres of home-grown cotton are shorter while the, goods themselves are more costly than their irap■ ■' \ lo sen per kwamme } Workers Wages ( 5° ™en, 30 sen each 1 ^ (^30 women, 20 sen each j Workers Board (12 j«« per capita). Miscellaneous expenses (charcoal, tallow, oil, bobbins, etc.) ■Rptit / Rearing room 47 yen \ ^^®"'t Utensils So sen f Interest (7 p. c. per annum or the working capital for 2 months) Total RECEIPTS. First class cocoons (8 io at 4. yen 50 sen per fo) ... Middle class cocoons (I to 5 sAo at 2 yen per (a).,. Third class cocoons (5 s/io, 1 yen per to) „ ,, punctured (l to c, sho, I yen 50 sen per tci) Carcass chrysalis (l koku 8 to, \ yen per koku) ... Mulberry shoots (20 bundles, $ sen per bimdle) ... Total Net Prolit yen. 1.500 20.000 7.500 4.200 5.000 4.800 0.446 43-446 30.OCO 3.000 0.500 2.250 1.800 1. 000 44-550 \.ia\ Margin of Profit. — Thus calculated, the net profit dwindles down to very iusigniticant figure ; but sericulture being, as a rule^ Present Condition of Sericulture. 141 carried on by the farmer as a by-industry and one of the rooms of his own dwelling being employed as the rearing room, while the members of his own family attend the worms, what are given above as items of disbursement constitute in effect his own earnings of his family, with the exception of the prices paid for the " seed " eggs and mulbery leaves. The Output. — The quantity of cocoons obtaiuable differs, of course, according to the crop condition of the year ; still on the whole the quantity is on the increase, owing to the progress made in the art of sericulture, the increase beirig especially notable in the case of autumn cocoons, as may be gathered from the following statistics for the ten years mentioned : — COCOON CROP FOR THE WHOLE OF JAPAN. Year. Total. Spring crop. Summer crop. Autumn crop ioiu. /M/.-U. koku. koku. 1893- 1,686,894 1,225,018 328,591 133,38s 1S94. 1,797,842 1,257,836 373,995 166,010 1895- 2,258,173 1,697,803 324,028 236,342 1896. 1,831,378 1,384,411 255,438 197,529 1897. 2,121,944 1,654,722 278,257 193,965 1898. 2,027,339 1,504,351 301,393 221,565 1899. 2,512,502 1,817,936 373,142 320,484. 1900 . 2,753,903 2,029,806 377,466 346,631 1901 . 2,526,181 1,798,672 345,617 381,892 1902 . 2,549,224 1,774,936 359,772 414,5 '6 CROP RATIO OF EACH SEASON. Spring crop Ycnr. percentage. 1893 72 1894 ... .. .. 70 1895 ... .. .. • • 75 1896 ... .. 75 1897 ... ., .. .. ... 78 1898 74 1899 ... .. .. 72 1900 .. .. .. 74 1901 .. .. .. 71 1903 ... . ... 7-^ Summer crop. Autuirin c/op. jiercentcije. p'rcc-ntage. 19 14 13 15 15 14 14 I. 'I 9 9 II II 9 II 13 12 IS 16 142 Japan in the Beginning of the lOth Century. Import of Chinese Cocoons. — No cocoon is at present sent abroad from Japan and the entire output is consumed ac home as material for weaving silk fabrics and also for the purpose of manu- facturing raw silk for exportation. At the same time from five to six hundred thousand yen worth of cocoons is^ yearly imported from China. The greater part of the importation consists of douppions, which are turned into floss silk and silk thread. The Chinese cocoons were imported as follows : — Year. kin. Year. kin. 1897 ... . 713.929 1900 ... ., 598,999 1898 ,. ... 458,617 1901 . ... 4+1,371 1899 ... . 807,762 1902 ... ., 649,013 III. EGG-CARDS MAKING. Geneeal Remarks. — In the earlier days there were apparently no egg-cards manufacturers separate from the sericulturist, the latter doing his own work of selecting the good cocoons out of his own crop for " seeding " purposes. Nor can any exact data be given aa to when the egg-card-making came to form a speciality, though from about the latter part of the 17th century the district of Uyeda in Shinshu and the various provinces in " Kwanto " and Tohoku, were already in the habit of sending out to and supplying the other parts of the country with the " egg-card." What, in modern times, brought about the sudden prosperity of this special industry, was the prevalence, as already mentioned, of the silk worm epi- demic in Europe, which created a demand for Japanese " cards." It was at the time when the samurai class, deprived of their permanent pensions, took up this business of the egg-card making, as if with one accord. The subsequent decline in the exportation of the " cards," as already told, almost ruined the entire egg-card industry of the country. Since then, however, with the progress and prosperity that have attended the sericultural industry in gene- ral, the special industry in question also revived to such an extent that there is not a locality throughout tlse Empire which does For Spring For Summer and hatching. Autumn lialching. 16,785 7,577 16,409 7,759 16,324 7,587 13,745 8,939 12,923 4,336 Egg- Cards Making. 143 not possess its own egg-card manufactures, as the following table shows : — NUMBER OF EGG-CARD MANUFACTURERS THROUGHOUT JAPAN. Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 The Nuesery Pkocess.— The progress attained, especially on the scientific side, of sericulture has now come to make it an established principle among those interested in the industry that, in the cultivation of the worms for egg purposes, the temperature should not be artificially raised. As for fighting the silk worm epidemic, Pasteur's graiuage cel- lulaire method was improved upon and remodelled as the result of investigations carried at the Sericultural Laboratory and this improv- ed method has since proved itself a very efiicient means for the purpose for which it was devised. Then the enforcement of the Silk Worm Egg Examination Kegulations proved another means of preventing the epidemic from spreading, while on the other hand the examination carried out under the Regulations had also the satisfactory result of raisirg the standard quality of the eggs. The following table will be interesting in this respect, 1898 being the first year in which the Regulations just mentioned were put in force. Spring breed. Summer and Autumn breed. Passed. Rejected. Passed. Rejected. percentage. percentage. i8g8 ... .,. 79 2t 75 25 1899 82 18 75 25 1900 82 18 80 20 1901 88 12 87 13 1902 89 II — — Economy of Egg-Cakd Making. — The making of egg-cards requires the utmost skill and experience, in addition to the most painstaking care, while the manufacturer must necessarily be guided in this work by a strong sense of responsibility. A manufacturer 144 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. thus qualified would consider the fallowing a fair estimate of the ins and outs of his business : — DISBURSEMENTS. The " seed " (loo encased moths at 3 J«2 per head) Mulberay leaves (lo j^« per >^wfl«) Workers hire (lo men at 30 sen each, 30 women at 20 sen each) Workers board (12 jCTj a day on an average) Rents (room 4;l'^», utensils 85^ j^«, appratus 4^if«) Interest (on the working capital for 2 months at 7 p.c. annum) Card-paper (60 sheets 3 if« each) Miscellaneous expenses Total... RECEIPTS. Proceeds (6 to of cocoons and 60 egg cards at i yen 20 sen) Thread Cocoons (2 /» at 3 jot) Douppions (i io 5 s^o at i yen 50 sen} Third class Cocoons (5 i^tf at 12 j«z) Punctured Cocoons (6 ("tf at I j'«» 20 .s^n) Carcass chrysalis (about 2 /5i;;4« at I _)"?») Waste mulberry shoots (about 22 bundles) Total Net Profit yen. 3.000 22.000 9.000 4.S00 8.865 0.522 1.800 6.800 56.787 72.000 6.000 2.250 0.600 7.200 2.000 1. 100 91.150 34-363 Output of "Seed-Cards." — The yearly production of "seed- cards " is also on the increase in quantity along with the progress of the sericultural industry in general, as may be seen from the followibg table which gives figures for the years subsequent to the enforcement of the Seed-Cards Examination Regulations : — For Spring For Summer and hatch "g- Autumn hatching. Year. For manufactur- For reproduc- For manufactur- For reproduc- ing purposes. Cards. tive purposes. Moths. ing purposes. Cards. tive purposes. Moths. 1898 .. • — 2,559,424 20,572,497 165,394 3,949,821 1899 .. .-. 2,877,532 21,242,568 227,836 4,579,913 1900 .. • — 3,124,894 27,530,491 277,300 5,922,683 1901 .. ... 3,378,718 31,239,854 2,002,622 8,141,607 1902 .. . ... 3,025,280 32,072,367 2,081,800 9,228,052 In the above table the figures are only for those cards officially examined and consequently those made for private use are not included- Filature. 145 lY. FILATURE. First Model Filature. — The reeling of raw silk having been carried on exclusively by hand-reeling formerly, the product obtained was of the coarse kind uniit for the fereign market. It was to obviate this defect that the Grovernment established, as already mentioned, a model filature at Tomioka-machi in Gumma prefecture in order to encourage the improved method of machine- reeling. The example thus set before them led those interested in the industry to starting similar establishments on the factory system throughout the country. Even those who were previously contented with hand-reeling, now took up the frame-reeling and adopted the practice of selling their product jointly by unifying its quality. Thi* was decidedly a step forward in the progress of the industry which soon came to be recognized by the farming class as an important by-business. According to the oiBcial returns for 1900, the silk turned out by machine-reeling totalled 6,193,869 hin against 4,779,- 575 kin by frame-reeling. It is misleading, however, to say that filaturing constitutes a by-industry whenever it is carried on by frame-reeling, because there are establishments managed after the fully developed factory system and yet employing the frame-reeling method. While it is not yet exactly known, how many establish- ments of this latter kind there are in the country, the statistical returns for the year above mentioned show that in that year the country had 2,072 machine-reeling factories, employing 122,116 pans against 597 frame-reeling establishments employing 55,022 pans, the figures being in each case for factories that employ 10 workers or more. Preservation of the Cocoons. — Owing to the fact that the climatic conditions of Japan are not like those of continent- al countries where a comparatively high temperature prevails the preservation of cocoons often proves to be a very difficult affair, cases of the deterioration of entire stock not being infrequent. The proper preservation of cocoons forms, therefore, a very important problem. In former days sun-drying was the only method adopted in this r»- spect. The Tomioka Filature was the first to test the baking process 146 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Centnry. but this method, too, did not give satisfactory results, owing to the climatic peculiarities of the country. Of late, however, many and valuable inventions have been made well answering the purposes of stifling and the subsequent long preservation of cocoons so treated. The Keeling. — There is no question that the Tomioka Fila- ture proved to be a model establishment and that it fully satisfied the expectations that had been formed of it. It was after ;i European model and many of this scheme tried in this establishment and imi- tated at others only proved their unfitness for general adoption in this country. So there came consequently a period of continual chang- ing from one system to another, a conspicuous instance of this kind being the adoptation to a very large extent of the " Kennel "' method in place of the " Champon " system and also of " double " instead of " direct " reeling. Very significant progress has also been made in the art of reeling itself, since the opening of the model institu- tion, the following figures furnishing eloquent proof of this statement. AVERAGE PRODUCE PER PAN. P'rame reeL 27 19 22 8 all other industries, the raw stock count for every thing. It is undeniable, however, that the recent general rise in the prices of commodities has also tended to increase the cost of production in filaturing. Below is a table showing the average cost of production per 100 kin of raw silk. Year. Machine. yen. 1900 156 1896 126 1893 no Increase in 1900 as against 1896 ... 30 It may be interesting to give in this connection a detailed list of the item of expenditure and receipt in filaturing. The following is such a list, the calculations being made on the basis of 100 kin:— Year. Machine reel 1900 4>5 kin 1896 39 „ 1893 39 .. Increase in 1900 as against 1896 9 FiLATUBiNG Economy. — In this as in the skill of the workers and the cost of the Frame. Average yen. yen. 129 •43 108 117 82 96 21 26 Filature. 147 MACHINE-REELING. Expenditure. yen. Cost of cocoons — 16 ^o^u 640.000 Girls' wages — 267 reelers each 6 >Ao of cocoons and 10 others doing the rest of the work 4I.5SO Girls board 27.700 Employees salaries 14.750 Packing expense i.ooo Fuel — 7,500 A-i,i of coal 17.250 Miscellaneous expenses 5.000 Freightage — From JoshiJ to Yokohama I.ooo Insurance i/io p.c .820 Commission — I p.c 8.500 Jinrikisha fare .200 Weighing fee I.ooo Draft discount — 5/10 p.c 4.000 Interest on invested capital 40.000 of say 12,000 yen at 10 p.c, the total yearly pro- duction being 3,000 kin. AVorking capital of say 760 yen 50 sen for 6 months at 10 p.c. a year 39-0OO Total 842.548 Receipt. Proceeds from sale of raw silk 850.000 , ,j „ Noshi and other by-products 20.000 Other incidental yield 1.000 Total 871,000 Net profit 28.452 FRAME-REELING. Disbursements. yen. Cost of cocoons— 16 ioiu 640.000 Girls wages 57-ooo Salaries 12.000 Packing expenses i.ooo Fuels ".000 Miscellaneous expenses. 3°°° Insurance — From Joshu to Yokohama i.oco Commission— I per cent 7-85o Jinrikisha fare... ; 200 Weighing fee I°°° Draft discount 5/10 p. c 3-925 Interest on invested capital of say 2,050 j/en ^a^o° Interest oil invested capital of say 739 yen 7° ««» 3o-9o4 Total 797-744 148 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Receipts. Pre ceed from sale of raw silk 785.000 „ „ „ Noshi and other by-products 17.000 Other miscellaneous income i.ooo Total 803.C00 Net profit 5-356 Anntjal Output and Expobt.— While it is unavoidable- tliat there should be differences in the amount of annual production of raw silk owing to differences in " crop " condition and also in those of proceed thereform according to market condition, there is no question that on the whole the amounts are on the increase, being encouraged no doubt by the growth of the export trade, as the following table will show : — Year. Amount produced, in kin. Amount exported. in kin. in yen. 1859 -. — 487,625 1S60 ... — 812,780 — 1861 ... — 922,424 — 1862 ... — 2,414,914 — 1863 ... — 1,294,719 — 1864 ... — 1,348,164 — 1865 ... — 941,602 — 1866 ... — 1,101,546 — 1867 ... — 1,000,117 1868 ... — 1,123,951 — 1869 ... — 726,046 5,720,182 1870 ... — 683,362 4,278,752 1871 ... — 1,323.435 8,004,144 1872 ... — 895,500 5,205.237 1873 •- — 1,202,134 7,208,421 1874 ... — 979,193 5,302,039 1875 ... — 1,181,387 5,424,916 1876 ... — 1,864,249 13,197,921 1877 ... — 1,723,004 9,626,956 1878 ... 2,266,294 1,451,23s 7,889,446 1879 ... 2,782,375 1,638,198 9,734,534 l88o ... 3.331,044 1,461,619 8,606,867 i88i ... 2,881,850 i,Soi,i8i 10,641,310 1882 ... 2,850,806 2,884,068 16,232,150 Filature. 149 Amount produced. Amount exported. in (tin. in kin. in yen. 2,885,900 3,121,975 16,183,549 ... 4,492,356 2,098,398 11,007,172 ... 3.174,925 2,457,925 13,033,872 - 4,592,525 2,635,294 17,321,361 ... 5>i24,78S 3,103,584 19,280,002 4,148,891 4,677,708 25,916,860 ... 5,511,041 4,126,741 26,616,541 ... 5,425,425 2,110,315 13,859,339 - 6,799,850 5,325,148 29,356,339 6,850,550 S.406 856 36,299,744 ... 7,709,713 3,712,213 28,167,411 8,104,894 5,484,059 39,353,156 10,020,694 5,8] 0046 47,866,257 9,017,000 3.918,994 28,830,600 ... 9,609,756 6,919,86.1 55,630,460 ... ^,248,416 4,837,329 42,047,411 ... 10,964,013 5,946,911 62,627,721 ... 10,973,444 4,630,903 44,657,029 ... 10,972,981 8,697,706 74,667,331 ... 11,158,819 8,078,166 76,859,478 Year. 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1S88 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1S94 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 DEMA2JD AND SupPLY. — The United States of America is decidedly the best customer of Japanese raw silk, that country- taking 50 per cent, or more of the whole amount exported. Next comes France, and then Italy. Other countries buy comparative- ly little of Japan. The destinations of Japanese raw silk after its exportation may be tabulated as below :— Destinations, 1898. 1899 1900. 1901. 1902. Hn. kin. kin. km. kin. U. S. A , 2,911,240 3,820,477 2,642,9 18 5,142,376 4,878 494 France ■ 1,630,654 1,803,464 1,200,838 2,035,818 1,575,251 Italy 218,652 260,298 669,484 1,341,913 1,290,480 England 36,491 28,663 45,658 17,105 46,413 Switzerland 62s 3,677 1,029 7,579 61.569 Hongkong ^r- — 2,218 — — Canada — — 18,912 62,113 115,170 Russia 39,663 30,337 49,846 82,234 87,758 Other countries .. 4 2 I 8,568 186 Total 4,837,329 5,946,611 4,630,903 8,697,705 8,078,166 150 Japan in {he Beginning of the 20th Century. Besides the above, waste raw silk is annually exported to the extent of about four million yen in value. It may be noted here, that, the amount of Chinese raw silk and wild silk coooons has considerably increased of late th» imjMrtation now aggregating to the value of about one million yen a year. The Chinese raw silk is, as compared with the Jap- anese article, inferior in quality, but its price is lower and it is used for weaving fabrics of home consumption. For a similar reason Tussah silk yarns are imported. The following gives the amounts, of the importation from China : — Year. 189S ... 1899. ... 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... The statistics above given conclusively pi'ove that the futura of sericulture in Japan in all its branches is brighter than ever. While now and again one hears of the complaints that the increase in wages is eating up all the profit formerly obtained from the industry, it seems nevertheless almost certain that better economy and more business-like methods in carrying on the industry will Boon remove all these causes for complaint. Chinese raw silk. Tussah silk yams Iriv. Hn. 7,606 15,760 .. 168,839 i5>,85o 3,288 •48,237 631 213,018 SO 418,463 History. 151 CHAPTER V— Tea-Manufacturing. History— Present Condition of the Industry— Kinds of Tea — Market. I. HISTORY. Introduction of Tea-Shkubs prom China. — The plantation of the tca-3hrubs in Japan first took place in the year 805 when Denkyo Daishi who had crossed over to China for the purpose of completing his study of Buddhism, came home with some tea-shrubs and planted them in a place called Daino-fumoto in the province of Omi. In the following year the famous Kobo Daishi returned from China also with a supply of tea-plants. In addition to this he also brought with him the art, which he had learned on the continent, of preparing tea-leaves for the purposes for which they are now used. Subsequently in 815 the Imperial Court ordered the plantation of tea-shrubs in the provinces round about Kyoto, Tanba and Harima and also ordered these provinces to send an annual tribute of manufactured leaves to the Court. This was the beginning of tea planting and manufac- turino- in Japan. The use of tea as a beverage, dates further back, however, by at least 76 years, for the Court calendar of those days already makes mention of the celebrated tea-ceremony. The latter fact would show that tea was already used at that time among the royalty and nobles. On the other hand, the Buddhist priests have always made use brewed tea as a necessary article of their ritual and it is more than probable that the subsequent jxtpular use of this particular kind of beverage originated in this religious practice. The method of tea making as taught of Kobo Daishi on his return from China, was to pick the tea twigs and leaves, steam them and then pound them with a pestle and mortar, 152 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. afterward making the crushed matter thus obtained into balls. The balls were dried over a lire and then ground into a powder, which was thrown into hot water and stirred up, before it was drunk. That the grinding stones were in use in those days is evident from the fact that there is still to be seen among the old relics, preserved in the Hoshoji Temple of Yamato, a set of these stones which Kobo Daishi is said to have brought with him from China. In subsequent years the Imperial Court encouraged the industry of tea plantation laid out within its " forbidden " precincts. The above facts relate only, it will be seen, to the earliest period of tea-making in Japan. For 400 years or so after its introduction, the use of tea as a beverage was confined to nobles and to the religious orders. Another Buddhist priest named Eisei-Jenshi who returned home from China in 1191 brought with him a quantity of seeds of tea-plant and planted them on Mt. Sefuri, Chikuzen. He also introduced a new mode of curing, that is to say, pan-curing. His disciple Meikei took a quantity of the seeds from the Sefuri plot and planted them at Togano and Uji, thus laying the foundation of the now flourishing tea industry of Uji. Tea in Social Etiquette. — The planting of tea and the custom of using this beverage spread apace. The custom was still, however, as it was for , a long time after its introduction to Europe, aristocratic, and was practically confined to the wealthier classes and to the priests. In course of time the custom of tea- drinking began to wear an aspect of something like a ceremony, with nice and strict canons of etiquette to surround it. It was •luring the time of the Shogun Yoshimitsu of the Ashikaga Kegency that these canons were nicely elaborated by a man named Shuko, and thus the so-called tea-ceremony were first drawn up in a regular form. A special class of persons whose business ifVas to teach the details of this ceremony next began to make their appearance, and these persons, called " masters of tea-ceremony," occupied an import- ant place in the estimation of the public. In fact all matters relating to social etiquette were practically in charge of these "tea-masters," History. 153 and every feudal baron kept in liis service one or more such " masters " upon ^vhom he bcstwed a regular salary. Thus the tea- ceremony linally came to play an important part in society as a re- gulator of social etiquette and as a means of promoting friendship. A big tea-ceremony meeting was a favorite occasion for bringing about meetings and reunions among warriors, courtiers, and other people in the higher ranks of society, and it can not be denied that the strict and sometimes graceful rules enforced by the ceremony tended very much to soften the blunt and rough manners of the ■warriors inured to hardships and horrors of battles that occurred very frequently during the later period of the Ashikaga Regency. Nobunaga who succeeded in suppressing the civil strife and Hide- yoshi who rose after Xobunaga were both great patrons of the tea cult. No money was spared on the vessels used for the ceremonials, and porcelain bowls and other earthenwares were specially sent for to Luzon, Cochin-China, and China. Hideyoshi very often gave -such vessels to his captains when he wished to reward them for distinguished services and these were afterwards preserved as valuable heirlooms in the houses of the captains. As might have been expected, the tea-ceremony attained great popularity on the advent of the Tokugawa Regency, and during the period of peace lasting for about three centuries which prevailed under that regime. CkjEiNG Process. — Only two kinds of tea were in use till the time of the Tokugawa, namely the pounded tea and pan-fired tea. It was not till 1738 that a new mode of curing tea was invented by a manufacturer of Yamashiro named Saunozo Nagataui. This mode, called at that time "green-curing," consisted in first steaming the leaves, rolling them, and then drying them at a fire, in such a way as to preserve the natural green hue of the leaves. This system of curing, a forerunner of the present Uji system, was a-eceived with favor throughout the tea-producing districts, llie Gyokuro tea, ^ modified from of the " green-cured " tea, was first manufactured at Uji in 1835. It will thus be seen that the original mode of curing tea-leaves consisted in steaming them, then pounding them, and finally rolling them into balls, after which the pan-firing process came into vogue. 154 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Next we have the powdered tea method, and then the Uji "green- curing," and lastly the Gyokuro-tea style. The black tea is tha latest innoYation, dating only about 27 years back. First Expot of Japanese Tea. — ^Tea was first export- ed from Japan about 1750 by some Chinese merchants of Nagasaki. Tlie opening of Yokohama and Kobe to foreign commerce inau- gurated a new epoch for the export of our tea which found in those two new open ports and in Nagasaki reguler outlet to foreiga markets. At first our tea went both to England and America, but^ on the development of the tea industiT- in Ceylon and India, I'ugland ceased to patronize the Japanese produce, so that from about 1871 America has been our principal customer. Vicissitudes of the Industey.— Just as in the case of silk and other staple export commodities, the history of the export of tea is checkered, consisting as it does of ups and downs, the production and export of tea of bad quality, the inevitable decline, in consequence, of the volume of export, the holding of conference* by all those concerned in the industry to make arrangements calculated to provide against this evil, and then the creation of guilds for the purpose. Further we see the appearance of companies formed with the object of undertaking the export of the goods direct to foreign consumers and thus dispensing with the services of the middle-men, that is of the foreign merchants resident amongst us, the invariable collapse of such companies, the dispatches both of the Government and by the guilds of a number of experts and merchants to Ceylon, China and other places to inspect the condition of the tea manafacture and the tea market in those countries. The World's Fair at Chicago supplied an important occasion for advertising abroad the merit of our leaves, and the strenuous efforts made by our manufacturers and merchants at that time were attended by a satisfactory result. In other words, the popularity of what may be called our national beverage in the United States and Canada was greatly increased. Meanwhile the arrangements for checking the appearance on the market of inferior tea and for the direct exportation of tea by our own merchants had been completed. These laudable and profitable exertions of our manufacturers and merchants were so much appreciated by the Government that in Present Condition of the Industry. 155 1897 it granted for the time being a state aid of 70,000 yen a year towards the funds for expanding the foreign market of our tea. In compliance with the instruction of the Government the Central Tea Guild maintains at present branch offices in the United States, Canada, Siberia, France etc., and causes them to take charge of the business of investigating the state of the market in those places and of taking steps to expand the market for the goods. Direct Export. — ^This aggressive movement on the part of our tea-manufacturers and merchants may well be regarded as constituting a new epoch in the history of our tea industry, for the export business had remained almost exclusively in the hands of resident foreigners during the period of over forty years after the opening of our country to foreign trade in modern times. These merchants re-cured the goods before exporting it, and the men and. women employed by them both in Yokohama and Kobe in the height of the tea season numbered or used to number tens of thousands. The re-curing process is now carried on extensively in several tea-pro- ducing districts, and the Japanese establishments which are engaged in re-curing and in direct exporting now number more than eleven. Curing Machines. — The process of re-curing and of manu- facture has also been considerably simplified by the invention of several machines, among which may be mentioned those invented by Gensaku Harazaki, Kenzo Takabayashi, Hatsutaro Mochizuki, Saikichi Kamo, Kiichiro Usui, Hatsujiro Nakatsu and others. The tea-manufacturing machines, large and small, number over 1,000, and these enable our manufacturers to produce their goods with less cost and labor than before. Nor does the Government neglect to devise measures for promoting the industry. It has for instance created since 1896 an experimental tea manufacturing establishment at Nishigahara, where all matters relating to the planting of the shrub and the manufacture of tea, as also to the improvement of tea-manufacturing machines are attended to. II. PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. Area under Cultivation. — As in the case of the mulberry- plant, the cultivation of the tea-plant is carried out on ■ large. 156 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. farms or rather plantations specially devoted to the purpose as well as in spare spaces about homesteads and in other kinds of land. The average under cultivation during the last seven years is given below. V^IT- Tea fields 1 ear. cho. 1896 ... . . ... 38,810.1 1897 - . . ... 38,152.5 iStS ... . . ... 37,483.3 1899 ... . . ... 37,917.5 1900 ... . . ... 31,889.5 1901 ... . . ... 31,899.2 1902 ... . • ■. 32,111-5 Tea grown in other lands. Total. (estimates.) cho. cho. 20,669.0 59,479.1 20,739.6 58,892.1 21,164.7 58,648.0 19,965.6 57,883.1 17,376.6 49,266.1 16,949.0 48,848.2 16,934.6 49,046.1 Shizuoka heads the list of tea-producing districts in the extent of acreage, and contains in fact a little over one-fifth of the whole acreage under tea in this country. Then follow Miye, Ibaragi, Jiyoto, Kumamoto, and Fukuoka. Kinds of Tea. — Of the different kinds of tea manufactured in Japan, the Sen-cha (ordinary green tea) and the Ban-cha surpass all the others in output and value, and they are followed in this respect by the Gfyokuro-tea and black tea. The output of powdered tea, Olong tea and brick tea is far below that of those mentioned above. The output of powdered tea is particularly conspicuous in gradual falling-off. Details as to the output of the dififerent teas are as follows: — OUTPUT OF TEAS DURING THE LAST 10 YEARS. Year. Powdered. Oyokuro. Sen-cha. Black. Olong. Ban-cha. Total. lewam. kwam. kwam. tttvam. kwam. kwu-i.t. kwam. 1893 ... - 6,397 71,355 5,129,446 36,151 8,540 2,388,479 7,640,368 .1894 ... - 4,435 105,402 5,144.733 48,661 17,244 2,562,757 7,883,232 1895 ... ". 5,523 91,206 6,077,186 53,401 13,556 2,358,008 8,598,880 1896 ... ... 4,550 70,340 5,974,209 37,894 16,848 2,396,552 8,500,393 1S97 ... ... 4,304 64,837 5,999.393 30,283 15,880 2,357,259 8,471,956 1898 ... ... 4,219 70,586 5,919,738 36,069 18,911 2,392,195 8,441,718 1899 ... .... 4,239 91,570 4,789,164 33,040 11,290 2,589,581 7,518,884 1900 ... ..■ 4.325 81,438 4,895,684 35,862 9,365 2,585,514 7,612,881 1901 ... ... 4,237 75,494 4.637,790 38,310 21,384 2,073,282 6,850,497 1902 ... ... 4,210 61,171 4,596,265 30,981 24,512 2,066,289 6,783,428 Present Condition of the Industry. 157' The GyoJc'uro-tea, is mostly produced in Kyoto and Niigata, black tea in Kumainoto, and other places in Kyushu, Ban-cha in. Shizuoka. Market.-— The home consumption of tea comprises the whole of the powdered tea and Gyokuro tea, and some of the Sen-cha,. Ban-cha, etc. The Sen-clia, Ban-cha and black tea constitute the bulk of the teas which go abroad. The United States and Canada take most of the teas shipped abroad, while Russian Siberia takes a small quantity of black tea and brick tea. The distribution of our teas as to consumption is as follows : — EXPORT AND AMOUNT OF CONSUMPTION AT HOME. Total oiilput Import Total Export Home consump kin. kin. kin. kin. tion km. 1893 .. • •• 47.752,300 57.904 47,810,204 36,443.555 11,366,649 1894 .. ... 49,270,200 52,186 49,322,386 37,453.587 11,868,799 189s .. ... S3,74J,ooo 66,686 53,809,686 38,826,661 14,983 025 1896 .. ... 53.127,456 97,643 53,222,099 33.241,472 19,980,627 1897 .. ... 52.949.725 119,617 53,069,342 32,632,683 20,436,659 I89S .. ... 52,760,738 145,953 52,906,691 30,826,632 22,080,059 1899 .. ... 46.993.025 51,933 47,044,958 34,731,644 12,313.314 1900 .. ... 47.576,175 113.985 47,690,110 32,240,147 15,449,963 - I90I .. ... 42.879.444 117,518 42,996,962 32,248,471 10,748,491 1902 .. ~ 42,394,550 125.396 42,519,946 32,759,580 9,760,366. It may be noted that the teas imported come almost exclusively from China. The ratio of distribution per 1000 as to value of the teas exported was as follows in 1900: — Green tea. Black tea. (Sen-cha and Ban-cha.) United States 78i 960 Canada 203 4 Siberia '3 Others 16 23 Total 1,000 l.ooo Prospect of the Industry. — As may be seen from the tables fhowing the output and the amount of export, the progress 158 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. of the industry is not quite satisfactory ; on the contrary there are even signs of a decline, principally on account of the increase iu the cost of production and the appearance of rivals in the foreign markets. In some districts the cultivation of tearplants is heing superseded by that of other plants, while in some others the cultiva- tion of tea-plants is beginning to become active. Judged from the state of affairs, more or less changes may take place in a few years in the locale of the tea districts. The Government is, as has been pointed out above, doing its best to promote the industry, and besides granting a subsidy is adopting suitable measures for the improvements of the quality, for providing against the deterioration of the tea, and for keeping those interested in the industry well-posted with regard to the state of markets in foreign countries. The local authorities follow the example set by the central Government and are supplementing the efforts of tea-growers and manufacturers to push the industry to the state of greater prosperity. Agricultural Experiment Stations. 1C9 CHAPTER VI. — Institutions for Encouraging Agriculture. Agricultural Experiment Stations— Agricultural Institutions- Ambulant Lecturers on Agriculture— Sericulture Institutes- Silk Conditioning House— Imperial Establishments of Tea Industry— Animal Epidemic Laboratory- State Cattle Breeding- Farms — State Horse Studs and Depots. I. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. General Remarks. — About thirty years ago Japan made a first attempt to improve agriculture by scientific methods. For this purpose the Government established many experimental farms, and started trial work on cattle breeding and various other branches of agriculture, at the same time importing from abroad new varieties of domestic animals as well as grains, implements etc. Most of these attempts ended in failure, owing to the fact that there were not at that time a sufficient number of trained men to take charge of this innovation. Those failures, however, were not in vain, for they taught a valuable lesson to our authorities and caused them to turn their attention to the business of training men qualified to undertake the work. By 1886 the Department of Agriculture and Commerce obtained a sufficient number of the graduates of the then Tokyo Agricultural College, and they were made to act as pioneers of the new movement. These young agriculturists as first addressed themselves to the task of carrying out easy and simple experiments with the help of farmers. The result obtained was quite satisfactory, and was indeed of such description as to deeply impress those farmers with the importance of scientific knowledge of farming, as the three essential ingredients of fertilizers, the selection of seeds and so forth. In 160 Japan in the Beginninff of the 20th Century. 1890 this experimental work was elevated to the dignity of a pureljr Grovernment enterprise and in consequence an office with experi- mental land measuring about four acres attached to it was established at Nishigahara near Tokyo. This was the embryo of the present Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station. In the- course of time the real value of this enterprise began to be fully appreciated by the general public, more especially from those who were directly interested in agricultural work. In 1893 an Imperial Ordinance relating to the organization of the Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station in Japan was promulgated, and placed this institution on a firm basis with all the necessary expenses yearly appropriated with the consent of the Imperial Diet. At the same time six branch stations were instituted, their sites being selected with due regard to climate, soil, etc. In 1896 three more branch stations were added to the list, thus bringing the total to ten ; namely, one main station and nine branch stations, the latter located in the prefectures of Osaka, Miyagi, Ishikawa, Tokushima,, Hiroshima, Kumamoto, Shimane, Aichi and Akita. Those branch stations in the early stage of their existence, had to devote themselves mainly to the work of carrying out simple ex- periments easily admitting of practical application by our farmers whose scientific knowledge on agriculture was yet poor, while th& facilities they had at their disposal of conducting field experiments either individually or by combined efforts were practically absent. In undertaking such experiments the stations had also an eye to inducfr the farmers to establish in their own respective districts similar organs for promoting the development of agriculture. During the last ten years the main and branch stations have attended with greater zeal to this important duty of guiding the farmers in the art and science of agriculture. Meanwhile the Government elaborated a measure which had a powerful effect of stimulating our people towards establishing local experimental stations, for in that measure the Government pledged itself to grant every year" State aid within the limit of 150,000 yen in all. Roused by those circumstances most of the prefectures emulated each other in organizing experi- mental stations, till at present these number 38 throught the country. The main station was now in the position to make a new departure Ar/riciihural Experiment Stationa. 161 in the mode of conducting scientific researches and investigations, and to attend to it on a larger scale than before. In view thereof, in 1899 it divided its work into nine sections, viz., agriculture, agri- cultural chemistry, entomology, vegetable pathology, tobacco culture, horticulture, stock-breeding, and report and general affairs. In 1903 it was decided to reduce the number of the stations maintained by the central Government and to transfer them to the control of the respective prefectures wherein they were located, so that those stations may more satisfactorily fulfill the local require- ments, while the stations continuing as Government establishment* may be enabled to concentrate their work of carrying on investiga- tions capable of wider applications than before. In pursuance of this decision six branch stations were abolished, or rather transferred to the prefectural control in that year, i.e., those in Miyagi, Ishikawa, Tokiishima, Hiroshima, Shimane and Aichi. Thus at present one main .'-tation at Nishigahara and three branches in the prefectures of Kumamoto, Osaka and Akita are maintained by the Government. The work carried out. — As mentioned in the preceding para- graph, the work of the main station is subdivided into nine sections, which attend to the following lines of work : — Section of Ageicultuee: — 1. Cultivation of crops. 2. Selection of the different varieties of crops. 3. Hearing and breeding of agricultural plants. 4. Kesearches in vegetable physiology. 5. Researches in the relation between crops and climate, soil and manure. 6. Examination of seeds and plants. 7. Farm implements and tools, and the amelioration of soil. ; 8. Distribution of seeds and seed-plants. Section of Ageictjltukal chemistey. — This section is to deal with, 1. Chemical investigations in crops and iarm products. ' 2. Experiments on manure. 3. Micro-organisms present in soils and manures. 4. Agricultural technology. 5. Examination of soils and the crops suitable to them. 162 Japan in the Beginning of (lie 20th Centunj. 6. Investigating and surveying mineral fertilizer deposits. 7. Kesearches on the productive power of various kind, of soils. Section of Entomology : — This deals with, 1. Treatment of insect pests and utilization of useful insects. 2. Classification and life history of both injurious and useful insects, and their geographical distribution. Section of Vegetable Pathology : — This section deals with, 1. Prophylactics and therapeutics of plant diseases caused by fungii and bacteria. ' 2. Application of pathogenic fungii and bacteria for the destruction of injurious insects. 3. Examination of and experiments on parasiticides. Section of Tobacco : — This section deals with, 1, Selection and cultivation of tobacco. 2. Kesearches on the relation between the quality of tobacco and climate, soil, fertilizers, etc. 3.' Investigation on the curing, fermentation and preservation of tobacco-leaf, and on its manufacture. Section of Horticulture : — This section deals with, 1. Selection, propagation and cultivation of fruits and vegetables. 2. Cross-breeding of horticultural plants. 3. Harvesting and preservation of fruits and vegetables. 4. Forcing of horticultural plants. 5. Distribution of seeds and seed-plauts. Section of Stock-breeding : — -This section deals with, 1. Researches on natural and cultivated fodder-plants. 2. Feeding and management of domestic animals. 3. Zootechnics. 4. Distribution of seeds of fodder-plants. Section of Report and Sec'tion op General affairs : — These two sections deal with matters relating to compilation and publica- tion of reports and library and matters relating to the general and financial affairs respectively of the main station. Branch stations. — The branch stations attend to one or more subjects of technical work. Thus the Kinai Branch situated in Osaka prefecture is devoted to agricultural work, the Kyusiiu Branch in' Kumamoto prefecture undertakes the work relating to Agricultural Experiment Statiom, 163 entomology and vegetable pathology, and lastly the Riku-u Braiicli situated in Akita prefecture takes charge of the work of stock- breeding. At the same time both the main and branch stations carry on the following lines of work : — 1. Inspection of fertilizers. 2. Chemical analysis made at the request of the public. 3. Supervision of experiments entrusted to farmers. 4. Information given to inquiries coining from the public. 5. Lectures held at the request of the public. 6. Researches on special agricultural problems. Peixcipal Essays published in the eepoets. — The prin- cipal essays heretofore published in the reports compiled by the main station are as follows : — I.— CLIMATE, SOIL AND WATER. 1. On the seed-exchange of rice. 2. On the influence of sun's rays on the growth of rice-plant 3. Climatological researches on rice-plant. 4. On the burning of soil. 5. Advantage of periodic drying of paddy-field. 6. On the deep cultivation of paddy-field. 7. On the influence of mo'sturj on the growth of plants. 8. On the volume of irrigation water required in one tan of paddy-field. 9. Average quantity of water absorbed and evaporated by one bunch of the rice-plant during the several stages of its growth. 10. On the proper time of . discharging the irrigation water from paddy-field. 11. On .ammonical springs. 12. On irrigating the paddy-field throughout the winter. II. -CULTIVATION. 1. On selecting the varieties of upland-rice. 2. On selecting the varieties of rice-plant. 5. On the reproductive power of barley and wheat seed with special reference to weight and specific gravity. 164 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 4. On seed selection. 5. On the relation between the reproductive power of the seed of Indian millet and its size and specific weight. 6. The distribution of larger seeds on the ear of Indian millet and its practical application in seed selection. 7. Relation between the genninative power and the color of indigo seed (Indigofera tinctoria, L.). 8. Relation between the germinative power and the color of "Genge'' seed (Astragalus cinicus, L.). 9. The relative vitality and reproductive power of fresh and) old rice grains kept in two different places. 10. On the advantages of the proper selection of seeds with regard to the mode of cultivation or manuring. 11. Reproductive power of rice and barley in the various stages of their ripening. 12. Tar as prevention of injury on seeds by birds. 13. On the quantity of seed lequired in the late sowing of rice. 14. On Japanese indigo (Polygonum tinctorium, Lout). 15. On the proper time for sowing barley, wheat and naked! barley in Japan. 16. On the proper time of rice-transplantation. 17. Cultivation of soja bean (Soja hispida, Maxim) as green manure. 18. On the proper time of applying night soil as manure to- ■wheat or barley crop in districts subjected to heavy snowfall.. 19. On the development of root. 20. On cross hybridation. 21. On the superior varieties of principal crops in Japan. 22. On the characteristic qualities of the different varieties of soja beans. - 23. Improvements of nursery plot of rice iu the north-eastern districts of the Main Island. 24. On the characteristic qualities of the different varieties of' rice-plant with special reference to mode of transplantation. 25. Experiments on the number of bunches of rice-plant in a given area of land and the number of plantlets in each, buueh. Agricidtura. Exijeriment Stations. 165 26. On the growth of paddy and upland rice. 27. Injurious effect of shaking rice-plant in the flowering season. 28. Injurious efiect of steeping rice-plant under water. 29. Transplantation of sweet potatoe (Iponaea batata, Lam.) and the part of the shoots best suited for young sets. 30. On the direction of ridges for a second crop in paddy-field. 31. On the characteristic qualities of the different varieties of rice-plant. 32. On the valuation and preservation of harvested crops. 33. Experiments on the storing of rice grains. 34. Relation between the quality of rice and its market price. 35. Cultivation of Japanese indigo in the province of Awa. 36. Cultivation of Mentha (Mentha aroensis, L.) in Yama- gata-ken, 57. Cultivation of hemp (Cannobis sativa, L.) in the province of Shimotsuke. 38. Cultivation and preparation of ginseng (Aralia quinque- folia, A. Gr) in the province of Izumo. S9. On Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria, L.) 40. Cultivation of " I-gusa " (Juncus effusus, L.) in Hiroshima- ken and Okayama-ken. 41. Apple plantation in Awomori-ken. 42. Cu'tivation and preparation of hemp in Hiroshima-ken. III.— MANURE, CHEilCAL ANALYSIS AND AGRIOULTUKAL TECHNOLOGY. 1. Analysis of the principal commercial manures. 2. On the effect of different nitrogeous manures. 3. Analysis of leguminous plants used for green manuring. 4. Phosphatic manures and their relative efficiency. 5. On the application of phosphatic manures on different kinds of soils. 6. On the absorption of nitrogen phosphoric, acid and potash by wheat and barley in the various stages of their growth. 7. On the absorption of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash by rice-plant in the various stages of its growth. 166 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. 8. On the importance of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash to various agricultural crops. 9. On the effect of nitrogen on rice-plant grown in different, kinds of soils. 10. On the manurial value of Chili saltpeter and the injuriou* action of perchlorate contained in it. 11. On the natural resources of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 12. On the influence of the three manurial ingredients on the quality of rice grains. 13. On the oflScial methods of agricultural chemical analysis. 14. On the relative proportion of carbohydrates in the different varieties of sweet-potato. 15. On the composition of tobacco-leaves attacked by mosaic disease. 16. Proportion of indigo present in the indigo plantlets in the different stages of growth in nursery-beds. 17. Non-albuminoid nitrogenous compounds contained in tobacco- leaves grown in the province of Awa. 18. On the methods of determining the specific weight of seed* by a pycnometer and a common balance. 19. On the preparation of hemp fibre. 20. Sweet potato as material for extracting alcohol. 21. Investigation on Japanese indigo. 22. Chemical analysis during the germination of rice grains. 23. On the relation between the quality and composition of soja beans. IV.— INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FARM CROPS. 1. Distinction between " Nika-Meichu " (Jathesia chrysogra- piielln, INIerro) and " Sanka-Meichu " (Schacuobuis bipuncti- fer, Wk.) 2. Some egg-parasitic Hymenoptera found in Japan. 3. Lantern flies and leaf-hoppers of the rice-plant founid in Japan. 4. Report on the remedy and prevention of Sanka-Meichu " ia Tokushima-ken, 1899. 6. Japanese Benthredimidae. Agricultural Experiment Stattona. 167 6. A trap-lautern with potassium cyanide can. 7. On the proper period of cutting rice stalks injured by insects, as stalk-borers (Sathesia chrysoguaphella, Morre.) 8. On the relation between the injury of " Nika-Meichu " and rice-plants as to the kinds to be selected and the mode of their cultivation. 9. Habit and life history of injurious itisects. 10. Effect of heat on the larvae of "Nika-Meichu." 11. On steeping in hot water the rice-straw inflicted with the larvae of " Nika-Meichu " with the object of destroying them. 12. Experiments on destroying " Sanka-Meichi." 13. Effect of heat on the injurious insects infecting stored grains. 14. Destructive power of oils against "Unka" (Gassidae and Fulgoridae.) 15. Effect of insecticides on the rice-plants. 16. Destruction of " Ine-Awomushi " (Narauga difusa, WKK.) 17. On the concentration and permiability of oils used as in- secticides. 18. On the number of eggs laid on a leaf of rice-plant and those contained in the abdomen of a moth caught by a trap-lantern. 19. The period of the flight of " Nika-Meichu." 20. Researches on " Nika-Meichu " damage inflicted on a lat e variety ot rice-plant at Nishigahara, 1900. 21. On the larvae of " Nika-Meichu " escaping from rice- straw. 22. On the hibernation of larvae of Nika-Meichu " in graminae plants other than the rice-plants. 23. Re.searches on the food-plants of "Nika-Meichu" othei- than the rice-plants. 24. On the number of larvae of "Nika-Meichu" remaining in the stump of rice-plant. 25. On the parts of the rice-stalk most infested by the larvae of "Nika-Meichu." 26. Experiments on the alcoholic extract of pyrethrum (Kento- yeki) against " Kakushoku-chingo " (Scotinophora vermic- ulata, Aard.) 168 Jj/pan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. 27. Insecticides for " Saruharaushi " (Phoedon incertum, Boly.) 28. Experiments ou the destruction of scale insects. 29. " Korogi " (true cricket, Gryllodes Chineasis, Web.) and " Emma-Korogi " (a cricket, Loxoblemmus haanii, Sauss). 30. About the hibernation of "Sanka-Meichu." 31. "Kiri-uji" (Tipula parva, Loew.), of the rice-plant. v.— PLAN-DISEASES. 1. Prevention of the stinking smut of wheat (Tilletia tritica, Winter, and T. laevis, Kiihn.) 2. Prevention of the smut of wheat (Urocyslis occulta, Eabb.) 3. Prevention of the smut of millet (Ustilago panici miliacei, (Pers), Winter.) 4. Ou the relation between the sowing period of barley and the injury caused by " Shiraasusuki " (Helmint hosporiums graniineum, Kabb.) 5. Prevention of the damping-off of the egg-plant. 6. "Kingai" (Sclerotinia trifoliorum, Fricks) of "Genge" plant. 7. "Tachigar^" (Ophioblus graminis, Sacs) of barley, naked barley and wheat. 8. "Hagare" (Helminthosporium oxyzae, Miyabe et Hori) of rice-plant. 9. Potato-rot in Nagano-ken (Phytophthora infestans, De Bary.) 10. White root-rot of grape and mulberry plantations. 11. A red fungus disease of scale insect (.-ispidiotus perniciosus, var. albopunctatas ?) 12. " Imochi " (Piricularia grisea (Cook) Sacc ) of rice-plant 13. Smut of barley, naked barley, wheat, ete. 14. " Bakanari " (Fusarium heterosporium, Nees.) of rice-plant 15. Influence of copper sulphate on the growth of plants. 16. " Imochi " of rice-plants in San-in districts. VI.— TOBA.CCO CULTURE. 1. On the cultivation of tobacco. 2. On the curing of yellow tobacco-leaf. Lo-al Agricultural Experiment Farms. 1G9 3. On the varieties of tobacco most suitable for yellow tobacco. 4. Oil the sauces for flavoring tobacco. 5. On the nursery bed under cover. 6. On the drying of Japanese tobacco-leaf in flue curing barn. 7. On Turkisli tobacco. 8. On cigar leaves. 9. Fertilizer experiments on tobacco. I. LOCAL AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT FARMS. The Farms Maintained by Peepectural Offices. — Apart from the Imperial Experiment Stations above mentioned there are local experiment stations maintained at the local expense and chiefly devoted to the work of practical application and of model-farming. There are 40 such stations throughout the country, with an outlaj' of about 403,335 yen altogether, or an average of about 100,000 yen. At each of the stations a number of experts are on duty, being under the control of the respective local Governors and subject to the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture and Com- merce. These farms are not maintained entirely at the local expense, for the Grovernment, with the object of securing the greater efficiency of the service, established in 1897 the provision of granting a certain rate of State aid within the limit of not more than 150,000 yen jiltogether every year. The Farms maintained by Sdb-Prefectueal Offices. — Besides, there are experimental stations maintained by sub-preft'Ctural districts, where simple experiments and the work of model-farmings are conducted. There are also lesser experimental stations established by towns or villages or by a body of farmers' sons. The experimental stations established by the sub-prefectural districts number 110 in all. II.— LOCAL AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTES. The local agricultural institutes are maintained by the local treasuries and subject to the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture 170 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century- and Commerce. The object of these institutes is to impart to farmers' sons and to farming people generally some elementary knowledgs on the general principles of agriculture, surveying, meteorology, physics, chemistry, natural history, veterinary science, farriery, etc. The institutes are also entitled to a share of the 150,000 yen fund mentioned above. At present these establishments exist only in live places, Miye, Aichi, Miyazaki, Aomori and Hokkaido, and these are turning out every year from 30 to several hundred graduates, who are to play an important part in the interests of local agriculture. III. AMBULANT LECTURERS ON AGRICULTURE. XiECTUEEES on agriculture are appointed in local or sub-local districts to deliver lectures relating to farming and to answer all inquiries addressed to them on the same subject by farmers in the district. They must besides attend to the experimental farming carried on at the public expenses, to the local agricultural shows, and to other such matters. These lecturers have done much to increase the knowledge, practical and scientific, of our farmers. There are altogether 310 such lecturers throughout the country, according to the latest returns. ¥. SERICULTURE INSTITUTES. Imperial Institutes. — In view of the important part played by. sericulture in the economy of the country and therefore of the necessity of adopting measures for promoting its interest, the Government attended to this business as early as 1874. Meanwhile febrine, that dreadful disease of the silkworm that had inflicted such terrible injury on the sericultural industry of France and Italy, began to make its appearance. Forced by the necessity of doing something to check such wholesale destruction, the Government established in Tokyo in April of 1884 the Silkworm Disease Laboratory. The result of the experiments there conducted was the adoption of Pasteur's method oi " grainage cellulaire." Up to Sericulture Institutes. 171 1886 experiments not only on febrine but also on flaeherie and nius- cardine were continued, and the reports embodying the results were distributed among all the parties concerned. In the same year, and as a result of those experiments the Government issued Rules for the Inspection of Silkworm Eggs. "' This legislation necessitated the training of men able to conduct the work of in- spection. In 1887 a number of students were collected from all parts of the country and were admitted to the sericultural ex- perimental laboratory established at Nishigahara, Kitatoshima, Tokyo, to receive instruction on the diseases of silkworm and on other important matters relating to sericulture. The scope of the teach- ing was expanded three years later and the standard of the instruc- tion given was raised. Till 1895 the Laboratory conducted, experiments on sericulture, distributed the reports compiled by it and also distributed eggs of such varieties ot worms as were judged best. At the same time the Laboratory attended to the woik of turning out experts on sericulture. Coming to 1896, the scope of the business was expanded with the consent of the Imperial Diet which advised the Government to establish sericultural schools of larger scope and better organization both at Tokyo and Kyoto. Thus in March of the same year the former sericultural Laboratory was superseded by a sericultural school in Tokyo, while, coming to 188i). another institute was started at Kinukasa-mura, Kadono-gari, Kyoto-fu. The two institutes have to take charge of the following matters : — 1. Instruction in sericulture. 2. Experiments and investigations in sericulture. 3. Lecture on sericulture. 4. Distribution of silkworm eggs. 5. The answering of queries. The courses are of two kinds, main course and special course. In the former which extends over two years, the students are taught the scientific principles and practices of sericulture, while in the other course which lasts for only five months the students are instruct- ed chiefly in the practical side and in the elementary principles of this important art. The number of graduates thus far number 1078 Further, there were 49 men who in 1888, were granted licenses to undertake the esamination of silkworm eggs to supplement the- 172 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20t'i Century. staif of inspectors for the better enforcement of the Rules for the Inspection of Silkworm Eggs, while from 1901 a special course was created at the two sericultural institutes above mentioned for the benefit of experienced sericultiirists who wished to acquire some knowledge of the diseases of silkworm. The number of students at this course are : — Tokyo, Kyoto. 1901 40 40 1902 43 40 1903 SI 5° Total 134 130 LOCAL SERICULTURE INSTITUTES. With the sudden rise in the prosperity of the sericultural industry soon after the Restoration, people from those places where the industry had just been started flocked to Nagano, Fukushima, Gumma and other districts where sericulture had been carried on from former times, in order to obtain some knowledge on the subject. The result was that several experts in those sericultural districts combined together and established institutes with the object of more conveniently imparting the necessary knowledge to the aspirants. The most notable of such private institutes were the Kakeda Institute in Fukushima-ken, the Takayama Institute in ■Guraraa-ken, and the Kyoshinsha Institute in Saitama. But the training given at those places confined itself almost exclusively to -the practical side of the industry. This lack of any scientific side in this system of training stood very much in the way of those graduates from keeping up with the new requirements of the times. A regular system of sericultural education soon began to be provided in many parts, either as a special course in agricultural «c]iools or as the only course in special sericultural schools or institutes, maintained either out of the public funds or by private State Silk-Vunditioninrj House-. 173 bodies. The sericultnral ii;stiUites that now exist number 125. altogetter. Y. STATE SILK-CONDITIONING HOUSE. It was suggested long ago in some quarters that as a means of promoting the export of ouv silk a regular silk-conditioning house slid. lid be established to undertake the weighing of net and condition -weight of silk and determine its quality. More than once the matter received the serious attention of both the public and Government, but it was not till 1894 that the arrangements for the establishment of such an institution were finally made and that two silk-conditioning liousas were opened, one at Yokohama and the other at Kobe, the former in August of 1896 and the latter in June of the same year. Unfortunately the Kobe establisment had to close its doors in April of 1901, owing to the fact that it had, not sufficient business to justify its existence. On the other hand the business at the Yokohama establishment grew more and more active with the lapse of time, and to-day it is^ universally regarded as an important organ of our silk industry. The work undertaken at this establishment covers the following subjects : — 1. To determine the net weight of silk. 2. To determine the condition weight of silk. 3. To examine the number of breakages by means of re- reeling the silk and to determine the rate of such break- ages per reel. 4. To examine the size of the filaments and to determine their relative uniformity. 5. To examine the relative number of flues and sluflfs in the filaments. 6. To determine the elasticity and tenacity of the filaments. 7. To examiuo the relative quantities of gummy substances present in tlie filaments and to determine the relative de- crease in the quantity incidental to boiliiig-ofF. Of the foregoing seven items the most important are tlie first. four, although the House is prepared to go througli all the pevea 174: Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. stages of examination at the request of applicants. Most of the ap- plications made at present are in connection with the determination of condition weight, the next greater number of applications relate to breakages and to the size, after which come the applications about elasticity, tenacity, and the presence of flues and sluffs. Ap- plications about net weight and boiling-off are extremely rare.. The number of examinations conducted at the House since its inception are as follows : — 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 year. year. year. year. year. year. year. ■Gross Weight — 18 I 68 42 2 161 Net Weight 221 178 232 737 4,007 18,236 38,751 Determination of Grade ... 968 2,431 4,636 8,469 7,079 15.003 28,749 Softening Diminution ••• 47 16 IS 7 21 2 4 Total 1,236 2,643 4,884 9,281 11,189 33,244 67,66s Note : — Examinations coming under Nos. 3. 4. 5. 6, in the preceding seven items were all included in the foregoing table in tlie column of " determination of grade." The reason why the number of applications relating to the de- termination of net weight showed a sudden increase from 1900, the year of the enforcement of the revised treaty, was due to the fact that our silk merchants, desirous of removing various abuses that had previously existed in the business carried on between them and forcigu exporters, had concluded with the latter a special arrange- ment by which the latter were entitled to demand a certain fixed rate of damages, iu case the rate of humidity of the silk exceeded the prescribed, limit At first the House was not quite prepared to meet with the sudden increase in the number of applications that resulted ; but owing to the necessary expansion made in 1901 in the scope of its arrangement, to-day it is ready^ to undertake with promptitude all si'.cli applications, so that both in the scope of the work it does and in its efficiency, the House can at present bear comparison with its foreign iiumpeers. YI. IMPERIAL ESTABLISHMENT OP TEA INDUSTRY. Placed vinder the control of the Bureau of Agriculture, the Im- jjeiial Establisliraent of Tea Industry at Nishigahara in Kitatosbima Animal Epidemic Laboraiory. 175 district, undertakes all the work relating to the cultiTation of the tea-plant, the modes of curing the leaves and the improvement thereof, and the answering of all inquires coming from general tea man- ufactures and dealers. Finally, the establishment carries out inquiries into the state of the tea industry and market at home and abroad. It was established in 1896. VII. ANIMAL EPIDEMIC LABORATORY. Japan has often been subject to one or other kind of epidemic, as is shown by the almost constant outbreaks of anthrax that take place in the Kyushu and Kinai districts where almost every year hundreds of cattle and horses fall victims to that disease. Serious loss has frequently been sustained by our stock farmers owing to the introduction of rinderpest from the continent, while glanders, farcy, rauschbrand, moonblindness, chicken cholera are diseases from which our stock farmers and poultry are suffering. It was to provide against such calamity that in 1891 the Bureau of Agriculture of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce established the Anima- Epidemic Laboratory with the object of ascertaining the best ptel ventive measures to be taken, the work as conducted thus far by the Laboratory having been very beneficial. "We may briefly describe it as follows, reserving further details for. a future occasion. Its object, then, is to carry out: — 1. Experiments with tuberculiue in cases of tuberculosis in cattle. 2. Experiments on Mr. Charvaux's anti-anthrax inoculation. 3. Experiments on the connection of fowl's blood with anthrax. 4. Experiments with regard to injections made in the case of milk cows when they are suffering from tuberculosis and with regard to the feeding of such cows. 5. Experiments to determine the part played by ordinary flies and horse-tlies as media in the spread of cattle epidemic. 6. Experiments with regard to the cultivation of the germs of true farcy and glanders and experiments on inocula- tion with these germs. 176 Jwpan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. 7. Experiments on Mallein injections. 8. Experiments on the effect of silver nitrate and solution of percliloride of iron in cases of fowl diplitheria. 9. Experiments on blood-serum injection as preventive against chicken cholera. 10. Investigation with regard to preventive remedies and blood- serum treatment in the case of rinderpest. 11. Experiments in which immunity from anthrax has been effected by means of a certain disease germ. 12. Experiments on blood-serum treatment as a preventive of anthrax. 13. Practical application of the result of Dr. Mereskkowsky's investigations on the subject of getting rid of rodents by means of typhus germs. 14. Experiments on the duration of the ofRcacy of tuberculin. 15. Experiments on the jieriod of preparing blood-serum for use in case of anthrax. 16. Experiments on the duration of cfheacy of blood-serum treatment as preventive against anthrax. 17. Investigation into the effective composition of tubei-culin. 18. Experiments on the anti-rauschbrand inoculation. 19. Experiments on blood-serum treatment as preventive against rauschbrand. yill. IMPERIAL CATTLE BREEDING FARM. General Remarks. — Japanese cattle being of inferior quality, impure in breed, and therefore coming far below those of the West whether for meat or for milk, the necessity for improving the breed has long been felt, especially in view of the marked advance that has taken place recently in the volume of consumption of milk and meat in our country. The birth-rate too of cattle does not even keep pace with the rate of slaughter. However the question of improving the breed having been regarded as one of greater urgency than that of increasing the birth-i-ate, and as the importation of costly foreign elcattcan hardly be undertaken by private individuals or even by Imperial Cattle Breeding Farm. 177 communal bodies, the Government was obliged to start on its own account number of years ago the Shimosa Breeding Pasture and undertook the business of improving the breed of cattle and horses by hiring out for breeding purpose cattle and horses imported from abroad. Unfortunately, to the keen regret of all concerned, this pasture was abolished not long after. The necessity for re-opening a similar pasture was soon felt by the public, and petitions were sent by our stock farmers to the authorities asking for the restoration of former arrangement. At last the matter was taken up by the Im- perial Diet, which passed a representation urging the resumption of measures for improving the breed of cattle and horses. The sug- gestion was adopted by the Government, and in 1900 the official organization relating to state cattle breeding pasture was enacted and the Nanatsukahara Cattle Breeding Pasture, the 1st station of this kind, was established in May of the same year at Yamauchi Higashi- mura, Hiba-gori, Hiroshima-ken. At the same time a special com- mission was appointed entrusted with the work of drawing up a programme of improvements that might be made and of advising the Department of Agriculture and Commerce on all matters relating to such improvements. The Commission was composed of officials of the Department, Professors of the College of Agriculture of the Imperial Tokyo University and other experts. PuECHASE OF Beeeding Cattle. — In the 1900 fiscal year an expert was dispatched abroad to making purchase of cattle and swine for breeding purposes. At the same time Japanese cows were bought in the same way for breeding purposes in the provinces of Hiroshima and Tottori. This purchase both of foreign and domestic cattle was repeated in the following year so that altogether the purchases made during the two years numbered as follows : — Breed. Sex, 1900. 1901. Total. Ayrshire Cows .•• ••• ••• ... 9 II 20 „ Bulls ■■a .,a ••• ... 3 2 5 Simmenthal Cows <*• ••• "•• ... 7 8 'S tj Bulls ... 3 2 5 Native Cattle Cows ••• •>• »•• ... 16 5 21 >» Bulls ••■ ••• ... — — — Total fCows 'l Bulls ... ■■• ■•• ... 32 ... 6 24 4 56 lO 178 Japan in the BegiiDiing of the 20th Century. Work. — The work undev taken by the State Pasture includes the investigation of all questions 1. Relating to the improvement of the breed and to the breeding and rearing of cattle. 2. Matters relating to the distribution and wider diffusion of breeding cattle. 3. Matters relating to the control of breeding cattle distributed. 4. Matters relating to the calves from cows paired with breed- ing bulls. Number of Breeding Cattle. — The number of cattle used for breeding was as follows at the end of March, 1902 : — Breed. Sex. Ayrshire Cows ^^ Bulls Simmenthal Cows » Bulls Native Cows jj Bulls Half-breed Cows >» Bulls Total r Cows \ Bulls Imported. Native Breed. Born on the Pasture. Tota ... 20 — lO 30 ... s — 7 12 ... 14 — 6 20 ... S — 6 II ... — 21 I 22 4 4 ... — 4 ... — 4 4 ... 34 ... lo 21 21 17 76 27 Pairing and Breeding. — The pairing is mostly done in the spring, and the birth-rate is 7J to 10 in the case of Ayrshires, 6 in the case of Simmenthals, and 5.55 in that of native cattle. In October of 1901, rules were drawn up to regulate the leasing out for breeding purpose of the bulls kept in the Pasture, the bulls to be paired of course with the proper kind of cows. Milk and BuTTER.^The milk supplied by the cows kept in the Pasture is used for feeding the calves born on the Pasture, the remainder being used for making butter, which, however, does not exceed 100 pounds a month at present. Whatever milk remains is sold direct to dairy-men. Swine. — The improvement in the breed of swine is also attend- ed to at the Pasture, swines for breeding purposes being imported. Im]K'i-ial Hornj Sliid.i ami DrpoU. 179 At the end of May, 1902, the number of swine at the Pasture was as foHows : — Breed. Sex. Imported. Native. ^y^^°^^^^ TotaL Large Vorlishire Sows ... >> » Boars ... ... 2 — 2 ... I — I 2 Middle „ Sows I. ji Boars S)iiall „ Sows „ „ Boars Berlvshire Sows „ Boars Total. /|°*5 - I Boars .., 4 — 37 2 — 46 — 2 4 — 3 5 1-23 6 — 14 20 3 — 12 15 14 — 22 36 7 — 19 26 Sale of Beeeding Swine. — For the purpose of encouraging the improvement of the breed of swine the Pasture sold during the 1901 fiscal year 36 swine, 18 sows and 18 boars. IX. IMPERIAL HORSE STUDS AND DEPOTS. History. — The breeding of horses being rightly regarded as of vital importance to the prosperity and strength of the country, the Government commenced early in the jMeiji era to improve the breed of horses by importing stallions for that purpose. The result was not wholly satisfactory owing to mistakes in the selection of breeds, and also in the pairing. But the interest of the country did not allow this business to be left neglected and the Government, warn- ed by its past failures, decided to carry out thorough preliminary investigations as to the best way of dealing with this important matter, and to appoint a Special Commission for that purpose. At last in July of 1895 a Commission was appointed, and this Commission, as a result of investigations extending till 1897, submitted a report representing among other things the necessity of establishing horse studs and depots. This representation was approved of by the Government. It also obtained the consent of the Imperial Diet. Based on the inquiries carried out by experts dispatched to all the important horse breeding districts in the country, the 180 Japan in the Beginning of the 20c/i Century. programme proposed the establishment of two studs and 10 depots and their completion in about seven years. In June of 1896 the official arrangements for the establishment of state horse studs and depots were completed, and two studs and three depots were established. At the same time inspectors and other officials to take charge of the breeding business were appointed, and a few years after the Horse Section was created in the Bureau of Agriculture. The improvement programme aims at completing the arrange- ments at the two studs and of increasing the number of depots to the prescribed limits, so that 10 per cent, of the breeding stallions required throughout the country may be supplied at those stations. The authorities are also contemplating the enforcement of castration in order to complete the improvement of the breeding programme. WoEK. — The work to be undertaken at the Studs and Depots is regulated as follows : — A. The Studs are to deal with all 1. Matters relating to the improvement of the breed of horses and all experiments in connection with their breeding and rearing. 2. Matters relating to the supplementing and distribution of breeding stallions. B. The Depots are to deal with all 1. Matters relating to the breeding of breeding stallions. 2. Matters relating to the breeding stallions. 3. Matters relating to the control of private breeding stallions, 4. Matters relating to the colts born of mares paired with breeding stallions. NuMBEE OP Studs and Depots. — At present two studs and nine depots exist. Of the two studs one is located in Aomori-ken and the other in Kagoshima-ken. A depot is located in the prefec- tures of Iwate, Kumamoto, Miyagi, Akita, Fukushima, Miyazaki, Shimane, Aichi, and Ishikawa. PuECBASE OF Beeedixg Hoeses. — Not less than two ex- perts are dispatched abroad every year to effect the purchase of breeding horses. These numbered as follows up to the 1901 fiscal year. Imperial Horse Studs and Depots. NUMBER OF BREEDING HORSES PURCHASED ABROAD. 181 Breed, Pure Arabs Arabs Sex. /Mares ... \ Stallions ( Mares ... \ Stallions Pure Anglo-Arabs l^'--^^- Trotters Thoroughbreds Anglo-Arabs Hackneys J Mares ... \ .Stallions f jNIares ... \ Stallions f Mares ... \ Stallions /Mares ... \ Stallions TotaL . S . 7 . 6 . 3' . 9 . II ■ 5 . lO • 3 • 3 2 . 4 . 4 . 5 77 Besides the above, a large number of breeding horses were purchased at home, as follows : — Mares Stallions... ••• ••• 191 283 474 Pairing. — The depots undertake the pairing of the stalliona kept therein with mares belonging to private individuals. This was done previously free of charge, but a small fee has been charged since the 1902 fiscal year for pairing with superior stallions, mostly of imported breeds, owing to the fact that too many appli- cations for pairing had been sent in. The necessary permission being of course only given to mares properly qualified, the colts born of the mares by the stallions kept at the Depots are much better than those generally produced. The object of the Studs is to keep mares and stallions and to supply superior stallions for the Depots, but as these Depots have not yet come up to the prescribed number, the stallions kept at the Studs are allowed to pair to some extent with mares of private people. This pairing was therefore started in the same fiscal year, a fee being charged, as in the case of the Depots. 182 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The number of pairings carried out at the Studs and Depots during the five years ended 1901 is as follows : — Stallions used for pairing ... Numbers of mares paired ... 454 9,8o6 It may be noted that at the Studs the pairing with mares kept by private people was started from 1899. Colts. — The colts born of mares paired with the stallions kept at the Pastures and Studs are as follows : — Foreign Breed. Half Breed. Native Breed. Total. Stallions. Mares. Stallions. Mares. Stallions Mares Stallions. Mares. 1897 ... . ... — 6* 3* 6* 4* 12* 7* 1898 ... . f 3* I 3 2* 2 10* 41 13* 45 27 2* 29 13* 71 17* 76 1899... . 4* I* 23* 72 25* 80 7* 71 6* 58 34* 143 32* J38 1900 ... . . ...{-* 6* I 29* 138 21* 140 5* 209 6* 200 32* 347 31* 341 igoi ... . / 8* 8* I 47* 23S 44* 245 320 ols §5* 560 S2* Notes : — The figures marked with an asterisk denote the colts born of mares kept at the Studs, the rest being born of mares kept by private people. Number of Hoeses. — The number of horses at the Studs and Depots at the end of the 1901 fiscal year were: — Foreign Breed. Half Breed and Native Breed. Farm Horses. Total. O-n Stud Kyushu Stud Iwate Depot Kumamoto Depot Miyagi Depot Akita Depot Fiikushima Depot ?03i 666 4,711 581 498 S 27 1,604 -SI 61 1894 251 57 243 442 418 7 6 1,45s 39 46 1S95 1,483 258 1,308 377 322 7 24 1,332 54 26 1896 969 139 1,298 545 504 — 22 1,537 76 51 1897 6,190 508 6,722 573 481 I 42 1,899 47 80 1898 _ _ _ 534 496 — 30 2,227 96 6r 1899 — — — 609 545 — 64 1,770 ICO 91 1900 191 9 669 856 829 — 18 782 74 47 1901 103 8 314 542 512 1 22 442 18 22 1902 88 13 153 599 528 — 24 530 27 17 TALLE XO. 2. Kauschbrand. Pseudo-Farcy. Foot & Mouth Disease. Rabies. 1897 •• 18 17 — — — — — — — — ___ — 1898 ... 63 52 — I _ — — — — — — 64 22 33 1899 ... 60 63 2 I 237 2 3 61 — — _ 120 — — 1900... 97 95 — — 689 II 33 568 2,322 30 1,950 247 146 96 1901 ... 76 74 I I 899 19 38 679 627 52 564 189 61 128 1902 ... 9S 95 — — '''7° 34 106 1,037 522 13 S09 107 31 76 -Note : Rauschbrand was separated from anthrax from 1897, they having been mixed together formerly; pseudo-farcy was included in glanders and farcy till 1899, while rabies was first included in 1897 m the list of diseases prevalent among domestic beasts. 198 Japan in the Beginning of the 20 and the other " green-necked." Goose and turkey are not yet reared to any large quantity, they being mostly intended for use of foreign, residents. At the end of 1901 the poultry returns stood thus : — Barn-fowls Ducks ... Turkeys ... Geese ... Number. Value. 10,847,853 3^438,561 257,796 128,438 2,021 3,189 9,169 7,109 III. EGGS. The eggs produced at home are far from supplying home demand,, in consequence of which the quantity of Chinese eggs coming in is- steadily on the increase. Subjoined are figures showing the quantity produced at home and of the import from China. OUT-PUT AT HOME. Number. Value. Barn-fowls ... Ducks Turkeys Geese 533,406,628 7,823,734 65,996 327,716 IMPORT FROM CHINA. yen. 6,631,481 131,496 4,056 8,495 Year. Number. Value. 1898 1899 46,522,000 67,280,000 yen. 490,462 823,088 1900 95,830,000 1,238,661 1901 99,294,000 1,293,565 1902 92,133,000 1, 19.^,0 ;j; Bee-Keeping. 203 CHAPTER IX.— Bee-Keeping. The earlist record about bee-keeping in our history is one regard- ing the preaent of honey bees by a Korean Prince to the Empre.iS Kotoku (642-645 A.D.). At present the honey is produced at lyo, Tosa, Chikuzeu, Higo, Tamba, Tsushima, Shimane, Kai, Chikugo,. etc. The output cannot be accurately known, but it is roughly estimated at about 200,000 Mn. Bkeeds. — Generally speaking, there are three varieties of honey, bees now in Japan, they being the Japanese breed that originally came from Korea, the Italian variety, and the Cyprian variety. Tlie first is hardy but is far inferior to the foreign breeds in the amount of the honey secreted. The Italian breed, though an excellent collector of honey, cannot stand the cold so well as the Japanese bee, Sq that it can be kept in the southern districts only. The last variety is best adapted for Japan, both in the large quantity of honey it secretes and on account of its hardy character. As yet the business of bee-keeping remains in a primitive condition, and both in the keeping and the refining of honey very little caie is exercised by our farmers. A little more care employed would be sure to make this business very profitable. 204 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAATER X.— Famiefs* Subsidiary Work. Tke question of how best to utilize what we may call hours of enforced idleness is one of special importance for the farmers in such a country as Japan where farming is carried on an extremely limited scale and with such attention to minutiae as to leave very little room for further expansion, r.nd where farming work is generally suspended on account of climatic condition during winter. The kinds of subsidiary occupations pursued by our farmers are therefore many. They may be given as follow.-f : — 1. The manufacture of starch, konnyaku, smnen (kind of macca- roni) frozen buckwheat maccaroni, frozen mochi, frozen toju, frozen konnyaku, jam, dried persimmon fruits, dried peels of gourd, dried radish peel, etc. 2. The manufacture of mat-facing, straw-plaids, mats used for rearing silkworms, matches, cords, nets, willow-paekets' rush head-gear, straw raincoats, head-gear made of basks of bamboo-sprouts, coir-ropes, straw-ropes, charcoal-bags, straw-hats, etc. 3. Weaving of fabrics, spinning of yarns, manufacture of silk, paper, and various kinds of basket-work. 4. Extraction of oil, aquiculture, salt-making, charcoal-burning, lime-making, camphor-refining, etc. lu some cases fanners divide their time and labor almost equally between those " odd jobs " and their regular farming work, being therefore partly farmers and partly manufactuiers of goods Expovtii and Imports. 205 CHAPTER, — Agricultural Products in Gjmmerce. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. As is quite natural, the throwing open of the country to foreign commerce hiis had different effects on the prosperity of different agri- cultural products, for while some, such as silk, tea, etc. have been raised to a state of extraordinary development by the foreign demand for them, others such as cotton, indigo, etc. have suffered seriously from the competition of foreign products. 3QS of A. EXPORTS. acts for export The chief itei agricultural prodi and the amount thereof are given below in unit of thousand ; ; — 1898 (in thou- sand.) 1899 (in thou- sand.) 1900 (in thou- sand.) 1901 (in thou- sand.) 1902 (in thou- sand.) Rice / picul ■• \yen 1,050 5,920 2,178 10,282 933 3.576 1,301 6,go8 1,269 6,679 Raw Silk Skin ■■\ym 4,837 42,047 S.946 62,627 4,630 44,657 8,697 74,667 8,07s 76,859- Noshi and Waste Silk . 4,091 2,655 4,388 4,074 3,900 4,161 4,789 4,468 5.193 5,713 Green Tea I " "l ., 25,845 7,862 27,998 7,699 2,261 7,998 26,651 7,819 27.730 9,825 Other Tea 4,981 353 6,733 799 5,978 93' 6,596 1,034 5,029 658 Matting . Lily Bulbs ... yen /No. ■• \yen 3,938 5,100 128 3,717 6,083 258 3,310 704S 257 5,431 8,979 266 6,772 8,331 Ground Nuts jkin. •■ \yen 3,012 "5 3,298 144 5,305 240 8,817 404 8,089 358 Ginseng... ». ... ■kin ••' jen 356 423 402 476 402 407 419 452 363 369 Mint M« ••. ■ ••{ :: 45 IS8 76 268 dl 120 545 "3 628 Straw Plaids /bundles 5,961 •• \ye,i 2,404 7,134 2,770 8,802 4,025 6,974 2,986 8,6 1 1 2,9J8 Wood Wax ikin •■\ym 3,798 609 4,S69 642 3.702 S61 4P49 610 4,2i6 789 Cotton *. . " . „ 824 218 743 209 1,009 323 950 308 754 282^ '206 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The export of minor items worth mentioning in 1902 was as follows : — Mn. yen. Chillis 804,699 £4,889 Oranges 3.2S5.743 114,863 Potatoes 7,882,380 158,716 Vegetables and Fruits — 182,106 Plants, Trees, Shrubs, etc — 122,459 Seeds — 79,i2i Snake-gourd 3,957,602 118,987 Ginger 2,303,512 3I7>643 Feathers 365,03° 8i,"7« Rice. — The quantity of rice going abroad being naturally determined by the condition of the crop at home and the condition of the foreign markets, it varies considerably according to the year. The places of destination, though not firmly fixed, are generally Hongkong, Germany, Australia, England, the United States of America, etc. The rice grown in Kyushu and the districts bordering the Inland Sea is most acceptible to foreign consumers. Raw Silk. — Raw and waste silk constitute about 30 per cent. of the bulk of the export trade. The United States is the best customer of our silk, taking about 60 per cent, of the entire export, followed by France, Italy, etc. This important export product chiefly come from the central part of Honshu. Tea. — Tea comes next to raw silk as the most important agri- - cultural product for export trade, though its prosperity has somewhat declined lately owing to the encroachment of Indian and Ceylon teas in the market of the United States, which together with Canada is the best customer for this goods. Green tea is in demand in the above two places while brick tea goes to Russia. Matting. — Though it is an industry of comparatively recent ■ origin, matting now occupies an important place in our list of exports. The United States is here again our best customer. Okayama and Hiroshima are the principal centers of produce. LiLY-tuLBs. — These bulbs mostly go to the United States and -England where they are used for producing the flower. GEOiffjfD-NUTS. — The export has increased lately, the principal Imporit. 207 markets being Hongkong, Australia, United States, etc. The fruit is either used for food or for the extraction of oil. Ginseng. — ^The export is practically confined to China, and thei^fore its market is limited. Mint. — The export of mint shows more or less of an increase, though that increase is necessarily confined within narrow limit. It goes to Hongkong, Germany and the United States. Straw-Pi>aits. — This product constitutes one of the most important items of our export trade, having recently developed a marked activity, with the tendency of greater improvement of quality in future. The goods are principally exported to England; the United States, Hongkong, Australia, etc., being our next best customers. Vegetable- Wax.— The market shows every sign of shortly becoming enlarged, the principal consumers at present being Hong- kong, Germany, the United States, etc. Eaw-Cotton. — Korea and Siberia are the principal customers ■of the cotton. B. IMPORTS. Sulgoined is the list of the principal items of agricultural pro- ducts coming into Japan. Rice., Flour Sugar Beans Malt., iRaw Cotton Cocoons Tussa Silk Yarn Cocoons 1898 (in thou- sand.) 1899 (in thou- sand.) 1900 (in thou- sand.) 190I (in thou- sand.) 1903 (in thou- yaiul,) ■ picul 11,696 48,219 1,650 5,960 2,286 9,021 3" 2,878 4,509 17,750 'kin -\ym 38.855 2,022 29,001 •,37o 84.229 3,882 62,972 2,873 72,104 3,-78 "picul — \ym 4,369 28,439 2,731 17,516 4,045 36,606 4,928 33,493 2,63s 14,467 ( picul — \yen 2,406 7,101 308 8,822 1.707 4.817 1,938 5,32s 1,801 4,956 ( kin - \yen 3.042 293 4,264 468 5,642 619 6,586 765 2,oS6 330 ( picul 2,453 45,744 3.472 62,210 2,608 59.471 1,579 60,650 3,486 179,78+ \kin — '^yeti 458 212 807 642 598 618 441 342 649 546 -{ : »5 37 15' 375 148 351 213 433 41S 9.\ 208 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. ( 1898 in thou- sand.) 1899 (in thou- sand.) 1900 in thou- sand.) 1901 (in thou- ( sand.) 1902 in thou- sand.) Hemp / " 7,232 S90 12,610 1,245 14,514 1,700 12,965 1,370 13,265 1,602 Oil-cake ' picul 2,101 4,614 2,795 9,791 2,280 5,696 3,477 8,109 3,070- 8,670. Eggs- . yen 492 826 1,243 1,298 1,196 Indigo 1,806 2,270 1,768 2,903 1,851 3,902 1,243 2,665 i,4»7 3,097 Wool ■■{:: 2,838 1,642 7,746 4,324 4,514 3,919 4,952 3,129 4,066^ 3,397 Condensed Milk ... . / dozen •■ \yeu 174 359 173 389 300 663 279 646 377 863 Hides and Leathers (kin •• \ym 2,922 587 3,104 719 2,696 656 3,344 786 3,323. 8ii Minor items worth mentioning in 1902 were as follow.? :— - kin. yen. Butter 198,457 140,327 Margarine 143,988 51,56s Cheese 72,044 3o,3«z Cofice 139,377 41,857 Tea 125,396 30,469 Cottonseeds .. 56,316,511 787,667 Sesame Seeds.. 7,945,636 426,753 Grains and Seeds — 1,231,170 Leaf-tobacco . — 950,816 Land, Tallow and Grease 825,045 105,886 Hairsi Bristles, etc. 220,828 294,410 Wheat ... . 8,653,443 240,050 Rice. — Rice comes in from Korea, Tonquin, British India and Siam, especially when the rice crop fails in our countjry. The imported rice is generally inferior in quality and is patronized almost exclusively by the poorer classes. Floue. — The import of flour has gone up to large figures recently, owing to the fact that the native product is not well suited for making cakes and other articles of food made of flour. The goods come principally from the United States, Canada, and Australia. SuGAK. — The import of sugar is also advancing in rapid strides, the consumption of this important article of diet having Imports. 20^ remarkably increased of late. Brown sugar comes chiefly from the Philippines, Java, Hongkong and China, while Hongkong is the larsjest importer of the refined variaty, followed by Germany and Hungary. irSoiANS. — As raw material for making soy, tofu, miso, also as manure the import of the goods amounts to a large quantity. How- ever the figures are gradually falling off owing to the activity recently of bean cultivation in Hokkaido. Malt. — The great development recently of the business of brewing beer and the insufficient supply of malt of the required excellence has led to the introduction of a large quantity of foreign malt. However, as the quality of the home-made article is gradual- ly improving, the import may not attain any .particular increase in future. Germany, Hungary, and the United States, particularly the first country, supply the bulk of this malt. Raw Cotton. — A recent extraordinary development of the spinning business and the unsuitedness of native cotton for the pur- pose, has resulted in a large purchase of this raw material from foreign countries, especially from Bombay, the United States, China, and Egypt. Cocoons and Tussee Yaen. — Both come from China, they being used by our weavers. The latter is regarded with special favor by them, owing to its low price. The import of the former has lately gone down to some extent. Hempen Goods. — These are coming in a gradually increasing quantities from China, the Phillippines and India. Oil-Cakes. — Of all the cakes imported into this country, bean-cakes form the bulk. The import shows an extraordinary advance, the demand of our farmers for the cakes as fertilizers having become enormous. The bean-cakes are shipped from Newchwang, and the rape-seed cake, which also comes in a greater or less extent, from Shanghai. Fbesh Eggs. — Owing to the growing consumption of eggs at home, the import of eggs from China is very large, the market being very low there. The recent imposition of a heavier tarifi' on the goods and the steady progress made by the poultry business at home may check any further expansion of the import. 210 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Wool. — Wool comes from China, Australia, Germany, England, ■etc., the home supply of this raw material being out of proportion to the demand. Condensed Milk. — This comes from England and the United States. No large increase of the import in future is probable, in view of the fact that the diary industry is developing steadily at home. Hides and Leathers. — These come, especially the former, from Korea most, and then from China, India, etc. Cotton and Sesame Seeds. — These are imported for the ex- pressing of oil from them but their import is falling off. The former is chiefly intended to produce fertilizer from and the latter is used for obtaining .cooking oil. Both come from China. In short, of the principal items of agricultural products exported from Japan, raw silk, tea, mats, straw plaids, and rice figure most ■on the list, while on the other hand rice, flour, raw cotton, sugar, indigo, oil-cakes, etc. are the principal items on the import list of .agricultural products. Provisions Belaling to Protection and Encouragement, 211 CHi^FTER XL— Agricultural Legislation. Provisions Relating to Protection and Enconragement- Provisions Relating to Calamity. I. PROVISIONS RELATING TO PROTECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT. Ageicultukal Societies. — For the better protection of agricultural interests and the encouragement of the industry, our farmers established early in the era agricultural associations in many parts of the country. However it soon became evident that those organizations could not render effective service unless the Govern- ment extended to them some help. Consequently coming to June, 1889, the Ijaw of Agricultural Societies was promulgated with the- consent of the Diet, and the Rules of Operation of the same in the following year, the legislature providing among other things a grant of not more than 150,000 yen every year to the societies established in conformity with the law. The creation of a society was of course left to the discretion of the farmers themselves, the only interference exercised by the local authorities being the forcing of all those who had not already joined a society established in their own districts to join it. There were in the 1903 fiscal year 46 agricultural societies throughout the country, their expenses amounting altogether to 511,021 yen with State aid aggregating 148,496 yen. Besides those societies which were prefectural organizations, there were 561 subordinate societies in rural districts or cities, and over 10,000 in towns and villages. Industrial Guilds. — The extension of a similar protection to small farmers and small manufacturers was also considered necessary. After repeated failures to devise some legislative measure having for its object the giving of such protection, the Law relating- 212 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. to Industrial Guilds was at last promulgated in Marcli of 1900 with the consent of the Diet. As only a short time has intervened since the enforcement of the Law, no specific statement may be given here, except that the provision is likely to prove extremely useful. The number of guilds established under the Law was as follows according to the returns on Oct. 15, 1902:— TT- J Limited Guarantee Unlimited _, , *^'°'^- Liability. Liability. Liability. •^°''''- 87 6 218 3u 31 3 4 38 30 3 38 71 5 — S 10 24 I 26 51 Credit Sales Purchase Produce Combining more than two Services Total 177 J3 291 481 Note : — In the table the small number of guilds organized by peojl; who are not themselves engaged in farming are included. Even prior to the enforcement of the Law a large number of similar guilds existed. In 1898 these numbered 346 with 64,388 members and possessing property valued at 968,141 yen. Of these the silk sales guilds were most important, and some of them undertook the sale of silk to the value of about 3 million yen a year. Some of them, too, were established as far back as 230 years ago. Then there are several hundred guilds, organized on the rules laid down by the celebrated economist and moralist Ninomiya. The industrial guilds being considered as corporations of public utility are exempted from the payment of the Income aud the Business Taxes, while those established on the limited liability system are entitled to get a loan from the Local Hypothec Banks without security. As the state of things in HokkaidS is different from that pre- vailing in the rest of Japan proper, special legislation of this kind was enacted for it in 1900. Staple Products Guilds. — The existence of guihls organized by business people engaged in the same or in kindred pursuits was recognized several centuries ago, as for instance, in the Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement. 213 •case of the stock-brokers in Yedo (now Tokyo) and Oaaka. In consequence of these guilds tending to become monopolies, they were once suppressed but this ban was removed after the Restoration. During the space of about thirty years extending to 1900 when the existing Law for Staple Products Guilds was enacted, the history of the organization of guilds by various business interests is exceedingly complicated, owing to the fact that while the necessity of such organizations was universally admitted their imperfect supervision by the local authorities soon destoryed their utility in regard to their original aim of preventing the production of inferior goods and also of giving general protection to the interests. The promulgation in April of 1897 of the Law relating to Staple Export Commodities Guilds marked a new and important departure in the efficiency of legislation of this sort. Indeed this enactment was regarded as imperatively necessary owing to the production and export of an inferior class of goods, and to the consequent injury done to the prosperity of the various branches of trade. Three years after, the scope of this law was expanded, till it took the shape of the existing legislation. A history of the guilds established by the silk interests is similar, for as they constitute one of the most, if not the most, important interest in the national economy, the people engaged in the business were impelled to combine for their common interest and prosperity. At last with the promulgation of the existing law, the special provisions previously established to regulate the silk guilds were abolished, so that these interests now exist under exactly same law as the others. The existing agricultural guilds number 112 of which 103 are devoted to sericulture and sericultural industries. Adjustment op faem-land. — ^As the work in connection with, the object of adjusting farm-lands has already been described, it is sufficient to state here that the law for regulating this work was promulgated in March of 1899. State aid to Local Ageicultueal Expeeiment Stations.— The result of maintaining the local experiment stations on local disbursements alone Avas not quite a success so far as their efficiency was concerned, and the Government h^ now made a special pro- TJsion for granting pecuniary aid to those farms, this provisioa No. Total Amount of Aid. 35 67,000 4 3,200 21 40,100 4 5,200 214 Japan in the Beginning of the 20tk Century. ooverning also local agricultural institutes and local experimental fishery laboratories and institutes. This grant-in-aid stood as follows at the end of the 1902 fiscal year : — Ix>cal Experiment Stations „ Farming Institutes „ Experimental Fishery Laboratories. . „ Fishery Institutes Total 64 115,700 Silk Conditiojsting. — The Silk Conditioning Houses having been described in the preceding part, it is enough to state here that the rules in connection with this official business were enacted in June, 1895. Rules Relating to Tea Guilds. — The Rules relating to Tea Guilds deserve special notice, as they have proved highly efficient for preventing the appearance of the inferior tea that too frequently impaired the credit of this staple in foreign markets, and in enabling it to hold its ground against the competition of Chinese and Ceylon teas. The enactment was made in 1884 at the instance of the conference of tea dealers and manufacturers held in Kobe in the preceding year. The Rules do not apply to such prefectures as Gunma, Yamanashi, Nagano, Fukushima, Miyagi, Iwate, Aomori, Akita, Yamagata, Kagawa, Okinawa and Tochigi where the tea industry is of insignificant proportion. Rules Relating to Cattle and Horse Guilds. — Very strict rules were enforced during the Tokugawa Regency in dis- tricts famous for the production of cattle and horses, and especially were the rules for the breeding of horses for military use strict. This salutary custom fell, however, into desuetude with the abolition of the Regency and the re- establishment of the Imperial regime. In 1882 or thereabouts the establishment of cattle or horse guilds by the people was encouraged, but the regulations were far from being efficient as they were before. Finally, in February of 190O the existing Law relating to Cattle and Horse Guilds was promulgated -with the consent of the Imperial Diet, and this Law in cohjunctioix Provisions Relating to Protection and Encouragement. 21" with the -work in the State Studs and Depots already described is now conducing in a marked manner to the interest of the industry. The number of guilds existing i:t present is as follows : — Cattle Guilds Horse Guilds Cattle and Horse Guilds Total 25 «37 SO EuLEs Relating to the Control of Breeding Bulls and Stallions. — In accoiJanee with the Notification issued in 1885, rules for controlling breeding bulls and stallions were left to be drawn up by different local offices. Thanks to the bcneficient result of this control the breed of our live stock is gradually im- proving, half breeds and foreign breeds superseding the inferior native breeds. The number of old cattle are diminishing while the stature of cattle and horses in improving. The following data will serve to make this point clear : — (i) NUMBER OF BREEDING BULLS. Year. Jv'^ative Breed. Fore ign Breed. Half Breed. Total. 1897... 1.579 477 342 2,398 i«98... 1,666 502 421 2,589 1899- 1,684 575 533 2,792 1900... 1,980 514 692 2,886 1901... 1,805 489 811 3,i°S (2) STATURE OF BREEDING BULLS. (The standard measure, 4,4 shaku). Native Breed. Foreign Breed. Half Breed. Total. Year. 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Rules Relating to Breeding Stallions.— Over and above the Notification mentioned in the preceeding section the control L-bove. Below. Above. Below. Above. Below. Above. Below. no 1,469 240 237 99 243 449 1,949 128 2,538 306 196 134 287 568 2,021 167 i,5J7 326 249 187 346 680 2,121 197 1,483 298 216 272 420 740 2,119 266 1,539 329 160 427 384 1,022 2,083 21G Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. of breeding stallions is further regulated by a special law issued in 1897. These legislative provisions require all the breeding stallions to be inspected by competent experts and the inspection has resulted in a marked improvement of the breed, as may be seen from the following data. Year. Native Breed Half Breed. Foreign Breed. Total. 1897 5,505 1,145 94 6,744 1898 4,397 1,317 80 5,794 1899 4,200 1,610 104 5,914 1900 3,616 1,769 141 5.526 1901 - 3,i8S 2,251 171 5,607 (2) STATURE OF BREEDING STALLIONS. Year. Below 4.6 shaku. Above 4.6 shaku. Above 4.7 shaku. Total. 1897 ••■ 1,505 1,788 3,271 6,744 1898 1,149 1,447 3,198 5,794 1899 1,051 1,572 3,291 5,914 1900 741 1,137 3,648 5,526 1901 6z6 1,014 3,967 5,607 EuLEs Kelating to the Castration of Horses. — The •earliest authentic record about the custom of castrating horses occurs in the Kyoho ear (1715 — 1737 A.D.) when a large number of Persian horses were presented by some Hollanders to the then Sogun Yoshimune. The Dutchman who brought these horses was the first to introduce into our country the practice of castration as well as the foreign method of breeding horses. Coming to the present regime we find that both the Department of Agriculture and Com- merce and the War Oifice began to perceive the necessity of this practice, and that while in 1880 and 1882 the former issued instruc- tions for the encouragement of it, the latter started as early as 1877 a regular course of instruction to veterinary students. In 1883 the practice was universally applied to war horses. But the public were very slow in availing themselves of those instructions or in following the example set by the Government. The experience gained in the China war by Japan made it more imperative for Japan, however, to adopt this means for the elimination of inferior stallions, and the Provisiom Relating to Protection and Encouragement. 217 promulgation of the existing Law in 1901 was the result. It is provided in this Law that with the exception of approved stallions all other stallions must be castrated at the age of three years, all the expences incidental to the operation to be paid out of the Treasury. The Rules of Operation were issued in 1902, officials were appointed in the Agricultural Bureau to take charge of the business, and finally 94 students were collected in order that they might be initiated into the art at the Military Horse Section. Game Law and Investigations in Conxection with Wild Birds. — No regular rules existed formerly for the protection of useful birds and the destruction of injurious insects, except in the single case of the crane which was the only protected bird in this country before the Restoration. It was in 1873 that regular rules about shooting and hunting were promulgated. These rules underwent repeated amendments till they finally took shape in the present Game Law that was promulgated in 1901. The data about the licenses granted during the recent seven years are given in the following table : — Year. License class A. L cense class B 1895 16,376 125,189 1896 16,991 141,556 1897 16,609 174,334 1898 17,198 178,130 1899 16,966 199,808 1900 16,918 202,862 1901 11,102 102,265 Note : — Licenses of class A. are issued to those who vise fire-arms while licenses of class B. are issued to those who adopt other methods of killing or capturing games. The provisions regarding game preserves were first enacted in the present Law. These preserves number 58 in all, with a ten- dency to increase. The total number of common game preserves is 20, of which 13 existed under the old rules and the rest in conformity with the new. The new Law has proved effective in checking the reckless destruction of birds due to the enormous number of sportsmen in the country, as is shown by the foregoing table which records the 218 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. sudden fall of the number of shooters by about 50 per cent, during the last two years. However no conclusive result can be arrived at on this point until after the lapse of several years more. Several other new provisions were enacted by the new Law, such as the absolute prohibition both of shooting and hunting in the breed- ing season, the establishment of game preserves and other such restrictive measures. In future, therefoxe, the breeding of birds will be more satisfactory than it was during recent years. Wild birds have, it need hardly be said, an important relation to farming and also to forest planting, not to speak of the fact that their feathers and flesh are useful for various purpose.3. In view of this, investigations into the varieties of birds found in Japan were started in 1894, these investigation covering the following points: — 1. Kind of food. 2. Geographical distribution. 3. Season of pairing, ' of laying, etc. 4. Power of multiplication. 5. Natural enemies and friends. 6. Season and extent of migration. 7. Mode of destroying injurious birds. 8. Mode of multiplying useful birds. 9. Relative merit and demerit of the various methods of shoot- ing and hunting. II. PROVISIONS RELATING TO CALAMITY. SuPEEVisioN OF Manure Business. — It is a natural cona sequence that with the progress of farming there should arise demand for manures which are more efficacious than those naturally procurable. But farmers do not generally possess sufficient knowledge to distinguish genuine fertilizers from those that are spurious. In procuring artificial fertilizers they are therefore liable to be duped by dishonest manufacturers and dealers. Convinced of this fact the Local Office of Nara enforced in its jurisdiction rules requiring the dealers to organize themselves into a guild. The result obtained in Nara- ken was so satisfactory that the Government, at the instance of the Diet, enacted in December of 1901 a law for controlling fertilizers. Provisions Relating to Calamity. ' 219 This Law compels all those who manufacture or deal m fertilizers to first get a license, to submit samples of tlieir go )ds to the projjer officials for inspection, and also to guarantee the alleged composition of their fertilizers. At the same time the Government has dis- tributed, for the better enforcement of the regulations, 116 fertiliz2rs inspectors among different districts and has also appointed 20 chemists in the State Experimental Farms to take charge of the analysis of fertilizers. The former necessitated the disbursement by the Government of 109,729 yen and the latter of 38,597 yen. Desteuction and Prevention of Injurious Insects. — The appearance of injurious insects has often proved disastrous to our farmers. One such case was the devastation wrought by locast in Tokachi, Hokkaido, from 1880 to 1882. The prevention of damages done to the crops by injurious insects requiring first of all the united eiforts of all the farmers living in any given vicinity, the Government first issued a Notification on this point in 1885 and this was made more perfect in its working in 1896. The appearance of the rice-plant hopper in the very next year throughout tlie country and the decrease, in consequence, of the year's harvest of rice by 13.8 per cent, of the normal yield, with an extraordinary advance of the market price of rice, at once roused the Government and people to the necessity of devising some preventive measures. Their efforts were crowned with success for no such calamity has since visited the country. Subsequently the infliction of injuries on the crops by parasitic ftingi caused the Government to further amend the regulations and to make them cover, besides injuries from insects, injuries from Buch lower organisms. Inspection of Silk- worm Eggs. — The regulations relating to inspection of silk-worm eggs were first issued in 1886. Tliey left the inspection to be done at the discretion of each locality. This arrangement proved comparatively unsatisfactory and an amend- ment was subsequently effected as to make the regulations uniform for all the provinces and to make the inspection compulsory not only in the case of the spring breed of silk-worms but also in that of the summer and autumn breeds. The cost of inspection and tlie incidental expenses come from the different localities, tlie Govern- '220 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ment confining itself to giving more or less pecuniary assistance, as shown below : — Fiscal year. Inspection Expenses. Aid by Government. yen. yen. 1898 259,817.331 75,234719 1S99 240.277.826 69,600.831 1900 238,837.836 74,124.380 1901 32I.403-364 99-496-I72 Note : — The whole of the inspection expenses for Okinawa and Hokkaido (until the 1900 fiscal year) came from the Treasury. Epidemics of Domestic Beasts. — Owing to the presence of various deterrent causes preventing any widespread develop- ment of stock-farming, and owing also to the mountainous character of the country, the appearance of any serious epidemic among domestic animals was a thing unknown in the olden days. It was when the rinderpest spread with terrible virulence in Siberia early in the era, that the Government first issued a Notificatioa about the prevention of epidemics beasts. Coming to 1872 we find that rinderpest appeared in various places, and that it re-appeared in 1874 and 1875, while another disease, anthrax, making its appear- ance in Saitama-ken, in 1881. On each of these and on all similar occasions, measures were adopted for preventing the spread of the epidemic and for compensating the owners of aSiected animals that were slaughtered. The frequent introduction of afflicted beasts from the continent, especially from Korea, in spite of the various preventive measures taken, led the Government to establish on one occasion special inspection efiices for its own use at Fusan and Jinsen, in Korea, in order that it might inspect the cattle shipped there for this country. Such offices were also established at Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama, to inspect the cattle as also the bones and hides coming from Korea, Siberia and Shanghai. Finally by the Notification issued in April of 1900 the stations'^' at Kobe and Nagasaki were made permanent (they had been only temporary at first) and the stations at the other three places were abolished. The following table shows the returns at the two permanent Provisions Relating to Cahmity. 221 offices and the expenses disbursed by tlie Government on account of the epidemics among domestic animals : — KOBE INSPECTION OFFICE. No, UiU yCii,!. i\o. 01 ^^aiue. ivo. 01 oiieep of Hides. of Bonf 1898 100 5S0 2,655 171 1899 44 I, '43 11,007 3" 1900 96 1,112 7,661 327 I90I 433 977 11,109 5,937 Fiscal year. 1897 1898 1899 1900 190 1 NAGASAKI INSPECTION OFFICE. No. of Cattle. No. of Sheep. ^""•"^J^™"'^^ No. of Package- '^ of Hides. of Bones. — 42 — 10,998 582 711 1,632 29,822 419 2,225 7,354 34>Soi 594 1,779 6,799 67,079 1,569 967 22,231 130,998 DISBURSEMENTS FROM THE TREASURY ON ACCOUNT OF CATTLE PLAGUE, ETC. Fiscal year. yen. Fiscal year. ^m. 1896 ... 64,565.021 1899 ... 26,o6i..v75 1897 ... 23,369.522 1900 ... 71,465.922 1898 ... 21,084.619 1901 - 43,793-753 Since the establishment of the inspection ofSces, it Avas only once at Nagasaki, and that time through the negligence of a foreign steamer, that the country suffered from the introduction of afflicted beasts, the entry of such having been stopped in all other cases. Prevestion of Tuberculosis in Domestic Animals. — The prevalence of tuberculosis among the imported cattle and half- fcreeds has grown formidable, as shown in the following slaugh- ter-house returns of Tokyo : — 222 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Half-Breed. Fore ign Breed. ''^*="- Cow! Mr"''^al. Cow. Ball. Total .o. f No. of cattle slaughtered 734 284 1,018 6 10 ,16 »•! No. of tuberculous cattle 322 105 423 24 6 - [percent, of tuberculous cattle... 43-86?^ 36-97?^ 41-97?^ 33 3°?^ 40?^ 37- S^ ^ f No. of cattle slaughtered 7^3 222 1,004 ' S * ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle 35^ 9i 449 '34 - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 45-77?^ 40-99?^ AA-T^% ^°°% ^°% 66.6)^ ^ ("No. of cattle slaughtered 897 215 1,112 i i 2 °> J No. of tuberculous cattle 347 36 383 I — i - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 38.46% 16.74% 34-44?^ 100?^ — 5°?^ ^ r No. of cattle slaughtered.... ... 1,265 346 1,611 — i I ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle 344 47 39i — i * - (Per cent, of tuberculous cattle... 27.19% 13.58% 24.27% — 100% 100^ „ C No. of cattle slaughtered 1,888 743 2,631 — I i ^ J No. of tuberculous cattle 585 85 670 — I r - (Percent, of tuberculous cattle... 30.98% 11.44% 25.46% — 100% 100% Ah siown in the above table, of the 5,791 cattle of either foreign or half breed that were slaughtered during the five years under review, no less than 2,332 were affected by tuberculosis, that is to say, 42.7^ of the whole. A similar state of things may probably exist in other places, but reports of this sort are not yet accurately known. This disease appears, however, to be rare, if it exists at all, among the indigenous cattle. The control of cattle suffering from this disease being impera- tively necessary both for the improvement of the cattle and for the sake of the public hygiene, a law for preventing tuberculous cattle was promulgated in 1900. Accordingly inspection is enforced at Yokohama, Kobe and Nagaisaki over imported cattle, the object of the in.spection being to ascertain the presence or absence of any tuberculous disease in such cattle. Here are the returns for 1901. No. of Cattle Inspected. N°- °''^^'^°^ Yokohama 37 — Kobe 207 4 Nagni-alii 988 6 As the Law for the Prevention of Tuberculosis in Cattle came into full force in July, 1903, the disease may lie stamped oat in the near future. Provisions Relating to Calamity. 223^ To provide a staff of qualified inspectors at all places of impor- tance, the Government decided to train about 200 sucli men during the 1902 and 1903 fiscal years. The first batch of 35 students all of them qualified to secure a license as veterinary surgeon, were admitted in September of 1902. The course extends over two months during which the pupils attend lectures on bacteorology, climical examination, post-mortem examinations and dissection practices, examination of milk, flesh and urine, and the rules relat, ing to epidemic diseases inflicting domestic beasts. 224 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION II. FORESTRY, IntFoductory Area and Oernership of the Forests — Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions— Adjustment of the Forests — Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests— Forest-Planting and Transport — Wood-Produce — Official Supervision of the Forests — Education — Legiilative Measures. I. INTRODUCTORY. TiEE forests of Japan, her natural ornament, which occupy more than one half the area of the Island Empire, would appear to have exerted an inspiring influence upon the mind of her in- habitants, for their love of forests and the luxuriant sylvan growth is observed to be almost intuitive. We are also inclined to think that the Japanese may owe their patriotism and aesthetic sense to the profoundly sympathetic influence the forests seem to have exercised upon them. They are instinctively aware of their duties, — so to speak — towards the forests as is indicated by the endeavors they never spare to meet the ever increasing demand for the produce of the forest, to change them in accord- ance with the new requirements and to maintain their supplies permanently. The forests of Japan, had, while the country was secluded, maintained their primitive character, but with the Restoration the forests underwent a revolution in the extent and modes of their utilization. Besides a considerable increase at home in the demand for timber and fuel not only in connection with industrial and miE- Area and Ownei-diip of the Forests. 225 ing enterprises and for ordinary building purposes, but also for use as railroaid sleepers and telegraph poles as well as for the manufacture of the various wood articles and paper, the recent development in the carrying trade has caused the traders in forest produce to seek customers abroad, especially in China and Korea. All this has in lecent years exercised an unequal influence on Japanese forests so that, while, on the one hand, there are districts where reckless felling and all the evils resulting from it have obliged the Government to exercise control as to cutting, on the other hand there are in some parts of the country vast areas of wooded-land maintaining all its primitive features unaltered. This anomaly has brought to light the fact that the plans hitherto followed in the management of forests are no longer adequate to meet the future increase of the population and the requirements of the new civilization, but points to the necessity for striving to develop to the full the natural capabilities of the forests by increasing their productive powers by the appli- cation of regular technical methods. II. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS. The Area. — According to the latest statistics the area occupied by forests is 23,087,365 cho, i.6. over 59 per cent, of the whole area of the country which measures 24,794.36 square n or 38,559,078 cho. (The area of Formosa and the Pescadores is not included in the above computation, not having yet been ascer- tained.) Of the two divisions in the Japanese forests, " Utilization Forests" and " Protection Forests," the latter are further divided into two kinds, " Absolute " and " Ordinary." The area of the Protection Protection forests in 1890 was 889,469 cho of which Forests. 4,803 cho belonged to the '■ Absolute " chiss and 684,662 cho to the "Ordinary" categ;iry. All the other forests belong to the Utilization class, measuring 22,397,S96 226 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. cho. Those forests exclusively maintained for the utilization of their produce are lefD to be managed by the owners Utilization as they like. Those forests of this class -which belong Forests- to the State and Imperial Household are generally managed and tended in accordance with modern technical rules and bid fair to become greatly improved with regard to their productiveness. But those owned by the people, with the exception of a very small number, are entirely left to nature, nothing being done to increase their utility. Ownership of the Forests. — The areas of the forests of these •difTerent ownerships are as follows : — c/io. States Forests 13,125,320 Imperial Forests 2,091,785 People's Forests 7,870,260 The people's forests comprise those owned by Shinto and Buddhist temples, communes and private individuals, their re- spective areas being as follows : — c/io. Shinto and Buddhist Temple Forests 167,629 Communal Forests 1, 715,754 Private I'orests 5,987,877 State Forests. — The State forests are managed by the Govern- ment and by the Imperial Household Department, while over the people's forests the Government merely exercise administra- tive supervision in accordance with the provisions of the Fore.st Law. Of the State forests measuring 13,125,320 cho, 7,632,831 cho are under the jurisdiction and management of the Agricultural and Commercial Department of the Imperial Government, but 5,492,489 cho in Hokkaido are placed under the control of the Home Department. The forests in Formosa are maintained accord- ing to special laws and regulations by the Governor-General under the supervision of the Minister for Home Aflairs. Area and Oiimer'iliiji of the Forests. 227 These iiguies are not, it must be owned, the result of ac- ■curate scientific surveying, tlie statistics relating to the State and Imperial forests being taken from the Government Forest Kegister compiled according to the Provisional Regulations for Government Forests of 1875 and those relative to the people's forests from the Land Registei- piepared by the Treasury Depart- ment for the purpose of taxation in accordance with the Regu- lations for the Revision of the Land Tax established in 1873. These registers being based on very rough surveys the figures •above mentioned will have to be more or less modified, when the work of forest adjustments and investigation now going on shall have been completed. Inaccuracies are especially likely to be found in the case of the people's forests for, as the years went by, there must have been lands converted from other classes of laud into forests and from forests into farm or build- ing lots. In this period of renovations the areas of forests are sub- ject to changes both absolutely and in respect of proprietorship, as transfers and conversion into other classes of estates are taking place and such changes will not cease until the completion in 1904 of the work of the special State forest adjustment undertaken by the Government. Imperial Forests. — In 1899 States forests in Kanagawa, Yama- ■nashi, Shizuoka, Nagano, Gifu, Aichi, Miye, Aomori, Iwate and Tochigi prefectures and Hokkaido, to the extent of 3,649'848 cho in all, were transferred to the Imperial Household to constitute the Imperial forests. These forests being similar to State forests in their nature and features, it goes without saying that some of them are paying concerns, while others are not. In 1892 the House- hold Department commenced the work of investigating the Imperial forests, as the result of which some of them have been disposed -of from time to time since 1898. In 1889 over 1,370,000 c?io in Hokkaido were returned to the State control, while some forests "were resold to such temples, Shinto or Buddhist, as had formerly been their possession, in compliance with the regulations establish- ed for the special disposal of such forests. Besides, some of those ■that had been classed as Government property, through error, on 228 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the occasion of the land tax revision in the early year of Meiji ■were restored" to their rightful owners. Such transfer not having yet been completed, it will be years before the area of the Imperial forests becomes fixed. From 1889 to 1900 this kind of his ^laj- esty's property increased by 59,533 cho while decreasing by 1,453,- 342 cho, so that the clear loss was 1,383,809 cho. The increase was principally due to the correction of the former computation of areas and to the declaration of lands presenting a sylvan ap- pearance as forests, while the chief causes of the decrease were the expropriation of some forests in Hokkaido and the reclamation and sale of some forests for conversion into arable land. The Imperial forests are divided into two classes: "Hereditary" and " Ordinary." The former comprises such forests as are so thick- ly wooded and extensive as to furnish enough material for a reg- ular working plan framed on the basis of economical considera- tions. Such forests are made extremely difficult of conversion by the Imperial House Law. Hence changes of areas rarely occur except in the forests belonging to the other class. In 1901 there were 997,250 cho of the Hereditary class and 1,100,536 cho of the Ordinary class. Private Forests. — The forests owned by civic corporations, religious establishments and private persons are now subject to greater and more frequent changes than the State and Imperial forests because of the recent slackening of Government control over them and the vicissitudes in the economic conditions of the country And the decrease of the forest area since the Restoration is mainly due to the reckless felling of woods owned by private persons- We have no statistics showing the extent of such reduction, but see them indirectly shown in the increase of land under cultivation and pasturage. Private forests, however, have increased to a certain extent by the purchase of some State or Imperial property. Plains and Mooes. — Besides the forests above mentioned there are in this country vast areas of land the uses of which are yet undecided. They are known by the name of " Genya " (plains and moors) as distinguished from forests, being a class of land established on the occasion of the land tax revision. In the early years of Meiji the classification of lands was made merely with Area and Ownenhip of the Forests. 229 regard to their features, without paying any attention to their position 01' nature or to the relations they bear toward each other. Thus the division of laud into Forests and " Genya" seems to have been based on no other consideration than the presence or absence of trees. At pre;jent there are over 2,645,322 cJio of " Genya" which, we may observe, will in the near future, except such portions of them as may from their nature be made into pastures or cultivat- ed land, bo mostly converted into forests. This class of laud is especially abundant in the northern provinces of the main island and in Hokkaido. Some of the "Genya" already present quite a woody appearance and bid fair to become perfect forests in no distant futures. Of the ahove-iueutioned area of the "Genya" 1,434,666 cho belong to the State; 157,174 cho to His Majesty the- Emperor^ the remaining 1,053,482 cho being either private or communal pro- perty. Distribution of Foeests. — Forests are found everywhere in the Empire from Formosa on the south to Hokkaido on the north. But their distribution is varied according to the general shape of the country, the height of the mountains and hills and the density of the population. With the exception of a small number of forests on level ground found here and there, Japanese forests form a long string on the mountains running lengthwise through the middle of the country. In Hokkaido the mountain ranges which traverse the whole island, lengthwise and crosswise, constitute a splendid forest-area. In the main island a Gen ral features chain of forests begins with Mount Hakodda of Distribution, in Mutsu. It runs through Rikuchu, then appears as Mount Azuma in Uzen, reaches the boundary line between Shinano and Echigo, whence it goes on to form the Kiso forests, where bending southward it runs in an unbroken line from Mount Asama in Shinano to the Imperial forests pf Fuji and Amagi lying between the provinces of Kai and Suruga. In the province of Kii the range starts from Mount Kumano whence it runs to meet the woods in the Yoshino districts, Yamato. In Shikoku the line crosses the boundary between Sanuki and Awa and proceeds over the summit of Mount Ishizuchi to the forests 280 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. in Tosa. In Kyushu the line is continued through Mount Aso and stretches to Mount Kirishima toward the south. Thus the forests of Japan mostly lie in the mountainoua Distribution as districts along the backbone of the country and to Climate. are scarce on the plains along the seaside. Again they are most numerous in the cold regions in the north and considerably less in the warmer regions in the south, as shown in the following table : — State Forests Imperial Forests Private Forests Total Area ... ,,, ,,« ••• Population Area of Forests per sq. m. Area of Forests per head , Forest Area as Compared ~j with the Area of the !■ whole Country J State Forests Imperial Forests Private Forests Total Area Population Area of Forests per sq. m.... Area of Forests per Head ... Forest Area as Compared"! with the Area of the V whole Country j Hokkaido. NorthM^n Prov., Main Island, Southern Prov., Main Island. cho. cho. cho. 5,492,890.0 5.773,689.7 698,480.8 651,649-5 1,135,074.2 305,061.7 14,827.7 3,184,358.1 3,283,306.1 6,158,966.2 10,093, 122.Q 4,286,648.6 sq. 111. sq. m. sq. m. 5.987-03 9>765.77 5,149-73 982,426 19,439,079 14,110,730 cho. cho. cho. 1,029.6 I, 034.5 832.4 cho. cho. cho. 6.27 0.52 0.30 % 66 % 66 % 53 Shikoku. Kyushu. Okinawa. Total. cho. cho. cho. cho. 336,312-2 777,718.6 46,629.5 i3,>2S,3i9-6 — — — 2,091,785.4 689,761.0 687,588.8 10,418.8 7,870,260.5 1,026,073.0 1,465,307.4 57,048.3 23,087,365-5 sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. sq- m. 1,227.21 2,734.08 143-98 24,998.80 2,933.657 6,420,793 465,470 44,352,155 cho. cho. cho. cho. 836.2 S3S-9 396.2 923.6 cho. cho. cho. c}w. 0-3S 0.23 0.12 0.52 % 53 % 34 26 % 59 Area and Oum-ership of the Forests. 231 Note : — I. The above table does not include the forests in Formosa and the Kuriles, ■which are under investigation at present. 2. The " Northern Provinces, Main Island " in the above table comprise the districts under the jurisdiction of the Aomori, Iwate, Akita, Miyagi, Fukushima Tokyo, Nagano, and Ishikawa Major Forestry Offices, while the " Southern Provinces '' comprise the districts under the Osaka, Okayama and Hiroshima Offices. The above table shows that in Hokkaido and in the north- ern provinces of the man island, forests occupy 66^ of the whole area, while in the Okinawa archipelago only 2%% is wooded land. Kyu-ihu has 34^ and the southern provinces of the main island and Shikoku have 53^ each. Leaving Hokkaido, which was opened up to colonization only 30 years ago out of consideration for the present, Japan has high and steep mountains in the north which are densely covered with forests. In the middle of the island, near Mount Fuji, the land reaches the utmost elevation and thence to- ward the south-west the country becomes more and more open, with a range of hills which possesses only a few high mountains. These geographical features have had jiuich to do with the unequal distribution of forests in the country. The difference of economical development in the various districts was also a powerful agent in this connection. In Shikoku, Kyushu and the western portion of Honshu or the main island, where civilization made its first appear- ance in Japan, the people have had better means of transportation than in the other parts of the Empire, and the demand for the timber increasing in proportion to the growth of the population, forests have been rather recklessly felled. This together with the greater need than in other regions for agricultural land must have led to the present scarcity of forest land in these parts. From the stand- point of population, Okinawa with 1 tan 2 se of forest land per soul rank the lowest ; Kyushu has 2 tan 3 se ; the southern pr.ivinces of Honshu, 3 tan; Shikoku, 3 tan 5 se; the northern provinces of Hon- shu, 5 tan 2 se; Hokkaido where the population is smaller than in any other division of the Empire, enjoys by far the greatest share of forests per soul, to wit ; 6 oho 2 tan 7 so. In districts having a dense ijopiilation there are more private and communal forests, especially the former, as compared with State forests, than in districts thinly poi'ulated. In the southern provinces of Honshu we have 698,480 232 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. cho of State foreste against 2,314,296 cho of private and corainunal forests, the ratio being 3i to 1 in favor of the latter. In Shikoku this ratio is 2 to 1, while in Kyusha the two classes of forests are of nearly equal extent. On the contrary, in the northern provinces of Honshu private forests occupy only one-half the area of the State forests. In localities abounding in private or communal forests, the State forests are all situated in remote mountain districts, the forests near market towns having facilities for the transportation of timber being owned either by private individuals or by juridical persons. All these forests except a very few have hitherto been managed without any regard to sound principles and are therefore in a very impoverished condition. Some of them have lately been classed as protection forests in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law. It is indeed in these districts that the greatest number of protection forests is found. Ill-managed forests are only too numerous everywhere in the Empire, but their producing capacity being made very small in Districts of consequence of injudicious cutting, in some dis- lusufficiriit Supply, tricts the local forests are inadequate to meet even the ordinary demand for timber. Such is already the case in the southern provinces of Honshu and Kyushu, where the recent development of mining and industry has produced a con- siderably increased demand for timber. In those parts the local forests supply little besides wood for the purpose of fuel, and timber is purchased from other districts in yearly increasing quantities. The northern provinces of Plonshu and Hokkaido are yet rich in forests both in regard to area and producing capa- city, a great number of forests being still placed outside the utilization domain. There we find forests in the neighborhood of towns and villages, the produce of which being more than sufficient to meet the local needs for building, industrial and mining purpose, is exported to other districts and countries in large quantities. Thus Hokkaido exports timber to Honshu and to China and Korea for use in liouse and railroad building. Hiba (Thujopsis dolabrata) and Sugi (Cryptorneria japonica) timber produced in Aomori and Akita prefectures is exported not only to Tokyo and Osaka but to Shikoku and Kyushu. Fared Zones and Sijlvicaltaral CoiuUlioiix. 2.33 III. FOREST ZONES AND SYLYIGULTURAL CONDITIONS. The geographical position and features of the land, the climate and the geological nature of the soil exercise manifold influences on the species of trees growing in such land and on their rate of growth. Forest Zones. — Owing to her geographical formation and more particularly to her climatic condition, no place of Japan except a portion of the Kuriles group and a few high mountains, is unfit for the growth of forest trees. We have all species of such trees growing in Japan from those belonging to the Tonid zone to those of the Frigid. Thus Japan is as rich as any country in the world in her arboreal flora. Extremes of temperature are unknown owing to the peculiar distribution of land and water and to the geogra})hical posi- tion, the annual average in Formosa being 23° C. and that of Kamikawa in Hokkaido 5°.l. Taking the averages of the four months from April to July, (months, having, so to speak, the great- est influences on the growth of forest trees) we find that Kyu- shu indicates 21°. 2 ; Shikoku 20°. 9 ; the southern provinces of Honshu 20°.4: the northern provinces 18°. 4; and in Hakkaido 12.°7. The annual average is seldom found even in the high mountain districts to fall below 10°C. "In comparing these with Dove's recognised standard temperatures, it is found that they are higher by 1° for the summer months and 7° lower for the winter months. Sylvicultural Geology. The land occupied by the sylvan flora of Japan has rocks belonging to almost all geological groups from the Achaean to the Cainozoic. They are diflerent in ditierjnt places and very complex in structure. The forests in Hokkaido mostly stand on new volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, tuffs, and conglomerate belonging to the Tertiary system and in a limited space upon Palaeozoic rocks. The forests in the Akita and Aomori prefectures in North Japan are found upon igneous rocks of the Tertiary system. In Central Japan the mountain ranges facing the Pacific Ocean geologically belong to the Archaean and Palaeozoic groups, ■while the forests in the Kiso districts are flourishing upon granite and other igncjus rocks and also upon rocks of the Palaeozoic group. 234 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i Century. The forest land in the Muro districts in the province of Kii is geologically porphyry ejected in the Mesozoic era and the Yoshino forests in Yamato belong to the Achaean and Palaeozoic groups. The forests in -western portion of Honshu, especially Chugoku, stand upon granite, while those in the provinces of Tamba and Tajima are found upon rocks of the Palaeozoic group. The mountains of Shikoku like Yoshino in Yamato are composed of Palaeozoic and Archaean rocks. In Kyushu only the southern section belongs to the Palaeozoic group, the greater part being mostly composed of igneous rocks. This country while fundamentally composed of Achaean rocks has other strata upon tbein, which are ejectaraenta from volcanoes in the different periods of geological changes. These occasional additions of igneous rocks have been so large that at present nearly one-third of the forest land in the whole country is composed of such rocks, of which the principal rock belonging to the Archaean period is granite and those that were ejacted in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic periods are granite, porphyry, diorite, por- phyrite and others. Of the ejected rocks belonging to the Tertiary and Quaternary periods there is a large number, but those covering larger aers are andesite and basalt. These rock formations together with other requisites for the growth of forest trees are found to have exercised special influences in accordance with their density and structure upon the generation of the sylvan flora and to possess no small bearing on the formation of forests. It is a notable fact that among the extensive forests of conifer- ous trees that have continued to maintain a fine appearance from ancient times, those depending on natural regeneration are mostly found upon igneous rocks, while the majority of those depending on artificial regeneration stand on sedimentary formations. The fact that geographical and climatic conditions of the country vary in difierent places as stated above is favorable to the growth of various kinds of forest trees and the fact that the topographical and geological features of the country are also quite different in different places has caused a variety of forest growths to spring up. As it is, no less than eight hundred species and varieties of forest trees are found to be well suited for culture here. But at the Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 235' present stage of the development of forest work in this country the- economy of forest management does not allow to attach any special importance to not more than ten or twelve species of forest trees. Geographical Distribution op the Forests. — The forests of Japan are divided into four groups, viz : Tropical forests,8ub- Tropical forests, Temperate forests and Arctic forests. Tropical Forests. — Tropical forests grow in the whole of Formosa, the southern half of Okinawa, the Yayeyama Group and and the Ogasawara Islands. From the standpoint of altitude these forests are found on Niitakayama in Formosa at places below 500 metres where the annual temperature docs not fall below 21°C. Of the tropical flora the banyan heads the list followed by several species of palms and the bamboo. The banyan tree is represented by more than 18 species, all of which are found to be capable of luxuriant growth. But this and other tropical plants do not furnish useful timber except the bamboo, several species of which are found in groves everywhere in these regions, growing with wonderful rapidity and producing huge canes, hard and strong, useful for manufacturing various kinds of utensils as well as for building purposes. Sub-Tropical Forests. — The Sub-Tropical forest regions com- prise a portion of Okinawa, the whole of Shikoku and Kyushu and the part of Honshu lying south of 36° N.L. With reference to altitude, places lying 1,900 metres above sea level in Formosa, below 850 metres in Kyuslm and below 500 metres on Mt. Tsukuba in the province of Hitachi, Honshu, belong to this section, all these enjoying an average annual temperature of 13° 2V C. The Sub-Tropical trees are of numerous species and are highly valued in sylvicultural economy. As the better known parts of Japan, the " beaten tracts " as the tourist would call them, " Japan proper" as the geographer would say, have a dense population and early developed industries, they do not now possess forests enough to meet the local demand for timber. As the result of continued reckless felling that has been going on in these regions for many years, there remain only a few forests preserving their primitive features, and in Honshu it might be said that there are no such forests except within the precincts of the Shinto or Buddhist temples^ 23G Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The sylvicultural characteristic of Sub-Tropical regious is that they are in possession of broad-leafed evergreens, but as the result of carelesg cutting and conflagrations deciduous broad-leafed species and the red pine have made intrusions changiug the sylvan aspect to a remarkable degree. In accordance with the ju'esent features the forests in these regions have to be divided into three classes, bl'oad-leafed evergreen, broadleafed deciduous and pine forests. Timber Trees in Scb-Teopical Forests.— The species of chief importance to the sylviculturist among the broad-leafed evergreen trees growing in this zone are uo more than the •undermentioned : — Camphor Tree (Cinnamomum Camphore, Nees): — Being a native of this zone, the camphor tree grows in Shikoku, Kyushu, Formosa and the province of Kii in Honshu. This species is sometimes found forming a big forest. It grows every- where in this zone, if the soil is clayey and fertile, especially in places facing tlie south and free from cold winds. In Formosa it is found as high forest, either puie or mixed, up to the height of 1000 metres above the sea level. In Kyushu, ■Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu, old and big trees of this species are found here and there, thanks to the time-honored custom ' of using them as ornamental groves of both Buddhist and Shinto temples. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous and has a peculiar odor. It is prized for use in making valuable articles of furniture as well as for orna- mental purposes. It lasts well in water and has been valued from ancient times in sliipbuilding. lu recent years the demand for it as material for the production of camphor valuable in the various branches of industry has very largely increased and forests have been planted both by the Government and by private j)ersons. Tsuge (Boxus Sempervirens, var. Japonica, Mak.): — This tree even in the largest specimeu measures not more than 50 centimetres in diameter and 15 metres in height. The timber is exceedingly hard and close and fine grained, so that the year- rings can hardly be distinguished. The inner wood is lustrous and pretty and is used not only in fine sculpture but in the Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 237 making of valuable articles and nice rules and instruments because of its freedom from shrinkage or expansion, whether wet or dry. The tree grows in Kyushu, Izu and other provinces, especially in the Kawara and Koshoyama State forests in Kyushu and in the private forests in Mikura and Miyake islands in Izu. Is a shade-loving tree and grows well in calcareous soil. The young trees are liable to frost damage, hence they must be made to grow under protecting trees. Keproduction by means of planting young shoots or the inser- tion of sprigs. JJbame-gashi (Quereus ilex. var. phillyrevides, F. r.): — The several varieties of Kashi (oak) are the most widely distributed of the broad-leafed evergreens. The Ubame is found in the southern provinces of Honshu, in Awa, Kazusa and Shimosa, in Kii and in the southern part of Shikoku. On the shores of Tosa and Kii, they are found growing in pure woods, but in other places mixed with other varieties of Kashi. The timber is white with a shade of yellow, is the hardest and heaviest of all timbers produced in Japan. Is used in houte building where hardness and strength are required, but the chief use is in charcoal making. Considered as the best fuel wood in Japan. Ichii-gashi (Quereus silva, Bl.) : Shira-gashi (Quereus vibra- yeana. F.r.): Aka-gashi (Quereus acuta. Thumb.) : — These three species are the most extensively utilized of al^ broad-leafed trees. The timber closely resembles that of the Ubame- gashi ; but its growth is quicker than the growth of trees of that species. Is valued in the making of the handles of agricultural and other tools and implements ; also in making wheels and rudders. The lehil is sometimes found growing so big as 55 centimetres in diametre and 30 metres in height, the bole measuring 15 metres. Under the old regime the wood of this tree was highly prized for handles of spears and in the several clans there were strict regulations forbidding the felling of trees of this species. Grows in Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu. Pure woods are rare ; found mixed with other species of Kaslii. Very widely distriduteb ; , 238 Japan in the Beginning of the 20/A Century. fond of shade and grows well under standard trees. This tree is reproduced either naturally or by planting. The deciduous broad-leafed trees belonging to this zone are mostly found in planted woods, principal species being Kunugi, Konara and Shite. Kunugi (Quercus serrata, BI.) : — This species ranks high among Japanese trees in affording excellent firewood ; ranks next only to the oak for use in making charcoal, the far-famed ■Sakura and Ikeda charcoal being made from this wood. Not found in mountain regions. The home districts of these trees were limited to the neighborhood of the province of Settsu and a part of the Musashi plain. But the trees being easily made to form a coppice under a short-term rotation founded on very economical calculations, they are now found everywhere in the country planted as private property, except in the northern half of Honshu and the whole of Hokkaido. The bark contains tannin and is therefore used for dyeing purposes and in the €uring of skins. The wood is also extensively used as logs for growing thereon Shiitake, an edible mushroom. Konara (Quercus gland ulifera, Bl.): — Also valued as a firewood and charcoal yielder and commands a large sale. Found as a principal tree in natural mixed forests in the hilly and mountainous districts of Honshu, covering immense tracts; also found in Hokkaido. Like Kunugi it is somewhat fond of light and may grow in any land holding a suitable quantity of moisture within the temperate regions. It is coming into vogae for the making of artificial coppices of this species of oak mixed with Kunugi, Shite and other trees. The Pine family is represented by two species : Akamatsu •or "Eed pine" and Kuromatsu or "Black pine:" Akaniatsu, or "Red Pine" vPinus deusiflora, S. et. Z.) : — The most widely distributed of all the coniferous trees in Japan being found from the southern extremity of Kyushu to the southern portion of Hokkaido; thrives in all soils except in places where more or less water always stagnates. Is fond of dry, well-drained land yellowish or reddish in color. It takes possession of deforested areas before other kinds of Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 239 forest-trees begin to grow. In the southern portion of Honshu it is found in excellent condition at the height of 2,000 metres above the sea. It demands light and hates shade. Forms splendid forests either by natural or artificial regeneration. Mostly found in pure woods; sometimes as mixed woods planted with the bamboo, Kona"a and other trees. Because of its hardy nature and speedy growth, communes, religious establishments and private persons are very fond of planting groves composed of these trees. In the southern and central portions of Honshu, where, in consequence of wanton felling, the soil has been greatly impoverished, the red pine will come to occupy vast areas in the near future. The wood, which is yellowish white with a shade of red, is hard, strong and elastic and contains a large percentage of resinous substances, which makes it proof against moisture ; hence prized for use in engineering works and as mining props. Used for building purposes though not nearly equal to Sugi and Hinoki in this respect. As firewood ranks among the most indispensable kinds of wood used for that purpose. The " pine mushroom " {Matautake), king of table mushrooms, grows in the " red pine " forests in the southern part of Honshu. Kuromatsu, or "Black Piue"(Pinus thenbergii, Pari.): — Like "red pine " it serves various purposes. The wood, of reddish color, is strong and hard and contains a very large percentage of resinous substances. Being very durable is suited for bridge foundations and for use in genei-al earthwork engineering. As firewood, it is valued as a great heat-producer ! the root-wood being especially rich in resin is used as torches. Thrives well in sandy soils along the seashore. Found all along the coast of Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu ; the area covered very extensive. Besides those we have groves of bamboos in the sub- tropical regions. Bamboos take rank among useful timbers of Japan. The chief species of bamboos cultivated are Madake, HacJdku and Mosd. Madake (Phyllostaehys bambusoides, Sieb. et Z.) and HachLku (Phyllostachys puberula, (Miq.) ]Munro). — Have been used from ancient times for making various tools and utensils and for 240 Japan in the Beginning of the IQth- Century. building and ornamental purposes. Kecently bamboo work began to be largely exported to Europe and the United States. Ex- tensively cultivated by private persons in the southern part of Hon- shu, Shikoku and Kyushu. The neighborhood of Kyoto and Kara abound in splendid bamboo groves. At Yamashina, Kyoto, there are groves producing Madake canes measuring 22 centime- tres in diameter and 22 metres in length. Bamboo groves are mostly found planted either between plots under culture or on hill-sides. They are rarely of any considerable size. Bamboo planting is fitted for sylviculturists with small capital. Mcisd (Phyllostachys nutis, Eivier) :— The largest of the bamboo family ; sometimes found of such dimensions as 30 centimetres in diameter and 25 metres in height. Planted in groves mostly in Kyushu, Kii and the provinces adjacent to it. ^'alued for the manufacture of tools and utensils. Temperate Fokests. — The Temperate sylvan flora extend from the northern half of Honshu to the southern half of the Hokkaido, between .36° and 43.° N. L., where the average annual temperatures range from 6° to 13° C. The Temperate forests rise in Formosa to the height of 3,500 metres : in Shikoku 1,800 metres ; in Central Honshu a little lower, to wit, 1,500 metres; and in South Hokkaido 500 metres. These forests cover a large area and not a few of them maintain their primitive features. Being mostly natural woods of splendid trees they form the most important item of Japanese sylvan wealth- But as in these regions the climate gets_ rather cold and the snow lies on the ground during half the year, the trees are liable to be damaged by snow and require no small amount of tending and protection. Timber Teees in Temperate Forests. — The number of the species of trees belonging to these regions is over 60 but the more importarit of them are Hinohi, Sugi, Hiha, Koya-mahi, Smvara, Nezuho, 3Iorai, Tsuga, Ira-momi, Bara-momi, Himeko-matsu, Ghdsen- matsu, Gayo-matsu and Kara-matsu in the Coniferous class ; and Keyalci. Yachidamo, Katsura, Onara, Saioa-gnrunii, Tochi, Kuraini, Nire, Kuri, Kiwada, Hankiri, Enju, Solcoyanagi, Doro, Honoki, Kashiwa, Sakura, Buna and Kacde in the Broad-Leafed class. Forest 2!ones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 241 Sinoki, Fir (Chamaecyparis obtusa, S. et Z.) : — The timber is soft, close-grained, strong and tough and has a peculiar scent. Ranks first among Japanese timber trees, being used for building purposes, and as an ornamental wood and in engineering work and naval architecture ; also in bridgework. Grows in the southern half of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. In the provinces of Kii, Yamato, Musashi, Totomi, and Tajlma, we find extensive forests of this tree. The natural Hinoki forest in Kiso is one of the three best forests in Japan. The natural forests in the Koya mountains in Kii are noted for producing big Hinoki tree. The home of this tree is in the central poition of Honshu, in regions from 550 to 1,400 metres above the sea level, but where the atmosphere contains a suitable proportion of moisture, it is found in well-formed woods, either pure or mixed, in both higher or lower districts. Hiba (Thujopsis dolabrata, S. et. Z.) : — This tree together with Hinoki, Sawara, Nezuko and Koyamaki formed the so-called Gohoku or "Five Trees" under the old regime and enjoyed careful protection at the hands of the feudal authorities. Mostly regenerated naturally; rarely planted. The Aomori districts in the north are noted for having pure woods of Hiba. The State forests in the Tsugaru and the Nambu peninsula are nearly pure woods of Hiba with a slight intermixture of Buna. There are extensive forests of Hiba mixed with other coniferous trees, such as Himeko-maUu and Sawara, in the mountains on the northern frontier of Eikuchu, in Goyosan in Eikuzen and in the mountains in the Tone districts, Kozuke. The wood grows slowly and the year-rings are extremely narrow. The timber is compact and strong ; therefore used for building and engine- ering purpose. It has lately come to be in great demand for use as railway sleepers, its durability being peerless. Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica, Don.) ; — ^Very widely distribut- ed, being second only to " Red pines " among the conifers in this respect. This tree wants light, grows well in soils having a suitable amount of moisture, is capable of speedy and considerable growth, some specimens being found of such huge dimensions as 2 metres in diameter and 40 met;<;s higli. In suitable soils -242 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. and atmosphere this tree forms woods throughout Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu and even in the southern provinces of Hokkaido. Splendid specimens of natural pure woods of Sugi are found in the Nagakizawa State forests in Akita, while specimens of artificial forests are seen in the private forests in the Yoshino districts in the province of Yamato. The natural forests in Yakujima in Kyushu are celebrated for producing timbers having very fine and pretty grains known as Uzura-mohu, partridge grains. The wood is light yellow with a shade of red ; used very much like Hinoki for building and ornamental purposes and in the manufacture of tools and utensils. Satmra (Chamecyparis pisifera, S. et Z.) : Nezuko (Thuya japonica, Maxim.) : Koya-Mahi (Sciadopytis verticillata, S. et Z.) ; — Naturally these trees are always found in mixed woods, and never as pure woods. In Kiso and in the Koya mountains there are natural woods of these trees mixed with Hinoki and other coniferous species. They are also found in large groups in the provinces of Yamato, Bungo, Satsuma, Omi, Iwashiro, +Shimotsuke and Uzen, 900 metres to 1,800 metres above the sea-level. The timber of Sawara and Nezuko is of pretty ap- pearance, but being soft, light and easy to split is mostly used as boards and planks by joiners and carpenters. The Koya-maki grows extremely slowly, its timber is close-grained and contain- ing some resinous substances is very durable in water. It is therefore valued for making water-pails and for use in earth- work engineering. Momi (Abias firma, S. et Z.) : — Quite widely distributed, being always found in the primitive mountain forests in the southern provinces of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. Is a shade-bearing species. After its middle age it grows very fast and in well-adopted soil forms perfect trunk. The timber is light and coarse and undergoes much expansion aud contraction, therefore inferior to the timber of other conifers. Owing to the length of its fibres and the possibility of cleaning them by bleaching, it is used almost exclusively as paper pulps. There being a great demand for the pulps the tree may gradually become extinct unless steps are tiiken for its artificial regenera- Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 24^ tion. The boxes and cases exported to foreign countries from Japan are mostly made of this wood. Tsuga (Tsuga sieboldii, Carr.) : — In distribution similar to Momi and mostly found in woods mixed with Momi. Growth ■very slow;' the timber being of compact structure is highly appreciated for ornamental purpose. Used like Momi as material for paper and box making. Hime/co-matsu (Pinus Parviflora, S. et Z.) : — Is found in woods in regions between places elevated 1,600 metres above the sea on the Kotsuke-Echigo boundary-line and the moun- tain ranges of Iwashiro. Nearly pure woods are seen in the provinces of Toshima and Shiribeshi, Hokkaido. Goyo-matsu (Pinus pentaphylla, Mayr.) and CJwsen-matmi (Pinus Koreinsis, S. et Z.) are found overlapping the Tem- perate regions and the Arctic. Barely met with in the mountains in the central and northern sections of Honshu. The Goyo-matsu is found in the form of a quasi-pure forest in the province of Tokachi, Hokkaido. Bara-momi (Picea polita, Carr.) and Ira-momi (Picea bieolos, Mayr.) are very limited in distribution being only found to any" great extent on the sides of Mount Fuji, at the height of over 2,000 metres above the sea-level. Generally they are found in solitary clusters on the high mountains. As they possess the useful characteristic of making reasonable growth even in poor and shaded laud, they have drawn the attention of the Govern- ment authorities as being probably suited for making protection forests intended to preserve the soil. The growth is very slow and the timber being very soft, is inferior to that of other coniferous species for ordinary purposes but is suited for making ceilings and also water-free articles of furniture. ' Kara-malHU (Larix leptolepis, Gord.). — Found in natural woods at Mts. Fuji and Asama and the Azumi districts in the province of Shinano. Grows wild in the mountains of Nikko ; nowhere elso found in natural woods. It is a decidedly^ light-demanding species and thrives in dry soils of volcanic origin. The timber is tolerably hard and durable and valued for house and ship-building purposes, as telegraph poles, in civil engine- 244 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i7i. Century. ering work and for other uses. The tree grows fast and is free from ordinary dangers incidental to sylviculture. Thrives well in any soil however poor, hence it is growing in popularity . in Honshu and HokkaidS. The broad-leafed trees of the Temperate regions are very numerous and occupy more than one half the area under forest. They are found everywhere in great luxuriance, but .single species are rarely seen in the form of a strictly pure forest, although Konara, Kashiwa, Onara, Kaba, Koro-no-ki, Han-no-ki, Katsura and Buna are widely distributed throughout Honshu and in the southern half of Hokkaido in almost unmixed woods. All the other species grow in irregular intermixture with other broad-leafed or needle-leafed trees, sheltering and protecting each other so as to preserve the original sylvan features. Below are given chief species of sylvicultural importance : Keyahi (Zelkowa Keaki, Sieb.). — No other broad-leafed species is adopted to so many ways of utilization and so highlj' valued as Keyaki. This species is found everywhere in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, but rarely in pure woods. It grows to enormous dimensions in woods intermixed with shade-bearing species of the broad-leafed family. Loves calcareous soils and the south-eastern sides of mountains, where, when the soil is suitable, it attains perfect growth. Found wild below 1,600 metres in Shikoku and Kyushu and under 750 metres in the northern section of Honshu. Kiso, Izu, Totomi, Kii, Hyuga, Yamato, Ise and Ou (the north-eastern districts of the Main Island) are especiall noted for producing big Keyahi trees, Eequiring a great many years for its full growth, it is unsuited for planting by private sylvieulturists with small capital. The Government is, however, making their best endeavors to preserve and increase the areas under this species. The timber is very strong, hard, and lustrous ; highly valued for building and ornamental purpose ; also in naval architecture. Keyaki timber which has Jorin (ring-like), Uzura, (partridge feather), Tama (gem) or Botan (peony) grain is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Keyaki wood is a favorite material for sculptors, being hard and easy to work. Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions. 245 Buna (Fagus sylvatica, var. Sieb., Maxim.) — Occupies the largest space next to Akamatsu, Found in the hills and moun- tains in the northern section of Honshu, in the elevated districts in the southern section of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu ; also in many provinces of Hokkaido. Mostly found mixed with Onara, Katsura, Shioji, Itaya-Kayede and other trees, but in Aomori, Iwate, Echigo and Yamagata pure woods of vast dimensions are seen in the mountains over 300 metres above the sea. As a firewood and charcoal producer, this is one of the most important speces. The timber is little used for building purposes. The Kosaka, Ani and other mines have large Bwria forests for getting supplies of fuel. This tree grows well in the shade and having the characteristic of growing even when ■extremely old, it sometimes attains an enormous size. The Ainos in Old Japan are said to have made log-boats of this tree. Yachidamo (Fraxinus mandshurica, Ilupr.) and Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum, S. et Z.,). — The only broad-leafed .species affording building timbers. Also used for ornamental purposes. Very widely distributed, found in all parts of Hokkaido and in the mountain valleys in the northern section of Honshu. Thrives best in level ground ; excellent pure weeds of Katsura are seen in the province of Iburi. The timber is soft and compact and possesses elastic powers of a durable character. Hence extensively used of late as railway sleejiers ; it is chiefly such sleepers that are exported to North China. Inu-Enju (Cladorostis amurensis, var. floribunda, Maxim.): — Found in the northern section of Honshu and in South Hokkaid5 mixed with other broad-leafed species. The timber is very pretty and is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Exported to China and Korea as railway sleepers. Kurumi (Juglans sieboldiana, Maxim.): — ^ Grows in rich mountain valleys and on low lands in the central and northern sections of Honshu. On the plains of Ishikari and Tokachi in Hokkaido, it is found in woods mixed with Yachidamo, Katsura, Nire and , other trees. The timber is in demand for making railway carriages and for highly ornamental purposes, ■end also for rifle-stocks. 246 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Earikiri (Acanthopanox ricinifolium, S. et Z.): — Grows in wet soils in Shimozuke, Iwashiro and Iwate ; and every wliere in Hokkaido. In rich soil attains considerable dimensions. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous with well defined grain and whitish in color. Prized for ornamental purposes and for making articles of household furniture. In great demand as railways sleepers like Yaehidamo and Katsura. Kashiwa (Quercus dentata, Thumb.) and Onara (Quer- cus crispula, Bl.) : — ^Found in wet places between the mountains in the Nasu and Ou districts in Honshu and everywhere on the plains of Hokkaido. In Honshu rarely found in pure woods, always growing mixed with other broad-leaf species, but in some parts of Hokkaido, there are extensive pure woods of these trees. The timber of Onara is widely used as sleepers and is one of best producers of firewood and charcoal. Kashiwa contains tannin in its bark and is used in curing skins. Other- wise it is not used, except as firewood. Hoko-yanagi (Populus tremulus, var. villosa, Mesm.) and " Doronoki " (Populus balsamifera, var. suareobenus, Send) : — The two species are most valuable wood in Japan for making match-sticks. The former grows all over Shikoku, Kyushu, Honshu, and as far north as Hokkaido, while the latter thrives well in the north-eastern districts of Honshu and Hokkaido. They grow easily in sandy wet soil, are fosnd forming uniform forests of pel-feet sylvicultural aspect in many parts of Hokkaido. The trees are fond of light and under favorable condition their growth is very rapid, and after 25 years from germination they easily attain the height of 6 metres. Reproduced by seeds or layer or by dividing the roots. They are being planted extensively in private forests. Ktiri (Castenea vulgaris, var. Japonlea, D.C.) : — The extent of the growth of this species is exceedingly wide. In Kyushu and Shikoku and the western parts of Honshu the tree imparts a special aspect to the forests growing on the sides of high hills or on hillocks. In places north to the middle section of Honshu, it grows well on the plains and produces valuable timber. However the specie rarely forms any extensive pure Forest Zones and SylviauUural Conditions. 24:T forest of its own, and generally mixed Buna, Hiha, Kiwada, Katsura, Kayede Saivakurumi, etc. In the Kobinata State forest found in Tonj district, Kozuke, and in Hiraga district,, Ugo, it is found forming pure forests of no small extent. The timber is extremely hard, can stand wet, and on the whole lasts long, is therefore preferred for railway sleepers to any other tree growing in Japan. The sleepers used in the Government Tokaido railroad and in the Hankaku railroad are made from the timber of this tree. Sakura (Prunus Pseudo cerasus, var. spontanea, Maxim), Kaede (Acer palmatus. Thumb), Ilonoki (Magnolia hypolene?, S. et Z.) : — These are not trees of any great sylvicultural importance, and very rarely do they form pure forests of their own, growing mostly, as they do, amidst conifers or broad-leaf trees. However they are of importance for certain special purpose, and as the supply is hardly sufficient to meet demand, their price is comparatively high. In view of this fact, both in State forests and private forests, they are being planted side by side with trees of other sorts. Tochi {M&cuhis ti-ebunata, Bl.), Nire (Uluno campestiis, var. Learis, Planch), HannoM (Alnus Japonica, S. et Z.), Toneriko- (Fraxinus Bungeana, D.C.), Saikachi-enoki (Gleditechia Japonica, Miq.), Yanaffi (Salix acutiporia, L.) are deciduous broad-leafed trees not particularly possessing any great sylvicultural value. They are grown in this zone for the purpose of giving protection to primary trees or for maintaining the fertility of forest- land. Frigid Forests. — Forests in the Frigid zone occupy in the northern half of Hokkaido and the Kuriles those places where the average yearly temperature does not exceed 6°. In regard to altitude distribution, the zone comprises in Formosa those places that are not less than 3,500 metres from the sea-level, and in the middle section of Honshu all places 1,800 metres above sea level. TiMBEE-TKEES IN Feigid Foeests. — Timber-trees growing in this region are naturally not so numerous as in those iii warmer regions. Indeed as the forests of this zone, except those in Hokkaido, are located in high altitudes, with poor soil, and subjected to strong 248 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. "win Is, the trees are generally too stunted in growth to be of any value. In Hokkaido, however, conifers grow luxuriantly and many primitive forests not yet explored are found. The principal trees in these forests are Todo-matsu (Abies Sachaliensis, Mast.) and Yezo-matsu (Pieea ajanensis, S. et Z.). Starting from altitudes measuring 450 metres in the southern parts of the island, these trees are found growing luxuriantly in the mountains of Ishikari, Teshio, Tokachi, Nemuro, and Kitami, and lastly in the island of Kunajiri. The Imperial forests at Tarunai, TJryn, Kushiro, and the State forests at Otoneton, Shari and Kunajiri practically consist of extensive pure forests of these trees, presenting a highly regular aspect. The timber of Todo-matsu is in large demand for architectural and earth-works, and is indeed most valuable of all the timbers produced in Hokkaido. The wood is, however, coarse-grained, and light and is liable to bend when exposed alternately to dryness and humidity. Rather close-grained and resinous, the wood is in great demand for architectural work. Akaezo-matsu (Picea Glehui, Mast.). — Though valuable as timber next to the two foregoing species, this tree rarely forms a pure forest, is in greater demand than the other two, and commands a higher price. The wood is close-grained and suited for architectural work. In Etrup and Shikotan of the Kuriles, a species of larch, scienticnlly termed Larix dp.bnrica, vr.r. Japonica, Max. is found growing, and exposed to inclement climate forms a pure forest of good aspect. The wood is reddish, hard, and well stands wet, and is therefore used in shipbuilding, earthwork and furniture- making. Shira-kaba (Betula alba, var. vulgaris, D.C.), Tama-han- noki (Alnus incana, var. glanea. Ait.), Nagakamado (Pirus ancuparia, var. Japonica, Max.) are some of the deciduous broad-leafed trees that are found in this zone either as pure forests or scattered among other trees. They are, however, of small sylvicultural value, and are generally used as firewood by miners or fishermen residing in the vicinity. Foresl Zones and Syloicultural Conditions. 249 There are miiny other trees growing in the respective zones, but the principal species are generally confiaed to those above described. As found in natural growth, they either form pure forests or are mixed with other trees. In general conifers occupy in the southern districts elevated places, while forests on the level mostly consist of broad-leafed trees. In the northern districts conifers cover mountain slopes, while on their top and foot broad-leafed trees predominate. Eatio op different kinds of Wooded-akeas. — On the whole the different classes of forests exist in the following proportions in the wooded areas of Japan : — Conifer Forests 2if^ Broad-Leafed Forests 25^ Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests 45?^ Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc g% Total 100 Bamboo areas, though forming a feature in our forest system and sufficiently profitable in exploitation, are still extremely limited in extent ; nor do they show any sign of enlargement in a near future. A description of them has, therefore, been omitted here. The growing extension of Aka-matsu forests recently in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu tended to raise the relative ratio of conifer forests to broad-leafed forests, and this tendency is further accele- rated by the greater demand, in consequence of the development of industry and business, for such conifers as Sugi, Hinoki, and Karamatsu which are being planted extensively. In the State forests the relative proportion of the different kinds of forests stands as follows : — Conifer Forests 11% Broad-Leafed Forests 28^ Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests 49% Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc 12% Total 100 The forest-areas devoted to conifers will attain before long the proper ratio to which they are entitled from increasing demand upon them. 250 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In the Imperial forests, owing to the greater attention paid to forest aspect, the relative proportion is more satisfactory, as :-^ Conifer Forests Broad-Leafed Forests Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests ... Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc. . Total Z3?» 49?^ 4% Both in the State forests or Imperial forests the principal trees are, in conifers, Aha-niatsu, Tsuga, Todo-matsu, Siigi, HinoH, Momi, etc. ; while, in broad-leafed trees Buna, different varieties of Nara and Kashi, Kaha, Kuri, etc. constitute principal species. III. ADJUSTMENT OF THE FORESTS. GeneraIj RemAkks. — The work of forest adjustment was attended to by the Court as early as the Konin era (the beginning of the 9th century), when the Emperor of the day issued a proclamation restrict- ing the undue felling of trees and ordering in general the due protection of forests. From about that time till the advent of the Tokugawa Eegency, the sylvicultural business fared no better than other industrial affairs, that is, it suffered much from neglect and devastation. With the establishment of the Tokugawa regime, and after about three centuries of this iron administration something like a regular system for protection of forests had been evolved. Different systems prevailed, indeed, in different daimyiates but they all had this feature in common, that is to say they originated from necessity of military defense. Stern rules characteristic of a military despotism were therefore enforced for the protection of the forests. It is true that even then forests were divided into utilization forests and pro- tection forests, but even in the case of the former more or less severe restrictions were always enforced. The existence of protection forests was extraordinary both in kind and extent. These comprised forests at the headwaters of rivers, the forests planted to prevent landslips, the forests planted to protect against damage iiom heavy snowfalls, the forests intended to give shelter to the Adjustment of the Forests. 251 water and to invite the collection of fish in it, and forests of other descriptions. For the protection of special kinds of trees the rules enforced were extremely strict. The prohibition trees differed according to places. Hiba tree was protected in Aomori, "ProMbitirn Sugi in Akita, while Iviso had " five prohibition trees " Tiees.' Kii "six," Awa "seven" and Kumamoto " three. "^ This prohibitive treatment gave rise to the development of the work of utilization and adjustment, and by keeping careful forest records and by adopting a conscientious system of rotation each daimyiate made it a point to secure the constant supply of valuable kinds of timber within its own borders. "Whatever advantages Japan now enjoys in the matter of forests, she must be said to owe to this jealous guard kept over her forests of old by the feudal pinces. The protection of the forests having been maintained by desijotic rules aa was the case in France before the Revolution, — rules which did not originate in any regular economic principles. The Restoration the withdrawal of those rules on the Restoration was and the consequence. The Meiji Government lost no time, Deforestation, however, in taking measures calculated to check this alarming state of affairs. Those measures were, however, not quite calculated to cope with the trouble, and at best could but partially remove it. One of the most serious in- conveniences that confronted the Forest authorities was the absence of definite boundaries between one State forest and another or be- tween a State forest and a private forest, so that while in the former case the accurate determination of forest areas was not possible, in the latter case the State frequently claimed forests belonging to the other owners. Again illicit felling or felling due to miftake frequently took place, thereby complicating indescribably the work of proper control. It was primarily with the object of removing this fruitfiil source of trouble and of thoroughly adjusting the boundaries, that the authorities started in 1890 the first regular programme of treatment. First Adjustment Programme. — This programme is to be completed in 15 years ending 1904. To meet the expense necessary for carrying it out the Government decided to disburse, besides 252 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. regular expense, a sum of 855,851 yen on account of extraordinary ex- pense. The programme aims in accomplishing the following object : — 1. To inquire into the condition of those State forests and plains (measuring altogether 6,600,000 cho) irregularly scattered over the country, to carefully classify them into those that should with benefit be maintained as State property and those that should be transferred to private property; also to clearly define the jurisdiction limit of supervising offices by determining the relative convenience of control and relative economic advantages. - 2. To clearly define the boundary between State forests and to provide against illicit felling and felling by mistake. 3. To ascertain the exact area of those State forests of greatest economic importance measuring 1,380,000 cJw and to pre- pare accurate forest maps. From its very nature the work embodied in the foregoing •clauses requires a long space of time, but at the same time the elaboration of a definite sylvicultural system demands the speedy completion of the work. It was a very judicious measure, therefore, on the part of the authorities that the programme was adopted as a continuation work so as to preclude it from being altered by any new arrangement that might be made in future. The working of this programme, which is to be completed this fiscal year, has been highly satisfactory and has imparted for the first time a firm basis of operation to Government forestry policy. The sale of State forests and plains, the opening up of some of them to exploitation by private individuals either by being brought under •cultivation or converted into pastures, the elaboration of a high rotation system for other kinds of forest-land — all these and many other things are the fruit of this work of the first programme, which may therefore be said to have inaugurated a new era in the economy of State forests in this country. Second Adjustment Programme. — The work started by that programme has been continued by the so-called second programme which came into operation in 1898 to extend till 1903, a Special Forest Account Fund being created for the purpose. The work Slimed at in this new programme is one of the highest importance. Adjustment of the Forests. 253 being nothing less than the adjustment of the irregular condition of State forests, the expansion of the limit of exploitation, the increase of fertility of forest-land, in short the thorough re-adjustment from the very basis of the economic system of State forests. Started in a concreate form the work involved in this programme consists in determining the forests and plains that may no longer be kept as State property, in the final survey of State forests and plains which should be kept as such, and in the elaboration of plan for working such forests and plains, planting open spaces, undertaking engineering works relating to forests, purchasing such forests as are required, and in short all those matters necessary for determining the system of ex- ploiting State forests and plains. The fund devoted for completing this programme was fixed at 23,025,053 yen. The fact that the programme involved such a big outlay at first deterred the authorities from adopting it, but the difficulty was solved by setting it apart as a special account with the revenue supplied by the proceeds of the sale of forests and plains which may no longer be kept as State property. The measure embodying this programme obtained the approval of the Imperial Diet and was finally issued as law in 1898. The completion of this important programme mainly depending on the sale of unimportant State forests and plains, it is evident that the authorities must carefully regulate this sale so that all the different undertakings in the programme may be regularly carried out according to the prescribed plan of operation. Financial Peospect op the Adjustment. — The result of the programme will revolutionize the economy of the State forests. Not to speak of an addition of 50,983 yen to the Kevenue on account of the Land Tax accruing from the forests and plains- transferred to private ownership, the adjustment effected will con- siderably diminish the managing expenses and will improve the efficiency of the work of control. The revenue from the increased felling is especially important, it being estimated that after 1910 the revenue will be four times what it is now. This means an addition of over 3,310,000 yen to the State Revenue. After the lapse of one hundred years, by which time the renovated forests, even supposing that the market price will remain as low as it in: 254 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Century. now, will have grown to 66 million yen a year, about a quarter of the total amount of Revenue to-day. That this forecast is by no means a sanguine one is proved by the experience of the four years that have elajJsed since the commencement of the programme. Investigation and adjustment of State Forests. — The investigation was carried out from 1890 to 1894 into the existing condition of State forests in Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu where there are 719,473 such forests, with the object of selecting those forests ■which should be kept as State property and those which may with advantage be sold to private individuals. Mode op First Adjustment plan. — The selection is made by keeping the following points in view : — 1. Those which exist in a lot of over 50 cho or in different lots found within the limit of one town or village or within the distance of not more than 2 ri from each other, and which can permanently carry out independent syi- vicultural work. 2. Those which exist in a lot of less than 50 cho but which can without any trouble be managed in consequence of the existence in the same district or in a neighboring district of a State forest or forests measuring over thou- sands or hundreds of cho. 3. Those which, though existing in a lot of less than 10 cho or are economically unimportant, are useful for con- structing forest-roads, for the transport of wood or for storing wood, building official residences of foresters or for other matters connected with State forests. The forests coming under any of the foregoing conditions were to be reserved as State property, and the others not satis- fying them to be disposed of. Also forests or plains necessary to the farmers living in the neighborhood for getting fodder or grass for manure were to be transferred to private ownership, provided no particular necessity existed for keeping them as State property. The result of investigation was that of the State forests and plains measuring altogether 8,095,916 cho, 7,354,343 clia were judged fit to be retained as State property and the remaining 741,573 cho unfit for that purpose. Adjustment of the Forests. 255 The proceeds obtained by disposing of those unimportant forests and plains are to be used as funds for carrying out the second forestry programme, mentioned above, that is to say, the forest exploitation as work of special account. Second Adjustment Plan. — However the selection made was afterward judged to be not entirely satisfactory ; it was found in fact to be satisfactory both in respect of omission and of commission, while with the progress of the times, it became necessary to take into a greater considerations than before the question of the public peace and order. It was decided in 1899 to make thorough second investigations based on advanced principles of forest exploitation. The rules to guide the investigation were drawn up and the work was started afresh in that year. The disposal of unimportant forests and plains determined by the second investigation is to be completed in six years from 1899, and during the three years from that year to 1901 inclusive about 51,756 cho in 16,113 lots were sold, and a sum of 5,199,198 yen was realized by that transaction. Demaekation op botjndaeies and measueement of State FoEESTS AND PLAINS. — The exact measurement of forests and accurate forest-maps being absolutely indispensable for conducting scientiffic treatment of forests, the Government issued in 1884 Notes relating to Boundaries of State forests, aud caused the local offices to undertake the demarkatiou of the boundaries and the measure- ments of the forests. The formulae set forth in the Notes were too simple to render the result of the work to be of any great use. They were repeatedly improved, the last in 1899, and the system elaborated in the latter year is now in force. The SYSTEM now in foece. — That system divides the work into three divisions, viz., demarkation of boundaries, triangular surveying as applied to forests, aud contour surveying. On the completion of the work, foundation maps of working plan are to be drawn on a scale of 1/5000. The final survey carried out according to the foregoing system reached in extent to 29,289 kilometres and 761,349 cJw 3 tan 5.22 se in measurement. There remain 2,850 kilometres for which the work of contour surveying has been accomplished but whose mea- surement still remains to be completed. 256 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Elaboration of the Wopacixd Plan. — The treatment of forests without any definite plan being inconsistent with the interests of forest economy in 1890 a provisional working plan was there- fore drawn up intended . to provide some directions with regard to felling. But with the progress of the first adjustment programme it was possible to apply a more scientific and permanent plan, at least in the case of these forests for which the work of adjustment had been completed. The forests qualified to be dealt with under this permanent plan were those in Ehime, Fukuoka, Ivagoshima, Hiro- shima, Osaka, Ishikawa, Akita, and a few others. The notes drawn up for forming the plan were to this effect : — 1. That the system of sylviculture should be maintained in as perfect a condition as possible and that the utmost quantity of timber possible should at the same time be obtained. 2. That a proper care should be exercised in planting and felling, and provisions should be made against damage of wind and fire and insects. 3. That reserves should be provided to counteract the diminu- tion of the crop incidental to such damage. In the elaboration of the plan a minor forestry office was regard- ed as a unit of economy, and the determination of a yearly cutting volume was based on the area to be cleared and the crop to be obtained. With the progress of the work of adjustment and the greater light bestowed, in consequence, on the condition of the forests, it was possible, especially as a result of the development of facilities of communication, to draw up a plan of a more perfect description. In 1899 and again in 1901 the necessary amendment was effected in the principle of the working plan. The amendment was chiefly intended to adopt the plan as well as possible to the conditions of a district and of a forest. It was also decided that the improvement of the irregular aspect of the forests should be made in a limited space of time. In short, the plan was made to cover all matters relating to the utilization of timber and the renovation and re- generation of forests, and was intended to procure the maximum income and produce crops best calculated to satisfy the demand ou the market. Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests. 25T The permanent working plan as at first elaborated was first put into operation in 1893 and 58,916 cJio 5 tan 9 se was adjusted till 1899, while from the time of the carrying in effect of the second adjustment programme to the end of 1901 the forests measiirini^ 30,945 eho 7^ tan received similar treatment, making altogether 89,862 cho 3 J tan. Adjust?.ient of the Imperial Fokests. — The Imperial forests having been originally transferred from Huite forests, the conditions requiring adjustment and the elaboration of working^ plan were practically identical with those of the State forests. As in the case of State forests, therefore, the work of selecting those forests to be retained and those to be disposed of was sturtfcd in 1892 and completed in 1898 while work of drawing up per- n;anent working plan was commenced in the latter year. The final survey was carried during the nine years ended 1901 for forests extending in aggregate length to 7,076 kiloi. etres and measuring altogether 332,482 cho 2.21 se. The working plan for 147,205 cho in the forests at Fuji, Kiso, Amaki, and Watarae has been completed. lY. EXPLOITATION AND TREATMENT OF THE FORESTS. Sylvicultubal Treatment and Ownership. — The work- ing plan and economy of forests differ according as they are owned by private individuals, by the State or by the Im- perial Household, for it is naturally expected that, in the forests belonging to the State or to the Imperial Household, the interests of the public and of the nation should be consulted more than in private forests. Consequently the managers of the State forests do not look for speedy returns. In view of this consideration the State and Household forests have elaborated a high forest system and the felling of trees is regulated according to this special system. Forests also present a different appearance according as they belong to the State, to the Imperial Household or to private in- dividuals. Those belonging to the former two are generally re- 258 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. newed as a result of natural growth and are therefore less uni- form in composition than those owned by people whose forests re- ceive greater care, the object being to make them yield returns more quickly. The woods at Tokaido, already mentioned and those nt Muro and Kii, are noteworthy in tliis respect, the profit deriv- ed from them being even larger than the rate in Saxony, where forestry is carried on to greater perfection than anywhere else throughout the world. On the other hand, Rotation in State affected by this consideration of obtaining quicker and Imperial returns, privately owned forests do not generally Forests. admit of high forest treatment. The State or Household forests are therefore obliged to supply that in which the other forests are deficient and to produce timber- trees and to properly regulate the cutting period. This period is generally as follows for valuable timber-trees : — years. Sug'i 80 — 120 lUnoki 100 — 150 Hiba 100 — 150 Aka-matsu 40 — 100 Kara-matsu 80 — ICO Ktiro-matsu , 80 — 100 Keyaki 150—200 KusH 150 — 200 As the economy of ordinary forests does not admit of such high rotation, some of them adopt the medium Rotation in Pri- rotation system, such as coppice-with-standard vate Forests. systems, and while utilizing the underwood in a comparatively short space of time they leave the over-wood for utilization after it has reached the period of proper maturity. Sometimes the two-storied high forest system is adopted, and by planting light-demanding trees of quicker growth double rotation system is applied. FoKEST Formations. — ^In regard to the selection of forestry formations, considerable care is required, for while naturally re- generated forests require reorganization on account of their irregular aspect a pure forest formation is likely to cause trouble in Japan Esploituflon and Treatment of the Forests. 251} "from -svind or snow and also on account of tlie risks from injurious insects. The result is that the planting, as it is carried on now- a-days, aims at growing two or three different species made to occupy different compartments or groups or suitably mixed together. Then again the sylvicultural system as adopted in State forests necessarily differs from that in privately-owned forests, and varies also accordinji- to locality. For instance, on mountain slopes clear ■cutting methods, especially of any wide area, may be inadvisable and selection cutting and shelter-wood system have to be adopted. This selection cutting being, however, inconveuient, the Govern- ment is determined to adopt, as far as circumstances permit, the clear cutting method and to entirely renovate sylvicultural for- mation. The coppice-with-standard system is adopted for a special sort of forestry management, especially for small fire-wood areas worked by private individuals who are aiming at the largest possil)le returns at within shortest possible periods. This system is of course out of place for a forest of any extensive -area. Bamboo plantations constitute peculiar feature of our sylvicul- ture, and is likely to prove highly profitable owing to the grcnv- dng demand for bamboos. One serious drawback in the manage- jnent of bamboo groves is the fact that land suited for raising any large bamboo forest is not to be found in Japan, while the more valuable varieties of this species can only be grown in certain limited parts of the country. Coppice woods are grown to supply firewood, the demand for ■which is unusually large in Japan. They are generally left to renew themselves, especially when the area is extensive ; but those situated in the vicinity of cities and towns are artificially tended, the species chosen for this purpose being generally Kunugi and ^onara. The treatment of protection forest consists of selection cutting, the style of which must differ according to Selection Cntting in the character of the forest and to local condi- Protection Forests. tions. The rotation should be regulated accord- ing to the following standards : — 260 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Copice Woods Bamboo Woods , Coppice-with-Standards ... Timber Forests , . Not less than lo years. . Not less than 3 years. fOverwood not less than 30 years, under- \ Tvood not less than lo years. . Not less than 30 years. per cent. ■• 32 6 .. 24 •• 17 10 II Teeaiment of State Forests. — The total area of the forests^ under regular treatment is being ascertained at present by the Government. At present the data for State forests alone arfr available, these roughly standing as follows : — Method of treatment. Clear Cutting Timber-Forests Shelter- Wood Timber-Forests Selection Cutting Timber-Forests Coppice Coppice-with-Standard and Bamboo ... Thinly Stocked Areas, Bare Areas, etc. Total 100 It will be seen from the above that the timber-forests treatment occupies about 62 per cent, of the whole areas of State forests. The principal growing stock consists of Buna (beech) 30 per cent.,. AkaniattM 20 per cent., I'iugi 12 per cent., Sinoki 7 per cent., Kctshi (oaks) 6 per cent., Kicromaffu and Hiba, both 4 per cent., the remaining 17 per cent., cansisting of conifers and broad-leafed trees. In coppice woods Kunugi, Konara, and oaks occupy about 85 per cent, while in coppice-in-standard woods Momi, Tsuga, oak and Nara predominate over any other species. Conversion of Wood. — The method of conversion of wood have become more and more uniform than ever. There are usually three methods, these being the outcome of customs at different forest districts and in different markets. Styles of Conversion. — The Fukagawa timber yard in Tokyo- is the most important depot for the wood produced at the northern parts of Middle Honshu. Three different styles of designation are in vogae in this depot corresponding to so many modes of convertion. These are " Motoki," " Nami-motoki " and " Kawabe-mono." The first comes from the wood districts of Mino, Hida, Owari, Totomi^ Exploitation and Trcuhiient of the Forests. 261 Tosa, IMikawa, etc., with a standard length of not less than 14 shakii, the second is applied to woods coming from Kii and measures not let's thiiu 14 shaku, and the last one is applied to woods produced at Hitachi, Shlmozuke, and Musashi with the length of 14 shaku. Woods coming from Hokkaido and the north-eastern parts of Honshu •are treated as " Motoki " and therefore possess measure of correspond- ing length. All these kinds of timber are prepared either as round logs or l)alks or sawn timbers. The converted timbers of "Motoki" are recj^uircd to possess the legal standard, but for those of the other two kinds the allowance of 2 to 3 per cent, to the standard measure is conct'ded. In general iS}'ffi, HinoJci, Matsu, Keyaki, Momi, Tsuga, Hiha, Yachidaino, Jrlunoki, Katsiira, etc., are converted as sided logs, while Sugi, Hinoki, Sawara, Toohi, etc., appear on the market as round logs. Season of Felling. — The season of felling depends of course upon the local conditions, the convenience of transport, etc. but in general the five months beginning with the autumnal equinox and ending with the succeeding February are regarded as the felling season. In such snowy regions as Hokkaido and the north- eastern districts of Honshu where the means of transport are imperfect, felling must be 'tarted in the beginning of the snowy season, so that the timber may be easily carried over the snow. In places where the supply of timber for industrial purposes or firewood is to be kept up all the year round there are arrangements for the uninterrupted felling of the trees. 1'eanspoht op Converted Wood. — The transport of convert- ed timber may be divided into two stages, the first being the transport of woods from felling places to depots and the second the transport of the timber from the depots to the markets. In the first stage, chiefly owing to the hilly condition of the forest area in Japan and also to the presence in its proximity of rivers and streams, water ways have been utilized from early times for the conveyance of timber. Indeed economic considerations do not yet allow in most cases the construction of special forest roads. Transport of timber along the middle and lower courses of rivers is generally, as in Bangkok and .Rangoon, in the shape of rafts, till the timber reaches depots usually 262 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. situated at the mouths of the rivers and therefore easily acccssible- from the sea. The facilities supplied by rivers are attended in Japan by a drawback usually unknown in other countries, and that is by the necessity of suspending the river transport during the season of the planting and growth of the rice-plant, when the water of rivers is- extensively utilized for the purpose of irrigating the rice-fields. Then there is another drawuback in this system, for the distance between the source and mouth of our rivers being comparatively short they are liable to become suddenly overflown in time of heavy- rain. Therefore the river transport of timbers is generally done^ during the seven months elapsing between the season of the autumnal equinox and that of the spring equinox. However in consequence of the recent increasing demand for timber and also owing to the extraordinary improvement in the- means of communications, coupled with the consideration that river- transport, besides being attended by the drawnbaclis before mentioned, is liable to injure the quality of the timber, the tendency has- gradually set in of making arrangements for land-transport and of constructing forest roads leading either to railroads or high roads. These arrangements are' being made in State forests, and the result has proved economically profitable. MiNOE FoEEST Pboduce. — The tendency to a luxuriant, undergrowth in Japanese forests, principally due to abundance of moisture, gives the minor produce business a peculiar aspect, for the removal of the undergrowth is of course necessary for the sake of the forest as for that of the undergrowth if the latter is to be utilized as a minor produce. LiTTEES. — In forests belonging to the State or in those kept in its custody the people living in the vicinity are generally allowed, under certain conditions, to collect gratis dead branches and leaves to be used as fuel. Geasses and Heebage. — Though not bo extensive aa formerly, the custom still prevails among our people of regarding forests and woodlands as places for getting fuel and fertilizers in the shape of grasses and herbage, so that even at present there is no small jjUmber of woodlands containing no growing stock and principally^ Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests. 263 used by the people for procuring manure grasses and herbage from. It is in those grass-lands that the injurious practice of burning is still carried on, especially in southern districts where farming is more extensively carried on than in the northern and less inhabited districts. «r, The practice alluded to prevails to a larger degree than elsewhere in woods growing on a soil of a granite or Tertiary formations. However as it has been strictly forbidden by law, this injurious custom may entirely disappear in the near future. Mushrooms. — Mushrooms are the most valuable minor forest produce in Japan, there being over ten principal edible fuugii growing to a greater or less extent throughout the country. Of these the Shiitake is the most important, and constitutes one of the staple export items, its export to China, Hawaii, Hongkong, India, etc., having reached to 860,671 yen in value in 1901. The mush- room is produced in larger quantities than elsewhere in Hyuga, Bungo, Kii. Ise, etc., where such species of wood as Kunugi, Konara, Soro, Shide, etc., which the mushroom prefers to grow on in pre- ference to other trees abounding in the fiiests. Sometimes forests are prepared in those districts with the main object of producing the mushroom, and indeed this practice is often found more profitable than the ordinary wood-growing industry. In a forest intended for the growth of mushrooms a system of rotation of from 18 to 25- years is carried on and the forest is therefore managed according to the coppice system. The mushroom, moreover, possesses this special advantage, of growing both in spring and autumn, and naturally there are two varieties, one being more fragrant than the other. Matsutake (Arrailaria edoides. Berk) grows in forests of Akamatsu, especially those growing on soil of the Tertiary and granite forma- tions found in the southern districts. What is interesting about this edible fungus is that it grows most when a pine forest has be come worn out by excessive utilization of its produce. Consequently with the improved forest management that was recently introduced, tlie output of the fungu.s has shown a tendency to diminish. This fungus is perhaps more popular than the preceding variety as a culinary dainty. The only defect about it is its delicate texture, and the consequent difficulty of keeping it dry, as can be done satisfactorily with the " Shii " mushroom. Ck)nsequently the season of 264 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the " Pine-mushroom " last only about a month in the autumn. The business of tinning the fungus has lately been started, and as the tinned samples are reported to have been favorably received in foreign markets, this mushroom may by proper treatment become a valuable export item like the other variety. It may be added that in the State forests in charge of the Osaka and Okayama Major Forest Offices the greater portion of the forest revenues is at present derived from the sale of " Pine-mushrooms " growing in them. Seeds, Acorns, etc. — Seeds constitute another important minor forest produce. They are collected for various purposes. The seeds of trees of the Rhus species are principally used for making wood- wax, which is very much in demand both at home and abroad. In 1901 the export readied 610,000 yen worth approximately. It was formerly used for making candles, but at present it is also_ used for giving lustre to woven goods, lubricating metallic ware to prevent rust, while in Europe it serves the purpose of sealingwax. The trees are grown in the premises of shrines and temples, in public forests owned by private individuals. They grow besc in sunny slopes. The business of collecting seeds to produce seedlings is also a profitable piece of minor work, especially since the work of tree- planting both by the Government and private people has become active. There are at present not a small number of merchants dealing in this special line of seeds. The seeds that are in larger demand than others are those of Sugi, followed by those of Akamatm, Hinoki, Kumigi and Karamaisu. The seeds of the Sugi and Hinoki are produced most at Yoshino, in Yamatu, and Muro, in Kii, where a machine of improved style is used for drying the seeds. The seeds of Kunugi come from Ikeda, in Settsu, and Nasu, in Shimotsuke, those of Karamatsu from Saku district, Shinano, and the seeds of Aka-maisu from many places in Kyushu, Shikoku, and other warm districts. Further, some acorns and nuts are useful for procuring oils, the seeds collected for the purpose being those of the beech, camelia, Shildmi, Ahma-giri, Inu-gaya, walnut, etc. The demand for those oils having been extensive lately owing to great deve- lopment in the use of machinery, these seed-collectors can often /■Exploitation and Treatment oj the Forests. 2G5 earn as much as threefold of the daily wages derived from other kinds of work. Bauks. — The harks of oak trees are valuable for dyeing and tanning, and tli^ oak forests in northern Honshu and Hokkaido produce an abundance of these barks. All those forests are the result of natural growth and have not been artificially stocked with the object of pioducing the barks. The barks of alders, chestnuts, Tsvga, Nara, etc. are also used for tanning and dyeing. Stones. — Except in forests where the removal of stones is inadmissible for important reasons, the utilization of forest-stones •is extensively carried on, the demand for stones for various public works having become unusually great recently. Of these stones, granites and audesites are most valuable among igneous rocks. The former come most from the districts bordering on the Inland Sea and the islands situated in it, as also from Mino, Owari, and Mount Tsukuba. Tufa-rocks found in Hakone and Izu, slate-stones in Rikuzen and Koluke, calcareous stones in Mino are also valuable for building and other purposes. Marble-stones are produced at Kuji district of Hitachi. Then granites supply materials to the potters of Seto and Owari, while the earths used by the potters of Karatsu and Hizen are liparite. It may be stated that the extraordinary demand for stones that has spring up of late has raised the market price to about double what it was formerly. On the whole the revenue from minor produce is comparatively small in State forests, as may be seen from these figures : 1892, 119,912 yen; 1895, 73,575 ym; 1898, 117,268 yen; 1901, 158,665 yen. The revenue from mushrooms, barks, seeds and acorns, and stones promises to grow larger, but that from other produce is dwindling chiefly owing to the larger extent of free utilization allowed to the people. Industrial Uses op Wood. — Though the industrial uses of wood are quite active in our country, the industry as a business is limited in many cases in scope. Caebonisation. — This is most important among the industrial uses of wood, work being carried on wlierever a broad-leafed forest available for the purpose exists. The Bicho charcoal industry in Kumano, Kii, is most famous in this line throughout the country. The carlionisation industry has perceptibly been affected by the 266 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. greater use of coal than before as a substitute of charcoal, but as our customs prevent us from dispensing with a large consump- tion of charcoal, the industry will remain an important one. Recently the work of procuring vinegar as by-product of carbonisation was started in several places, especially in the southern districts. Eight such workshops were on operation accord- ing to the latest inquires. Other chemical substances besides vinegar are produced at the shops. The establishment of saw-mills of an improved style is another sign of the development of forest industries, as a recent large de- mand for sawn-timbers necessitates a certain unity of dimensions and a mode of conversion most convenient for transport. Accord- ing to the latest available returns there were 14 saw-mills worked by steam, with an aggregate horse-powers of 317, and six saw-milla worked by water power with an aggregate horse power of 52. Match-sticks. — Though the industry is one of recent origin it forms one of the most important itmes of export of our wood industries, there being, according to the latest available returns, 85 workshops employing 3,552 hands. The export reached about 7,400,000 yen in 1901. The industry is most active in HokkaidS, where the timbers from which the sticks are made abound, these being species of aspen and poplars. The Pulp. — This business is of more recent origin than the preceeding industry, but it now occupies almost an equally important place. The pulp consumed in Japan formerly came from abroad, but the steady development of the paper industry having given a powerful incentive to the pulp-making business, Japan now possesses, according to the latest available returns, five mills worked by steam power. Shirobe, Momi, Toga, Todo-matsu, Yezo-matsu, etc. are generally requisitioned to supply the raw material. These species are at present found abundantly in Japan. Other branches of the wood industry are camphor-making, bamboo-ware making, wheelwright, joiner's, turner's, cooper's work, etc. may be mentioned. Generally speaking the forest industry is destined to show a far greater activity and development in Japan. Forest Planting and Transpoii. 267 Y. FOREST PLANTirG AND TRANSPORT. Planting. — The effect of reckless felling soon after the Kestora- tion is glaringly shown to-day in the gninite hills of Omi, Mino and in the districts bordering on the Inland Sea. In order to check this wasteful system of felling, in 1875 the Government issued regulations for investigatin'4 the condition of State forests, with the special object of asce)taining the extent of the forests that had been felled, while in the following year an experimental forest-planting ground was establislied at Nishigahara, Oji. Again, in the next year, arrangements were made for en- couraging the planting of State forests by private individuals by offering them a certain percentage of the profit arising from the produce of the forests planted in this way. The system has not; proved quite as satisfactorily as was expected at first, though the areas planted under these conditions have reached about 80,000 cJio. Encouraging Planting. — Prior to the carrying into eflfect of the Civic Corporation System sylvicultural works other than those car- ried on by the Government were few and far between, and it was only in forests belonging to private individuals in Yoshino and Muro that planting was carried on in anything like a systematic manner. Subsequent to the promulgation of that self government organiza- tion in which provision about communal funds were made, the idea began gradually to prevail that forest-planting was the best jilau for augumenting these funds. The idea gained special force owing to the encouragement and the grant-in-aids extended by the local authorities in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law subsequently enforced. The result was that during the two years of 1898 and 1899 no less than 426,595 cJio of communal areas were planted, the number of seedlings and young trees planted totalling 801,022,-357. The work generally received more or less assistance from the local authorities, that assistance generally taking the form of technical advise. Planting in State and Impekial Forests. — Meanwhile the work of planting went on steadily in the State forests. At fiist it mainly consisted of regeuerating the cleared areas, and therefore not 268 Japan in the Beginning of the '20th Century. much attention could be devoted to the deforested areas. In 1895 the investigation relating to open spaces was completed, and a working plan according to the high forest system was drawn up. From 1899 when the second State forest adjustment programme had been completed, the arrangement of open spaces could be made more satisfactorily than before. Between 1888 and 1898, 43,149.9 cho of State forest areas received planting, while during the three years ending 1901 the areas similarly treated reached 34,897 cho. In the former total 80 per cent, consisted of the work of regenerating •cleared areas, and only 30 of planting waste spaces, while in the latter the open space work comprised 55 per cent., the remaining 45 consisting of regeneration work. The extent of bare land btiug comparatively small in forests belonging to the Imperial Household, planting is carried out mostly for regenerating cleared areas, the planted areas of this description amounting to 12.510.4 cho during the ten years ending 1901. Methods of Planting. — The system followed in planting opera- tions must of course be different according to the locality and other causes, always keeping in view the main object of producing a perfect forest formation capable of returning a regular revenue. The plans pursued in pursuance of that maid object are these : — 1. Natural regeneration. 2. Sowing. 3. Planting of young plants. 4. Planting in dunes and patches of shifting sand.. The lirst method was almost universally adoptad in former times, but this is no longer popular in these days when the knowledge of forest management possessed by foresters has come highly developed, for if that method is the easiest and the least troublesome, nontheless it is not advisable in view of the necessity of effecting a thorough imiivovement in our sylvicultural conditions. However on steep slopes and in protection forests demanding special treatment this method is still used to e-ttent. Generally sowing is made to supplement the necessarily fickle operation of the method oi natural regeneration. In cases when sowing is carried on by itseh it is done by ridge-sowing, broad-cast- Forest Plantinc/ and Transport. 2G9' sowing, line-sowing, etc. Oaks, beeches, Aka-matsu, etc can be grown satisfactorily by sowing. However, the planting of young trers is the commonest method in artificial regeneration, this method being adopted in the greater number of eases in State forests and in forests belonging to the Imperial Household. Generally seedlings are transplanted to the woods after they have grown two or three years in the nursery, the tree of planting per c/io ranging between 4,500 to 6,000 young trees. As it is hardly possible to expect all oi them to grow vigorously in the new soil, about 20 or 30 per cent, of the planted young trees must be supplemented in year or two after the transplanting. The method of planting by means of cuttings is practically identical in operation and result with the method described above,, only that this method cannot be adopted for all species of trees. In Higo and Hyuga the regeneration of Benko Sugi has been ex- clusively carried out by this method, while it is similarly applied to Doro, Hakoyanagi, etc. growing in Hokkaido, Hiba in Aomori. and Noto. In dunes and in plains of shifting sand, works to pre- vent earth from slipping away should first be constructed, these works generally consisting in straw-work or bramble-work or some- times in sods. The trees selected for this particular method of planting are generally Kuromatsu and Hageahihari, mix- ed at the rate of 3 of the former to 2 of the latter. Planting should be done at the rate of 14,000 to 18,000 per clw. Travellers travelling from Shimonoseki to Kobe by the Sanyo Kailroad must notice in Bizen and Harima many hills of reddish soil covered with young pine trees planted in ter- races. Similar pine-clad terraces are seen along the Tokaido- route. All those plantations have been made by this particular mode of planting. Extent of Planted Aeeas. — The extent and nature of the planting operations carried on in the State forests and in the forests belonging to the Imperial Household during the ten years ending 1901 may be demonstrated by the following fiijures : — 270 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. STATE FORESTS. Conifers, Broad-leafed trees. Tctd. Area,(cho). ^o.-d^ ^,,,. „^„, No._.nd_ ^„, ,,^„,. No._^.«d ■Natural Regeneration ... 15,235.2 — 2,032.3 — 17,267.5 — ,....,_ ,. .,„, „ 306.516,463 csi-.k': 2,340.030 •329.938,30! Total 56,942.4 5^971 kiku ''^"'•^ 23,.-i0J koku ^'^'^'^ 30,271 ko:iU IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD FORESTS. Natural Hegeneration ... — — — — — — . ^., . , „ ,. ,, „<« o 51,491,518 ao, „ 2,921,853 io.7qro 54,413,317 Jlrtificial Rogimeration.. 11,844.6 i^gejioku ^^'-^ 1^20 koku I-""'-* 3,085 110^,11! 51,491,518 0Q1 o 2,921,853 107"= o 54,413,371 11,844.6 jggg 891.2 ij-iokoku l''.'-'=» 3035 Grand Total... 68,787.0 ^'''""Jfj^J 9,789.0 2^.843,753 ,g„g„ 384,351,734 KiKD OP Planted tkees. — As may be seen from the foregoing table, the areas planted with conifers are about nine-fold those planted with broad-leafed trees, and this predominance of conifers over trees of the other description will form a characteristic feature of our future sylvicultural system. The reason why conifers are so much preferred to the other kind of trees is because that with the present activity in the work of house building and in the carrying on of public works the timbers of the conifers are more in demand ■than that of broad-leafed trees, so that at present except in retired districts most of the sylvicultural undertakings are carried out with the object of producing timbers of conifers. As to the relative ratio of the different species planted, Sugi occupied about 48.3 per cent, of the entire area, pines 25.G per cent., Ilinoki 8.8 per cent., Keyaki 3.3 per cent., the remaining 1.7 per cent, being planted by two or three different species. Again, in the relative ratio of conifers, Sugi, Aha-mahu, and Hinohl predo- miuiited over the others, while in broad-leafed trees Keyaki, camphor- trees, Kunngi, etc. surpassed the others. This overwheling predominance of conifers is a point which Forest Planting and Transport. 271 ■ought to demand the serious consideration of all those interested in our forest policy. There is another fact that similarly demands their attention and that is the growing tendency to prepare pure foiests instead of mixed forests. In fact, of the forests thus far stocked no less than 98 per cent, are of pure forests, only 2 per cent, being mixed foi-ests. This remark anplies both to conifers and broad-leafed trees. But it should be remembered that a pure forest is liable to give rise to various evils, besides being attended by difficulties in management. Indeed this point has lately begun to be perceived by foresters and others conceiiieci, who acknowledge the advantage of mixing more or less light-demanding species with conifers. At least this is the policy now pursued in State forests, where the plan- ing of broad-leafed trees is attended to so long as circumstances permit. Nursery-Beds. — The efficacy of the work of forest-planting depending essentially on the soundness of the seeds and seedlings and also on the skill of the employed lal)or the utmost care ia exercised in those respects. In the State forests and Imperial Household forests the seeds or seedlings to be used are only those that are collected oj- grown on the spot. The nursery-beds attached to those forests numbered 407 at the end of 1900, with an aggregate area of 622.1 cho for State forests and 111 with an area of 101.9 cho for other forests. Then in order to procure as cheaply as possible the labor required in tending the nurseries, and also to facilitate the work of transplanting, these beds are located in places combining as much as possible these two conveniences. They are laid out in ■aa many places as possible. The seedlings grown in nursery-beds are generally transplanted nfter full three years' growth in the beds, and when they have attained the height of li to 2 shaku. Some species, iSugi for instance, admit of being transplanted after two years' growth, wliile some broad-leafed species, such as Hiba, Koyamahi, etc. require five or seven years' nursery growth. Of course in places where the injury from game is apprehended even Sugi must be left to stand five or six years in the beds. The quantity of seeds sown and the number of seedlings grown in State forests nurseries duiing the ten years ended 1901 are given in the following table: — 272 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. c Conifers. Broad-Leafed trees. Year. Quantity of Seeds. Jij>/eu. No. of Seedlings. Quantity of No. of Seeds. Jui^u. Seedlings^ 1892 ... • 18,083 io/iu. 15,000 No. 5,158,354 No. 18,331 940,109 1893 ■■■{ 16,009 523,400 4,963,780 31,267 765.851 «894 ■"l 24.793 544,000 7.196,173 52,882 780,746 1895 ...{ 21,805 501,400 7,560,593 52,681 l,6i 1,997 1896 -{ 18,190 732,880 11,758,563 65,990 1,847,554 1897 23,799 12,006,878 32,835 1,013,359 1898 "•••{ 28,748 324,716 13,377,054 48,114 1,298,175 1899 • •• 78i02i 14,359,413 140,528 634,667 1900 107,554 20,896,129 313,750 1,128,182 1901 f •■■ I- 14S.811 70,000 482,813 2,846,396 29,768,092 398,189 2,469,590 Total ... 127,045,029 1,154,527 12,490,230 The sudden activity of the nursery work from 1899 was due- to the fact that in that year a special account system was allowed in forestry management. Then the rate of conifers and broad-leafed^ trees in the seedlings raised amounted to 10 of the former to 1 of the latter. In the conifers, Sugi, Hinohi, Kara-matsu, Aka-matm predominated over others. Treatment of Pi.,anted-Aeeas. — In newly-planted areas, ex- cept in areas of protection planting, the cutting of grass is generally made every year for the space of three years subsequent to the planting. Then during the next ten years the grass-cutting is done every other year. Thinning is carried out for tending the growth of young trees and for preserving the forest- aspect. During the five years ended 1901, 13,588.3 cho of State forests were subjected to this thinning process, by which 229,146 cubic shaku of wood for industrial uses was obtained, besides, 156,019 stacks of firwood, and 192,630 bundles of branch-litters. These intermediate forest produce- are growing more and more valuable owing to the greater demands- on them for various purposes. Akboricui.tural experiments. — Arboricultural experiments Forest Planting and Transport. 27JJ were first started at Nishigahara in 1876, but it was not until after 1897 that the work became really brisk. In that year eight ex- perimental nurseries were established in different typical places, and, under the supervision of the chiefs of the nearest Major Forestry Offices, they were made to carry out investigations relative to sylvicultural climate, selection of species best calculated to improve the forestry aspect, germination an! growth of young plants, and such subjects. The overseers of the nurseries were made to submit to the Minister ot Agriculture and Commerce reports on the result* on the investigations. At the same time the central nursery established at Kami Meguro, suburb of Tokyo, under the direct control of the Forestry Bureau, was made to examine the reports sent in from the local offices. Exotic trees. — The experiments on the exotic species being^ still incomplete, it is not possible to give any authoritative statement as to the relative adaptability to Japanese soil of the various species planted in the nurseries. Judging from the aspect of growth, the following species are likely to prove a valuable addition to Japanese sylviculture. Rohinia Pseudoaeaeia, L. (Imported from the U. S. A.). Sown in the nursery in 1900, the plants have already grown to the height of over 4 metres. The principal merits of this species are quick growth, adaptability even to poor soil, and the presence of strong reproductive power, shoots springing up from the side-roots. As a substitute for the indigenous Hage-shihari the tree may serve even better than that shrub for the purpose of preventing the drifting of sand and landslip. The wood is also hard and well suited for earthworks. Pimis 1-ir/ida (Imported from the U.S.A.). Sown in 1900, the plants have grown over 1 metre high. In respect to strong reproductive power, hardy character, and adaptability even t» poor soil, this species resembles our Aka-matsu very much, and like it the species is apparently suited for dunes and slufciug Populus monilifera (Imported from the U.S.A.). The young plants measuring 0.7 metre in height were imported from that country in 1899 and transplanted to the nursery. They hav» 274 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. attained the height of oyer 4 metres. Both in growth and reproductive power they are very strong, being capable of arti- ficial regeneration by cuttings. As material for match-wood, the tree is as excellent as the indigenous popular. Juniperiis Virginiana (Imported from the U.S.A.). Those sown in 1890 have attained the height of IJ metres, and those in 1900 that of 1 metre. Judging from the experiments thus far carried out, it does not seem difficult to acclamatise the species to Japanese soil. In that case the wood will lead to encouraging our lead-pencil industry, which has failed to attain any marked development for lack of suitable wood. Of the other exotic species experimentally planted in the nurseries, the German Alnus glatinosa, the American Pinus strafus, the German Cedrus deosata, and some Himalayan species are likely to prove valuable trees for planting in exposed places. The Himalayan Cedrus deosata also makes a fine garden or- nament. FoEEST-EOADS AND EivEE-TEANSPOET woEK. — Before the Restoration, owing rather to the excessive care exercised by &udal princes for the preservation of their forests and the enforcement of ■\vhat we may call the " closed door " policy of administration in their dominions, there were grave obstacles to the efficient manage- ment of forests and their exploitation. Endeavors have been made for obviating those obstacles, and in such of those State or Imperial Household forests that are of a permanent nature or that admit of financial treatment, the work of constructing forest roads has been carried out so far as circumstances permittee). FoEEST ROADS. — According to the existing rules forest-roads are -divided into two kinds, main roads and subsidiary roads. Further, they are divided into railed- roads, cart-tracks, roads made of wood, foot- paths and cattle-paths. The first three are considered as main-roads -and the latter two as subsidiary roads. A main- road must be con- nected with a railroad or with a highway, while a subsidiary-road must be 'connected with a main-road. A highway, though intended for general traffic, often receives from the Department of Agricul- ture and Commerce some help towards its extension and repair, pro -vided such highway is judged to facilitate the transport of timber. Forest Planting and Transport. 275 Owing to the inconvenience of procuring labor and materials for construction, the cost of constructing forest-roads is generally high, the average per ri of main-road amounting to over 6,500 ■yen and that of subsidiarj'-road to about 4,000 yen. The cost of bridge-making is equally high, as a bridge in a forest-road is to be constructed over a rapid steam liable to overflow. This question of expenses very much therefore obstiuctg the progress of the con- struction of forest-roads, so that during the ten years beginning in 1892 the roads constructed in State forests have not exceeded 776,- '677 metres in length, of which the following were constructed from 1898 to 1901:— Metres. Expense. yen. Main-Roads 132,000 212,575 Subsidiary-Roads 109,600 66,102 Total 241,600 278,677 The roads recently constructed in the Imperial forest areas follows :- Metres. Expense, yen. Main-Roads 44,140 SS,833 Subsidiary-Roads 28,080 26,708 Total 72,220 82,541 Besides the above, the tracks laid with 12 pound-rails in the Imperial forests at Kiso measure 8,212 metres, the expense required being 14,680 yen. In the colder districts, such as Hokkaido or the north-eastern part of Honshu, the wood is largely carried over hardened snow in winter at a very small expense. RiVEB Transport of Timbers. — The transport of timber by rivers has been carried on extensively from former days, the conveyance of Kiso wood on the river Kiso, of Nagakizawa wood on the river Noshiro, and of Kitayama wood on the Shingu being some of the important cases of the regular river-transport of timber. However, in order to make rivers serve still more efficiently this purpose, all the obstacles in their course should be removed, the river-banks should 276 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. he made strengthened, while in the lower course where a wood-depot is to be formed damming-work should be constructed. From 1899 t» 1901 the obstacles were removed over 32,800 metres of river-beds and the stones thus taken out of the bottom covered 49,176 cubic tsubo. ¥1. WOOD PRODUCE. General Eemaeks. — Data on forestry yield being unavailable in the case of privately-owned forests, we must content ourselves in this section with giving the data in connection with the State forests measuring about 7,500,000 cho and the Imperial forests measuring about 2 millions. It is hardly necessary to state that the yield from the forests varies considerably according to position and local conditions, and that while the harvest of convertible timber depends upon the species of the trees and their growth, the amount of the financial yield depends upon the locale of the growing stock, the relative facilities of transport, and the demands on the market. Harvest of Convertible Timbers. — The harvest of State fjrests continues to increase with the progress of the work of manage- ment, and, compared with what it was 10 years ago, the yield at present shows an increase of about 35 per cent, as stated in the following table : — 1892. 1895- 1898. i9or. Shakiijime. Shakujiine. Shakiijifne. Shaknjime. Timber 984,464 1,107,941 1,010,621 1,707,813 Firewood ... 3,361,566 3,544,068 3,609,036 4.619,657 4,158,186 Total ... 4.346,030 4,652,009 S.865,999 Forest Area (c/to). . . ... 7,541,633 7,715,793 7,773,15s 7,586,201 Yield per c/io 0.58 0.58 0.59 0.77 Note : — In the foregoing figures the harvest of root, stump-wood, and faggots is ex- cluded, while fractions of a shakujime are also omitted. A shakujime measures 12 cubic shaku and corresponds to about a third of i cubic metre. This remark apf lies to all the subsequent tables of a similar description. The increase of the harvest has been brought about by a longw thinipg made possible by the improved method of management and by the extension of the utilization area which was in turn due to Wood Produce. 277 development of means of transportation. Indeed the utilization area of State forests increased from about 18 per cent, in 1892 of the ■whole area to about 21 per cent, in 1901. In other words, the rate of utilization area increased during the period in question by 17 per cent, as against 35 per cent, of the volume of the timber- harvest. The harvest, according to the foregoing table, increased during the specified period from 0.58 shaku-jime per clw to 0.78 ; and these compared with the respective utilization areas correspond to 3.2 to 3.7 The volume of the harvest as compared with the volume of the growing-stock in the State forests is extremely small, and indeed does not reach even one half of what it should be. The reason of this abnormal yield must be sought in the fact that in most of the forests situated in hilly districts the presence of miscellaneous trees is seriously affecting the growth of timber-trees, while in most of the forests the growing-stock has not yet attained the normal "age- 54i.633 423,146 99>6i6 522,762 0.070 1895 7.71S.793 402,789 180,085 582,874 0.076 1898 7,773,15s 5S3,oi6 364,674 917,690 0.1 18 1901 hs 7,581,201 669,149 330,817 1,029,966 0.137 Wood Produce. 279 Note : — The management expense includes salaries of officials, office expenses, tra- velling expense, repair of offices, etc. ; while the working expense comprise the cost of felling, transport, planting and all the other items incidental to the working of forests. As stated in the foregoing table the average managing expense per cho increased during the ten years under review from 0.056 yen to 0.082 yen, while the average of the working expense increased from 0.013 yen to 0.044 yen. In other words, while the rate of increase of management expenses is about 60 per cent., that of working expenses is as much as 340 pei- cent. The ratio of iimnagc- meut expense is rather high as compared with working expense, the former constituting, on an average, 68 and the latter 22, if we take the total expense as 100. This comparatively high rate of manage- ment expense is explained by the enormous extent of the State forests, and especially the fact that most of them require a thorough re-organization, and ail these involve extraodinary trouble and expense. However, the ratio between management expense and working expense is gradually recovering normal proportion, for while in 1892 the management expense bore to the working expense the ratio of 21 to 5, in 1901 the proportion became 21 to 10. The proportion is sure to become more satisfactory when the second forestry adjustment programme now being carried out shall have been completed. Profit. — Forestry yield is obtained by deducting from the gross receipts the working expense, while the net profit consist of what remains after the management expense has been deducted from the remainder. Calculated in that way, the net profit of State-foresta stands thus : — Year. Total Area. Gross Receipts. Gross Dis- bursements. Net Profit. Profit per cho. 1892 . - 7,541.633 811,059 522,762 288,292 0.038 189s .. ... 7,715,793 998,620 582,874 415,746 0.054 1898 7,773,15s 1.451,666 917,690 533,976 0.069 1901 . ... 7,586,201 2,176,522 1,029,966 1,146,556 0.151 The net profit per clw, as stated in the foregoing table, has increased from 0.038 to 0.151 compared with the utilization area. 280 Japan in the Beginning of tlw 20th Century. The rate per cho was 0.212 yen in 1892 and it advanced to 0.72 yen, ten years after. Data About the Imperial Foefsts. — As forests that were comparatively regular in aspect were selected as Imperial forests on the occasion of setting apart a pai-t of State forests as property of Imperial estate, the forests belonging to this special class, besides being easy to manage, are rich in conifers and valuable timber-trees, so that the harvest is more satisfactory than that in State forests. The harvest during the ten years commencing in 1892 is stated below : — 1892. 1895. 1898. igoi. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jime. Timbers 803,026 588,692 685,193 f, 1 10,324 Firewood 723,321 500,820 555,468 848,316 Total 1,526,347 1,089,512 1,240,661 1,958,140 Total Area 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 Harvest per cho 0.44 0.51 0.59 0.94 The average harvest per alw that was 0.44 in 1892 increased to 0.94 ten years after, an increase of more than two-fold. The statistics on financial side are as follows : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. yen. yen. yen. yen. Timbers 226,709 327,644 752,585 845,139 Firewood ... 50,131 50,604 62,867 83,291 Faf;ots, Stump ■ root, etc.... ■.":} '^^3 3,141 3,196 4,636 Minor Produce 13,655 18,619 -2,894 29,402 Rent 19,724 29,433 54,770 77,667 Sundries 28,647 3o,«5o 34,346 74,089 Total 340,027 459,591 930,658 1,114,224 Total Area ... .3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 Yield per cho 0099 0.218 0.445 0.532 Just as in the case of the State forests, with the progress of the work of management along the economic line, the volume of the harvest and the amount of the gross receipts are gradully increasing, to make a still greater development as that work proceeds. Then the 1892. 1895- 1898. 1901. 3.47S,oo7 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 106,154 110,138 115,291 147,734 208,157 195,594 369,954 496,686 314,3 > I 305,732 485,245 644,420 0.090 0.145 0.232 0.30S ]Vood Produce. 281 financial results of the administration of the Imperial foi'c^ts are somewhat better, owing to the reasons mentioned above, than in the case of the State forests, for the gross receipts that stood at 0.095 yen per eho in 1892 advanced to 0.533 in 1901. As might naturally be expected, expense has also advanced. Total Area (cho) Management Expense {\'en) Working Expense (^yen)... Total (;j/«z) Expense per cho (yen) ... In respect to the increase of expense, the Imperial forests are very much like the State forests, for during the periuJ under review the rate per cho increased from 0.09 yen to 0.308 yen. However, in contrast to the corresponding state of affairs in State forests, the ratio between the management expense and the working expense is entirely reversed, the former constituting only 27 and the latter 73, out of the total expenses of 100, This coinj parative smallness of the management expense in the Imperia- forests is exjjlained by the fact that the forests, owing to their convenient location, and on account of their Ijeing comparatively well-organized do not require any large amount of money to be spent on them. Thus while State forests required in 1901 manage- ment expense amounting to 0.092 yen per c/w the corresponding figure in Imperial forests was only 0.071. On the other hand, the average working expense of State forests in the year mentioned was 0.045 ye7i per cho against 0.337 in case of the other forests. This remarkable difference between the two is ascribable to the fact that while in State forests the forests-produce to be sold is generally done so in the shape of standing-trees, in the Imperial forests whatever produce becomes disiDosable is directly utilized by the Household itself which of course undertakes the work of conversion. The net profit from the Imperial forests as calculated by deducting the gross disbursements from the gross receipts was minue 22,610 yen in 1892, the loss being at the rate of 0.007 yen per ehos Subsequentiy conditions were restored to their normal aspect, for in 282 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/(. Ceniunj. 1895 net profit grew to 0.045 ye7i per cJio, to 0.125 in 1898 and to 0.138 in 1901. In other words, during the last seven years out of the ten under review, net profit was increased by 0.093 yen per cho. ¥11. OFFICIAL SUPERVISION OF THE FORESTS. Controlling Offices. — Considerable changes have taken place as to the ofiicial repository of power in regard to managing and super- vising forests since the feudal princes have surrendered their fiefs to their sovereign liege in 1868. The forests held by them have become converted into State property. Suffice it to state that it was in 1878 that the existing Forestry Bureau was created and that afiair; relating to State forests and to forests at large were for the firss time placed under the control of a special office and that something like a regular system began to be evolved. This tendency became more manifest with the transfer of the Bure au in 1881 to the control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, a Department of State that was created in that year. Subsequently the forestry policy of the Government has gone on acquiring greater importance and consistency. According to the existing system, the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce is the supreme supervisor of all matters relating to State forests and to forests at large, and, subject to his control, the Forestry Bureau takes charge of all matters relating to the adminis- tration and scientific treatment of forests. The staff of the Bureau comprises, besides its director, four forest commissioners and ten clerks, and these attend to the working and treatment of State forests and supervision of private forests. The right of supervision of private forests is derived from the Forest Law promulgated in 1897. In accornanee with the provisions therein set forth, the Grovernment extends to utilization forests sui- table economic treatment of a positive nature, while, on the other hand, the negative policy of prohibiting felling and similar restric- tive measures is extended to protection forests. In all these matters the respective local Governors are made to act as supervisors in the Official Supervision of the Forests. 28S first instance, the right of issuing final directions resting with tlie- Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. The control of State forests is conducted in accordance with Imperial Ordinance No. 18 issued in 1886, by -which a regular system of management was elaborated. By that system the manage- ment is conducted by sixteen Major Forest Offices and 325 Minor Forest Offices, Forest Offices and Jueisdiction. — The following table shows the location, extent of jurisdiction, etc. of the Major Forest Offices. Names of Major Forest Offices. Location State-f-ore-^ under CoiU (in thousand :1s rol No. of Minor Forest Offices. No. or Protection Stations- Aomori Aomori, Mutsu ... 946 -5 113 Akita Akita, Ugo , ... 1,091 22 94 Iwate Moriol<;a, Rikuchu ... ... 424 16 53 Miyagi Fukushima Sendai, Rikuzen Fukusliima, Iwaslairo ... 778 508 20 20 61 81 Tokyo Tokyo, Musashi , ... 936 31 84 Nagano Ishikawa Osaka Nagano, Sliinano Kanazawa, Kaga ... Osalca, Settsu ■ — 931 , ... 497 . ... 69 17 12 iS 54 39 61 Okayama Hiroshima Okayama, Bizen Hiroshima, Aid . ... loS • - 174 18 25 75 83 Ehime Matsuyama, lyo . ... 135 12 49 Kochi Kochi, Tosa . ... 201 19 77 Fukuoka Fukuoka, Chikuzen.. . ... 103 20 76 Kumamoto Kumamoto, Higo . ... 229 26 76 Kagoshima ... Kagoshima, Satsuma ... 446 24 122 Total 7,576 325 1,199 The foregoing table will show that the extent of the Jlajor Forest Office's jurisdiction lies between the two extremes of 1,091,000 cho of Akita and 69,000 cho of Osaka, the average for the whole being 480,000 approximately. A greater diversity is noticeable in the jurisdiction of Minor Forest Offices, this diversity being unavoidable in such a country as Japan where systematic ^jrestry management is still in the inception stage and where means of communication are as yet imperfect, and the formation of forests is irregular. Thus while the Matsuyama Minor Office controls only 284 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 2,000 oho, that of liyama under the Nagano Major Office, controls as much as 396,000 cho. The average for all the Offices is 23,000 cho. It is natural that, with the j)rogress of the -work of economic management, the extent of jurisdiction of a Major and a Slinor Forest Office will become more limited. The number of protection stations also differs according to places. The average number to each Minor Office is three to five, but in some exceptional cases as in that of the Tsunodate Minor Office which is subordinate to the Akita Major Office the number is as many as eight. The foregoing organization applies to the State -forests under the control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce but there are other kinds of State-forests in charge of other Departments of State. The State forests in Hokkaido and Formosa are subject to the supervision of the Minister of Home Affairs. The State forests in Okinawa, the seven islands of Izu, and Ogasawara, though belonging to the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, are left for the convenience of the local administration, in charge of the respective local authorities who manage them subject to the supervision of the Minister of Agricul- ture and Commerce. YIII. FORESTRY EDUCATION. Collegiate Courses. — The remark that the progress of indus- try is a faithful reflection of the progress of education is fittingly exemplified in the case of our forestry industry, for the recent striking development in our forestry economy must be regarded as an outcome of a similarly striking development in sylvicultural education. It was in 1882 that the Tokyo Dendrological School, the first of its kind in Japan, was established at Nishigahara, but now at no less than 62 institutions the science and art of forestry is taught. Of that number three are imparting collegiate education, five a special course on forestry of secondary education grade, another five Forestry Education. 2t Hire • ••• jt ••• Urase , , ... ,, Katsv.hozawa ' ••• s» Kushiji , ••• » Tsubakizawa • - " Table V. (Sulphur.) Name of Name of Mine. Locality. Iwaonobori . ... Hokkaido Koriini 3» Tsurugisan . ... Iwate Kiritomehira . ... Akita ShirikisliJnai . ... Holikaido RauMi • - " Output (ton). 146,187 144,635 143.138 133.283 130,806 130,687 129,109 128,983 120,192 117.938 105,648 102,452 Output (barrel). 340,401 186,439 120,782 94,568 84,862 68,123 28,281 16,969 Output (ton). 2,696 2,018 1,8 IS 1,658 1,613 1,012 lY. CONDITION OF MINE-WORKERS. Labor and Life of^Mink-Woekers.— The total number of 308 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. persons employed in Japanese mines was 150,169 in June, 1902.. These include miners, carriers, pickers, smelting men, machine tenders, iron workers, and pumpmen. Most of these laborers work underground and under uncomfortable circumstances, but in spite of these disadvantages they are generally satisfied with their lot and go to work with light hearts. Some of those workers are natives of the district in which the mine is stiuate but the greater numbers of them are from other provinces, no small number of whom settle down, form families, and live till their death. These mine-workers generally live in dwellings provided by their employers ; those with families in separate rooms and those without families in large common rooms. The dwellings are either thatched or tile- roofed, and the inside of the rooms is comparatively clean, which reflects much credit on them. When mines are re- mote, provisions are supplied by the mine operators, some- times at a very low price. Evidently this institution of a cheap supply of food is adopted with a view to checking any movement for the rise of wages on the pretext of a rise in the price of commodities, for it is very difficult to lower wages when once they are raised. As their calling is attended with some peril, their wages are on a liigher scale than those of their confreres in the other walks of life, as shown in the table given below. In consideration of great risk to which they are exposed, their employers are bound to take care of them, when they meet with • accidents while on duty. The employers bear part Protection or the whole of expenses of medical attendance, and G.ven by when the patients are treated in hospitals other than Eaip'oyers- those owned by the employers, they are daily paid a sum of money to meet the expenses of such hospitals. In case of their being disabled, they are given a fair amount of money, and in case of death, generally a sum of five yen or upwards is granted to the bereaved families toward the funeral expenses, besides giving some allowance to the families. The following table shows the sums paid, during the three ygara specified, by some of the mine-owners, under the circumstance* already given: — Condition of Mine-W orkera. 309 FUNERAL EXPENSES. Miike. Besshi. Ikuno. Irinai. '' Year ■^'°' °^ ^^" ■'^'"o""' ^°- °f Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount cipients. iayen. cipients. in yen. cipients. \n yen. cipients. \n}tii. '899 IS 73-000 2 24.000 45 251.000 2 9.000 '900 9 45.000 10 80.000 39 197.500 3 15.000 '901 25 125.000 5 41.942 42 166.500 2 10.000 MONEY GIVEN IN AID OF THE BEREAVED FAMILIES. 1899 14 560.000 — — 138 796.100 2 29.000 1900 9 360.000 — — 164 957.800 3 67.200 190' 21 820.000 2 40.000 185 1,096.800 2 54.83a MONEY GIVEN IN RELIEF OF THE DISABLED. •1899 8 100.000 — — 42 871.500 — — 1900 13 135.000 — — 49 1,043.000 — . — 1901 2 60.000 — __ 50 1,143.000 I 14.440 FUNERAL EXPENSES. Kamaishi. Ashio. Sado. Yubari, Poronai, Ikushumbetsu, Sorachi, etc. -y No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount No. of Re- Amount cipients. inyen. cii^ients. myen. cipients. layen. cipients. m.yen. iSqg — — 7 58.000 5 24.000 33 330.00a 1900 14 70.000 16 119.000 I 5.000 21 210.00a 1901 6 39.950 15- 127.000 I 5.000 40 400.00a MONEY GIVEN IN AID OF THE BEREAVED FAMILIES. J899 — — 6 100.000 4 150.000 29 890.000 1900 13 148.000 15 355.000 I 30.000 21 840.0CKI igoi 7 140.000 16 330.000 — — 32 1,480.00a MONEY GIVEN IN RELIEF OF THE DISABLED. 1899 — — 3 60.000 — — 31 70800a J900 — — 2 50.000 — — 13 387.000 1901 2 108.970 3 53.000 — — 16 398.000 310 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In respectable mines, mine-workers' mutual aid associations are in existence. The aim of these associations is to extend help to the members in case of emergency. To this end, reserve Mine-workers' finds are created by contribution from the members Mutual Aid. and also from the mine ojierators or other patrons and disbursements are made from these funds in case- of the injury, illness, or death of any of the members. The suras. to be contributed by the mine-workers vary according to different associations. In some cases, a certain fixed sum is contributed, uniformly by all, while in other cases, sums are contributed . in proportion to the positions of the workmen. Such contributions are made every month out of their income. In granting the relief, the amount to be given is fixed, other things being equal, according to the length of time the party to be relieved has been a member of the association, or according to the position of the recipient, or according to both. Education of mine-woekers. — Although in petty mines where only a small number of workmen are employed no provision is made for the education of the miners' children, in larger mines they are educated either in schools established by the mine-owners or in public schools subsidized by the mine-owners. Under such circum- stance, the rate of tuition fee is comparatively low. As to the workers themselves, working as they do underground they apparently look to be of fierce and vicious characters. How- ever they are on the whole meek and obedient. But among those who are termed itinerant miners, who are constantly moving from mine to mine, there are occasionally found blood-thirsty rogues and rufi[ians. Peculiar usage exists among miners. The oaths of chiefs and prot6g& and of bretheren are observed with religious strictness. The instructions of the " boss " are expected to be Miners' "Boss." obeyed whether they are right or wrong. These chiefs are in intimate communication with each other, so that in case a miner goes from one mine to another, seeking employment, etc., he is sure, if he gives the name of his chief, to be kindly treated. His new friends will go to no little trouble to find employment for him and will often give him money Legislation. 311 to cover his travelling expenses. This peculiar spirit of fraternity is utilized for the control of miners; and it is difficult for the outsider to realize how implicitly the commands of these chiefs are obeyed and how well order is preserved. But this sympathy be- tween the chief and the followers sometimes aggravates a fight between chiefs themselves and often brings about tragic incident:-. Sometimes these retainers of a " boss " cause trouble to the latter's employers. Under such circumstances, one would suppose that strikes must be of frequent occurrence. This is not the case, however. Indeed strikes of miners are almost unheard of, although quarrels among them are very common. This absence of strikes may gene- rally be ascribed to the kind treatment of miners. Y. LEGISLATION. In describing the legislative measures and administration a-, enforced in Japan about mining, the first thing that demands attens tion is the right of ownership. Right of Ownership. — There are, generally speaking, three kinds of right of ownership as to mines, these being the system of accession, that is to say, the system of ownership by private individuals ; (2) the domanical system, that is to say, the system of State ownership ; (3) the system of concession, that is to say the system of giving concession on application. Japan has never adopted the first system ; it adhered to the State ownership system from former times and till quite recently, so that when the privilege of working a mine was Origiua' System granted to any private people, this concession was in Japan. regared as favor of the Government, and for a certain limited period in return for payment of royalty. That period as mentioned in the Mining Regulations issued in 1873 was 15 years. The progress of the times did not allow the continuation of such arbitrary system, which was moreover calculated to seriously impair the advance of the mining industry. In 1890 the Present System, said Regulations were amended, and with the opera- 312 Japan in die Beginning of the 20th Century. tion of the new Regulations two years later the concession system distinctly establishing the right of permanent working was in- augurated, and thus safeguarded the sound development of the mining industry in Japan. Scope of Mining Work and Kinds op Mines. — In the 1st article of the Regulations it is provided that mining work means trial boring and all works pertaining to it. The inclusion of the work of smelting and so forth to mining work proper is a distinct feature of raining administration of Japan. It is a result of long-establi- shed usage and is also due to some extent to the convenience it affords to Government over-seers, for boring and smelting have in most cases been combined in Japan and the division of the two was therefore judged troublesome. Moreover the bringing of trial boring and smelting under the same treatment as mining were judged to tend to encouraging the mining industry. Mineral ores as recognized in law are as follows : — Gold (alluvial-gold excluded), silver, copper, lead, tin (tin-sand excluded), antimony, quicksilver, zinc, iron, (iron-sand excluded) hematite, manganese, arsenic, plumbago, coals, petrolemn, sulphur, bismuth, cloralriron, phosphorus, peat, and asphalt. The last iive were added to the list in 1900. Qualification of Mining Concessionaires. — At first a foreigner was disqualified from working a mine and was further prevented from becoming a member of a mining establishment, so that the right of working mines was exclusively reserved for Japanese subjects. In consequence of the amendment of the Mining Regulations in 1900 a business establishment organized Privilege of by Japanese or foreigners or by both combined is Foreigners. allowed to work mines, provided such establishment is placed under Japanese laws. This amendment besides oonfering a great benefit on foreigners and encouraging the creation of mining establishments organized by foreigners, has proved a means of stimulating the development of the industry. Trial Boring and Working. — Differing from the examples seen in many Western countries, Japanese law does not recognize in the matter of trial extraction the right of priority of discoveries ; the right of trial boring is granted to the one who has first Legislation. 313 Right of Priority, applied for it. The reason wliy this system has been adopted in Japan is because the fact oi au alleged discovery is exceedingly difficult to verify, while an accidental discovery has no right to claim any special privilege. The concesi^ion of trial boring carries with it a great privilege in Japan for no other person is allowed to apply for the trial boring in the concession conceded to the first applicant of the same metal as that for which the concession was made to that applicant (art. XXI). The non-recognition of the right of priority of the owner oi land in which a discovery is made is derived from the foundamental principle of Japanese legislature, and must be regarded as a highly reasonable provision. The period of trial boring is one year, to be extended to another year when such extension is regarded proper and necessary (Art. IX.). In contrast to this limitation in the period of the trial borings, no such limit is enforced in regard to permanent working. Further, though the right of trial boring can not be transferred to a third person or be used as object of hypo- thecation, the right of permanent boring can be sold or bought or assigned or be made an object of hypothecation (Art XX.) The fact that the concession of working a mine was at first limited to the space of only 15 years, and that this concession was forbidden from being made use of as object of hypothecation did seriously interfere with the proper development of the industry. The subsequent amendment of the Eegulations has removed those two grave defects and to-day concessionaires and capitalists are enabled to invest a large sum in the exploitation of mines. Scope of a Mining Concession and Supervision of the Working. — The scope of a concession is fixed with a definite limit, it being not less than 10,000 tsuho for coal and not less than n,000 tsuho for other kind of minerals (Art XLI.), the maximum limit being 600,000 in both cases. The two extremes have been so deter- mined in order to prevent the appearance of too many small conces- sions on the one hand and the evil of monopoly on the other. However, in case of the combination of more than two concessions the maximum limit may exceed 600,000 tsuho. In view of the fact that our mine-owners and people are too 314 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. apt to attend ^o their own immediate interests at the expense of the permanent interest of the mining industry as a Provisions against national economy, and that not unfrequently they Forestalling. secure concessions merely with the object of selling them to other people, the Government has deemed it advisable to interfere more or less with the mining business. Thus a concessionaire is obliged to forward to the chief of the Mining Inspection Office in whose jurisdiction the concession is situated the working plan he has drawn up and to obtain for it the approval of the chief before proceeding to work the con- cession (Arts. XXVI and XXVII). Further, the concession may be revoked by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce in case the working is suspended for more than a year (Art. XXIX), while he also requires the concessionaire to submit every six months the plan of the existing condition of the mine (Art. XXXI), and also requires him to get his approval whenever a concession is to be amalgamated with another or is to be split up (Art. XLVI). Lastly, when the location and shape of a concession as represented in the application is discovered to differ from the actual location and shape of the bed, the Minister may order the concessionaire to mark out his concession anew, on pain of revoking the concession if this order is not obeyed. Use of Land. — The mining operation involving the use of the surface of land, the interest of a mining concessionaire is often found incompatible with that of the owner of the land. The only way to find a way out of this difficulty is to requisi- Obligatious of Owners tion for the benefit of the concessionaire so ' of Land to Mining much land as is judged necessary for the Concessionaires. conduct of his work and to give suitable compensation for this requisition to the owner of the land. It is to regulate these relations the exploitation of natural resource demands that a special chapter is devoted in the existing law to distinctly define the right of mining concessionaires and owners of land. According to the provisions therein contained, the owner of the land cannot refuse permitting to the concessionaire the use of his land required in the mining work, the land required being specified thus : — Legislation. 315 For the purpose of sinking shafts or boring pits. For stowing ores, stones, and earth. For constructing working paths, roads, railroads, tramways, canals, ditches or pools. For constructing smelting workshops and other buildings, electric wires, iron-pipes or chains required in mining. The owner of the land cannot refuse leasing to the mine-owner the land required for making the foregoing provision (Art. LXVII), and the mine-owner in return must give to the owner a suitable compensation by way of rent or damages or must deposit security against rent (Art. L). Further, the mine-awner is obliged, on the request being made by the owner of the land, to purchase the land used by him in mining work for not less than three years. All the disputes between the land-owner and the mine-owner may be submitted to the decision of the chief of the Mining Inspection Office, but when his decision is regarded unsatisfactory by the parties concerned an appeal may be made, in case of lease, to the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, and to ordinary courts of law in case of other kinds of dispute. Mining Police. — From the very nature of the work not only is the risk to life greater to those engaged in it than in ordinary work, but the work may also involve serious injuries to other parties, by causing, for instance, the depression of the surface level of the land situated in the vicinity of the mine or by causing noxious gas or poisonous matters to spread in the surrounding district. It being judged unadvisable to leave the control of all those matters to ordinary police who can not be properly Provissicn to Safeguard qualified for the task, it is provided in Art. Public Safety. LVIII of the existing Mining Regulations that the following matters shall be attended to by the respective chiefs of the Mining Inspection Offices, subject to the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce : — Safety of architectural constructions both in the mine and in connection with mining. Protection of the life and health of workmen. Protection of the surface of land and of the public interests. When any cause of danger or of injury to the public interests 316 Japan in the Becjinning of the 20th Century. in connection with mining is perceived by the chief, he is authorized to order the concessionaire to remove such cause, on pain of ordering the suspension of the work in case of his disobeying the order (Art. LIX), while the supervising authorities may themselves carry out the necessary preventive measures and cause the concessionaires to pay the expense involved in the work. The Minister of Agriculture and Commerce has further enacted Eules relating to ^Mining Police, and enforces strict control over such matters as the use of explosives, arrangements for ventilation, subterranean works, construction of chimneys, boilers, milling-shops, smelting-shops etc., provisions against accident, etc. The Chief of the Mining Inspection Office sees to the faithful fulfilment of all the points specified in the liules. Peotection op Mine-AYoekeks. — In view of the great risk to life and health, special provisions besides those mentioned in the Police Rules are in force for extending protection to mine-workers and their familief, these provisions being intended to enforce proper restric- tion as to the nature of the work, number of working-hourS, relief in case of death or injuries sustained in the discharge of duty. Every concessionaire is accordingly ordered to draw up for use in his own particular concession rules relating to workmen, and to submit to it the draft for ths approval of the Chief of the Mining Inspection Office (Art. LXIV), the object of this official interference being to provide against unreasonable demand, made by the employers on employees. Further, the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce is authorized by means of Departmental Ordinances to place restrictiong on the working-hours of general workmen, and on the kind of work that may be imposed on female workers, and on the working-hours and kind of work for minors (Art. LXXI) ; also to cause the con- cessionaire to make suitable relief provisions both for workmen or their families when workmen meet with death or are disabled in the discharge of their duties. The concessionaire is under an obligation to draw up regular rules to deal with such caseS, and to put them in practice with the approval of the Chief of the Mining Inspection Office. Taxes on Mining. — At first the taxes were of two kinds, one on leases and the other on produce. The former was at the ratg Le/jislalion. 317 of 1 yen for every 500 tsubo of metallic mines (except iron) ; 50 sen for eveiy 500 t- 1 Refined (ton) ■> .5|\Sulpl-iate(„) 1 *2 »5o6 *2,665 *i,S99 639 1,044 516 826 Quicksilver (Rs) — — — — 1,061 3,876 Pig Iron(ton) ■> 24,693 26,154 I WrongM („) [ *3,438 *i6,685 *6,77o *22,414 39 25 •"Isteel („).-.-' 1,065 1,194 Sulphate of Iron (ton - — — — 63.243 88,869 Manganese („)... 44 — 122 2,592 17,112 17,935 Arsenic (lbs) ... — — — — •6,157 13,048 Metals. (II) 1897. 1898. 1899- 1900. 1901. 1902. Gold(oz) 33,329 37.273 S3,86o 68,307 79,594 95,952 Silver („) ... I ,745,658 1,943.362 1,805,891 1,890,716 1,760,158 2; ,109,221 Copper Cton) ... 20,389 21,024 24,276 25,309 27.392 29,098 ^ri;:!::: ;:; 771 ',703 1,988 1,878 1,803 1,645 48 43 18 12 14 16 !S 5' 1 Refined (ton) ^|\Sulpliate(„) 823 233 229 349 428 520 348 1,004 712 81 118 96 Quidisilver (S)s) 5,937 3,085 — 595 1,653 3,«25 /Pig Iron(ton) 26,910 22,510 20,778 22,455 56.334 44,393 g J Wrought („) — — 1.379 1,415 1,546 847 A\Steel („).. Sulphate of Iron(toi 1,082 1,101 S<.9 971 12,170 33,653 3) 76,263 87,264 83757 161,661 175,890 44,715 Manganese {,,)... 15,421 IM97 ",336 r5,830' 16,270 10,840 A.senic(K)s) ... 24,739 15,709 11,187 10,290 22,727 26^859 ti'95- 1896. 77 215 4,765,373 5,018,287 45,462 94,400 169,499 236,281 15,531 12,518 1901. 1902. 88 9i 322 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Non-Metallic Minerals. (Ill) 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. Black Lead (ton) — — — — Coal (ton) Bitu- ") _ _ minous J Anthracite ... *S7I,759 *889,III *l,3o5,027 *2,629,i5o Petrchum (barrel) 5,476 3°>583 35,o69 61,677 Sulphur (ton) ... 586 1,192 4,949 20,700 Non-Metallic Minerals. (IV) 1897. '898- 1899. 1900. Black Lead (ton) 390 347 53 94 ^"(f^Jlf^''™'"""^} 5,188 678 6,650,817 6,652,082 7,359,321 8,892,217 9,567,363 Anthracite ... 75,517 98,784 123.49° 129,572 i35,io8 149,785 Petroleum (barrel) 262,154 318,302 537,875 869,719 1,115,419 993,804 Sulphur (ton) ... 13,582 10,321 10,237 14,439 16,548 17,651 N.B : — The star (*) represents the total output, the figures for each class being lacking. TABLE v.— OUTPUTS OF PRINCIPAL MINERAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR VALUE IN 1902. Kind. Gold(oz) Silver („) Copper (ton) Lead(„) Tin(„) ( Refined (ton)... ^""'"°"y I Sulphate („)... Quicksilver (Ihs) {Big Iron (tori) Wrought Iron ( „ ) ... Steel („) Sulphate of Iron („ ) Manganese Arsenic (R)s) Black Lead (ton) f Bituminous („ ) ... I Anthracite ( „) Petrolium (barrel) Sulphur (ton) ... *Lignite ■N.B : — The star (*) represents returns for 1901. Output. Value lien). 95,952 1,989,565 2,109,221 1,224,57^ 29,098 8,920,962 1,64s 83,816 16 9,225 520 74,968 96 7,816 3,125 1,536 44,393 734,145 847 40,775 33,653 1,320,880 44715 76,955 10840 35,414 26,859 846 95 9,283 9,567.361 15,912,262 149,785 179,110 993.804 1,036,864 17,651 316,218 — 2,537,603 Statistics Belating to the .Miiiiiif/ Indrntry. 323 TABLE VI.— NUMBER OF MINE-EMPLOVEES AND NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED BY THEM IN A YEAR. Number of Mine-Employees. Year. 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... igoi ... 1902 ... Metal-Mines. Coal-Mines. Others ... 51,706 75.831 5,194 ... 51,141 60,964 7,562 ... 54,80s 70,508 5,69s ... 58,580 75,230 6,545 ... 60,339 78,947 7,653 Total. 132,731 119,667 131,011 140,355 146,939 Number of Days Worked by Mine-Employees in a Year. Year. Metal-Mines. Coal-Mines. Others. TotaL 1898 ... 14,810,715 17,373,163 1,267,898 33,450,866 1899 ... 15,102,605 16,539,887 1,141,946 32,784,438 1900 ... 15,150,354 16,992,102 1,319,185 33,461,641 igoi . ... 16,102,664 19,414,676 1,414,331 36,931,671 1902 . ... 16,549,638 19,971,308 1,450,989 37,971,935 TABLE VII.— NUMBER OF SAND-ORE DIGGER.S AND NUMBER OF DAYS WORKED BY THEM IN A YEAR. Number of Diggers. Number of Days Worked by Sand-Oil Diggers in a Year. Year. Alluvial Sand q^^^^ .j-^^^j Alluvial Sand q^j^^^^_ .j-^^^,_ Gold. Iron. Gold. iron. 1*93- . ... — — — — 45.949 339,589 1894. . ... 1,376 4,627 73 6,076 241,182 385.932 i89S. . ... 1,426 4,148 65 5,639 309.41 1 369.192 *896. . ... 2,072 3,558 43 5,673 292,436 — 1897 • : ... 4,659 6,373 41 11.073 — — 1898. . ... 6,990 6,979 19 13.988 — — 1899. . ... 2,476 3,577 55 6,108 706 714 280,723 1900 . . ... 5,989 3,778 68 9,83s 1,180,243 362,260 1901 . 7,093 3.500 49 10,643 1,047,740 299,789 jr902 . . ... 4,701 3,613 126 8,440 1,135,06s 348.971 19,596 405,134 16,009 643,123 11,375 689,978 1,026 650,041 15,285 1,002,722 8,806 1,551,309 6,921 1,354,450 10,36s 1,494,401 324 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i Century, TABLE VIII.— WAGES, (in sen). Metal-Mines. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. Miners 21.8 24.4 24.1 25.8 27.0 Timbermen 19.2 20.2 21.0 21.S. 22.5 Mill Hands ... 13-9 13-6 14.4 iS.i 16.S Smelterers 17.1 17.9 16.0 16.7 20.0 Carriers 16.0 16.8 1 9.8 24.8 21-3 Miscellaneous ... 13-9 iS-3 16.7 17.2 i8.6 Average 17.0 18.4 19.0 20.5 21.0 . Mill Hands .. 7-3 7.6 7.6 7.9 7.7 flj Carriers . 8.4 8.9 9-6 10.4 10. 1 Miscellaneous . . 8-3 8.9 9-3 8.9 9-8 Average 8.0 8.5 8.8 91 9.2 piill Hands , .. 4.6 4-7 4.8 4-5 4.1 g^ Carriers . 70 7.8 8.0 7-3 6.9 sC5 Miscellaneous .. 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.4 7.3 M lAverage S.6 6.2 6.4 6.1 6.1 Coal-Mines. Others. 1898. 1899. 1900. I90I. 1902. 1898. 1899. 1900. I90I. 1902 Miners 31.6 29.7 33-2 33-7 324 19.6 19.0 21.9 26.3 27.4 Timbermen ... 30.8 30.7 311 31-3 33-5 18.7 20.9 18.7 20.2 22.0 Mill Hands ... 16.9 16.6 17.4 17.9 17.7 15-5 17.2 17:8 17.8 17.6 1 Smelterers — — — — — 20.2 34.7 23.0 23.1 24.7 Carriers 22.0 21. 1 22.2 22.8 24.4 18.7 19.0 23-5 25.7 28.1 Miscellaneous... 18.0 t8.6 18-3 17.6 19.0 16.4 17.4 20.4 20.S 23.2 Average 23-9 23-3 24.4 24.7 25.2 18.2 18.9 20.9 22.3 238 Mill Hands ... 10. 1 10.6 9-9 10.7 10.4 10.3 "•3 12.8 10.7 10.6 Carriers 14.3 13-4 13-9 131 13-9 12.5 14.3 12.2 12.7 12.S § Miscellaneous... 1 1.4 "•3 12.7 11.6 13.2 9.2 10.7 9.1 9.8 9-9 (iH Average 1 1.9 11.8 12.0 11.8 12.5 I0.7 12!l 1 1.4 I I.I II.O tj Mill Hands ... 6.7 6.2 6.7 6.9 7-1 — — — — — g^. Carriers — — — — — — — — — — 1*3 Miscellaneous .« 8.9 9.0 9-3 lO.I 10.6 — — — — — n Average 7.8 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.9 — — — — — Statistics Relating to the Mining Industry. 325 TABLE IX.— NUMBER OF MOTORS USED AND KIND. METAL-MINES. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. '898 548 4,471 141 6,458 4 17 693 10,946 •^99 600 5,433 143 6,631 4 30 747 12,094 1900 607 6,291 175 6,654 2 20 784 12,965 1901 678 7,526 181 7,118 4 61 863 14,70s *I092 775 8,669 184 7,267 8 84 967 16,020 COAI.-MINES. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. > . ■■ , - Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. II. P. '898 1 i8 620 36,714 — _ 621 36,732 '899 I 18 704 43.'64 — — 70s 43,182 1900 I 18 84S 48,761 — _ 849 48,779 '901 — — 999 52.823 — _ 999 52,823 *I902 — — 1,157 58,921 20 1,004 i,«77 59,925 OTHERS. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. H. P. No. H. P. No. II. F. No. H. P. 1898 3 132 103 2,141 — _ 621 36,73^ 1899 3 »32 148 3,i5o — — 70s 43,182 1900 3 132 223 4,526 — — 849 48,779 1901 S 182 343 7,042 — _ 999 52,823 1902 s 182 420 8,658 — — 1,177 59.925 KOILEKS. Water Wheels. Boilers. Oil Engines. Total. Year. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P. No. Ind. H. P 1898 162 3,636 440 13,434 33 315 635 17,294 1899 163 3,736 499 14,921 46 357 7o8 19,014 1900 171 3,981 566 16,793 82 864 819 21,638 1901 174 4,100 638 19,115 174 2,399 986 25,614 1902 180 1,195 712 20,358 213 3,979 1,105 2S,5J2 ^.B — The star (,*) represents returns at the end of June, others being for December. 326 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. TABLE X.— MILEAGE OF IRON CHAINS. Year. Metal-Mines. Coal-Mines. Others. Total Mileage 1898 ... 26 3 14 43 1899 ... 31 3 14 48 1900 ... 35 4 16 55 1901 ... 41 4 30 75 1902 ... 52 5 32 89 MILEAGE OF PETROLEUM PIPES. Year. Between Oil W fells Between Ts inks Refinery Total and Tanks. and Refineries. Premises. Mileage. 1898 ... 7 20 II 38 1899 ... 9 41 13 63 1900 ... 13 92 IS 120 1901 ... 18 118 17 153 *I902 ... 46 149 23 218 RAILROAD MILEAGE. Metal-Mines Coal-JIines. Others Total. In the Outside Pit. the Pit. -r..i„i In the Io',al. pu Outside the Pit. T/^j,.! In the Outside ^o'-"- Pit. tliePit Total. In the Outside T-r.*«i Pit. the Pit. ""*'■ 1898. .129 127 256 132 99 231 — 5 5 261 231 492 1899. .ISP 137 287 iSi 117 268 — 5 5 301 269 560 1900. .170 152 322 184 140 324 — I I 354 293 647 1901. .189 161 350 212 137 349 — 18 18 401 316 717 *I902. .213 174 387 342 226 568 I 19 20 556 419 975 N.B. — The star (*) represents returns at the end of June, others being at the end of December. TABLE XL— NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS IN THE MINES. Metal-Mines. In the Pits. Accidents By m Pits , jj^ Other Collapse, ^and^^ pfosives.' ^^"'"'- Death Total. Outside. Grand Total. rate per 1, 000 ■ . Mine- dri OOJ Or) dw X^ •• ... 3.489 360 196,689 2,996 288,273 1,608,464 1899 3.805 366 203,888 3,885 146,276 1,244,928 1900 ... 7,017 399 222,429 6,09s 249.839 1,610,204 1901 ... 6,976 471 189,765 3,526 184,87s 1,642,771 1902 4.740 437 206,943 4,666 180,71s 1,797.147 Value [yen). Year. lead. Tin. Quicksilver. Zinc. Iron. Petroleum. Total. 1S98.., .... 208, 192 113,629 88,152 362,408 7.027,855 3.749.329 ".549.565 1899-. .... 261,950 180,644 109,507 655.574 6.053.064 3,947,666 11,208,405 igoo.. ..- 550:75S 236,552 129.349 831,892 11,972,603 6,796,670 20,517,821 1901.. .... 497402 26SJ122 109,306 465,380 7,139,864 7.471,701 15.948,775 1902... .... 286, 234 250,504 122,099 666,895 6,803,649 7,468,585 15,597,966 Intivdnctory. 329 PRIMARY INDUSTRIES. SECTION IV. FISHERY. Introductory— Fishing-Grounds— Fishery and Fishery Industry —Distribution of the Principal Fish etc.— Finance Standing of the Fishermen— Aquiculture-Salt-Refining— Markets-* Fishery Legislature. I. INTRODUCTORY. Numbers of pisheemen and boats. — Owing to its geographical position, to the direction of the marine currents in its vicinity and also to the abundance of suitable indentations along the well-wooded coast, Japan is an ideal country for the fishermen. It is not surprising therefore that there are 900,000 families of fishermen or of persons engaged in the marine industry, or over three million individuals, and that the number of fishing boats total over 400,000. Fish and other marine products have constituted from olden times important items of food-stuffs of our people, and this partiality of ours for Lenten fare is also shared by our nearest neighbors the Chinese who Lave been, for centuries back, principal purchasers of our marine products. Expansion of fisheey enteepeise. — With the steady increase of our population and the greater perfection of the means of trans- portation in the interior, the demand on fishing products has began to show striking advance, an advance further accelerated by an increasing demand from abroad. Under these circumstances, our fishermen can no longer remain satisfied with coasting work alone, but are obliged to a greater extent than ever to venture out into the open sea and even to the distant coasts of Korea and of the South Pacific. 330 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. II. FISHING-GROUNDS. Influence of Sea Currents on Fishing-Grounds. — As des^ cribed in the chapter on climate, the two sets of sea-currents flow along each coast of our country, the Pacific coast and the coast of' the Sea of Japan. Each coast is influenced to a greater or less extent by a warmer current coming from the south and a colder current from the north. The predominance of the one or the other makes a great difference in the temperature of the sea. For instance, along the coast northward from Kinkazan, Honshu, the average temperature is below 15° C, while along the eastern coast of Hokkaido and the Kuriles it is below 10°, owing, in both cases,, to the predominance of the colder streams. On the other hand,, owing to the presence of warmer currents along the coast southward from the group of islands off Izu as far as the southern extremity of Kyushu, the average record there is above 20°, while along the coast of the Bonin islands and Oshima off Satsuma, and the eastern coast of Formosa the temperature is as high as 23°. This presence- of two different sets of sea-currents on our coasts, while affecting the geographical distribution of the finny tribe, also contributes to the diversity and richness of our marine fauna and flora. A rough description of the seas which surround our islands, of our rivers and lakes will be given below. 1. The Pacific Ocean. — One side of the whole length of Japan beginning with the Kuriles on the side north extending to Formosa on the south, faces the Pacific Ocean. The Kuriles and Formosa are separated by as many as 29 degrees in latitude, and not only in the climate therefore are these two extremities of Japan widely distinct, but also in the temperature as well as in the depth of the sea a great diversity exists in our country, according to places. To the north of Kinkazan, in the north-eastern part of Honshu, is situated the famous submarine depression, that is Tuscarora. A warm current passes to the south of this part so that the vicinity is very rich both in fauna and flora, sardine, bonito, Kinkazan. pagrus, yellow- tail, tunny, cattle-fish, haliotis, etc. abounding. A cold current runs to the north of this Fishltiff-Grounds. 331 depression, and in consequence the fauna and flora living to the north and south of Kinkazan are distinct from each other. In the sea between the southmost archipelago of Japan proper and Formosa there exists a strong -warm current. The result is that in this vicinity many kinds of migratory fish are found, especially bonito. The eastern, that is the Pacific shore of In the Southern Forhiosa, is precipitous with no good anchorages for Japan and ships, and the sea is moreover very deep. The Formosa. inhabitants too are aborigines, and the fishery as carried on along this coast hardly deserves, therefore, any notice. On the other hand, the sea on the western shore is of moderate depth and the fisheries of sardine, horse- mackerel, " tai " (pagrus), shark, grey mullet, etc., are actively carried on. However, during rainy seasons, winter and spring in the northern districts and summer and autumn in the southern districts, fishing is practically suspended. 2. The Sea of Japan. — A branch of the Black Stream flows through this sea. This branch current runs all the year round along the western coast of Hokkaido and through the straits of Tsugaru and Soya. However, at the eastern coast of Korea especially along the coast northward of Vladivostock, it is found only in summer. The diSerence between the high and low tides on the opposite coasts does not exceed 1 to 3 shaku. At high-tide the current runs northward through the Straits of Korea but on the coast of Japan the tides are very weak and their movement very irregular. Tunny, bonito and other migratory fish enter this sea along the course of the southern warm current, but in the northern part of the sea, where the influence of a colder current predominates, the principal fish are herring, cod, and the like. 3. The Sea of Okhotsk. — The province of Kitami in Hokkai- do faces this sea, and the fisheries as carried on near the towns of Soya, Esashi and along the coast in general chiefly consist of herring and salmon. The open sea fishery is not yet developed, but there is every possibility of fisheries such as cod and others attaining a great importance in the near future. 4. Inland Seas. — The largest and most important inland sea 332 Japan in the Beginning of the 20<7t Century. in Japan is the Inland Sea already described. The movements of the tides in this enclosed basin of sea are regulated by the three channels of Shimonoseki, Bungo and Kii. The sea is generally shallow, and as the temperature varies considerably according to the seasons, many fish that come in the beginning of the warm season, go away in autumn as the colder season approaches. Sardine, pagrus, grey mullet, etc. abound. The shores of sea are also noted for their flourishing salt refineries. The inland seas that come next in importance to the Inland Sea are the Sea of Ise, Tokyo Bay, and the Sea of Ariyake. The fauna living in these sea are more or less distinct according to the size of each basin, the depth of water in it and the nature of the sea-bed. 5. EiVERS AND Ponds. — Rivers as fishing ground, do not of course depend on their length and depth alone. In general, salmon find their way up most of the rivers in the northern districts of Honshu and in Hokkaido, while on the other hand the Plecoghssm ■ > > K Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. kwam. yen. kwam. yen. kwam. yen. kwam. yen. 1896 982,909 338,794 1.304,559 110,181 605,730 36,408 647,493 26,046 1897 782,617 363,813 1,098,707 103,903 684,661 59,060 443,604 21,755 1898 717,196 391,629 597,350 120,775 1,067,651 100,989 377,078 25,839 1899 1,037,572 545.366 963,181 187,039 1,483,388 119,870 258,205 13,403 igoo 869,563 508,478 993,655 190,091 1,518,622 93,305 296,680 15,330 Average ... 877,971 429,616 991,490 142,398 1,072,010 81,926 404,612 20,475 Lobsters (Palinurus) and Peawns (Peiiaens). — Of the two the former are caught in the Pacific coast and the latter in the Inland Sea and other inlets. Lobsters are generally caught by gill-nets and prawns by trawl-nets. The takes and value of these crustaceans are shown below : — Year. Capture (iwam.). Value (yen) 1896 3,440,503 648,982 1897 3.641.732 815,015 1898 3.489,962 883,388 1899 4.588,174 095.485 1900 4,200,264 345.340 Average 3,872,127 957,642 3. Cuttle-pish and Squids. — They are caught by lines and trawls. In the dried form they rank first on the list of exported marine products : — Year. 1896 ... 1S97 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1930 ... Average Distribution of tlie rriitcipal Fish. Quantit)' (/;zc/am). 10,060,515 8,578722 7,081,095 7,616,099 7,615,712 8,190,429 (C). SEA-WEEDS. 343 Value (jyen). 1,809,243 1,880,941 1.949,490 2,492,108 2,699,661 2,166,289 The sea-weeds that deserve to be mentioned on account of their commeicial value are the " Kombu " (Laminaria) " Arnanori " {Porphyra tenella, Kijelhum), " Tengusa " {Galidium lamoicroux), "Hijiki" (Cystophyllum I Agardli), "Arame" {Eoklonia Hornem- anna), " AVakame " Undaria Suringar), all of which are used as food. Then there are the "Funori" Gloivpeltia J, Agardh wich are used for making paste, and the " Kajime " {Eklonia) from which iodine is extracted : — " Kombu.' " Tengusa." Year. Quantity {kwam.). Value (j'en). Quantity (kwam.). Value (jen] 1896 ... . 6,097,547 494,562 544,619 238,818 1897 ... . 9,066,984 630,461 736,925 195.031 1898 ... . 5,053,154 409,228 479,141 146,310 1899 ... . 7,965,725 734,129 761,317 201,266 1900 ... . 6,454,078 602,777 965,652 252,305 Average 6,927,498 574,231 777,531 206,746 (D). MARINE MAMMALS. 1. Whales. — The right whale, sulphur-bottom whale, and humpback whale that were formely caught in very large number in the seas oif Kyushu and Shikoku, but this is no longer the case at present. The sperm whale is found in the Pacific, and the authorities are now encouraging our whalers to start open sea whaling in competition with the foreign whalers. The principal whaling grounds in our seas are Arikawa in Nagasaki, Yobuko in Saga, Senzaki in Yamaguchi, Tsuro and Ukitsu in Kochi. The capture of whales in these four prefectures recently was as follows : — 844 Japan in the Beginning of, the 20th Century. Nagasaki. Saga. Yamaguchi. K DClli. T 3tal. Year. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. 1893... •• 49 71,957 15 24,650 20 29,400 20 23,122 104 149,129 1894... ■ • 34 60,885 22 38,000 20 33,200 21 38,164 107 260,249 1895... •• 54 125-953 18 37,350 33 41,120 32 44,022 137 248,445 1S96... .. 49 107,563 14 48,530 34 70,590 47 52,214 144 283 397 1897... .. 50 154,424 10 27,620 35 89,050 25 33,978 "5 191,500 Average - 47 104,156 16 35,230 28 52,672 3t 38,300 121 226,544 2. The Sea-Otters and Fub-Seals. — The sea-otters that were formerly caught in the Kuriles are now practically extinct, and the other haunt the northern Pacific and the Sea of Japan while they are on their way to their northern home in summer. Formely there were rookeries of fur-seals in some islands 01 the Kuriles and the animal fell mostly into the hands of foreign sealers. Of late owing to the encouragement given by our Goverumeut, the capture of these valuable fur animals by our fishermen has become quite satisfactory : — Vear. Sea Otter. No. fur Seal. No. Total. 1897 26 4,616 4,642 1S98 21 4,757 4,778 1899 16 6,518 6,534 1900 II 7,533 7,544 1901 12 7,04s 7,057 Average 17 6,094 6,111 In Japan the otter skin commands the market of above 1,000 yen. a piece while that of the other is about 25 yen. Y. THE FINANCIAL STANDING OF THE FISHERMAN. General Kemaeks. — The only data available for making inquiries into the extent of our fishermen's investments in boats and nest are those of 1891. According to tlie result Total Investments. of that year's inquiries the investment amount- ed to 24,400,000 yen approximately, which. The Financial Standing of the Fisherman. 345 2,696 5.322 2,500 1,500^ 500 1 i,5ooJ 10,500 2,310/' 2,310 12,810 4,3'9 7,400 2,310 2,310 9,710 348 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The capital required by every 100 gill-nets used in the herring fishery is estimated as follows : — I Nets Other Gear ... Boats Total /Wages iFood Working F"«l funds. JRopes, Mats etc. (Rent of Curing-Grounds ... \ Total ... 1st class 2nd class. Average yen. yen. yen. 300^ loo 700 62s 150. 550 700 62s 38S 70 40 600 650 5; 150 700 600 650 Grand total ... 1,250 1,300 1,275 The herring fishery business is, as circii:n?tance? stand at present in Hokkaido, placed in a disadvantageous situation, for during the fishing season which lasts for only two or three months, laborers have to be engaged at comparatively higher rate of wages than they ordinary receive, in addition to which they are to be fed at the expense of employers. Money being very urgently needed and very scarce, the rate of interest demanded is generally exorbitant as shown in the following table: — Year. 1895 ... 189S ... 1897 - 1898 ... 1899 ... Average Average rale in Tokyo and Osaka. % 9-7 9.7 9-9 IT. 2 9.8 10. 1 Aver.ige Bank rate at Hako- date and Osaka. % 12.6 II.O II.7 12.8 1 1-3 1 1.9 Average Interest for a Loan of over 1,000 1'»«. On Security, ^-"''"''• On Real On Starine Product^'. II.6 10.6 II. t % 12.2 "•3 1 1.8 11.8 % 12.2 10.9 1 1.4 ii.S On Boats. % 16.4 IS.6 12.8 14.9 On Credit. % 12.0 10.7 II. I "3 Aquicvlture. 349- If the funds required demand such high rate of interest, the process of curing fish adopted in Hokkaido is similarly beset with disadvantages. The kettles used in the process do not, for instance, admit of the use of coal. Fagots, far more costly than coal, have to be used, and of course the business of manufactur- ing marine products leaves therefore only a narrow margin of profit. If, however, the Hokkaido fishermen were able to procure cheaper money for their consolidated capital and were able to devise at the same time some means of curtailing the working expenses and cost of production, and if on the other they were to inaugurate a new departure in the manufacture of smoked or salted marine products suitable for the foreign market, the industry would be sure to be attended by far greater prosperity than it is at present. YI. AQUICULTURE, Peincipax Fish Reared. — Aquiculture is now extensively carried on both in fresh water and in the sea. In fresh water, the raising of carp, snapping turtle, trout, grey mullet, and eel, are most important enterprises, while in the sea the culture of oyster, clams, and the "Amanori" is regarded as being the most profitable. In the case of carp and turtle the culture begins with the egg, while in that of grey mullet and eel the fries are let in the rearing-pond. In artificial fecundation of oyster and pearl- oyster (avicula), difierent kinds of collectors are placed in the water to obtain the spats. In the cultivation of the "Amanori " (Porpliyrd) fascines are used to furnish the proper place for the attachment. The inland seas near Tokyo and Hiroshima are noted for this culture of the algae. Aeba and Condition of Hatching Beds. — The following table shows the area of ponds and beds of aq[uiculture and the value of the fish artificially cultivated : — 350 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Snapping Turtle, Oyster Carp Crussian Carp Eel Porphyra... Others ... Total Honshu. Shikoku. Kyushu. Hok'do. Total 1 J area {isubo). ' \\a\vielyeH). 13,112 7,698 — 219,094 647 ^_ 232,206 8,345 J if ( " > 1,397,246 98,266 18,837 100 193.107 23,700 — 1,609,190 122,066 K. ?» ( ., / 7,063,855 212,114 364,519 821 321,589 2,375 1,650 24s 7,751,613 215,555 < " \ .. .) 3,348,132 4,813 118,015 72 65,197 742 3,53 ',344 5,627 ■•■{ " 1,461,283 40,248 115,000 18 475 76 1,810 693 40,342 v » / 1,527.244 158,799 __ 283,450 1 1,408 — 1,810,694 170,207 10,119,947 155.640 24,930,819 677.578 73,882 486 3,098,349 26,621 8 1,650 2S3 13,292,178 182,75s 690,253 1,497 4,181,261 65,569 29,803,983 744.897 Many hatcheries of salmon and trout exist in Japan, and of these the Government Chitose hatchery in Hokkaido is the largest. Eecently over 10 million salmon fries were hatched at this hatchery. In Hokkaido there are many private salmon hatcheries, and the liberation of the fry is being extensively carried on. In the northern districts of Honshu, i. e., in the prefectures of Niigata^ Akita, and Aomori, salmon hatcheries may be found in many places. The number of salmon fry liberated in those districts are as follows : — Year. Chitose (Hokkaido). Niigata-ken. Akita-ken. Total. 1892 ... 3,626,41s — — 3.526,41s 1893 ..- -. ... 7,355,640 — — 7,355.640 1894 ... 2,700,729 — — 2,700,729 1895 ... 8,549,598 — — 8,540,598 1896 ... 6,984,178 — 404,989 7,389,167 1897 ... 3,815,588 — 368,952 4,184,540 1898 ... 7,881,222 — 339,466 8,220,688 1899 ••■ io,453vt86 2,752,145 168,756 13,374,387 1900 ... 10,190,35s 2,854, "97 334,394 13,378,946 1901 ... 12,665,214 4,330,992 340,000 17,336,206 The rearing of trout is also carried on in many places throughout the country. Salt-Refining. 351 ¥11. SALT-REPINING. In Japan Proper. — The salt used in Japan is mostly de- rived from sea-water, from which it is extracted either by means of the sun's heat alone or by sun's heat supplemented by artifici- al heat. The mineral salt produced in Japan is hardly worth mentioning, it being extremely small in quantity. The refining business dates back for more than 20 cen- turies, for the natural advantage enjoyed by Japan in the manu- facture of this essential ingredient of food enabled our people to carry on the business almost everywhere. At Number of present the work is carried on in no less than People Engaged- 34 prefectures besides Formosa, and the people engaged in the business number over 100,000. The output differs according to the year, but on an average it reaches about 6 million koku. Here is a table giving statistics with regard to industry : — Year. Area of Field. No. of Kettles. Output. Output. cho. /coiu. yen. 1891 . ... 7,442.3 i6,79S 5,507,097 4,075,742 1892 .. . ... 7,483-6 17,293 5.655,795 3,584,093 1893 .. . ... 7,600.1 17,010 6,649,263 3,659,353 1894 .. . ... 7,721-5 17,144 6,325,891 3,483,078 1895 .. .. ... 7,507.0 16,253 5,995,052 3,866,674 1896 ., 7,578-3 16,547 5,235,024 7,620,616 1897 .. 7,841-3 18,452 6,178,094 10,104,771 1898 7,906.8 19,075 6,364.979 8,218,514 1899 ., 7,639-8 i6,i8S 5,811,021 7,542,942 1900 7,774-2 17,584 6,591,078 9,388,694 The districts bordering on the Inland Sea produce about eight-tenths of the whole output produced in Japan proper, Kyushu produce oae-tenth approximately, and the rest the remaiaing one-tenth. In Formosa. — In Formosa this industry promises to become far more prosperous than in Japan proper, owing to the greater 352 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. natural advantages enjoyed by it in this connexion. The figures- for the two years specified are given below: — Year. Area No. of Person Output icka). Engaged. {koku). i68 1,122 19,726 260 1,336 132,337 I090 *•• ••• ■•• M« 1899 It may be added that the industry in that island has had a remarkable development since 1899, though the precise figures in the late years are not yet fi)rthconiing. Salt is now a state monopoly in the island whence an enormous quantity is shipped to Japan proper. Refining Peocesses. — Of the two methods of refining the natural heat system is extensively adopted in Formosa. This process does not practically difier from that seen in some Western countries. To give a brief description of it a circular Natural Heat embankment enclosing a certain empty space is first System. constructed in the shoal. The space within this embankment is divided into two sections, one being used for concentrating the brine and the other for crystallization. The sea-water is first led into the concentration pond, where it is left to evaporate. After the proper degree of evaporation has been reached, it is next led into the crystallization pond. On further evaporation the salt contained in the water deposits itself on the sand. These deposits are then raked off and conveyed to a store- house. In some parts of northern Formosa a method resembling very much that adopted in Japan proper is followed. There are two methods of extracting salt by artificial heating from the sea-water, one being called " Agehama " (up-shore style) and the other " Irihama " (in-shore style). The latter is far Artificial more popular than the other, and indeed about 90 per Hea*, cent, of all the salt produced in Japan proper is produced Systems, by the " in-shore style." This style resembles very much the Formosan style. First a suitable plot is marked out on the beach on the occasion of the ebb-tide and is enclosed by embankments. When the sea- water which is let into the plot, has sufiiciently evaporated, that is, has evaporated to such an extent as to Markets. 353 cause it to deposit the saline matter it contains, the deposits are collected and transferred to a box-shaped vessel made of either mud or ■wood. Sea-water is then poured upon the vessel and the thick saline liquid thus obtained is kept in a reservoir, to be afterwards heated in a kettle and evaporated. Sometimes the vessed is dispensed with, and in place of it a basket and a receptacle, generally a pail, are used. This style is commonly used in the salt-fields along the shores of Tokyo Bay. In the " Up-shore system," the sea-water is sprinkled repeatedly on the shore up the beach ; the sand charged with saline ingredients is put into a suitable vessel on which a quantity of sea-water is poured. A thick brine is thus produced and on its being heated, the evaporation causes the salt held in suspension to be deposited. As _the salt industry carried on in Japan was regarded as imperfect in several respects, the Goveinnient caused the matter to be inquired into some years ago, and at last in 1898, a model salt refinery was established at Tsiidamura, Chiba-keu, and another at Matsunaga, Hiroshima-ken. ¥111. MARKETS. (A). HOME MAEKETS. General Remarks. — As already mentioned In the preceding sections, the gross value of catch of fish in Japan is estimated at about 60 million yen a year. Of the manufactured marine products, the dried bonito, guano, salted or dried fish and shell-fish, and sear weeds are principally consumed at home. Volume of home consumption. — It is not possible to estimate with anything like accuracy the gross quantity and the value thereof offish and marine products consumed at home either fresh or in a cured form. However as 8 million yen worth of manufactured pro- ducts out of the total 28,900,000 yen is exported abroad, the con- sumption at home may be roughly estimated at 20,900,000 yen, broadly divided as follows : — 354 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Dried Bonito and Substitutes Guano Dried or Salted Fish or Shell-Fish ... Sea-Weeds yen. ... 3.464.41S ... 9,029,457 ... 8,430,200 ... 1,311,161 I. EAW-FISH MARKETS. Genekal Remarks. — Data are not available as to the amount of fish, etc. consumed in a fresh state, but that this comes up to a large amount admits of no doubt, in view of the great extension of the market recently owing to the improvement of the means ot communication. Raw fish come even from Korea to some parts of Japan. Some idea as to the quantity of raw fish consumed at home may be obtained from the statistics of our principal fisli-markets. The following gives the value of the raw fish that were sold in those markets in 1896 : — Tokyo Osaka Atsuta (Nagoya). Hakata Shimonoseki yen. 3,708,896 1,479,98s 473,865 220,385 169,152 The condition of delivery and distribu^tion were as follows at those markets : — TOKYO (1900). Imports. Exports. Value. Delivery. Value. Distribution. yen. 3,708,896 B5shu ^43% Sagami 7.9^ Izu 12.0% Suruga 12.0^ Kazusa 4.9^ Milo and Choshi ... I2.0% IIokkaid5and.San-Riku 8.2^ • yen. 3,708,896 Tokyo 80^ To provinces 20^ Markets. OSAKA (igoi). 355 Imports. Value. Delivery. Kishu 25% Shikoku 20% Chugoku 20^ j,^,j Kyushu 20^ I)479,98S Near Shores 6% Iziuni 6% (.Korea ^% yen. 1,479,985 Exports. Value. Distribution. Osaka and suburbs «. 95 J^ Yamato Kyoto .., ^% ^% ATSUTA (1896). yen. 475.865 -Miye Shizuoka .. Chiba Fukui Osaka Near Shores 10% yen. 131,238 Nagoya Gifu .., Shiga ... Kyoto m. Nagano M* ••• 30?^ 30?^ 3.0% fKorea yen.\ 0,385s Nagasaki ... vNear Shores HAKATA (1896). !•• 20% i^Kumatnoto ... «. J'^«- Osaka, Yamaguchi ... 40?^ '79.o83L^^Q.^^ J__^ ... 40^ iFukuoka ... ,,, SHIMONCiSEKI (1896). Nagasaki .., Satsuma 40?^ 10% Tsushima ... 10% yen. 169,152 Ilirado Karatsu ... 15?^ .» ... s% Wakamatsu... ». ... lO'^ Near Shores S% iGoto s% yen. 161,547 Osaka ... ••• ••■ • •• 25?^ Kyoto ^ ••• ••• a.a 30?^ Okayama •■. ••• ... 15?^ Buzen ... ••• • .a ... 10?^ ■lyo ... ..a •■■ zo% The market price necessarily differs according to locality, but some ideas on this point may be gathered from the following quotations : — 356 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. AVERAGE PRICE, (jm) PER lo Awam. (1901.) « c e3 1 13 1 1 '•3 l| 5^ Tokyo ^ ... IS II 9 9 7 8 — — 6 Osaka ... .> „. ... 22 9 II •7 8 10 6 8 9 Shimonoseki ... IS 10 14 II 9 8 S 8 9 Vonago ... 9 — 13 4 4 — 3 6 10 Atsuta .. ... „. ... 18 13 18 10 — — — — 7 Average ... 16 II 13 10 6 9 5 7 8 The market shows the upward tendency owing to the greater demand, as shown from these figures based on the market in. Year. 1893 6897 1901 MARKET PRICE OF RAW FISH PER 10 itiiam. Amount Delivered. Sale by Whole- sale Dealers. Sale by Middlemen. yen. yen. yen. 1,552.650 607,915 202,436 1,241,654 1,379,615 459,422 1,479,98s 1,655,538 551,294 "Tai" (Pagrus) Tunnies Yellow-Tail Bonito Shark Lobsters and Prawns 1892. 1897. 1901. yen. yen. yen. 15.00 ■ 18.00 20.00 6.00 7.50 8.50 7.50 8.50 9-5° 6.30 8.50 9.50 4.80 5.50 6.50 7.50 9.00 11.00 n. CURED PISH MARKETS. Of the cured marine products the " Fushi " is the most im- portant, this being a dried flesh of various kinds of fish and ex- tensively used for cooking purpose throughout the country. Markets. 357 "FusHi." — There are several kinds of the FusM (dried and smoked fish just like dried bonito), these being bonito Fushi, tunny Fushi, mackerel Fushi, and Fushi made of miscellaneous fish. The principal centres of bonito Fushi and their output in 1900 were as follows : — Shizuoica » Chiba ... . Miye Kagoshima . Fukushima .. Kochi Ibaragi .„ Others Total.. Output. kwam. 343.598 303.574 221,879 189,111 183,352 159,847 108,428 462,671 1,972,460 Value. yen. 702,961 675,591 868,047 323,038 448,212 584,702 255,177 1,023,575 4,881,303 Places and output in 1900 of tunny F'oshi were as follows : — Output. Value. kwam. yen. Miyagi ••• ••• ••• 49,384 83,502 Ehime *(• ... >•• 39,470 81,432 Kagoshima zo,47S 2o,go6 Iwate •■■ •!• ■•• .. ^ 13,238 17,617 Wakayama ■t« ••• ••• 12,322 20,147 Others •■• ••• ••• .*• ■■« ••• 29,606 65,206 Total 164,495 288,809 The principal markets of Fushi are Tokyo and Osaka. The delivery and distribution in the two places were as follows in 1896 :— 358 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(iih Century. TOXYO. Imports. Exprarts. Quantity. Value. Percentage of Quantity. Value. Percentage of " kwam. yen. Delivery. kwam. yen. Delivery Kochi i% Tokyo ... . Gumma .23.0?^ .10.0^ Kagoshima... l%% Nagano Kanagawa . .12.9?^ . 9-5?^ Shizuoka ... H% Yamanashi . Osaka ... . . 95?^ . 9A% 617,244 1.230,593 Chiba Z°% 617,244 1,230,593 Kyoto .. . . S-Z% Okayama ... $.%% Ibaragl T% Nagasaki Hiroshima . . 4-2?^ . 6.3?i Miyagi l6% Miye ... . Hyogo ... . . 2.9% .0.9?^ Iwate 12% .Oita ... . .. o.y/. OSAKA. Kochi 2$% Tokyo ... . . 10% Kagoshima ... 1$% Ehime 10^ Osaka ... . Kyoto ... . Shiga ... . . 25?^ . 10% Oita S% Okayama . Hiroshima . ■\ 224,058 454,822 Miye loj^ Wakayama .. 10% Chiba \ Miyagi J Iwate r5?^ Fukushima ...] 724,058 468,490 Shimane Tottori... . Fukushima . Kumamoto . Niigata... Toyama Ishikawa UsfH III. FISH-FERTILIZERS. Output and kinds of Fish-Feetilizees. — The principal centres of fish guano and their output are as follows :— HERRING (1900). Quantity. Value. kwam. yen. 5,725,620 1,197,38s 24,'7i 6.947 Hokkaido... Others ... ■•• ••• Total 5,749,79« 1,204,332 Marl-eU. GUANO (Herring and Sardine). Quantity. Value. iwam. ym. Hokkaido ••• 22,936,920 5,806,76s Aoinori ... 1.049,517 328,472 Chiba ... 876,030 424,254 Aichi ... 492,483 169,860 Total 25,354,950 DRIED ANCHOVY. 6,809,351 Quantity. Value. kwam. yen. Chiba ... 2,220,052 554,510 Shizuoka ... 569,322 30,270 Nagasaki ... 423,402 95,864 Kanagawa... 250,400 429,800 Otiiers ... 1,019,842 289,87s 359 Total.., 4.483,018 1,400,319 Tiie conditions of the delivery and distribution of fish-fertilizera on the markets of Tokyo, Osaka, and Hyogo were as follows in 1900 :— TOKYO. Value. yen. Percentage of Delivery. \ flokkaido ... Value. Percentage of Distribution. yen. ... T,% /Tokyo... [Chiba... ... 21.2^ ... 17-7?^ llbaragi, Tochigi ... 1 , 2,997.659-^San-Rika 10^ 2,862,845 fe"™™' ^^'y'^' ,.- | ° »''" -'^ 1 ' INagano, \ amanashi 1 Kanagawa, Shizuoka, !• 28.8^^ iNear-Siiores l(>% I Aic-hi, I :iye J Others 2.1% 360 Value. yen. Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. OSAKA. Percentage of Delivery. I Hokkaido 2,546,895 < lOthers 91?^ 9% Value. Percentage of Distribution. yen. r Osaka 33% "Wakayama 4^ I Kyoto and Hyogo ... 10^ z,599,69038o Miye 40,502 Others 38,650 ... . yen. 27,082 .. 108,691 Total 258,30s (B.) FOREIGN MARKETE. I. Exports. — The value of marine products er.ported during 1901 amounted to 8,680,000 yen approximately. The returns dtiring the hist ten years are as follows, the quantity being put in kin and the value in yen: — Markets. 363 Cuttle-fish Beche de mer Shark Fins Salmon, Cod Dried Anchovy Dried and Salted Fish Prawns Ear-shell Mussel Solecmius Consfricta Adductor muscle of shell fish Oyster (dried) Other SheU-fish " Kombu " {Laiidnarid) . . Sliced " Kombu " " Tosakanori " {^Rhodcphyllis ^•) • ■■ " Amanori " {Porphyra Vul- garis) "Kanten" (CoUe Vegetable) Fish-oil Mother of Pearl (Haliotis). . . Coral Salt •■■ ••• ••• • 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. unit of unit of unit of unit of vmit of thousand, thousand, thousand. thousand. thousands Quar Val. • 7,4So 9S0 10,356 1,426 9,483 1,162 6,401 996 5,842 1,251 865 291 840 281 929 294 1,021 316 915 319 » 226 80 283 lOI 297 I02 309 95 323 no J> 1,295 64 1,750 85 1,344 66 1,380 64 705 40 ■)■> 71S 23 827 25 273 10 5°7 iS 329 14 " 782 24 617 21 911 46 993 30 947 3J 33 1,427 190 1,404 208 1,283 171 1,535 222 1,356 209 if 1,101 381 1,021 396 1,16s 445 1,060 396 985 408 370 30 336 27 218 21 3«6 32 245 26 3> — — — — 356 - » — — — — 56 )J 179 52 325 82 S4I 127 156 39 333 93 „ — — — — 226 ^ 33 — — — — 27 ___ 22S 33 82 98 70 85 17 36,713 818 32,718 766 35,851 467 39,033 514 29,174 486 " 6,498 175 6,935 172 5,999 139 5,796 116 5,770 122 257 9 22s 9 155 8 277 II 183 10 4 6 5 5 9 1,269 581 1,452 682 1,298 495 1,118 449 1,403 995 7,357 248 13,751 533 16,668 668 2,654 525 6,175 338 33 835 59 783 60 767 SO 759 63 853 88 ' „ I 37 46 48 I 36 4 88 16,832 82 19,169 86 i6,ioo 68 24,687 97 25,897 132 Total 4,219 S,"5 4,470 4,120 4,381 3G4 Japan in the Beginning of the 20"S 850 856 1,010 466 530 429 483 433 216 288 320 337 281 32 46 52 52 34 179 99 90 I3S "5 28 20 17 26 19 179 298 368 452 318 69 107 140 204 104 136 136 159 202 100 21 20 27 39 15 187 289 175 265 131 22 32 27 32 48 33,431 39.666 30,988 51,526 36,946 549 780 730 1,092 693 6,342 6,530 5,053 9,383 6,306 161 166 152 325 613 104 137 137 114 168 56657 895 56 266 13 461 18 1,391 215 907 396 165 20 292 41 350 122 148 18 172 17 40,357 726 4,757 104 95 5 •{ { Oyster (dried) \ Other Shell-fish | " Kombu " (JLaminaria) ... i Sliced "Kombu" | " Tosakanori" {Rhodophyllis j sp-) ■■■ \ " Amanori " (Porphyra Vul- f . garis \ "Kanten" (CoUe Vegetable) j Fish-oil I Mother of Pearl (Haliotis)... | Coral I Salt I '^°'^^ i ,, 5,437 5,013 6,046 6,440 ^,686 5,393 . A brief description of principal marine products for export wiH be given in the following paragraphs : — 4 4 13 12 8 7 1,326 1,205 1,207 1,444 1,584 1,331 591 611 674 964 1,217 686 12,657 6,641 9,182 12,646 i4;6io 2,134 618 391 SSo 906 1,023 580 954 755 798 5" 439 745 135 172 I7S 109 100 lOI 10 9 21 30 47 12 187 169 345 354 564 187 36,887 29,511 39,062 50,354 38,219 29,672 300 215 278 452 303 201 _ _ _ _ _ Markets. 365 1. CuTTLE-TiSH. — There are three kinds of cuttle-fish of commer- cial value, these being " Surume-ika " (ChmnastrepJiidae), " Kabuto-ika " (Sepia) and '• Kensaki-ika " (Loligo). The Sepia is generally used raw, and only the other two varieties, especially Ommastrephidae, are dried. The Sepia lives most in bays or inland seas while the other kinds are caught in Kyushu, Sado and Okl in the Sea of Japan,, and also along the coast of Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi and Hokkaido. The dried cuttle-fish goes extensively to China, as shown in the following returns giving the average for the ten years ending 1901 : — iin. yen, Hongkong 6,044,123 1,071,078 China ... — 1,186,606 190,606 Others 85,538 15,254 Total 7,316,267 1,276,938 2. Beche de Mer. — This is a boiled and dried sea-cucumber and is highly relished by the Chinese. Besides the Japanese product, that caught along the Siberian coast and the South Pacific also goes to China. The South Pacific variety is whitish and devoid of cutaneous projections, while the Beche de mer from Japan and Siberia is black and has projections. It is found mostly in Hokkaido and along the north-eastern coast of Honshu. Average yearly export during the said ten years was : — China < Hongkong Others Total 875,299 316,970 3. Shaek-Fins. — Dried shark-fins are regarded as a dainty by the Chinese. There are two kinds of fins, grey and black, the grey commanding higher price than the other. The fins come in the largest quantities from Oita and Yamaguchi, and our fishermen also cross over to the Korean coast to fish for sharks or rather for. their fins :— kin. yen. 801,378 292,54s 71,491 21,542 2,430 2,883 366 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA Century. km. yen. 221,149 83-245 107,150 37,440 12,871 7,238 China Hongkong Others ... Total 341,170 127,923 Peincipal Salted or Dried Fish that go Abroad. (I). SALMON AND TROUT. kin. yen. Hongkong 1,335,741 77,538 China 12,468 609 Others 24,700 1,712 Total .. 1,372,909 (2). DRIED ANCHOVY. 79,859 kin. yen. Hongkong 751,073 34,470 China 20,097 823 Others 10,626 525 Total 781,796 35,818 4. Other Salted or Dried Fish. — Salted or dried fish, mostly in the latter form, that are exported abroad mostly go to Southern China. The TaUulairi and cod constitute the bulk of the exports. Other fish of a cheap kind also go there. The recent advance in prices on the fish market stands very much in the way of the greater export of this kind of fish. An attempt is now being made to export salted herring and if this proves satisfactory salted herring will become an important item of export — Hongkong China Hawaii United States Korea Oth;rs Total 839,908 5^,429 kin. yen. 281,444 14,206 137,650 8,103 149,921 17,355 17,587 2,336 237,194 6,771 16,112 1,658 kin. yen. 780,552 128,257 590,307 91.503 406.146 3.037 Markets. 367 5. Dried Prawns. — Several varieties of prawns belonging to the genus Penaevg are boiled and deprived of their shell, and these are known on the market by the common name of dried prawns. The prawns are mostly caught along the shores of the Inland Sea and also in Kyushu. Dried prawns are mostly destined for China. Hongkong China Others Total 1,777,005 222,797 6. Ear-Shell. — This is one of the most favorite marine pro- ducts with the Chinese, and the export to America is to supply the demand of the Chinese residents there. An export trade has recently sprung up in tinned ear-shells, but the quantity exported is un- known. kin. yen. Hongkong 885,292 367,629 China 96,414 38,874 United States 24,104 13,991 Others 12,716 '04,035 Total 1,018,526 426,976 7. Kainohashira. — This is the dried abdactoi muscle of the several varieties of scallop of the genus Peclen. kin. yen. Hongkong 158,749 SI.056 China 152.HI 5o,i97 Others 7,:oi 2,782 Total 318,091 104,035 8. Mussel. — This is the dried flesh of the " Seto-gai " caught in Yamaguchi, Ehime, Kumamoto, etc. kin. yen. Hongkong China Others Total 464,180 S7,ll8 263,33s 32.454 199,510 21,211 1.335 3,453 368 Japan in the Beginning of the 20iA Century. 9. HosHiAGEMAKi {Solecurtus eonstriota, Lam.) — This shell-fish grows in the mud of Ariake Sea, Kyushu. The flesh is boiled and dried. FOUR YEARS' AVERAGE (1898— 1901). iin. yen. Hongkong 19,592 3,399 China 106,59s ^')f>'i'i Total 126,190 23,031 10. Dried Oyster. — ^The oyster exported in a dried form mostly comes from Akkeshi, Holtkaido. FOUR YEARS' AVERAGE (1898—1901). Hongkong ... British India Hawaii Others Total 158,505 27,085 II. "HALIOTIS" SHELLS, 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1890— 1901). ktn. yen. 141,266 23,528 6,704 1,245 6,500 1,312 4,035 1,000 Mn. yen. England ••• .. 255,718 41,694 Hongkong ... 281,45s 32,637 Germany ... 109,086 11,810 Others 95,753 8,421 Total 742.015 94,5°2 12. "YAKO-GAI" (Turbo obearins, Lara.), 6 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1897). kin. fen. Hongkong 44,519 S,o8i Others 10,901 138 Total 55,420 5,219 Marktts. 36^ OTHER SHELLS, 6 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1897). yen. Hongkong 6,715 Germany 2,565 England ',495 Others 1.093 Total 1,869 The " Yako-gai " grows in the sea surrounding the Okinawa Islands Its shell and that of Heliotis and Avicula supply important materials for ornamental work. 13. " KoMBU " (Laminaria). — Several varieties of Laminar ia. grow on the shores of Japan, especially in Hokkaido and the south- eastern districts of Honshu. The " long Kombu " (Laininaiia augudata') is exported most of all. The " Kombu " sliced into small threads is extensively used by our people and also to some extent by the Chinese. Shanghai is the principal market, whence the goods are sent to the districts along the Yangtsz. The export to northern China is not so great, owing to the fact that the goods produced in Siberia and ]\Ianchuria being somewhat cheaper than those from Japan are much in deuumd tliere. "KOMBU." 10 YEARS AVERAGE (1892— 1901). "LONG KOMBU." China... Hongkong.. Others Total 36,926,516 691,25a kiti. yen. 34,944,295 658,449 1,484,198 27,137 498,023 5,664 370 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. SLICED " KOMBU." China Hongkong ., Others Total km. yen. S,873>544 155,671 292,067 6,458 140,891 1,654 6,306,502 163,783 14. " Kanten," {Colle Vegetable). — This is made by dissolving tlie sea-wccd Tengusa in water. After the refuse is removed the gelatinous infusion is exposed to the cold weather at night and made to congeal. In the daytime this congealed substance is exposed to the sun to make it less watery. " Kauten " is consumed at home and is also exported abroad. The Chinese use it as food, while in the West it is used as a substitute of isinglass and for starching woven goods or for removing the sediments of liquors. The " Kanten " is produced at Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo and Nagano. 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1961). mn. yen. Hongkong 578,482 292,683 China 543>8i9 286,140 British India 34.046 19,322 Germany J8,935 14,147 England 13,214 9,510 Others 88,395 43,000 Total 1,276,891 664,802 15. Other sea- weeds that go abroad are the " Hoshinori,'' ■" Tosnkanori " (Rhodophyllis), " Fimori " (Cloiopeltk Agardh) and " Tt^unoniata " (^Chondrus slaokhouse, Agardli) \ the first for Japanese staying abroad, the second to China and the other two to othe' countries to be used as paste : — Markets. " HOSHINORI," 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1901). 371 Hongkong ... China Hawaii Otiiers Total yen. >,S93 4,682 482 687 7.444 " TOSAKAXORi;' 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892-1901). China Others kill. i^4,S73 4,259 yen. 7,So5 291 "iotal 169,132 7,795 "FUMORI," 10 YEARS' AVKK.NGE (1892—19011. England . . . Honijkong Others ... kin. 35,445 950 yen. 4,141 2,921 81 Total 109,794 7,143 'TSUXOMATA," 10 YEARS' AVERA(_;E (1892— 1901). China Hongkong Germany Others ... Total ... kin. 29,337 2,749 715 79 32,880 ven. 4,036 1,202 499 59 5,796 16. Fish-oil. — Fisli-oil is a by-product of fish guano. It is shipped abroiid in unrefined state, and is used for leathering, making soap, paint, tallow, etc : — kin. yen. 5,527,476 293,091 1,731,359 95,402 1,514,026 61,767 622,645 42,908 1,001,584 45,169 297,980 13,489 250,618 10,705 419,497 18,665 372 Ja'pan in the Beginning of the 20//i Century. to YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1901). Germany Hongkong England Belgium France Australia China Others Total 11,365,185 58«,i96 16. C0EA1.S. — Corals are got by dredge-nets in the seas off' Tosa^ Satsuma and Hizen. Italy is the principal foreign market for the goods. The suj)ply being in excess of the demand lately, owing to the greater development of the work of 19 9r,9,083 46,139 829,133 43,384 1,202,543 61,423 1,372,232 78,413 •S47,4'i2 45,858 » 12,555,023 288,665 5,300,613 128,232 2,500,706 89,244 6,986,981 235,598 7,616,014 238,970 6,200,016 149,112 - - 17,60Si0l)0 737,167 36,909,800 1,146,116 28,063,200 1,171,626 7,261,228 305,666 Total { •• i n .1,123,136 1,180,135 2,332,686 .3,915,300 8,167,407 1,368,867 A brief description of the principal imported marine products •will be given as follows : — 1. Salted-fish. — The most important variety of salted fish imported into Japan is salmon. It comes from Russian Siberia and 374 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. British Columbia and the United States of America, and generally from the Japanese fishermen who are doing business in those countries- to a large extent. IP YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). iw. yen. Russian Siberia 11,713,498 566,851 United States 410,772 25,902 British Columbia 57i,9I' 35.246 Others 292,727 12,382 Total ^ ... 12,988,908 640,381 2. Fertilizers. — Herring guano comes chiefly from Eussian- Siberia and dried anchovy from Korea, both through the hands of Japanese fishermen and merchants. Tho import was formerly free of' duty, but in consequence of the enforcement by the Russian authorities of restrictive measures in regard to the fisheries conducted' by Japanese fishermen along the Siberian coast, our Government passed some time ago a law imposing an ad valorem duty of not more than 50 per cent, on salted fish and guano coming from Siberia and Saghalien. The tarifi" has not yet been enforced owing to the relaxation of the Russian restrictive measure. 3. FISH-GUANO, 3 YEARS' AVERAGE (1899— 1901). kin. yen. Russian Siberia 24,159,333 1,018^300 4. DRIED ANCHOVY, 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). kin. yen. Korea , 6,056,812 144,204 Russian Siberia 121,129 -41783 Total 6,177,941 148,987 5. Sea-weeds. — The principal sea-weeds that are imported into Japan come from Korea where our fishermen are collecting the 'lengusa and Ftinori. , kin. ym. 513.917 24,916 31,007 1,259 Fishery Legislature. 375 "TENGUSA," ID YEARS' AVERAGE (1892— 1901). Korea Others Total 544,924 26,17s " FUNORI," 10 YEARS' AVERAGE (1892—1901). kin. yen, Korea 947,o74 45,839 6. Salt. — The import was formerly confined to table-salt alone but owing to great rise in the salt market recently at home sal, has began to come largely from Germany, England, and China : — Year. England. Germany. China. United States. Others. Total. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. 1892 ... ... 2,152 30 — 30 230 2,442 1893 ... ••• 2,355 57 — 989 62 3,463 1894 ". ... 4,773 — 2 813 68 5,656 1S95 ... ... 1,598 — — 945 702 3,245 1896 ... ... 2,390 979 49,611 934 1,665 55.579 1S97 ... ... 4,124 18,299 74.841 3,526 ",033 111,823 1898 ... ... 5,758 87,399 22,016 6,038 12,154 133,363- 1899 ... ... 2,060 23,660 50,396 2,708 7,604 86,428 1900 ... ... 59,725 23,093 18 4,"9 35,429 122,384 1901 ... ... 69,158 3 3,205 3,032 ~ 75,398 IX. FISHERY LEGISLATURE. General EEMARxs.^Legislature and institutions pertaining to fi,shery are as yet comparatively imperfect, as these things have generally been regulated in accordance with ancient usages. This primitive method of regulations having given rise to various troubles the Government put in force from July 1902 the Law of Fishery. At the same times steps were taken for encouraging deep-sea fishery, and state aids have also been granted for the encouragement of fishery education. The matters will be briefly described below. 376 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Usages and Legislatuke about fishery. — Various usages have existed about fishery-grounds. In general the grounds in the foreshores of fishing village or villages were regarded to belong to those villages. The inhabitants of farming villages situated along the sea shore did not in general care much about the grounds except perhaps for sea- weeds used as manure. Tlie grounds in the foreshore of such villages were therefore left to the exploitation of neighboring fishing communities. With the increase of the fishing population and owing also to the fact that even farmers began to assert their own rights in regard to the foreshores, fishermen were compelled to extend their field to work even to grounds belonging to others, and this very frequently led to trouble. To minimize these troubles the Tokugawa Regency made an enactment in 1741 to the effect that the right of fishing and collecting weeds in the space lying within a line stretched from one headland to another should belong to the farmers living along the shores, but that the right of fishing and collecting weeds in the outer space should be enjoyed in common by the fishermen of all provftices. No fishing community should be allowed to interfere with the collection of weeds by farmere imd no fanning community should be allowed to interfere with fisliing by fishermen. Fishing along the shores should be regulated according to the old usages, but fishing in the open sea should be open even to those who were new to the work. Certain fees were charged at times for the privilege of the exclusive use of shores, while fishermen eligible for service in the maritime service of the Government were given similar privilege. This simple regulation established by the Tokugawa Regency was generally adopted by the feudal princes governing seaside domains With the Restoration, the practice of exacting fees was abolished and the seas were declared to belong to the State. In all other respects the Government left the matter to be regulated according to existing usages and customs. Coming to 1886 the fishery guild regulations were enacted, but soon this simple legislature proved inadequate to deal with troubles constantly occuving among fisherme n and at last the law in question was promulgated with the consent of the Diet. Encouragement of deep sea fisheries. — The law for the encouragement of deep sea fisheries was issued in 1897 and State Fishery Legislature. 377 aids are now granted according to the tonnage of the ships employed in the Tvork and to the number of the crew, provided such ghips, whether steamers or sailing ships, engage in specified kinds of fishery approved of by the Government. The dvelopment of deep sea fisheries since the enforcement of the law may be inferred from the following table : — Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 No. of Ships. Tonnage. Sum of State aids yen. I 90 680 ... 14 i,3"3 16,240 ... 17 1,888 25,260 ... 22 2,042 28,03s Japanese Fishery Enterprise in Korean waters. — Our fishermen were engaged in fishery in Korean waters even before the Restoration, and as their number had grown more and more numerous the Government made special arrangements in 1883 and 1890 with the Korean Government to protect them in their pursuing this busi- ness there. In 1897 these fishermen established their own association at Fusan, while in 1900 the Government commenced to grant state aids to the guild established by these men. NO. OF FISHING-BOATS TO KOREAN WATERS AND THEIR CATCH DURING THE TEN YEARS OF 1892— 1901. (In each set of figures the upper one represents No. of boats and the lower one value of catch in yen). Osaica ... . Ijyogo ... . Miye ... . Shimane Okayama ., Hirofihiiua .. Tainaguchl . 1893. 1894. 1895. — 10 — 3 000 1896. 11 3,200 IS 6,19S 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 3 10 8 3,00 ) 3,800 4,000 21 4? 47 9,980 13,102 15,790 — — 452 410 381 446 561 10 4,500 41 18,013 — — — — _ _ _ - - - z 12 2,0d9 12 570 12 750 8 230 18 720 - — — — — — z — 144 2,588 771 S8 31,280 21 211,050 14 2.'0 16J 582 — 214,1)92 169,777 105,765 169,695 280,358 326,626 266,22^ 79 97 88 82 95 93 290 490 320 31,690 36,164 39,0.1,') 40,990 48,130 ;0,643 256,033 286,3.'3 343,737 378 Wakay ama .. Tokushiuia ., Eagawa .. ... Ehime Fukuoka Oita Saga Kuraamoto ... KagosMma ... Total ... Japan in the Beginning of the iOth Century. 1892. 1833. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. — — — — — — — — — 11 — — — — — — — — — 4,800 — — — — — — — 51 32 49 — — — — — — — 11,720 26,914 43,?08 237 202 205 251 361 304 .316 379 430 446 52,496 68,3t2 64,752 71,214 47,993 39,995 48,065 141,697 157,362 109,283 12 16 16 32 35 67 92 127 194 166 7,210 8,710 9,370 26,900 86,600 47,270 66,962 64,500 73,857 79,550 — — — — — — 41 37 43 55. — — — — — — 8,777 7,288 10,649 12,170 — — — — — — — — 304 344 — — — — — — — — — 219,166 — — — — — — — — 30 68 — — — — — — — — 13,118 21,702 — — — — — — — 23 153 115 — — — — — — — 12,295 41,858 43,279 55 58 62 65 70 74 79 91 84 94 9,P83 10,208 11,408 10,465 12,320 13,615 14,.'i3a 10,465 19,392 19,850 383 373 371 897 1,000 950 1,32S 1,822 2,530 2,532 101,076 113,464 124,615 388,361 326,614 270,828 571,780 834,566 1,039,379 l,091,810r Encouraqement of fishery by the local and central AUTHORITIES.— The matter relating to encouragement of fishery by the local offices recently made a marked progress. In 1887 the disburse- ments from the local treasury on account of fishery business amounted- to only 1,531 yen throughout the land. The sums swelled to 360,000- yen in 1901 as shown in the following table : — Year. Fishery Expenditure. Year. Fishery Expenditure. yen. yen. 1887 ... 1.S31 1895 ... . ■ - 31.593 1888 ... 9,359 1896 ... . . ... 50,468 1889 ... 2,860 1897 ... • . ... 62,427 1890 ... 6,185 1898 ... . . ... 71,687 I89I ... 11,011 1899 ... . . ... 108,687 1892 ... 13.475 1900 ... . . ... 188,911 1893 - 28,861 1901 ... . ■ - 320.417 1S94 - 19,282 1902 ... . . ... 360,043 In the foregoing disbursements the appropriation to fishery ex- perimental laboratories and training schools amounted to most, a» shown below : — Fishery Legislature. 379 Experimental Laboratory. Training Scliool. Year. New. Already existing. New. Already existing. Total. Expenses. yen. 1S94 ... I I — — 2 I, '75 189s ... I 2 — — 3 2,715 1896 ... — 2 — — 2 2,99& 1897 ... ... •«• ~^ 2 — — 2 3.779 1898 ... I 3 2 2 5 12,336 1899 ... 4 7 — 2 '3 34,685 1900 ... II 18 2 4 35 144,006 1901 ... 2 20 — 4 26 229,754 1902 ... 4 24 — 4 32 235,643 Total ... 24 79 4 i6 123 667,091 The laboratories and schools are allowed to participate in the state aids set apart, as described in the chapter of agricultural educa- tion, for encouraging agricultural education : — Expei ■imental Laboratory. Scliool. No. Total. Year. No. Aids. No. Aids. Aids. yen. yen. yen. 1900 ... . 7 12,200 I 1,200 8 13.400 1901 ... . 18 26,000 4 3-Soo 22 29,900 1902 ... . 21 40,100 4 5,200 25 45,300 FiSHEKY Education. — The progress of fishery education has been very slow compared with that of agriculture and commerce. About 1889 a course of fishery was created for the first time in the Agricultural College at Komaba, but it was discontinued shortly after. The Fishery Training School of the Japan Fishery Associa- tion did much to diffu-se knowledge in regard to this important branch of knowledge among the people, and during the ten years of jts existence, for it was converted in 1897 into a Government institu- tion, it turned out several hundreds of graduates. Of late, in consequence of the encouragement extended to fishery education by the Government, it has attained a striking improvement, as shown in the appended table: — 580 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Fishery School. Training School. District. No. Expenses. No. Expenses. State Aids yen. yen. yen. Hokkaido ... — — I 833 250 Aomori ... . — — 3 2,83s 750 Akita — — I 694 150 Iwate I 3.848 — — 800 Miyagi I 4,611 — — 800 Niigata ... — — I 830 550 Fukui I 3,786 — — 1,000 Shizuoka ... I 1,100 2 1,986 700 Kochi — — 3 1,044 300 Tottori ... — — I — — Nagasaki ... — — I 1,193 400 Kagoshima — — I 840 200 Total 15.345 14 10,257 5,900 Associations and Public Bodies on Fishery. — Of the fishery associations and public bodies the Japan Fishery Association and the Japan Salt Association are the most important. The former was organized in 1883 and contains 5,216 members. It produced, as mentioned above, a large number of graduates in fishery, and in general acts as the headquarters of marine industry of the country. The other body was organized in 1896 with the special purpose of improving the salt industry. The members number 2,600. Both are publishing monthly proceedings. There are besides fishery societies of local importance, and also fishery guilds and sale guilds created in consequence of the Fisliery Law. History. 381 PART III. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. CHAPTER I. — General Manufacturing Industry. History — Administration — LegislatiTe Measures— Principal Exports of Manufuctured Goods— Principal Imports of Industrial Goods — Output of Principal Manufactured Goods. HISTORY. Before the Restoration. — During the peaceful time of the Tokugawa regime, the manufacturing industiy received from the feudal princes and the Shogunate itself protection and encouragement. The Shogunate too resumed with Korea the friendship that had been interrupted for some while, connived at our people carrying on secretly commercial transaction with Chinese merchants ; and even permitted them to expand similar transaction with the peoples of Annumj Siam, Luzon, India and various countries in the Southern Seas, also with Portugal, Spain, England, Holland and Mexico. The first dawn of our industrial development may be ascribed to this commercial relations with foreign countrymen. In these days many foreign ships used to visit the ports of Kagoshima, Hakata, Goto, Hirado, Sakae, and Nagasaki to trade with our people, while not a few of the latter also crossed over on a similar mission to Siam, Luzon, and several place* in the South Seas. It is hardly necessary to state that this contact with foreigners and the trade with them largely contributed either directly or indirectly to the development of our industry. ^ The prohibition suddenly enforeced from political consideration during the 382 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Benefit of Foreign era of Kwan-ei, (1704—1710 A.D.) on this Intercourse. foreign trade and intercourse did serious harm to our trade and industry, and hence on our prosper- ity. One thing that was fortunate was that the prohibition was not absolute, and the two countries of China and Holland were allowed to continue their commercial transactions with us as before ; so that the merchants of these two Gauntries brought to Japan foreign goods through the port of Nagasaki which was at that time the only open market in Japan. The permission reserved to the Netherlanders was matter of special importance to our country, serving as it did the connecting like of introducing Western civilization into Japan. Situation of the Industry at the Time op the Eestoba" TiON. — As mentioned above, manufacturing industry found congenial atmosphere for its development during the tranquil period of the Tokugawa regime, and indeed many were the industrial articles that were then either improved or newly invented. Principal manufact- uring districts and their staple produce were as follows about the time of the Restoration : — 1. Eaw Silk. — Musashi, Kozuke, Shinano, Kai, Mutsu, etc. 2. Silk FABEics.^Nishijin in Kyoto, (relief silk), Kiriu, Ashikaga, Isezaki, Hachioji (plain silk) Kai (" Gunnai-kaiki ") Fukushima (plain silk), Akita (relief silk), Yonezawa (figured silk), Tango, and Nagahama (cr^pe silk), Kawagoe (" Nanako "), Hakata (sash) Sendai (skirt for men) etc. S. Hemp Fabeics. — Nara (breached cotton goods), Echigo (" Jofu " goods), Omi (general hempen fabrics and musquito nets), etc. 4. Cotton Fabeics.— Kokura (" Kokura-ori "), Kurume ("Kasuri") Satsuma (" Kasuri "), Yamato (" Kasuri "), lyo (" Kasuri "), Kawachi and Mikawa (white cotton cloth), Shimotsuke (Maoka cotton clolh). 5. PoECELAix. —Kyoto (Awada and Kiyomizu ware), Owari (Seto- ware), Ise (Banko-ware), Kaga (Kutani-ware), Izumo (Rsikiisan and Fushina-ware), Awaji (Minpei-ware), Chikuzen (Takatori- ware), Hizen (Arita-ware), Satsuma (Satsuma-ware), Iwaki (Soma- ware), Bizen (Imbe-ware), etc. ■6. Lacqueeed-Wares.— Kyoto (art ware), Note (Wajima-ware), Kaga (Kanazawa and Yamanaka-ware), Kii (Kuroe-ware), Iwa- History. 383 shiro (Aizu-ware), Wakasa (Wakasa-ware), Mutsu (Tsugaru-ware), Dewa (Noto-ware), etc. 7. Copper Waee.— Kyoto, Kaga, Takaoka, etc. ■8. Japanese Paper. — Kyoto, Suruga, Echizen, Mino, Iwami, Tosa, etc. Other important ware and goods besides those mentioned were gold lacquered ware, carved ware, cutlery, cast iron ware, wood or bamboo or leather ware, mattings, sake, and soy. After the Restoration. — The Restoration has inaugurated a new epoch in our manufacturing industry, and this change was especially marked in regard to the introduction of labor saving machines. Not that their use was unknown before the Restoration on the contrary even prior to that period their use was encouraged by not a few feudal princes, especially in connection with cotton spinning and weaving. But it was only after the Restoration that the Government made a systematic effort to encourage the use of iiiachinery in the manufacturing industry and established model workshops and factories for that purpose. This official effort was eagerly welcomed by the people who began to make extensive use of machines in the business of manufacturing raw silk. Other industries in the similar line many of which were new to Japan, were cotton and silk spinning, weaving, shipbuilding, iron industries of various sorts, the manufacture of cement, glass, bricks, New Industrie?, matches, paper of foreign style, tobacco, and beer, the refining of sugar, the preparation of india- rubber, the making of paint, artificial fertilizers, coal, gas, coke and the carrying on of electric industries of various sorts, &c. &c. In the manufacturing industry as carried on by hand the introduction of Jacquard, Butten, and other kinds of looms, and the introduction of such dye-stuffs as aniline, alizarine, etc., have imparted a powerful impulse to the development of weaving and of dyeing. In a similar way the use of Western style of kiln and of Western pigments, and the use of gypsum mould and copper lithograph have opened a new path of development for our keramic industry. The progress too of the fancy-mat making and of the making of straw- plaits has been something striking and the goods as are now turned out for foreign markets display a highly finished workmanship. 384 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. The Progress op the Industry in Eecent Times. — Under these circumstances our manufacturing industry has made great strides during the last two or three decades, so that not only are articles produced for home consumption but also a large quantity of goods for the foreign markets. How great this advance is may be easily inferred from the fact that the volume of manufactured good which did not exceed 10 million yen in 1890 advanced to over 89,800,000 in 1902, an increase of about ninefold. The total volume of our export goods of all descriptions advanced during the same period from 55,700,000 to 255,600,000 yeii both in round numbers, that is to say, 4.6-fold. Again, even if raw silk, straw-plaits, etc.. are excluded, the export of industrial commodities occupies about 35 per cent, of the total value of exports. Thus while in 1890 the propor- tion of industrial commodities exported constituted 18 per cent, of the total volume of export, the percentage advanced over to 35 in 1902. It will be seen therefore that the part played by manufact. uring industry in the economy of our export trade is one of supreme importance. II. ADMINISTRATION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Matters relating to manufacturing industry were at first cont- rolled by the Industrial Bureau of the former Department of In- dustrial Affairs, to be transferred, on the abolition of that Depart- ment, to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Though the control has remained in this Department from that time to this day, the office that had direct charge of manufacturing affairs has under- gone frequent alterations, for the tenure of the Bureau of Industry was precarious and was repeatedly created and abolished and finally combined, as it is still to-day, with the Bureau of Commerce. At present all matters relating to manufacture are under the control of the Bureau of Commerce and Industry, and are in direct charge of the Section of Industry which forms part of the Bureau. The Section in question deals with matters relating to experiment made with the view to improving manufacture and manufactured goods, the position and construction of workshops, the control of boilers, the Legislative Measures Rehting to Manufacturing Industry. 38& employment and engagement of operatives and apprentices together with their relief, education, health, etc. In April 1900 a temporary factory committee was created in the Section of Industry, and was made to inquire into matters concerning factories and operatives. III. LEGISLATIVE MEASURES RELATING TO MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Gkneeai. Remarks. — The first legislative measure enacted about manufacture was that issued by the Department of Agriculture and Commerce in November 1884, when an Ordinance was promulgatai about the formation of guilds. The object of that measure was to encourage different interest to form themselves into guilds and to pro- vide against the production of shoddy goods. In December of 1888 regulations relating to patents, designs and trade-marks were issued by Imperial Ordinances, intended to extend protection to inventions, designs and trade-marks, and to encourage the development of manufacture and industry and to protect the interest of business men. In April of 1898 a law relating to guilds of staple export interests was enacted, entitling those engaged in the manufacture or transaction of any staple export commodity to organize themselves, on the approbation of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, into aguild and further entitling a guild so formed to compel any one engaged in a similar line to join it. Such a guild was also permitted to form itself into a juridical person. It is needless perhaps to state that the aim of the law in encouraging the formation of a guild was to put a check to all evil practices tending to retard the development of the business. Three years later this law was superseded by another relating to staple commodities interests, and therefore more comprehensive in its scope and opera- tion. About the same time a law relating to industrial guilds was promulgated, the object being that credit guilds, purchase guilds, sales guilds, and production guilds may be organized as economic corporations with the object of furthering the business and economy ox the members. In February 1901 rules were issued relating to 386 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. the establishment of local and communal industrial experimental laboratories or manufacturing training schools, the object of the enactment being to encourage the improvement and progress of manufacture. It was arranged about the same time that matters relating to the control of boilers, factories and operatives be left in charge of the respective local offices. lY. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. Position of Manufacture in Export Trade. — The different parts played by manufactured, agricultural, marine and other goods in the economy of export trade and their movement may be seen from the following table. Kind 1902. 1901. 1898. 1890. RelativePerc^Uge of Produce. ym, yen. yen. ven. 1902. 1901. 1S98. 1890. Industrial ... 74,788,770 76,050,312 66,422,690 10,090,125 38.0 3S.3 41.5 18.0 Agricultural ... 73,336,835 94,5o7,774 66,184,407 28,776,272 37.8 45.1 41.4 51.6 Fisliery 5,902,623 5,624,303 4,702,739 3,698,484 3.5 2.7 2.9 6.6 Mining 27,459,979 24,102,161 20,357,640 11,098,964 14.2 11.5 12.4 2.00 Miscellaneous... 12,324,339 9,233,027 2,278,635 2,128,002 6.5 4.4 1.5 3.8 Total ... 193,812,546 209,517,577 159,946,111 55,791,847 100 loo 100 100 It ought to be noted that raw silk of all sorts and straw-plaits are included under the head of agricultural goods. It will be seen from the foregoing table that manufactured goods have made the most striking development in the export trade, and that Avhile in 1890 their share was only 18 per cent, against 51.6 of agricultural goods the relative proportion became 41.5 and 41.4 respectively in 1898, 34.7 and 43.6 in 1901 and 35.1 and 44.4 in 1902. In other words, agricultural goods that formerly occupied the proud position of being the most important item in the economy of export trade began to be superseded by manufactured goods. The importance of manufactured goods as a factor in export trade becomes really preponderating when raw silk of all kinds and straw-plaits are counted among them instead of being included in agricultural goods, as shown below : — Principal Exports of Manufactured Goods. 387 1902. 1901. Manufactured... Agricultural ... Others Total ... 127,632,276 145,522,297 20,493,329 25,035,789 45,686,941 38,959,491 1898. "3,530,035 19,077,062 27,339,014 Percentage. 1902. 1901. 1898. 66.0 69.4 70.9 105 11.9 11.9 23.5 18.7 17.2 193,812,546 209,517,577 139,946,111 100 loo 100 The manufactured goods computed in tliat way have always constituted more than 66 per cent, of the total volume while the agricultural have constituted less than 11. Principal export items of manufactured goods. — Below is given a table showing the movement of the export of staple manufactured goods. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. Cotton, yarns Silk, raw Si\k,nosAi Silk, was'ie Cotton Tissues, white Cotton Tissues, gray shirting. Cotton Tissues, cloths Cotton Tissues, tenuguiji Towels Cotton Tissues, chijimi Cotton Tissues, gasiiitoori . . . Cotton Tissues, flannel or Monpa ... Cotton Blankets Cotton Shirts Cotton Undershirts and Draw- ers Silk Tissues, /i«^;«'a< Silk Tissues, ;459i 4 4,616.2 3i37o.+ Kaiki silk — — loo.o 63.1 i9i-9 Earthenware and Porcelain .. . loo.o 179-2 281.2 3555 354-1 Cigarettes loo.o 237.8 3,204.0 19,800.2 60,575.5 Noshi Silk ico.o 214.9 200.3 '43-7 251.9 Shirtings — — — loo.o 8ti6.8 Beer and Liqours loo.o 2,016.4 '3.139-8 60,667.7 1,366,076.2 Cloth — — — loo.o 237.4. Cotton Tissue, white — — — loo.o 60.7 Umbrella — 6,579.2 42,719.8 50,078.2 60,309.5 Y. PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OP MANUFACTURED GOODS. Position of manufactured Goods in Impoet Trade. — Xext the movement of the principal import goods shall be described : — TABLE SHOWING THE CLASSIFIED TOTAL VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL COMMODITIES. Manufactured. Agricultural. Fishery. Mining. I Vliscellaneous Total. yen. ym. ym. yen. yen. yen. 1902.. ■ 103.340,163 128,019,666 2,011,487 4.589.359 33.358768 271.319,443 1901.. . 112,861,302 98,961,390 1,184,828 6,791,320 35,486,436 255.473.276 1900.. ■ 14J.97S.874 93,800,279 2,184,846 6,684,205 41,943,218 2!;'6,588,42: 1899.. - 86.424,265 96,667,462 1,212,896 4,195.829 31.550.53^ 226,c5o,<;84 1898.., • 122,444,710 112,754,614 609,736 3.728,106 3,7733.563 277,270,729 1890... 24,621,570 42,326,361 159,753 10 439,008 4,i23,C63 81,670,354 FFTATIVE PERCENTAGE. 1902... 3.S1 4.72 0.07 0.17 1-23 10.00 190I-. 4.42 387 0.05 0.27 »-39 10 00 1900... 4.96 3.27 008 0.23 1.46 10.00 1899:.. 3-93 4-39 0.06 0.19 1-43 10.00 1898... 4.42 4.07 0.02 0.13 1-36 10.00 1890... 3.02 5.18 0.02 1-28 0.50 10.00 It will be seen from the foregoing table that the import of manufactured goods amounted to 24,600,000 yen approximately in 1890, that is to say 30.2 per cent, of the total import against 51,8 per cent, of agricultural imports. The import of manufactured good-; rose in 1898 to about fivefold of that of 1890, with the ratio f 44.2 per cent, against 40.7 of agricultural goods. Further, in 189U 392 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20i/i Century. the amount of manufactured goods imported were about three and a half times the amount imported in 1890 with the ratio of about 39 per cent, against 42 of agricultural goods. In the following year the import of manufactured goods again rose to the level of 100 williou yen and to over 570 per cent, of that of 1890, the ratio to the total volume being about 47 per cent, against 32 of agricultural goods. In 1901 the ratio of manufactured goods, out of the total import, occupied 44 per cent, against 38 of agricultural goods, while coming to the next year the relative proportion was reversed, the former corresponding to 38 per cent, and the latter 47 per cent, of the total volume of import. Principal Impokt Items of Manufactured Goods. - Now the import of foreign commodities increases as a rule with the purchas- ing power of a nation, but it alone cannot prove the condition of industry in the country in question. Nevertheless a careful exami- ■hation of the movement of imports into our country tends to confirm the progress of our manufacturing industry, seeing that while the import of raw materials, machinery, etc. is increasing that of goods of special sorts is declining or at best making very slow progress. The following table of imports will go to prove this point : — PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. (unit of thousand). 1885. 1890. 189s. 1900. 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. Cotton yam 5,190 9,928 7,0182 7,043 4,873 1,747 Cotton threads 9 59 328 333 344 359 Flax or linen yarns 3 79 708 324 100 301 Woolen and worsted yarns of allkind ] 10 494 951 1,798 866 922 Shirtings, gray 1,233 1,716 3,071 5,558 2,981 5,o7t> .Shirtings, white 98 22s SOS i,3?5 575 1,191 Turkey-red cambrics 430 366 418 424 r89 302 Shirtings twilled and Cottonl .drills l' 151 137 577 435 142 223 Victoria lawns 8 53 133 381 180 262 Cotton prints 208 478 383 2,002 680 2602 *Cotton flannels — — — 444 234 704 Cotton satins and Italians ... 103 231 794 3,662 1,684 1,788 Cotton velvets 339 382 486 864 453 1.231 Handkerchiefs, cotton 38 138 204 367 107 94 Principal Imports of Afuinifactured Goods. 393 "*Plush or velvets, silk andl cotton f Italian cloth Serges Woolen cloth (cotton-woolenl cloth included) f Flannels Muslin de laine Blankets Pongee Steam boilers and engines . . . Electric motor and Electrics light apparatus or instru-> ments J Spinning Looms Sewing Paper making Printing machines Fire-engines and pump Implements and tools of farm-1 ers and machines f Watch accessories *Watch movements and fit-l tings f Clocks *Carriages, bicycles and tri-1 cycles f Cars or carriages, railway pas-l sengers | 'Cars or waggons, railway! freight / Locomotive-engines Vessels, steam i'hotographic apparatus ■Zinc, sheet Lead, sheet Ear and rod, iron Sheet iron Tinned plate or sheet Rails Nails, iron Pipes and tubes, iron Copper tubes 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. — — — 984 379 631 — — 921 1,120 601 1,181 26 63 119 1,162 376 242 474 1,056 3,120 S.403 2,219 3,430 287 927 961 917 3«3 487 906 2.784 3.633 7,364 3,339 3,754 207 572 1.569 393 78 123 31 24 78 134 122 84 78 345 431 773 1, 09s 96s 29 5o« 3" 726 979 1,323 151 1,065 1,896 809 1,279 700 4 127 246 232 420 94 16 14 51 240 161 191 4 28 48 476 379 224 S 39 96 III 126 93 35 43 155 374 281 209 25 43 84 263 277 259 4 17 ^<) 464 353 238 — — — 459 426 259 295 1,027 99i 916 603 325 — — — 521 540 856 635 643 531 128 — i?3 99 804 793 695 93 659 1,163 1,089 1,749 1,708 636 732 4,700 2,648 2,565 1,488 I 35 116 260 239 266 48 268 500 882 700 1,078 15 60 44 174 118 61 296 830 2,08s 3,243 3,5" 3,5" 9 192 417 1,104 6i24S 3,293 4,399 49 33 313 832 8S4 797 497 1,259 925 4,753 I,6l2 1,662 414 693 1,278 2,181 1,364 ',45' 19 166 634 2,981 1,591 ',073 14 29 los 219 264 221 394 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, Brass tubes Glass Cement Paper, printing Other European paper Card-board Rice-paper Imitation Japanese paper ... Imitation Japanese " Silk-I paper" J Wrapping paper *Pulp for making paper Hides or skins, bull, ox, cow, I and bufTalo J Leather Oil, kerosene *Oil, lubricating Paratlin wax Caouchouc, manufactures of... India rubber ♦Celluloid Cork Cokes Soap Soda, caustic Soda-ash Potash, chlorate of Acid, salicylic Glycerine *Soda, bicarbonate of Phosphorus, amorphous Dynamite Aniline dyes Alizarine dyes Logwood extract Paint Wines and all other liqoars... Alcohol Sugar, refined Sugar, half-refined Tobacco Flours Condensed milk Hats and Caps Mats, packing 1885. yen, 19 163 33 24 55 305 412 1,667 6 32 13 6 10 30 119 30 II 18 12 19 142 49 121 2,509 2,144 II 102 50 134 66 1890. yen. 17 394 175 413 158 i; 95. 1900. 243 652 4.950 107 99 23 19 5 51 145 182 9t 28 39 89 70 349 39 99 480 113 5.436 2,974 214 229 177 348 80 yen, 107 426 42 307 477 69s 1,590 4.303 266 222 82 59 90 66 234 419 285 59 102 260 231 682^ 192 218 292 821 440 7.673 4,074 491 413 139 82 148 1901. yen. 201 ".395 63 864 8'3 330 156 277 — 43 yen, 242 1,149 120 2,036 806 455 656 2,08s 14,162 624 5" 332 208 442 302 3'4 242 929 482 679 167 89 153 244 187 1,328 156 321 286 680 132 15.598 11,007 585 3,882 663 411 221 1,347 14,943 308 449 162 222 383 258 157 174 468 450 585 140 275 174 237 290 884 ■36 179 3" 698 169 21,111 12,381 121 2,897 641 341 241 1902. yen. 151 1,836 28 1,402 1,184 35 > 475 198 317 85 36s ig6 205 786 813 1,346 14.937 324 452 223 277 27s 143 103 366 787 5«9 785 135 186 156 296 267 1. 653 170 363 261 695 201 5.589' 8,878 995 3.302 863 232 259 Total 21,687 47,426 69,960 141,237 112,861 103,340 Note : — In the table the figures marked with a quantity of which was unknown previous then adopted in compiling the returns. star (*) denote those goods the exact , to 1900, owing to the different method Principal Imports oj Manufactured Goods. (X).— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL GOODS RELATING TO INDUSTRY. 395 (unit of thousand). Kind. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. igoi. 1902. Cotton Rice ... .t Oil-cake Beans, Peas and False Indigo, Dry Flax, Hemp, Jute a.id Cliinal Grass f Eggs, Fresh Wool other) Malt Timbers, Lumbers, Boards andl Planks J Seeds, Cotton Cocoons Seeds, sesame Lacquer Tusser Silk Yarns Ivory or Tusks, Elephant yen. 809 674 21 9^ 61 21 75 Pig Bristle and Hair, animal 24 =3 yen. 5.36s 12,302 194 1,856 201 139 31 369 — '5 27 4 9 65 yen. 24,822 4,357 946 2,554 58i 95 1,136 58 159 60 145 yen. 59.471 9,201 5,696 4,817 3,902 645 1,700 1,243 3,919 216 619 869 739 618 194 237 351 180 yen. 60,650 11,878 8,"5 5,328 2,665 1,370 1,298 4.127 260 765 709 S7I 342 284 46 433 112 yen. 79,748 17,750 10,121 6,786 3,097 1,602 1,196 3,397 294 330 755 787 546 426 21 955 163 Total 1,960 20,583 35,674 93,800 98,961 128,019 (.g).— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MARINE PRODUCTS, (unit of thousand). Kind. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1901. 1902. Salted Fish yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. — 5 107 2,184 1,404 2,01 r Total 5 107 2.184 1,404 2,011 S96 Japan in the Beginning of the 20l.h Century. (C>— PRINCIPAL IMPORTS OF MINERALS. (unit of thousand). Kind. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1901. 1902. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. Coal S5 no 853 2,100 2,542 1,598 Pig and Ingot, Iron 105 185 673 926 1,593 982 Steel 176 194 503 1,153 694 660 Zinc, Block, Ingot and Slab .. 20 69 134 686 230 255 Lead, Pig, Ingot and Slab 16 85 313 927 876 510 Tin, Block, Ingot and Slab .. 32 69 191 473 530 SOI Mercury 33 102 141 258 218 244 Salt I 2 3 122 75 237 Total 472 821 2,815 6,684 TUREB 6,761 ) GOODS 4,589 /I. OUTPUT OF PRINCIPAL MANUFAC ;. Output op Principal Manufactured Goods. — The industry in -which machinery was used, was till about 1887, in a com- paratively insignificant state, but it became active two or three years after, and finally received a powerful impetus after the Japan-China war. Appended is a table of the output of our principal manufact- ured commodities during the last five years : — (unit of thousand). Kind. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. kwan. kwan. /iZ(jan. k:i205 270 I 1,481 1,350 1,446 13,053 2,745 10,308 I 2,715 5,464 65 244 58.723 636 10,900 99 122 53 764 1,090 4,345 1,457 .•5,730 722 443 1,130 5.163 219 1,118 2,284 1,827 15,268 3,006 12,261 1898. y-en. 16,216 2,967 ',655 123 179 54 1,299 1.073 4,055 1,661 1,971 765 454 1,194 4,965 191 1.341 2,160 1,158 15.293 2,901 12,392 994 855 6,548 6,445 198 260 1899. 1900. 1901. yen. yeti. yen. 18,546 20,275 18,056 3,161 2,851 3,345 3,384 5,034 5,083 254 — — 393 — — 1,064 — — 16,711 — — 549 — 233. 1,046 — — 4.318 — - 518 _ - 1,326 — — 4,17s — — 4,651 — — 1,524 — — 2,648 — — 479 — — 1,190 — _ 367 - - 1,383 1,106 1,714 5,867 6,873 6,935 3'5 — - 1,400 ~- — . 92 — — 2,372 — — 598 — _ 16,640 20,986 19,791 4,947 7,001 7,140. 11,992 13,985 i2,6;o 1,544 2,392 2,566 49 200 9,266 5,871 5,886 — 1,556 — — 93^ 893 73,318 83,691 642 809 14,616 13,938 867 559 794 108,328 2,809 23,782 yUS Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. igoi. k'-van. kwan. kwan. yen. yen. yen. Sugar 12,642 10,550 14,527 5,662 6,216 5,207 White 418 473 786 571 498 560 n tl it Shiro-shita 6,608 4,278 3,866 1,513 1,655 I>7I9 j» >j it Brown 756 391 352 134 116 251 }) tt it Black 4,858 4.406 9.522 3.442 3,946 2,676 Tobacco, Manufactured 8,110 16 719 23,123 I4i-',65I — — 1 349 3.999 — — — 835 1.303 2.310 5,528 _ _ Cigars { Tobacco Cut \ - '^'337 16,033 - lobacco,L,ut ^ ^274 7^8 779 13S.122 I I 1, 07' Flour .. Fans, Folded and Round., — 295 432 — 552 152 102 1,23s — — 1,198 1,457 1,323 »3 Brushes — 6S9 828 493 — _ Straw-l'laits 1,563 1,693 1.948 2,752 2,926 2,516 Lacquered Ware 3,295 4,106 4,885 5,640 6,284 5,768 ,- , „ f — 185 210 — — — Hats and Caps | gg^ ^^^ ^^^ ^24 _ _ Umbrellas, European 3,980 2,27b 2,284 2,918 — _ Matting for Floor (/r««(jo-oza:)... 2,183 3.217 2.090 2,460 3,039 /|,96o In examining the foregoing table it is found that woven goods with the total value of 150 million yen comes at the top of the list, followed by cotton yarns with 94 millions, raw silk with 86 milions, and paper with 19 millions. Other commodities worth mentioning are sugar, earthenware, matches, lacquered ware, ships and boats, machines of all sorts, cement, glass ware, fancy matting, straw-plait umbrella, bronze and copper ware, etc. Manvfacturing Establishments, 393 CHAPTER in —Organization of Manu- facturing Industry, Uanufaoturing Establishments — Factories and Workpeople. I. MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS. Gexeral Keview of the PeogeeoS. — The introduction of Western sciences and arts lias revolutionized so to say the organiza- tion of our manufacturing industry, for besides imparting a powerful impulse to its development it has gradually modified many of our manufactures that formerely partook of the nature of domestic industry and caused them to gradually adopt the factory system including the use of elaborate machinery. This tendency has been especially marked since the Japan-China War, when our economic affairs reached a state of unparalleled activity and when factories and work- shops on a large scale began to make their appearance in quick succession. NuMBEE OF WoEKSHOPS. — The number of workshops employ- ing not less than 10 workpeople and of manufucturing companies is as follows : — Year. 1900, 1898 1897 1896, No. of Workshops. Ratio of Compaiiieb to Workshops, With Without Motor. Motor. Total. No. of Companies 3,381 3,791 7,172 2,554 36?^ 2,763 3,7S8 6,551 2,253 34?^ 2,003 4,067 6,070 2,164 36 '0 1,971 4,346 6,317 1,881 39?» 1,967 4,403 6,370 1,367 21% 400 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. It will be seen from the above that the ratio which manufac- turing companies bear to workshop economy made a marked advance, having increased during the period under review from 21 to 36. The ratio will become higher if all the workshops belonging to one company are counted as one, for there are many companies each possessing more than one workshop. Number of Manufacturing Companies. — The number of manufacturing companies and their financial position are shown as follows : — NUMBER OF MANUFACTURING COMPANIES. Year. No. Aggregate Capital. Paid up Capital. Reserves. 1901 2,477 219,249,806 166,293,003 24,057.360 1900 2.554 216,766,903 158,851,730 17,697,540. 1S99 2,253 222,673,634 147,783,280 13,467,802 1898 2,164 183,657,056 122,066,653 11,612,993 1897 i,88i 165,232,633 105,381,106 7,581,535 1896 1,367 143,617,530 89,900,900 7,404,980 Manufacturing Companies Classified. — Those companies be- ing classified according to kind, in the year 1900 joint stock companies numbered 986 with gross capital of 180 million yen, limited liability companies 1,176 with gross capital of 21 million yen and unlimited liability companies 315 with gross capital of 10 million yen. Paid up capital amounted to 130 million for the joint stock companies, 19 million yen for the limited liability companies, and 10 million yen for the unlimited liability companies. Of the capital invested in manufacturing business, that of joint stock constituted about 84 per cent. Of late the establishment of limited liability companies lias become quite popular, as may be seen from the fact that their number in 1900 was more than double that of 1896. On the other hand the increase for joint stock companies did not exceed 68 per cent, during the same period. Below is given a list show- ing capital invested in their respective work by different kinds of companies. Manufacturing Edabliahments. 401 CLASSIFIED LIST OF MANUFACTURING COMPANIES (returns for 1901). Rice Cleaning ... Milling Sake Beer Soy and Miso ... Salt Sugar-Kefining ... Tea-Manufacturing Medicine Indigo Dye-Stufl' and Paint Cotton Cotton Spinning Other Spinning... Raw Silk Throwning Hemp-Yarn Tapes, Eands, etc, Silk-Weaving ... Weaving Cotton- Weaving W"ool-Weaving ... Knitting Dyeing and Bleacliing Copper and Iruii Ware Nails and Iron Ware Machineries, etc. Shipbuilding Cabtin.g Tools and Implements Vehicles Railroad Car.s and Wagons \Veight and Measures Clocks and \\'atches Porcelain and earthenware Glass Ware Gas-Vi'ork Printing and Type Foundry I'si>er-.M.ll (unit of thousand). No. of Capital, Total Capital Re- Companies. Sum of. Paid up. serves. yen. yen. yen. ■122 2,705 1,534 23s 27 898 556 48 217 6,624 4,364 220 7 4,150 2,967 826 74 1,793 1,277 72 19 55° 236 35 6 3,688 2,648 5-'^ 6 369 227 29 52 3,865 0,106 243 7 36 36 537 6 598 259 12 25 562 442 30 58 41,593 36,108 5,655 12 7,583 6,;,02 643 321 7,723 5.635 376 II 1,531 729 48 6 2,805 2,4,l5 3' 9 179 149 -? 42 1,341 968 26 54 2,796 2,!C7 151 64 5,154 3,469 252 4 2. 1 ID 1,^63 68 5 637 3-9 7 41 579 38 1 20 16 1,304 731 47 6 600 551 4 ?,?, 1,005 780 53 15 i°,394 8,710 846 8 61 ■ 60 2 .S3 723 5.^,6 66 6 104 73 I 5 2,650 £.171 38 18 276 1 86 8 9 708 6.17 9 40 907 6ti 19 IS 5S2 352 36 4 4,762 3,131 ,2.-; 8 108 2,l6l 1,678 2oo 42 ,, 9,064 .^ 7>6SS 621 402 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Cciilunj. No. of Capital, Total Companies. Sum of. Vermicelli and Maccaroni Ice Lemonade Confectionary Preserved Fruits and Meat Provisions Marine Products Tobacco Umbrellas and Parts of Fans Writing Brushes, Lead Pencils, etc... Leather and Leather Ware Candle-Making Cords and Ropes Kerosene-Boring Coal-Mining Cokes Oils Mats Straw-Plaits Safety-Matches Incense-Sticks Puses Sowing Lacquer-Ware Bobbins Bamboo-Ware Caps and Hats Soaps and Toilet Goods Tiles and Bricks Cement Cokes Coal Clay Quarrying Silk and Re-reeling Cocoon Preserving India-Rubber Ware Fertilizers Others «3 22 29 13 IS 7 II '55 S 7 7 13 S 7 71 27 3 25 13 S 3 30 12 3 10 6 8 64 21 6 29 4 n 21 28 S 19 40 1,112 295 431 3t2 38 146 12,189 201 So 82 93^ iSo 579 16,843 9,"3 67 i,6oS loi 84 675 15 13 634 277 138 123 676 67 3,354 5.215 1,014 321 203 281 96 714 635 1495 10 "86 Capital Paid up. yen, 27 6^5 I"2 232 137 21 III ",245 154 46 31 679 180 4S9 6,285 6,828 32 1,045 63 54 524 ' 15 It 495 199 125 87 543 51 2,2l6 4,22.1 716 262 190 150 91 415 320 981 10,214 Re- serves. yen. 522 44 14 841 6 ;8[ 5 '39 70 I 350 70 29 167 n\ 583 16 233 5 19 212 "5 37 2 6 5 58 5 »75 265 58 II 6 9 3 21 154 8,6)7 Total 2,413 219,249 166,293 26,550 i Factories OMd Workpeople. 403 Maxufactxihiko Industries and Investments. — To examipe the condition of all those establishments as to kind of business en4?aged n aid the amount of capital invested, it is found that filature business with 321 establishments i«ui-pT,sses all others as to number, f)l lowed by »ahe brewing; with 2(7 and tobacco manufacture with l-'i5. As to amount of capitil, the o)tton spinning business with 41 million yen heads the list, followed by tobacco manufacture with 12,100,000 i/en approximately, shipbuilding with 10,300,000 yen. In the amount of paid up capital, the sninnim: business with 36 million yen also comes at the top, followed bv the tobacco manufac- ture with 11 millions. The capital of 11,400,000 yen invested in the veaving business and that of 7,700,000 yen in the filature brsiness miv also be reg.irJ^d as being an important factor in our economic activity. II. FACTORIES AND Y/ORKPEOPLF. (A.) FACTORIES. Kind of factories and Number of workpeople. — The number of factories and workpeople employed will throw an important light on the condition of manufacturin'x industry. In 1900 the number of factories and work-shops employing not less than ten workpeople stood thus : — THOSE RUN BY MOTORS. Workp'>op'e. Year ,„^'?- T^ p,"' ?' 1^""° ^I^l<--^- Females. Total. Work.shop. Plant. Power. iHq6 1,967 5,33.; S8,i72 io-i.i6t i6Q7^'i 27.3,889 1S97 1,971 !;,446 68,331 IT7.081 174.IW :20i.23^ i,Sg8 2,003 5'i3^ 80,586 118,251 I7i.'^95 2.S9,246 l8gg 2,763 4,166 62,131 96,181 184,111 280,292 1900 3,381 4,737 84.816 100,913 181,692 282,605 THOSE NOT RUN V,V MOTORS. " 1896 4.403 — — 64,122 76,509 104,631 1897 4.346 — — *^6,777 82,554 1^9.331 1898 4,067 — — 58,22A Si. •528 I33,';5i 1899 3.788 — — 41,938 70,679 112 617 igoo 3,791 — — 4l.5.t3 64,048 105,691 4C4 Japan in the Beginning of ilie 20th Century. On examining the foregoing table it will be seen that tke number of workshops run by motors is slightly larger than tlnit of those not run by motors, the foi-mer corresponding ta about 47 per cent, of the latter. The utilization or absence of motors depertfir of course to a great extent oa the nature of manufacture conducUid, for while in waving business, manufaCTiure of earthenware and laoijuer ware, and the brewing of sakfi the workshoiJS do not utilize iu general labor-saving machines, motors are used in most ca^es in filature spinning, shipbuilding, machine-making, weaving of shirting, cement, paper-mills, beer-brewing, sugar-refini.ii:, ]a-inting, smelting, etc. Five Classes of Factories. — To give further unalysia alout factories and workshops, they may be broadly divided into the.?*; trve different kinds : — 1. Fibre workshops (raw silk, spinning, weaving, oord-making), 2. Machine workshops (machine-making, shipbuilding, i'urai- ture-making, ca-sting.) 3. Chemical workshops (ceramics, gas, paper-mill, hicquering, leather-making, workshops fur the manufacture of inilaHi- mable substances, artificial manures, drugs, etc.) 4. Bliscellaneous worksho]is (brewing, .sugar-retining, tob-acai- manufacture, tea-curing, cleaning of grains, flour, lemomiili.'. mineral water, confectionary, preservei! fruits and vegeL:il)lc'>', printing and lithograph, paper work, wood and Lijiil'.oo ware, leather, feather ware, reeds and straw-phut waii;, lacquer ware, etc.) 5. Special workshops (electricity and metallurgy.) Of the foregoing kings of workshops, those in the fibre line using motors number 2,300 with the aggregate horse powers of about 38,000 and the aggregate number of woilvpeople of about 189,000. In number the fibre workshops constiuted 77 por cent, of the whole number of workshops using motors, in horse-power about 45 per cent, and iu workpeople about 67 per cent. "When those fibre workshops not using motor powei's are counted in, tuis kind of workshops constitutes 57 j)cr cent, of the whole num- ber of worlishops. The forgoing ratio will be seen from the ap- pended table: — Fadories and Workpeople. 405 A. RUN BY MOTORS. Fibre Machine Chemical MiscellaDeous Special. Total ... Fibre ... . Machine ... . Chemical Miscellaneous, Special ... . Total No. of Worksliop. •■ 2.393 230 224 420 114 •• 3,3Si Horse Power. 38,571 S.050 12,672 8,196 20,223 84,712 NOT RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Worlishop. ... 1,763 184 701 ... 1,041 102 — 3,791 FiBiiK WORKSHOPS. — Fibre workshops to kind the following result is obtained :— Raw Silk Spinning Weaving Others... Total Raw Silk... Spinning... Weaving... Othcrj ... Total RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Workshop. ... 2,129 153 96 15 2,393 £. NOT RUN BY MOTORS. No. of Worlcshop. 429 29 1,279 26 1,763 No. of Workpeople. 189,180 25,502 13,743 21,862 32,318 282,605 No. of Workpeople. 44,978 4,228 24,744 26,827 4,914 105,691 classified according Horse Power. 7,288 25,437 5.557 289 38,571 No. of Worlipeople. 109,336 63,38s 15,389 1,067 189,180 No. of Workpeople. 9,468 645 33,967 44,978 The foregoing table shows that in fibre workshops filatures run by motors constitute 88 per cent, of the whole number, and spinning mills 6.3 per Cent., the two taking up 94 per cent, of the whole. Even in the whole number of motor-using workshops of all kinds, these ■two particular fibre workshops constitute 64 per cent, and 61 per 40(3 Japan in ilie Beginning of the 2Qth Century. cent, in the vrhole number of operatives. The three kinds of busi- ness of raw silk, spinning and weaving constitute, wlien workshops both riin by motors and not ruli by tlieni are combined, 1)9 per cent, of the whole number of fibre -workshnp!?, and the ratio to the total numl;er of workshops of all kings is as high as 57 per cent., and and in the total number of operatives 59 per cent. Thus fibre work- shops may be regarded as forming the hulk- of all workshops in Japan, and workshops engaged in the manufacture of raw silk, spinning and weaving the bulk of fibre workshops. AVoRKSHOPS EDX ON A LARGER SCALE. — The scope of the business of a workshop does not necessarily depend on the nunibjr of operatives employed in it, and in making inquiries as to the relative scope of factory business according to the data supplied by the tables given above and also by taking some otliei- factors into consideration, it is found that among fibre woi'kfliop.=, tho.se that nr3 run on a larger scale than others are spinning mills, power lotm factories, and a small portion of filatures ; among machine worksho|js, shipbuilding, vehicle-making, and machine-making; among chemical' workshops, those engaged in alkali and cement-making and papjr mills ; among miscellaneous workshops, some of tobacco, beer, and sugar workshops. Large workshops are also found in the smelting business. In general, larger workshops are . run either by the Government or by joint stock companies, while workshops run by private individuals or firms are generally on a small scale. The following two tables will show those data in some details. WORKSHOPS RUN' BY MOTORS. (Employirg not less than lo Workpeople). Kind of Worksliop. No. of Woj'ksltop. No. of Htm-- Power. Workshop KinployiUj; n»ui-e than 3J People. No. of Hop^e . Powc'r- Workshop ^.employing iiiui'u tbnu 5U People, No. of Horse Power. Fibre Industry ... 2,392 38,571: 1,486 37,612 871 35,422- Filatures ... 2,129 7,288 1,309 6,811 716 4,909' Spinning 153 25,437 III 25,110 105 24,995 Weaving 90 5.557 57 5.422 41 5,240 Others 15 2S9 9 269 9 269 Machinery 230 5,050 1 28 4,345 91 4,055 TVTachine-Malclng. . . 120 2,158 62 1,693 39 1,508- Shipbuilding 20 1,007 15 1,580 13 1,560 . Vehicles 16 6.-7 '5 597 14 , 959- Factories and Workpeople. 407 Kind of Woikbhup. No. of Na "f Workshop. ^'-- Wovkehop Eniployitij more thiir 30 People , No. of ' Horso J Power. Workshop Kinploying inoro thiiu 50 Peoi)lo. No. of Horse Power. Others 74 658 36 -• 475 25 395 Chemical 224 12,672 1 115 10,853 78 9,720 Cement ... 37 2,617 26 2,484 22 2,408 Paper-MiUs 47 6.743 36 6,651 25 5.971 Leather 4 47 3 39 2 29 Matches 5 52 5 49 5 49 Others 130 4.223 45 1,630 24 1,263 Miscellaneous 420 8,196 201 5,027 114 4.004 Brewery 2S 480 14 327 6 243 Tobacco 112 5S1 55 444 39 385 Printing 84 2,516 61 1,547 37 1,392 Others 156 4,619 71 2,709 32 1,984 Special Wovkshops.. 114 20,223 88 17,122 69 16,668 Smelting 104 8,930 85 8.634 66 8,180 Others 3) 10 ss'i 11,293 3 2,018 8,488 3 1,223 8,488 Total 84,713 75,087 69,867 Kind of Workshop Employing No nf Woiksliop S«r°e Employing No. of Horse Workshop i.mploying No. of Workshop. more than 100 People. Pnwpr "'°'« thou rower. g„g p^^pjg Power. more than 1,000 People. Power. Fibre Industry ... ••■ 357 32,282 46 21,360 21 10,005 Filatures ■■■ 235 2.359 3 26 — — Spinning ... 89 24,614 43 17,440 19 9,091 Weaving 31 S.I49 II 3,894 2 914 Others 2 160 — — — — Machinery ... 48 3.0S0 8 1,616 5 1,323 Machine-Making ... 15 778 — — — _ Shipbuilding ... II 1,532 6 1,465 4 1,203 Vehicles II 556 2 151 I 120 Others II 217 — — — — Chemical -. 37 4,949 Cement ... ij 1,187 _ — Paper-MiUs ... II 3.172 — — Leather I 15 — — — Matches 3 10 — — — Others 9 565 — _ Miscellaneous ... 41 3.104 5 150 — — Brewery 3 217 — Tobacco 9 165 2 53 — Printing ... 13 1,048 — — — Others ... 16 1,674 3 97 — — Special Workshops -. 53 14,002 14 5.253 9 4,802 Smelting ... 51 7,855 14 5.253 9 4,802 Others 2 6,147 — — — — Total 535 57,420 28,379 16,130 408 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i C&iitury. WORKSHOPS NOT RUN BY MOTORS. (Those employing not less than lo people). Kind of Workshop. Fibre Industry Filature Spinning Weaving ... Others Machinery Machine Making ... Shipbuilding Vehicles Others Chemical Porcelain & Eartlien- ware Paper-mill Leather Matches Others Miscellaneous Brewery Tobacco Reed and Straw- plaits Lacquer- Ware Others Speciul Workshops ... Smelting Others Total No. ot Work- shop. 1,763 429 29 1,279 26 184 27 19 6 132 701 I 149 49 9 177 317 1,041 295 162 I 146 9 429 102 102 Those Those Those Those Those Eniployiug Employing Employing Employing Employing Kiorethan more-thai morHthiia 100 People. SCO People. lOOo people. more than 30 People. more than 60 Pe .pie. 3S8 67 6 157 18 2 302 13 28 193 4 I 4,691 5 6 3 14 240 17 18 I 133 71 240 40 72 40 I 87 45 45 941 3 3 S 133 4 I 90 31 77 9 21 17 30 31 31 399 39 6 133 I I 47 34 9 22 2 8 14 14 123 I — I I I I ¥1. WORKPEOPLE. Male and Female Operatives. — In making a somcwliat careful €xamination into the question of factory labor, it is found that, in workshops using motors, male operatives constitute about 100,000 out of the total of 280,000 approximately, the remaining 180,000 being female operatives. There is, therefore, a little over 35 per cent, of males and a little over 64 per cent, of females. When the figures for non-motor workshops are counted in, out of the total of 390,000 operatives male operatives constitute 142,000 or about 36 per cent. and female operatives 245,000 or 64 per cent. Geneeal Age Classification of Operatives. — In regard to age classification, out of the total 280,000 working in motor-using ■workshops 260,000, that is over 92 per cent, arj operatives of not Workpeople. 409- less than 14 years old. Of the remaining 8 per cent, the bulk, that is to say 82 per cent., consist of girls and only 18 of boys. Workshops and Kind of Operatives. — The kind of opera- tives employed differs according to the nature of the workshops. In fibre workshops the majority of operatives are females and children, in machine workshops and special workshops adult males, and in chemical workshops adult males also, except in glass, paper, and match factories. No general remark can be made about the kind of operatives in miscellaneous workshops, but this much can be stated that there are no factories of this kind where a large number of f male operatives or children are employed. Below is given a table showing the sex and age classifications of operatives in workshops employing not less than 10 people. WORKSHOPS RUN BY MOTORS. (Employing not less than lo Workpeople). Males. Females. Kind of Workshop. Over 14 Years old. Under 14 Years old. Over 14 Under 14 Years old. Years old. Total. Fibre Industry .. 22,592 1,462 148,731 16,395 189,180 Filatures 6,042 210 93.848 9.236 109,336 Spinning .. 13.152 1,104 43.248 5,884 63,388 Weaving 3,100 121 11,025 1,143 15,389 Others 298 27 610 132 1,067 Machinery .. 24,662 312 493 3; 25,502 Machine-Making .. 6.796 59 III 5 6,971 Shipbuilding .. 10,260 S5 10 — 10,355 Vehicles ■ ■ 4,500 7 — — 4,507 Others 3,106 161 372 30 3,669 Chemical .. 9,986 487 2,979 291 13,743 Porcelain and Earthenware. 2o5 3 58 6 273 Glass Ware 313 154 51 — 518 Cement .. 3oi4 157 479 — 3,950 Paper-Mills - 2,694 34 1,394 75 4,197 Leather 245 — — — 245 Matches 70 63 354 146 633 Others ■ - 3>i44 76 643 64 3,9 -i? Miscellaneous .. l3,S'i9 810 7,164 999 22,862 Brewery .. 1.435 18 220 27 1,700 Tobacco .. 1,490 90 3,791 421 5,792 Printing •• 4.478 455 540 186 5,659 Reed and Straw- Plaits — — — — — Lacquer- Ware — — — — — Others .. 6,486 247 2.613 365 9,7" Special Workshops .. 26,788 925 4,197 408 32,318 Smelting .. 26,293 925 4,197 408 31,823 Others 495 ^~ — • — ■ 495 Total 97,917 3,996 163,564 18,128 282,605 410 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. WORKSHOPS NOT RUN' BY MOTORS. Males. Females. Kind of Workshop. Fibre Industry ' Filatures, ... ... ■ Spinning Weaving Others Machinery Machine-MaTdng Shipbuilding Vehicles Others Chemical Porcelain and EarUienvVare... Glass Ware Cement Paper-mills',... ■ Leather .» -j. ... ' Matches. .; , Others Miscellaneous ... -.. Brewery Tobacco... Printing... Reed and Straw-Plaits Lacquer- Ware Others Special Workshops Smelting Others Total Over liV Under 14 Years old. Years old. 4,17s 763 223 2,9^3 20s 3.570 563 66S 141 2,198 11,467 2,388 1,1^3 2,769 593 226 1,942 2,426 14,598 5v5i3 1,448 1,676 1,338 15S 4.465 3.90« .3,901 37.7'o 89S II 46 783 58 213 12 no 4 87 1,873 136 206 123 131 1,197 80 859 22 69 439 51 6 269 90 90 3,933 Over 14 Years old. 35.080 8,08 1 313 26,264 422 3-4 I4J 2 177 7,832 5S9 79 537 516 5,0S4 477 9,591 .95 4.775 98 2,127 6 2,490 8S7 SS7 Under 14 ^'ears old. 4,826 613 63 3.937 213 121 21 3.522 40 31 102 3.180 169 1,779 3 714 56 584 422 36 36 Total. 44.97!* 9,468; 64S, 33,967 89S 4,228' 57S;- 1,0231 147 2,483 - 24,744' 3,153 1,408 3,460 1,342 226 12,003 3,152 26,827 5,633 7,006 2,269 4.103 170 7,646 4,914 4,914 53,764 10,284 105,691 Day and Boarding Operative.?. -Operatives may further be divided into two kinds, dtiy operatives and boarding operatives, the former residing in the vicinity of the worksliops which they attend and the latter those who have been collected from distant places, the majority of them being females. Though the relative proportion of day operatives and boarders in worksho]:is cannot admit of generali- zation, it may be stated here that the greater part of the latter Vt'orl-people. 411 belongs to fibre worksliops, or more especially filatures, spinning and weaving -workshops. In some filature and ' spinning workshops the majority of operatives are day operatives, while in weaving shops about 70 to 80 per cent, are boarders, and. this datum obtained from workshops of certain places may be applied in general to workshops of the sarhe kind throughout the country. Age and Sex Classification of OrEiiATivcs for Special Kind of Woekshofs. — No accurate statement r.s to the age of the majority of operatives employed in any given kind of workshops can easily be elaborated, but broadly stated the greater part of opera- tives in filature factories are females of IG to 22 years of age, the number of those from 22 to 30 coming next. Even the youngest are very rarely below 12 or 13. In general, females of from 14 or 20 constitute 50 per cent., those above 20 about 40 per cent., and those below 14 about 10 per cent, of the total number of operatives emjiloyed. In spinning mills also girls below 14 constitute a little over 10 per cent, of the whole number, those from 14 to 20 about 50, and those older about 40 per cent., of whom the majority are of 20 to 25 years old. The female operatives in power-loom factories do not differ from those of spinning mills in regard to the ago ratio, and those in hand-weaving workshops are similar to those in filatures. In shipbuilding, vehicle and machine workshops the workpeople employed are almost exclusively adult males, especially in those run on a large scale. Even ^vhen boys are employed they are mostly not less than 15 or 16 years of age and in very rare cases 12 or 13. In factories dealing in clock and watches, lamp accessories, shirt-buttons, umbrella-frames, etc., female operatives and children ai-e sometimes employed, but those factories are all on a small scale,- and the number of such operatives is small. In chemical workshops, and especially in glass factories boy apprentices of 12 to 13 years are employed to some extent. In some rare cases small number of boy-apprentices of about 10 years old is employed. In paper-mills not a small number of females and children is employed, while in match factories they constitute the bulk of workpeople, the youngest of whom being about 9 years old. This is also the case in tobacco factories, though the number of c'lildrcu under 10 employed in such 412 Japan in ike Beginning of the 2Qth Century. factories is smaller than the number employed in match factories. In printing workshops the majority are adult males, sometimes ■yvith a sprinkling of children of less than 14 years old. WoKKixG-Houns. — In general the working-hours of operatives, are 11 hours a day, but sometimes they extend as long as IG or 17 hours. In cotton mills 12 hours are standard, both for day and night workers, they being made to take day and night work by turns every two days. In filatures the regulations hours are 13 to 14, in power-loom factories 12. But in hand-weaving workshops a great diversity prevailes, the general rule being 12 to 15, according to the season, though in some rare cases the hours .are as long as from 16 or 17. In bigger workshops such as shipbuilding yards, vehicle, and machine shops, the working hours are far more regular, being in general 10 hours, with one or two hours of overtimes. In such chemical worksliops as cement, glass, and paper in wliich wofk is carried on all thj-ough the 24 hours, 12 hours is a regular shift both by day and night. In general the regular working-hours in Japanese worksliops may be put at 12, with overtime of one or two hours. Wages. — Wages are paid in general by the day and according to the amount of work done, though payment by the month also prevails to some extent. In general the account is settled once or twice a month, though in some cases it is settled every six months or once a year. In filature the payment is made according to the amount of woi'k done, and by the month, though in some places a yearly account system prevails. In cotton mills those who receive daily wages constitute about 40 per cent, of the whole and those who receive payment according to the amount of work done, about 60 per cent. The latter mode of payment is becoming more and more fashionable. The account is settled generally twice a month. In hand-weaving workshops the mode of payment is similar to that which prevails in filature, while in power-loom workshops it is similar to that in cotton mills. In such machine workshops as shipbuilding, vehicle and machine, daily payment of wages is general, but at times a piece of work is given out as a job contract to one or more artisans. The account is settled once or twice a month. In match workshops payment is made according to the amount of work done, Workpeople. 413 as is also the case in tobacco workshops, Avhile in printing worksliops the daily wage system and the payment by the amount of work done equally prevail. In general this latter mode is adopted in all those workshops where the amount of work done by workpeople can be definitely computed. The rate of wages is about 30 sen a day for adult males em- ployed in such fibre worksliips as iilature, cotton mills and weaving- shops, while that of females is about 20 sen. In machine workshops engaged in making ships, vehicles and machines the rate is generally high, 50 to 60 on an average, and a skilled artisan gets more than 1 yen. In match factories, on the other hand, the rate is much lower, being 12 to 20 sen for ordinary female operatives, and 5 to 13 sen for little girls. In tobacco factories and printing-shops ordi- nary females get about 20 sen and males about 40 to 50 sen. 414 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20iA Century. CHAPTER rV. — Manufacturing Establishments by the Central and Local Governments. Encouragement and Protection by Central Goverament — EncourageK:ent and Protection by OfiSces. I. ENCOURAGEMENT AND PROTECTION BY CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. Geneeal Remarks. — The encouragement and protection of industrial enterprises were carefully looked after even before the Restoration. This was especially the case with the three daimiates of Satsunia, Mito and Saga. They established in the era of Ka-ei (1848-1853) an arsenal after a Western model, and began to turn oat guns of foreign pattern. Satsiima even started the manufacture of porcelain and glass-ware and also the work of Introduction, shipbuilding, all after the Dutcli model, while coming of Western down to tlie era of Bunkyu (18G1-1863) we find that Industries. it sent for a set of spinning machines to England, and established a pioneer mill in its territories. The construction of a shipyard on Ishikawajima by the Lord of Mito is also a noteworthy event. Nor did the Tokugawa Shogunate neglect to introduce a similar innovation. In fact the shipbuilding industry received from it full attention. During the era of Ansei (1854-1859) it constructed a shipyard at Aku-ura, Hizen, and a similar undertak- ing was soon arranged at Yokosuka, Sagami, only the Restoration took place before it had been completed. This partially completed shipyard was finished by the IMeiji Government which in 1874 constructed another shipyard at Tategami, Hizen. The Yokosuka yard was afterward transferred to the Navy which has since raised it to its present state of efficiency and perfection. The two shipyards in Hizen were hired out to the Mitsubishi Firm in 1884 and finally sold to it three years after, so that the two are now Encouragement and Protection by Central Government. 415 kiibwii by the name of Nagasaki Shipbuilding Yard belonging to the same firm. The movement started by the Tokugawa and feudal princes by way of encouraging industry and manufactures was vigorously taken up by the Meiji Government. It established in 1872 a model filature at Tomioka, Gumma-ken, with the object of introducing the use of labor-saving contrivance in the manufacture of raw silk, while the operatives trained at this factory spread all Mo^el over the principal silk districts the art of reeling to Filature the new style. The filature itself supplied a modsl to all silk districts and similar establishments rose in quick succession. An undertaking next adopted by the Government in a similar line was the establishment in 1877 at Shimmachi, Gumma- ken, of a silk spinning mill to utilize silk waste atid waste cocoons. This innovation also served the salutary purpose of encouraging similar enterprises on the part of private individuals. Woolen Further, in a similar way, a woollen factory was Factory. established in the same year at Senju, suburb of Tokyo, and ten years after private woollen factories began to make their appearance in several places. The cotton spinning business also received the attention of the Govern- Spinning Mill- meut which established in 1881 a model mill at Nukada-gun, Aichi-ken, and Aki-gun, Hiroshima-ken. About that time 10 sets of spinning plant each of 2,000 spindles were sent for to England and handed over to be paid in ten years instalments to people of different places who were interested in the business. The project that appeared in 1883 in Shiga-ken about hemp spinning received help from the Government which loaned to the promoters the fund required for purchasing a plant. Hemp Three years later this project developed as Hemp Spin- Spinning, uing Mill established in that province. The establishment of the Hokkkaido Hemp Company at Sapporo in 1887 received much help from the Government which besides extending to it various conveniences also granted a state aid for six years. Further, it was the Government that first started the work of manufacturing cement, having established in 1875 a cement fac- torv at Fukagawa, Tokyo, where the burning of white brick 41G Jfapan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. C62:ent. was undertaken as a subsidiary work. Then the establish- ment of a glass factory in April 1876 at Shinagawa, Tokyo; the creation of a paper-mill section in the Printing Bureau and the manufacture of foreign style paper besides Glass Factory, the improvement of the native style paper (the durable Japanese paper known as " Kyokuslii " is the invention of the Bureau) ; launching of the work of machine- making, of soap-making, type-founding, of making Paper H.ll. porcelain in the Western style, of paint-making, also the estahlishsient, as before mentioned, of filatures and the making of arrangements for training female operatives in all such new forms of industry — all these have imparted a poweful impulse to the progess of our maiiufuctnres throughout the country. Meanwhile factories modelled after those established by the Gxi. cj-n- ment began to be started by our people, and the Governmen' no longer perceiving the necessity of maintaining its model faetoiits began from about 1880 to sell all of them with the exception cf the Senju Woollen Factory. As a means of encouraging the advance of industry and raanr,- facturc, the Government has not neglected to open exhibitions sit home and to participate in those opened abroad. In Exhibitions. 1878 First Domestic Exhibition was held in Tokyo where the succeeding two similar undertakings were also carried out. The Fourth Exhibition opened in 1895 was held in Kyoto and the Fifth in Osaka last year. Besides, Japi:n participated in the» world's fairs held in Vienna, Philadelphia, Chicago and Paris, not to speak of various other international exhibi:;o;.s of limited scope. In the matter of legislative measures of protecting and further- ing industrial interest, the regulations relating to pntentp, (l.'si;^n:s and trade-marks ; the establi,:hment of silk conditioning,' Other Measures house ; the enactment of industrial interests guild.-, of IndU5trial - etc. may be mentioned. Further, the sending out of Protectio-i experts to all the provinces to encourage liy leetuics and by practical experiments industrial eiiterpiLsoj there ; the organizing of the industrial laboratory and of the rd-e brewing laboratory, the sending of student manufacturers and merchants Protection and Encouragement by Local Offices. 417' to foreign countries to investigate the condition of manufactures and trada in those countries economically related to Japan, the hiring out of latest dyeing and weaving machines specially imported for the purpose to the principal dyeing and weaving districts such as Kyoto, Ashikaga, Kiryu, Fukui, Toyama, Yonezawa, etc. — all these measures have contributed to further our manufacturing industry to the pre- sent state of marvellous progress within a comparatively short space of times. II. PROTECTION AND ENC3URAGEMENr BY LOCAL OFFICES AND PUBLIC BODIES. The local offices and local civic bodies have followed tie example set by the central Government and adopted measure for protecting and encouraging manufactures in their respective districts. The Lical Office of Kyoto distinguished itself above all others in this respect, for as early as 1870 it established a chemical laborato y which attended to the business of keramics, dyeing, soap-making^ etc. ; while, in 1872, it sent a number of weavers to Lyon, in- troduced for the first time a number of Jacquard ami B:itten loo.ms into the country ; established a weaving factory after the Western style in 1874 and a dyeing factory in the following year, and thus laid the foundations of attaining that eminence which Kyoto occupies to-day in the art of weaving and dyeing, or rather continues to occupy, for Kyoto was pre-eminent in these lines before. Other local offices equally adopted similarly salutary measures and the expenses they have incurred on this account must amount to a big figure. Those measures generally took the form of establishing experimental laboratories or training schools, opening local competi- tive fairs, the hiring out of costly machines, or the advancing of money to enable the manufacturers to purchase them. 418 Japan in the -Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER v.— Industrial Education. History— Existing Condition — Apprentice System. I. HISTORY. General Remarks. — The history of the progress of industrial education after the advent of the Meiji Government may be con- sidered as dating from the creation in 1871 of the Engineering College, subsequently united with the Imperial University of Tokyo- ■where the subjects of civil engineering, mechanical engineering, ship, building, electrial engineering, architecture, chemical technology, n-.ining, metallurgy, etc. were taught. It followed as a matter of course that the graduates from all those course contributed very much to the progress of industry and to the diffusion of technical knowledge. The establishment in 1881 of Tokyo Polytechnique School, now known as Tokyo Higher Technical School, and the teaching of the subjects of dyeing, weaving, keramics, mechanical en- gineering, etc, has also proved similarly beneficial in the development of our industry. Similar institutions were subsequently created both by the Government and by the local offices, so that at the end of 1900 there were, to mention only institutions of higher grade, the Engineering College of the Tokyo Imperial University, the Science and Engineering College of the Kyoto Imperial University, the Tokyo Higher Technical School, the Osaka Higher Technical School, and last of all — it was created quite recently, the Kyoto Higher Technical School, The technical schools of all grades throughout the country numbered in the year in question no less than 1,008 all contributing to the common cause of furthering technical knowledge among our people and promoting the technical and manufacturing industries. This progress of technical education enabled Japan to gradually dispense witli the service of foreign experts, and though some such Existing Conditioi}. 419 are Btill to be found here, the number is insignificant compared to Tvhat it was before. II, EXISTING CONDITION. Protection to Technical Education. — With the object of •diffusing technical knowledge and of imparting a general idea of science to apprentices, young mechanics and future manufac- turers, the Government has been granting from the year 1894 states aid to the amount of 150,000 yen every year, and has also made arrangement for turning out teachers qualified to undertake the teaching of those young people. Number and Kind of Technical Schools. — The higher grade schools of this standing, some deriving the aid from the fund in question and others not numbered 18, in June 1901. Quite recently a technical school was started both in Okayama" ken and Ehime-ken. The foregoing schools, which, by the way, are maintained at local or communal expenses or by private individuals, are classified as follows according to the subjects taught : — Kind. No. of Schools. Dyeing and Weaving lo Metal and Wood Work 2 Painting, Metal-Inlaying, 'Design and Carving i Painting, Lacquer and Metal-Work, Keramics, Dyeing and Weaving I Carving, Lacquer- Work, Casting i Wood and Metal Work, Dyeing and Weaving 2 Wood and Metal- Work and Keramics i Total i8 The schools teaching dyeing and weaving exclusively arc 10 in number, but when other schools which teach dyeing and weaving side by side with other subjects are counted in, the number increases to 13. There are seven schools in which wood and metal-work are taught, if we combine those that are exclusively teachitig them with others that teach the same subjects side by side with other subjects.. 420 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/i Century. Each of the other subjects is taught at one school exclusively or two subjects only are taught in combination at one school. Apprentice Schools. — The apprentice schools, all of them deriving aid from the said fund, numbered 21 in the same year. Classified according to kind those schools can be divided as follows : — Kind. No. of Schools Dyeing and Weaving 3 Metal and Wood- Work S Lacquer- Work ^ 4 Pottery 5 Shipbuilding , i Others 3 Total 2t Differing from the preceding cnse, here metal and wood-work and pottery are at the head of the list each with five schools, followed by those of lacquer-work, dyeing and weaving. CoMMEECiAL AND TECHNICAL CONTINUATION SctiooLS.— Com- mercial and technical continuation schools next demand attention' for these subjects occupy at present a very important place in short- course commercial and technical education. These number 34, many of them receiving graat-iu-aid from the said fund. Of the , schools mentioned above, some of which are maintained bj' communities, others by private individuals, those that are exclu- sively devoted to technical matters are 12, those that combine agri- cultural, teclinical and commercial matters 16, the remaining G being of a miscellaneous character. Most of those schools are attached to primary schools for the benefit of those who cannot attend school 'u the daytime. III. APPRENTICE SYSTEM. Formerly the apprentice system prevailed universally iii all branches of technical and manufacturing work, but with the introdr- tion of the Western systeji of manufacture .and technical wotk this • Apprentice Si/stem. 421 custom has began to lose its importance. The scope of the apprentice system has gradually dwindled down, and at present it only retains some semblance of its former status in such ancient lines of business as hand-weaving, pottery, and the dyeing business. It is true even jn new branches of work this apprentice system is found, but it is •only in factories of small scope. Sometimes even in big factorieg the system is retained to some extent, as master craftmen engaged jn shipbuilding and other works often take under them a number of boys whom they employ at the factories they attend. However, taking all things into consideration, and especially with the greater necessity of division of labor in most branches of technical work and manufacture, the days of the apprentice system are doomed, to be isupersedcd by regular mode of education. 422 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qlh Century. CHAPTER VI. MMUFACTURING CORPORATIONS. That combination of persons having common interests in the pros- perity of a given branch of manufacture and industry, so universal nowadays, was first seen in this country in the organization in October 1882 of the spinners' union which exists to-day in a some- what modified form. It undertakes all matters judged to further the common interests of the members ; dispatches, for instance, merchants' or experts to Bombay to inspect the condition of the cotton market or of the cotton crop, enters into contract with steamship companies for the import of raw cotton from Bombay. Matters about the regulations of staple commodities guilds have already been mentioned elsewhere, and it is sufiicient to state here that at present the organized bodies created for protecting their own respective interests- number 192 in all. Technical Assooiations. 423 CHAPTER VII TECHNICAL ASSOCIATIONS. Scientific Associations relating to manufacture and teclmical aiFairs exist in large numbers, the principal of them being : — Engineering Society , Japan Weaving Society Tokyo Carving Society Electric Society Japan Lacquer- Work Society ... . Japan Keramic Society Technological Society Mechanical Engineering Society ... . Shipbuilding Society Society of Chemical Technology ... Tokyo Export Metallic Ware Society . Japan Metallic Art Society ... ... Central Weaving Society Located in. . Tokyo. Nagoya. Most of the foregoing societies publish proceedings, some of these publications being :— Proceedings of the Engineering Society, the Japan Keramic Ar^ Society, the Technological Society, the Mechanical Engineering Society, the Shipbuilding Society, the Society of Chemical Tech- nology, etc. 424 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. APPENDIX. PLACES OF PRODUCE OF STAPLE COMMODITIES, THEIR OUTPUT AND FOREIGN MARKETS. "Habutaye" (itoit oi yen). Principal Places , of Produce. 1896, 11897. 1898. 1899. 1900. igoi. Kyoto 308,942 372,263 834,109 853,877 1,063,994 674,077 Niigata... ... 76,097 124,474 298,563 452,360 409,094 499,047 Saitama 221,989 232,83s 276,452 555,955 338,071 81,180 Gumma 2,945.905 3-183,234 3,394,27s 1,349,827 2,361,305 ^,737,356 Tochigi 2,005,564 2,116,282 2,084,150 460,109 93155 37,327 Miye 21,048 21,499 22,262 39,729 8i,?3o 102,848 AicH 21,015 47,243 57,130 3i3,oS9 371,076 226,279 Gifu 1,752,427 1,040,154 1,184,141 998,06s 832,349 958,720 Nagano 109,614 229,525 178,388 134,332 181,780 237,466 Miyagi 23,716 47,755 114,615 137,724 180,293 143.016 Fukushima ... 36-',o98 666,588 1,365,60'^ 2,265,435 2,719,335 2,746.124 Yamrgata ... 37,604 78,625 90,400 163,542 209,800 327,648 Fukui 6,004,426 7,400,219 8,525,420 13.786,352 11,651,264 13.669,578 Ishikawa 789,455 1,150,014 1,907,360 5,400,305 3,559,017 4,361,401 Toyama 412,656 786,274 946,424 2,255,737 1,383,537 3,221,946 Tottori 20,316 21,883 53,295 62,05 1 59,26; 27,683 Foreign marlcets :— Australia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea, Dutch India, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Philippine Islands, Russia, Spain, Switzer- land, Turkey, United States of America. " Kaiki " (unit of yen). Kanagawa .. 58,364 10,770. 117,188 83.950 63560, 209,550 Gumma . 1,233,710 1,415,986 1,493.910 1,812,379 2,045.624 262,740 Tochigi . 234,670 1,411,268 1,441,896 1,922,316 339.448 1,509,9^28 Yamanashi .. . 2,081,774 2,245,388 1,969,296 2,433.601 5,017,206 2,260,75 1 Foreign markets : — Austi'alia, Belgium, Britisli America, British India, China, Korea, France, Germany, Croat Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, United States of America. Appendix, 425 Crepe Silk (unit of ym). Kyoto ... - S,54o,i55 5,636,083 5.326,858 8,362,433 6,754,236, 4,657,700 Hyogo ... 70,000 70,750 72,500 88,577 I2I,60Q 116,100 Gumma 89,919 107,411 100,343 157,485 226,252 i6r,828 Tochigi 26,671 5,330 3.135 41,968 375,222 252,473 Shiga ... ... 2,349,283 2,414,641 2,377,831 2446,291 1,410,701 1,066,645 Gifu ... 249,128 625,332 286,723 270,633 364,438 404.553 Nagano... 34,734 50,103 588,827 51,407 71,049 87,^83 Foreign markets :— Australia, British Incjia, China, Korea, Dutch India, France, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, Turkey, United States of America. SitK Handkerchiefs (unit oiyen). Kyoto — — — 1,282,515 905,652 unknown Kanagawa .. , 487,567 3,390,145 3,555,115 — — 396,076 Gumma t ~~" — — 39,649 48,738 unknown Aichi — 8i6,So8 485,165 -^ 277,783 221,089 Shizuoka — . — — 52,900 127,964 102,884 Gifu 25,560 7,286 51,993 55,700 69,400 771,003 Fukui , , 30,000 138,990 15,416 — 58,986 54,756 Ishikawa 63,349 — — 18,225 43,330 unknown Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, Brtish India, China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Russia, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, Spain, Turkey, United States of America. Silk Goods (unit oi yen). Kyoto 6ii,55S 274,737 324,514 325.273 Ishikawa ... — — — 40,000 Foreign markets :— As above. Cotton Yarns (unit of kwan). 28.1,857 7,200 305,156 unknown Tokyo 2,213,766 2,129,863 2,098,139 2,278,953 2,178,572 2,010,697 Kyoto 194.072 363,420 701,694 821,880 657,507 557,495 Osaka 8,476,015 9,73.3,589 11,049,921 12,264,578 10,705,686 11,178,814 Hyogo 1,048,431 3,034,838 5,287,532 4,954,766 4,383,584 4,7i). Osaka 419,370 406,695 538,765 601,564 1,106,736 1,230,373; Wakayama ... — 109,029 162,444 113,800 183,695 183,788 Foreign markets :— British India, China, Korea Hongkong. T.-cloths (unit of yen). Osaka — — — 206,858 393,044 unknown. Miye — — 306,447 135.000 502,188 „ Foreign markets :— China, Korea, Hongkong. Cotton flannel (unit oi yen). Kyoto ... ... 1,991,013 1,803,634 2,480,254 3.409,779 3.757,642 2,626,334- Osaka ... ... 646,997 404,719 526,877 556,524 761,671 593,226 Hyogo ... ... 99.586 74.767 99,889 94.403 102,005 72,270. Aichi . i. 19,529 27,799 26,467 55,539 64,28s S3,20o Shiga ... 72,343 134,018 88,745 77,475 I33-145 77,07 « Toyama ... 5,593 13,700 I3,IS3 2,800 61,740 27,050- Appendix. 427 CoiTON FLANNEL (unit of yen). Okayama ... 74,110 162,276 191,330 270,190 242,964 145,63? Hiroshima ... 69,689 59,oo2 39.378 78,664 S3.3S4 58,049 Wakayama ... 3,511,764 4,»37,74S S.260,376 3,237,217 3,440,709 3,259,438 Tokushima ... 575,204 659,643 103,148 389,441 340,882 369,913 Ehime 161,218 39,241 79,036 444,S63 5'4>7S3 743.793 Foreign markets : — British India, China, Korea, Hongkong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia. Cotton crepe (unit of yen). Gumma 77.566 73.^94 5 1.639 96,980 183,860 83,116 Tochigi. 419,892 645,164 593.578 1,603,226 941.931 757.704 Nara 6,780 62,176 58,534 94r338 50,3>S 63,312 Aichi 6,220 S90 60 78,201 128,910 35.125 Shiga 149,626 122,465 158,526 180,275 364,242 248,182 Toyama ... 21,810 935 1,396 24,794 71.851 71.380 Shimane ... 75.783 92.993 92.477 "3.273 183,880 126,279 Yamaguchi ... 235,702 152,484 145,689 169,454 213,251 72,087 Tokushima ... 237,301 45.637 107.929 I3i.5°5 198,871 94.463 Foreign markets : —Australia, British India, China, Korea, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Matches (unit of yen). Tokyo 283,265 2:65,919 207,040 216,874 226,979 171,388 Osaka : 1,055,562 1,236.498 869,691 999,665 842,403 1,695,80s Hyogo 3.166,541 3.585.523 3.899,994 2,559,861 2,997,327 5,954,888 Niigata 60,774 67,051 65,849 48,050 68,260 62567 Aichi 381,489 837,045 825,998 1,407,581 943.089 667,680 Shinioka ... 63,520 43 542 62,313 68,306 128,644 88,831 Okayama ..-. 21,12; 3 ,774 32,182 57,348 65,084 47.702 Hiroshima ... 84,24s 140,055 63,934 185,865 222,277 206,040 Kagawa ... 106,778 118,055 80,660 127,923 186,593 I47.500 Foreign markets : — Austrrl'a, Britibh India, China, Korea, Hongkong, Philippine Itlands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Mats (unit of yen). Ishikawa 12,235 59,855 36,894 16,481 66,876 199,276 Okayama ... 779,557 1,126,258 659,874 1,088,603 1.367.332 3,117,035 Hiroshima ... 676,512 1,409,277 861,009 744,475 887.741 898,53s Kagawa 63,406 48,373 42,849 49,874 66,701 112,989 428 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Principal Plaoes of Produce. 1896. 1897. 1898. rS99. 1900. igot. Fukuota • .., 229,482 271,492 220,404 420,779 479,439 518,540 Oita , 320,414 218,739 I7I;302 53.043 75,279 30,329 Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, Cliina, Korea, Fraace, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Stkaw-PLAITS (unit of yen). Tokyo ... ., 126,360 96,000 1 14,600 69,000 62,500 64,000 Aichi • 333,230 201,144 344,532 582,yjo 467,725 355,071 Okayama ■ 1,294,727 1,043,941 1,193,094 1,772,807 1,796,513 1,55 A334 Hiroshima .. . 117,912 100,052 .81,170 56,778 76,028 102,312 Kagawa 87,147 115,968 147,109 119,031 378,686 328,410 Foreign markets — Australia, Belgium, British America, France, Germany, Gr^at Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, United States of America. Porcelain and earthenware (unit of yen). Tokyo ... 49,572 55,591 51,891 40,042 70,953 72,453 Kyoto ... ... 438,375 360,413 366,563 528,121 705,339 526,051 Kanagawa 17,200 15,000 15,000 143,300 152,900 13^.950 Hyogo ... .- 127,335 134893 134,616 131,158 180,883 197,187 Nagasaki ... 115,991 102,677 82,210 76,930 107,770 96,792 Tochigi 40,082 46,959 53,399 49,2oS 53,609 59,533 Miye ... . 88,854 98,231 97,035 86,083 145,687 152,450 Aichi ... . - 1,541,954 1,571,761 1,494,864 1,363,563 2,171,404 2,397,555 Shiga ... . 54,477 111,730 105,703 123,603 127,238 154,278 Gifu ... . ■ • 1,177,573 1,155,962 878,415 972,944 1,004,836 1,237,740 Fulaishima . ... 109,837 135,922 139,872 162,784 182,369 174,671 Ishikawa - 239,381 176,267 248,947 308,362 322,I«3 214,140 Shimane 67,431 80,893 86,570 103,826 122,509 119,113 Okayama 37,330 35,996 45,357 431,163 79,552 85,540 Yamaguchi 57,716 70,008 76,688 109,254 120,103 128,560 Kagawa 30,247 29,048 36,678 44,054 55,222 59,800 Ehime ... ... 105,937 108,705 92,609 118,751 191,800 174,300 Saga ... ... 623,510 529,465 612,535 692,224 649,915 487,991 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea Denmark, Dutch India, Egypt, France, French India, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Philippine Islands, Russia, Russian Asia, Siam, Spain, Sweden and Norway, Turkey, United States of Amer.'ca. Appendix. Umbrella (unit ot yen}. 429 Tokyo ... Kyoto ... Osaka ... Kanagawa Nagasaki Toyama 2,087,436 981,193 1,378,620 1,486,950 1,534,432 unknown — — — 200,000 210,000 190,000 2,458,519 1,095,325 1,164,564 5,482 6,433 7,750 51,52? 110,500 90,000 33,8So 25.200 25,500 1,876,994 2,181,064 2,201,888 16,425 18,709 4,990 — 39,868 50,010 — 31,3=0 52,000 Foreign markets :— British India, China, Korea, Hawaii, Hongkong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Lacquek-ware (unit of yen). Tokyo 27,992 30,829 . 28,887 42,408 85,652 43,051 Kyoto 260,000 532,400 425,920 686,076 610,422 384,846 Osaka 74,186 171,224 134,360 119,845 149,297 213,16-9 Kanagawa . . . 230,192 232,003 480,695 358,995 350,755 202,490 Hyogo 37,520 35,551 34,584 33,993 52,376 40,390 Niigaia 63,763 55,976 53,422 57,796 89,704 119,638 Kara 35,13^ 40,636 55,215 65,462 84,954 82,204 Miye 39,775 60,051 71,939 53,293 138,465 183,444 Aichi 85,330 118,850 104,530 105,392 245,892 232,505 Shizuoka 385,720 248,95 i 452,600 530,600 610,200 545,74° iihiga 113,285 180,265 228,181 227,398 244,563 234,545 Nagano 104,749 98.4.54 86,471 182,104 133 097 264,284 Miyagi 38,447 45,522 49,220 51,005 63,082 77,849 Fukushima ... 218,059 296,470 303,056 429,752 459,290 330,800 Yamagata ... 48,634 52,905 57,oo3 60,393 66,150 78,395 Fukui 64,128 75-554 77,721 117,223 136,551 154,985 Ishikawa 359,194 464,724 450,851 499,650 639,160 • 681,927 Toyama 96,525 110,735 148,694 169,879 164,842 207,430 Hiroshima ... 63,400 37,318 127,150 152,425 126,503 113,518 Wakayama ... 577,792 781,133 894,590 1,202,400 1,303,612 1,049,388 Tokushima ... 80,045 79,125 72,760 14,400 74,400 76,000 Kaguwa 26,242 64.735 133,598 131,525 129,083 50,005 Ehime 72,685 74,057 142,115 151.541 92,826 100,260 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea, Denmark, Dutch India, Egypt, France, French India, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russia, Russian Asia, Spain, Turkey, United States of America. 430 Japan in (lie Beginning of the 20lh Century. Fans, foldsd and round (unit of yen). Principal Places of Produce. 1896. 1897- 1S98. 1899. 1900. 1901. Tokyo — — — 34,488 43,676 unknown Kyoto 636,500 583,524 480,312 381,437 326,142 336,920 Osaka 177,848 272,355 263,396 342,275 77,314 62,759 Aichi 353,532 321,190 304,288 334,581 237,234 223,920 Gifu iS.S'i-o 51,028 55,892 32,817 33,102 95,176 Nara — — — 13,800 14,640 unknown Toyama — — — — 3,456 3,054 Hiroshima ... — — — 106,292 6,150 6,610 Yamaguchi ... — — — 3,660 45,530 1,718 Wakayama ... — — — — 7,253 7,248 Kagawa 17^,932 182,029 180,710 233,240 832,910 232,973 Fukuoka — — — 1,062 6,200 7,240 (Jita — — — 3,140 3,900 4,350 Saga — — — 974 1,524 4,882 Kumamoto ... 19,887 22,111 19,050 32,754 15,325 30,362 Kagoshima ... — — — 3,600 3,124 ZjaSo Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Egypt; France, Germany, Great Britain, Hongkong, Italy, Mexico, Philippine Islands, Spain, United States of America. Rugs (unit of yen). 943,578 1,006,294 1,739,354 715,009 57,813 12,658 14,710 unknown — — 2,142 4,000 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Korea^ France, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Philip- pine Islands, United States of America, Russian Asia. Wooden Ware (unit of jen). Osaka ... ... 1,121,147 1,140,014 Hyogo... 25,195 135,695 Saga ... — — Kanagawa ... 389,725 23305 25,470 — 25,000 unknow n Miyagi — 24,596 33,335 4,937 — „ Shiga — — — — 39,502 32,425 Ishikawa 27,500 33,300 43,523 — — unknown Kumamoto ... 20,235 44,954 41,077 — — II Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Korea, Dutch India, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, Hongkong, Italy, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, Russia, United States of America, Appendix, Paper (unit oi yen), 431 Tokyo ... ... 283,855 310,541 325,204 711,617 573.952 831,087 Kyoto 79,415 95,414 141,356 188,267 155,133 77,510 Qsaka 40,885 45,741 31,992 41,263 65,104 42,759 9y5go 304,274 685,342 351,401 543,468 538,292 533,270 ^iigata 43,493 55,370 77,722 40,680 70,242 72,751 Saitama 209,387 215,790 262,676 218,718 163,573 235,654 Ibaragi 60,332 JII,OT2 112,050 72,527 90,037 97,168 Tophigi 41,898 46,969 138,538 140,308 62,507 117,170 Nara 52,698 57,817 80,010 44,562 87,767 29,635 Miye 103,263 185,717 99,577 150,835 124,007 98,169 Shizuoka ... 842,089 870,941 962,684 245,043 1,001,665 618,719 Yamanashi ... 51,228 125,094 107,634 127,867 125,449 113,907 Gifu 1,261,889 1,871,709 997,969 1,081,627 1,103,455 1,179,045 Nagano ... 396,422 475,975 519,321 272,270 340,463 209,487 Miyagi 87,099 182,762 113,681 105,950 114,932 130,072 Fukushima ... 104,947 82,937 167,957 141,348 147,883 146,190 Iwate 60,227 121,390 130,001 100,850 60,134 48,811 Yamagata ... 32,925 43,269 52,084 55,372 52,950 49,152 Fukui 167,230 156,632 226,239 288,657 299,467 523,820 Ishikawa 40,533 45,492 160,692 64,479 89,619 77,223 Toyama 213,402 137,979 129,391 130,161 117,242 147,756 Tottori 104,502 116,527 156,702 186,967 180,700 278,348 Shimane 242,176 313,134 329,694 305,094 343,850 282,018 Okayama 167,836 269,078 214,323 356,251 477,384 254,707 Hiroshima ... 177,669 200,866 182,445 179,062 252,286 214,650 Yamaguchi ... Wakayama ... Tokushima ... Kagawa Shime Kochi Fukuoka ... Oita Saga Kiimamoto ... Miyasaki Kagoshima ... 460,639 65,055 163,528 ■ 242,776 1,298,224 1,505,322 492,735 152,418 157,217 219,600 177,344 88,921 549,104 57,077 248,919 253,795 993,578 2,094,454 437,732 176,999 215,950 221,250 187,676 120,919 504,286 90,998 419,990 164,045 837,154 2,631,601 500,101 167,267 212,381 272,216 227,030 62,898 579.332 , 106,394 155,145 51,964 1,161,555 2,213,320 662,742 189,495 261,102 319,978 196,140 91,703 678,631 165,793 184,500 266,034 1,329,924 2,922,119 678,796 170,518 230,651 291,849 134,484 120,847 580,332 148,650 160,790 131,815 1,073,215 2,299,890 482,969 144,597 312,766 352,69s 143,728 228,601 Foreign markets : — China, France, Germany, Great Britain, United States of America, Australia, Hongkong, British America, British India, Dutch India, Paper ware (unit of yen). Kyoto Gifu Kumamoto ... 73,900 ^ 361,500 154,196 26,560 419,674 25,870 493,360 4,540 Bnknown 4,087 Foreign markets : — Australia, British America, British India, China, Korea, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hongkong, Mexico, Russia, United States of America. 432- Japan in the Bcginniiig of the 2Qth Century. Bamboo ware (unit of ■yen). Principal Places of Produce. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1500. 1 90 1. Hy5go — 150,000 160,000 — 484,739 unknown Shizuoka 14,083 33,470 34,140 36,190 3S,c5oo 38,950 Sliiga — — — 7,750 7,900 63.600 Iwate 12,966 16,037 io,iSS - — — Fukui ... , ... — — — 10,5 I £ 19,480 unknown Ishikawa io,?o7 13,261 15,913 — 11,129 11,839 Kagawa — 5S,7JS 4,701 8,72s 8,723 12,755 Ehime 7,575 — — - 12,000 unknown Oita - — — 41,097 9,028 17,379 Kumamoto ... 13,194 14,225 9,591 — — unknown Foreign markets : — Austral ja, British America, British India, China, Korea, Egypt France, Germany, Great Britain, , Hawaii, Holland, Hongkong, Philippine islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Brushes (unit oi yen). — 689,424 828,348 229,348 703,514 347,75s Australia, British America, British India, China, Great Britain, Osaka Foreign markets Hongkong, United States of America, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia. Glass ware (lamp excepted; unjt of yen). Tokyo 715, 825 256,326 344,478 469,460 621,295 unknown Osaka 548. 104 801,631 864,416 857,501 960,923 92?, 774 Kanagawa ... 62, 972 19,594 56,202 125,150 135,900 142,535 Nagasaki 6, ,119 — — 8,811 8.62! :,76> Aichi ... .i. — 40,760 76,775 90,-: 00 lOO.CO ) unknown Toyama — — — 6,570 6,57' 62,463 Shimane — — • — 3,802 2,700 2,565 Yamaguchi ... — ~ — 6,943 7,6So 7,9So Fukuoka — — — 6,900 2,910 8,359 Saga — — — 15,375 10,984 18,377 Kagoshima ... — — — 1,650 3. "82 2,976 Foreign inarkets : — British Inaia, China, Korea, Great Britain, Hongl^ong, Philippine Islands, Russian Asia, United States of America. Screens (unit of yen), Kyoto — — 74,750 90,775 95,017 115,603 Hyogo 252,330 266,500 253,742 — 215,000 unknowrt Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, Britijh America, British India, Cliina, Dutch Jndia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hawaii, H, H rad, Hongkong, Italy^ Philippine Islands, Rttssia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Appendix. 4C3 " Shii'I'oki " (cloisonne), (unit of yen). Kyoto ... 47,854 44.738 43.568 58,823 72,347 68,934 Aichi ... 223,066 175,104 107,987 206,828 448,230 487,980 Foreign markets : — Australia, Belgium, British America, British India, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hongkong, Russia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Bkonze and copper ware (unit of yen). Kyoto . 294,164 510,143 556,974 476,000 400,700 725,986 Osaka 54,289 67,018 66,569 224,039 — unknown Aichi 48,866 48.095 50,862 58,20s 56,676 72,661 Ishikawa 50,250 30,000 19,700 17,600 165,660 183,872 Toyama 224,480 231,730 278,076 319,544 302,250 429,002 Foreign markets : — British India, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong- kong, Russia, Russian Asia, United States of America. Of the other goods ranking next in importance to those given above may be meutioned towels, lamps, Inittons, cotton under-shirts, cotton knit- work, shoes and boots, stockings, imitation foreign paper, cotton blankets, towol clntli, clocks, fiirnittiie, jinrikisha, leather- goods, lautems, toilet-soap, i\ory-goods, etc. 434 Japan in the Bcrjiniiing of the 20th Century. CHAPTER VIII.— Protection of Industrial Property. (Patents, Designs and Trademarks) Litvoductory — History ralatin^ to Protection of Patents, Dasigns, and Trad -?ilarks— Protection of Foreign Patents, Designs, and Trade-Marks— Rojume of Existing Regulations — Provi- sions that Spscially Concern Foroi^ners — Statistics of Japan- ese and Foreign Patents, Designs and Trade-Iflarks. I. INTRODUCTORY. Genebal Remarks. — The legislative measures relating to the protection of the right of iiuhistriul property comprise in regard to patent-right, designs, and tradd-marks the Law of Patent-Kight (amended in the existing firm iu March 1899) the Law of Designs (as before), and the Law of Trade-marks (as before), intends I to guarantee the security of the right of both Japanese and foreign inventors and also to ensure honest dealings in business. Similarly illegitimate competition in the matter of house-marks are guarded by the provisions of the Commercial C.)de issued in 1900. Measures for providing against illegitimate practices other than those connected with house-marks are incomplete, the only provision existing in this dircetion being confined to prohibition by the Customs Tariff Law (March 1897) of the import of substances spuriously imitating articles covered by patent-right or registered designs or trade-marks. Tiiere is no provision for prohibiting the false representation of the place of production. However, the legislative measures for protecting the right of industrial property liavo lately been carried to a satisfactory state, especially in regard to patents, designs and trade- marks, as will be briefly described below. History Relating to Protection of Patents. 435 II. HISTORY RELATING TO PROTECTION OP PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TRADE-MARKS. General Remarks. — Although the legislation relatir 3 to patents, designs and trade-marks was only enacted quite recently, comparatively speaking, this does not of course mean that the Japanese were destitute of inventions or designs, for facts may be abundanth- enunciated to prove the contrary. For instance, the Industrial arts of keramics, lacquer-ware, weaving, etc. that Protection were originally imported from Chian have been in Olden Days, carried to a special state of perfection by the genius of our people, who also have displayed original taste of their own in the matter of designs and have won in this respect special attention for our goods in foreign markets. However, the idea of protecting inventors and thus encouraging the development of manufacture was not adopted in Japan till the advent of the Government of this era. It is true that from about the time of the Ashikaga Regency a certain sort of monojjoly was accorded to manufacturers and technical experts, but tJiis protection was extended with the object of incieasing the revenue of the feudal princes that exercised this privilege rather thiin from an)' idea of encouraging invention and designs. In a similar way the protection of trade-marks dated from the Restoration and it was enf)rced because with the development of Jap:inese trade and that of foreign trade a necessity to ad^^pt suitable measures foi- protecting trade- marks had become imperative. The first legislative measure for protecting inventions was pro- mulgated in April 1871 but was rcscindjd a yewr after, and for about fourteen years from that time Japanese inventors were New left unprotected. We do not mean to say that an Legi lative invention of meritorious character was not recognized by Measur s. the Government, for by instituting in December 1882 the Regulations Recognizing Meritiorious Acts inventors of distinguished merit were rewarded with the Blue-ribbon medals esrablished in the regulations. In June 1884 the regulations for protecting trade-marks were enacted, and then in the fulbvA-ing year the regulations 436 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. relating to the propection of patents. In consequence of the restoration of the regulations, 326 cases of invention that had bi,en reported to the local offices subsequent to 1872 were brouglit under the protection of the regulations. But it was not till December of 1889 that the regulations relating to designs were first elaborated, and at the same time the two cognate legislative measures already existing were amended. A similar amendment was extended ten years later to all the three, and t'ley exist to-day in the present form. III. PROTECTION OF FOREIGN PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TRADE-MARKS. The Laws as extended to roEEiGNErs. — With the putting in operation of the revised treaties in 1899 the three laws of patent, designs and trade-marks which, like all other laws of the land, had been 111111101 in operation to the Japanese people alone, became operative to foreigners residing in this country. The dates of the conclusion of revised treaties with different treaty countries are as follows : — Great Britain and Ireland United States of America Italy Peru Russia Denmark Germany Sweden-Norway Belgium France Netherland Switzerland Spain Portugal Austria-Hungary July 1 6, 1894. Nov. 22, 1894. Dec. 1, 1S94. Mar. 2, 1895. June 8, 1895. Oct. ly, 1895. Apr. 4, 1896. May 2, 1896. June 2, 1896. Aug. 4, 1896. Sept. 8, 1896. Nov. 10, 1896. Jan. 2, 1897. Jan. 26, 1897. Dec. 5, 1897. The revised treaties cover the pi'otection of foreign patents, (lesigns and trade-marks, but according to the agreement between Jupau and Germany it was arr;-.ngcd to put in force this protection Resume of the Existing System. 437 of patent?, designs and trade-marks from the day of the exchange of ratification of tin; treaties, that is on November 18th of 189G and this agreement ensured for the first time in the history of Japan the protection of the right of foreigners in regard to patents, designs and trade-marlfs. However, with the rest of the treaty Powers the date of the exchange of this mutual protection was as follows : — Great Britain and Ireland Jan. 4, 1901. United States of America Mar. !j, 1901. Switz2rtand ... July 9, igoi. Portugal Aug. 30, 1901. Italy Oct. 12, igoi. Denmark Jan. 10, 189S. Netherland Feb. I, 1898. Sweden-Norway Feb. 15, 1898. Belgium Mar. n, 1898. Spain Sep. I, 1898. Austria-Hungary Nov. 30, 1898. It is needless to say that a similar protection was extended with the coming in operation of the revised treaties to all the rest of the treaty Powers wlnse treaties tliat had been concluded with Japan contained provisions relating to the exchange of this protection. Japan as Member ov the International League for the Protection of Industrial Property. — The protocol appended to the treaty concluded between Jap;ui and England in July 1894 and the treaties subsequently concluded with the rest of the countries specified the entrance of Japan into the International Laague for the Protection of Industrial Property, and in pursuance of that agreement Japan joined the League on July loth, 1899, and thus all necessary arrangements required for protecting forjigners in the matter of industrial property were completed. lY. RESUME OF THE EXISTING SYSTEM. General Remarks. — According to the. existing system all matters relating to patents, "designs and trade-marks are controlled by the Patent Bureau of the Department of Agriculture and 438 Japan in the Beginning of the 20{h Century. Commerce, which adopts a regular system of examination in grant- ing a license in answer to application for patents or in registering a design or trade-mark sent in for registration. An applicant is entitled to aj^pcal for re-examination or for the judgment of the Comptrollers in case the application has been rejected. All cases relating to the invalidity of patents or registrations or to the con- firmation of the respective rights are attended to by the Bureau, but when any decision of the Bureau is regarded as being at variance with the law, an applicant may appeal to the Court of Cassation whose decision is final. Theil a provisional protection is extended to exhibits placed on view in exhibitions or similar un- dertakings. Patent agents are subject to the control of the Patent Bureau. The agents duly registered on the list of the Bureau num- ber 193 (according to the returns made in June of 1902.) PiiiNCiPAL CLAUSES IN THE LAW OF PATENTS. — The Law ex- tends protection according to priority (Art. 1), while the following inventions are not patentable: — (a) articles of diet and relishes, (b) drugs and process of compounding them, (c) matters prejudicial to public order or morals, (d) matters publicly known prior to the filling of claims (excepting those cases in which, owing to the necessity of trial examinations, the matter embodied in the claim came to public knowledge not more than two years prior to the filing of the application). Then for an additional invention based on the original one, an additional letter-patent may be obtained (Art. 'l), a smaller fee being paid both for application and for license. Patents are valid (Art. 19) for 15 years from the date of registration in the official record, and (Art. 3) every year after the issue of the letter-patent the fee is to be paid in advance according to a fixed rate, while for an additional invention based on the original one, the paj^ment of 20 ye}i at one time cover.-; the whole period of the validity of the patent. Further (Arts. o'J & 40) (a) when a patentee who while himself failing to exploit in Japan and without justifiable cause his own invention within three years from the issue of the license or while suspending to make such exploitation for three years, refuses to transfer his right under reasonable condition to a third party applying to him for tlie said transfer or for per- mission to use the right; (6) when a patentee fails to pay in the Beswne of. the Existrng Syttem. 439 foe for more than 60 d lys from the date on which he should have forwarded it; (c) when a piton'ee not residing in Japan fails to appoint for more than six months and without justifiable reason a p;'oper attorney ; in all such cases the Chief of the Bureau is entitled to revoke the patent. PniNriTAL CLAUSES IN THE Law OF DESIGNS. — The designs as protected by the existing Law are those of artistic type used in the form of shape, coloration or figure as applied to industrial pro- peity (Art. 1); but designs of the following description are exclud- ed from protection, (o) shape or figure resembling the Imperial coat of arms, the chrysanthemum, (6) figures that are prejudicial to pu' lie order or morals, (c) those that have been publicly known prior to the filing of the application or figures &c. re- sembling those already publicly known (Art. 2). The protection is of course determined according to priority (Arts. 2 & 8). The validity of the right of exclusive use of a design is limited to objects of specified classification as represented by the applicant (Art. 4), and this validity holds good for 10 years from the time of the registration in the ofiicial reeoj-ds (Art. 3). A similar pro- cess as in the case of patents is in force in paying the fee on the occasion of filing application and of paying the fee every year the after registration ; but for a design resembling one previ- ously registered by the applicant, the rate is lower. In a similar way the registered design may lose its validity when the payment of the fee is neglected for more than GO days or wjien the grantee of registration not residing in Japan fails to appoint within six montlis a qualified attorney residing in this country. PniNciPAL CLAUSES IN THE IjAw OF Thade-maiiks. — The Law protects all tliose trade-marks except those (a) that are identical to or resemble in form the Imperial coat of arm.«, the chry- santhemum ; (6) that are identical to or rcseiiihlo in form the national flags, military or naval flags, or d(_'e;;rations of this conn- try, or national flags of foreign countries; (c) that are prejudicial to public order or morals or are likely to impose upon the pul)lic; (d) that are identical to or resemble other registered trade-ma. ks or, when they are to be used for articles of the same nature, to those for -which one full year has not elapsed after they have lost 440 Japan in the Beginning of the 'IQlh Century. validity; (e) that are identical to or resemble trade-marks which are used by other people prior to the enforcement of the existing Law; (/) that simply represent the ordinary mode of designating g00(}s or pl;\ces of produce, or the characters, devises or marks cus- tomarily used in trade to denote a special grade or quality or sliape of the goods, or that merely represent the ordinary style of writing names, house-names, or names of companies or firms (Arts. 1 & 2). However, a mark of an interest organized under approval of the authorities may be used as a trade-mark and protected accordingly. (Art. 21). As in the two preceding cases priority secures protec- tion over all others coming subsequently (Arts. 2 & 8), but the validity of an exclusive trade-mark is limited to the special class of objects originally indicated by the applicant (Art. 5). The term of validity of the exclusive use of a trade-mark is 20 years, and is open to renewal (Arts. 3 & 5). The fee is payable with the registration of a trade-mark applied for (Art. 13 of the Law and Arts. 7 & 13 of the Regulation for putting it in Operation). Finally a registered trade-mark is liable to h)se its validity in case (a) the place of produce, the quality, etc. of the goods for which it is used are falsely represented subsequent to its registration, (6) or when in case the applicant who does not reside in Japan, does not appoint within six months from the date of the registration a qualified attorney residing in this country (Art. 11). Y. PROVISIONS THAT SPECIALLY CONCERN FOREIGNERS. Non-Residext Foreigx Applicakts. — To enumerate those pro- visions in the existing laws, that specially relate to foreigners, when a foreigner not residing in Japan wishes to secure a latter-patent or to have his design or trade-mark reglstei'cd, he must file in an application through his attorney appointed from among those in this countr}'. He must further appoint, when his application has been accepted by the Patent Bureau, an attorney to represent him in all dealings with the Bureau and in all possible civil or criminal actions thereof. The neglect to appoint such an attorney without justifiable reason within six months will invalidate, as mentioned above, the Provisions that Specially Concern Foreigners. 441 efficacy of his patents or registration (The Law of Patent, Arts. 6 and 38: Law of Designs Arts., 1'.^ and 22; Law of Tradt;-Mark's, Arts. 20 and 9.) Form of Documents. — Any document intended to be filed in the Bureau must be written in Japanese, and when it is drawn up in any other language Japanese translation must accompany the original. Further, a foreigner who is not residing in Japan must submit a document properly certifying his nationality, domicile and place of business (Arts. 3, 4 and 9 of the Regulations for putting the Law of Patent in Oiisration : Art. 8 of the Peg ilations for putting the Law of De-igns in Operation; Art. 17 of the Regula. tions for putting the Law of Trade-marks in Operation.) Specifications and Duawings. — When an application is filed ;n within the prescribed period of priority as providjd in Art. 4 of the International League for the Protection of Industrial Property, application, specifications and drawings certified by the Government of the country of the original application must be submitted (Art. 25 of the Regulations for putting the Law of Patent in Operation ; Art. 8 of the Regulations for putting the Law of Designs in Opera- tion ; Art. 17 of the Regulations for putting the Ltiw of Trade- marks in Operation). Provisional Protection.— During the period of provisional protection extended to an invention or design or trade-mark exliibite in an international exhibition, a similar protection shall he accorded to it in this country during the period of the exhibition, providjfl the certificate establishing the fact of the provisional protec:ion in the country where the exhibition is held is submitted on the occasion of sending in an application, (Art. 25. of the Law of Patent and Art. 26 of the Regulation, thereof; Art. 22 of the Law of Designs and Art. 8 of the Regulations thereof; Art. 20 of Trade-marks and Art. 7 of the Regulations thereof.) Term of Registered Trade-Marks. — A foreign registered trade- mark duly registered in Japan shall be valid during the same period of validity, in the original country, but within the maximum limit of 20 years (Art. 3 of the Law of Trade-marks.) Exploitation of Patents. — The exploitation of the patented invention must be made in Japan, but, in case a patentee, while 442 Jafpan in the Jicf/iiniiiir/ of- (he 20th Ceiitiirij. neglecting to do so for more than three years, refuees without justi- fiable reason to assign or to permit the use of the patent under reasoiiiible conditions by a third party who has applied to him for such assignment or permission, the patent is liable to be revoked. (Art 88 of the Law of Patents.) ¥1. STATISTIC OP JAPANESE AND FOREIGN PATENTS, DESIGNS AND TBADE-MABES. The applications for patents filed by Japanese and foreigners and the number of letters-patent granted in Japiin daring the period indicated are given in the following table : — Year. 1885 1886 1SS7 1S88 1SS9 1896 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 No. of Application. No. of L-cense G 425 99 ... I,3'f4 205 905 109 77S 183 1 ,064 209 i.iSo 240 i,2S8 367 1,344 379 ... i,3->7 31S 1,350 326 1,112 223 ... 1,213 169 1,542 iSS ... 1,789 293 1,915 597 i,9So 5S6 ... 2,372 606 ... 3,050 871 ... 3,253 1,024 anted. Total 29,195 6,992 Statistic of Japanese and Foreign Patents. 413 Year. 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894. 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 DESIGNS. No. of Application. No. of Kegis 176 23 497 82 290 117 262 48 250 59 - 336 64 318 94 300 96 320 90 26s 52 342 139 397 130 514 141 930 252 i,iSi 366 Total 6,377 1,573 TRADE-MARKS. Year. 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 ... 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 Total 34.419 21,151 Note : — In the figures for the years subsequent to 1899 as many as 62S cases of con- tinuation are included in applications and 599 in registrations. )io. of Application. No. of Regis 883 — 1,296 949 624 50S 757 361 568 436 1,029 664 819 583 S<;5 554 1,146 588 1,243 648 • ■• 1,350 877 - i,.S73 923 ... 1,57s S58 ... 3,228 2,335 ... 2,232 1,597 .... 2,837 1,942 ... 2,776 1,767 2,6oS 1,621 ■.■ 3.529 2,016 .S.743 1,924 4i4 Japan in the Becfuiiilng oj tlie 20th Century. The following figures show the mimhcr of applications, licenses nnd regibtrations relating to foreigners fl-om November 1896 to Dsceniber 1903, the countries being mentioned in alphabetical Onler : — Patent. Design. Trade-mark. No. of No. of No. tif No. of No. of No. of Applica- L;(.gn5gg Applica- Regisira- Applica- Registra- tion. ■ tion. tioii. tion. tion. Austria-Hungary ... ^3 lO — — 14 14 Belgium 3 2 — — 8 4 China — — — — 20 10 Denmark 20 8 — — 3 3 France .. 78 43 4 1 245 200 Germany .. 228 lOO 7 I 1.274 950 Great Britain •• 339 189 12 9 1,593 1 183 Nctherland lO 3 — — 7 5 Italy ... 12 5 — — 4 3 Korea 5 2 — — — — Portugal I I — -- I I Russia 8 3 — — — — Spain 4 — — — II 8 Sweden-Norway iS II — — 4 3 Switzerland 11 8 — — S3 3- United States of Americ a. 8ji 4S6 I ' r 450 33S Total 1,591 871 24 12 3,696 2,756 Note : — The figures for Great Britain cover those for its colonies. TariJ System. 445 PART IV. FOREIGN TRADE. CHAPTER I. TARIFF SYSTEM. The Original Tariff System. — The tnrifT system of Japan was originiilly based on the treaties concluded with the foreign covintries. The treaties concluded with Great Britain, United States of America, France, Russia and Netherlands in the 5th year of Aiisi'i (1S58) regulated, by means of the commercial agreement appended to the treaties, all matters relating to the entrance and departure of ships, the import and export of commoditits, as well as import and export duties. In June of 1859 tlie three ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Hakodate were opened to commerce, and customs house was established. Subsequently Kobe, Osaka and Niigata weie similarly opened, the first in December of 1867, the second in July of' 1868, and the last in November of the same year. In May of 1866, as the re.«(ilt of an agreement with the jMinisters of Great Britain, France, United States of America and Netliei lauds the rate of import and export duties was fixed on the basis of 5 per cent. ad valorem. First REVisiON.^The idea of drawing up a regular tarifl!' system was mooted iVequently and at last coming to ]8:)t, it took definite shape as the Taritf System which was promulgated in 1897. The system divided imports into three main classes, dutiable goods, non-dutiable goods, and proliibited goods. The tariff for dutiable goods ranged from 5 to 4J per ceiit. ad valorem,, and divided into 16 "•rades. The schedule has as standard rate, so to s;;y, 20 per cent, for ordinary refined goods, this rate to decrease in one direc- 446 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. tion but to rise in another. (1) Natural produce, (2) scientific instruments and apparatus and raw materials, (3) machinery, (4) half-manufacture 1 materials, (_5) articles of ordinary eonsuajp- tion occupy the decreasing side of the schedule, while articles of luxury and liquors and tobacco occupy the other extreme. The tariff in question was put in force in January of 1899. Subsequent Amendments. — Subsequently the tariff received more or less amendment eitlier in the interests of the inland reveime or with tlie object of encouraging home industries. Thus in the same year the tariff for manufactured tobacco was raised to 100 per cent, ad valorem, alchol to 250 per cent., Chinese liquor, sake, and other distilled liquors not mentioned in the list, to 80 to 100 per cent. In the same year raw materials required by the State mono- polies and match-making were relieved from ;,!1 duties as were also artificial and natural fertilizers. In 1901 the rate on tobacco was advanced to 150 per cent, and that on alcohol to 42 sen per litre, and at the same time rate on some other imports was also advanced more or less. Further in 1902, in compliance with a resolution of the House of Representatives, a law for putting a duty of 15 to 25 per cent, on raw eggs was promulgated. Tariff "Law. — With the putting in force of a regular tariff schedule it was necessary for Japan's tariff autonomy to have a regular tariff law, for no such law had existed in regular shape; there was only a semblance of it in the shape of commercial agree- ments appenchid to the old treaties. With the object of filling this serious gap in the tariff legislature of the country, the draft ot a tariff law was drawn up after consulating foreign laws on this subject. It w:is placed before the 13th session of the Imperial Diet, was passed by it in its original form, and at last it became law in 1899. The establishment of a regular tariff law may be said to have ushered in a new era in the history of our tarili' system. By that establishment many matters that furmei'ly led to diplomatic inter- ference have been transferred to the domain of oi-dinary administra- tive alfairs. For instance, special arrangement has been provided for making protest against the ruling of Customs Chiefs, while it was made possible to determine by Imperial Ordinances places to be Tariff Sydem. 447 newly opened for commerce or the kinds of commodities to be either exported from or imported into phices. Provisions i-ehiting to the pnssiige of goods throiigii the interior or tli rough the Customs Hon.x's hiive already been created in virtue of the law in question. The establisiiment of bonded warehouses may also be mentioned in this connection. The temporary storage of impirts in Customs sheds provided for by Law No. 82 issue in 1900 ; the exemption of duty according to Law No. 85 issue in the same year, IVoni goods re-exported in manufactured form within one full year from the time of original import, and the establishment of gooils agents in 1901 may also be cited as some of the measures provided for facilitating foreign tr;:de. The enactment in 1902 of rebate arrangement on imported raw sugar in compliance with the propjsal of tlie House of Representa- tives may also be mentioned here. 448 Japan in the Bcriinniiuj of the 20th Century. CHAPTER n. DEVELOPIIEKT OF FOREIGN TRADE. Foreign Trade in Pee-Restoration Days. — ^The foreign trade of Japau, and indjcd even lionie trade, remained in an insignificant state prior to the discontinuation of the isolation policy, for what- ever ti-ade existed in those dnys was carried on only with China, Korea, Nctlierlaiids and PoiMigal, and even this was limited in scope. Then the getting up of autonomic local governments by the feu.hil barons and the defective moans of eo:!iniuiiicatiou and tr;nis- portation necess.uily obstructed the free development of trade. It was only after the conclusion of the treaties first with the United Siates of America, then with Russia, Great Britain, France, Kcthcrlandsi etc., as alicady mentioned, and after the establishment of regular trading ports at Nagasaki, Yokohauia, Hakodate, and elsewhere and especially after the abolition of the feudal system in 1S(;8 and the rehabilitation of the Impel ial regime, that a new era began with our foreign trade. The introduction of various factors of Western civiliza- tion has powerfully accelerated its development. Reci;?;t Pi;ogri:ss of Forefgn Trade. — Below is given a table showing the progress of foreign trade during the last 35 years. TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORT AND IMPORT OF PRINCIPAL COMMODITIES. (figures marked willi an asterisk denote excess of imports). Year. Exports. Imports. Total. Excess of Exports and Imports. yen. yen. yen. yen. 1803 ... ... 15.553.437 10,693,072 26,246,545 4 860,401 1C69 ... 12,908,978 20,783,633 33.692,611 * 7.'^74.655 1^70 ... 14,543,013 33.741.637 48,284,650 ""' 19,198,624 iSyr ... 17,968,609 21,916,728 39,885,336 * 3.948,119 1S72 ... 17,026,647 26,174,815 43,201,462 '^ 9,148,168 1S73 ... ... iil.635.44i 28,107,390 49,742.831 * 6,471,949 Development of Foreign Trade. (figures marked with an asterisk denote excess of imports). 4-19 Excess of Exports Year. Exports. Imports. Total. and Imports. yen. yen. yen. yen. 1874 . 19,317.306 23,461,814 42,779,120 * 4,144,508 187s . 18,611, in 29,975,628 48,586,738 * 11,364,517 1876 . 27,711,528 23,964,679 51,676,206 3,746,849 1877 . 23,348,522 27,420,903 50,769,425 * 4,072,381 1878 . 26,988,140 32,874,834 58,862,974 * 6,886,694 1879 . 28,175,770 32,953,002 61,128,773 * 4,777,232 1880 . 28,395,387 36,626,601 65,021,988 * ^,231,214 1881 31,058,888 31,191,246 62,250,134 * 132,358 1882 . 37,721,751 29,446,504 67,168,345 8,275,157 1883 . 36,268,020 28,444,342 64,712,861 7,823,178 1884 . 33,871,466 29,672,647 63,544,113 4,198,819 1885 . 37,146,691 29,356,968 66,503,659 7,789,723 1886 . 48,876,313 32,168,432 81,044,745 16,707,881 1887 . 52,407,681 44,304,252 96,711,933 8,103,429 1888 . 65,705,510 65,455,234 131,160,744 250,276 1889 . 70,060,706 66,103,767 136,164,472 3,956,939 1890 . 56,603,509 81,728,581 138,332,087 25,125,075 1891 . 79,527,272 62,927,268 142,454,541 16,600,004 1892 . 91,102,754 71,326,080 162,428,833 19,776,674 1893 . 89,712,865 88,257,172 177,970,036 1,455,693 1894 . 113,246,086 117,481,955 230,728,042 * 4,235,869 189s • 136,112,178 129,260,578 265,372,756 6,851,600 1896 . 117,842,761 171,674,474 289,517,235 * 53,831,713 1897 . 163,135,077 219,300,772 382,435,849 * 56,165,695 1898 . 165,753,753 277,502,157 443,255,909 *i 1 1,748,404 1899 . 214,929,894 220,401,926 435,331,820 * 5,472,032 1900 204,429,994 287,261,846 491,691,840 * 82,831,852 1901 . 252,349,543 255,816,645 508,166,188 * 3,467,102 1902 . 258,303,065 271,731,259 530,034,324 * 13,428,194 Rate of Peogeess. — The foregoing table shows that compared with the corresponding figures in 1868 the total value of exports and imports in 1902 advanced by twenty fold ; by twilve fold compared with those of 1872; by eight fold compared with those of 1882, and over threefold with those of 1892. Impoet and Expoet op Specie. — The import and export of specie and bullion during the same period is shown below : — Excess of Export! Exports. Imports. and Imports. yen. yen. yen. 450 Japan in the Beriinnhuj of the 2Qih Century. TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORT AXD IMPORT OF SPECIE AND BULLION. Year, (figures marked with an asterisk denote excess of exports). 1858 — _ — 1869 — _ _ 1870 — — — 1871 — _ _ 1872 4,480,896 3,691,510 * 789,389 1873 S>i22,927 3,080,542 * 2,042,386 1874 13,995,202 1,071,731 *i2,923,47i 1S7S 14,663,971 298,322 *I4,365,649 1876 10,675,701 8,267,241 * 2,408,460 1877 9,441.271 2,173,499 * 7,267,772 1875 8,328,653 2,189,101 » 6,139,55a 1879 12,778,864 3,134,804 * 9,644,060 1880 13,222,993 3,638,230 * 9.584,763 1881 7,490,547 1,856,147 * 5,634,400 1882 4,430,198 6,160,724 1,730,526 1883 3,156,565 5,451.501 2,294,936 1854 5,005,072 5,611,759 606,687 1855 4,256,446 7,546,841 3,290,395 1886 9,626,448 9,171,874 * 454,574 18S7 11,035,4:3 8,871,266 * 2,164,222 >S38 7,833,444 8,732,492 899,048 1859 5,188,5:9 14,173,246 8,984,717 1890 13,778,531 1,200,607 *i2,577,924 1891 1,452,964 13,888,526 12,435,562 1892 9.729.753 22,883,757 13,154,004 1893 12,289,18;! 11,186,487 * 1,102,701 1894 34,379.111 26,783,653 * 7,595,458 1S95 27,301,699 5.874,164 --1,427,535 1896 11,598,884 39,142,208 27,543,324 1897 19,219,163 81,466,713 62,247,550 1S98 86,987,481 42,563,781 «44,423,7oo 1899 11,178,247 20,163,501 8,985,254 1900 56,707,063 11,517,835 *45,i89,228 1901 14,049,099 10,960,750 * 3,088,349 «9o» 8,038,982 3«i>6ii3S8 30,132,376 Distribution of Irade, 451 CHAPTER in. DISTRIBUTION OF TBADE. Trade with Asia, Europe and America. — The commercial importance of the Asiatic Continent to our foreign trade is a fact that need not be insisted on, and the fact that the progress of our trade with the continent is striking redounds much to the credit of our countrymen. In 1882 Europe stood at the head of the list in the volume and value of its exports, followed by America and Asia. In imports Europe headed the list followed by Asia and America. Coming to 1902 the relative positions of these great divisions of the globe were reversed, and in the exports Asia came first followed by America and Europe. In imports also Asia occupied the same position, after which came Europe and America. Relative Progress of Trade with Asia, Europe AND America. — To review the relative progress of the share of the three continents in our trade, between 1882 and 1902 Asia advanced by over sixteen fold in the value of our exports, Europe by 400 per ce'.it., America about 600 per cent., Australia and others by over 335 per cent. In \n\- ports the rate of advance between 1882 and 1902 was over 13 • and a hf.lf fold for Asia, over 550 por cent, for Europe, ovei- 1560 per cent, for America, and over 555 per cent for Australia and others. Details are given in the follow- ing tables ; — 452 Japan in the Baiiaving of the 20th Century. TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Taule I. (unit of \rti). ,, _, . „ Dutch British French Hont;- Year. China. Korea. , ,■ -, ,. t ,• , " India. India. India. kong. 1868 1869 1870 .. ••• — — — — — •• ..« — — — — -1- 1871 1872 1873 — — — — — — 9,881,533 — — — — — 1874 8,665,716 — — — — — 1875 8,200,382 — — — — — 1876 7.472,05s — — — — — 1877 5.674,540 — — 190,528 — — 1878 4.784,194 — — 819,931 — — 1879 s.865,350 — — 1.591.039 — — 1880 5,846,227 — — 1,750,977 — — I88I 5.503.444 — — 2,212,964 — — 1882 6,553,201 — — 2,;o6,223 — — 1883 5.768,226 — — 2,455,619 — — 1884 7,019,995 408,398 — 2,350,909 — — 1885 6,342,198 470,609 — 3,398,698 — — 1886 7,123,851 563,448 — 3.561.319 — — 1887 7,985,821 1,010,374 — 5,291,614 — — 1888 10,360,135 1,041,764 — 7,683,092 , — — 1889 9,199,696 1.273,332 — 7,333,859 — 4,103,703 1890 8,849,685 4,363,540 — 8,910,892 — 5,495,912 1891 8,798.428 4,032,922 — 5,614,079 — 5,089,606 1892 12,509,410 3,046,340 — 7,662,004 — 6,985,723 1893 17,095,975 1.999,439 — 8,679,029 — 8,268,071 1894 i7,5".507 2.183,3:3 — 10,560,448 6,204 ,147 8,999,718 1895 22,985,144 2,925,400 — 12,001,811 3,382 ,673 8,078,190 1396 21,344,521 5.118,925 — 22,517,425 1,673 ,389 9,133,778 1897 29,265,845 8,864,360 — 29,775,930 9,525,553 12,027,197 1898 30,523,861 4,796,032 1,659,606 40,764,245 26,668 ,444. 15,904,467 1899 28,687,731 4.976,167 1,305 572 43,883,886 4,489,326 7.33S.455 1900 29,960,740 8,805,618 4,698,642 23.516,351 3,632 ,643 10,659,855 I90I 27,256,986 10,052,438 5,075,787 42,779,905 4,082 ,897 11,141,788 190a 40,590,858 7.957.946 3,568,719 50,977,168 5,649,946 2,454,881 Distribiiiion of Trade. 453 V.ar Philip- Russ'an „. ^ , , ^"'- pines. Asia. ^lam. lotal. 1868 _ _ _ _ 1869 _ _ _ _ 1870 _ _ _ _ 1871 _ _ _ _ 1872 _ _ _ _ 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1 901 1902 — — — 9,881,533 — — — 8,665,716 — — — 8,200,382 — — — 7,472,055 — — — 5,865,068 — 9,288 — 5,613,412 — 10,280 — 7,466,669 — 8,593 — 7,605,797 — 74,844 — 7,791,251 — 18,321 — 8,877,745 — 22,605 — 8,246450 — 12,488 — 9,791,791 — 13,451 — 10,224,956 — 13,146 — 11,261,765 130,99s 19,146 — 14,427,951 213,169 332,525 35,696 19,672,380 227,486 825,254 27,869 22,991,200 255,486 769,948 225,809 28,871,272 228,481 884,621 28,472 24,676,608 475,123 835,395 4,382 31,518,376 567,133 1,871,113 54,391 38,535,151 1,698,819 1,165,306 618,859 48,942,117 I,220,74S 1,371,612 143,095 52,108,669 1,804,914 1,318,893 203,275 63,ii5,"9 2,675,300 1,859,654 1,190,969 95,184,809 3,294,183 1,694,170 4,173,610 129,478,617 2,383,874 4,534,120 757,030 98,356,160 2,284,294 5,716,705 585,480 89,860,327 2,981,031 4,515, '66 1,195,082 109,081,080 1,493,86s 5,963,858 1,695,779 120,353,021 454 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Table II. (unit ofy^n). Others. Total. Year. British America. U. S. of America. I86S 1869 1870 187 1 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 18S0 1881 1882 1883 1884 188S 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 ■1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 — 1,017,761 — ■ 1,017,761 — 1,047,250 — 1,047,250 — 1,920,346 — 1,920,346 — 1,124,882 — 1,124,882 — 1,736,781 — 1,736,781 — 2,727,585 — 2,727,585 — 3,212,273 808 3,213,081 — 2,669,334 — 2,669,334 — 1,816,200 — 1,816,200 — 3,133,666 20,768 3,154,433 — 3,233,032 4,844 3,237,876 — 2,489,970 2,158 2,492,12s — 2,751,321 2,295 2,753,616 — 3,358,987 5,536 3,364,523 26,174 3,283,096 1,185 3,310,454 25,109 5,648,734 2,036 5,675,879 29,970 6,143,171 5,764 6,178,905 25.659 6,874,531 11,138 6,911,329 20,835 6,840,048 5,349 6,866,233 30,754 5,988,054 6,032 6,024,840 16,629 6,090,408 2,065 6,109,103 45,395 10,982,558 433 11,028,387 13,718 9,276,360 3,378 9,293,456 51,525 16,373,420 5,312 16,430,257 129,129 27,030,538 289 27,159,955 156,989 40,001,098 6,651 40,164,738 182,018 38,215,894 2,467 38,400,379 316,669 62,761,196 12,808 63,090,674 181,785 42,769,430 3,699 42,954,914 517,274 48,652,825 1,879 49,171.978 Dislribution oj Trade. 455 Year. /.ustralia. Egypl. Hawaii. Total. Others. Grand Total. 1868 — — _ _ _ _ 1869 — — _ _ _ _ 1870 _____ _ 1871 _____ _ 1872 — — — _ _ _ 1873-.. 1874... 1875... 1876... 1877... 1878.., 1879 1880... 1881... 1882... 1883 .. 1884... 1885 .. 1886... 1887... 1888... 1889... 1890... 1891... 1892... 1893... 1894... 1895... 1896... 1897... 1898... 1899... 1900... igoi... 1902... — — — — 771,381 28,107,390 — — — — 754,373 23,461,814 — — — — 399,556 29,975,628 — — — — 665,601 23,964,679 — — — — 239,497 27,420,903 23,238 — 14 23,252 8,341 32,874,834 78,442 — 998 79,440 35,220 32,953,002 38,080 — 50 38,130 48,573 36,626,601 74,327 — — 71,327 51,723 31,191,246 74,302 — — 74,302 82,079 29,446,594 91,160 — — 91,160 65,045 28,444,842 26,429 — — 26,429 46,554 29,672,647 72,104 — 22 72,126 36,824 29,356,968 80,466 — — 80,466 92,881 32,168,432 32,266 — — 32,266 43,887 44,304,252 218,713 — 1,872 220,585 56,838 65,455,234 267,085 — 5,261 272,346 321,034 66,103,767 334,239 — 267 334,505 6,095,612 81,728,581 228,844 — 26,362 255,205 1,640,126 62,927,268 272,787 — 648 273,435 867,821 71,326,080 319,034 — 3,690 322,724 1,916,340 88,257,172 534,763 — 6,14s 540,911 390,204 117,481,955 1,031,725 — 2,163 1,033,888 574,973 129,260,57s 835,046 — 9,927 844,973 907,820 171,674,474 897,050 — 4,414 898,464 1,007,655 219,300,772 1,403,436 355,758 23,951 1,783,145 1,306,104 277,502,157 1,708,670 939,365 5,623 2,653,658 2,945,507 220,401,926 2,455,939 1,468,099 5,265 3,929,304 3,988,141 287,261,846 1,777.599 1,889,644 6,762 3,674,004 3,321,290 255,816,645 1,672,218 2,418,262 22,724 4,113,204 4,176,565 271,731,259 456 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Table III. (unit of yell). Year. Austria. Belgium. France. Germany, England. 1868 — — — — — 1869 — — — — — 1870 I87I — — — — — 1872 IS73 — — 2,489,270 2,040,263 11,907,182 1874 — — 1,745,242 728,745 10,520,490 1875 — — 3,922,591 813,506 14,689,728 1876 — — 3,171,956 384,076 11,117,277 1877 — 63,474 3,031,037 700,981 15.679,111 1878 19.757 190,363 3,348,811 1,280,645 19,273,057 1879 12,351 159,789 3,499,277 1,174,182 16,868,965 1880 8,523 363,029 3,759,542 1,745,067 19,626,030 I88I 5,098 389,588 3,195,655 861,921 16,402,382 1882 5,871 128,932 1,464,460 1,196,268 13,971,859 1883 6,533 268,913 1,871,042 1,421,612 12,775,124 1884 ... •■ 10,190 202,653 1,587,541 2,315,869 12,758,807 188s 5,091 317,683 1,333,880 1,671,960 12,456,611 1886 9,605 507,907 1,330,914 2,313,659 12,703,249 1887 27,074 322,196 2,313,346 4,010,916 18,970,544 1888 49,765 596,160 4,125,190 5,260,897 28,693,567 1889 19,572 887,137 3,334,168 4,887,900 26,067,935 1890 24,151 1,032,351 3,869,332 6,856,956 26,619,102 I89I 27,611 688,958 2,834,025 5,127,476 19,996,051 1892 10,265 951,537 3,620,500 6,375,048 20,789,332 1893 24,209 935,001 3,305,278 7,318,134 27,929,628 1894 19,820 1,201,121 4,348,048 7,909,542 42,189,874 189s 25,121 2,066,245 5,180,135 12,233,159 45,172,111 1896 40,400 3,106,094 7,682,347 17,183,953 59,251,780 1897 85,943 3,173,218 5,147,592 18,143,280 65,406,266 1898 • 591,326 4,226,703 6,979,983 25,610,962 62,707.573 1899 1,250,217 5,415,810 5,768,180 17,613,191 44,836,994 1900 4,502,477 7,949,254 8,059,819 29,199,696 71,638,220 I90I 4,738,198 5,810,897 3,752,828 28,320,102 50,575,789 1902 2,376,656 6,977,656 4,745,776 25,812,921 50,364,029 Year. Distribution of Trade. 457 Ilolhiid. Italy. Russia. Switzerland. Others. Total. 1869 ... . — — — — — — 1870 ... . 1871 ... . — — ■ — — — — 1872 ... . 1873 ... . — — — — I 16,436,715 1874 ... . — — — — — 12,994,476 IS75 ... , — 29,519 — — — 19,455,343 1876 ... , — 28,832 — — — 14,702,142 1877 ... — 63,394 — 41,560 — 19,579,557 IS7S ... 164,040 "8,133 — 66,790 40,649 24,502,243 1879 •.. 19,381 112,999 — 260,831 50,819 22,158,594 I8S0 ... 18,094 159,010 — 530,134 54,938 26,264,767 I88I ... 8,468 177,110 — 376,590 43,933 21,460,744 1882 ... 12,415 112,290 — 322,001 43,940 17,258,035 1883 ... 15,474 155,564 — 253,093 36,556 16,804,311 1884 ... 17,805 91,177 — 294,772 36.937 17,315,750 I 885 ." ;o,io5 95,998 — 306,255 61,835 16,269,447 1S86 ... 44,749 119,558 — 263,446 75,7" 17,368,799 1887 ... 42,018 163,774 — 507,481 122,249 26,479,695 1888 ... 128,290 200,133 — 659,607 25,941 39,829,551 1889 ... 47,002 144,663 — 765,008 186,892 36,340,281 1890 .. 23,210 128,744 — 858,610 103,406 39,515,862 1891 ... 44,341 111,887 — 544,970 108,776 29,489,096 1892 ... 17,600 67,680 — 713,650 95,993 32,641,607 1893 - 32,619 86,578 — 669,301 73,106 40,373,854 1894 ... 30.174 170,340 8,468 629,208 73,744 56,580,337 1895 - 61,535 148,465 46,046 1,040,212 276,563 66,249,591 1896 ... 62,799 182,924 97.956 2,534,217 233,835 90,376,306 1897 - 57,992 213,267 47,933 2,555.905 218,493 95,049,888 1898 ... 242,869 .385,819 116,291 3,498,310 319,917 104,469,552 1899 ... ... 914,405 236,988 49,123 1,676,669 284,643 78,046,222 1900 ... 809,620 450,106 309,227 3,012,505 426,477 126,393,400 1901 ... 408,244 154,382 210,275 2,208,574 606,068 96,785,357 1902 ... ... 772,666 186,813 103,114 1,951,047 625,814 93.916,491 45S Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL EXPORTS. The principal exports from Japnn are raw silk, habidaye, cotton yarns, matches, fancy matting, tea, camphor, marine products, copper, coil, etc. Of these raw silk and liabutai/e stand out conspicuou.-; in volume and value, and have in the United States of America and France their best customers. In 1892 the total value of their ex- ports amounted to 40,300,000 yen approximate!)', to be advanced to about 101,540,000 yen in 1902. Cotton yarns go mostly to China, Hongkong and Korea, matches and coal to China, Hongkong and British India; fancy matting to the United States of Amej-ica, etc: marine products to Cliina and Hongkong; copper to Hongkong, England, Germany, etc. Details from 1868 are given below. TOTAL VALUE OF CIIIEF COMMODITIES EXPORTED. (unit oiyen). Kanteii Year. Tea. Rice. Dried (CoUe .'^ea-wecx'.s. Camphor. Cuttle-fish. Vegetable.) lS6S ... ... 3,58F,76g ? 125,854 62,679 163,449 77,098 1S67 ... 2,102420 ? •73.5S6 66,263 454 .63S 115.339 1S70 ... ... 4511,616 ? 195,602 98,102 415,221 235.703 Principal Expo: rta. 459 Kanten Year. Tea. Rice. Dried Cuttle-lish. (Colle Vegetable.) Sea-weeds. Camplior. 1871 ... ... 4,671,761 ? 204,454 108,388 472,798 129,864 1S72 ... 4,226,108 ? 278,192 78,166 296,492 88,722 1873 - ... 4,659,392 533,431 282,030 102,920 397,448 68,437 1874 •■• ... 7,253,40s 316,126 3^3,737 134.243 259,261 155,550 1875 - ... 6,86 2,85 s 16,059 242,346 201,656 284,883 13S523 1876 ... •- 5,453981 810,236 323,079 303,014 397,672 174,318 1877 ... ... 4,375,275 2,569,091 414,956 245,762 339,975 238,166 1878 ... - 4,283,69s 4,643,882 379,15s 227,498 479,109 323,665 1879 ... ... 7,445 509 416,879 553,9>7 269,867 636,383 455.910 1880 ... ... 7,497,881 210,652 648,388 291,758 577,434 598,224 1881 ... ... 7,021,593 261,737 477,886 333,048 681,338 706,138 1882 ... ... 7,029,718 1,652,043 648,682 211,237 408,309 869,128 1883 ... 6,106,496 1 ,000,94 1 802,986 242,405 244,669 707,993 18S4 ... ... 5,819.695 2,169,942 789,103 309,084 274,303 549,503 1885 ... 6,854,121 766,759 903,742 345,720 544,745 558,646 1886 ... ... 7,723,321 3,301,169 1,007,621 392,644 503,377 928,028 1887 ... ... 7,603,341 2,255,114 1,051,721 337,880 462,000 1,130,596 1888 ... 6,124,816 7,421,239 1,071,963 329,222 373,552 1,017,887 1889 ... ... 6,156,729 7,434,654 1,088,605 270,511 471,253 1,391,372 1890 ... 6,326,681 1,321,635 I,22t;,712 323,444 563,505 1,931,993 1891 ... ■•• 7,033,050 6,123,332 ',003,703 453 124 618,92s 1,629,105 1892 ... ... 7.525,316 4,162,452 980,307 581,218 818,841 1,274,753 1893 - 7,702,088 5,001,158 1,426,781 682,140 766,573 1,308,611 1894 ... - 7,930,287 5,593,152 1,162,453 495,625 467,235 1,023,956 189s ... 8,879,242 7,207,346 996,030 449,271 514,275 1,526,832 1896 ... ... 6,372,329 7,951,087 1, 151, 143 595818 4S6 930 1,119.196 1897 ... ... 7,860,460 6,141,218 1 413,647 591,057 726,896 1,318,292 1898 ... 8,215,665 5,920,185 1,268,257 611,336 549,355 1,174,574 1899 ... ... 8,498,783 10,282,012 1,362,068 674,435 780,009 1,754,496 1900 ... 9,035,819 3,576,569 1,158,794 964,322 730,844 3,070,701 1901 ... 8854,327 6,90^,913 1,842,249 1,217.195 1,092,923 3,904.974 02 10,484,017 6,679,544 1,802,41s 1,108,544 609,143 3,404,833 4G0 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Cenhory. 18G8 1869 1870 1871 1872 ■873 1874 1875 1S76 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1SS2 1883 1884 18S5 1 886 1887 I8ii9 ... 1890 ... 1S91 ... 1892 ... 1S93 ... 1S9+ ... 1895 ... 1896 ... 1^97 ... 1S98 ... 1899 ... 19JO ... irol 661,879 13,904,611 1,023,631 610,371 74,667,331 995,407 1902 759>°83 10,261,984 1,502,603 789,875 76,859,478 1,694,272 6,479 8,687 9,322 308,468 6,253,473 61,748 4-474 — 3-013 93,445 5,720,182 98,539 5,461 100,768 no 102,082 4,278,752 82,908 16,711 142,954 4,169 207,270 8,004,144 127,514 14,487 423,716 15,397 273,520 5,205,237 205.927 19,916 539,643 274 429,840 7,208,421 "7,737 35,555 40,717 — 227,699 5,302,039 85,244 24,317 135,685 - 188,027 6,424,916 128,473 41,282 178,684 - 188,724 13,197,921 238,547 17,186 519,758 — 162,207 9,626,956 87,185 35,531 788,929 - 99,909 7,889,446 254.157 37,420 797,726 — 329,975 9,734,53+ 578,322 37,319 422,056 10,621 244 990 8,606,867 605,294 66,982 579,062 3,098 307,497 10,647,310 96r,o75 31,225 827,184 105,783 326,368 16,232,150 1,008,149 119,765 724,819 153,782 390,089 16,183,550 1,089,961 66,645 1,386,799 340,269 136,633 11,007,172 1,020,558 137,932 1,825,065 108,166 371,878 13.033 872 672,630 76,763 2,148.840 87,992 326,174 17,321,362 1,297,623 136,023 2,031,514 38,689 326,445 19,280,003 1,264,780 120,903 3,518,787 64,457 381,983 25,916,861 1,434 623 313,322 2,878 969 80,695 350 641 26,616,512 1,424,107 263,284 5,352,313 63,239 266,848 13.859,339 1,445,275 284,832 4,877,089 175.803 316,835 29,356,339 1,428,654 280,963 4,863,922 248,621 285,567 36,269,744 1,896,772 238,832 4.569,229 533,480 383,766 28,167,411 1,594,582 244,542 4 900,754 668,063 562,135 39353,156 1,632 211 296,136 5,157,667 525.04S 334.847 47,866257 1,317,256 308,588 5,478,602 338.486 371,701 28,830,602 1,247,813 321,341 5-774,699 618,478 730,576 55,630,460 1,187,531 477,014 7,267,075 391,721 609760 42,047,411 1,082,917 574,868 11,383358 550,961 642,219 62,627,721 1,298,248 698,284 12,725,93s 906,821 561,435 44,657,029 960,687 PrincipaJ Exporfx. 4fil Year. Silk Waste. Habutae. (Silk Tissues.) Kniki. (Silk Tissues.) Silk riaiid- kercliicfs. CoUon Yarn. Colton Fl annel. 1868 ... 19,829 ? ? ? ? ? 1S69 ... 48,472 ? ? ? ? ? 1870 ... 44,140 ? ? ? ? ? 1871 ... 63,176 ? ? ? ? ? 1S72 ... 88,on ? ? ? ? ? 1873 ... 83,007 ? ? ? ? ? 1S74 ... 107,081 ? ? ? ? ? 1875 ... 122,658 ? ? ? ? ? 1876 ... 227,562 ? ? ? ? ? 1877 ... 174,913 ? ? ? ? ? 1878 ... 344.957 ? ? ? ? 1,812 1879 ... 647,291 ? ? ? ? 802 1880 ... ... 685,221 ? ? ? ? 1,008 1881 ... 828,607 ? ? ? ? 3,143 1882 ... ... 1,206,49s ? ? ? ? 652 1883 ... ... 878,973 ? ? ? ? 296 18S4 ... 655,139 J ? ? ? 326 1885 ... 462,553 -> ?. ? ? 1,185 1886 ... 833,264 ? ? 7 ? 1,833 1887 ... 807,548 J > 1,146.281 ? 1,210 1888 ... 944,371 ? ? 1 233,927 ■> 3907 1889 ... ... 832,469 ? ? 2 104.459 ? 3461 1890 ... ... 1,126,579 818537 ? 2,5 16,946 2,364 3,175 1891 ... ... 1,014668 •,445.639 ? 2,811,820 7,873 22,585 1S92 ... ... i,3'4 825 4,030,476 ? 3,494417 7,720 106,100 1893 ... ... 1,201,182 3 553 604 9 3,899,646 59,176 281,151 1894 ... ... 1,576,381 7,254.478 ? 3,628 129 955,530 221,918 1895 ... ... 1,515,464 8,354.490 ? 5 339.955 1,034,479 400,520 1896 ... ... 1,516,252 7,052,217 233,809 4,617,720 4,029,425 427,881 1897 -. ... 1,832,442 9.530676 186,040 3 390 146 ■13,490,197 231,749 1898 ... ... i,57iO[4 12,055505 573.55" 3,555,"5 20,116,586 350,830 1899 ... ... 2775,857 15799,014 1,4';; 952 3461,572 28,521,438 768,952 lyoo ... 3,200,631 17,436,381 878,313 4,318,553 20,589,263 602,0^1 iqoi ... 3,473,362 23912,356 1,315,780 3.95'.'92 2',465,573 512448 1902 — 4.019,524 24,685,408 2,672,887 3,«54,237 19,901,522 848,787 4G2 Japan in the Beghwing of the 20th Century. Year. White Cotton Tissues. Gray Carpets and Shirtings. Carpetings. Cigarettes. Coal. Fans. i858 .. ? ■? ? 79,519 ? 1S69 .. ? ■> ? 82,978 193 1870 .. . ... ? ? 139,085 ? 18 I ? ? 100,429 2,055 1 172 .. . ... ? ? 180,278 19,142 1873 .. ? ? 225,158 49,653 1S74 .. ? ? 146,471 90,977 1875 .. ? ■? ? 213.385 113,697 1S76 .. ? ■> ? 187,500 132,514 1877 .. ? ? ? 289,235 135.899 1878 .. . ... ? ? ? 381,974 154,977 1879 .. . ... ? ? ? 454,988 239,272 1S80 .. . ... ? 2,043 165 460,086 240,202 1881 .. . ... ? 4,741 709 395,020 224,431 1882 .. . ... ? 1,487 572 435,595 156,857 1883 .. ? 3,205 1,801 395,389 89,061 1S84 .. 9 3,707 2,745 607,124 94,994 1885 . . ... ? 2,727 3.613 622,515 107,945 1886 .. . ... ? 8,646 3,319 694,002 195,^44 1887 ., . ... ? 19,833 2,088 496,291 248,925 1888 .. . ... ? 52,714 5.077 1,197,825 283,039 1889 .. ? 54,215 3,2IO 2.749,552 252,131 1893 .. . ... ? 51,048 8,593 3,099,862 295,448 1891 .. ? 94,732 11,229 3,179,203 319,875 1892 .. . ... ? 177,446 17,250 2,854,300 304,886 1893 •• 9 391,989 29,854 3,288,843 424,156 1894 .. ? 1,134,073 56,877 4,674,305 319,416 1895 . 1S96 . 1897 ■■ 1898 . 1899 .. 1900 1901 .. 1902 .. ? ? . ... 782,698 • ■•■ 694,944 ■ - 996,997 . ••• 1,778,532 . ... 1,357,588 ■ ..■ 1,079,908 182,113 346,036 386,226 669,074 1.754,4" 1,347,605 1,523.061 1,635,902 1,035.195 847,480 850,759 721,127 866,591 707,770 653,330 115,760 81,937 231,611 133,441 294,548 715,554 1,683,320 2,188,592 5,409,111 6,242,931 8,316,776 12,240,622 11,784,731 13,703,655 17,542,273 17,270,417 399,519 693,893 885,601 499.233 532,176 911.077 733432 727,458 Prinn'pd Export."!. 463 Year. 1 868 1869 1870 1871 1S72 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 i888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Lacquered Wares. Matches. Mats. rorceiain an Earthen- wares. Straw Plaits. European Umbrellas. 17,065 ? 23,015 ? ? 1,909 V 4,704 ? ? 43,199 ? 26,236 ? ? 60,387 ? 22,354 ? ? 88,029 ? 45.531 ? ? 159,445 ? 116,481 ? ? 223,201 ? 384 ioj,675 ? ? 167,880 ? 334 113,224 ? ? 116,894 ? 636 73,792 ? ? 185,262 ? 933 120,853 ? ? 148,597 20,400 317 169,100 p ? 277,730 83,589 274 307,039 ? ? 449,645 369,672 215 474,579 ? 7,587 525,415 249,759 927 711.351 ? 12,94.8 555,304 37,240 741 578,641 ? 1,610 519,723 3,165 350 543,768 ? 966 451,666 2,792 1,325 525.933 ? 3.545 467,521 60,566 935 695,269 ? 1,762 589,170 378,022 2,709 1,002,384 ? 12,083 630,725 941,576 36,296 1,311,901 350,450 26,852 589,649 740,934 148,224 1,295.316 268,557 53.S58 628,466 1,137,952 166,883 1,449,888 146,847 84,255 572,157 1,489,030 347,541 1,245.957 87,196 114,228 577,372 1,843,637 656,123 1,287,027 193,777 161,504 528,075 2,202,041 1,176,680 1 ,480,41 1 155,162 364,309 708,992 3,537,974 1,723,383 1,577,191 378,349 589,276 797,539 3795,635 1,965,493 1,484,854 743,399 746,068 1,083,212 4,672,812 3,461,370 1,955,060 1,387,643 735,207 948,734 4,986,260 3,056,759 1,974,854 2,234,354 773,627 767,401 5,641,993 3,232,738 1,819,061 3,181,915 627,050 782,933 6,273,949 3,938,450 1,990,781 2,404,003 687,197 988,662 5,890,666 3,717,489 2,181,336 2,770,178 953.545 1,066,390 5,760,869 3,310,042 2,471,904 4,025,159 860,986 994.654 7,392,869 5,354,976 2,491,668 2,989,836 1,023,638 889,079 8,169,966 6,772,496 2,461,544 2,938,858 1,037,926 4G4 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. CHAPTER V, PRINCIPAL IMPORTS. Of the imports into Japan machineries, iron ware, petroleum, sugar, raw cottou, cotton fabrics, woollen gouJs, etc. are the princi- pal items. Of the machines locomotives and mules surpass all the rest, the former coming from England and the United States and the latter from England. Iron ware come from the United States, and Russian Asia ; sugar from China, Hongkong, and Germany ; ginned cotton irom the United States, Hongkong and British India ; cotton goods from England and Germany ; woollen goods irom England, Germany, Belgium, and France. The advance in the import of all thjse articles is due to the development of our industry and to the rise of the scale of living of our people. Among those goodiS, there are many which Japan has begun to manufacture or is about to manufacture with the exception of woollen goods, so that though the import of raw materials or others ministering to one or another manu- facturing industry in this country is destined to advance, tliat of manufactured goods may be expected to decline. Details regarding the value of principal imports are given in the following table: — TOTAL VALUE OF COMMODITIES IMPORTED. (unit : oiyen). Year. Locomotive Liij;iiicb. l-resh E Egs. Salted Kisli. Flour. Aniline Dyes. iJry Indiijo. i8C8 ... ? 1 ? ? V 1,743 1869 ... ? 1 ? ? ? 4,75!5 1870 ... ? ? ? ? ? S,S46 Principal Imports. 4C5 Locomotive Salted Aniline Dry Year. Engines. Fresh Eggs. Fish. Flour. Dyes. Indigo. 1871 ... ? ? 21 ? ? 20,859 1872 ... ? 379 ? ? 28,724 1873 ... ? ? 267 ? ? 3,187 1874 ... ? ? 471 ? ? 968 1875 ... ? ? 389 ? ? 6,689 1876 ... 612 ? p 4,353 1877 ... ? 29S ? ? 7.094 1878 ... ? 328 ? ? 7.365 1879 ... ? 3,875 ? ? 9,098 1880 ... ? 1.135 ? ■> 2,902 18S1 ... ? 10,299 ) ? 9,272 1882 ... ? 4,514 " > ? 12,638 1883 ... 21,842 8,367 > 137.059 34.678 1SS4 ... 60,222 21,979 1,458 > 144.375 1,381 1885 ... 93.292 21, 8:0 728 ? 142,432 6.343 1886 . . 90,090 38,4-"-i 862 ? 185,335 85.518 1887 ... 95,52.T 46,0^8 760 ? 266,635 56.654 1SS8 ... 301,197 45,596 3,765 ? 367,042 155.721 1889 ... 284,144 28,821 4,582 ? 293.234 250,471 1890 ... 659,604 31.370 5,260 226,157 349,579 201,071 1S91 ... 595.474 33,442 10,928 340.540 386,604 186,857 1892 ... 200,418 70,444 12,064 275,092 418,482 386,193 1893 ... 356,534 108,056 44.203 319.659 405,047 444,208 1S94 ... ... 1,580,273 56,119 63.198 619,009 543.494 329,861 1895 •- ... 1,163,695 95,207 107,145 406,855 682,138 581,370 1896 ... ... 1,620,768 300,389 231,035 994,202 1,139,929 1,067,257 1897 ... ... 4,235.617 337,769 495,907 1,156,569 931,197 1,538,022 1S98 ... ... 4,282,502 492,553 609,736 2,022,413 1,218,842 2,270,815 1S99 ... ... 1,968,374 826,960 1,212,896 1,370,857 904,013 2,903,82s 1900 ... ... 1,089,209 1,243,065 2,184,846 3,882,517 1,328,751 3,902,559 1901 ... ... 1.749,408 1,298,611 1,442,790 2,873,302 884,884 2,665,043 1902 ... ... 1,708,014 1.19 6,455 2,011,487 3,27 8.324 1,653,220 3,097,981 4C6 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Year. i85S _ 1869... 1870... 1871 .. 1872... 1873 .. 1874 .. 1S75 .. 1876.., 1877.., 1878.., 1879.., 1880.. 1 881 ., 1882 ., 1S83- 1884.. 1885 . 1S86.; 1887 . i8S3.. 18S9.. 1890.. 1891.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897. • 1898.. 1899, 1900 , 1901.. igo2.. Window Glass. Soja Beans. Rice. Sole Leather. Pig Iron. Iron, Bnr and R( d. 10,144 ? 435,956 ? 16,732 ? I9P43 ? 4,431,885 ? 16,902 ? 15,616 ? 14,598,114 ? 4,406 32,232 ? 1,260,179 ? 18,519 452,586 ? ? ? 2,339 io3,32'S ? 29,785 ? 23,491 55,654 ? 24,366 ? 38,981 58,495 ? 22,226 ? 91,063 ? 100,570 ? 590 ? 18,015 ? 91,885 ? 300 ? 40,734 ? 101,337 ? 66 ? 44,786 ? 68,453 ? 248,271 ? 31,621 ? 105,463 ? 434,315 ? 82,402 ? 98,112 ? 134,838 ? 112,338 ? 36,569 ? 20,134 ? 95,438 ? 137,628 ? 69 87,384 116,044 404,590 97,485 ? ",529 137,417 88,436 301,852 109,455 ? 674,330 166,986 105,843 296,348 186,405 ? 18,757 143,471 101,034 396,720 116,075 ? 129,315 260,437 118,369 447,101 160,995 ? 21,628 290,664 397,165 749,916 257,248 ? 136,756 310,922 164,148 842,511 202,638 ? 12,302,884 234.380 185,948 830,116 300,160 ? 3,907,991 243,503 199,209 870,410 160,594 ? 2,052,901 219,430 241,317 871,702 359,315 ? 3,254,843 215,702 446,477 975,787 246,033 ? 8,413,148 281,782 743,553 1,339,034 309,802 ? 4,357,096 497,774 673,796 ■ 2,085,684 570,442 ? 5,662,337 576,584 739,556 2,399.705 488,090 5,450-878 21,528,429 462,524 934,010 3,046,132 669,807 6,291,064 48,219,810 716,879 1,381,443 4,061,805 1,25^,577 7,891,928 5,960,166 549,029 965,544 2,603,676 952,919 4,425,079 9,021,536 984,798 962,910 5,243,408 1.084,833 5,177,360 11,878,958 590,713 1,593,311 3.511,756 1,581,071 4,956,009 17,750,817 531,392 982,326 3,519,1-6 Principal Imports. 4G7 Year. 1868 .. 1869... 1870... 1871 „ 1872 .. 1873... 1874 ■■ 1875 .. 1876 1877.., 1878.. 1879 ., 18S0 .. iSSi.. 1882.. 1883.. 1884. 1885.. 1886 ., 1887., 1888 1889.. 1890 . 1891 . 1892.. 1893 ■■ 1894 • 1895.. 1896 1897.. 1898.. 1S99.. 1900 . 1901., 1902,. Rails. Iron, Plate and Sheet. (Jalvanized Iron Sheet. Iron Pipes and Tubes. Iron Nails. Iron Wire and Small Rod. •> ? ? ? ? 2,858 9 1 ? ? y 9,748 ? ? ? ? ? •8,373 1 y ? 9 9 > 3,406 '! ? ? ? ? 24,780 ? ? J ? ? 12,586 1 ? ? 13,199 ? 52,428 9 ? ? 9,600 ? 33,222 9 ? ? 10,969 ? 33,260 9 ? ? 18,167 ? 39,577 9 ? ? 20,286 ? 56,744 ? ? ? 31,438 ? 40,959 162,915 ? ? 23,014 ? 55,989 109.047 ? ? 24,828 ? 38,072 247-638 ? ? 26,016 ? 60,481 43,386 189,903 ? 19,954 263,905 116,959 174,998 186,391 5,515 16,933 294,729 115,993 361,497 166,797 19,683 19,738 414,739 79,462 497,816 211,010 19,536 34.0JI 456,499 65,008 653,534 218,932 27,531 334,015 393,840 75,650 1,462,429 219,812 57,874 71,589 875,709 75,037 686,871 335,910 78,975 203,110 799,840 87,347 1,259,381 314,067 73,025 166,536 693,791 80,561 700,538 298,007 62,836 106,592 656,179 59,736 67,438 240,584 80,157 55,815 905,422 114,111 667,108 330,098 121,011 122,886 887,790 93,791 1,209,205 726,739 156,740 484,086 1,332,638 86,074 925,531 918,459 "2,743 604,753 1,278,056 143,318 2,595,459 1,336,885 310,190 891,339 1,440,254 129,987 3,325,005 1,175,266 541,194 894,582 1,458,294 181,079 2,631,721 ^,405,855 464,466 1,332,940 1,150,343 119,924 435,054 2,220,415 902,596 953,435 2,223,432 410,582 4,753,371 4,080,543 1,323,316 2,956,216 2,181,064 i,ioS,8io 1,612,540 2,032,651 703,654 1,591,680 1,364,668 332,751 1,662,700 2,442,791 1,273,640 1,073,638 1,451,125 279,399 Note : - Prior to 1898, the value of imported goods was the original price at the place of their purchase, but, since -that year, the cost of insurance, transportation, packing charges and all other expenses incurred up to the time of the arrival al the destination have been added to it. 4GS Japan in the Beginning of tite 20th Century. Year. T,„i „, »,i,-»iateriaisoi i^eaa, rig, Telegraph g^j^^^^ ^^^ j^^^^ ^„^ ^^ ""■ Buildings. blab. 1 ecroieum or Kero- sene Oil. Printing Paper. Sugai. i863 ... . ? ? 107,327 7,236 7 529,313 1869 ... . ? ? 134,021 1,663 ? 1,090,894 1870 ... . ? ? 30,618 21,516 ? 2,317,921 1871 ... . ? ? 17,229 72,170 ? 2,188,314 1872... . ? ? ? i6o,6oS ? 1,156,697 1873... ■ ? 7 2,222 330,599 ? 1,599,960 1874... ? ? 8,187 , 306,723 ? 1,838,935 1875 ... ? ? 24,634 573,671 7 2,582,890 1876... ? ? 63,771 444,134 •? 2,185,982 1877 ... ? ? 287,775 605,598 1 2,105,026 1S7S... ? ? 187,595 1,80^,076 ? 2,222,975 1879... ? ? 104,655 2,185,224 ? 2,375,757 18S0 .. 58,611 ? 51,134 1,400,471 ? 2,480,580 i38i ... 13,976 ? 87,208 979,112 7 2,287,158 1882... 1,759 ? 46,796 2,3:0,905 7 2,887,888 1883... 30,1" ? 134,387 2,456,261 38,159 2,581,639 1834 ... 2,104 1 67,958 1,773,361 21,264 2,917,032 1885 ... 93 1 16,678 1,667,722 24,729 2,144,291 18S6... 2,935 9 71,667 2,358,498 62,383 1,928,698 1887... 2,837 ? 108,835 1,871,428 115,171 2,418,89s 18SS .. 27,745 ? 201,252 3,519,255 387,682 2,428,608 1S89 ... 33,549 ? 173,487 4,587,135 178,335 2,078,136 1890... 74,357 ? 85,425 4,950,256 413,486 2,974,074 £891 ... 60,286 ? 104,0:8 4,535,720 159,622 2,461,625 1892... 89,294 ? 245,383 3,328,398 217,310 2,810,331 1893 •.. 121,986 ? i49>328 4,401,041 217,695 3,514,720 1894 •• 142,215 ? 177,638 5,135,332 257,857 4,551,848 1895 -. 205,714 J 313,632 4,303,929 307,699 4,074,241 189O ... 506,490 579,520 257,383 6,331,036 723,438 3,480,588 1897 ... ... 477,775 937,379 257,805 7,667,350 856,957 4,809,455 1S9S... 408,842 1,508,562 365,202 7,552,880 2,283,215 7,333,700 1899... 817,200 285,842 412,155 .7,918,149 748,414 8,359,736 1900 ... ... 1,695,575 1,880,314 927,152 14,162,652 2,036,844 11,007,634 1901 ... 683,658 1,481,153 876,228 14,943,401 864,041 12,381,466 iyo2 ... 799,983 341,797 510,713 14,937,169 I/02,S62 8778,657 Principal Imports. 4C9 Year. Sugar Refined. Ginned Raw ( Cotton. Raw "otton in tlie Seed. Cotton Yarns. Cotton Flannel. Cotton Prints. 1868 ... . 356.836 421,874 ? 1,239,580 ? 77,051 1869 ... 531.340 1,037,992 ? 3,418,148 ? 109,882 1870 ... 729.832 628,308 ? 4,522,194 ? 200,097 1S71 ... , 845.777 206,799 ? 3.520,141 9 216,602 1C72 ... 533,508 85.703 ? 5.335,141 ? 210,354 .1873 -. 576,012 264,430 ? 3,400,225 ? - 2z;6,i86 1874 ... 7o6.,iSo 1,091.447 ? 3,573,257 ? 104,509 187s ... 842,574 371,132 ? 4,058,036 ? 195,554 1S76 ... 595.388 456,362 ? 4,151,664 ? 207,067 1877 ... 688,653 418,125 ? 4,084,714 ? 196,247 1S78 ... 666,631 287,641 ? 7,205,931 ? 282,775 aS79 ... 974.168 101,603 9 6.179,857 ? 179,377 1880 ... 1,055,067 170,639 ? 7.700,477 9 392,539 1881 ... ... 1,444.434 196,721 ? 7,263,776 ? 407,038 1882 ... - 1.557.908 467,249 ? 6,562,012 ? 107.442 J883 ... 1,810,707 247.506 ? 6,164,721 ? 233,197 JSS4 ... ... 2,452,516 561,262 9 5,153,252 9 244.634 1885 ... ... 2,527,168 601,778 207,294 5,190,095 ? 208,191 1886 ... ... 3,641.226 618,429 76,657 5,905,457 ? 145.957 1887 ... ... 3,318,503 711,952 202,016 8,235,204 ? 318,375 1888 ... ... 4,451,681 1,652,244 569.52s 13,611,898 ? 389,070 1SS9 ... ... 4,151,356 3,464,326 2,204,512 12,522,039 ? 398,560 1S90 ... ... 5,436,068 4,134.790 1,230,363 9,928,092 ? 478,463 1891 ... ... 5,289,387 6,998,534 1,200,717 5.589,290 ? 140,905 1892 ... ... 6,724,254 1 1,026,637 1,298,017 7,131,980 ? 436,54s 1893 -.. ... 7,957,211 15,294,898 856,673 7,284,243 ? 635,903 1894 ... ... 8,707,392 19,103,923 506,838 7,977,366 ? 521,697 1895 ... 7,673.018 24,304,814 517,283 7,082,975 ? 383,365 1896 ... ... 10,263,358 32,106,276 467,076 11,371.950 ? 1,193,162 1897 ... ... 15,013,320 43,122,263 497.952 9,625,258 252,929 986,443 1898 ... ... 21,105,595 45,410,457 333,914 8.547.589 602,781 1,176,789 1899 ... ... 9,156.303 61,365.755 844,962 4.963,326 797,425 1,438,245 1900 ... ... 15,598,894 58,500,002 971,627 7,043,046 1,515,409 2,002,732 1901 ... ... 21,111,901 59.799,300 851,062 4,873,738 234,672 680,468 B902 ... ... 5,589,157 78,779.858 1,004,914 1,747.875 704,812 2,602,032 470 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century, Woolen and Year. 1869 .. 1870... 1871... 1872... 1873... 1874.., 1S75... 1876... 1877... 1878.. 1S79.. iSSo.. 1S81.. 1SS2.. 1S83.. 1S84.. 1885.. 1 886.. 1887.. 18S8.. 18S9.. 1890.. 1S91.. 1S92.. 1893.. 1S94.. 189s ■■ 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899 . 1900.. 1901.. igo2.. Cotton Satins. Gray Shirtings. White Shirtings. Wool. Worsted Yarns of All Kinds. Flannels, 355 1,504,78s ? ? ? io,745' 1,565 1,666,241 407 ? ? 5,49s 130 1,727,037 — ' ? 8,099- — 4,362,020 49,398 y 8,514 308,698 3,117,956 20,052 ? 105,324^ 294,870 3,043,702 60,325 ? ?74,o32- 74,987 3,594,994 27,770 498 30,229. 218,739 2,425,676 44,646 149 45,695 201,397 2,187,265 29,235 4,790 39,896- 271,023 1,835,213 64,335 ? 879 130,578 294,465 1,881,821 85,961 ? 1,448 170,983. 356,158 3,359.593 68,958 ? 1,231 34,358- 478,259 2,208,711 102,738 ? 3,639 28,348- 416,458 1,914,316 103,738 ? 2,022 60,317 96,179 2,426,822 94,676 p 4,043 105,785 157,843 1,092,743 115,951 89,845 2,994 94.583- 98,547 855,920 120,796 42,519 2,323 172,588 103,148 1,233,746 98,814 75,385 10,218 287,182 47,994 848,370 120,851 150,002 60,831 318,180- 198,991 1,169,817 266,800 189,899 255,302 323,720 298,761 2,332,564 212,652 300,369 165,295 549,357 189,583 2,010,715 174,125 302,085 256,112 1,029,986 231,592 1,716,981 225,889 369,914 494,316 927,562 135,880 1,656,681 216,895 206,548 168,385 406,860 525,658 1,727,186 330,559 302,502 427,993 1,073,743 855,398 2,315,124 168,305 425,120 513,930 1,389,714 1,266,151 2,935.034 337,607 567,197 563,501 308,834 794,136 3,071,496 505,720 1,136,951 951,035 961,332 2,610,925 4,057,692 655,449 1,017,441 1,114,872 1,997,245- 1,796,973 3.783.309 250,864 1,062,398 1,337,424 1,187,656- 1,645,229 4,382,509 708,348 1,642,819 785,192 1,360,038 949,750 3,575,191 517,808 4,324,427 593,338 374,959-' 3,662,638 5,558,004 1,325.142 3,919,413 1,798,535 917,932 1,684,497 2,991,651 575.743 3,127,760 866,760 313,297 1,788,536 5,070,651 1,191,777 3,3 97,564 922,147 487,3SO' Principa/ Impovtx 471 Woolen and Flush or Italian Cloths. IMoLisscline Woolen and Worsted Velvets, Year. de Laine of Worsted Cloths in Silk and All Ivinds. Cloths. Part of Cotton Cotton. Mixture. i86S ... 2,786 73,:;7S 235,345 ? ? 1869 ... — — 606,171 ? ? 1870 ... 42,617 — 646,306 ? ? 1871 ... 17,759 — 840,039 ? ? 1872 ... — — 3,036,480 ? ? 1873 - •• 155,599 1,076,/; 44 1,320,896 ? ? 1874 ■■• 50,616 981,237 112,887 ? ? 1875 .■■• 214,695 2,393,158 530,868 ? ? 1876 ... 188,480 2,263,273 594,601 ? ? 1877 ... 496,081 2,373,621 684,936 ? ? 1878 ... 339,814 2,693,767 702,653 ? ? 1879 ... 651,929 3,126,043 212,109 ? ? 1880 ... ... 898,429 3,478,057 188,484 ? ? 1881 ... 531,827 2,709,341 89,235 ? ? 18S2 ... 573,495 1,221,785 181,881 ? ? 18S3 ... 995,091 1,618,072 192,121 80,578 ? 1884 ... 450,338 1,859,998 467,642 68,072 ? 1885 ... 828,055 906,617 391,905 82^0 ? 1886 ... - 857,537 830,774 615,574 198,547 ? 1887 ... 921,662 1,126,675 1,402,809 501,928 ? i883 ... ... 1,485,059 2,364,092 1,041,539 225,264 > 1S89 ... ... 1,378,852 1,979,344 606,323 195,825 ? 1890 ... ... 1,686,642 2,784,393 901,130 155,198 ? 1891 ... ... 1,846,328 1,891,884 432,001 64,946 > 1892 ... ... 1,062,572 2,448,900 640,41 7 196,618 ? 1893 - • - 1,489,305 2,305,506 801,408 3-8,799 ? 1S94 ... • •■ 1,759,796 3,150,823 641,270 175,559 ? 189s - 921,741 3,633,468 2,951,042 169,266 ? 1896 ... ... 2,813,097 6,498,162 3,407,151 706,902 136,470 1897 ... ... 1,815,582 3,835,881 1,943,532 290,544 325,647 1898 ... ... 1,068,270 4,408,753 2,803,607 444,144 599,495 1899 ... ... 1,132,57s 4,350,934 2,004,198 531,554 675,231 1900 ... ... 1,120,737 7,364,991 2,969,763 2,437,123 984,93s . 1901 ... 601,439 3,339,121 1,318,162 901,395 379,402 1902 ... ... 1,181,175 3,754,836 2,000,012 1,430,034 631,233 472 Japan in tlw Beginning oj the 20th Century. Year. riax, nerap, Jute and China Grass. Leaf- ToLiaceo. Coal. Oil-Cakes. iS6S ? ? 33,754 537 1S69 39 ? 96,739 669 1870 ..: — ? 24,963 50,765 1871 78 145,237 102,333 1872 — r 179,758 3,738 1873 15,298 ? 236,711 1,354 1874 11,385 99,960 24,626 1875 6,836 147,513 io,goo 1876 3,695 193,601 408 1877 4,232 " 159,073 40 1878 9,975 > 257,122 25,036 1879 58,551 ? 164,636 118,965 1880 .. .. 88,199 ? 156,227 233,110 1881 62,970 ? 256,625 29,335 1682... .. 34,966 ? 149,716 44,468 1883 18,399 ? 103,322 11,802 1884 20,132 > 21,685 361 1885 . ... 20,139 85,038 21,672 1S86 . ... 23,413 65,383 965 1887 . ... 50,292 65,27s 229,687 1S88 . ... 88,069 ? 29,880 164,193 i889(... . . ... 93,6" ? 40,015 201,953 1890... . . ... 139,777 ? 110,497 194,296 1891... . . ... 149,661 ? 142,918 355,989 1892... . . ... 213,217 ? 105,380 824,652 1893... . . ... 326,337 ? 81,707 599,893 1894- ■■ ■ 537,925 ? 472,757 822,195 1895- • 645,841 J 853,080 946,028 1S96... . 708,162 35,537 519,380 3,220,600 1897... ■ .. ... 654,791 320,854 57^,570 3,315,587 1898... . 590,517 4,527,660 399,189 4,614,967 1899... 1,245,049 5,086,354 937,094 6,791,813 1900... 1,700,409 454,293 2,100,054 5,722,764 1901... 1,370,183 30,272 2,542,133 8,115,908 1902... 1,602,799 c ,56,817 1,298,374 10,121,712 Pro-visions for Encouraging/ Foreign Trade. 473 CHAPTER VL PROVISIONS FOR ENCOURAGING FOREIGN TRADE. 1. Chambers of commerce : — Commercial and industrial bodies discharging the functions of regular chambers of commerce had pre- viously existed in Japan even prior to the Restoration, but as an institution owing its origin to regular legislative arrangements the Chamber of Commerce first saw the light in September 1890. Since that time 58 chambers have already been established throughout the country. The regulations about the Chambers of Commerce having proved defective in working, officials were sent to the West to investigate the organization of the institutions as they existed there. A draft was drawn up after careful investigations by the Government and leading business-men into the system of the Western organizations of this description, and a new law was promulgated in March 1902, this law being now in force. To enumerate the principal clauses in the new legislature, the Chamber is ; (1) a juridical person ; (2) qualified to investigate all measures calculated to encourage trade and industry; (3) to repres^-nt to the offices concerned its views about legislature relating to trade and industry and also on all matters relating to the interests of trade and industry ; (4) to give reply to the queries referred to it by the offices concerned ; (5) to inquire into the situation of trjide and industry and to compile statistics bearing on the same subject ; (6) to undertake similar inquiries at the request of merchants or manufac- turers, and also to gurantee the place of produce, price, etc., of commodities ; (7) to appoint, at the request of Government offices, appraisers or consulting agents relating to trade or industry ; (8) to act as arbitrator in disputes of merchants or manufacturers at request of the parties concerned; (9) to establish, subject to the approval of the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, institutions of a commercial or industrial character or to manage them or to make other provisions calculated to encourage trade or industry. The right of election and the right of eligibility for member- 474 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. ship are confiiied only to Japanese subjects or to juridical persons established under Japanese laws. The right of election is accorded to those who are carrying on in their own names business coming under Arts. 2G3 and 2G-i of the Commercial Code ; or those who arc engaged in manufacturing business coming under those provisions, also to exchanges, mine-owners, and directors of juridical persons undertaking business on a large scale. The qualifications for ihe .enjoyment of the right are precisely specified and only those who possess the right are eligible. The regular number of members must not be more than 50; besides there are "special members" not exceeding one-fifth of the number of regular members. The election is carried on according to the method of ordinary election, compound election and class-election. The expenses for maintaining chambers are to be borne by those enjoying the right of election. Besides the chambers existing at home, the Japanese subjects residing in the various part of Korea, as Fusan, Mukpho, Gensan and Jinsen have chambers of their' own. Though their establishment is subject to the approval of the Japanese Consuls, those chambers do not come under the control of Japanese laws. A number of legislative measures besides the Law of Chambers of Commerce are in force, to regulate matters relating to the institution. 2. The Highee Council op Ageicultuee, Commerce ani> Industey. — The Government does not neglect to make provisions calculated for encouraging foreign trade, on the contrary it has set apart since the 1896-'97 an item of foreign trade expansion expense in the Budget. One of such provisions was the creation of the Higher Council of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry established in 1896 with the object of devising measures for encouraging foreign trade. The council is composed of twenty members apart from a chairman and a vice-chairman. Of the members five are officials of the Departments of Agriculture and Commerce, Foreign Affairs, Finance, and Communications, and the remaining fifteen are business men of note. At first the council deliberated on matters relating to foreign trade alone, as may be seen from the subjects placed before it for deliberation by the Department of Agriculture and' Commercie in its first session. Those subjects were as follows : — matters relating to (1) the dispatch of commissioners to the Yangtesking region of Provisions for Encouraging Foreijn Trade. 475 China to investigtite the navigation route there, (2) the expansion of bank- ing facilities in connection with foreign trade, (3) the establishment of bonded warehouses under supervision of the Customs Houses, (4) the ex- pansion of sale of the principal exports, (5) correspondence on the situation of foreign markets, (6) marine insurance, (7) control and protection of workmen (the above were placed before the 189 G session of the Diet), (8) the operation of the gold monometallic system and its eifect on agriculture, commerce and industry at home, (9) its effect on foreign trade, (10) the measures to be adopted for minimizing the evil side and for increasing the beneficial side of that effect, (11) en- couragement of the business of tea exporting, (12) encouragement of exportation of silk (the above were principal subjects discussed in the second session held in 1897.) The council also deliberated, on sundry other matters at its own initiation and passed a resolution, to give one of such instances, totally abolishing export duties. In June, 1897, the organization of the council was amended so as to allow it to deliberate on matters relating to domestic trade as well as on matters relating to foreign trade. The number of the the members was at the same time increased from 20 to 30. 3. Inspection of Foreign Markets. — The Government has been dispatching from 1895 a number of officials and commissioners to foreign countries to cause them to investigate the state of the foreign markets, especially with the object of promoting direct export by our merchants, and also inquiring into other matters calculated to further the interests of foreign trade. Basides Government officials, student commercial agents and student manufacturers, and private individuals experienced in respective lines of trade were despatched on similar missions, the chambers supplying them with either a part or the whole of the travelling expenses. During the eight years from the 1895 to 1901 fiscal years altogether 124 people were sent abroad, some of them to China, others to Europe, and still others to North and South America, and a few to the South Seas, the Strait Settlements, Siberia, Korea, India, the Philippines, etc. 4. Industrial Guilds. — An outline history of regislativc measures relating to industrial guilds having been given in a section of Agriculture, a brief survey of the formation of guilds of industrial and commercial interests may be sufficient in this place. 476 Japan in the beginning oj the 20lh Century. As matters relating to the guilds were left outside tlie controi of Government offices prior to 1884 when rules were enacted requir- ing the approval of the authorities in forming a guild, it is not possible to ascertain how many guilds of different interests had previously existed throughout the country. The returns drawn up in November 1886 first supply reliable information on this subject. The number was as follows at that time : — Commercial Guilds 62S Industrial Guilds 404 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 547 Total 1,579 On the issue of the Staple Exports Guild Law in 1897, a numbers of guilds organized under the former regulations were aboli- shed, so that at the end of 1889 the guilds numbered as follow : — Commercial Guilds 538 Industrial Guilds 442 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 1S8 Total 1,168 The replacement of the Law in question by the Staple Commodi- ties Law in 1900 was again followed by change in the figures, thus : — Commercial Guilds 529 Industrial Guilds 433 Commercial and Industrial Guilds 187 Total 1,149 Of the foregoing number of guilds quite a large portion have been established in conformity with the Staple Export Guilds Law and its suscessor the Staple Commodities Guild Law. This is showfs in the following table: — Year. <^°'"- mercial. In- dustrial. Com. & In'al. Total. Dis- solved. Nimilier exlsiuig. 1898 18 ■18 24 to — 60 1899 27 26 52 103 — 165 190) 18 13 43 71 2 2,57 1901 10 II 21 42 4 275 As existing at the end of 1 901... 73 62 140 — _. — ■ Provmons for Encouraging foreign Trade. 477 According to the returns made in July, 1902, tlie guilds engiiged in tl)c manufacturing business numbered 61, and those in sales and in manufacture and sales numbered respectively 66 and 150. 5. Student CoiiMEECiAii Agents and MANUFACxunERS. — These constitute one of the regular measures adopted since 1896 as a means of expanding our foreign trade. The object is to send abroad cnpable )-oung men so that they can get a practical training either at commercial establishments or in factories. The candidates are selected from among those recommended by leading business-men and other influential people of the provinces. A certain amount of pecuniary help is given to the students, though there are some who decline it. All those students, whether receiving help or not, are under the control of our nearest legations or consulates, and the students receiving help are obliged to regularly send a report to the home Government about the given subjects which they are intended to be studying. The number of students and the jilaces where they got training were as follows: — 1896 — 10 ; one each at Mexico, Germany, England, France, China, five at the United States of America. 1897 — 13 (10 continued from the preceding year) ; one at Bombay, two additional at U.S. A ; the rest as above. 1898 — 16 (13 continued from the preceding year, 4 new, and 2 not receiving help) : one each at Mexico, Germany, England, British India, three each at China and France, eight at U.S.A. 1899 — 47 (15 continued from the preceding year, 27 new, 5 not receiving help) : one each at Mexico, England, Belgium, Eussia, Siberia, Australia, British India ; six at France, five at Germany ; 15 at U.S. America ; 12 at China. 1900 — 58 (32 continued from the preceding year, 24 new, 2 not receiving help) ; 16 at U. S. America ; 12 at France, six at German)', two each at England, Russia and Siberia, one each at Belgium and Australia, 14 at China. 1901—97 (31 continued from the preceding year, 59 new, and 7 without receiving help) ; 11 each at France and Germany, two each at British Canada, Mexico, Peru, Strait Settlements, and Java, three each at Belgium, Hongkong and Australia, Siberia, one each at Eussia, Switzerland, and Philippines, 14 at U. S. America, 25 at China. 478 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20J/» Century. 6. CoMMEEcrAL SAMPLES MusEUM. — Japan pcBsesses 38 com- mercial samples museums, not to mention those that are now being set up. The Commercial Museum established in premises of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce being the most important of the institutions of this description though not the oldest, deserves to be described here at some length. It was established eight years ago, and contains 23,161 samples of -which 12,756 are of foreign and the remaining 10,405 of domestic origin. Besides, there are 4,188 by foreigneri and Japanese. The samples collected by the Museum comprise in jegard to domestic produce, commodities that now constitute the principal items of export or are likely to become so in the near future, also those that are competing with imported goods on our market or are qualified to do so. As to the foreign samples collected, they represent commodities of principal import or those that are likely to become so, or those that are actually competing or are likely to do so on foreign markets with the goods exported from .Japan. Then samples judged to represent the situation of our industry in all its manifold forms are also placed on view in the Museum, as also raw materials of all descriptions both foreign and Japanese, that are judged capable of being exploited with profit in Japan. The Museum keeps in touch with the movement of our trade and with the situation of all important commodities, and while it servos as a medium of presenting in a business-like way all the succinot points which foreign merchants or manufacturers may wish to know about our goods in opening regular transaction with our merchants or manufacturers, the latter are similarly supplied with all the necessary information about foreign goods. This intermediary function playetl by the. Museum is highly appreciated both by our countrymen as well as by foreigners, so that while the Museum keeps up at the request of our people correspondence with Japanese consulates, foreign museums and such bodies so as to find for their goods suitable markets abroad, the institution extends to similar applications coming from foreign countries an equal amount of attention and satisfaction. In short the Museum is now widely regarded as one of the most convenient institutions both by Japanese and foreigners for keeping Provisions for Eneouragiiig Foreijn Trade. 479 tlicmselves in touch with the situation of commerce and industry both at home and abroad. With this growing importance of the Museum, the number of samples either presented by Japanese or foreigners or of applications from them to place their samples on view has began to increase to a marked extent, and the Museum is even now embarrassed to find room for those samples. This is indeed a great advance on the time when the Museum experienced no small difficulty in inducing Japanese or foreign merchants or manufacturers to send samples of their goods to be exhibited in its rooms. The Museum makes a loan of its exhibits or sometimes spares a number of its exhibits to local museums or shows with the object of more widely extending the benefit for which it was established. It also keeps up a regular correspondence with foreign museums or commercial schools, exchanges printed matters with them, and in short spares no pains for efficiently discharging its function. 7. Commercial Sample Museums Abroad. — The establish- ment of commercial sample museums in foreign countries was another item included in the foreign trade expansion programme inaugurated in 1895. The museums are placed under the control of the Japanese Consulates and are left in charge of merchants properly qualified for th6 purpose and also qualified to act as a medium for the conclusion of transactions between Japanese and foreign merchants or manufacturers. The museums thus organized numberotl six in the opening year, and were established at Vladivostock, Odessa, Bombay, Singapore, Shasi, and Mexico. In the following year one was established at Amoy. From that time till the 1902 fiscal year several others have been started at different places, but as some whose existence was not justified by results, have been closed, at the end of the year in question the official museums existed at the following places, viz. Shasi, Hangkow, Chunking, Bombay, Newchwang, Singapore, and Bangkok. At the same time a number of private sample museums have been granted state aids, these being the Ping- Yang-Hong at Fuchow, Seoul Commercial Museum at the Korean capital, the Japan-China Commercial Museum at Shanghai, and one at Constantinople. It may be stated that the samples on view at the official commercial museums comprise articles either purchased by 480 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. the Government or articles presented by mercliants or manufactKrors concerned. 8. EXPEEIJIEXTAL PEODUCTlOX OF 003IMERCIAL COMMODITIES. — Since 189G the Government has caused technical schools and workshops to undertake by trust tlie production of commodities at the reques: of the Government. The result of this experimental work cannot fail to improve and encourage the respective lines of industiy und it has been made public. 9. Industrial Eeports. — The Bureaux of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce concerned have been compiling reports since 1895 on industrial subjects respectively left in their charge, especially in their bearing to foreign markets and the situation of productio.i at home. These reports which are supplying a want long I'elt by all the public are being distributed among the Government Offices, public institutions, and business people. The subjects previously treated were cotton fabrics, umbrellas, wood-ware, rape-seed oil, wood, wax, copper and bronze- ware, silk fabrics, handkerchiefs and other silk-ware, rugs, porcelain and earthenware, cloisonne-ware; cotton yarns, straw-plaits, matches, glass-ware, matting, paper and paper- ware, lacquer-ware, screens, and fans. To this list cigarettes and other manufactured tobacco, brushes, iron-ware, buttons, clocks, sonji, cotton blankets, cotton knit-work, cement, cotton undershirts, stoeli:- iugs, beer, sake and other liquors, and soy have lately been added. Besides the reports forwarded by Japanese Consuls, student com- mercial agents and manufacturers, and also reports embodying the result of investigations made either at home or abroad on industrial matters, have been published and similarly distributed. Central Finances, 481 PART V. < ^ • » ■ FINANCES. CHAPTER I— Finances. Central Finances — Formosan Finances — Local Financos — Debts — Currency — Money Market— Banks — Clearing-Houses. I. CENTRAL FINANCES. Finances Befoee the Restoration. — Though circumstances made it comparatively easy of accomplishment the work of reinstat- ing the Imperial Government, nevertheless it involved in the adjust- ment of the finances labor of stupendous description. This was prin- cipally due to the necessity of unifying the different financial systems that had been followed for a long period by the 277 Feudal Fiefe. feudal daimyates that existed duiing the pre-Eestora- tion days, systems that were, too, in a state of extreme disorder and complication. The reason is because many of the feudal princes had been compelled by necessity to make various shifts, such as issuing fiat currency, minting debased coins, ordering the payment of taxes in advance or contracting loans. The debts for which the feudal princes thus made themselves responsible were enormous, and these devolved entirely on the Imperial GdVernment. On the other hand the revenue was in arears to an astonishing extent, for its only important resource, the Land Tax, did not supply more than one-tenth of the whole expenditure. The Government had therefore to fall back on issuing inconvertible notes to meet this deficit. For several years after the advent of the .Restoration,- tie finances remained in this deplorable condition. In the rQean>^hiJe 482 Japan in the Beginning of iJie 20th Century. the Government energetically strove to establish the taxation system on a regular and sound basis. For this the first thing that demanded attention was to definitely define in regard to land the right of fief formerly exercised by the feudal princes and the right of ownership by private individuals. As was generally the case in most other places where feudalism prevailed, this distinction was far from clear ; the princes besides exercising the right of control held at the same time a sort of right of ownership over all the land in their respec- tive dominions. The right of ownership was therefore rather the right of tenantry, and the tax or tenant-rate, paid with rice, was the principal source of revenue to the feudal princes. The rate of this so-called tax was not uniform ; but it was excessively heavy, ranging from 30 to 70 per cent, of the yield of the field. Some sort of tax was also imposed on manufacture, but this was of course insignificant. The revenue of the princes was principally devoted to maintain- ing their military organization and supporting their retainers. The farmers and merchants were therefore made iise of merely fts tool for supporting this unproductive class. The Shogunate. — The Shogunate was peculiarly situated in regard to finances. It exercised the power of control over the feudal princes, but it did not govern directly the people inhabiting the princes' fiefs as apportioned by the Shogunate. The people in those fiefs were not therefore obliged to pay any tax to the central Govern- ment, and all their duties in that direction ended with their respec- tive lords. The princes, however, were under obligation to discharge at their own expense the military and other services demanded by the Shogunate, and also to pay tribute, mostly nominal, to it. The ordinary revenue of the Shogunate consisted of the taxes levied in its own dominions, so that in this respect the Shogunate was iu a position no better than the feudal princes it had under its control. Indeed the Shogunate's revenue was even less than that of some powerful princes. Financial Difficulties of the Eestoeed Impjseial Govekn- MENT. — The Imperial Government therefore at once found itself confronted by a grave financial complication when, on the fall of the feudal system, the real right of administration passed into its Central Finances, 453 hand. Moverover the transfer of the power of the central ailmini- stration to the new Government in 1868 was not accompanied iu practice by that of the national revenue. Even the revenue that the Shogunate enjoyed did not wholly go to the revenue of the reha- bilitated Government, and yet it had to undertake the gigantic task of thoroughly reorganizing political and social institutions. It was necessary first of all to devise some financial arrangements which all those undertakings absolutely required. As the first step towards consummating these arrangements, the Govei'nment had to deal with the important question of the fiefs and pensions of the feudal princes and their retainers! This was the most delicate affair of all, inas- much as the restoration of the Imperial regime was by no means' ■welcomed by all sections of the people ; on the contrary some of them were, for one reason or another, bitterly opposed to it. Bat for accomplishing this grand work of the unification of administra- tion, which was the primary object of the reinstatement of the Imperial power, it was absolutely necessary to secure the compliance to it of all the influential quarters, and with their compliance to put all the important measures under the new political system. This mighty national movement was fortunately backed by all the powerful feudal princes, who in 1869 surrendered their fiefs of their own accord to the central Government, and thus laid the foundation of the present imposing fabric of the Imperial Government. With the enforcement in 1871 of the local system, the reality of administrative unification was first brought about. The privileges enjoyed by the feudal princes and their retainers were annuled, the whole country was placed under one and the same legislative measures, and all the distinctions of social rank and class were abolished. Private' Individuals and Ownership of Land. — With re- gard to the surrender of their fiefs by the feudal princes, which led to the clear setting up of the right of ownership of land by private individuals, those princes were actuated by the noble altruistic prin- ciple, acknowledging themselves as subjects of the sovereign and therefore not entitled to any sovereign right over land or to rule people who were subjects of the same rightful lord as themselves- On its own part, the reinstated Government, while maintaining its 4.84 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. authority in accordance with the advanced principles of law, appor- tioned in a fair and equitable manner the right of ownership of land to private individuals, and paved the way toward laying the foundation of sound finances. The duty of people as tax-payers was for the first time solved properly, and the burden of taxation was made uniform throughout the whole land. The Land Tax. — In establisliing the system of finance th& Government undertook first of all the re-arrangement of the Land Tax, and this is a measure which should remain prominent in the financial history of the Empire. It was 1871 that the measures relating to it were taken in hand. In 1873 a law embodying the result of the deliberations and investigations conducted in this connection was promulgated, but it was not till ten year later that the great work of reorganizing the tax had been completed. This taxation measure was one of special importance, in that it first established in a thorough manner the principle of the unification of the taxes. The principal features in the new Land Tax law were these ; — (a). The establishment in a firm and fixed way of the right of ownership of land by private individuals. When feudal system was abolished in European countries the central government had to pay a price for the fiefs held by the feudal lords, but in Japan the feudal lords were recom- pensed with public bonds when they were induced to surrender their dominions. (6). The removal of all the restrictions that had formerly existed in connection with the ownership of land by private indivi- duals. During the pre-Restoration days the purchase or sale of land by common people was forbidden ; nor were farmers left free in determining the crop they wished to cultivate in their land. The fact was as rice was used as medium for the pay- ment of the Land Tax, and as the production of this cereal was therefore regarded as the most important factor in the economy . of the various little states, the feudal governments were apt to interfere in the work of the farmers to the extent , of ordering the cultivation of rice even when, the soil was not- Central Finances. 485.^ suited for it. The new Law of Land Tax while confirming indisputably the right of individuals to own land, removed all j'estrictions on land, and allowed land-owners to sell or mortgage their land or to use it in any way they liked. The discontinuation of that pernicious practice of interference has enabled the farmers to utilize their land to the best ad- vantage, and to further the development of the national re-, sources. (c). The determination of the official value of land throughout ihe country. As the ijroducts of the land formed the basis of taxations in former times, the ta.\-gathere8 of each feudal government inspected every year the condition of the harvest in the domi- nions of such government and determined the rate of the tax payable for the year. There was no fixed rate. The new Goverumeut decided to determine the official value of the laud and to place the taxation on a basis at once sound and fair. It was a gigantic task, but with admirable energy the Govern- ment set about the work, and finally completed it in a com- paratively short space of time. The method adopted in determin- ing the official value consisted in taking the average harvest for five years, to convert it into money by taking the average price ruling in the same period, using that price as basis of capitalization and of hence determining the value of the land. The work was concluded in 1881. To carry the valuation to a state of greater perfection and fairness, the re-assessment was carried out in 1890. (rf). The payment of taxes with money. Taxes were formerly payable in kind, that is in rice or some other such produce. By the enforcement of the new law of taxation and the cessation of the quasi- tenantry nature of the Land Tax, the tax began to be paid with money and by fixed rate according to the official value of the land. All those changes have considerably reduced the burden of the farmers. The tax was at first fixed at 3 per cent, of the assessed value, but this was reduced to 2^ per cent, in 1877. After having remained unaltered for a long while the rate was 486 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. slightly raised, for five years ending 1903, tlie increase being at the rate of 2} per cent, of the assessed value for dwelling land in urban districts and 8/1,000 for other kinds of land' With the expiration of this period the rate was restored to the original rate, that is from 1904. Such is a brief history of the Land Tax ls,vr. It may be thought strange that this particular tax should have occupied such a promi- nent position in the finances of the Government in the early stage of its re-instatement. The reason is simply this, that Japan was at that time an almost purely agricultural country and all other forms of industry, such as manufactures, etc., were then in a very primitive state. Thus in the year when the assessment of the value of land was completed, the proceeds of the Land Tax amounted to 43,000,000' yen out of the total of 60,000,000 yen derived from all kinds of taxes. New Taxes. — ^With the progress of the country, however, demands on State disbursements necessarily advanced, and the- Government was obliged to seek some suitable sources from which new taxes could be collected. The sources from which taxes had been drawn during the pre-Restoration days were throughly investi- gated, and it was decided that some indirect taxes, should be imposed. The result was, in 1887 a new indirect tax, in the shape of an income tax was inaugurated. The Tax on Sake.- — Of the indirect taxes newly established, the tax on sake was, as it is still to-day, the most important. The system as enforced to-day consists in levying the tax according to the quantity of the liquor brewed, that is per Jcoku. The tax was- created in 1878. The rate of the tax has been advanced by rather rapid stages, and what was only 4 yen per koku before the adoption of the so-called post-bellum programme has been raised to 15 yen. Effect of the Japan-China War on National Finances. — Indeed the expansion of national finances since the Japan-China War has been something extraordinary. Pjior to that the ex- penditure amounted to about 80 million yen. In the 1896-'7 fiscal' year, when several post-bellum expansion measures had been in- augurated, the corresponding figures rose at one jump to 170 million yen, then to 220 million yen in the 1899-'8 year, 290 millions iu the 1900-'l year, and 280 millions in the 1902-'3 year. The war, in, Central Finances. 487 short, marKS a new era for our finances, as indeed for all otlier affairs in Japan both public and piivate. The post-bellum Programme. — The successful conduct of the post-bellum measures demanding the expansion of the finance hand in hand with the development of economic resources, the Government while raising taxes or floating loans, has not neglected to take sucli measures as were calculated to encourage the development of economic undertakings, such as the improvement of the monetary system or the establishment of additional important banking mecha- nisms. This subject of post-bellum finance covering wide field, it is im- possible to treat it here at any length, so that the reader who is interested in the subject is advised to consult the History of the Post-bellum Finance published in English by the Imperial Japanese Treasury. All that can be stated here about this great question will be merely categorical. Suffice it here to state that, of the large number of measures under- taken in that programme, the most important are the expansion of national armaments, the establishment of the Iron Foundery, the ex- pansion of the existing railroads and construction of the new, the expansion of the telephone and telegraphic service ; the creation of the Imperial Kyoto University and of additional Higher Schools and Technical and Commercial Institutes ; the establishment of the Japan Hypothec Bank, of Local Hypothec Banks, Hokkaido Colonial Bank and of the Formosan Bank ; and lastly several other measures for promoting agriculture, manufacture and trade ; and then engine- ering work for controlling unruly rivers. All those measures have been carried out with a view to developing the national resources and industries. It being impossible to meet with the proceeds of the ordinary revenue the enormous expenses involved in the undcvtakiiigs coi - templated, it was decided that the outlays on account of those extru" ordinary works should be met by means of the Indemnity and loans, and that the additional requirement on account of ordinary expendi- tures should be obtained by increased tax measures. In pursuance of this poiicy these measures were carried out in the 1896-'7 fiscal year, then in the 1898-'9 and lastly in the 1901-'2, the additional proceed from this new source being estimated to amount to 95 million yen, as will be demonstrated in the following paragraphs. 488 Japan in the Beginning of Hie 20th Century. The Tax on Sah6 that stood at the rate of 9 yen per koku in li§06 was raised to 12 in 1898 and 15 in 1901. The latest tax on liquor is that on beer which is at the rate of 7 yen per koku Tilt on Sfilcs The proceeds from the tax on all the different kuids of liquors amount to about £5 million yen, so that tliis source stands at the head of all direct or indirect taxes in the amount it yields to the revenue. The rate of the Land Tax increased in 1899 to 3.3 per cent of the assessed value brought in an adJitional revenue of about 8 million yen. but this addition was procurable for only five years end- ing 1903, when the rate was restored to the original 2-i per cent. One thing to be noted in this connection' is the marlied advance that has taken place recently in the price of rice, and hence of the capitalized value of land on which the tax is based, the present price being about threefold that prevailing on the occasion of the last assessment. Therefore even at the rate of 3.3 per cent, it practically amounts to only 1 per cent., when considered in connection with that advance. The Income Tax was at the same time advanced by 1 to 5J per cent but the creation of the Business Tax in 1896 was a far more important measure. This tax being extremely complicated in „ its assessment, all tliat can be ttated within the ness Taxes. ,. . , ,. , . , , limited space at our disposal is that the tax is imposed according to the proceeds realized from the sales of commodities, the amount of the rental of the buildings, of capital invested, the number of persons employed, etc. The tax is one of special importance in view of its relation to franchise, for a man who pays this tax above a certain limit is entitled to exercise this important riglit. The relation between the exercise of legislative functions, and the Business Tax has developed a new feature in the history of the national legislature, as it has led to the admission (as the Land Tax did in the case of agriculturists from the first) of the business classes to the exercise of this important privilege, and therefore to establisli some balance between agriculturists and business peojple in the privilege of national representation. The inauguration of the tobacco monopoly measure by discontinu- ing the former stamp duty on tobacco was another special fiuancial Central Finance. 489 'Totaceo Monopoly, feature incidental to the post-bellum pro- gramme. The monopoly originated from the idea of increasing the revenue from this source and of doing away with the complicated stamp duty and the license duty. The post-bellum programme has not confined itself, in regard to taxation, to creating new taxes or increasing the rate of the old, for it • has at the same time abolished some of the existing taxes and has generally simplified taxation. The existing taxes, besides those already enumerated, comprise exercise on sugar, soy tax, tax on the issue of convertible notes, tax on bourses, tax on mining, tonnage dues, tax on •Other Taxes, patent medicines, regisration tax, stamp duties, etc. Then there are proceeds from such Government under- takings as railroads and post and telegraph services, and the pro- •ceeds from this sources are steadily increacing. Customs duties were at first insignificant, for with the tariff fixed, under the then existing treaty, at 5 per cent, ad valorem, and with foreign trade remaining inactive, the receipts realized Customs Duties, did not for several years exceed 3 million yen. The development of the trade was naturally attended by a great increase in the amounts of custom receipts, and in 1898 the recipts, even under the old 5 per cent, rate, amounted to about "9 million yen. With the revision of the treaty in the following year, tariff autonomy was partially restored. At the same time export duties were entirely abolished, and the tariff was confined to imports alone. The tariff rate, according to the new arrangement, ranges from 6 to 35 per cent, ad valorem, and the enforcement of this new system was at once followed by a marked increase in the receipts. In the 1899 fiscal year, for instance, it amounted to about 16 million yen, and excepting the 13,600,000 yen in the 1901 fiscal year, that of the other three last years exceeded 16,500,000 yen, so that this -source now constitutes an important item in our national revenue. Even from the brief survey given above of the development of our taxation system, it will be seen how our financial system is growing more and more sound with the development of the national economy. At the beginning of the era, the Land Tax was pratically 'the sole resource oi revenue for the Government, while to-day the 400 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. list contains a large number of taxes seme of which even yield a. larger revenue than that primary tax. Financial Administration.— The reason why the taxation system has been here described at some length arises from our desire- to show the soundness of our finance and also because the financial system must occupy a place of special importance in any explana- tion of the national condition of the new Japan. For other aspects of our finances only a short notice will therefore be given. A brief description of the history of the management of the finances will not however be out of place here. As might have been expected, the financial system was extremely complicated in the beginning of the era, and no regulai- method existed with regard to financial administration. Each Department of the State was financially independent, and there was no unity in the State finances. On the enforcement in 1871 of the first local administration system, it was ar- ranged that all financial matters should be controlled by the Treasury, while, coming to 1873, a regular procedure was adopted for receipts and payment, and this was a forerunner of the present Budget system. In 1880 the Board of Audit was created and placed under the direct control of the Emperor. Considerable difiiculty was ex- perienced in bringing financial administration under the control of the Treasury and the auditing business under that of the Board of Audit, for each Department of the State had been used to separately look after its own money matters, while no definite system had existed in regard to the finances of the State. It was therefore feared that an attempt to unify financial aflfairs might not be beneficial in its result. Ex- perience has, however, entirely falsified this prediction, and the new arrangement has proved as efficient as it has been beneficial. The year 1882 was indeed a memorable one in the history of Japanese finances, for from that year the sole control by the Treasury of the right of receiving or paying Government money was obtained ; and all irregularities that had previously attended this important branch of State afl^airs were entirely removed. In this year too the Bank of Japan was created, and was made to act as cashier for the Government. To mention other important financial measures, the budgets and settled accounts were made public every year from 1886, while on the occasion of the promulgation of the ImperiaJ Central Finances. 491 Constitution in 1889, the Law of Finance was amended, and our financial system first assumed the form it presents to-day. Tlie Budgets, as provided in the Constitution, are compiled by the Minister of Finance and carried into effect by him witli the approval of the Diet. The settled Accounts are introduced to the Diet also after having been audited by the Board of Audit. Finance and the Imperial Diet. — On the advent of the Constitutional regime, a new epoch was inaugurated in financial affairs, so that while previously those affairs were arranged at the discretion of the Government alone, the approval of the Diet is now required for them. The compilation of budgets and the reporting of settled accounts are of course no novel jarocess in the West, but its adoption by Japan is a significant sign proving how Japan has energetically striven to regulate her finances according to the enlight- ened system of the West. Statistical Tables. — Before proceeding to treat other subjects about finances, statistics relating to State expenditures and revenue, proceeds from different items of revenue, and other affairs shall be given first : — TABLE I.— ANNUAL STATE REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE PERTAINING TO THE GENERAL ACCOUNT. (unit of yen )• Revenue. iscal Year. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. iS68 (a) ... 3.664,;S3 29,424,533 33.089,313 1S69 (i) ... 4,666,056 29,772,349 34,438,405 1S70 (c) ... 10,043,628 10915,872 20,959,500 1871 («') ... 15.340,922 6,803,676 22,144,598 1S72 (^) ... 24,422,742 26,022,431 50,445,173 >873 (/) - 70,561,688 14,945,557 85,507,245 1874 („) •- 7 ',090,481 2,355,063 73 445,544 >87S (X) - 83,080,575 3,240,502 86,321,077 187s 63,786,587 5,696,090 69,482,677 1876 55,684,997 3,796,039 59,481,036 1877 49,967.723 2,37o,4"o 52388,133 1S78 53,558,117 8,885,632 62,443,749 492 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century. Fiscal Year. 1879 ... 1880 ... 1881 ... 1882 ... 1883 ... 1884 ... 1885 (/;) 1886 ... 1889 ... 1890 ... 1891 ... 1892 ... 1893 ... 1894 ... 189s ... 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... 1903 - Fiscal Year. 1868 (a) .. 1869 (d) .. 1870 (c) .. 1871 (if) . 1872 W ., 1873 if) ■■ 1S74 („) .. ■ 875 is) ■■ 1875 ... . 1876, ... . 1877 ... . 1878 ... . Revenue. 1 Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. . 57,716,3*2 4,435,428 62,151,751 . 58,036,574 5,330 ,681 63,367,25s .. 64,304,512 7,185,368 71,489,880 .. 69,888,873 3,619,554 73,508,427 .. 76,425,687 6,681 ,171 83,106,858 .. 72,102,109 4,567,464 76,669,654 56,429,622 57,272,213 62,156,835 71,094,268 14.231 ,876 85,326,144 76,068,094 1 2,092 ,980 88,161,074 ■■ 74,253,414 18,703,519 92,956,933 •■ 82,355,442 14,332 ,537 96,687,979 - 78,593,498 27,875,856 106,459,354 .. 76,264,852 26,966,636 103,231 488 .. 80,728,018 20,733,893 101,461,911 .. 85,883,080 27,886 ,300 113.769,380 89,748,454 8,421,574 9S, 1 70,028 ■• 95,444,652 22,988,069 118,432,721 .. 104,904,501 82,114,922 187,019,423 .. 124,222,964 102,167 ,'59 226,390,123 - 132,869,336 87,184,792 220,054,128 - 177,328,528 76,925,996 254.254.524 .. 192,170,080 103,684,787 295,854,867 .. 202,035,071 72,323,950 274.359,021 .. 226,114,613 56,31s ^35 1 282,432,964 .. 231,802,499 19,879,462 251,681.961 Expenditure. ^ Surplus or Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total Deficit. 5,506,253 24,998,833 30,505,086 2,584,227 9,360,231 11,425,609 20,785,840 13,652,565 9,750,003 10,357,669 20,107,672 851,828 12,226,382 7,008,776 19,235, 158 2,909,440 42,474,919 15,255,106 57,730,025 *7,284,852 50,639,552 12,039,048 62,678,600 22 828,645 60,001,916 22,267,612 82,269,528 *8,823,9S4 52,842,348 13,292,424 66,134,772 20,186,305 56,613,037 12,590,205 69,203,242 279 4 iS 56,815,326 2,493,631 59,308,957 172.079 45,344,216 3,084,109 48,428, ,325 3,909,808 55,988,710 4,954,626 60,941, .336 i.502,4iJ Central Finances. 493 Expenditure. Surplus or Detic.t. Fiscal Year. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. 1879 ... 55,205,539 5,112,040 60,317,579 1,834,142 1880 ... 60,297,322 2,843,574 63,140,896 226,359 1881 ... 60,413,710 11,046,611 71,460,321 29,559 1883 ... 59,750.727 13,729,940 73,480,967 27,760 1883 ... 67,914,176 15,192,682 83,106,858 1884 ... 60,724,554 15,938,554 76,663,108 6,546 188s {h) 47,643,037 13.472,277 61,115,314 1,041,521 1886 ... 67,613,793 15,610,167 83,223960 2,102,184 1887 ... 66,042,669 13,410,367 79 453,036 8,708,038 1888 ... 66,439,716 15,064,308 81,504,024 11,452,909 18S9 ... 63,785,569 15,928,103 79,713,672 16,974,337 1890 ... 66,752,431 15,372,972 82,125,403- 24,343,951 1891 ... 62,936,312 20,619,579 83,555,891 19,675,597 1892 ... 63,818,030 12,916,710 76,734,740 24,727,171 1893 •■• 64,545,499 20,036,273 84,581,872 29,187,508 1894 ... 60,421,346 17,707,297 78,128,643 20,041,385 1895 ... 67,148,007 18,169,173 85,317,180 33,115,541 1896 ... 100,712,816 68,143,692 168,856,508 18,162,915 1897 ... 107,695,127 115,983,717 223,678,844 2,711,279 1898 ... 119,072,144 100,685,424 219,757,568 296,560 1899 ... 137,590,418 116,575,120 254,165,538 88,986 1900 ... 149,134.167 14.3,615,893 292,750.060 3,104,807 1901 ... 160,363,583 106,493,241 266,856,824 7,502,197 1902 ... 177,596,966 104,156,229 281,753,195 679,769 1903 ... 178,464,121 66,288,225 244,752,346 6,929,615 Note : — The length of term of fiscal years given in this and the following four tables is not uniform; («) comprises 13 months ending December 31st of 1868; {i) 9 months ending September 30th, 1869; {c) 12 months ending, September 30th, 1870; [d) 13 months ending October 31st, 1871; (e) 14 months ending December 31st, 1872; [f) 12 months ending December 31st, of the respective . years; {g) 6 months ending June 30th, 1875. The rest comprise 12 months ' each, 1S75 ^^^ 1884 fiscal years ending on June 30th and the others on March 31st, of the respective following years. The figures for 1868 to 1900 fiscal years repreisent settled accounts ; those for 1901, actual accounts as they stood on November of tollowing year, and lastly those for 1902 and 1903 estimates on the budget. The figures marked by an asterisk (*) denote deficit. , , 494 Japwi in the Beginning of tlie 20i/t Ccnturj. TABLE II.— SOURCES OF THE ANNUAL STATE KEVENUI PERTAINING TO THE GENERAL ACCJUNT. (unit of yen). Ordinary RtviNUE. Receipts from FuLilic Transferred ior the Fiscal Taxss. Stamp Undertakings Payment of Year. Receipts. and State Property. Interest on Deposits. i86S 3,265,453 — 101,856 — 1869 4.431,332 — 127,708 — 1870 9,634.864 — 193,761 — . 1871 ... 14,270,058 — 327471 — 1872 ... 22,566,525 — 229,375 — 1873 - 64,537,656 354,478 2,376,256 — 1874 ... 64,836,528 332,650 2,601,703 — 1875 ... 75,808,346 412,445 3-550,504 — 1875 ... 57,764.039 700,751 5,175,820 — 1876 ... 50,250,312 670,944 4,643.593 — 1877 ... 46,231,261 761,725 2,854,395 — 1878 ... 49,740,694 666,949 3,021,107 — 1879 • •. 53,462,901 784,918 3,304,588 — 1880 ... 52,692,914 962,701 4,197,878 — 1881 ... 58,813.403 1,002,333 4,288,261 — 1882 ... 64,893,531 1,039,710 3,763,322 — 1883 ... 64,223,783 975,636 4,335,841 — 1^84 ... 63,799,177 1,078,963 4,812,012 — 188s 50,116,710 709,701 4,287,510 — 1886 ... 63,356,863 922,594 5,304,752 — 1887 - 65,279,634 878,235 6,126,533 — 1888 ... 63324,078 1,305,264 6,841,354 — 1889 ... 70,506,158 622^127 7,677,951 — 1890 ... 65,363,608 580,763 8,733,420 994,497 1891 63,660,190 588,099 8,285,177 634,229 1892 ... 66,415,217 659,999 9,585,488 632,513 1893 ... 69,166,393 761,531 11,602,974 913.214 1894 ... 70,417,709 793,437 13,957,192 1,036,609 1895 ... 73.567,908 900,980 15,767,916 1,018,057 1896 ... 75,042,271 6,493,055 17,555.922 1,548,193 J897 ... 93,700,752 7,182,667 19,491,926 1,535.679 1898 . 96,187,335 7.605,170 25,410,159 I,0y9,000 1899 ... 12,6,034,543 11,942,825 34,742,oot> 2,02^,2til 1900 ... 133.926,095 12,289,237 40,073,716 2,381,896 igoi ... 139,530,008 12,274,702 44,304,617 2,319,314 1902 ... 153,430,541 14,304,951 51,821,303 4,509,»05 1903 ... 158,488,644 13,532,121 52,739.52.2 3,309,805 Central Finances. 495 Fund Transfer- red for Redemp- Education Otlier Miscella- Fiscal ■ tion of Formo- Fund Trans- Funds neous Total. Year. san Public Works Loan. ferred. Trans- ferred. Receipts. 1868 ... . ... — — — 297441 3.664,780 1869 ... . ... — — — 107,016 4,666,056 1870 ... . ... — — — 214,998 10,043,628 1871 ... , ... — — — 743.393 15,340,922 1872 ... . ... — — — 1,626,842 2,:t,422,742 1873 ... . ... — — — 3,293,298 70,561,688 1874 ... . ... — — — 3,319,600 71,090,481 187s .. . ... — — — 3,309,280 83,080,575 1875 -. . ... — — — 145,977 63.786,587 1876 ... . ... — — — 120,148 55,684,997 1877 ... , ... — — — ■ 120,342 49,967,723 1878 .. . ... — — — 129,367 S3,558."7 1879 .. . ... — — — 163,916 57,716,323 1880 .. . ... — — — 183,081 58,036,574 1881 .. . ... — — — 200,512 64,304,512 1882 .. . ... — — — 192,310 69,888,873 1883 .. . ... — — 6,658,303 232,124 76,425,687 1884 .. . ... — — 2,190,926 221,107 72,102,190 1885 .. . ... — — 1,113,155 202,546 56,429,622 1886 .. . ... — — — 1,510,059 71,094,268 1887 .. . ... — — — 3,783,962 76,068,094 1888 .. . ... — — — 2,782,718 74,253,414 1889 .. . ... — — — 3.549.206 82,355,442 1890 .. . ... — — — 2,921,210 78,593,498 1891 .. . ... — — — 3.097.157 76,264,852 1892 .. . ... — — — 3,134801 80,728,018 1893 .. . ... — — — 3,435.968 85,883,080 1894 .. . ... — — — 3.543.507 89,748,454 • 895 .. . ... — — — 4,139.791 65,444,952 1896 .. . ... — — 2,711,823 1,553.237 104,904,501 1S97 .. ,. ... — — — 2,311,940 124,222,964 1898 .. . ... — — — 2,567,672 132,866,336 1899 .. 23,333 — — 2,561,539 177,328,527 1900 .. 338,939 623,611 — 2,536,594 192,170,081 1901 . 563.768 541,752 — 2,223,280 202,035,07 1 1902 ., 1,000,303 500,000 — 1.747.710 226,114,61 1903 . 1,350,000 500,000 — 1,882,407 231,802,499 406 Fi<;cal Year. Japan in tlie Beginning of tlie '2 Of A Century, Extraordinary Revenue. Amount Proceeds Forestry Surplus of of Paper from Temporary Chinese Funds the Previous- Money Public Loans. Indemnity Trans- year Trans- Issued. Loans. Transferred, ferred. ferred. 1869... 1870 .. 1871.., 1872... 1873... 1S74 .. 1875... 1875-. 1876... 1877... 1878... 1S79... 1880 .. iSSr... 1882... 1SS3... 1884... 1885... 1886.., 1887... 1888.. 1889 ., 1890... 1891.., 1892.., 1893. 1894.., 1895.. 1896 . 1897.. 1898.., 1899 . 1900.. 1901.., 1902.. 1903,., 24,037,390 23,962,160 5-354,513 2,145,488 17,825,444 — 4,732,482 — 911,500 4,782,400 — 10,833,600 — 2,000,000 — — — — 3,066,205 — — — S,'87,832 4,000,000 — — 1,041,522 6,048,72s — — — 2,102,184 3,821,04s — — — 3,198,17s 4,003,396 — — — 4,348,975 — — — 353,223 20,598,721 — — — — 24.343,951 — — — — 19,675,59s — — — — 24,727,171 — — — — 5,748,4 J.'?- — — — — 20,041,385 2,976,600 — 11,798,389 — 33,115,541 36,389,874 — 40,360,796 — 18,162,915 35,352,806 — 46,187,071 — 2,711,279 36,166,404 3,200,000 32,636,905 3+7,337 296,558 38,139,599 *5, 500,000 31,240,140 868,207 88,987 31,721,764 11,000,000 20,883,428 1,141,042 ■ 3,104,809 4,740,000 2,000,000 8,065,856 2,145,904 761,011 4,740,-ooo 2,687,683 5,574,717 2,145,904. 224,6. <> Central Finances. 497 Extraordinary Revenue. ntVio, J"""^"' t^o"'"- Troceeds Fiscal ?unds ^■rj'll."c,^^: ^-" Other Mis- Year. Trans- **• ^^ ^^'^ ^"'•"' ^'^'® cellaneous Total. Grand Total. f.rro/1 *"' '■''* B«"«fit Property Receipts. lerred. of Certain aXiA Prefectures. °°^^- '^^S _ _ _ 654,661 29,424,533 33,089,313 '8^- _ _ _ 4,898,239 29,772,349 34,438,405 '•870 — — — 778,959 10,915,872 20,959,500 1871 _ _ _ 4,658,188 6,863,676 22,144,598 '872 _ _ _ 8,196,987 26,022,431 50,445,173 »873 _ _ _ 4,111,957 14,945,557 85,5o7,245 >^74 _ _ _ 2,355,063 2,355,063 73.445,544 1875 — — — 3,240,502 3,240,502 86,321,077 1875 — — 2,418,362 3,277,728 5,696,090 69,482,677 1S76 — — 849,252 2,946,786 3,796,039 59,481,036 i8;7 — — 685,305 1,685,105 2,370,410 52,338,133 1878 — — 776,288 8,109,344 8,885,632 62,443,749 •879 — — 619,047 3,816381 4,435,428 62,151,751 1880 — — 1,183,427 4,147,254 5,330,681 63367,255 I88I — ■ — 737,427 6,447941 7,185.368 71,489,368 1882 — — 545,737 3,073,817 3,619,554 73.508,457 1883 3.995,256 — 928476 1,757,439 6,681,171 83,106858 1884 182,379 — 814,622 1,574,463 4,567,464 76,669654 1885 1,262,884 — 394,194 1,003,930 5,727,213- 62,156835 18E6 1,3-46^8 — 1,087,763 1.560,061 14,231,876 85,326,144 1887...... 767,292 — 727,510 2,447,269 12092,980 88,161074 i8 8 7.831,811 — 1858,383 1,994102 18,703,519 92,956,933 1889 i,5«',433 — 2,266,247 2,132,486 I4i332,537 96,6b7 979 1890 5.520,725 — 726,187 677. coo 27,875,856 106469,354. 1891 i,'588o53 — 610,454 424,178 26,966,636 io3,2:;i,4i:8 1892 .239670 . — 627,8^5 190740 20733,893 101,461,911 1S93 468,524 — 678,968 8,011,637 27,866,300 113,769,3^0 1894 145.252 — 655,683 1,872,216 8,421,574 98,170,028 1895 155,557 — 645,356 2,145,771 22,988,069 118432,721 }8g6....i. 29,594,817 324400 1,110,965 3203,210 82114,922 187,019,423 ;897 1,233705 398.200 922.500 4,699,169 102,167,159 226390,12^ 189I5 844,699 664859 800,942 623,13b 87,184,792 220,054,128 1899 3.401104 637,282- 827,957 412,449 76,925^96 254,254,523 1900 20,000,000 1,246975 931,288 5,669,591 103,684,787 295854.868 1901 — 1,060,655 1,254,632 2,157620 72,323,950 274359,051 1902 "" — 1,197,141 1,111,125 36,297,314 156,318,351 282,432,964 1903 - — 1,076,800 894,375 4,535,373 ' 19879,462 251,681,961 Note • — For fKe 1893 fiscal year some of the items belonging to stamp receipts were included, according to their nature, to various headings, instead of being treated , according to the , ordinary ■ mode of classifying settled accounts* Hence, the figures for the same period as given in this table may not agree with those given in other statistical publications. The figures iiiarked with an asterix (*) include temporary loans inturred o . account of the Boxer trouble. 49§ Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. TABLE III.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TAXES FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. (unit oi yen). Taxes in Force. Fiscal Year. T, and Tax. Business Tax. Income Tax. Sii/:e Tax. Sugar Excise. Soy Tax. 1868 2,009,014 — — — — — i8t9 . 3,355.964 — — — — — 1870 . 8,218,969 — — — — — 1871 . 11,340,9^4 — — — — — 1872 . 20,051,917 — — i6,2oS — — >873 . 60,604,242 — — 961,031 — — 1874 • 59,412.429 — — >,683,53o — — 1875 . 67,717,947 — — 1,310,381 — — 1875 - 50,345,328 — — 2,555,595 — — 1876 . 43,023,426 — — 1,911,639 — — •877 .. 39,45o,55> — — 3,050318 — — 1878 .. 40,454,714 — — 5,100,063 — — »S79 .. 42,112,64s — — 6,463,894 — — 1880 ,. 42,346,181 — — 5,5 ",335 — — 1881 . 43,274,032 — — 10,646,163 — — 1SS2 . 43,342,188 — — 16,329 624 — — 18S3 . 43.537,649 — — 13,490,730 — — 1SS4 • 43,425,996 — — 14,068,133 — — ■8:5 • 43,033679 — — 1,053,465 — 640,179 18S6 .. 43,282,477 — — 11,743,778 — »,i88,4i3 1S87 • 42,'52,i7i — 527,724 13,069,808 — 1,252,721 iSSS ,. 34,650,528 — 1,066,895 17,063,801 — 1.350,986 1S89 . 42,161,328 — 1,052,982 16,439,720 — 1,288,078 1890 . ,212 6,792,818 7,412,801 66,535,404 7,184,637 3,444,034 Central Finances. 499' Tax on Saie Duties Tax on Exported on Fiscal Convertible T*{on Mining Tonnage from Patent Customs Year. Bank Notes. Bourses. Tax. Dues. Okinawa Prefecture. Medi- cine. Duties. 1868 — — — — — — 720,867 i86j — — — — — — 502,817 I'iTo — — — — — — 648,453 1871 — — — — — — 1,071,631 1S72 — — — — — — 1,331.560 1873 — — — — — — 1,685,97s 1874 — — — — — — 1.498,258 1875 — — 44,492 — — — 1,038,104 «8i; — — 7,431 — — — 1,718,733 iS;6 — — 8,903 — — 28,45s 1,988,668 1877 — — 9,339 — — 87,089 2,358,654 1878 — — 10,610 — — 74,219 2,351,635 1879 — — '2.073 — — 78,770 2,691,205 18S0 — — 12,990 — — 86,041 2,624,177 1881 — — -'6,631 — — 84,246 2,569,666 1882 — — iS,8o6 — — 364,942 2,613,291 18S3 — — 14,816 — — 495,441 2,681,321 1884 — — 13.501 — — 363.589 2,750.165 1SS5 — — 18,346 — — 282,127 2,085,250 1886 — 269,111 21,447 — — 438,658 2 989,686 1887 — 189,762 29,176 — — 424,033 4.135,652 1888 — 173,048 46.738 — 2,110 451,714 4,615,494 1889 — 219,391 95,579 — 11,093 485,15s 4,728,023 1890 1,986 254,162 * — 14,900 498,976 4,392,566 1891 — 230,355 * — 14,814 517,940 4.539.687 1892 — 223,812 134.033 — 12,380 589,219 4,991.524 1893...... — 350,969 178,869 — 17,834 636,433 5.125.372 1894 6,969 587,691 241,418 — 25,186 670,133 5-755,456 139s 408,662 780,311 247,061 — 19848 778,613 6,785,640 1896 926,240 1,001,173 335,502 — 35,199 881 604 6.728.323 1897 560,97s 1 io6,2oS 421,381 — 56,831 982,381 8,020,513 1898 1,251,610 856,036 567,992 — 72,616 : 1,061,438 9,092,592 1899 846,582 1,177,040 605948 240,323 81,572 "3,525 15.936,890 1900 1,404.794 1,228,461 624,248 336,352 156,834 "7,799 17,009,815 1901 1,693.599 836,397 727,722 361,098 117,496 121,954 13,630,815 1902 1,145,416 1,087,180 774,091 330,353 154420 116,976 17,045,611 1903 1,149,616 1,030,605 759,578 348,726 144,148 149,410 16,570,655 500 Japan m the Beginning of tJie 2Qth Century. Items that have been abolished. Fishery Confec- Otjier Mis- Fiscal Dues in Tobacco tionery Tax on Tax on celJaneous Total. Year. HokkaidS. Tax. Tax. Vehicles. Vessels. Taxes. >868....„ — _ _ _ _ 535,6o2 3.265,483 1869 — _ _ _ _ 572,551 4,431.332 1870 — _ _ _ — 767,442 9,634864 1871 — _ _ _ _ 1,857,443 14,270,058 ?872 — _ — — 7,803 1,159,037 22,566,525 1873 — _ _ _ 83,123 i,so3,28S 64,537,656 1874 — _ _ _ 125,677 2,116,634 64,836,528 1875 _ _ _ 96,573 12,336 5,588,508 75,808,346 1875 342,526 206,748 — 213,193 128,515 2,245,970 57,764,039 1876 348,584 244,149 — 234,902 133,119 2,292,467 50,2-0,312 1877 361,121 227,080 — 261,859 194,738 230,512 46,231,261 i8;8 509,595 274533 — 289,134 133,589 542,602 49,740,694 1879 813,416 269,575 — 335,940 134,658 550,722 53,462,901 1880 8;9,c87 292,881 — 379486 135,289 405,447 52,692,914 ?88i 817,837 276,332 — 428,211 133,418 556,867 58813,403 1882 864,712 280,849 — 453,869 135219 490,031 64,893531 18S3 559,195 2,154,211 — 462,088 218,040 610,292 64,223.783 18S4.....J 501,443 1,294 3«6 — 478,512 230,453 673,069 63,799177 ,1885...... 554,778 905,187 437,893 484,029 238,334 383,543 50,116,710 ,1886 . 611.400 1,235,814 544,901 531,103 250,469 249,606 63,356,863 ,1887...... 220,273 1,590,752 595,738 577,390 258,945 255,219 65,279,564 18S8 218,776 1,907343 628,323 611,366 270468 257,488 63,324,07s .1889 215,101 1,981,540 647,033 648,096 280,330 252,709 70,506,158 ,1890...... 223,406 1,814,033 662,647 664,279 282,530 254,625 65,363608 ■1891 219,086 1,798,137 614,192 68oj8i2 278,373 255,714 63,660,150 1892 303,656 2,161,655 587001 729634 276,915 256,887 66,415,217 1893 303769 2,640,351 593,809 773,948 275,701 254,666 69,169,393 1894 301,925 2,680,468 637,626 811,032 281,525 259,920 70,417,709 1895 301,344 2,740,774 689,133 861,951 291,350 261,450 73,564,908 1S96 301,522 2,977,630 546,136 469,491 152,087 226,326 75,042,271 1897 359.289 4,935,173 — — 9 147,651 93,700,752 1898 353,188 2,120,555 _ _ n 45,481 96,187.335 •J899 357,611 — — ~ — 97688 126034,543 1900 367,962 _ _ _ _ 94,938 133,926,095 1901 — — — — — 7,661 139,574,809 ■i902 — _ _ _ _ _ 153430,541 X903 r- ^ — . — . — — 158,488^644 Central Finances. 501 TAELE IV.— RECEIPTS FROM PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS AND STATE PROPERTY. (unit of yen). Tiscal Year. Post and Telegraph. Forests. State Property. Profit from Tobacco Monopoly. Railroads. .i86S — — 101,856 — — 1869 — — 94,184 — — 1S70 — — 155,917 — — 1S71... ... 1,238 — 166,532 — — 1S72 18,334 — 48,246 — — 1873 138,302 — 160,804 — 544,233 18:74 282,227 — 106,093 — 468,247 msr 705,351 — 243,«59 — 542,337 1^5 748,938 — 1,268,337 — 642,204 t»r6. 9*0,585 94,503 157,826 — 808,883 '^77 809,856 62,789 229,203 — 384,088 1S7S 968,266 178,356 248,077 — 456,622 1879 1,307,028 61,054 247,239 — 698,784 -1880 1,638,421 411,266 258,557 — 8SS,56i i88r... . ... 1,923.308 282,258 199,629 — 1,127,479 iS-Si .. 1,703,527 1 76,002 146,334 — 913,846 iSSj 2,346,945 311,160 176,569 — 933,778 1SS4 2,209,856 Z9^2 218,820 — 750.539 18S5... , ... 1,601,188 240,697 149,862 — 453,890 iSS6 .. 3,009,974 456,218 264,105 — 678,124 tSS7... ... .. 3400,859 633,5 <4 257,251 — 1,021,749 iSiiS 3,272,067 899,798 215,059 — 1,346,226 1889. .. 3,859,232 648,255 735.188 — I 434,953 i8co... ... .. 4,637,9^7 732,580 206,969 — 1 722,102 1891— — .. 5-049,360 744,366 241,642 — 1,419,611 1S92... ... .. 5.5'8,9i3 872,481 223,257 — 2,d85,o68 1893... - .. 6,487,688 1,060,913 221,936 — 2,709,760 iS9+ 8,381,049 844,300 220,884 — 3,176,707 185s-. ,■- .. 9,553.S79 i,'34S53 217,664 — 3602,594 J896... .... .. io,40(6-,oS3 1,286,614 413,924 — 3.970,999 +S97 12,204,012 1,577,114 232,618 292,142 4,^58,565 jS9S.„ ... ., , 3^53.285 1,625,632 205,805 5,145,999 4.278,547 .899... ■... .. 17,424,951 1,930,218 222,934 7,559,534 6,^01,653 19.00 - 20^9,33 « 2,271,020 209,175 7,244.159 8,090,066 .1901 .. 20,934,987 2,347,9 «4 244,710 10,866,700 7,706,161 J902 .. 25,856,730 29'4,387 223,706 11,728,526 8,817,510 iSOJ .. 25,915,940 2,955361 229,908 12,606,012 8,785,089 602 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Fiscal Year. Mint Profit. Mining Profit. OtBer Profit. Miscellaneous Receipts. Total. l86S 101,856 1869 — — — 33.524 127,70s 1870 — — — . 37.849 193,766 1S71 — — — 159,701 327,471 1872 — 38.895 — 123,900 229,37s 1873 .. 1,095.594 154.845 — 281,47s 2,376,256 1874 .. 1,024,517 316,122 — 404,497 2,601,703 >875 253,081 ' ' 869,389 — 93?,>87 3,550,504 1S75 .. 1,450.036 799.949 — 266,356 5.t75,'82o. 1876 .. 1,152,037 827,221 — 682,538 4.643.593 1877 834,28s 251,202 — 282,972 2.854.395 I87S... „ . 910,496 102,350 — 156,940 3,021,107 J879 505,628 237,94s — 246,9 10 3.304.588 1880 487,410 397,728 — "5,935 4.197.878 1S81 385-233 308,729 — 61,627 4,288,264. 1882 46.',6o7 289,321 — 71,685 3.763.322 18S3 398.155 100,087 — 69,«47 4.335.S31 1884 376,06s 233.«3i — 722,668 4,812,012 1S85 ■ ■ I.459.I02 178,922 — 203,849, 4,287,510- 1S86 88,469 271,689 302,734 233.439 5.304,752 1887 241,383 1SS.703 254,906 161,168 6,126,533 1SS8 200,712 490,142 243,509 « 73.841 6,841.354. 1889 , 524,062 27,514 104,916 343.83 « 7.677,95' 1890,. •• 681,595 15.046 424,288 3«2,8S3 8,733,420- 1891. - 296 S90 — 207,40s 326,203 8,265,177 1892.. 295,481 — 272,466 317,822 ■ 9,585,488 1S93- 494,461 — 252,185 376,031 11,602,974. 1894.. .. 637,423 — 265,314 431,51s >3,957,i92 1895 429,869 — 416,196 415,861 >5,767.9i6 1S96 .. 772.588 S06 294,201 411,007 17,555.922 1897 — — 240,249 387,226 19.491.926 1898..: ... . — — 183,640 367.251 25.410.159 •899- — — 274,682 428,028 34,742,606 1900 — — 571,567 988,389 40,073,712 1901 .. _ — — 521,100 1,706,235 44,327,807 1902... — — 171,961 2,108,483 51,821,303 ii.03- '•■ — — 213,380 2,033.831 52.739*522 Kote ;— As the mining tax for 1890 and 1891 could not be distinguished from other license fees among whiph it wai counted hi, it was included with other license fees under the heading of " Other miscellaneous taxes." Central Finarnxs. ms TABLE v.— ANNUAL APPLICATION OF THE STATE EXPENDITURE ] PERTAINING TO THE GENERAL ACCOUNTS, THE CIVIL LIST AND THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE STATE. (unit of yen). < 3RDINARY. Fiscal Year. Civil List, Foreign Afi'airs. Home Affairs. Finance. Army. Navy. 1868... 249-595- 111,671 2,818 3,639,462 1,059,798 1869... ... 384,955 151,949 15,291 7,109.653 1,547,966 1870... $54,232 46,626 5,683 7,475,142 1,500,: '74 1871... ... Si3,8oi 83,532 9,808 8,037,979 3,252,' 966 1872... 912,754 349,229 132,796 29,765,330 7,699,347 1,869,044 1873... 678,204 699,342 72,752 36,855.985 8,497,755 1.190.313 1874-.. 775,035 711,105 11,593,167 31.917.093 8,733,176 1,685,237 1875... 443,837 146,299 7,445,247 31,083,656 7,262,599 3,522,3co 1875... 933,2" 644,942 ",345,277 24,851,556 6,959.736 2,825,843 1876... ... 1,118,137 535,044 10,917,655 24,950,982 6,904,829 3,424,998 1877... ... 1,249,286 518,287 10,838,161 18,697,931 ^ 6.035,940 3.167.512 1878... ... 1,266,382 576,818 10,887,076 29,166,518 6,409,005 2,804,021 1879... ... 1,342,889 804,748 ",574,341 25,446,073 7,766,916 3.079.859 1880 .. ... 1,393,559 1,138,638 12,965,636 26,370,598 8,434,530 3,165,222 1881... ... 1,909,893 675,534 8,679,471 31,549,850 8,20g,6o9 3-014,758 1882... ... 2,184,354 726,105 8,212,196 29,130.919 8,588,117 3,160,492 1S83... ... 2,363,651 748*285 9,998,442 33,320,368 10.250424 3,080,634 1884... ... 2,327,101 785,299 9,224,383 25,584,429 10,618,712 3,193,300 1885... ... 1,797,246 608,247 8,929,943 18,985,172 9,606,237 2,634,658 1886... ... 2,449,83s 787,782 9,742,410 30,596,845 11,464,226 4,699,5" 1887... ... 2,500,000 750,580 9.688,532 28,149.249 11,805,903 4,941-524 1888... ... 2,690,888 749,472 9,475,916 28,129,164 11,786,416 5-468,552 1889... ... 3,000,000 728,791 9,125,552 25,"6,7i3 12,206,362 S.277,332 1890... ... 3,000,000 742,051 7,671,272 27,238,063 12,437,989 5,786,381 1891... ... 3,000,000 704,115 7,795.789 23,540,822 12,656,741 5,412,491 1892... ... 3,000,000 671,437 7.770,597 24,213,245 12,498,235 S.347,186 1893... ... 3,000,000 623,982 7,662,106 24,915,268 12,419,829 5,141.47s 1894... ... 3,000,000 718,627 7,493,926 25462,541 7,828,074 4,573,605 1895-. ... 3,ooo,oco 1,047,050 7,502,230 29,935,724 8,410,211 4,913,244 1896... ... 3,000,000 1,216,105 *i3,858,033 38,393,881 22,613,590 7,351.330 1897... ... 3,000,000 1,445,849 8,262,075 39,173,414 28,746,263 9.543.889 1898... ... 3,000,000 1,641,557 9,621,053 38,734,238 32,562P72 ".191,47s 1899-. ... 3,000,000 1,929,427 10,762,427 47,001,622 35,577,310 14,577,114 1900... ... 3,000,000 2,425,724 10,954,703 47,297,090 36,123,892 16,911,000 1901... ... 3,000,000 2,153,243 9,899,403 51,566,742- 37,433,9" 19,484,953 1902... ... 3,000,000 2,284,270 10,583,417 62,142,664 38,432,317 21049,054 1903... ... 3,000,000 2,284,160 10,627,469 61,870,627 38.495,727 22,077,69s 504" Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Fiscal Year. 1898 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 18S8 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899, 1900 1901 190Z ,1903 •Note : Justice. Education. Agriculture and- Commerce. Communi- cations. Total. 385,200 57,709 — — S.5o6,iS3 46,936 103,481 — — 9,360,231 44,534 123,612 — — 9,750,003 6t,533 "4,965 — 121.798 12,226,38-2 464,835 571.641 — 709.943 4A474»919 767,383 1,303.536 — 5.74.282 5.0,6^9,552 883,788 1.330,348 — 2,372,96r 60,001,916 259,365 869,741 — 1.809,304 5.2,842,348 l,iit,50S 1.743.514 — 6,197,453 .5.6,6*3,037 1,385459 1.695.31 1 — 5,882,911 ,56,8115,3:6 1,299.425 1,164,298 — 2,373,376- 45,344,216 1,2.14,936 i.l38,«S3 — 2.52J,30I .55,9!S6^io i>3;«.043 1,187,542 — 2,658,128 .55.205,539 1,779.843 1,177,198 281,098 3.591.020 .605237,322 1,786,737 895.897 2,690,801 1,902,160 60,4.13,710 2,070,556 935,03s 3,337,770 1,405,183 . 59,750.727 2,q82,765 940,477 3,461,509 1,667,621 67,9.14.176 2,267,106 961,690 3,461,116 , 2,301,508 60,724,554 1,673,704 695,996 553,341 2,xS8,493 47,643,037 2.5.49^701 976,846 933.872 3.412,765 . 67,613,793 2,931,263 1,109,089 506,631 3.659.99S 66,042,669 2,976,148 1,031,228 541,463 3,590,469 66,439,716 3,016,614 1,003,256 461,485 3,849,464 63,785,569 3,510,863 1.054.697 876,169 4,434,946 66,752,431 3,5^8,324 950,911 808,558 4,498,561 62,936,312 3,500,936 790,674 947.003 4,898,717 63,818,030 3^4^1.911 932,562 928,942 5,469,524 64,545,599 3,387.609 923,384 862,344 6,171,236 60,421,346 3.339,542 1,047,011 909.745 . 7,043,250 67,148,007 3.4f2.933 1,422,389 1.142.498 8,262,057 100,712,816 3,543.489 1.985,729 1.364,923 10,629496 .«o7,695,'i27 3.825,687 2,336,691 1.644.371 i4,S^S,poo .119.072.144 4,965,174 3,033.053 1.779,455 14,964,836 13r.59p.41S 7,803,152 104-36.392 10,837,646 10,593.532 4,456,708 4,740,2.53 4,845^708 4,994i286 2,209,883 2,559:002 2,948-,9*3 2,943.949 J7,952,or5 19,089.674 21,172,977 21,606,676 149.134.167 1^0,363.585 > 77,596*966 178,464.121 —Of the expenditures for the years prior to 1885, those items which were not assigned to any departments are placed in this table under such departments as they might belong to by their nature. * In the ordinary and extraordinary expenditures of Home Affairs for 1896 are inclodedthose of the Colonial Department which was created in that year and abolished in the next. - ' Fiscal Year. lS6S ... . mo ... .. 1570 ... . 1571 ... . 1872 ... . 1S73 1874 1S75 ... .. tS7S 1S76 1877 1878 ... . 1S79 18S0 ... ., 1881 1S82 JS83 1884 18SS 1886 1887 j«88 i^9 i8go 1891 J892 .1S93 a894 189s ,1X96 ^97 ^•. •• 1898 1899 ... .. .190 9,5 5^.088 >3,o5S,539 17,3 '4,247 ,15,386,964 i5,«54.o3o 17,063,028 16,798,430 505 Finance. 21,446,022 9,347.977 9,753,835 6,913,386 14.550,147 11,017780 14,238,009 ?,4i8,9i4 «2,357,5«8 2,493631 2,124,016 4,208,699 3722,778 1,203,310 9.059,817 12,387 772 10,181,141 14,079,508 10,082,788 9,303,956 5,480,542 5,656,925 3,563 5 'o 1,891,479 2,820,509 1,075,162 1,185,170 4,748 562 2,051.804 2,579,837 10,224,769 6, 14309* 6,766,518 ,6,408,930 6,S59.4Jo 41450.611 S.123,95' 606 Fiscal Year. |868 .,. . 1869 ... . 1870 ..". - . 1871 ..; . .1872 ... . 1873 -. . 1874 ■■• . 187s ..." - 1875 ...' . 1876 ... . 1877 ...■- . 1878 ... . 1879 ... . 1880 ... . 1881 ... . 1S82 .... . 1883 ... . 18S4 ... . 1885 ... . 1886 ... . 1887 ... , iS88 ,j. . 1889 ... . 1890 ... . 1891 ... . 1892 ... . 1893 ... 1894 ... 189s ... 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... 1903 •" Japan in the Beginning of th& 20th Century. War. r Navy, ' Justice. 3.55?>8ii — 2,077.632 — ... - - 603,834 . — ... - 95.39° — ... - 704,959 — ... . 1,021,268 — . ... ' 4.238.631 — 2,306,051 — Education. 20,090 16,494 — — 352.437 58,892 — — 158,925 250,650 — — 383.340 245,961 — — 413.348 249,162 — — 316,910 .3,935,019 — — 501,300 3,067,564 — — 571,858 2,699,473 — — 168,926 4,191.297 2,725 13,000 613,772 -4876.752 20,397 13,000 957 627 4,341,004 42,498 10,000 1,919,341 4.045.826 147,87a 165,657 3,095.090 4.372,923 205,270 110,109 1,523,426 4,089,201 89.30a 69,616 2,137,016 3.785.921 106,627 223,577 2,301,397 2,959.446 75.561- 135,240 2,580,862 5,679,549 51,64s 125,304 1,605,723 8,607,025 77.259- 106,10s 30,628,934 12,654,428 162,896 327.950 31,401,725 40,850,645 215,016 626,870 21,335 582 47,338.427 310,087 658,703 16,973.888 47,084,496 480,453 i.i99.74» 38,714.310 4',363,89S -531.476 1,377,608 20,947,869 24,494.37s 515.866 J:,487,990 8,262,789 ■7,076,586 565.640 . 2,045,1 5& 3,676,241 7,ii8,57S 543,907 1,665.080 Central Finances. . ''. 507 Agriculture and ' ' Communi- FiscalYear. Commerce. cations. Total. 1868 1876 .... 1877 ... ...... _ 323,176' 3,084,109 18S0 ... ... ... : 352,707 826,164 2,843,574 i88i ... ... ..„ 31.817, : 977,g66 11,046,611 "**^ 7.181 636,908 13,729,940 '^*3 178,631 538,054 15,192,682 Grand total. jgg ~" — 24,998,833 30,505,086 ,„, ■" ' ■' ~ ■ — ",425,609 20,785,840 ^f ° •-■■ '" - - 10,357,669 — -' 'f •■. - -■ .7,008,776 :;: ••^■••-■•• ' -. : - '5,255,.o6 „'•* - "■ - - — 12,039,048 '^^"^ • -^ ^ 22,267,612 '^ ' ' ~ — 13.292,424 ' ^5 — — 12,590,205 10,357,669 20,107,672 19.235, 'SS 57,730,025 62,678,600 82 269,528 13.292,424 66,134,772 , 69,203,242 2,493,631 ' ^9,^08,957 48^428,325 60,941,336 61,115,314 83,223,960 '^^^ •••—••• - = 465.835 4.954,626 -,„.,^^^ 1879 ... ...... ^. _ 705,514 5,112,040 6o,3i7y579 63,140,896 71,460,321 73,480,667 83,106,858 '^^4 166,197 94,591 15,938,554 .76,663,108 '^^S 73,547 22,226 i3,472,2?7 '^^^ 76,260 31,044 15,610,167 '^^^ S1.968 28,000 13,410,367 79,453,036 '**^ 722,319 960,000 15,064,308 81,504,024 ^^^^ ^"'234 999,134 15,928,103 79,713,672 '^50 342,281 1,343,999 15,372,972 82,125,403 "^91 115.851 1,450,704 20,619,579 83,555,891 ■'^92 377.657 2,311,482 12,916,710 76,734,740 '^93 493.177 1.401,734 20,036,273 84,581,872 •*?4-,. 333,905 1.449.027 17.707,297 78,128,643 '^95 ■; , ... 325,975 1,425,312 18,169,173 85,317,180 '^96 488,032 4,738,193 68,143,692 168,856,508 »*97 1,514,188 11,475.956 115.983.717 223,678,844 '898 ... 2,312,004 9.406,803 100,685,424 219,757,568 '^99 4,939,904 21,713,941 116,575,120 254,165,538 »9°° 9,372,883 30,149,620 143,615.893 292.750,059 1901 i ... .;.. ... 8,516,244 27,502,837 , 106,493,241 266,856,824 '902 i :::, 4,049,070 23,448,625: 104,156,229 28lr7^'3.t9S 1903 7.469,752 2^3873,524 £6,288,225 244,752,34s 508 Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Century. II. LOCAL FINANCES. Geneeal Remarks. — The civic corporation system was first established in 1878 by the pronwlgation of tbe Prefectiiral Assembly Begulations and the Local Tax Regula'ttons; but it was on the promulgation of the Law for Cities, and Towns and Villajtes in 1888 and of the Law for Districts tmd Prpfcctures in the year ISSO 4hat the civic corporation system was completed. The Law- for Districts and Prefectures was amended in 188D. According to the existing regulationSj the expenditures of civic corporations, are -deteniiiived by estimates for which the approval, of tbfr local legislative bodies' is necessary. The revenue consists of receipts- accruing from the property of the corporations^ iees forusing such property, aVid other receipts. Any ileficit is met by levying taxes, which are as follows for prefeetural finance*: — Land rate not exceeding one-third of the land-tax. Business tax and m-iseellanccnis taxes. House tax. Taxes for civic corporations are : — • Rate on district taxes and prefectural taxes. Special taxes either direct or indirect. The District does not levy taxes upon its inhabitants, and the expen.'^s required by it are supplied by the towns and villager con- tained in it, the ratio to be duly alloted. The allotment is collected liy «adi town or village on tlie approval of its legislative council, and forwarded to the coffers of the district. Before any new local "tax is levied it must receive the ap;)roval of the prefectural or city, town or village legislative council as tlic case may be. For a tax of importance the sanction of the Minis- ters of Home Affairs arid of Finance must be obtained. The development of self-government affair is inevitably attended by an increase of expenditure. Less tlian ten years ago the prefect- ural and communal revenue aggregated about 59,<}6O,OQ0 ,ye;!. .and the expenditure ufeout 4S,f)70,000 yen. In 1899 the revenue an 1 ex- penditure amounted fo 145,510,000 yen and 120,060,000 yere. respec- tively. This increase is ,chie3y attributable to tive greater disburjieineuts Local Finances. 509 required on account of public works, agriculture, education, industry, sanitary affairs, etc. A tendency in a similar direction must be expected with the progress of times, and the central Government is exercising strict attention to prevent any undue expansion of the local expenses. The following tables will demonstr^e the progress of prefectural and communal finances subsequent to 1890:— Statistics. — Statistics relating to local finances are : — TABLE I.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TOWN AND VILLAGE REVENUE. (Settled Account). (unit oiyeii). 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893- Kntes on f Land Rate 5,679,278 5,913,113 5,926,105 6,025,720 Naito^l]l°<=°™e Tax Rate ... 24,581 28,802 31,532 40,459 Taxes. I Business Tax Rate... — — — — r.ates on (■ House Tax Pre- J 7,541,930 6,999,372 7,263,244 7.436,677 lis Isusiness Tax Rate ... 6o6,3or 601,828 609,582 670,290 Rate on Indirect National Tax- 1,173 1,556 1,251 1,634 Special /Average Rate Taxes. I Sundries 356,506 317,849 280,432 309,235 50,193 70,118 102,884 135,255 Service in Kind 324,395 274,361 305,342 313,296 Property 31,110 14,626 9,697 6,711 Total 14,615,467 14,221,624 14,530,069 14,939,277 Receipts from other Sources ... ' 5,705,457 7,605,952 8,610,321 9,152,767 Grand Total 20,320,924 21,827,576 23,140,390 24,092,044 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Eateaou /-Land Rate 6,349,446 6,895,880 7,520,419 8,721,137 NS'al]l"=°>"« Tax Rate ... 42,251 55,667 66,073 120,222 Taxes. I Business Tax Rate ... — — — 311,337 Bates on r House Tax Pre- . J 8,082,583 9*561,533 10,699,233 13,173,019 Titxfts.' (.Business Tax Rate ... 703,886 830,924 983,982 1,113,562 Rate on Indirect National Tax.. 1,291 748 1,101 733 Special /Average Rate ... ... l-axes. I Sundries 372,164 415,202 544.598 566,599 138,711 161,844 185,273 230,595 Service in Kind 268,851 265,615 285,960 476,103 Property .- ... 12,013 7,108 9,690 9,428 Total 15,971,196 18,194,521 20,296,328 24,722,735 Receipts from other Sources ... 10,308,516 10,756,229 12,040,832 16,144,099 Grand Total 26,281,612 28,950,750 32,337,160 40,866,834 510 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 1898. 1899. 1900. Eates on f Land Rate 9.9«3.975 10,250,588 11,661,724 N?iLt.lI°<^°"^«= Tax Rate ... , 155,085 312,636 444,232 praxes. (.Business Xax Rate ... 533.177 578,188 717,626 Rates on Y House Tax .Pre- J, 15.765.174 18,564,453 2i,4'88,59i fectural J -, . „ _ . ^ axes. (. Business Tax Rate . .. 1,360,892 1,576,817. 1.956,965 Rate on Indirect National Tax.. 932 3,530 4,400 Special /Average Rate T»xes. I Sundries 747.854 777.832 835,681 279,677 321.185 328,515 Service in Kind 374,949 400,344 399,740 Property 9.70s 9.282 8,381 Total 19.141.420 32,794.855 37,845,856 Receipts from other Sources ... 1 7.549.587 20,406,697 24.423,937 Grand Total 46,691,007 53.201,552 62,269,792 Note : — In consequence of the destruction by fire, in 1894 of the documents at a certain village office in Nagano-ken, a sum of 1,900 j/«» was included in the grand total alone, its distribution among the different headings not being clean TABLE II.— ANNUAL AMOUNT OF TOWN AND VILLAGE EXPENDITURE. (Settled Account). (unit of yen). Items. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Offices 6,649.958 6,554,562 6,600,276 6,741,05s Assemblies 317,211 315,453 355.588 343.251 Public Work 4,759,018 5,447,582 5,636,870 5^462,255 Education 6,260,326 6,738,466 7,290,187 7,909,88s Sanitary 406,984 318,798 380,967 432.659 Police 163,849 151.645 158,108 163,009 Industry 115,118 86,569 113.213 128,967 Public Loans 140,393 242,203 365,023 469,882 Control of Property 5,476 8,758 15.996 35,461 Taxes and other Burdens ... 120,105 263,387 333.810 366,003 undrici 207,936 243,112 281,789 Funds and Reserves 33.172 43,444 69,571 Subsidies and Contributions. — 404,043 8,490 14.806 Others 58,443 ■ 49,446 32,898 Total 19,237.989 20,531466 21.598,530 22.451.441 Lpeal Finances, 511 Items. 1894. 1895, 1896. . . 1897. Offices 6,974,378 7>3l6,99i 7.829,910 8,887,201 Assemblies 336,973 363,598 378,797 425.06S Public Works 6,295,709 5.433,882 5.591,935 8,466,227 Educatioa 8,237433 9,159.759 10,639,378 12,695,094 Sanitary 705,920 1,802,466 1,712,367 1,822,181 Police 304.770 352.465 393.576 350.2S0 Industry l6i,397 145.094 369.898 820,667 Public Loans 644,708 96o,57S 1.183,418 1,693,851 Control of Property 56,424 62,252 89,463 135.291 Taxes and othe Burdens ... 467.4^3 624,532 1,194.301 1.687,204 Sundries 347.o62 463.300 539.843 654,681 Funds and Reserves 99.603 H3.809 164,693 470,290 Subsidies and Contributions. 12,297 5,966 9,830 22,144 Others 52,274 71.138 55.762 71,637 Total 24,696,364 26,875,827 30,153,171 38,201,816 Items. 1899. 1900. Offices 10,347,929 11,515,996 12,163,714 Assemblies 457.621 474,912 528,838 Public Works 7.427,855 7,083,796 8,162,496 Education 14,593,100 16,984,949 21,120,549 Sanitary 3,121,742 4,628,219 4,323p66 Police 379,959 392,296 422,819 Industry 495,615 570.295 693,060 Public Loans 2,323,787 2,609,806 3,576,112 Control of Property 138,157 210,760 460,692 Taxes and other Burdens ... 2,557,262 3,084,007 3.918,615 Sundries 821,687 827.451 1,299,691 Funds and Reserves 608,199 799.493 995,092 Subsidies and Contributions. 71,592 86,256 245,563 Others ... 98,374 63.019 89,720 Total 43.442,879 49,376,255 58,000,025 512 Japan in tlie Mef/iivnimg oj the 20 Appropriated from Cities Towns and Villages Income Tax Rate . 3,186,331 1 : 3,157,645 3,342,061 3,474,070 Total • 16,011,355 16,710,884 17,146,864 18,024,522 Ultra-Taxation Receipts .. . 10,958,162 15,103,524 12,417,622 9,710,790 Grand total . 26,969,517 31,814,408 29,564,486 27,735,312 Items. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Land Rate Business Tax Miscellaneous Taxes Rate on Business Tax House Tax .. Appropriated from Cities Towns and Villages .. Income Tax Rate . 12,204,844 . 3,375,309 2,256,617 • 4,993,134 '_'! 105,070 13,327,790 1,895,888 3,486,296 711,795 5,318,838 68,907 17,458,866 2,123,415 4,097,252 886,813 6,604,031 282,095 20,718,817 2,291,587 4,619,667 928,062 7,940,101 557,349 M3S Total ■ 22,934,974 24,809,484 31425.473 37,057,018 Ultra-Taxation Receipts .. . 18,098,235 21,229,710 16,187,123 19,214,261 Grand total ,. ... ., . 41,033,209 46,039,194 47,639,596 56^71,279 Local Finances. 515 Items. Land Rate ... „ . business Tax ... ., Miscellaneous Taxes ., Rate on Business Tax House Tax Appropriated from CitieS; 'iowns and Villages Incume Tax Rate ... Total Ultra-Taxation Receipt Grand total 1900. 1901. 1902. . 21,938,961 21,189,944 21,988,227 • 2,389,934 2,418,737 2,635,850 • 5,134,914 5,604,885 6,134,245 900,969 892,999 964,921 . 7,896,753 7,598,543 7,755,634 ';] 1,533,099 1,353,796 1,554,023 11,560 13,261 32,922 . 39,806,190 39,072,165 41,065,822 . 19,067,499 10,847,752 10,632,310 . 58,873,689 49,919,917 51,698,132 TABLE VI.-ANNUAL AMOUNT OF PREFECTURAL EXPENDITURE. (unit oiye/i). Items. 1892. 1893- 1894- 1895. Police 4,702,037 4,732,562 4,750,260 4,943,067 Police Works 7,305,504 7,320,626 8,827,577 7448,422 Subsidies to Above 2,541,265 3,382,101 3,113,767 2,114,706 Assemblies 348,632 312,995 301,995 301,490 Sanitary 379,840 425,694 527,891 998,296 Subsidies to Above — — — 58,382 Education 1,193,599 1,333,129 1,288,580 1,653,1 7> Subsidies to Above 77,295 111,535 42,864 51,549 Office Expenses, Salaries and» Allowances Relating to J. 1,728,243 1,690,398 1,691,866 1,678,226 District Offices J Industry 246,386 303,777 431,998 460,718 Subsidies to Above 315,110 — — 36,814 Collection of Prefecturall Taxes ] 324,830 362,670 377,218 Allowances to Prefecturall Offices J 31,431 60,509 75,10$ 74,767 Share in River Work Ex-l pense J Prefectural Loans — — -^ 740,310 Sundries 4,519,648 4,505,645 4,587,974 3,865,501 Grand total.., 23,388,990 24,503,801 26,002,550 24,-802,642 ,516 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Items. Police Police Works ... Subsidies to Above Assemblies Sanitary Subsidies to Above Education Subsidies to Above Office Expense, Salaries and- Allowances Relating District Offices Industry Subsidies to Above Collection of Prefecturall Taxes f Allowances to Prefectural 1 Offices I Share in River Work ExO pense f Prefectural Loans Sundries Grand tolal Items. Police Pofice Works Subsidies to Above Assemblies Sanitary .■ Subsidies to Above Education Subsidies to Above Office Expense, Salaries and"* Allowances Relating to > District Offices J Industry Subsidies to Above Collection of Prefecturall Tax^s f Allowances to Prefectural \ Offices ...) Share in River Work Ex-i pense | Prefectural Loans Sundries Grand total Uote : — As the sum of 28,821 yen of Toyama-ken in 1899 . could not be distributed among the respective items owing to the occurrence of fire, it was included in ,, the grand total alone. 1895. 1897. 1898. 1S99. 5,070,201 5,577,134 6,621,542 7,070,202 11,415,155 14,895,778 13, 085,77s 15,629,798. 2,933497 5,576,837 4, 021,542 3,139,201 346,462 340,594 301,925 351,264 808,398 787,739 I, 027,749 1,713,159' 126,576 135,394 622,441 1,065,075 2,404,241 2,788,026 4,317,481 6,278,373 165,062 206,616 158,593 266,698. 1,764,860 1,953,096 2,197,661 2,325,51' 667,225 723,871 951,556 1.135,045 54,509 223,251 178,778 248,967 442,670 495,135 591,256 656,967 127,690 254,402 397,385. 554,582 293,300 293,300 293,300 295.300 772,713 952,433 ',■ 466,267 1,629,005 4,237,894 4,843,621 5,486,470 41,719,721 6,090,037 31,638,453 40,047,2*27 48,478,005 1900. 1901. 1902. 7,801,318 15,792,611 3,198,485 449,489 1,600,515 1,464,728 8,584,511 276,508 8,434,595 11,682,518 2,535,708 450,540 1,224,410 643,139 9,931,556 44.1,006 9,132,134 12,872,976- 2,399,653 469,372 1,288,676. 841,402 10,082,010 487,952 2,726,287 2,842,960 2.920,336 1,737,493 318,793 2,113,112 519,354 2,668,581 636,806 757,323 >•' 761 ,894 -803,301 753,788 946,771 1,073,666 864,654 865,65s 863,654 2,786,748 2,909,336 3,908,44s 2,591,292 3,7i2,fo5 1,284,22* 52,022,567 49,891,958 51,537,552 National Loans. 517 CHAPTER II —Loans* National Loans -Local Loaus. L NATIONAL LOANS. General Kemaeks. — As already described in the section of finances, administrative and all other national affairs underwent a radical change at the time of the Restoration and many of the new measures were carried out with funds obtained by raising loans. The amount of loans thus raised early in the era has gone on increasing with the progress of the times, for the State had to adjust its finances, strengthen its armaments, and to devise measures calculated to improve and encourage the ■development of economic undertakings, communication service, etc. The only instance in which loans were raised for other purposes was in connection with the South-western Tirst Foreign Civil War and the Japan-China War. The Nine per Loan. cent. Sterling Foreign Loan raised at London in April 1870 was the first national loan raised by Japan. This was followed by the floating of the Seven per cent. Sterling Foreign Loan. The former was devoted to laying railroads between Tokyo and Yokohama and between Kobe and Osaka, while the latter was used for supplying funds to those " Shizoku " who had on their ■own accord surrendered their hereditary pensions and who were entering on a business career. 518 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In March of the same year the " New " and " Old " Loan Regulations were enacted with the object of converting the debt* incurred by the feudal princes into national debts, and First Dcnaestic bringing the financial affairs of the country into L;an. a state of uniformity. This loan was the first raised at home. In 1874 the Voluntarily Capitalized Pension Bonds were issued for granting some relief in the form either of cash or bonds to those "Shizoku" who had surrendered their pensions, in Capitalized order to enable them to procure funds for engaging- ■Pension Bonds, in business pursuits. The greater part of the cash required for this purpose came from the proceeds of the Foreign Loans above described. In 1876, when the old" hereditary pension system was entirely abolished, a regular system for compounding the pensions with capitalized pension bonds was- instituted. In 1878 a similar favor of granting pension bonds was^ extended to Shinto priests who had, in consequence of the change in the administration of the Shinto temples, been deprived in 1871 of their posts and of their means of subsistence. It was natural that in accomplishing such a grand work as the Restoration the Government shquld have required an immense amount of money and that it should have been compelled '' Kinsatsu " to issue pajier money to meet a deficit in the treasury- Exchange But this issue of paper money occasioned great financial Loan Bonds, disorder. To remedy this state of things, the Govern- ment promulgated in 1873 the " Kinsatsu " Exchange Loan Bond Regulations, with the object of withdrawing from circula- tion paper money iu exchange for the bonds, exchange to be mada^ at the request of the owners. In 1884 the withdrawal was carried out on a larger scale than before, in order to bring paper money to par. The issue of the bonds in accordance with the " Kinsatsu '^■' Exchange Loan Bonds was discontinued and instead the Unregistered " Kinsatsu '' Exchange Bonds were issued. Com- ing to 1899, with the object of redeeming 1-yen paper notes and notes of larger denomination, the Government borrowed from the Bank of Japan 22 million yen in the shape of convertible bank notes. ' National Loans. 519 Meanwhile matters relating to tlie development of industry also received a due share of attention from the Government. In the year 1878 the Government raised the Public Undertakings Economic Loan to the amount of 12,500,000 yen and undertook Loans. the work of laying the Kyoto-Otsu Railroad, the Tsuruga-Ogaki Railroad, the construction of a new road the Shimizu-goe pass, the drainage of Lake Inawashiro, the supply of water to Nasu plain, etc. Then in 1884 and 1885 the Nakasendo Railroad Loan amounting to 20,0-00,000 yen was raised to connect Tokyo and Kyoto by means of a railroad service tlirough tlie Nakasendo route. This plan was subsequently abandoned, and part of the fund raised for the purpose was appropriated on account of the work of the Tokaido Railroad and other railroad the speedy construction of which was necessary. The deficit in the fund was met by raising in 1888 the Railroad Supplementary Loan. From 1893 the Railroad Loan has been raised several times, and the construction of important lines has been completed, with the result that this service has been brought to a state of great efficiency and usefulness. The Hokkaidf) Railroad Loan was established in 1897, the loan to be floated according to the state of the market and as the progress of the work requires. The outbreak of the South-Western Civil War in 1877 involved big disbursements which could not be met out of the ordinary revenue. Fortunately the Fifteenth National Bank just started about that time iad a supply of capital which was too great to be profitably manipulated, so that it asked to the Government to use part of its capital as a loan. The Government accepted this offer, and borrowed a sum of 15,000,000 yen as a war fund. Between 1886 and 1889 a Navy Loan amounting to 17,000,000 yen was raised with the object of bringing the Imperial fleet to a state of greater efficiency and making it more adequate Navy Loan, to defend our expanded interests. The fund raised was used for establishing a number of admiralties, arsenals, building warships, and also for manufacturing torpedoes and ammunition of war. Meanwhile as a result of the institutions of the State having 520 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(lth Century. been brought to a state of greater perfection and especially as a result of the proper development of organs of monetary Consolidated circulation, the scale of rate of interest had began to Loan. fall, so that coming to 1896 the interest for deposits stood at about 3 to 4 per cent. The national bonds bearing interest at the rate of 6 per cent, or over naturally began to rise above par. The time had therefore arrived for consolidating several kinds of loans that had formerly been raised at a higher rate of interest. Accordingly the Treasury promulgated in October of that year the Consolidated Loan Bonds Regulations, in order, on the one hand, of consolidating the loans bearing a higher rate of interest and of reducing the expense of the Treasury as also of the burden of the people, and on the other of unifying the various kinds of loans. The loan bonds to be redeemed by this arrangement were the 6 per cent. "Kinsatsu" Exchange Loan Bonds, 6 per cent. Capitalized Pen- sion Bonds, 6 per cent. Public Undertaking Bonds, 6 per cent. Unregistered " Kinsatsu " Exchange Loan Bonds, 7 per cent. Nakasendo Railroad Bonds, 7 per cent. Voluntarily Capitalized Loan Bonds, 7J-per cent. South-western "War Loan, etc. All these loans aggregated over 173,010,000 yen. The regulations having been drawn up with the object of unifying all the different kinds of loans, they remain to this day as the fundamental provisions for 'egulating matters of loans. In 1894 some trouble in Korea culminated in the outbreak !)f war between this country and China. The war involved immense expenses as to oblige the Government to promulgate an Urgency Imperial Ordinance entitling it, to float at its own discretion, loans and to contract other kinds of debts. The Imperial Diet that was convoked soon after approved of the measure of disbursing the war expense of 250,000,000 yen and of supplying that amount by means of domestic loans. In accordance with this programme the Govern- nient raised the War Loan and also got a loan from the Bank of Japan and procured the fund needed in replenishing the. war chest. On the conclusion of peace with China in April 1895, \% was arranged for the convenience of both parties that the indemnity Japan-China from China should be paid and received at London War Loan, and in English pound sterling. The indemnity was National Loans. 621 set apart as a special account, so that it might be afterwards manipulated to greater advantage. At the same time this account led to the opening of a mutual loan arrangement between the Treasury and the Bank of Japan, with the result that a species of short-term national loans was brought into existence. The glorious termination of that war imparted a powerful im- petus to the development of national affairs in all spheres of activity. The Government itself also decided to undertook several important measures for promoting our economic affairs and for supplementing national armaments. With the consent of the Imperial Diet the Government made arrangements for improving the Post-BeUum existing system of railroads, constructing the Hokkaido Programme railroad, establishing a steel foundry, expanding tele- Loans, phone service, creating the tobacco monopoly, streng- thening the national defence, etc. These measures appeared in the shape of Public Undertakings Loan promulgated in 1896. The financial results of the Japan-China War were not confined to those enunciated above, for the annexation of Formosa to Japa- nese dominions necessitated the raising of a loan for exploiting the resources of the island. This loan is the Formosa Public Under- taking Loan issued in 1899. In 1897 the Law for readjusting the Capitalized Pension Bonds was promulgated, in order to adjust the • capitalized pen- sions, which therefore required the issue of a loan. How- ever the various matters connected with this loan being yet under investigation, some time must expire before the loan is to be raised. Besides these mentioned above, there are some contract affiiirs which involve disbursements not covered by Budgets, and for which the consent of the Diet has been secured. One of them relates to the procuring of the North China Affair Fund (1901 fiscal year), another to a loan to be transferred to the Iron Foundry Exchequer Working Fund (1902), while there are also the Treasury Souds, etc- Bonds Regulations issued in 1881 and Law No. 16 issued in 1894 for raising loans. These two latter 522 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Cehtury. legislative measures invest in the Treasury an important privilege of procuring funds with which to raeet the prescribed outlays originally arranged to be paid with the proceeds of the year's instal- ment of loans. For it frequently happens that the Treasury is obliged to fulfill payment while the proceeds from the loan are not yet forthcoming. By virtue of this expedient the Treasury is enabled to raise short-termed loans and thus to meet the necessity of prescribed outlays. In consequence of the great discretion esercised by the Treasury in adjusting the State finances, and as the Treasury, in pursuance of that judicious policy, has converted and consolidated loans bearing higher rates of interest, of the 21 diflferent loans heretofore raised by the Government (Treasury Bonds and short-termed loans excepted), 11 have already been redeemed or converted and consolidated, and there remain at present 10 loans which the Empire has yet to redeem. The redemption of the loans was previously made by redeeming the prescribed instalment for such of the loans whose redemption was regulated in that way ; also by converting and consolidating old loans, and also by redeeming by drawings a certain amount of bonds. Later the Government, with the consent of Mode of the Diet, made an arrangement for purchasing, when- Redemption. ever the state of the market favored such purchases, loan bonds, and of redeeming them by this pro cess. This was duly provided by Law No. 5 issued in 189G. This purchasing method and the drawing method have since been availed of for redeeming loan bonds, and for adjusting State finances. The history and all the circumstances relating to the origin of national loans having been i e ;cribed in this section, it remains for us to give some brief account of the items of those loans with their respective amounts, the classfication of the loans, and some other financial subjects. Items of National Loans. — The loans heretofore raised by tl;^ Imperial- Gtovernraent, excepting the Treasury Bonds and short- termed loans, number 21, to which one loan to be newly raised some time in future to be added, making in all 22 items, as appended in the following table : — Name. Old Loan Captalized Pension Loans Navy Loan Consolidated Loan... Loan for Redeeming Money Railroad Loans National Loans. EXISTING LOANS. Date of Issue of Regulations or Conclusion of Contract. 523 War Loans Mar. 25, 1873. Aug. 5, 1876. June 12, 1886. Oct. 16, 18S6. _^^P^';}Aug 9,1890. f June 20, 1S92. \ April ig, 1899. (■Aug. 15, 1894. i Oct. 23, 1894. (Mar. 2, 1895. Public Undertakings Loans Hokkaido Railroad Loan f Mar. 29, 1896. "l April 19, 1S99. /May 13, 1896. ■■ \ April 19, 1899. Formosan Public Undertaking 1 ,. „ ,„„ Loan S I Mar. 20,1859. „ T ^9% April 23, 1870. Foreign Ix,ans |^/ Jan. 13, 1873. New Loan Mar. 25, 1873. Kinsatsu Exchange Loan ... Mar. 30, 1S73. Capitalized Pension Loan ... Mar. 28, 1874. Pro-Rata Pension Bonds fof \ Mar it. 1877 the Former Shinto Priest... J ' -"' ''' South-Westcm War Loan Public Undertaking Loan NakasendS Railroad Loan May 22, 1S77. May I, 1878. I)ec. 28, 1883. Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex-1 j-j^^ ^ ^gg change Loan / ' ' Railroad Supplementary Loan. Jan. 28, 1889. Rate of Interest. Months for Paying Interest. No Interest. — S%, (>%, 1%, ^0% May and Nov. S% May and Nov. S% June and Dec. No Interest. — 4% 4?» s% 9% 9% 1S% to/ 0/a Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. June and Dec. Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. June and Dec. Feb. and Aug. Jan. and July. June and Dec. May and Nov. Nov. Nov. May and Nov. June and Dec. June and Dec. May and Nov. June and Dec. TO BE RAISED IN FUTURE. Capitalized Pension Adjust- /Oct. 29, 1897. ment Loan I Mar. 22, 1899. S% Mar. and Sept. 524 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. EXISTING LOANS. Name. Term for Leaving Date of Issue. Loans Un- redeemed. Old Loan Capitalized Pension Loans .. Navy Loan Consolidated Loan Loan for Redeeming Paper Maney Kailroad Loans War Loans Public Undertakings Loans. HokkaidS Railroad Loan ... -j Formosan Public Undertak- 1 ing Loans J 1S72. 1877. 1886-1889. 1SS7-1897. / 1893-1902. I iii99- 1895-1900. / 1897-1902. I 1899- / 1898-1901. I 1899- 1 900- 1 902. 5 years. 5 years. 5 years. 3 years. 5 years. 10 years. 5 years. 5 years. 10 years. 5 years. 10 years. 10 years. Term of Redemption. 1st last Payment. Payment. 1872, 1882 1891 1893 1893 1898, 1902, 1900. 1902, 1909, 1903 1909, 1921. 1906. 1923- 1951- 1912. 1956. 1955- 1954. 1957- 1953- 1956. 1953- 1946. LOANS REDEEMED. S9% 'XT/. Foreign Loans | ^^| Jg^°; New Loan 1872. Kinsatsu Exchange Loan ... 1873-1883. Capitalized Pension Loan ... 1874- 1876. Pro-Rate Pension Bonds for 1 0,^0 the Former Shinto Priest. J ' South-Western War Loan... 1877-1878. Public Undertaking Loan ... 1878. Nakasendo Railroad Loan ... 1884-1885. Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex- 1 ,0- . igng change Loan / '■* ' Railroad Supplementary 1 yRBq Loan J "■ 3 years. 2 years. 1873- 1875. 3 years. 1875. 3 years. 1876. 2 years. 1876. 2 years. 18S0. Until 1896. — 2 years. 1880. 5 years. i88g. S years. 1889. 5 years. 1894. 1882. 1897. 1896. 1897. 1884. 1886. 1897. ' 1902. 1914. 1920. 1943- TO BE RAISED IN FUTURE. Capitalized Pension Adjust ment Loan Adjust- \ S years. National Loam. 525 The items of short-term loans, that ia to say, the Exchequer bonds and temporary loans are given below. Of these items, thosj that are remaining are Exchequer bonds, temporary loans contracted for adjusting balance of receipts and disbursements of Exchequer, the loan appropriated on account of the Formosan Public Under- taking Fund, and the loan on account of the North China Affair. There is only one loan to be contracted in future, according to the prescribed programme, and that is a loan appropriated on account of the Iron Foundry "Working Found. The particulars are as appended in the table. EXCHEQUER BONDS. Date of Issue of Regulations. Sept. 20th, 1884. Cause of Loans. Regulation Interest. Interest-Bearing or |vith Discount (Rate Fixed by the Finance Minister). Actual Interest Per Annum. Per Diem. Discount 4-7}i% 1.7—1.9 TEMPORARY LOANS. June nth, 1894. Oct. 23rd, 1894. Mar. 2nd, 1895. Mar. 4th, 1896. For Adjusting Ex- chequer Receipts and Payments. Japan-China War. Do. Mutual Accommoda- tion between Exche- Interest-Bearing. Not more than 6fi Do. Rate to be Fixed ■ L,ciwccu --"-- by the Finance quer Cash Account and .' Minister. Rate to be Fixed by Government. Indemnity Deposits. Transferred Toward Mar. 20th, 1899. Formosan Under- taking Fund. Transferred Toward North China Affair Not more than 8^ Fund. For Supplementing Iron Foundry Not more than 7^ Working Fund. 1—10% w 2% at First, No Interest Afterward. 1% 2.2 — 2,4 sen. ^% Amount of the Debts. — As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the first loan ever raised by the Imperial Government was the 9 per cent, foreign loan, while in respect to redemption 526 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. the repayment in 1872 of the first insfalment of the Old Loan was the first. From that time forward the raising Capitalized of new loans was generally alternated by the redemp- Fension Loan. tion of the old, and though the amount remaining unpaid necessarily differed according to the times, in general it grew larger with lapse of time. The Capitalized Pension Loan raised in 1877 amounted to an immense sum, as it was in- volved a momentous change in the social organization of the country. The sum was no less than 173,900,000 yen in round numbers, and the incurring of this enormous loan raised at one Consolidate! bound the total sum of the State liabilities. The Loan. Consolidated Loan, raised in accordance with the Regulations promulgated in 1886 was still larger, as it amounted to 175,000,000 yen. HoiA^ever as this loan was raised with the primary object of converting and consolidating loans bearing higher rates of interest, the flotation of this loan, nominally stupendous as it was, did not materially alter the sura total of the State liabilities. The outbreak of the Japan-China War in 1894 and the necessity it occasioned of the war loan and temporary loans swelled all at once the loans of the State, and this tendency was further accelerated by the appearance of the Public Undertakings Loan required by the various post-bellum measures. At the end of " Total National the 1902 fiscal year, the national debts reached the Debts. figures of no less than 58'1,620,000 yen approximately. Appended are the tables demonstrating the viscis- situdes of the national loans since the first loan of the 9-per cent, foreign loan was raised. Year. 1870-'! ... 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 Amount of Amount Amoimt Remain- Debt Loans. Redeemed. ing at the End per of the Year. Capita. 4,880,000.000 — 4,880,000.000 •147 23.395:550-000 2i-9,454-5oo 28,056,095.500 ■843 13,292,200.000 707454.500 40,640,841.000 1.209 6,986,250.000 707,454.500 46,919,636.500 1.380 10,230,550.000 1.339,994500 55,810,192.000 1.625 7,400.000 1,890,248.500 53,927,343-500 I-5S7 183,388,900.000 975,854-500 236,340,389-000 6.772 18,348,050.000 2,324,273-500 252,364,165.500 7.055 — 2,165,406.500 250,198,759.000 6.964' National Loaiis. 527 Amount of Amount Amount Remain- Debt Year, Loans. Redeemed. ing at the End of the Year. per Capita. iSSo 3,002,650.000 3,863,178.500 249,338,230.000 6.858 iS8i 627,550.000 3.83S,239-Soo 246,127,541.000 6.706 18S2 427,950.000 6,044,207.500 240,511,283.500 6.497 1883 372,550.000 13,220,944.500 227,662,889.000 6.079 1884 ... 16,414,600.000 4.2I5.575-50O 239,861,913.500 6-334 18S5 6,582,700.000 5,188,626.500 241,255,987.500 6.324 1886 ... 41,682,600.000 25,456,272.500 257,482,314500 6.687 1887 ••• 74,5S4,45°-°oo 65,644,182.500 265,392,582.000 6-793 1888 ... 48,872,900.000 54,196,662.506 260,068,819.500 6.566 1889 ... 31,166,850000 31,182,553.500 260,053,216.000 6.490 1890 — 25>347,450-ooo 10,163,996.500 275,236,669.500 6.804 1891 ... 19,462,450.000 20,073,110.500 274,626,009.000 6.744 1S92 ... 40,850,350.000 37,582,047.500 277.894,311-500 6.763 1893 ... 18,987,900.000 30,067,360.500 266,814,851.000 6.447 1894 ... 32,500,000.000 16,078,797-500 283,336,053,500 6-774 189s ... 144,234,000.000 35,346,158.500 392,123,895,000 9-276 1896 ... 105,928,875.000 70,930,835.500 427,121,934.500 10.001 1S97 ..- 57,453.378.000 72,791,052.500 411,784,260.000 9.014 1S98 ... 61,123,350.000 59,625,736.500 413,281,873.500 8.940 *i899 ... 100,365,750.000 10,446,974.500 503,200,649.000 10-733 1900 ... 31,125,400.000 7,661,874.500 526,664,194.500 11.089 1901 ... 107,710,800.000 60,409,954.500 573.965,040-000 12.084 1902 ... 115,693,050.000 94,014,564.500 595,643.525-000 12-541 Notes : * The population of Formosa is included in the returns for this and sub- sequent years, and as the census returns for 1901 and 1902 are not forthcoming, those for 1900 were tentatively used for those two years. The loans given in the foregoing table sum up to 1,345,016,553 yen, while the amount redeemed totalled 749,373,027.500 yen (the total amount of the loans divided by 32, the number of years intervening between April 1870 and March 1902, the average of loan contracted per year amounts to 42,031,767 yen and the redemption made averages 23,417,907 yen approximately). Hence the amount remaining unredeemed at the end of March 31st, 1900, was 595,643,525.500 yen. The unredeemed amount distributed among the different loans, the following table is obtained : — 528 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. National Debts. 9-per cent. Foreign Loans 7-per cent. Foreign Loans New Loan Old Loan Kinsatsu Exchange Loan ... ... ... Voluntarily Capitalized Pension Loan ... Capitalized Pension Loan Pro-rate Capitalized Pension Loan fori Former Shinto Priests ( Public Undertaking Loan Nakasendo Railroad Loan ». Unregistered Kinsatsu Exchange Loan... Navy Loan Consolidated Public Loan Railroad Supplementary Loan Railroad Loan War Loan Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Formosan Undertaking Public Loan ... Total ~ Exchange Bonds South-western War Loan Paper-Notes Redemption Fund Loan ... Temparary Loans Amount Amount Amount. Remaining Raised. Redeemed. Unredeeiued. 4,880,000 4,880,000 — 11,712,000 11,712,000 12,422,825 12,422,825 — 10,972,725 6,803,09s 4,169,636 6,669,250 6,669,250 — 16,565,850 16,565,850 — 173,902,900 149,774.010 24,128,890 334,050 334.050 — 12,500,000 12,500,000 — 20,000,000 20,000,000 — 7,929,900 7,929,900 — 1 7,000,000 8,203,400 8,796,600 175,000,000 7,663,550 167,336,450 2,000,000 2,000,000 — 62,559.500 13,728,050 48,831,450 124,920,750 9,112,700 115,808,050 144.977.450 11,813,150 133,164,300 4,912,000 — 4,912,000 11,246,150 — 11,246,150 820,505,350 302,111,825 518,393,526 162,866,509 142,866,500 20,000,000 15,000,000 15,000,000 — 22,000,000 — 22,000,000 324,644,703 289,394,703 35,250,000 Total. 361,644,703 304,394,703 57.250,000 Grand total 1,345,016,553 749,373,028 595,643,526 On examining the amount of interest paid for the national debts that are bearing interest, the rate of interest show a gradual t.illiDg off, but the aggregate amount paid on this account has increased to a greater or less extent, this increase being especialyl striking in 3877. National Loans. 529 (unit of yen). Year. Amount of Interest Interest-Bearing Yearly Amount per looyen Interest ■ Debts Remaining at of Interest. of Unredeemed per Capita, the End of Year. Debts. 1871 4,880,000 439,200.000 9.000 •013 1872 17,302,825 936,113.000 5.410 .028 1873 .. 30,107,024 1,806,845 000 Gooi .054 IS74 .. 36,605,275 2,309,158.000 6.30S .068 1875 - 45.715.285 2,050,853.200 6.674 .0S9 1876 .. 44,051,891 2,934.057-120 6.660 .085 1877 .. 226,684,391 14,917,887.220 6.581 .427 1878 .. 7^7,927,622 15,809,583.040 6.508 .442 1879 .. 240,981,670 15,658,136.400 6.49S •436 i8So .. 240,340,590 15,558,088.720 6.473 .428 1881 . ... .. 237,349,361 i5.3i5,594-5'0 6.453 .417 1^82 .. 241,952,558 14,898,672.660 6.158 .402 15:83 .. 229,323,618 14,309,761.310 6.240 .332 1884 .. 231,742,097 15,105,274.790 6.518 -399 1885 • ■ 233.355,625 15,111,262.200 6.476 .396 1SS6 .. 249,801,407 15,530,584.940 6.217 .403 1887 .. 257,931,129 15,370,909.780 5.959 •393 1SS8 .. 252,826,821 14,726,657.670 5.825 •372 1889 .. 253,030,672 14,285,742.540 5.646 •357 1S90 .. 246,433,580 13,758,211.400 S.583 ■340 1891 .. 246,042,374 13,342,664.980 5.423 .328 1892 ... 249,530,131 12,966,631.820 5.196 .316 1893 .. 238,670,125 12,157,348.100 5.094 .294 1S94 .. 255,310,782 13,116,248.840 5.137 •314 1895 .. 364,418,078 18,656,661.060 5.120 •441 lEgS - 399,635,572 18,586,453.640 4.651 .435 1897 .. 377,686,220 18,884,311.000 5.000 •413 1S98 .. 386,234,420 19,311,721.000 5.000 .41S 1899 .. 476,372.650 22,892,332.500 4.806 .488 1900 . ... .. 500,055,650 24.345,482.500 4.S69 ■513 1901 .. 547,575,950 28,244,597.500 5.158 •595 1902 .. 269,473,890 28^670,994.500 4.929 •591 630 Japan in ilie Beginning of the 20th Century, Classification of National, Debts. — The national debts in- curred by the Government since the beginning of the era amount to a large sum, as mentioned in the preceding parts. But it must not be forgotten that all those debts have generally been occasioned by the reorganization of the national institutions, the aHjustment of the finances, and the development of civil and military affairs. None of them have been engendered by deficit in the ordinary revenue of the State. It is true some debts have been contracted by war, but their sum is compajatively small. This point will be made clear bj- the following table in which the debts', (Extchequer bonds and temporary loans excluded), are classified according to the object for which they were raised. (unit of yen). Object of Debt, Name of Loan. Amount Raised. Amount Redeemed. Amount not yet Redeemed. 5 = Feudal GoT- erninents' Debts Con- ' solidated. Feudal Pensions Capital- ized. New Loan 12,422,825 12,422,825 i Old Loan 10,972,725 6,803,089 ^ Total 23,395,550 19,225,915 I percent. Foreign Loan. 11,712,000 ii,7l2,qoo Japitalized Pension Loan. 16,565,850 16,565,850 Pension Loan 173,902,900 149,774,010 - The Old Shinto Priest Pension Lean 334,050 334,050 Total 202,514,800 178,385910 Grand Total 4,169,636 4,169,636 24,128,890 24,128,890 225,910,350 197,611,825 28,298,526 8.5 Railroad Construc- tion. ■9 per cent. Foreign Loan. Public Works Loan Nakasendo Railroad Loan. Railroad Sup'tary Loan... Railroad Loan Public Undertaking Loan. Hokkaido Railroad Loan. Total 4,880,000 5,694,300 20,000,000 2,000,000 62,559,500 24,431,400 4,912,000 124,477,350 4,880,000 5,694,300 20,000,000 2,000,000 13,728,050 1,990,750 48,293,100 48,831,450 22440,800 4,912,000 76,184,250 6,805,700 — 2,51^.650 , 28,357,800 9,321,350 28,357,800 Grand Total ... 162,156,500 57,614,450 104,542,050 lliirbor-Works, /Public Works Loan Artiticial Canal, l„ ... ^^ , Road. Mining, < Public Undertaking Loan. ; 30,873,450 Teleplione, e*.c. I Til 6,805,700 30,873,450 37,679,150 National Loans. 531 Amount Object of Name of Loan. Amount Amount not yet Debt. Raised. Redeemed. Redeemcil. in 1 Expansion of Arma- ment. Naval Loan Public Works Loan Total r Civil War Loan 1 7,000,000 77,458,900 94,458,900 15,000,000 8,203,400 6,311,55° 14,514,950 . 15,000,000 8,796,600 71,147,350 79,943,95° War. War Loans 124,920,750 9,112,700 115,808,050 § [ Total Grand total 139.920,750 24,112,700 115,808,050 234,379,650 38,627,650 195,752,000 "c 1 Redemp- tion of Paper Money. Kin'satsu Exchange Loan. Unregistered Kinsatsu Ex- change Loan Redemption of Paper Money 6,669,250 7,929,900 22,000,000 6,669,250 7,929,900 22,000,000 <: ■ Consolidii- ' tinn of Old Loiins. ' Total Consolidated Loan 36,599,150 175,0 .0,C03 14,599,150 7,663,550 22,000,000 167,336,450 Jlono'^ol' }^"'^'''^ Undertaking Loan. 12,213,550 Total ... 223,812,700 995,200 11,218,350 23,257,900 200,554,800 Exploitation of New Territory. Railroad 7,722,350 Land Surveying 1,274,550 Harbor- Work 1,462,000 Construction of Govern- ment Offices 787,250 Total 11,246,150 Grand Total.. 7,722,350 1,274,500 1,462,000 787,250 11,246,150 857,505,35° 317,111,825 540,393,525 It wiil be seen from the foregoing table that the national debts incurred for military purposes number four, the amount of their loans corresponding to less than 27.3 per cent, of the whole sum (the debt incurrfd for civil wars corresponds to Ratio of only 16.3 per cent, approximately), and this item. Different Kinds therefore is the largest ; then come the debts in- of Debts. curred for the reorganization of public institutions. These debts number six and their aggregate amount 532 Japan in ilie xieginniiig of tlie 20 Ratio of Interest-Beariusf those bearing interest and those not hear- Loans aad Those not ing interest and also into those that Bearingf Interest. have issued bonds and those that have not, the following comparison is obtained : — National Loans. INTEREST-BEARING. Kind. Amount Amount of Amount not yet Loan. Redeemed. Redeemed. Those that have Issued Negotiable! o„„ , ,„, „„ , o„,k Bonds (Public Loans) ... [809,532,625 295.3o8,73S I I5,ooo,cx30 15,000,000 Those that have not Issued Neijo tiable Bonds (Temporary Loans) . 514,223,8 Toial ^ 824,532,625 310.308,73s 5H,223,8 NOT BEARING INTEREST. Those that have Issued Negotiable! ,„„,,-,- Bonds (Public Loans) f 'o-y'^-'^S Those that have not Issued Nego-! tiable Bonds (Temporary Loans ... f 22,000,000 6,803,090 4,169,636 22,000,000 Tatal 32,972,725 6,803,090 26,169,636 TOTAL. lat have Issued Negotiable! 8,0,505,350 (Public Loans) | '^ ^'■'^ i 37,000,000 Those that Bonds Those that have not Is.sued Nego- tiable Bonds (Temporary Loans) ., Total 302,111,825 15,000,000 518,393,526 ... 857,505,350 317,111,825 540,393,526 Ltistly the cle" ts shall be classified according to the presence or absence of interest and according to the rate of inteiest. 534 Japan in tlie Beginning of tlie 20th Century. ^i. Name of Loan. lo Voluntary Pension Loan 9 9-percent. Foreign Loan f Capitalized Pension Loan 8 < Old Shinto Priests Pension Loan ... I Total lYz Civil War Loan 17-per cent. Foreign Loan Capitalized Pension Loan Nakasendo Railroad Loan Total Kinsatsu Exchange Loan Capitalized Pension Loan 6 I Public works Loan Unregistered Kinsatsu Exchange Loan Total Capitalized Pension Loan Civil War Loan Naval Loan Consolidated Loan Railroad supplementary Loan Railroad Loan War Loan ... Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Formosan Undertaking Loan Total New Loan Railroad Loan Public Undertaking Loan Hokkaido Railroad Loan Total No fOldLoan Inte-\ Paper Money Redemption Loan rest V Total Amount Amount Amount not of Loan. Redcemnd. yet Redeemed, 9,244,005 4,880,000 16,565,850 334,050 16,899,900 10,000,000 11,712,000 108,242,785 20,000,000 139,954,785 6,669,250 25,003,705 1 2,500,000 7,929,900 52,102,855 31,412,405 5,000,000 17,000,000 175,000,000 2,000,000 44,981,750 124,920,750 66,925,200 2,912,000 11,246,150 481,398,255 12,422,825 17,577,750 78,052,250 2,000,000 110,052,725 10,972,725 22,000,000 32,972,735 9,244,005 4,880,000 :6,565,85o 334,050 16,899,900 10,000,000 1 1 ,7 1 2,000 108,246,785 20,000,000 139,954,785 6,669,250 25,003,705 12,500,000 7,927,900 52,102,855 7,283,51s 5,000,000 8,203,400 7,663,550 2,000,000 13,728,050 9,112,700 11,813,150 64,804,365 12,422,825 12,422,825 6,803,090 6,803,089 24,128,890- 8,796,600 167,336,450 31,253,700 115,808,050- 55,112,050 2,912,000 11,246,150 416,593,890- 17,577,750 78,052,250- 2,000,000- 97,630,000 4,169,636 22,000,000 26,169,636 Grand Total... 857,505,350 3i7,iu:,825 540,393,526- Note : — That portion of the South-Western Civil War Loan which had been paid otr in 1883 when the rate of interest was revised was included in the item of the- old rate of interest, and the remainder in that of the new rate. National Loam. 535 II. LOCAL DEBTS. As already mentioned, the d-ibts contracted by the feuiTiil princes were converted into the public loans of the Imperial Government and were thus brought under a uniform system. For a considerable period from the advent of the First Lo al Loans. Imperial regime local loans were practically non- existent, nor were there any regular rules in force to regulate this branch of local finance. It was as late as 1890, when the local Government system had been completed, that regular provisions relating to local loans were enacted for the first time. According to the provisions now in force, the y)refectural and communal corporations are allowed to raise loans only for the pur- pose of redeeming older debts or when it is impossible to meet with the ordinary revenue extraordinary disbursements Ob'eets of occasioned by natural calamities or similar occur- LocalLo3ns. rences of an unavoidable nature or by undertakings judged to confer a permanent benefit on the cor- porations. But a loan cannot be raised unless the details relating to it have been voted by the legislative organ of the corporation and unless such decision has been approved by the Ministers of Home Affairs and of Finance. However this restrictive provision may not apply to short-termed loans redeemable in not more than three years Though local loans are subject to such restrictions, the develop- ment of the self-government system and the expansion of local expenditure occasion disbursements which can not be easily met out of the ordinary revenue. Then again the frequent occurrences of calamities and disasters have further obliged tlie prefectures and corporative bodies to resort to loan expedients, and the result has been that the local loans have attained enormous proportions. The supervising authorities are exercising the utmost care to put a judicious check on this tendency. 53C Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. STATISTICS RELATING TO LOCAL LOANS. Table I.— Existing Amount of Local Loans. (unit of yen). Loans gf At the End Loans "tt Loans of Loans of Towns and of Year. Prefectui*3. Districts. Cities. Villages. 1890 570,301 — 150,000 — 1891 1,263,481 — 863,112 1,652 1892 1,295,155 — 2,961,419 16,609 1893 • 1,529,507 — 7,501,644 19,232 1894 2,281,511 3,000 7>529,76o 120,574 1895 2,209,945 2,500 7,820,960 128,241 1896 2,204,854 6,zoo 8,019,596 163,173 1897 , 4,500,149 21,479 8,732,123 236,921 1898 7,885,203 45.729 11,501,480 383,386 J899 8,672,641 62,646 14,676,75s 491,949 1900 . 9,719,984 135,613 18,889,033 829,498 1901 . 10,379.695 339,348 19,263,663 Local Loans 1,514,45s At the End Loans of Local Total. Redeemable Grand Total. of Year Associations. within 3 Years. 1890 — 720,301 — 720,301 1891 — 2,128,245 — 2,128,245 1892 6,508 4,279,692 — 4,279,692 1893 43,418 9,093,801 — 9.093,801 1894 126,40s 10,061,253 — 10,061,253 1895 138,289 10,299.934 — 10,299,934 1896 124,589 10,518,414 — 10,518,414 ■897 247,489 13,738,162 2,614,652 16,352,814 1898 .... 448,682 20,264,480 3,219,517 23,483,997 1S99 724,308 24,628,299 3,629,904 28,258,204 1900 ... 1, 1 95 ,345 30,769,473 5,010,447 35.779:921 1901 1,687,674 33,187,806 7,520,166 40,707,972 National Loam. 537 Table II. — AncRECAXE Amount of Local Loans. (unit ofye/i.) Total of Existing Increase Compared Amount. with Preceding Year. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1S9S 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 720,301 2,128,245 4,279,692 9,093,801 10,061,253 10,299,934 10,518,414 16,352,814 23,483,997 28,258,204 35,779,921 40,707,972 1,407,943 2,15 ',447 4,814,109 967,451 238,681 218,480 5,834,400 7,131,182 4,774,206 7,521,717 4,928,051 Rate of Increase. 1-955 I.OII 1. 125 .106 .024 .021 ■555 •436 .203 .266 •137 Table III.— Classiffication of Local Loans Existing in igoi. Prefectural ■District City Town and village Association (unit of yen.) Education. Sanitary. - 745,952 — ... 130,770 — ... 312,210 7,500 ... 435,720 9,734 — 900 Public Works. 9,599,312 93,437 18,919,651 633,109 1,585,655 Redemp- Industry. tion of Old Loans. 34,400 106,000 324,907 12,490 9,141 24,297 112,970 88,628 Total. 10,379,664 339,348 19,263,662 1,517,449 1,687,673 Total... At the end of 1900 ... 1899 1898 1897 1896 1895 1894 1893 1,624,656 18,134 30,832,164 477,797 235,045 33,187,795 336,456 86,740 29,851,443 285,941 208,892 30,769,473 232,295 85,480 23,999,226 170,444 140,852 24,628,299 204.787 85,720 19,738,000 85,045 150,927 20,264,480 105,395 37,540 13,490,746 75,045 29,434 13,733,161 43,033 40,400 10,351,700 75,545 7,734 10,518,414 25,316 2,600 10,187,912 75,545 8,559 10,299,934 23,378 4,000 9,953,790 75,545 5,040 10,061,253 9,881 4,000 9,078,300 — 1,620 9,093,801 538 Japan in the Beginnin-g of tlie 20th Century, CHAPTER V,— Currency System. Existing System and its History— Effect of the Coinage System on the Finance and Econoihy of the Country. I. EXISTING SYSTEM AND ITS HISTORY. Gold Coinage System. — The existing currency system is based on the Coinage System promulgated in the year 1897, and which ushered in the gold standard in this country. The principal point* in the currency system are these : — 1. The unit of tlie coinage shall be 2 fun of pure gold (11.574 grains), and shall be one half the value of the old gold unit. 2. The gold coins shall be of three denominations, > yen coins, 10 y(m coins, and 20 yen coin?, and the gold coina issued under the old coinage law shall have double the- value of the coins of corresponding denominations issued under the new coinage law. 3. Subsidiary silver pices shall be of three denominations, 10- sen pieces, 20 sen pieces, and 50 sen pieces. The 5 sen silver pieces issued under the old coinage system shall remain in circulation as before. 4. Subsidiary copper coins shall be of three denominations» 5rsen nickel pieces, 1-sen copper pieces and 5-rin copper pieces. The 2-sen pieces, 1-sen pieces, 5-riJi and 1-rin pieces, issued before shall continue iu circulation as before. 5. The circulation of 1 yen silver coin that was used ss legal tender to any amount at the rate of 1 yen gold piece- was prohibited on April 1, 1898, and its withdrawal from circulation was effected on July 31st of the same year. A brief history of tlie development of the existing monetary system shall be described in the following paragraphs. Existing System and its History. 539 FIRST PERIOD. One of the fi ret things which the Imperial Government attempted in the way of internal reform was, to unify the currency system with the object of securing its stability. The promulgation of the New Coinage Regulations in 1871 first laid the basis of a sound monetary system. The regulations adopted 1 yen gold piece weigh; ing 23.15 grains as the unit of standard, and minted 2 yen, 5 yen, 10 yen, and 20 yen pieces. Subsidiary coins con- First Coinage sisted of silver and copper pieces, the former being Regu ation of four denominations of 5-se», lO-s^t, 20-sen and 50-«en. and the other also of four denominations, Ti-rin 5-rin 1-sen, 2-sen {5-sen nickel pieces were first minted in 1889.) At the same time the Government issued 1-yen silver coin equal in weight and quality to the Mexican dollars that were circulating extensively at that time in the Far East. The 1-yen coins called "trade dollar" having been issued to Trade " Dollar " serve the convenience of merchants engaged in foi'eign trade, they were acceptable only within the limits of the treaty ports. The relative value of the 1-yen silver pieces was fixed at the rate of 100 silver yen to 101 gold yen, that is to say at the rate of 1 of gjld to about 16.014 of silver. (By Kotification issued in 1876, 100 yen in silver coins was made equal in value to 100 yen in gold, the rate being 1 of gold to about 10.174 of silver.) SECOND PERIOD. The gold mouo-metallism that was adopted early in Oie er^ began to be seriously afiected from about 1873, when the gold price of of silver fell very considerably in Europe and America, so that whereas at first the relative value was 1 of gold to 16 of silver, it fell to one of gold to 19 or 20 of silver. Situated as Japan was iu tlie midst of silver using countriis, it was, decided, for the sake of promoting transactions with those countries, to reduced to make the trade dollar legal tender throughout the Bi-Metalli.in. country and to allow it to le circulated to any amount side by side wiili the gold coins. In conse* 640 Japan in the Beginninri of the 20th Century. quenee of this new arrangement put in force in 1878, the monetary- system of Japan was no longer gold mono-metallism, but was changed to a S3'stem of gold and silvtr bi-metallisra. THIRD PEKIOD. The paper notes issued by the Treasury in 1868 were a result of imperious necessity of meeting the various urgent calls of ex- penditure occasioned by the inauguration of the new Government. At first they were convertible notes, but coming to 1871, they began to suffer depreciation. A similar remark applies to the bank notes issued in virtue of the Notional Bank EegulatioUg Paper and pi-omulgated in 1872. They were at first convertible Ba k Notes, into specie, but when in 1876 the Regulations were amended to the efl'ect that the bank notes were convertible into inconvertible Treasury notes, they were brought down to the same level of inconvertibility as the other kind of notes. Though those notes were reduced to that unlucky position, the evil resulting there- from was not yet serious, owing to the fact that the amount of the two kinds of notes was still comparatively small. The outbreak of the South-Western Civil war in 1877 and the issue of 27 million yen at one time by the Government and also the issue of no small amount by the banks at once inflated the volume of inconvertible notes. This tendency was further accelerated, for as a result of amendment of the National Bank Begulations in 1876 the creation of new banks followed in quick succession. At the end of 1879 therefore the volume of inconvertible paper money swelled to as much as 34,000,000 yen. The evil effect of this condition of the currency soon began to make itself felt in every direction ; the price of commodities rose rapidly, specie left the country, the importg continued to exceed the exports, public bonds continued to come down to an alarming extent, and in short it seriously impaired the ])rosperity of trade and industry. The Government adopted measures calculated to remedy this disastrous state of afiairs. From 1880 systematic effi)rts were made to accomplish this adjustment, and to redeem the paper Currency money. In pursuance of that resolution the Govern- Adjustneat. ment began to hoard specie. Coming to 1883 we find Existing System and its History. 541 that it amendsd the Natioaal Ba'ik Regulations. It afcerwards caused the banks to depo .it specie reserves with the Bank of Japan that had been established iu 1884, and this central bank was made to issue convertible notes on the bases of the specie reserves it had in its vault. The redemption of the inconvertible notes and the issue of convertible notes to take their place reduced the volume of notes in circulation, and restored their value to par. At the Issu9 0fCon- same time the exodus of specie was stopped, trade vertible Notes, revive.!, prices and the rate of interest fell, and thu market and industry began to recover their normal state of activity. Meanwhile the specie reserves against Government notes went on accumulating, so that the Government was in the position in June of 1835, to give notice that specie payment would be resumed from January 1886 and that the inconvertible notes would be redeemed with silver specie. Thus the important oliject of financial adjustment was at last realized. The circulation of Government notes was prohibited not later than December 31st of 1899, while that of bank notes was similarly prohibited on December 9th of the same Government year. It was announced at the same time that during Notes. the five years after tlie notice of withdrawal from circulation a holder of those notes would be entitled to have them exchanged for convertible legal notes. This period has not yet come to an end. FOURTH PERIOD. With the redemption of paper money by silver after 1886 and the placing of paper on par with silver, the monetary system of Japan, though theoretically a bi-metallic system^ Practically practically became one of silver. Though this Silver financial state was an outcome of unavoidable Mono-Metallism. circumstances, this change of the gold mono-metallic system into a silver standard system proved highly disastrous far our country. For the fall of silver that began to take place about 1877 kept on at greater rate, and was still more accelerat- ed owing to the conversion of many silver countries into gold countries. 542 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i/t Century. It is tnie that the. United States of America made an attempt to check this downward course by adopting the Sherman act and by convening an International Monetary System Conference. These efforts ended in a failure and the fall continued with, unabated force. This movement of the silver market inflicted no small injuries on our national economy, so that the Government at last decided to institute inquiries into the question of monetary Inv stigatioi standard, and appointed in 1892 a commission charg- in'O Mon.tary ed with this special task. The commission was Sys ems- composed of officials of the Departments of State concerend with this affair as well as of economists and business-men at large. The points wliich the commission were asked to deliberate on and discuss were, (1) the causes of the recent fluctuation in the price cf gold a d silver, and thjir general efftet ; (2) the effect of those fluctuations on the economic condition of the country ; (3) whether, in view of these fluctuations, there was any need of making a change in the coinage system of the countr)', and if so what system ought to be adopted, and what measures should be taken for effecting that change. The commission sat for about two years, and after having male careful investigations into the subject came to the conclusion that our coinage system required a change, and that the change should be the adoption of the gold standard- The Government, however, had at that time no fund at its disposal to enable it to carry out this decision of the commission. Fortunate- ly the Japan-China war and the indemnity paid by China enabled the Government to procure that fund. FIFTH PERIOD. This Indemnity reached Japan at a very opportune moment so far as the change of the coinage system was concerned, for it came just when the Government, impelled by neees- Inauguration sity, was thinking of carrying out the change just of Gol 1 System, referred to and when the time for making thab change had in fact come. Determined to effect this important monetary, change, the Government introduced in 1897 the Coinage Bill to the Diet. The bill with the approval of botli Houses, was passed in March oi the same year, and put in force on Effect of the Coinage Reform on the Finance. 643 October 1st of the same year, as briefly described at the beginning of this chapter. As soon as the adoption of a gold standard had been decided upon, the Government began purchasing abroad gold bullion with part of the Indemnity, and the bullion brought home was handed -ov-er to tli€ Imperial Mint with instruction to stamp the gold coins with the greatest possible speed. The Mint attended to the work with gr( a . energy, and minted over 76,000,000 yen gold coins from July 30th to April of the following year. II. EFFECT OF THE COINAGE REFORM ON THE FINANCE AND ECONOMY OF THE COUNTRY. General Remarks. — As only not more than six years have elapsed' since the putting in operation of ihe new coinage system, it is not yet possible to define with any precision the effects which the new system has had upon the economic condition of the country. There have been, moreover, other accidental causes in operation since that time, such as, for example, the abnormal influence exerted on our economical system by the sudden expansion of Government and private enterprises after the Japan-China War, the outbreak of the North China trouble, the failure of the rich crop, the coming into operation of the revised tariff" laws, etc. Benefit of the new Currency System. — All those things have tended to complicate the economic condition of the country> rendering it extremly diflacult to point out in any clear manner the effects attending the adoption of the gold standard. However the result of the new coinage system may be broadly stated, in the following paragraphs : — The adoption of the gold standard has placed our currency sysiem on a firm basis and relieved it from those fluctuations that had constantly disturbed the market Stability of while it rested on silver basis. Not only did Currency Systeai. these fluctuations always aflTect the standard of price, but they also placed our currency system in a position of great insecurity, inasmuch as the specie 544 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20 short those enterprises are freed from risks of une.Tpected changes and dangers of miscalculations inseparable from the varying changes of the value of silver. The exchange business with gold-using countries has been made stable and the sound development of foreign trade has been secured by the new coinage Exchange with system. The trade with silver-using count- Gold-usi:;g Couatrier. ries has also advanced satisfactorily, instead of being subjected to any difficulties. In- deed the exchange rate with gold-using countries has been made practically stable, and free from all those sudden clianges that frequently appeared formerly. The result has been a powerful and healthy stimulus to the development of our trade with gold-countries. During the four years prior to the carrying into effect of the gold standard, that is from 1893 to 1896 inclusive, the imports from gold-using countries averaged 74,500,000 yen a year. The average during the five 3'ear3 commencing 1898 when the gold system was established amounted to 144,500,000 yen being about double the former average. Further, the average of Japanese exports to gold-using countries during the four years and the five years both specified above, was 74,800,000 and 117,500,000 yea respectively, showing an advance of over 57 per cant. The trade with silver-using countries, in spite of the presence of deterring influences in the shape of the constant fluctuations of the silver market, has also shown a prosperous, condiiiiin,, pro- bably owing to the development of our productive" enterprise, of the means of transportation, and of tine increase of the foreigu Effect of the Coinage licform on the Finance. 547 demand for our goods. During tlie first four years in question the imports from the principal silver countries averaged C5,700,000 yen, against the corresponding figure of 61,200,000 yen for the other five years, an increase of about 71 per cent. In exports to those countries the average that stood at C3,300,000 yen in the first period advanced to 83,000,000 yen, an increase of over 174 per cent. Tlie advantage which the new coinage system confers on Japan in connection with her foreign payments is not small. This is indeed an important thing ■when Effjct of Foreign it is remembered that Japan's creditors are Payments. principally gold-using countries, so that Japan, had she remained as a silver country, ■would have to pay in the ever-fluctuating silver the principle and interest of her foi-cign loans, the price of her purchases, travelling- expense, etc. Not to speak of the great uncertainty in transac- tions and the great inconvenience in renjittauee, the loss which Japan would have to incur on that account would not be small. For instance, for one and the same amount of liabilities, abso- lutely speaking, Japan would have to bear in that case a heavier burden. From all these evils Japan has been relieved by the adoption of the gohl standard. The benefit of international community in economic affairs Las been established by the new coinage system, for it cannot be denied that of all the various devices Clo er Economic that may be made use of for bringing Relation with diifcrent countries into closer economic foreign Countries, relation with each other, the identity of ■the coinage system constitutes the most potent cause. Now as a result of the adoption of the gold standard, Japan's money market has been brought directly iuto touch with the central markets of the world. The closer relation thus brought about has led to the capital of other gold countries flowing into this country and contributing to the development of its economic enterprises. The loans raised by Japan in London or- the bonds issued there have induced European and American capitalists to constantly invest their money in our loiin bonds, which haye 548 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. therefore began to be regularly quoted on the London market^ the amount of transaction showing a steady increase. Again, foreign capitalists have become willing to sujDply municipal loans or loans of business concerns, and they are also disposed to- invest in various undertakings of Japan. This circumstance may partly be due to the actual state of our trade and manufacture having become better known among foreign capitalists, but it can not be denied that it is principally a result of the adoption of the gold standard in our country and to the removal of various obstacles that formerly stood in the way of the intro- duction of foreign capital. As briefly enumerated above, the result of the adoption of the gold mono-metallism has been far-reaching, for while it has placed our monetary system on a firm and sound basis and has promoted our financial and economic stability and sound development, it has enhanced the credit of the country in the world's markets. The truth of the foregoing remarks will be further demonstrated by the appended tables, returns about exports and imports being referred to the chapter of Trade. AMOUNT OF COINS AND PAPER MONEV IN CIRCULATION. (unit of yen). Amount or Coins. ' Subsidiary At the end Silver Coins Subsidiary Copper Coins of Dec. Gold Coins. (ijlwO- Silver Coins. (Nickel Coins Total. included). iSG3 ... — — — — — 1S69, ... — — — — — 1870 ... — — — — — 1S71 — 2,666,6j9 2,740.245 1,409,331 5,624,603 i2,44o,SiS 1S72 ... ... 26,160,931 3,663,334 3,858,526 5,624,603 39,307,394. Ejfed of the Coinaye Reform on the Finance. 549 Subsidiary At the end Silver Coins Subsidiary Copper Coins of Dec. Gold Coins. {l yen). Silver Coins. (Nickel Coins Total. included). 1873 ... 1874 ... 1875 ... 1576 ... 1577 ... 1578 ... 1579 .. i8£o ... 1981 ... 1S82 ... 1883 ... 1884 ... 1885 ... 1856 ,.. 1857 ... 1S88 ... 1389 ... 1890 ... 1891 ... 1892 ... 1893 ... 1894 ... 1895 ... 1896 ... :i897 ... :i898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... 1901 ... 1902 ... 43.551.184 39,711.743 32.316,939 29,840,204 25,740,862 23,227,193 19,822,836 14.929,448 13,696,639 I3.°49.i48 12,655,270 11,997,820 12.555,240 13.287,556 14,110,861 14,688,827 16,355,760 14271,829 17,208,066 12,209,757 12,236,519 11,957,378 12,254,526 12,811,389 79,899,898 83,648,655 93.360,986 52.930,394 59.342.303 89,247,908 3.663,334 4,572,401 4,478,033 6,140,056 5,869,485 6,423,124 7,383 620 9,442,914 9,367,593 13,842,648 17.195,954 20,138,400 22,413,577 24,086,570 22,015,114 26,179,765 31.673,733 27,361,663 35.383,284 46,921,639 52,124,353 46,292,212 47,192,176 50,977,504 31,048,957 7,597,453 8.764,775 9,610,291 12,868,301 15.546,649 16,912,550 14,158,987 9,589,113 8.135,836 7.499.259 7.301.312 7.263.039 9,252,885 9.253.031 11,244,581 11.982,799 12,194,949 12,192,756 13.192,519 14,301.597 16,188,905 18,170,550 20,751,998 23,228,777 29.395.940 45,814.139 5^,610,031 57.118,376 58,298,490 59.177.328 5.634.318 6,059,964 6,933,898 7,952,201 6,034,018 9,734,404 10,191,861 10,665,859 1 1 ,240,608 12,231,164 13,168,768 14,182,618 14,755,563 15,078,536 14,912,627 14.799.247 13,485,114 14,864,425 14,692,121 14,835,144 15,020,757 15,506,679 15.490,366 15,521,101 16,093,962 16,992,185 1 7,504,068 17,446,096 17,758.238 17,921,896 60,446,289 59,108,883 53.339,161 56,880,762 ' 56,191,014 56,297,276 51,557,304 44,627,334 42,440,676 46,622,219 50,351,304 53,581,877 58,977,270 61,705,693 62,283,183 67,650,639 73.909,556 70,690,673 80,475,990 88,368,138 95570,534 91,926,819 95,689,066 102,538,771 156,438,788 146,454,979 165,475,085 127,494,866 135,399,031 166,347,134 550 Japan in the Beginning oj the > 20t/i Century. Amount of Taper Money Issued. At the end of Dec. 1868 ..'. ... lSi9 , 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 , 1S77 1878 1879 1880 i83i i832 1883 1884 1855 1856 1887 18SS 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1895 1897 1S98 1899 Igoo I90I IQ02 Oovemmer.^ Paper Money. 24,037,390 50,090,867 55 500,000 60,272,000 68,400,000 78,381,014 91,902,304 99,071,870 105,147,583 105,797,092 139,418,592 130,308,921 1 24,940,486 118,905.195 109,369,014 97,999,277 93,380,234 88,345,096 67,800,846 55,815,045 46,734,741 40,913,035 33,272,715 27,886,721 20,828,245 16,407,000 13,404,547 11,129,224 9,376,172 7,451,09s 5,411,726 4,125,783 1,767,814 1,609.772 1,551,791 Notional iink Notes. Convertible Bank Notes. 1,362,210 1,995,000 1 ,420,000 1 ,744,000 13,352,751 26,379,006 34,046,014 34,426,351 34,395,818 34,335 349 34,275.735 31,015,942 30,155,389 29,501,485 '28,604,133 27,679,657 26,739,205 25,810,720 24,869,508 23,890,510 22,756,119 21,781,796 .20,793,786 16,497,889 5,024,729 1,866,563 981,608 483,933 449,-320 431,576 3,956,161 39,549,815 53,454,803 65,770,580 79,108,652 102,931,766 "5.734,545 125,843,363 148,663,128 149,813.700 180,336,815 198,313,896 226,229,058 197,399,901 250.562,040 228,570,032 214,096,766 232,094,377 Total. 24,037,390 50,090,867 55 500,000 60,272,000 68,400,000 79.743,224 93.897.304 100,491,870 106,891,583 119,149,843 165,697,598 164,354,93s 159,366,837 153,302,013 143,754,363 132,275,013 124,396,176 122,456,646 136,852,146 137.873.9S1 140,184,978 146,760,892 162,015,201 168,490,774 170,562,118 187,826,247 185,000,043 212,262,825 224,187,957 238,704,885 204,678,190 255,669,461 230,821,779 216,155,858 234,078,744 Amount of Coins and Paper in Circulation. 24,037,390 50,090,867 55,500,000. 72,712,818 to7;7o7,394 140,189,513; , 153,006,187 153,831,031 163,692,345 i75;34o,857 221,994,874. 215,912,239 203,994,171 I95,742,6£9' 190,376,582 183,626,317 177.978,053. 178,122,455 J74935.83I 169,160,489- 177.519.246 , 188,634,493 205,408,438- 210,872,584. 216,786,121 238,498,319 247,7 ".285 282,000,811 300,373,686 330470,142 285,619,698 337.809,481 320,282,135 308,766,069- 326,572,380 Note: — As the Government notes with drawn from circulation uomDecember 3lst,l 899,- and the bank notes from December 9tli, 1899, are allowed lelemption within five- years irom the respectivs dates, the amount Oi the two notes judged to remain on. the market is included in the table. Fffect of the Coinage Beform on the Finance. 551 EXPORTS TO GOLD STANDARD COUNTRIES, (unit of veil). British Germany. Belgium. Anierica_ 1,380,040 226,284 1.720,559 19,480 131.944 111,467 109,312 101,164 331-415 296,512 1,5 > 7,5 49 3,340,013 2,972,137 2,207,018 2,469,242 3,796,927 3,556,613 Year. oi America. Britain. France. 1893 27,739,458 4,995.974 19,531,975 1894 43,323,557 5,950,198 19,498,776 I095 54,028,950 7,883,091 22,006,386 1S96 31,532,341 9,012,398 19,027,389 1897 52,436,404 8,481,196 26,213,654 1898 47,311,155 7,783,643 20,593,407 1899 63,919,270 11,270,770 29,247,837 igoo ., 52,566,396 11,262,997 19,150,423 1901 72,309,359 11,482,504 27,275,671 5,251,071 519,327 1902 80,232,805 17,346,149 27,283,458 4,737,029 600,497 Year. Australia. Switzerland. Italy. Total. 1893 890,637 227,141 1,631,908 58,343.976 1894 1,098,066 703,021 2,900,390 77,222,724 1895 1,281,104 467.718 3.550,736 94,676,111 1896 1,458,253 617,707 2,669,106 68,994,843 1897 1,875,170 897,047 2,991,889 97,256,310 1898 1,995,680 236,686 2,485,362 85,244,959 1899 2,169,921 III, £73 3,581,709 116,787,5:6 1900. 2,530,525 117,877 7.109.311 99,560,316 1991 2,533,357 150,284 12,569,485 135,367,172 1902 3,172,092 755,916 13,287,556 i5o,9or,343 Note : — In this table the returns of only those countries which bear close commercial relation with Japan are given, and those with Holland, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Norway-Sweden, Turkey, Portugal, Denmark, Hawaii, etc. are omitted.. British India having been converted into a gold country in 1.899 Jt 's also omitted. This remark also applies to the table relating lo imports giveri .next. IMPORTS FROM GOLD-STANDARD COUNTRIES. ' ' ' 2,211,687 1,986,169 1,594,045 2,05^,620 2,265,620 2,358,099 2,950,662 3,276,114 3,485,841 Average. 74,809,414 117,572,263 (unit of yen). Year. ■1893 .. 1894... 1895... 1896... 1897... 1898... 1899... 1900... 1991... 1902... United States of America. ,.. 6,090,408 .. 10,982,558 .. 9,276,360 .. 16,373,420 .. 27,030,538 .. 40,001,098 - 3,845,894 .. 62,761,198 .. 42,769,430 .. 48,652,825 Great Britam. 27,929,628 42,189,874 45,172,111 59,251,780 65,406,266 62,707,572 44.836,994 71,638,220 50,575,789 50,364.0^9 France. 3,305,277 4,348,048 5,l&o,i35 7,682,347 5.147.592 6,579.i:93 5,768,160 8095,820 3,752,828 4,745,776 Germany. 7,318.134 7,909,542 12,233,159 17,1*3.953 18,143, 2iO 25,610,962 17,613,191 29,199,696 28,3^0,102 25,812,921 •British B.elgiufli. America 935,001 1,201,121 2,066,245 3,106,094 3,173,218 4316,703 5.415.81s 7.949.253 5,810,897 6,977,656 16,629 45,395 13,718 51,525 129,129 156,986 183,018 316,669 181,785 517,274 552 Japan in the Beginning 0/ ilie 2Qth Century. Year. Australa. Switzerland. Italy. Total. Average. 1893 319,034 669,301 86,578 46,669,990 ■ 1894. 534,763 629,208 170,340 68,010,849 1S95 1,031,725 1,040,212 143,465 76,162,120 74,511,069 1896 835,046 2,534,217 i8.-,924 107,201,306 1897 897,050 2,555,905 213,267 122,696,245 1898 1,403,435 3,498,310 385,819 44,660,869 ^ 1899 1,708,670 1,676,669 236,988 115,654,414 19CX3 2,455,940 3,012,505 450,107 85,879,048 144,525,327 1901 1,777,599 2,208,574 154,382 135,551,386 1902 1,672,218 1,951,047 186,813 140,880,559 i EXPORTS TO SILVER-STANDARD COUNTRIES. (unit oi ren). French Year. China. Hongkong. Korea. India. 1893 7,714,420 15,688,875 1,301,243 — 1S94 8,813,987 16,199,481 2,365,112 24,523 1895 9,135.1-9 18,362,803 3,831,477 17,555 1S96 13,823844 19,955,900 3,367,693 30,461 1897 2i,3;5,o6s 25,390,^94 5,196,573 35,514 1S98 29,19.3,17s 31,473,895 5,844,332 111,421 1S99 40,257,034 34,291,308 6,995,931 161,048 1900 31,871,590 39,177,455 9,953,272 114,407 1 901 42,925,579 41,786,647 11,372,551 148,470 1902 ... ... ... 46,838,545 Pliillppine 25,876,059 10,554,183 158,411 Year. Inlands. Siam. Total. Average. 1893 120,417 6,403 24,831,358 ■ 1S94 220,587 2,953 27,626,743 1S95 194,832 7,930 31,549,706 30,348,321 1896 187,786 9,892 37,385,576 1897 186,383 22,466 52,156,295 1898 115,433 41,720 66,779,977 1S99 286,772 26,614 82,018,707 1900 1,257,126 35,621 82,409,471 83,054,674 1901 2,580,682 32,003 98,849,930 1902 1,731,739 56,347 85,215 ^'ote — In this table the returns of only these countries bearing close con imercial rela- tion with Japan are given. and the returns of Peru, Mexico, etc. ire therefore omitted. As Russia was changed to a gold country n 1898 its reti irns are also omitted. This remark also applies to the next tabb. Effect oj the Coinage Heform on the Finance. IMPORTS FROM SILVER-STANDARD COUNTRIES. 553 (unit of ^^«)' French Ycai-. China. Hongkong. Korea. India. 1893 . 17,095,67s 8,268,971 1,999,439 — 1894 • 17,511,507 8,999,718 2,183,313 6,087,615 1895 ■ 22,985,144 8,078,190 2,925,400 3,382,674 1895 . 21,344,521 9,133,778 5,118,925 1,673,388 1897 . 29,265,849 12,027,197 8,864,360 9,525,552 1898 . 30,523,862 15,604,467 4,796,032 26,668,^(1/1 1899 . 28,687,731 7,338,455 4,976,167 4,489,326 1900 . 29,960,740 10,659,855 8,805,618 3,632,642 1901 . 27,256,986 11,141,788 10,052,438 4,082,897 1902 . 40,590,858 Philippine 2,454,881 7,957,946 5,649,946 Year. Islands. Siam. Totcl. Average. 1893 • 567,133 54,391 27,984,709 • 1894 • 1,698,819 618,859 37,099,831 1895 • i,220,74S 143,095 38,735,248 35,774,647 1896 . 1,804,914 203,275 39,278,801 1897 • 2,675,300 1,190,669 63,549,223 1898 . 3,294,183 4,175,610 85,362,598 ] 1899 . 2,383,874 757,030 48,632,583 ■ 61,295,461 1900 . . ••• ... 2,284,294 585,480 55,9:8,630 1 901 . 2,981,031 1,195,082 56,710,221 59,843,275 1902 . 1,493,865 1,695,779 554 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Ci/i Century. CHAPTER IV-The Condition of the Money Market. Introductory — History and Existing Condition -Prices of Commodities— Wages — Quotation of Stocks and Sliares. I, INTRODUCTORY. General Eemaeks. — In reviewing tlie actual condition of tlie money market in tlie early part of the era, we find that there existed practically uo regular organs of the money market. To make matters worse, the defective communications and obsticles standing in the way of intercrourse between one place and other, always impeded the circulation of money .while causing the supply of Kinds far from sufficient. The result was manifested in the high rate of interest and of the difficulties that lay in the way of any- body obtaining monetary accommodation. Nor was this state of affiiirs improved in any striking way on the advent of the new Government. In the iirst place it had to issue paper money to meet the requirements of the State, and this issue of inconvertible notes was especially marked ii-oni Issue of 1873 to 1878. The amount issued on the occasion Paper Money, of the South- Western Civil "War alone was as much as 27,000,000 yen. The evil due to the presence of this disturbing element in the money market was mado still worse by the presence of bank notes which were issued by the national banks the number of wliicli had been very much increased in con- sc'(iuence of the amendment of the National Bank Regulations in 1876. In 1880 the amount of bank notes issued reached over 34,400,000 ye7i, and the volume of Government Evils of Inconver- and bank notes totalled at that time no less tible Paper Money, than 159,300,000 yen. Tiie banks by advancing Introductory. 555 loans to a considerable extent tried to foster trade and manu- factures, but this policy merely served to impart an artificial stimulus to them. Paper money continued to fall below par, and in 1881 it stood at the rate of 1.79 yen to 1 yen of silver. The market price of commodities and the rate of interest began to advance more and more, the imports to exceed -tlie exports, specie to flow out of the country, and the pi'ice of stocks and shares to decline. Under the circumstances, bona fid trade and industry began to flag, and decline and only speculative enterprises flourished. In short, finance and economics were placed in an extremely perilous situation. ^^arious suggestions were advanced in some quartei-s to remedy this state of affliirs. Some suggested tliat a foreign loan of 50,000,000 yen should be raised and the paper money slu)ulil be redeemed, while others were of opinion that 50,000,000 yen premium loan bonds should be issued both at home and abroad, and tliat the proceeds dius procured should be applied towards redv.'eming the paper money. These schemes, however, ended in smoke. The Financial authorities decided to accomplish the work of redemption by I'esorting Remedy, to ordinary measures, in other words by means of revenue surplus and by setting apart every year a certain amount of reserves for this purpose. The work of redemption carried out in pursuance of that praiseworthy resolution was began by the Government from 1881. At the same time the Government establi.slied a central bank, with the object of facilitating the smooth circulation of money. All these judicious measures adopted by the Government soon made themselves felt on the i\iarket. The condition of economic aftltirs imderwent a marked change for the better, and paper money gradually pose again to par. The restoration of the relative value of piiper money naturally caused a reaction. Market prices began to fall, business to droop, and the money market to slacken. Complaints about business depression were heard throughout the country. However this reaction was a temporary phenomenon and soon passed away. From 188G in which year the successful adjustment of paper currency was accomplished, to the outbreak of the war with China in 1894, there took place a. quiet and ordjrly progress in the condi- tion of monetary circulation of the country. In 1890, there was indeed a short period of stringency as the 556 Japan in (lie Beginning of the 20th Century. result of an excess of the imports over the exports by about 25,000,000 yen, and in consequence of the poor crops of rice in the previous year, so thnt in February of that year the average rate of discount in the money market of Tokyo stood upon daily balance at 3.1 sen per 100 yen. Yet after this the rate of interest became reduced gradually, until in June, 1803, the average discount rate stood upon daily balance at 1.7 sen per 100 yen, — the market price of the Govenment Consolidated Loan Bonds ranging between 108 yen and ] 10 yen. All this while, the foreign trade of the country Avas always in our favor, and new industrial enterprises began to appear, as an effect of the rise of prices caused by the fall in the price of silver. In the latter half of 1893, however, the ra'e of interest commenced to rise, from the increasing demand for capital caused by new industrial undertakings. But the rise in the rate of interest was especially marked in the early part of 1894 when grave disturbance arose in Korea, and on the breaking out of the war with China, in August of the same year, the average rate of dis- count upon daily balance rose to 20 sen or more per 100 yen. During the war, all new industrial undertakings were naturally suspended, but fortunately for only a few months, and the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, and the tightness of the money market during the war, caused by the issuing of the war-loan, &c., began to slacken, — the average rate of discount falling, Effect of the Japan- in October, 1895, to below 2.5 sen per 100 yen China War. upon daily balance. At the same time, th& prices kept on rising, being caused by the depreciation of silver which kept on increasing since 1893 ; so that apparently a bright prospect was presented for new industrial enterprises. Added to this, the expectation that the Chinese indemnity of 230,030,000 taels would be soon transported home, thus supplying plentiful capital to our money market, brought about reaction, from the state of temporary cession of all undertakings during the war to that of great industrial expansion immediately succeeding it. The prices of shares and stocks rose remarkably, new companies began to be created in large numbers, while old companies hastenetl to increase their capitals. The excited state of the money market at this time may be judged from the Introductory. 557 fact that the rights for stocks, for which but a few yen, as earnest money had been paid in, usually commanded high prices. The state of things being such, the total amount of capital subscribed for new companies or for the expansion of old undertakings during 1894 aggregated some 339,840,000 ijen. When to this was added the amount which had been already invested in industrial enterprises, the total capital was calculated at that time to come up to the immense sum of about 939,540,000 yen. It was apparent, how- ever, that it was beyond the economic resources of the nation to meet such an immense and sudden demand for capital. Besides, owing to the decrease in our export trade with the United States of America, on account of the prevailing economical distress in that country, and to the increased purchasing power of the lower classes at home, a result of the war time disbursenicuts by the Government, as well as to the increased demand for machineries and raw materials used in manufacture, a necessary accompaniment of the sudden industrial expansion, — owing to these causes, in 1895 imports exceeded over exports by about 53,830,000 yen ; while in the following year there was even a larger excess of about 56,150,000 yen, owing to a remarkably increased importation of rice on account of the poor crops of rice in the preceding year and the increased importation of machineries and raw materials. Such being the economic condition of the country, the rate of interest kept on steadily rising since about August of 1896 ; in. December of the same year, the average discount rate in Tokyo stood upon daily balance at 2.7 sen or more per 100 yen ; in 1897 the rate kept on rising until in December it stood upon daily balance at 3 sen or more per 100 yen. The stringency of the money market began to be generally felt, so that in that year 101 cases of the bills drawn on the union banks of Tokyo were dis- honored, though these amounted in money altogether to only about 62,500 yen. Unfortunately the rice crops of 1897 were even poorer than in the previous year and there took place also increased imports to take advantage of the old tariff rates in view of the coming into operation of the new tarifl" regulations. These things combined to bring up the excess of imports over exports to about 111,740,000 yen. The tightness of the money markiit grew ^gvL-atei 558 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. and tlie rate of interest became higliPr, so that between April and May, 1898, the average discount rate in Tokyo stood upon daily balance at 3.2 sen per 100 yen and the Consolidated Loan Bonds sliowed the signs of depreciating to below 90 yen. There were during tlie first half of the same year 60 cases of the bills drawn on the union banks of Tokyo, amounting to about 51,400 yen, which could not be collected. It is not surprising that under these circumstances there should happen a number of cases of newly established companies or old companies with expanded capital failing to secure the Ecoaomic payment of the subscriptions. And the poor crops Reaction, of rice during successive could not affect the market and to depress business. For these reasons, many industrial companies found exceedingly difficult to maintain themselves, and the spectre of a panic stared at our economic community. The Finance Jliuister at the time, now decided to employ the re- maining portion of the Chinese indemnity for relieving the pre- vailing distress, and subscribed some 3,740,000 yen to the deben- tures issued by the Hypothec Bank of Japan, and instructed it to make loans to embairessed companies having jDromising pro- spects. Moreover, the Government bought up from the market the Loan Boiids to the amount in face value of about 38,700,000 yen. Thus was, our economic community barely saved from an impending catastrophe. After this, the money market became easier and the rate of interest showed a tendency to fall. In December, 1898, the average discount rate in Tokyo stood upon daily balance at Improvement, about 2.8 sen per 100 yen ; and in January, 1899, it stood at 2.7 sen, becoming still less in September, namely 2 sen per 100 yen, owing to the rich rice harvest in the preceding year, and the restoration of parity between the imports and exports in the foreign trade on account of the increased export of silk, habidaye, copper, etc., in 1809. This encouraging state of affairs seemed to continue to exist in October as in September, when, owing to the Transvaal difficulties, the stringency of the money market became manifest in England, the very centre of the world's money market. The Bank of Eng- Introductory. r^SO land commenced i-aising its rate of interest and to absorb gold into its coifers, and India also, in view of its intended adoption of the gold standard, began to take steps to absorb gold. There com- menced now in October and November, the export of gold from this country to India. These things le I the Bank of Japan to raise itj rate of discount on November 10th, from 1.6 sen Y>er 100 yen upon daily balance to 1.7 sen, which further led the general discount rate in Tokyo to be raised in the same month on an average to 2.3 sen pet- 100 yen. The money market was now getting tighter, and on the 27tli day of the same month, the Bank of Japan again raised its discount rate to 1.9 sen per 100 yen upon daily balance. The latter fact was, however, misunderstood by the public and the rumor spread throughout Tokyo that the Bank of Japan ceased to make loans. At this, there spread considerable alarms and, for three or four days, the prices of stocks and shares underwent a rapid depreciation and there seemed at one time that some sort of panic was impending. The real situation of monetary matters, however, soon became known and the market returned to its normal condition. Yet owing to the after-effect of these disturbances and to the fact that the end of the year was at hand, the tightness of the money market yet continued to prevail and the Bank of Japan was barely enabled to tide over this diflicuL season by making an excess-issue of its notes. Coming to 1900 we find that the money market continued to tighten, and that the Bank of Japan raised the rate of discount on daily balances to 2.2 sen in March, then to Market in 1900. 2.6 sen in April, and lately to 2.7 sen in July. This was the highest level ever reached in recent years. 'iTiis action on the part of the central bank was reflected on the general market, for after July the rate of discount in Tokyo remained at a level of 3 sen or even more. The outbreak of the North China trouble in June and the despatch of a large army by Japan introduced another eiement of disturbance in our economic market. This effect was felt most keenly by our merchants and manufacturers engaged in the export trade to China, for the exports to North China were completely stopped. The stoppage of the export of spinning yarns involved all these concerned in serious 560 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qlh Century. dilficulties, and the quotation of negotiable bonds fell to an extent rarely know befijre. The market did not improve at the beginning of 1901, for though the general state of things somewhat changed for the better the business classes, warned by their bitter previous M:rk.t in 1801. experiences, were vigilantly on their guard, and refi'ained from undertaking any new projects. The demand for funds declined, and dullness prevailed over the market. At this juncture the 79th Bank and the Naniwa Bank of Osaka which had been struggling against the increasing difficulties collapsed, and with their collapse two or three others were either declared bankrupt or stopped payment. The result was that some- thing like a panic overtook the market of Osaka. Coming to the second half of the same year we find that the market somewhat recoverd its normal aspect, and what with the activity of the export trade and the satisfactory prospects of the rice crop, the public mind regained more or less its normal com- posure. Nontheless the economic circles still maintained their cautious mood ; the money market continued dull and business could not yet recover its normal activity. The market continued inactive even after it entered into 1902, so that with no fresh demands appearing for funds and with the balance of import and export of specie always in Market in 1902. favor of the former, the supply of funds remained l5 be in excess over demand. Such being the state of economic market the Bank of Japan lowered on March 19th the rate of discount from 2^ sen to 2.2 sen. This lowering did not much invite applications for loans, inasmuch as the current rate in Tokyo had already stood from the beginning of the year at 2J or 2.6 sen. To make the matters worse, the hope entertained that the demands for money must become active with the arrival of silk and tea seasons were falsified owing to the bad harvest of tea and barley. Naturally therefore the complaint about tradal depression was heard in a louder voice than it was before. Far more serious was the eifect of frost damage of mulberry trees, so that the season when . the money-markjt usually presents a brisk app?arance passed without uiiy perceptible change for tlis better. The consequence was even at; Introductory. 561 this end of the silk season the Bank of Japan had the issue margin of as much as 20 million yan left, and as, in the meanwhile, the import of specie had always exceeded the export, the specie reserves of the bank grew to over 76 million yen, with the immediate pros- pect of further increase. Then whatever reassuring sign the stock market indicated about this time by anticipating the further lower- ing of the rate of interest by the Bank of Japan, that was suddenly checked by an unexpected amendment of the Bourse Regulations on June 3rd. In view of these circumstances, the bank again lowered the oiBcial rate of interest by 0.2 sen. This act on the part of the central bank was at once reflected on the money market of the city, and the banks hastened to reduce all round the scale of interest, the rate for fixed deposits from 7 to 6J per cent, that of daily current account from 1\ to 1.2 sen, and that of petty account from 1.8 to 1* sen. This decrease of the rate of interest was of no avail, owing to untoward circumstances, i.e., the prevalence of un- seasonable weather during the summer months with the gloomy prospect, in consequence, of the crop of rice in the fall. Further, the continued excess of exports over imports in the second- half of the year, and the steady inflow of specie pushed the amount of specie reserves of the Bank of Japan above the level of 80 million yen. Again the bank lowered the rate of daily balance by 2 sen on October 3rd, and two days after the metropolitan banks lowered the daily rate for loan to 1.8 sen or 2 sen. About this time the Government caused the Industrial Bank of Japan to sell abroad the loan bonds to the extent of 50 million yen. At the same time the export of silk, Itahutaye and other important export items became active and these causes naturally led to the arrival of specie in a larger sum. The result was the specie reserves of the bank almost reached the level of 100 million yen in the early part of December. Under such circumstances, and also owing to the continued slump in business, the demands for money could not but be -inactive, and early in December the bank's record left tlie issue-margin of as much as 20 million yen, an unusual phenomenon fur the end of the year. The bank therefore lowered the rate of interest by 0.1 sen on December 9th, and even then the loans made by the bank to general public did not exceed 36 million at 662 Japan in the Beginning oj tJie 20tJi Century. the end of the middle of the month. This state of affairs underwent a sudden change coming to the last decade, when demands for money suddenly began to become active, the market was all at once tightened, and in a few days the central bank had to advance loans amounting to 19,280,000 yen. At the end of the year the loan account to general public stood at 55 million yon, this being about 2 million more compared with the corresponding figures in the preceding year. It goes without saying that the current rate of interest was somewhat raised by the city bankers, i.e., by 0.2 to 0.3 sen in daily balance. However, all things considered, the market passed 1902 in a very quiet state. Statistics : — Below are appended tables giving the fluctuations of the rate of interest, the market prices of commodities and the quotations of negotiable bonds in recent years. TABLE I.— RATES OF INTEREST. Rates of Interest Throughout the Country. On Discount of Bills On Loan Payable at the On Current On Fixed Year, Same Place. Deposits. Deposits. I.Ia^i'm. Mini'm. Maxi'm. Mini'm. Maxi'm' Mini'ra. Maxi'm Mini'ia % ^ sen, sen. sen, sen, sen. sejt. iSSg 15.00 8.4S 4.25 2.63 — — 5.6S 2.53 1S90 15.12 9.42 4.42 2.95 — — 5.8S 3.12 1891 14-89 8,94 4-12 2.7S — — 5.7g 3.12 1892 1408 8.43 3.95 2.62 — _ 5.59 3.04 1893 13-12 7.60 3.66 2.33 — — 5.35 2.76 1894 13 81 8.83 3.97 2.69 — — 5.54 3.3S 1S9S 1395 9-21 4-02 2.83 — — 5.S1 3.S8 1896 13-92 8.95 3.93 2.75 — — 6.14 4.05 1897 13-86 9.68 4.05 2.83 — — 6.47 4.20 189S 14-50 10-45 S-20 3.20 — — 7.50 4.95 iSg9 12.90 8.80 3.78 2.51 1.70 1. 18 6.90 5.70 1900 14.10 9.80 4.00 2.79 1.78 1. 28 7.50 6.0D 1901 14-40 11-60 4.06 3.35 I. Si 1.49 7.7a o.Sa 1902 13.90 10.00 3.53 2.7S 1.73 1.22 7.60 6.3a. Introductory. 5G3 TABLE II Official Ratf.s of —RATES OF INTEREST. Intfuilst of the Bank of Japan. (unit of sen.) On I .oans. On Discount of Bills Payable in '1 okyo. On Discount of Bills Payalile at Other Places Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. ^laximum. Minimum I8S7 . . ... I.6i 1-37 1.60 1.50 1.80 1. 65 1 888 . . ... 1.94 1.51 1. 85 1.50 2.00 1.65 1S89 . . ... 1.92 1.70 1.90 1.60 2.10 1.65 1890 . . ... 1.92 1.78 I. go 1.65 2.10 1.90 1891 . . ... 2.10 1-75 2.00 1.70 2.20 1. 85 1S92 . . ... 1.7s 1.65 I. So 1.60 1.85 1-75 1893 ■ . ... 1.70 1.30 1.70 1.30 1.90 1.40 I £94 ■ . ... 2.20 1.70 2.10 1.70 2.30 1.90 1S95 ■ . ... 2.20 2.00 2.10 1.90 2.30 2.20 1895 . . ... 2.10 2.00 2.00 1.90 2.30 2.20 1897 • . ... 2.50 2,10 2.20 2.00 2.50 2.30 1898 . . ... 2.70 2.30 2.40 2.00 2.70 2.30 1899 . . ... 2.30 I. So 2. CO 1.60 2.30 1.90 1900 . . ... 2.70 2.20 2.40 1.90 2.70 2.20 1901 . . ... 2.70 2.70 2.40 2.40 2.70 2.70 1902 . . ... 2.70 1.90 2.40 1.70 2.70 2.00 TABLE III.— RATES OF INTERE.ST. Year. Rates of Intfrfst of the Tokyo Bankers' Association. (unit of si^n.) On Discount of On Loans. Bills Payable On Current On Fixed Deposits, in 'J'okyo. Deposits. Maxi'm. 1887 3.01 1888 3.29 1889 3.29 1890 3.33 1S91 3-04 1892 2.52 1893 2-54 1894 2.96 1895 2.93 1896 2.93 1897 3-26 1898 3.34 1S99 2.93 1900 3.39 1901 3-56 »902 3.30 Mini'm. Tvlaxi'm. Mini'm. Maxi'm. Mini'ra. 1-95 2.19 2.19 2.47 2.21 2.02 1-55 213 2.32 2.28 2.55 2-75 2. CO 2.43 3.02 2.00 348 3-31 3-46 3-63 3-50 3-3° 2.59 3-7° 3-23 3.00 319 348 3.10 3-36 4.19 3-25 1.72 1.95 2.17 2.27 1.70 1.70 1.40 2.14 2.32 2.25 2-53 2.67 1.89 2.33 2.89 1.80 95 10 15 10 29 23 II 15 23 31 50 84 79 80 ,82 79 0.94 0.49 0.82 0.82 0.55 0.77 0.51 0.79 0.92 0.98 0.99 I-3I 1.20 i-3j 1.62 6.50 One Six Three Year. Months. Months 4.71 5.41 5.70 5-95 6.00 5.78 4.72 4.46 5-93 6.05 6.44 7-35 6.62 7.19 7.56 7.06 4.68 4.66 4-74 5-24 5-o8 4-35 4-25 4.91 5-37 549 5.89 6.57 6.26 7oi 7?,i 6-93 4-79 344 3-74 4-36 3-94 3-23 3-59 4.27 4-77 4-94 5-31 643 5-93 6.63 7.10 6.62 CG4 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, TABLE n.— PRICES OF PRIN'CIPAL COMMODITIES. (unit of jw;). Kind of Commodities. iSj/. i833. 1839. 1S90. 1891- Rice ... per I iokit .. 4.710 4-37° S-560 8.150 6.860 Earhy ... 2.360 2.150 2.460 3-730 3.650 Soja-Beans ■■• jj 4.070 3.960 4.920 5-450 5.120 Table-Salt )) ... 1. 190 1.060 1.4S0 2.060 1-550 Soy ... )) ..• 8.290 8.310 S.950 9-370 9.110 Sake ... 13-930 12.870 13-450 14.380 14.240 Tea ... per 100 kill... 26.090 24.4S0 24.650 25.670 25.470 Leaf-Tobacco ... ;) 8.480 8.620 8.810 9.670 9.120 Japanese Wliite Sugar... »f 8.770 8.6io 9-540 9.890 8.6ro Foreign White Sugar ... .*■ „ •*. 7.750 7.850 9.010 8.660 7.810 Japanese Brown Sugar... • ■• n ••• 6.180 5.950 6.390 6.780 6.020 Foreign White Sugar ... jj ••■ 5.020 5.170 5-580 5.490 S-360 Japanese Ginned Cotton n ••• IS.520 19.230 21.650 20.190 18.720 Foreign Brown Sugar . ., • •• )> •.. 16.640 18.S70 19.310 17.870 17.490 Japanese Cotton Yarn,.. • •■ SJ 31.040 32-370 31-630 28.176 26.270 Foreign White Sugar ... ... 30.830 31.520 30.540 29.610 27.480 White Cottdn Cloth ... ... per I tan .. 310 310 320 320 300 Foreign Grey Shirtings per 100 kama... — — 2.380 2.390 2-330 ^Superior ... per kin... — — — — Raw SilkJ Medium ,,, ^, — — — __ llnferior ... ,, — — — — — AV/Cv (S^lk Tissue) ... ... per I tan... 2.580 2.579 2.740 2.710 2.670 Hemp per 100 kin... 20.450 19.520 20.990 19.480 19.0S0 Japanese Pig Iron per I kavan... 230 270 300 240 270 Foreign „ — — — — — Petroleum... per box containing 2 cans... 2.0CO 2.220 2.270 I -950 1.750 Coal per ton ... 3-390 3.860 4.200 4.200 4-3S0 Fuel per 10 kwan... no no 130 130 120 Charcoal ... n •■• 290 310 3SO 363 350 /Dried Sardine „ 1.580 1-570 1.630 1.&40 1. 180 Manure) Residue of Herring Oil „ — — — 2.2CO 2.060 ^Rape-Seed Oil Cake Introductory. Kind of Commodities. ■Rice per I koku... Earley „ Soja-Beans „ Table-Salt , Soy „ Sake „ Tea per loo /•/«... Leaf-Tobacco „ Japanese Wliite Sugar „ Toreign White Sugar „ Japanese Brown Sugar „ Foreign White Sugar „ ... Japanese Ginned Cotton ... „ Foreign White Sugar „ Japanese Cotton Yarn „ Foreign Brown Sugar „ While Cotton Cloth per i tan... Foreign Grey Shirting... per loo kama... 1892. 7.000 3-3IO 5.060 1.460 9.380 14.240 28.660 10.910 9.260 8.070 6.470 5-570 1S.890 17.750 26.950 28.580 310 2.480 1893- 7.0S0 3-350 5.470 1.340 8.830 14.030 26.770 12.880 10.020 8.780 6.960 5.960 19730 19.560 28.350 30.7S0 310 2.630 1894. 8.240 3750 5.670 1.200 9130 15.320 30.020 12.710 10.770 9.710 7.380 6.410 19.280 19.410 29.200 37430 300 2.920 1895. 8.210 3.S00 5.S70 I -390 9-570 17.230 30.260 14.200 10.350 9-370 7.290 5.810 20,370 19.6S0 31-540 37.840 300 3.140 565 1895. 9.160 3-570 6.420 2.440 10.710 :9.93o 33-340 12.920 II. 120 9.760 7.900' 6.620 22.610 21.470 31.190 37.210 320 3.0S0 /•Superior per kin... — — — — — Raw Silk J Medium ... „ — — 629.000 691.000 633.0C0 ^Inferior „ — — — — — Kaiki{^\W Tissue) ... per I /an... 2.800 2.980 3.050 3.670 3-940 Hemp ... per 10 kin... 19.660 23.040 23.410 25.120 27.090 Japanese Pig Iron per I kiuan... 260 280 il><^ 380 400 Foreign „ — — 290 290 310 Petroleum ... per box contalning2 cans... 1.810 1.850 1.950 2.3S0 2.420 Coal per ton ... 3.860 4-540 4.920 4.900 5.210 Fuel per 10 k-wan... 130 180 140 170 190 'Charcoal ... )) •■• 3S0 430 450 540 630 /Dried Sardine )f ••• 1.740 1.960 2.200 2.260 2.800 Manure/ Residue of Herr; ing Oil „ 2.240 1 i\'>o 2.350 2.430 2.980 IRape-Seed Oil Cake „ — — 1.600 1-.560 1.770 5C8 Japan in the Bec/inniiMjf of the 20lh Kind of Commodities, Rice Barley Soja-Beans Table-Salt ... ^ ... 1897. 1898. per I koku... n.810 „ ... 4.880 Soy Sake ... ., Tea Leaf-Tobacco Japanese White Sugar... Foreign White Sugar ... Japaness Brown Sugar... Foreign Brown Sugar .. Japanese Ginned Cotton Foreign White Sugar ... Japanese Cotton Yarn... Foreign White Sugar ... White Cotton Ciolh ... Foreign Grey Shirting... I Superior Medium ._ Inferior AH,{'i (Sill; Tissue) ... Hemp Japanese P.g Iron Foreign „ Petroleum Coal ... I'uel ... Charcoal „ I Dried Sardine ... ., Residue of Herring Oil „ Kape-Secd Oil Cake „ ... 7.920 ... 3.170 ••• '3-330 „ ... 24.200 per ICO /Cto... 35.520 ... 17.880 ... 12.550 „ ... 10.000 ... 9"o ... 6.760 „ ... 23.870 „ ... 21.460 „ ... 31.080 ... 37.510 370 3.100 per I tan.. per 100 kama.. per hin 13.IIO 6.040 8.780 2.S90 14.610 28.320 37-310 30-550 12.310 10.180 9.2S0 7-35° 22.790 21.710 31.410 37-75° 35° 3-250 Century. 1899. 1900. 9.840 11.320 4.460 4.740 8.410 8.160 2.410 2.410 15.940 17.410 27.440 30.680 34.950 36.360 33.120 33.310 12.350 12.710 9.790 10.020 8.560 9.300 7.540 7.700 24.160 25.820 22.6S0 24.910 28.360- 30.930 43.660 52.900 360 370 3.500 3.800 1901. 11.470 4.070 7430 2,010 18.120. 31.485 38-560 35.000 12.470 10.760. 8.370 8.120 27.550 25.740 37.000 54.480 3S0 4.030 682.000 705.000 950.000 837.000 706.0C0 . per I tan... 4.460 4.560 5.310 5.130 4.500 per 100 /•/«... 27.990 27.990 25.500 31.920 30.270 per I kioan... 426 420 410 490 500 330 350 390 400 320 2.310 2.290 2.970 2.140 2.860 6.910 7.030 5.800 5.350 6.810 240 260 240 250 250 730 720 750 880 840 3.080 3.640 3.710 3.630 3.260 3.220 3.550 3.550 3.820 3.550 1.850 2.000 2.600 2.210 1.820 per box containing 2 cans. per ton .. per 10 kwan.. Introductory. 3G7 TABLE III.— AVERAGE DAILY WAGES OF WORKMEN TI-IROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY. Kind of Profession. Carpenter Plasterer Stone-Mason Sa.\yer Shingle Roof Thatcher Tile Roof Thatcher Brick-Maker ... „ Mat-Maker Maker of Doors, Screens, &c... Paper-IIanger Joiner Wooden Clog Maker , Shoe-Maker Carriage-Builder Tailor (Japanese Clothes) „ (Foreign Clothes) Dyer Blacksmith Lacquerer Tobacco-Cutter Compositor Gardener Male Weaver Female Weaver Day Laborer Wage per I Male Servant Month. {jjaid Ser^'ant Wage per ( Agricultural Laborer (Male)... Vear.j r (unit of rin). 18S7. 1892. 1894. 1895. 1896. 224 267 300 312 3S0 225 268 306 313 379 . ... 250 303 346 359 410 250 257 296 307 35 1 . ... 250 249 285 293 354 243 279 328 325 402 — — 363 3C0 394 , ... 218 252 276 297 333 , ... 211 253 281 304 348 • ... 215 260 283 283 ?,3i . ... 209 249 2S7 296 332 . ... — — 252 235 278 . ... — — 306 315 330 , ... — — 264 279 306 . ... 189 220 247 252 296 . ■•• 399 359 383 384 43S . - 173 203 225 237 257 . ... 217 251 2S9 280 334 . ... 20s 236 27S 278 305 . ... 171 211 231 249 284 . -. 223 220 222 239 262 . ... — — 287 291 329 . ... 127 122 170 1S2 194 ■ - 74 83 112 "5 133 . ... 160 1S3 204 223 262 . ... 1.290 1.590 1.660 1.710 2.000 . ... 670 850 940 930 1. 120 lie)... _ — 19.320 21.930 25.850 le),.. — 10.030 12.180 13.150 568 Japan in the Beginning of the 20 th Century. Kiud of Profession. 1S97. i8g3. 1899. 1900. 1901. Carpenter Plasterer Stone-Mason Sawyer ••• Shingle Roof Thatcher Tile Roof Thatcher Brick-Maker Mat-Maker Maker of Doors, Screens, &c Paper-llanger Joiner Wooden Clog Malcer Shoe-Maker Carriage-Builder Tailor (Japanese Clothes) „ (Foreign Clothes) Dyer Blacksmith Lacquerer Tobacco-Cutter Compositor Gardener Male Weaver „ . Female Weaver Day Laborer , Wage per I Mal« Servant Month. iMaid Servant Wage per I Agricultural Laborer (Male). . "^^^f-^ „ (Female)., 434 470 506 53S 593 436 461 495 540 590 474 509 573 605 670 430 464 489 533 580 420 448 476 505 540 469 4S0 543 5£5 640 483 480 446 448 440 387 410 421 465 513 395 444 464 50s 568 380 42s 460 495 535 3-8 427 469 500 553 318 351 381 4C0 420 384 424 454 473 505 352 410 430 465 498 305 339 373 390 453 461 494 533 55S 620 287 308 294 293 30s 394 413 453 475 4iJ8 362 388 432 465 503 353 367 390 430 473 2C7 3" 348 353 395 404 446 4S8 513 56S 225 304 314 325 293 150 187 186 195 193 290 327 344 365 390 2.240 2.380 2.590 2.700 2.7;o 1.240 1.360 1.770 1.560 1.670 28.920 32.170 31.090 33.120 31.820 1,5.620 17.240 17.000 17.060 17.000 Introductory. 500 TAELE IV.— QUOTATIONS OV PRINCIPAL STOCKS AND SHARES, (unit of yen). Consolidated Public Loan Bonds(5%). War Loan Bonds (S%)- Year. 1^90 .., 1891 .. 1892 .. 1893 .. 1894 .. 1895 .. 1896 .. 1897 .. 1^98 •■ 1899 .. 1900 .. 1901 ., igoz .. Year. ice Value. Highest. Lowest. 100.00 102.05 98.20 100.00 102.80 98.63 100.00 103.80 100.50 100.00 110.70 101.50 100.00 "1-45 96.90 100.00 104.00 95-90 100.00 102.3s 97.80 100.00 101.65 91.90 100.00 96.00 88.20 100.00 100.46 93-12 100.00 95-32 90.00 100.00 90.70 86.20 100.00 92.50 86.75 Face Value. Highest. Lowest. Tokyo City Bonds (6%). Face Value. Highest. Lowest. 1890 ... — ~ — I89I ... — - — 1892 ... ... 100.00 106.20 101.70 IS93 - ... 100.00 J 18.00 105.00 1894 ... ... 100.00 114.20 103.00 1895 - ... 100.00 109.00 103.00 1896 ... ... 100.00 107.00 101.70 1897 ... ... 100.00 102.80 95-50 1S98 ... ... 100.00 96.88 9250 1809 ... ... 100.00 100.94 95.90 1900 ... ... 100.00 99,48 93-20 I90I ... ... uo.oo 94.20 87-30 »902 ... ... 100.00 98.10 89.30 100.00 '02.35 97-80 IO3.0O 101.65 92.20 100.00 96.02 88.40 100.00 100.46 93-18 100.00 95-32 90.00 100.00 90.70 86.20 100.00 92.50 86.75 Bank of Japan Sh; ares. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. 100.00 270.00 241.50 100.00 265.00 239.00 100.00 279.50 273-57 100.00 366.00 278.50 100.00 328.00 265.00 150.00 403.00 362.00 150.00 490.00 366.00 150.00 400.00 358.00 150.00 410.00 34300 200.00 442.00 343-80 200.00 442.50 391.00 200.00 430.00 373-50 20000 404.00 385.00 570 Japan in the Befjinning of the 20th Gvitur'j. Yokoliama Specie Eank Shares. Hypothec Bank Shares. Year. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. jSgo ... ... 100.00 245.CO 19000 — — — 1S91 ... ... 100.00 200.00 170.00 — — — 1S92 ... ... 100.00 210.93 204.28 — — — 1S93 ••• ... 100.00 265.00 226.50 — — — 1894 ... ... 100.00 243-50 200.00 — — — 1895 ... ... 100.00 298.00 215.00 — — — 1^96 ... ... ICO.OO 3jSoo 210.00 — — — :S97 ... ... 100.00 230.00 173-00 — — — 1S98 ... ... 100.00 195.00 163.50 — — — 1S99 ... ... ICO 00 293.90 187-35 50.00 68.50 46.50 ,1900 ... ... 100.00 275.40 159.40 5000 6900 61.30 1901 ... ... 100.00 173-80 150.00 50,00 6650 60,00 1902 ... ... 100.00 19400 164.00 65.00 101.30 63.00 Japan Railroad Company Shares. Sanyo Railroad Company Shares. Year. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. 1890 ... 50.CO 97-30 85.30 20.00 20.50 13-70 If I ... 50.00 8660 70.50 27.00 22.00 20 20 I^92 ... 50.00 83-83 81.79 27.00 23-35 22.53 1S93 •■■ 5000 146.CO 91.60 27.00 37-50 24.S0 IS9+ ... 50.00 104.00 96.03 27.00 3430 21.70 IS95 ... 50,00 117.00 8900 30.00 63-30 31.80 IS96 ... 50.00 121.CO 98.50 3000 63-50 41.00 1897 ■- 5000 101.50 75.80 37.00 52.80 44,00 1898 ... 50.00 77-50 59.00 40.00 54.28 40,00 JS99 ... 50.00 8194 68.74 47.00 61.74 54.40 1900 ... 50.00 76.56 66,63 50.00 56.40 48,00 1901 ... 50.OD 71.10 65.30 50.00 55. 10 49.70 1903 ... 50.00 78.60 70.20 50.00 60.30 52-70 Kyushu Railroad Company Shares. Kansai Rai Iroad Company Shares. Year. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. 1S90 ... 38.00 25.40 1740 4500 31 CO 20.20 1S91 ... ... 3700 35.00 30.50 47.00 3880 31.20 1892 ... 38.00 34.23 33-22 47.00 38.11 3631 189.3 ••■ 38.00 48.00 34-80 47.00 6850 4330 1S94 ■•■ ... 38.CO 42.80 31-70 47.00 66.00 42.00 1895 ... 41.00 8.1.00 44-50 47.00 80.00 46.00 1896 ... 4100 6900 5450 5000 79-50 5750 1697 •■• 41.00 69.30 49.10 50.00 71.50 50.90 1898 ... 41.00 69.18 SI -50 50.00 54-70 4070 1899 ... 50.CO 71.16 57.00 50.00 56.90 44.10 1900 ... 50.00 63.00 48.CO 50.00 48.84 3S-00 igoi ■•• 50.00 54.00 47.00 50.00 39-90 33-80 1902 ... ... 50-00 61.00 52.80 50.CO 47.00 3850 Introductory. 571 Hokkaido Coal and Railroad Company Shares. Tokyo Tramway Company Siiarc3 Year. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. Paid up. Highest. Lowest. i8yo ... 25.00 30.70 6 90 50.00 100.00 70.(0 1891 ... ... 39.00 4S.00 38. 03 50,00 73-50 4350 1892 ... So.oo 52.. S 48.64 50.00 69.24 65.03 1893 ... 50.00 103 00 58.00 50.00 129.00 78.00 r894 - 50.00 85.50 60.S0 5000 144.00 90.0,-) 1S95 - 50.00 103.30 77-5° 50.00 405.00 123.50 1S96 ... 50.00 112.70 79.fo 50.00 403.00 240.00 1897 ■■• 50.00 99.20 82.00 50.00 265.00 190.00 1898 ... 50.00 116.50 7700 5000 200.00 1 10 00 1S99 ... 50.00 10S.80 85.00 50.00 256.00 lyooo 1900 ... 50-OO 99.60 74.90 50.00 237.G0 150.0c 1901 ... 50.00 80.70 67 00 50.00 165.00 100.00 1902 ... 50.00 83.50 72.40 50.00 129.00 106.00 Nippon Yfisen Kaisha Shares. O.saka Sliosen Kaisha Shares. Year. 1890 1891 1S92 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 iSgS 1S99 1900 1901 1902 Paid up. 50.00 50.00 5000 50.00 50.0 J 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.CO 5000 50.00 50.00 Highest. 79.00 67.00 61.66 79.50 7S.50 1 1 1 .00 1 20.O3 80.30 56.90 75-30 6900 76.80 83.00 Lowest. 65. So 57.CO 59.90 62.10 56.50 72.50 69.50 50.00 44.00 55-50 55.08 62.00 73-40 Paid up. Hishest. Lowest. 25.00 56.50 25.00 25.00 31.60 22.00 25.00 69.80 29.00 25 00 64.00 32.50 25.00 35.80 21.00 25.00 21.20 14.30 25.00 28.20 16.15 25 00 26.S0 r.i.oo 25.00 24.80 20.60 25.00 28. 70 22.,tO 572 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER V-Banks. History - Banks. I. HISTORY. Befoee the Restoration. — Prior to the Restoration the people were not in the habit of uniting efforts or capital for the < common interest of their business. The only organization that existed at that time in this direction was in the shape of guilds or unions. They were generally organizations by a body of different interests, aimed at holding a general meeting once a year or month, so that all the people engaged in the same line of business might be brought together, know one another, become friends, and consult their common interests. These organizations Avere, however, far from flourishing and the scope of their interest was exceedingly limited. The banking organization could not of course make any development worthy of notice. However it was not unfit for fulfill- ing the requirements of the times. The exchange business system, was, for instance, comparatively well developed. There existed two kinds of exchange merchants, one class called as " Hon-ryogaS " and the other known by the name of " ZIni-riyogafi." The former, also called " Goyo-ryoga^," were a sort of bankers who managed official funds. They kept in custody the "Exchange Merchants." taxes, in kind or cash, and settled their * accounts for their patrons with bills of exchange. The Mitsui-Gumi (the predecessor of the present Mitui Firm) and the "Ten People Guild" were the most important establishments of this kind. There was also another set of exchange business for the feudal princes. All these may be regarded as the bankers of those days. After the Restoration.— Even after the Restoration, the hankers who were entrusted with the task of managing official funds History. 573 ■wore called " exchange merchants for the Treasury," and this fact serves to show how even in former days a certain fixed usage existed in connection with the banking business. As soon as the Restoration had been consummated, the new Government lost no time in adjusting financial matters and in devising measures calculated for the promotion of foreign trade. The first office created to take this business in charge was the Commercial Office, soon after superseded by the Foreign Trade Office which was subjoined to the Financial Office. The Foreign Trade Office approached the leading merchants in the three cities of Tokyo, Osako. and Kyoto and in the five open ports of Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, Niigata, and Hakodate and persuaded them to issue paper notes oonvertible into gold. Owing, however, to the absence of a regular system of protection and supervision, the project ended in a failure. In December of 1871 the Tokyo Chamber applied for permission to establish a bank to be called the Tokyo Bank with a capital of 7,000,000 yen, and invested with the privi- lege of issuing paper money. The application was not entertained owing to the fact that the scheme was based on the idea of getting the capital both from the Government and people. Though the matter was therefore dropped, it deserves mention as the first attempt towards establishing a bank modelled on the Western system. PiONEEE Banks. — Meanwhile the Vice-Minister Hirobumi Ito of Finance, now Marquis Ito, who was dispatched to America in 1870 had sent home a report on the result of his inquiries into the banking system of that country. Based on that report the Govern- ment issued in November of 1872 the National Bank Eegulations, the first legislative measure enacted by the Meiji Government. Four national banks were established under the regulations, whieh provided, among other things, for the convertibility of the bank notes into gold specie. It soon transpired that the notes into gold could not maintain the convertible system, as the excess issue had caused their depression. The banks therefore were threatened with Tuin. It happened that the Government conceived at that time the idea of adjusting the hereditary pension system, and to issue i:.v that purpose the Hereditary Pension Bonds to the extent of over 170 million yen. Taking opportunity of this financial measure the 57-1 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20ih Century. Bank Regulations were amended in A'lgust, 187G, the new regu- lations allowing the banks to use the public bonds as security against their notes and to redeem them with Government notes. This amendment gave a powerful impulse to the creation of banks, so that within a few years they numbered as many as 153. But as the bank notes were convertible with the Government notes, they were really inconvertible notes. DiscoNTrNUATiON OF THE NATIONAL Bank Systeji. — Under the circumstance, the Government decided to devise measures for adjusting the monetary system, aiming at the inauguration of the convertible notes institution. The first important step taken for accomplishing that great end was another amendment of the National Bank Eegulations, and the elaboration of the programme of bank notes redemption to be effected by 1897. While the part which the national banks played in the economic development of the country was indeed important, those establishment did not fail to profit themselves from the privilege accorded them by the Government. By this time only six out of the 150 banks that were created had been ordered to dissolve by the Government. Others that had ceased to exist did so by voluntarily wounding themselves on the expiration of their terms, or as a result of amalgamation witlj other banks. But by far the greater number availed themselves of the privilege accorded to them by the laws relating to the time-expired national banks and were converted into private banks. By February 1899 the last national bank system ceased to exist. iHowever the notes that had been circulating for a long period could not be withdrawn from the market all at once, so that the Government proclaimed that it would effect their redemption by December of 1904, so that by that time this relic of the old financial svstem shall have disappeared entirely from the country. Banking facilities foe foreign ti;ade. — In iN'o\ember of 1879, in accordance with the iNational Bank Regulations, a bank was established at Yokohama with a capital of 3,000,000 yen. This bank was intended to supply the banking facilities requiri;:! by foreign trade and also to issue notes convertible into specie. This .*iafe the origin of the Yokohama Specie Bank. However History. 575 the note- issuing part of the ohject v/as not .put into efiect owing to the fact that it was fraught with grave difRculty in view of the great depreciation at that time of the value of papsr money. Consequently the bank has principally devoted itself to siipplyi.ig banking facilities to export and import merchants, and though at times it experienced some adversity, its business continued to prosper and expand. It should be noted that the Government placed it under a special legislative arrangement, for its business being distinct in nature from that of au ordinary bank it had been found to be in- convenient to subject it to the same regulations. This consideration led to the promulgation of the Yokohama Specie Bank Regulations. First Private Banks. — Side by side with the national banks there existed no small number of private banks and also establish- ments which though not officially regarded as banks were engaged in a similar line of business. In 1884 these two latter kinds of banks numbered 954 with an aggregate capital of 34/252,735 yen. In general all matters relating to these establishments were left to the discretion of the parties concerned, and the local Governors were only allowed to interfere when public order and psace or the legitimate development of business were threatened. However, in view of a greater increase of the number of sucli csiahlishments, it was decided to devise some method of controlling and protecting them. It was in pursuance of that end that in August of 1889 the Bank Regulations and the Saving Bmks Regulations were drawn up and promulgated, to come into operation from January of 1891. With the postpoument of the period of putting the C-om- mercial Code into operation, the regulations in question were also postponed, and in the same way when part of the Code was put into operation in July of 1893 the two laws were also enforced in July, next year. In consequence of the enforcement of the regula- tions the private banks thus began to become regular banking establishments. Pkovisions fok AMALG.iMATioN. — The legislative measues for rcguhiting the banking business having been gradually complete!, the banks of all descriptions were able to carry on their business v.-ith increasing activity. In this connection the want of Fuitable arrangements for dealing with cases of amalgamation was regard.'d as inconvenient, 576 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. and it was thought thjit some means for effecting such amalgarar.tioii by dispensing with preliminary formalities should be provided. I:i April of 1896 the Law relating to the Amalgamation of Banks was promulgated, this enabling banks to amalgamate by a very simple process with other establishments, besides conferring benefit to tlie general money market. Not a small number of banks have avail d themselves of this provision and have been united to other conoenis. The Bank op Japan. — As already described, the amendment of the National Banks Regulations having imparted a powerful impalso- to the creation of banks of this description, their number soon reached as many as 153 and the notes issued by them to a big figure of 34,426,351 yen. The creation subsequently of the Yak;)- hama Specie Bank further added to this activity of the banking business. One serious defect was the absence of a central org:in and of provisions for establishing regular channels of monetary circulation throughout the country. The time of establishing a central bank the idea of which had long attracted the attention of the parties having been judged matured in 1882, on June 27th of the same year the Bank of Japan Regulations were enacted, and the bank was formally opened to business on October 10th of that year. The objects that underlay the establishment of the bank wei-e manifold, for it was intended to act as a pivot of the national finance, to assist the banking business throughout the country, to promote the smooth operation of the money market, to regulate the rate of interest, to develop the business of discounting bills, and above all to devise measures calculated to invite the inflow of specie. At the same time the bank had to attend to the equally important business of unifying the currency system of the country by means of the issue of convertible notes and by adjusting the existing monetary system and further to place on a sound basis this vital financial institution of the country. The bank applied itself zealously to all those matters, and its credit began steadily to rise and the scope of its bu.«iness expanded. The confidence v/hich it enjoyed from the Government has led to its being ' entrusted, as is also to-day, with the task of administering oflicial money, this considerably enlaj g- ing the scope of its business. In view of all these considerations the bank increased its capital in March, 1887. During the Japan- History. 677 China war, the bank fulfilled to the satisfaction of thii Government and of general public the important trust it enjoyed in monetary- matters of the country, and discharged its duty with efficiency and success. On the ce^satinn of the war, the bank increased its capital, established new branches and agents at several important places in the country and in short made the arrangements required by the expansion of its business. The bank too was given the important task of managing the Indemnity when Japan received it from China, while the part it played in the adjustment of the coinage system was qually distinguished. It is hardly necessary to add that the Bq.,nk of Japan enjoys at this moment brighter prospects tlian ever. As mentioned above, the bank was invested with the privilege of issuing convertible silver notes, but this issue was for a while suspend- ed as the exercies of such a power was thought premature at the time of the establishment of the bank. In 1884 the Silver Convertible Notes Regulations were promulgated, to be amended in August of 1888. That amendment determined the amount of specie reserve and of the issue of notes. By the amendment effected in two years later the scope of the two was further expanded. When the gold standard system was adopted by the Government in October 1897 the silver convertible notes were as a matter of course altered into gold convertible notes. This was a memorable innovation in the history of the finance of the country. Another noteworthy change^ though not of equal importance, was the expansion of the amount of specie reserves and of the issue of i^iotes, for though with the develoj>- ment of economic affairs the scope of monetary circulation and of credit was markedly improved, the demand for currency was largely increased as compared with what it was afiout 1890. This economic- requirement was satisfied in 1897. Tlie banking organs relating to trade having been created one after another, they numbered 1,500 in 180G with the Bank of Japan at the head of the list. Ba>'kixg organs fok tkade and industry. — In contrrtst ,t0' this satisfactoiy provision for trade, that relating to agriculture and manufacture still i-emained unsatisfactory. The banks attending ta the interest of tlios3 industrial pursuits must be distinct in ^nature from those for trade, for it is impossible to expect from ugriculturei 578 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20lh Century. and manufacture any success in a short space of time, -while at the same time the profit derived from the undertakings is incompara" tively small. Hence it follows that fands to be used for agricul- tural or manufactural undertakings must be of long term and at a cheap rate. It was long maintained therefore by all those concerned in the matters that banking organs for promoting the interest of farmers and manufacturers should be established as quickly as pos- sible. At last in April, 1896, the Law relating to the Hypothec Bank of Japan and the Lkw relating to the Local Hypothec Banks were promulgated, the former to act as the central organ and the latter as local organs, and both to attend to the business of supplying loans on long terms and at a cheap rate to farmers and manufacturers with the view of encouraging the development of industrial undertakings. The Hypothec Bank was opened to business on August 2nd of the next year with a capital of 10 million yen. From 1898 the banks of this particular kind began to be started in many prefectures. Only a few years having elapsed since the creation of those banks, it is not yet possible to say any- thing definitely as to the efi'ect they produced on agriculture '.anil manufactures. It may safely be stated however that they are conferring an immense benefit on the development of economic: pursuits. The central and local Hypothec Banks being banking organs for making loans principally on real estates, their establishment did not pi'omote to any particular extent the interest of all those who wished to get loans on negotiable bonds. The same reason which demanded the establishment of special banks for farmers and manu" facturers therefore demanded the creation of banks to satisfy thi.« special requirement of this special class of people. Indee;l the absence of banks of this particular kind was a serious defect in the banking system of Japan. In 1900, therefore, the Law relating to the Japan Industrial Bank was promulgated, and the bank was opened to business on April 11th, 1902, with the capital of 10 million yen. BA^'KiNGlDifGAKs FOB. 0UTX,Yi>'GJ>isTEiCTS. — Bjinkjug facilities for the outlying parts oi' the Empire have received the proper attention of the authorities. The creation of a special kind of bank for Formosa History. 570 vias a matter of urgent importance, for everything in that island being in an initiary stage, the exploitation of its resources and the encouragement of economic undertakings demanded banking facilities adopted to the condition of the place. In March of 1897 the Law relating to the Bank of Formosa was passed, the bank to have a capital of 5 million yen. It need hapdly be stated that the organi- zation of this bank was distinct from that of the banks in Japan proper, and that it was adapted to the special circumstances prevail- ing in the island. The bank was opened to business on September 26th of 1899. In a similar way Hokkaido required a banking organ suited for supplying the funds needed in exploiting the land. The result was the promulgation in 1899 of the Law relating to the Hokkaido ■Colonization Bank. Tlie object of the bank does not differ much from that of the Local Hypothec Banks, only the circumstance prevailing in Hokkaido being different from those in Japan proper, the creation of a bank of this sort was necessary for this northern island. For instance, while the lociil Hypothec Banks are mainly devoted to advancing long-term loans on the security of real estate, the Hokkaido Bank, besides making loans on real states, accepts agricultui-al produce and negotiable bonds as objects of security, and also deals with matters relating to the issue of debenture bonds deposits, and advances on goods. The capital of the bank is 3 mil- lion yen and it was opened to business on April 31st of 1900. Obligations and Pkivi leges of Banks under official PATRONAGE. — The Bank of Japan, the Yokohama Specie Bank, the Hypothec Bank of Japan, the Local Hypothec Banks, the Hokkaido Colonization Bank, the Bank of Formosa, and the Japan Industrial Bank have all been established under official protection of one descrip- tion or anothej', and in consequence of that protection more or less rest- riction is placed on their business ■ operations. For instance the banks must get the approval of the Government for their articles of association, and must also obtain the approval of the Minister of Finance even in carrying out business operations within their respective legitimate province. Then the authorities sometimes appoint one or two overseers for the purpose of efficiently control-, ling those establishments, while the Governors, Presidents or Directors .. 580 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. are eit]i6v directly uominated by the Government or appointed by it after they have been elected by the general meeting of share- holders of the respective banks. In returns for all these inconveni- ences, the banks enjoy various privileges sufficient to compensate them. II. VARIOUS BANKS. National Banks. — Established in conformity with the National Bank Regulations already mentioned, the national banks were the first banking establishments that were organized in Japan on the- Western model. The main causes that led to the creation of these financial institutions were to supply banking focilities required in tradj^ and also to redeem Government paper money issued to an amount out of proportion to the demand of the market. These banks were organized in the main after the pattern of the i\.merican national bank system, and were allowed to issue bank notes convertible in specie. According to the National Bank Regulations the " Kinsatsu " Exchange Bonds which were newly issued for the redemption of the Government paper money in circulation, were to be deposited by national banks as security for the same amount of bank notes issued, which, however, might not exceed 60 per cent, of their capital. Bisid;s, they were obliged to keep specie reserve for the redemption of the notes , and equal in value to 40 per cent, of their capital, so that two thirds of the notes issued were always covered by specie reserve. But 'the price of specie was steadily rising at that time, producing a considerable difference between specie and paper, so that as soon as the bank notes were issued, so much demand for jrcdemption was made on tho banks, that these notes never obtained any extensive circulation in the market. The natural consequ Various Banks. 581 ihe nationnl banks were now allowed to place as security for the bank notes tlie new Hereditary Pension Bonds besides the " Kinsatsu " Exchange Bonds. It ought to be remembered that the Pension Bonds were issued in a large amount at that time and the general -depreciation of public bonds appeared almost certain, unless some special measures were deviced to prevent it. The most important point in the amendments was that the obligation of the note-conversion in specie was abolished, and that any kind of Government paper cur- rency might now be kept as reserve against note-redemption. At the same time the amount of reserve was reduced to 25 per cent, of the capital. These amendments gave a strong impulse to the forma- tion of new national banks ; indeed they sprang up so rapidly that the Government was now resolved to check this tendency, by putting a limit to the amounts of notes the banks might issue. Still they kept on increasing from year to year, until at last paper currency consider- ably fell below par and the consequent rise of price of commodities. When about 1878 the value of paper currency was further falling, with no immediate prospect of amelioration, the Government decided to make a radical reform ifl the banking system of the country, and after much deliberation this arduous task was commenced in 1882 by the -creation of the Bank of Japan, so that the national bank system might be replaced by that of the single central bank of issue. In 1884 the Convertible Bank Notes Regulations were enacted by which the privilege of issuing notes was exclusively lodged in the hands of the Bank of Japan. Meanwhile, certain revisions and additions were introduced in 1883 in the National Bank Regulations, provid- ing, among other things, that the national banks were, on the expiration of their term of character, to give up their privilege of issue, but allowed to continue their business as private banks ; besides proper measures were introduced to effect by degrees the redemption ■of their notes. Two laws were enacted for facilitating the change, one (Law No. 7, 1896) to regulate the winding of national banks on the expiration of their term of charter and the other (Law No. 11, same year) being the regulations for the special winding of national banks prior to it. The latter law induced many national banks to hasten reorganising themselves into private banks ; hence .only seven national banks remained as such until the expiration of 5(S2 Japan in the Beginning of tlw 20th Century. the term of their charter. The last closed its business as bank in February 1901 and thus the change was completed sooner and easier than had been expected. 1. The Bank of Japan. — The Bank of Japan, the central banking organ of Japan, was founded in the form of a joint stock company in accordance with the Imperial Ordinance for the Bank of Japan issued in 1882. Its authorized capital was at first 10,000,000 yen but was twice increased making the present amount of 30,000,000 yen fully paid up. This bank has the privilege to issue convertible bank notes- on the security of gold or silver coins and bullion equal to the amount of the notes issued, and to issue further those notes on the security of Government bonds and Treasury bills, or other bonds or commercial bills of a reliable nature, within the limit of 120,000,000 yen. This amount waS' limited to 85,000,000 yen before 1809 and to 70 million yen before 1890. The notes issued in excess of the said amount are subject to- ft tax of 5 per cent, or more per annum of the amount of the- same. The following lines of business are conducted by the bank: — 1. To discount or purchase Government bills, bills of exchange, commercial bills, etc.; 2. to buy or sell gold or silver bullion ; 3. to make loans on the security of gold or silver coins or bullion ; 4. to make collection of bills for banks, companies and merchants, who are regular customers ; 5. to receive deposits in current accounts and accept the custody of^ object of value, such as gold, silver, other precious metals and documents ; 6. to make advance in current accounts or loans for fixed periods upon the security of Government bonds, Exchecquer bills or other bonds and shares guaranteed by the Government. In addition, the bank is entrusted with the management of the Treasury fund. 2. The Yokohama Specie Bank. — The Yokohama Specie Bank was founded in 1879 with the authorized Capital of 3,000,000 yen for' furnishing financial facilities for the foreign trade of the country. It was at 'first supported by the Government in various' Various BanJcs. 583 directions. For instance, it was entrusted with the management of several million yen of the Treasury Reserve Fund and thus to j)ossess an ample amount of capital for discounting foreign bills of exchange. In 1882, when the Bank of Japan -vvas established, all those kinds of support were withdrawn, and instead of them the Bank of Japan was made to rediscount foreign bills of exchange upon the demand of the Specie Bank to an amount not exceeding 20,000,000 yen a year at the rate of 2 per cent. In March 1887, regulations for the Specie Bank were promulgated and at the same time the capital was raised to 6,000,000 yen. The consequent growth of its transactions necessitated the further increase of its capital to 12,000,000 yen in the same year. In 1899 the capital was again doubled, making 24,000,000 yen of which 18,000,000 yen are now paid up. The following lines of business are transacted by the bank : — 1. Foreign exchanges ; 2. inland exchanges ; 3. loans ; 4. deposits of money and custody of objects of value ; 5. discount and collection of bills of exchange, promissory notes and other cheques : 6. exchange of coins. The bank may also buy or sell public bonds, gold or silver bullions and foreign coins, if the condition of business demands it. The bank may also be entrusted ^vith affairs bearing on foreign loans and the manage, ment of public money for international account. 3. The Hypothec Bank of Japan. — The Hypothec Bank of •Japan was founded in 1884 as a joint stock company with a capital of 10,0C0,000 yen under the special patronage and control of the Government. The object of the bank was, as is still the case, for the furnishing of long-period loan at low rate of interest for purposes of agriculture and industry. It is to serve as tlie central organ of credit for agricultural and industrial enterprises of larger scale throughouj; the whole country, as the local Hypothec Banks under- take similar business in the respective localities. The chief lines of business transacted by the bank are as follows : — To make on the security of immovable property, loans redeemable in annual instalments within the limit of period of not more than fifty years ; to make loans on a similar s.icurity» 684 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. redeemable at a fixed term of not more than five years, provided the total amount of such loans not exceeds one-tenth of the total amount of loans redeemable in annual instalments ; (The amount of loans made on the security of any immovable property may not exceed two-thirds of the value thereof, as appraised by the bank) ; to make loans without security to Prefectures, Districts, Cities, Towns and other public bodies organized by law ; to take up the mortgage debentures of L'jcal Hypothec Banks ; to accept the custody of gold and silver bullions and negotiable instruments. The bank is authorized, when at least one-tburth of its nominal capital is paid up, to issue mortgage debentures up to an amount not exceeding ten times its paid up capital, provided the amount of such debentures does not exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instalments and the debentures of Local Hypothec Bank in hand. These deben- tures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings in proportion to the total amount of redemption of loans redeemable in annual instalments in the same year and the debentures of Local Hypothec Banks in hand. Besides, for each issue of debentures premiums of various amounts varying from ten to one thousand yen are allotted to a certain number of the debentures determined by drawings. This is the single exception in the midst of the general prohibition of lottery or any lottery-like system, specially allowed to the Hypothec Bank, in order to attract smaller capitals to the sub- scription of its debentures. The Government guarantees profit for ten years from the founding of the bank, when the profit does not reach .5 per cent of the paid-up capital. 4. The Local Hypothec Banks. — The Local Hypothec Banks Avere established in 1896 in accordance with the Law for the Local Hypothec Banks as local organs of credit for the same object as that of the Hypothec Bank, each with a capital of two hundred thousand yen or upwards. As a general rule each bank has for its business district the whole part of the prefectui'e where it is established, each prefecture having one bank, but it is provided that • if the circumstances require, a prefecture may be divided into Various Banks. 585 two or more business districts, but this provision has not as yet been made use of. Tlie following lines of business are transacted by these banks ; — To make, on the security of immovable property, loans redeemable in annual instalments within the limit of period of not more than thirty years; to make loans on a similar security, redeemable in a fixed term of not more than five years, provided the total amount of such loans does not exceed one-fifth of the total amount of loans redeemable in annual instal- ments, (loans made on the security of any immovable property may not exceed two-thirds of the value thereof, as appraised by the banks) ; to make loans on the same conditions without security to Cities, Towns, Villages and other public bodies organized b)' law ; to make loans without security, redeemable in a fixed term of not more than five years to more than twenty persons combined with joint liability, who are engaged in agriculture or industry and whose reliability is recognized ; to receive fixed deposits and accept the custody of gold and silver bullion and negotiable instruments. Besides, the banks may be entrusted with the i-eceipt and disbursement of the public funds of prefectures. E;ich of these banks is authorized, when at least one-fourth of its capital is paid up, to issue mortage debentures, to an amount not exceeding five times its paid up capital. Such debentures may not, however, exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instalments. The debentures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings, in pro- portion to the amount of the redemption of the said loans, la accordance with the provisions of the Law for giving support to the Local Hypothec Banks, the Government gave over to the prefectures funds with which to subscribe to the shares of the respective Local Hypothec Banks. The amount of the said funds is limited by the law at the rate of 70 yen per 100 cho of taxable lands in each prefecture, excepting building sites, mineral spring lots and swamps, and the total amount assigned to each prefecture may, under no circumstances, be more than 300,000 yen, nor may it exceed one-third of the paid up capital of each bank. 586 Ja^mn in the Beginning of the 20th Century. 5. The Hokkaido Colonization Bank. — The Hokkaidw Colonization Bank has for its object the promotion of enterprises of colonization and exploitation of Hokkaido, as is indicated by its- name. It was established by law issued in 1889 in the form of a joint stock company with a capital of 3,000,000 yen and is allowed to transact the following lines of business : — To make ou the security of immovable property loans redeemable in annual instalments within the limit of period of not more than thirty years, or redeemable in a fixed term of not' more than five years ; to make loans against the pledge of shares and debentures issued by joint stock companies under- taking various works for exploiting the resources of the islanr", and to take up debentures of such companies up to an amount not exceeding one-fifth of the total sum of outstanding loans above mentioned ; to make loans or issue bills of exchange on the security of agricultural products in the island ; to take up deposits; to accept the custody of objects of value; to make without security loans redeemable in annual instalments or in fixed period to municip^il districts, towns and villages placed under the civic corporation law of Hokkaido and other public bodies recognized by law. This bank is authorized to issue mortage debentures to an amount not exceeding five times its paid up capital. The debentures, however, may not exceed the total amount of outstanding loans redeemable in annual instal- ments. The debentures shall be redeemed at least twice a year by means of drawings, in proportion to the total amount of repayment of said loans. In order to give support to the bank, the Government subscribed 1,000,000 yen of its shares and for the first ten years the dividends on these shares are to be added to the reserve fund of the bank. The Bank of Formosa. — The Bank of Formosa was created in 1897 for the purpose of promoting the economical development of the island. It is a joint stock company with a capital of five million yen, and is endowed with the privilege of issuing bank notes eonvertible in silver yen against th& reserve of gold or silver coins or bullion and Government bonds, treasury bills, notes of the Bank of Japan, any other negotiable papers or commercial bills of reliable Various Banks. 587 nature. The amount of notes not covered by specie reserve is limited to 5,000,000 yen and may in no case exceed tlie amount of notes issued agaiast specie reserve. Notes issued beyond this limit in cf.se of emergency are subject to a tax of five per cent, or more per annum. The Government has subscribed one million yen of the shares of the bank and dividends paid to these shares are added to the reserve fund of the bank for the first five years, for which period tlie Government is engaged not to transfer its shares. The Government has further made an advance of 2,000,000 yen in silver to the bank with no interest, to be added to the specie reserve ibr bank notes issued. The following lines of business are transacted by this bank : — 1. To discount bills of exchanj^e and other commercial bills ; 2. exchange business ; 3. to collect bills for companies or merchants who are regular customers of the bank ; 4. to make loans on the security of immovable or movable property of a reliable nature; 5. to open current accounts; 6. to accept the custody of objects of value, such as gold and silver coins, precious metals and documents ; 7. to buy or sell gold or silver bullion ; 8. to act as agent for other banks. G. The Industrial Bank of Japan. — Established in April, 1902, the Industrial Bank of Japan is a joint stock company with a capital of 10,000,000 yen of which 2,500,000 yen are paid up. As the Hypothec Bank and the Local Hypothec Banks are intended to furnish long and cheap loans on the security of immovable property for agricultural and industrial enterprises, especially for the former, the Industrial Bank has for its special object to handle with bonds and shares of various kinds. It may be regarded as a kind of credit mobilier, while the former are credits fonciers with special forms and purposes. The business allowed to the bank by the law comprises :— 1. To make loans on the pledge of public loan bonds, local loan bonds, companies' debentures and shares ; 2. to sub- scribe or make up public loan bonds, local loan bonds and com- panies' debentures ; 3. to accept deposit of money and custody of valuable objects ; and 4. to transact various kinds of trust business with local loan bouds, companies' debentures and shares. 588 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. Thus, loans without security or on the security of other tliiiii negotiable papers and discounts of bills are not within the scope of the bank's business. In order to enable it to obtain necessary amount of capital for carrying out its object, the bank is also endowed with the privilege of issuing debentures to an amount of five times its paid up capital, which, however, may not exceed the total amount of advances made by the bank, the local loan bonds and companies' debentures appropriated by it. Besides, for the first five years the dividend of 5 per ceat. against its paid up capital is guaranteed by the Government. 7. Ordinary Banks. — At the beginning of the era, there were no regulations so far as ordinary banks were concerned, except that their establishment was subject to the ajiproval of the authorities. Under such a system or want of system, much inconvenience was felt by the Government in the way of the administrative control of those institutions, and the issue of regulations to deal with ordinary banks was called for repeatedly, but this desire was long not fulfilled. It was in 1890 that the general regulations for trade and companies were first established by the Commercial Code, while the Laws for Ordinary Banks and for Savings Banks were issued, the three to go in force simultaneously on 1st June, 1891. However the operation of the Code was twice postponed, and that of the two laws were similarly held back. Subsequently, after introducing in 1893 certain amendments in the Commercial Code and the Law for putting it in force their operation was announced to run from 1st July of the same year, and the two laws iu question also came in force from the same date. By the new laws, ordinary banks were put under the control of the Minister of Finance, the permis- sion of the said Minister being required for the establishment of a new bank ; he is also empovered to order at any time investiga- tions into the conditions of the business and property of the bank. Besides, provisions were made about business hours and days of rest, the obligation of making report on business, and the publication of property list and balance sheet in newspapers for each half year, etc. 8. Savings Banks. — According to the exsting law for Savings Banks which came in force on 1st July, 1893, Savings Banks Vai-ious Banks. 589 must be joint stock companies with a capital of not less than 30,000 yen. They may take up minor deposits from the general public oa a compound interest system, and in order to safeguard the interest of the depositors they have to consign to the Dj[)oslt Office of the Treasury national or local loan bonds bearing interest, correspond- in"' in value to one-fourth of the deposits received, for which the depositors concerned have a preferencial right. In case, however, 'tiie national or local loan bonds consigned exceed in value one half of the capital of the bank consigning them, the excess may be replaced by commercial bills or other reliable shares and stocks of any company. In other respects the regulations for ordinary banks apply also to savings banks. BANKS. TABLE I.— NATIONAL BANKS. DEPOSITS. (unit ofym). Deposits. Government Kunds Number of Banks. Authorized Paid up and Public Money. Year. Capital. Capital. Amount Transacted. Balance. TS73 ■■ 3 3 200,000 3,200,000 — 7,080,022 1S74 .. 4 3,450,000 3,450.000 — 3.668,520 1S7S .. 4 2,45.1,000 2,450,000 — 1,917,433 1876 .. II 20,505,799 20,505,799 — 834,235 1S77 .. 37 24 528,600 24528600 — 1,768,631 1S78 .. 139 38,851,150 38,85 '.'5° — 2,466 215 1879 .. 152 42,111,109 42,111,100 92,648,182 3,508,297 1880 .. 150 43,216 100 43,216,100 107 460,729 4,230,065 l88l .. 148 43.996,100 43996.100 146,174 173 4,382,322 1SS2 .. •43 44,206,100 44,206,100 141,907,452 6,305,399 1883 .. 141 44,386,100 44,386,100 166,331,765 6,594.430 188+ .. 140 44,536,100 44,536,100 195,258,008 6.342,813 1^85 .. 139 44,456,100 44,40,100 220,809,633 10,202,949 1S86 .. 132 43,556,100 4i,556,ioo 261,364,607 11,649,625 18S7 .. 136 45.838,851 45,838,851 218,552,635 11, 879,(346 18S8 .. 13s 46,877 639 46,877.639 216,452,158 10,096.462 1889 .. 134 47,681,380 47.681,380 184,705,818 10,058,015 1S90 .. 134 48,644,6'i2 48,644,662 I49,2S4,4S8 4,830 262 1891 .. 134 48,786,100 48,701,100 73,76-2,195 • 7,541.589 1S92 .. 133 48,325,600 48,325,600 91,271,196 . 8,072,448 1893 .. 133 48,416,100 48,416,100 89,692.591 8,693,729 1894 .. 133 48,816,100 48,816,100 106,980,408 9,035,878 1895 .. •33 49,056,100 48,951,100 II3,93',^17 7,542,860 1S96 .. I2( 44,766 100 41,761,770 97,122,281 6,634,354 1897 .. 58 13,630,000 13,630 000 68,668,021 2,877,68ti J8yS . 4 390,000 390,000 12,211,900 122,142 590 Japan in the Bef/innintj of the 20//i Century. Deposits. Fixed and Current Deposits. Savings Deposits. Total. Year. 1873- 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1378. 1879. 18S0. 1881 . 1S82. 18S3. 1S34. 1885. 1 885. 1887. 188S. 1889 . 1890 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893. 1894. 1895 . 1896. 1897. 189S Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. — 2593128 — ■ — 2,298,918 — — 2,399,801 — — 2,397,047 — — 4,871,890 — — 8,794,852 — .. 217,305,983 11,382,587 394-IS .. 252,579,031 13,197,296 193.330 - 274,713,429 13,965,315 766,991 .. 281,476,169 12,95 [,828 1,080,037 • • 238,377,726 16,978,010 1,752,636 .. 229,073,791 15,713065 2,J52,379 1,964 4,735 — 10,273,240 — 5.967,438 — 4,317,234 — 3,231,282 — 6,642,485 — 11,265,802 18,504 309,993,610 14,909,388 134.855 360,233,090 17,562,216 338,023 421,654,593 18,685,660 443,832 424,463,658 19,701,059 775.750 406,462,127 24,348,290 937,692 426,684,178 22,993,570 311,720,307 19,631,362 2,635,865 i,oSi.ooS 435,165,805 30,915,319 257,023615 23,273,820 3,584,293 t.542,563 521,872,515 36466008 313,730.621 25,081,168 4.294,557 ',727,90s 536,577,813 38,688,122 341,554692 26,594,806 . 4999,390 .2,062,600 563006,240 38,753,868 406092,662 27,990,393 6617,851 2,546,837 597:416,331 40,S95 245 416,877,760 27,478,390 7,542.891 1,289514 573,705.139 33,598,156 432,067,983 31,^23,985 3,730010 1,448,8:0 503,569,188 40,214,394 545,848096 40,173664 4,155,666 1,730,853 641274.958 49,976,965 693866,385 51139,881 1730,853 53,521 785,289,829 59,887,131 807.346,127 57,941,263 — _ 914326535 66,977,141 986,032,332 67,456,530 — — 1,299,963,549 74.999,390 911,968,640 55,191,265 — — 1,009,090,921 61,825,619 562,938,651 24,888,519 — — 631,606,672 27,766,196 147,066,080 745,077 — — iS9,277,i?So 867,219 Various Hanks. TABLE II.— NATIONAL BANKS. 591 LOANS. (unit ofym). Advances. Loan to the Government. Other Advances. Year. Amount Balance. Amount Balance. Transacted. Transacted. 1873 - — — — 2,892 929 1874 ... — — — 2,393.932 187s ... — 19 — 2,460,179 1876 ... — 6,210,181 — 3.899,493 1S77 ... — 12,076,207 — 6,360 048 1878 ... — 15.436.9&7 — 16,393.097 1S79 ... ■•• 15,455,337 131,121,044 24,826,439 »8So ... ... 15,621,163 15378,75' 162,138,466 28,131,990 18S1 ... ... 16,720,748 15,421,098 197.595.636 30,330.274 1S82 ... ... 15.69S.303 15,373.13 > '89575,983 32,161,869 1S83 ... ... 15,495.865 10,366,299 160,868,799 32,346,235 1SS4 ... ... 10,650,254 10,394,282 156405,021 35.6'5.27i 1885 ... ... 10,899.395 10,509,277 137.233.S79 32,734.003 1S86 ... ... 10,758,822 10,754 702 150,313,318 35,062 507 1887 ... ... 10,625413 10,296,041 188,737,616 44,871,519 1888 ... ... 10509,000 10,280,471 222,478,384 49,104,407 18S9 ... ... 10,504,903 10,262,301 368 633,232 57,976,593 1890 ... ... 10,320480 — 303,827,963 71,697,231 1891 ... ... 10,000,000 10,000,000 286,691,829 66,173,259 1892 ... ... 10,000,060 10,000,000 308,389 960 61,905,652 1893 - ... 10,000,000 1 0,00O;O0O 474.117,505 80,013,852 1S94 ... ... 10,000,000 lo.oco 000 450,819,214 86,151,515 1895 - 8,000,000 8,000,000 518,363.525 91,897,575 1S96 ... — ' — 5-!3.4".974 105,720,154 ii97 - — — 274,158,846 28,264,169 1898 ... — — 58,551.264 606,749 592 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Advances. Bills Discounted. Total. Year. Amount Balance. Amount Balance. Transacted. Transacted. 1373... — 3.430 — 2.896,359 1874... — 3,245 — 2 3S7.'77 1S7S . — 130,635 — 2 590,833 1S76... — 5S.259 — 10,167,933 1S77 . — 31.772 — 13,468,072 1S7S... — 94.875 — 31,924,939 1879... 9,868,353 3S3115 — 40,564,891 iSSo... 20,9^7,189 1,283.593 198,706,818 44.794 334 1S81... ... 27,544,:85 1,133.705 241,860,669 46,891 077 18S2 .. ... 26,132,094 1,4(57,089 231,403380 49,00 ,093 1SS3... ... 25 634,033 2,170,684 201,998,697 44,901,219 18S4... ... 38,536,382 3,000,346 205,591,657 49,009,89? 1S8S .. ... 27,883,651 3,069 066 176,016,925 46,321,346 1886... ... 43,365.569 3,772,291 204,437,709 49,589,500 18S7... ... 67 942,433 5,299,158 267,305 462 60,466,71s 1,888 .. ... 78,3S6,6i4 7,572,743 311,373.998 66,957,621 1S89... ... 99,775.103 8,306,531 378,913,238 76,545,525 i8go .. ... 111,425,607 — 425,574,050 — 1891 .. ... 124,468,416 — 421,116,245 — 1S92 .. ... 158,456,633 — 476,846,623 - I893-. ... 229.439.293 — 613,656,798 — 1S94- ... 275.353.347 — 736,172,561 — 1S95 .. ... 290,064,409 26,305,513 816,427,934 126,203,088 1896 .. ... 308,773,414 20,168,813 832,185,338 125,888,967 1S97... ... 176,684,763 — 450,843,606 — 1898 .. ... 55.958,225 311,0^6 114,509,489 947,795, i'ear. 1882.. 1883.. 1884.. 1885.. 1886.., 1887.. 18S8.., 1889.. 1890.. 1891.., 1892.. 1893.. 1S94.., 1S93... 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899.., 1900.. 1901.. 1502.. Various Banks, TABLE III.— BANK OF JAPAN. DEPOSITS, (unit oiyen). 593 Authorized Capital. 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 30,500,000 30,500,000 Deposits. Paid up Capital. 2,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 S,ooo,ooo 10,000,000 10,000,000 I0,"O0,O0O 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 22,000,000 22,000,000 Reserves. Government Funds and Government Deposits. Amount Transacted. Balance. 3,800 21,908,811 4,696,436 10,500 131,718,159 14,360,228 372,700 204,873,886 31,581,618 445,700 443,024,929 36,500,155 4,306,200 642,670,941 31,206,958 4,494,700 612,073,872 25,572,503 4,759,700 642,981,456 31,631,494 5,240,000 40,663,208 811,239 49,066,469 57,631,953 50,251,233 70,591,897 2,483,701 4,085,444 1,618,327 3,192,232 4,714,539 5,910,000 6,350,000 7,072,500 7,442,500 8,542,500 118,812,360 9,100,000 412,373,330 193,709,354 . 30,500,000 22,000,000 10,800,000 925,123,261 74,288,063 . 30,000,000 30,000,000 12,570,000 710,205,718 25,713,412 . 30,000,000 30,000,000 13,570,000 540,458,91s 69,732,850 .. 30,000,000 30,000,000 14,850,000 217,533,432 33,230,790 .. 30,000,000 30,000,000 15,950,000 374,069,114 17,599,292 .. 30,000,000 30,000,000 16,600,000 349,433^124 15,524,410 694 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. DEPOSITS. Private Deposits. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1882 , ... 647,612 305,613 6|7,6l2 305,613 1883 , ... 15,293,608 1,707,951 37,209,419 6,404,357 1S84 . ... 27,889,193 759,131 I59,'507,352 15,119,359 1885 13,884,219 1,324,069 218,758,102 32,905,687 1886 22,712,368 329,450 465,737,297 32,829,605 1887 27,574,974 677,981 670,245,915 31,884,939 1888 39,979,793 665.865 652,053,665 26,238,: 67 1889 19,876,981 242,808 662,858,437 3i,6743<:2 1890 ... 159,320,310 6,315,287 199,985,518 7,126,526 1891 ... 138,352,867 3,246,794 187,419,356 5,730,49s 1892 ... 219,359,557 4,706,974 276,991,510 8,792,418 1893 261,998,049 1,969,578 312,249,282 3,587,905 1894 ... 271,152,072 1,726,291 341,743 969 4,918,523 189s ... 421,853,071 1,939,370 440,665,431 6,653,909 1896 ... 964,835,605 1,408,318 1,377,208,935 195,117,672 1897 ... 1,039,822,453 3,821,937 1,964,945.714 78,110,000 1898 ... 1,015,199,006 1,497,135 1,725,404,724 27,210,547 1899 ... 1,282,760,830 4,938,725 1,823,219,745 74,671,575 1900 ... 1,756,602,168 2,027,234 1,974,135,600 35,258,024 1901 ... 1,627,032,997 2,557,762 2,001,102,111 20,157,054 1902 ... 1,948,621,563 3,363,388 2,298,054,687 18,887,790 Year. i8S:2., 1883., 18S4., 1885.. 1886., 1SS7.. 1888.. 1889.. 1890.. 1891.. 1S92.. 1893.. 1894.. 1S95.. 1896.. 1897- 1898.. IS99-. igco,. igoi.. 1902.., Various Banks. TABLE IV.— BANK OF JAPAN. (unit of yen). LOANS. 595 Loans to the C jovernment. Other Loans. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. — — 935,000 777,300 1,500,000 1,000,000 4,827,050 691,700 2,000,000 — 6,198,77s 1,412,79s 10,159,000 1,050,000 35,793,962 13,971,824 2,414,710 566,687 63,732,702 19,189,875 2,899,03s 1,854,603 83,092,912 25,181,924 8.735,141 3,538,972 95,071-157 19,175,024 22,061,334 774,718 91,885,034 17,071,984 72,000,000 22,000,000 86,653,225 15,823,831 22,000,000 22,000,000 111,730,549 11,747,563 22,000,000 22,000,000 107,699 56S 8,460,441 22,000,000 22,000,000 108,486,071 10,060,427 43,500,000 37,500,000 163,299,642 16,564,613 71,500,000 63,500,000 257,025,696 29,327,418 .. 129,033,875 72,000,000 389,277,271 42,243,642 .. 89,050,828 28,831,132 588,596,044 53,048,444 72,851,132 22,000,000 713,266,508 33,270,570 22,000,000 22,OO'j,0OO 702,058,929 16,731,979 .. 38,000,000 34,000,000 523,235,302 14,477,675 96,000,000 62,000,000 322,780,611 9,348,602 99,000,000 50,000,000 274,280,284 5,323,178 696 Japan in tlie Beginning of the 20th Century. Bills Discounted. Total. Year Amount Balance Amount Ralanre Transacted. -Balance. Transacted. balance. 1882 52.800 , — 987,800 477.300 1883 1,594.200 555.550 7.921.250 2,247,200 1884 11,124,007 1,990,848 19,322,782 3.403.643 188S 6,015,858 1,314.567 51.958.820 16,336,391 1886 10,870,104 3.559,336 77,017,516 23,315,898 1887 24,342,496 5.498,639 110,334,443 32,535.166 1888 26,429,999 5,6i6,ioi 130,236,297 28,330,097 1889 40,091,309 11,961,995 154.037.677 29,808,697 1890 77.547,370 21,562,322 186,200,595 59.386,153 1S91 78,725,843 20,350,203 210,456,395 54,097,766 1892 63,819,821 16,437,433 193.419.389 46,897,974 1893 77,841,360 24,563,815 208,327,431 56,624,242 1894 112,467,246 20,037,184 319,266,888 74,101,797 1895 129.639.502 34,690,723 458,165,198 127,518,141 1896 212,580,969 49,344,429 730,892,115 163,598,071 1897 270,192,385 56,307,42s 947,839,5'57 138,187,004 1898 287,746,027 55,524,621 1073,863,667 110,795,191 1899 419,206,172 108,141,186 1,143,265,101 146,873,165 1900 588,249,09c 97,558,216 1,149,484,392 146,035,891 1901 505.893327 46.576,059 924.673.938 117,924,661 1902 274,635,000 50,763,487 647,915,284 16,086,665 Various Banks. 597 TABLE v.— YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK. DEPOSITS. (unit of yen). Deposits. Government Funds and Authorized Capital. Paid up. Capital. Reserves. Deposits. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1880 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 — 4,641,256 2,105,434 1881 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 49,300 10,383,226 3,156,259 1882 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 114,133 11,346,354 2,957,122 1S83 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 621,662 22,522,086 ",977,899 1884 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 500,003 35,657,47s 16,818,905 188S ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 865,995 57,849,050 15,516,990 1886 ... 6,000,000 3,000,000 1,373.1:3 81,474,282 16,696,44s 1887 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,337,700 49,816,076 10,891,165 1888 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,820,468 58,047,466 13,675,585 1S89 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,904,661 21,437,636 5-291,837 1890 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,767,334 8,890,845 539.342 1891 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,947,600 2,005,232 483,404 1892 ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,55o.oSs 2,057,77s 407,889 1S93 ■•• 6,000,000 4,500,000 3,812,958 2,248,631 384,192 1S94 - 6,000,000 4,500,000 4,053,634 2,555,607 434,359 189s ... 6,000,000 4,500,000 4,336,634 2,361,327 269,290 1896 ... ... 12,000,000 6 000,000 6,118,259 2,302,528 245,834 1897 ... ... 12,000,000 9,000,000 6,79S,.',6o 1,827,439 130,449 1898 ... ... 12,600,000 10,500,000 7,403,126 3,139,878 159,660 1899 - ... 24,000,000 12,000,000 8,016,03s 4,951,848 2,103,501 1900 ... ... 24,000,000 18,000,000 8,678,516 8,910,490 40S421 1901 ... ... 24,000,000 18,000,000 9,oj5.o59 7,480,675 427,664 igo2 ... ... 24,000,000 18,000,000 9,837,237 7,082,166 582,871 598 Japan in the Beginning of DEPOSITS. the 20th Century. Private Deposits. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. l88o ... 19,530,221 1,081,612 24,171,480 3, •87,046 1881 ... 35.319,098 857,896 45,702,324 4,014,155 1882 ... 40,081,297 892,132 51,427,651 3,849,254 1883 ... 55,954,472 1,764,163 78,476,558 13,742,062 18S4 ... 83,131,834 4,009,979 118,789,309 20,828,884 1885 ... 89,954,554 1,046,932 147,803,604 16,563,922 18S6 ... 37,999,849 776,263 119,474,131 17,472,708 18S7 ... 54,029,432 1,866,811 103,845,50s 12,757,976 1888 ... ... 62,576,176 1,796,347 120,623,642 15,471,932 18S9 ... 63,101,186 1,851,317 84,538,822 7,143,154 1890 ... 84,470,683 4,192,300 93,361,528 4,731,642 1891 ... 74,698,326 5,049,068 76,703,558 5,532,472 1892 ... 92,742,630 2,334,872 94,800,405 2,742,761 1893 ••■ ... 112,666,758 6,038,212 114,915,389 6,422,404 1894 ... 236,685,116 10,567,986 239,240,723 .11,002,345 J895 ... 320,052,114 12,781,678 322,413,441 13,050,968 1896 ... ... 553,834,602 9,940,167 556,037,130 18,186,001 1807 ... 671,626,922 36,003,300 673,454,361 36,133,749 189S ... ... 832,365,993 40,452,774 835,505871 40,612,434 1899 ... ... ij004,82i,868 71,388,242 1,009,773,716 . 73,491:743 1900 ... ... 878,613,934 52,570,533 887,5 24, m 52,978,954 1901 ... ... 844,045,269 46,083,183 851,534,944 46,510,847 1902 ... ... 979,952,965 58,461,249 987,035,131 59,044,420 Year. 1880 , 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 18S9 1890 189 1 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 igo2 Various Banks. TABLE VI.— YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK, LOANS, (unit of yen). LOANS. Loans to the Government. 699 Other Loans. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. — — 12,528,797 2,738,921 — — 20,011,304 3,454,045 — — 22,511,748 3,205,823 867,829 — 29,663,508 4,650,214 4,971,947 — 45,891,433 6*894,238 4,967,537 102,603 56,378,854 5,224,119 2,462,845 6,591 35,877,886 4,678,487 — — 41,609,803 4,945,084 — — 42,571,428 4,766,827 — t_ 39,500,255 4,890,914 — — 34,755,173 4,642,850 — — 40,928,849 4,550,902 — — 45,480,763 4118,128 — — 39,341,717 5,912,970 — — 57.331,298 4,846000 — — 64,095,000 4,365,166 — — 139,568,886 8,696,598 — — 148,408,027 4,912,124 — — *27i,882,772 *20, 668,929 — — *358;498,736 *2i,482,246 — — 282,461,246 26,506,663 — — 294,056,195 25,496,825 — .— 359,412,906 31,693,236 600 Japan in the Beginning of tJie 20ih Century. LOANS. Bills Discounted. Total Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. iSSo ... 454,241 87,910 12,983,038 2,826,831 1881 ... 1,163,308 128,744 21,174,612 3,582,789 18S2 ... 308,157 20,000 22,819,905 3,225,823 1883 ... 360,994 18,500 30,892,331 4,677,714 1884 ... . 1,738,574 338,348 52,601954 7,232,586 18SS ... , 2,955,864 637,154 64,302,255 5,963,876 18S6 ... . 8,734,770 1,515,473 47,075,501 6,200,551 1887 ... . .. 38,311,386 2,007,521 79,921,189 6,952,605 1S88 ... . .. 59,037,385 590,686 101,608,813 5,357,513 1889 ... . ... 33,934,785 438,275 • 73.435,040 5,329,189 1890 ... . .. 42,901,189 2,125,904 77,656,362 6,768,754 1891 ... . .. 44,617,266 2,433,383 85,546,109 6,984,285 1892 ... . 50,300,806 1,407,497 95,781,569 5,525,625 1893 ... . .. 52,530,482 2,396,605 92,072,199 8,309,575 1894 ... . •• 72,099,903 2,957,089 129,431,201 7,803,089 189s ... . .. . 82,301,235 4,286,297 146,396,235 8,681,463 1896 ... . •• 154,718,737 6,033,502 294,287,623 14,730,100 1897 ... . .. 197,840,904 9,313,763 346,248,931 14,225,887 1898 ... . •• 230,659,018 12,726,776 502,541,790 33,395,705 1899 - . .. 223,727,051 12,423,426 582,225,787 32,905,675 1900 ... ., .. 160,597,339 18,305,351 443,058,585 44,812,014 1901 ... ., •• ii5,6S5i64i 9,021,841 409,711,836 34,518,666 1902 ... . .. 73,028,653 8,305,622 432,441,559 39,998,85s Various Banks. 601 Year. 1897 1898 1899 190a 1901 1902 Year. 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 TABLE VII.— HYPOTHEC BANK OF JAPAN. (JCangyo Ginko). (unit otyen). Loans. Anthotrized Capital. Paid up », Amount CapitaL R'^-^""- Transacted. Balance. Debenture! Issued. 10,000,000 2,500,000 — 1,376,012 1,376,012 -, 10,000,000 2,500,000 7,361 6,776,609 6,706,734 4,972,101 10,000,000 2,500,000 34003 9,062,816 8,774,842 7,328,3611 10,000,000 2,500,000 70,926 12,236,256 11,650,631 9,640,884 10,000,000. 2,500,000 135,926 14,463,861 14,048,578 13,378,42* 10,000,000 3,250,000 210,926 18,560,174 17,320,102 14,240,96(1 TABLE VIII.— LOCAL HYPOTHEC BANKS, (unit oiyen). Deposits. No. 6 4« 45 46 46 46 Authorized Capital. ^ 3,850,000 25,620,000 : ay 920 000 28,370,000 28,376,000 28,370,000 Paid up Capital. 962,500 8,798,020 15,980,365 22,923,485 26,100,000 27,657,234 Loans. Reserves. 1,422 82,480 324,012 793,157 1.440.714 Amount Transacted. 962,686 2,647,296 9,555.687 14,129,373 18,275,899 Balance, 300,459 1,222,815 2,147,058 3,421,133 4,004,790 Year. 1897 1898 1899 1900 190I 1902 Amount Transacted. 4,356,537 12,717,549 20,822,745 25,675,396 38418,801 Balance. 4,221,119 12,063,921 19,200,809 23,065,850 25,114,438 Debentures Issued. 530000 630,000 1,023,900 2,011,530 TABLE IX.— HOKKAIDO COLONIZATION BANK. (unit oiyen). Deposits. Loans. wr Authorized Paid up „ Amount „ , Amount « , Year, „ .^ , % .. f Reserves, v > j Balance. „ . , Balance. Capital. Capital. Transacted. Transacted. »9<» 3,000,000 1,050,000 2,343 276,466 53,951 7>o,757 703,544 1901 3,000,000 2098,400 15,248 1,134,916 219,230 1,698,450 1,501,606 ■902 3,000,000 2,098,400 76,400 2,100,000 400,547 2,918,918 2,102,857 602 Year. 1899. 1900 . 1 901 . 1902 . Year. 1899 1900 1901 1902 Year. 1899 1900 1901 1902 Japan in the Beginning of the 20(A Ceniury. TABLE X— BANK OF FORMOSA. DEPOSITS. (unit oiyeti). Deposits. Authorized Paid up Capital. Capital. 5,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 Deposits. I 250,000 1,250,000 1,250,000 2,500,000 DEPOSITS. Reserves. 17,900 77,900 140,400 Government Funds and Deposits. Amount Balance. Transacted. 5,6t8 2,810 901,205 173.561 153,814 Total 2061 1,410 Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount Transacted. Balance. 7,582,171 965,410 7,587,789 968,220 40.055,575 4,974.275 40,956,780 4.976,336 44.342,027 4.539,771 44,479,588 4,54J,i8l 59,308450 6,470,529 59,462,264 6,470,816 TABLE XL —BANK OF FORMOSA. LOANS. (unit oi yen). LOANS. Loans to Government. Other Loans. Amount Transacted. . 2,500,000 . 8,200,000 6,700,000 , 7,350,000 Balance. 2,500,000 6,200,000 5,200,000 6,850,000 Amount Transacted. 1,000,252 5.094,145 6.231,433 8,514,772 Balance. 267,380 414,917 531 463 963,785 Various Banks. 603 Loans. Bills Discounted. Total. Year. Amount Transacted. Balance. Amount ■„ , Transacted. 2^'^°««- Debentures Issued. 1899 ,. ... 1,209,694 607,253 4,709,946 3,374,633 1,834,9x7 1900 7.892,515 1,057,373 21,186,660 7,672,290 3 690,892 1901 ... ., ",199,06s 1,256,976 25,i30y498 6,988,439 2,943,751 1902 16,271,978 2,174,125 32,136,750 9,987,910 3,977,349 TABLE XII.- -JAPAN INDUSTRIAL BANK. (^JCd^yo Ginko), (unit of;) '«»). Deposits. Loans. Y Authorized Paid up Re- Amount tj 1 Amount „ , Capital. Capital, serves. Transacted. ' Transacted. ig02 10,000,000 2,500,000 1,148 8,867,606 1,108,213 4,497,108 3,237,658 TABLE XIII.— ORDINARV BANKS. DEPOSITS. Number. Amount Capital. (unit oiyen Paid up Capital. )• Reserves. Deposits. Year. Government Funds and Public Money. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1887... 221 — 18,896,061 — — 6,113,522 1888... 195 — >5,790,259 4,132412 — 5,529,442 1889... 218 — 17,472,170 4,735.433 — 6,615,947 i8go... 222 — 18,976,622 5,039875 — 4.501,727 1891... ... 26S — 22,142,721 5,523,617 — 3,242,972 1892... 270 — 22,356,177 3,2'4,2So — 4,864 208 1893... 604 — 31,030,248 2,813,666 31,362,139 2,807,568 1894... ... . 700 — 37,410,781 4,141,507 63,246,082 2,656,402 1895... 792 — 49,919,654 5,693.951 76,319,016 2,866,665 1896.. ... 1,005 142,714,944 88,974,847 8,947,748 88i785,o22 6,499,052 1897... ... 1,223 224,971,674 149,887,838 13.407,842 143,937350 11,979378 1S58... ... 1,444 276,839 734 189439,761 20,214 846 277,738,840 16,945,051 1899... ... 1,561 296 388,809 209,973,431 ' 27,732,597 187,717,686 12,527,346 1900... ... 1,802 35^,729,770 245,158,916 33,032..336 179,480,814 12,808.91 1 1901.... ... 1,867 365,031,900 251,700,369 38,868,161 165,165,118 11,501,826 604 Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century, Private Deposits. Savings Deposits. Total. year. Amount g j^ t-^'^TL Balance. J^"'°"'i' Balance. Transacted. . Transacted. Transacted. ■"•»""■>-'=. •887... — «S.644.295 — — — — 1888... — 14,527,993 — — — — 1889... ■ — 16,228,849 — 2,059,948 — 24,904,444. 1890... — 18409,747 — 2^126,504 — 25,337,97& I891... ' — 17,820,290 — 3,630,233 — 24,693,493 1892... — 22,899,477 — 5,47S,ooo — 33,238,685 1893... 210,633,254 35,618642 — — 241,995,393 38,426,210 1894.. 486,512,288 46,540,017 — — 549,758,370 49,196,419 1895... 766,259,957 81,386,199 — — 842,575,973 84,252,865 1896 1,469,959.999 135,438,038 — — 1,558,745,021 141,937,090 1897.. .2 241,366,166 195,761,906 — — 2,385,303,516 207,741,284 i898...3,ii5,3o5,7o8 270,100,184 — — 3,393.044,548 289,045,235 1899. .4,305,218,581 379.729,434 — — 4,492,936,267 392,256,780 1900 ..5,491,031,118 423,970,909 — — 5,670,511,932 436,779,820 1901. ..5,193,383,459 438,684,701 — — 5,357,548,577 450,186,527 TABLE XIV.— ORDINARY BANKS. (unit of jj'fH). LOANS. Loans. Bills Discount. Total. Year. Amount tj,u„„. Amount v,,, „ Amount ., , Transacted. ^'^^"^^ Transacted. ^*^^°"- Transacted. ^^''°='=- 1887. — — _ _ _ _ *888. — 28,697,174 23,705,458 — _ _ 1889. — 36,698,170 17,237,568 _ _ _ 1890. — 39,537.83s 36,335,987 — — — 1891. — 40,922,441 42,148,241 — — — 1892. — 33,882,673 54,879,10.^ — — — 1893. i46,isi9,oS6 49,083,472 67,707,985 — 213,827,071 — 1894. 253,074,134 59,178,194 96,357,015 — 349,431,149 — 1895. 380,898,955 89,165,458 198,242,173 _ 579,141.124 — 1896. :761,497,45s 157,200,254 458,129,582 _ 1,219,627,037 — k897. ii»97402 583 241,899,875 730,434,151 —2,027,836,734 — 1898.; 1,576,200,337 294,192,883 913,186,574 139,311447 2,489,386,911 433,504330 1899. 1,825,389,469 3",349,289 1,584,252,16s 261,771,981 3409.641,637 573,121,270 1900. 2,114,925,789,351,550,653 2,119,255332 301,647,126 4,234,201,121 653,197,779 1901. 1,901,107405 356,3:6,556 1,831,516,006 272,015,225 3,732,633411 628,371,781 Vavious Banks. 605 TABLE XV.— SAVINGS BANKS. (unit of_jv;/). Savings Deposits. fear. NumbeT' Authorized Capital. Paid up Capital. Reserves. Amount Transacted. Balance. 1893 — 24 — 566,500 25,113 10,760,771 6,035,45s 1894.... 31 — 683,000 63,013 17,661,594 6,871,327 1895.... 92 5,290,000 1,889,355 104,421 27,325,886 12,178,268 1896.... .. 193 12,172,500 S.039,381 303,696 51,729,525 18,214,200 1897.... .. 3" 20,199,000 10,698,093 812,531 75866,192 25,393,453 1898.... 418 26.699.3°° 14,966,242 1,371,026 86,109,383 30,042,074 1899... ■• S3I 34,930,300 19,979,15" 2,188,083 119,033,523 44,748,884 1900.... . 681 48,465,300 26,834,957 2,907,597 i49,23S.68j 49,458,5?c 1901.... 714 50,281,300 29,608,687 3,462,264 144,028,072 44,021,62a Ordinary Deposits. Total. Year. 1893 ■ 1894 1895 • 1896 . 1897 . 1898 . 1899 . 1900 . 1901 . Amount Transacted. 15,423,123 48,169,545 93659,013 171,211,852 280,189,418 237,43',i92 Balance. 2,459,6oS 7,651,500 12665,035 22,892,281 29,423,061 30,188,630 Amount Transacted. 10,760,771 17,661,594 27,325,886 67,152,648 "24,035,737 "79,768,396 290,245,375 429,425,101 381,459,264 Balance. 6,035455 6,871,327 12,178,268 20,673,808 33,044,953 42,707, "09 67,641,165 78,881,641 74,210,256 TABLE XVI.— SAVINGS BANKS. Loans. Year. Amount „ 1 Transacted. 1893..;... 1,802,716 1,066,330 "894 1,776,144 675,061 1895 6,409,067 2,728,006 1896 25,162,385 8,088,206 "897 50,699,695 16,569,899 1898 72,884,013 23,576,480 1899 106,226,648 30,201,705 '900 131,302,787 38,393,253 1901 127,170,469 41 117,028 (unit oiym). Bills Discounted. Total. Amount Transacted. 2,356,356 6,256,976 "3,536,092 31,870,677 46,468,726 49 887 394 97,285,819 156,120,870 ""9,392,480 Balance. 5.790,376 7,909,428 17,669 320 25,024,609 19,542,862 , Amount Transacted. ■ ' 4,159,072 8,033,120' "9945,"59 57,033,062 97,168,421 122,648,639 203,512467 287,423,657 .246,562 949 Balance. 22,360,275 31,485,90s' 47,871,05a • 63,417,862 ' 60,659,890 806, Japan in the Beginning of tlie 20th Century. CHAPTER VI.— Qearing Houses. Introductory — Various Clearing Houses. I. INTRODUCTORY. Geneeai, Kemarks. — Though the custom of using commercial bills in trdde existed long ago, it was only in recent years that a clearing house modelled on the Western system was established in Japan. The Osaka Clearing House established in December 1879 was the poineer institution of this kind in Japan. Then followed the Clearing Houses of Toltyo, Kobe, Yokohama, and Kyoto. All these establishments partly partake in their organization and working system of the Houses of London and Xew York. The Japanese clearing Louses business, though more or less subjected to vicissitudes, ha*, on the whole, made a satisfactory progress, as the perusal of the following section will show. 1. The Tokyo Cleakixg- House. — The Tokyo Clearing-House ojmmenced its business at the end of 1887, with a j)erceptible good result, but the subsequent development of banking business necessi- tated the organization of the clearing-house, and in 1881 the new clearing-house, as it now stands was established. Its organization was mainly based on those of clearing-houses iu Europe and Ameidca. The number of associated banks at the end of 1901 was 36, besides the Bank of Japan. 2. The Kyoto Clearing-House. — The Kyoto Clearing-Hou.-e was founded in 1888 ; the number of associated banks in December 1901 was 21. 3. The Osaka Clearisg-House.— The Osaka Clearing-House founded in 1879 is the first of all clearing-houses established in our country. In Osaka, the centre of trade in our country since old time, checks and bills were in use long before the Restoration. The number of associated banks in December> 1901, was So, 4. The Kobe Ci.EAKiNa-HousE.— The Kobe Ciearing-IToiise Varimts Clearing Hoitses. 607 was founded in 1897 ; the number of associated banks was 16 in December 1901. 5. The Yokohama Cleaeinq-Hous33. — The Yokohama Glear- ii?g-iIouse was founded in 1900 ; it had 12 associated banks in December, 1901. The Nagoya Clearing-House is the latest establi.>Innent, having been founded in September, 1902. At the end of that year it had 19 associated banks. II. VARIOUS CLEARING HOUSES. Amount Of Bills Cleared at Various Clearing houses. Tokyo. Osaka. Year. •879 i88o iSSi l&ii2 1883 1884 1S85 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1S9I 1S92 1S93 1804 1895 1S96 1897 1898 1899 1900 1501 1902 Number of Amount Number of Amount. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cleared. Cleared. — — 2,835,892 — — — 37.457.435 — — 48,065,853 — — — 46,487,510 — — 3«,385,877 — — — 22,656,066 — — — 17.73 ,207 — — — 22,074,700 1,987 1,232,186 — 24,072,164 25,289 12,281,949 94-797 28,898 S48 36,524 19,559.401 112,821 34,'{>7 15' 42,301 20,?o6,o95 i2J,47^ 37,247,780 59,521 67,595,423 137,899 39,122,501 97,«90 113,576,595 161,489 49610,07 c 134,505 148,018,871 174,035 63,600,661 172,189 185,597,497 i8o,8y2 67,543 8"7 223,123 289,102,424 208,622 79,654.118 349,423 417,425,507 324,816 i38,4"y,333 442,034 552,890,212 308 624 160,967,476 792,151 790,247,459 484,539 225,980,82s 1,251,921 I 095,805,417 760,976 376.853,277 1,830,607 1,405,449,664 1,033,143 523552,745 1,860,156 1,268,802,079 1,229,327 528,122,083 2,210,388 1,350.79 ',066 1,550,430 663,659,703 608 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Tokyo. Yokohama. Number of Amount Number of Ajnount Year. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cleared. Qeared. 1879 -. . , 1880 ... . — — — — i88i ... , — — — — 1882 ... , — — ■ — — 1883 ... — — — — 1884 ... . — — — — i88s ... — — — — 1886 ... — • — 1887 ... — — — — 1888 ... , . — . — — — 1889 ... — — — 1890 ... , — — — — 1891 ... — — — — 1892 -.. — — — — 1893 ... — — — — 1894 ... — — .—^: — 1895 ... — — — 1896 ... — — — 1897 - — — — 1898 ... 230,858 69,034.033 — 1899 - 406,390 133.616,95s — 1900 ... 527,033 167,566,438 215.441 ' 348,306,775 1901 ... 538.199 145.905.1S2 237,925 390,516606 1902 ... 610,277 155.957.015 257,165 416,126,576 ] Kobe, Na£ Number of [oya. Number of Amount Amount Year. Bills Cleared. Cleared. Bills Cleared. Cleared. 1879 ... — — — 1880 ... — — — — 1881 ... . — — — — 1882 ... — — ; — 18S3 ... — — — 1884 ... — — — 1885 ... ' — — — 1886 ... — — — — — 1887 ... — — — 1888 ... — ' — — 1889 ... — — -^ — 1890 ... — — — 1891 ... — — — 1892 ... — ' — — 1893 ... ••• ... — — 1. — 1894 •• — — ,-^ — 1895 ..- — — — — 1896 ... — — —1 — 1897 ... 30.789 27,633,168 — — 1898 ... 104,790 100,843.^19 — 1899 ... 123.97> 115,914,379 — 1900 ... 175.679 168,228,769 — 1901 ... 191,848 202,658,853 ' — 1902 ... 246,406 25 ',656,959 87,884 43,083,087 Tables Jor Hefereuc^. 609 Tables for Reference. For convenience of reference the following tables about tlie ■\vorld's output of gold, quotation of gold bullion in .London, and some other similar figures will be given below : — ^^"ORLD'S OUTPUT or gold and silver. Year. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1S92 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 (Relative price of gold and silver). Ounces. 6,270,086 6,270,086 6,270,086 ... 5,591,014 ■•■ 5.591,014 - 4,653,67s ... 4,390,031 ... 4,716,563 ... 5,016,488 ... 5,512,196 ... 5,761,114 ... 5,262,174 ... 5,148,880 • ■. 4,983,742 ... 4,934,086 ... 4,614,588 ... 4,921,169 - 5,245,572 • •• 5.135,679 5,116,861 - 5,330,775 ■ ■• 5.973.790 - 5. 749.306 ... 6,320,194 7,094,266 ... 7,618,811 ... 8,764,362 9,615,190 -. 9.783,914 ... 11,420,068 ... 13,877,806 ... 14,859,285 ... 12,366,319 ... Unknown Ounces. Relative Prict. 43,051,583 15-59 43,051,583 15.60 43,051,583 15-57 63,317,014 15-57 63,317,014 15-63 63,267,187 15-92 55,300,781 16.17 62,261,719 16.59 67,753,125 17.88 62,679,916 17.22 73,385,451 17-94 74,383,495 18.40 74,795,273 18.05 79,020,872 18.16 86,472,091 18.19 89,175.023 18.64 81,567,801 18.57 91,609,959 19.41 93,297,290 20.7S 96,123,586 21.13 108,827,606 21.99 120,213,611 22.10 126,095,062 19.76 137,170,919 20.92 153,151.762 23.72 165472,621 26.47 164,610,394 32.56 167,500,960 31.61 157.061,370 30.65 160,421,082 34-34 169,055,253 3501 167,577,533 3436 172,838,870 33-36 Uuknowa 34-67' 610 Japan in the Beginning of the 2f)th Century. QUOTATION OF GOLD BULLION IN LONDON. (per I ounce). Date. Maximum. Minimum, Average. £■ s. 7 10.3750 3 1 7 10.3750 3 ' 7 10.3750 Mar. „ 3 7 10.0000 3 7 09.5000 3 1 7 09.8500 Apr. „ 3 ' 7 11.5000 3 " 7 11.0000 3 ' 7 "•3750 Way „ 3 ' 7 "•3750 3 1 7 10.7500 3 1 7 11.0625 June „ 3 7 11.7500 3 i 7 1 1. 1250 3 1 7 11.4500 July , 3 [7 "•3750 3 1 7 II. 1250 3 7 11.1875 Aug. „ 3 17 11.5000 3 17 11.0000 3 7 11.2813 Sept. „ 3 7 11.5000 3 7 II.OOOO 3 1 7 "■3750 Oct. „ 3 t7 11.7500 3 7 11.0000 3 7 ir.5000 Nov. „ 3 17 11.7500 3 [7 11.7500 3 '7- 11.7500 Dec. „ 3 [8 06.0000 3 17 11.5000 3 t7 11.7500 Average of Maximum and Minimum }•' [8 00.0000 3 t7 09.5000 3 17 11.1136 Jan. [898 3 17 11.0000 3 17 10.5000 3 17 10.8750 Feb. „ 3 17 11.0000 3 ; 17 09.5000 3 17 10.3125 jrar. j> 3 17 10.7500 3 [7 10.2500 3 17 10.6000 Apr. jj 3 [7 11.5000 3 '7 09.7500 3 17 11.0000 May » 3 17 09.7500 3 ■7 09.0000 3 ■7 09.4063 June „ 3 •7 10.5000 3 ■7 09.7500 3 '7 IO.OOOC> July >j 3 17 10.7500 3 17 10.2500 3 17 10.3750 Aug. „ 3 17 10.7500 3 '7 10.0000 3 17 10.2500 Sept. j> 3 18 00.0000 3 17 10.2500 3 17 Ii.i8;-S Oct. M 3 17 "•3750 3 t7 09.5000 3 17 10.46S8 Nov. .. 3 18 60.0000 3 17 09.5000 3 17 10.0500 Dec. J> 3 [8 00.0000 3 17 11.2500 3 17 11.6875 Averages of Maximum and Minimum ]•■ 18 00.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 17 10.5170- Jan. 1 S99 3 17 10.7500 3 17 09.5000 3 17 10.1250- J-eh. 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.3125 ISJar. 3» "" 3 7 09.7500 3 ■7 09.2500 3 17 09.5500 A.pr. >» ... •■■ 3 '7 09.5000 3 17 09.0000 3 ■ 7 09.2500 May W "■• 3 > 7 09.0000 3 1 7 09.0000 3 "7 09.000a June W •' 3 > 7 09.0000 3 ' 7 09.0000 3 "7 C9.0000 J,..ly jj •■• ••• •■■ 3 1 7 09.5000 3 1 7 09.0000 3 [7 09.2500- Tables for Beffi-encc. GUi Date Ma^ imura. Minimum, Average. £. s. d. L- s. a'. £■ .. i/. Aug. it 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0007 Sept. It 3 17 09.0000 3 »7 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 Oct. „ 3 17 09.0000 3 17 09.0000 3 [7 09.0000 Nov. f} 3 17 09.7500 3 17 09.2500 3 [7 09.2500 Dec. >» 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.2500 Averages of Maximum "1 and Minimum J ^ 17 10.7500 3 17 09,0000 3 17 09.2656 Jan. 900 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.0000 3 7 09.2500 Feb. „ 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 Mar. tt 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.2500 Apr. }> 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.2500 May „ 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.25CK> June 3 17 10.5000 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.8125 July „ 3 17 10.7500 3 17 09.7500 3 7 10.5000- Aug. „ 3 17 09.7500 3 17 09.7500 3 7 09.7500 Sept. „ 3 17 10.2500 3 17 09.7500 3 7 10.0000 Oct. „ 3 18 00.0000 3 17 10.2500 3 17 11.5000 Nov. „ 3 18 00.0000 3 18 00.0000 3 [8 00.0000 Dec. „ 3 18 oo.oooo 3 18 00.0000 3 [8 00.0000 Averages of Maximum "1 and Minimum j ■' 18 00.0000 3 17 09.2500 3 17 10.1510 Jan. 1901 3 18 00.0000 3 17 09.7500 3 7 10.8000 Feb. tj 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 Mar. „ 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 Apr. j» 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 [7 09.2500 May » 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 ' 7 09.25C0 June „ 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.2500 3 1 7 09.2500 July jf 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.2500 3 17 09.3500 Aug. 7J 3 17 09.7500 3 17 09.2500 3 7 09.3750 Sept. Jf 3 17 n.oooo 3 17 10.7500 3 7 I0.87S0 Oct. }i 3 17 11.8750 3 17 11.0000 3 17 11.5250 Nov. }* 3 17 11.2500 3 17 09.1250 3 [7 10.1563 'Dec „ 3 17 10.5000 3 17 09.7500 3 7 10.2500 Averages of Maximum "1 and Minimum J ^ 18 00.0000 3 17 09.1250 3 17 09.8818 Jan. [902 3 17 10.6250 3 17 10.2500 3 7 10.5000 Feb. It 3 17 10.6250 3 17 09.5000 3 [7 10.0625 Mar. It 3 17 09.5000 3 17 09.2500 3 17 094375 The foregoing table is Specie Bank. based on the reports of the Yokohama '612 Japan in ilie Beginning of the 2(ith Century. QUOTATION OF SILVER BULLION IN LONDON. Date. Maximum. Minimimi. Average. d. d. d. Jan. 1893 . 38.5000 38.1250 38.1428 Feb. , 38.5000 38.2500 38-3587 Mar. , . 39-1875 37-5625 38.1635 Apr. , 38.2500 37-8750 38.0208 May „ 38.562s 37.6250 38.0926 June „ ... 38.7500 31.2500 37-5'82 July , 34-7500 30.5000 32.9900 Aug. „ , 34-8750 32.5000 33-8825 Sept. , . 34-5000 , 33-8750 34-1450 Oct. „ . 34-1250 32.3750 33-7125 Nov , 32.7500 31.5000 32.2344 Dec. „ . 32.3123 31.7500 32.0385 Averages of Maximum and Minimum '} 39-1875 30.5000 35-6083 Jan. 1894 . 31-7500 30.5000 31.3618 Feb. „ . 30.8125 27.5060 29.2865 Mar. „ , . 27.8750 27.0625 27.2700 Apr. „ . 29.3750 27.8750 28.7552 May „ 29.2500 28.0625 28.7153 June „ - 28.9375 28.3125 28.6500 July . 28.9375 28.4375 28.6549 Aug. „ . 30.5000 28.6875 29.3100 Sept. „ - 30-3125 29.1875 29.6513 Oct 29.5625 28.9375 29,1525 Nov . 29-3125 28.3750 28.9740 Dec. „ . 28.5625 27-1875 27.7836 Averages of Maximum 1 and Minimum ... ... / ^^ 27.0625 28.9637 Jan. 1895 • 27-4375 27-1875 27.3239 Feb. , . 27.6875 27.2500 27.4810 Mar . 29.2500 27.5625 28.1693 Apr . 30.8750 29.7500 30.3825 May „ , 30.8750 30.2500 30.6500 June „ . 30-6875 30.187s 30.4505 July „ , 30.6250 30.187s 30.4864 Aug. „ . 30.5625 30,2500 30.3918 Tables Jor Reference. 613. Date. Maximum. Minimum. Average. d. d. d. Sept. 1895 ... 30-5625 30-4375 30.5287 Oct. „ ... 31-3125 30.5625 30.9087 Nov. „ ... 31.0000 30.6250 30.7980 Dec. „ ... 30-6875 29.8750 30.4087 Averages of Maximum 1 and Minimum j- J -J 3 27.1875 29.8317 Jan. 1896 ... 30-8750 30.5000 30.6591 Feb. „ ... 31-5625 30.7500 30.9948 Mar. , ... 31-5625 31.1250 31-3250 Apr. „ ... 31.2500 30.8125 31.0650 May „ ... 31.2500 30-9375 31-0745 June ... 31-5625 31-1875 3i-39S» July ,. ... 31.5000 31-3750 31-4514 Aug. „ ... 3'-3i2S 30.5000 30.9210 Sept. „ ■ ... 30.7500 30.0000 30.3809 Oct. , ... 30.7500 29.7500 30-0973 Nov. „ ... 30-1875 29.7500 29-9375 Dec. „ ... 30.0000 29,8750 29.9236 Averages of Maximum \ ,^^. and Minimum J •' '■' 29.7500 30.7663: Jan. 1897 ... 29.8125 29.687s 29-7244 Feb. „ ... 29.7500 29.6875 29.7173 Mar. „ ... 29.687s 28.4.063 29.0300- Apr. , ... 28.5000 28.2500 28.372s May ... 28.6250 27.5000 27.8341 June „ ••• ••• ... 27-7500 27.5000 27.5924. July >, ... 27-6875 26.3750 27.2750- Aug. , ... 26.6250 23.7500 25.0604 Sept. , ... 27.2500 23.7500 25.6399. Oct;. „ ... 27.5000 25.0000 26.5781 Nov. „ ... 27.5000 26.2500 26.8293. JJec. „ ... ... ... 27.7500 25.687s 26.7953- Averages of Maximum 1 g^^, and Minimum J 23.7500 27-5374 Jan. 1898 ... 26.7500 26.1250 26.4006 Feb. „ ... 26.2500 25.6250 25.9158- Mar. „ ... 26.0000 25.0000 25.4894 Apr. , ... 26.2500 25.687s 25.9099. €14 Japan in , the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. Date. Maximum. Minimum. Average. d. d. d. May 1898 ... ... ... 26.7500 25.8750 26.2981 June „ ... ... 27.5000 26.6875 27.0817 July „ ... ... 27.8750 27.0000 27.3269 Aug. „ ... ... 27.8750 27.0625 27.4400 Sept. „ ... ... 28.3125 27.6250 28.0150 Oct. „ ... ... 28.2500 27-4375 27.9000 Nov. „ ... 2S.3125 27.6250 27-9583 Dec. „ ... 27.6250 27.1250 27.4444 Averages of Maximum I „ and Minimum j-2s.3i.5 25.0000 26.9316 Jail!. 1899 ... ... ... 27.6250 27.2500 27.4318 Feb. „ ... ... ... 27.5000 27.3750 27.4402 Mar. „ ... ... 27.6250 27-3750 27-4591 Apr. „ ... ... 28.8750 27.3750 27-5677 May „ ... ... 28.7500 28.0000 28.1643 June „ ... ... 28.0625 27.6875 27.7837 July ... ... 27.7500 27.6250 27.7043 Aug ... ... 27-8125 27.3750 27.663s Sept. „ ... ' ... . ... 27-3750 27.0000 27.1875 Oct. „ ... ... 27.0000 26.6250 26.7025 Nov. „ ... ■ ... 27.3125 26.7500 27.0378 Det. „ .. 27.2125 26.937s 27-1587 Averages of Maximum') ,0 o-»„ and Minimum 1 28.8750 26.6250 27.4418 Jan. 1900 ... ... . .. 27.6250 27.0000 27.2812 Feb. „ .. 27.7500 27.3125 27.4948 Mar. ... . .. 27.6873 27-4375 27.5769 Apr. ,, ... . .. 27.5000 27.3125 27.4167 May „ ... , ... . .. 27.6230 27-4375 27.5601 June „ ". . .. 28.5625 27.5625 27.7861 July ... . .. 28.5625 27.7500 28.2452 Aug. „ ... . .. 28.3750 27-9375 28.1227 Sept. „ ... , ... . .. 29.0625 28.437s 28.7825 Oct. „ .. 30.1875 29.0625 29.5601 Nov. , ... . .. 29:9375 29-4375 29.6536 Dec .. . .. 29.8750 29.5000 29,6851 Averages of Maximum "1 and Minimum |3oi075 27.0000 2S.2638 Tables for Reference. 615 Date. Maximum. Minimum Average. d. d. d. - 29.4375 27.7500 29.0426 ... 28.5000 27-8750 28.1196 .. 28.1875 27.3125 27.9750 ... 27.8750 26.937s 27.2900 ... 27.6250 27.1875 27.4306 ... 27.5625 27.3125 27.4225 ... 27.2500 26.8155 26.9745 ... 27.1250 26.7500 26.9329 ... 27.CO00 26.8750 26.9583 ... 26.9375 26.3750 26.629S ... 26.5625 25-3750 26.1425 ... 25.7500 24-9375 254331 ™} 29.4375 24-9375 27.1916 ... 26.1250 25-4375 25.6790 ... 25.5000 ' 25.3125 25.4239 - 25.4375 24.8125 25.0225 Jan. 1901 Feb. „ Mar Apr. „ May „ June „ July ,, Aug. „ Sept. „ Oct. „ Nov. „ Dec. „ Averages of Maximum anil Minimum Jan. 1902 Feb. „ ... Mar. „ The foregoing table is based on the reports of the Yokohama Specie Bank. QUOTATION'S OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET. r,. London Paris \nd Sa^'n'' ^°'"''='y HopgUong Shanghai JJate. ,. per per per per I yen. per 1 ven. t rancisco. ^ r r ^ ^ ^ ' , loo iwz. loo ven. loo iv«. per looyen. d. f. $ rupee. $ t. Jan. 1S93 ... 32.7216 3-4377 66.2727 — loo.ocoo 71.5000 ^ — 100.0000 71.5000 — 100.3606 71.8173 — 100.6354 72.31-5 — 100.3333 71-9722 — 100.5000 71.S077 — 100.0865 71.9135 — 99-7176 71-7037 — 100.0000 71.9600 — 99.9200 72.2450 — 99-7292 72-4063 — 99.9423 72.0000 — 100.0000 71.9773 — 100.0000 71-3750 Feb. , ... 52.7283 3-4383 66.4565 Mar. ... 32-5048 4.4192 66.0096 Apr. ... 32.4063 3-4013 65.8125 May ... 32.4444 3-4052 65.S889 June , ... 31.968S 3-3706 64.9375 July „ ... 29.6851 3-II15 60.2356 Aug. , ... 29.4792 3-I054 60.0509 Sept. ... 29.1425 3-0778 59.0750 Oct. , ... 29.0950 3-0544 58.3350 Nov. , ... 28.1198 2.9502 56.5521 Dec. , ... 27.8654 2-9237 55.8269 Jan. 18 94 ... 27.0881 2.8361 54.1761 leb. ... 25.4401 2.6683 50.8073 61& Japan in tlie Beginning of the 2Qih Century. Date. London per I yen. Paris per 1 yen. iMew norK and San Francisco. per 100 yen. Bombay per 100 yen. Hongkong per 100 yen. Shanghaf. per 100 yeit d. /■ $ rupee. '$ t. Mar. 1894 ... 23.7650 2.4872 48.840a — 100.0000 71.7900. Apr, „ ... 24.7814 2.6000 50-3490 — 100.0000 72.2708 May it ... 25.0208 2.6180 50-7731 — 100.0000 72.6850 Jane 97 ... 24.9087 2.6050 50.5673 — 100.0000 72.7500- July n ... 24.9543 2.6120 50.6587 — 99.2500 72.8269 Aug. II ... 25.4977 2.6710 51.7130 — 99.2870 73.2500 Sept. n ... 26.1125 2.7310 52.7250 — 99.5000 73.2500 Oct. it ... 25.5601 2.6810 Si-6538 — 99.5000 73.2500 Nov. it ... 24.8125 2.6004 50.0521 — 99- 5000 72.3650. Dec. „ ... 23.8558 2.4970 48.1731 — 98.8650 72.1440 Jan. : 1895 ... 23.3125 2.4450 47.1250 — 98.0000 71.9375 Feb. »> ... 23.3152 2.4450 47.2170 — 99.1520 71.6090 Mar. 9» ... 23.8565 2.5020 48.2150 — 99.5100 71.5000. Apr. » ... 25.6050 2.6870 51.7600 — 99.5300 71.5000. May n ... 25.5528 2.6960 52.1630 — 99.4570 71.1540 June „ ... 25.5500 2.6800 51.7900 — 99.3900 71.1200. July n ... 25.6065 2.6820 51.9630 — 99.22S0 71.6634. Aug. *• ... 25.8264 2.7080 52.4027 — 99.5000 71.4629 Sept. »» ... 26.1927 2.7430 53-1354 — 99.5000 71.5000 Oct. w ... 26.5120 2.7850 53.7740 — 99.3940 71.7210. Nov. n 26.2812 2.7580 53-1325 — 99.1850 71.8750 Dec. n ... 25.4279 2.6680 51.7115 — 99.0000 71.5000- fan. 1 [896 ... 25.5285 2.6742 52.0455 — 99.0000 71.5000 Feb. » ... 26.0885 2.7298 S3.«7i9 — 99.1875 71.5000 Mar. t9 ... 26.6925 2.8058 54.2500 — 99.8700 71.8000- Apr. J> ... 26.5450 2.7868 53-8750 — 100.0000 72.2500 May » ... 26.6750 2.7900 54.0000 — ICO. 2880 72.4520. [une J» ... 26.6394 2.7953 54.0192 — 100.8270 72.7500- July tt ... 26.59■^9 2.7902 53-8796 — 100.4350 72.7500- Aug. » ... 25.9952 2.7267 52.4952 — 99.3890 72.6635, Sept. „ ... 25.3025 2.6546 50.9150 — 99.0800 72.2850- Oct. t> ... 25.1971 2.6433 50.8990 — 99.0000 71.7981 Nov. yr ... 25.5272 2.6815 51.5842 — 99.5710 72.0652- Dec » ... 25.6505 2.6920 51.8704 — 99.9580 72.2361 fan. : 1897 ... 25.4531 2.6692 51.2046 165.7273 99.6023 .72.2955 Feb. » ... 25.3363 2.6590 51-1905 165.8571 99.7262 72.333J Mar. n ... 24.6082 2.s§8i 49.9423 162.8462 100.4712 72.6250. Apr. s» ... 24,3495 2.5528 49-3657 160.4400 100.5288 72.9615 May » ... 23.9849 2.5 "S 48.6010 162.3269 100.0446 73.0000. Tables for Rejerence. 617 Date. London per I yen. Paris per I yen. New York and .San Francisco. per ioo;'^». Bombay per \oo yen. Hongkong per \coyen. Shanghai per 100 yeis^ d. /• i rupee. $ t. June 1897 ... 23.8990 2.5015 48.4808 162.5600 99.5100 73.320a July ») ... 23.9208 2.5015 48.4667 157.7321 100.5403 75-0583 Aug. M ... 24.0625 2.5169 48.6683 154.0190 107.6480 82.026$ Sept. t1 ... 24.1950 2.5308 48.8900 150.5200 108.3207 83-2351 Oct. »? ... 24.3225 2.5436 49.0250 154.3400 104-3947 77.2360 Nov. n ... 24.3943 2.5425 48.9541 154.8958 103.9520 76.4760 Dec. » ... 24.3125 ■ 2.5446 48.8750 157.6481 101.6600 74.6252 Jan. [S98 ... 24.2983 2-5457 48.8920 150.6590 103.0000 76.3636 Feb. „ ... 24.2500 2.5450 48.8750 151.2830 106.0326 78.5980 Mar. 3* ... 24.2292 2.5461 48.9201 150.3240 106.7600 80.0200 Apr. ?> ... 24.1611 2-5437 48.8221 151.4615 106.3557 79.778* May '» ... 24.2380 2.5488 48.9422 150.0000 106.9040 80.3269 June '5 ... 24.3125 ' 2.5550 49.2163 150.3846 106.4615 80-0354 July J> ... 24.3125 2.5506 49.2500 151.3460 104.3846 78.3650 Aug. „ ... 24.3625 2-5538 49.2500 151.5000 104.2870 77-3055 Sept. J» ... 24.3625 2-5590 49.2500 151.3400 103.9300 75.8000 Oct. )J ... 24.3650 2.5620 49.2360 151.8080 104.1250 75-4620 Nov. » ... 24.3125 2.5560 49.2500 151.0000 103.4270 74.8230 Dec. ,i ... 24.4595 2.5700 49.4490 151-3330 103.4160 74.5190 Jan. 1899 ... 24.7357 2-5957 49.8579 152.3180 104.4091 75-5454 Feb. >j ... 24.8071 2.6000 49.9076 152.7830 104.5434 76.1630 Mar. »j ... 24.6025 2.5832 49.6800 153.0S00 104.4000 76.8100 Apr. „ ... 24.6560 2.5875 49.9170 153-3330 104.0416 76.1665 May „ ... 24.6875 2.5900 50.0000 153.4810 103-5556 75.4440 June t. ... 24.6875 2.5900 50.0000 153.0000 103.5769 75.2110 July „ ... 24.6418 2.5900 50.0000 153.2110 103.5096 75-3700 Aug. n ... 24.5986 2.5877 49.9470 153-4230 103.5865 75.2404 Sept. ?» ... 24.4800 2-5734 49.6850 152.0200 103.8750 75-9^50 Oct. n ... 24.3825 2.5686 49.4650 151. 1200 104.9800 76.4635 Nov. >j ... 24437s 2.5700 49.0989 151.5000 104.3906 74.3801 Dec. » ... 24.4183 2.5502 49-5817 151.5000 103-3557 73-5769 Jan. 1900 ... 24.3750 2.5630 49.5056 151. 1590 102,9488 73.8010 Feb. „ ... 24.3750 2.5600 49.5000 151. 2710 103.1042 74.2810 Mar. M ... 24.2720 2.5481 49-2933 151.3850 103.004S 74.10W Apr. » ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.5000 103-0052 74.0050 May M ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.5000 103.0000 73-9420 June » ... 24.2500 2.5440 49.2500 151.5000 102.7692 73-788S Juiy M ... 24.2837 2.5430 49-3173 151.0960 101.54S1 72.125a. Aug. » ... 24-3*25 2.5450 49-3750 151.0000 ICO J296 71.4720 618 Japan in the Beginning of the IQth Century. Date. London per I yen. Paris per I yen. iMew lorK and San Franciseo. per looyen. Bombay per lOQ yen. Hongkong per lOO yen. Shanghai per loo yen. Sept. „ ... 24.3125 2.5458 49-3750 151.9000 101.5400 70.7700 Oct. H ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-3750 151.0000 103.04S1 69.3510 Nov. >t ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-3750 151.0000 103.293s 69.1875 Dec. „ ... 24.3125 2.5500 49-3750 151.0000 103.5442 68.9330 Jan. igoi ... 24.3125 2-5450 49-3750 151.0000 97.4890 70.2500 Feb. M ... 24.3125 2-5480 49-3750 151.0000 100.4240 72.8804 Mar. „ ... 24.2550 2-5454 49.3100 151.0000 100.8700 72.8900 Apr. •> ... 24.2500 2.5450 49.2500 151.0000 101.5000 73.1667 May W ... 24.2500 2-5450 49.2500 151.0000 102.0926 73-6944 Jnne n ... 24.3250 2.5510 46.4000 151.0000 102.6900 74.4400 jBly „ 24.4861 2.5685 49.6250 151.7220 104.9352 76.7963 Aug. » ... 25.5000 2.5700 49-7407 152.0000 105.2870 770555 Sept. » ... 24.5000 2.5700 49.7083 152.0000 104.8229 76.5937 Oct. „ ... 24.3726 2-5542 49.3605 151.3460 104.8266 76.9135 Nov. „ ... 24.3125 2.5468 49.3400 151.0000 106.2188 78.1771 Dec. „ ... 24.3125 2.5500 49.5000 151.0000 107.538S 79.6915 Jan. igo2 ... 24.3130 2.5500 45.5000 151.0000 — — Feb. „ ... 24.4400 2.5590 49.6630 151.0870 — — Mar. f> ... 24.4850 2.5640 49.7200 151.5000 — — Apr. „ ... 24.4350 2.5596 49.6200 151.7800 — — Kote : — The foregoing table is based on the report of the Yokohama Specie Bank. As the bills on Shanghai payable on sight for the month of April could not be quoted, the quotation of bills payable after ten days was used instead. introductory. 619 PART VI. ARMY AND THE NAVY. (the red ceoss society of japan.) ^-mm* » CHAPT ER L— Army. /ntroductory— Distributions of the Standing Army— Tho 13 [mperial Bodyg'rd-i S --i. No — — No 1. J, 14 Impel- al Bodyg'rdlTokTO. corps. 1 MS Tokyo. • " I „ 16 corps. \" 1 » 3 4 No •:^ No 13 14 - - - — ^NarasUino. ^■ 1 — — . — — Tokyo. fl " j^ 15 — — -^ — Takasiiki. 'm - J 2 — _ _ — Sakura. V Tokyo. »J 3 _ — — — _ — Tokyo. S A „ 1 — — — Tokyo. — — J, J, 15 — — — Nariishino. 3 jj 10 — — — Naiasbino. 1 10 2i No 1 — Konodiii. ^11 Sendai. l" - - - No 10 17 18 = — Shimo-shiau. TJ-- C '' ,j ^J -No 33 11 3 „ 3 No 3 No 4 |- Nagoya. iC i => Nagoya. ni IR _ _ — ' oyohashi. L " 84 — — — — — — Shizuoka. , . 7 f " 8 3S 9 38 j^ 4 _ 4, ji 3} Osaka. — Otsii. — Fusbinii. |2| Osaka. I »' 19 I;; ^ - - z » 4 ^■iri Hiro- [ » '^ r " 11 41 - „ 5 - „ 5 » J 11 5 1 Hiroshima. i~.s shima. 21. ;; 21 «_ _ _ _ — Hani ad a. fl w " 42 ~ ._ — — -- Yamiiguchi. 11 13 6 6 Q Kumamoto. Kagostiinia. .^■> =' .Kuina- " 45 » » II II °5-i njoto. 23 r " 46 — — — z — — Kumamoto. — Oiuui-a. i . Asahi- 1 '■ 13 „ 25 213 — z — — ~ 1 Sappofo. ^5-1 gaffa. I.. 4 f „ „ 27 28 5 - II 7 S — » 7 8 "» 8 II 7 ^ AsaliigaTfa.. Q Aomori. " Hii-osaki. -■-^3 Hiro- 1 » t " 31 — " " " 'I saki. 1G< „ 17 — — — . — — Akita. V '■ „ 12 — — — — — — Yujiiagata. .£a> a Kana- \ .. 6. 9 .35 — II 9 — )j 9 » 9 1. fl j-Kanaziiwa.. asl zawa. I , 18 !! 19 .'iS . _ z — — — •— Tsumaa. Himeji. 1 1> 20 10. „ 10 ■k> 20 39 n — " 10 z " 10 f) 10 " JO Himeji. ^" Tottori. — 1 Ftiknehi- — 1 yam;,-. — Hiiur-ji. '^'> J^' Mavu- 11 !! -14 — — Matsiir.iiua. ^ -_o game. L » 22 ". 12 - 1. 11 - » 11 1. 11 •1 ., Kociii'. Miirujianie. ^ _l^ . ,_ 12 14 47 21 48 «.. ,^ 12 ^^ 12 ^ 12 _^ 12 ^- Kokura. S~.2 Kokiira. . „ 2i - - - - - — Fiiknoka. — Kiiiuiihi. Kote: — Besides tliose mentioned in the forts, garrisons In Tsusliin.a and above tabic there are artillery corps in al) the; Formosa, and Ra'hvay corps in Tolsyo. Personnel on Peace Standing. 621 III. PERSONNEL ON PEACE STANDING. According to the inquiries carried out at the end of the year 1901 the strength of commanding staif on peace standing is as follows : — Kind of Service. Active Service. 1st Reserve. Land-Wehr. Total. ■General and Non-Combatant of! Equivalent Rank / "° ^7 lo 147 Gendarmes gi 54 27 127 Iiifantry 4,427 1,654 873 6,954 •Cavalry 421 95 28 544 Artillery 1,519 239 98 1,856 Engineering • ... 474 98 42 614 Commissariat 252 73 34 359 Paymaster 712 307 168 1,187 Surgeon 932 526 128 1,586 Veterinary Surgeon 148 45 27 220 3and 7 — — 7 Total 9,093 3,118 1,435 13646 1900 8,608 2,400 1,165 12,173 1899 7,994 1,931 994 10,916 1898 7,400 1,496 865 9,761 1897 6,632 1,340 776 8,784 J896 5,785 1,345 528 7,658 lY. FACTORIES. Aesenals. — Subjoined to the Military Arms and Ammunition OiSce, the Arsenals manufacture and repair all sorts of arrus re- quired in the Army and also ammunition for the fleets. The Arseiidls are situated in Tokyo and Osaka, the former undertaking to manufac- ture small arms, cartridges, and the implements and tools pertaining to small, arms. It maintains at Meguro, Itabashi and Iwahana the powder factories. The Osaka Arsenal undertakes the manufacture of guns, cannon-balls, and other objects of a like nature, and main- tains the powder factory at Uji and the arm workshop at Moji. In 1901 the operatives employed at the Tokyo Arsenal number- -ed 2,064,480 men and 96,325 women, in all 2,160,805 calculated 622 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. according to the number of dayi the opsratives attended work Computed in the same number, the Osaka Arsenal employed in the same year 1,461,916 men and 37,641 womeo, in all 1,499,557. Senju Woolen Factory. — This factory undertakes the weav- ing of woolen goods. In 1901 it employed 144,381 men and 173,745 women, in all 318,126 computed according to the numbers of days each operative attended work. Administration of Horse Affairs. —The administration of affairs connected with military horses may be divided into three stages from the commencement of the era. In the first period, that is from 1868 to 1872, the supply of chargers was obtained by purchase from the stock-farmers and distributed at once among the troops. In the second p(;riod, that is from 1873 to 1874 year, the horses purchased from the stock-farmers were first trained before being distributed. In the third period, that is 1881 and on, colts were purchased, and were distributed after they had been fed by the- army veterinarians. In order to facilitate the business of making this purchase the Horse Supply Oflice has been established, with has its headquarters in Tokyo and seven branches in the provinces.. At the branches, cultivated fields, pastures, and grass-laud are provided, these measuring in all 10,502 cho. y. APPOINTMENTS OF THE OFFICERS. In the beginning of the military system early in the present ei'a the complement of officers and non-combatants of equivalent rank was made up of those who had held a cerrespondiug post in the ser- vice of the previously existing feudal governments, and also with those qualified for the posts and selected from among the candidate* in general. Officers of Various Corps. — The officers of infimtry, caval- ry and commissariat services are appointed from among the follov-ing, who have undergone the following routine of study either in the troops or at the Shikan Gakko (Officers' School) : a. Those who have graduated from the central military pre- paratory school. Appointments o/ the Officers. 623 b. Those who have graduated from the Government or public ordinary middle schools or schools recognized by the Education Minister as institutions of equal standing or those ■who possess scholarship equal to that of those graduates and who have passed with success the entrance examination. Paymasters. — The paymasters are appointed from among those Xiieutenants or Sub-Lieutenants on active service at the various corps ■who, having been admitted through entrance examination to the Paymaster School, have gone through the regular course there, or those who come under any of the following heads and have gone through the required training at the Paymaster School. ^ a. Those students of the Colleges of Law of the Imperial Uni- versities or of the Higher Commercial Schools wi o on ap plication have been elected as paymaster candidates and who as such have gone through the respective courses at those institutions. b. The graduates of the foregoing institutions or of the gradu- ates of foreign institutions of equal standing who have ap- plied for the paymastership. SuEGEONS. — The complement of army surgeons is filled witli those coming under the following headings who have acquired the re- quired knowledge at the infantry corps or at military hospitals: — a. The students of the Colleges of ]\Iedicine of the Imperial Universities or of a special school for medicine or of a local medical school regarded as of equal standing by the Minister of Education as the ordinary middle schools, and who have applied for admission to the service and wh» have grduated from the respective institutions. b. The graduates of the above-mentioned institutions (or the graduates of foreign institutions possessing equal schoolar- ship) who have applied for admission to the service. c. The graduates of the Army Surgeons School. d. The one-year volunteers possessing either the license of medicine or of pharmacy who have applied for admiss'oni to the service. MiLiTAKY Veterinary Surgeons. — The staff of Military Ve- terinary Surgeons is supplemented with those coming under the fol-' 624 Japan in the Beginning of the ZO'h Cen'urj. lowing heads, and who have acquired the required knowledge at the Bemounting Corps. a. The students of the course of Veterinary Surgery of the Colleges of Agriculture of the Imperial Universities or of the Practical Veterinary Course at the said Colleges who have gone through the prescribed course at such a college. b. The graduates of the above-mentioned institution (or of foreign schools regarded as of equal standing) who have applied for admission to the service. c. The one-year volunteers possessing the license of veteri- narians who apply for admission to the service. Ba>'d-Ma8tees. — The band-masters are appointed from among the assistant band-masters who have served with distinction for at least three years on active service. yi. THE COMPLEMENT OF NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. The complement of non-commissioned officers is supplemented of as follows : — Gendarmes. — ^The non-commissiond officers are recruited from among the lance-corporals of the corps who have been with the colors for not less than two years or from among the non-commis- sion officers of the infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering and commissariat corps who have been with the colors for not less than tax years and who have passed the recruiting examination. NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF VARIOUS COKPS. — Of the non-commissioned officers in these corps, those belonging to the longer term service are appointed from among those who are not on the active or reserve service of the army or the navy and who have passed the admission examination ; or from among the privates who have applied for admission to the services and who have received a suitable education. The non-Commissioned officers of shorter-term service are appointed from among the lance-corporals who have been with the colors for at least two years from the date of enroloient and who are qualified to undertake the service. Becruiting of Privates. 625 Foremen of Gunnery Workshops. — The foremen of gunnery 'workshops are appointed from among those not on active service or on either the reserves of the army or the navy who have graduated from the Gunnery Artisan School or from among the privates of various corps who, having been selected on examination in the first year of their service, have also graduated from the same institution. Foremen of Farriery. — The foremen of farriery are appoin- ted from among those not on the active or reserve force of the army or the navy and who have graduated fvom the farriery course at the Veterinary Surgery School, or from among the farriers of the cavalry, artillery or commissariat corps who on applying for admission to the service have been judged to possess qualification equal to non-commisioned officers and who have passed the required course of study at the Veterinary Surgery •School. Foremen of Tailor and Shoe-Workshops. — The foremen of tailor and shoe-workshops are appointed from among tailor-privates and shoemaker- privates attached to the different corps. Medical Assistants. — Medical assistants are recruited from among male nurses not on the active or reserve service of the army or the navy who, having been selected on examination, have received the necessary education. Paymaster-Clerks. — Paymaster-clerks are appointed from among the non-commissioned officers of the various corps who have served with the colors for at least three years and who have received the necessary education at the Paymasters School. Band-Sergeants. ^ — Band sergeants are appointed from among the bands-men who have been on active service for not less than two years and who are judged to possess qualifications equal to those of non-commissioned officers. YU. RECRUITING OF PRIVATES. The privates were at first recruited from the various feudal governments, the number determined according to the amount of 626 Japan in the Begianing of the 20th Century. their fief. This system prevailed till 1873. Early that year the conscription system was first instituted, and CouBcription males who have reached the age of twenty men were Service. all included in the army list. Thus the system of recruiting was completely cha;nged. Since that time the system has undergone frequent modifications, till it has assumed its existing form. To briefly enumerate the fundamental points in the existing system, first. All the Japanese male subjects from full seven- Classification teen years old to full forty are liable to military of the Service- service. The service is divided into active service, land- wehr service, dep6t service, and landsturm service. The active service is divided into service with the colors and with the first reserve, the former to extend over three years and to be obligatory on all who have attained the age of full twenty years. Service with the first reserve is obligatory on all who have finished the service with the colors and lasts four years and four months. The landwehr reserve lasts five years and is organized of those who finished the first reserve service. The dep6t service is divided into the first dep6t service and the second depot service, the former to last seven years and four months and the late one year and four months. The first dep6t service is organized with those who have not been enlisted for active service while the second depot service is^ organized with those who have not been enlisted for the first depot service. The landsturm service is divided into the first and second, divisions, the former to be organized with those who have com- pleted the term of the landwehr service and the first dep6t service and the second division includes all those who are not on the other services. In 1901 all the males liable to conscription service numbers ed 539,282 throughout the country. They were Number El^ible distributed as follows as the result of conscription. for Conscription. ... service examination : — Education. 621 Distribution. Numljer. Percentage. Levied for Service . . . (Active and 1st and 2nd DepSt Service). Levy Postponed Levy Exempted Service Exempted ... Others 187,907 34-84 ioS,oi6 20.03 194,003 35.98 34,278 6.36 15,076 2.79 Total ... 539,282 ¥111. EDUCATION. The Staff College. — This institution enables young officers of distinguished ability to study the higher branches of military science and also to acquire those knowledge necessary for all who wish to conduct investigations pertaining to military aifairs. The Artillery and Engineering School. — Sub-Lieutenants of artillery and engineering corps are taught here all the science required for discharging the duties of officers in the artillery and engineering corps. The Officers' School. — This school is composed of cadets of various corps who receive the education necessary to subordinate of- ficers. The term of study is one year, and every year about 450 cadets are admitted. The Military Training School (Toyama Gakko). — This school is principally devoted giving to students sent from the infantry corps training in tactics, shooting excrises, fencing and gymnastics, with the object of promoting their efficiency in the service. The term of study is from two or seven months and the number of students to be admitted determined every year. The Central Military Preparatory School. — This school is attended by the graduates of Local Military Preparatory Schools ■with which it is regulary connected, and gives to the students a general education and also the preliminary military education neces- sary for military cadets. It is devoted to training cadets of various crops. The term lasts two years and every year about three hund- red students are admitted. €28 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. The Local Military Peepaeatory Schools. — These schools give a general education and military training to those boys who aspire to become officers. The schools are connected with the Central Military Preparatory School. There are six schools of this descrip- tion, these being located at Tokyo, Sendai, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshi- ma, and Kumamoto. Each admits about 50 students every year. The term extends for three years. The Military Eiding School. — The school collects from the different cavalry corps students who wish to receive a training in tactics and riding. The term extends for about eleven months and the number of students to be admitted is fixed beforehand every year. The Military Field Aetillery Shooting School. — This collects students from the Field Artillery corps to give training on tactics and shooting exercises in field artillery. The term lasts two or three months and the number of students to be admitted is determin- ed every year. The Military Forts Artillery Shooting School. — This school collects students from the Fort Artillery corps to give them a, training in the subjects of fortification, tactics and shooting. The term extends for two or three months and the number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Military Paymaster School. — This school trains those •desirous to become military paymasters, the candidates to be admitted being the applicants from among Lieutenants and Sub-Lieutenants admitted on examination, and also applicants from among the graduates of the Colleges of Law of the Imperial Universitis and of the Higher Commercial School. There are two couj-ses, one of two years and the other of six months. The number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Army Surgery School. — The students of this school con- sist of the surgeons of the Army Medical corps and also of the licensed medical practitioners and pharmatists who wish to become army surgeons on active service. The first class students are taught for four months and the second class for one year. The number to be admitted is determined every year. The Military Veterinary Surgery School. — The students Punishment and Gaols. 629' of this school consist of veterinary surgeons of the Military Vete- rinary Surgeons corps who receive training in this particular branch: of science ; also the farriery-foremen of the various corps are trained in the science of farriery. The course of study extends for from three to nine months, and the number of students to be admitted is determined every year. The Military Gunnery and Mechanics Work School. — The school trains those who wish to become foremen-smiths, foremen- saddlers, foremen-gunsmiths, foremen of wood mechanics, and foremen of casting work. The course of study extends for one to two years, and the number to be admitted is fixed every year. The Military Band School. — The school gives training to those desirous to become band-men. The course of study is about one year and the number to be admitted is determined every year. IX. PUNISHMENT AND GAOLS. The Court- Martial — In 1872 the Court-Martial was establi- shed, and the Garrison Central and Branch Detention House Eegula- tions were also enacted, and all matters relating to military justice and criminal procedure were first brought under a regular system. In 1883 the Military Criminal Procedure was elaborated ; it was amended in 1888, and it remains to-day in this amen led form The Court-Martial deals all criminal offences committed by combatants and non-combatants, and it enforces the Military Crimi- nal Code and the ordinary criminal provisions. The Court-Martial is divided into the Higher Court and the Divisional Court. The latter is established in each Military Division and deals with criminal matters that have happened within its juris- diction. The Higher Court is established at Tokyo and deals with Criminal matters lelating to officers of the rank of Generals ; it also deals with the cases of appeals made against the judgment of a Divisional Court-Martial. The Military Justice comprises the officers of Kensatsu-kan (Prosecutors), Riji (Preliminary Judges), Rokuji (Clerks), Hanshi-^ 630 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. cho (Chief Judge) and Hanshi (Collegiate Judges). They are pre- sided, in the case of a Divisional Court, by the Commander of the Division, and, in the case of the Higher Court, by the Minister of War. The Kansatsu-kan takes charge of matters relating to prose- cution of crimes ; the Riji of the examination of cases, corresponding to preliminary examination of the ordinary court ; and the Rokuji corresponds in function to clerks of the ordinary court. They are all civil officials. The Sanshi-cho and Hanshi are military oiEcers and five of them are to sit over a case. The Riji takes part in judgment, though he does not enjoy the voting right. The Court- Martial is composed of the Hanshi-cho, the Hanshi, and the Riji, the Rokuji and the Kensatsukan being outside the limit. A judgment ac- quires validity on the approval of the Emperor or of the supervising chief, according to the oflBcial rank of the defendant or the relative gravity of the ofiice. Then it is declared and carried into effect. Military gaols. — In 1876 Kules relating to the Qualification of Military Gaolers were first provided. The Military Gaols, othere wise called Garrison Gaols, are located at places possessing garrison and Divisional Court-Martials. The Garrison Commanders are made to control the gaols. These gaols confine combatants or non- combatants who have been convicted either by the Military or ordinary laws of an offence not graver than misdemeanor and who are still connected with their respective services. X. MEDICAL AFFAIRS. The establishment in 1868 of the Temporary Military Hospital in Tokyo was the origin of tliis institution in Japan. The system has undergone changes several times, and it now exists in -the form of the Garrison Hospital Regulations enacted in February of 1898. A military hospital is located, according to the provisions of the regulations, at each place possessing a military garrison. It takes care of all cases requiring medical treatment that appear among the troops, takes charge of the keeping and supply of medical stuff and instruments, and also undertakes the education of surgeon-privates Medical Affairs. 631 and surgeon-non-commissioned officers. All the expenses relating to the medical treatment of those receiving treatment at the hospital are borne by the Government, except for those who occupy the rank of special sergeants or above and for the one-year volunteers. *« — 632 J-rtan in the Beginning of tJie 20th Century. CHAPTER II —The Navy. Personnel on Peace Standing — Naval Works— Complement of the Personnel— The List of the Imperial Fleet — Education— Punishment— Health and Hygiene — Hydrography and Chart. I. INTRODUCTORY. General Remaeks. — Though nothing definite is known about the maritime affairs in ancient times, this much can be stated with certainty that the art of navigation seems to have been tolerably well developed in Japan about 26 or 27 centuries ago, that is to say about six or seven centuries before the Christian era, for history records of the existence of intercourse as that remote pejiod between this country and Korea. Coming down to the period corresponding to the 15th or 16th centuries after Christ something like a regular navigation service connected Japan with the neighboring countries, especially Korea and China. Soon the scope of the maritime enterprises was expanded and our ships began to cross over to the South Seas, Siam, India, and even to tlie American continent. There is reason to believe that these ocean-going ships must have numbered about two hundred at that time. It was an irreparable loss to the country tliat this enterprise was sternly suppressed by the Tokugawa Shogu- iiate about the middle part of the 17th century of the Christian era, and that it should, from religious prejudice, enforce the exclu- sion policy, for the Shogunate prohibited on pain of severe penalty the building of big ships, and the maritime trade that was going to flourish was thus throstled to death. The naval warfare forms a comparatively unimportant chapter so far as the ancient history of Japan is concerned. To enumerate those that are worthy of mentlo.iing, in the first place we have the expedition Introductory, 633 of Korea by the Empress Jingo in the 2nd century A.D. About ten centuries after, the naval battle at Dannoura between the Genji and Heike clans may be noted. The invasion of Kyushu by Kublai Kahn's armada in the next century is perhaps the most memorable event of foreign invasion that ever occurred in Japan within the period of authentic history. The annihilation of that armada was even more complete than the equally memorable destruction by England of the Spanish Armada. Towards the close of the same century Japan took the offensive against China, and several en- counters occurred between Hideyoshi's fleet with that of Korea off the coast of that Peninsula. It pught to be remembered, however, that the warships of those days were not properly warships as the term is now understood, for they were merely armed merchant-men and even fishing junks. There was no fleet properly so called in time of peace. It was only recently that Japan obtained warships built in modern style. The warships of this type that the Tokugawa Regen- cy purchased from abroad towards its later days numbered over ten, while more Or less warships were also purchased by the feudal lords of the clans of Satsuma and Tosa. All those were the first warships that Japan ever had. However there was no central naval office at that time, and the art of navigation and naval scieace was in a primitive state. As already mentioned in the preceding chapter, it was in 1872 that Army and the Navy were separated and the latter was elevated to the dignity of an independent Department of the State. In the same year the Naval Academy, Magazine, Hospital, and Court-Martial were established ; Yokosuka Dockyard and workshop were transferred to the control of the Naval Department. The Naval Magazine was the forerunner of the Naval Arsenal. In 1873 the Temporary Admiralty was created, and this was the origin of the present admiralty system. In 1896 that oflice was replaced by Tokai Admiralty established at Yokohama. Two years after the Central Staff Board was created, and was made to attend to matters relating to national defence and the efficiency of the service, both land and sea forces. At the same time a naval engineering school was established subjoined to the Naval Academy, to be separated into an independent institution three years later. In 1884 the €34 Japan in the Beginning' of the 20th Century. Tokai Admiralty was removed to Ybkosuka and received the new name of Yokosuka Admiralty. Two years later it was ordained to establish an admiralty at Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and Muroran. The Naval Section was established in the Central' Staff Board, and coming to 1888 the Naval staff was separated and was elevated to the dignity of an independent office under the style of the Naval Staff Board. In the same year the Naval College was started. Next year the two Admiralties at Kure and Sasebo were opened. In 1900 the Naval Comptroller Board, the Tokyo Naval Arsenal, the Shimose Powder Factory, and the Naval Coal Reserve were. established. Also an edueation board was created to control all the educational institutions in the Navy. In 1901 the Maizuru Admi- ralty was opened. II. PERSONNEL ON PEaCE STANDING. At the end of 1901 the strength of Commanding staff on peace standing was as follows: — THE PERSONNEL. Kind of Service. Active Service. 1st Reserve. 2nd Reserve. Total Admiral and Non-Combatant of Equi- valent Rank :} " 22 14 S3 Senior Officer 639 22 60 721 Junior Officer 1,060 23 70 I.IS3 Cadet ... 330 — — 330 Special Warrant Officer . 631 10 S4 69S •Warrant Officer S,8o2 163 — S.96S Seaman . 22,036 4)036 1.793 27,865 Student _ 834 — — 834 Total 31,379 4^276 1,991 37,646 III. NAYAL WORKS. At the end of 1901 the data relating to the Naval works were follows : — Complement of the Personnel. 635 NAVAL WORKS. No. of No. of Operatives Aggregate Works. Engines. H.P. Computed by Wages of the Number Operatives. of Attendance. yen. Yokosuka Dockyard... 28 564 1,513,691.87 780,048 Kure „ 17 Sio 1,390,054.00 73>,53i Sasebo „ 9 816 945,317-68 483,254 Maizuru „ — 1,651.50 1,042 Yokosuka Arsenal ... 2 . 50 307,97315 153,119 Kure „ 41 2,797 2P35,S48-46 1,040,699 Sasebo „ 2 40 174,371.69 88,050 Maizuru „ — — 401.40 319 Tokyo 9 239 462,587.73 227,088 Shimose Powder Factory I 62 61,222.83 23.565 Total 109 5,078 6,892,820.31 3,528,718 Note :— The Maizuru Dockyard and Arsenal were opened on October 1st of igoi. lY. COMPLEMENT OF THE PERSONNEL. The Higher Seevice. — Concerning the metliod of complementing the personnel of the higher service no authentic record relating to the initial stage of the navy remains. It -was very likely, however, that those officers who were employed on board the warships belonging to the Shogunate or the feudal princes got commission for the Navy of the Imperial Government. Also, the commission was given to the few who had studied the naval science in foreign coun- tries and sometimes the graduates of the Naval Academy, as is the case at present. According to the Naval Appointment Regula- tions now in force, the Naval Engineers are filled with the graduates of the Naval Engineering School, while Surgeons, Paymasters, Con- structors, Pharmatists, etc. are filled with the graduates of the Naval Institutions for the respective services, also the graduates of the Colleges of the Imperial Universities or of the institutions of equal standing. Complement of the Staff op Wakeakt Officers and Sea- men. — In the year 1872 Rules relating to the Levy of Seamen were promulgated, and they inaugurated the system of conscription service for the fleet. The conscription service system is supplemented by the Voluntary Service System promulgated in 1899. The Conscription Rules were put in force for the first times in 1885. At present the levying is carried on both by the conscription and voluntary ser- vice systems Chief Warrant Officers are filled with Warrant Officers of merit and the latter with seamen of merit 638 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. Y. THE LIST OP Name. Class. Where Built. Date of Launch Asalii. 1st Class Battleship. Great Britain. 1899. Mikasa. >» J, 1900. Hatsuse. /f tt 1899. Shilcishima. t> tt 1898. Fuji. ■ It tt 1896. Yashima. it f „ Izumo. 1st Class Armored Cruiser. jj 1899- Iwate. tt tt 1900. Asama. tt ,j 1898. Tokiwa. ' tt tt „ \'akunio. tt Germany. 1899. Azuma. France. i) fEiver- rJisshindiura, tt Italy. 1904- Kasuga.Moreuo) tt tt M Chinyen. 2nd Class Battleship. Germany. 18S2. Kasagi. 2nd Class Cruiser. United States of America. 1898. Chitose.. tt tt „ Itsukushima. tt France. 1889- Matsushima. tt tt 1891. Hashidate. ,j Yokosuka. tt Takasago. „ Great Britain. 1897 YoshinoJ It tt 1892. Toyohashi. Torpedo Tender. tt I8S3-. Fuso. 2nd Class Battleship. 1) 1877^ Naniwa. 2nd Class Cruiser. ti 1885. Takachiho. it tt tJ Akitsushima. 3rd Class Cruiser. Yokosuka. 1892. Izumi. tt Great Britain. 1S83. Akashi. tt Yokosuka. 1897. Sunia. tt „ 1895- Saiyen. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Germany. 1887. Chiyoda, 3rd Class Cruiser. Great Britain. 1890. Kongo. 3rd Class Coast Defence. tt 1877. Hiyei. It „ )> Heiyen. jst Class Gun-Boat. China. 1887. Tsukuba. 3rd Class Coast Defence. East India. Unknown. Miyako. Dispatch-Eoat. Kure. 1897- Takao. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Yokosuka. 1887. Vaeyama. Dispatch-Boat. tt 1889- The -List of the Imperial Fleet. 637 THE IMPERIAL FLEET. Displace- Indicated Speed. Armaments. Material Ordinary Quick- Torpedo; of Hull. ment. Horse Power. Guns. Firers. Tubes. Steel. 15.443 15.207 18 4 46 4 )? 15,362 15,207 18 4 46 4 if 15.342 14,700 18 4. 46 4 3) 15,088 14,700 18 , 4 46 5 •77 12,649 13.6S7 18 4 34 5 ^y 12,517 13.687 18 4 34 5 ^) 9,906 14,700 21 — 38 4 7> 9,906 14,700 21 — 38 4 ~7i 9.85s 18,248 22 38 5 ■37 9.855 18,248 22 — 38 5 ^7 9,800 15,500 20 — 36 5 3J 9,456 16,600 20 — 36 5 ^> 7,700 13,500 20 4 24 4 ■»» 7,700 13,500 20 4 24 4 «> ■7,335 6,000 15 4 14 3 ■)> 4.978 17,235 23 — 30 4 7> 4,836 15,714 23 — 30 4 ■»» 4.278 5,400 16 I 30 4 3> 4,278 S.400 16 I 27 4 5» 4,278 5,400 16 I 29 4 37 4,227 15,967 23 — 30 5 5J 4,225 15,967 23 _ ..•• ■■ 36 ' 5 71 4,120 1,870 13 — 5 — Tron. 3.777 3,650 13 4 16 3 -Steel. 3.709 7,604 18 — 20 4 5» 3,709 7,604 18 — 20 4 JJ 3,172 ,516 19 — 20 4 W 2,967 5,576 17 2 14 — » 2,800 8,000 20 — 20 2 „ 2,700 8,500 20 — 20 2 W 2,481 2.839 15 4 6 4 If 2.439 5,678 19 — 25 3 » 2,284 2,535 13 8 2 2 w 2,284 2,535 «3 8 2 2 Sted. 2,185 1,200 II I 7 Wooden. 1.978 526 8 7 Steel. 1,800 6,130 20 — 12 2 1,778 2,332 15 5 2 2 Steel. 1,609 5.400 20 — I'l 2 638 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Certiury. Name. Tenriu. KatsuragL Yamato. Musashi. Tsukushi. Kaimon. Chihaya. Amagi. Tatsuta. Iwaki. Cshima. Maya. Atago. Chokau Akagi. Soko. Chinto. Chinsai. Chinnan. Chinhoku. Chinchu. Chinpen. Shirakumo. Akatsuki. Ikazuchi. Inazuma. Akebono. Sasanami. Oboro. Murakumo. Sliinonomc. Yugiri. Shiranui. Kager5. Usukumo. Qass. 3id Class Coast Defence. 1st Class Gmi-Boat. 3rd Class Coast Defence. Dispatch-Boat. and Class Gun-Boat. Dispatch-Boat. znd Class Gun-Boat. Torpedo Destroyer. Where Built. Date of Launch. Yokosulva. 1SS3. . „ iSSS- Onohama. „ Yokosuka. i8S6. Great Britain. Unknown. Yolvosuka. 1883. )t igoo. J) 1877. Great Britain. 1S94. Yokosuka. 1878. Onohama. 1891. *i i885. Yokosuka. 1S87. Ishikawajima. „ Onohama. 1888. China. 1869. Great Britain. iSSi. 1901^ IS9S. IS99. 1899- >» 1900.. Grand Total 74 vessels The List of the Imperial Fleet. 639 Displace- Indicated Speed. Armaments. Material Ordinary Quick- Torpedo- of HuU. ment. Horse Power. Guns. Firers. Tubes. Wooden. 1.547 1,267 12 7 — — 1,502 Ij622 13 7 4 — 1,502 1,622 13 8 — — 1,502 1,622 13 8 — — Steel. 1,372 2,433 16 7 2 — Wooden. 1,367 1,267 12 8 — — Steel. 1,250 6,000 21 — 6 5 Wooden. 926 726 II 6 4 — Steel. 864 5,069 21 — 6 5 Wooden. 667 659 10 3 — — Steel. 640 1,217 13 4 5 — Iron. 622 963 10 2 2 — 922 963 10 2 — — Iron. 622 963 10 -J, — — Steel. 622 963 10 4 6 — Wooden. 610 117 9 2 I — Steel. 447 420 10 3 — — „ 447 420 10 — 2 — n 447 420 10 — 2 — » 447 420 10 3 — — „ 447 420 10 3 — — » 447 420 10 3 — — » 37^ 7,000 31 — 6 2 „ 355 6,000 31 — 6 2 »» 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 i» 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 It 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 33 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 » 3" 6,200 31 — 6 2 » 279 5,475 30 — 6 z )» 279 5,475 30 — 6 2 » 279 5.475 30 — 6 2 33 279 5.475 30 — 6 2 » 279 S.47S 30 — 6 2 » 279 5,475 30 — 6 •^ 267,580 486,588 160 1,072 I6S 640 Japan in the Beginning of the Wth: Century. TORPEDO-BOATS ATTACHED TO YOKOSUKA NAVAL STATION. Number. No. 5 ., No. 6 .. No. 14 No. IS .. No. 18 No. 20 ., No. 29 .. No. 30 ., No. 37 ., No. 38 .. No. 45 ., No. 46 . Total., ^ rt'a g^ 3rd Class. Steel. 35.000 35.000 35000 34.000 35.000 „ 34.000 37.000 „ 37.000 „ 39.000 „ 39.000 39.000 „ „ 39.000 .2 g Q a 54 S4 54 S3 54 53 83 83 83 83 830 525 52s 52s 657 52s 657 2,000 2,000 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 12,214 20 20 20 20 . 20 20 26 26 24 24 24 24 » S if <0' HH O) (A 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 30 TORPEDO-BOATS ATTACHED TO KURE NAVAL STATION. No. 12 No. 13 . No. 17 . No. 19 . No. 26 . No. 27 . No. 55 . No. 57 . Total. 3rd Class. Steel. 35.000 54 52s 20 I 2 j» jy 35.000 54 525 20 I 2 >y It 35.000 54 525 20 I 2 „ n 35.000 54 525 20 I 2 91 » 33720 66 338 14 I 3 i* ft 33-630 74 443 16 2 3 9> tt 34.000 5-4 660 20 I 2 n tt 34000 54 660 20 I 2 — — — 464 4,201 — 9 18 TORPEDO-BOATS ATTACHED TO SASEBO NAVAL STATIOIfc Kotaka ... ... 1st Class. Steel. 50.290 203 1,217 19 3 4 Hayabusa... ... ,) » 45.000 152 4,200 29 3 3 ManazUTU ... „ 91 45.000 152 4,200 29 3 3 Kasasagi ... ... „ „ 45.000 152 4,200 29 3 3 Chidori ... ... „ tt 45.000 152 4,200 29 3 3 Shirataka... ... tt tt 46.000 127 2,600 28 3 3 Fukuriu ... tt M 42.750 "5 i,oi6 20 2 4 No. 7 ... ... 3rd Class. » 35.000 54 525 20 2 No. 8 ... „ tt 35.000 54 525 20 2 No. 10 ... „ it 35.000 54 525 20 2 No. II .., M tt 35000 54 525 20 2 No. 21 ... ... 2nd Class. tt 36.000 80 I.IJO 21 3 The List of the Imperial Fleet. :641 Number. No. 24 ... No. 25 .. No. 31 •■ No. 32 .., No. 33 .. No. 34 .. No. 35 .. No. 36 .. No. 39 .. No. 40 No. 41 .. No. 42 .. No. 43 .. ISTo. 50 .. No. 51 .. No. 52 .. JSfo. S3 •■ No. 54 .. Total.. 2nd class. Steel. 36.000 3rd clas.s. ■s g Is Q S si ! is 36.000 80 1,150 21 1 3 39.000 85 990 23 2 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 &3 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 3 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 46.482 no 2,000 27 3 49.482 no 2,000 27 3 34.000 53 657 20 2 34.000 S3 657 20 2 34.000 S3 657 20 2 34.000 S4 660 20 2 34.000 54 660 20 2 — 2,883 48,039 — 45 85 TORPEDO BOATS ATTACHED TO MAIZURU NAVAL STATION. No. 44 ... No. 47 ... No. 48 ... No. 49 ... No. 60 ... No. 61 ... Total... 39.000 83 1,200 24 <■ 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 I 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 I 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 I 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 I 3 39.000 83 1,200 24 1 3 — 498 7,200 — i > 18 <>rand total — 4,675 ">6S4 — 72 151 642 Japan in the Beginning of the 20f/i Century. YI. EDUCATION. The Naval Staff College. — Founded in 1888 the college gives higher education to officers and engineers. The Natal Academy. — Subordinate to the Board of Naval Education, the school educates those who aspire to become officers. It was founded in 1872 and was originally located in Tokyo. At present it is situated at Edajima, Hiroshima-ken. The Naval Engineering School. ^Founded in 1878 as subordinate to the Naval Academy, it was converted into an in- dependent institution three years later. The school instructs those who wish to become naval engineers. The Naval Surgery School. — ^The school gives higher cours© of science on naval surgeons and also teaches surgeon-cadets to qualify them for the service. It is controlled by the Director of Surgery Bureau of the Navy. The Paymaster Training School. — The school teaches the necessary knowledge to Paymaster cadets and also to the men in the service. It is controlled by the Paymaster Bureau. The Naval Gunnery Training School, the Torpedo Prac- tice Training School, and the Engineering Practice Train- ing School. — All those institutions give training to the men on. the respective services. ¥11. PUNISHMENT. The first regular office to manage matters relating to admiralty punishment was established in 1872. With the elaboration of the Admiralty Code of Punishment, a Permanent Admiralty Court was established at Tokyo and at all the places possessing admiralties.. The fleet holds a court of justice as circumstance requires. YIII. HEALTH AND HYGIENE. With the inauguration of the Naval Department in 1872 a. Naval Hospital was founded in Tokyo. When in December of 1884 Hisfory of Hydrography and Chart. 643 tlie Yokohama Admiralty was established, a Naval Hospital was also founded there, the Admiralty to control the Tokyo Naval Hospital. In November of 1888 that Hospital was abolished. At present each admiralty maintains its own hospital, so that we have a hospital at Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, and Maiziiru. IX. HISTORY OF HYDROGRAPHY AND CHART. It was about the year 1872 that a reliable chart of the seas in the Far East was first drawn by Japan. We had another chart much earlier than that, for in the 12th year of Bunkwa (1815) and at the time of the Tokugawa Shogiinate the celebrated hydrographer of the day, Chukei Ino, compiled one that was highly valuable. In 1862, the authorities of the time prepared, according to the method taught by the Dutchmen, a chart for part of the Sea of Ise. The sounding having been incomplete while the art of printing was imperfect, the chart did not much serve the purpose of any practical utility. The sailors of those days were therefore obliged to use the charts prepared by Dutchmen and English. In 1871 the Hydrographical Bureau was created and the work of hydrography was commened in a regular manner. The task involved serious difiiculty, owing to the fact that the business was quite novel to the country and could not, therefore, obtain speci- alists qualified for it. The late Rear- Admiral Yanagi who was ordered to take charge of the business experienced innumerable difr fieulties. He himself possessed the best knowledge on the subject at that time, having learned mathematics and surveying at Nagasaki from the Dutchmen. He, in conjunction with the commander of the British Surveying Ship " Sylvia," started the work of sounding the coast of the Inland Sea and of Hokkaido. (It may be remarked here that the Naval chart No. 991 published by the English Hydrographical Office was based on this • combined sounding ; in Japan it ap- peared in the shape of Naval chart No. 2). Next the chart of Kamai- shi on the Pacific coast ^of Honshu was made, based on the result of sounding carried by Japanese experts alone. This was No. 1 chart of Japan and was adopted' for use by our navigators. During 644 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the 32 years that have elapsed since that time, the work was at- Ijended to with greater efficiency and diligence, and soon the agree- ment was concluded with many of the Western Powers for the ex- change of our charts with those compiled by them. Our charts have been frequently exhibited in international exhibitions, as those held in Holland, France, America, cte. and have been received with apprecia- tion. The charts thus for prepared number 278. At the same time the Hydrographical Registers were compiled, those relating to Hok- kaido and the "Southern islands" published in 1873. The other records worth mentioning are the Hydrographical Registers round the coast of Japan (18 vols.), the Japan Hydrographical Work (5 vols.), the China Hydrographical Work (9 vols.), the Korean Hydrography, the Amur Coast Hydrography, the Fiji Ar- chipelago Hydrography, the Pacific Navigation Route, and so forth. . The hydrographical business of J^pan stands conspicuous as work completed by our countymen without , the help of foreign speci- alists. I . THE BED CROSS SOCIETY OF JAPAN. The Red Cross Society of Japan' owes its origin to the South- western Civil War that occurred in il877. It was called at that time the Universal Benevolence Society (Haku-ai Sha) and was -devoted to the work of tending wounded officers and men. This civil war that lasted from February to September of that year was the most disastrous and sanguinary internal trouble our country has vexperienced since the Restoration as it was the last that ever occurred. The sad spectacle of hundreds of wounded officers and men both of the Government and rebel troops dying or having to endure intense suffering owing to a lack of proper medical treatment appealed strongly to a number of men philanthropipally disposed of the neces- sity of devising some measures for alleviating to some extent in the interest of humanity this misery of war. I These organized, with the support of their friends, and on the model of similar benevolent institutions existing in the West a society. ,to which they gave the above-mentioned name. The rules of the, association were hurriedly llie Bed Cross Society of Ja-imn. 645 drawn up and on May 1st of tjiat year application was forwarded to the Commander-in-chief's headquarters at Kumamoto for permission to dispatch a medical corps to the front to tend on the wounded men both on the side of the Government and on that of the rebels. Permission was granted and thus the benevolent work with which the Geneva Society is identified was, for the first time, carried out in Japan. This philanthropic organization that was established at first to meet the urgent requirements of the time, was converted into a permament institution after the close of the war. Officials were sent to all parts of the country to persuade the people to become mem- bers of the society, and in short every effbrt was taken to make the preparation in time of place as complete as possible so that it might do good service in time of emergency. Coming to 1886, Japan joined the Eed Cross Convention of Geneva, and the Haku-ai Sha amended its articles of association in May of the following year and changed its name to the Eed Cross Society of Japan. At the same time the society was placed under the patronage of their Majesties the Emperor and Empress, and under the auspices of the Imperial Household Department and of the Army and the Navy. In carrying out that thorough reorganiza- tion and improvement the society aspired to be admitted into the circle of the Red Cross Societies existing in the West. This aspira- tion was soon gratified, and the Red Cross Society of Japan was, in due course, allowed by the Head Association at Geneva, to conclude a compact of mutual friendship and help with the sister associations of Europe. On the carrying into effect of the revised Civil Code, it was decided to convert, in accordance with the provisions of the Code, •the society into a corporation. This conversion was effected in 1901. At the same time the Government issued by Imperial Ordinance the Regulations relating to the Eed Cross Society of Japan. The regulations, besides establishing in a distinct manner the relations •existing between the Government and the society, placed the latter on a sound and firm basis. The society gets almost universal support from the people at large and the rate at which the members are increasing in num- 646 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ber has never been paralleled. At the end of 1887 the list con- tained only about 2,100 names, but the end of June of 1902 it had risen to no less than 796,045. The number of new admis- sions has been especially rapid since the Japan-China war, as many as a hundred thusand new members being received every year. With this great increase in the number of members, the amount of the regular subscription to the funds of the society also show- ed a great advance. It reached 2,153,202 yen and a fraction at the end of June 1902. The work undertaken by the society makes a creditable record, and it was especially on the occasion of the war in question that the society discharged its duty with signal efficiency. During that war 1,587 men and women attended the service, and the scope of their work comprised the Keserve Army Hospitals at Hiroshima and nine other places, the temporary military hospitals in China and Korea, the permanent war hospitals, and also the conveyance by sea of invalid officers and men. Further, the society attended to such of the prisoners at Tokyo and other three places as were under medical treatment and of course undertook the nursing and medical service when the Imperial troops were dispatched to Formosa to suppress the insurgents. Altogether 101,423 invalids including 1,484 prisoners were cared for by the officials and nurses of the society. The part which the society played daring the Boxer trouble was equally distinguished. The society dispatched on that occasion 476 officials and nurses who were made to attend to the medical and nursing service at the Military Eeserve Hospital in Hiroshima and at Taku and Tientsin. The society's hospital steamers Hahmi Mam and the Kosai Maru rendered invaluable service on this occasion and kept on conveying invalids from Northern China to Hiroshima. These sister steamers, it may be added, had been built soon after the Japan-China war as a result of the experience acquired during that time, and the Boxer trouble supplied unique opportunity for testing the new system. It need hardly be added that the test was attended by the most complete success. The invalids looked after by the society at the time numbered 11,348 including . 245 French officers and 4 Austrians. The Red Cross Society oj Japan. 647 Apart from the two memorable cases of war service mentioned above, the society has also undertaken several times to nurse people who were wounded in calamities accidental and natural. Among the principal cases of this kind in which the service of the society were requisitioned, we may mention the eruption of Mount Bandai in the province of Iwashiro in 1888, the shipwreck of the Turkish man- of-war in 1890 off the coast of Kii, the disastrous earthquack in the following year in Mino and Owari, the tidal waves in the Sanriku districts, the earthquake at Akita in 1896, and the fire at Hachioji (Tokyo prefecture) in 1897. Besides, the local branches of the society undertook on many occasions the same benevolent work every time floods and other disasters overtook the provinces near to them. Any imperfection formerly felt in the internal arrangement of the society's work, — and there were many points not satisfactory, has been removed since the Japan-China war, and the society is no longer subject to inconvenience arising from the insufficiency of materials and personnel. This efficient arrangement is also seen at all the local branches. According to the returns compiled in June of 1902, the society's medical force comprised 279 doctors, 1,558 nurses. 640 assistant nurses, besides 634 students and 128 pupils. The society maintains a regular system of training nurses, this system put in operation from 1890. At the head office the term of training extends for three years of which one half is devoted to science of nursing and the other half to practical side. At a branch office the term is one year shorter, the two years being equally divided to scientic and practical training. From 1896 a briefer course was created for turning out under-nurses. The term of this special course extends for ten months, equally divided into science and practice training. The Ked Cross Hospital was opened in 1885 at lida-machi, Tokyo, and is an organ indispensable for training officials and nurses needed for the corps of the society. With the change of the title of the society and the expansion of its scope, the hospital was newly erected, on a much enlarged system, in the premises of the Imperial Household's land at Shibuya, a suburb of Tokyo. The work of construction was completed in 1891. The hospital undertakes in 648 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. time of peace the training of doctors and nurses, so that it may witli pomptitude discharge its duty in time of war or other emergency; In order to render the training as efficient as possible patients suffering from disease are admitted to the hospital for treatment. Of the people thus cared for, those who have means are made to pay for the- medication and board, but those who are poor are given treatment free of charge. In time of war the hospital is converted into s reserve military hospital, as it was actually the case on the occasion of the Japan-China war, when the hospital was converted into No. 3 branch hospital of the Tokyo Eeserve Military Hospital and took under it a number of invalids both Japanese and foreign. Introductory. 649 PART VII. COMMUNICATIONS. CHAPTER I.-Post. Introdnotory — OfSoial Organization — Transmission and Delivery — Kinds and Pees of Mail Matter— Foreign Mail and Parcel Post — Receipts and Disbursements. I. INTRODUCTORY. General Remabks. — It was in 1871 that the postal system modelled on the Western mail service was first adopted in Japan. It must not be supposed that that was the first post system ever originated in Japan, for though in an imperfect form the service had long existed in our country. The la Ancient *' post station " system that was first established in Times. the second year of the reign of the Empress Jingo (202 A. D.), when the Empress undertook an ex- pedition against Korea, marked, theoretically speaking, the appea- rance af an embryonic postal service administration. The rudimentary •ystem was brought to greater perfection in 646 A. D. by the introduction of the various administrative institutions, of the Tung Dynasty, China. The setting up of the Regency Office at Kama- kura by Yoritomo was followed by a further improvement in the system and in the conveyance of letters by carriers. The mode of managing roads and ferries in this connection was specially well arranged at that time. The carrier system, however, received serious reverse during the Regency of the Ashikaga, and by 650 Japan in tlve Beginning of the 20th Century. prolonged civil disorders that marked the administration of that weak Regency. In fact the system was practically suspended. With the rise of Nobunaga the service was restored ; olii roads and bridges were repaired, and Hideyoshi that succeeded Nobunaga carried the service to a state of greater In Modem peifection. The service, though very much developed Times. and expanded as compared with that which had been prevailing in the period of Taikwa, was confined to the conveyance of oflBcial letters, so that the general public did not participate in the benefit. The system was very much advanced during the Tokugawa perion and it was then made much more efficient and compi-e- hensive in operation. Official letters were regularly despatched by the Sbogunate to the province by carriers, and the feudal lords re- siding in the provinces also employed regular carriers to act as messengers between their fiefs and the residential seat of the Shogunate. What was still more noteworthy was the fact that the piivate post service was first brought into existence. This originated in the thrice-a-month system of correspondence that had been maintained betwen the Shoguuate's retainers on duty at the Castle of Oiaka and their families in Yedo. The shrewd merchants of Osaka took a hint from this system of correspondence and some of them opened a regular system of carriers to convey private letters between the three important cities of Yedo, Kyoto and Osaka. The business proved quite renumerative as indeed it proved highly convenient to the people. For more than two centuries this primitive gystem of postal service was in vogue in Japan. On the advent of the Imperial Government it was decided to run the postal service modelled on the Western system as an official undertaking, as it perceived that the business could not After the be carried on with efficiency and benefit as private Restoration, enterpises.. In January of 1871 the new Postal Service System was promulgated, and was put in force by way of trial between Tokyo, Osaka and Kyoto in March of the same year. The hour of transmission was previously an- nounced and a number of carriers were despatched every day. The benefit of correspondence was extended to all the towns and villages Jntrodudortfi 651 lying along the trunk route connecting the three principal cities. The local authorities were made to take charge of the business of transmitting the mails from one post to another and also the sale of postal stamps. This system highly imperfect as it was compared with the one now in operation was however memorable improvement with what had been in operation before, and for the first time the general community or strictly speaking a limited portion of the general community was ^enabled to participate in the benefit of the postal service. The new departure thus inaugurated was carried to greater perfection and improvements were made in quick succession. In March of the 1872 year a thrice-a-day service was opened for the ■city of Tokyo and for the delivery of both letters and newspapers. Soon a five-time-a-day service was established between Tokyo and Yokohama, and it was announced at the same time that people were forbidden to engage as their business the transmission and delivery of letters not bearing postage stamps. It was April of 1873 postal fee was made uniform irrespective of distance, except in case of city mails and suburban extra fee mails. In November of that year the post cards and wrappers were issued, and in the same year the Post Exchange Contract was concluded with the Unit- ed States of America. In June of the following year Japan joined the International Postal Union, by which the arrangement of postal communication between Japan and the foreign countries was somewhat completed. In view of this the British Post Office that had been existing in Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki were withdrawn in December of 1879, while a year hence the French Post Office at Yokohama was also withdrawn, and the postal administrative autonomy was first secured by Japan. In December of 1882 were issued new Postal Regulations which inaugurated various new departures, such as the abolition of the system of city postal service, local postal service and suburban extra postal fee system. In other words, the rate of fee was made uniform for the whole country. In December of 1884 the postal card with reply paid was issued. By the further amendment of the regulations carried out in August of 1889 the fee for forwarding periodically print«l matters was reduced by one half, the weight allowed for 652 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. the fourth class matters, that is books, drawings, pitures, sample^ and patterns, was increased fourfold, a new item of seeds of agricultural produce was added to the fourth class matter cotegory. In June of 1892 the Parcel Post Regulations were issued and were enforced from October of the same year. In June of the same year the military post service was established for the benefit of the troops dispatched to Korea in connection with the insurrec- tion that bad broken out in that country In a similar way the field post service was organized on the occasion of the Japan-China War and the means of correspondence between the front and the- home country was provided. The special facilities for transmitting seeds of agricultural produce were made more efficient in operation,, by setting apart such mail matter as fifth class matter and- by reducing the rate of fee to one half of what was before. A part of the Postal Regulations was amended in 1899^ and while making the allowances of weight more liberal, the rate of fee for first and second class mail matter was somewhat advanced. Latest improvements. — Such in the main is the history ot our postal service since it was inaugurated early in the era. It serves to demonstrate with what great strides this important factor- of civilization has developed in Japan. The improvement so far effected was sufficiently striking and has entirely transformed tlie- costly and primitive system that had prevailed before the Restora- tion. Stiir the service went on improving to satisfy -i with greater efficiency the new demand engendered by the progress of society and of economic affairs. It was in consideration of this require- ment that in March, 1900, the Postal Regulations and the Parcel Post Regulations were further improved so that they might be- adopted to the requirements of the new circumstances. The new regulations were put in force from October 1st of the same year. This last amendment may be regarded as constituting a new chapter in the history of our postal service, for the improvement it effected was as complete as circumstances required. The principal features of the service as improved by the last amendment may be enumerated as follows : — 1. The amendment sets forth with greater distinctness the principlft^ Introductory. - ~ ^ , 653 <3eclaring the postal service to be a Government monopoly. Provi- sions of similar import had existed previously but it waa considered necessary to make this amendment in order to define with greater accuracy the legitimate field of action of those engaged in the business of carrying postal matter. 2. The secrecy of letters was guarded with greater strictness This had also been provided for previously in accordance with the arrangements for safeguarding the secrecy of letters referred to in the Imperial Constitution. The amendment in question was directed towards safeguarding in this connection the action of those who are to deal with letters. 3. The amendment enacted a new provision for extending to post offices and officials various privileges calculated to ensure the prompt and safe treatment of mail matter. 4. The reimboursement in case of damage that had previously been confined to parcels with value declared has been extended in scope and made to include ordinary mail matter. 5. The collecting of trade charge system that had previously been confined in operation to the parcel post has been extended to ordinary mail matter. 6. The letter-cards were newly issued and the system of private cards has been instituted. 7. The collection of cash system has been newly instituted and a provision for collecting cash against documents of value by safe and sure means has been made. 8. The nature of postal fees has been made more distinct than before, so that the treatment of the National Tax Law concerning arrears in payment is now applicable to the fee. 9. A new provision has been made for altering the address of or withdrawing mail matter or withdrawing the application of trade charges or collection of cash. Minor changes carried out by the amendment were those relating to fees for mail matter, of registered mails, of value declared mails, cte. In December of 1901 the fee for value declared mail matter was altered, and envelopes and wrappers for sending such matter were issued at the same time to ensure their safe transmission. B54 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. II. OFFICIAL ORGANIZATION. The efficiency of the service depending to no small extent on the relative perfection of the organization of offices devoted to it, the history of the change of the organization shall be briefly des- cribed in this section. Centeal Office of Control. — On the occasion of the in- auguration of the Western postal system all matters in connectioij with this system were under the control of the Department of Civil Aflairs, to be transferred, on the abolition of that Department to the Department of Finance, next to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, and lastly to the Department of Communications which was created in December of 1885. In that way the departments having direct charge of postal business have been fre- quently changed, and at present the Bureau of Communications holds the power of dealing with matters relating to posts, postal money orders, postal savings, telegraph, and telephone. CoNTKOL OF Local Postal Seevioe. — At first the control of local postal service was undertaken by the local administrative offices, but this system was discontinued in 1883 when the Postal Districts Regulations were elaborated and the provincial districts were marked out into a regular system of postal sections each sub- ordinate to the other. Each main post section had under it a number of postal sub-sections with a postal office established in it. The main postal section was made to control the services at all the post offices existing in its jurisdiction. By changes and revisions subsequently carried out the 1st class Post and Telegraph Offices are now generally made to attend to the duty of controlling postal and telegraph matter. These Offices at present number 16 through^ out the country. Post Offices and Agencies. — At first the post offices were classified into 1st to 4th grades, with post agencies constituting the fifth grade. In 1886 the regular post offices were subdivide^ into three grades, and in the same year a postal office and a tele.; graph office that had previously existed as independent establish-; nients were, according to local circumstances, combined into one Official Organization. C55 office, and made to undertake tbe dual services. At present most uf tliese offices un• ..• 6,050 S.48S Sweden ... ... 3.904 3,474 Portugal ..• ••• 844 2,619 Others ... ... 5,396 ' 6,08$ Heeeipta and Disbursements. 665 , ' AMERICA. United States of America 1,042,942 1,277,461 Canada lo2,28S 139,780 Mexico 4,749 2,387 Peru ^ 2,640 3,772 Others ... „ 6,953 Sj^So AFRICA. Egypt 4,630 12,022 British Colonies 3,l69 •>964 Others 3,241 2,045 AUSTRALASIA. Hawaii S34i434 «,622,387 British Colonies 86,223 39,688 French Colonies 6,547 Il,ilo Otliers 487 242 In the 1902 fiscal year therefore the foreign mails numbered over 6,776,000 in dispatches and over 7,010,000 in arrivals. Number of Foreign Parcels. — As foreign parcel post mails » were exchanged up to the same year only with Great Britaini Germany, France and Canada, the dispaches in that year numbered only 10,377 and the arrivals 13,311. Of those numbers, those exchanged with Great Britain constituted the bulk. Mail and Parcels in China and Korea : — During the same year the Japanese post offices in China and Korea dealt with ultogether 2,900,335 ordinary mails and parcels put together. VI. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. Account relating to Ordinary Mail Matter. —The receipts of ordinary postal matter necessarily made striking progress with the advance of the service. In 1873 the receipts amounted to only 225,000 yen in round numbers, to be advanced to over 1,140,000 666 Japan in ilie Beginning of the 20iA Ce^itury. yen in 1879 and lastly to over 11,600,000 yen approximately in the 1902 fiscal year. In a similar way the disbursements that stood at over 231,000 yen in 1873 advanced to over 1,000,900 yen in 1879 and finally to over 7,840,000 yen approximately in the 1902 fiscal year. This point is more clearly shown in the fi)llomDg figures giving receipts and disbursement during the last nine years: — RECEIPT AND DISBURSEMENTS RELATING TO ORDINARY MAIL MATT^- Disbursements Fiscal Year. Receipts. Disbursements. per looyen Receipts. ym. yen. yen. 1894 ... 4,73o>o9z 2,875,627 60.8 1895 ... S.224,207 3.183,359 60.9 1896 — 5.973.6" 3.729,777 62.4 1897 ... 6,579,667 4,296,789 653 1898 ... 7.294.851 S.073.240 69.5 i89y ... 9.648,437 6,022,78s 624. 1900 ... 10,508,995 6,616,923 63.0 I90I ... 10,677,937 7,286,030 68.2 1902 ... 11,609,679 7,840,885 67-5 Account eelatlng 'J)o Parcel Post. — The ordinary receipts from the parcel post were 1195,400 yen approximately in the 1894 fiscal year, as against the disbursements amounting to about 298,000 yen. Since then the receipts have increased from 15 to more than 60 per cent every year, while the other account has advanced at the rate of from 10 to over 40 per cent, though in the 1896 fiscal year the number of offices dealing with the parcel post owing to a sadden increase of the rate rose as high as 90 per cent. In general disburse- ments have surpassed receipts, the rate of the former being 153 against 100 of tlie other in the 1894 fiscal year, and 117 against 100 in the 1901 fiscal year. In the following year the two accounts were brought almost to a proper balance. The following table will demonstrate the relative amount of receipts and disbursements: — • Foreign Mail and Parcel Post. iv::i Disbursements Fiscal Year. Receipts. Disbursements. per 100 yen Receipts. yen. yen. yen. 1894 195.493 298,673 152.S 189s .. 281,363 3S3,8oi 125.7 1896 468,524 699,685 1493 1897 723,335 988,501 136.7 8988 ... 883,887 1,013,946 114,7 1809 .. 1,065,975 1,404,901 131-8 1900 ... 1,338,873 1,642,332 122.7 1901 .. 1,540,561 1,800,669 116.9 1902 .. 1,684,263 1,690,467 100.4 6G8 Japan in the Beginning of the 20 222 115.703 2,123,146 1882 ... ... 678 630,713 9,188,262 1892 ... ... ... 2,276 2,944,622 23,872,453 1902 ... ... 5,5H 8,955,295 89,788,407 11. FOREIGN MONEY ORDERS. History. — The foreign postal money order service was first •established in December of 1897 by an agreement with the Hong- kong Postal Administration for the exchange of postal money orders. The Yokohama Post Ofl!ice opened this service for the first time in Japan in January 1880 and other offices were soon after given the same privilege. Since March of the same year the exchange of money orders with every colony in Australasia and the Straits CTO Japan in the Beginning of the 20lh Century, Settlements has been carrieil on. Arrangement for the exelmnge of postal money orders was concUnled with Great Britain in 1881 and through the intermediary of the postal Administration of Great Britain money orders have been exchange 1 with Germany since January 1883, and with British India througn Honkonost office, the total number does not corae up to that of th« ■father kind of offices. Nontheless the telegraph offices of all grades t©tal about 2,200 throughout the country. In more thickly populat- ed districts of Japan proper, that is in Kyushu and Shikoku the offices are at the rate of one per 9 square ri approximately. It is to be conceivable that with the work advancing at the present rate, all the post offices in Japan will be connected before long with telegraph lines. III. FOREIGN TELEGRAPH. Geneeai. Remarks. — It was in 1879 that Japan joined the International Telegraph Convention. Previous to this whenever an International Telegraph Conference was held abroad, our Govern- ment had sent in accordance with the advice of the Ministers of Holland, Austria, Denmark and others, a delegate to attend the meetings, to listeji to tlje debates and make investigations. At this time our Government did not yet see the necessity of joining the Convention, but it agreed to become a member in the said year through the intermediary of the Russian Government by which time our telelgra;)h department had made considerable progress. Japan dispatched a delegate whenever an international conference of this service was afterward held, and not unfrequently JapHu offered various suggestions on occasions of such conferences. The ]ian from the ineeptiou of the service, may be divided into three stages, the period of training and apprenticeship, extending from 1873 to about 1880 ; the period of imitation extending to alMut 1887, ami ■the last period which in me next may be regaided as the period of G90 Japan in the Beginnn/ of the 20th Century, improvement and of original work. Improvements and original work began to be most en evidence in 1896. Duplex telegraphy. — ^The duplex system was first used in 1880 for the Yokohama-Kobe line, and it was also adopted for other lines constructed later on. After the introduction of the use rf the double current key and retardation-coil in 1893 the duplex method began to be worked with special success. All of these apparatus in use were manufactured at home, with only a few exceptions. Automatic becorder. — Wheatstone's automatic recorder was first introduced in 1882, and was used in the Tokyo-Osaka sorviee, and its practical utility was confirmed with special effect in 1889. The machine used at that time was purchased from Eng- land, as that imported seven years before was also brought from tliat country ; but in some details of construction the fljrnier had been much improved. With that recorder it was^ found possible to receive 400 words per minute, the current used buiug one of 25 mil i- Ampler. This recorder is still used in almost all the parts of the country. About that time the shunted condenser were first experimentally used for automatic machines. Coming to liS91 the autom.itic machine was put up both at Osaka and at Shimonoseki, and the transmission was undertaken for the first time according to the duplex automatic system. It was at that time that the retardation coil was fir^t used for duplex telegraphy. Iveoeiver. — At first the Morse ink-w^riter was universally used' fur transmitting or receiving the messages, but as a result of the experiinent carried out in 1887 telephone apparatus was substituted' for tlie Morse ink- writer. This contrivance is generally used at present at all the offices which have not to deal with many messages. The api>ajTitus now used for the purpose is one of Delville or Solid-back type. The Morse ink-writer being attended in its use by some defects, ill 1894 the sounder machine was first used instead of it in Tokyo,^ and this apparatus is now used extensively in Japan. Hei'lecting Galvanometer.— When the work of laying a cable Iwtween Osuini and Formosa had been completed the , reflecting gtiivanoineter adapted for a submarine cable was adopted, but in l-%')\) it was superseded at the three offices of Oharaa, Naha Rn't Telegraphic Apparatus and Maieriah. 69 1 Kelung by Muirhead's syphon recorder, so that a complete duplex system was commenced between the three offices in question. In the intermediary stations Oi Kuji and Yayeyama the reflecting apparatus is still in use as the operation there is limited to certain hours in the day, and the business therefore is not brisk. Automatic Repeater. — The automatic repeater contrivance was first adopted at Kobe, but it was of the ordinary Morse system, and the speed was very slow. The adoption in 1893 at Aomori of the latest repeater board as a substitute of the old system, marked an advance in repeater operations. The double current automatic duplex repeater was next adopted at that place, while owing to the greater activity of the business and the construction of new lines, with the greater need of automatic repeaters, in 1897 a high speed simplex and duplex repeater, simplex repeater and double current duplex and simplex repeaters were adopted for the Tokyo-Sapporo circuit. In the following years the latter was adopted for several other lines. Then coming to 1900 the Hakodate-Nemaro, Tokyo- Ohama and Sakata-Hakodate lines got repeaters of double current single system; in 1901 the Tokyo-Otaru line obtained a high-grade repeater. In that year automatic telegraphy instruments and repeater apparatus were distributed among the principal telegraph offices, to be used as reserves. The quadruplex automatic repeater is now being experimented with. Double current key system. — In 1882 when trouble occurred between Japan and Korea the double current key system was first used between Tokyo and Nagasaki, in order to expedite the transmission of messages the number of which had suddenly increased. Up to 1894 or 1895 the contrivance was not in much demand, owing to the fact that lines of long circuit operation were not many. The condition of things has undergone a marked change since that time, and with a large increase in the number of long circuit lines the double current key has began to be in greater demand than before. Quadruplex apparatus. — In 1890 a number of quadruplex telegraph apparatus were purchased both from England and America, and two years later the quadruplex system was first used for the copper wires of the Tokyo-Osaka lines. In the following ■692 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Cetitury. year this instrument was also adopted for the Tokyo-Sendai and the Osaka-Shimonoseki lines, and its use has therefore become quite extensive. What is to be noted about it is that these intruments are now being made in Japan, and that the originals were even improved upon somewhat. In 1891 a contrivance for facilitating the superintendence of the operations was adopted and this testing machine which, by the wa}', has been manufactured at home was set up at Tokyo and Osaka in 1899. This example will be followed in the other principal offices. Synchrokic Signaller. — The synchronic signal of noon that had been carried on by hand-worked switch began to be conducted by an automatic time switch made in Japan. The subsequent appear- ance of the double current signal system required the improvement of the instrument, so that coming to 1899 the double current auto matic time switch Avas devised and manufactured, and operated with excellent result at the three offices of Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The instrument has been distributed among all the other principal places, and this mid-day signal is now working quite satisfactorv. Wireless Telegraphy. — Wireless telegraphy was first investi- gated in 1886 and in June of that year it was experimented upon with success along the upper banks of the river Sumida over a distance of 120 yards and at the coast of Tsukiji at a distance of 80 vaids. Coming to 1898 the wireless telegraphy with electric waves was experimented in the Bay of Tokyo, and then in the following year between Tsukiji and Shinagawa fort, a distance of 3 nautical miles. The result was satisfactory in both eases. Further on in 1900 a similar experiment was carried out in the same bay and be- tween Yawata, Kazusa province, and Funabashi, Shimosa province, the two places being 11 miles apart. This and the experiment car- ried on between Funabashi, mentioned above, and Otsu, Sagami province, a distance of 34 miles, were similarly successful. Similar experiments since undertaken have been attended by satisfactory results, so that arrangements are now being made to carry out ex- periments on a larger scale and over longer distance. The cable steamer Oldimwa Maru is about to be fitted with the instrument. Battery. — The common battery system being more economical than the ordinai-y one, it is now taking the place of the battery. Telegraphic Apparatus and Materials. 693- Sinco 1902, 420 clirolide accumulators have been used with excellent results in place of the 6,645 Daniel batteries that had been previ- ously in use. This new arrangement will be extended to all other- oftices where a largo number of the Daniel's is used. ^94 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. CHAPTER v.— Telephone Service. Introductory — ^Technical Matters. I. INTRODUCTORY. Genebal Remabks. — Telephons were first used in this country in 1877, and they were principally short distance telephones. However after the experiment carried out with success in 1888 between Tokyo and Atami, telephones began to become largely used as public means of communication. The scope of the Experiments, operations was next extended as far as Shizuoka, and then to Osaka, and with success in both cases. At first there was talk of leaving the telephone business to private ■enterprise, but this idea was given up and it was decided that the business should be undertaken by the Govern- The Service Opened, ment as part of the telegraph enterprise. The working principle being settled in that way, the Government at once proceeded to carry the business into effect. In December 1890 the service was opened in Tokyo and in Yoko- hama and also between the two places. The people did not appreciate at first the benefits of the service and the number of subscribers was therefore extremely limited in the two cities. This state of affairs lasted for only a short while, comparatively speaking, and in 1893 when the Growing Demand service was opened in Osaka and in Kobe and on the Service, between these towns, the number of applications for subscription reached a considerable number. Gradually the value of the service began to be appreciated, so that by 1895, owing to limit of accommodation applicants who could not yet get telephone connection numbered more than 4,000. Meanwhile petitions arrived at the central authorities from many cities in the l^rovinces requesting that a telephone service shouM be opened in Introductory. 695 their districts. In consideration of this and other matters of a like nature, the Government made up its mind to largely expand the scope of the business. Accordingly it drew up, with the consent of the Diet, a programme to devote during the seven years ending the 1902 fiscal year a sum of over 12,800,000 yen to the work of expanding the scope of the business. The programme contemplated the estab- lishnient of the business in Kyoto, Nagoya, Nagasaki, Shimonoseki, Sapporo, Hakodate, Sendai, Kumamoto, etc., to extend limit of the business already carried on in other cities, and finally to bring all those cities into telephone connection with each other. Acting upon that plan, in 1899 the long distance service was opened between Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Kyoto, and other cities, and the scope of the business in those cities was also enlarged. As already mentioned all matters relating to telephones were at first regulated according to the provisions of the Telegraph Service Regulations, but in the Telegraph Law enacted in 1900 special provisions relating to telephone were distinctly set forth. Then the Telephone Exchange Rules that were drawn up on the occasion of the commencement of the service, were also thoroughly recast in 1897. Data of the Service. — About thirteen years have elapsed since the service was inaugurated in Japan, and the record of progress duiing that interval of time has been something remarkable, as shown in the following description. At the end of 1890 there were only two telephone Number of exchange offices and 16 telephone call offices . Telephone Offices, these figures grew at the end of 1895 to 4 and 24 respectively, to 27 and 151 respectively tos;ether with 134 autumatic telephone at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the subscribers nuDihered Number of Subscribers, only 343; adyanc^d to 2,858 at the end of 1895, and further to 29,941 at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the ratio of subscribers per Batio of Subscribers 10,000 peoples was only two, to be increased to per 10,000 People. 14 five years altar, and lastly to 60 at the end of 1902. €96 Japan in ike Beginning of the 20ih Century. The number of applicants for connection being beyond the scope of the provisions, thei'e are quite a Number of Hon- large number of non-connected subscribers- connected Subscribers. At the end of 1895 these non-connected sub- scribers numbered over 4,000, and the number rose to no less than 23,300 approximately at the end of 1902. At the end of 1890 the telephone cir- Length of Telephone Routes cuits totalled 50 ri with the lines in and Lines in Operation, operation extending to 331 ri ; to rise to 178 ri and 2,156 ri respectively, five years later, and to be further advanced by 1902 to 1,039 ri and 43,345 ri respectively. The progress of the financial side of the business was quite- commensurate with that of the technical side. In the year of inception ordinaiy receipts fell short of disburse- ments by over 2,300 yen. This was the only- case of financial failure, for subsequently the balance was always on the side of excess of receipts. This excess amounted to about 7,900 yen in 1891, grew to about 50,800 yen in 1895, and lastly to 984,600 yen approximately in 1902. The following table will give a complete survey of the financial progress of the business from the 1892 fiscal year : — TELEPHONE RECEIPTS AND. DISBURSEMENTS. Telephone Receipts and Disburs:-ment?. Fiscal year. 1892,. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899.. 1900.. 1901.. igo2.. Receipts. Disbursement }'e?i: vat. 48,069 32,721 94,959 52,849 132,967 75,229 142,431 91,549 150,444 113,605 228,505 179,612 574,332 324,038 • 1,035,957 630,474 ■ i,5'3,9iz 964,900 . 1,810,411 1,175.982 . 2,263,626 I.278,0QI Balance in Favor of Receipts. 15,347 42,110 57,738 50,882 36.839- 48,893 250,294 405.483-. 549,012- 634,429- 984.635. Technical Matters. 69? II. TECHNICAL MATTERS- A. Street Telephone Lines. Aerial babe wires. — When the service was first opened n 1890, owing to the small number of applicants the work was on the overhead wire system, B. W. G. No. 18 hard copper wires being used. From about 1892 No. 17 hard copper wires were exclusivelj adopted, though in such places as Hokkaido and the north-easterit districts of Honshu which are liable to snowstorms No. 14 zine coated iron wires had to be used. Then in Tokyo also No. IT wires were found liable to injury from storms, so that since 189S No. 17 silicated copper wires have been used. Aerial Cables. — From about 1891 overhead rubber cables were adopted for places traversed by many electric wires, while with the advent of the telephone service expansion programme in 1890 the underground cable system was adopted for Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama, Kobe, Kyoto and Nagoya. This underground portion was, however, to be confined to trunk lines, the rest to be made with lead-covered paper cables. For other telephone offices over- head cables of the same kind are to be employed, though rubber cables are used when the wires are stretched across the street and in places where only a short distance has to be traversed. The cables are generally of two kinds, one containing 100 centres and the other 50. On rare occasions one with 26 centres is used. Underground Wires. — Underground wires have, as mention- ed above, been laid in Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama, Kobe, Kyoto, and Nagoya since 1896, the length of these wires extending with the lapse of year. For conduits iron pipes alone were at first used, but later on earthenware pipes have been adopted at the same time, one or the other to be used according to the requirement and circum- stances of the locality. The iron pipes are imported, but one kind of the two earthenware pipes in use is made at home, the other im- ported from America. Those coming from America are MacRroj conduits, and these are exclusively used in Nagoya and some times in Tokyo to some exent. The underground cables op lead-covered kind. — They 698 Japan in the Beginning of the 2()th Centwnf. contained at first 200 centres, afterward they were increased to 300 and lately to 400. CiKCUiT. — At first the single wire system was adopted but from 1895 it has been superseded by the metallic system, so that at the present time all connections consist of the double. Poles. — Both in the urban and suburban districts Sugi timbers are used for poles, though iron poles are used for the junction of cables and naked wires. . The timber poles are either Boucheringed, or are coated with an anti-putrefaction preparation. Aems. — ^Arms are made of Keyaki wood for a pole supporting not more than eight wires, but when the number is more than 12 an iron arm is used. B. Suburban Telephone Wiees. KoUTES. — The lines are all of naked aerial wires especially con- structed for the telephone service, though the lines that are not of much importance may be constructed in the spare rooms of the existing telegraph poles. Sometimes the existing telegraph wires are used, so that they are made to fulfill the service both of the tele- graph and the telephone business. CiKCUiT. — It is entirely on the metallic system. In a circuit of short distance the multiple system is used, while in another that is operated comparatively little, four offices are connected by one circuit. Then telephone and telegraph service is sometimes made interchange- able as to the utilization of each other's circuit, the telephone wires doing service for telegraph wires in some cases and the telegraph wires returning the service for telephone in other cases. In the former the Cahilo's system or Schiwnsky system is used while the composite system of the American Long Distacoe Telephone Com- pany is adopted in the latter. WlEES. — Hard copper wires are generally used, the size being B. W. G. No. 8 or No. 12 or No. 14 according to the distance of a given line. For a line of short distance or for a circuit of not much importance, zinc coated No. 8 or I^o. 11 iron wires are some- times used, while bimetallic wires or steel wires are used where, as in the case of crossing a river, the distance between the poles is comparatively long. In the strait separating Moji and Shimonoseki Technical Matters. 699 8-centred steel wires insulated by gutter-percha, that is to say, t\YO lines of 4 circuit submarine telephone -wires, are used. C. Apparatus at the Subsceibees' Houses and AT Telephone Call Offices. Appaeatus. — It was in 1877, that is to say, the very next year after Prof. Alexander Graham Bell's invention of workable apparatus was made public that the instrument was first introduced into Japan. Afterward the Edison, Blake, Belton and Ader types arrived. The Oower apparatus that arrived in Japan about 1887 having been judged to be well suited for the purpose, the receivers of this type were adopted for use of subscribers when in 1890 the exchange offices were first established in Tokyo and Yokohatta. The battery used for transmitter and receiver was of the primary battery type. From 1895 a magnetic-motor was also used. In the same year, in consequence of the expansion of the city telephone business and also of the construction of long disatnce telephone, it was decided to replace the Gower apparatus by either the Solid-back or Derville type, the former being . judged to be not quite satifactory for working a long-distance service. At present the subscribers get either the Solid-back or the Derville, while the latter is exclusively used either in a city or on a short-distance service. Desk-telephones also use the Solid-back. At all telephone oifices also the Solid-back is a rule, as also is the case of the automatic call offices established recently in cities or in places situated close to cities. Aeeestees. — Formerly the Hibberd Fuze apparatus was used, but of late it has been superseded by the No. 12 arrester made by the Western Electric Company, as the latter is more securely pro- vided against the danger of strong currents and of thunder. Batteeies. — At the time the Gower apparatus was used the Daniel was used both for local and signal circuit, but with the disuse of the Gower the Leclanche was adopted, though in place of the Solid-back the Fuller battery was adopted. D. Appaeatus at Telephone Exchange Offices. Exchange Appaeatus. — At the time of the commencement of 700 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. the service the standard switch board made by the Western Electric Company was adopted, and with an increase of the number of subscribers the apparatus at the exchange offices in Tokyo and Osaka was substituted in 1893 with the serries multiple switch board manufactured by the same' company. At the same time the Mann's, instrument was set up at the Kobe Office. In 1895 the expanison of the business led to the offices in Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama and Kobe adopting a still more perfect type, this time the parallel switch board with self-restoring drop also by the same company. This is the type now in use at all the principle exchange offices- throughout the country. The authorities are thinking of setting up in the course of this year the lamp signal switch board at the Bhitaya Branch Office in Tokyo and of installing the common battery system board at the office in Kyoto. It may be noted that the standard board makes 100 connections ; the serries multiple switch board 240, the parallel multiple switch board 300 to 450 ; and the universal battery composite type 630. The operator's transmitter was at first the Blake type; then the^ Berthon and Ericsson were used, but at present they have all been disused in favor of the Solid-back. Toll Boaed. — At first for the Tokyo- Yokohama and Osaka- Kobe service the standard switch board Was used as also in the case of city service, but when that board was superseded shortly after by the parallel switch board type, the toll board combining calculagraph to designate the conclusion of a conversation was installed. Chief Orisrator's board, arresters and Testing Set. — With the adoption of the parallel testing set switch board the- operator's board for supervising the work of the operation began to be set in operation. For the testing service at first the sftt. board provided with a mica lightning rod was used, while the- paraffin wire was used for cross and premise lines. With the adop- tion of the parallel multiple switch board No. 4 main distributing boards and the intermediate distributing boards made by the Western Electric Company were adopted. For small exchange offices a. handy testing distributing board and with No. 4 A-type arresters and Fuze boards were adopted. Power Plant.— In exchange offices where the parialleil switch Technical Matters. 701 ioards are in operation the power plant is necessary. At the offices in Tokyo and Yokohama the gas motor supplemented by electric motor is in use, while in Osaka, Kobe, Nagasaki and Kyoto electric motor supplemented by kerosene motor is in operation. For the battery the chloride accumulator is used, though at Yoko- hame and Kobe the Hagen accumulator is used at the same time. The machine made by the Crocker Wheeler Company is used for the purpose of replenishing the current and of giving signals. At exchange offices where either serries multiple switch boards or standard switch boards are adopted the monochromic accumulator is vised, while for transmission and signalling the role-changer is used I » > • m* 702 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. CHAPTER VI —The Personnel. How the Staff is Beoruited Post and Telegraph School.— For the purpose of training fiiose who have to attend to the management and operation of post End telegraph affairs the Government maintains the Post and Tele- graph School. This institution was established in 1869, when a immber of the Shubunkan School in Kanagawa-ken were selected to receive instruction in the technical part of the business under Mr. Gilbert, an Englishman. As the machine in vogue at that time was of the letter indicating type, and therefore very simple in operation the students easily mastered the principles of the system. The introduction of far more complicated Morse invention was followed by the establishment of a special course of training, so that a school-room was opened for that purpose in the premises of the Department of Public Works. In 1873 this was enlarged and made into a regular school, the main school being in Tokyo and a branch school in Osaka. The branch school waa once abolish- ed, then restored and finally given up, but the head school was expanded in scope under the new name of the Tokyo Telegraph School and made to teach, besides the technical knowledge of com- munication, the knowledge of electric machines, batteries, wires, etc. as also a practical knowledge of construction. In 1890 a course of post affairs was created in the school to train students qua- lified to take charge of post service. Two years later the standing of candidates for admission was determined to be equal to that of the graduates of ordinary middle schools. In 1899 the courses were again changed, into those of management and those oi technical operation. In the former the students who were to attend to the duty of managing post and telegraph business were taught while in the other the students were taught the science and practice of telegraphy and telephone. The standing of the courses was at the same time elevated. The course of study extends for two years for Technical Matters. 703 l)oth courses, and the graduates are under obligation to give their services to the Department of Communications for five years dating from the period of graduation. With the revision of the courses in 1899 a special course giving special technical teaching on all matters connected with electric communication was created, the students being selected from among these who were attending to the business of electric communication in the Department. The course of study is one year and the term of obligatory service five years. The graduates trained by the Department since the establish- ment of the special class-room in 1871 numbered, up to March 31, 1903, 36 in the course of management, 1,888 in the course of technical department, and 131 in the special course, in all 2,255. 704 Japan in the Beginning of the 20;o GOODS r: ECEIPTS. Fiscal Year. Government. Private. Total. 1891 778,79s 998,742 1,777,540 1892 1,075,342 1,743.455 2,816,797 1S93 1,243,850 2,166,556 3,409,906 1894 1,589,565 2,933,926 4,523491 1895 1,808,489 3,838,127 5,646,616 189& 1,646,323 4,439,366 6,085 689 1897 2,064,776 6,055,547 8,120,263 1898 2,810,033 7.499,787 10,309,820 1899 3,731.976 8,994.869 12,726,845 1900 4,499,792 10,926,376 15,426,168 / 4,404,917 ■■• 1*535,784 11,431,032 15,835.949 1901 *i, 199,167 *i,7.34.95i 1 5,053,487 - 1*638,601 12,152,660 17,206,147 1902 *i, 936,083 *2,574,684 .Note :. — The figures marked with (••') indicate charges incidental to arriv, 1 and sending, of goods. Relation Between P.\.ssexgkr and Feeigiit Trafitc. — As shown in tlie preceding table, tliough in the returns of latest year's traffic volume, in one or two items a slight decrease is noticed, ou the whole the voliime indic.itcs ;i steady advance, showing Volume of Traffic. 717 how the railroad service is contributing very much to the exploita- tion of industries and to their development. One cannot but regret, however, that the degree to wliich our people make use of this im- portant factory of civilization and prosperity is still comparatively limited. - The volume of passenger traffic for the last year given above compared with the population, the ratio per one person docs not exceed only 2.4 ridings and 42 miles of travel in a year. At the same time this comparatively imperfect utilization of railroad by our people is not without a consoling side, in that it serves as a sign of future hopefulness of the, business. The existing condition of the traffic service lends powerful support to the reasonableness cf this conjecture, for whereas in most other countries the volume of "oods traffic and the receipts thereof surpasses those of passenger traffic, the former being the principal item of revenue and the latter snbordinate to it — in Japan the relative position of tlie two is reversed, the volume and receipts of passenger traffic always ex- ceeding those of the other. Tiiis state of railroad traffic in Japan is entirely attributable to the fact that the progress of the country is not yet so perfect as in the West. Already signs are discernible that onr railroad business will develop before long a normal feature ias seen in Europe and America, for as shown in the following fio-ures the ratio of volume and revenue of goods traffic to the volume and revenue of passenger traffic is steadily advancing. TJie arrival of that period will not only enable our railroads to discharge their function with more efficiency than is the case at present, but will at the same time serve as a clear proof that our economic ^-nterprises have reached a stage of real activity and prospeiify. In short, any amount of room exists for the future development 3 1897 ... ... 17 1.16 1898 ... ... 16 1.20 1899 ... ... 17 1-37 1900 ... ... 17 1-39 1901 ... ... 17 1.45 .,., Freight per Mileage. One Mik. Mile. sm. 37 2.69 51 2.06 48 2.02 54 1-94 53 1-99 46 1.94 48 1.97 48 2.15 51 2.12 SI 2.11 55 2.00 The average volume of traffic per one milfe' and per one day computed on the returns for th'e latest "^ear mentioned ia the table, the ratio for passenger amounts to 1,313 and that for goods 547 tons. YII. TBAFFIC RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. General Remaeks. — To review the returns from the com- mencement of the service to the 1901 fiscal year the receipts for 1873 totalled about 441,000 yen as against the disbursement amoun- ing to over 232,000 yen, yielding a profit of over 208,00 yen. In 1876 the receipts amounted to 1,284,060 yen and the disburse- ments to over 434,000 yen, leaving a net profit of over 850,000 yen^ In the following year the receipts fell oil' while the disbunsements- increased, and the result was that the amount of net profit did not reach even one half of the profit in the preceding year. Coming to 1878 year the normal aspect was somewhat recovered, though the- Traffic Jteceipti and Di-tburaeineiiU. 719 net profit did not exceed 45G,000 yen in round numbers. ITattera continued improving from 1879 to 1881, the profit for the I;isb- iiiention'ed year amounting to over 1,030,000 yen. In the following ye:ir owing to traffic expense having gone up compared with the leccipts, the net profit fell to about 910,000 yen. The opening of severul private railroads and the better facilities affbrded to railroad travelling resulted in more or less of an increase of the traffic receip-' in IS.'riS, but in the following three years the record again sustained a slight fall, from which, however, it recovered once more in 18S7. The profit was unusually "great in the two following years it having exceeded 2,470,000 yen Jn the first and 3,530,000 yen in the second. From that time onward 'the receipts have steadily continued to a6i5 — 441,615 «377 ... 910.336 — 910,336 1882 ... 1,840,394 — 1,840,394 1887 ... 1,693.873 1,182,345 2,S8i,2i8 1892 ... 4.580,632 5,096,631 9,677.266 1893 ... 5.384,455 5,981,057 11,365.512 1894 ... 5-819,413 7,803,008 13,622,421 1895 ... 8,004,234 •0,543.387 18,547,621 1896 ... 8,273,652 12.373,775 20,915,814 1S97 ... 9.727.490 17,764,176 27,491,666 1S9S ... 11,165,889 21,413,932 32,579,821 1899 — 13,804.375 24,866,300 38,670,675 1900 ... «6.o+5,775 29,014,009 45,059,784 1901 ... 16776,519 31,640,328 48,416,874 igo2 ... 18,336.582 33,544,-2'3 51,680,795 120 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Venturtj. EXPENSES. 1873 232,830 — 232.830 J877 526,248 — 526,248 1882 926,548 — 926,548 1887 677,124 392,542 1,069,666 1892 ... 2,166,199 2,437,138 4,603,337 1893 ... 1,942,37s 2,512,149 4,454.524 1894 ... 2,181,696 3,155,459 5,337,155 1895 ... 2,951,561 4,195,234 7,146,79s 1896 ... 3,815,663 5,237,426 9,053,089 1X97 ... 4,786,049 7,578,047 ■ 12,364,096 1898 6,380,951 11,422,514 17.803,465 1899 6,706,112 12,236,540 18,942,652 1900 . ... 7,271,565 13,622,156 20,893.721 1901 , ... 8,547,226 15,093,086 23,640,312 1902 . ... 9,066,165 16,203,223 25,269,388 NET EARNINGS. 1873 : ... 208,785 — 208,785 1877 384,088 — 384,088 1882 913,846 — 913,836 1887 ... 1,021,749 789,803 1,811,552 1892 • •• 2,414,433 2,659.496 5,073,929 1893 ... 3,442,080 3 468,908 6,910,98? 1894 ... 3,637,717 4,647,549 8,285,266 1895 - 5,052,673 6,348,153 11,400,826 1896 . ... 4,457,989 7,404,736 11,862,725 1897 ... ... ... 4,941,441 10,186,129 15,127,570 1898 ... 4,784,938 9,991.418 14,776,356 1899 ... 7,098,263 12,629,760 19,728,023 1900 ... ... ... 8,774,210 [15,391,853 t* 953.897 24,166,063 * 953.*>97 1901 .:. ... , ... 8,229,293 1 16,547 242 \*i,094,453 24,776,53s *i,c94,45^ 1902 . ... 9,270,417 1 17,140,990 1*1,218,850 26.411,407 *i,2i8,850 Account per one mile. — With this marked advance of traffic receipts and profit the traffic mileage has also made an equally marked extension. The traffic earnings and' expenses as well as tlie net earnings per one mile are given in the following table :^— Trafie Beeeipts and Disbursements. GOVERNMENT RAILROADS. 721 Fiscal year. 1873 1877 1882 1887 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 , 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 (unit oiyen). Earnings. Expenses. Net Earnings. 24,534 12,935 I ',599 ■3.975 8,075 5,896 17,892 9,008 8,884 7,209 2,873 4,336 8,319 3,934 4,385 9,656 3,483 6,173 10,294 3.859 6.435 13.651 5,034 8,617 13,537 6,243 7.294 15,020 7,390 7,630 15,420 8,812 6,6oS , 16.898 8,209 8,089 ■ i7,9>4 8,118 9,796 . 16,451 8,381 8,070 16,185 8,002 8,183 PRIVATE RAILROADS. 1883.. 1887.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899.. 1900.. 1901.. 1902., 1883.. 1887.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899.. 1900.. 1901.., 1902.. 6,355 2,419 3,936 4,964 1,648 3.5i6 4,082 1,952 2,130 4,468 1,876 2,592 5,354 2,165 3. '89 6,520 2,594 3.9^6 7,453 3,088 4,365 8,764 3.739 5.025 8,684 4,632 4.052 9,124 4,490 4.634 10,214 4.796 5.4 >S 10,748 5.127 5.621 11,194 5,439 5,755 GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE RAILROADS. 11,387 4550 6,081 2,258 5,378 2,558 5,994 2,349 6,735 2,639 8,418 3,233 9,06s 3.923 10,279 4,623 10,211 S.580 10,915 5 347 12,095 S.592 12,215 5,964 12,570 6,146 6,837 3823 2,820 3.645 4,096 5, '74 5 142 5.656 4.6j[ 5,568 6,467 6 251 6,424 722 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. Items of Raileoad Account. — Receipts accruing from railroad traffic are classified into three main headings, namely, passenger car receipts, wagon receipts, and miscellaneous receipts ; then traffic expenses are divided into four classes, maintenance expense, loeomotiv& expense, transportation expense and general expense. These different items were as follows in the 1902 fiscal year : — TRAFFIC RECEIPTS. Items. yen. Passenger Car Receipts • 30,039,870 Wagon Receipts . 19,934.142 Miscellaneous Receipts ,. 1,706,783 Total . 51,680,795 TRAFFIC EXPENSES. Maintenance Expense • 5.474,979 Locomotive Expense . 10,140,771 Transportation Expense . 6,6C9,857 General Expense (Including Taxes) .. . 3,033,781 Per Centage. 58.1 38.6 3.3 21.7 40.1 26.2 12.0 Total 25,269,388 loo.o In comparing, on the basis of the same year's returns, the Tati» which traffic receipts bear to cost of construction of lines under traffic, it is found that it amounts to 7.4 per cent, for the Stat» lines and 8 for the private lines, the average being 7.8 per cent. .iS. 723 CHA'TER n. — Ships and Shipping Business. Ships— Shipbuilding— Sailors -Life-Boat Business— Protection to Navigation - Nautical Signals— Open Ports. I. SHIPS. General Remarks. — Ships as originally existed in Japan were those known by the name of junks. In coustruetiou and size they were utterly unsuited for ocean service. With the lidoption of the polity of enlightened progress by the Imperial Government and the encouragement of marine navigation the list of foreign-patterned ships steadily went on increasing in number. In reviewing the history of our carrying trade during these last thirty four or five years it is found that the number and tonnage of steamers steadily increased up to the end of 1893. The Japan-China war of 1894— 1895 years served as an occasion of introducing epoch-making change in the condition of carrying trade, for so remarkable has been its progress since that time and so many were the steamers that were added to the list, that at the end of 1902 they numbered altogether 1,441 with an aggregate tonnage of 610,446 tons. Compared with the list at the end ef 1893 the number increased twofold and the freight capacity threefold. The case was somewhat diiferent witli sailing ships, for though they continued to increase both in number and tonnage up to 1888, they began to fall off after that year, this downward movement reaching the climax in 1896. At the end of that year the ships of this class numbered 644 representing 44,0.55 tons altogether. After 1898, however, another change came over this branch of shipping activity. At the end of that year the aggregate increased at one jump to three times as much as it was in the preceding year. This tendency continued in the succeeding years, so that at the end of 1901 the ships of this type numbered 4,020 with no less than 336,436 tons altogether. In the following 724 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. year the corresponding figures fell slightly, being 3,977 and 336,154 respectively. This remarkable increase both in the number of vessels and in theii tonnage compared with what it was before is to be sought in the fact that, in consequence of the amendment of the Ship Inspection Law, the koku system of computing the capacity that had previously been adopted for quite a large number of ships was superseded by the ordinary method of computation by tonnage. Naturally this resulted in a large increase in the gross tonnage. The increase of steamers has also had a stimulating influence on the construction of subsidiary vessels of this particular type. Number axd Tonnage. — The principle of the survival of the fittest has driven the native junks to the- wall, for not only are they not up to the requirements of modern navigation, but the Government has decided to restrict the building of ships of this type. Below is given a table showing the number and tonnage of ships from 1870, and especially during the last ten years : — Year. 1S70... 1S72... 187;... J882... 1887... 1892... 1893.. 1894... 1895... 1896... 1897... . 1898... 1899... 1900 .. !90I... <902... Steamers. Sail ng Ships. Jiftiks ( over 50 kokti). No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. koku Tonnage 35 15,498 II 2,454 ? ? ... 96 23,364 35 8.320 18,640 3,312,281 ... 183 49,105 75 13,648 18,964 3,251,425 344 42,199 428 48,985 17,331 2,930,842 486 115,365 798 64,416 17,194 2,851,247 642 165,764 780 49,085 18,20s 3,069,816 680 176,915 749 48.303 17,209 2,878462 ... 745 273,419 722 46,959 17,300 2,876,131 ... ' 827 341,369 702 44,794 17,360 2,960,887 ... 899 373.588 644 44,055 17,612 3,066,128 ... ,1,032 438,779 715 48,130 19,097 3,320,284 ... 1,130 477,430 1,914 170,894 19,099 3.049,035 ... 1,221 510,007 3,322 286,923 18,479 2,713,646 ... 1,329 543,365 3,850 320,571 18,796 2,785,114 .. 1,395 583,532 4,020 336,436 19,758 2,921,565 ... 1,441 610,446 3,977 336,154 18,743 2,35'.95o Note : —The tonnage as given in the table was the registered tonnage prior to 1884 inclusive, after which the gross tonnage computation has been used. The koku used for indicating the freight capacity of Japanese junks amounts to one -tenth of a gloss ton. • Ships. 72o Two Main Classes of Ships. — It slionld be noted here that Japanese ships and boats are divided, accordiug to the provisions of the Law of Ships, into two main classes, that is those which require shipping certificates and those which do not require such certificates. (Art. 20 of the Law of Ships provides that sliijis below 20 gross tonnage or the koku freight capacity not exceeding 200 Jcoku, lighters or boats worked by the use of oars alone need not require shipping certificates). The ships requiring the certificate are called "regis- tered ships" and those not requiring it "unregistered ships." It is hardly necessary to add that the ships of tlie registered class form the mainstay of the maritime trade, and those of the unregistered type are accessories to them. Hence it is sufiicient to give here data about the registered class ships alone. Before doing so a lirief remark will be made on the relative numbei-, kind, etc. of registered and unregistered ships during the last ten years :— Registered Ships. Unregistered Ships « Tonnage " " ioku " « Tonnage " "l-aiu" Vear. Steamers. Sailing Sailing Steamer. Sailing Sailing Ships. Ships. Ships, Ships, 1893 400 218 — 280 531 17,209. 1894 461 196 — 284 526 17,300 1895 S28 173 — 299 529 17.360 1896 S70 i6s — 329 479 17,612 1897 626 171 — 406 544 19,097 1898 674 1,310 — 456 604 19,099 1899 7S3 2,783 222 468 539 18,257 1900 859 3,309 9" 470 541 17.S85. 1901 969 3.565 1,355 426 455 18,403 1902 1.033 3,591 1,260 40S 386 17,483 Caeeying Capacity of Ships. — The average carrying capacity of ships flying Japanese flag increases or decreases with the progress of times and according to kind, for though the carrying capacity should enlarge with the extension of scope of navigation, the pro- gress of trade or of shipbuildings business, this remark can apply only to ships of one and the same class, placed under the same circumstance. But the ships differing in construction or kind, or dilfcring in the nature of service cannot make Jiny uniform progress 726 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. in their average carrying trade. In making further inquiries, the average carrying capacity of steamers of registered class that was 427 tons in 1887 and 419 in 1892, jumped at one bound to 572 in 1894. The average recorded after 1895 was even as high as €89 tons. This extraordinary increase of the average tonnage was chiefly attributable to the purchase of many large steamers on the occasion, of the Japan-China war and also after it. The average of "tonnage" sailing ships was 135 tons in 1887, 143 in 1892, 160 in 1897. Coming to 1902 it fell down to only 92 tons. Number op Ships Classified by Carrying Capacity. — The number of registered ships classified according to size, the bulk for " tonnage " sailing ships consisted during the last ten years of those ranging from 20 to 100 tons ; those of 100-500 tons followed next, while only a small number were of over 500 tons. This progres- sive diminution of number with an increase of carriage capacity is also seen in steamers, for those of over 5,000 tons did not exceed one-fiftieth of the whole number even at the time when big steamers reached the highest record. The following table showing the comparative statement of registered tonnage, etc. will further explain this point : — STEAMERS. 20 — 100 100 — 1000 1000 — 5000 Over 5000 Year. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Total. 1893 ... "9. 225 56 ~ 400 1894 ... 132 242 76 I 461 1895 ... 148 266 "3 I 528 1896 ... 157 287 125 I 570 1897 ... 175 3" 132 8 626 iSgS ... 202 328 J30 14 674 1899 ... 262 343 132 16 753 1900 ... -.. ... 349 351 142 17 859 igoi ... J.4 ... 427 372 150 20 969 rgoi' ... 479 372 I62 20 «.o33 Ships. « TONNAGE " SAILING SHIPS. 20 — 100 100 — 500 Over 500 Year. Tons. Tons. Tons. Total. 1893... 108 102 S 218 1894... 85 104 7 196 1895... 68 98 7 173 1896... 67 91 7 165 1897... 69 95 7 171 1898... 635 668 7 1,310 1899... »,7S2 1,025 6 2,783 1900... 2,201 1,104 4 3.309 1901... 2,362 2,201 2 4,565 1902,.. 2,348 1,241 2 3,591 727 XuMBEE OF Ships Classified by Types. — To classify the registered ships according to their tj'pe and the material used in their construction of the frame-work, steamers were generally built of wood at first. With the expansion of the service and the increase of carrying capacity, iron or steel-framed steamers have increased in number. Then in the relative number of iron -frame «r steel-frame steamers, the latter were at first very small, not exceeding one-sixth of the whole in 1892. The ratio gradually advanced till the relative position was reversed after 1899. At the end of 1902 steel-frame steamers constituted 17 per cent., the iron- frame steamers 12 per cent., and the iron-wood composite steamers 1 per cent.; in the whole number of registered steamers., The state of things was entirely different with registered sailing-ships. Prior to 1897 there was only one iron-framed vessel and between 1898 and 1900 one steel-framed vessel, the rest having wooden-frames. The following table gives the relative number of ships bililt dtiriug the last ten years, and classified according to the nature t»f the material of which they were built : — - 72ii Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. STEAMERS. Year. Steel or Steel-Iron. Iron. Iron-Wood. Wood. Total »893 .. 18 91 12 279 40a 1894 •• 3' 112 II 303 461 189s ■■ 4. 131 II 340 528 1896 .. 60 138 II 361 570 1897 .. 81 136 12 397 626 1898 .. 94 125 12 443 674 1899 .. 116 123 13 SOI 753 1900 .. 136 130 13 S80 859 1901 .. 154 13s »3 667 969 1902 ... 171 129 13 720 1,033 " TONNAGE " SAILING SHIPS. Year. Steel or Iron. Wood. Total. 1893 ... 217 218 1894 ».• 195 196 '895 ..• 172 173 1896 ... 164 16S 1897 ... 170 171 1898 ..: .. ... 1,309 1,310 1899 ... 2,782 2,783 1900 3,308 3,309 1901 ... — 3,565 3,565 1902 ... — 3.591 3,591 NuMBEB OP Ships as to age. — To classify the number of registered ships as to age, at the end of 1902 the ships (steamers and sailing ships combined) that were five to ten years old number- ed most, followed by thdse under five years, while those above ten- years gradually dwindled in number with their increase in age. For the registered steamers the order of- the relative superiority of number was as follows as to age : 5 to 10 years, under 5 years, 10 to 15 years, 15 to 20 years, 20 to 25 years. The foregoing classification also holds good for " tonnage "' sailing ships. However the condition differed slightly for " koku tonnage " sailing ships, for in this case the number of ships less than 5 years old was less than that of- those 10 to 15 years old. Number of Ships on DrrPERENT Service:^. — According to the Shipbuilding. 729 existing laws and ordinances bearing on navigation and ships, there are four kinds of service, these being ocean service, territorial sea service, coasting-service, and inland-water service. The same legis- lative measures provide strict regulations about the kind, tonnage^ construction, etc., and only those that are judged seaworthy are permitted to run on the service. The registered ships classified according to the different kinds of service were distributed as follows at the end of 1902. Ocean-going Seevice. — 87 steamers with 287,794 gross tannage, 5 " tonnage " sailing ships with ' 598 gross tonnage, Teeritoeal Sea Service.— 269 steamers with 237,098 gross tonnage; 3,369 "tonnage" sailing ships with SIS.SS."* gross tonnage, 1,002 " koku tonnage " sailing ships with 480,759 koku. Coasting Service. — 332 steamers with 43,613 gross tonnage. Inland- Watee Seevice.— 339 steamers with 3,557 gross tonnage. Besides, there were in the same year other ships which could not be included in the above list owing to the fact that they had not yet undergone fresh examination after the term of the certificatei they obtained before had expired, or that they had not yet received the certificate even when they underwent the examination. Among the ships of this extra class there were 6 steamers with 2,565 gross tonnage, 217 " tonnage " sailing ships with 9,230 gross tonnage, 258 "koku" sailing ships with 67,663 koku. II. SHIPBUILDING. General Remarks. — It goes without saying that the carrying trade being inseparably connected with shipbulding work, the ex- pansion of the one depends upon the activity of the other. Am might naturally be expected, the shipbuilding work of Japan that had formerly been confined to the building of Japanese junks alone underwent, with the advent of the new order of things, a radical elvange in the nature of its work and began to include the building of foreign-shaped ships. With only imperfect experince and with insufficient materials, Japanese shipbuilders could at first build only 7S0 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Bailing ships and small steamers, so that Japan had to depend on foreign shipyards whenever any large steamers had to be built. Steadily and gradually our builders acquired greater experience and knowledge, and the industry, encouraged by the putting in operation in October 1896 of the Law for Encouraging Shipbuilding, has began with energy to make a new departure. Though only a few years have elapsed since that time, already our shipbuilders have succeeded in building large steamers well qualified to be placed on a foreign service. They have even built some steamers to the order of foreign countries. One serious defect however, still, remains nnremoved in our shipbuilding industry. That is our inability to get a supply of the necessary materials at home. It is satisfactory, however, to think that the steel-making industry has been started here and there that there is great hope of our shipbuilders being Bui)plied before long with home-made materials which they must now order abroad. When that time has arrived a new epoch will dawn on the shipbuilding industry of Japan. NuMBEE OP Foreign-built and Home-built Ships. — Though the supply of ships of large displacement can to-day be satisfied at home, Japan is still more or less dependent in this matter, on foreign countries. The relative proportion of foreign-built ships and home- built ships in Japan is shown with greater accuracy by the folluw- ing statement : — ■ Built at Hom le. . Su Purchased Abroad. Year. Steamers. Sailing Ships. lamers. Saili ing Ships. Ivo. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. nT' Tonnage; iiyo- '72 .. '3 250 I 50 71 '7,179 34 8,660 1S73- ■'77 •• ■• 43 1,178 32 2,448 77 34,826 29 6,987 187^- '82 .. .. 149 8,899 431 39,568 18 2,946 47 13486 iSS^- .'oi7 .. • 95 8,846 113 10,718 32 24,849 9 2,376 lisSii- '92 .. .. 147 23.>72 63 5,357 40 42,124 I 440 •«93 ,. 26 3.967 4 459 10 13.036 2 1,778 1894 •• 33 5847 10 1,311 38 96,072 — 1895 - 47 8,977 6 951 35 96,4,24 ■?, 572 1896 .. 36 5,860 II 1,061 27 34,891 — 1897 - 57 10,698 18 2,472 22 67,454 — ^ — 1898 - 54 13,9-9 202 20,836 10 44,110 I 114 1899 •- 53 18,157 216 20,342 9 25.474 I 83 39UO ■ 53 15,308 193 17,873 13 28,492 2 235 1901 ■ 71 31,829 202 20,259 12 16,344 I "3 • 902 67 16,328 137 •3.C'35 10 * 20,634 ~ Note; :— The tonnage consisted of registered tonnage prior to 1889, after which year the gross tonnage has been adopted, Shipbuilding. ?31 The foregoing table demonstrates that in the matter of building tailing-ships, the industry began to show great activity from about ^876. After 1889 the sailing-ships purchased abroad numbered only cue or at most two every year. At present Japan builds all the sailing ships she wants. On the other hand, though the number of foreign-built steamers fell below that of the home-built ones after 1876 in respect to tonnage this superiority of home-built ships occurred only in 1878 — 1883 years, the tonnage of foreign-built steamers generally surpassing that of the other in most other years. This relative superiority of the tonnage of foreign-built steamers was owing to the fact that the art of shipbuilding had not yet advanced sufficiently at that time in Japan to allow of her under- taking the building of ships of large displacement. Average Tonnage of Home-built and Foreign-built BHIPS. — The relative average tonnage of the two classes of ships will make this point still more clear : — Average Tonnage of Average Tonnage of Year. Home Built Ships. Foreign Built Ships. Steamers. Sailing Ships. Steamers. Sailing Ships i87o-'72 .. 19 50 242 255 1873-78 ... 274 77 452 241 i879-'82 ... 60 92 164 287 i883-'88 ... 93 95 777 264 i889-'92 .. 158 85 1.053 440 i893-'97 .. 178 138 2,105 588 1898-1902 .. 321 97 2.557 109 Tonnage and Type op Home-built Ships. — In order to explain the latest condition of our shipbuilding industry, the displace- ment and construction of newly built ships at home during the last four years will be shown in the following table : — TONNAGE OF REGISTERED SHIPS BUILT AT HOME. Steamers. Sailing Ships. Year. 20-100. 100- 1000- 1000. 5000. Over 5000. Total. 20-100. 100-500. ?^.^ ^°-l^ 1898 ... ... 198 278 2 I 479 63s 662 4 i,3>o 1899 ... ... 258 290 4 2 554 1.750 1,018 3 2.771 1900 ... ... 342 300 9 2 653 2,201 1,098 3 3-302 1901 ... ... 417 318 15 4 754 2,362 1,196 I 3,559 1902 ... ... 469 320 20 4 813 2,348 1.236 t 3.S8S 732 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. CONSTRUCTION OF REGISTERED SHIPS BUILT AT HOME. Steamers. Sailing Ships. year. Steel or Steel-Iron. Iron. Iron- Wood. Wood. Total. Steel or ,,, , Iron. ^°°"i- Total. 1898 ... 22 16 4 437 479 I 1,300 1,301 1899 ... 37 i5 5 496 554 I 2,770 2,771 igoo ... 56 18 6 573 653 I 3.301 3.302 I 90 I ." 70 22 6 656 754 — 3.559 3,559- 1902 ... 81 19 6 707 813 - 3.585 3.585. Sailing ships being now almost wholly made at home, thfr relation of home-built sailing ships and foreign-built sailing ships as- to tonnage and construction is practically identical with that ex- plained at some length in the first chapter concerning the general condition of sailing-ships in Japan. As to steamers, the smaller vessels not exceeding 100 tons numbered most being followed by those ranging from 100 to 1,000 tons, steamers above 1,000 tons- being comparatively scarce. In regard to construction the majority of the vessels were of wood, followed by steel-framed and iron- framed vessels, and lastly by wood-iron composite vessels. Comparing the foregoing particulars with the details as specified in the first chapter, it can be seen that while vessels under 1,900 tons displace- ment were mostly built at home those of large displacement came from foreign dockyards. Then in construction the wooden vessels were in most eases built at home, steel and wood-iron composite vessels being built at home and foreign dockyards in nearly equally proportion. But in regard to iron-framed vessels the share contri buted by home shipyards was very small. Shipyaeds. — Our shipbuilding yards have considerably been, increased in number. At the end of 1892 they numbered only 60^ and the number grew to 106 six years later, and then to 1,666 at the end of 1902. Protection of Shipbuilding "Work. — A few words should be. eaitj concerning the Law of Encouraging Shipbuilding mentioned Ships Crew. 733 ■above. The encouragement bestowed by tbis law is in the form of bounties granted to ships built according to the rules prescribed by that law. They must also be built at the shipyards possessing the qualifications determined by this law. The bounty is 12 yen per ton of the body of the ship for steamer of not more than 700 or not less than 1,000 gross tonnage. The rate is 20 yen for one exceeding 1,000 tons. Further, the additional bounty at the rate of 5 yen per one horse-power is granted on the engine. The steamers built or in course of building at our shipyards from the enforcement of the law in question to the end of 1902 number 33 with an aggregate gross tonnage amounting to about ^0,091. 111. SHIPS CREW. Legislative Measure. — The first legislative measure was that issued by the Government in June 1896. It related to the license examination of captains, mates and engineers for foreign-shaped ships. The measure provided that unless possessing the licenses granted in accordance with the provisions contained in it no person could become captain or mate or engineer for a foreign-style ship of not less than 100 registered tonnage and 50 effective horse-powers. The measure has more than once been subjected to amendment until it finally assumed its present form. The existing law was issued in 1896. Officees. — The ship's officers comprise, according to the law, captains, first and second mates, chief and first engineers, all of whom are required to possess the proper license to be qualified for their respective services. No discrimination with regard to nation- ality is enforced with regard to this qualification, and those who are legally qualified according to the Japanese law are permitted, no matter what nationality they belong to, to be officers of ships flying the Japanese flag. Appended is a statement giving particulars of the number of the licensed officers and of the relative number of Japanese and foreign officers from 1882 to 1887 and also during the last ten years. 734 years. 1882 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. LICENSED OFFICERS. 1st Class. 2nd Class. Captains 2nd Class and Mates. Chief Eng- ineers. Engineers. Total. Captains. Mates. Captains Mates. Japanese. 33 Foreigoers. 103 137 77 323 2 790 22 II 72 607 45 1,901 32s 74 189 243 no 359 2 1,247 21 — 29 135 785 75 2,737 532 176' 256 339 143 415 2 I.S33 21 — 74 172 1,267 124 3,804 718 190 .. 263 360 142 428 2 1,541 20 — 83 174 1,294 126 3.896 727 198 286 367 156 434 2 1,547 20 — 91 184 1,341 139 3,978 788 227 308 380 169 432 2 1,559 20 — 125 196 1,412 146 4,135 839 282 328 384 184 448 2 1,618 20 — 165 203 1,581 150 4,477 S87 346 362 373 1 88 480 2 2,496 21 1,199 228 212 1,922 153 7,044 938 339 ., 141 303 38 30s 1,969 I 8,202 252 67 1,826 29 13,196 27& 351 145 323 48 3" 2,047 I 8,632 I 259 73 2,013 34 13,936 302 366 „ 146 364 51 32s 2,099 I 8,976 I 275 75 2,153 34 14,558 3" 396 155 445 51 335 2,179 I 9,349 I 299 75 2,395 36 15,389 319 425 162 495 51 341 2,274 I 9,515 I 326 79 2,601 39 15,977 333 1893 1894 1895 IS96 1897 1898 1899 1900 I90I 1902 The foregoing table shows that the number of Japanese officers of all classes and grades is steadily advancing. This was also the case with foreign officers prior to 1898, but since then, as a result of legislative changes, their number has gone down quite suddenly. To carry the comparison still further, the management of craft of larger displacement" had to be left at first, owing to the peculiar cir- cumstances of the case, in charge of foreign officers, so that Japanese officers had to content themselves with being captains and engineers of ships of smaller displacement. As the system of nautical education has since then become more and more perfect and as the number of Japanese trained under that system has increased, there are at Ships Crew. 735 the present time many Japanese sailors as well qualified to manage first class steamers as foreigners. Training op officers and Men. — The organs now existing for the purpose of training officers and men are the Nautical College conducted under the direct supervision of the Government, Merchant Navigation Schools of a briefer course established under the Technical Education Law, and lastly the Sailors Home. The Nautical College originated in the Mitsubishi Merchant Navigation School established in 1875 by the Mitsubishi Firm in accordance with the instruction of the Government. It was converted Seven years later into a Government institution. The Nautical College trains boys who are to become officers of the highest graile both in the art of navigation and in that of engineering. The graduates are enrolled in the Naval Reserve list, and hence subject to observe the rules enforced in the Naval service. Sailors Home. — The Sailors Home was established in Auguft of 1880 for the purpose of training officers and sailors and also for according protection to them and their families. The home has been receiving a State Subsidy of 10,000 yen since 1896. Pilots. — Rules relating to pilots and pilotage were first enacted in December of 1876, the rules applicable only to ships of foreign pattern. In consequence of that enactment only properly qualified persons were permitted, as is also the case at present, to discharge the duty of pilots. The existing Pilotage Law that was promulgated in 1899 and it provides that no person not qualified according to the law, may act as a pilot in the pilotage ro^ds; that the pilots must be Japanese subjects who have passed the prescribed exami- nation and whose names appear in the official pilotage list. Formerly the pilotage licence was granted to people of all nationalities, provided they were qualified according to the Japanese law, but as mentioned above the restriction as to nationality was enforced by the new Pilotage Law, with this reservation, however, that within the limit of five years from the enforcement of that law the Minister of State concerned is entitled to grant the license to properly qualified foreigners. Consequently the pilotage list still contains quite a large number of foreigners. The appended statement will make this point clear : — J36 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Year. 1879 1882 1887 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 PILOTAGE LIST. Japanese. F oreign I 18 5 IS 4 12 6 17 7 17 8 14 9 18 9 19 8 18 6 18 5 18 S 17 7 19 8 18 Total. 19 20 16 23 24 22 27 28 26 24 23 22 26 26 lY. LIFE-BOAT PROYISINOS. The existing legal provisions about life-boat afiairs were issued in 1899. The law provides that life-boat matters are dealt with by mayors of municipal or headmen of rural, corporations, and they are entitled, in carrying out the rescue business, to requision the service of men and ships, wagons, horses and other necessary matters. The mayors and headmen have to deal with salvage and to settle expens incidental to the rescue, and they, are also under obligation to furnish a rescue report to the captain when the latter makes a request to have it. However when the attempt of rescue fails the expenses required have to be defrayed out of the State Treasury. The Life-boat Law also contains provisions to flotsam and jetsam. The Japan Life-boat Association was established in November 1889. At first it possessed only two rescue stations, one at Yojima and the other at Tadotsu, both in the province of Sanuki. With the expansion of the scope of the work, and especially since the State decided in 1897 to grant 20,000 yen every year, the number of main stations has been increased to 21 with 17 branches and 6 life-boat associatious. Protection to Navigation. 737 Y. PROTECTION TO NAVIGATION. General Remaeks. — That the prosperity of Jipan is inseparably -connected with the prosperity of her carrying trade is a foregone -conclusion, considering the situation of the country. Japan there- fore has faithfully adhered since 1870 to the national polity of encouraging carrying trade, and especially to maintain an active and efficient ocean service. Two different systems of protection are adopted in this con- nection, one being special portection accorded to special service and therefore limited to special kind of shippers while the other is general protection and therefore accessible to all shippers who fulfill certain prescribed conditions. The two systems being there- fore distinct in nature and possessing distinct history had better be described under separate headings. Special Peotection. — The protection given for the first time to our shippers was more than special ; it was not merely to help their business, it was really to support their very existence. It was with this end in view that in 1870 the Government caused the Reiganjima Navigation Company to run with two steamers a monthly service between Tokyo and Osaka. When two years later that ■company was wound up, and the Japan Mail Steamship Company was created, the Government sold to the new company the steamers it had in its possession and made them to carry on regular coasting services. After three years this company ceased to exist, but its disap- pearance did not much affect the prosperity of the maritime business of Japan, for by that time the Mitsubishi Steam- -MitsnbisM S. S. ship Company had been in existence for some years. Company. This Company was the next recipient of the Government protection, and had a number of stea- mers belonging to the Government sold to it in easy terms. The carrying trade of Japan made at the same time a noteworthy •departure, for its scope of operation was extended to Shanghai to which a regular service was established. Both on this and also on the regular coasting service the Government granted a certain ■amount of subsidy. 738 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. In 1882 the Kyodo Unyu Kaisha (Union Steamship Com- Kyodo Unyn P^^ny) was established and the Government protected Kaisha. its business, on condition that the company would run certain regular service. The amalgamation of the Steamship Company and the Mitsu- bishi Steamship Company in 1885 and the establishment, as result of this amalgamation, the present Nippon Nippon Yasen Kaisha Yusen Kaisha was an occasion of altering and Osaka Shosen somewhat the system of giving protection. Kaisha. The new system consisted in guaranteeing the- profit of the company and his was agreed to for fifteen years from the date of the creation of the com- pany. The guaranteeing of the profit was limited within a certain fixed rate of dividend to the paid-up capital of the com- pany. In return for this protection the company was made to op9n various new regular services, both domestic and foreig. In 1887 the guaranteeing of profit was altered into granting a cer- tain fixed amount of subsidy. In the following year another steam- ship company, the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, was granted a subsidy for eight years for consideration of running regular services on prescribed routes. The subsidy to the two companies ceased with the expiration of the respective contracts, so that this special form of protection is no longer in vogue. Protection of Foreign Services. — ^With the discontinuatioji of this system of protecting certain shippers another and more comprehensive method of encouraging foreign services and of protect- ing them has been adopted. In pursuance of that policy, protection was granted in 1896 on the Yokohama-Adelaide service ; in 1898 on the Shanghai-Hankow, Shanghai-Suchow, and Shanghai-Hangchow services; in 1899 on the Hankow-Ichang services. Those services were somewhat altered soon after, while at the same time several subsidized lines were newly established. The subsidized lines now run by Japanese shippers in accordance with the order of the Minister of Communications are as follows : — Yokohama-Melbourne, Yokohama-Bombay, Japan-Europe, Hongkong-Seattle- Yokohama-Shanghai, Kobe-North China, Kobe-Vladivostock, Kobe-Otaru, Aomori-Muroran, Hongkong-San Francisco, Shanghai-Hankow, HankoW, Ichang, Kobe-Korea, Shanghai-Suchow, Shanghai-Hangchow, Suchow-Hangr chow, japan Sea. Protection to Navigation. 73^ Subsidized Local Lines. — Besides, there are other subsidized liner of local importance, these being undertaken under help from the Formosan Government, Hokkaido Government and Prefeotual Govern- ments, as follows : — Sdbsidized by the FormosaN Government:— Tamsui-Tokosu, Kelung- Kobe (two), Takao-Yokohama, Kelung-coasting, Tamsui-Hongkong, Amping- Hongkong, Fuchow-Hongkong, Fuchow-Santuugao, Fuchow-Hinghwa, Ainoy- Shima services. Subsidized by the Hokkaido Government : — ^Nemuro-Hakodate, Nemuro- Shana, Nemuro-Abashiri, Otaru-Wakanai, Wakanai-Abashiri, Hakodate-Otaru, Otaru-Teshio, Hakodate-Otsu, Ishikari river services. Subsidized by Prefectural Governments concerned :— Ogasawara group (4), Oshima group (Kagoshima), Oki group and main island, Sakijinia (Okinawa), Okinawa islands services. General Peoteotion. — Besides the protection given to special routes for maintaining regular service necessary for keeping up regular facilities of conveyance and intercourse, protection is extended, in accordance with the Law of Encouraging Navigation, to service of other descriptions irrespective of shippers or routes, with the object of furthering in general the cause of general shipping trade. This protection in the form of subsidy is given to all those services which satisfy the conditions specified in the law in question. To be more in detail, the law subsidises steamers which come up to the standard mentioned in the provisions and which carry on regular service between Japan and foreign coast or along the coast of foreign countries. The subsidy is at the rate of 25 sen per ton per 1,000 miles covered, and for steamers that are not less than 1,000 gross tonnage capable to develop the speed of 10 knots per hour. The rate increases with an increase of tonnage and speed. Ketuens eelating to General Peotection. — The number of steamers, gross tonnage and the distance traversed by them since the law was put into operation are given in the appended table: — Distance Traversed. Miles. 251,740 771.647 1,164,708 S43.506 471,321 477,561 Fiscal Year. Number. Gross Tonnage 1879— II 48,596 1898— 24 115,102 1899- 29 130,461 1900 — 18 74,530 1901 — IS 57,199 1902 — 15 49,446 740 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century, YI. NAUTICAL SIGNALS. General Remarks. — It was in May of 1866 that Japau agreed in accordance with Art. XI of the tariff convention con- cluded with Great Britain, France, United States of America, and Holland to construct after foreign style nautical signals in the vicinity of the open ports. To fulfill this agreement the Govern- ment of the day purchased from England a set of necessary light- house materials, and also engaged an expert from the same country. Kinds of Signals. — -The nautical signals of Japan are divided according to construction and method of maintenance into three classes, namely. Government, communal and private. The private signals numbered over 100 formerly, but they were far from satis- factory in construction and working. At last the Government ■decided to prohibit the building of signals by private individuals in 1885, and a notification to that effect was issued in that year. It was provided that the construction of new private signals for the use of public would be prohibited in the future; that the old signals that had not been exacting due should be discontinued by 1895; that the due-collecting signals the establishment of which was permit- ted for a specified period should be stopped on the arrival of that period, and finally for other signals of the same kind that had no fixed period of existence such period should with the approval of the supervising authorities, be determined. Even at present, therefore, niore or less private signals exist. On the other hand the number of signals constructed and maintained by civic corporations is gradually increasing as is also the case with the Government signals. Number op Signals.— The appended table will explain the fiondition of the work since 18G9 when Japan constructed for the first time nautical signals after Western pattern. Here is the table :— Year. Government. Communal or Private. Total. 117 133 155 211 2l8 230 206 240 1869 9 1872 ... 32 1877 - 55 1882 ... 66 1887 ... 78 1892 ... 106 1898 ... 140 1902 ... 172 108 lOI 100 145 140 35 89 45 21 53 15 Open Ports. 741 Yll. OPEN PORTS. NuMBEE OF THE PoRTS. — At present there exist 30 ports open to foreign trade, these being Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, Ebisu, Osaka, Shimizu, Taketoyo, Yokkaichi, Itozaki, Shimonoseki, Moji, Hakata, Karatsu, Kuehinotsu, Misumi, Izuhara, Sasuna, Shikami, Naba, Hamada, Sakaye, Miyazu, Tsuruga, Nanao (southern basin), Fushiki, Otaru, Kushiro and Muroran. With the object of maintaining order and tranquility in such of the ports having busier shipping traffic Harbor Regulations were issued in 1898. Three ports of Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki were at once placed under this legislation, ■whicn was also extended two years later to Moji. Shipping Eetuens of the Four Ports. — The number of ships, both Japanese and foreign, that have entered and cleared those four ports since the enforcement of the regulations is given in the appended statement : — Yokohama. Kobe. Nagasaki. Moji. Year. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. Japanese. 1,012 i,357,ooS 4.178 2,415,124 906 720,963 Foreign. 238 872,258 291 1,039,687 292 846,185 2,080 3,009,340 10,261 6,036,509 2,120 1,734,939 522 1,986,342 723 2,808,642 729 2,422,103 1898^ 1899I iQoo/ » 2'°S9 2,743,196 10,682 5,917.988 1,775 1.648,924 2,161 1,945.256 ^^l » 570 2,286,083 752 3,110,569 871 3,254,457 313 959,215 iQoJ » ^''^9 3,194,064 ",400 6,658,896 1,807 1,793,070 14.336 7,101,179 ^ I .. 554 2,360,712 722 3,194,738 749 2,773,739 839 2,703,187 IQ02/ » 2''S6 3,308,779 11,653 7,147,892 2,241 2,040,934 15,172 7,112,140- ^ I „ 565 2,466,958 784 4,442,540 687 2,668,478 799 2,514,639^- 742 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Century. PART VIII EDUCATION. Introductory— General Education — Higher Education Technical Education — Libraries. I. INTRODUCTORY. In the Pre-Restoeation days. — Education in Japan dates from remote antiquity, and the national traits of faithfulness, filial piety, as well as valor have received from education a powerful stimulus. Intercourse with China and Korea naturally left on our educational system a peculiar stamp of its own, and Japan owed very much to these two neighbors in respect of her science and art. Whatever may have been the moving force of our education in its early stages, there exist ample authentic evidences attesting how even in ancient times culture and learning attained a high degree of development. Then followed centuries of intellectual retrogression occasioned by the incessant civil strifes of the " Middle Ages," to be succeeded by the revival and renaissance of the period of the Tokugawa. It ought to be remembered, however, that education as it was known prior to the Restoration was extremely narrow in scope andJimited in operation. In fact it practically consisted in belles-letti-es and what are called humanity studies, the latter based on the Chinese and Japanese classics. It has been only since the Restoration that education in its modern sense has first been planted on our soil and that the system has been subjected to a thorough change. After the Restoration. — True to national tradition, the Government bestowed special attention on matters of education, and in the very first year of the era several institutions were either Introductory. 743 created or thoroughly re-organized. The year 1869 saw the establishment of an Imperial University, while two years later educational affairs were entrusted to an independent Department of State. Next year the educational system was drawn up and proclaimed, and the utmost efforts were made to promote the cause of general and higher education. Since then, in accordance with the require- ments of the times, amendments of the system and improvement of the arrangement have been carried out frequently, till we witness the very full provisions as are existing to-day. In describing the existing educational system, a brief survey of the administrative organizations bearing upon it should first be given. Educational Administration. — The Department of Education superintends the educational affairs of the country besides maintain- ing institutions essential for the State. In a similar way each local office superintends the educational affairs in its own jurisdiction and maintains at its own expense the schools required in it, and this remarks also applies to each district, municipal or rural corporation. The institutions maintained by the Department are called Govern- ment institutions ^'\'hile those maintained by local, district or corpora- tion expenses are called public or communal schools. The latter are of two kinds, one of them established in conformity with the order of the Government and the other established at the initiation of the body public concerned. Normal schools, middle schools and higher girls' schools are schools which the provincial offices are obliged to maintain in their jurisdict'.i'n, the number to be one or more according to cirumstances. ITie schools which a municipal or rural corporation is under obligation to maintain are prima,ry schools. All the other kinds of schools maintained by all these public bodies are maintained by such bodies of their own accord and of course with the approval of the central Government. Besides, there are schools established by private individuals on their own account, and these are called private schools. Being under the direct control of the Department of State, all matters relating to the establishment or abolition or re-organization oi' the Government institutions are solely determined by the Depart- , ment, while all matters relating to the establishment or dis- continuation or re-organization of prefectural schools are carried oat 744 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, by the respective prefectural offices with the approval of the Minister of Education, while the appointment or relief from office of directors and teachers is made by the prefectural Governors concerned. It ought to be added that the directors of normal schools are civil officials of the higher civil service. Matters relating to schools maintained by districts and municipal or rural corporations are carried out with the approval of the Ministei of Education, when they relate to the establishment, abolition or re-organization of' higher girls' schools, middle schools and technical schools. The prefectural Governors concerned arrange on their own sole respon- sibility all those matters relating to schools of other descriptions. Similarly matters relating to the establishment, abolition or re- organization of private schools are dealt with by the prefectural Governors as in the case of district or communal schools. Government schools are allowed, in accordance with the Law of Special Finance, to set apart as permanent funds of' the schools, the income and other receipts, and in a si.iiilar way public or communal schools are allowed to create their permanent funds by setting apart their income of whatever description. Matters relating to the establishment, abolition or re-organization. of kindergartens, or public libraries as also to the appointment and relief from office of the staff thereof are generally dealt with ac- cording to the corresponding process of the schools mentioned above. Then in ease private individuals apply to the authorities for permission to establish and maintain at their own expense schools, kindergartens, or public libraries, the Minister of Education or the- prefectural Governors concerned give permission when they judge that such permission should be accorded. Those private institutions then receive similar treatment and privilege as public institutions of the corresponding character. The qualifications of the members on the staff of the Govern- ment schools are determined according to that section in the Civil Appointment Regulations that relates to teachers, while the qualifica- tions of public or private schools are limited only to those who possess the license granted either by the Minister of Education or by local Governors, according to the kind of the schools. The teachers of both the Government and public schools are entitled to- Introductory. 745 a pension either for themselves or to their families, in accordance with the respective legislative measures provided for the purpose. The administrative affairs relating to education are, as described above, taken charge of by the Department of Education, prefectural offices, district offices and civic corporations. In the Department of Education several bureaux and sections are established to deal with educational affairs, and, besides, school-inspectors are appointed to inspect the condition of the schools throughout the country. The prefectural offices also keep their own school-inspectors and assistant school-inspectors are appointed or relieved of office as officials of the higher civil service. The district also keeps its own inspectors to superintend its education, but in civic corporations this duty is undertaken by officials who have to attend to it as additional function. Appended is a table showing the condition of the various edu- cational institutions existing at the end of 1901 fiscal year: — SCHOOLS. Kind of Schools. Government. Public. Private. Total Primary 2 26,659 349 27,010 Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb ... I I 13 IS Normal — 54 — 54 Higher Normal ... 2 — 2 Middle I 207 34 242 Higher Girls I 61 8 70 High 8 — — S Universities 2 — — 2 Special 8 4 45 57 Technical 9 36S 27 401 Others •• ... — •• .•• 34 274 1,200 1.474 Total 27,625 1,676 29.335 PROFESSORS AND TEACHERS. Kind of Schools. Government. Public. Private. TotaL Primary 38 101,551 1,111 102,700 Blind and Deaf-aiid-Di imb ... IS 17 47 79 Normal — 1,032 — 1,032 Higher Normal ... ilS — 118 Middle 29 3.526 678 4,233 Higher Girls 18 807 133 958 High 282 — 282 Universities 327 — — 327 Special 227 78 896 1,201 Technical 250 1,784 202 2,236 Others — 191 4,747 4.938 Total ... >.304 108)986 7,814 118,104 746 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. Kind ot Schools. Primary Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb . Kormal High Normal Middle Higher Girls High Universities Special Technical Others STUDENTS AND PUPILS. Government. Public. 1,091 238 860 340 325 4,361 3,6l2 3,314 2,121 4,923,270 215 17,982 72.823 14,975 1,462 3t,954 13,062 Private. 56.243 344 15,228 2,240 13,112 2,702 83,122 Total. 4,980,604 797 17,982 860 88,391 >7,540 4.361 3,612 17,888 36,787 96,184 Total .. 16,262 5,075,743 173,001 5,265,000 GRADUATES. Kind of Schools. Government. Public. Private. TotaU Primary 277 841,540 8,553 850.376 Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb 32 9 14 55 Normal — 9,2i6 — 9,216 Higher Normal .. 176 — — 167 Middle 52 6,go+ 2,540 9,496 Higher Girls 64 2,77s 812 3.654 High _ .. 756 — — 756 Universities .. 671 — — 671 Special 515 ^ 253 1,718 2486 Technical 423 5,286 347 6,056 Others — f,S9o i7,f9S 18,685 Total .., 2,966 867,576 31.079 901,621 II. GENERAL EDUCATION. A. Z1NDEEGAETEN3. The first kindergarten in Japan was established in Tokyo in 1876. The number has since been considerably increased, 80 that at present every . province has one or more kinder- gartens. The necessity of an institution for the training of oualified nurse having come to be felt, a nurse course was newly General Education. 747 •opened in 1878 in the kindergarten affiliated to the Tokyo Womens' Normal School. The example set in Tokyo has since been followed in ]iiany provinces. According to the existing provisions the number of children to ■he taken into a kindergarten is limited to 100, which number could in special circumstances be increased to 150. Each nurse has to take charge of not more than 40 children. According to the in- quiries instituted at the end 1901 fiscal year, there were 254 kinder- gartens throughout the country and they comprised one Government establishment, 181 public establishments, and 72 private establish- ments. The number of nurses totalled 671 of which six were in ■Government establishments, 496 in public institutions and 169 in .private establishments. The pupils numbered 23,671. B. Primary Schools. History. — Family schools and schools maintained by the local feudal fiefs were in olden days the seats of learning, the former being mostly for children of the plebeian class and the latter for those of the samurai. The schools maintained by the fiefs taught first of all Chinese classics, then penmanship and arithmetic while the humbler schools taught penmanship, reading and counting. The ■education in those days was, therefore, far from perfect, absolutely speaking, but such as it was it satisfied the requirements of the time, and, especially as it was supplemented by the influence of a rigid domestic education, it attained the principal end of education, that is, it formed character and it supplied culture. Not a few primary schools based somewhat on the Western model were established soon after the Restration, but it was not till 1871 that schools of this grade, based on an entirely new system began to make their appearance. In that year the Department of Education brought under its direct control the six primary schools in Tokyo and at the same time it distributed among all the places throughout the country the rules put in force in those six schools. In the following year the school system was elaborated and the whole country was divided into 53,760 primary school sections each with one primary school. This elaboration of the system marks the new era in our education, for it was followed by the creation for the first time of communal and public primary schools. 748 Japan in tlie Beginning of tlie 20th Century. The system underwent amendments and revisions on many oc- cations, the last change taking place in 1900. That change was caused by the existing Primary School Law. At the same time rules for putting it in operation were promulgated. Kinds op Schools. — Primary schools are divided into ordinary primary schools and higher primary schools. The two may either exist separately or in combination, in which latter case the schools- are called ordinary and higher primary schools. Th( term of an ordinary primary school extends four years and that of a higher primary school two to four years according to- circurastjinces. The subjects taught at the ordinary primary school*^ are morals, reading, arithmetic and gymnastics. Drawing, singing or hand-work, either one or more, may be added according to local circumstances, while for girls a sewing lesson may be added. The- subjects at the higher primary schools comprise morals, readings arithmetic, history, geography, science, drawing, singing and gymnastics. For girls the subject of sewing may be added. For a higher primary school of two year course either science or singings or both may be dispensed with, or a lesson on hand-work may be- added ; for one of three year course the subject of singing may be dispensed with and on the other hand elementary lesson in agricul- ture, hand-work or business, may be added. Lastly the lesson in, English may be added to the curricu'ium of the four year course ia higher primary school. At both ordinary and higher primary schools a continuation course may be established for the benefit of those who have- graduated from the prescribed course of study, the term of this- course not to exceed two years. The programme of study is different according to local circumstances. The text-books used by primary schools are selected by local text-book committees from among the text-books compiled by the- Department of Education or those prepared by private individuals- and contained in the approved list. The selection is determined on the approval of the local Governors concerned. As a rule a text- book adopted has to be used for four years, after which the selection is to be made anew. School Attendance. — The school-age of children extends eight General Education. 749 years commencing from the age of fall six years and ending at full fourteen. Parents or those who act for them are under obligation to send to school the children who have reached the school-age, the -sending to commence at the beginning of the first school year after the attainment by the child of its school-age. It ought to he ■added that those who engage children who have not completed the course of elementary education are ordered not to object to those children attending school. Establishment, Maintenance, Fee. — A municipal or rural community is under obligation to establish and maintain one or more primary schools sufiicient to admit children of school-age residing in its jurisdiction. When, however, a rural community is Judged to be incapable of bearing this obligation alone, it may enter into an agreement with another community placed in proximity and they may both maintain one primary school in common. Then, in ■case of the scarcity of children sufficient to form one school, a village may entrust the schooling of its children to a neighboring village possessing one. The expense required for establishing and maintaining a school must be paid by the corporation concerned, but when a rural corpo- ration is judged to be unable to pay the whole cost the district in ivhich it is contained may give a suitable amount of grant-in-aid. In the case of a district unable to discharge this duty or in the <;ase of a municipal corporation unai)le to pay the cost required for primary schools, the obligation of making good the deficit devolves ■on the local treasury. No primary school can exact a fee from its pupils, unless ■special circumstances exist to allow it, with the approval of the local Governor, to collect the fee. The amount of this fee may not €xceed for ordinary primary schools 20 sen a month in the case of a school existing in a municipal district, and 10 sen in the case of •a town or village school. For a higher primary school the amount may not exceed 60 sen a month in the ease of a municipal school and 30 sen in the case of a town or village school. Children of poor families unable to pay the fee may be exempted either entirely -or in part. The fee may also be reduced for a family sending more than two children at the same time. 750 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Teachers. — There are three kinds of teachars, regular licensed' teachers who are qualified to teach all the subjects in the regular coures, special teachers who have to undertake the teaching of special subjects such as drawing, singing, sewing, English, agriculture, etc. Lastly there are assistant teachers who assist the regular licensed teachers. Teachers must have a regular license which is of two kinds,, one being good for all the country and the other good for only one particular locality. The latter, called a " prefectural licence," is. granted by the local authorities to those who have graduated from the prefeCitural normal school or other schools approved of by the- IMinister of Education, or those who have passed the prescribed license examination. The other license called " national license," is. granted to those teachers of distinguished service who have been in the service for more than ten years ; also those who, after having- graduated from a higher normal school, have served not less thaa three years as regular licensed teachers in a city or rural primary school. This license is also granted to those who have graduated from a special course of study at a school approved by the Minister of Education, provided they have been on the teaching staff of a. primary school for not less than three years. Treatment of Teaohees. — There is fixed schedule of salary for primary school teachers. This extends between the minimum of 6 yen and the maximum of 20 yen for an assistant teacher, the cor- responding limit being 8 to 40 yen for a special licensed teacher, and 10 to 75 yen for a regular licensed teacher. The maximum for the last kind of teacher may be increared to 100 yen provided the teacher in question has rendered distinguished service to the- cause of . education. Further, special allowances of greater or les* amount may be granted to those who undertake to teach more than 80 hours a week, while under no circumstances is the salary of a. teacher reduced without his consent. In the case a teacher dies while on active service or after he has retired, a sum of money corresponding to three times the salary he had drawn the month preceding his death, is given to his family. A special allowance over and above that sum may he granted ia the case of a school-master or teacher who has rendered distinguish^ Oeneral Education. 751 ed service. A school-master or teacher who has sustained injury or contracted disease in the discharge of his duty is allowed his medical expenses. In general, according to local circumstances, houses may be provided or house-rent granted to school-masters or teachers. A regular licensed teacher of meritrious service who has beea on the service for more than iive years in one and same province receives an additional allowance of 24 yen a year and an assistant teacher similarly qualified receives an allowance of 18 yen a year. For every additional five years a regular teacher gets an extra 18 yen a year and an assistant 12 yen. A licensed teacher who undertakes the teaching of a single-class primary school may receive an extra allowance of 24 yen a year, and in a similar way a teacher discharging service at a multiple-clasS school situated in a remote district may get extra allowance of 18 yen. The outlay involved in those special allowances described above is to be disbursed by the National Treasury in accordance with the Law relating to State Aid to Primary School Teachers. School Statistics. — According to the returns compiled at the end of 1901 fiscal year there were 20,284 primary schools throughout the country together with 6726 branches, making a total of 27,010. Teachers on duty numbered 102,700 and pupils in attendance 4,980,604. The ratio of daily attendance was 85.50 per 100 on the school record. Ordinary primary schools provided with the continuation course numbered 2,113 and higher primary schools possessing similar accommodations 26, making a total of 2,339. The children of school-going age numbered 7,566,880 of which 6,487,499 reached the limit of attendance, the remaining 969,397 not reaching' that limit. The ratio of attendance per 100 children who reached' the limit of attendance was 93.78 for boys and 81.80 for girls, the average being 88.05. C. Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb Schools, Normal Schools etc. 1. Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb Schools. — It was in 1878 that a blind and deaf-and-dumb school was first established in Japan. It was established at Kyoto by private individuals. It ought to be added, however, that even before the Restoration there were provisions for teaching the art of acupuncture and shampooing to the blind who 752 Japan in tJie Beginning of the. 2(ith Century. were thus provided -with a means of earning a livelihood. The teaching, however, was simple and hardly deserved the name of education as the term is understood to-day. The first blind and deaf-and-dumh school mentioned above was subsequently converted into a municipal institution, and, owing to the grant of money and building made to it by the Imperial Court, it has been considerably expanded in scope. The school is now known by the name of the Kyoto Municipal Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb School. Following the worthy example set by the people of Kyoto, the citizens of Tokyo also established in 1880 a similar institution of their own, which was transferred to the management of the Depart- ment of Education. Under the new management the school has very much enlarged its scope, and it is now a model institution of its kind. The Tokyo Blind and Deaf-and-Dumb School is divided into two departments, ordinary and technical. The blind students in the ordinary course are taught reading, arithmetic and oratory, and those in the technical course music, acupuncture and shampooing. The deaf and dumb students in the ordinary course are taught reading, penmanship, composition, arithmetic, also written conversation and gymnastics. In the technical course they are taught drawing and painting, sculpture, cabinet-work and sewing. In general every student is made to attend to the ordinary course and to one or more subjects in the technical course ; but, according to the request of the parents, this arrangement may be somewhat modified. The term of study lasts three years for blind students learning shampoo- ing and for others it lasts five years. According to the returns made in March 1902 blind and deaf-and-dumb schools both Govern- ment and private numbered fifteen, with 79 teachers and 797 students. 2. Normal Schools : — In 1872 a normal school was establish- ed in Tokyo and for the first time a provision for training primary school teachers was created. The schools that had previously existed were private schools or family schools and no institution existed for giving special instruction and training for teachers. In the follow- ing year six Government normal schools were established at so many ditTerent places, while at the same time a women's normal school was established in Tokyo for training women teachers. In 1875 General Education. lb'6 «acli prefecture was made to establish its own normal school, and in 1877 the Department of Education announced that it would disburse 50,000 yen a year as grant-in-aid to all the prefectural normal school expenses throiigliout the country. The sum was increased to 70,000 y&n during the subsequent three years. With the appearance of prefectural normal schools the Govern- ment normal schools that had previously created ceased to exist, and •only the Tokyo Normal School and the Tokyo Women's Normal -School were left remaining to serve as models for jirefectural normal schools. Shortly after a special course for training middle school teachers was established at the Tokyo Normal School. In 1886 the Normal School Regulations were promulgated, pro- "viding that the normal schools should be divided into higher and •ordinary normal schools, the former, one in number and that one located at Tokyo, to be placed under the direct control of the Minister of Education, and the latter, one in every province, to be ■controlled by the local Office. In 1897 the regulations in question were superseded by new regulations, the provisions of the two legis- lative measures however remaining practically identical in the main. To describe the system of ordinary normal schools as they exist at present, these institutions are schools where those who wish to become primary school teachers are trained. Each prefecture must have at least one normal school which may be divided into male and female ■departments. In some prefectures independent female normal schools -are established. All these schools are under the control of the res- pective local Governors and the expenses required are paid o\it of the local treasury. The school expenses of the students are supplied T)y the same treasury, and in return for this help the students are ■obliged to give their services at one or another primary school in the prefecture, for ten years in the case of men and five years in the case of women. The schools may also keep students who pay their own school expenses. In March, 1902, 54 normal schools existed throughout the -country with teachers numbering 1,032 and with students of three ■different courses (main, brief and preparatory) totalling 13,900 and Ihose of training course 4,082. Each normal school has subjoined to it a model primary school. 754 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. which at the same time serves the purpose of giving to the students practical experience in teaching. Further, to give similar opportu- nities to the girl-students and students of kindergarten nurses, a kindergarten is also provided at some normal schools. 3. Higher Normal Schools. — Higher Normal Schools are places ■where teachers qualified to teacher at normal schools, middle schools and higher girls schools are trained. There are two higher normal schools, one at Tokyo and the other at Hiroshima. Placed' under the control of the Minister of Education, the outlay is paid out of the State Treasury, while the school expenses of the students are supplied by the respective schools. In return for this help, the students are under obligation to attend for ten years to the work of education at places specified by the Government. 4. The Higher Women's Normal School. — This school trains female students who are to become teachers of normal and' higher girl's schools. The Tokyo Higher Women's Normal School is the only institution of this kind existing in Japan. The school' is managed by the Minister of Education and the schooling expenses of the students are paid by the school. The students are therefore- under obligation to attend to work of education for five years from the date of their graduation. 5. Middle Schools. — Established for the first time in 1872, the middle schools as originally arranged were schools where boys- intended for business or who aspired to enter higher institutions were taught. The regulations provided two kinds of middle schools, ordinary and higher, the former established in the provinces and" therefore prefectural establishments and the latter Government schools established at important local centres. The regulations that are now in force are those amended in 1901. They provide that one or more middle schools are to be established in every prefecture, the- exact number to be determined according to local requirements. The outlay is of course to be met out of the local treasury. A district or a rural or municipal corporation may establish either singly or in combination a middle school of its own, but only when such establishment does not interfere with the work of primary education. Private individuals may also establish a middle school in conformity with the regulations. Higher Education. Ib^ Xix general the number of students of one middle school is fixed at not more than 400 which number may be raised to 600 under special circumstances. A single class must not contain more than 60 students, and the number of teachers must be at the rate of at least two per class for a school containing not more than five classes. For every additional class above five the number of teachers must increase at the rate of 1^ per class. 6. Higher Girl's Schools. — In 1872 one girl's school was established in Tokyo and another in Kyoto, the former being a Government and the latter a prefectural institution. Similar schools have been created in almost every prefecture and district throughout the country. Indeed the Higher Girl's School Regulations enacted in 1889 made the establishment of this kind of school in the pro- vinces compulsory. The regulations now in force were those revised in 1901. They provide that a higher girl's school give general education of a higher class to girls, and that one or more schools be established and maintained. Provisions similar to those for middle schools apply in the case of communal schools or schools established and maintained by private individuals. III. HIGHER EDUCATION. 1. The Imperial Universities. — The Imperial Universities, one in Tokyo and the other in Kyoto, are maintained by the State Treasury in accordance with the Imperial Universities Regulations. a. The Tokyo Imperial University — .The Tokyo Imperial University, which consists of the defunct Tokyo University, the Engineering College (created in 1885) and the Tokyo Agricultural and Dendrological College (affiliated in 1890), had its origin in the "Institute of "Western Knowledge" that existed in the latter days of the Tokugawa Shogunate. It was transferred to the control of the Department of Education of the rehabilitated Imperial Govern ment in 1871. The Tokyo Medical College was united to it six- years after and with this union the name was again changed to the Tokyo University. The University comprises six colleges, namely Law, Medicine, Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture. The College of 756 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. X/aw is subdivided into two courses, that of law proper and that of politics ; and in the same way the College of Medicine consists of the courses of medicine and pharmancy. The College of Engineering -consists of nine courses; namely, civil engineering, mechanical -engineering, shipbuilding, electric engineering, technology of arms, architecture, chemical technology, technology of explosives, mining and metallurgy.f The College of Literature includes philosophy, -Japanese classics, Chinese classics, Japanese history, general history, philology, English literature, German literature, and French litera- ture. The College of Science is made up of eight courses, mathema- tics, astronomy, pure physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, and geology. Lastly the College of Agriculture comprises the courses ■of agriculture, agricultural chemistry and veterinary medicine. The number of chairs is 29 for the College of Law, 27 for the College of Medicine, 29 for the College of Engineering, 21 for the Oollege of Literature, 21 for the College of Science, and 22 for the ■College of Agriculture. The students who have finished the University preparatory ■course in a High School are admitted to colleges of their own choice. When, however, the number of candidates is in excess of the accommodation in a given college thau admission is made by •competitive examination. In case the number of applicants for admission falls short of the number of places vacant, the deficiency may be filled up with the graduates of schools judged by the Minister of Education to be of equal standing with the University preparatory course or those who have passed the examination •arranged by the colleges concerned and conducted at the respective High Schools, the examination to be suited to the scholarship of the Schools. The term of study is not fixed for the College of Law, the diploma being given to those who have passed four academic ex- aminations. In the course of pharmacy of the College of Medicine it lasts four years while in all the other colleges it is three years. Besides the regular courses mentioned above there is a post- graduate course, the term of wtiich lasts five years. This special •establishment is known by the name of " University Hall." The students of Law studying at the Hall are precluded during the first Higher Education. 757 two years from attending to any work not connected with the subject of their special study : and the students of Liteiature may not attend to any work not connected with their study, unless with the consent of the College of Literature. These two kinds of Hall students are also prohibited from residing elswhei'e than in Tokyo. The Hall students of Medicine, Engineering, Science and Agriculture are under obligation to devote themselves for the first two years to their respective courses of study ; nor may they attend to work not connected with the subjects of their study unless with the consent of the Deans of their respective colleges. At the end of the two years the students have to report to their Deans the progress they have made in studies. This report is to be submitted at the end of every year by the students of Law and Literature studying in the Hall. The reports are then submitted by the Deans to the exami- nation of the faculty meeting. Those students of the Hall who wish to obtain the degree of " Hakushi " shall submit at the end of the prescribed five years to the Deans an essay on their special subject of investigations. A committee will be elected from among the members of the- faculty to examine the essays submitted. The applicants for the degree may be required to undergo examination when it is judged' necessary by the Committee. The provisions apart from class-rooms are the library for the ■whole University ; hospital with all the accommodations pertaining thereunto for the College of Medicine ; the historigraphical works and reports of linguistic investigations of the Japanese language for the College of Literature ; the Tokyo Observatory for the College of Science, the Observatory undertaking astronomical observations and. the compilation of almanacs. The same College has also attached to it the botanical garden, seismic observatory, and marine labor- atory, while the College of Agriculture has a nursery bed, veterinary hospital, orchard, and training forests. At the end of March, 1902, the faculty of all the University Colleges comprised 104 professors, 51 assistant professors, 72 lecturers, and 18 foreign professors, making a total of 245. The alumnii as computed from the foundation numbered 1,336 for the College of Law, 715 for the College of Medicine, 1,072 for the College ot 758 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. Engineering, 542 for the College of Literature, 380 for the College of Science, 481 for the College of Agriculture, in all 4,521. The students numbered 467 for the University Hall, 969 for the College of Law, (besides 26 in the elective course), 398 for the College of Medicine (besides 124 in the elective course), 421 for the College of Engineering (besides 6 in the elective course), 285 for the College of Literature (besides 17 in the elective course), 65 for the College ■of Science (besides 3 in the elective course), 65 in the College of Agriculture (besides 275 in the practical course), in all 3,121 classified into 2,670 students proper and 451 students in the elective and practical course, including 11 foreign students. h. The Kyoto Imperial Univeesity. — Established at Kyoto in June 1897 by Imperial Ordinance, the University had at first only the combined College of Science Engineering. In July 1899 the Colleges of Law and of Medicine were added. The Collegiate provisions are not in conformity with the Imperial Ordinance relating to Universities, so that the University possesses only the Colleges of Law, Medicine, and Science and Engineering, no College of Literature yet existing. The College of Law comprises the two courses of Law and Politics, the College of Medicine contains only the one course of Medicine, and the College of Science and Engineering the following eight courses ; viz., mathematics, physics, pure chemistry, chemical technolog}', civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electric engi- neering, and mining and metallurgy. The qualification for admission is equal to that for the Tokyo Imperial University. The term of study extends three years for the Colleges of Law and Science and Engineering, and no students are allowed to remain in one course for more than six years. The term for the College of Medi- cine lasts four years, and no student may remain in it for eight years or above. Outsiders may attend lectvires in one or more subjects at a. college when there is room for them. In the College of ^Medicine licensed practitioners may be ad- mitted as elective students. Their term may not exceed one year. The number of chairs is 24 at the College of Law, 27 at the College of Medicine, and 26 at the College of Science and Engineering. Higher Education. 759 2. IIiGHER Schools. — There are eight Higher Schools, respec- tively designated the First to Sixth Higher Schools, the Seventh Zoshikan Higher School and the Yamaguchi Higher School. They are all Government institutions. The First Higher School is located at Tokyo, tue Second at Sendai, the Third at Kyoto, the Fourth at Kanazawa, the Fifth at Kumamoto, the Sixth at Okayama and the Seventh at Kagoshima. The Yamaguchi Higher School is at Yamaguchi. The Higher Schools were formerly called Higher Middle Schools and in 1886 five such schools were created at so many places, and gave instruction to those young men who wished to enter the University or to enter business. The schools were allowed to establish courses on law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, agriculture and commerce. The courses of medicine were in general separate establishments. At the same time there were the Yamaguchi Higher Middle School and Zoshikan Higher Middle School which were originally founded by private individuals but were placed under ihe control of the Government. In 1894 the Imperial Ordinance relating to Higher Schools was issued to supersede the Higher Middle School Regulations, and the new title of Higher School was given to those institutions. Accord- ing to the regulations, the main object of the Higher Schools was to teach the students on special subjects, and to give at the same time and subordinate to this main work, a preparatory education for those who aspired to enter the university. The Third Higher School which previously opened the law course in 1889 established the engineering course in 1894, and the Fifth Higher School opened that same coui'se at the same time. In 1895 the Kagoshima Zoshikan High School was abolished, and it was announced that the special course q-'' study established at the Third Higher School would be closed by 1900. In that year the Sixth Higher School and in the following year the Seventh Zoshikan Higher School were founded. In the same year the medical departments attached to the First to the Fifth Higher Schools were completely separated and converted into special medical schools. 3. Special Schools of Medicine. — The Medical Schools are situated in Chiba, Sendai, Okayama, Kanazawa, and Nagasaki.- 760 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century, They were formerly medical departments of tbe Higher Middle Schools and the Higher Schools. In April 1901 they were con- verted into independent institutions. Prior to the detachment, a course of pharmacy was added to each medical department. The Special School of Medicine is connected with the prefectural hospital of the place where it is situated, and the students are thus given opportunities of acquiring experience and of attending to clinical lectures. 4. The Tokyo Fine Art School. — This school was established in November of 1888 though strictly speaking this was not the first art institution in Japan, for as early as 1876 an art school was established by the Department of Public Works and students were taught on the subjects of painting and sculpture. In 1884 the Committee for the Investigation of Drawing was appointed in the Department of Education and in the following year Commissioners on painting and drawing were appointed. Both the Committee and Commissioners were made to carry out inquiries into the subject of art education with special bearing on painting. The inquiries resulted in the creation of the Tokyo Fine Art School, and it was opened for work in 1889. The course of study was divided into two departments, one being the ordinary course lasting two yeais and the other the special course lasting three years. The practical education in the former consisted of instruc- tion in painting and moulding while in the other it consisted of painting, sculpture, and applied art, the last divided into metal- work and lacquer-work. The organization has since been changed several times, with the result that the school has finally attained its present state of comparative perfection. At present the school consists of four departments; namely, painting, design, sculpture, and applied art, the last divided into glyptic art, metal-laying, metal- casting, and lacquer-work. Architecture is lacking for the present. The course of study lasts four years in each department, and there is one year of preparatory study in each department. 5. The Tokyo Foreign Language School. — This school wa» at first established in April of 1897, as an institution affiliated to the Higher Commercial School, Two years later it was separated and made an independent school under the above-mentioned title- Higher Education. 761 The school has a precursor which existed as early as 1874. In that year the two courses of English and French that formed part of the then University Institution and the Language School in the Foreign Office teaching German, Russian and Chinese were combined under the name of Tokyo Foreign Language School. At the same time the Tokyo English Language School was founded and the department of English in the Foreign Language School was transferred to it. In 1880 the department of the Korean language was created, while in 1884 the Higher Commercial School was founded, subordinate to the Language School. Next year the Language School and the Commercial School were combined into one institution bearing the title of the Tokyo Commercial School. Two years later the depart- ment relating to foreign languages was abolished. Eleven years later the school was resuscitated, as described before. The present school contains the eight departments of English, French, German, Russian, Spanish, Chinese, and Korean. The course of study extends for three years. 6. The Tokyo Music School. — The appointment in the Department of Education of a number of Commissioners on music in 1879 was the origin of this school. In the following year a music teacher was engaged from America. He and some Japanese experts were made to carry out an investigation on matters musical both foreign and Japanese, and especially on the songs and arts that had previously existed in our country. Those that were available were set to music with or without modification, while some new aits were composed, and for the first time the adapted music was taught to the students of the Tokyo Normal School, the Tokyo "Women's Normal School, and the Peer's School. A number of students were also taken by the Commissioners, and those students may be regarded as the first regular music students in Japan. In 1887 the scope of the education was enlarged, resulting in the creation of the Tokyo Music School. In 1893 the School was subjoined to the Higher Normal School, to be again converted into one independent institution in 1899. The school contains five difierent departments namely, the pre- paratory department, the main department, the special department, the teachers' department, and the elective dej. .rtment. The main 762 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. department is further subdivided into the vocal course, instrument course, and singing course. The teachers' department is also sub- divided into A. section and B. section, the former to train teachers qualified to teach in normal or middle schools and higher girl's school, the latter in primary schools. The term of study lasts one year for the preparatory department, three years for the main department, two years for the special, two years and seven months for A. section teacher's course and one year for B. section. The term for the elective department is not definitely fixed. lY. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. General Remarks. — The importance of encouraging technical education was early recognized by the Government, especially in recent times. The promulgation in 1894 of the Rules relating to Apprentice Schools, of the Rules relating to Agricultural Schools in 1883, the Rules of Elementary Agricultural Schools in 1894 may be mentioned among the legislative measures pertaining to industrial education. In a similar way the Rules relating to Com- mercial Schools were issued in 1884 while the Rules relating to Technical Continuation Schools were issued in 1893, this latter kind of school being intended to give technical education of secondary or lower grade. The cause of technical education received in 1894 powerful encouragement, for in that year the Law for subsidizing Technical Education was passed, by which law the State pledged itself to give grant-in-aid to technical schools judged useful for promoting technical education. At first the sum set apart on this account by the Treasury was 150,000 yen a year, but this has been gradually increased with the expansion of this particular branch of education and at the present ">>'ime the outlay amounts to 320,000 yen. This sura is voted every- year by the Diet and comprises the expense on account of training teachers for technical schools. In 18,j9 the Technical Education Regulations were enacted and at the same time the Rules relating to different kinds of technical schools were drawn up. In 1900 similar rules relating to fishery schools were issued, and in a year later the Rules lelatiug to the Technical Technical Education. 763 Continution Schools were amended and the details about their working were made public. All these endeavors made by the authorities to encourage technical education were eagerly responded to by the people, so that technical schools were founded, one after another, in quick succession. At persent the technical schools of the higher and lower grades number 240 and the Technical Continuation Schools 1,021. A. Schools relating to manufacture. 1. Higher Techkical Schools. — There are three Higher Technical Schools, these being the Tokyo Higher Technical School, the Osaka Higher Technical School and the Kyoto Higher Technical School. They are all Government institutions. a. The Tokyo Higher Technical School. — Founded in 1881 under the style of the Tokyo Technical School it assumed its present name in 1900. The school devotes itself to giving instruc- tion both theoretical and practical to those who aspire to engage in manufacturing and technical work. It contains six diiferent depart- ments, these being dyeing, ceramics, applied chemistry, mechanics, electricity, and designs as applied to the manufacturing industry. The dyeing department is further subdivided into dyeing proper and weaving, while the department of electricity is subdivided into electrical engineering and chemical electricity. The school has attached to it an apprentice course. b. The Osaka Higher Technical School. — This schools was founded in the city of Osaka in 1896 and it aims at educating those who have to engage in industrial work. The courses provided in it are mechanical engineering, chemical technology, and shipbuild, ing. The chemical department is subdivided into five different branches, these being applied chemistry, dyeing, ceramices, brewing- and metallurgy. The shipbuilding department is subdivided into the two branches of hull work and machinery. c. The Koyto ' Technical School. — -This is the latest of the three, having been established in 1902. The school educates those who wish to engage in manufacturing industry or to become teachers in technic.il schools. Tliis school comprises the three courses of dyeing, weaving and designing. 2... Technical Schools.— The Technical Schools are institu- 764 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. tions which teach technical education of secondary grade. They are either prefectural or communal schools. The curriculum of the schools of this kind comprises morals, reading, composition, mathematics, physics, chemistry, drawing, gymnastics, and practical- training on the technical subjects taught. Geography, history, natu- ral history, foreign languages, political economy, statute laws, and book-keeping may be added to the curriculum, the number of such additional subjects to be one or more, according to circumstances. The technical subjects in which a practical training is to be- imparted on the students are selected from the following, the- number of such subjects to be one or more according to circum- stances : — Civil engineering, metal-work, shipbuilding, electricity^ wood-work, mining, dyeing, ceramics, designing. 3. Apprentice Schools. — The school of this kind is intend- ed to give the necessary teaching to those desirous of becoming me- chanics. It is either a prefectural or communal establishment and may be attached to either an ordinary primary or a higher primary school. The subjects taught are morals, arithmetic, geome- try, physics, chemistry, drawing, and practical training on one or more technical subjects. All tliose subjects, with the exception of morals, may be made either optional or may be suitably modifiecf according local requirements, while the technical subjects for giving practical training may be limited to those easily accessible to the- school. The term of study ranges from six months to four yeai-s, and the teaching may be conducted on Sundays and in the evening besides- at ordinary hours. It may also be limited in certain season. JB. Schools eelatixg to agricultural education. 1. Higher Agricultural institutions : — There are besides- the College of Agriculture of the Tokyo Imperial University, two- higher institutions devoted to agricultural education, and these are the Sapporo Agricultural College and the Morioka Higher Agricul- tural and Deudrological School, both being Government establish- ments. a. The Sapporo Agricultural College :— Founded at Sap- poro, Hokkaido, in 1875, this institution gives education in the- higher branches of agriculture, theoretical and applied, and other subjects required in the work of exploiting the island of Hokkaid5> Technical Education. 765 The courses consist of raaiu course, preparatory course, civil engineer- ing course, forestry course, and practical agriculture course. One ■conspicuous feature in this institution is the possessing of about ■6,000 c7i5 of an arable land, a large tract forest land, about 200 horses and cattle, a botanical garden measuring about 34,800 tsvLo, ■and a museum containing over 12,000 specimens. These are quite sufficient to satisfy the demand of the faculty and students for materials and opportunities botli of scientific researches and prac- tical training. b. The Morioka Higher Agricultural and Dendrologi- CAL School. — The school was opened only in April, 1903, the courses provided being agriculture, dendrology and a veterinary ■course. 2. Agricultural Schools of class A. — The schools belong- ing to this category are either prefectaral or communal schools ^nd are intended to give a scientific and practical training to far- mers or their sons. The main aim kept in view is to impart jiecessary knowledge to future farmers of the middle class. The ■subject taught is mainly agriculture, but besides it the subjects of ■sericulture, forestry, and veterinary surgery may be provided, tha number of subjects to be one or more. A school of this kind has to provide itself with suitable ac- oommodation for giving practical training to the students, this accommodation diifering in nature according to the kind of the principal subject taught. '^' 3. Agricultural Schools of class B. — A school of this cate- gory is lower in grade than the one mentioned in the preced- ing paragraph and the term of study is nOt to exceed three years. The object of this school is, (a) to impart an elementary agricul- tural knowledge to those who finished their primary education, and ■(b) to teach farmers within a short period of time on agricultural ■subjects closely connected with the local circumstances. For those who belong to the former class the term ex-tends for two to three years, while the term may not exceed one year ibr the students of the latter class. The longer term school may be a permanent establishment but the other may be tem- j>orary, and the class-rooms may be provisionally established at 766 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. different jjlaces. A school of this grade may be either a prefec- tural or communal eatablishment. In October 1902 the record of the two grades of schools read as follows : — Number of Schools 93 Number of Teachers 733 Number of Students 9,763 Number of Graduates 1,755 C Schools Kelatinq to Fishery. The schools of this description are comparatively small in number. There is only one institution where higher education on the subject is taught, and that is the Fishery School under "control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The Other fishery schools are intended to give technical education on fishery of secondary or lower grade and are maintained either by a prefecture or a community. The course of study at all those schools is generally divided into fishing, raanufiicture and fecundation. Some schools adopt one or more of the foregoing subjects as special courses of study. These courses of study may be established side by side with those on marine navigation or on other technical subjects. In October of 1902 the fishery education record read as follows : — Number of Schools 6 Number of Teachers 26 , Number of Students ^?i Number of Graduates 8 ' D. ScHooi-s Relating to Commercial Education, 1. Higher Commercial Sehools. — The schools of this grade • are two in number, namely the Tokyo Higher Commercial School and the Kobe Higher Commercial School, both being maintained by the Government. a. The Tokyo Higher Commercial School. — The school ■was founded in 1885, and during the subsequent 17 years it was the only place where higher education on commerce was 1 Technical Education. 767 ' givpli. The school course divided into preparatory, main, and professional departments. h. The Kobe Higher Commercial Schools. — This was opened at Kobe in April 1903 and is intended to satisfy the growing demand for commercial education which demand could' not be easily met by the Tokyo institution alone. In standing and all other respects the younger school is identical with the older school. 2. Commercial Schools of Class A. — The schools belong- ing to this category are designed to give technical education on commerce of secondary or lower grade, and are maintained either by a prefecture or by a community. The first school of this kind was founded in 1884, and since then tlie number has' consiileralily increased some of the schools being even higher than the regulation standard. The candidates for admission must be graduates of the four year course of a higher primary school or those of equal scholarship. An examination in a foreign language may be insisted on prior to admission to the school. In general a preparatory course is provided for the benefit of the graduates. 3. Commercial Schools op Class B. — The schools of the grade admit those who are not less than ten years old and who have finished the four year course in the ordinary primary school. The term of study extends f>r not more than three years. The subjects of study are nearly equal to those in the grade A^ schools. These inferior schools may add some jther subject of study suitable to local circumstance or may create a special course. The school is a prefectural or communal establishment. The record of the commercial schools of the two grades read as follow in October 1902 : — Number of Schools 48 Number of Teachers 650 Number of Students II.73S Number of Graduates i,S92 E. Schools Eelating to Navigation. The only institution where a higher course of nautical 7C8 Japan in the Beginning oj the 2Qth Century. educatioa is imparted is the Nautical College maintained by the Department of Communications. 1. Nautical Schools of Class A. — The schools of this class devote themselves to training mariners of the higher class^ The course of study is subdivided into navigation and engineering, and the subjects of teaching comprise morals, reading, composition, mathematics, physics, geography, a foreign language, drawing, gymnastics, and practical lessons on technical subjects. Besides, chemistry, statute law, and other subjects allied to nautical work may be added. 2. Nautical Schools op Class B. — Being a school where seamen of a lower class than those in the above-mentioned schools are trained, its course of study does not generally exceed two years, and it admits graduates of primary schools. As yet no nautical school of this inferior class actually exists. The figures with regard to navigation schools was as follows in October 1902:— Number of Schools 7 Number of Teachers 53 Number of Students 784 Number of Graduates 4 F. Technical Continuation Schools. The Technical Continuation Schools are places where element- ary knowledge on technical subjects is given to those who are either actually engaged in technical business or are desirous to enter such business. They are at the same time intended to supplement primary- education. This being their object, the Technical Continuation Schools present very irregular aspects in points of details. The sub- jects taught are agriculture, manufacture, commerce and fishery, and in most cases one school combines two or more subjects. The term of study is also diverse, extending for two or three years in some schools and in others only six months or so. Then some may collect a fee, of not more than 30 sen at most, while no fee is collected in others. Teachers of this kind of schools are generally teachers of primary schools who attend to this particular business in their spare tours, and the number of these teachers does not exceed three or Technical Education. 769 "four for one school, besides the schoolmaster. Provisions for train- ing teachers of this sort are now sufficieiitly maintained, for some ■of the local technical schools provide a special course to answer this purpose, and the summer schools opened every year under the patron- age of the Department of Education also offer excellent opportunities tto primary school teachers and other desirous of being initiated into the subject. In schools of this class candidates for admission must have at least completed the ordinary primary school course. However a -special arrangement exists for the benefit of those who have not yet finished that course. It was in 1894 that the term Technical Continuation Schools -was first officially adopted. In that year 22 schools of this grade were founded, the number being increased to 186 by June 1901. After that year some schools were converted into schools of another nature while a few were closed ; on the whole the cause of this branch of education is making steady progress. Of those schools -«,bout one-third are enjoying a grant-in-aid from the Treasury. The Jatest returns on the Schools are as- follows : — Number of Schools 221 Number of Teachers 431 Number of Students 12,992 Number of Graduates 'i779 G. Technical Education Funds. As mentioned in the preceding part, the Government has '"been paying since 1894 no small sum, comparatively speaking, "towards the encouragement of technical education. The schools -enjoying this help are generally technical schools maintained by the public funds, and those maintained by industrial or comniercial asso- -ciatiom may also participate in the benefit. The sura set apart on this account was at first limited to 150,000 but has since been increased till at present it amounts to 320,000 yen. This increase was owing to the founding of a large number of new technical and com- mercial schools subsequent to the coming info operation of the •encouragement programme. At first there were about forty or fi ty schools that were allowed to participate in the fund, but the cnr 770 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. responding number increased to 179 in March 1901 and to 210 a year after. Theoretically the help from the funds may come up to the level of the sum disbursed by the founders of a school for main- taining it, but. owing to large number of schools entitled to the allowance from the funds, the rate of the help generally ranges from 16 to 25 per cent of the amount of maintenance. U. Training of Technical School teachers. Wiih the advance of technical education and the increase of the number of schools of this description and of the students, pro- visions for supplying teachers qualified to undertake the teaching are required. In pursuance of that object the Department issued in April 1899 Kules relating to Technical Education Teachers, which were amended two years after with the object of enlarging tlie- scope of operation. Some details of the working of this provision will be mentioned below. 1- Help to Students aspirinq to become teachers of tech- nical SCHOOLS. — The sum of 6 yen a month is being furnished by the Department of Education to those students who engage to- become teachers of technical schools after their graduation, the stu- dents being those of the following institution: — course of agricul- ture (both main and practical) of the College of Agriculture of the Tokyo Imperial University, Tokyo Higher Commercial School, Tokyo Higher Technical School, Tokyo Nautical College, Tokyo Fine Art School, Fishery School (under control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce). 2. Training Schools. — The College of Agriculture, thfr Tokyo Higher Commercial and the Higher Technical Schools also estiiblish teachers' training courses of agriculture, commerce and technology respectively, and teachers qualified to teach at the- Technical Continuation Schools are being trained. Technical Education. 771' Y. LIBRARIES. The Imperial Library is a Government establisliment and i& situated in Tokyo. It was established in 1872 iu the premises ol the Museum controlled by the Department of Education. It i» the pioneer institution of the kind in Japan. In March 1902, the Library contained 363,661 volumes of Japanese and Chinese works, 54,931 volumes of foreign works, in all 418,592, volumes. During the one year ending the above date the Library was open 334 days, and was visited by 133,803 per- sons, the daily average of 400. The accommodation being judged inadequate to satisfy the growing number of visitors and of the books, pictures, etc. to be kept, the work of constructing new building has been started. Of the local libraries, the one in Kyoto is the oldest, follow- ed by the two in Osaka. At that particular date libraries of all kinds existing throughout the country numbered 49 containing 408,570 volumes of books, etc. The visitors to the local libraries num- bered 107,790, the daily average of 10 persons, during the one year mentioned above. Of these libraries the most noteworthy in the relative perfection of their accommodation are the library be- longing to the Imperial Education Society in Tokyo and the library maintained by the prefacture of Kyoto. The library main- tained by the prefecture of Miyagi comes next. The rest are of smaller scope and visited by a smaller number of people. 772 Japan in the Beginning of tJte 20th Century. SUPPLEMENT. FORMOSA, Introductory — Agriculture — Fishery — Forestry — Mining — Trade — Finance— Communications — Education, Sanitation and Religion. I. INTRODUCTORY. A. Geography. General Remarks. — The districts under the jurisdiction of the •Governor-General's Office of Formosa comprise Formosa, Hoko-to (the Pescadores) and all the islands lying about them. Formosa extends from 21°10' to 25°30' N. latitude and from 119°10' Pcsi'ions. to 122°10' E. longitude. The Tropic of Cancer runs almost through its centre and the southern half of Formosa therefore belongs to the tropical zone. The accurate geodesic surveying of Formosa being not yet completed, the positions of the principal places can only ba ■approximately indicated, as follows : — Name of Place. North Latitude. Kelung .-. 25°. 8' Tansui ... 25° i. 223.923 2,000 )> m.n 2,500 >. 48.8 3.000 .» 17-45 For further descriptions of the geography of Formosa the- reader is referred to the Introductory chapter of this work. B. Fauna and Flora. General Remarks. — A brief description of the fauna and: flora of Formosa will now be given. According to Wallace's " Geographical Distribution of Animals," the fauna of Formosa belongs to the Oriental section which comprises the south-eastern part of the continent of Asia, Fauna, and the islands lying south thereof. A certain "Western authority states that the mammals found in Formosa number 35 as to species, and of these 14 are peculiar to this island. There are 196 species of birds, according to Mr. Tada of the College of Sciences of the Imperial Tokyo University, and of that number 31 are judged to be peculiar to this place. Then there are several species of saurians very varely met with else- where. Some of the snakes are poisonous. Of fish may be mentioned species of Sclachaiclei and Balordei ; then carps, eels, etc., while of molluces may be mentioned species of Pecten, Tridacua, Chiton,. Murex, Oclapada, etc. Oystei's are extensively cultivated. A large number of insects are found, some of them being extremely beautiful. According to Mr. Grisebach's formulae of geographical dis- tribution of plants, the flora of Formosa belongs to the extreme south division of the China-Japan zone and is practically identical' with that of the trade wind zone region of India. The Formosan flora is- 774 Japan in the Beginning of the 20i4 Century. f urtli .1' divisible into three main parts. For instance, the flora of hills and plains presents characteristics possessed by the flora of India and Southern China, the southern flora has qualities more or less in common with the flora of the Philippines, while the flora in mountainous districts much resembles that of Japan proper, middle China and Himalaya. According to Mr. Augustine Henry's exploration, Formosa ■contnins 1,429 species of plants, exclusive of algoe, as follows : — Phanerogamia 12S3 Filices 131 Zycopodiace£E \ Marsiliaceae \ 15 Equisetaceae 1,429 As 20 species of acclimatized plants and 81 species of <;ultivated plants are included in the above figures, the plants indigenous to the island are reduced to 1,328 of which the flower- ing plant number 1182 and the flowerless plants the remaining 146. Mr. Henry's investigation is not complete, however, as it did not extend to the backwood regions. Especially in Ericacea3 and •Coniferse his investigation has been found incojnplete. His list contains only 6 plants of the latter order, but 16 more have already been discovered. According to the investigations so far carried out by our scientific experts, 103 species divided into 79 genera are judged to be peculiar to Formosa, though the genera themselves also exist elsewhere. It is curious to observe that the majority of acclimatised plants are of American origin, as, for instance, Pddium guyala, Ascrepias curassavica, Mirahilii jazapa, Tycopersicum esculeiitum, etc. Another thing that is noteworthy in this respect is the fact that plants peculiar to Australia, as Acacia, are found in plains and hills, the Acacia growing luxuriantly in southern Formosa. Q^.ese plants evidently came from the South Pacific and acclimatis- *J in some remote time. Prof. Honda, of the Imperial Tokyo University, who has Introductory. 775 Investigated the forest zones of the island, tabulates them as follows : — Forest Zone. Extent of Zone. Tropical Forest. Banyan Zone. Below 1,500 ft. Below 2,000 ft. Broad-Leafed -1.^ .,^ fCamphore Zone 1,500 to 3>5oo ft. 500 to 4,500 ft. Everereens f ^°""^ ^""^^^^ i Quercus-Pasania Jivergreensj j^ 2une 3,5CO to 6,000 ft. i ,500 to 8,500 ft. [" Charaaecyparis Temperate Forest I & AraucariaZone6,ooo to 7,000 ft 5,500 to 7,500 ft, '^ 1 I'icea Zone ... 7,000 to 8,500 ft. 6 500 to 9,000 ft. [TsuyaZone ... 8,500 to 10,500 ft. 8,000 to 11,000 ft. Conifers. Frigid Forest ... Abies Zone ... Above 10,500 ft Above 10,000 ft. In the Tropical forest 18 species of banyan trees is foiuid, the principal species being Fi(MS retuca and Ficus Wigh- tiaiia. In the Torrid forest the principal trees are Cinnamomum camphora, various species of Quercus, Pcuania cuspidata, and others. In the Temperate forest the principal trees are several species of Chama3C3^aris, Picea, Tsuya and others. Finally the Frigid forest contains Abies, Juniperus, Pirus, and a few others. It may also be noted in concltision that the forest zone of the mountainous regions somewhat resen)bles the Californiau flora, especial- yl in the possession of Libocedrus, Chamsecyparis, Taxaceaj, and others. C. HtSTOEY. General Remarks.- — The history of Formosa may be divided into six parts, namely (1) period of chaos, (2) Dutch occupation, (3) Spanish occupation, (4) period of native kingdom (5) Chinese rule, (6) annexation by Japan. 1. Period of Chaos. — By the "Period of Chaos" is meant that period when the island had no definite government to rule it and when it was a haunt of outlaws from China and other places who used it as their hiding-place. The discovery of Formosa, so fiar as authentic history goes, took place in the beginning of the 7th century of the Christian era, during the reign of the Sui dynasty in China. But the sovereign rulers of China of that dynasty and most of the others that succeeded it, did not trouble themselves much about annexing the island as part and parcel of their dominions, and the outlaws who invariably made their appearance on every occasion of dynastic changes in China and also of other people 776 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. also placed outside the pale of Chinese control were left unmolested' masters of the island. The number of such political outlaws wh& came over to Formosa was especially numerous when the present Manchu Dynasty overthrew the Dynasty of Ming. Nor were outlaws from Japan altogether absent from the- island; on the contrary, they also came to the island and used it as their base of operation. They were in most cases buccaneers who occupied themselves as pirates along the coast of China. Their stay in the island was therefore temporary, and very seldonv they settled down, as the refugees from China generally did. It is interesting to note that the name " Formosa " was given to the island by the Portuguese navigators, and signifies "The Beautiful." 2. The Dutch Occupation. — The Dutch occupied the Pes- cadores in 1622, probably out of rivalry to the Portuguese who had planted their colony at Maccao, and to the Spaniards- who had already held Luzon, one of the Philippine group. It- should be added that this occupation of the Pescadores by the Dutch, at first objected to by China, afterward obtained the- assent of that Government. It agreed, under certain conditions^, to allow the Dutch to occupy the Pescadores and Formosa. The Dutch East India Company was made to govern the island. The Dutch erected a fort at Anpin and Tainan, the two re- ceiving the Dutch titles of Zeelandia and Providentia respec- tively. The Dutch Colony numbered 600 and their garrison about 2,200, while the Chinese settlers numbered from 25,000 to 30,000 families. The Japanese were also in the island, though, their number is unknown. They generally lived there to carry- on trade with western people residing in the Far Ea&t, for about this period the Shogunate of Japan encouraged our people- to undertake foreign trade and a large numbers of our trading ships navigated in the South Sea. The Dutch administrator was once placed in hot water as a result of his unjust treatment of a. Japanese trading ship. To give a brief account of this interest- ing episode, that ship was plundered by the Dutch inhabitauts- on the Pescadores as she took shelter there on her way to- Fuchow. The Magistrate of Nagasaki, in whose jurisdiction thar Introductory. 777 foreign trade business of Japan was placed, sent an experienced South Sea trader to Formosa to demand damage. So strongly did this trader represented the case entrusted to him, that at one time the incident even threatened to bring about a serious trouble between this country and Holland. At last the Dutch gave way, and at the instance of the Governor-General stationed at Batavia the administrator in Formosa was replaced and thus Japan carried her points in this affair. The Dutch rules were by no means liked by the Chinese in the island for the latter had many grudges to entertain against the others. Especially did the Chinese fret against the imposition of taxes from which they had been left free before the arrival of the " intruders.." This souldering sense of hostility of the Chinese at last broke out ablaze in their organized attempt to dethrone the Dutch sway by a bold coup. In 1652 the leading malcontents in the neighborhood of Providential, that is Tainan, openly rose against the Dutch garrison and colony. They pressed them hard. A Dutch contingent from Zeelandia arrived on the scene of trouble in a hurry, and with the help of a force of the friendly aborigines, at last succeeded in suppressing the insurrection. About 4,000 insurgents were killed in the last battle. Meanwhile the poWer of Holland began to wane in Europe, and this of course affected the Dutch influence in the Far East. The Japanese too had disappeared from the island, for Japan had changed her policy about foreign intercourse and prohibited her people from venturing abroad. In 1661 the Chinese general named Ch^ng Kung, better known as Koxinga by the Western people, who refused to swear alle- giance to the new Manchu Dynasty demanded of the Dutch administrator in the island that he evacuate the place, and when this was refused Ch^ng invaded the Pescadores and Zeelandia at the head of 20,000 men. The Dutch consul in the island sent the alarming intelligence to Batavia and asked the immediate dispatch of reinforcements. Batavian Government at first tried to arrive at some sort of compromise with the invading army and as a measure towards that end recalled the consul. ChSng would not listen to this proposal and invested 2ieelandia. The garrison held out for seven months, when it was forced to surrender. This occurred in January, 1662, .so that the Dutch occupation of the island lasted 38 years. 778 Japan in the Bee/inning of the 20th Century. 3. The Spanish Occupation. — The Spanish occupation of the islaud was almost contemporaneous with that of the Dutch, for it took place in May, 1626. The two rival colonies divided their spheres of influence, so to say, and while the Dutch established themselves in the middle and southern Formosa the Spaniards held the northern part. They stationed their garrison at the present Keliiug which they called San Salvador and also at Tansui which they called Santiago. The rival colonies that had already been looking askance at each often at last came to blows in 1642. The Dutch were Tictories and the Spanish occupation was at an end in the 16th year of its existence. 4. The Period of Native Kingdom. — Koxinga who drove the Dutch out of the island was one of the most illustrious of the remnant of Chinese captains who faithfully defended the fallen cause of the Ming Dynasty and withstood the ascendency of the new Manchu rulera. He and his little band of compatriots raised their rebellious banner in southern China, but they were dislodj;ed from one position after another by the superior force of the Im- perialists till at last they were cornered in the little island of Amoy. ■ Then it was that these faithful adherents of the fallen dynasty began to direct their attention to Formosa and decided to obtain there a more secure and extensive footing. The cause which Koxinga upheld was however doomed to fall even after his removal to the new place. The "Legitiniatists," as Koxinga and his adherents called themselves, at first devoted their attention to procure means to carry on their operations against the " Usurper's " army and for this purpose to open wild land in Doithern and middle Formosa. Leaving a part of the men to garrison the important places, all the rest betook themselves to the peaceful work of reclaiming the virgin soil. Though Koxinga princi- pal design never bore fruit, this peaceful undertaking that was subordinate to it proved a lasting source of benefit for the island, in that it was during the short tenure of Koxinga's ascendency that a large tract of level land in the vicinity of Hozan, .Koshun, Kagi, Shoka, Sliiuchiku, Taihoku and others was brought under cultivation. Circumstances not favoring Koxinga to carry into execution his Introductory. 779 Tesolution to make a descent on tie Manchu dominions, he next turned his attention to expanding the area of footing towards the south, and to add Luzon to his base of Generations, for Luzon at that time contained a large number of Chinese who espoused in common with Koxinga the cause of the Ming Dynasty. A plan was concerted between Koxiuga and his Luzon friends for the overthrow of the Spanish rulers. This was discovered before it was mature, and the Spanish massac- red as many as 24,000 Chinese in cold blood. About this time the sad intelligence reached Formosa of the assassination in Burmah of the last legitimate heir of Ming Dynasty. This was a death- blow to the ambition of Koxinga, and he himself was carried away by decease a few months afterward. After the death of Koxinga the cause of the " Legitimatists " went from bad to worse, for his son Ko- shung on whom fell the mantle of Koxinga, could rot naturally enjoy sufficient prestige among his captains to command their faithful obedience. He himself lacked the enthusiasm of his father, while the disaffection that made its appearance among the captains made the matter worse. Ch^ng Ko-shwang in May, 1683, the Manchu Government sent an expedition against him and occupied the Pescadores. Ch^ng Ko-shwang surrendered with all his captains in July of that year and with this the ascendency of the Koxinga family in the island terminated. 5. The Period of Chinese Eule. — The surrender of Ko-swang gave rise to a practical question of what should China do with Formosa ; in other words, whether China should leave the island to shift for itself or whether it should be brought under the sway of her dominion. The latter view prevailed and Forniosa was placed under the jurisdiction of the Province of Fukien. During the space of over two centuries, from 1684, when Formosa was brought under Chinese rule, to 1895 when it was ceded to our. country, Formosa proved more a source of trouble and humiliation and less that of benetit to China. Insurrections frequent- ly broke out in the island and in one or two cases the insurrection- ists held tor some while the control of the island in their hands; Nor was China less troubled about the island in her foreign relations, on the eontraiy Formosa constantly involved its owner* in humilia- 780 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ting and awkward positions. The savages in this island very frequently plundered ships and murdered the crews wrecked on the dangerous coast of the island, and such occurrences of course- occasion .-d trouble between China and the foreign governments to- ■which the ships belonged. Once a trouble was occasioned on that account with the United States of America and next with Japan.. The case with Japan was specially serious. As the Chinese Govern- ment refused to hold itself responsible for the murder of some Luchui fishermen by the savage aborigines, Japan sent an expedition, against them, to inflict upon the a severe chastisement. The- diplomatic negotiations that were next opened on the subject between Japan and China did not proceed smoothly at first, for the latter refused to pay indemnity for acts committed by the aborigines of" Formosa, The negotiations that were in imminent danger of rupture were at last amicably terminated, and China was prevailed upoa at the eleventh hour to listen to the demand of Japan and to pay the- indemnity. Another important part which Formosa played in Chiua's- foreign relation occurred in 1884 when war broke out between China and France about Annam, and when the squadron of the latter occupied the Pescadores and sealed the ports of Formosa. Warned by such international troubles which Formosa frequently engendered, China determined to bring aflfairs in the island to better order and method. In pursuance of that resolution, Formosa with all its adjoining islands was detached from Fukuien and elevated to- the dignity of an independent province. The first Governor appointed was the celebrated Liu Ming-Chw6n under whose energetic administra- tion Formosa began to prosper as never it did before. But fate was against China in regard to this island, and China had to lose the- island forever and cede it to Japan, the formal transfer of the island taking place on June 2nd, 1895. 5. Annexation by Japan. — The annexation was merely formal, for the islanders, instigated by their Ust Governor Liu — for Liu had resigned his place years ago as his progressive system of' administration, was not regarled with favor by the central Gfoveru ment — , rebelled against their new rulers. The new rulers had, theiefore to undertake the double task of Introductory. 781 svibjugation and administrations. The suppression of these hostile movements on the part of the islanders was concluded in about » year and the island was placed on "March 31st, 1896, under the civil administration of the Governor-General's Office, while within two jears from the ratification of the Treaty of Peace, that is by April, 1897, the natives were to decide whether they would swear allegiance to the new rulers or preferred to remain as Chinese subjects. The administration policy of the Governor-General judiciously ■combined moderation and severity. The natives were left free and unmolested in their old customs and manners even when those practices were regarded injurious, as, for instance, the custom of foot- finding of women. Even in regard to the deleterious habit of opium- smoking, the Government did not prohibit it all at once; instead it adopted measures for eradicating this vicious habit by gradual process. At the same time the authorities sternly repi-essed all those acts inimical to the maintenance of order in the island, and in this the Government was confronted with the most arduous task in suppressing the disorderly practices of the so-called " armed raiders " who constituted a perennial source of grave evil for the main- tenance of order in the island, when it was held by China. The raiders were originally refugees or settlers from southern China, and were a sort of professional freebooters who exist almost everywhere ia China, and who are known under different names in different places. The former Chinese officers and officials who were on duty in the island, out of spite to the Japanese authorities, stooped to join hands with their old foes, and abetted and instigated them to rise against the new rulers of the island. For about three years from the formal transfer of the island to Japan the troops stationed in the various parts of the island devoted themselves to quelling the risings of those raiders. By 1898 the raiders had had enough thrashing from the soldiery and constabulary force and were given opportu- nities to take the oath of allegiance to their new rulers and to become as law-abiding people. The raiders eagerly availed them- selves of this opportunity and took the oath, and ill northern Pormosa at least peace was completely restored. Matters v.ere not so satisfactory in districts remote from the 782 Japan in the Beginning oj the IQth Century. seat of the Government, especially in middle and southern Formosa. They had grown even more troublesome as they were reinforced by bands of confir.ned peace-breakers coming from the northern districts. In order to purge completely once for all this standing menace to peace and prosperity in that district the Governor-General carried out in about six months beginning at the end of 1901, an organized clearing movement. It was a completely success, for while it entirely shattered whatever power of resistance that the raiders and banditti retained, it impressed powerfully on all the other classes in the island of the futility of any attempt at resisting the Imperial Government. Thus in eight years from the annexation of the island peace was completely restored, and apparently the island has been relieved from this source of trouble from which the Chinese rulers had been constantly annoyed. It should be auded that the law-abiding people of the island being equally 'interested with the authorities in the restoration of order, tendered their services for attaining this common end. For this purpose they organized themselves into voluntary corps charged with the task of preserving peace and order in their own districts. D. Population. 1. Total Population. — The latest census returns put the total population of Formosa and the Pescadores as follov>fs : — Ratio of Feinales , per 100 of Males. District. No. of Family. Male. Female. Total. /"°Pi^" f™"" Japan Proper. Natives- Taiholra 60,484 , 161,349 132,97^ 294,321 60.25 83-89 Kelung ... 17,890 56,922 44,513 101,435 58.37 79.40 Gilan ... 20,746 57,164. 49,173 106,337 50.37 86.50 Shinko ... 8,149 22,564 18,329 40,893 22.92 81.61 Toshiyen 29,897 100,545 86,397 186,942 69.79 85-98 Sliiiichiku 29,651 86,855 75,204 162,059 63-95 86.84 Byoritsu 22,219 67,999 62,166 130,165 63-51 91.64 Taichu ... 34,901 104,617 85,518 190,135 56.65 82.16 Siiokwa... 49,202 146,018 118,725 364,743 52.10 81-43 Kanto ... 13,617 33.607 3>.5S3 65,190 38.24 94-49 Toroku ... 38-747 "0,073 94.i6j 204,236 40-75 85.8* Introductory. 783 Katio of Females per 100 of Males. No. of People from " District. Family. Male. Female. Total. Japan Proper. Natives^ Kagi - 43-344 116.391 97,107 213,498 51.80 83.65 En^uiko 46,020 137,018 113,440 250,458 25.81 83.04 Tainan ... 39,424 102,642 85,641 188,283 68.23 83.S9 Banslioryo ... 9,198 23,549 ■ 22,138 45,687 31-35 94-50 Hozan ... 36.348 93,402 81,347 174,749 50.18 87.54 Ako ... 32,628 91,635 83,540 175,175 35-89 9' -39 Ivosliun 4,229 ii,g8o 11,037 23,017 38-89 93.02 'lailo 11,226 27,773 25,825 53,598 42.29 9i-^i I'escadores ... ... 10,866 27,185 26,966 54,151 73-41 9911 Grand Total ... 558,786 1,579,288 1,345,784 2,925,072 57.36 85.69 Kole : — In the above figures the inhabitarits of Botel Tobago Island in the jurisdiction of Taito are not incl-ided, the returns about them being lacking. Nor are the officers and men of the garrison included. However the figures includi; the actual number of aborigines. There were besides five families, consisting of S males, who lived among the aborigines' communities in the jurisdiction of Koshun. The foregoing figures classified according to the origin of the three main divisions of people in Formosa, that is, people from Japan proper, native islanders, and aborigines, the following thres tables are obtained : — a. PEOPLE FROM JAPAN PROPER. No. of People Actually Residing. District. Taihoku . Kelung . Gilan Shinko 'I oshiyen Shinchiku Byorilsu 'j aichu Shokwa Nanto Toroku Kagi Ensuiko 'i'ainan Banshoiyo H« >zan Ako ... Kushun 'I ailo IVscadores Grand Total.. No. of Resident Family. Male. Female. 'Jotal. ... 5,771 10,108 6,090 16,19s 896 3,243 1,893 5.136 305 754 380' 1,134 84 144 33 177 166 331 231 562 582 957 612 1,569 211 518 329 847 998 1,723 976 2,699 217 595 310 905 133 306 117 423 386 827 337 1,164 604 776 402 1,178 174 589 152 741 ... 1,704 2,981 2,034 5,015 152 185 58 243 524 1,118 561 1,679 154 36S 131 496 83 198 77 275 304 454 192 646 329 598 439 1,037 13,777 26,770 15,354 42,124 r84 Japan in tlie beginning of the 20th Century. 6. NATIVE ISLANDERS. No. of Resident Family. No. of People Actually Residing. District. Male. Female. TotaL I'aihoku •• 54,713 151,241 126,882 278,123 Relnng .. 16,994 53,679 42,620 96,299 Cilan 19,606 54,148 46,502 100,650 Shinko .. 7,958 22,130 i8,aoi 40,131 Toshiyen .. 29,024 98,459 8445s 182,914 Shinchiku ... . .. 28,286 84,023 72,777 156,800 Byorilsu 21,698 66,781 61,247 128,028 Taichu .. 33,408 101,896 83,595 185,491 Shokwa .. 48,985 145423 118,415 263,838 Nanto .. 11,955 29,056 27,756 56,812 Toroku ■■ 37,958 107,433 92,117 199,550 Kagi 42,610 114,854 96,042 210,896 Ensuiko - 45,846 136,429 113,288 249,717 Tainan ■■ 37,720 99,661 83,607 183,268 Banshoryo .. 8,56s 21,419 20,268 41,687 Hozan .. 35,824 92,284 80,786 173,070 Ako .. 28,945 81,812 74,587 156,399 Koshun 2,448 7,805 7,154 •4,959 Taito 3,505 8,987 9,900 16,887 Pescadores .. 10,537 26,587 26,527 53,1 '4 Grand Total . .. 526,585 1,504,107 1,284,526 2,788,633 3- ABORIGINES. ^.„ „f T^. ..fp.=i.„n. No. of People Actually Residing. DistricL Community. Family. Male. Female. TotaL Gilan ... 14 835 2,262 2,291 4,553 Shinko 5 107 290 295 58S Toshiyen ... ... 28 707 1,755 1,7" 3466 Shinchiku ... ... 54 783 1,87s 1,815 3,690 Byoritsu ... 22 310 700 590 1,290 Taichu ... 15 495 998 947 1,945 Nanto ... 79 1,529 4,245 3,710 7,955 Toroku ... ... 64 403 1,813 1,709 3,522 Kagi 21 130 761 663 1424 Banshoryo .. ... 19 481 1,945 I,8l2 3,757 Ako ... 59 3,529 9,45s 8,822 18,280 Koshun - 53 1,698 3,977 3,806 7,783 Taito ... 185 7,417 18,322 17,733 36,06s Grand Total 618 18,424 48,411 45,904 94,315 T'opuTation. 785 2. Relative Density. — According to the returns compiled at -the end of 1900, the relative density of population in the various •districts of Formosa was as follows : — strict. Number of Pop'n. per I squ. ri. People from Native Japan Proper. Islanders. Total. Ratio of People from Japan Proper per i.oco Islanders. Taihoku ... 77 2,606 2,683 29.44 Taichu 13 2,076 2,089 6.49 Tainan ... 16 1,868 1,884 8.57 Gilan 34 3,016 3,050 11.42 Taito 2 78 80 29.20 Pescadores 72 3.686 3,758 19-59 Grand Total 25 i,8os 1,830 14.12 1899 —2 1.750 1,772 1 2.6 1 1898 17 1,725 1,742 988 1897 II 1,800 1,811 6.05 1896 7 1,718 1,752 4.1 1 J^ote : — In the above figures the returns on the aborigines are not included, the in vestigations about the area of the aborigines' districts being not yet completed The figures for 1896 include a small number of persons who could not be ascertained whether they were native islanders or people from Japan proper. 3. Human Races in the Islands. — For the sake of con- venience the human races in the island may be divided into three main classes as mentioned in the preceding paragraph; namely, (1) people from Japan proper, (2) native islanders, and (3) aborigines. History records the fact that the Japanese voyaged to Formosa for trade and even settled there as early as three centuries ago, while it was quite probable that the natives of Okinawa, placed in close proximity with Formosa, must have had frequent People from occasions, whether on their own accord or drifted on -Japan Proper, the sea, to mingle with the Formosans. However it is not scientifically possible to determine whether or not the blood of the Japanese runs in that of the islanders. All that can be stated here is that the regular presence of people from ■Japan proper began with the annexation of the island to Jwpan in 1895. Their number is still far below that of either the natives or the aborigines, nor are intermarriages between the two carried on to ■any perceptible extent. Though numerically small, they occupy 78f» Japan in the Beginniiig of'tlie IQth Century. intellectually the foremost position and are the master race of the is-laii I. The native islanders, by whom are meant natives of Chinese oiigln, are broadly divided into two main classes ; namely, settlers from Fukien and settlers from Canton. The former are earlier. Settlers from the opposite coast of China must have Ma'iv3 arrived at the island from a remote period, considering Is anders. the geographical proximity of the two places ; but it was at the beginning of the reign of the present JIanchu Dynasty that the large exodus from China for Formosa took place, as already explained in the section relating to the liistory of the island. The Fukien settlers, besides being earlier comers, are more numerous than those from Canton, the latter numbering about one-third of the others. One thing that should not be forgotten about those settlers from China is the fact that whatever development Formosa attained formerly in economic matters was solely attributable to the exertions of those settlers. The aborigines reside in the hilly places running through the central part of the island, in a part of plains in eastern Formosa and on Botel Tobago Island. Anthropologically, these aborigines belong to the Malay race, and their language, though more Aborigines, or less diifering according to tribes, is also very much akin to Malay. The aborigines are capable of being classified into a large number of groups, but they may be broadly divided into nine classes as follows : — 1. Ataiyol 2. Vonum 3. Tsco 4. Tsarisen 5. Paiwan 6. Puyuma 7. Amis 8. Peipo 9- Yanii _ on Botel Tobago Island Of the foregoing nine tribes, Peipo sometimes called Peipo-hoan or Sek-hoan, possesses an interesting feature that distinguishes it from the others. ' This tribe originally occupied the western plains^ ... on Formosa Proper. Admiiiutrative System. 787 of the island, but in consequence of the arrival there of the Dutch and the Chinese settlers, their superiors intellectually, the Peipo either lost their original characteristics or become entirely extinct. The remnants that are found to-day can hardly be distinguished both in their exterior and their intellectual standard from the Chinese settlers with whom they live as neighbors. C. Administrative System. 1. The Goveenoe-General's Office. — Since the Office was established on June 17th, 1895, more or less changes have taken place in the administrative system of the island. The system now in force was that revised in November, 1901. The Administrative new system is that of two stages while the old one Syitem. was of three; in other words, whereas, according to the old arrangement, administrative business had to pass three stages before it can reach the people or the Governor- Geuerajl's Office, only two stages intervene in the existing system which therefore bring the authorities and people into closer touch. The Governor-General's Office consists of the Civil Affairs Bureau and the Military and Naval Staff. The former Organization is further subdivided into several offices dealing with of the Office. Police Affairs, General Affiiirs, Finance, Communica- tions, Trade and Industry, and Public Works. 2. Local. Administration. — At first three prefectures and four district offices were established to look after the administration of the island, but as a result of administrative rearrangements carried out in November, 1901, they were abolished and in place of them 20 district offices were established, situated at the following places : — Taihoku, Kelung, Gilan, Shinko, Toshiyen, Shinchiku, Byoritsu, Taichu, Shokwa, Nanto, Toroku, Kagi, Ensuiko, Tainan, Banshoryo, Hozan, Ako, Koshun, Taito, Hoko (the Pescadores). Under each district office a number of communal offices exist to serve as mediums between the Government and local Communal people. These offices number about 563 in all. They Officss. are intended to become in time organs of local self- government. 788 Japan in Hie Beginning of tJie 20th Century. The Peace Corps system is a relic of the Chinese rule and attends, subject to regular Police offices, to preserving peace in the respective districts. A unit of corps is made up of Peace Corps, ten families placed under the control of one of the seniors. The Peace Corps p-:)ssess a Volunteer Band ■composed of adult males. This is chiefly intended to provide against the raid of armed banditti and also against calamities, as fire ilood, etc. 3. Legislature. — The Governor-General is empowered in ■virtue of his own authority to pass sentence inflicting a confinement not exceeding one year in term or a fine not exceeding 200 yen. In ordinary cases, however, the legislative afiUirs are determined by the Governor- General's High Council consisting of the Governor. ■General, the Director of Civil Affairs Bureau, Oflicers on the M.ilitary and Naval Staf&, Chief Councillor, Councillors, Chief Judge and Chief Procurator of the Appeal Court, (,'hief Police ■Commissioner, Directors of the Bureaux. A decision of the Council acquires validity on approvel of the Emperor, but in case of urgent need that approval may be obtained afterward. All the laws and regulations in force in Japan proper are not enforced in Formosa, but only those that are specified fi)r the new dominion are in force. In civil and commercial afiairs a portion of the codes is enforced over the Japanese from Japan proper and ■also in regard to matters which relate in common to those Japanese and natives. Matters which relate to Chinese and natives are to be dealt with according to pre-established usages. This expedient is also followed in settling matters about land when they relate to Japanese from Japan proper and natives. In criminal afiairs all the inhabitants in the island are subject to the Criminal Code and ■Code of Criminal Procedure. 4. JuDiciAEY. — The judiciary system is dual, that is it consists of Local Courts which deal with matters relating to first instance and the Appeal Court whose judgment is final. Three Local Courts and five Branch Courts exist, the former at Taihoku, Taicliu, and Tainan and the latter at Shinchiku, Gilan, Kagi, Hozan and H'oko. The Appeal Court is located at Taihoku. The qualifications of judges and procurators do not differ from those Agriculture. l?i^ established in Japan proper. In the Local Court judgement is given by a single judge but in the Appeal Court a college three judges sit over a case. The barrister's service and rules are in vogue in the island as. in Japan proper. II. AGRICULTURE. A. Tillage. 1. Natural Classification of Land.— Of the area of Formosa measuring 2,260 sq. ri (about 3,500,000 cho) the greater part is occupied by hilly places. There are only four plains of some- extent, these being the plain extending from Shokwa A' eas of Plains to Hozan, a district round about Taihoku, Gilan, and HilU' and Taito. All these plains consist of quarternary formation. Presuming that places more than 100' metres above sea level are hills and forest-land and those of lower elevation plains available for cultivation, the whole land in Formosa may be classified as follows: — Hills and Forest-land 2,2t,o,ooo cho Plains and Arable-land 1,264,852 „ Total 3,514.852 cko 2. Classification of Aeable-land. — As in the case of Japan proper, the arable-land in Formosa may be divided into paddy-fields and upland-fields, the former capable of receiving the cultivation of rice twice a year. Rice being a staple article of diet, its ArcaofPaddy-Fi Us cultivation receives the largest share of and UpiaiM F.eld»i attention from the native farmers, and. th& area of paddy-fields is therefore larger than that of any other as follows: — 790 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. Ko. per cent age. Paddy Fields 213,165.06 55.9 Upland Fields 168,317.95 44-1 Total 381,483.01 loo.o Note : — I ko corresponds to about 9.724 tan. 3. Cultivation. — The natives, being too much disposed to depend upon the natural advantage which the climate extends to them, are content with a simple mode of cultivation which yields a comparatively small amount of harvest. As it is, though paddy- fields give two harvests of rice, the profit which the farmers derive from them does not exceed 20 to 30 yen per Iw. The advantages which bountiful nature bestows upon the islanders are indeed so great that the Formosa farmer can even obtain three crops in one year, two crops of rice and one crop of either a cruciferous or leguminous plant. One special feature in the tillage prevailing in the island is a greater utilization of the labor of beasts than in Mde of Tillage. Japan proper, especially bufialoes. Implements used in the cultivation with buffaloes are also ingenious. 4. Principal Products. — Of the principal agricultural products, tea, rice, sugar-cane, fibre-plants, etc. deserve first attention, and they will be described below briefly. a. Tea. 1. Kinds. — There are two kinds of tea produced in Formosa, and they are Oolong-tea and wrapper-tea. Curing is done entirely by hand. The process is divided into several stages, the preliminary process being undertaken by farmers and the finishing or recuring process by tea-merchants. Oolong Tea- In the preliminary manufacture the leaves are dried in the sun three times. This is done with the object of causing their fermentation and to bring out a flavor peculiar to this tea. After the leaves are dried, they are then fired twice in the pan, then dried by weak fire. This fire-drying is performed three times. From the first sun-drying to the last fire-drying in about 7.50 hours are required for the spring leaves, 5.54 for the summer leaves, 7.38 for the autumn leaves, and 7.13 for those of. wifiter. The Agriculture. 791 ■whole process being guided solely by experience and without depend- ing upon the help of instruments, properly so-called, the utmost attention is demanded of the manufacturers. Four kin of green leaves produce about 1 kin of half-manufactured leaves, so that supposing that 1 ko of tea-farms yields 2,000 kin of green leaves, the farmer can get 500 kin of half-manufactured tea from so much area of tea-plantation. The finishing process done by the merchants is simple, and consists first in assorting the leaves by passing them through sieves and then drying them in the pan for about seven or eight hours. The leaves are then packed. The Oolong tea manufactured in that manner stands midway in taste between black tea and green tea, and possesses a peculiar strong flavor, while it is devoid of either bitter or stringent taste. Wrapper tea derives its name from the fact that the tea of this special sort is contained in a paper- wrapper, before it is packed in a box. This tea is a recent innovation, dating only 20 years back. The principal point that distinguishes this tea Wra'^per from the Oolong is that, in manufacturing it, a flavor of Tea. certain kinds of flowers is imparted to the leaves. Four different flowers are used for this purpose, so that the ■wrapper-tea is broadly divided into four brands, according to the kind of flower used. 2. Export. — The custom returns on the recent export of ■Oolong and wrapper teas are quoted below. EXPORT OF OOLONG TEA. (unit oiyen). Year. 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 i. 1873. -• - 1874 1875 1876... ... Quantity. Declared Value. Average per 100 kin. 203,000 — — 396,100 — — 546,000 — — 1,054,000 — — 1,486,800 — — 1,951.300 — — 1,560,900 — — 2,461,000 808,369 32 4,157,300 1,049,601 25 5,890,500 — ■ — 792 Japan in the Beginning of the 2(ith Century. Year. Quantity. 1877... . 6,923,000 1878... . 8,026,100 1879... . 8,503,200 18S0... . 9.047.500 1881... . 6,944,600 1882... . 9,030,300 1883... . 9,905,000 1884 . . 9,867,400 1885... . 12,273,000 1886... . 12,128,700 1887... . 12,644,200 1888 .. . 13,574,100 1889... . 13,070,800 1890... . 12,862,900 1891... . 13.575,300 1892... . 13,671,700 1893.. • 16,394,900 1894 .. . 15,400,300 1S95... . 13,399,800 1896 .. . 15,923,475 1897... . 15,228,643 1898... . 15,095,111 1899... • 14,547.826 1900... . 14.598,548 1901 .. . 14,539,305 Declared Value. 1,904,655 2,283,778 2,955.916 3,278,524 3,395,207 3,651,130 3,398,048 3,539(633 4,122,746 5,066,109 4,995,065 4,429,826 4,366i9oi 4,688,475 4,126,891 4,443,364 6,167,761 6,144,719 5,991,171 5,854,019 6,906,030 6,222,575 5.5 ",402 5,300,193 4,185,828 Average per 100 kin. 27 28 34 36 5 40 34 35 33 41 39 32 34 36 30 32 37 39 44 36 45 41 37 36 28 b Rice. 1. Yield. — Two harvests of rice are obtained, as mentioned before, from paddy-fields of Formosa, and as these fields constitute over 55 per cent, of the whole area of arable-land, the quantity of rice pro- duced ought to amount to immense figures, if cultivation is conducted with more care. At present, however, the output is comparatively small, as demonstrated by the following returns showing the crop of 1901. Area [ko) 155.232.08 13,301-41 140,902.89 12,470.15 The average yield in the earlier harvest was only 22.1 hoku even when, the circumstances were so favorable, wliile that in the 1st Harvest {°^"i'""y^'=« I. Glutinous Rice 2nd Harvest I °'<^'"*''y'^''='= I Glutinous Rice Harvest (koku). Remark. 3,494,241 Success. 230,878 Suecess. 1,975,256 "I Drouglit and In- l"! 620 / ji"ss of Insects. Agriculture. 791! later harvest was less than 8 koku. Such small yield is essentiallj due to the defective mode of cultivation. 2. Supply ai^d De!v?and. — The supply of ice exceeds demandl ia the island, so that the export to China and Japan proper h.t exceeds the ^mport from those places to the island, as showa below : — Import (picul) Value {ye») Export (picul) Value {j'm) I90I ... . 39,900 154,437 633,697 2,156,752 1900 ... . 43.136 167,383 760,046 2,276,360 1899 ... . 67S.897 2,584,968 401,129 1,263,474 1898 ... . 249,031 870,609 149,646 2,168,339 1897 ... . 56,492 182,248 738,146 1,799,763 1896 ... . 236,324 765,834 387,178 913,292 3. Mode of Cultivation. — The mode of cultivation may be said to be essentially similar as that prevailing in Japan proper. The planting for the earlier crop is done in northern Formosa in the beginning or middle of February and the harvesting is made fivg months afterward. For the second crop the planting is performed in the middle or at the end of June and the harvesting at the end «f October or the beginning of November. In southern Formoes, the corresponding periods are about a month earlier. The varieties of rice differ according as they are grown for the earlier harvest or the later harvest, and taken altogether there a.m about one hundred varieties of rice. 4. Quality. — In quality the Eormosan rice is brittle and is devoid of lustre and tenacity. The proportion of immature rice is larger than that grown in Japan proper, so that the ratio of diminution incidental to husking amounts to over 10 per cent^ such a large quantity being reluced to powder in husking. e. Sugar-cane. Sugar-cane must have been cultivated in the island for twa centuries at the least, but it was only forty years ago that the industry received a powerful stimulus, owing to a marked rise of the sugar market at that time. 1 PLANTiNa Districts aud Output.— The plant is cultivated throughout the island but the districts where its planting is most 794 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qih Offniury. active are in southern Formosa and places lying between 22° 25' and 23" 48' N. L. The area of cultivation in recent years is as foUovs : — Year. Area {ko^. Yield (kin). Remarlc. 1900 16,576.26 270,865^55 Drought •«59 3.,9...8o 343,343,940 ^/l^'^:;^,?^'^ 1898 34,446.24 235,915,319 , Year. No. of Refinery. Output. Value. 1900 1,093 47,943,822 2,637,078 1899 1,275 81,696,235 3,887,538 1898 1,388 70,259,578 2,912,330 2. ExpoKT. — At present sugar goes only to China and Japan proper, though formerly it was shipped to Australia, British India New Zealand, America and England. The custom returns are ta follows : — Year. Value. Year. Value. 1901 ... . 695,920 1898 ...' . 1,984,37s 19CO ... . 2,207,084 1897 ..'. ■. 1494,042 1899 ... . 1,586,94:5 1896 ... . 1,529,460 The principal shipping outlets are Takao and Anping. 3. Situation of the iNDUSTRY.-r-Owing to various causes, sach as the removal of large capitalists to China,, the disturbance ;by the armed banditti, and so forthi ,the ■ industry appears to have some- what declined since the annexation of the. island, by' Japan. Jn order to restore the industry to its former prosperity and ■ further to push it to a state of development commensurate with the advantages which the island now enjoys in these respects, the .Forraosan Grovernmeot has adopted since 1902 a special programme' of encouraging the development of the industry. According to, this programme .thp out- put of sugar may easily be ' increased fivefold of the amount which is about 80 million kin. d. Fibre-Plants. 1. China GRAsa— This plant, though planted everywhere in the island, is principally grown in northern Formosa. The greatur p»rt of the output goes to China and Japan proper. The export retwrns for recent yeara are as follows:— • I Agriculture. 795 Year. kin. Year. kin. 1901 2,561,807 1898 2,712,791 >900 2,Z^aM1 1897 2,659,882 ^^99 1,915.663 1896 2,037,443 2. Jute. — :This is of less importance to the above, being inferior in quality and less valuable. The output and export are shown below : — . Output. Output Export Year. Area {ko). (kin). 1 kin. 1901 -1,411.18 1,650481 > 532,839 1900 1,155-44 1,481,548 205,330 1899 1,494-63 1,442,022 , 138,992 1898 1,386.27 1.104,63s 97,181 e. Dye-Plants. 1. Wild Indigo. — The plant is principally cultivated in nor- thern Formosa, and, though its export has dwindled recently, there is much hope of the cultivation of this plant growing more extensive, as it yields excellent dye-stuff. The output is as follow : — Year. Area (ko). Output (kin). 1900 607.99 '•■ -815,068 1899 98-50 ^ ■ 57,395 1898 132.00 88,200 Some Japanese are making indigo-balls -with ' this indigo, and the output of the balls amounted to 59,625 tin, valued at 24,508 yen in 1898 and to 52,563 hin valued at 34,863 yen \n 1899. Teee Indigo. — This plant is also a principal product «f northern Formosa. Acreage and output are as. follows : — Year. Acreage iio). Output (kin). 1900 2,424.81 7,109,214 1899 2,762.90 5,493,122 1898 2.208.40 3,004,674 The " mud-balls " made with this plant were produced to ,the extent of 1,225,998 kin valued at 74,836 yen in 1899 and 1J01,6&2 kin valued at 97,847 yen in 1898. /. Tobacco. Tliough the cultivation of tobaccd dates a' long' time back in th« 79S Japan in the beginning of the 20lh Century. island, yet the industry has not prospered to the extent which might be expected from its natural adaptation to its climate, chiefly owing to the fact that cheap tobacco used to come in from China, and' also because the natives smoke 6pi\im to a large extent. The greater profit which accrued to tea-planting must also be responsible for this strange phenomenon. The acreage and output of tobacco are as follows : — Year. I90I 1900 1899 1898 .. The import, chiefly from China and Japan proper, makes these- figures : — io. km. 654.40 682,917 240.18 606,620 180.67 196,976 248.49 490,900 Year. yen. Year. _1'«. »90i . ... 357.901 1S98 1.386,135 1900 . ". 202,942 1897 ... . 8lS(,623 1899 . ... 478,493 1896 ... . 430.279 Attempts are being made by several tobacco-growers from Japan, proper to cultivate foreign Varieties in southern Formosa. B. Live Stock. Swine is by far the most important item of stock-fg,rming in thet island, the natives Ijeing very fond of pork. The supply being inadequate to meet the demand, over 100,000 swin^ used to come- in every year from China. Even at present about 30,000 h^ads are imported. The Government have been taking p^ins tp encourages the development of this industry and have imported superior breeds «f swine and cattle from abroad. The native breed of swine consists solely of the black -haired variety, and by way of experi- ment a nuniber of white-haired Yorkshire have been imported. The number of various kinds of live-stock, existing in the island, ij. given in the following table. Year. Bufialo. Catti.f. .Swine. Goat. Horse. 1900 ... ... 167,687 63,.6i9 635.183 97.HI 39 1901 ... ... 168,283 66,9,37 700,902 10,504 34 I'CULTRY. Fowl. Duck. Goose. 2,607,898 661,408 55.135 2,589,700 S57.002 62,784 Fifhery. 797 Year. 1900 1901 Epidemics have been inflicting havoc on the industry, the diseases generally brought with swine imported from China. Since 1898 the authorities have enforced prevention measures. The following about epidemic returns will give some idea of the extent of damage done by the deseases. „ No. of Killed by Disease No. of cases. or Slaughtered. Recovery. Fromjan.-May 1902... { ^^'4^^; 1901 { 1900 { f7 Total ... { » 2,028 •jhz 1,858 529 148 129 hi 30 1,205 1,584 1,117 121 69 177 2,513 "53 2,237 19 276 3,935 4,420 3,595 3,883 288 474 The slaughter returns are not accurate, as slaughters carried out in remote places are not duly reported. The following may however prove useful. No. of Year. Slaughter- House. Buffalo. Cattle. Swine. boat. 1901 , . ... 168 6,253 5,037 242,786 13,979 1900 . ... 125 7,204 5,>49 274,750 22,209 There was a small number of horses slaughtered but it was insignificant. III. FISHERY. A. Okdinaky Fishery. Fishery is still highly primitive in the island and this kind of natural resources that abound along the coast is practically left unutilized. According to the latest available returns, the number 79^ Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. of families engaged in fishery, side by side with other pursuits, is as follows : — {Males 23,601 Females 11,989 Total 35,590 Those families pursuing the business as their principal occupa- tion number as follows : — {Males „ ... 14,281 Females , 8 264 Total 22,545 Both fishing-boats and gears are highly imperfect. One thing that is noteworthy is that artificial fecundation is being carried to eome extent. B. Salt Manufacture. 1. Salt Administrations. — ^Salt was a state monopoly while the island was ruled by China, but on the advent of the new regime, the system was abandoned and salt manufacturers were left free. The result of this new departure was a failure, and inflicted harm on both the manufacturers and the consumers. This was due to the fact that the removal of official interference was at once followed by a large increase of the number of manufacturers wha were, in consequence, obliged to sell their goods at a very narrow margin of profit or even by incurring loss. Then, whereas formerly something like a uniform price was maintained tliroughout the island, with the adoption of the new system, people residing in remote districts had to pay a far higher price on account of cost of trans- port for this important article of living. This contrast between the old and new arrangements .will be made clear from the following comparison of the prevailing prices under the two systems : — Price per 100 JCin. Official Price in Days of Chinese Rule. 1.40 to 1.60 yen. Average Market Quotation under new Rule. 0.70 to 9.00 yen. In view of those circumstances, the Government decided to Forestry. 799 review the mDaop<5ly system arid this was enforced from May 15th, 1899. 2. Government Monopoly. — At present the Salt ilonopoly Offices are established at nine different places and they have charge of the purchase of salt. The sale is entrusted to the men belonging to the Salt Seller's Guild, which exists under otBcial control. The Guild is organizetl solely with natives and is made to maintain selling offices at 20 places and branch ' offices at 79 places, the central office being located at Taihoku. The Guild is also made to undertake by contract tlie business of transporting salt. 3. Salt- Fields. — The area of salt-fields has increased with gi'cat strides since the resuscitation of the monopoly system, for while the fields that were left in waste shortly after the adoption of the fiee competition method have been revised with the return of brigliter hope, while a large number of fields has also been newly laid out under official sanction. At present about 515 cho are engaged in manufacture, whilei 339 cho are about to be laid out. Then permis- sion has been given to construct new fields measuring altogether 847 oho. These figures show a great advance compai-ed with what ■was existing in the time of Chinese rule, when the fields measured only about 400 cAo. lY. FORESTRY. A. Geneeal Condition of Forests. L Extent of Forests. — rThe forests exist in the range of hills longitudinally traversing the island and also in the aborigines' quarters situated in the eastern region. Though the exact extent of all those wooded, areas is not yet known, it may be roughly estimated at 2,116,000 cJw at least, that is to say, about 60 per, eent. of the whole area of the island. The natural re^source of this particular description must be considered as immense, when it is lemembered that vast primeval forests exist in many parts of the region of the aborigines. 800 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the lOlh Century. 2. PKrNPiPAL Species.— The sylvan flora of the island being still imperfectly known, it is not possible to give any definite list of principal timber-trees in the island. Soni6 of those trees have already been mentioned in the paragraph of flora giveh in the pre- ceding part of this section. B, Camphor. Camphor being one of the most important wood products in the isLind, deserves mention at som6 length. Besides it is in Formosa that the world's supply of natural camphor is obtained. 1. CoNniTioK Existing before the Enforcement of the Monopoly. — The camphor administration was at first mainly eon- ducted along the old usage that had prevailed before the island was annexed to Japan. The authorities issued license to refiners, r^tricted the districts where the refining could be carried on but left the licensed persons to make free use of camphor trees within those districts. But this method did not keep proper balance between supply and demand, for the refinerS) who in most cases had ©nly a limited capital at their disposal, were led to produce a larger amount than the market required and therefore to keep the price very low. What was far more serious was the fact that the absence of control of the felling of the trees naturally tempted the refiners to use only those portions of the trees that yield the largest percentage of camphor with the minimiini of trouble and expense. The waste of the trees was therefore extensive. Then the refinei-s, in order to increase the margin of profit, too often resorted to the fraudulent devise of mixing camphor with rubbish. The system therefore was a grave defect so far as the interest of refiners and the proper utilization of camphor were concerned. In those days therefore the camphor market stood so low that the refiners could barely pay the tax of 10 yen for camphor and 3 yen for camphor oil, each per 100 kin. 2. Government Monopoly. — All those facts, convinced tlie authorities to converj, the camphor ihdusti-y into a state ihouojK)ly and the new departure was made on AugUst 5th, 1899. By this system the authorities put a limit on the quantity of manufacture. Forestry. 801 "the season of manufacture, the districts where it could be carried -out, and the number of kilns. Moreover certain rate of prices was fixed for the trees. The enforcement of the monopoly system, though at first com- plained of by a section of the people who were deprived tem- poially of means of subsistence, has proved a great boon to such of those who, in virtue of their established character, were al- lowetl to engaged in the work of refining, for whereas formerly the lion's share of profit of the refining business went to the pficket of capitalists, the business was for the first time placed •on a firm footing. At present the refiners have simply to i^ell their goods to the Government at the proper rate determined ac- cording to the state of the market, while all the troubles and ex- pense involved in providing against the raid of hostile aborigines residing in the vicinity have now been transferred to the shoulders •of the Government. The enforcement of the monopoly has metamorphosed the quality of Formosa camphor, for the refiners, who are under strict order to sell their half-refined camphor to the Government alone, get a liigher price, as their quality is superior. 3. JIoNOPOLY Agent. — The half-refined goods thus procured by the authorities are mainly sold to a monopoly agent, at present a British firm, which is obliged to observe various conditions incident- al to this sole privilege, besides depositing with the Government a security amounting to 1,900,000 yen. 4. Mode of Refining. — The refining process that was formerly prevailing in the island wa? quite primitive. Soon after the -annexation of the island, the Japanese process was introduced and has at last entirely superseded the native method. To give one significant illustration of the superiority of the new process over the native one, it may be observed that the native refiners were first enabled by that mode of refining to obtain camphor oil. This iniportant by-product formerly went with the waste. 5. Supply of Eaw Matekial.— Camphor-trees being found in the primeval forests which have not yet been accurately explored, it is impossible to estimate the supply of raw material tliat exists in the island. It may, however, be stated that the supply of camphor-trees 802 Japan in ffie Beginning of the 20ih Century. can last 40 or 50 years according to the present rate of conversion. Tl»e supply may also be expected to be permanent as the authorities have been planting millions of young camphor plants in suitable places. Y. MINING. 1. General Remakbs. — The mineral resources of Formosa at present consist of gold, coal, sulphur and petroleum with a greater or smaller quantity of building stones. 2. Gold. — Gold exists both in the shape of viens or rather lode and of alluvial deposits. The lodes occur in Tertiary formation. At present seven gold, mints are worked, but of these the mines at Kinkwaseki, Kyufun and Botan are the most important. The mining in those mines is carried on partly in Western style and partly in the old simple style. Alluvial deposits occur in the vicinity of all those mines and' are especially rich along the course of the river Kelung. They are exclusively worked by natives who attend to their business in a rude simple style. However the output of placer digging sometimes surpasses that of regular mines, as may be seen from the following, returns. Year. Output of Gold Mine. (mommej. Output of Placer-digging. Total. (ptomrne). 1899 32,610.00 7,148.63 39,758-63 igoo 92^51-38 9;473-40 101,924.7s 1901 »S.422.54 127,785.14 283,207.68 3. Coal. — Coal occur in Tertiary formation, and is found' throughout the island, though richer towards the north and poorer towards the south. In general there are nine seams, each separated from the other by a deep layer of sand-stones and shales. The seam is in nivfcit cases comparatively thin, generally 2 to 4 feet. The mining is at present left to native workers who extract the mineral on the old laborious style. Mining. 803 Data about coal-mining are aa follows : — 1899. 1900. 1901. Number of Conces3ion 39 41 42 Total Area of Concession (ftaio) ... 3,266,320 31970,563 3>934,74Z Output (/(w) 29,811 41,944 62,703 4. Sulphur. — Sulphur deposits occur, to uientioa only those that are important, in the neighborhood of Mt. Daiton, situated due north of Taihoku, and on Kizan island in the jurisdiction of Gilan. Data are as follows: — 1899. 1900. 1901. Number of Concession 7 4 5 Total Area of Concession (/i«i(7) ... 332,795 249,705 294,205 Output (,j;«) 958,100 1,231,168 2,732,860 5. Petroleum. — Indications of the presence of petroleum veins aie discovered along the elevated districts bordering on the central mountain ranges and the plains contiguous to them, but as yet petroleum is a potential source of wealth and is still left prac» tically unexploited. YI. TRADE. 1. General Kemarks. — On account of the lack of regular shipping facilities between the island and the opposite coast of China, imperfect communication in the interior, absence of ordinary banking organs and of a reliable and accurate system of weights- and measures, trade in Formosa was in a backward state, and it was only after it came under Japanese rule that the change for the better has markedly began to manifest itself, for the new Govern- ment, anxious to push this important factor of national prosperity to a level of the mother country, has energetically endeavored to remove all those causes standing in the way of its development. 2. Trade with Japan Proper. — Trade with the mother country may be said to date from 1897, by which time order had been to a large extent restored in the island. The following returns give a survey of the progress of this particular branch of • Formosan trade in recent years: — «04 Japan in the Beginning of the 20ih Century. EXPORT TO MOTHER COUNTRY. (Value \nyen). Item. Oolong Tea... Rice Brown Sugar "White Sugar -Salt Tengusa Camphor ■Camphor Oil Hides ■Others Total ... 1901. 684,749 1,024,333 2,243,452 49,14s 87.447 36.608 1,571.496 1,325.836 60,869 262,018 1900. 482,508 93.118 1.473.834 64,003 49,^58 32,275 945*383 962,643 57,058 241,326 1899. 275,483 62,622 1,620,275 128,602 28,997 292,261 1,074,529 22,333 145,369 1898. 53.218 1,146,489 1,556,037 46,227 24,739 27,247 334,830 540,949 15,608 397,432 1897. 18,020 74,616 [,194,000 747 13,968 180,108 437,626 4,037 181,524 7,345,956 4,402,110 3,650,475 4,142,777 2,104,648 IMPORT FROM MOTHER COtlNTRY. (Value vayeri). Item. 1901. Railroad Material ; 242,162 Other Machines 13<3,023 Metals 128,771 Ironware 115,674 Other Metallic Ware 110,703 Rice 506,502 Beans etc 99.57° Cuttle-fish 74,172 Dried and Salted Fish ... 163,91 1 Bonito and others 103,464 Soy 187,955 Miso 75,778 Grocer's Goods 59,757 Pickled Provisions 64,733 Tinned Provisions 100,464 Shoes and Foot-gears 66,672 Clothes and accessories ... 68,436 Medical Stuff 111,420 Glass and Glass- Ware ... 68,065 Petroleum and Oils 103,709 Paper 186,774 Woven Goods 837,082 Cigarettes ... m ... i.. 4S*',993 Cut Tobacco 121^134 ^' .-{ 6^9 1900. 617,520 144,104 39,853 I2S»,I93 24,884 545,410 75,582 47,835 125,465 22,046 132,943 58,673 79,007 75,524 123,240 40,553 4,074 110,340 S3,«o7 120,334 118,655 367,998 5 '2,585 1899. 114,558 2,023 165,166 868,713 28,549 98,522 162,777 93,130 36,926 305,506 22,347 283,832 26,476 56.005 63,420 280,317 252,208 1898. 16,721 15,120 335,672 55,863 1,978 3,964 7,254 97,875 30,199 52,383 18,806 76,397 4,372 9,000 ;87.987 9.965 6,214 59,950 114,696 95,617 1897. 93,071 615 52,147 286,77^ 261,916 1,324 35,83 1 4,797 64,63s 26,729 1,880 90O 15,685 5^,797 52,359 625,805 586,514 478,328 163,449 TvKilr.. 805- Item. Beer , Coal and Cokes . Boards Cement and Ash. Matches Others Total ... . igoi. 213,755 63,186 785,967 98,877 i98,4?5 2,484,783 1900. 212,4.70 18,804 1,220,449 250,248 210,121 2,349,262 1S99. 165,212 40 587,706 67,790 20,41 2 3,733,675 1S98. 123,561 4,368 255,556 io,75S 4,078 1,990,082 1897. 19,827 67,642 8,300 260- 2,505,736 8,782,258 8/139,032 8,011,826 4,266,768 3,723,721 3. Foreign Trade. — China declared in 1858 to open ports in Formosa to foreign trade, and in 1863 the four ports of Takao, Anpei, Tamsui and Kelung were opened. The following table reviews the progress of trade in those ports, that is practically in the whole of the island, since their opening to trade in 1863. The figiire.5, however, include the volume of trade with the mother country which- was at first represented by China and lately by Japan. FOREIGN TRADE UNDER CHINESE RULE. Vf^or Tamsui and Takao and TotaL d. car. Kelung (tael). Anpei (tael). 1863 .. 247,366 347,867 595,233 1864 659,881 927,405 1,587,286 1865 710,628 1,893455 2,604,083 1866 862 1,862,313 2,724,567 t867 792,339 1,832,648 2,614,987 1868 822,846 1,296,679 2.» 19,525 1869 759,657 1,537,796 2,797,455 1870 .. 98S,76877 .. 2,776,597 2,837,714 5,598,3" 1878 .. 3.089,309 2,493 3S3 5,582,692 1879 .. 3,633,186 3,750,925 7,384."! 1880 .. 3.926,99s. 4,527,544 8,454,539' 1881 .. 4.165,880 4,059,311 8,225,191 1882 .. 4,018,723 3,170,667 7,189,390 1883 .. 3,561,682 3,772,996 7,334.67» 1884 .. 3,653.416 3,084,608 6,737484 18S5 .. 4,537,465 2,478,681 7,016,146- «oe Japan in the Beginning of ike 20ih Century. Vsn* Tamsui and Takao and Total. Year, Kelung (tael). Ampei (tael). 1886 ... 5,462,503 2,583,625 8,046,128 1887 ... ... ... S.641,990 2,762,538 8,404,528 1888 ... S.7o>.i85 2,862,020 8,563,205 1889 ... 5,294,796 2,746,464 8,041,260 1890 ... 5,579,713 3,575,723 9.155,436 1891 ... 5.352,554 3,131,260 8,483,814 1892 ... S.796,284 2.932,3" 3.295,869 8,728,591: 1893 ... 7,880,204 11,170,073 The share which the staple exports and imports play in th» respective volume of Formosan trade may be gathered from th* following two tables : — STAPLE EXPORTS OF FORMOSA. Oolong Tea ... Wrapper Tea Rice Sesame Seed ... Brown Sugar... White Sugar ... Lungngaus ... Camphor Ginger China (Jrass etc. Oil-C^kes ... Coal Other's (unit otytn). 1901. 2,996,002 505,061 I,i32,4>9 213,883 678,369 352,944 91,617 124,618 789,290 91,186 382,798 124,476 134,654 681,476 1900. 4^186,702 630,948 2,276,359 61.341 452.723 216,521 15.872 29.748 1.385.645 128,732 368,654 77.203 95.905 644,924 1899. 4,723.450 572,345 1,265,727 31,179 1,216,061 370,884 65,642 95,725 1,732,739 125,587 298,406 101,872 75,213 440,085 Total . ... 8,298,800 10,571,285 11,114,921 1898. 1897. ■ 1895. Oolong Tea . ... 5,696,841 6yM5.i20 5.854,019 Wrapper Tea . ... 526,733 460,910 — R.ce . ... 2,168,339 1,799,763 913.291 Sesame Seed . ... "4,95' 153.790 35,"6 Brown Sugar ■ ... 1,417.921 1,146,820 1.093,538 White Sugar ... . . ... 566,454 347,221 435.921 Lungngaus / 46,3" • -l 83,468 101.153 50,288 125,238 144,071 Camphor . ... 961,945 1,329,116 2,247,930 Ginger . ... 84,031 52,831 29,563 China Grass ete. .. . ... 378,885 ' 353400 219,078 Oil-Cakes . ... 140,957 69*27 29,463 Coal :• . ... 60,550 23.88S 16,541 Others . ... 599,779 425,264 258,449 Total 12,827,189 12,759.293 11,402,226 Trade. 807 STAPLE IMPORTS OF FORMOSA, (unit of yen). Flour Salt-fish Dried Mushroom Marcaroni Shoes (Chinese) Ginseng.' Opium Beans Rice Iron Pan Lead (lump) Petroleum Paper Refined Sugar (1st class). Refined Sugar (2nd class) Ginned Cotton Cotton Satin Tcloth Shirting ... China Cotton Fabrics ... .Velvet Hempen Fabrics ... , ... Rhamie Fabrics Cut Tobacco Leaf Tobacco Swine Oil-Cakes ... Boards for Tea Chest ... Other Boards , ... Bricks ... ... Fire-Works Packing-Mats , Porcelain and Earthen Ware Card Board ... Incense Sticks Olhers . ■:} igoi. 339,728 "3>045 56,034 86,646 70,264 70,471 2,310,424 76,805 229,832 88,537 102,680 841,069 228,445 179,692 221,551 67,891 197,495 165,249 - 278,103 685,928 118,842 147,016 14:!,I7S 1 1 3,93 > 242,683 408,170 74,797 87,604 430,281 5,212 56,589 74,881 133,663 384,277 73,»37 3,859,624 1900. 355,5 I 89,201 51,368 95,678 58,361 53,436 3,392,602 112,150 167,382 69,636 111,080 1,199,056 307,825 184,795 105,976 76,024 157,060 165,760 293.556 689,637 110,474 ioj,36l 165,523 84,75s 116,891 562,126 97,552 84,462 538,182 68,647 54,406 26,84a 121,138 ■ 337P10 71,819 3,293,276 1899. 334,655 153,723 38,033 "3,577 62,316 58,088 2,775,809 107,848 2,584,968 71,792 98,904 694,217 228,461 165,250 53,640 66,408 9,033 126,482 221,843 611,611 129,106 89,324 201,100 449,981 26,259 660,549 38,248 84,218 525,3«2 58,115 37,272 48,62s 107,416 . 207,724 64,037 2,787,326 Total 12,809,794 13,570,663 14,273,092 803 Japan in the Beginning oj the 20th Century. Flour Salt-fisli Dried Mushroom Marcaroni Shoes (Chinese) Ginseng Opium Beans Rice Iron Fan Lead (lump) Petroleum Paper White Sugar (1st class). White Sugar (2nd class), Ginned Cotton Cotton Satin T-cloth Shirting , China Cotton Fabrics .., Velvet Hempen Fabrics Rhamie Fabrics , Cut Tobacco Leaf Tobacco Swine Oil-Cakes Boards for Tea Chest .., Other Boards Bricks Fire-Works Packing-Mats Porcelain and Earthen- Ware Card Board ... Incense Sticks Others Total ... ;;} 1898. 338,621 170,733 78,939 189,839 110,796 86,761 2,044,392 152,383 870,609 78,779 105,154 714,851 284,866 413,998 107,027 58,263 202,432 322,586 1.370,877 125,639 134,188 319,583 «,357,9o6 14,427 1,009,497 26,521 86,640 719,643 53,295 84,295 48,334 164,772 233,759 91,711 4,703,076 16,875404 1897- 217,684 ii6,o8t 63,552 124,961 84,055 "5,355 1,570,347 "3,299 182,248 55,460 87,050 723^673 332,940 270^672 lo3,34« 30,654 » 73.535 342,979 1,040,924 139,074 60,847 385,457 788,641 13.588 734,313 24,144 88,258 418,643 34,930 68,6zo 48,010 122,372 "6,353 82,787 3,874,431 12,659,298 1896. 218,898 72,767 36,382 60,441 38,968- "0,315 1,164,856 91,584 765,834- 79,633 370,671 190,617 89,804 5,043 16,006^ 220,914 258,169- 513,453 96,132 12,034 86,997 411,950 1,539 179,008 29,293 74,466. 144.939- 9,915 23,550 24,979 37,616- 46,704 3,102,506- 8,631,001 Finance. ¥11. FINANCE. 80J 1. Revenue. — ^The prin ;ipal sources of revenue do not differ much as to' kind from those that were prevailing before the islanrf was converted into a territory of Japan. Nor do the rates of the various kind of taxes differ much from what they were in olden days At present the principal items of ordinary revenue are taxes on land, tea, mining, excise on sugar, percentage fee on the transfer amf mortgage of real estate, export dues, customs tariff, tonnage dues, receipts from Government Undertakings and a few others. The relative importance of those sources of revenue is shown in the following table: — REVENUE (From 1896 to 1902 Fiscal I. ORDINARY REVENUE, (unit of yen). Item, Inhnd Revenue Land Tax Tax on Tea Tax on Sugar Refining Tax on Vehicle Excise on Sugar Camphor Tax Tax on Ship ' Tax on Mining ... Registration P'ee ... Percentage Fee Export Due Custom Tariff Export Tariff Import Tariff Tonnage Due Receipts from Gov and Undertakings . Post and Telegraph Salt Monopoly Camphor Monopoly Opium Monopoly ., Forests Hospitals Railroad Worksl i8s6. ^363,736 752,698 201,298 399,137 10,602 66S.33S 279,872 385,463 563,14s 225,492 15,631 89,162 1897. 1,891,736 835.650 412,143 242,004 353,645 17,675 30.61 S 732,276 262,400 469,876 2,513,900 334,049 1,640,210 M«9 32,646 231,04s Year). 1898. 1,979,089 782,058 410,198 260,715 419,80a 20,644 85,672 907,864 272,539 635,325 4,424,950 369,019 3,467,337 3-481 45,088 288,51s 1899. 1,979,391 841,955 392,714 224,813 379,i8S 18,231 115,41? 7,07s 1,481,407 307,234 1,174,37* 6,570,757 441.390 270,827 917,877 4,249,57? 19,966 61,404 305,851 810 Japan in the Beginning of the 2Qth Century. Item. Miscellaneous Custom Re ceipts Convict Work Tenant Rate , Hire of Gov. Property ., Stamp Receipts Stamp Receipts Cash Receipts Various Licenses and Fees. Miscellaneous Receipts :} 1896. 29,071 202,894 892 1 19,604 1897. 32,099 3.436 229,546 9,151 177.965 27,871 16,743 200,278 6,609 181,745 Total of Ordinary Re- venue Item. Inland Revenue ... Land Tax Tax on Tea Tax on Sugar Refining Tax on Vehicle Excise on Sugar Camphor Tax Tax on Ship Tax on Mining Registration Vee Percentage Fee Export Due Custom Tariff Export Tariff Import Tariff Tonnage Due Receipts from Gov. Works and Under- "| takings ( I'ost and Telegraph .'^alt Monopoly Camphor Monopoly Opium Monqpoly Forests Hospitals ., Kailroad J'.iscellaneous Custom Receipts Convict Work Tenant Rate Hire of Gov. Property Stinip Receipts ... 1900. 1,629,033 912,922 405,267 178,144 3,720 11,281 92,125 15,571 1,567,801 390,668 1.177.133 15.309 9,692,796 5",i74 358,333 3,752,267 4,234,979 62,990 83.119 412,300 15,437 255.3>7 6.87s 54.75? 1901. 1,906,312 869,003 383,190 107,768 243 372,190 19.999 129,754 24.163 1,534,533 352,489 1,182,044 11,846 8,063,584 536,842 5 10,202 3.253.391 2,804,894 81.573 94.465 526,086 26,329 224,214 5.582 62,^93 1899. 30,991 17,232 209,916 5,721 53,220 53,220 750 73.123 ...) 2,711.822 5.3»5,879 7.493.650 10,158,651 1902. 2,094,049 861,791 402,757 689,419 21,281 107,724 11,077 1,499,167 323^414 1,175,753 15,306 8,873.079 628,307 740,4" 2,385.329 3,917,086 150.372 90,479 722,500 16,070 216,341 6,184 7t,i52 Stamp Receipts... t Cash Receipts Various Licenses and Fees Miscellaneous Receipts Total of Ordinary Revenue... Finance. 811 54.732 61,799 71.155 — 1,000 — I2,i66 5,101 11,901 po,68i ^30A94 86,041 • 13.062,520 II .714.673 «2, 650,695 Item. Sale of Gov. Property .,. Land Buildings Articles Ships Supplementary Fund Transferred from Central 1 Treasury f Transferred from Publiel Loans / Transferred from Previousi Account f Total of Extraordinary! Revenue f 2. BXTRAORDINARY REVENUE. 1896. 1897. I49S. 1899. 8.338 8,114 3,'^9^ 468 — — 215 — 6,848 8,114 3,192 80s — — 5,959.048 3,984,540 6,200,000 5.959.048 3.984,540 3,000,000 — — 3,200,000 1,098,070 795,65s 1.064,773 7,065,456 4,788,310 7,267,966 Grand Total of Revenue... 2,711,822 12,381,336 l2,?8l,96o 17,426,618 Item. 1900. 1901. 1902. Sale of Gov. Property 5,493 5.405 5,556 Land — , Buildings 3 Articles 5,013 5,556 5,556 Ships 476 — — Supplementary Fund 8,098,611 7,251,072 7,199,763 Transferred from Central Treasury... 2,598,611 2,386,689 2,459.763 Transferred from Public Loans 5,500,000 4,864,382 4,740,00c Transferred from Previous Account ... 1,103,069 79S,i8i — Total of Extraordinary Revenue... 9,207,174 Grand Total of Revenue 22,269,695 8.051,659 19.766,333 Note : — Figures for 1902 represent estimate, those for all others account. 7,205,319 19,856^14" being se.ttled 812 Japan in tJie Beginning of the 20th Century. 2. Expenditure. — It is unavoidable that the expenditure- should advance in such a newly acquired territory as Formosa, where the Government is confronted with the necessity of under- taking many new things involving big disbursements and also of undoing other things which the previous mal-administration of the Chinese Government had inflicted on the island. Some idea about this point may be gathered from the following table : — . EXPENDITURE (From 1S96 to 1902 year). I. ORDINARY EXriiNDITURE. (unit oiyen). Civ^ Administration ,„ Formosan Temple... ... .,, Governor-General's OJfice ... Local Offices Police Offices Police and Gaolers Training 1 School / Prisons Hospitals , ... Medical Schools .., ... ... Education Custom Houses Communication ».. Observatories Nautical Signals Quarantine Ships and Crews Telephone Service ... ... State Railroad Monopoly Offices ,.. Formosan Undertaking ... Loan Redemption Fund ... Various Refundments . ... Emergency Relief Fund Reserves . Doctors in Charge of Public Hygiene 1896. 3,183,394 182,878 733.5j<^ 1,801,585 Total of Ordinary Ei£-\ ,g_ penditure y^3>»" >j .' 1897. 4>73i,893 184,552 1,528,247 1,215,232 37,8ii 1898. 4,363.189 185,938 1,380,628 1899. 522,352 962,834 1,409,429- 97,719 274,054 198,511 27,96i 131,894 226,809 875,119 22,444- 50,671 — 417,257- 1,993,520 4,668,637- — 23,333 81 137 80,631 16,912^ 34,785. 7,698,737 8,003,990 10,289,481 Fiiiu iice. Civil Administration Formosan Temple Governor-General's Office Local Offices Police Offices Tolice and Gaolers Training School Prisons Hospitals Medical Schools Education Custom Houses Communication Observatories l^autical Signals Quarantine Ships and Crews Telephone Service ■State Railroad Monopoly Offices Formosan Undertaking Loan Redemption Fund ^ ... Various Refundments Emergency Relief Fund Reserves JDoctors in Charge of Public Hygiene, 1900. 509,433 959,101 1,572,209 89,169 424,736 231,169 33,350 1^2,800 23i,95» 963,508 32,490 58,653 19,182 3,521 497,855 5,531,031 338,93s 85 10,071 50.000 33,999 igoi. 18,000 575,987 918,827 1,714,634 98,22s 494,710 241,379 38,106 178,504 238,426 995,249 25,888 50,620 24,596 7,705 55,575 682,778 4.507,585 563,768 76 5.196 50,000 33,9" 813 1903. 18,000 745,280 704,522 >>69o,93S 105,766 543,019 259,759 41,049 130,658 282,958 1,086,526 28,380 67,08s 27,365 11,954 75,482 724,021 4,907,140 1,000,303 98 8,000 50,000 400,000 Total of Ordinary Expenditure ... 12,017,296 11,839,073 2. EXTRAORDINARY EXPENDITURE. 1896. Special Undertaking Funds... — Railroad Construction andl Improvement J Harbor Construction of) __ Kelung / Temporary Land Survey- 1 ing / Construction of Prisons ... — Construction of Official 1 Residences j Public Undertaking 3,526,827 Encouragement of Sugar 1 Industry 5th Domestic Exhibition. Animal Epdemic 1897. 1898. :} - 3,100,786 i,597,67« 10,217 6,858 13.245,073 1899. 2,744,998 1,975,096 94,828 440,865 111,185 123,022 1,768,143 7,390 81 i Japan in the Beginning of ike 2Qth Century. 1S96. 1897- 1898. 1899- .Sanitary Expense — 39,868 39,5 » 7 39.76S Industrial Fund — — — ~ Compilation Expense 11,854 9,246 4,805 •5,257 Subsidies 59,999 514,500 514,500 7oo,oco Navigation 59,999 514,500 514,500 700,000 Schools .„ — — — — Foniiosan Railroad Stores ... — — — — Formosan Temple Festival... — — — — Epidemic Diseases 92,027 23,726 84,107 36,273. Natural Calamities ..'. ... — 128,628 964,197 657,668 Policing Aboligines Frontiers. — — — — Paris Exhibition — — 1,538 38,006 Rewards Granted in the Stip- 1^ 26,563; pression of Armed Raiders. J Reshipping Chinese who ax-\ rived without Permission... J — 2,996 — — Relief Fund 50,000 — — — Total of Extraordinary 1 , ,;.„ ,„. Expenditure j-J./5">/"i» 3,829,970 3,213,196 6,034,067 Grand Total of Expenditures. 9,652,098 11,528,708 11,217,187 16,323,548 1900. igoi. 1902. Special Undertaking Funds 5,880,134 4,939,233 4,740,000 Railroad Construction and Improve-" ments ^ 4,524,894 2,642,903 2,500,000. Harbor Construction of Kelung ... 346,436 1,186,666 490,000 Temporary Land Surveying 650,845 905,501 1,600,000 Construction of Prisons 164,503 121,790 I50,OCK> Construction of Official Residences. 193,454 82,371 — Public Undertaking 2,360,884 1,299,771 586,241 Encouragement of Sugar Industry ... — — 149,769 5th Domestic Exhibition — — 20,000 Animal Epidemic 9,877 13,934 15,000 Sanitary Expense 39,688 28,465 40,000 Industrial Fund 31,216 178,340 240,000 Compilation Expense •5,113 13,965 15,732 Subsidies 798,069 818,599 667,000 Navigation 795,969 798,599 640,000 Schools 2,100 20,000 27,000 Formosan Railroad Stores — — I37,'99' I'ormosan Temple Festival — 5,980 — Epidemic Diseases '. ... — 17,175 — Finance. 81> 1900. igoi. 1902. Natural Calamities ,. 253>9t7 211,207 Policing Aborigines Frontiers 37,o7l Paris Exhibition 22,544 Rewards Granted in the Suppression of Armed Raiders J Reshippirg Chinese who arrived with out Permission Relief Fund ... Total^of Extraordinary Expendi- 1 ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ Grand ToU 1 of Expenditure 21,474,513 19.365,745 19,856,014 A glance at the two foregoing tables will show that Fornaosa cau not yet claim to be financially independent, and that it is obliged to seek help from the mother country. However the prospect of the ishiiid finance is quite bright, as judged from what it has experienceil so far. The subsidy from the mother country shows a gradual i\illing-ofi; from over 6,900,000 yen in 1896 to only 2,800,000 yen approximately in 1902, for the supplementary fund procured by means of loans to meet the demand of useful public undertakings should properly be left out of account in this calculation. C'om- pirison made between ordinary revenue and ordinary expenditure must be considered as decidedly satisfactory, for while in the year 1.^99 the two were practically balanced, in the following two years the revenue exceeded the other account. The account for 1902, being an estimate, can not give a definite illustration, though the exp<'nditure is estimated to exceed the revenue by about half a million yen. It may confidently be expected therefore that, when all such undertakings, as construction of railroad, adjustment of land and many other useful enterprises which at present constitute principal outlays are completed, Formosau finance is sure to show a bright record. LOCAL FINANCE. REVENUE (Fromi898 to 1.902 Fi..ca] Year). 1. ORDINARY REVHNUE (unit oi yeji). 1898. 1899. n.ici. igoi. 1902. Local Taxes 747>«50 l,590,8£4 x,82M»'i 2,045,474 i,952,?.20 Land Rate 215,552 454,026 Si5,*'23 570.S79 558,t'.12 House Tax 252,394- 55° 733 628,478 720,230 707.842 Rusiness Tax i29,6!iS 323,845 ^65.745 368,811 335.6i6 Mi.-,ceIIaneous Tax ... 99,835 239,589 2;i),5<>9 341,639 320,077 Miscellaneous Receipts. Z'^Z 22,658 iM.'&y) 43,913 10,050 Total 747,850 1,590,854 I,a2<».456 2,o;;,474 1,952,220 816 Japayi in the Beginning of the 20 42,042 114,180 3494,954 Finance. 817 3. Banking Ori^aNS and Oueeency System. — Properly speak- ing, both banking organs and a currency system were lacking in Jformosa before it was brought under the Japanese sway. In fact no particular necessity was felt about them, in that the IBanking trade, besides being practically controlled by Chinese ■Organs. merchants residing on the opposite coast of China, and by a small number of resident foreigners, was insignificaii', for Formosa had only a few products to sell and could buy only a. iittle of foreign goods. The establishment of a number of branch offices by the Thirty- fourth Bank of Osaka soon after the advent of the new regime and ihe establishment of the Formosan Bank, the central banking organ in the island, in 1899 hare ushered in a new order of things that were adopted for the re(|uirements of the time. Data of this central bank were mentioned under the section of Finance. Whatever currency Formosa possessed consisted in copper and silver coins minted by other countries. These, moreover, were nut .circulated according to their denomination, they were Cuirency. used by weight. Practically therefore they were nothing ' less than bullion, and Formosa was a silver bullion mono- metallic country, if it is possible to use such a term. The l-ye;i silver coins which Japan iatroduced into Formosa found there a ready welcome, and those coins were not mutilated as old foreign silver and as they were finer they were preferred by the natives in preference to all others. The established custom in the island being in favor oi silver -currency, the authorities decided, when they adopted in 1897 gold mono-metallism in Japan proper, to regard a Formosan currency system as an exception, and to leave this new dominion as a sort of silver country. It was decided at the same time that the official quotation of the gold price of silver should be determined and pro- claimed froim time to time, and that the silver quotations prevailing at Hongkong and Sliaiighai should be adopted for determining this standard price for Formosa, so that the intimate tradal relation existiug between the island and China should be promoted as much as po.ss!ble. The first official quotation was fixed at 1037 pieces of stamped silver yen against 1,000 yen of gold, or 1 yen piece against 0.964 818 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Centunj. fft^n of silver. The Formosan coins bore a stamped mark because- they were the pieces that had been •withdrawn from circulation in Japan proper in consequence of the addption of the gold standard and because the authorities had to provide against the trouble and risk of exchanging the withdrawn coins with gold. The determination of the official quotation on the silver price prevailing in China was soon judged to be subject to inconvenience, for very often that price was not uniform with the quotation in the world's silver market. At present, therefore, the official quotation is based on the price ruling on that market. The silver currency, both stamped pieces and subsidiary coins,^ that wiis put for circulation in Formosa from September 1900 to May 1902 reached a rather large volume. At the same time other coins and the Formosan Bank note were in circulation, so that the total reached the following amount : — fsa. Stamped /«■» Pieces 23.657.428 Subsidiary Coins 1.345.799 Foreign Coins ; V ... 3,228,856 Nickel and Copper Pieces 223,000 Formosan Bank Notes ... 3.353,631 Total 31,808,714 Tlie foregoing volume seems to be too excessive for Formosa, where trade is still primitive and industry is but poorly developed. But it must be remembered that the natives can not yet divest themselves of their simple custom of secretly hoarding silver. Con- sequently the amount thus withdrawn from circulation must bfr quite large. It is hardly necessary to add that the custom of th» natives towards currency being so primitive they do not themselves care at all about monetary system. Oommunications. 810 ¥111. COMMUNICATIONS. In this chapter will be briefly described the conspicuous features in the communication aifairs of Formosa, that is to say, railroad and highways. 1. Raileoad. — Formosit possessed even before its annexation by Japan about 62 miles of railroad laid between Kelung and Shirachiku via Taihoku. This line was built during the Governor- ship of Liu mentioned in the preceding part of this section. The railroad was, however, poor in construction and defective in workiugt Gradient erred on the side of excess while curve erred on tha. of the opposite nature. Traffic management was so defective that e\n) fares and freights were almost daily subject to changes, not to say nothing about irregularity of time-table. In justice to the energetic administration, comparatively speaking of Liu, it ought to be added, however, that this line proved immensely beneficial to our troops of subjugation sent at first to restore order in the island, for Formosa was notorious, as is also the case even to-day, for the absence of regular highways. With the restoration of peace, a number of capitalists in Japan proper promoted the Formosan Railway Company with the idea of laying railroads in the island by obtaining some help from the Formosan Government. This undertaking Hashed Pr;vat3 Hailroad in the plan and the company was wound a few Enterprise. months after its creation, for further investiga- tions had convinced the promoters that even with the help which the Government promised to accord them, it would he hardly possible to derive any satisfactory profit from this busi- ness. With this disappearance of private enterprise, the Government ii<. 821 ed that it was completed in a few mouths and for the first time in its history the northern and the southern halves of the island ob- tained a complete line of overland comnnuiications, though it was necessarily imperfect. With the construction of a regular track, the light railroad that connected the same places was removed, and at present the light tracks originally laid for military purposes al- together measure 125 miles, trunk line and deflections added together. The light railroad constructed for ordinary use Light Railroad for is yet an insignificant aflkir, comparatively speak- Ordinary Purposes, ing, for at present the working line that between Koshun and Taihanroku, measures only 2i miles. The other lines contemplated are: — m. ch. Rokko — Sliokwa 7. ^^ Banshoryo — Nanshiko 19. 55 Hozan — Ako 10. 55 Gilan — Suwo 15. 00 Total 52. 64 It ought to be added that the light railroads in Formosa are pushed by men. 3. HiGnwAYS. — It may properly be said that highways, as the- word is used in ordinary places, do not exist in Formosa, for whatever road there is in the island is not better than animal, tracks. This absence of the most common means of intercourse and! communication may be accounted for from the fact that the islanders- used to carry on intercourse more with the people on the opposite- coast and less among themselves, while transportation of goods was made almost exclusively on men's backs. The presence of many un- ruly streams across the roads must have also deterred the con- struction of good highways. In order to improve this serious defect, the Governor-General issued Eegulations of Eoads in 1900, and surveying has been completed for most of the contemplated routes. In many parts of Tainan and vicinity the work of road-making, lias been completed, or is about to be completed. 522 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Centura/. IX. EDUCATION, HYGIENE, RELIGION. A. Education. 1. General Remarks. — Educational affairs in Formosa are divided into three departments according to as many classes of people residing in it, that is to say, (1) education for people from Japan proper, (2) education for the natives of Chinese origin, and (3) education for the aborigines. 2. For Japanese from Japan Proper. — ^The provision for giving instruction to people from Japan proper consists of primary schools only where their children receive elementary instruction. Thirteen schools of this description exist in various parts of the island. According to the latest report, the teaching staff comprised 60 teachers and the pupils numbered about 2,000. The curriculum is identical with that prevailing in the mother country, so that the pupils taught in a Formosan school are easily enabled to follow the study €ven when tbey are transferred to a school there. 3. For the Natives. — Educational arrangements for the natives are receiving the best attention of the authorities. The Medical School, Japanese Language School, Normal School, and Communal Schools all exist for the benefit of their children or their brothers and sisters. The Medical School may be regarded as the only school of the kind existing in the Far East devoted to giving a regular course of modern science and practice of medicine to students of Chinese origin. Situated in Taihoku, its course covers five years, the instruction given in Japanese. At present over 130 students attend school and already three graduates have been sent out. The National Language School was originally intended to serve a double purpose, one being to give training to ordinary Japanese in the native languages to qualify them to act as interpreters, translators and as officials, and the other object being to teach Japanese to the islanders. The department for the native has been considerably modified, and at present it comprises several depart- ments, as technical course (railroad, telegraph, agriculture), second- ary education coui-se, and girls' course. The Normal School exists to train native youths as teachers of Ed",u;ation. 823 native primary seli^ols. A number of graduates have already been turned out. Communal Scliools present the most flourishing aspect for they are institutions where the Formosan native boys receive elementary education. At present 130 scho'ols and branch schools of this grade «xist in various parts of the island. The teaching staff comprises 521 teachers and the attendance numbers 18,149. Besides there are about 1800 " family-schools " kept mostly in old style by native schoolmasters, and they possess as many as 32,000 attendants approxi- mately. 4. For the Aborigines. — The National Language Training School is the first institution established by the Government. Ori- ginally it was intended to teach only the sons and brothers of the islanders, but as more perfect educational organs for them have since been erected, at present this school is devoted to giving ele- mentary instruction to the children of aborigines. The school list ■contains 723 such pupils. The institutions bearing the name of the National Lnnguage Training Schools number five main schools and about eleven branch schools, all situated in the abor';;;;ue's districts or at places adjoining them. 5. Girl's Euucation. — The only place where girls are ex- clusively taught is a girl's department established at Shiringai of the National Language School. There the girls are taught in sub- jects of elementary education and also in some handicraft work. A number of little girls also receive education at several communal schools, but in classes of their own, for the Formosan natives are strict agaiust co-education, faithfully adhering to the antiquated Confucian maxim that men and women should not sit in the sume room after they have grown above seven years old. The authorities are trying to disillusion the natives of this absurd notion. The other educational institutions are missionary schools, both by foreigners and Japanese Buddhists ; a museum and a library. <524 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. B. Hygiene. 1. Public Hygiene. 1. General Remarks. — Matters of public hygiene necessarily show a deplorable defect in Formosa ; in fact any provision on this- subject may be said to have been practically absent formerly. 2. Watee-Supply. — The only thing worth mentioning in this- respect is the boring of a number of artesians wells in Taihoku during the Governorship of Liu, by engaging for that purposef several well-diggers from Japan. The well-boring was extensively carried out by the new ruler* of the island and in Taihoku and neighborhood alone over 80O wells have been bored. The well-water obtained from them is not judged absolutely wholesome, though far superior and healthier than the contaminated river water and the water from the shallow native wells, both of which the native were accustomed to use former- ly as drinking-water. This fruitful source of epidemics in Formosa has therefore been deprived of much of its virulence. fti Kelung and Tansui, where the supply of wholesome water wad even more defective than in Taihoku, water-works have already been constructed. Well-borings have also been accomplished in several other places, while investigations are being conducted at Taihoku and other towns for constructing regular water-works. 3. Street Improvements and Sewerage.— The streets in. all the cities of Formosa are now undergoing thorough re-construc- tion, for besides being narrow and defectiv9 in the facilities of com- munication, they have obstructed considerably the drainage of refuse water. At the sametime the re-construction or more properly a new construction of sewer-ways is being carried oa in several of those cities, for sewer-ways, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, have been absent in them. This work of street improvement and sewerage construction is^ being carried on a large scale in Taichu (3Iid-Formosa) than ia other cities, for the Government, in anticipation of the important part which the place is destined to play in the island where it occupies the central position, has decided to undertake this work while it admits of easier and cheaper execution, for at present Hifgiene. ' 825 Taichu is the least populous and flourishing of all the cities in the island. The programme of the work involves an outlay of about 1,200,000 ym, and, started in the 1899 fiscal year, about a fourth part of the contemplated work has been completed. 4. Provisions against Epidemic Diseases.— The appear- ance in May, 1896, of pest in Anpiug occasioned the necessity of enforcing some preventive measures, and this was the first instance in the history of Formosa of the enforcement of such sanitary pro- vision. The authorities had to experience considerable trouble at first, owing to the ignorance of the people. They regarded the Govern- ment measures at best with indiifereuce and withheld from rendering any cooperative service, without which an. official business of this kind can never be a success. The Government subsequently modified the rules originally transplanted wholesale from Japan proper to satisfy the urgent need of the occasion, and made them more amenable to the obtuse notions of the natives. They have acquired some knowledge of the import- ance of the preventive measures and in some places lockup hospitals have been established with the contributions of the people, while in a larger number of places the inhabitants have organized themselves into sanitary corporations. Though in a highly imperfect way owing to lack of proper provision Quarantine regulations were also enforced in Kelung, Tansui, Anping, Takao and Rokko in September, 1896, when cases of pest were reported from several places on the opposite coast of China. By the beginning of the 1899 fiscal year a hona fide arrangement had been completed at Kelung, and rules specially applicable to Formosa were enforced. The central quarantine office' exists at Kelung and a branch at Tansui and other ports. 2. Medical Affairs. 1. Hospitals. — At present the authorities maintain a Govern- ment hospital at Taihoku, Kelung, Shinchiku, Taichu, Kagi, Tai- nan, Hozan, Gilan, Taito, and Hoko (Pescadores), with a number of branch hospitals established at • less important places, 2. Medical PEACTiTroNERS. — There are several kinds of medi- cal praetitibners doing business in the island. First there are doctors 826 Japan in the Beginning of the 20th Century. ■who in return for some official protection, are made to take charge of matters of sanitary, administration as assistants and advisers of regular officials. At first such doctors numbered 150, for at that time the presence of regular practitioners possessing knowledge of modern medicine was small in the island. As these doctors have subsequently increased in number, the necessity of maintaining so many official doctors was no longer felt and at present they number 76. Licensed practitioners from Japan proper number 43. Lastly there are native practitioners who are permitted to pursue the occupation in deference to their previous experience, for though these men are, devoid of knowledge of modern medicine, and are not qualified for the task, the natives from their custom are still dis- posed to seek their help. These quasi-practitioners number 1,938. 3. Opium. 1. Opium Administration. — The question of opium-smoking was one of the gravest afiairs which demanded the foremost attention of the Governor General's Office as soon as it was installed in the island. In other words, it had to adopt either one of these alterna- tives ; namely, should the Government prohibit, as in Japan proper, this deleterious practice in the island? or should the Government adopt a policy of toleration in deference to the long-established custom among the natives, vicious as that custom is? At last the policy of moderation prevailed, and the Government decided to adopt the scheme of gradual suppression and to effect by that means the eradication of the evil from this new dominion. 2. Modus Operandi. — la pursuance of that policy, the au- thorities drew up a regular programme of opium administration, combining the two functions both of permission and discouragement. In other words, that programme issued special permission only to confirmed smokers. This permission had to be given under strict control, so that it may act in perfect unison with the main aim of gradual suppression. To effect this object, a list of licensed smokers had to be compiled, the Government had to control the supply of opium in its hand'c and the sale of this drug had to be restricted to licensed agents, while the Police to enforce strict vigilance to pre- vent all practices infringing the rules of opium-smoking. At the JReligions. 827 same time medical practitioners and others were enjoined to inealcate, whenever they had opportunities, the evil of smoking among the people at large, and school-teachers were also bidden to explain in the schoolrooms to their pupils the injurious effect of this habit. 3. Licensed Smokers.— The first list drawn up toward the end of 1897 as to the number of regular smokers contained only 51,581. This was considerably below the mark, for the authori- ties, judging from various data, had estimated the number of smokers at about 180,000. It was evident that a greater part of smokers did not report themselves at all from the desire of evading the fee of the smoking license which was fixed at the rate of from 20 sen to 3 yen a month. The grades of the license were therefore abolished and in place of monthly payment the fee was reduced to only 30 sen irrespective of grades and at one time only. At the same time the Police were made to exercise strict vigilance tc prevent concealment. In September, 1900, the list compiled in thai way was completed and it contained 169,064 smokers. This was judged fairly accurate nearly coinciding with the estimate number of 180,000, for no small number of smokers must have either died or given up the practice since that estimate was compiled more than three years ago. Since that time the number of licensed smokers has gone on declining, either through death or discontinuance, and at the end of March, 1902, it stood at 152,044. It is hardly necessary to add that those smokers are only natives of the island, for people of Japan proper and also foreigners are strictly forbidden from indulging in this vile and injurious practice; The authorities are confident that judging from past experiences they may be enabled to eradicate the baneful custom from this island in about thirty or foity years. 4. Opium Agents. — The privilege of selling opium is granted only to natives of established standing. At the end of March, 1902, these agents numbered 1,254 throughout the island. C. Religions. The religions in vogue in the island are Budahism and Chris- tianity, for that kind of ancestor-worship that previously existed and still exists in the island can hardly deserve the title of religion. 8;28 Japan in the Beginning 0/ the 20th Century. 1. Buddhism. — This is by far the most flourishing religion, and possesses over 90 preaching places and about 30,000 believers. The Buddhist propagandists are mostly from Japan proper. 2. Christianity. — Christianity in the island may be classified, into three national divisions for the sake of convenience ; namely. Catholics who are relics of the old Spanish occupation, the English Protestant Church, and lastly the Christianity propagated by Japanese missionaries. , Of the three, the English Protestantism conducted by Kev. William Campbell appears to be most active and prosperous. The churches of all sects and nationalities number about 90 and their believers about 10,000. The End.