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"^ 
 
 Compliments of John D. Runkle. 
 
 REPORT 
 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 
 
 JOHN D. RUNKLE, Ph.D., L L, D., 
 
 WAr.KER PROFESSOR OI-^ MATHEMATICS, MASS. INSTITUTE TECHNOLOGV. 
 
 % 
 
 BUS T C) N : 
 W. F. Brown & Co., 
 
 . 218 Franklin Street. 
 
 -sSSs* 
 
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL EDU- 
 CATION. 
 
 By John D. Runkle, Chairman. 
 
 Any one who has carefully examined the full and 
 valuable report on Industrial Education in the United 
 States, recently issued by the Bureau of Education, 
 must have been greatly impressed with the magnitude 
 and variety of the work already accomplished in this 
 direction. Indeed, even now, no student wishing to 
 prepare himself to follow any of the leading industrial 
 pursuits, in their higher departments, need hesitate for 
 want of reasonably good opportunities. He may not 
 find all, and just what he wishes at any one place, for 
 it will be noticed that of the prominent technical col- 
 leges or schools in this country, each has developed 
 some subject or department more fully than others, 
 sometimes on account of location and surrounding con- 
 ditions, and often for reasons which in most cases it is 
 not difficult to discover. 
 
 The agricultural colleges are most numerous, and 
 present the greatest variety of type and method. Some 
 are simply experimental stations for carrying on the 
 investigatioii of questions relating to the subject; others 
 offer more or less systematic courses of study, illustrated 
 by practice on an experimental farm, which the student 
 uses according as he is, or is not, already familiar with 
 
2 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 the details of farm work and management; and still 
 others, where the student mainly supports himself by 
 his work on the farm, and at the same time follows a 
 course of study which is just what he needs for the 
 pursuit of practical farming. Others, again, instead of 
 general farming, emphasize some special department, 
 as horticulture, pomology, forestry, or the care and 
 rearing of animals. 
 
 Something of this variety would also be noticed if we 
 should examine these institutions in reference to any 
 other leading industry. 
 
 This, however, is not the phase of the problem of 
 industrial education which we wish mainly at this time 
 to consider. It is one extreme, in which we attempt to 
 combine theory and practice, as the kindergarten may, 
 in a sense, be regarded as the other extreme. But, be- 
 tween these wide limits lies the vast field of our public 
 schools, in comparison with which all other phases of 
 the educational problem sink into comparative insignifi- 
 cance. 
 
 In these schools the great mass of the people begin 
 and end their education, and so far does this education 
 enter as a shaping factor into our social and national 
 life, that this life will be, in a large measure, what these 
 schools make it ; and they will ever be successful in 
 proportion as we foster and make them conform to all 
 our highest and best needs, which will vary with the 
 ever-varying circumstances and conditions of our civili- 
 zation. 
 
 Not only should our schools endeavor to make the 
 most of the individual as such, but also to make him 
 most useful as a member of the body politic. The aim 
 should be to develop and cultivate all his faculties and 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 6 
 
 powers in such a way as to aid him in determining 
 which of them he can use to the best advantage. 
 
 Before raising the question as to whether our public 
 schools at present do all, and the best that can be done, 
 for the individual, and thus for the community, it may 
 be well to consider briefly what we mean by industrial 
 education. 
 
 In general we mean an education which prepares 
 one to pursue some particular industry. This idea is 
 the basis of all special schools. In a sense, there are 
 as many forms of industrial education as there are sep- 
 arate and distinct industries ; that is, given the industry, 
 then the course of scientificor theoretical study, as well 
 as the scheme of hand-work or manipulation, can be 
 arranged to meet the demands of this industry. 
 
 On the other hand, industrial education is rapidly 
 coming to mean such a broad and general training, both 
 in theory and practice, both mentally and manually, as 
 will secure a sound, general education, as well , as fit 
 the student to enter upon any one of a large group of 
 allied industries if he shall choose to do so. This idea 
 has given rise to what are now known as mechatiic art 
 schools, sometimes also called manual training schools, 
 in distinction from trade or special schools. Broadly 
 stated, science applied becomes an art, and an art 
 applied becomes a trade. If we build our education 
 on art, which belongs and corresponds to the earlier 
 stages of mental growth, we can afterwards apply the 
 knowledge and skill thus gained in industrial pursuits, 
 or build upon this same foundation the scientific train- 
 ing which belongs to the after years of the educational 
 course. 
 
 And first, let us briefly compare our public schools of 
 
4 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 to-day with those of forty or fifty years ago, a time within 
 the memory of at least one member of this committee. 
 At that time the subjects studied, hardly taught, in 
 the country schools were reading, spelling, writing, and 
 arithmetic. We used DaboU's arithmetic, which con- 
 sisted simply of written rules and examples, and the 
 teaching was limited to showing the pupils how to apply 
 the rules, and even in this the teacher was not always 
 successful. About this time a great step in advance 
 was taken, in the introduction of Woodbridge's geog- 
 raphy. The flavor of that book is still fresh in my 
 nostrils, but, unfortunately, it was as new to the 
 teacher as pupils. At first we began to commit its 
 pages to memory with childish pleasure ; the interest 
 soon flagged, however, and we did but little besides 
 look over the maps and pictures, and wonder how old 
 Woodbridge must have been after doing so much travel- 
 ing to get his information. The pupils ranged in age 
 from five or six to twenty, or more, years, and with rare 
 exceptions completed their literary education in these 
 schools. 
 
 On the other hand, what do experienced educators 
 now claim as a satisfactory course of elementary studies 
 for the country schools ? We will simply enumerate 
 the studies in the report of a competent committee of 
 the National Council of Education made last summer 
 upon this subject. The Committee divides the pupils' 
 school life into three stages or periods of development, 
 with corresponding studies. 
 
 For the first, or period of observation and sensation : 
 reading, spelling, elementary composition, numbers, 
 linear drawing, singing, gymnastics, and simple lessons 
 on the properties of things. 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 
 
 For the second, or period of memory and imagina- 
 tion : a continuation of the studies of the first course, 
 but more advanced, with the facts of history, elements 
 of geography, and elementary lessons on plants, ani- 
 mals, minerals, chemistry, and physics. 
 
 For the third, or period of generalization and reason- 
 ing : the study of the above subjects in their more ad- 
 vanced forms, and finally, as sciences ; and if the pupil 
 remains during the third stage he may take lessons in 
 geometry and algebra, and devote some time to the 
 study of the ancient and modern languages. The in- 
 dustrial element of education should be introduced in 
 some form so as to turn the attention of the pupils 
 toward work while they are passing through the schools. 
 
 Such is the course of study outlined for which rea- 
 sons are given — not an ideal course, but a real one, 
 which we are to assume can, in the opinion of the com- 
 mittee, be accomplished under ordinarily favorable 
 conditions. What a contrast between now and our 
 school-boy days ! Fifty years ago the college course 
 fell far short of this range of studies ; nor is it too 
 much to add, often far short in philosophical methods 
 of teaching. 
 
 While it is doubtless true that our best schools often 
 fail fully to realize the standard set by the committee, 
 all of us must recognize the great progress they have 
 made, and the high rank they now occupy as factors in 
 the people's culture, refinement, and intellectual growth. 
 
 As the means for developing the purely intellectual 
 faculties of the pupil, they have not failed, and are not 
 failing ; and yet the question does arise whether the 
 same ends may not be fully gained by a course of study 
 not so entirely scholastic, by admitting that knowledge 
 
 A* 
 
b MR. RUNKLE'S ADDRESS. 
 
 and. power may come to the mind through all the 
 senses instead of a few, and that the training of the 
 senses may thus serve the double purpose of discipline 
 and utility. 
 
 Nor is this question a purely theoretical one. It is 
 forced upon us as vital to our highest well-being as a 
 people. It is involved in our industrial, and therefore, 
 political economy — in the fundamental problem of 
 abor. The causes of the deterioration and the un- 
 satisfactory condition of labor in this country, and to 
 nearly the same extent in many other countries, have 
 been so often and so fully stated within the past few 
 years, that we need at present do little more than call 
 attention to them. 
 
 With the gradual and almost total extinction of 
 apprenticeship, labor has become not only unskilled, 
 and nearly dead to all sense of professional pride and 
 ambition, but too often dishonest, demoralized, and 
 brutal. 
 
 There is common testimony to the fact of the decay 
 of the system of apprenticeship, and the causes, with 
 only slight modifications, are the same the world over, 
 the conflict between labor and capital, the rapid intro- 
 duction of machinery, and the changed conditions re- 
 sulting in all the producing and manufacturing indus- 
 tries. 
 
 The consequences are serious and far-reaching, and 
 houghtful pe rsons everywhere are beginning to seek a 
 remedy. As the system of apprenticeship was based 
 upon a form of education, we naturally seek the remedy 
 through the same agency. 
 
 And now we come to the question, Can we make 
 our system of public education take the place of appren- 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 7 
 
 ticeship ? Can we early in the child's school course 
 gradually begin so to lay the foundation, that he 
 may build upon it sach a superstructure as he may 
 wish ? Can we so broaden our public education by 
 gradually introducing manual instruction, adapted year 
 by year to the age and capacity of the pupil, and yet 
 not weaken, much less destroy, this public education ? 
 Can we so engraft manual instruction, that at the end 
 of the grammar school course, say at fifteen or sixteen 
 years, the graduate can go to the farm, the shop, the 
 mill, the store, or any other pursuit he may choose, 
 and be well prepared to meet the demands which these 
 several ways in life will make upon him ? Can we con- 
 tinue this manual instruction into the high school so 
 that the graduate who wishes to pursue the higher de- 
 partments of any special industrial profession, as agri- 
 culture, architecture, any branch of engineering, any 
 textile industry, may be well prepared to pursue his 
 specialty in a higher technical school ? Or, if his school 
 days shall end with the high school, may he not have a 
 freer and wider choice of pursuits than his school-life 
 now offers him ? 
 
 All high schools now lead to the college and the 
 learned professions ; they all do, or should teach the 
 sciences by the laboratory or manipulatory methods ; 
 will the student who comes to the high school with a 
 manual added to his mental training, be any the less 
 qualified to make use of the school in these directions ? 
 
 As we have seen, our higher technical schools are 
 rapidly introducing manual instruction, not in trades, 
 but in the alphabet of mechanism — in the few arts 
 which are fundamental in a large number of trades, or 
 specific industries. Furthermore, the manual arts are 
 
8 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 introduced and taught, not primarily, as the foundation 
 of some trade, but as a part of the general discipline of 
 the school, just as free-hand and mechanical drawing 
 are taught, and justified on the ground of their educa- 
 tional value. 
 
 Not over one in a hundred, if so many, of all the 
 students taught drawing in our public schools will ever 
 make any professional use of the technical knowledge 
 or skill acquired in the study, and it would obviously be 
 unwise, as well as unjust, to compel the ninety and nine 
 to study the subject for the benefit of the one. But 
 drawing, in one form or another, has won its way into 
 nearly all schools in the older countries, and is mak- 
 ing rapid progress in our own. And, while it is the 
 universal language of handicraft, bringing the indus- 
 trial ends of the earth together, just as the higher and 
 finer arts express the feelings and sentiments of our 
 common humanity, it has at the same .time justified 
 itself in all countries as a most valuable auxiliary to 
 purely scholastic studies for developing the intellect, and 
 widening and deepening the capacity and power of the 
 individual. Nor would it be possible to estimate the 
 value to the industries of the world, of this general cul- 
 tivation of the intellect and taste through drawing. 
 England has presented us during the past thirty years 
 a most signal and striking example — one with which 
 we are all familiar. Compare her textiles, ceramics, 
 and indeed, all products depending upon a cultivated 
 taste in design, with the same products of 185 1, and 
 you will read the lesson. And the same sure and 
 steady progress has been made in all countries where 
 drawing has been largely cultivated as a special indus- 
 trial art, or introduced as a factor into the educational 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 9 
 
 system. But drawing is essentially a manual art. What- 
 ever of mental discipline, or cultivation of taste it 
 offers, can only come through the training of the hand 
 as the medium. 
 
 Little value would be derived by teaching drawing as 
 a science without corresponding practice. It has its 
 body of principles, but they can be better brought to the 
 students' attention, and most clearly set forth in con- 
 nection with a well-arranged and progressive course in 
 manipulation. Besides, drawing is a study which can 
 and should be, begun long before the child's mind has 
 the capacity to regard it as a science. At this period 
 time is less valuable, the mental and physical muscles 
 are more plastic, and it is easier to bend the twig as we 
 would have the tree incline. 
 
 Apprenticeship as an educational method, in its best 
 form, is defective in the absence, as a rule, of all system 
 or philosophical basis, and because all mental studies 
 usually end when apprenticeship begins. This country, 
 so far as we know, has been the exception ; the inden- 
 ture providing in some cases that the apprentice should 
 attend the public school a certain time each year. This 
 custom brought the school and shop into important, 
 although unofficial relations, which redounded to the 
 great good of the apprentice. In a certain sense it 'has 
 its parallel in Germany in the Gewerbe or trade schools, 
 which, instead of teaching the manual of the trades, 
 teach drawing and the elements of the sciences as they 
 apply in the trades. The pupils in these schools are of 
 two classes, either those who have already learned and 
 are practising some trade, or younger pupils who pro- 
 pose soon to enter upon some trade or individual pur- 
 suit. This system will continue to produce good results 
 
10 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 so long as the trades remain largely in individual hands, 
 and the apprentices can be properly taught; but the 
 concentration of manufacturing in large establishments, 
 which is going on in Germany as in all other countries 
 will in time make a resort to other methods necessary. 
 
 Indeed, a step in this direction has already been 
 taken in the establishment within the past three years 
 of a true mechanic art school for the metal industries 
 at Iserlohn, Prussia, the first of its kind in Germany. . 
 
 Its director is Prof. Theodore Renter, who was the 
 first to introduce the Russian or mechanic art system 
 at Komotau in Bohemia in 1874. The metals studied 
 are Iron, Copper, Brass, Bronze, Nickel and Silver — 
 arranged in systematic courses of manipulations. 
 
 The following scheme contains the grouping by years 
 of the scientific and manual courses. 
 
 A. SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION. 
 
 First Year. 5. The German Language. 
 
 1. Model Drawing. 5. The Science of Projection. 
 
 2. Ornamental Drawing. • 7. Mechanical Calculations. 
 
 3. Geometry. 8. Natural Philosophy. 
 
 4. Geometry applied to Design. 9. Technical Chemistry. 
 
 5. The German Language. 10. Mechanics. 
 
 6. General Arithmetic and Book- Thtkd Vfa r 
 
 , °' I. Composing and inventing 
 
 7. Algebra. Designs. 
 
 8. Natural Philosophy. 2. The Drawing of Statues. 
 
 3. The History of the Arts. 
 Second Year. 4. The German Language. 
 
 1. Ornamental Drawing. 5. Natural Philosophy. 
 
 2. Anatomical Drawing (the hu- 6_ Technology. 
 
 man gure;. y_ Technical Chemistry (Labor- 
 
 3. The Science of Shading. atory). 
 
 4. The Science of Perspective. 8. Statistics. 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 11 
 
 B. MANUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 First Year. io. Turning in Metal. 
 
 1. Modelling in Fine Clay. n. Chasing in the Lathe. 
 
 2. Carving in Wood. 12. Pressing, Stamping and Coin- 
 
 3. Moulding and Carving in ing. 
 
 Plaster. 
 
 4. Moulding in Sand. Third Year. 
 
 5. Chipping and Filing. '■ ^°^Si^S- 
 
 2. Soldering. 
 Second Year. 3. Burnishing. 
 
 1. Modelling in Wax. 4. Embossing. 
 
 2. Carving in Wood. 5. Chasing. 
 
 3. Carving in Plaster. 6. Engraving. 
 
 4. Moulding in Sand and Wax. 7. Etching. 
 
 5. Casting in Bronze. 8. Scouring. 
 
 6. Shaping. g. Varnishing. 
 
 7. Planing. 10. Galvanizing. 
 
 8. Drilling. 11. Nickel-Plating. 
 g. Turning in Wood. 12. Fire-gilding. 
 
 It will be noticed that this manual education contains 
 a large number of processes and variety of manipu- 
 lations. As we divide drawing into free-hand, and 
 mechanical or instrumental ; that is" free, and determi- 
 nate, or perhaps as we might say, into qualitative and 
 quantitative, so also in these manual courses we find the 
 same general division — some are free-hand, guided only 
 by the sense of form and proportion, or simply by the 
 quality of the result which we wish to produce, while 
 others involve fixed forms and dimensions, and the 
 quality of the result depends almost entirely upon the 
 exactness with which the given conditions are reproduced 
 in the work. 
 
 These considerations serve as first hints in arranging 
 courses of manipulations adapted to the age and state 
 of development of the pupil. In the earlier years, say 
 
 A* 
 
12 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 from six to ten, while observation and sensation are to 
 be cultivated, come the pencil in drawing, the brush in 
 connection with the study of colors, the fingers, nature's 
 tools, in modeling in clay, wax, or other plastic material, 
 and gradually the qualitative use of the simpler instru- 
 ments in mechanical drawing. In the later years of 
 this period will also come moulding in sand or other 
 proper material, and casting in plaster, lead, copper, 
 bronze or other substances, which melt at comparatively 
 low temperatures, and need only simple and inexpen- 
 sive apparatus. 
 
 In the second, or period of memory and imagination, 
 say from ten to fourteen, will come reproduction from 
 memory by drawing and modeling, and the first steps in 
 invention or designing, carving in plaster and wood, 
 with an elementary course in the use of carpenters' and 
 joiners' tools. 
 
 In the third, or period of generalization and reason- 
 ing, say from fourteen to eighteen, will come an advanced 
 course in carpentry and joinery, with jjattern making, 
 all to scale, an elementary course in forging, and hand 
 and machine tool work in iron, steel, brass, etc. 
 
 This is a rough outline of the variety and kinds of 
 hand work which may be taught between the ages of 
 six and eighteen. At first impression it would seem 
 quite impossible to introduce this great variety of hand 
 instruction into our already crowded, if not overcrowded, 
 course of public school study. But we must remember 
 that only one hand study need be followed at a time, and 
 only so much time devoted to it as its educational value 
 may warrant. 
 
 Again, some good teachers claim that better methods 
 of teaching the subjects now studied will gain time for 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 13 
 
 the introduction of a hand study ; others say from expe- 
 rience that a hand study properly taught which demands 
 only four or five hours per week is not a detriment to 
 the mental studies ; and still others say, lengthen the 
 school day one hour and devote it to hand work, on the 
 ground that it is a relief from mental studies, and being 
 also in the nature of a physical exercise, this hour may 
 well take the place of one of the usual play-hours. 
 
 We believe that there is force in each and all of 
 these points, and that hand studies will prove an advan- 
 tage to bright pupils, and a blessing to those of duller 
 and slower intellects who early drop out of school for 
 want of the kind of capacity to make them successful in 
 purely mental studies. 
 
 In this connection the saying, " a sound mind in a 
 sound body " assumes a peculiar meaning. By a sound 
 mind we usually mean a developed and cultivated mind, 
 and by a sound body, one free from disease and in a 
 good condition of health. But we should mean not only 
 a healthy and well developed body, but one so trained 
 as to aid in the training of the mind during the whole 
 educational course, as well as fitted to follow any pur- 
 suit demanding such training, which the taste or circum- 
 stances may dictate. 
 
 And important as it is, it is only recently that we 
 have begun to consider the cultivation of the powers of 
 the body by systematic physical culture as a part of 
 education, and simply on sanitary grounds. Again, all 
 children are born into this world to all appearances 
 mentally alike ; but differences soon become apparent, 
 and the aim should be to surround each child with the 
 conditions most favorable to its physical and mental 
 growth. The attempt to educate all children on the 
 
14 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 same plan and by the same means and studies, pro- 
 ceeds on the assumption that all need and are capable 
 of the same development. It is plain that all are not 
 equally nourished by the same food, nor is the same 
 food equally good at all periods of growth. This sug- 
 gests whether similar care should not be taken with the 
 mental growth of each child ; and one of the criticisms 
 rriade upon our system of public education is, that the 
 grading and excessive method, which seem so necessary 
 to the most orderly and economical administration of 
 these schools, repress individuality, and produce a kind 
 of mental average in which no single mind has grown 
 under the most favorable conditions of freedom and ex- 
 posure. On general grounds this criticism seems to be 
 true, and one proof is found in the results produced in 
 the ungraded country schools of the past, in which pupils 
 of all ages and all states of progress were taught together 
 by methods more nearly like personal than class instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 The remedy must come in good part in the earlier 
 years, through drawing and other courses of manual 
 studies in which more individual freedom may not only 
 be allowed, but encouraged. In later years we are 
 obliged to recognize the principle of diversity in our 
 educational methods through special schools, special 
 courses, the elective system of studies ; and indeed by 
 all forms of freedom and choice consistent with the 
 good quality of the results to be obtained. , 
 
 Further, besides the want of individual freedom in 
 our public education, what is its spirit .' what are the 
 motives generally held out to the young by both parents 
 and teachers, as the rewards of successful study ? what 
 are the avenues to wealth, station and influence usually 
 brought to their attention ? 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 15 
 
 Is the idea usually taught in our schools that the 
 whole social fabric is built upon some form of labor, 
 ■whether mental or manual, and that all forms contain 
 the same moral elements, and are equally honorable, 
 and that education provides for all, by cultivating all 
 the capacities and aptitudes of the individual ? 
 
 The conditions of life in this country are not to any 
 great degree fixed and unyielding, but bend to individual 
 power and will. Can we educate a community bound 
 only by moral conditions and restraints, and yet train 
 each for the largest individual freedom ? 
 
 What is needed but a system which harmoniously 
 develops all the powers, but through means which at 
 the same time take into account individual aptitudes at 
 the proper period ? We do not claim that the gradu- 
 ates of our schools are not fitted to enter some spheres 
 in life, nor that they desire to get a living without work, 
 but simply that the school has not given them the same 
 opportunity for preparation to enter other avenues of 
 practical life. Nor is it to be assumed that habits of 
 industry and predispositions are the same when acquired 
 through the study of books alone, as when combined 
 with the same habits and predilections acquired through 
 manual and mental studies associated in the same 
 course. 
 
 It is too obvious to require argument that in general 
 a graduate from our public schools will learn a trade 
 much better and quicker than an uneducated boy, all 
 other conditions being the same ; but it is not alone a 
 question of capacity resulting from his education ; it is 
 also one of disposition . But few willingly en ter upon ap- 
 prenticeship as it now exists, who feel that their course of 
 studies and their acquisitions have fitted them for some- 
 
16 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 thing different — something which they have been taught 
 to regard as better. 
 
 It is often said that the introduction of manual 
 studies into our public schools is an attempt to make 
 mechanics of all the pupils ; others fear that it will 
 create too strong a tendency in this direction, and quote 
 statistics to show that only a small proportion of our pop- 
 ulation are engaged in pursuits needing manual training. 
 Why is it not assumed when an argument is made for 
 the study of Latin in our high schools, that we are at- 
 tempting to force or induce all students to go to college 
 or into the learned professions ? 
 
 We are not supposed to know in advance, indeed we 
 do not know each child's special aptitudes, nor do we 
 know what the future has in store for him. It is the 
 function of education to aid in answering these ques- 
 tions, and the education fails so far as it fails in this 
 respect. And yet our public education is simply inter- 
 ested in most fully and completely developing and train- 
 ing the capacities of the individual through the proper 
 means and opportunities, and not at all in the question 
 as to what these capacities may be in each individual 
 and to what use they may be devoted. Education aims 
 to make men who will have the training to do what they 
 choose, and when circumstances which are constantly 
 changing through new, inventions, new discoveries in 
 science and art, or the introduction of new industries, 
 shall make it desirable for them to change, their train- 
 ing has been such as to make the change not only pos- 
 sible but comparatively easy. 
 
 As a reason for not introducing manual studies into 
 our public schools it is sometimes claimed that the mass 
 of uneducated labor will in time be directed and in- 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 17 
 
 structed by those trained in special technical schools. 
 This assumes that some form of apprenticeship will grow 
 up in manufacturing establishments to take the place of 
 the old, a result not likely to happen except in peculiar 
 circumstances, so long as the conditions which destroyed 
 the old remain. 
 
 And now a word as to the disciplinary value of man- 
 ual studies. All manual as well as mental studies 
 consist in the solution of a series of problems, and the 
 quality of the training depends roainly upon the method 
 and quality of these solutions — that is, mainly in the 
 way we obtain our knowledge rather than in the facts of 
 this knowledge. In the solution of a mechanical prob- 
 lem there are three distinct steps to be kept in mind, or 
 ends to be gained. First comes the method of solution, 
 with the reasons why the one adopted is better than 
 any other. In mental studies the student often succeeds 
 by what may be called a method of trial and failure, but 
 here the waste of time, energy, and materials are too im- 
 portant not to be avoided at the earliest possible moment. 
 Second, comes the ability to effect the solution accord- 
 ing to the method decided upon ; and third, the training 
 which enables the student to judge of the quality of the 
 work. ' 
 
 Each of these steps should always be kept in mind by 
 both teacher and pupil. The most effective method for 
 training the judgment of the pupil in regard to the quality 
 of his work has been by a system of inspection based upon 
 its analysis into separate elements, and assigning to 
 each element its proper value. This analysis should be 
 clearly understood by the pupil, with the weight attached 
 to each element when perfectly done, before beginning 
 the work. During the solution the pupil's attention is 
 
18 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 fixed in succession upon each element, with the desire 
 to make it as perfect as possible. At the end, he has 
 made up his mind, and usually quite closely, as to the 
 percentage he has earned on the piece. It is quite ob- 
 vious why it is easier here than in most mental studies 
 to keep a more accurate account of the student's rate 
 of progress and proficiency. 
 
 We must now close with a few practical thoughts and 
 suggestions : 
 
 All public school instruction should be based on the 
 single idea of a general development and preparation 
 for the duties of active life ; and no study should be al- 
 lowed a place which cannot be shown to have a positive 
 educational value. Any other idea will lead to class or 
 special schools an idea entirely at variance with the 
 spirit of our social and political economy. But for the 
 purposes of a general education a great range and 
 variety of hand studies are not important. Enough can 
 be done in the earlier years in modeling and in carving 
 some soft materials ; in the later years in some special 
 course, such as carpentry and joinery, to give a fair 
 amount of manual training, . — such a training as will 
 enable the student to take up other hand studies further 
 on in his course, or enter upon some industrial pursuit, 
 if his aptitudes lie in this direction. 
 
 Togive hand instruction its full educational value, it 
 should be incorporated into the school course, and pur- 
 sued systematically in connection with cognate studies ; 
 and right pedagogic views are quite as important as in 
 other subjects. It appears, then, that as a rule, hand 
 instruction should not be given by the ordinarily trained 
 mechanics, but by teachers who have had the proper 
 preparation, which must include sufficient skill and 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 19 
 
 ability to teach. One of the places for this preparation, 
 indeed the best place, is the Normal School, and it 
 should include both men and women. There is not the 
 slightest reason why women should not teach all the 
 hand studies, including drawing, ever needed in our 
 elementary and grammar schools. Nor is it necessary 
 that the teachers should possess exceptional skill. If 
 they know the principles of work in any special art, and 
 can cOTrectly explain the theory and use of the tools, 
 they can give all needed hand instruction. 
 
 Only a short course of special instruction will be 
 needed to prepare normal teachers for this work. It is 
 to be remembered that a great amount and variety of 
 hand instruction is not of so much importance as the 
 fact that the subject should have its recognized place 
 in the school, and all the pupils be required to do faith- 
 fully all the work which belongs to the course. 
 
 If only a single hand course in the use of tools can be 
 taken in the grammar school, it is pretty well settled that 
 this should be in wood, without there are local reasons, 
 such as some predominating industry, for using some 
 other material. Wood is better adapted to the physical 
 strength of the pupils, while the tools and manipulations 
 have a wide range of application in the industries. The 
 work in wood can be divided into several courses adapted 
 to the age of the pupil, such as carving, engraving, turn- 
 ing, model instruction in the use of carpenters' and 
 joiners' tools, and if desirable a course in application 
 to simple constructions with given dimensions. This 
 work would be ample to cover the hand instruction of 
 all classes up to the high school, say from six to four- 
 teen years. Besides wood is a clean material and varies 
 sufficiently in hardness and other qualities to illustrate 
 
20 MR. runkle's address. 
 
 many of the properties and manipulations common to 
 several different materials. 
 
 Another reason for selecting wood is the moderate 
 cost of fitting a shop with fixtures and tools. If the 
 number to be taught in a section is limited to twenty, 
 which is too many if anything, the cost at the outside 
 will not exceed five hundred dollars. If each pupil gets 
 on the average one hour per day in the shop, it is easy 
 to compute its teaching capacity. Successive classes or 
 sections use the same tools, and with proper care on the 
 part of the teacher, the annual expense of keeping the 
 outfit in good condition be will small. Nor will the cost 
 of materials be large. The instruction will always be 
 given by small models, and the material which has 
 served its purpose in one problem or lesson, can often 
 be used in another, and so on till it is well used up. 
 The material products of instruction have seldom any 
 value except as waste. 
 
 If our public school system were equally developed in 
 all parts of the country, the only question would be such 
 modifications in hand instruction, as to material or other 
 facts, as the circumstances of any locality might suggest. 
 
 But illiteracy comes in as a problem for special and 
 profound consideration. Does not the system of public 
 education, as we know it, need important modifications 
 when applied to the vital question of illiteracy ? Is it 
 wise to build in all the waste places and sections of our 
 country upon the educational type of New England ? 
 
 Is not the question of the kind of education which 
 we propose to supply to the illiterate millions of this 
 country one of supreme importance ? 
 
 Without attempting to ignore or disguise the facts, 
 what is the inevitable destiny of these millions, and what 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 21 
 
 is the best preparation for this destiny ? This destiny 
 is manual labor, and it must be blessed by education. 
 Educated labor is the true foundation on which to build, 
 and is the only one which will stand the test of present 
 and future needs. If the principles and practice of 
 labor are taught, no matter in what field, a most impor- 
 tant step will have been taken, and if to this we add 
 the most elementary but thorough mental education, we 
 shall have the best immediate result for the individual, 
 and also a foundation on which any superstructure may 
 be built in the future. 
 
 In all parts of our country where public education is 
 well established and supported, we only need the incor- 
 poration of the manual element, but where there is prac- 
 tically no education, and all the conditions are materially 
 changed if not inverted, we need a corresponding change 
 in the solution of the educational problem. In the one 
 case, mental studies are predominant and fundamental, 
 and in the other, the hand studies become the true basis. 
 
 These, or similar conditions and wants, have given 
 rise, mainly in France, to two corresponding classes of 
 schools, the one the shop in the school in which the 
 mental studies are the principal, and the hand studies 
 subordinate and supplementary; and the other, the 
 school in the shop, where the conditions are mainly 
 reversed, the aim being a trade with such a mental edu- 
 cation as a good mechanic needs. The same distinction 
 holds abroad between farm and agricultural schools, the 
 simple aim of the farm school being to teach all kinds 
 of farm labor as fundamental with certain mental studies 
 as supplementary. There will be found in the Forty- 
 Fifth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachu- 
 setts Board of Education a full account of a farm school at 
 
22 MR. i^unkle's address. 
 
 Hohenhein in Germany, which is worthy of examination 
 in this connection. 
 
 Another objection often urged against the introduc- 
 tion of hand studies is the expense. It is true that it 
 costs more to establish and support a modern technical 
 school than a classical school of the same grade and 
 size, for obvious reasons, and it is quite probable that 
 after all the obstacles of inexperience and want of 
 trained teachers have been removed, the cost of the 
 education will still be somewhat increased. This objec- 
 tion will have but little weight, if the desirability of hand 
 instruction is once demonstrated and settled. 
 
 Nor should we overlook the moral effect of this wider 
 and better preparation for the active duties and pursuits 
 of life ; the effect which comes from the higher estimate 
 and value of labor which will generally prevail when 
 hand studies are thought worthy to rank with mental 
 studies in our public education ; from the influence on 
 the habits, tastes and opinions of the pupil in whose 
 education no distinction between mental and manual 
 studies has been made; and the effect through life 
 upon the sentiments and character of those whose labor 
 is ennobled by a consciousness of its dignity and made 
 productive by a cultivated mind guiding a skilful hand. 
 
 When a boy by the commission of some petty offence 
 gets into the reformatory, we begin to think of redeem- 
 ing him by teaching him to do something. When shall 
 we remember and act upon the fact that prevention is 
 better and less expensive than cure, in the moral as well 
 as in the physical life ? 
 
 In conclusion, we submit for your earnest considera- 
 tion the following resolutions : 
 
 First. The single aim of our public education should 
 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 23 
 
 be the physical, mental, and moral training of the young, 
 by all suitable means and agencies ; and no study or 
 discipline which is not adapted to these ends for all 
 pupils should be introduced into our public schools and 
 supported at the public expense. 
 
 Second. While the training of the mental faculties 
 must always be the first and distinct aim of all educa- 
 tion, still this training is most effective when all the 
 senses are most fully brought into play as factors in 
 the general process. 
 
 Third. We believe that hand instruction, no matter 
 of what kind, if adapted to the age of the pupil and 
 properly conducted, can be made disciplinary, and a 
 valuable adjunct to the purely literary studies. 
 
 Fourth. We believe that a hand study, requiring not 
 more on the average than one hour per day, can be in- 
 troduced into our public schools without impairing the 
 educational value of the studies now taught, and with 
 no abridgment of the time now devoted to them which 
 will nat come through better methods of teaching, or 
 on other grounds. 
 
 Fifth. We believe that a workshop, as part of the ap- 
 paratus of a public school, is as desirable as a science 
 laboratory is to the technical school or college. 
 
 Sixth. It is the deliberate opinion of this Associa- 
 tion that the time has come when hand work should be 
 taught to the proper extent in all our public schools, 
 both because of its educational value, and because the 
 social and industrial conditions have so changed as to 
 make such teaching necessary. 
 
 Note. — As no opportunity offered for either the Committee 
 or the Association to properly consider this paper, it must be con- 
 sidered as simply expressing the opinions of the writer. — j. D. R. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 T am indebted to Peter Schwarab, S. B., Director of 
 the School of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts In- 
 stitute of Technology, for the accompanying tables of 
 materials used in equipping the school-shops. The 
 current market prices are attached. The shop instruc- 
 tion is classified under the following heads : — 
 
 In Wood : — I. Carpentry and Joinery ; II. Wood 
 Turning ; III. Pattern Making. 
 
 In Metal: — I. Casting; II. Forging; III. Hand 
 Tool Work ; IV. Machine Tool Work. 
 
 The Carpenters' and Joiners' shop accommodates 
 sections of forty students each ; the Wood Turning and 
 Pattern shops, sections of thirty-six ; the Foundry, sec- 
 tions of thirty-two ; the Forging shop, sections of thirty- 
 two ; the Chipping and Filing shop, sections of thirty- 
 two ; and the Machine Tool shop, sections of thirty- 
 two. 
 
 During the past year, 1883-84, about one hundred 
 and sixty students received instruction in these shops. 
 
 Each shop is arranged for the instruction of four sec- 
 tions, each section having its tools and materials under 
 its own care and control. The instruction in each shop, 
 or better. Mechanic Art Laboratory, is given through a 
 
26 APPENDIX. 
 
 graded series of models adapted to teach in the best 
 and shortest way the theory and use of the correspond- 
 ing tools and appliances. In these elementary art 
 courses, the idea of manufacturing, or of specific trades, 
 is entirely ignored. The student is left to apply his art 
 knowledge in such wa3fs and directions as he chooses 
 after leaving the school, as in all other subjects of 
 study. Hand instruction is given simply to broaden 
 and vitalize the general education by bringing into play 
 all the student's aptitudes and capacities — and not to 
 narrow it by specializing and thus leading directly to 
 class distinctions through educational means. 
 
 The spirit and conduct of manufacturing either as a 
 means or an end cannot be taught in the schools, and 
 fortunate it is that it is not desirable in this country to 
 attempt it. Mechanic Art students are not apprentices, 
 nor are the methods or ideas of apprenticeship used in 
 their education. They are students simply seeking' to 
 fit themselves for the ever widening and varying duties 
 of life. No mercenary spirit enters into the methods of 
 their education. Many persons, and among them not 
 a few prominent educators, have discouraged all indus- 
 trial art instruction except in special schools and for 
 special classes of students, under the mistaken idea that 
 such instruction necessarily involved narrow trade ideas 
 and limitations and was only needed by certain classes. 
 
 Fortunately, truer ideas regarding the value of this 
 element in education are now beginning to prevail. 
 Mechanic Art schools are springing up in all the larger 
 centres of population ; legislatures are looking to its 
 introduction into our public education, by passing suit- 
 able laws : government commissions are established to 
 
APPENDIX. 27 
 
 consider and report upon its value and the best way of 
 introducing it ; and thus gradually through experience 
 and discussion we are rapidly arriving at a proper 
 appreciation of the educational value of the industrial 
 art element, and the best way of utilizing it in our 
 public education. 
 
 To aid those who are looking particularly to the intro- 
 duction of hand instruction in the mechanic arts the 
 following tables have been arranged as a general guide 
 both as to equipment and cost. In the shop as well as 
 class-room, class instruction can only be maintained by 
 proportioning the time or amount of work required of 
 each student to his capacity. In shop instruction it has 
 been found best to supplement each piece in the required 
 course, by others somewhat more difficult, but involv- 
 ing the same tools and manipulations, in order that the 
 best students may fill up the time of the lesson with 
 proper work, and thus begin the new lesson with those 
 who can only do the required piece in the given time. 
 
 It is not desirable that a student should leave before 
 the end of the lesson, nor that he should be left to 
 undertake anything not in the line of the current instruc- 
 tion. This is Director Schwamb's plan for properly 
 providing for the inequalities of aptitude among stud- 
 ents in shop-work ; and I doubt if a better one can be 
 suggested to secure order in the instruction, and at the 
 same time to make it most effective for all members of 
 the class. 
 
 Another point of vital importance is the prompt and 
 systematic inspection and grading of the work of each 
 student. It is quite as important that he should be 
 able to judge of the quality of what is done, as to do it ; 
 
28 APPENDIX, 
 
 and this can be best accomplished by a systematic 
 method of inspection, which the teacher can use for 
 ranking the quality of the work of each lesson, and 
 which will at t;he same time educate the judgment of 
 the student, by fixing his attention in succession upon 
 each detail, and noting- the closeness with which each 
 condition has been met. Shop instruction must be 
 systematic to prevent disorder and confusion ; but the 
 system must be based upon true educational principles 
 to be most valuable to the students. 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 I. CAKPENTERS' AND JOINERS' SHOP. 
 
 1. Bench arranged for four sections, . . . $20.00 
 
 2. Four saws: -24" splitting, 24" cutting off, 20" panel, 
 
 12" back, ....... 4.75 
 
 3. Four planes : 10" smoothing, jack, block, 20" 
 
 jointer, 4.95 
 
 4. Seven chisels: firmer IJ", y, ■§", |", \", mortising 
 
 i", f", . • 2.60 
 
 5. Brace and four bits, J", |", ^", J", . . . 2.19 
 
 6. Two gauges : marking, mortising ... .59 
 
 7. Try square 7 J", bevel, 8", 47 
 
 8. Hammer, mallet, screw driver 6", chalk line, reel 
 
 and awl, two-foot rule, oil stone, oil can, brush, 2.19 
 Cost for one student $37.74 
 
 General Tools for Fifty Students. 
 
 One circular saw and bench, 
 
 Two jig saws, 
 
 One buzz planer, . 
 
 One boring machine, 
 
 One grindstone, 
 
 Five plows, with assorted irons. 
 
 Bead planes : five ^y, five ^", five |", 
 
 Rabbet planes : two f", three f", 
 
 Hand screws, 
 
 For shop of fifty students, 
 
 $200.00 
 
 200.00 
 
 112.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 28.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 $697.00 
 
30 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 $22.00 
 
 60.00 
 1.09 
 
 3.22 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.57 
 
 II. WOOD TURNING AND PATTERN SHOPS. 
 I. Iiatlie and Xathe Tools. 
 
 1. Lathe and pattern benuh combined, 
 
 2. Lathe 9" swing, and countershaft : face plate, hol- 
 
 low chuck, screw chuck, long and medium 
 rest, centers, spur, cup and pointed, 
 
 3. Three gouges : large 1", medium J", small |", . 
 
 4. Eight chisels : paring, large Ij-", medium |", small 
 
 f"; square, large 1", medium |", small i"; 
 half round ; parting, 
 
 5. Pair calipeps 5", pair compasses 6", common two- 
 
 foot rule, shrink rule, 
 
 6. Gimblet, oil stone, oil can, slipstone, hammer, 
 
 brush, ... 
 
 Cost of lathe and lathe tools for one student, ■ $89.38 
 
 II. Bench Toola. 
 
 1. Four chisels : 1^", I", I", I", . . . . $1.44 
 
 2. Three saws : cutting off 24", splitting 24", back 1 2", 3.68 
 
 3. Four planes : short jointer, jack, smoothing, block, 4.95 
 
 4. Brace and bits, i", f", J", f", |", . . . 2.69 
 
 5. Try-square 7J", bevel 8", spoke-shave, marking 
 
 ■' gauge, countersink, screw driver, . . 1.43 
 
 Cost of bench tools for one student, . . . $14.19 
 
 Cost of bench and lathe tools for one student, . $103.57 
 
 General Tools. 
 Circular saw and table, ...... $150.00 
 
 Jig saw, 100.00 
 
 Grindstone 50.00 
 
 Shoot plane for squaring, 25.00 
 
 Hand screws, 10.00 
 
 Glue and shellac pots and brushes, . . . 7.00 
 
 Five sets of gouges, 27.50 
 
 Five 12" calipers ; five 12" dividers, . . . 7.00 
 • For shop of fifty students, $376.50 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 31 
 
 III. FORGING SHOP. 
 
 1. Forge (light) $18.00 
 
 2. Anvil (wrought-iron), 13.00 
 
 3. Flat coal shovel, straight poker, scraper poker, 
 
 long-handle dipper, coal and water box, . 4.10 
 
 4. Tongs: flat ^", f", ^", A", f^", bow f", square 
 
 ' end, round nose ^, square nose ^", tool 1^" 
 
 Xi", pick up 7.00 
 
 5. Ball pene hammer, hardy, one-foot square, bench 
 
 square, pair calipers, centre punch, hand cold 
 
 chisel, 5.97 
 
 6. Kound heading tools, ^", |", steel punches, |", I", 
 
 a;'- • • 5.25 
 
 7. Hot chisel, cold chisel, sledge, square flutter, set 
 
 hammer, 3.08 
 
 8. Fullers : top |", bottom |", swages : top |", |", 
 
 bottom J", I", eye-punch and pin for hammer, 
 rivet-head tool, top-cupping hammer, dia- 
 mond swage, 6.11 
 
 Cost for one student, $62.51 
 
 General Tools. 
 
 1. One set of blacksmith's taps and dies, from f" to 
 
 2. Hand-drill with drills, . . , . 
 
 3. Grindstone, 
 
 4. One sow and swage block for each ten forges (fifty 
 
 students), .... 
 
 5. Blacksmith's vise, one for each four forges, 
 
 6. Oil and borax dishes for tempering, 
 
 7. Size pins from J" to |", .... 
 Cost for shop for fifty students, 
 
 $22.50 
 40.00 
 50.00 
 
 26.25 
 
 168.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 $309.50 
 
32 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 IT. FOUNDKT. 
 
 1. Sand trough, $7.00 
 
 2. Two flasks, water pan (copper), sand pan (tin), 
 
 swab, hand brush, pattern brush, small 
 shovel, riddle 16", bellows 8", trowel, three 
 slickers (brass), two spikes, mallet, two char- 
 coal bags, pair of rammers, . ■ . . 8.15 
 Cost for one student, $15.15 
 
 General Fixtures. 
 
 10, 
 11, 
 12, 
 
 13, 
 
 Cupola furnace, . 
 
 Core oven, . 
 
 Two brass furnaces. 
 
 Large scales. 
 
 Blower for furnace, 
 
 Six small and two large ladles and shanks, 
 
 Three bars and four skimmers, . 
 
 Large sieve, ten scratch brushes, two sledges, 
 
 four crucibles, two tongs. 
 Fire clay, per ton. 
 Moulding sand, per ton, 
 Extra flasks (wood). 
 Small scales, wheelbarrow, pot for white metal 
 
 lead-lined sink, four pails, watering-pot, 
 Extra flasks, and sundries for brass work, 
 For fifty students, 
 
 $250.00 
 70.00 
 80.00 
 30.00 
 60.00 
 12.00 
 2.00 
 
 27.60 
 5.00 
 5.50 
 
 15.50 
 
 65.00 
 75.00 
 
 $697.50 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 33 
 
 V. CHIPPING AND FIXING SHOP. 
 
 1. Bench with set of drawers with lock?, . . $8.00 
 
 2. Vise fitted with copper jaws, .... 6.00 
 
 3. Five chisels : cold J", two half-round f '', f", two 
 
 cape^", i" 1.72 
 
 4. Steel rule 3'' long, two try stiuares (steel) 4^" and 
 
 1^" long, outside calipers 4", spring dividers, 
 centre punch, scratcli awl, hammer, file 
 brush, hack saw, hand brush, . . . 11.45 
 
 5. Eighteen files: flat 10" bastard, 10" second cut ; 
 
 half-round 10" and 5" bastard, 9" and 5" 
 second cut ; round 9" bastard, 6" second cut ; 
 square 9" bastard, 6" second cut ; pillar 7" 
 bastard, 7" second cut ; smooth 8" hand, 7" 
 dead ; Swiss 1" half-round superfine, 5" saw 
 or triangular, 5" warding, 6" knife edge, . 3.56 
 Cost for one student, $30.73 
 
 General Tools. 
 
 Five planed surface-plates for trueing and laying 
 
 out work ; one for every ten students, . $25.00 
 
 Twenty-five oil cans ; one for every two students, 6.50 
 
 Twenty-five brushes ; " " " 10.00 
 
 One grindstone, . 50.00 
 
 For shop of fifty students, .... $91.50 
 
34 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 VI. MACHINE SHOP. 
 
 1. Engine lathe 14" swing, 5 ft. bed, . . . $390!qO 
 
 2. Lathe tools: right hand diamond point; right 
 
 hand side tool, left hand side tool; round 
 nosed diamond point, parting tool ; inside 
 thread tool, outside thread tool ; inside boring 
 tool, scoop nose tool (straight), . . . 6.00 
 
 3. Small tools for each engine lathe ; one foot steel 
 
 rule, three-inch steel rule ; pair inside calipers 
 (small), pair outside calipers (large)j pair 
 spring dividers ; centre punch, scratch awl ; 
 monkey wrench (medium) , oil can ; set of 
 four dogs, hammer ; assorted files, cold chisel 
 y, brush, centre gauge, .... 11.50 
 
 4. Lathe closet for small tools and gears, . . 5.00 
 Cost per student, $412.50 
 
 General Tools. 
 
 1. Speed lathes 8" or 9" swing, one for every two 
 
 engine lathes, $1,000.00 
 
 2. Upriprht drills, one for every 20 lathes, . . 200.00 
 
 3. Milling machines, one for every 20 lathes, . . 800.00 
 
 4. Planers, one for every 10 lathes, . . . 1200.00 
 
 5. Shapers, one for every 20 lathes, . . . 300.00 
 
 6. Bench and vise for every 3 lathes, . . 84.00 
 
 7. Hand tools of various shapes, .... 15.00 
 
 8. Special tools, arbors, boring bars, reamers, taps, 
 
 dies, etc., .... . . 100.00 
 
 9. Grindstone and emery wheels, .... 100.00 
 
 10. Grinding lathe «85.00 
 
 Cost for twenty students $4,184.00 
 
UbratV