J-JINTS to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical Books for Reference and Reading, HUGH ROBERT MILL. BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME PROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W^ Sage iSqx .M^Ai'p-. i/p^/^.. o.in,an? ^924 031 243 193 The fate shnw«i^ , ^ ,,..,, Tb renew this book copy, tlie^jcaU No., and (g»e to ^ ■ thevilib^ariati. Vt J a ' ^-^ i HOME USE RULES. AU Books subject to RecaU. Books not used, for instruction or research , are returnable within 4 weeks. Volumes of periodi- cals and of pamphlets are held in the library as much as possible. For , special purposes they ^ are given out for a limited time. Borrowers should not use their library privileges for the bene- ; fit of other persons. Books not needed {luring recess periods should be returned to the library or arrange- ments inad« for their return during borrow- er's absence, if wanted. 8 o o |c s needed by more tlian one person are held on the reserve Jist. Books of special value and gift books, when tJie giver Wishes tt, are not allowed to circulate. Readers are asked to report allcases of books marked or mutilated. Do not deface books by marks aad writms. Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031243193 T-JINTS to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical Books for Reference and Reading, with Classified Lists PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF THE GEOGRAPtHCAL ASSOCIATION HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. Librarian to the Royal Geographical Society , Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Honorary Corresponding Member of the Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, ajid Amsterdam LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1897 & PRINTED AT THE DARIEN PRESS, URISTO PLACE, EDINBURGH. Contents. I'AGE Preface 5 CHAPTER I. The Principles of Geography 7 CHAPTER II, The Teaching of Geography 21 Books on Methods of Teaching Geography 27 CHAPTER III. The Choice of Text-Books 31 Representative Text-Books 35 CHAPTER IV. Atlases and Means of Illustration 37 Representative Atlases and Maps ^ 44 CHAPTER V. Works of Reference on Geography - 47 Books of General Geographical Reference - 53 CHAPTER VI. Mathematical Geography 58 Books on Mathematical Geography 59 CHAPTER VII. Physical Geography 60 Books on Physical Geography — General, Earth's Crust, Oceanography, Climatology 63 CHAPTER VIII. Bio-Geography - - ' 68 Books on Bio-Geography - 70 Contents. CHAPTER IX. Anthropo-Geography 72 Books on Anthropo-Geography"— General, Political and Historical, Commercial 74 CHAPTER X. The British Empire. - 77 Books on the British Empire -. 79 CHAPTER XI. The Geography of Europe 82 Books on Europe 84 . CHAPTER XII. The Geography of Asia _ 9° Books on Asia 93 CHAPT'ER XIII. The Geography of Africa 103 Books on Africa 105 CHAPTER XIV. The Geography of North America 112 Books on North America 114 CHAPTER XV. The Geography of Central and South America 118 Books on Central and South America and THE West Indies 120 CHAPTER XVI. The Geography of Australasia and the Pacific Islands - - 125 Books on Australasia and the Pacific Islands 127 CHAPTER XVII. The Geography of the Polar Regions 131 Books on the Polar Regions 133 CHAPTER XVIII. General Travel and Biography : - 135 Books on General Travel and Biography 138 Preface. The object of this little volume is to place before teachers and students a selection of the best available books on Geography as an educational subject, and on dififerent parts of the world. An effort has been made to include all cheap editions of recognised authorities ; but it is too much to hope that this has been completely successful. So many inquiries are made by teachers and others for the names of works published at 5s. or less, suitable for school prizes, for placing in libraries, or for use as reading books, that a bibliography of low-priced geographical bdoks is sure to be useful. As a rule, only books known to the compiler as trustworthy in fact and interesting in style have been included ; but a few are added on the recommendation of friends. In order to guide the reading of those to whom a good library is available, a selection of more expensive works, and of books now out of print, has been added. These, it may be observed, are often to be purchased second-hand at very low prices, the best books, from a geographical point of view, being frequently in small demand, and of little profit to the bookseller. The prices must not be taken as if this were a second-hand bookseller's catalogue. They are in all cases the publishers' prices for the books when new. In most cases they are subject to discount, while in many instances the prices of the books have been reduced since their publication. When the published price of a book could not be ascertained, the probable price is given preceded by ca. Works in the English language have first been chosen, but in some departments of Geography there are gaps which it seemed better to fill with 6 Preface. French or German works of standard value than tO leave vacant. So much uncertainty still prevails as to the subject-matter and view-point of modern scientific Geography, that a short summary of the Principles of Geography precedes the more practical part of the work. This summary is a revision of parts of two lectures delivered to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, and published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for 1892 and 1895 ; the same view, more fully developed, is presented in the Realvi of Nature (Murray). The introductions to the various sections of the biblio- graphy are only practical hints on the use of the books afterwards mentioned ; they do not pretend to possess any independent value. The lists are given in alphabetical order according to the authors' names. While conscious of having left out- a number of books quite as worthy as those included, and not without the fear of having noticed some that might have been better omitted, the com- piler believes that the lists are representative. Mr J. S. Masterman, M.A., Secretary of the Geographical Association,* has generously assisted in preparing the lists, and it was at the suggestion of the Geographical Association that the work was undertaken. Valuable suggestions have also been made by Mr E. Heawood, M.A., and by other friends. It is, perhaps, necessary to state in this age of advertisement that no publisher has been informed of the preparation of these lists, which are compiled solely with regard to what the compiler believes to be the merits of the books. H. R. M. Royal Geographical Society, I Savile Row, London, W., July 1897. * All communications regarding the Geographical Association should be addressed to Mr Masterman, 55 Campden House Road, Kensington, London, W, CHAPTER I. The Principles of Geography. When the idea of founding Geographical Chairs in our Universities was first mooted, many men, well informed and eminent in science and literature, supposed, and some stated in modified words, that a Professor of Geography would be required to discourse solely on the countries of the World, the provinces, counties, parishes, cities, towns, villages, and hamlets thereof, together with the rivers, mountains, railways, canals, roads, and footpaths pertaining thereunto. This is in no sense the conception of Geography which prevails amongst modern geographers. Geography may be held to be the description of the Earth in relation to Man, in all the bearings of that relationship. It is one subject, and, to be effective, must be treated as such. The attempt to rend it apart into the isolated departments of Mathematical, Physical, Political, Historical, and Commercial Geography is thoroughly unsatisfactory. The severed limbs, always unsightly, ulti- mately shrivel into the bones, dead and dry, that have made the subject to so many a horror in school and an object of aversion during life. Elementary instruction in Geography is everywhere rapidly emerging from the repulsive stage : text- books have become interesting, and lessons are made perma- nently instructive ; but the concrete teaching necessary in school work differs widely from the abstract or philosophical treatment demanded when the subject is impressed with the guinea stamp of a University. The elementary differs 8 Hints to Teachers and Students , from the advanced treatment much as the acquisition of the alphabet difFejs from the study of philology. In ancient times Geography was viewed as the root-science, from which all others branched ; now we prefer to view it as the focus at which all the physical and historical sciences converge to throw light on the Earth as an organic whole. It must be distinctly borne in minci that a deal of drudgery necessarily accompanies the early study of Geography : the student must " know his bones " before he goes on to what old writers termed " the physiology of the World." Evolution, as a principle of Nature, has been shadowed forth from the earliest times, and its clear recognition, which has recently given an immense impulse to all sciences, enables lis to treat of the Earth in a historical sequence, which traverses the entire field of Geography, involving the results but not incorporating the methods of every detailed science. We cannot, however, view the history of the Earth as one unbroken chain ; there.are at least two gaps which science as yet has not bridged, and these gaps may be viewed as separating three distinct evolutions, each superimposed upon, and running parallel to, the preceding. It is scarcely necessary to point out that evolution does not in any sense negative creation. Evolution shows a constant drift of change in a definite direction — from simple to more complex, from lower to higher, irresistibly suggesting guidance and direction from without, while it never touches the question. of origin at all. The three parallel chains of evolution commence each with an abrupt beginning. The origin of the physical universe, the origin of life, and the origin of that which distinguishes man from other animals — call it mind, or soul, or spirit — may each require, so far as modern science has ascertained, an act of creation by some power external to the physical universe. The first, or physical, evolution commenced with the origin of matter and energy. As far back as trustworthy inference can reach, the universe appears to have consisted of minute separated portions of matter associated with energy, in the form of a tendency to approach one another. According to On the Choice of Geographical Books. 9 the Meteoritic modification of the Nebular hypothesis, the scattered fragments of cold dust sweep through space in swarms, which continually grow denser, and when two swarms cross each other's path the collision of particles changes .energy of motion into heat and surrounds them with a haze of glowing gas. This whirhng cloud, or primitive nebula, cools by radia- tion, and in cooling contracts and condenses. The particles drawing closer together, the potential energy of separation is converted into heat, which causes the mass to glow with a higher temperature. Thus for a time the condensing star rises in temperature as it loses heat. Portions of the whirling and rotating mass split off in rings, which shrink into separate spheres retained in definite orbits round the central star by gravitational attraction. Such spheres or planets cool down fast at first, but, after a solid crust forms, the loss of heat is greatly hampered. The planets, being small, have by cooling become liquid or even solid, and no longer shine with their own light ; but the Sun — the central star of our system — continues to be surrounded with so voluminous a gaseous atmosphere that its temperature is possibly rising, and certainly not falling, on- account of its loss of heat. On each planet the available energy, the power of doing work, or of modifying matter, is divisible into two parts : its store of internal heat and its share of the heat radiated from the Sun. Sun heat is the more powerful on the surface of a planet situated at the distance of the Earth, and much depends on the manner of its incidence. As the Earth spins, turning once in twenty-four hours, half is always exposed to solar warmth and half is always cooling by radiation into space. Since the axis of spinning is not perpendicular to the plane in which the Earth pursues its path round the Sun, most of the he&t falls between the tropics, while round each pole the cooling process preponderates. Tiie positions in latitude which limit the zones of heat and cold depend on the angle of inclination of the Earth's axis, and the variation in the intervals of daylight and darkness depends upon the same condition. As the Earth pursues the ellipse of its orbit, the furnace zone lo Hints to Teachers and Students of tropical heat swings alternately northward and southward, and the north and south'polar refrigerators alternately increase and diminish in intensity in the course of a year. If the Earth were of uniform surface, either land or sea, the tempera- ture at any point would be a calculable function of the latitude. When the Earth was much hotter than now, it must have been surrounded by a very dense and extensive atmosphere, but, as it cooled down, this atmosphere liquefied, and now only nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbonic acid remain gaseous in large amount, mixed with an ever-varying quantity of water- vapour. It is possible that the hydrosphere, or ocean, once entirely surrounded the solid globe, the irregularities of the surface of which appear to have been once less marked than now. As the lithosphere contracted from the loss of heat, the cool crust became too wide for the shrunken nucleus, and, sirtking in upon it, fell into broad and growing wrinkles. The crests of these wrinkles gradually emerged above the hydro- sphere, which gathered itself into the deepening hollows. The evolution of continents has been outhned by Professor James Geikie,* who suggests how the great world-ridges were first the site of scattered islands, and these, becoming united by ■ up- heaval, gave rise to continents. Internal heat-energy is always at work, deepening the hollows and elevating the ridges of the Earth's surface. Simultaneously the differential attraction of Sun and Moon raises tides in the oceans, which produce powerful currents sweeping along the shores, breaking away and rearranging the rock materials. More important still is the action of solar heat-energy, acting on the exposed rocks, and stirring water and air into currents and winds that beat against the high lands, and forming rain, which falls and runs back to the sea. The work done in this way wears the rocks into pebbles and dust, and transports the debris to the sea-margin, where wind-driven waves are also at work breaking down the coast-line. Thus solar energy by erosion is always wearing down the high places and * Scottish Geographical Magazine, vi. {1890), p. 57. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 1 1 filling up the hollows. New upheavals produce sharply-folded mountain ranges, ridged up from the beds of sediment, and arising, according to a common plan, near one edge or the other of each continent. By the contest between the opposite tendencies of upheaval and erosion, the typical configuration of each continent has been carved upon it, and the existing scenery has gradually been formed, depending on the character and arrangement of the rocks. The distribution of sea and land and the arrangement of mountain ranges divert the course of the sun-driven ocean currents and winds, and modify the system of oceanic and atmospheric circulation. The heating of the Earth is thus rearranged ; and it has been calculated that one-half of the heat reaching the tropical zone from the Sun is carried into high latitudes and distributed by soft sea winds to less favour- ably situated lands. Rainfall and evaporation are greatly in- fluenced by configuration, and by the resulting set of winds and currents. The first chain of evolution leads almost to the completion of the Earth as we know it — a spinning ball, ridged into mountain-backed continents and isolated island groups rising above the ocean, surrounded by another ocean of air, both oceans alike stirred and circulated by solar energy, which distributes rain over the land, that, gathering into rivers, has fashioned valleys and spread thick layers of soft soil over the gentler slopes. The second chain of evolution begins on the other side of the chasm which separates the not-living from the living. Physiographically, the change appears in the reversal of many physical processes. Carbonate of lime, for example, in the presence of living matter, separates out from sea-water as shells and coral ; whereas, in the absence of life, sea-water, in other- wise identical conditions, dissolves coral and shells. Simple forms of life appeared first in the water, and, as age followed age, they increased in number and complexity, growing more diverse and more highly organised. Eventually the course of development diverged along two different lines, one resulting in 12 Hints to Teachers and Students the growth of plant-Hfe, the other in animal-life. Plants, and plants only, have the remarkable power of utilising solar energy in the form of sun-light, and, through it, causing to combine the elements of carbonic acid, water, and various salts into living substance. As a bye-product in this manufacture, they throw out more oxygen into the atmosphere and withdraw more carbonic acid from it than is counterbalanced by the ceaseless respiration of the plants. Hence, vegetable life, of the higher kinds at least, tends to increase the amount of oxygen in air. Animals are unable to utilise sun-light, -and they cannot manu- facture food from inorganic materials ; they depend entirely upon plants, directly or indirectly, for their nourishment. All living creatures are at the mercy of their environment, which, acting upon individual variations, has been held to ulti- mately bring the various species into their existing forms. Thus, in every natural region barred off from surrounding regions by mountains, deserts, or the sea, a more or less distinctive flora and fauna are found. Plants are most luxuriant where rainfall and sun-heat are at a maximum. Animals depend on the existence of vegetable food, but the two realms of life are very complexly interwoven, and the forms and numbers of plants and animals constantly oscillate about some position of equili- brium with their environment. Man is natura)Iy classed as an animal, and, so far as regards the biological necessities of his life, he is completely under the influence of environment. But, in the marked contrasts between the mental and moral qualities of man and the other animals, we find evidence of another chasm, which separates the third evolution from the second. The impassable gap between the two chains is that man can consciously modify and direct the environment that moulds him. The distinctively human attributes of man are visible in all varieties of the species, but they acquire more and more prominence in ascending -the scale of evolution of civilisation. The classification of mankind is difificult, because the varieties of the one species are constantly mingling and varying, and various systems of classification— as, for example, by physical On the Choice of Geographical Books. 13 character and by language — do not lead to the same result. Looked at broadly, mankind may be grouped round three well- marked types : the black, the yellow, and the white. These stand in the order of their development in civilisation and in religious insight. While all varieties of the human family seem capable of some degree of mental improvement, there appears • to be for each a certain limit in the development of civilisation which cannot be passed. Emancipation from the slavery of environment is a very gradual process, and the lower tribes of the present day probably represent some of the stages by which the ancestors of the more advanced laboriously approached the goal. To understand the relation of Man to the Earth, of which he is the master, and to the command of which by him the triple course of evolution is directed, it is necessary to ascertain how far each different race has a hold on the region which it inhabits. To the savage, in whom self control and power over environ- ment are at a minimum, thrift and forethought are unknown. He feasts when abundance comes, he starves when food is not found to his hand. In the very best conditions for perfect animal life the indigenous tribes of the human race seem to 'have made no progress in civilisation : the tropical representa- tives of the black type seem everywhere to have been smothered by the abundance of the means of life, and their minds have scarcely awakened to any but the primary animal wants. Food can be had without effort, clothing is unnecessary : so no effort is'made and no ingenuity exerted. In the opposite extreme, as, for example, amongst the Eskimo, the extreme rigour of natural conditions stunts mental development. Completely fur-clad, skilled huntsmen, hardy fishers, and clever architects in ice, these people have not found it in their system of life to step beyond the satisfaction of immediate wants, and in the presence of European products they seem even to lose their primitive skill in handiwork. In temperate regions the regular recurrence of summer and winter, seasons of abundance and dearth, necessitates a certain amount of forethought ; the need for suitable clothing and shelter calls for skill and ingenuity ; 14 Hints to Teachers and Students and there is no doubt that the conditions of the temperate zone have done much in educating and civilising the highest types of man! The advancement to high civilisation came by imper- ceptible degrees, many of which may still be traced in primitive tribes : weapons and tools of wood and bone gave place to stone and bronze, and these to iron and steel. Hunting and fishing were less followed when the nomad herdsmen began to rear and feed domestic animals, improving their breed by artificial selection, and moving them on to fresh pastures. Greater advancement is found when agriculture is taken in hand seriously : land is cultivated, the amount and the quality of food plants are increased, and the natural impulse of devour- ing the whple crop is controlled, men in years of scarcity voluntarily undergoing semi-starvation in order to save seed for an expected harvest. Lands of exceptional fertility are taken possession of by tribes strong enough to hold their own against competitors, until a stronger than they arrives and seizes control of people and crops. Necessity for defence in holding the common lands is a powerful bond in the formation of com- munities, and, from the merely passing interest in his habitat shown by the lowest savage, we find the higher races clinging to the region they have seized or inherited more strongly than to their own life. A community under a recognised form ol government forms a nation, and a nation in possession of a region constitutes it a country. The boundaries of countries tend toward rigidity : the vague dominions of barbarous monarchs sufifice for the aborigines in their ignorance, but precise lines of demarcation have to be drawn by the civilised rivals, who ultimately divide continents between them. Animal and vegetable resources ir a region alone excite the interest of primitive tribes, who onl] want food and clothing. And, in- so far as food and clothing are primary requisites to all men, the fertility and character o the vegetation of regions must always be of paramount import ance to the indwelling races. But as civilisation develops, ne\ yalue is found in the land. Not the surface only, but wha lies beneath attracts notice. Mineral resources come into pla On the Choice of Geographical Books. iS as an important factor consequent on the division of labour, which enables the farmer to feed the miner, and the miner to equip the farmer. The growth of trade, above all, brings out the high importance of every hillock of the land, every shallow of the sea, each small difference in climate and production in the World. Much of our knowledge of Geography has followed from the expeditions of merchants in the past, until now traders reap their reward in the more minute subdivision of labour, and follow in the track of professional explorers. Migrations or movements of large bodies of people may be regarded as of two kinds, according to their motive. The most common in the past have been centrifugal migrations, in which tribes were driven from a region by invasion or the failure of natural resources. This influence is still operative in the migration necessitated by overcrowding in thickly - peopled lands, and by persecution for religious or political opinions. The exiles of natural or arbitrary compulsion settle where they can. Many of the vast movements of savage hordes recorded in history were centrifugal migrations. Now centripetal migra- tions are perhaps more common. Men individually, but in large numbers, are attracted from all parts to regions of great natural advantage. The magnets of gold and diamonds have drawn hundreds of thousands to America, Africa, Australia ; and rich farming-land has sucked population into Western America. The recognition of the limitations, the influences, and the motives of human life and movement in reference to the Earth is by no nieans complete as yet. It requires study and research, and it promises help of a practical kind in aiding commerce, interpreting history, and guiding the course of politics. The settlement, in particular, of such political ques- tions as bulk largely in every country with regard to the equilibrium of composite populations, the autonomy, complete or regulated, of people of distinct race living in defined regions under one central power, are complex problems in advanced Geography. Such problems may be worked out in many ways ; by compromises, by the empiric application of former 1 6 Hints to Teachers and Students experience — the historic method — or by the careful study ol racial and regional characteristics ; that is, by the apfflication of the higher Geography. In endeavouring to subdivide the content of Geography in such a way as to bring out the natural interrelations of its parts and their logical sequence, for purposes of exhaustive study, one may represent the whole metaphorically by a pyramid ol several courses of masonry diifering in material and finish, but each supported by those below and supporting those above. Thus the fundamental course would be Mathematical Geography, constructed of great blocks hewn from the quarries of the only absolute science, accurately squared and fitted. Il includes all that has to do with exact measurement of space and time and motion, the form and dimensions of the Earth, its motions, and the construction of maps. Upon this base is reared the second tier. Physical Geography, the material foi which, less homogeneous and perfect than the foregoing, comes from quarries scattered over the realms of many sciences — chemistry, physics, and the different departments of geology, meteorology, and oceanography. It is concerned with all those phenomena which depend on differences of substance, structure, and state, and accounts for the origin of surface-features and of scenery, the interactions of lithosphere, hydrosphere, anc atmosphere, and the effect on each of solar energy. Next ir order and less regular in structure, dependent on physica geography as physical is on matheinatical, comes Bio-Geography wherein the influence of life is taken into account. This serves to explain how the vital processes of organisms affect the structure of the Earth, and how the lifeless features of th( globe regulate the distribution of vegetation and of animals Arising directly from this floor, but as yet only imperfectly pu together, is the course of Anthropo-Geography, the elucidatior of the action of mankind as an animal species upon the Earth The unit of consideration is mankind as a whole ; the variet; of races, and life-conditions and density of population, are thi features taken into account, and the interaction between Mar and Nature has to be studied in its widest aspects. The change; ^. V V s On the Choice of Geographical Books. 17 in the relation of different tribes to their habitat belong to this zone, and these changes are the basis of Historical Geography, which forms the beginning of the next tier of the pyramid, in which the influence of races of men on the Earth finds a place. This may be termed, for lack of a better name. Political Geography ; its units are uncertain and transitory, for the hold of nations on regions is subject to continual change. But Political Geography is stability itself compared with the rough pile of Commercial Geography which caps, if it does not crown, the edifice. Here it is no longer the racial or national view- point which determines the conditions, but the individual. The distribution of natural resources is the fundamental condi- tion, and the natural frontier has rarely much in common with the political. But here a further simile must be brought in. This cap of the pyramid plays the part of a keystone as well, and binds the whole structure together. As rain filtering through a mass of brick or stonework dissolves the mortar of the upper parts, and re-deposits it in the lower courses, so the stream of self- interest permeates the whole structure of Geography, and its results are felt throughout. Commercial motives consolidate national life, accentuate racial differences, redistribute animals and plants, modify physical conditions, start investigations into the nature of the Earth, and even invade the solid groundwork of mathematics with the practical counsels of common-sense. On the foundation of Mathematical Geography, which supplies a correct topography, the various tiers of Physical Geography must be built. For this the first essential is a correct relief of the land, or rather of the surface of the lithosphere, which in large measure explains the topography by giving meaning to the drainage Hnes and the arid basins whence there is no escape for the entering water. On this again the geo- logical structure must be superimposed — not that geographers require to make geological observations, but they require to use them in order to fully appreciate the bearing of. the land upon dependent distributions. Soil-maps as well as rock-maps are of great importance. Then climatic phenomena, when 1 8 Hints to Teachers and Students ascertained by the meteorologist, have to be laid down on charts, and their dependence on relief and on drainage duly noted. Here also the dynamic element of Geography comes in, for the discussion of land-forms and climate reveals the whole process, of the evolution of land-surface features, and affords ground for such generalisations as Professor W. M. Davis * applies to the geographical cycle actuated by elevation and erosion, or to Professor Penck's t classification. Next, from the zoologist and botanist the data for charting the distribution of life as to kind and abundance both in surface and in altitude have to be sought, and the world thus known becomes at once a more complicated and a simpler whole : more complicated in dealing with more numerous facts, simpler by suggesting the harmonious interaction of different orders of phenomena to secure definite results. The transition upwards is easy into Anthropo-Geography, in which Man is first considered as an animal in relation to the Earth, and la-ter the Earth is considered in relation to Man. This, the most interesting and complex aspect of Geography, must be taken in detail. The distributions with which it deals are, first, the aggregation of people such as would be shown in a true map of density of population, the explanation of which would be found to some extent in the relief of the land and in the character of the climate and soil. Such a map is obviously true only for a limited time. It shows the result of migrations up to the moment of compilation, and is the geographical expression of the fundamental datum of census returns ; just as a hypso- metrical map shows the result of all previous surface changes. But as the geological map explains and amplifies the hypso- metrical, so the map of density of population must be amplified and elucidated by charting the distribution of different races, and the variations in language, religion, &c., which have been observed. Further, the political partition-of the land has to be considered, and here variations are so frequent that maps * Journal of Geology, vol. ii. (1894), p. 66. t Morphologie der Erdoberflikhe, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1894. Also Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, 1895, pp. 735-752. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 19 rapidly pass out of date. Such political maps were the first to be brought to a state ajDproaching perfection, and the word map naturally calls to the mind a map of this description, which is the least instructive of all possible maps, although of no small practical value. The " political " map is almost always a route-map as well, showing roads or railways and navigable waters, thus approximating to the representation of the most fugitive of distributions dealt with in Geography — the com- metcial value of the Earth's surface as determined by natural productions of economic value, populations distinguished as producers and consumers, and means of communication and transport in all directions. A true commercial map, if it could be produced, would involve every one of the more permanent aspects of Geography variously combined. The new agronomic maps of parts of France make the facts of the geological surveys available directly for agricultural purposes, and so form a step towards the ideal economic or commercial map. The future work of geographers must lie more in the discussion and co-ordination of different classes of phenomena as regards their distribution and interaction, than in the simple effort to produce a topographical map of high accuracy. The study of Geography must thus increasingly demand a practical acquaintance with many sciences and modes of thought and expression, not for the purpose of carrying on researches in these sciences, but with the object of collecting their results and applying them to the elucidation of the Earth, viewed as the present expression of a- definite evolution in which every part is subordinated to the production of a suitable home and sphere of influence for civilised Man. Viewed in this way. Geography may be employed as a mental discipline in education no whit inferior to other better recognised gymnastics, and more likely than most to lead attentive students to results of practical value. Much remains to be done before existing data have been digested and utilised. That the geographical turn of mind is not necessarily material in its conception of the world it studies, may be readily proved by reference to the works of almost any modern poet. And no 20 Hints to Teachers and Students. more beautiful instance could be afforded of its literary fruitful- ness than Mr R. L. Stevenson's description of how he built up his romance of Treasure Island from the basis of a map,, and not alone in Treasure Island, but in almost all his stories and essays, even in his letters, geographical ide^s find fit and grace- ful expression. It is not claimed that this statement of the position of Geography is a resume of universally conceded facts, and a promise of beneficial results sure to accrue from further stutiy. It is indeed only an attempt to trace that essential unity of drift in the Earth as an organic whole on which the claim of Geography as a distinct science rests. It strives only to show that Man belongs to the Earth as. the Earth belongs to him ; that, in order to attack the problems of adjustment which beset our time, and will inevitably demand increased attentioa as time goes on, more knowledge of an accurate kind is desirable, and that this knowledge can be supplied when the scope and power of the science of Geography are understood, and advanced study is adequately recognised. CHAPTER II. The Teaching of Geography. Much has been written upon the methods of teaching Geography by many people whose qualifications for the task are extremely various. The result is that many different systems of teaching are advocated, and there is a natural tendency for each authority to look on his special view of the subject as the only right one. Approaching the question from the point of view of an examiner, I have been led to believe that different systems of teaching may produce equally good results. In Rudyard Kipling's words, if " tribal lays '' may be allowed to stand for " systems of teaching Geography " — " There are nine-and-sixty ways of constructing tribal lays, And every single one of them is right." The first essential is that the teacher should be himself sufficiently instructed in Geography, and conversant with its principles, to be able to present it in the way his own experi- ence shows him to be the best. It is unfortunately true, that even in schools where Geography is formally taught, and its importance presumably recognised, no special qualifications are required of the teacher. Other subjects, Greek and Mathe- matics for instance, are only taught by persons who, as the result of study, know more about them than the pupils are expected to acquire at school. It is not so with Geography, where teachers often know nothing more of the facts than their pupils have to learn, and are totally ignorant of the principles of the science. 2 2 Hints to Teachers and Student's According to the tastes and training of the teacher, one aspect or another of Geography may appeal to him more strongly than the rest, and, arousing his personal interest, enable him to teach it with satisfaction, or even enthusiasm. Any one aspect necessarily involves something of the others, and in any case so little of the facts that are learned at school remains on the filter-paper of the human mind that the precise order or scope of the teaching becomes com- paratively unimportant. So far as mere knowledge of facts is concerned, a minimum might be established without difficulty, which every boy and girl ought to have fixed in their minds as firmly as the multi- plication table. This minimum is only suggested as. a frame- work round which innumerable important relations will naturally cluster, without conscious effort of the memory ; and whether these relations be cartographical, historical, biological, ethno- graphical or political, they will prove of value, and be a notable help in other studies, and in the affairs of life. I am inclined to place the absolute minimum of definite school knowledge at the following : — Home Country. — The chief rivers and great, natural features. The names and positions of the counties (or in the United States, the counties of the home State), all the towns with a population exceeding 50,000 (but not the exact population at any given date). The main lines of railway, and the great junctions or stopping- places of the fastest express trains. The staple products or manufactures on which national prosperity depends. Europe. — The great systems of mountains and rivers. The names and positions of each country, and the capital of each. The chief component states of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. All towns with, populations exceeding 100,000. The main through-lines of railway connecting the capitals of the various countries with one another, or with their respective seapbrts. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 23 The W^orld. — The names and positions of all the oceans, continents, and great island-groups. The names and positions of the countries of North America, together with the States of the United States, and the provinces of Canada ; the countries of South America ; the countries of Asia ; the colonies of Australia : the countries and spheres of influence in Africa.' The greatest long-distance through-railways, the chief sea- ports, and all towns with a population of over 100,000 — except i,n China, where only those towns of commercial importance need be known. Put in other words, every pupil on leaving school should be able to draw an outline map of the world showing the continents and islands; an outline map of each continent showing the dominant mountains and rivers (say two great ranges, and from three to five rivers at least), approximately the boundaries of the contained countries, and to mark the great harbours and large towns. Without this grounding in Geography, no one is fit to take part in business or politics, yet the number of grown-up people who could answer an examination paper, based upon even so rudimentary a syllabus, is small indeed. I have seen teachers disallow excellent answers in Geography papers with some such remark as — " Probably correct, but could not have been derived from the text-book prescribed." This is an instance of narrow mechanical conceptions of education that need only to be cited to appear ridiculous. I am always inclined, when regulations do not forbid, to give higher marks for answers which could not be taken from any text-book, but are the result of the student's own intelligence, finding facts in the course of general reading or personal observation. In this respect stamp-collecting should be particularly encouraged, for it enables a boy or girl to learn the names of every country and colony in the civilised world without the smallest elTort, and usually the additional circumstances of its language and political form. The symbols or armorial bearings 24 Hints to Teachers and Students on stamps which do not show a portrait are always significant of something peculiar to or highly characteristic of the country. Holiday travels, whether within the limits of the home country or abroad, are of vital importance. It is only by visiting places that their true nature and relations can be fully grasped, and the method of imaginary journeys might very profitably take the place of formal recapitulations of lessons. The change of time between diff"erent countries, or different parts of those countries which stretch across continents ;. the recurrence of meal-hours on ocean steamers at intervals always less than twenty-four hours when sailing eastward, and always more than twenty-four hours when sailing westward, will, if once experienced, serve to impress one of the most difficult facts in Mathematical Geography. Peculiarities of means of locomotion, of industries, of costume, and of language, once observed, fall naturally into their place, strengthening the frame- work of minimum knowledge. Everything that is instinctively learnt by an intelligent traveller may be taught by a skilful teacher who is interested in reading books of travel, even if circumstances debar him from travelling ; and the advantage of teaching of this kind is that the pupil receives each fresh piece of information as something which helps to explain and fix what he has previously learnt, strengthening the memory instead of loading it. A broad distinction should be drawn between the methods of school teaching, and of University teaching in Geography. The former in my opinion should deal mainly with facts, the latter with relations and causes. In higher classes problems may be set and worked more in the nature of University than of school work, and it is eminently desirable that all teachers should possess that higher knowledge of Geography which will enable them to introduce such problems as are adapted for school use as soon as the proper time comes. If the great natural laws which affect Geography could be discovered by pupils from their own reasoning, the result from the educational point of view would be greatly heightened. For example, if. it were shown that in the Galapagos Islands, Tahiti, Samoa, On the Choice of Geographical Books. 25 Fiji, New Caledonia, Java, Madagascar, and St Helena, the wind blows from the south-east almost every day in the year ; while in the Falkland Islands, Crozets, Kerguelen, and the Auckland Islands, it blows as regularly from the west-north- west, the zones of prevailing winds could be discovered, and the trades and " brave west winds " ever afterwards hold their place in the memory. The educational advantages of Geography as a means of mental discipline have been much overlooked ; they belong rather to the higher than the elementary aspects of the subject, and stress may be laid upon them rather for the sake of the self-education of the teacher than the immediate instruction of the pupil. Indirectly, but unmistakably, the advances of the teacher will react on the class, simplifying difficulties by timely explanations, and laying the indispensable foundation, so that it leaves his hands ready for the superstructure which can only be raised through advanced study. The use of class-books is a subject on which opinion differs widely. The teacher should of course have a text-book for personal study and for reference ; but the balance of expert opinion seems to incline to reserve the use of a class-book for pupils to a comparatively late stage. Preliminary ideas on space and time relations, and the practical Geography of the immediate surroundings of a child should be conveyed orally, and it is probably better at first to frame this teaching, so as to arouse and satisfy curiosity, rather than to exercise the memory. In the later stages where the class-book comes in it should be a simpler work than the teacher's text-book, and it should be handled with discretion, and in close relation with maps and a globe. Date is one of the most important features to notice in a book on any branch of Geography or travel. The date at which a journey was made, or a book written, should always be recorded as well as the year of publication. While most of the physical features of a country are practically invariable ; some, such as the coast-line and the course of rivers on nearly level plains, are subject to great changes within periods which are historically short. Statistics also rapidly grow old, and all 26 Hints to Teachers and Students statements as to population, resources, industries, and com- merce, require frequent revision if they are to remain trust- worthy. In many cases the bad effects of a remote date are more than overcome by the knowledge of it. For instance, a description of Africa as known in 1837, becomes valuable as .a standard for measuring the progress of explorations in the last sixty years. All undated books should be avoided ; in the case of school-books particularly, one may be quite sure that the date is not suppressed in the interests of the purchaser. No intelligent teacher need fear to experiment in the application of his own methods of teaching Geography, from the fear of making the instruction worse instead of better. There is a certain stage at which any change is necessarily for the better. Signs are happily not wanting that this stage is now being gradually left behind, but as yet it has not in average schools been left very far behind. In consulting the books and papers, the titles of which follow, much allowance must be made for the personal opinions of the authors, and also for the particular class and age of pupils for whom the methods are recommended. The standard work on Geographical education is the Report by Dr Scott Keltic, now unfortunately out of print, but occasionally to be obtained second-hand ; and the book which will perhaps be found most generally useful and stimulating is Sir Archibald Geikie's little Teaching of Geography. Special attention must also be called to Mr A. J. Herbertson's excellent series of articles in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for 1896, the bibliographies in which have been of use in preparing the following list. A Report presented to the Geographical section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1897, drawn up by Mr Herbertson as secretary of a special Committee,* may be looked upon as a supplement to Dr Keltic's Report, bringing the question of Geography teaching in schools up to date. * The members of this Committee were : — Mr H. J. Mackinder {Chairman), Mr A. J. Herbertson {Secretary), Dr J. Scott Keltie, Dr H. R. Mil), Mr E. G. Ravenstein, and Mr Eli Sowerbutts. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 27 BOOKS ON METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Burrows, Rev. F. B. On some Methods of Teaching Geo- graphy (Reprinted from the Parents' Review, 1896) Phihp & Son. Price 6d. Refers specially to Geography in preparatory schools. Dickinson, B. Bentham. Geography as a School Subject : an Attempt to show that Geography can be Taught as a Training of the Mind. Published by the Geographical Association, 1896. Philip & Son. Price 6d. Mr Dickinson describes the method of teaching he adopts at Rugby. For address of Geographical Association, see ante, p. 6. Geikie, Sir Archibald. The Teaching of Geography : Suggestions regarding Principles and Methods for the Use of Teachers. Second Edition. Macmillan, 1892. Price 2S. An excellent guide. Geography is viewed as including rather more of general observational science than some will be prepared to concede ; but each reader may select the part most likely to be of service in his particular circumstances. GiJNTHER, S., and A. Kirchhoff. Didaktik und Methodik des Geographie-Unterrichts (mathematische und allge- meine Geographic). Sonderausgabe aus Dr A. Bau- meister's Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichislehre fiir hohere Sclmlen. Munich: Oscar Beck, 1895. Price 3S- The most recent German work on the methods of teaching Geo- graphy in schools. An article founded on it, "Geography in the Schools," appears in the Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. xii. 1896. J0J.LY, W. The Realistic Teaching of Geography : its Prin- ciples, especially in regard to Initiatory Notions ; the Correction of Prevalent Errors ; and Examples of Simple Demonstrative and Dramatic Methods. Blackie & Son, 1887. Price IS. Based on a lecture delivered during the exhibition of Dr Scott Keltic's collection of geogiaphical appliances and books. Mr Jolly, as a school inspector of long experience, speaks from full knowledge , of the defects of the usual methods of teaching. 28 Hints to Teachers and Students Keltie, J. Scott. Geographical Education: Report to the Council of the Royal Geographical Society. Murray, 1886. Price 7s. 6d. This serves as a landmark in the history of geographical teaching, giving a concise review of the educational systems of the chief con- tinental countries and of the United Kingdom in 1884-85. The collection of books, atlases, maps, globes, &c., made by Dr Keltie for this report, after having been exhibited- in London, Edinburgh, Manchester, and other places, is now in the Museum of, the Teachers' Guild, 74 Gower Street, London, W.C., where it may be inspected. MoNTEFiORE [-Brice], A. Geographical Methods : a Chapter of Suggestions. Educational Review, \^<)^. Price 6d. Parker, Francis \V. How to Study Geography. New York, Appleton, 1889; London, E. Arnold. Price 6s. This book is full of useful hints. Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies ; with Reports of the Conferences Arranged by the Committee. New York : America a Book Company, 1894. Price ca. 5s. Contains amongst' other subjects a report on the teaching of Geo- graphy, mainly with reference to physiography. Spencer, F. S. (Editor). Chapters on the Aims and Practice of Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 1897. Price 6s. The chapter on Geography by Mr Yule Oldham is useful. Die GEOGR.A.PHISCHE Zeitung. Herausgegeben von Dr Hettner. Published monthly in Leipzig, since 1895, contains inany valuable papers on Educational Geography. I'rice is. per monthly part. The Journal of School Geography. Edited by Professor Dodge. This is a monthly journal of high class and low price, devoted entirely to the subject. It was commenced in 1897, and costs one dollar per annum. Address — 41 North Queen Street, Lancaster, Penn., U.S.A. A Series of Memoirs by Professor E. Levasseur (in French),- Professor R. Lehmann (in German), and Mr A. J. Her- bertson (in English), dealing with the Educational Methods employed in France, Germany, and Great Britain, appears in the Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London. Murray, 1896. Price 20s. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 29 PAPERS IN RECENT VOLUMES OF BRITISH GEOGRAPHICAL PUBLICATIONS, BEARING ON METHODS OP' TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Andrews, A. W. The Teaching of Geography in relation to History. Geog. Journ., vol. ix. 1897. Blaikie, W. B. How Maps are Made. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. vii. 1891. Duff, Sir M. E. Grant. On the Educational Work of the Royal Geographical Society. Proceedings H.G.S., vol. xiv. 1892. Freshfield, D. W. The Place of Geography in Education. Proceedings R.G.S., vol. viii. 1886. GOLDSMID, Sir F. J. On the Means of Popularising the Study of Geography. Proceedings E.G. S., vol. Vm. 1886. Herbertson, a. J. Geographical Education. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. xii. 1896. HiNDSHAW, R. C. On the Use of Models in Teaching Elementary Geography. Journ. Manchester Geog. Soc, vol. ii. 1887. Keltie, J. Scott. Geographical Education. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. i. 1885. Geographical Education on the Continent. Journ. Manchester Geog. Soc, vol. ii. 1887. Laurie, S. S. Method Applied to the Teaching of Geography in the School. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. ii. 1886. Mackinder, H. J. On the Scope and Methods of Geography. Proceedings R.G.S., vol. ix. 1887. The Teaching of Geography at the Universities. Pro- ceedings R.G.S., vol. ix. 1887. Modern Geography, German and English. Geog. Journ., vol. vi., 1895 ; and Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. xi. 1895. The Physical Basis of Political Geography. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. vi. 1890. 3° Hints to Teachers and Students. Mackinder, H. J. The Necessity of Thorough Teaching in General Geography, as Preliminary to Teaching Commer- cial Geography. Journ. Mancheiler Geog. Soc, vol. vi. 1890. Mill, H. R. Scientific Earth Knowledge as an Aid to Com- merce. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. v. i88y. On the Teaching of Geography in Russia. Journ. Man- chester Geog. Sdc, vol. vi. 1890. Commercial Geography. Summary of Lectures. Geog. Journ., vol. iii. 1894. Ravenstein, E. G. The Field of Geography. Proceedings R.G.S., vol. xiii. 1891. RousiERS, Paul de. The Teaching of Geography and Social Science. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. viii. 1892. Silberbach, J. H. The Teaching of Elementary Commercial Geography in Primary and Secondary Schools. Journ. Mdnchester Geog. Soc, vol. v. 1889. Sturgeon, M. K. The Teaching of Elenientary Geography, a Practical Lesson with Models. Journ. Manchester Geog. Soc, vol. iii. 1887. Wagner, H. The Teaching of Geography in Germany. Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. ix. 1893. Warren, Sir C. Address on Geographical Education. Pro- ceedings R.G.S., vol. ix., 1887; anA Journ. Manchester Geog. Soc, vol. iii. 1887. Yeats, J. Relations between Commercial History and Geo- graphy. Journ. Manchester Geog. Soc, vol. ii. 1886. CHAPTER III. The Choice of Text-Books. It is not without reluctance that I venture to introduce a list of representative school-books. The list must not be taken as a critical selection. Many excellent books are undoubtedly omitted, and all those mentioned may not be found equally satisfactory. The use by pupils of a class-book is always intended to supplement the work of an intelligent teacher, who ought to be able to neutralise any minor errors which it may contain. For the private study of the teacher, and, perhaps for use in the higher classes, an advanced text-book is extremely desirable. Such a work ought to be encyclopaediac in character, each section by an author of undoubted authority, and it could hardly be the work of one hand. Although such a book may not be found in a single volume,* it is possible for the teacher to secure an efficient substitute by selecting several books which, between them, cover the whole ground. In this connection it may be useful to quote the decision arrived at by a Joint-Committee of the Teachers' Guild and the Geographical Association, in March 1897 : — * The New International Geography, written by the leading Geo- graphers of the world, and edited by Dr H. R. Mill, has been undertaken by George Newnes Limited with a view to supplying a work of the kind indicated. 32 Hints to Teachers and Students THE TEACHERS' GUILD'S ADVICE WITH REGARD TO BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY. I. In the Lower Forms of Schools. (Age 7 or 8 to 10.) (a.) The geography teaching should lead up from a parti- cular study of the locality to a general knowledge of the physical features of the Earth as prelimi- nary to the treatment of any particular countries. {b.) The pupil should have no book. {c.) If a book be needed for the teacher, it should be one which will help him to treat the child's sur- roundings effectively. II. In the Middle Forms. (Age 10 to 12 or 13.) (a.) The teacher's book should carry on the subject on the same lines as in the lower forms, treating physical features in greater detail, and also the effect of these features on the human and other life which exists amidst them, and the influence of that life on them. . The subject should then be treated under three aspects— (i) Commercial, (2) Political, (3) Historical Geography. Of these (i), begun, as a rule, rather sooner than (2) or (3), should be in accordance with the distribution of land-areas (continents or groups of continents), while (2) and (3) will necessitate the division of the land-areas into separate countries. Stress should constantly be laid on the effects of Physical Geography. {b.) The pupil's book should not be so full of detail as the teacher's book, but, on the other hand, should not be so tabulated as to lend itself to being merely learnt by heart. It might be brought into use at about the age of twelve years. The study On the Choice of Geographical Books. 33 of climate and of the Earth as a planet, might be introduced during the later years of this period, bringing in with it a more formally scientific system of Physical Geography. III. In the Higher Forms. (Age 12 or 13 and onwards.) (a.) There should be a fuller treatment of Political GeogrEtphy in close connection with Commercial and Historical Geography, together with so much of Mathematical Geography as will give more detailed information and more exact ideas regard- ing such matters as the form and size of the Earth, the alternation of day and night, the seasons, determination of latitude and longitude, and time, passing on to the measurement of the Earth and map-projections. (b.) The Teacher's Book should contain lists of books of reference of various kinds which the teacher may consult ; also hints on different methods of teaching, including the use of blackboard drawing, lantern-slides, pictures, and photographs. (c.) The PiepWs Book. It is extremely valuable for the pupil to have standards of area, distance, and height for illustration and comparison, but mere lists of disconnected facts should not be introduced. Varieties of type should be sparingly used. (d.) I..ists of questions at the end of chapters, though sometimes helpful to the teacher, ought not to be included in the pupil's book, unless they are in the nature of problems. All text-books should be dated and frequently revised. It cannot be expected that all the desiderata indicated above for teacher's or pupil's books will be found in any given volume. They serve rather as standards by which the quality of existing books may be judged. Anonymous works are c 34 Hints to Teachers and Students . always to be viewed with suspicion, unless they be of no higher grade than "readers," compiled from existing books. An undated Geography text-book should never be. purchased, and it would be well if teachers, anxious to have the best and latest information, would always test the nominal date on the title- page by reference to some recent changes which ought to be noticed in the text. The practice of dating the title-page with the year \yhen a book is printed, perhaps from stereotype plates that have not been revised for years, is not unknown. The teacher or advanced student should endeavour to keep up his information to date by frequent and systematic reference to periodical publications, not only to year-books and the monthly journals of geographical societies, but to weekly and daily papers as. well. In France, Germany, and Italy, there are excellent weekly illustrated papers exclusively devoted to Geography, but there is nothing of the kind in English. A good deal of interesting information may be derived from the weekly illustrated newspapers, but the daily paper is the best, and indeed an indispensable companion of the text-book. A series of newspaper cuttings, properly classified and dated, and provided with a good index, con- stitutes an invaluable book of reference. 0£ all papers The Times is the best in this respect, on account of the number of authoritative special articles it contains, and the summaries of Consular Reports, of which it makes a special feature. The Times, weekly edition, price 2d., published every Friday, contains all the most important geographical articles and notes which appear in the daily issue. The following list contains only books of moderate size designed for use in schools. The more comprehensive works are included under the later heading of books for general reference and reading. It may be that some excellent school-books exist without .having come under my notice. I am as a rule acquainted only with books which the publishers consider of such a quality as to be worthy of preservation in the Library of the Royal Geographical Society. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 35 REPRESENTATIVE TEXT-BOOKS. Appleton's Geographies. New York : Appletons. Specimens of the text-atlas type of school-book, which has estab- lished itself in the United States. Arnold-Forster, H. D. This World of Ours : an Introduc- tion to the Study of Geography. Cassell. New Edition, 1897. Price 2s. 6d. A remarkably clear and attractive elementary exposition of the principles of Geography. Well adapted for reading in schools. Baker, W. G. Realistic Elementary Geography, Taught by Picture and Plan. Blackie & Son. Price is. gd. A well-arranged elementary class-book. Chisholm, G. G. Longman's School Geography. Special Editions for Great Britain, India, South Africa, North America, and Australasia. Longmans. Price 3s. 6d. This is one of the best modern class-books of general Geography. In the various editions, the chief place is given to the home country of the pupils for whom it is intended. The collaboration of an expert resident in each of the countries for which there is a special edition, ensures accuracy of detail. Frye, a. E. Primary Geography. Boston : Ginn & Co. Complete Geography; with Supplement, the New England States, by W. Morris Davis. Boston : Ginn & Co. These are amongst the best school Geographies on the American plan. They are being adapted for use in this country by Mr A. J. Herbertson, and will be published by E. Arnold. Grove, Sir G. Primer of (Geography. Macmillan. Price is. A charming little book, singularly lucid in its explanations, and quite free from the objectionable qualities of most small books on great subjects. Johnston, Keith. Physical, Historical, Political, and De- scriptive Geography. Fifth Edition, revised by A. H. Keane. Stanford, 1896. Price 12s. Teachers will find this a very useful text-book. The sketch of His- torical Geography, though much condensed, is the best which is to be found in the English language, and the whole is illustrated by excellent maps. The cheaper edition (price 6s.), omitting a large part of the work, might be useful as an advanced class-book. 36 Hints to Teachers and Students. KiEPERT, A. Manual of Ancient Geography. Macmill'an. Price 5 s. Only recommended when Classical Geography is being studied. KiRCHHOFF, A. A School Geography. Junior Course. Swan Sonnenschein. Price as. 6d. An adaptation of one of the most widely used German school- books. Erdkunde fiir Schulen nach . den fiir Preussen giiltigen Lehrzielen. I. Teil, Unterstufe. 11. Teil, Mittel- und Oberstufe. Halle: Waisenhaus, 1894. Price, Part i, 8d.; Part 2, IS. 6d. A set of graduated school-books illustrative of the highest class of German text-book, well worthy of study from the points of view of arrangement and metliod as well as for the contents. Longman's Geographical Series, Longmans, 1896. Well-planned class-books on a definite system, with coloured maps ia the text, but anonymous. Meiklejohn, J. M. D. A New Geography on the Com- parative Method. Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Price 4s. 6d. The work of an experienced educationist, adapted for use as u. teacher's book. It excels in its method and arrangement, rather than in the selection or verification of facts. Mill, H. R. An Elementary Class-Book of General Geo- graphy. Revised 1896. Macmillan. Price 3s. 6d. An attempt to describe the whole world on a uniform scale, as picturesquely as is consistent with accuracy. Wethey, E. R. Manuals of Geography. Europe, price 2S. 6d. ; Asia, price 2s. ; North America and West Indies, price IS. 6d. Rivington. Experiments in original methods of teaching by a practical teacher of Geography. CHAPTER IV. Atlases and Means of Illustration. Of all works of reference in Geography an atlas is the most indispensable, and fqr all purposes in the class an atlas should accompany the book used by the pupils. The same atlas cannot well be used for both purposes, and hence reference and school atlases must be considered separately. The reference atlas should be as full, and the maps it contains on as large a scale, as can be procured. No really good reference atlas can be very cheap, and when an a'tlas costing only a few shillings is advertised as containing a very large number of plates, the intending purchaser would do well to refrain. Such atlases can only be produced by the use of old plates, and cases are known in which the condemned plates of an old atlas, which had been good in its day, have been purchased, clumsily altered in a few places, and used to print a cheap edition with a new and attractive title. If te^ichers, who are perhaps the chief purohasers of cheap reference atlases, knew how to test the maps before they buy them, a nearly fatal blow would be dealt at a serious evil. It some- times happens that a mistaken feehng of patriotism induces people to prefer cheap and poor British atlases to superior work produced at nearly as low a price in other countries. It would benefit British cartographers far more if the public were to buy good German maps and atlases, instead of inferior hoine productions. By doing so the standard of excellence demanded would be raised, and the best home work would be more fully appreciated, and more willingly purchased than 3^ Hints to Teachers and Students before. In consequence of the greedy demand for cheap and unworthy atlases, the idea has arisen that the best maps cannot be produced in this country. This is a mistake. They can- not be produced so cheaply as in Germany on account of the higher rate of wages and greater cost of materials ; but with an intelligent demand for good work, and a discriminating rejection of bad work, British map-makers would be encour- aged to produce as a matter of course fine maps such as they can only publish at present at a loss. A foreign atlas may be used more easily than a foreign book, for the names are usually given 'in their native form, e.g., in a German atlas the names on the map of France are in French, those on the maps of the British Isles and the United States in Enghsh. It is a very rare thing to see an intelligent criticism of an atlas in an English paper ; and, profiting by experience of the way in which the "reviewer" forms his judgment, the com- pilers of atlases have too often fallen into the objectionable practice of prefixing a laudatory preface in which the good points are dilated upon unduly, and the bad points^ which are perhaps more numerous, are passed over quietly. The first thing to notice in any atlas is the selection of maps and their scale. If it were possible to have the whole world represented on the same scale, and that a fairly large one, it would certainly be best ; but in existing conditions all that one can hope for is to find the most , important places shown on the largest scale, ands all places of equal importance on the same scale. For examjfe, in an atlas intended for the British public, the continents of Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Australasia, should be shown drawji on the same scale. Europe should be shown on a larger scale on account of the small size and great number of its countries. For country maps the British Islands should appear on the largest scale of all. The British Colonies, India, and the United States, should be given on a scale large enough to show the counties or corresponding subdivisions, and not much smaller than the separate countries of Europe; all of which, with the necessary exception of Russia, should be on On the Choice of Geographical Books. 39 one common scale. In a reference atlas the maps of con- tinents should always be in duplicate, one copy filled with physical, the other with political detail. A physical map of the British Isles, and the United States, ought also to appear on a scale smaller than the detailed map, which must necessarily show political divisions with the greatest distinct- ness. A map of the Arctic and of the Antarctic regions, a chart of the world on Mercator's projection, and a good-sized map of the world in hemispheres, .should be insisted on as a minimum of general maps. Star charts and diagrams of eclipses and of the solar system are out of place in a reference atlas, although they may appropriately appear in one devoted ■ to Physical Geography. Next to the selection and scale of the maps the most im- portant point is the choice of names, and the date to which the work has been brought down. For the purpose of testing this the best plan is to take a number of names from the shipping news, and from the foreign intelligence of a news- paper, avoiding such as could not reasonably be expected to figure in an atlas {e.g., villages passed by an expedition in a little known country), and look for them in the index, and, by the indication there given, on the map. If less than 75 per cent, of the names looked for are found, the atlas should not be purchased. On the larger scaled maps, all the places which the intending purchaser has personally visited should be looked up, and the routes of his own journeys traced carefully. Thus, mistakes such as placing a railway or a town on the wrong side of a river may possibly be detected. Much attention should be given to the appearance of the maps ; and an unfavourable opinion is justified if the rivers are indistinguishable from roads or railways or boundary lines ; if the names are indistinctly printed, or the precise point each refers to is left in doubt ; if the colours are crude, or if they are not distinguishable one from another by artificial light ; above all if the "register" is defective, i.e., if the colours are not correctly superimposed, but spread beyond or fall short of the limits they should occupy. 4° Hints to Teachers and Students Only experience can guide the critic of maps, and he may make his first attempts by purchasing the cheapest atlas he can find, and examining it -to find how far it answers the requirements mentioned above. If, as may very well happen, defects are found in an atlas otherwise good, the publisher or cartographer will welcome a polite letter pointing them out. The chances are that he already knows of them ; but evidence of the fact that he is working for an alert and intelligent public has always a wholesome effect. With regard to school atlases intended for the use of pupils in the class or during preparation, adififerent series of criteria have to be taken into account. Considerations of cost demand that the number of maps should be comparatively small, hence clearness of drawing and legibility of printing are apt to be sacrificed. Clearness and legibility are absolutely essential, and they must be attained at the cost of simplifying outhnes, and omitting the less important names. The physical features of all countries should be shown clearly, preferably on different maps from those giving such political conditions as are necessary, but on the same scale. The elements of height may be shown either by contours with graduated tints or by hachuring. The plan of showing all the land below a certain level deep green, and all above it dark brown is educationally undesirable, for it irresistibly suggests some sudden physical change at the .boundary line. If contours are used they should be numerous, every loo feet if possible, never less than every i,ooo. feet, and the colouring should follow them in gradations as delicate as possible. Good hill-shading by hachures is very expensive, and cannot be looked for in a school atlas, but on contoured maps the introduction of a few hachures on steep slopes s.erves to distinguish mountain sides from plateaux. Geological maps are too complicated to be desirable features in a school atlas, unless they are simplified to the last degree, as for example iri a map of England, showing simply the coal measures, the rocks older than the coal, and the rocks more recent than the coal. Outline maps are. to be purchased from several publishers. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 41 although at a ridiculously high price. They form an invalu- able adjunct to the school atlas, and the teacher should practise the colouring of such maps so as to present a variety of different distributions each on a separate map. It is im- portant that pupils should early recognise that an outline map is a form which may be filled in many different ways, and that lines and colours may be used to represent' the distribution of many different things and conditions. Wall maps are prepared by several map publishers. Their purpose in schools should be diagrammatic, and they ought not to compete with the reference atlas in fulness of detail or fineness of execution. They should rather be enlargements of the school atlas, bold outlines with very few names, and very distinct boundary lines. German wall maps as a rule are both better and cheaper than those hitherto made in this country. If such maps are demanded in sufficient number of British cartographers, they will be produced both good and cheap ; but the map maker must be taught to cater for a critical and intelligent public before he will cease to try to induce the public to accept what it is easiest for him to supply. Globes have fallen into undeserved and most regrettable neglect. They are found in most schools, but too often hidden away in cupboards, or mounted on high shelves, or gracing landings on the stairs. Their use should be revived and extended. Small globes of 4 or 6 inches diameter may be purchased for a few shillings, and they ought to be placed in the hands of every scholar. A heat globe would be a most appropriate prize, far more useful than many books which are manufactured only to be presented and thrown aside. Every schoolroom should contain a terrestrial globe of at least 18 inches diameter, and preferably two, one coloured physically, the other politically. A fine old-fashioned globe originally priced at ;^io or ^^15, may often be purchased for los. or less second hand. If it is well mounted it is as good as a new one, for the globe is used for working simple problems in Mathematical Geography, not for the purposes of a reference atlas. Valuable demonstrations of distances and directions 42 Hints to Teachers and Students may be made by measuring on a globe and on a Mercator chart of the same equatorial scale. It is remarkable how the apparent anomaly of a great circle course being the shortest disappears when a globe is brought into use. Relief globes oh which the irregularities of the Earth's surface are represented in highly exaggerated relief are not to be recommended. A pin might be stuck into an ordinary globe, and a hole bored in it to represent on a true scale the maximum height of land and depth of sea. For an 1 8-inch globe, the height and depth would be -^ of an inch each, or about the thickness of the paper on which the gores of the globe are printed. Relief maps may be found useful in special cases if the exaggeration of vertical scale is not greater than three times the horizontal scale. A celestial globe is unnecessary. The representation of the stars on a convex surface requires a logical power to refer them to their true places which should not be demanded of school children. If a celestial hemisphere mounted like an umbrella to show the stars on a concave surface can be procured, it might be found very useful. Many pieces of apparatus have been devised for illustrating the movements of the Earth and the heavenly bodies. Many of these are costly and complicated, and all are open to the objection that their incautious use is apt to lead the pupil to suppose that the Earth is held in its course by some system of material mechanism. If any such apparatus are used they should be as simple as possible^ The Geodoscope of Miss Gregory, which shows a little terrestrial globe iriside a large glass globe on which some of the stars are shown, is one the intelligent use of which will be found advantageous. It and many other similar appliances are sold by Messrs G. Philip & Son, 32 Fleet Street, London, E.G. The highly ingenious Cosmosphere of Mr W. B. Blaikie is more likely to be used for teaching astronomy than Geography, but if available it would prove invaluable for advanced pupils. A set of wire models to illustrate map projections by shadows, designed by On the Choice of Geographical Books. 43 Mr A. J. Herbertson, greatly simplifies the teaching of map projections, and facilitates comparisons between the globe and maps. For class demonstration it is convenient to have black- board maps and globe on which the outlines of the land are painted, leaving the details to be filled in with coloured chalk. When a teacher can draw easily and correctly, he will find it better to use the blackboard, and draw the map bit by bit as the lesson proceeds ; or, he may use coloured crayons on a large pad of white paper, from which sheet after sheet may be torn as it is done with. It would be going beyond the scope of this work to enter into the subject of geographical pictures, beyond saying that well-selected photographs or lantern slides are better than coloured wall pictures. Photography is now so general a recreation that teachers and senior pupils could easily form collections of geographical views, and the search for character- istic features and the best view-points would in itself be an admirable training in practical Geography. If a lantern is used, statistical diagrams of a striking kind and diagram maps may easily be prepared as slides at very trifling expense by any one who can draw. Ink or water- colours thickened with gum may be used on clear glass, and if transparent colours are selected, the result is very satisfactory. Ground glass drawn on with pencil and varnished, glass covered with a coloured film on which the design may be scratched, or even a plain card cut into a stencil-plate by a sharp penknife, all furnish satisfactory results. 44 Hints to Teachers and Students REPRESENTATIVE ATLASE.S AND MAPS. Bartholomew, J. G. Library Reference Atlas. Macmillan. Price 52 s. 6d. An excellent reference atlas, very clear and full, with more space devoted to India, the Colonies, and the United States than is usual ; and a full index. Macmillan's School Atlas, Physical and Political. Mac- millan. Price 8s. 6d. The maps are clearer and better printed than in most school atlases. The Handy Reference Atlas. Walker, 1896. Price 7s. 6d. Peculiarly rich in plans of towns, and enlargements of interesting regions. Atlas of Scotland. Bartholomew & Co. Price 40s. This is mentioned as the most perfect existing example of a modern alias on a large scale for a small area. It is remarkable for its fine physical maps. A similar atlas of England is promised. Atlas of Commercial Geography. Preface by H. R. Mill. Cambridge University Press. Price 3s. 6d. Butler, G. Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geography. Longmans. Price 7s. 6d. Chisholm, G. G. Longman's New Atlas, Political and Physical, for the Use of Schools and Private Persons. Longmans. 12s. 6d. This was the first atlas produced in this country on the lines of the German school atlases. Every map was specially drawn, and educa- tional needs dominated the whole plan and execution of the work, which has met with deserved approval. CoLBECK, C. Historical Atlas for Schools. Longmans. Price 5s. Gardiner, S. R. School Atlas, of English History. Long- mans. Price ss. Useful for class work. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 45 Habenicht, H. Taschen-Atlas. New Edition almost every Year. Gotha : J. Perthes. Price 2s. 6d. A gem of cartography. The maps are miniatures of some of those in Stieler's Atlas, and show the highest class of hill-shading. The atlas may be obtained through any bookseller. HiRT, F. Geographischen Bildertafeln : (i) Allgemeine Erdkunde; (2) Typische Landschaften ; (3) Spezielle Ethnographic. Breslau : Hirt. Price c«. 153. These are pictures of typical geographical features, and ethno- graphic types for exhibition in class. Johnston, W. & A. K. Handy Royal Atlas. Index to each Sheet. Johnston. Price 52s. 6d. A reduction of the famous Royal Atlas, and suitable for reference. Cosnrographic Atlas. Johnston. Price 21s. This atlas does not appear in the later lists of the publisher ; but on account of the large size of sheet it had the great convenience of showing maps of the continents on an unusually large scale. Labberton, R. H. Historical Atlas and General History. Macmillan. Price iss. A useful historical atlas for the teacher. Ordnance Survey Maps. Every school should possess the sheets of the Ordnance Survey maps containingits district, if possible on the three scales of (l) 25 inches to I mile, (2) 6 inches to I mile, (3) I inch to i mile. The number of sheets necessary on each scale will depend on the position of the street or town upon the sheet. Both the contoured and the hill-shaded editions of the l-inch map should be procured. It would, be found useful to have specimen sheets of different types of country to use as geographical illustrations. Any bookseller may order these maps direct from the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. There are agents in all large towns, and map^ may also be ordered at a certain number of rural post-offices in the United Kingdom ; but a complete set of the maps of England will be found in stock at Mr Edward Stanford's, 27 Cockspur Street, London, S.W. ; those of Scotland at Messrs John'Menzies & Co.'s, 12 Hanover Street, Edinburgh; and those of Ireland at Messrs Hodges, Figgis, & Co.'s, 104 Grafton Street, Dublin. The complete list of agents is given in a blue-book entitled "Ordnance Survey Maps, 1897 [C-8488]." Price 2d. To be obtained from Eyre & Spottiswbode, 32 Abingdon Street, London, S.W., or from the Scottish and Irish agents named above. The sheets of the i-inch map for England and Ireland cost Is. each, those for Scotland (double the size) cost is. gd. The usual price per sheet of the 6-inch map is 2s. 6d . 46 Hints to Teachers and Students. Proctor, R. A. Student's Atlas in Twelve Circular Maps. Longmans, 1889. Price ca. 5s. This atlas is of unique value, as it shows the whole world on a uniform scale, which is, however, unfortunately a very small one. The projection adopted gives the miriimum of distortion, Ravenstein, E. G. Systematic Atlas. Philip. Price 15s. Special Edition Abridged for School Use. Price los. 6d. The most ambitious of recent school atlases of modern type. An immense number of small inset maps is given. The discussion of map projections in the preface is the best elementary treatment of the subject which has been published. Stieler's Hand Atlas. Gotha : J. Perthes. Price 63s. This atlas is kept up to date, being subject to constant revision, and separate sheets may be had, price Is. each. It is the best and cheapest atlas in existence, having regard to its accuracy, well-selected scales, and fine workmanship. Sydow- Wagner's Methodische Schulatlas. Gotha: J. Perthes. Price 5 s. A beautiful piece of work. The model on which most of the " modern school atlases in Europe have been based. Times Atlas. Times Office. Price 25s. A translation of Andree's German Atlas, with a few additional maps of British possessions. The German standpoint dominates the maps of Europe. Some parts of Gerinany are shown on a larger scale than any part of the British Isles. It is the cheapest atlas of its size to be had. Van Kampen, A. Atlas Antiquus. Gotha: J. Perthes. Price 2s. 6d. A classical atlas, uniform with the Taschen-Atlas. A special editiori is published in English. CHAPTER V. Works of Reference on Geography. There is in English no single work devoted to a complete summary of Geography on an adequate scale since Bell's Geography passed out of date ; nothing similar, for example, to Reclus' great work in French. There are several compila- tions, some of a pretentious character, but for the most part these are imperfect adaptations from foreign works done by literary men without special geographical training or knowledge. Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel, originally an adaptation from the Germa"n, will be, when the new rewritten edition is complete, the best book of the kind available. It is not implied that foreign works on Geography are inferior to English, — as a rule the converse holds good, — but the books which have been translated are usually popular works written not to satisfy the scientific sense of the author, but to appeal to the popular imagination of his country. While a scientific book may be translated without foss, a popular work, especially one written from a patriotic standpoint, always goes lamely in a foreign garb. Our excellent encyclopaedias go some distance to make up for the want of such a geographical dictionary as that of Vivien de St Martin, while Longman's Gazetteer is absolutely the best of equal scope yet produced in any language. There is a certain art in the use of works of reference which only comes by practice. A very common danger is to be 48 Hints to Teachers and Students tempted into reading something else when looking up a special point, and this forms perhaps the most serious difficulty in the use of encyclopaedias, the articles in which possess a varied and attractive interest. As a general rule it is safe to advise the first reference regarding any geographical point to be to the Atlas. If a place is looked for and not found either in the index or on the map, the fact should be noted on the fly-leaf or on the margin of the index. Then look up a gazetteer or encyclopaedia, trying different spellings if the required name is not found at once, and after getting all. information from that source, finally refer to the book of indexed newspaper cuttings, if one is kept, for the latest information. The Index to the fourteen volumes of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical . Society (new series), covering the period 1879 to 1892, is a store-house of geographical information for that period. The set of fourteen bound volumes of the Proceedings is offered by the Royal Geographical Society at the very small cost With regard to the form of geographical names,' it is useful to remember that variations are due to several causes — (i) to the use of names in different languages, e.g., Rome, Roma, Rom ; Florence, Firenze ; Venice, Venezia, Venedig ; Vienna, Wien ; Munich, Miinchen, Monica ; German)', Deutschland, Allemagne, and so on \ (2) to different methods of translitera- tion from non-Roman alphabets, — as Thackeray put it, with regard to Kiev : ' ' For if you looks in the gography books. In those dictionaries the name it varies ; And they write it off, Kieff or KiofT, Kiova or Kiow ; " — or as in the innumerable variations of Indian names ; (3) to different methods of representing the same sounds in repro- ducing phonetically names which do not belong to an alphabetic language. In this case the main divergence is due to the different forms used in P'rench, German, and English, and to the unthinking transference without alteration of names from one of these languages to another. Thus the name Ujiji On the Choice of Geographical Books. 49 is transcribed by a Frenchman Oudjidji, by a German Udschidschi, and it might be in English Oojeejee, but in each case the pronunciation is the same. Definite rules introduced by the Royal Geographical Society have been very widely recognised as authoritative both in Great Britain, in the Colonies, the United States, and to a certain degree in Germany. These rules are as follows : — ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. (Revised 1894.) In 1878 the Council of the Royal Geographical Society, impressed with the necessity of endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with regard to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety of systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and the recognition of which had been steadily gaining ground, viz., that in writing geographical native names vowels should have their Italian significance, and consonants that which they have in the English language. This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of representing the principal syllabic sounds. It will be evident to all who consider the subject, that to ensure a fairly correct pronunciation of geographical names by an Eijglish-speaking person an arbitrary system of orthography is a necessity. It is hardly too much to say that in the English language every possible combination of letters has more than one possible pronunciation. A strange word, or name, even in our own language is frequently mispronounced. How much more with words of languages utterly unknown to the reader ? The same necessity does not arise in most Continental languages. In them a definite combination of letters indicates a definite sound, and each nation consequently has spelt 5° Hints to Teachers and Students foreign words in accordance with the orthographic rules of its own language. It was, therefore, not anticipated that foreign nations would effect any change in the form -of orthography used in their maps, and the needs of the English-speaking communities were alone considered. The 9bject aimed at was- to provide a system which should be simple enough for any educated person to master with the minimum of trouble, and which at the same time would afford an approximation to the sound of a place-name such as a riative might recognise. No attempt was ' made to represent the numberless delicate inflexions of sound and tone which belong to every language, often to different dialects of the same language. For it was felt not only fhat such a task would be impossible, but that an attempt to provide for such niceties would defeat the object. The adoption by others of the system thus settled has been more general than the Council ventured to hope. The charts and maps issuad by the Admiralty and War Office have been, since 1885, compiled and extensively revised in accordance with it. The Foreign and Colonial Offices have accepted it, and the latter has communicated with the Colonies requesting them to carry it out in respect to names of native origin. Even more important, however, than these adhesions is the recent action of the Government of the United States of America, which, after an exhaustive inquiry, has adopted a . system in close conformity with that of the Royal Geographical Society, and has directed that the spelling of all names iji their vast territories should, in cases where the orthography is at present doubtful, be settled authoritatively by a committee appointed for the purpose. The two great English-speaking nations are thus working in harmony. , Contrary to expectation, but highly satisfactory, is the news that France and Germany have both formulated systems of orthography for foreign words, which in many details agree with the English system. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 5^ The Council of the Royal Geographical Society, by printing the Rules in Hints to Travellers, and by other means, has endeavoured to ensure that all travellers connected with the Society should be made aware of them ; but as it is possible that some bodies and persons interested in the question may still be in ignorance of their existence and general acceptance, they feel that the time has come to again publish them as widely as possible, and to take every means in their power to aid the progress of the reform. To this end, and with a view to still closer uniformity in geographical nomenclature in revisions of editions of published maps, a gigantic task requiring many years to carry out, the (Council have decided to take steps to commence tentatively ndexes of a few regions, in which the place-names will be recorded in the accepted form. RULES. The Rules referred to are as follows : — 1. No change is made in the orthography of foreign names in countries which use Roman letters : thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, &c., names will be spelt as by the respective nations. 2. Neither is change made in the spelling of such names in languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by long usage familiar to English readers : thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes, Mecca, &c., will be retained in their present form. 3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as the basis of the spelling. 4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A system which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflexions of sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. Those who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name must learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and peculiarities. 5. The broad features of the system are : — («.) That vowels are pronounced as in Italian, and consonants as in English. 52 Hints to. Teachers and Students {6.) Every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters are introduced. When two vowels come together, each one is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in at, au, ei. (c.) One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names are entirely altered by the misplacement of this " stress." 6. Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer of India, i88t. 7. In the case of native names in countries under the dominion of other European Powers in whose maps, charts, &c., the spelling is given according to the system adopted by that Power, such orthography should be as a rule disregarded, and the names spelt according to the British system, in order that the proper pronunciation may be approximately known. Excep- tions should be in cases where the spelling has become by custom fixed, and occasionally it may be desirable to give both forms. 8. Generic geographical terms, e.g., those for island, river, mountain, &c., should be as a rule given in the native form. In the case of European countries, translation into English, where this has been the custom, should be retained, e.g.. Cape Ortega], not Cabo Ortegal, River Seine, not Fleuve Seine. N.B. — On any printed map or MS. document, an ex- planatory table giving the English equivalents of the generic terms used, should of necessity be inserted. The amplification of these rules in the Table at the end of this chapter (p. 56) explains their application. On the Choice of Geographical Books. S3 BOOKS OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE. BiBLioTHECA Geographica, herausgegeben von der Gesell- schaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Berlin : H. W. Kiihl. Annual. Price ca. los. An exhaustive bibliography of geographical publicalions appearing as books or in journals in all parts of the world during each year. The titles alone are given, and in the original languages. The classification is good and thorough. BiBLtOGRAPHiE DE l'Ann6e. Annales de G^ographie. Paris : A. Colin et Cie. Annual Price 4s. A list of the best selected geographical works of the year, classified and accompanied by critical or explanatory notes (in French) pjresent- ing a summary of the contents of each paper. Blacicie, C. Geographical Etymology. A Dictionary of Place-Names giving their Derivations. Murray, 1887. Price 7s. There is a preface on the value of geographical etymology by Professor J. S. Blackie, and the book is particularly valuable for the many Celtic place-names which it explains. Brown, R. Countries of the World. 6 vols. Cassell. Price 4SS. , This large work is useful for the very numerous illustrations it contains of scenery and people in all parts of the world. Chambers's Encyclopaedia. 10 vols. Edinburgh: Chambers, 1895. Price IOCS. The cheapest, and in many ways the most satisfactory work of general reference. It should be in every school library. Some of the geographical articles, especially those on Asia, are the best descriptions extant. — — Concise Gazetteer of the World. Edinburgh: Chambers, 1895. Price 5s. The best book of its kind at the price. Chisholm, G. G. Longman's Gazetteer of the World. Longmans, 1895. Price 42s. The best one- volume gazetteer of the world, and the only one which is uniformly brought up to the date at which it was issued. The special attention Mr Chisholm has given to geographical ortho- graphy makes this work the nearest approach to an authoritative standard for spelling place-names. S4 Hints to Teachers and Students Egli, J. J. Nomina Geographica. Leipzig : Brandstetter, 1893. Price 28s. Interesting particulars (in German) of the origin and history of place-names, arranged alphabetically. The standard work on the subject. ENCYCLOPiEDiA Britannica. 2o vols. Prlce ;^l8. This standard encyclopaedia is of great value for its special geo- graphical articles, many of them forming treatises, which are also published separately. The last (ninth) edition is, however, in large measure out of date in the earlier volumes. Geographical Journal. Monthly, 2s. 2 volumes annually, from 1893. London: Royal Geographical Society. Free to Fellows of the Society. This Journal is the continuation of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society (see ante, p. 48), and in addition to numerous records of new journeys with original maps, it contains notices of all important geographical discoveries and researches. Each month a bibliography of new geographical publications (averaging over 170 titles) is included, arranged according to subject. In special circum- stances, on application being made to the Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, I Savile Row, London, W., teachers may be accorded a reduced rate of subscription for \h^ Journal. Keltie, J. Scott, and I. Renwick. The Statesman's Year- Book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World. Macmillan. Annual. Price los. 6d. Invaluable for the carefully revised statistics of the most recent date. After the notice of each country, a list of ofificial and non- official publications relating to it is given. This work is indispensable in teaching Commercial Geography, and serves to bring the statistics of any text-book up to date. Reclus, Elisi^e. Geographie Universelle. 19 vols. Paris: Hachette, 1878-95. Price ca. £,20. (Also English Trans- lation. Virtue. Sold only by Subscription.) The French original is preferable. It is the only comprehensive and complete Geography, embracing the whole world on a uniform plan, and the illustrations are admirable. Scottish Geographical Magazine. Monthly, from 1885. IS. 6d. Edinburgh: Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Free to Members. Especially valuable for papers on physical geography, for critical notices of educational boojks, and for its maps. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 55 St Martin, Vivien de, and L. Rousselet. Dictionnaire de Gdographie Universelle. 7 vols. Paris: Hachette, 1879- 95. Price 160S. Special Supplement in Course of Publication, 1897. Price ca. 20s. The best gazetteer in existence. It contains a bibliography under almost every heading, and gives a very impartial account of all the places noticed. Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel. New Issue. London: Stanford. Price 15s. per volume. The new issue consists of a series of original treatises by competent authorities on each continent. It is the most convenient summary of the geographical conditions of the countries of the world available in English. Taylor, I. Words and Places. Macmillan. Price 6s. Names and their Histories. Rivington, 1895. Price 6s. These books are interesting to read, and in many cases, the notes on place-names suggest geographical relations. They do not displace Egli's work as authorities for reference. Wagner, fl., and A. Supan. Die Bevolkerung der Erde. Gotha: J. Perthes. Periodically as an Extra Part to Petermann' s Mitteilutigen. Price 7s. Gives the latest statistics of areas and populations of all countries, the former in metric units. The last numbers appeared in 1882, iSgi, 1893. Geographisches Jahrbuch. Gotha : J. Perthes. Annual. Price 15 s. Gives authoritative summaries of recent advances in every depart- ment of Geography, and lists of all geographical serial publications and professors of Geography. Maps are also given, showing the sheets of the official survey maps of all countries which are procurable. a a o m ri r. m >- o i MU UJ o )H riJ t« Iv/i , ri V •" - 6" 3 CI. C 3 ™ ^ pq 'v 'v J^ m o u C4 - O bjDbH C g .a S c CO qj g a. o 3 o 5 a 2 B S J3 •S.S ^ 'i^ J3 bo: ° ^ •■-' n r^ rf G -age rt \o . ^ "^ 73 .12 c ~ o. fd ^ Q QJ ■ .E2 ■ S S 1= ■^ " V. -, .S -a -s .5 ..a «) ■; in 3 J3 .g tS ^^^ »> g QJ ^ o $ in ^w j3 b/) O fe^ tj rr ni (U ^ *-* •" ^ § -«i C3 .■^ : >, s • ^ tq ■T3 H D ■a a ■~i. QJ S lU fe>"^ QJ C QJ >?i' QJ 3^ OJ 2 ^^ c OJ (a -^ tn - -^ ^ ..^ ■^1 gi "-^ S.S 2,'*' "^'SL g. 4 ^ '"^ M p. QJ •" ■ff-^ ^"5; S;s-^ ^ S " 3:3 ;3 53 ^ .„ rS M-5 G -5 b» M-5 •vS .S -C M U5j3*JTHh^ p M'-' M p; pj « W"-'*J g .s S.2 H.stt.iSHW.a.a d M — O 3 •3 3 O ^ "-< »i s t« S " ^ o ■g-a*" '^■^ M "^ J2 a, O O JS tt o" J M si's a Swn; 60 t2 ^3 ■ ■" c „ = "S-S ■" S-2 w SH ^ u'tl la's c 3 rt n ^ 3 a ■^ g is j= i ■£ .20 o '^^^ W 0) u ■s s 1^ bow's UJ - «j3 , W UJ to S to 5 c/} o'-S w y M 3J a ■ to S >> ■ « a s ca c - fi T3 o *" b S ii Is W) "U 4) |°°Sillg C 4j 'C lu y ^ X >^ CHAPTER VI. Mathematical Geography. The basis of all Geography is a.-knowledge of- the form of the. Earth, the method of fixing position on its surface by astro- nomical observations, and of representing the surface by means of maps — in other words Mathematical Geography. The neglect of the " use of the globes " is responsible for much of the vagueness with regard to conceptions of latitude, longitude, and time, which now prevail. I have often been struck with the wonderfully clear and correct ideas on time and longitude possessed by old ladies whose school education took place in the days when the globes were favourite instruments of mental gymnastic. No books can make up for the want of the solid sphere, and it is worth again emphasising that an old globe which may be bought second-hand for a few shillings, is quite as useful as a new one, if the parallels and meridians are distinct, and the moving parts in good order. For accurate delineations of the continents one should consult an atlas, not a globe; but problems regarding time, latitude, great circle routes, &c., can never be properly understood from flat maps. Some knowledge of the processes of surveying, of map- projections (such as may be obtained from the introduction to. Philip's Systematic Atlas), of astronomy, and of the use of instruments, is to be desired for every teacher. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 59 BOOKS ON MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Clarke, A. R. Geodesy. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1880. Price I2S. 6d. An excellent account of the methods of exact surveying, the measurement of the Earth and determining its figure ; but the book is not one for the non-mathematical reader. Elderton, W. a. Maps and Map Drawing. Macmillan's Geographical Series. Macmillan, 1890. Price is. A little book which serves as a good introduction to the subject. Gore, J. H. Geodesy. London: Heinemann, 1891. 55. A more readable, but less thorough work than that of Clarke. GuNTHER, SiEGMUND. Handbuch der mathematischen Geo- graphie (Ratzel's Series.) Stuttgart: Engelhorn, 1890. Price 15s. A valuable book of reference. ' Grundlehren der mathematischen Geographic und Elementaren Astronomic fiir den Unterricht. Vierte Auflage. Munich : Ackermann, 1896. Price 2 s. Very compact and well arranged. A model text-book. Hints to Travellers. Royal Geographical Society. New- Edition, 1895. Price 8s. To Fellows of the Society, 5s. Contains full practical instructions for surveying and fixing posi- tions, with many useful tables. Herschell, Sir John. Astronomy. Longmans. Price ca. 3s. 6d. An old book, but never equalled for clearness, and accuracy of statement in Astronomical Geography. White, T. Pilkington. The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. Blackwood, 1886. Price 53. This combines a short history of the Survey, with a description of the methods employed in producing the maps. These methods have since been modified by the greatly increased use of photography in reproduction. CHAPTER VII. Physical Geography. Books dealing with Pliysical Geography as a subject in itself, usually contain a certain amount of Mathematical Geography, and frequently a good deal of Biological Geography as well. Under the title of Physiography this is all comprehended, the object being to show the essential unity of the Earth in all the manifold relations of the phenomena of its surface. The attempt to crowd too much into a small space in order to convey a minimum knowledge to ensure the victim passing certain examinations, has led to the production of some highly objectionable little books. In them the noble symmetry of Physiography is entirely obscured, and a conglomerate of disconnected fragments of chemistry, elementary physics, geology, meteorology, and astronomy, takes its place. Physical Geography, as discussed here, is the description of the forms of the Earth's crust, and the relation, of the watery and aerial envelopes to the solid Earth, and to the energy radiated from the Sun. It may be considered consequently in three sections — (i) The Crust of the Earth, the study of which is often called Geomorphology ; (2) Oceanography ; and (3) CUmatology. It is convenient to class together, as introductory to the whole, those books which deal with Physiography or Physical Geography in the widest acceptation given to the name. This section is all that is necessary for the teacher who wishes merely to equip himself for teaching so much of Physical Geography as it is desirable to treat of in schools. The three On the Choice of Geographical Books. 6i subdivisions are included for the benefit of the student who wishes to go a httle further into a very fascinating subject. The extent to which Physical Geography should be insisted on in school-teaching, is a matter for decision by the individual teacher. In the Country it can be taught best by actual obser- vation of the processes going on around one ; but in towns this is only possible to a small extent, and the work is apt to become dry and burdensome. It will probably b? found advisable to give a clear account of the chief types of land- forms — islands, peninsulas, plains, mountains, plateaus, valleys, lakes, with some fuller treatment of river-basins and river- systems, but to touch very lightly on formative processes. Then when describing any region, the land-forms and their rnutual- relations may well be made the basis on which the whole structure of instruction is built. For the three subdivisions special knowledge is desirable of three sciences, which for the most part lie outside of Geography, though the results of them are essential parts of it. No study of land forms can be satisfactory without considering the origin of the various features, which involves geology. Much discussion has been devoted to the elucidation of the precise line of demarcation between Geography and geology. The most natural definition would be that Geography is con- cerned only with the surface of the Earth as it is at the present day, while geology has to do with the whole crust of the Earth throughout the whole range of past time. But the two necessarily overlap, -and are mutually indispensable. Meteorology, as a science, has to do with the physics of the atmosphere, and has an important practical application in the study of the conditions of weather and the prediction of storms. Its relation to Geography is through climatology, which means the distribution of climate over the Earth's surface, having regard to temperature, winds, and rainfall. Oceanography, as a science, bears to the oceans the same relation that meteorology bears to the atmosphere. It extends, however, to the study of the ocean floor as well as to the water itself, and it is of geographical importance as regards the 62 Hints to Teachers and Students direction and position of currents, the distribution of tem- perature in the water, and of deposits on the sea-bed. It may be noted that works on the Physical Geography of the crust of the Earth have for the most part been written by geologists, and to be fully understood, demand a considerable knowledge of geology ; while works on oceanography have frequently been produced by chemists, who naturally pay most attention to the composition of the water and the deposits, or by biologists whose interest centres in the creatures living in the water, or on the floor of the oceans. All the phenomena of physiography may be studied in the fine Physikalisches Atlas of Berghaus, published by Perthes of Gotha. A similar but original work on a larger scale, in the preparation of which the leading British exponents of the various sections of Physical Geography are engaged, is announced for publication by Mr Bartholomew, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society. On the Choice of Geographical Books. 63 BOOKS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. General, including Physiography. BoNNEY, T. G. The Story of our Planet. Cassell, 1893. Price 3 IS. 6d. A popular treatise on Physical Geography by a geologist. Brown, R. The Earth and its Story. 3 vols. Cassell. Price 27 s. Of value chiefly for the numerous illustrations and references. The book itself is an adaptation from the German. Geikie, Sir A. Elementary Lessons in Physical Geography. Macmillan. Price 4s. 6d. A deservedly popular class-book. GuNTHER, S. Lehrbuch der physikalischen Geographic. Stuttgart : Enke, 1891. Price los. 6d. Specimen of one of the best German text-books. HiNMAN, RussEL. Eclectic Physical Geography. Sampson Low, 1888. Price 6s. One of the best American text-books of physiography. Huxley, T. H. Physiography : an Introduction to the Study of Nature. Macmillan. Price 6s. This classic work is specially suited for use in the Thames valley, on account of the admirable manner in which that region is treated as an introduction to natural science. Mill, H, R. The Realm of Nature, an Outline of Physio- graphy. Murray. (Revised 1897.) Price 5s. The coloured maps by Bartholomew included in this book may be looked on as forming a miniature physical atlas. Peschel, O., and G. Leipoldt. Physische Erdkunde. 2 vols. . Leipzig: Dunckler und Humblot, 1885. Price