S^tate CoIIese of Agriculture lat Cornell iHntbersitp 3t!)aca, B- B- DS 902.H2°™" ""'""*">' '-"'"'>' Korea, 3 1924 014 025 138 Pi Cornell University S Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014025138 KOREA TABLET IN SEOUL KOREA BY ANGUS HAMILTON WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1904 All rights reserved THOW DIBBCTORY PNINTiriS AND BOOKBINDINQ COMPANY NIW YORK TO MY MOTHER CONTENTS INTRODUCTION The Position of Russia in Manchuria — Comparative Estimate of Naval and MiHtary Resources of Russia, Japan, and Korea Pp. xv-xliii CHAPTER I Off the coast — Lack of survey intelHgence — Island -flora — Forgotten voyagers — Superstitions and beHefs — Outline of history Pp. 1-12 CHAPTER II Physical peculiarities — Direction of advancement — Indica- tions of reform and prosperity — Chemulpo — Population — Settlement — Trade Pp. 13-22 CHAPTER III Move to the capital — A city of peace — Results of foreign in- fluence — In the beginning — Education — Shops — Cos- tume — Origin — Posts and telegraphs — Methods of clean- liness Pp. 23-40 CHAPTER IV The heart of the capital — Domestic economy — Female slavery — Standards of morality — A dress rehearsal Pp- 41-53 vii CONTENTS CHAPTER V The Court of Korea — The Emperor and his Chancellor — The Empress and some Palace factions . . Pp. 54-64 CHAPTER VI The passing of the Emperor — An Imperial pageant Pp. 65-73 CHAPTER VII Sketch of Mr. McLeavy Brown — The Question of the Cus- toms — The suggested Loan .... Pp. 74-87 CHAPTER VIII Foreign action in Korea — Exhausted Exchequer — Taxes — Budgets — Debased currency — The Dai Ichi Ginko — Dishonest officials Pp. 88-102 CHAPTER IX Education — Arts and graces — Penal code — Marriage and divorce — The rights of concubines — Position of children — Government ...... Pp. 103-111 CHAPTER X Farmers — Farming and farm animals — Domestic industries — Products — Quality and character of food-stuffs Pp. 112-121 CHAPTER XI Japan in Korea — Historical associations — In Old Fusan — Political and economic interests — Abuse of paramountcy Pp. 1 22-13 1 CHAPTER XII The commercial prospects of Korea — Openings to trade — Requirements of markets — Lack of British enterprise Pp. 132-142 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII British, American, Japanese, French, German, and Belgian interests — Railways and mining fictions — Tabled counter- feited Imports Pp. 143-167 CHAPTER XIV Some account of the treaty ports; Won-san, Fusan, Mok-po — Character of export and import trade — Local industries Pp. 168-180 CHAPTER XV Treaty ports (continued) — Wi-ju — Syon-chyon-po — Chin- am-po — Pyong-yang — Kun-san — Syong-chin Pp. 181-191 CHAPTER XVI Russian interest — Russia and Japan — Ma-san-po — Ching- kai-wan — Yong-an-po . . . .Pp. 192-207 CHAPTER XVII By the wayside — A journey inland to Tong-ko-kai — Inland beauties Pp. 208-215 CHAPTER XVIII The German mines— Mineralogy and methods of mining— A bear hunt— With gun and rifle . . Pp. 216-225 CHAPTER XIX The monks and monasteries of the Diamond Mountains— The Temple of Eternal Rest— The Temple of the Tree of Buddha— Buddhism . • • • Pp- 226-239 CHAPTER XX The abomination of desolation— Across Korea— The east coast— Fishing and filth . . • • Pp- 24(^250 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER XXI Drought — Starvation — Inland disturbances — Rainfall and dis- ease Pp. 251-258 CHAPTER XXII The missionary question — Ethics of Christianity — Cant and commerce — The necessity for restraint . Pp. 259-267 CHAPTER XXIII Inland journeying — Ponies, servants, interpreters, food and accommodation — What to take and how to take it — Up the Han River, frolic and leisure . . Pp. 268-281 CHAPTER XXIV Kang-wha, brief history of the island — A monastic retreat, an ideal rest — Nocturnal visitors — Midnight masses — Return to the capital — Preparations for a great journey — Riots and confusion Pp. 282-298 APPENDIX I Schedule of train service P. 299 APPENDIX II Return of all shipping entered at the open ports of Korea during the year 1902 ..... Pp. 300 APPENDIX III Return of principal articles of export to foreign countries from the open ports of Korea during the years 1901-1902 P-303 APPENDIX IV Return of principal articles of imports to foreign countries during the years 1901-1902 .... P. 304 X CONTENTS APPENDIX V Coast trade between treaty-ports in native produce (net) P. 305 APPENDIX VI Customs revenue P. 305 APPENDIX VII Gold export to foreign countries .... P. 306 -, APPENDIX VIII Table of minerals P. 307 XI ILLUSTRATIONS Ceiling, Imperial Palace, Seoul .... Cover Tablet in Seoul Frontispiece FACING PAGE Native dress 36 She may visit her friends 48 Imperial Tablet-House, Seoul 77 On the Yalu River 196 A Fair Magician 250 Beyond the Amur 280 Russian post on the Korean Frontier .... 296 INTRODUCTION NOTHING is more natural than the circum- stance that war should be the outcome of the existing crisis; yet, equally, nothing is less cer- tain. If the area of hostilities were not con- fined to the Far East, and the Power confronting Japan were any other than Russia, the outbreak of war might be predicted positively. But with Rus- sia, consideration of the strategic qualities of her position in Manchuria must exercise a paramount in- fluence upon her movements. To those who are not close students of military history, as well as to those who do not possess an extensive knowledge of the situa- tion, the position in which Russia is placed equally affords the keenest interest. Certainly in the annals of military history, excluding the march of Napoleon upon Moscow, there is no war which may be said to have developed a parallel to the task which besets Russia in Manchuria and Korea. Her position at sea, more- over, is no better than that which she holds on land. Upon land, a single line of railway traversing the heart of an enemy's country terminates at Port Arthur. At sea, Vladivostock is cut off by reason of its position, while it is inaccessible on account of its climate. These XV KOREA points, Port Arthur and Vladivostock, define the ex- tremities of the strategic position which Russia holds in Manchuria. Excluding Vladivostock at this moment from any especial consideration, Port Arthur is left for the opening moves of this campaign. Therefore, Port Arthur, with a single line of communications in its rear, becomes the pivot of the operations. The aspect of Port Arthur from the sea is uninviting. Rugged hills, offshoots from the range of mountains which divides the Liao-tung peninsula, cluster round the bay, and encroaching upon the foreshore and bear- ing neither trees nor vegetation, impart to the surround- ings a desolate and even wild appearance. Within the headlands of the harbour, conforming with the inden- tations of the coast, there are several bays shallow and unprofitable, but which in time may become an im- portant adjunct to the small area of deep water which the harbour now possesses. Dredging operations have been undertaken, but there is so much to be done that many years must pass before Port Arthur receives any material addition to its very restricted accommodation. The mud, brought down by the streams which empty into the harbour, has already affected the deep-water area, and since the harbour was constructed these deposits have encroached very considerably upon the depth off shore. At low water steamers, which lie up within sixty feet of the wharf, rest upon mud in little more than a fathom of water, and at the same time the space is so small that it is impossible for a dozen ves- xvi INTRODUCTION sels to anchor in the harbour with any comfort. Steam- ers, if any larger in size than the small coasting-boats which call at Port Arthur from China and Japan, must anchor off the entrance, unloading and re-charging from junks or tenders. In relation to the requirements of the squadron Port Arthur is not nearly large enough. When cruisers are taking in stores battleships remain outside, an arrangement which is manifestly incon- venient in a period of emergency. It was for this rea- son that the authorities constructed at Dalny — a few miles from the fortress and within Pa-tien-wan Bay — a new town, together with commercial docks and wharves, in order that Port Arthur might be devoted more particularly to the needs of the navy. Port Arthur is happy in the possession of all those objects which, to a naval base, are component parts of its success. The dry dock, somewhat weak and unsub- stantial, is 385 feet in length, 34 feet in depth, and 80 feet broad, while the naval basin is equal in surface space to the total available steamer anchorage in the harbour proper. When the dredging works in the har- bour bays have been completed it is hoped that a mean depth of four fathoms will have been obtained. This systematic deepening of the harbour will give to the fleet a surface anchorage considerably in excess of one square mile, but until the work has been executed the value of Port Arthur as a satisfactory naval base is in- finitely less than the prestige which it enjoys as an im- pregnable position. Kvii KOREA Port Arthur possesses a small parade-ground, rifle- range, and artillery practice-ground, torpedo-station and training reservation, which will be enlarged when the bays are opened out. There is a flash-light station and various schools of instruction — torpedo, gunnery, telegraphy — ^while the arsenals and workshops which are built around the naval basin and within the navy yards are very thoroughly equipped. These effects, however, were mainly taken over by Russia when she seized Port Arthur; their existence at the present mo- ment tends to show how impossible it is to under-estl- mate the advantages which Russia derives from the possession of this port, and how far-reaching are the consequences of the monstrous blunder which Lord Salisbury committed when he acquiesced in its usur- pation. Apart from the defences Russia, hitherto, has not added much to Port Arthur; for the main part the troops have been quartered in the old Chinese houses or in the former barracks of the Chinese troops, affairs having been somewhat neglected in view of the prior claim which the defences held. Now, however, fine barracks are in course of construction, and, if there is no war, it is anticipated that ample accommodation will be ready soon upon the shores of some of the bays and on the hills. The defences are indeed magnificent. Very few of the forts, which were in existence during the time of the Chinese, remain. Since the Russian Gov- ernment entered upon possession the work of extending xviii INTRODUCTION the perimeter of the defences, as well as strengthening the fortifications, has been a continuous labour. It is quite clear that the authorities are determined upon no half-measures. They have gained Port Arthur, and they propose to keep it. Upon the cliffs, rising imme- diately from the right of the harbour entrance, there is a most powerful position, formed, I believe, of a battery of six 21 -inch Krupp guns, which was further supported by a fort placed a few feet above the harbour, and sweeping its immediate front, containing eight 10- inch Krupps. At the corresponding elevations upon the opposite headland there were two similar forts with identical batteries, while the mine fields within the har- bour are controlled from these two lower positions. Following the hills to the south and north there are other forts; one in particular, of great size, is placed upon the extreme crest of the range, and, towering above all else, sweeps the sea and approaches to the har- bour for great distances. It is impossible to detect the character of these guns, but from their position, and the extent of the fort and the nature of the part which they are intended to fill, it is improbable that they can be less than 27-ton guns, discharging shells of about 500 lbs. The interior line of forts is no less formidable, and it must seem that Port Arthur can never be reduced by bombardment alone, while any force attacking by land would be severely handled by the positions from which the Russians propose to defend their flanks and the neck. At the present, however, there is a paucity xix KOREA of field-guns among the troops in garrison, in addition to which many of the more recently constructed forts lack artillery; while the opinion may be hazarded that the entire position has been so over-fortified as to be- come a source of eventual weakness in the ultimate disposition of the Russian force. Of course a fight for the command of the sea must precede any land operations. Japan is within fifteen hours steam of Fusan, already a Japanese garrison- town, and of Ma-san-po, the port to which Russia and Japan make equal claim. The strait separating Japan from Korea is 200 miles broad, while Russia's nearest base at Port Arthur is 900 miles away on one hand and Vladivostock is 1200 miles away on the other. It fol- lows therefore, that in Korea, and not in Manchuria, the troops of the Japanese army would be landed. Once established in Korea, Japan would be able to dispute the supremacy of the sea on equal terms. In this respect the possession by the Japanese of numerous torpedo craft confers a distinct advantage upon them, since it will be within their power to utilise their services if the Russian fleet were to attempt to check the movement. The absence of any facilities for repairing damages makes it certain that so far as possible the Russian fleet will evade any serious engagement. It would be diffi- cult to improve upon the position of Japan in this re- spect. At Yokosuka, from which place a large number of cruisers have been launched, there is a very extensive building-yard, and Japan also possesses suitable docks XX INTRODUCTION for large ships at Kure and Nagasaki. In all she has at her immediate disposal some half a dozen docks, 400 ft. in length or more, and a very skilful army of work- ing mechanics and workmen in general. Port Arthur must be regarded for practical purposes the naval base of Russia in the Far East in the event of a cold-weather campaign. Vladivostock is too far removed from the range of probable utility. At this port, however, Russia has con- structed one large dry dock, one floating dock 301 ft. long, and a second dry dock has been laid down. Against these two solitary and isolated centres, Japan possesses naval bases, arsenals and docks at the follow- ing points on her coast. Yokosuka . . . Arsenal, slip and dry dock. Kure Arsenal, slip, dry dock, armor-plate works. Sassebo Arsenal. Maitsura .... New dockyard. Nagasaki. . . . Three docks. Takeshiki . . . Coaling-station, naval base. Ominato .... Base or small craft. Kobe Torpedo repairing yard. Matsmai Refitting station. The squadrons which Japan and Russia will be able to employ in this war are very formidable, and during the past few months each Power has made strenuous efforts to increase the strength of its fleet. In January 1903 the aggregate tonnage of the Rus- sian Pacific Squadron stood at some 87,000 tons, the xxi KOREA fleet including the battleships Peresviet, Petropavlovsk, Poltava, Sevastopol, and the cruisers Rossia, Gromoboi, and Rurik, with other smaller vessels. In March the tonnage went up to 93,000 tons, thanks to the arrival of the cruiser Askold from the Baltic. In May the cruisers Diana, Pallada, Novik, and the battleship Retvizan joined. In June the cruisers Bogatyr and Boyarin reached the scene. In July the battleship Probleda arrived. In November the battleship Tzarevitch and the cruiser Bayan further added to Russia's strength. In December the battleship Oslyabya, the armoured cruiser Dimitri Donskoi, the protected cruisers Aurora and Almaz, and eleven torpedo-boat destroyers. In January 1904 the battleship Imperator Alexander III. leaves the Baltic for the Far East. Russia has laboured under great disadvantages to secure her position in this region. In consequence of restricted shipbuilding resources and owing to an un- fortunate geographical position, Russia has not en- joyed those opportunities of adding to her Pacific fleet which have presented themselves to Japan. In effect, if not in fact, Russia is compelled to maintain four navies. Unhappily, each is isolated from the other, many hun- dreds of miles separating them. Naval squadrons are concentrated in the Baltic, in the Black Sea, in the Caspian Sea and in the Pacific. The Pacific squadron is of recent establishment and of most modern con- xxii INTRODUCTION struction. It dates back to 1898, from which time her policy of naval expansion began. Orders were placed with France, Germany and America for cruisers and battleships, coal was bought at Cardiff, and in a short space the nucleus of a powerful fleet had sprung into existence. At the present time these new ships are deficient in the various ratings, and hundreds of me- chanics, gunners and engineers have been withdrawn from the Black Sea Squadron to do service with the Pacific Fleet, moving to the Pacific Ocean from the Black Sea by means of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Just now, and until the acute phase of the crisis has dis- appeared or war has been declared, the disposition of the Russian Pacific Squadron is as follows. At Port Arthur, the battleships Petropavlovsk, Pol- tava, Sevastopol, Peresviet, Retvizan, Probleda, and Tzarevitch; the first-class cruisers Bayan, Askold, Pal- lada, Diana, and Varyag; the gunboats Bobr, Grem- yashtchi, and Koreetz; the transports Amur, Yenissei, and Angara; the torpedo-cruisers Fsadnik and Gaida- mak; and the destroyers Bezshumni, Bezposhadni, Bditelni, Bezstrashni, Boevoi, Vnimatelni, VnusMtelni, Fiposlivi, Flastni, Burni, and Boiki. At Vladivostock, the first-class cruisers Rossia, Gromoboi, Rurik, and Bogatyr, the gunboat Mand- chur, and the transport Lena. At Chemulpo, the second-class cruiser Boyarin, and the destroyer Grossovoi. At Ma-san-po, the second-class cruiser Rasboinik. xxiii KOREA In Nimrod Bay, the second-class cruiser Djijdjit. At Newchwang, the gunboats Otvazhni and Sivutch. At Nagasaki, the gunboat Gilvak. It will be seen from this list that Russia practically has the whole of her Pacific Squadron in and about the Yellow Sea. In addition to this force there is the squad- ron now en suite for the Far East, which lately passed through Bizerta. This comprises the battleship Osly- abya, two second-class cruisers, J urora and Dimitri Don- skoi, and eleven torpedo-boat destroyers. The added strength which Russia will receive when these reinforce- ments, under Admiral Virenius, reach her will give her a numerical superiority over Japan. The greater efficiency, and that higher degree of skill, which is so noticeable aboard the Japanese fleet, reduces this pre- ponderance to a mean level. However, Russia is by no means to be caught napping, as the formation in Port Arthur of a reserve naval brigade tends to show. Meanwhile, however, the subjoined detailed list pre- sents the principal vessels in the Russian Pacific Squad- ron. The officers commanding are: Vice-Admiral Stark, Rear-Admiral Prince Ukhtomski, Rear-Admiral Baron Shtakelberg, Admiral Virenius (to join). XXIV INTRODUCTION BATTLESHIPS Tzarevitch (flagship) Probleda Poltava Sevastopol Petropavlovsk Peresviet Retvizan Built I90I 1900 1894 1894 1898 1900 Tonnage 13,000 18 12,000 19 11,000 17 11,000 17 11,000 17 12,000 19 12,700 18 Speed, knots Chief armament 4 12 4 II 4 12 4 12 4 12 4 : 10 12 12 m. 6 in. 10 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 10 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. Reinforcements to join: Oslyabya, 12,000 tons, 4 lo-in. guns, 10 6-in. guns; Navarin, 9,000 tons, 4 12-in. guns, 8 6-in guns; Imperator Alexander m. CRUISERS Built Tonnage Speed, knots Chief armament Askold . . . Bayan Gromoboi Rossia . . . Rurik Bogatyr .. Varyag . . Diana . . . Pallada. . . Boyarin .. Novik . . . Zabiuca .. Djijdjit... Rasboinik. 1900 1900 1899 1896 1892 1 901 1899 1899 1899 1900 1900 1878 1878 1879 7,000 8,000 23 20 18 6,000 23 6,000 23 7,000 20 7,000 20 3,000 22 3,000 25 1,300 14 1,300 13 1,300 13 12 6 in. ( 2 8 in. ( 8 6 in. 4 8 in. ( 16 6 in. I 4 8 in. I 16 6 in. ( 4 8 in. ( 16 6 in. 12 6 in. 12 6 in. 8 6 in. 8 6 in. 6 4.7 in. 6 4.7 in. Field guns 3 6 in. 3 6 in. Reinforcements to join: Gremyashtchi, Admiral Nakhimoff; Au- rora, Admiral Komiloff; Otrajny, Dmitri Donskoi; Almaz. XXV KOREA The gunboats on this station number nine, the de- stroyers eighteen, and the transports six. Thirteen destroyers are to join. This fleet, with reinforcements, compares numerically with the eventual strength of Japan as follows : Battleships Cruisers Russia lo 21 Japan 7 26 A proportion of Japanese cruisers would be needed for coast defence, so that Russia is becoming numeri- cally the stronger for sea work. In addition, Russia also has a powerful auxiliary fleet, consisting of ten steamers of the Black Sea Steam Navigation Company, most of which were built on the Tyne, and average fourteen knots. The Russian Volunteer Fleet Associa- tion numbers twelve Tyne and Clyde built ships. They are also at the disposal of the authorities. Against this fighting array the Japanese are able to place vessels of equal size and displacement; in the actual weight of metal the Japanese are at a disadvan- tage, but in the thickness of the armoured protection there is little to choose. Against this comparative equality of the opposing fleets there must be borne in mind the great advantage which Japan derives from her ability to use her own fortified ports as naval bases. Indeed, this is of such importance that the knowledge of this fact might induce her to risk her whole strength in a single engagement. Again, in the mercantile xxvi INTRODUCTION marine, which has increased enormously of recent years, Japan will find all she may require for the purposes of transport and auxiliaries to the war fleet. The princi- pal vessels in the Japanese navy are here indicated : BATTLESHIPS Name Displacement I.H.P. Nominal Speed Gun Pro- tection Weight of Broadside Fire Hatsuse J Asahi > Shikishima ) Mikasa Fashima ) Yuji S Tons 15,000 15,200 12,300 15,000 16,000 13,000 Knots 18.0 18.0 18.0 In. 14.6 14.6 14.6 Lbs. 4240 4225 4000 ARMOURED CRUISERS Name Displacement I.H.P. Nominal Speed Gun Pro- tection Weight of Broadside Fire Tokiwa ) Asama J Yaqumo Tons 97SO 9850 9436 9800 18,000 16,000 17,000 15,000 Knots 21.5 20.0 21.0 24.7 In. 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 Lbs. 3568 3368 3368 3568 Idzuma ) Iwate ) In addition to these, early in January 1904 the two cruisers purchased in Italy from the Argentine Govern- ment will be ready for sea. xxvu KOREA PROTECTED CRUISERS Name Displacement I.H.P. Nominal Speed Gun Pro- tection Weight o£ Broadside Fire Takasago Kasagi i Chitose j Itsukushima J Hashidate |- . . Matsushima ) Yoshino Naniwa ) Takachiko f Akitsushima Nitaka ) Tsushima ) Suma ) Akashi) Tons 4300 4784 4277 4180 3727 3150 3420 2700 15,500 15,500 5400 15,750 7120 8400 9500 8500 Knots 24.0 22-5 16.7 23.0 17.8 19.0 20.0 20.0 In. 4i-o II. 4 Lbs. 800 800 1260 780 II96 780 920 335 In connection with the First Division of the Japanese Fleet an interesting fact has transpired which, from rea- son of its association with this country, will prove of more than ordinary interest. In case of war it appears that with one exception the ships comprising this di- vision are all British built. Designs, armour-plating and armament follow the type and standard of our own Navy, and it is therefore obvious that we cannot fail to be stirred deeply by the results of any collision which may occur. Each nation possesses in Far Eastern waters ships supplied with the latest appliances which science and ingenuity have devised. To the people of this Empire, whose security rests primarily upon the Fleet, our interest in the engagements is naturally the higher, by reason of the similarity between the ships xxviii INTRODUCTION which will be engaged upon one side and those of our own Navy. These vessels, all of which have received their war-paint, and whose place of concentration is Nagasaki, some 585 nautical miles from Port Arthur, are as follows: Name Hatsuse (B)... Shikishima (B) Asahi(B) Fuji(B) Yashima (B) .. Iwate (C) Asama (C) Idzuma (C) ... Tokiwa(C) ... Takasago (C) . Kasagi (C) . . . Where bmlt Tonnage Elswick 15,000 Thames 15,000 Clyde 15.000 Blackwall 12,500 Elswick 12,500 Elswick 10,000 Elswick 10,000 Elswick 10,000 Elswick 10,000 Elswick 4300 Cramp (Philadelphia) 5000 Chief armament .14 14 14 4 : 10 ; 4 ; 10 4 10 1 4 !io 4 14 4 10 ^ 2 10 10 12 m. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. Sin. 6 in. 8 in. 6 in. 8 in. 6 in. 8 in. 6 in. 8 in. 4.7 in. 8 in. 4.7 in. (B) battleship; (C) cruiser. A torpedo flotilla, numbering thirty-five vessels, forms part of this division. The other divisions of the fleet for war comprise the following: Third division Second division (Home) Battleships 2 — Cruisers 10 8 Small craft 30 80 In addition to these the auxiliary fleet numbers some xxix KOREA forty steamers, for the most part vessels belonging to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha. The present constitution of the Japanese Army dates from 1873, and the Military Forces consist of — (i) the permanent or Regular Army, with its Reserves and Recruiting Reserves; (2) the Territorial Army; (3) the National Militia; and (4) the Militia of the vari- ous island centres off the coast, etc. Military service is obligatory in the case of every able-bodied male from the age of seventeen to forty years of age. Of this period, three years are passed in the permanent or Regu- lar Army, four years and four months in the Regular Reserves, five years in the Territorial Army, and the remaining liability in the National Militia. The per- manent Army, with its Reserves, conducts operations abroad, and the Territorial Army and the Militia are for home defence. These latter are equipped with Pea- body and Remington single-loading rifles. The up-to- date strength of the permanent Army, on a war foot- ing, which does not include the Reserves, is as follows : Officers Rank and File Horses 4160 143,000 52 400 9300 9000 800 12,500 8800 53° 10,300 70 270 7000 2IS 20 55° IS 220 7740 40,000 Infantry, 52 regiments of 3 battalions 156 battalions Cavalry, 17 regiments of 3 squadrons, 51 squadrons Field and Mountain Artillery, 19 regi- ments of six batteries, total 114 bat- teries of six guns = 684 guns Fortress Artillery, 20 battalions _ . ) I ■? Sapper battalions Engineers [ ^ ^^.(^^^ ^^j^^u^^ Transport, 13 battalions Total = 684 guns, 6400 officers, 190,390 rank and file, 58,152 horses. XXX INTRODUCTION The Reserves comprise 52 battalions of Infantry, 17 squadrons, 26 Engineer and Transport companies, and 19 batteries with 114 guns, yielding a total of 1000 officers, 34,600 rank and file, and 9000 horses. There- fore, on mobilisation, the grand effective strength of the Army available for service beyond the seas would amount to 7400 officers, 224,990 rank and file, 798 guns, and 67,152 horses. Behind this, there is the Ter- ritorial Army, comprising 386 Infantry battalions, 99 squadrons, 26 Engineer and Transport companies, and about 70 batteries, or 11,735 officers, 348,100 men, 1 1 16 guns, and 86,460 horses. The Infantry and Engineers of the Regular Army have been recently re-armed with the Meidji maga- zine rifle. The following particulars show that the Japanese small arm is a superior weapon to the Rus- sian, which dates from 1891 : Japanese " Meidji," model 1897. Calibre. Muzzle velocity. Ft. -Sec. Sighted up to Yards. Weight with Bayonet. No. of Rounds in Mag. .2ssin. 23IS 700 9 lb. 2 oz. s Russian " Three-Line," model 1891. .299111. 1900 2500 9 lb. 12 oz. s The Regular Cavalry have the Meidji carbine. The Reserves are armed with the Murata magazine rifle, model 1894, calibre .312 in., muzzle velocity 2000 feet-seconds, sighted up to 2187 yds., and weight with bayonet, 9 lb. i oz. The equipment carried by the In- fantry soldier in the field weighs 43 J4 lbs. xxxi KOREA The Regular Field and Mountain Artillery is armed with 2.95 in. quick-firing equipment, with hydraulic compressor, throwing a 10 lb. projectile. This is known as the Arlsaka equipment. The Fortress and Siege Artillery have the latest models of Krupp and Schneider-Canet in siege guns, guns of position, and mortars. The Reserve Field Artillery are armed with a 2.95 rifled cannon of bronze on the old Italian model. The Japanese have no Horse Artillery, and the only difference between the field and mountain equipments is that the latter is the shorter and lighter gun, and has not as long a range. The Cavalry is the least efficient army of the service. It carries sword and carbine, but no lance. The horses are badly trained; the men are very indifferent riders. The strength of the Russian forces in Manchuria embraces 88 battalions, 60 squadrons and 50 batteries, which, together with the garrison forces and fortress armament, numbers 200,000 men and 300 guns. These troops in Manchuria are formed into two army corps of the first line and two of the second. Two new Rifle Brigades have just been added to the existing strength. They are composed as follows: 7TH Brigade Port Arthur General Kondratenko 25th Regiment 26th 8th Brigade Vladivostock General Artamanoff 29th Regiment 30th 32nd ■' \ ("^^) xxxu INTRODUCTION The Russian is a phenomenal marcher; the actual weight of his equipment is 58 lbs. 2 oz. One tent is carried in section between six men. Each soldier carries in his haversack two and a half days' biscuits. The ration in daily use for war consists of Biscuit I lb. 13 oz. Meat 74 oz. Groats 4f OZ- Salt y oz. Tea :^ir oz- Sugar ^oz. Spirits uV of a pint In the exigencies of active service it happens that the Russian soldier must forage for himself. Under any circumstances, however, he sustains himself on very little nourishment, and relies in a great measure upon what he can find. The Russian cavalry is armed with sword, rifle and bayonet. The latter is invariably carried " fixed," even when the weapon itself is slung. A few regiments only carry the lance. The field guns are steel breech-loaders manufactured at the Obukhov works. They are akin to the Krupp pattern; many, however, have the interrupted screw breech piece and the de Bange obturation. At present there are many varieties of artillery with the Russian troops, particularly in their fortified positions, to which places the Russian transported the seizures which they made from the Chinese during the Boxer crisis. These embraced French, German and British examples of artillery. On land, the immense superiority of the reserve num- bers of the Russians reduces the advantages which would accrue to the Japanese if the fighting were con- xxxiii KOREA fined to the sea. At the same time, however, it should be remembered that the Russian troops are slow movers, and although they may exhibit magnificent endurance, and although they may be relied upon to fight well, the lack of individual initiative upon the part of the Russian officers robs the operations of that dash and address which is embodied in the spirit of the Japanese army. Curiously enough, each side favours the Continental school of infantry and cavalry tactics, the underlying principles in the training of the Japanese revealing a close adherence to Teutonic methods. Neither side will profit, therefore, by any degree of indivisibility to which they may have attained. The winter great-coat of either army is very nearly identical in colour, and for warm weather Japanese and Russians alike favour a white blouse. There has been talk of the Japanese adopting a khaki tint ; upon the other hand, the blouse of the Russian soldier is by courtesy equally white or khaki. In the more important direction of land trans- port, it might appear that the Manchurian railway would be a crowning triumph for the Russian authori- ties. Unfortunately, this immense length of rail, badly laid and indifferently equipped, will impose a perpetual strain upon the military resources. If the country popu- lation could be relied upon to maintain a benevolent neutrality towards telegraph poles and lines, railway sleepers and rails, the stone pillars and balks of the bridges, the possibility of any serious interruption of traflic would be materially lessened. Unhappily for the xxxiv INTRODUCTION Russians, the attitude and acts of the native population, who, in a general way, will lose no opportunity to harass their enemy, must impede the effective co-operation of the Russian forces. Against this instinctive feeling of animosity there may be set the racial sympathy with the Japanese which governs every Chinaman. In Manchuria particularly, the Japanese enjoy a high reputation in the minds of the populace, while there is remembered, above aught else, that prompt redemption of all obligations during the Chino- Japanese War which distinguished the policy of the invaders towards local interests. This policy of benevolence was exhibited for the second time during the Boxer crisis, and, of course, the striking example offered by the Japanese, in comparison with the Rus- sians, was not lost upon the Chinese. These things are recalled to-day in Manchuria, and they may be calcu- lated to offset any reactionary sentiment which may take place in Korea. Between the hospital arrangements of each belligerent there is little to choose. The more ef- ficient system of the Japanese service is equalised by the greater facilities which the possession of railway com- munication by the Russians will present to the trans- portation of the wounded. It should be pointed out, however, that the principal medical service — the Rus- sian Red Cross Society — is wholly patriotic, and that It Is not, in any degree, a military organisation. It is liable to be withdrawn from the field at any moment after the conclusion of the major operations. XXXV KOREA Beyond these few observations it is difficult — if not Impossible — to trespass with any certainty, although, as a closing remark, it may perhaps be added that, pro- vided the investment of Port Arthur be satisfactorily accomplished by sea and that Vladivostock were en- closed by ice, the estuaries of the Yalu and Lico Rivers enable an admirable position to be taken up, from which the Russian position throughout Manchuria may be very readily threatened. Speculations as to the de- velopment of the campaign upon land are, however, quite absurd until something is known of the results of the naval engagements with which the war must open. Meanwhile the painful familiarity with the costs of war which distinguishes the British taxpayer has di- rected no little attention to the financial position of either country. An eminent German financier, inter- ested in the public debt of Russia, lately explained to me that a very large proportion of the moneys, which have been raised for the construction of the Russian inter-railway communications in addition to the Trans- Siberian and Manchurian Railways, has been set aside from time to time to supplement her war chest. These sums, added to those collected by Count Mouravieff with the assent of M. de Witte, and including the large balances which have accrued to the State by depart- mental economies during the past year, represent ap- proximately a capital of one hundred millions sterling. Against this accumulation it is said that the financial position of Japan is most favourable. There is, I be- xxxvi INTRODUCTION lieve, a specie reserve in the Central Bank which amounts to 113,000,000 yen, plus some 40,000,000 yen in London. Moreover, the bank's note-issuing margin is 35,000,000 yen, which will be larger after the New Year. The Treasury has three capital funds, amounting together to 50,000,000 yen, besides some millions in London remaining from the bond sale of 1902. Finally, there are large sums lying idle in all the banks throughout the country, while an Ordinance has been issued which provides the Government with unlimited credit. The more recent action of the Russians in Manchuria tends, of course, to support the view that war may be imminent. Nevertheless, bluff is a component part of Russian diplomacy, and there is ground for believing that the intentions of Russia in the Far East are by no means so warlike as the preparations now proceeding and the acts of the Russian administrative officials in Manchuria itself would imply. Russian diplomacy al- ways covers the development of its plans by preparing to demonstrate in a contrary direction ; and at the pres- ent time her occupation of Korean territory is little else than the screen, behind which she proposes to secure her hold upon Manchuria. Nothing short of war will cause her to retire from her position in Manchuria ; but while Korean territory is of little value to the Russian protectorate, whatever the compromise which may be effected between Japan and Russia, she may be expected to make a determined effort to dominate the lower xxxvii KOREA waters of the Yalu River. In fact, curious as It may seem, the estuary of the Yalu River is the very locale of the dispute between the two Powers, since, if Russia were ever permitted to dominate the Yalu River, she would gain at once that special position upon the fron- tiers of Korea which it is the desire of Japan to frus- trate. In this Japan can rely only upon the shortshifts of diplomacy; and although the Russian occupation of Yong-an-po may be circumvented, the development of An-tung upon the opposite shore of the river cannot be prevented. It seems, therefore, as inevitable that some commanding position upon the Yalu River must ultimately fall to her lot. An-tung lies within Man- churian territory; the Yalu River is the border stream between Manchuria and Korea, and at Yong-an-po the nucleus of an important Russian settlement has been established. The future contains no promise of the immediate settlement of the present difficulty. At best the outlook Is confused; while at the same time there is presented in a manner singularly clear and comprehen- sible the fact that Russia neither will evacuate New- chang, be driven out of Manchuria, nor abandon her position on the Yalu River. The position of Russia at New-change has been indicated by past events, her occupation of Manchuria is an old story, and she Is now engaged in the rapid development of her interests at An-tung. The position of this port endows it with un- usual advantages, and the commercial potentialities of the place are very great. It lies about fifteen miles xxxviil INTRODUCTION above Yong-an-po, on the opposite bank. At present the export trade is confined to millet and silk cocoons, the over-production of the latter commodity requiring close technical supervision. Eight miles below An-tung, situated on the right bank of the river, is the likin station San-tao-lan-tao, where junks and rafts must re- port and pay the stipulated excise before they proceed onward. The river then bears away to the north-east, and after another stretch of seven miles there comes An-tung, upon the same bank, at a point where the stream divides, the eastern branch being the Yalu River. An-tung is of quite recent construction, and a few years ago millet fields occupied its site. Under the care of native merchants large, solid-looking houses have been built, broad streets have been opened out, and an air of unusual prosperity distinguishes the place. The anchorage is thronged with junks, while timber is stacked in vast quantities below the limits of the town. Sea-going steamers of the coaster type can here dis- charge and load their cargoes, thus obviating tranship- ment at Ta-tung-kao. Trade between Ta-tung-kao, which is situated at the mouth of the Yalu, and Chi-fu, is at present carried on by small steamers of the Mosquito flotilla and one British ship, the Hwang-ho, of the China Navigation Company (Messrs. Butterfield and Swire), while the vast volume of the exports and imports finds its way hither and thither in Chinese junks. The run from Chi-fu port is one of a hundred and eighty-five miles, xxxix KOREA and the time usually occupied in the trip north-eastward is twenty-two hours, the steamers anchoring in the fair- way channel at a distance of four miles from Ta-tung- kao. Ta-tung-kao is a busy town, inasmuch as it is the place of transhipment for imports and exports, most of which go to or come from An-tung. The fact of steamers being unable to approach Ta-tung-kao makes An-tung the real business centre of the Yalu River. In respect of An-tung, two hundred Russian cavalry have been stationed there for over two and a half years. The cantonment is situated on a small hill, marking the northern limit of the town, which has no wall. As usual, through the Yalu Valley these soldiers bear an evil reputation among the natives, from whom they commandeer at pleasure. Striking away from An-tung is the Pekin " Great Road," which runs to Liao-yang. Above An-tung the river divides and shoals exist, the water being so shallow that none but native craft can ply. Wi-ju is situated about ten miles to the eastward, and at a point west of Mao-kewi-shan, four miles below An-tung, there is the terminus of the branch of the Manchurian railway, which is to strike the river. The construction of this work will begin In the spring of 1904. The first eighty miles offer little obstruction, and it is intended that the work shall be pushed forward until its junction with the main line of the system is ac- complished. Russia, therefore, cannot well afford to ignore the consequences of her policy in the Far East, nor, at the same time, can she be expected to sacrifice, xl INTRODUCTION at the request of Japan, those great interests which she has been at such pains to foster. The position is, in- deed, a striking example of the manner in which an im- perious policy will create the taste, if not the necessity, for Imperialism. The position of Korea in regard to the disputed ques- tions is a hopeless one. Unfortunately, the government of Korea is powerless to prevent either the advance of Russia or the steady spread of Japanese influence. She possesses neither army nor navy which can be put to any practical use, and she is in that position in which a country is placed when unable to raise its voice upon its own behalf. The army numbers a few thousand men, who, in the last few years, have been trained to the use of European weapons. They are armed with the Gras, (obsolete pattern) Murata, Martini, and a variety of muzzle-loading smooth-bore rifles. Their shooting powers are most indifferent, and they lack be- sides the qualities of courage and discipline. There is no artillery, and the cavalry arm is confined to a few hundred men with no knowledge of horse-mastership, and with no idea of their weapons or their duties. At a moment of emergency the entire force of mounted and dismounted men would become utterly demoralised. There are numerous general officers, while, I believe, the navy is composed of twenty-three admirals and one iron-built coal lighter, until quite lately the property of a Japanese steamship company. Korea is the help- less, hapless sport of Japanese caprice or Russian lust; xli KOREA and it has been my aim to present an impartial study of the condition of the country in the pages of this volume. Since so many and so much abler pens have dealt with the position of Manchuria elsewhere, I have confined myself solely to a review of Korea. For this I trust that I may not be taken to task, while in order to satisfy those who think that some reference to the questions of Manchuria should have been incorporated in my book I have ventured to impart to my preface the ap- pearance of a chapter which deals solely with this prob- lem. And now, at the end of my work, a last, but none the less pleasant, duty awaits me. In addition to my own notes upon Korea I have gathered information from many people — ^writers, travellers, and students — all interested in the contemporary history of the Her- mit Kingdom. These I now hasten to thank, and by naming them I would mark my grateful appreciation of the kindness which they have extended to mc. To Mr. MacLeavy Brown, of the Korean Maritime Customs; Mr. Gubbins, formerly of the British Lega- tion, Seoul; to my distinguished and learned friend, Professor Homer B. Hulbert, whose published notes upon Korea have been of exceptional value, I make hearty acknowledgments; to Mrs. Bishop, Colonel Younghusband, the Rev. Mr. Griffis, Major Gould- Adams, authors of interesting and important contribu- tions to any study of Korea, I express the sense of my obligation; to the Rev. C. Collyer, who was good enough to make my spelling of Korean names identical xlii INTRODUCTION with the standard of Dr. Gale; to Mr. Bolton, of Messrs. Stanford, the map makers, of Long Acre, who laboured so patiently with the many shortcomings of my geographical data, I am, indeed, indebted. To Sir Douglas Straight, editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, whose paper it was my delight to represent throughout my long residence in the Far East ; to Mr. Nicol Dunn, editor of the Morning Post; to Mr. S. J. Pryor, of the Daily Express, I have to record my acknowledgment of the courteous permission of these distinguished people to reproduce such portions of my work as have appeared in the columns of their respective organs from time to time. And last of all to my readers I ofFer this book In the hope that an immediate apology for its production may be permitted to atone for Its numerous shortcom- ings. December 25, 1903.' xlili CHAPTER I Off the coast — Lack of survey intelligence — Island flora— Forgotten voyagers — Superstitions and beliefs — Outline of history DESPITE the survey work which has been accom- plished in the past by the Japanese upon the coasts of Korea, little knowledge of the numerous islands and archipelagoes, shoals and reefs which make its shores the terror of all mariners, exists at present. Until the voyage of the Alceste and L.'jra in 1816, the locality of these detached groups of rocky islets was not marked on any of the Japanese or Chinese maps of the period. In the map of the Empire prepared by the Jesuits at Pekin in the seventeenth century, the space now occupied by the Korean Archipelago was covered with the drawing of an elephant — the conventional sign of ignorance with the cartographers of that time. In the older native maps, the mainland embraced groups of islands, the most imperfect knowledge of the physical configuration of their own shores prevailing among the Koreans. In quite recent days, however, the Korean Government has recognised this fact, and in the early months of 1903 the Japanese Government was requested to draw up a complete survey of the Hermit Kingdom. I KOREA This work is now in process of execution, the plan of the coastline already having been completed. The coast of Korea is remarkable for the number of spacious harbours which distinguish it. Upon the West and South, indications of the volcanic period, through which the country has In part passed, are shown by the frequency with which these island groups occur. From a single peak upon one of the small islands off the south-west coast, as many as one hundred and thirty- five islets may be counted, stretching to the North and to the South, the resort of the sea- fowl; desolate and almost uninhabited. Many of the more important islands have been cultivated, and give refuge and a lonely home to small communities of fishing-folk. Navigation is peculiarly dangerous in these waters. Many of the islands are submerged by the spring-tl