■\HiH'i,i^l^'ri^'M-!^f'^-Mdii':^^'U^^ 
 
CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Franziska K, Morris 
 
 MUSIC 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022495224 
 
^d nHuefcal ^ 
 
 Vocal and Instrumental 
 Sacred and Secular 
 
 By... 
 
 ERNEST PAUER 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^E ^S ^S _^ B _ 
 
 Price $1.00 
 
 9>9>ȴ 
 
 1712 J^l^esli^ut ^Ir. 
 
 Printed in the U. S. A. 
 
INTEODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 It is a common remark that musical amateurs talk of different 
 musical forms with a very vague and uncertain notion of their 
 meaning. It cannot be denied that in this respect musical instruc- 
 tion is deficient, when compared, for instance, with the study of the 
 different forms of poetry, respecting which, in general, our knowledge 
 is more precise and accurate. And yet our delightful musical art by 
 no means iwes its existence to mere accident and chance; many 
 illustrious men have devoted their best energy and closest attention 
 to the consolidation of that wonderfully organized structure which we 
 may well be proud to recognize in musical writing. Neither can it be 
 denied that the taste for music is innate in a greater number of people 
 than that for painting, sculpture, and poetry ; and it might almost be 
 assumed that people sang before they spoke, and that for this reason 
 Music may justly be called the oldest art, although in regard to 
 development and perfection it is the most modern. The very general 
 distribution of musical talent by bountiful nature amongst all classes 
 of human society may in some measure account for the absence of 
 technical knowledge of the different musical forms. An accurate 
 acquaintance, however, with the essential conditions and the necessary 
 structure of a certain piece, will undoubtedly tend to a just appre- 
 ciation of the degree of merit it contains; and consequently will help 
 to form a just estimate of its composer. My purpose is to explain, in 
 this little book, the respective forms of Vocal and Instrumental Music, 
 and at the same time to point out what composers have excelled in 
 each of these forms. 
 
 I beg to thank the Rev. T. Helmore, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to 
 the Queen, for kindly revising and supplementing the Sacred Forms 
 of Vocal Music. 
 
 E. PAUER. 
 S, Onslow Houses, London, S.W., 1878. 
 
 (2) 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 Fyd":—Aeeent — Metre — Ebythm — Style — Figure— Melody — The Period and iit 
 niiiisiruciion — Thematic work. 
 
 FOEM WITH EEGARD TO THE RELATION OF SEPARATE PARTS 
 OP POLYPHONIC MUSIC. 
 
 tcusterpoiui — Double Counterpoint — Fugue — Canon. 
 
 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 (Forms of Movements, etc., of Musical Works.) 
 
 VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 I.— SACRED FORMS. 
 
 Antiphony— Hymn — Ambrosian Hymn — Anthem — Motet— Mass or Requiem — 
 Introit — Gradual — Offertory — Stabat Mater — Miserere — Lamentations — Can- 
 ticjum (Magnificat) — Lauda Sion Salvatorem— Laudes— Laudes Episcopi — 
 i.ttatA srpiiitaali — Oratorio — Passion-Music — Choral — The Figured Choral — 
 .rtiiims — Psalmody — Concerto da ohiesa. 
 
 FORMS BELONGING TO SACRED AND SECULAR VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 Recitative — Alia — Arietta — Arioso — Cavata — Cavatina — Coloratura — Duet — 
 Dialogue — Chorus— Cantatar—Cantatina—Quodiibet. 
 
 II.— SECULAR FORMS. 
 
 Song — Chanson — Maggiolata — Ballad — National Songs — Couplet — Madrigal- 
 Glee — Rounds and Catches— Obsolete Forms of Songs — Pastoral — Lieder- 
 spiel — Masque — Burletta — Opera — Intermedium — ^Intermezzo. 
 
 (3) 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 Introductoiy remarks — Older forms of instrumental music : — Prelude (Voluntary) 
 — Toccata — Invention — Bicercata — Fugue — Symphony — Intrade — Concerto 
 grosso— Aria with or without doubles— Ground — Suite — Partita. 
 
 I.— CYCLICAL FORMS. 
 
 Sonata — String quartet— Cassaiione — Serenade — Divertimento — Notturno— Sym- 
 phony — Concerto — Concertino — Concertstiick — Overture. 
 
 II.— SINGLE FORMS. 
 
 Fantasia— Caprice— Capricoio — Scherzo — The Variation — March— Songs without 
 words — Etude (Study) — Idyll — Eclogue— Villanella — Ehapsody — Impromptu 
 ^Intermezzo— Sketch (Esquisse, Skizze), Potpourri, Quodlibet, Melange, 
 Pasticcio. 
 
 DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 I.— OLD DANCES. 
 
 Allemande— Courante(Corrente) — Bourr^e— Gavotte — Cehell — Sarabande — Gigue 
 — Angloise — Brawl — Chaconne— Minuet — Passacaglio — Passamezzo— Passe- 
 pied— Pavan — Galliard — Rigaudon— Siciliano— The old dance movements 
 classified with respect to their time and rhythmical expression. 
 
 II.— MODERN AND NATIONAL DANCES. 
 
 German dances — English dances — Norwegian and Swedish dances — Wallachian, 
 Moldavian and fioumanian dances — Italian dances — Spanish dances — French 
 dances — Bohemian dances — Russian dances — Polish dances — Hungarian 
 dances — Concluding remarks. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Melodrama — Monodrama — Duodrama — Chamber-Music — Drawing-room Music 
 
 Descriptive Music : I. Tone-painting ; II. Programme-Musio^Robert Schu- 
 mann's Fancy-Pieces — Obsolete forma. 
 
MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 Music, when portraying feelings or emotions, assumes various forms 
 and undergoes various modifications; and, being the representation 
 of a passing feeling or emotion, has a definite outline, a commence- 
 ment, development, and ending. 
 
 As feelings of a very different nature are sometimes developed in a 
 very uniform way, one and the same musical form — for instance, aria 
 or sonata — may have the same general outlines, and yet express very 
 various feelings, because the style of the movement may present great 
 Varieties within the same boundaries. But all feeling must associate 
 itself with certain mental ideas to obtain a concrete existence, for 
 without relation to an object it would not even realize its general 
 intention as pleasure or pain ; neither love nor hatred is felt, unless 
 it is excited by some object; but the feelings are modified in the most 
 various ways by the nature and construction of the object or impulse, 
 and by the co-operation of various circumstances. But with all the 
 freedom that is thus allowed, the form into which musical sounds are 
 moulded must be sufficiently precise to direct the attention of the 
 hearer and awaken in him the impression of a definite and distinct 
 idea. Such ideas cannot, however, be entirely individual and special: 
 in their nature they must be general — a kind of reflex of what we 
 imagine to have been the intention of the composer, except where the 
 music is associated with the text, which gives a more accurate defini- 
 tion to our conceptions. For instance, a musical composition can 
 very well awaken in us the idea of a hero, but hardly of an individual 
 hero, unless other circumstances assist our general feeling. For 
 musical form, after all, must be based upon natural laws, and in the 
 end is but the reproduction in tone-language of the feeling in the 
 mind of the composer, who (sometimes philosophically, as with 
 Beethoven; sometimes instinctively, as with Haydn) expresses that 
 feeling according to a ,'ule based upon nature and reason, 
 
 ACCENT. 
 
 Accent is a stress luid upon certain notes in a series with two 
 Separate effects. In thj first instance the accented notes merely bind 
 the others into definite groups; in the second instance they produce 
 a particular and strengthened expression. The former of these 
 constitutes the grammcCioal or metrical, the latter the oratorical accent. 
 
 (5) 
 
« MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Grammatical accentuation is the fundamental and natural one, 
 which no ordered sequence of tone can dispense with, for without it 
 the sequence would lack organic cohesion in reference to measure of 
 time, and would, accordingly, be unintelligible. 
 
 Oratorical accentuation is not an artificial one in contrast to the 
 former, the natural one, for both must agree in their essence and may 
 not stand in contradiction to each other; and its main features, a 
 correct oratorical accentuation, must at all times likewise be a correct 
 grammatical one, in spite of certain freedoms allowed for the sake of 
 particular expression. Yet it extends beyond the simple regularity 
 of the grammatical order of accent, and appears as a higher and 
 artistically free development, forming an essential element of ex- 
 pressive performance. A passage may be played with perfectly 
 correct grammatical accentuation, and yet in a very stiff and expres- 
 sionless manner, where the vivifying power of the oratorical accentua- 
 tion is wanting. With the latter, however, we have less to do here 
 than with the grammatical system of accents, of time and its 
 components. 
 
 1. The Grarmnaiical Accent. — This may be most practically illustrated 
 in the following manner. Let the reader imagine to himself a series 
 of pulsations or beats without any order or regulated sequence, 
 following each other quite monotonously, and, whether they unite 
 together into a confused noise or are separately audible, exhibiting 
 nothing that could represent a division or a grouping that would result 
 from certain resemblances recurring at stated intervals; such a 
 sequence of pulsations would be inorganic and unintelligible. But 
 slightly removed above this would be a series of entirely regular 
 pulsations, following each other without any kind of change; such a 
 sequence would show only a mechanical order without any inner life, 
 and is just as uninteresting and unattractive as if we were to place 
 instead of it merely the time-signature. By a natural impulse, however, 
 we could hardly imagine or bear such a sequence of pulsations without 
 dividing it into certain definite groups, to give life and attraction to 
 it, and this would be done according to a higher rule of order, involv- 
 ing the resemblance of each of these groups to the rest with regard to 
 the regularity of their sequence. Our natural feeling for recurrence 
 or periodicity would form these groups by giving prominence to the 
 first beat or pulsation of each group of a certain number of beats by a 
 greater stress. This stress is the accent, and the group of pulsations 
 over which it dominates constitutes the musical metre, the time. The 
 accent gives connection to the whole series of beats by bringing the 
 separate members of the series into definite relation with each other, 
 for without it, they have no connection with or reference to each 
 other; each one is_ isolated and has no relation to its predecessors or 
 successors; each is a beginning without a continuation. But the 
 accentuated beat involves the expectation that it will be succeeded 
 by an unaccented one, as the unaccented beat, on the other hand, 
 prepares us to expect an accented one to follow. The duration of the 
 unaccented beat is fixed according to the preceding accentuated one. 
 
 Such a group of several notes, consisting of alternate accented and 
 unaccented members, is really only the order to which the higher 
 rhythmical life of the melody must be subject, so that its various parts 
 may be recognizable, and, through the alternation of rise and fall, may 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 7 
 
 become manifold and animated ; this is no lon'ger an outward mechan- 
 ical division, but real development ; the beats are evolved from one 
 another; each is the consequence of its predecessor and, again, the 
 cause of Its immediate successor. Such an intimate connection, 
 however, is only possible in a series of beats, arranged in the simplest 
 manner, m which a single rise follows a separate fall, as in the follow- 
 ing example — 
 
 AAA 
 
 J J J J J J 
 
 but this simple sequence of an alternate rise and fall is sufficient for 
 the formation of the different metres, even for the triple time, as we 
 shall see ; it must also be remembered at the outset that our musical 
 accent is not bound to any specific duration of the sound, and exerts 
 the same influence whether it falls on a long note or on quite a short 
 one. 
 
 The Bar and its Accentuation. — The bar may be considered as a 
 recurrence of a certain number of beats, identical in duration, the 
 first of these beats in each group having always the principal accent, 
 while the others are accented less strongly or not at all. In notation 
 these equal groups are separated by perpendicular lines, called bar 
 lines — 
 
 but it is not the bar-line that defines the bar, but the accent : the bar- 
 line is only an arrangement for the easier comprehension of the whole 
 rhythmical and metrical division of the melody. The first beat of the 
 bar, which has the chief accent, is called thesis, or the downward beat, 
 or the strong and heavy position ; the unaccented is called arm, the 
 raising, the upward beat, or the weak, light position. In the Latin 
 and Greek metrical science, however, we find the meaning of arsis 
 and thesis reversed; arsis, the raising of the voice or of the foot in 
 marking, being considered as the strong — thesis, the falling of the 
 voice or foot, the weak position. In this acceptation the words are 
 also used by some musical authors; therefore, setting aside the words 
 arsis and thesis, it is better to keep close to the idea of the strong 
 position as associated with the downward, and the weak position with 
 the upward beat.* 
 
 In the division of the beats of a bar there occur, besides the chief 
 accent that marts the whole bar, other accents of a subordinate kind. 
 It is well known that in music every length can be divided into any 
 number of shorter lengths, equivalent to it in their sum. The kind 
 of note according to which the time is named, for instance, the 
 crotchets in 2-4 time, the quavers in 6-8, must be called divisions 
 (members) of time ; the smaller notes of different kinds into which 
 these members can be broken uj) form the subdivision. When the 
 members of the bar are resolved into a number of subdivisions, the 
 -. .— 
 
 * This pointis critically explained in detail in Stainerand Barrett's "Dictionary 
 of Musical Terms," pp. 37-38, Article "Arsis." 
 
MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 same condition of falling and rising which combines the divisions is 
 repeated on a smaller scale in the subdivisions. If we divide the 
 members of the following bars, which are marked as a duple time— 
 
 into a number of subdivisions corresponding to it in value, for instance, 
 into quavers — 
 
 n ,n\nn 
 
 or into semiquavers — 
 
 the claim of periodicity is felt in these smaller subdivisions, and 
 divides the subordinate parts by means of secondary accents of a 
 lower grade into similar groups, with an alternate rise and fall, like 
 the whole series of crotchet beats in the larger form through the chief 
 accent : — 
 
 ^^ '# 
 
 '^^ O' 
 
 In the foregoing accentuation the grouping of the subordinate parts 
 has been accomplished, but the fundamental series of crotchet beats 
 is still unrecognizable, because not defined by an especial accent. To 
 make this seriQS of beats intelligible an accent of the next higher grade 
 is necessary, through which every two pairs of subordinate members 
 are united into a division of the nest higher order : — 
 
 ^ 
 
 K^ <J '^-^ -w' ' K^ W-' 1^? 
 
 So far as the two divisions of the bar are concerned, the crotchets 
 should have the divisional accent in addition to their own accent as 
 members of a subdivision, and are distinguished by a double weight 
 from the simply accented subdivisions. The crotchet beats are now 
 recognizable, but are not yet united, that is to say, they are not yet 
 distinguished as thesis and arsis of the bar, for they have both only 
 the same subordinate accent. The beat in the larger measure still 
 appears monotonous, without connection, and not yet recognizable as 
 the two-four time. Accordingly a further grouping is necessary, 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 which is effected by the ohiej' or iime-accent of the first class, given to 
 the first division of every complete bar : — 
 
 U^'^^ 
 
 ' O O ' '«? 
 
 The time-accent, therefore, marks the time and divides the whole 
 series into a number of groups, each "containing an equal number of 
 beats. The divisional accent of the second class marks the divisions 
 of time, in contradistinction to their subordinate division, and the 
 accent of the subordinate divisions unites these latter into groups of 
 alternate falling and rising, as the second accent unites the subordinate 
 pairs and the time-accent the chief divisions. If we draw together 
 the semiquavers of the foregoing example, the order of accent is con- 
 tracted in the following manner : — 
 
 The first crotchet of every bar has the principal or time-accent, the 
 second crotchet has the secondary accent, in reference to its subordi- 
 nate part; the third accent (that of the subordinate division) has 
 vanished in the absence of a division into semiquavers. The same 
 thing happens with the secondary accent, when the quavers are 
 drawn together into crotchets : — 
 
 Thus this order of accent, originating with the separation of beats into 
 bars, extends over all the greater and smaller divisions. It need hardly 
 be observed, however, that these accents, and very frequently the 
 time-accent also, are not always marked in the performance ; on the 
 other hand, in many cases the expressive declamatory execution of 
 the melody requires an audible emphasizing of the second and tertiary 
 divisions. Invariable rules cannot be given in this matter, but an 
 educated artistic taste will recognize what should be done in each 
 separate case. 
 
 We have now to turn to common time. This consists of four distinct 
 divisions, and not of two contracted bars of two divisions each, changed 
 into one of four divisions by the omission of the bar-line that parted 
 them. Its system of a;ccent can be easily recognized on the principle 
 explained in reference to the two-four time. If we imagine the 
 crotchets of a bar in common time (C), divided into semiquavers, the 
 
10 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 first semiquaver of each couple of semiquavers would have the accent 
 of the third class — 
 
 r 
 
 ' O kJ ' ^ 
 
 the first semiquaver of each crotchet would have the accent of the 
 second class : — 
 
 ■ ■ • • 
 
 m m m m m m m m m m m m it m m m 
 
 ^r^ ^^ ^^^^ 
 
 as only a single rise can follow each separate fall, the third crotchet as 
 well as the first has a distinctive accent of the higher order, whereby 
 the second and fourth crotchet become a rising inflection in contra- 
 distinction to these other two accents; thus they are weak parts of the 
 time as opposed to the others, which are strong : — 
 
 '^^ O' 
 
 L 
 
 Beyond this the first member of the bar has the bar accent which 
 marks the rise or fall of the whole series in general : — 
 
 ^^'^^'^^^'^^ 
 
 If this division is contracted — 
 
 A 
 
 ts ts ts ts 
 
 there remains for the first note of the bar the chief accent, but for the 
 third also a weaker accent, which the bar requires on account of its 
 breadth, as three unaccented notes cannot be attached to a single 
 accented one; but the fact that the secondary accent is weaker than 
 the chief accent distinguishes the real common-time bar (C J) from 
 two contracted two-four bars : — 
 
 ^ . A A 
 
 r r r r \r r \r r \ 
 
 The double fall and rise gives it weight and breadth, the diminished 
 strength of the second, in comparison with the first, gives variety with 
 regularity. 
 
FOKM IN MUSIC. 11 
 
 A bar of three members (I, |, |, triple time) has a chief accent; but 
 as only one unaccented member is regulated by an accent, it has also 
 a weaker secondary accent in the second member. If we represent a 
 three-four bar in quavers, each first member of the three pairs of 
 quavers has the secondary accent, and the first quaver of the bar has 
 the principal accent in addition : — 
 
 tftltl 
 
 If these quavers are contracted into crotchets the third crotchet 
 transfers its accent to the second ; which, however, as it already has a 
 secondary accent of its own, would appear too weighty with a double 
 one, and, therefore, throws back one accent upon the first crotchet, 
 keeping the other for itself, as follows : — 
 
 A A 
 
 r r 
 
 The last crotchet of the bar is thus entirely without an accent, com- 
 pletely weak, but the second cannot be altogether unaccented, as it is 
 the first number of a pair (the second and third crotchets), and has 
 the secondary accent in reference to the third crotchet. But this 
 accent of the second crotchet can only be weak because it is attached 
 as arsis to the thesis of the bar. An entirely similar order of accents 
 is seen where the members are divided into groups of three : — 
 
 Of these groups each concluding note is entirely without accent, the 
 middle one has the tertiary accent, in relation to the third as the first 
 member of a pair; every member of the bar as it consists of several 
 parts has the secondary accent with reference to its parts, but that of 
 the second group has a stronger accent than that of the third, as the 
 first member of the second group comprising the bar. The first 
 member of the bar has the bar accent in addition. 
 
 Thus the plain sequence of a rise after a fall is the foundation of all 
 arrangement of accent. In the same way all descriptions of time are 
 only derivations fi'om the two-four, three-four, and common time; 
 thus the six-four or six-eight in its fundamental form is a two-fold or 
 a three-fold time, according to the accent given — 
 
 r r r r r r rr rr r r 
 
 and the nine-four, nine-eight, is a three-fold ; the twelve-four, twelve- 
 eight, twelve-sixteen, twenty-four-sixteen, a four-fold one. 
 
 Transposition of the Accent. — For the sake of special eflect a deviation 
 often takes place from the established order of the accent by trans- 
 posing it. The accent is transferred from the thesis to the nearest 
 
12 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 arsis : there are various kinds of transpositions of accent, but all are 
 based on the same principle — namely, that the accent is moved from 
 the thesis to the arsis, the latter obtaining the stress, while the former 
 loses its weight. (Ex. I.) Very frequently this accentuation occurs 
 when the note that has the arsis is longer than the thesis note. (Ex. 
 II.) 
 
 ^"^- -^ ^ A A 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 Ex. II. 
 
 It 
 
 But this transition of the accent must not continue too long, for if so, 
 the accented arsis would usurp the place of the thesis and would no 
 longer be intelligible merely as a transposition. For if the following 
 line — 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 r r 
 
 r 
 
 were long continued, our rhythmical instinct would very soon reduce 
 this transposition of the accent to a natural simple order of accent by 
 receiving the accentuated arsis as the thesis, because the natural and 
 universal always asserts itself over the artificial and the special : — 
 
 A 
 
 or 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 n r 
 
 TTT" 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 Two oraers of accents, of which the one is natural and the other the 
 transposition, may encounter at the same time :^ 
 
 In the former of these last two examples each of the two members 
 of the bar has a heavy accent, and such marcato figures may be very 
 
FORM IN MUSIO. 
 
 13 
 
 eflfective in places where a very weighty emphasis is required. Still 
 they cannot be used for any length of time together, as they would 
 become heavy and cumbersome. The accentuation on the second 
 example, with the accent on the first and second crotchets of the 
 three-four bar, is sufficiently general ; but then the accent on the first 
 member is generally taken somewhat lighter as a secondary accent^ 
 
 I .1 
 
 A 
 
 and the figure is in fact only an inversion of chief accent and second- 
 ary accent in the three-four bar — 
 
 'rrnrrr i-teadof-|--j-nrin" 
 
 The secondary accent of the three-four bar is transposed from the 
 second member to the third ; thus instead of — 
 
 TTT^iT TT" *^^f°"--g rrriT' 
 
 I I 
 
 the third member thus appears as a stronger up-beat in preparation 
 for the next bar. 
 
 The bar of two members is mingled with that of three members, the 
 so-called tempo rubato (stolen time) ; — 
 
 pi 
 
 A 
 
 f=E 
 
 '^-t=^ 
 
 rf^k^ 
 
 fe 
 
 B=^-e: 
 
 4:zb-i 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 A A 
 
 A A 
 
 ^ grfrTp Sg^Eig 
 
 H=f 
 
 2^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 J-. ^t j -.:* ^ 
 
 The two-four (|) time mingles with the three-four (§), but in another 
 manner. Three two- four (§) bars occupy the place of two three-four 
 (I) bars : — 
 
14 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 ^ET^S^; 
 
 Graun. 
 
 r — r 
 
 the Lord's com-mand is en dur - ing, 
 
 Si 
 
 
 ■f.=^m=^=w^ 
 
 !SE 
 
 t^^o 
 
 JlJ^ 
 
 In reality these three two-four bars, which may also appear divided 
 into members of bars, are nothing more than a three-four bar, the 
 value of whose notes has been doubled, to give them weight and em- 
 phasis. Such passages are firmly accented and somewhat broadly 
 enunciated, and occur in phrases of three-four time, and lively move- 
 ments, generally towards the conclusion of a piece. Especially with 
 the older composers, we find this kind of transposition frequently 
 enough, generally in the form of three imperfect breves (d) in the 
 <em|3Msper/i?c<tim instead of two perfect ones. In Handel's works (as 
 "Susannah," St. John's Passion, etc.) it is found frequently enough, 
 and also in six-eight time. From our present music, this very effective 
 declamatory and rhythmical turn has almost entirely vanished. 
 
 Synoopi is the union of a thesis and arsis into a member of a bar 
 wherein the accent is pushed forward from the thesis to the arsis, 
 which was originally unaccented : — 
 
 AAA 
 
 A A 
 
 ! I 
 
 TTTTTT 
 
 In this syncopation the second and fourth members are accented 
 instead of the first and third. But as a separate rhythmical sequence 
 syncopfe soon ceases to be intelligible as a transposition, because as in 
 the former case, the accented arsis is soon understood by feeling as 
 a thesis. If a syncopfe is to maintain itself for any time as a pure 
 unison, it must be interrupted in bars or in longer intervals by an 
 accented thesis, which always recalls the natural accent to the 
 memory : — 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 15 
 
 . A 
 J J 
 
 . A 
 J J J 
 
 V A A A .AAA .A 
 
 .N J J/l ,N J J.N /J 
 
 But where the sj^ncopfe occurs, as it usually does in a passage where 
 there are various voices, it can be continued at pleasure without 
 becoming unintelligible, because the other voices always meet it with 
 the counterpoise of the natural order of accent : — 
 
 A 
 1 
 
 ^1—1 ^ ^^ 
 
 A 
 ^ 1 
 
 -fe ^- 
 
 •1 m rzi ^ 
 
 r ^ 
 
 r 
 
 ^ o (C.J 
 
 1 f 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 V ' 
 
 r 
 
 A A 
 
 f 
 
 A 
 I 
 
 or 
 A A 
 
 J JTJJ 
 
 A 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 V V V 
 
 J_ 
 
 Usually all the members of the syncopi, as well as the more weakly 
 accented or entirely unaccented members of the natural run of accents 
 are strongly marked in order to make the opposition of the two orders 
 of accents more strongly felt. It depends, however, upon the expres- 
 sion the passage is to have, for a soft or flowing character may be 
 indicated by such an intermingling of the two systems of accents, in 
 which case the decided marking, but not the accentuation, is omitted. 
 Moreover, the term "syncopfe" is also employed to designate every 
 kind of attachment of a strong (or heavy) member of a bar to a weak 
 (or light) one, even if the accent is not removed ; thus in suspensions 
 the thesis is attached to the arsis without any alteration of the order 
 of accent. 
 
 The bound or legaXo suspension, even when it is not marked and 
 more strongly expressed, always exhibits itself as a thesis, and is 
 resolved as an arsis : — 
 
16 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 The discord is always accentuated ; its preparation and solution are 
 unaccented. The conclusions always fall on an accented member oi 
 the bar, which need not, however, always be the lirst in the bar, but 
 in common time may be the third, and through the deferred acceiit 
 (in the three-four time only) may be the second. But in any case it 
 must be a member of the bar, bearing an accent in reference to the 
 other members. 
 
 In vocal compositions the accented syllables of the text or the 
 emphasized words must always fall on the accented notes of the music, 
 and it will be understood that in syncopation the spoken accent moves 
 with the musical note. To put unaccented syllables to accented notes, 
 or the reverse, is a twisting of language, and may be reckoned among 
 the greatest errors of taste that a vocal composer can commit. 
 
 2. Oratorical Accent. — By oratorical accent we understand a certain 
 declamatory character imparted to a performance by the emphasizing 
 of certain parts, the procedure being founded on the natural system 
 of accentuation. As in reciting a piece of poetry the effect would be 
 lame and flat if the speaker were to rigidly adhere to the metre, so in 
 a vocal or instrumental performance a pedantic maintenance of rhythm 
 and accent would result in sameness and monotony. A certain license 
 is therefore allowed to the performer, whose taste should indicate what 
 parts of the composition may be emphasized to give a greater meaning 
 to the whole; but great care must be taken that oratorical accent 
 does not degenerate into egotistical mannerism. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL ACCENT.* 
 
 "In Plain-song, the term 'accent' or accentus ecclesiastieus was used 
 to designate that system of movement of the voice, by learning the 
 principles of which {modus legendi choraliter) a chanter could read 
 collects, epistles, gospels, etc., from an unnoted book. Hence it 
 resolved itself into a series of rules relating to the inflexions or intona- 
 tions of the voice on reaching a comma, semicolon, colon, full stop, 
 and also a note of interrogation. But perfect uniformity is not to be 
 found in these regulations regarding the puncta. According to its 
 position in the sentence, or the interval covered by the movement of 
 the voice, accent was said to be (1) immutabilis, (2) medms, (3) gravis, 
 (4) acutus, (5) moderatm, (6) interrogativus, {7)finalis. The following are 
 examples of these different species : — 
 
 mediiis. 
 
 "o-ti-o B - pls-to - Ise Sancti Pau-li et o-pe-ra-tur vir-tu-tes in vo-bls: 
 
 gravis. acutnts. 
 
 Be-ne-fi-centui in Teomnesgentes. Cum Spi - ri - tu cob - pe - ri - tis nunc 
 * Extracted from Stainer and Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical Terms," p. 4. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 17 
 
 moderatua. interrogaHims. 
 
 cumfi-de-li, ex o - pe - ri - bus le - gia, an ex au-da-tu fi - de - i? 
 
 Jinalis. 
 
 ni - ma me a ad Te De 
 
 ^^ 
 
 " But according to some authors, the epistle should be on monotone, 
 except at a point of interrogation, e.g. : — 
 
 =tJtdt=5r=B=il=iizdtil=" 
 
 Lec-ti - o 11 - bri Sa - pi - en - ti - se Be - a - tus vir qui in-ven-tus 
 
 est si ne ma - cu - Id., etc. Quisestblc etlaud-a - bl -mus e-um? 
 
 "But in some countries the epistle is chanted with the greatest 
 elaboration, the note above the reciting note being introduced before 
 the full stop, and the whole of an interrogative sentence being recited 
 on a note below the ut. But as these uses differ not only in various 
 places, but according to the Church seasons, an exhaustive account 
 is impossible. 
 
 " In chanting the gospel, an accentus medius takes place at the fourth 
 syllable from a full stop, or thereabouts, and also the accentus interro- 
 
 rp,-,_»- ,-^-,-»-»- 
 
 Se-quen-ti - a Sanc-ti Ev - an • ge - 11 - i se-cundum Matthaeum, etc. In 11 - lo 
 
 :^=qni=^=!! ^"-— -1 i=i=!!=1='i1r 
 
 t«m-po-re dix-lt Sl-mon-Pe-trus ad Jesum, etc. quid er-go e - rlt no -bis? etc. 
 
 i^=:=I=zH=!=:i=iifli 
 
 H- 
 
 Et vl - tam se ter - nam pos - si - de - bit. 
 
 "In the chanting of collects, a fall from ut to la, or from fa to re 
 takes place at a punctum prinoipale, and from ut to si, or fa to mi once 
 only at a semipunctum. 
 
 "The accentus ecolesiasticus of lections and prayers must not be con- 
 fused with those inflexions which tradition assigns to other parts of 
 the service, such as confessions, proper prefaces, and lections of the 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Passion ; all of which are to be found noted in authorized books. It 
 should be remarked that the Belgian and French uses often differ 
 much from that of the Romans, although uniformity in such things is 
 without doubt desirable." 
 
 METRE. 
 
 "Metre is the rhythmical arrangement of syllables into verses, 
 stanzas, strophes, etc. ; poetical measure depending on number, quan- 
 tity, and accent of syllables, rhythm, measure, verse." (Webster.) 
 
 TABLE OF DIFFERENT METRES, AS APPLIED IN MUSIC. 
 
 1. Simple. 
 
 I 
 
 DISSYLLABLES. 
 
 Trochee (— H> long (heavy), short (light). 
 
 E: 
 
 -^- 
 
 =P=i 
 
 E?=l= 
 
 E£ 
 
 ?^l= 
 
 :=f=2= 
 
 =?== 
 
 =F=^=l= 
 
 ■■m==^~ 
 
 :?2= 
 
 -A=i 
 
 ^=<'-- 
 
 =F.=^=F: 
 
 2. Varied. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 19 
 
 P 
 
 i^^^tfe^? 
 
 s-geag^f^jEgj 
 
 $ 
 
 ^=mr:^- 
 
 P^:ftB=»- 
 
 :p?i: 
 
 ^EEfc 
 
 :4=LS 
 
 z^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ::#— P^r: 
 
 ?»-rr- g 
 
 a — ^j^ ^ — * " ^^ i — ^ 
 
 etc. 
 
 1. Simple. 
 
 Iambic (^— ), short (light), long (heavy). 
 
 i 
 
 S=sE 
 
 =pz: 
 
 IZ2.: 
 
 Se^J^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 $ 
 
 =P== 
 
 a=r: 
 
 =?=: 
 
 :^=(t 
 
 A=^ 
 
 $ 
 
 -F q- 
 
 :4z=tzi 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 :fi^=d«r 
 
 :pp=P=^- 
 
 -=i— q — P- 
 
 :S; 
 
 It 
 
 2. Varied. 
 
 ^-E | Eg^p[ | Eg5Ei^^t^=r^ 
 
 EEE 
 
 P 
 
 tr 
 
 1=2- 
 
 =iN- 
 
 fe 
 
 a=p=F<t 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^-•-::?= 
 
 :^:=P: 
 
 zprpcj 
 
 S 
 
20 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 i 
 
 ^^FE?^=0EiEi=^ 
 
 m 
 
 si^as* 
 
 ^m 
 
 
 -^—^—m—f^ 
 
 fc=^- Iff =£=p--^Hif pr^ipz :SF^P; 
 
 Es:^ 
 
 J»- 
 
 tr^ 
 
 -q— =1- 
 
 =P=p: 
 
 r^^: 
 
 SPONDBE ( ), two long. 
 
 'g-^^ ^g^=$=^ lg^ 
 
 :Si 
 
 ffi: 
 
 IS2Z 
 
 Pyrrhic (^ ^), two short. 
 
 w 
 
 E: 
 
 :p==P- 
 
 Combined with — ^-' — it becomes an Amphimaoer — 
 
 ?^ 
 
 ipzi=ff=^ 
 
 combined with — ^' it becomes a Trochee — 
 
 ==3: 
 
 =^^^ 
 
 ip^npi 
 
 and combined with — it becomes a Dactyl : — 
 
 ^^1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 TRISYLLABLES. 
 Amphibrach (— • — ^), short (light), long (heavy), short (light). 
 
 ?2=S: 
 
 ■i^ 
 
 i-p= 
 
 p--i^± 
 
 i^^-- 
 
 -jr±=w. 
 
 i 
 
 :t:=t 
 
 Z^:fP--m^r-Ph^ 
 
 -S--4 
 
 iE^i 
 
 iffi=p: 
 
 ^-Uzig: 
 
 ■^-^=w 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 21 
 
 :2i 
 
 : g=^|:^fc|=|i =b 
 
 =P=Fff: 
 
 -i«— ^Vi*- 
 
 rk=t:± 
 
 fcjvprq=^=§^ 
 
 iS 
 
 :«*- 
 
 ^ff± 
 
 -=i— =1— P- 
 
 :«*--^ 
 
 ANAPiEST (^■-'— ), two short (light), one long (heavy). 
 
 i^ 
 
 EE3^ 
 
 :p== 
 
 IP2.-] 
 
 :|z:t2: 
 
 :a^?z3?: 
 
 £^11 
 
 :p;FP: 
 
 iEz4i 
 
 ?=:■ 
 
 PP-ff: 
 
 L-t2Z^ 
 
 :titt 
 
 ItU:*^ 
 
 3=Si 
 
 ;f?=&;iv=^=?:fp^-z:B 
 
 :tz-^ 
 
 ^--n^^m- 
 
 Irppi 
 
 t= 
 
 >:z4i 
 
 S£:t2: 
 
 i^=:^j 
 
 Dactyl (— ~^ ■-), one long, two short. 
 
 i^ 
 
 r^-£E3EEi: 
 
 :rT=p2zrr:^r=pi 
 
 -W=-m- 
 
 d=i 
 
 Itt^i 
 
 =*=F 
 
 ::S--p: 
 
 
 itimt 
 
 ^^^^=^: ^^^H4^ 
 
 ^E: 
 
 =P=p: 
 
 r.fc:=tg: 
 
 fl=p-i 
 
 :p^-F« 
 
 P; I-.&- 
 
 :p;iz:p: 
 
 is! 
 
 iS-t 
 
 li^-i»>->* 
 
 Bacchic ( •^), two long, one short. 
 
 Handel. 
 
 s 
 
 p=p: 
 
 :a^P=P=^p: 
 
 ^IeI^iI; 
 
 <S1— s 
 
 Beethoven ("Egmont"). 
 
 sto; 
 
 ^3*-' 
 
 ■==i-c^ 
 
 -^- 
 
 ai 
 
 SEfe=g^=E^i 
 
 EgEpEEiE; 
 
22 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 Ceetic (———), long, short, long. 
 
 'S^^^ 
 
 l^^^r^^^ 
 
 Beethoven (" Eroica"\ 
 
 tes 
 
 ^l=t 
 
 
 Antibacchic (~- ) one short, two long. 
 
 1 . , I 
 
 I 
 
 .§:i3p:=p=:aix 
 
 ^ — ^ — , 1~ 
 
 :p: 
 
 MOLOSSTJS ( ), three long. 
 
 pd 
 
 ^aiE^ 
 
 SCHDBEKT (Op. 163). 
 
 Ea3!^z 
 
 ■^r^^^ 
 
 :p=ff= 
 
 :^- 
 
 -(=2^ 
 
 ±==t 
 
 =4- 
 
 Tribrach (^ ^ -'), three short. 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 ^_p_ 
 
 f^ 
 
 ra=p=p=p: 
 
 t^=k=^ 
 
 5:6: 
 
 ;4E3 
 
 ■s>-^ 
 
 Mendelssohn 
 
 In Beethoven's Seventh Symphony we find the following metres 
 applied : — 
 
 Heavy Spondees. 
 Introduction, 
 
 ^-: 
 
 l£e^ 
 
 =?= 
 
 
AUsgro. 
 
 foem in music. 
 Dactyls. 
 
 23 
 
 Heavy Dactyls and Spondees. 
 
 Andante. 
 
 Scherzo. 
 
 Dactyls and Tkibkachs. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1— i 1 ^-»- 
 
 3Ei^ 
 
 wf^. 
 
 ral^^d 
 
 Finale. 
 
 Heavy Spondees. 
 
 
 EHYTHM. 
 
 " Rhythm is the actual perception of the unity of a succession of moments in 
 evolution." (Apel, Metrik, Leipzig, 1814-1816). — "The principle of rhythm is 
 founded in the reciprocal effect, or in the condition of cause and effect." (Herb- 
 MANN, Leipziger Musikzeitung, vol. x, p. 289). — "The rhythm, wliich is in itself 
 pleasing and beautiful, lies in the change of the succeeding parts ot time, accord- 
 ing to the law of exertion and rest, in which we have again to recognize a more 
 forcible and a weaker exertion." (Hoffman). — "Ehytlini is the united sum of 
 different parts of time into a unit." (Hand, Esthetics of Mus-ic). — "Rhythme 
 o'est, dans sa definition la plus ggn^rale, la proportion qu'ont entre elles les 
 
 Sarties d'un meme tout ; o'est en musique, la difference du mouvement qui r&ulte 
 e la Vitesse ou de la lenteur, de la longueur ou de la brevets de temps." (Rousseau, 
 Dictionnaire, vol. ii, p. 242, Article " Bhythme.") — " Rhythm, a division of lines 
 into short portions by a regular succession of arses and theses, or percussions and 
 remissions of voice on words or syllables; the harmoniousflow of vocal sounds. In 
 the widest sense, a dividing of time into short portions by a regular_ succession of 
 motions, impulses, sounds, etc., producing an agreeable effect, as in music, the 
 dance, or the like." (Webster).— " Rhythm, movement in musical time, or the 
 periodical recurrence of accent; the measured beat which marks the character 
 and expression of music." (MOOKE). 
 
 We recognize in music three kinds of time-measure and order — hrst, 
 time, the grouping of a succession of portions by the accent (see 
 
aa MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Accent) ; the position of the principal notes of a meiody as metrical 
 heavy notes, that of the secondary notes as metrical light ones; 
 secondly, we recognize further the movement (tempo), the relative 
 degree of quickness of a piece ; thirdly, the rhythm, under which head 
 we again understand two separate things — (a) the joining of similar 
 or different metrical feet into various figures: the sections of these 
 figures are with regard to weight of time accented or unaccented, with 
 regard to length of time they are either long or short, of higher or 
 lower degree; through the bar (measure) and bar-accent they are 
 collected into firmly united perceptible groups and time pictures. In 
 this sense, each motive (theme) which consists of several^ notes or of 
 notes and rests, and which is divided by a caesura, either in a firm or 
 light manner, is a rhythm. (6) Furthermore, we understand rhythm 
 as the forming of these smaller rhythms or time-pictures into larger 
 forms (periods and groups of periods) according to the rule of 
 symmetry and proportion, the relation of the single melodious parts 
 of a period to one another with regard to the nature of the division of 
 time, the proportion of the first to the second part, the relation of each 
 single part to the whole, and the proportions of movement of the 
 single periods within the entire group of periods. 
 
 The rhythmical caesuras, and sections of the period, as well as of the 
 whole piece, result in firm and decided forms as comprehensible and 
 satisfactory to our ear, just as the sight of a symmetrical and well- 
 ordered structure affords pleasure to our eye. The development of 
 one part out of another, the orderly grouping of the various periods, 
 the support which one part receives through the other, indeed the 
 systematic organic growth of the whole, regulated as it is by the rhyth- 
 mical order, of which the human intelligence and feeling perceives, 
 intuitively, the absolute necessity —all this contributes to the possibility 
 of surveying and conceiving many single parts as constituting a whole. 
 
 The rhythmical construction of a musical piece cannot be definitely 
 fixed according to a pattern or an arbitrary rule. The law that has to 
 be obeyed does not restrict freedom of fancy and feeling ; variety is 
 necessary as well as unity. Rhythm is, indeed, the outward manifes- 
 tation of the inner life; and the more harmonious, flowing, and 
 rounded the inner movement is found, the more comprehensive, 
 intelligible, and satisfactory will be the outward form. 
 
 The order and symmetry of rhythmical movement must never be stiff 
 or too often repeated, as this would result in monotony: combined 
 with order there must always he freedom. Ehythm may well be com- 
 pared to the pulsation of the blood in the human frame ; and just as 
 such pulsation is accelerated or retarded by the emotions of the soul, 
 so must the rhythmical life and expression change according to the 
 character that it is the office of music to represent. Although rhythm 
 will heighten the beauty of a melody, it can, even when used with the 
 greatest cleverness, never succeed in ennobling vulgarity or triviality 
 in music. In Greek and Latin poetry rhythm was developed and 
 elaborated in the most artistic manner, and was employed as an ex- 
 ceedingly valuable means of strengthening and characterizing expres- 
 sion. But neither in music nor in poetry must rhythm be made the 
 principal object, for it can never supply the place of inventive genius. 
 Ehythm may be described as the art of the versifier — necessary, but 
 yet only supplementary, to the genius of the noet. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 Rhythm or six baes. 
 
 25 
 
 Ehythm of three bars. 
 
 m 
 
 ^E^ =j-U-J-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Rhythm of three bars. 
 
 ? -r r I r r. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 =3^ 
 
 r: 
 
 Rhythm of four bars. 
 
 ^ ^^H\r-r-^m ^ ^=^^=^^ 
 
 Rhythm of four bars. 
 
 LiTEKATUKE. — Young (Walter), " An Essay on Rhythmical Measures," " Trans- 
 actions of the Boyal Society of Edinburgh, 1790," vol. Ill, pt. i, pp. 55-110. 
 Hermann (Gottfried), "Handbuoh der Metrik;" Leipzig, 1799. Apel (Friedr. 
 A. F.), " Metrik," 1814-1816. Baini (Giuseppe), " Saggio sopra I'identita. de' ritmi 
 rausicale e poetico ;" Pirenze, 1820. Hauptman (M.), " Die Natur der Harmonik 
 und Metrik ;" Leipzig, 1873. 
 
 STYLE. 
 (Lat. *<t7us; Ital. «*j7c.) 
 
 In creating a work of art the composer is subjected to certain rules 
 of formal construction and of expression, rules which have their 
 foundation in the nature of the art itself, and which, when applied, 
 are influenced more or less by the subject which has to be represented. 
 
 The complete work of art must reveal itself in ideal beauty and 
 purity, and will at all times be founded on truth of character and 
 
26 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 gracefulness of form* The chief divisions of style in music, as indeed 
 in poetry, are the epic, lyric, and dramatic style. In the epic style, 
 the description is most prominent; feeling and representation are 
 founded on an event, which has to be narrated in a poetical manner. 
 The musical art cannot be said to possess such strictly epic works as 
 we find in poetry ; the epic style is in music merely an element, as 
 exhibited in the oratorio, opera, cantata, in choruses, ballads, sym- 
 phonies, or wherever the lyric expression assumes a broader and more 
 pictorial character. In the lyric style the feeling is not objective, but 
 subjective (personal) ; here expression and warmth of feeling are the 
 chief ingredients of the music; but in so far as feeling is the chief 
 promoter of music, the lyrical element must in some degree also 
 influence the dramatic style. The dramatic style realizes, through 
 visible action on the stage, the conception of events and actions; this 
 visible action is performed by persons representing well-defined and 
 positive characters. The dramatic style comprises the oratorio, opera, 
 cantata; the chief forms of instrumental music, on the other hand, 
 belong to the lyric style. We find, further, a difference between the 
 secular and sacred style. The secular style, again, is subdivided into 
 chamber and concert music, and into theatrical or dramatic style. 
 
 According to certain more prominent characteristic features which 
 belong to works of art of different periods, musical history distinguishes 
 periods as characterized by an artistic, grand, beautiful style, and so 
 on. The period of the great school of the Netherlands — ^that of a Dufay, 
 Ockenheim, and Josquin de Pr^s, until Willaert and Palestrina — ^is 
 generally called the period of the wHstic style in so far as the art of 
 writing for several voices was particularly developed by the above- 
 mentioned masters; the period of Palestrina and of the Roman school 
 is known as that of the grand style ; the period of the great Neapolitan 
 masters as that of the beautiful style. From the national peculiarities 
 of the different musical nations arose modifications of style, which we 
 designate as the Italian, German, and Frencti. From the different 
 categories of the beautiful arise the tragic, grave, solemn, passionate, 
 comic, cheerful, sympathetic, graceful, lofty style, etc., which, accord- 
 ing to their nature, appear in works of arts of various kinds; and it 
 need hardly be observed that the comic and passionate style must be 
 excluded from sacred music, and can only appear in secular works. 
 
 Style varies also according to the material, which, as it were, is the 
 channel of expression; for example, sometimes voices, at others, 
 instruments, and again according to the manner in which the material 
 is treated, that is, the connection and relation of tones to each other, 
 by which the expression is variously influenced. Here there are two 
 kinds of style, which are used sometimes separately and sometimes 
 mingled with each other — namely, therigorous and the free style. The 
 rigorous style is founded upon the laws of vocal music and pure vocal- 
 ism, and is known by a grave working out of the melody with a quiet 
 progression and frequent ligaturas. We have here a stricter mainte- 
 nance and working out of a principal subject, which must always be kept 
 in view, and is transferred from one voice into anotlier, whereby each 
 voice obtains the character of a principal voice. This is the polyphonic 
 method. (By polyphonism we understand multiplicity in sound ; thus, 
 musically, a composition in parts or contrapuntal composition ) It is 
 
 * Compare the Primer on the " Elements of the Beautiful in Music."' 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 27 
 
 also distinguished by a frequent use of the prepared and resolved 
 discords, by which the separate parts of the harmony are more closely 
 intertwined, and by strict observance of the rule of rigorous writing. 
 The highest forms of ttje rigorous style are the Canon and the Fugue, 
 in which the arts of imitation and of counterpoint find especial appli- 
 cation in the widest manner. 
 
 The free style, formerly also called the elegant style: here the 
 movement of the melody and the treatment of the harmony with 
 respect. to the discords and tha strict modulation of the keys are free, 
 the voices are not all princli^al voices, for either there is only one 
 principal melody prevailing th.-oughout, which is merely accompanied 
 by the other voices— (this is the homophonic style; homophony ex- 
 presses sameness of sound or singing in unison in opposition to 
 polyphony) — or if these other voices take part in the development of 
 the principal melody or subject, this is not continuous; here a single 
 principal melody does not rule so strictly, for it is varied in different 
 ways by different subordinate subjects. The chorus can be treated 
 either in the rigorous or in the free style according to circumstances ; 
 in the opera it is generally treated freely, although operatic choruses 
 may be found worked out entirely in the contrapuntal or imitative 
 manner, and the same may be said of arias and other forms. 
 
 Older designations of styles are the following : — 
 
 ffitescoraicMs,thedancestyleof the minuets, gavottes, sarabandes, etc. 
 
 Stihhs eoclesiasticus, especially adapted for church music. 
 
 Stilus familiaris, the simple style, used by Josquin de Prds in his so- 
 called "Messe familiari." 
 
 Stilus hyporchematicus, the theatrical dance style, including certain 
 lyrical songs accompanied by instruments and dance. 
 
 Stilus legatus, the connected legato style. 
 
 Stilus madrigalesaus, in the style of a madrigal. 
 
 Stilus melismatious, the ornamented style, with variations and elabora- 
 tions of the melody. 
 
 Stilus moteticus, in the style of a motet. 
 
 Stilus fantastieus, to which fantasias, capriccios, toccatas, etc., belong. 
 
 Stilus redtativus, the dramatic style, especially adapted to portray 
 the passions and emotions of the mind. 
 
 Stilus syllabious, in which every syllable of the text has one note, as 
 in recitatives. 
 
 Stilus symphoniacus, for instruments, with modifications for each 
 separate instrument; quartets, symphonies, great overtures, etc., 
 belong to this style. 
 
 FIGURE. 
 
 (Ital. Figura.) 
 
 Figure is a group of notes which results uom the dissolution of 
 melodious principal notes into diminished notes, or notes of a lesser 
 value, on the same harmonious foundation. If the principal notes of 
 a melody are dissolved into such figures, we call it a figured melody 
 (figuratus); we accordingly speak also of a figured style, or manner. The 
 cantus figuralis, although it may also occur as figured song, means 
 more strictly, like the cantus mensuralis, the old manner used in the 
 twelfth century, to sing notes of different value; whilst the cantus 
 planus (choral melody) proceeded only in notes of the same value. 
 
28 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 The principal notes may be figured in different manners — (a) by 
 notes belonging to the same harmony, as — 
 
 'W=^ 
 
 m: 
 
 ^ 
 
 ip=p=»=S; 
 
 =P-P-P- 
 
 :p=I= 
 
 t=ff=t 
 
 --^-t 
 
 % 
 
 » » 
 
 (6) by using melodious discords — namely, suspensions, j)assing notes, 
 and appoggiatura notes {nota cambiata, Wechsdnoten) with the notes 
 belonging to the principal harmony : — 
 
 ip^^^a^g^^s 
 
 * A remarkable example of these consecutive fifths is to be found in Bach's 
 Toccata in D minor for the Organ. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 29 
 
 Such figures were applied before the invention of the piano-forte, 
 particularly in the compositions for keyed instruments— such as 
 harpsichords, spinets, clavichords, also for the viol di gamba, and 
 were called manners, graces, agr^ments, galanterien, etc. Our 
 modern composers apply them much more sparingly. The student 
 is advised to compare Emanuel Bach's " Versuch fiber die wahre Art 
 das Clavier zu spielen ; " Couperin and Champion de Chambonni^re's 
 "Tables d'agrfemens." 
 
 MELODY. 
 
 Melody is a succession of tones. The term " melody " is used (a) for 
 tone succession, or connection of tones, as differing from harmony, a 
 concord of tones, or the sounding of several tones together; (6) for a 
 particular succession of tones, which succession is regulated by artistic 
 and sesthetic rules and requirements. 
 
 (a) Every melody, even the simplest, must possess a certain, if ever 
 so slight, connection between its single tones ; this connection shows it- 
 self in (1) the proportion of the tones with regard to intervals ; (2) their 
 relation to the key and harmony ; and (3) their vocal or singing 
 quality. The intervals, as melodious parts of a succession of tones, 
 must be considered from the point of lesser or greater difficulty for 
 intonation : — 
 
 Easy. 
 
 ^-. 
 
 J* 
 
 j=q=.j-- 
 
 3E=fei: 
 
 r-fl*- 
 
 ^; 
 
 3= 
 
 ti0--j. 
 
 Difficult. 
 
 The augmented intervals, such as augmented fourths, fifths, etc., 
 are not admissible in church music, as their characteristic expres- 
 sion lacks the quietness and evenness of the ordinary intervals. This 
 rule is, however, only applicable to sacred music in the alia cappella 
 style. 
 
 Succession of intervals. — An interval, in itself quite easy for singing, 
 may become difficult by repetition ; any one will find it easy to sing 
 
 $4 
 
 , but will experience the greatest difficulty to sing such 
 
 tones in succession as : — 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 :#*- 
 
 ^^^E^ 
 
30 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Equally difi&cult and unvocal is (nyi 
 of thirds : — 
 
 IP ^I 
 
 or a succession 
 
 p=_P^=^^^l 
 
 Just as unvocal are all kinds of skips such as : — 
 
 -^ \)^ 
 
 %^ 
 
 a^ii 
 
 r-ftc 
 
 =t=S 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^= 
 
 All these remarks apply, however, to the melody as sung without 
 the support of harmony ; a judicious application of harmonious sup- 
 port will make them comparatively easy and even well sounding : — 
 
 -*«- 
 
 3^=^=^ 
 
 -f 
 
 ^m 
 
 The relation of the melody to the key and harmony ought tc be 
 always natural; the melody ought to move within the scale, and 
 ought not to apply to notes foreign to the scale, as for instance : — 
 
 i 
 
 IP 
 
 £g=P 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Foreign notes may, however, possess importance as belonging to a 
 distinct harmony, and thereby occasioning a modulation— 
 
 i^^^^^i 
 
 y--=l^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 SI 
 
POKM IN MUSIC. 
 
 31 
 
 :^^3: 
 
 l;^=^=Ei: 
 
 ^^-- 
 
 Ss^ -ST 
 
 or they are actually chromatic alterations of diatonic notes; such 
 notes do not affect the harmony : — 
 
 (Beethoven.) 
 
 X X 
 
 Adagio. 
 
 The chief elements of a correct and natural progression of tones is 
 best to be studied through counterpoint. 
 
 (6) Melody, in a special sense, is artistically constructed song, 
 following the rules of melodious modulation, keeping in certain and 
 definite relation to a key, proceeding in a rhythmical order, and 
 exhibiting in tones a special feeling that has been aroused by certain 
 impressions or passions The invention of a beautiful, singing, and 
 expressive melody is one of surest signs of genius; but even the 
 greatest genius will be anxious to purify, strengthen, and vary the 
 melody by means of art and science ; and in this respect no composer 
 bestowed more pains and troubles on the perfection of his melodies 
 than Beethoven did ; his melodies are almost in every instance simple 
 
32 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 in point of progression, natural with regard to modulation, and 
 highly interesting in point of rhythm. To cite only one example: — 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 SEB: 
 
 1=^1 
 
 V^^^^^- 
 
 ^1?=£ 
 
 3E3=si 
 
 t— etc. 
 
 icii 
 
 - r^ri 
 
 It will be observed that each of the six bars contains a distinct 
 rhythmical figure. 
 
 National melodies offer a delightful study for learning to construct 
 natural and simple melodies. With respect to patriotic hymns or 
 melodies intended to be sung by a great mass of people, it will he 
 observed that they proceed mostly in the scale, or in the interval of a 
 third, fourth, fifth or sixth, and that their modulation is of the 
 simplest kind. 
 
 "God save the Queen." 
 
 "AusTKiAN Hymn." 
 
 "1 
 
 •EEgEEiE^EiE? 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 T=3=q: 
 
 ;^=iiS^SEiE3 
 
 ^= 
 
 ^- 
 
 -Bt 
 
 :fc'r= 
 
 1 r 
 
 IT I 
 
 ±:;i:t 
 
 i^)siz 
 
 'tzez 
 
 e-S&^^ii^ili 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 33 
 
 "Russian Hymn." 
 
 j^:Ez^=B=lp=3-^a:z=^ 
 
 -J^M. 
 
 ?2= 
 
 t=t: 
 
 :=i: 
 
 LlTERATTTRE.— Niohelmaun (Christoph.), 1717-1761, "Die Melodie nach ihrem 
 Wesen, soirohl als nach ihren Eigeiischafteu." Keicha (Antoinel, "Traits de 
 Melodie;" Paris, 1814. Santucol (Don Marco), " Dissertazione sulla Melodia;" 
 Lucca, 1828. 
 
 THE PERIOD AND ITS CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The Period ia a form which i» limited by a certain rhythmic, 
 melodious, and harmonious order. The period can be in itself a small 
 piece, or, combined with other periods, it may constitute a member 
 of a longer piece. The order in which the different periods are united 
 in a comprehensible and well regulated manner is called the con- 
 struction of periods. 
 
 (1) Although the period must be clear and precise to be easily 
 understood, the composer is not restricted to a stiff and rigorous 
 scheme with regard to rule ; but he may here, as in other parts of 
 the composition, show his originality. We speak here of periods and 
 their construction, appertaining to the domain of instrumental music, 
 as vocal music is subject to the rules of poetry, which, however, are 
 also governed by the same laws. A free and expanded movement of 
 instrumental music could never be understood without a strict 
 application of rules with regard to the construction of the period and 
 of a well arranged systematic order, in which they succeed each other, 
 and are, as it were, symmetrically distributed. 
 
 (2) As in the construction of the entire movement, so in the period, 
 unity and at the same time variety are required. A movement which 
 lacks variety becomes monotonous; it is deficient in development, it 
 does not show different phases and features, which, spite of their 
 variety, keep up a close connection with the principal idea. If the 
 different periods were each the beginning of a new idea or motive, 
 the result would be chaos, or might be compared to a pattern card. 
 
 (3) Taking the following simple no--—-- of eight bars : — 
 
34 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 Az 
 
 Beethoven (Op. 28.) 
 4 
 
 
 *i.-3i 
 
 ^ 
 
 l==t; 
 
 :«P=^- 
 
 I 
 
 _l L 
 
 _l 
 
 B=E=I?B^ 
 
 ^ — s» 
 
 i: 
 
 s 
 
 J 
 
 Ex. II. 
 
 Beethoven (Op. 2, ii.) 
 _ 3 
 
 W^E^-^^^^ i:^ 
 
 in both examples we find a repetition of the same figure. In Ex. I. 
 bars 6 and 6 are rhythmically the same as bars 1 and 2 — in point of 
 melody they are related to each other; in Ex. II. bars 1, 2, 5, and 6 
 contain the same figure, only on different intervals. In both periods 
 we find certain figures, which form the chief material; these little 
 figures, containing the germ of larger development, are called (4) 
 motives. In Ex. II. the motives are more clear and precise than in 
 Ex. I. With respect to the number of motives, a melody may 
 possess very few, nay, it may even lie restricted to a single one, and 
 may yet be good; too many motives of difi'erent design would even 
 endanger the clearness of the construction. 
 
 (5) In both periods we remark larger groups occasioned by the 
 change and return of the motives ; after every second bar we perceive 
 the caasura, which again determines the smaller groups called sections. 
 The larger groups are divided into a preceding (first) and concluding 
 (second) part. Tlie preceding part generally contains the chief 
 material of the motives of the period; the concluding part continues 
 this material until it changes it in a freer manner towards the close. 
 
 (6) The order of modulation is the following: it begins and closes 
 on the tonic (Ex. II.), the first part makes either a half cadence on 
 the dominant or in a parallel key of the tonic. The second part 
 begins either on the tonic or dominant, or in a related key. 
 
rOEM IN MUSIC. 
 
 35 
 
 (7) The period begins on the tonic and closes (in major) on the 
 dominant (in minor), on the minor dominant, or in the parallel major 
 key. The cadence of the first part follows either on the tonic or on 
 (;he dominant, or in a related key, if the period begins on the 
 dominant, passes and closes in the tonio, or in a related key. The 
 close of the period on the dominant (or major parallel of the minor 
 key) of course necessitates a repetition of the period itself with its 
 close on the tonic, or a further elaboration. 
 
 (8) This simple period may undergo variations, either by alteration 
 of its inner construction, or by an expansion or compression. 
 (a) Alteration of the inner construction — 
 
 i 
 
 Ex. III. 
 
 ft 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 P^ 
 
 i^i 
 
 mi 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 J=^: 
 
 p^- =1^=1; 
 
 ^^- 
 
 l=r=r=r=_-:^ 
 
 fe.^ 
 
 ^.^=^: 
 
 -!*-,*- 
 
 itr=f=p= 
 
 :t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^fl^S^=-^^^E^^E-=- 
 
 iti 
 
 :rt=i_- 
 
 1^-^^"* 
 
 It 
 
 m 
 
 (the second part is new and not developed from the first) ; 
 [b] The grouping and symmetry of bars is altered: — 
 Ex. IV. 
 
 7^- 
 
 -w-f- 
 
 -i— 
 
 '1 teS — 
 
 -f^w—* 
 
 *^rw---jft — i-^ 
 
 - -*-H 
 
 — 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 "^ 
 1 
 
 _fts^ 
 
 ^-Ll'-^- 
 
 1 
 
 ._] 
 
 ~m-m- 
 
 =P=i= 
 
 Fff^pi 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^B 
 
 -^-a 
 
 :^== 
 
 L 
 
 This melody consists of eight bars, but in groups of twice three and a 
 concluding group of two bars. 
 
 Expansion of the period is produced by (1) the imitation, or 
 repetition of single motives: — 
 
 t 
 
 Ex. V. 
 
 
 =pz: 
 
 ?2: 
 
 ~-^'- 
 
 ■&-^-m'- 
 
 t^^ 
 
 
36 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 (2) By the imitation of the first two bars, the period of four bars is 
 expanded into one of six bars : — 
 
 Ex. VI. 
 
 ^ 
 
 I— =!: 
 
 S^i 
 
 -^ 
 
 l=t: 
 
 
 zii 
 
 ^ 
 
 3: 
 
 zest 
 
 B=h-F-sJ — »- 
 
 ziz 
 
 ^-*- 
 
 ?£^ 
 
 rszi 
 
 By interpolation of the last two bars, a period of ten bars is produced. 
 (3) By the addition of a short appendix, iormed out of one of the last 
 motives of the period, a proceeding which strengthens and completes 
 the expression : — 
 
 Ex. VII. 
 
 (a) 
 
 ^zL&l 
 
 =P2= 
 
 :l 1 - 
 
 z?:t 
 
 h?=^ 
 
 m 
 
 r-rr 
 
 =P=F=P= 
 
 ■I — I — I — I — i^— — «— ^ 
 
 -.E=zM=.t. 
 
 ^r=^ 
 
 --i- 
 
 (»), 
 
 ^iii^ig^ 
 
 i=3E 
 
 ii= 
 
 ^E^^ 
 
 EEE^E 
 
 ?El: 
 
 H 1 1- 
 
 W^W-W- 
 
 t:=t 
 
 cfe-^=p2=ff: 
 
 S 
 
 !E? 
 
 g^g^iS 
 
 ^=fe 
 
 i2:i: 
 
 zziz 
 
 (4) By putting an introductory motive that leads into the actual period, 
 which motive, however, is in itself an independent idea, and recurs in 
 symmetrical order : — 
 
 Ex. VIII. 
 Largo. 
 
 Allegro. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 37 
 
 Adagio. 
 
 ^- 
 
 Largo. 
 
 la^ig ^E^ggig 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 ^ 
 
 5Si=:^tzS: 
 
 ^E^^^^g^ggl 
 
 T- 
 
 By compression, the first bar of the second part is wedged into the 
 last bar of the first part, hke (6) as compared with (a): — 
 
 i^^ 
 
 ^f 
 
 (6)- 
 
 ^ffrpE 
 
 i 
 
 i^p: 
 
 -l«-H» 
 
 ■-■f^^-^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^^g 
 
 This process was formerly called bar-stifling (Takterstickung):- 
 Ex. X. 
 
 P 
 
 s^^^E ^F F=gg^^gEg 
 
 1^=: 
 
 Compound periods result (1) fi'om the repetition, with slight 
 alterations of the same period, and (2) from a combination of different 
 periods (group of periods). This latter method is shown in many 
 beautiful instances in the sonatas and quartets of Haydn, Mozart, and 
 Beethoven, excellent models with regard to syminetry, taste, and 
 correct feeling. The most distinct and practical period is always that 
 of eight bars. The best description of the period and its construction 
 is to be found in the works of Dr. Bernhard Marx, " Die Lehre von 
 der musikalischen Composition," vol. ii., and J. C. Lobe, "Compositions 
 lehre." 
 
38 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 THEMATrC WORK. 
 
 Thematic work is the logical development of the material of which 
 the principal subject consists, and of which a piece is constructed into 
 new periods, phases, features, etc., in such a manner that, notwith- 
 standing alteration, the relation and connection of the new matter 
 with the old is still recognizable. The means of thematic work are 
 manifold. The following are the most important ; * — 
 
 (1) The motive or principal subject is transformed rhythmically, 
 whilst its harmony and melody remain undisturbed ; in other words, 
 the value of the notes is altered, the notes are multiplied or dimin- 
 ished, long notes are compressed into short ones, short notes expanded 
 into long, the accentuation is altered, rhythmical changes (Riickungen), 
 syncopfe, anticipations, etc., are introduced, the time is transformed 
 from common into triple, (| into |, % into |, and so on), and the speed 
 is altered by retardation or acceleration. 
 
 (2) Mel-^dious alteration with unaltered harmony and rhythm, 
 partial variations of the members constituting the melody, application 
 of changes of direct movement into counter-movement, and vice 
 versa; elaboration and ornamentation of parts of the principal 
 melody, application of appoggiatura and passing notes, suspensions, 
 melismas, or on the other hand the simplification of the melody by 
 the withdrawal of all such ornaments. In these instances the con- 
 nection with the principal air will be maintained by the rhythmical 
 movement, inasmuch as through the elaboration of the melody the 
 harmony will necessarily at times undergo a slight change. 
 
 (3) Alteration of harmony and melody, the rhythm being left 
 intact; by the rhythm in this case is maintained the only resemblance 
 with the principal motive. 
 
 (4) Alteration of the harmony ; application of difierent successiqns 
 of chords; transposition from major into minor key, and vice versa, 
 which, of course, also affects the nature of the melody. 
 
 (5) Alteration of melody and rhythm; thus the thematic resem- 
 blance with the principal motive is vested in the harmony, which, of 
 course, must consist of a very strongly pronounced and characteristic 
 succession of chords. 
 
 (6) Alteration of the accompaniment; alteration of polyphonic style 
 into a more simple one, and the reverse; variation of the supple- 
 mentary accompanying parts in a characteristic manner. 
 
 (7) Variety of the contrapuntal treatment; imitative and canonic 
 treatment; transposition of the motive into other parts : inversion by 
 means of double counterpoint. 
 
 (8) Alteration of force and coloring of sound ; change of the different 
 degrees of force; augmentation or diminution of the instrumental 
 masses; alteration of instrumentation. 
 
 (9) Alteration of register; transposition of the melody from the 
 upper into the lower or middle register, and vice versa. 
 
 (10) Alteration of expression with regard to legato, staccato, 
 portamento, etc. 
 
 * The limits of this book will not admit of any examples, but the student will 
 do well to seek for the practical test of the present remarks in any of Beethoven's 
 sonatas, quartets, or symphonies. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 39 
 
 It will be seen that thematic work is founded on logical and 
 economic principlea. In seeking to draw all possible logical sequences 
 from the principal subject chosen for work, the composer develops 
 the very rich material he has in hand to work with; and, again, by 
 economy in using this material, and by a wise distribution of it 
 throughout the work itself, a never-ending variety and great and 
 unfailing charm can be obtained. Moreover, the listener experi- 
 ences a feeling of satisfaction, as the order, system, gradual 
 appearance and disappearance of a melody, harmony, or rhythm, 
 will be for him an object of curiosity, interest, and gratification. 
 Thematic work is a musical maxim that is based on the laws of nature 
 herself; it is identical with the law of organic production. This law 
 demands that every product of the animal or vegetable world must 
 develop itself according to a fixed economic order, and the nature of 
 the germ contained within it. The instrumental works of Haydn, 
 Mozart, Beethoven, and others of our best composers display a 
 thoroughly logical and systematic development, which gradually 
 unfolds itself from the germ or first idea to the point we technically 
 call the climax. But just as we find that every animal or flower 
 develops itself and receives its color and shape according to the given 
 law, so do we detect in these great instrumental works that every 
 part of the apparatus of the symphony, quartet, sonata, etc.— be it 
 accompaniment, harmonization, imitation, rhythmical figure — is 
 exactly suitable to the one subject treated; and thus it receives the 
 stamp of perfection. The most ingenious writer would be unable to 
 improve anything by alteration in a quartet, sonata, or symphony of 
 Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven; such a work could not be curtailed, 
 lengthened or altered in the score; in short, every part of it is an 
 absol ate and logical necessity. Such is the nature of a piece in which 
 the system and art of thematic work is carried out in its entirety ; it 
 is, in fact, the product of natural genius, of spontaneous inspiration, 
 regulated and governed by the might of intelligence, suffused by 
 science in its brightest aspect. Our illustrious masters, following out 
 the rules and dictates of natural order, never forget that not only by 
 intellectual and scientific means such glorious results mig'.t be 
 achieved, but that they must at the same time be secondea and 
 sustained by the feelings of a warm heart and the simplicity of a pure, 
 unselfish, and genuine enthusiasm. Thematic work, in its best 
 example, is therefore to be considered as the greatest triumph 
 musical art can achieve. 
 
 Although we find germs of thematic works in Sebastian Bach's 
 suites and partitas, sonatas and concertos — and it may be asserted 
 that the strictest thematic work is to be found in the fugue the real 
 inventors of thematic work — in our modern sense of the word are 
 Haydn and Mozart, as shown in their string quartets and in some of 
 their symphonies. Beethoven, however, brought this system to the 
 greatest perfection. To name only three examples, we should cite 
 the first movement of the Pastoral Symphony, the first movement of 
 the Quartet in F, Op. 59, i., and the first movement of his grand Trio 
 in B flat. Op. 97. 
 
 The student is strongly advised to examine and analyze the second 
 parts of those movements. In most of the instruction books, thematic 
 work was formerly called the development (Durchfiihrung) of the 
 principal motive or subject; it is only within the last twenty-five 
 
40 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 years that thematic work has been systematically and methodically 
 treated by Dr. Bernhard Marx, and with still greater clearness ana 
 completeness by J. C. Lobe, in his "Lehrbuch der musikalischen 
 Composition," vol. i. pp. 306-382. Very interesting material tor stuay 
 is also to be found in A. von Dommer's " Elemente der Musik, p. los. 
 
 FORM WITH REGARD TO THE RELATION OF SEPARATE 
 PARTS OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC. 
 
 COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 The term " Counterpoint," in its broadest sense, may be defined as 
 " the art of adding one or more parts to a given melody (canto fermo) ; 
 in its more limited sense as " the art of harmonizing a theme by adding 
 parts which shall be in themselves melodious." The terms, "subject, 
 " melody," " canto fermo," and " theme," are synonymous.* _ 
 
 Counterpoint is simple or double. There are five species of simple 
 
 counterpoint. . , i.i_ i,- ^ 
 
 (1) When the added part is note against note ot the subject:— 
 
 Counterpoint (sopra il soggetto). 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 
 m. 
 
 -ZST- 
 
 :z2: 
 
 izs: 
 
 :z2: 
 
 i 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 
 :z2; 
 
 -jTSL 
 
 22: 
 
 22: 
 
 Counterpoint (sotto il soggetto). 
 
 i7 
 
 .£2. «xQ- -1=2- 
 
 122: 
 
 .Ss^ 
 
 (2) When the added part is two notes to one of the subject: — 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 :?== 
 
 ~-^- 
 
 =?=: 
 
 ::P2: 
 
 =pz: 
 
 '-T^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -I- 
 
 ±: 
 
 i 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 
 * About rules and regulations, see "Counterpoint" Primer, or Stainer and 
 Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical Terms," pp. 112-119. 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 41 
 
 i 
 
 :?2i 
 
 !^-r-!S- 
 
 izi: 
 
 3E^£E::^E^3 
 
 321 
 
 9 
 
 m 
 
 I22Z 
 
 (3) When the added part is four notes to one of the subject: — 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 ElE^£E^E^ 
 
 =1- 
 
 =1- 
 
 ±=t 
 
 i?^i= 
 
 ^^^^e:^. 
 
 \ 
 
 m 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 —S> 
 
 P^EE*=i^E^EEi 
 
 =p=i= 
 
 -j^rzz^z. 
 
 =t=t 
 
 ^ 
 
 P 
 
 =S=P= 
 
 ^r^^^ ^^g^= 
 
 ~^i=F= 
 
 :t=t 
 
 .1=2, 
 
 H 
 
 Ee^=E 
 
 ^3g 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 :cz: 
 
 =#*= 
 
 j2_ 
 
 m. 
 
 S^l 
 
 (4) When the added part is in syncopation to each note of the 
 subject : — 
 
42 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Counterpoint. 
 
 i^ 
 
 ?=- 
 
 =?=: 
 
 =?== 
 
 ^iSi^ 
 
 Canto feraio. 
 
 _(2_ 
 
 
 rf- 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^N 
 
 1 
 
 . _ 1 
 
 1- 
 
 
 1 
 
 (f"5 1 — ' — 
 
 -4^-r^ 
 
 1 — - 
 
 -(^- 
 
 — p-*— 
 
 -H- 
 
 r-i^- 
 
 -J- 
 
 ^■> 
 
 I 
 
 V- ^ ! 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 j 
 
 
 -&- 
 
 -Si- 
 
 
 -&- 
 
 .C2. 
 
 
 -&- 
 
 1 
 
 ^•V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 l^J- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 tl/' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (5) When the added part is free, or has a florid accompaniment to 
 each note of the subject : — 
 
 Sii^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 :z:i: 
 
 iz:i 
 
 -=7 — -— =»• ■-^- 
 
 Canto fermo in tlie middle part. 
 
 P^ E 
 
 ZZI 
 
 Z2I 
 
 L-;i=*-t 
 
 ^-L-J3=J9JL^^J^: 
 
 I22Z 
 
 ^: 
 
 Z2: 
 
 =^: 
 
 DOUBLE COUNTERPOINT. 
 
 This has been well described as a kind of artificial composition, 
 where the parts are mverted in such a manner that the uppermost 
 becomes the lowermost, and wee verm, or in other words the art of 
 making melodies grammatically convertible at certain intervals 
 
 If the melodies are interchanged at the interval of an octave the 
 double counterpoint is said to be at the octave ; but if the inverted 
 melody is transposed one note, the other melody remaining untrans- 
 posed, the double counterpoint is said to be at the ninth and so on 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 
 
 The following table shows the effects of the inversion : — 
 
 43 
 
 Free. 
 
 To be pre- 
 pared and 
 afterwards 
 dissolved. 
 
 Double Counterpoint 1 
 at the Octave . . . . j 
 
 Do. do. Ninth 
 
 (■1,2,3,4,1 
 • 18,7,6,5.; • 
 
 fl, 2, 3, 4, 6,1 
 •19,8,7,6,5.; 
 
 1,3,6,8. 
 
 2, 4, 7, 
 
 ^a 
 
 r [ I I 
 
 Inverted into the Ninth. 
 1. 2. 3. 
 
 Do. do. Tenth 
 
 Do. do. Eleventh 
 
 Do. do. Twelfth 
 
 f 1,2,3,4,5,1 
 
 • ■ tlO, 9, 8, 7, 6.; ' 
 
 f 1, 2,3,4,5,6,1 
 
 • • 111,10,9,8,7,6,; 
 
 f 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,1 
 • 112,11,10,9,8,7.; • • 
 
 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10. 
 
 1,3,5,8,10,12. 
 
 2, 4, 7, 9. 
 
 Discords of 
 upper part : 
 11,10,9,7,4. 
 
 Discords of 
 lower part: 
 1,2,3,4,5,8. 
 
 Discords of 
 
 upper part: 
 
 11, 9, 7. 
 
 Discords of 
 
 lower part: 
 
 2, 4, 6. 
 
 The remaining double counterpoints at the 13th, 14th, 7t'a, 6th, 5th, 
 4th, and 3d, may be treated in a similar manner. 
 
 LiTEEATUEE. — Marpurg (F. W.), New edition, revised and supplemented by 
 S. Sechter; Vienna: Spina and Co. Martini (G. P.), Bologna, 1775. Sala [N.i; 
 Napoli, 1794. Morigi (A.), 1816; Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel. Ffitis (F. J.), 
 "Traits du Contrepoint ; " Paris, 1825. Weber (Gottfried), 1831; Majrence: 
 Sohott. Cherubini (L.) ; London: Novello. Lobe (J. C); Leipzig: Breitkopf 
 and Hartel. Marx (Bernhard); Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel. Eiehter 
 (E. F.); Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel. Novello, Ewer and Co.'s Primer. 
 Sechter (Simon); Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel. 
 
 Fugue.* 
 
 A Fugue (from the Italian fuffa, " flight ") is a composition written 
 in the strictest style; in which a subject, being introduced by one 
 part, is repeated and imitated by the other parts in succession, accord- 
 ing to certain laws. The fugue in its simplest form is thus described 
 by the German composer Fux, in his " Gradus ad Pamassum : " 
 
 * For a more detailed account than is possible in this work, see the Primer 
 on " Fugue." 
 
44 MUSICAL FOEMS. 
 
 "First choose a subject suitable to the key you intend to compose in, 
 and write down your part in that part wherewith you intend to begin. 
 This done, and having first examined your subject, to see that it be 
 conformable to your key, repeat the same notes in the second part, 
 either in the fourth or fifth ; and while the second part inutates the 
 first wherewith you have begun, put such notes in the first part as 
 will agree with your imitating part, according to the directions given 
 in the figurative or florid counterpoint; and after having continued 
 your melody for some bars, regulate the parts thus that the first 
 cadence may be made on the fifth of the key. Then resume your 
 subject mostly in the same part you have begun with, but by another 
 interval, after having first put a rest of a whole or half bar, which, 
 however, may be omitted in case there should be a great skip instead 
 of it. After this endeavor to bring in your second part, after some 
 rest, and tliat before the first part draws to a conclusion, and having 
 carried on your subject a little longer, make your second cadence in 
 the third of the key. Lastly, introduce your subject again in either 
 part, and contrive it so that one part may imitate the other sooner 
 than at first, and if possible after the first bar, whereupon both parts 
 are to be united, and the fugue finished by a final cadence." 
 
 The following are the various forms of the fugue : Fuga avihenttca, 
 a fugue in which the notes of the subject proceed upwards; — Fuga a 
 due trl soggetti, a fugue with two or three subjects; — Fuga recta or 
 composita, a fugue where the subject proceeds by tones -—Fuga, con- 
 traria, or per motum eontrariwm, in which the answer or imitation is 
 already from the beginning in the inverted style; Fuga doppia, or 
 double fugue; — Fiiga homophona, in which the answer and imitation 
 of the subject are in unison. The Fuga impropria or irregularis does 
 not follow the strict rules. In the Fuga incomposita the subject pro- 
 ceeds by jerks. The Fuga libera, soluta, or sdolta, has free episodes or 
 interpolated phrases. The Fuga obbligata unfolds itself according to 
 absolute and logical rules. In the Fuga per augmemtationenh the imi- 
 tation shows itself in augmentation ; that is, if the subject is written 
 in quavers, the first imitation is in crotchets, the second in minims, 
 and so on. The Fuga per diminutionem follows this example in the 
 opposite way. 
 
 Besides these, however, there are various other forms of fugues. 
 No great oratorio or sacred work has yet been written, in which the 
 composer was not anxious to provide a good fugue. The fugue is a 
 kind of guarantee and importance given to the work, a testimony of 
 legitimacy and genuineness, without which the work could not appear 
 complete and perfect in the judgment of connoisseurs. All the rules 
 accepted for instrumental fugues apply equally to vocal fugues. It is 
 a matter of course that, owing to the more simple means and resources 
 of the voice, the vocal fugue can never be so varied, brilliant, or com- 
 plicated as one intended for instruments. Every composer of note, 
 whether of old or modern times, has written fugues ; but no composer 
 has ever been able m this branch of our art to approach Sebastian 
 Bach, whose Forty-eight Fugues and other numerous organ and choral 
 fugues are monuments of constructive genius. He understood how 
 to unravel all the scientific and artistic mysteries, to throw life fluency 
 grace, and charm into his fugues, and he alone was able to present aii 
 almost unceasing variety of subjects, while he possessed inexhaustible 
 means of enriching and enhancing the beauty and power of his themes 
 
rOEM IN MUSIC. 
 
 45 
 
 FUGA A 3 Voci. 
 
 GiACOMO Antonio Pebti (1656-1747). 
 
 ^EBl 
 
 iP=itg=^ 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 B=e= 
 
 j.^ 
 
 j=i 
 
 J — ^- 
 
 -^m 
 
 fe^ 
 
 -* — »i - 
 
 ^->=F 
 
 i^'"a-~t.-r-cj' 
 
 -r-Q 
 
 =t=t: 
 
 -P — -m^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^itlrtl 
 
 ^^r=fFf=^ 
 
 iE3H 
 
 
 r 
 
 1 1 
 y 
 
 t?CCi=P=>~ 
 
 '^1^0^ 
 
 -9m- 
 
 ^ 
 
 R^V 
 
 V- 
 
 -sJ -,fU 
 
 p^*. 
 
 -^^=f^- 
 
 J^ , 
 
 ^J~ 
 
 J 
 
 
 -P— F— *-^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 - ^ F 
 
 r — ^ 
 
 ^^-S- 
 
 -1 
 
 :^^E^- 
 
 
 i!iiiii=i 
 
 ^ __ 
 
 L 
 
 
 Ht-— trr 
 
 _p^ 
 
 
 ESEE^ 
 
 -'^i 
 
 Wz 
 
 -.^■0=^- 
 
 E^EEfe 
 
46 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 m 
 
 -j^i 
 
 i-e-8^-»-4J--N — 
 
 ^ 
 
 r — r 
 
 ?== 
 
 S^Efc^ 
 
 •f 
 
 ET 
 
 ^= 
 
 ^j^^g?^ 
 
 H* m- 
 
 zfjm- 
 
 =t=t: 
 
 i^±: 
 
 
 t--^^-=^=, 
 
 ^tp 
 
 1==T 
 
 '-^-'S' i^- 
 
 1 Isj - 
 
 PP 
 
 -P^»- 
 
 r 
 
 .^^^^ r fn:i 3 
 
 r 
 
 y — ra — ^ — 1= 
 
 ^ 
 
 SE 
 
 
 S 
 
 :f^ 
 
 :^=p: 
 
 i^?==P!n 
 
 *^^^E3^ES^ 
 
 f= 
 
 S^tin^^EES^ 
 
 =S" 
 
 i^=ri= 
 
FORM IN MUSIC. 47 
 
 CANON. 
 
 _ A Canon (from the Greek -word meaning rule) is a musical composi- 
 tion, in which the voices begin one after another, at regular intervals, 
 successively taking up the same subject; as each voice finishes, it 
 commences anew, thus forming a continuous movement. 
 
 The canon was formerly also called fuga canonica, legata, ineonse- 
 quenza, integra, totalis. The canon is a particular contrapuntal form. 
 The point for starting the voice that succeeds the principal or initiating 
 voice is not restricted to £> fixed rule; and in the same way the choice 
 of the interval in which the succeeding part begins is left to the com- 
 poser's choice; thus we have canons in the second (Ex. III.), third, 
 fourth, and so on ; the composer must, however, adhere strictly to a 
 rigorous and exact imitation of the principal or initiating voice. An 
 exception to this rule is found in the so-called free canon, in which 
 major intervals may be imitated by minor intervals, and moe versa; 
 another exception is the so-called false or mock (Schein) canon, gener- 
 ally used in instrumental compositions (symphonies) and in operas; 
 this kind of canon is called canone sdolto. According to the manner 
 in which the close of the different parts is indicated, the canon is 
 called infinite (canon infinitus or perpetuus) (Ex. I.), or finite {canon 
 finitus). In the first instance, each part begins again after the sentence 
 is finished ; in the second, each part is silent after having completed 
 the sentence. In the mixed canon {polymorphus) (Ex. VII.), the second 
 part follows the first part; for example in the fifth, whilst the third 
 part can follow in another interval. The circular canon (canon per tonos) 
 is produced by each part that begins occasioning a modulation, which 
 method is repeated as many times as necessary to return to the starting 
 or principal key. The canon canerizans (Ex. VIII.) is a canon by 
 retrogression; a canon practically consisting of two parts in double 
 counterpoint, that is, parts which are grammatically interchangeable, 
 «o constructed that they may read actually backwards, hence probably, 
 the derivation of canerizans, walking backward like a crab. Canon 
 in augmentation (Ex. VIII.) or diminution (Ex. IX.). In this, the suc- 
 ceeding part appears in notes of double or half the value of the initia- 
 ting or principal part. The double canon (canon duplex) (Ex. X.), is 
 the union of two separate canons. Other kinds of canons are : canon 
 enigmaiicus, the riddle canon, in which the difficulty is to find the 
 proper place to start the succeeding part (every canon in which the 
 place for commencing each succeeding part is not indicated may be 
 regarded as a riddle canon); canone at sospiro, in which the parts 
 follow each other closely, after a minim or a crotchet rest; the canon in 
 epidiapmte, in the upper dominant; in epidiatessaron, in the upper 
 fourth; in hypodiapason, in the lower octave; in hypodiatessaron, in 
 the lower fourth ; per arsin et thesin, in mixed time. If the different 
 parts of the canon are written out in full, in score (Ex. I.), it is called 
 an open canon (canone apertus) ; if, however, only the principal 'part is 
 written out, and the number of parts (a, 2, 3, 4, etc.), and their respec- 
 tive entrances are marked by the sign g, the canon is called a closed 
 one {canon claums, canone in corpo) (Ex. II.). A few short examples 
 will best show the different construction of canons. 
 
48 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Ex. I. 
 
 Canon inpinitus. 
 The parts written out (Canon apertus). 
 
 Eamkau. 
 
 EE^IE 
 
 m^M 
 
 BE^f. 
 
 -^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 :p=rp- 
 
 izniitz; 
 
 (•-rSi- 
 
 1=2-- 
 
 -w—m'- 
 
 ^:^^ '£^^E^ ^ErEE^E^ 
 
 s 
 
 t— h= _| I — r 
 
 -1=^ 
 
 s 
 
 P— P-PP— s>- 
 
 P — m P — P^ 
 
 t:=|= 
 
 t:zhz=|zr — I — I - 
 
 ip— ,e- 
 
 ■t— FF -i 1 — I— F * g-g-F»i-»- 
 
 it==t: 
 
 =:^ 
 
 3=3= 
 
 P-rS)- 
 
 =P2= 
 
 mr-^-m- 
 
 Utrt 
 
 the end. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ZZ2Z 
 
 ni=*-: 
 
 =P2= 
 
 ?^ 
 
 :^B=::pi 
 
 IS2I 
 
 ^P-'S^ 
 
 gEEEEEEE 
 
 t=t 
 
 ^= 
 
 if=^-pz=^ 
 
 rs2z 
 
 The same canon as Canon clatisus, Canone in coepo: 
 Ex. II. 
 
 EE 
 
 =P^=?=: 
 
 :t: 
 
 =P=P= 
 
 =P=S= 
 
 i=^=i=?=?il*^fei.^EE3^^^=^i 
 
form ik music. 
 Another Examplb for Six Parts. 
 
 49 
 
 f^ 
 
 KiBNBEBGES. 
 
 3z 
 
 ^^= 
 
 Ex. III. 
 
 Canon in the Second. 
 
 im 
 
 -^—^ 
 
 t 
 
 -p — &- 
 
 SEEt 
 
 -i=i~ 
 
 Z2Z 
 
 -J^---:^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :^r=rt: 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 rd — m — F — f~ f^ — M — F — ^ F" " 
 
 % 
 
 z^_ j_d^_p_r- J ^F— f h- - 
 
 Ex. IV. 
 
 ^EiE 
 
 Canon in the Lower Seventh. 
 
 -m — m- 
 
 -^- 
 
 m 
 
 - I L 
 
 5^e 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :?2~ 
 
 s^e: 
 
 — t — 1^ — V — I— 
 
 :g; 
 
 :p=p::^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 iz:± 
 
 :p=P- 
 
 ^Ee 
 
 f f p--^: 
 
 ^-t=t: 
 
 t=:t=t 
 
 Canon in the Uppbr Third (Mediant). 
 ■piy -y Andee. 
 
 ^^=^ 
 
 IZ2I 
 
 22Z 
 
 ^ 
 
 -.'■— F- 
 
 3! 
 
 IPZL^ 
 
 Z2r 
 
60 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 -»--)— -^ -<S>^ 
 
 sE^ 
 
 ;p25= — 
 
 S 
 
 IZ2I 
 
 W^0=T=W- 
 
 1 
 
 ±=±t=t 
 
 =P=g= 
 
 -=1—1- 
 
 -*-r ^-•- 
 
 :p=& 
 
 =t=N=UE 
 
 g=^ 
 
 Ex. VI. 
 
 Cahoit Poltmoephus (Mixed). 
 
 Seb. Bach. 
 
 ip2— p=f2: 
 
 =P2: 
 
 -.s- 
 
 =p= 
 
 r-- 
 
 :z2i 
 
 
 =P2=gl 
 
 =^= 
 
 S 
 
 E^ 
 
 =P2= 
 
 iS: 
 
 =P2= 
 
 11 
 
 122; 
 
 zEb: 
 
 :?2= 
 
 ic^ 
 
 E33=:=^ 
 
 ipsz 
 
 =^ 
 
 :cii 
 
 =P2:: 
 
 rp2- 
 
 :P2- 
 
 32= 
 
 1=^^ 
 
 =ii; 
 
 ips: 
 
 :S 
 
 :22:;- — 
 
 =P2^ 
 
 =a<=-j- »i — p — T 
 
Ex. VIII. 
 
 form in music. 
 Canon Cancbizans. 
 
 51 
 
 Andke. 
 
 ■*^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 tt=t 
 
 S=Pq^ 
 
 r^= 
 
 =t=t 
 
 ttist 
 
 ^^:^ 
 
 £^333=^-=^:=^ 
 
 ^* ^ J. J. ■ J r*^*^*-* * ^ »-^^^F^- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 t^=^- 
 
 «= 
 
 -rl — I j ^ ^■ 
 
 3F^=S 
 
 '13.-^ 
 
 '*-J: 
 
 -ad- -«•- 
 
 I 
 
 :p=zez|f^Lp.s 
 
 r*-^!»- 
 
 B 
 
 p=p=ro 
 
 "P2; 
 
 ^^ 
 
 tizt 
 
 t=± 
 
 Canon in Augmentationem. 
 
 The second part (lisposta) imitates the first part (proposta) in augmentation and in cou 
 
 trary motion. 
 
 Ex IX KiRNBERGEK. 
 
 ^ 
 
 (lut part.) I 
 
 =F=#= 
 
 :*^ 
 
 ^^n^ 
 
 -N^ 
 
 Augmentatio. 
 
 ii 
 
 EEiE 
 
 =d= 
 
 f^ 
 
 1 — ^=5jzg=rt=3^ 
 
 P 
 
 :*i=Sr 
 
 (To make this example appear in the diminution, one has only to begin at f.) 
 
52 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 2d part. 
 
 Ex. X. 
 
 Double Canon (Canon Duplex). 
 
 Pdx. 
 
 -7zr\ 
 
 T^—^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 1- 
 
 « 
 
 =?=: 
 
 cssz 
 
 Z2I 
 
 S=3p; 
 
 ^iE 
 
 -P2= 
 
 :g=P2=^ 
 
 :=2±g 
 
 It 
 
 Chris - te e lei 
 
 ^E^r 
 
 1221 
 
 ZJ=± 
 
 zr2~ 
 
 Chris - te e lei 
 
 ::?== 
 
 Ig==21 
 
 =p2=trg; 
 
 =P=- 
 
 itz=t±: 
 
 ^3EEF^EEgEE^^E= 
 
 IZ2Z 
 
 r^^pep 
 
 tWJ 
 
 e lei 
 
 w. 
 
 =p2=:p2- 
 
 It 
 
 Chris te e lei - 
 
 [4-^^=i:i---=-:^N^ES"|P . ' . ' 
 
 son, 
 
FORM '^N MUSIC. 
 
 53 
 
 EE^E^EE^ 
 
 :S= 
 
 ^——^=. 
 
 sSiiP: 
 
 =P=ff: 
 
 -I — I- 
 
 :tz~ 
 
 rg=p2: 
 
 H h- 
 
 •s> 
 
 ;c2i 
 
 I22I 
 
 =s=P=ff-- 
 
 :^=# 
 
 z^—pz—fziz 
 
 1=^ 
 
 '^m=m^-?^- 
 
 IZ2Z 
 
 IC2I 
 
 r 
 
 :ai 
 
 IZ2I 
 
 :?=- 
 
 :&e: 
 
 ?2:=t 
 
 _-izt 
 
 Z2: 
 
 5:p2=rp2iz-^ Jsz 
 
 -4 ! 1 — 
 
 m 
 
 =P2=^= 
 
 ^S>- 
 
 Esil^zieE 
 
 :?== 
 
 ^- 
 
 =P2= 
 
 E^ 
 
 :P2: 
 
 zzi-ci 
 
 =r 
 
 I22I 
 
 :pzq=p=s=^~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 2=P?3-«- 
 
 itol 
 
 ±:: 
 
 s 
 
 :i?t-i=zir.-^=^ 
 
 ?p2==^--S--=p: 
 
 :p2=--=it 
 
 Z2r 
 
 :ff=pi2^:::=-^; 
 
 itz 
 
 - ^—1 — -— 1 r 
 
 ■^J- 
 
 :^=t 
 
 The above (Ex. X.) might also be called a Canon 4 in 2 because 
 
54 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 there are four parts having two distinct subjects. On the same prin- 
 ciple Ex. I. shows a Canon 3 in 1 because there are three parts havmg 
 one subject; Ex. III., IV., V. show Canons 2 in 1; Ex. VI. a Canon 
 4 in 1 ; the fint number always showing the number of parts; the 
 second, the number of subjects. 
 
 LiTEKATTJBE. — J. M. Bononcini, " Musious practicus ; " Stuttgart, 1701. Mar- 
 purg, "Abhandlung von der Fuge" (new edition, by S. Sechter) ; Vienna: Spina. 
 Kirnberger, " Kunst des reinen Satzes; " Berlin, 1777. Albrechtsberger, "Anwei- 
 Bung zur Composition," p. 380 ; Vienna, 1829. Cnerubini, " Cours de Contrepoint," 
 p. 75. Anton ( Andr6) ; Offenbach, 1838. J. C. Lobe, " Lehrbuch der Composition," 
 vol. iii. ; Leipzig, 1860. S. W. Delin, " Lehre vom Contrapunltt, Canon ; " Berlin, 
 1859. Riciiter, " Lehrbuch der Fuge ; " Leipzig, 1859. Bellennann (Th.), " Der 
 Contrapunkt," etc., p. 285 ; Berlin, 1862. 
 
 YOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 SACRED FORMS. 
 
 ANTIPHONY. 
 
 In the ancient Church of the Jews there was an alternation of song, 
 
 one singer being answered by another or by a chorus in response, as 
 
 in tlie Song of Moses and the Children of Israel, and of Miriam the 
 
 Prophetess and all the women, with timbrels and with dancei;, after 
 
 the passage of the Re'd Sea. i?his same alternation of song is ..o be 
 
 traced in other notices of the Hebrew music throughout their history, 
 
 as e.g. in i Samuel xviii. 7, " the women answered one another as they 
 
 played." It was no doubt used at the first consecration of the 
 
 Temple and its subsequent restorations, and in the daily Morning and 
 
 Evening Sacrifices, at all of which a choral worship of the highest 
 
 possible grandeur of vocal and instrumental music was celebrated. 
 
 In the rebuilding of the Temple recorded by Ezra (iii. 10, 11) the 
 
 choral arrangements were newly set on foot, " And they sang together 
 
 hy course. . . . And all the peple shouted with a great shout, when 
 
 they praised the Lord." In Nehemiah xii. 24 the chief of the Levites 
 
 are spoken of as having "their brethren over against them, to praise 
 
 and to give thanks according to the commandment of David the man 
 
 of God, ward over against ward." And at the dedication of the 
 
 restored walls of Jerusalem the great procession of princes, priests, 
 
 and Levites was divided into two companies, headed by "them that 
 
 gave thanks," one going up from "the fountain-gate," "above the 
 
 house of David, even unto the water-gate eastward;" and the other 
 
 passing over against them," above the old gate and other towers, 
 
 stood still in the prison-gate. "And the singers sang loud, with 
 
 Jezrahiah their overseer. ... The wives also and the children 
 
 rejoiced; so that the joy of Jerusalem iVas hp<.rd even afar off." 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 55 
 
 We know from Josephus tbat this choral worship, thus renewed 
 after the Babyionish captivity, was continued in the Temple at 
 Jerusalem until the final destruction of the holy city. We also learn 
 from a treatise "On the Contemplative Life," by Philo Judajus, a 
 Platonic philosopher of Alexandria (about a.d. 50), that the Jewish 
 sect of the Therapeutse, in their social worship, were in the habit of 
 singing, in a similarly antiphonal manner, after supper : first in two 
 choirs, one of men and another of women, each with a leader of 
 superior skill and power of command, in the midst of the supper- 
 room, hymns to the honor of God, composed in various metres and 
 kinds of song. Afterwards, transported by their exercises both in 
 processions and stations, by gesture and exultation, and a divine 
 ecstasy, both choirs, the rnen and the women, joined together (as the 
 Bacchantes used to do) in one choir, inebriated as it were in their 
 pious rapture with pure draughts of the divine love, after the manner 
 of their forefathers' rejoicings at their deliverance on the shores of the 
 Ked Sea. Thus they blended their deep and high voices in most 
 sweet accord, and in pious, high-strained devotion they hailed the 
 rising sun, and, with hands outstretched to heaven, prayed for a 
 happy day, for the knowledge of the truth, and for clear mental 
 vision. And thus ending their devotion, they each retired to their 
 religious houses to work out and cultivate their accustomed philos- 
 ophy. 
 
 The sacred song of the first Christians would necessarily partake 
 largely of the characteristics of their national music, and, like other 
 elements of divine worship, would naturally partake of such Templar 
 peculiarities as were not, in the nature of things, mere shadows of a 
 better dispensation. Neither prayer nor praise, nor vocal and 
 instrumental music, were of the essence of the transitory rites of the 
 Levitical dispensation; they were rather a foretaste of the celestial 
 worship of Jerusalem above, and as such to be retained in the 
 Christian, as they had originated in the Jewish Church. History 
 confirms this supposition. From the first. Christian worship was 
 antiphonal. Pliny the younger. Governor of Pontus and Bithynia, 
 A.D. 110-111, stated in his letter to the Emperor Trajan, that the 
 Christians afiirmed that it was their practice to sing a hymn hy turns 
 to Christ as God; "carmen Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invicem." 
 Socrates, in his "Ecclesiastical History," tells of Ignatius, Bishop of 
 Antioch, who had conversed with the apostles, setting this antiphonal 
 worship in order, and of his having had a vision of the angels thus 
 adoring the Holy Trinity ; and, as Hooker writes, " one which must 
 be with us of greater authority," Isaiah, saw the Lord on a high 
 throne; the Seraphim stood upon it, "one cried unto another, and said. 
 Holy, holy, holy." The Psalms were the principal subject-matter of 
 this antiphonal singing, and in St. Basil's time (a.d. 371) the custom 
 was universal throughout the Eastern Churches of Egypt, Lybia, 
 Thebes, Palestine — Arabians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Mesopotamians, 
 and of all that reverenced the custom of singing psalms together; and 
 he adds that "in this holy exercise the choir, being divided into two 
 parts, they mutually answered each other" (n»7-i»nXXowii' oXX«Xois). The 
 word antiphon comes from the Greek ivn, "opposite," and i^avii, "a 
 sound ; " hence, in a general way, it expresses the alternate answering 
 of one voice, or one set of voices, to another. But the term has, for 
 upwards of thirteen centuries at least, been used specifically for the 
 
56 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 verse accompanying a psalm or group of psalms, taken sometirnes 
 from fhe psalm itself, sometimes from other sources, always suitable 
 to the festival, or particular service in which it is used ; and it serves 
 to guide the worshipper to such an application of the ancient psalms 
 as may transmute them into Christian hymns. 
 
 The music of the antiphon is more elaborate than the psalm-tone, 
 being a regular melodic plain-song composition, with one or more 
 notes to every syllable, and always ending on the final of its mode ; 
 thus, in any complete system of the ecclesiastical chant, the antiphon 
 governs the psalm, and in a practical sense is a sort of burthen or 
 refrain, sung as an introduction, and a final response to its accom- 
 panying psalm or psalms.* 
 
 HYMN. 
 
 The word Hymn (Greek V""? I Lat. hymnus ; Fr. and Ger. Hymne ; 
 Ital. inno) is, as St. Augustine says, " a song with the praise of God " 
 (" Cantus est cum laude Dei "); and again, " Si laudas Deum, et noii 
 cantas, non dicis hymnum. Si cantas, et non laudas Deum, non dicis 
 hymnum" (Augustin, in Psa. cxlviii). The hymn, as well as the 
 Psalms and other spiritual songs, is coeval with Christianity itself. 
 The New Testament not only commands their use, but contains some 
 of the actual words sung by the first Christians. There are various 
 historical allusions to the Church hymns in the first three centuries; 
 and in the fourth they were specially composed and appointed to 
 parts of the ritual by Bishop Hilary, of Poitiers, and by St. Ambrose. 
 The music of hymns is as various as the prose and metrical forms of 
 the words themselves. The celebrated "Te Deum" of St. Ambrose 
 and St. Augustin, with its traditional Ambrosian melody, may serve 
 as an example of prose hymns, or canticles; and the four sequences, 
 still retained out of hundreds of others in the Eoman Missal, together 
 with the office hymns of the Breviary, are the best-known specimens 
 of ancient metrical hymns. 
 
 The natural love of metre has from the earliest times exercised an 
 immense influence upon the worship of mankind in general, and of 
 the Christian Church in particular. Thus, notwithstanding the 
 opposition to any new thing on the part of ecclesiastical bigots 
 continually repeating itself, from the times when Sabellius and 
 Marcellus incensed the Church of Neocesarea against St. Basil, as 
 being an author of new devices in the service of God, a love of poetry 
 and melody in various metres has handed down to our own days a 
 vast collection of hymns, "the gradual accumulation of centuries; tVie 
 offerings of different epochs, of different countries, of different minds, 
 to the same treasury of the church." 
 
 At the era of the Reformation this taste ran into sad excess by the 
 rejection of the prose forms of psalms, hymns and even of prayers 
 themselves, in favor of metrical translations. Hymnody itself was 
 nearly crushed out, both at home and abroad, under the weight of 
 the Protestant versions of psalms and canticles, which not only 
 banished the proper music of the old Catholic psalms and canticles, 
 
 *"Cum psalmodiis autem antiphonae cantantur ; secundniu hujusenim melo- 
 dias tonum Psalmodia intonatur ab uno unius chori, et a duobus choris alternatim 
 cantatur, eaque absoluta, antiphona ab nmnibus perfeete repetitur et commuuiter 
 canitur." — PkjBTOK, Synt. i. 65- 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 57 
 
 causing tSem to be merely read, in slovenly antiphon of priest and 
 people (or the vicarious parish clerk), hut actually usurped the place 
 of the ancient Christian hymns, and — as ^as erroneously believed by 
 many conscientious English Churchmen— rendered it illegal to intro- 
 duce any hymn, ancient or modern, instead of the old version of the 
 Psalms bySternhold and Hopkins, or the new by Tate and Brady. 
 Religious fervor rebelled against such uncatholic restrictions and 
 perversions; the Nonconformist Protestants, and the followers of 
 Whitfield and Wesley, breaking away from the lugubrious strains of 
 Genevan and Scotch Presbyterian (so-called) psalmody, introduced a 
 more hearty and popular style of melody — not unfrequently, it must 
 be said, vulgar and meretricious, both in principle and in form, but 
 which has, among other collateral influences, happily superinduced 
 in the more Catholic-minded among English Christians a return to 
 the good old paths of ancient hymnody, and its plain-song melody; 
 while modern hymns and modern tunes have been vastly improved 
 in style by the revival of a more artistic and church-like taste con- 
 sequent on the study of the purer forms of Church music. 
 
 AMBROSIAN HYMN 
 
 is a musical setting of the " Te Deum " in plain-song, thus called 
 because the words are ascribed to Bishop Ambrosius of Milan. 
 According to tradition this hymn was first sung by Ambrosius whilst 
 christening St. Augustine, a.d. 386, and it is further stated that both 
 Ambrosius and Augustine were inspired with the tune at the same 
 time ; but subsequent researches have shown that the hymn-tune is 
 originally an oriental one, which was received by the Latin Church 
 from the Greek Church.* 
 
 ANTHEM. 
 
 The word itself is said by some authors to be derived from ant- 
 hymn, a kind of antiphony. According to H. Ch. Koch ("Musika- 
 lisches Lexicon"), and Mattheson ("Ehrenpforte") "anthem "was 
 at first synonymous with " antiphony." Byrd, Tallis, and other of our 
 earliest [lost-Reformation composers wrote anthems in the style of 
 motets. Purcell and others at the Restoration introduced solo 
 anthems, as had Orlando Gibbons in Charles I's reign. Handel 
 wrote 8-nthems which may be called a mixture of a motet and a 
 German sacred cantata. From the motet Handel's anthem derived 
 the broadly planned and artistically worked-out choruses (the words 
 taken from the Bible); from the cantata the anthem took the solo 
 parts and the orchestral acoompnTiiments (see Chrysander's " Life of 
 Handel,"vol. i. p.459). Another definition of the anthem is: "Anthem, 
 a composition for voices, with or without organ or other instrumental 
 accompaniments, enjoined by the ritual of the Anglican Church to be 
 sung at morning and evening service, 'in choirs or places where they 
 sing.'" It is an ornament of the service reserved for the choir, in 
 which the congregation takes no part. 
 
 *See Eambach^ "Anthologie christlicher Xirchengesange," i. p. 91; Fortlage 
 " Gesange christlicher Voizeit," p. 367. 
 
58 MUSICAL, FORMS. 
 
 MOTET. 
 
 (Ital. Motetto, also Moteta, Motecta, Muteta, Modeta.) 
 
 The last species of the hymn we have to notice is thy Motet. 
 Opinions differ as to the origin of the word motet. The great German 
 historian of music, Winterfeld, a high authority in matters of sacred 
 music, derives the word motet from the French mot, or " word," from 
 the fact that the text of a motet must always be a verse from the Bible. 
 Other scholars think that it comes from motus and movere, "to move," 
 inasmuch as the style of the motet is livelier and more brisk than that 
 of other religious music; again it has been asserted that in mutare, 
 " to change," the real origin of the word is to be sought, as the motet 
 includes so many different ways of characteristic expression. The 
 first motets were constructed on a cantusfirmua, or plain-chant, which 
 was taken from the Gregorian chant. From Bach, however, the 
 motet received a much freer expression. That great master abandoned 
 to some extent the oantusfirmus and substituted for it the Protestant 
 choral. In the Eoman Mass a motet may be sang during the offer- 
 tory. 
 
 MASS. 
 
 The Latin word is missa ; the Italian messa ; the French and German, 
 Messe. All may be interpreted as meaning Missa est, "it is pronounced." 
 The Mass comprises three parts: 1. The Offertorium, or Offertory; 2. The 
 Benediction, or Blessing; 3. The Sumption, or Keception. These 
 three parts respectively contain the following distinct pieces: theKyrie 
 Eieison, the Gloria, the Credo, the Sanctus, the Benedictus, and 
 finally the Agnus Dei, with the additional "Dona nobis pacem." 
 According to the number and rank of the officiating priests, the 
 accompanying solemnity of ceremonial, and the co-operation of a 
 choir, the Mass is called a High or Solemn Mass, or a Low Mass. It 
 may safely be asserted that almost every composer of eminence wrote 
 Masses ; and if a complete list of these compositions were made, the 
 number would without exaggeration amount to tens of thousands. 
 Among the older composers the name of Giovanni P. Palestrina is 
 especially identified with the Mass; and among the modern com- 
 posers, the two Haydns (Joseph and Michael), Mozart, Cherubim, 
 Beethoven, and Hummel. 
 
 The "Funeral Mass," which, as its name implies, is devoted to the 
 memory of the dead, is called "Missa pro defunctis," or "Requiem," 
 the latter title being an abridgment of the words of the Mass, 
 "Requiem seternam dona eis;" or in English, "Rest eternal grant 
 Thou to them." The order in which the service of the Requiem 
 follows is : — 
 
 1. Requiem seternam, Kyrie Eieison. Reading of the prayer and 
 epistle Tractus. 2. Dies irse, dies ilia. Prayer for eternal rest. 3. 
 Domini Jesu Christe. 4. Sanctus, Benedictus. 5. Agnus Dei, Lux 
 aeterna. The two most celebrated compositions of this kind are by 
 Mozart and Cherubini. Mozart's " Requiem " stands forth pre-eminent 
 in our musical literature as something unapproachable by ordinary 
 criticism, as a thing to be judged and measured only by its gigantic 
 sell bounds like those of ihe " Lacrymosa;" and the thrilling chords 
 with which the "Confutatis" closes, do not seem to belong to this 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 59 
 
 nether world ; and indeed the illustrious composer, whose career was 
 so sadly and prematurely closed, penned part of his " Requiem " 
 actually on his deathbed; and while the shadows of death were clos- 
 ing around him he murmured passages of this his most beloved work. 
 The Mass, together with the Oratorio, forms the most important 
 branch of sacred music; and, when we consider that it contains six 
 distinct features or opportunities for expression, we cannot wonder at 
 the many composers who have written in this form. One displayed 
 his strength in the Benedictus, another in the Gloria; the Kyrie 
 Eleison, with its supplementary Christe Eleison, was mostly used to 
 exhibit skill in fugue-writing. Ultimately, especially in the south of 
 Germany and Italy, the mode of writing Masses degenerated into a 
 vulgar and frivolous style, devoid of all devotional and religious 
 feeling; but on the other hand we have such masterpieces as the 
 stupendous " Missa solemnis " of Beethoven, one of the greatest 
 monuments of musical art. Before we proceed to the form of the 
 Oratorio we have to mention some minor sacred forms, which have 
 become celebrated through their respective composers. 
 
 INTROIT. 
 
 (Lat. introitus ; Fr. introit.) 
 
 The commencement of the Liturgy proper — i.e. Holy Communion 
 or Mass — is the Introit, of which there are authentic records from the 
 beginning of the fifth century. Celestine I. ordered the Psalms of 
 David; and St. Gregory the Great has set, in his famous " Antiphon- 
 ary," one psalm to be sung antiphonally whilst the sacred ministers 
 were proceeding from the sacris'y and entering the presbyterium. 
 The first Prayer Book of our Edward VI. also appoints a psalm for 
 the introit for each Sunday in the year; and in a manner the place 
 has been traditionally kept open for this beautiful introduction to the 
 service by the use of a misplaced sanctus, a modern anthem, or a 
 metrical hymn. 
 
 On Ferias (or ordinary weekdays) one chorister intones the antiphon; 
 two, or more, on festivals, according to their solemnity. The entire 
 choir after this commencement falls in, and finishes it; then the one 
 or more choristers, as before mentioned, sing the half verse of the 
 psalm, and, in its place, half of the Gloria Patri, the full choir 
 responding with the remaining half. 
 
 The time for commencing the introit is when the celebrant has 
 reached the altar-steps; and the music should be Gregorian, even 
 when the other portions of the service are sung to harmonized 
 music. 
 
 GRADUAL. 
 
 (Grer. Stufen- or Staffelgescmg.) 
 
 We find the origin of the name of this form of song-writing in the 
 word gradus, "steps." Whilst the gradual was sung by the chorus, 
 the officiating priest either stood on the steps by the lectern, or 
 ascended the steps of the altar, from which the Gospel was to be 
 read. The gradual can be made the exponent of different kmds of 
 sentiments, according as it is employed for the celebration of the 
 
go MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 respective holidays or feasts. The graduals used in the services of 
 Christmas or of other joyful holidays have, as a coda, a hallelujah,- 
 and this again concludes with a so-called Jubilus on the vowel a, 
 expressing, by means of certain florid passages, the joy of the 
 congregation. The best modern graduals were written by Joseph and 
 Michael Haydn, by Mozart, Cherubini, and Hummel. At present 
 the gradual occupies in the Mass a position immediately after the 
 Epistle. 
 
 OFFEETOEY. 
 
 (Lat. and Ger. Offertorium; Fr. offerloire; Ital. offertorio.) 
 
 An anthem or hymn sung from the earliest times in the Liturgy, 
 whilst the contributions of the faithful for the poor and other ofl'er- 
 ings were collected, and is still used while the celebrant is preparing 
 to offer the oblations previous to the consecration of the elements. 
 
 The ofl'ertory properly consists of an extract from the Psalms or 
 some other portion of Scripture. Like the introit, it is intoned by 
 one, two, or three and four chanters, according to circumstances, and 
 then continued to the end by the full choir. 
 
 In Paschal-time a hallelujah is added. If there be time a motet 
 suited to the occasion may be sung after the offertory. 
 
 The expression of the offertory ought to be soft, devotional, and 
 subdued. 
 
 STABAT MATEE. 
 
 This work is one of the five sequences of the Latin Gradual, and, 
 musically considered, a sacred cantata, which begins with the words 
 " Stabat Mater dolorosa," and which describes the agony and suffering 
 of the Holy Virgin standing at the Cross of the Saviour. The text has 
 been attributed to various authors, among them Pope John XXII. 
 and one of the Gregories ; but generally the Franciscan friar Jacobus 
 de Benedictus (commonly called Jacoponus) is credited with the 
 composition of the somewhat quaint and uncouth verses. With 
 regard to musical composition the "Stabat" for eight voices by 
 Palestrina, that for two female voices by Pergolesi, that by Astorga, 
 Joseph Haydn, and lastly that by Eossini (though this last is by no 
 means strictly a sacred work) are the most renowned specimens of 
 this kind of sacred song. When the Stabat is performed in the Eoman 
 Catholic Church it is used as a so-called "sequence" to be sung during 
 the service of the " Seven Sufferings of the Virgin." The first lines oif 
 the five sequences retained in the Eoman Catholic Church are: 
 Vidimse Pasehali, Easter ; Vent, Sancte Spirittts, Pentecost ; Lauda Sion, 
 Corpus Christi ; Stabat Mater dolorosa, Seven Dolors of JB.V.M. ; Dies 
 irse, a specialty of the Mass for the Dead. 
 
 MISEEEEE. 
 
 The Muerere is another celebrated ccmposition ; the "Miserere raei, 
 Deus " (Lord, have mercy upon me) is m fact the fifty-first Psalm, 
 and is daily sung in monasteries at midnight as a prayer to implore 
 mercy for the coming day. When sung after midnight the service is 
 called Mattutino, or in English, " Matins ; " but when sung in the 
 afternoon of Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, during the Holy 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 61 
 
 Week it is called the Dark Service, or Tenebrx. The most famous 
 Miserere is that by Allegri, sung during Easter Week by the choristers 
 in the Sistine Chapel. When the Miserere begins, the pope and 
 cardinals fall on their knees, and they remain in that position until 
 its conclusion. It is well known that all copying of Allegri's compo- 
 sition was strictly forbidden. The work was for a" long time the 
 exclusive property of the papal choir; but this precaution was 
 frustrated by the prodigious memory of Mozart, who at the age of 
 fifteen heard Allegri's "Miserere" during his stay in Eome and 
 noted it down on paper. There are two minor forms, the " Salva 
 regina " and " Ave verum Corpus ; " the former is founded on the 
 words of Pietro di Compostella, and belongs to the sntiphonies 
 dedicated to the Feasts of the Holy Virgin; the latter ia a snort piece, 
 mostly performed during the procession of the Corpus Onnsti. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS. 
 
 Lastly, we have to mention the " Lamentations," founded on the 
 words of the prophet Jeremiah, and sung at night during Passion 
 Week. 
 
 CANTICUM. 
 
 In English, " canticle," an ecclesiastical song of praise or a hymn. 
 The three canticles from the New Testament— that of Mary, " My 
 soul doth magnify the Lord ; " that of Zacharias, " Blessed be the 
 Lord God of Israel ; " and that of Simeon, " Lord, now lettest Thou 
 Thy servant " — were called oantioa majora or evangelica, and were and 
 are daily used in the Church service. The Old Testament contains 
 seven smaller canticles (minora), distributed among the seven days of 
 the week. The greater canticles are sung with their antiphonies in a 
 slower and more solemn manner than the lesser canticles and 
 ordinary psalmody. 
 
 MAGNIFICAT. 
 
 Ciinticum beatse virginis (St. Luke i. 46-55). (See also Canticum.) 
 One of three cantica majora or evangelica, beginning with the words 
 "Magnificat anima mea Dominum" ("My soul doth magnify the 
 Lord"). 
 
 This hymn is used in the Roman Catholic as well as in the 
 Protestant service, and has been set by many composers. (See Bona, 
 "Psalraod." p. 525.) Among the most celebrated settings of the 
 Magnificat may be named those of Erba, Sebastian Bach, Palestrina 
 (Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 282), Lotti, Lassus (Proske, A., vol. iii. pp. 253- 
 278), Pitoni (Liick, vol. ii. p. 220), Morales (Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 298), 
 and Marenzio (Proske, A., vol. iii. p. 325). 
 
 LAUDA SION SALVATOREM. 
 
 I'he first sequence or service for the Corpus Christi, written by 
 Thomas Aquinas, who wrote the liturgy for this feast in 1269, at the 
 request of Pope Urban X. It is not known whether the very solemn 
 melody was composed by the author of the words. (Noble examples 
 of this style are Palestrina's Motet " Lauda Sion " for eight voices 
 (1575), and Mendelssohn's similarly-named composition, written for 
 Liege, 1845.) 
 
62 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 LAUDES. 
 
 In the Roman Catholic Liturgy the term " Laudes" is applied to the 
 Hallelujah which is sung between the Epistle and the Gospel; also, 
 according to Walther-, the last piece of the nocturnal service, for which 
 the 148th Psalm and the two following were sung. 
 
 LAUDES EPISCOPI. 
 
 According to Koch's old Lexicon, Laudes Episcopi were old Gallic 
 melodies, which were, up to the time of the French Revolution, sung 
 by the canons in some French cathedrals before the epistle on the 
 principal feast days. 
 
 LAUDI SPIRITUALI 
 
 were short hymns for four voices, composed by Animuccia and 
 Palestrina for the services of prayer of Philippo Neri. These Laudi 
 spirituali, sometimes alternating with a soliloquy, are in fact the 
 modest beginning of the Oratorio. 
 
 ORATORIO. 
 
 The name Oratorio is derived from the "Oratory" — the sanctuary 
 for prayer — in which the zealous Roman Priest St. Philippo Neri 
 assembled his congregation. The first oratorios treated exclusively of the 
 story of our Saviour's sufferings, and were by no means identical with 
 the form, as elaborated and perfected by Handel or Mendelssohn; indeed 
 the musical part of the ceremony might be called the subordinate one, 
 in so far as the sermon, interpolated between the different choruses, 
 occupied the longer time. The earliest specimens of the Italian 
 Oratorio consisted of antiphonies, and more particularly of short 
 choruses, which were called "Laudi spirituali." Neri's efforts to 
 interest his congregation in this respect were most energetically 
 seconded by Animuccia and Palestrina. The Oratorio, as it was 
 performed in the oratory of Neri, could, however, not permanently 
 fascinate his hearers ; and as the invention of the Opera happened to 
 take place at the same time in Florence, the tendency to introduce a 
 certain dramatic element into the sacred form was soon apparent. 
 The first dramatic oratorio, produced with the strange accessories of 
 scenery and costume, was composed by Emilio del Cavaliere, and was 
 called " L'Anima ed il Corpo " ("The Soul and the Body"). Later 
 Italian composers — for instance Alessandro Scarlatti, and most par- 
 ticularly Carissimi — selected for treatment biblical subjects apart from 
 the history of the Saviour ; and the short but exceedingly beautiful 
 oratorio " Jephtha " of Carissimi already exhibits all the chief 
 component elements of the later oratorios of Handel. The master- 
 mind of Handel could not fail to appreciate the wealth of intrinsic 
 power and interest contained in the form of the Oratorio ; and he 
 infused still greater dramatic expression into it. He chose almost all 
 his texts from the Old Testament, and concentrated the chief strength 
 "? the chorus. Thus we could call the Oratorio of Handel a kind of 
 hibhcal drama; from this designation we shorM, however, except his 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 63 
 
 "Messiah," which exhibits a more strictly lyrical expression* 
 Among the most celebrated Italian composers of oratorios are, 
 Carissimi, Steffani, Alessandro Scarlatti, Hasse; and among the 
 German composers we must name Schiitz, Handel, Keyser, Telemann, 
 Mattheson, Emanuel Bach, Graun, Spohr, Beethoven, and Men- 
 delssohn. Though it had not the influence on the progress of music in 
 general which was exercised by the Opera, the Oratorio occupies one 
 of the chief places amongst musical forms ; and the great perfection 
 which choral-writing has achieved is, if not entirely, at least greatly due 
 to the Oratorio. 
 
 LlTEBATUBB.— Chrysander (Fr.), " Ueber das Oratorium ; " Sehwerin, 1853. 
 Bitter (C. H.), Beitrage zar Geschiohte des Oratoriums ; " Berlin, 1872. Finck 
 (G. W.), " Enoyolopadie des gesammten musikalischen Wissenschalten," vol. v. 
 pp. 259-268; Stuttgart, 1837. Winterfeld (C. G. A.), "Johannes Gabrieli und 
 sein ZeitaJter;" Berlin 1834, II. D. Jalin (Otto), "Ueber Mendelssohn's 
 Paulus.' " " Gesammelte Aufeatze iiber Musik," pp. 13-20; Leipzig, 1866. 
 
 PASSION-MUSIC. 
 
 As a branch of the Oratorio we must mention the Passion-music. 
 The Passion-music originated in the Mysteries or Passion-plays; and 
 at a later period adapted itself to almost all the forms which the 
 Oratorio had taken. The chief difference between the Passion-music 
 and the Oratorio is first of all that the Passion-music necessarily treats 
 of the suffierings and death of our Saviour— that the story is related in 
 the words of one of the Evangelists — and that the so-called imaginary 
 congregation takes a part in the action, by singing chorals. As the 
 choral is essentially an integral part of the Protestant service, it 
 necessarily follows that Passion-music has been chiefly composed by 
 Protestant and especially German masters; for it was in Germany 
 that Protestantism first took root. The introduction of chorals in 
 Mendelssohn's oratorio of "St. Paul" is an adaptation of Bach's 
 method. The following quotation is of interest : — 
 
 * E. Naumann, in his interesting work " Deutsche Tondichter," makes the 
 following remarks about Handel's oratorios : "Most nations possess some great epic 
 poem, constructed more or less on the model of the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey.' 
 Thus, the Germans have the ' Nibelungeulied,' the Italians 'La Divina Com- 
 media,' the English ' Paradise Lost.' Among the epic personages of the Israel of 
 old are Esther, Deborah, AthaJia, Judas Maccabseus, Joseph, Joshua, Solomon, 
 Jephtha, Saul, and Samson ; and to celebrate these personages in lofty song was 
 surely a noble task for a composer whose own nature and character were 
 essentially heroic. Milton's genius soared to the contemplation of the highest 
 truths vouchsafed to man, and so it was with Handel. Although weassociate the 
 word Oratorio, which generally designates a sacred composition, with the works 
 of Handel, these works might more properly be termed ' musical epics,' for it was 
 chiefly the heroic or epic form he found in his subject, which he represented so 
 gloriously in his music. When, for instance, in his ' Judas Maccabseus,' the 
 chorus shouts — 
 
 Lead on, lead on I Judah disdains the galling load of hostile chains, 
 
 it is decidedly a martial hero rather than a sacred religious personage who is 
 invoked. In the oratorios of Handel the religious element forms merely the 
 back-ground ; one single oratorio we of course except from this observation, and 
 this is the ' Messiah.' That Handel's oratorios are really treated as epic, not as 
 religious pieces, will be abundantly proved by reference to his 'Alexander's 
 Feast.' ' Acis and Galatea,' ' Belshazzar,' ' Hercules,' and ' Semele.' " 
 
64 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 " From primitive times it was the custom of tke Church to keep green the 
 memory of the sacred history by a pabilu nmiuirion, on Palm Sunday and Good 
 Friday, of those chapters in one or other of the Gospels which relate the circum- 
 stances of the Passion. To give dramatic force to the narration the several 
 personages who speak in the course of it were represented by different individuals, 
 whereas he who recites the story was, throughout, the same. Thus a letter of 
 Mendelssohn recounts how, at Kome among tlie solemnities of Passion Week, in 
 the Sistiiie Chapel, in 1S31, the portion of St. John's Gospel was sung on Good 
 Friday^ when the part of the Evangelist was sustained by a tenor, the words 
 belonging to Jesus were assigned to a bass, those of Peter, Pilate, and the Maid 
 Servant were given by an aito, and those of tije multitude — whether the disciples, 
 the populace, or the priests — were sung by the chorus. These choral fragments 
 are denned as Turbse. The whole was chanted upon so-called Gregorian tones ; 
 and its Bomau use in the same form and to the same music has been from time 
 immemorial. 
 
 "It was a special design of Luther to retain, in the Eeformed Church, this 
 primitive usage of periodically reciting the story of the Passion. According to 
 his desire the simple manner of its intonation in his own time, by two priests 
 only, was early amplified, and a German version of the text was printed at 
 Wittenburg, in 1573, with music for the recitation, and introductory and final 
 choruses, which, like the Turbse, are harmonized in four parts. A more 
 elaborated composition appeared in 1.588, the work of Bartholomaus Gese, in 
 which the part cf Jesus is always set for four voices, those of Peter and Pilate for 
 three, those of the Maid Servants for two, and the Turbse are written for five 
 voices — a peculiar distribution, that would distinguish the several individualities, 
 but little tend to the dramatic eifect of the performance. Heinrich Schiitz, one oi 
 the most distinguished musicians of his time, composed, shortly before the close of 
 his very long life, music for the Passion, as related in each of the four Gospels. 
 The advanced resources of the art are applied in each of these four works, especially 
 in the elaboration of the chorals or hymn-tunes that constitute the final choruses. 
 In 1672, the year of the death of Schiitz, Johann Sebastiani produced a ' Passion,' 
 in which, for the first time, the part of the Evangelist, or narrator, was set to 
 original recitative, instead of to the old ecclesiastical plain-song, and in which, 
 also for the first time, string instruments were employed, instead of the accom- 
 paniment being restricted to the organ. 
 
 " The great advance that had been made in dramatic mnsic, at the beginning of 
 tlie eighteenth century, which was esiiei-ially manifest in Hamburg, induced there 
 the extended development of art forms in the settings of the 'Passion.' So, ir. 
 1704, the voluminous Reinhard Keiser, who was then director of the opera in that 
 city, brought out ' Der Blutige uud Sterbende Jesus,' a work to the same purpose 
 of relating the Gospel story ,T)ut peculiar in being set to an original poem instead 
 of to the biblical text. In this first occurs the term ' soliloquia,' to define a species 
 of cantata or intermixture of recitative and rhythmical movements, of which there 
 are three spacim.^ns in the work, that consist of reflections, for a single voice, upon 
 the principal incidents. Another composition by Keiser appeared in 1712, which 
 also was set to an original poem, wherein, however, the scriptural order of the 
 story was more strictly followed than in the preceding. 
 
 " The text of this work was by Brookes, a Hamburg poet, and it seems to have 
 been highly esteemed, for it was set to music also by Handel, in 1717, by 
 Telemann and by Mattheson, and some passages from it are introduced .in St. 
 John's version of the Passion, as set by Bach. Handel composed another work on 
 the same subject, when but nineteen years old, during his sojourn in Hamburg in 
 1704, which, as well as the production of 1717, is interspersed with chorals after 
 tlie manner of the early Lutheran Church, pursued also by Bach." * 
 
 LiTERATUKE. — Mosewius, " J. S. Bach's Matthaus-passion ; " Berlin, 1852. 
 Chrysander (Fr.), "Handel," vol. i. p. 38. Dommer (A. von), "Elemente der 
 Musik," p. 353. Macfarren (G. A.), Preface to Seb. Bach's "Passion of St. 
 Matthew ; " London : Novello, Ewer and Co. 
 
 * Extracted from Sir G. A. Macfaeken's Preface to Sebastian Bach's music of 
 the Passion, ar.sording to St, Matthew. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 OHOEAL. 
 
 The Choral itself must rank as a strictly Protestant musical form. 
 The choral is essentially a psalm-tune. Its origin may be traced as 
 far back as the time of Gregory I. ; but the modern choral, which we 
 derive from Martin Luther, is quite distinct from those tunes used in 
 'jhe Roman Catholic Church. It was the endeavor of the great 
 Eeformer to incite the people to a more active participation in the 
 religious service; therefore he chose the most popular national 
 melodies, to which he wrote sacred words, mostly paraphrases of the 
 Psalms. As it had been customary with earlier Italian composers to 
 construct their fugues, canons, and other choruses on the foundation 
 of the Ambrosian or Gregorian chant, so it became a habit with 
 Sebastian Bach and his followers to build the most complicated works 
 upon the foundation of a choral. Some of the most interesting 
 specimens of this form of sacred song are to be found in Bach's St. 
 Matthew Passion, in his " Christmas Oratorio," and la his numerous 
 motets and cantatas. 
 
 It may be asserted that the choral owes its existence to the obstacles 
 which the Roman Catholic clergy placed in the way of the Germans, 
 whom they tried to prevent from singing their religious hymns in 
 their native language. Prom time immemorial the Germans were 
 used to sing their war-songs and ballads in their own language. The 
 Roman Church, always an enemy to nationality, forbade with all its 
 autnority the use of the German language, and vainly tried to prevent 
 the excellent monks Otfried from Weissenburg (in Alsace), Eutpert 
 of St. Gallen, and Wather Labeo, another Swiss, from introducing 
 German hymns into the Roman Catholic Liturgy. The tyranny of 
 the Church of Rome went so far as to shut out the congregation from 
 all active participation in the service, save from responding with a 
 "Kyrie Eleison" and "Christe Eleison," whilst the singing of the 
 Psaims and hymns were confided solely to the officiating clergy. 
 This strange prohibition was maintained in such a ridiculous degree 
 that during one single service the congregation had to repeat about 
 three hundred times the "Kyrie Eleison." Such exaggeration could 
 not result in anything but mere senseless noise; t^nd at last per- 
 mission was given for the translation of hymns with Latin words into 
 German, on condition, however, that each verse of these songs was to 
 finish with the "Kyrie Eleison." Prom this refrain originates the 
 term "Leisen," given to hymns of this kind. It was not till the 
 twelfth century, when the Crusades gave a stimulus to religious 
 enthusiasm, that poets wrote sacred songs in Germany and adapted 
 them to the tunes of the before-mentioned "Leisen." Thus the 
 earliest popular sacred music had its origin amcng the Germans; and 
 the people, forbidden to take part in the Church service in their 
 native language, could not be prevented from singing their simple 
 national hymns on solenm and festive occasions, like the annual 
 pilgrimage to Rome, the Feast of Corpus Christi, during the annual 
 memorial Feasts of Saints, or in time of general supplications for rain, 
 for fine weather, etc. The^e national songs received great encourage- 
 ment through the minstrels (Minnesanger), in as far as the songs of 
 these poets, although generally secular, were received with universal 
 favor, and obtained more than a transitory influence. Thus we find 
 flourishing at that time " Marienlieder," or songs in honor of the Holy 
 5 
 
66 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Virgin ; the songs of the palmers or pilgrims ; the songs of the boatm,en 
 and the religious war-songs. Among the latter we may mention the 
 song, sung by the German troops during the war of their Empeior 
 Eodolph of Hapsburg, and Ottokar of Bohemia, in 1273. It begins 
 thus : — 
 
 Holy Mary, mother and maid. 
 
 All our grief to thee be said. 
 
 Another well-known hymn was that sung during the festival ot 
 Whitsuntide : — 
 
 And now to the Holy Ghost we pray 
 
 To give us the right belief al way : 
 
 That, as to our life's end, guard may be. 
 
 And from all our woe may set us free. 
 
 Kyrie Bleison. 
 
 This hymn was adapted by Luther, under the name " And now we 
 pray to the Holy Ghost." Apart from the above-named instances of 
 the use of religious songs in the " vulgar tongue " of the various 
 worshippers, the Waldenses in France, and the Heretics of Germany, 
 established the institution of secular psalm-singing as a specialty of 
 their creed. That a similar movement occurred at a later period in 
 England is shown by the epithet " psalmsingers," contemptuously 
 applied by the cavaliers in Charles I.'s time to their jealous though 
 fanatical foes. 
 
 The members of another religious sect, that of the Flnffellants, which 
 had declared itself independent of the Roman hierarchy, sang German 
 religious songs and contributed largely to popularize this custom. 
 But it was not till in the fifteenth century that regular German church 
 songs were written, and generally accepted, and this most important 
 fact we owe to Johann Huss, the Wickcliffe of Bohemia. Although 
 the Council of Constanz forbade in 1415 the use of these songs, they 
 had already taken too firm a hold in the people's hearts to be 
 effectually prohibited, and after the time of Huss the community of 
 Bohemian or Moravian brothers did everything in their power to 
 improve these hymns and establish their use. Four hundred were 
 collected by Bishop Lucas, and published in 1504. This is in reality 
 the first hymn-book containing melodies set to native words. We 
 come now to the question — from what materials were these songs 
 collected? We find that they may be classed into four categories: — 
 
 1. German translations of Latin church hymns. 
 
 2. Half German and half Latin, or so-called mixed songs ; a strang;e 
 assortment written, almost as a pastime by the monks, and whimsi- 
 cally made up of dog-Latin and modern languages. 
 
 3. Original German songs for religious festivals, etc. 
 
 4. Paraphrases of German national and love songs. 
 
 Of this last class it may not be uninteresting to cite a few examples. 
 Their boldness and their outspoken language would produce an 
 almost repulsive impression of profanity, weighed by a modern 
 standard ; but in matters of history we must be tolerant and beariii 
 mind that in those days many things were uttered in mere simplicity 
 of heart, while in later times the humble and low origin of these 
 songs was forgotten. In one case the secular song runs thus : — 
 
 The dearest lover whom I have, 
 Lies in the host his cellar. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 67 
 
 Of this ver^ outspoken sentiment appeared the following astounding 
 contrafactum or paraphrase : — 
 
 The dearest master that I have, 
 Is bound by love to me. 
 
 Another song runs thus : — 
 
 There was a man had lost his wife. 
 Contrafactum, in a sacred style : — 
 
 There was a man had lost God's grace. 
 In the same manner is the well-known secular Journeyman's Song: — 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 i~il 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 ? 
 
 :si 
 
 221 
 
 -.ri 
 
 ISZ 
 
 f 
 
 SE 
 
 I22Z 
 
 Inns-bruck, I must 
 
 r 
 
 for 
 
 :^=^= 
 
 i^gi 
 
 :S- 
 
 I 
 
 thee, And 
 
 m 
 
 on my way be - take me In - to 
 
 me In • to the dis-tant land. 
 
 ^-Eg^EE^ 
 
 z2ifTr^ 
 
 Z2: 
 
 r 
 
 ^^ 
 
 _CJ cJz 
 
 :e2itri 
 
 EgEE^: 
 
 rz2i22: 
 
 ::z2z 
 
 z^=~^-- 
 
 O world, I must for sake thee, And on my way be 
 
 IS2Z 
 
 l=t. 
 
 ^EE^E 
 
 •iSi S" SI- -^s- 
 
 :g==2= 
 
 ;e2z:?2. 
 
 ::?=: 
 
 -zy- 
 
 ^iE 
 
 IZ2I 
 
 =s- 
 
 ICil 
 
 =s= 
 
 -rr 
 
 take me 
 
 To His e ter - nal land. 
 
 32r 
 
 J. 
 
 IC2I 
 
 IS2Z 
 
 -s=>= 
 
68 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Out of these vulgar, seemingly insignificant elements the Protestant 
 choral arose. That such songs could not satisfy public feeling for any 
 length of time, is evident; and we shall find that Luther's translation 
 of the Bible did not only furnish the foundation for the High-German 
 language, but also presented a model for the excellent church hymns, 
 of which the Protestant Church of Germany can boast so great a 
 number, and of which many have become popular in an English garb. 
 Luther writes to his friend George Spalatin : " It is my intention to 
 write German psalms for the people, after the example of the Prophets 
 
 and the old Fathers of the Church Therefore we are seeking 
 
 poets everywhere I would pray, however, that the new words 
 
 be kept away from the court, that they may all be according to the 
 capacity of the common people, quite simple and vulgar, arid yet come 
 out in a clear and telling way, and that the meaning be given full plainly, 
 and according to the spirit of the psalm." The suggestion of Luther met 
 with almost universal approval, and his ideas soon received an artistic 
 development. " The people sang themselves into enthusiasm for the 
 new religion, and many who were hostile to the name of Luther were 
 converted to his tenets by the irresistible charm of the simple and 
 touching Protestant Church psalmody." 
 
 LiTEBATUKE.— Schameliaa (Johann Martin), " Evangelischer Lieder Commen- 
 tarius;" Leipzig, 1737. Eiederer ( Johaun Bartholomseus), " Abhandlung von 
 Kinfiihrung des deutschen Gesanges," etc.; Niimberg, 1759. Sc'nobor (David 
 Gottfried ), " Beitrag zur Lieder-Historie," etc.; Leipzig, 1760. " Eurze Geschichte 
 der deutschen Kirchenlieder," Coburg, 1775. Kocher (Conrad), "DieTonkunst 
 in der Kirche," etc. ; Stuttgart, 1823. Bohmer (J. G.), "Ueber Kirchenmnsik, 
 etc., in der Eutonia," 1831, vol. v. pp. 25-43. Wolf (Johann), " Kurze Geschichte 
 des deutschen Kirehengesanges ; " Gottingen, 1815. 
 
 THE FIGUEED CHOEAL. 
 
 This is a contrapuntal elaboration of all or of the separate parts of 
 the choral by means of melodiously moving figures ; it can be arranged 
 for song with or without orchestra or especially for the organ. The 
 most simple application of it is generally used by the organist, in so 
 far as he tries to introduce a certain figure (in the middle or upper 
 parts) whilst the choral is being sung. We here give an example from 
 Sebastian Bach :— 
 
 "Herzlich thut Mich verlangen." 
 
 Flauto 1, 2. Mjlody by Hans Leo Haslek (1001). 
 
 i$ 
 
 Organ and Voices. 
 
 Ibe^Se 
 
 ^- J— = J=:r= ^—.= 
 
 J 
 
 P ^^g^E I^g 
 
 irt— i: 
 
 ii=pi 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 P 
 
 -iri- 
 
 T 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 ^A 
 
 =P=i=ii 
 
 -! — r 
 
 T^ 
 
 But the figured choral is also used as a kind of prelude, in so far as 
 the organist takes the choral, afterwards to be sung by the congrega- 
 tion, for the cantus firmus, and elaborates it with all possible contra- 
 puntal, melodious, and harmonious devices, in this art no one has 
 excelled so much as Sebastian Bach, whose " Choral-Vorspiele " (Pre- 
 ludes) are marvellous instances of consummate mastery oyer all 
 scientific rules ; exhibiting a complete command of every combination 
 recognized in the musical art. The student is advised to examine 
 carefully the following chorals in Bach's arrangement:— Peters's edi- 
 tion, No. 23, vol. ii. pp. 201, 233, 235, 271, 280, 286 (from the "Christmas 
 Oratorio"), 298, 319. C. von Winterfield, " Evangelische Kirchenge- 
 sange," vol. iii. pp. 172, 226, 230; Leipzig : Breitkopf and Hartel. 
 
 PSALMS {psalmm, salmo), PSALMODY {pscdmodia). 
 The poems ascribed to King David were also introduced in the 
 earliest times into Christian worship, and the people were never tired 
 of singing them before and after their meals andof using them at their 
 prayers. The manner of singing the Psalms is called psalmody; it is 
 actually a medium between reciting and speaking, each psalm-tune 
 is bound to a certain tonality. In its rhythmical expression it follows 
 strictly the metre of the words, and marks the beginning of the verse 
 
70 ..lUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 merely by an up-?v„.v. ^r downward movement ; whilst the voice keeps, 
 during the beginning of the verse, on one tone only. 
 
 ^-♦— ♦--♦—♦— »—♦—♦— ♦ ■ ^ :=♦— ♦.-:zir^--i 
 
 Ad te le - va - vi o - cu - los me - os. Qui ha - bi - tas in cce - lis. 
 
 The psalm was preceded by an antiphony or was united with it, and 
 was sung in the same tone; the end was the smaller doxology {Dox- 
 ologia parva) "Gloria Patri," on whose final formula, "Seculorum 
 amen," the voice was raised to real singing or to pneumas. The 
 Psalms were sung in four different manners: (a) by a single voice ; 
 (6) by the whole congregation ; (c) by the congregation divided into 
 two parts and then sung like antiphonies ; or (d) by one voice, with 
 the chorus joining at the conclusion. Particular psalms are selected 
 for certain solemnities and feast-days. The canticles (see Canticus) 
 are also reckoned to the Psalms. In the German Protestant service 
 the psalmody is still used by the officiating clergyman under the name 
 of CoUectengesang. 
 
 The Italian composers have written many psalms, and we possess 
 in new editions very rich and well-selected collections. Among more 
 mode; n Italian composers may be mentioned Benedetto Marcello, 
 whose fifty psalm compositions appeared: in 1724 the first volume, 
 "Estro Poetico Armonico: Parafrasi sopra 11 primi venticinque 
 salmi;" in 1726-1727 the second volume, "Estro Poetico Armonico : 
 Parafrasi sopra i secondi venticinque salmi." 
 
 Among the older German composers the Psalms of Heinrich Schiitz 
 (" Sagittarius ") are most remarkable works; and among the modern 
 composers the Psalms of Mendelssohn, 42d, 95th, 114th, with orches- 
 tral accompaniment, and the three Psalms (Op. 78) for eight voices, 
 written for the Berlin Cathedral Choir, belong to the finest creations 
 of that excellent master. 
 
 CONCERTO DA CHIESA. 
 
 The Church Concerto was introduced by Ludovico Viadana (1560- 
 1625). The motets were in his time so overcrowded with all possible 
 contrapuntal artifices that of the words scarcely anything could be 
 heard; " it resulted in such a confusion and noise that one could not 
 understand a single word much less a sentence" (Printz, "Histor. 
 Beschreibung," p. 133). To do more justice to the words, Viadana 
 adapted the monodies (song for one voice) and concertos. The ex- 
 pression, " Concert concertus " (see this form) was, however, already 
 used before Viadana, not so much as the name of a special musical 
 form, as for describing in general a composition in several parts. 
 The most simple kind of his concertos Viadana composed for one 
 voice, with an organ-continuo (figured bass); others he set for two, 
 three or four voices, also with organ accompaniment. (Frankfurt, 
 1602, 100 songs; 1615 and 1625, 146 songs.) At a later time more 
 instruments were used, the Concerto da Chiesa was composed senza e 
 con atrommti. On the other hand it must not be supposed that Via- 
 dana's Concerto was anything like our modern concerto.N These 
 sacred concertos were short; all the parts were treated as principal 
 or obbligato parts. The text was generally a verse of one of the 
 Psalms or any other biblical sentence. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 71 
 
 Literature.— Clerc (Don Jacob de), " La science et la pratique du pleinchant, 
 par un Migieux de la Congregation de St.Maur;" Paris, 1672. Martenius or 
 Marteiie (Edmund ) (1654-1739), " Traits de I'ancienne discipline de I'^glise dans 
 la celebration del'officedivin;" Paris, 1719. Calvor (Caspar) (1650-1725) "De 
 Musicaao sigillatim de eeclesiastiea eoque spectantibus organis :" Leipzig' 1702 
 Pagi (Franciscus) (1654-1721), "Breviarium historico-chronologico-criticum," 
 etc. ; Antwerp, 1717. Scheibel { Gottfried Ephraim), "DieGeschichtederKirchen- 
 musik alter und neuer Zeiten ;" Breslau, 1738. Pittono (Job. Baptista), " Con- 
 stitutiones pontificse et Romanornm congregationum decisiones ad sacros ritus 
 spectantes," etc.; Venezia, 1740. Gerbert von Hornau (Prince Martin) (1720- 
 1793), "De Cantu et Musica sacra a prima ecclesise setate usque ad praeseua 
 tempua," 1774. " Historical and Critical Essay on the Cathedral Music •" Lon- 
 don, 1783. Vogler (Georg Joseph), " Ueber Choral und Kirchengesange;" Miia- 
 chen, 1814. Hoffmann (Heinr.), "Geschichte des deutschen Kirohenliedes bis 
 auf Luther's Zeit," Breslau, 1832. Hiiuser (Joh. Ernst), " Geschichte des christ- 
 lichen Kirohengesanges und der Kirohenmusii;," etc. ; Leipzig, 1834. Olearius 
 (Joh. Christoph.) (1611-1688), "Geistliche Singek'unst" Leipzig, 1671. Kocher 
 (Conrad), "Die Tonkunst in der Kirche," etc.; Stuttgart, 1823. Becker (Carl 
 Ferdinand), "Samralung von Choralen aus dem 16ten und 17ten Jahrhundert;" 
 Leipzig, 1831. Chrysander(Friedrich), "Ueber das Oratoriura;" Schwerin, 1853. 
 Winterfeld (C. von), "Der evangelische Kirchengesang ;" Leipzig, 1843. Breit- 
 kopf and Hartel. Winterfeld (C. von), "Zur Geschichte heiliger Tonkunst;" 
 Leipzig, 1850. Tucher (F. von), "Schatz des evangelischen Kirohengesanges;" 
 Leipzig. Home (George), "The Antiquity, Use, and Excellence of Church 
 Music;" London: Eivington, 1784. "Jour. Encyclop.," Mai, 1785, p. 166. 
 
 FORMS BELONGING TO SACRED AND SECULAR VOCALMUSIC. 
 
 RECITATIVE. 
 
 (Ital. RecitaUvo.) 
 
 The Recitative is a form of expression belonging to dramatic music, 
 and occupying a position between declamation and actual singing. 
 All singing is nothing else, or should be nothing else, but the effusion 
 of an overflowing heart in sounds, in which the articulated sounds of 
 speech adopt that passive modification of tone which we call the 
 singing voice. If the state of feeling is a lasting one the expression 
 of the music becomes also systematized — in fact it becomes a melody ; 
 in dramatic music it takes the form of an aria (see Aria), which repre- 
 sents the climax of the feeling. But where the feeling is merely 
 awakening or gradually growing, or spasmodically appearing and dis- 
 appearing, the musical expression cannot yet be a solid or firm one, 
 and therefore the music seeks for a mode of expression which holds 
 the balance between passionate language (declamation) and actual 
 singing. This mode of expression is the recitative. 
 
 The recitative diflfers from ordinary declamation in the following 
 particulars : — (1) The articulated spoken tone approximates to a cer- 
 tain degree to the tone that is sung ; (2) by an order of succession of 
 tones which admit of the assistance of harmony (this harmony may 
 rest undisturbed for some time or modulate into other keys). From 
 real song the recitative differs in the following points: — (1) The reci- 
 tative is not bound to any particular or systematic time; the singer 
 dwells only on words which even in speaking require a certain empha- 
 sis and accent; the other words succeed each other quickly, and it is 
 not necessary to pay much attention to the special value of the notes ; 
 so long as a clear and intelligible pronunciation prevails the actual 
 aim of the recitative with regard to time is satisfied and attained. In 
 
72 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 the oratorio and sacred cantata the recitative is generally sung in a 
 more solemn and grave manner, but in the opera, and more particu- 
 larly in the comic opera, it would be unbearable to listen to a recita- 
 tive sung with a pathetic or grand expression. The recitative is 
 brought within the frame of a bar only for this reason, that the sense 
 of the words becomes clearer to the singer, and that the composer 
 may, through the application of arsis and thesis (see Accent), show 
 which words or syllables he desires to emphasize. The Italian and 
 German composers always put the recitative in common time ; some 
 French composers, however, mix common with triple time, thus 
 occasioning a good deal of confusion. (2) The recitative has no 
 rhythmic symmetrical parts, only the csesurse of the text are observed, 
 regardless of the symmetry of the melodious element; rests or pauses 
 appear only where the words require them through an interpunctua- 
 tion. (3) The recitative is purely syllabic; has not more tones than 
 words; ligatures and extension of syllables belong to the domain of 
 regular song, and are excluded from the recitative. (4) Finally, the 
 recitative is not bound to any particular key ; it often happens that by 
 means of the recitative a modulation into a distant key is effected 
 between two different movements ; besides, in passionate recitatives, 
 changes of harmony may more often appear than would be advisable 
 in a systematic piece. 
 
 With regard to the accompaniment of the recitative we recognize 
 (1) the "secco," or simple, and (2) the " accompagnato," the fully 
 accompanied recitative. 1. In the secco the change of harmony is 
 merely marked by the starting of the chords; in olden time the 
 double-bass gave the bass tone, and the spinet or harpsichord supple- 
 mented the harmony. The union of the spinet (harpsichord) and 
 double-bass may have been more satisfactory than that of a piano-forte 
 with the double-bass. In other instances one double-bass and several 
 violoncellos gave the chord, the violoncello generally resti-~ '-^^ some 
 time on the top note : 
 
 M 
 
 f 
 
 This kirrd of accompaniment, although not under all circumstances 
 sufficient. Was more applicable in the church than in the concert-room 
 or opera. In (2) the accompaniment shows itself in two kinds— (a) 
 the stringed instruments sustain the chords, whilst the singer performs 
 the recitative; changes of harmony may take place within the bar in 
 common time on the first and third crotchets, but such modulations 
 are only to be used sparingly, in so far as they are likely to interfere 
 with the distinctness of the recitation; (6) the instruments, after 
 having given the key, perform in the pauses (caesuras) of the recitative 
 short passages, which assist in giving to the recitative a higher charac- 
 teristic meaning. (A beautiful example of this kind is the recitative 
 to Donna Anna's aria " Crudele," in Mozart's " Don Giovanni.") 
 
 :e Ivri 
 
 If there occur in the course of a recitative passages of a more lyrical 
 expression the composer generally substitutes for the mere reciting a 
 short can ta bile, and then the recitative is called " recitative arioso " 
 (see Arioso). Although in the recitativo arioso the importance of the 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 73 
 
 declamation recedes for a little while in order to make room for the 
 more melodious element, it is nevertheless very necessary that the 
 (Somposer should give in the arioso the best and most correct accent 
 to the words which determine the sense of the sentence. The recita- 
 tion in its first germ is decidedly the oldest manner of expression. 
 The song of all pre-Christian (or civilized) nations must have been a 
 kind of recitation, in so far as the means for an independent melodious 
 life and expression were all wanting; the musical expression was still 
 associated with speech and to rhythmical movements of the body, but 
 even in the Christian era it took long until the tone freed itself from 
 the word, and it may safely be asserted that the method applied to 
 singing the Psalms initiated the recitative in the modern sense. At 
 about 1600 the Opera was invented,* and it became a matter of the 
 utmost necessity to have a style of performance better suited to a 
 lively action. Although at first rather stiff' and uncouth, this method 
 (as has been shown by our modern recitative) was capable of improve- 
 ment. (Compare Winterfeld, "Gabrieli," vol. ii. p. 19; Kiesewetter, 
 " Weltliche Gesange," p. 24.) The recitative was much improved by 
 Monteverde, also by Carissimi and Alessandro Scarlatti. It is said 
 that the last-named composer invented the Eecitativo accompagnato. 
 In German Passion-music and in similar sacred dramatic works the 
 recitative for a long time resembled the psalmody. The shortest 
 example will show this difference : — 
 
 Recitative prom thb Oratorio "Jephtha." 
 
 FiLiA. CAElssnn (1582-1673). 
 
 Andante. 
 
 i 
 
 EEEgEgg^Eg^ g^ zgEgE^ggEgE g^^E^ 
 
 >-v-^ 
 
 O let me go, that for two months I may wander upon the mountains, 
 
 $ 
 
 Andante. 
 
 J- 
 
 4- 
 
 ^ ^^-= --==& 
 
 =P2= 
 
 ZS 
 
 -P^ 
 
 lie: 
 
 _«2_ 
 
 zWz 
 
 m==^ 
 
 zzsz 
 
 * About 1580 a society of artists and amateurs was formed at Florence in the 
 house of Giovanni Bardi, Count de Vernio. This society aimed at improving the 
 musical art, and- desired to effect a revival (Wiederbelebung) of the old Greek 
 recitation in the dramas. This society consisted of the amateurs Vincenzio Galilei, 
 Giacomo Corsi, Pietro Strozzi, the poet Ottavio Einuccini, and the musical com- 
 posers Emilio del Cavalieri, Giacomo Peri, and Giulio Caocini. The first fruit of 
 their studies and labors was "the first" lyrical opera, "Daphne," poetry by 
 Rinuccini, performed for the first time in 1694, at Florence. This work was soon 
 followed by the first tragic opera, " Orfeus e Euridice," poetry by Einuccini, 
 music by Peri and Caccini. After this came " II Satiro" and "La Disperazione 
 di Filano," both with music by Cavalieri. Almost at the same time Orazio Vecchi 
 tried a kind of comic opera, which was performed in 1594, at Modena, under the 
 iiasie "L' Antiparnasso," oommedia armonica. The vocal part consisted at that 
 time only of recitatives, and the orchestra of a spinet, tenor-violins, guitars, harps, 
 small organs, fifes, horns, and trumpe*" ~' ''^. however, did not perform accord- 
 ing to stated rule. 
 
74 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 EeCITATIVB FKOM the "HISTOKIA deb SIEGREICHEN TIND FEOHLICHEN 
 
 AUFEBSTEHTJNG." 
 
 Heinkich Schdtz (1585-1672). 
 Evangelist. 
 
 £E5aE3EEEiErzE^ 
 
 =^^:^t^-^ 
 
 j>-fi-^^ 
 
 3=P= 
 
 :3±«t 
 
 Dann sie wussten die Schrift noch nicht dass er von den Ju-den auf-fer • 
 
 -♦-♦—♦-♦-♦-♦-♦=♦- 
 
 =P=ffi 
 
 steh - en mus te. Da gin-gen die Jiin-ger wie-der zu-sam - men. 
 
 1^ 
 
 =P2= 
 
 IS2I 
 
 ^=r=ff=p=^=p=^: 
 
 t^— b^ 
 
 -H 
 
 ip_i — I — ^—^ 
 
 jc±: 
 
 ■t>»— 1»^ 
 
 dert sich wie es zu - gieng 
 
 ta 
 
 vn Pe - tras ver - wun 
 
 ^§^ 
 
 -j^-w~m=i- 
 
 ^- 
 
 :^=.^z 
 
 q=S=P 
 
 # It 
 
 -♦-=»-i=i=^^^=HF>^- 
 
 - ri - a aber stund fiir dem grabe vn wei 
 
 net draussen. 
 
 t$^- 
 
 :cill 
 
 6 6 Jt 
 
 ARIA. 
 
 (a.) In a general sense, an aria is every tuneful air or melodywhich 
 has a certain definite form, and is not merely a recitation. Although 
 the word Aria was first applied to vocal music only, it was later also 
 used for melodious pieces of instrumental music (See Handel's and 
 Sebastian Bach's Suites). In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
 the word Aria was applied to a cheerful song, which was set for one or 
 more voices. The aria for one voice was set only with a simple 
 thorough-bass (basso eontinuo); that set for several voices was, when 
 the supplementary voices were absent, sung in the principal part, and 
 the missing vocal parts played by instruments. In Italy Aria means 
 also a song; and this meaning is still accepted by some parts of the 
 German people. Praetorius (1619) in his " Syntagma," vol. iii. P; 17, 
 says : "Aria vel Air is a pretty tune or melody, which any one sings 
 without notes ; it is also a secular song with fine and graceful words." 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 75 
 
 And these pretty songs the Italians call now also " Schertzi." Matthe- 
 son C" Neu eroffnetes Orchestra," p. 179, 1713) says : "An aria is gen- 
 erally anjr melody performed either vocaliter or instrumemtaliter, but in 
 specie; it is a melody that is sung and which has to direct itself after 
 the character of the words. (See also Aria in Instrumental music.) 
 
 (b.) The aria in the special sense, as lyrical dramatic tone-form, 
 appears in two kinds — namely, as grand aria with the da capo 
 (repetition), or with a free repetition. The first is the older form, the 
 second the more modern one, actually a consequence of the first. 
 
 The structure of the (1) Grand Aria is the following: the words 
 consist of two sentences, of which the first expresses the general feel- 
 ing; the second, however, a particular feature of this feeling; in other 
 arias the words are merely arranged in two distinct sentences, of which 
 the first is repeated, for example in Handel's " Judas Maccabseus " : 
 
 1. 
 From mighty kings he took the spoil ; 
 And with his acts made Judah smile. 
 
 2. 
 Judah rejoiceth in his name, 
 And triumphs in her hero's fame. 
 
 Accordhig to this dualism (Zweitheiligkeit) of the poem, the melody 
 appears also in two parts. 
 
 'The (a) first part begins with the instrumental prelude (Symphony, 
 Eitornello), which contains already the melody ; this prelude is 
 followed by the voice, which brings the melody first simple and una- 
 dorned; this melody is afterwards divided into smaller parts, which 
 alternate with the orchestra ; it is also customary to modulate into 
 the dominant or relative minor or major key; by means of modula- 
 tion the return to the tonic is resumed; and after (not always neces- 
 sary) a postlude the first part closes in the tonic. (6) The second part 
 is generally shorter and has no repetition, and is therefore simply 
 sung in a straightforward manner, interspersed with short interludes 
 of the orchestra, so as to allow the singer time for rest. When the 
 singer has finished the second part the orchestra takes up the prelude 
 or ritornello, and then comes the (c) da capo, which is merely the 
 repetition of the first part up to its close in the principal key (tonic). 
 The key of the second part is generally one closely related to that 
 of the first part. It was also customary to compose the first part as 
 an allegro in common time, and to set the second part in slower and 
 triple time. Although this maxim was often followed out, it could 
 not be regarded as an indispensable or unalterable rule. 
 
 Structure op the Grand Aria. 
 
 Pakt II. (6.) 
 Second melody without 
 elaboration. Much 
 shorter and more con- 
 cise than Part I. 
 
 Pakt I. (o.) 
 Instrumental. Prelude 
 or Eitornello. Princi- 
 pal melody. Modula- 
 tion into the dominant. 
 Betum to the tonic 
 with variation. Short 
 instrumental postlude. 
 
 It will be remarked that this form is very similar to, nay almost 
 identical with, a minuet and trio, in a sonata or symphony. 
 
 Part III. (c.) 
 Da Capo. Prelude or 
 Kitornello. Itepeti- 
 tiou in toto of Part I., 
 with new variation of 
 principal ~"elody. 
 
76 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 As the first part was conceived in a much broader style and in- 
 tended to portray the chief sentiment, it was also here that the per- 
 former tried to show his vocal skill. It might be said that the first 
 part belonged to the singer, the second again to the composer, in so 
 far as no ornaments were introduced in the second part, and as the 
 harmonization was generally richer and more interesting than that 
 of the first part. It was the duty of the singer to elaborate every 
 repetition of the principal melody, and particularly to show, by 
 means of well-invented variations, the da capo in a new and different 
 light. The pleasure of the public in these variations and ornamenta- 
 tions was so great, that, naturally enough, the chief character of the 
 music and the words was overlooked, and the aria became merely a 
 welcome means of showing off technical skill. From this undue 
 prominence of vocal execution resulted the so-called " Aria di bra- 
 vura " (Coloraturarie) which possesses no value at all as a dramatic 
 form and exists merely to exhibit the easy and fluent execution of the 
 singer. (Compare Kossini's arias in " Semiramide," " Barbiere," etc.) 
 The invention of the grand aria with the da capo is generally attrib- 
 uted to Alessandro Scarlatti (1650-1725), although, according to 
 Arteaga, Benedetto Ferrari (della Tiorba, 1597-1681), a composer of 
 the seventeenth century who lived before A. Scarlatti, is the real 
 inventor of this form. 
 The following shows how these variations were constructed : — 
 
 Akia " Sk costante ognor t' amai." 
 Largo. 
 
 Lampaeelli. 
 
 Original subject. 
 
 Variation in the 
 first part. 
 
 ^b r, r7rr \ 
 
 =f^ ~^- — c^ 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 77 
 
 2. The Aria in the free form.— In as far as the Aria .. .„o exponent 
 of a particular personal feeling, which feeling emanates from the 
 character and individuality of a person, and cannot be expressed 
 after a set pattern, or according to an established scheme, it was felt 
 that the form of the grand aria was, more particularly with regard to 
 dramatic feeling, entirely insufficient. For this reason the later com- 
 posers conceived the necessity of adhering more strictly to the sense 
 of the words, which, again portrayed the sentiment at much greater 
 length than was the case formerly. For this reason the strict form of 
 the grand aria was abandoned and a free form adopted; consequently 
 the form of the dramatic or free aria shows itself in as many different 
 kinds as the different dramatic situations demand for their effective 
 portrayal. As a splendid example of a dramatic aria may be cited 
 Agatha's aria in Weber's "Freischiitz," "Nie nahte mir der Schlum- 
 mer" (" Softly sighs"). Among all the composers who still adhered 
 to the rigorous form, none has been so successful in infusing dramatic 
 feeling into it as Mozart. 
 
 (c.) With regard to the aesthetic value, beauty, and necessity of the 
 aria, it may be observed that it is as necessary and indispensable in 
 the opera or oratorio as the monologue is in the play. 'The feelings 
 expressed in an aria ai-e actually the result of preceding incidents. 
 These feelings must be put in a concise form in order to be under- 
 stood; were they merely presented in the form of a recitative the 
 listener would not be so deeply impressed by them. It may therefore 
 be said that the aria (particularly the dramatic aria) is the exposition 
 of the innermost feelings that, as has been mentioned before, are the 
 results of preceding dramatic situations of a person whose feelings 
 are actually of importance and interest to the whole story. The 
 sacred aria may perhaps not claim such direct necessity, in as far as 
 it contemplates at times the situation from a more objective (outward) 
 point of view. The dramatic aria again is the musical portrayal of a 
 subjective (individual) feeling. The correct and artistic union of the 
 melismatic (ornamental) with the syllabic treatment in the aria is a 
 test of great, nay, rare ability. Mozart, again, has here eyelled all 
 other composers in this particular feature. 
 
 (d.) Some other forms of arias are (1) the already-mentioned aria 
 di bravura (see Coloratura). This kind of aria is treated in a more 
 melismatic (figured, ornamented) style; its aim and intention are to 
 offer the singer a means of showing his skill in turns, shakes, runs, 
 etc. ; (2) the church aria (aria di chiesa) is generally found in a sacred 
 cantata or a Passion-music, or exists also as an independent piece 
 (compare Stradella's celebrated air, " Se' i miei sospiri "). Its musical 
 structure is generally that of the grand aria with the da capo; its 
 expression, however, is more lyrical, the outpourings of a "devout 
 soul," or more like the interpretation of the feelings of a whole com- 
 munity presented in an objective manner. Its style is more syllabic 
 than melismatic, in as far as the sacred word appears more important, 
 and ought thus to be better understood. Any exhibition of passion 
 is here excluded, indeed the " aria di chiesa " is more of a meditative 
 and contemplative, than a strongly-expressed individual character. 
 
 3. The Concert Aria (aria di concerto) came into fashion towards 
 the end of last century. Partly resting on the form of the grand 
 aria, again profiting by the improved structure of the dramatic aria, 
 and at times using the brilliant features of the aria di bravura, it is 
 
78 MUSICAL, FOBMS. 
 
 actually a kind of independent "scena," something like an instru- 
 mental solo. The aria di concerto is generally preceded by a recita- 
 tive. Of Mozart we possess twelve such scenas; of Beethoven, the 
 well-known scena and aria "Ah, perfido;" of Mendelssohn, the Con- 
 cert aria, Op. 94. 
 
 4. The Aria buffa is a comic aria. Splendid examples of this style,: 
 in which mostly Italian composers excelled, are Figaro's aria in 
 Rossini's " Barbiere di Siviglia;" also Masetto's aria " Met^ di voi qua 
 vadano ;" Don Giovanni's aria, " Finch' ban dal vino ;" Leporello's aria 
 " Mandamina " in Mozart's " Don Giovanni ;" Figaro's aria in C major 
 in the same composer's opera, " Le Nozze di Figaro." It will be 
 observed that in all these examples each note has a syllable, and that 
 the style is more p'arlante (speaking) than sustained or florid. 
 
 ARIETTA. 
 
 This is a small and shorter kind of aria; the arietta has no second 
 part, and its whole structure is planned in smaller dimensions. In 
 operas the arietta describes less important and less deep feelings, 
 which have only a transient value. Zerlina's two ariettas in Mozart's 
 " Don Giovanni " are splendid examples. 
 
 ARIOSO. 
 
 This holds its place as a kind of melody which stands between 
 recitative and aria. It may happen that some parts of the secco 
 (recitative) approach more the lyrical domain, unless these feelings 
 last for any longer time, in which case the composer changes the 
 reoitativo into an arioso, an expressive melody, to be sung in strict 
 time. The orchestral accompaniment appears in greater prominence, 
 and the melodious life becomes paramount. It was customary to 
 finish a long recitativo with an arioso, in which the preceding senti- 
 ments are, so to say, concentrated. Again, if the situation is a lyrical 
 one, the arioso appears as a kind of song ; with Handel it is used as a 
 kind of dialogue between two persons, expressing a feeling in which 
 they unite or which they exhibit singly in turn. A kind of mixture 
 of the secco (recitativo) and arioso has been often applied by Bach, 
 who brought this style to the greatest perfection. Very interesting 
 examples are also to be found in Heinrich Schiitz's (1585-1672) 
 "Seven Words." 
 
 CAVATA, CAVATINA. 
 
 (a) A kind of aria for a single voice, which differs from the ordinary 
 aria in the following points : the cavatina is shorter, and consists only 
 of one part, is.not repeated, but has generally a longer text than the 
 aria; for this reason there are no repetitions of the words, or at any 
 rate very few may occur. According to its contents, the cavatina is 
 more adapted to a meditative or contemplative than to a passionate 
 expression. Prolongations of syllables or melismas (florid vocalization) 
 are either entirely avoided or only used in exceptional cases. The 
 melody of the cavatina is generally simple, occupying a middle place 
 between that of the aria and arioso, and possesses at times a reciting 
 quality. (6) Cavatina is also called an arioso at the end of a recitative, 
 in which the feeling is concentrated, and the expression becomes that 
 of a tuneful agreeable melody. (See Matthe^'^' •- " Critica mus,," voL 
 ii. p. 146.) 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 79 
 
 COLORATURA. 
 
 This is a name given to divisions, runs, trills, cadenzas, and other 
 florid passages in vocal music ; for instance in the aria of Manoah, 
 "Thy glorious deeds inspir'd my tongue " (Handel's "Samson"): — 
 
 Whilst airs of joy ... from 
 
 We find already indications of the application of coloratura in the 
 operatic music of Cavalli and Cesti, about 1640. When the coloratura 
 is artistically employed, it is able to serve as an accessory of formal 
 beauty; through it the melody may become less rigid, it receives a 
 richer ornamentation, and may even produce surprising and charming 
 effects. A beautiful example of this kind is Haydn's aria " With 
 verdure clad." But on the other hand, the singers, generally poor 
 musicians, have abused this otherwise legitimate effect, and have in 
 many instances destroyed, by its false application and sometimes 
 iiiiachronistic use, the original effect of the piece, and have even 
 cruelly interfered and destroyed the intended purpose of the composer. 
 In former times, the good opera-singers were expected to compose the 
 coloraturas themselves, the composer merely offering in his aria the 
 skeleton, which had to be adorned and supplemented by the color- 
 atura of the performing singer; at present the singers have lost this 
 art to a great extent, and for this reason the few composers who are 
 still inclined to that obsolete manner of writing, compose the 
 coloraturas themselves. Burney, in his Diary, gives an amusing 
 description of the coloratura used by the celebrated singer Farinelli, 
 in his competition (Rome, 1723) with a trumpeter. 
 
 DUET. 
 
 (Ital. duetto.) 
 
 A Duet is a piece for two voices, both of which are principal voices 
 in so far as each takes the same important part in the development 
 and characteristic execution of the principal idea. An instrumental 
 duet is generally called duo, so as to mark the difference between it 
 and the vocal duet. There is also a difference between a duet and a 
 two-part song; the latter is merely a harmonious strengthening of 
 a melody by using another voice part in intervals that seconds the 
 melody ; the duet, however, is always written in a polyphonic style, 
 each part being individually developed as well in point of rhythm as 
 design. We find, therefore, that the duet represents twopersons, who, 
 although uniting in the desire of attaining a certain aim, have each 
 their own individual feeling concerning it, and when the union is effected 
 it comes about by a completely free resolve and not by the submission 
 of one party to the other. The duet is divided into the {a) chamber 
 duet and (6) the dramatic dialogue. The chamber or art-duet (Kunst- 
 duet) is the most artistic and most refined of all polyphonic forms 
 which came into use towards the middle of the seventeenth century; 
 it IS not merely a component part of a longer composition, but an 
 independent piece. Its form is tolerably varied ; it may consist of one 
 or more movements. If it has only one movement •■ ' form of it is 
 
60 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 like the aria with the da capo (see Aria.) If it consists of several 
 movements, recitatives and solos are introduced, indeed it becomes a 
 regular "scena" (see Scena); the text is generally more lyric than 
 dramatic. To understand the aim, construction, and characteristic 
 form of these duets better, it is advisable to read in Dr. Chrysander's 
 " Life of Handel," vol. ii. p. 328, the remarks about the duets of 
 Steffani (1655-1730), and to compare afterwards Steffani's duets: 
 " Forma un mare di pianto," "Luci bella non tanta," " Placidissime 
 catene." (6) The dramatic duet: In this two persons represent 
 different sentiments, or if they represent the same feeling, they 
 express it in a totally different characteristic manner; whilst the 
 chamber duet relies on the aria form; the dramatic duet has no 
 certain form, and depends almost entirely on the dramatic situation. 
 Compare the pithy remarks of J. C. Lobe, " Lehrbuch der musika- 
 lischen Komposition," vol. iv. pp. 236-271, and analyze the duet between 
 Don Ottavio and Donna Anna in Mozart's " Don Giovanni " (act 1, No. 
 2), and Agatha and Annchen's duet " Schelm halt fest," in Weber's 
 " Freischutz " (act 2). (See also Dialogue.) 
 
 DIALOGO (DIALOGUE). 
 
 Musical dialogue is strictly speaking a duet, which in the form of its 
 composition resembles spoken dialogue. In sacred music it is applied 
 in the form of an aria, sung in turn by each of the two voices, and 
 these voices join, at the end, in a kind of choral. All the arias in 
 oratorios, cantatas, Passions, operas, that are accompanied by an 
 obbligato instrument, such as the violin, oboe di caccia, corno inglese, 
 clarinet, flute, etc., may be included among dialogues, although this 
 term has not yet been generally adopted. (See for example the aria 
 " Erbarme dich mein Gott " in Sebastian Bach's " Passion of St. Mat- 
 thew ;" Mozart's aria " Non pift di fiori," in F major, in his " Clemenza 
 di Tito," etc.) 
 
 CHORUS. 
 
 Chorus (Ger. Char; Fr. Chosur; Ital. Coro) means a company, a mul- 
 titude of persons. A musical piece for several voice parts, in which 
 each part is not performed by a single or solo singer but by several 
 persons; each voice part so performed is called a chorus part, (a) 
 According to aesthetic ideas a chorus is the united expression of a 
 number of individuals whose feeling is impressed by an event or idea 
 in so thoroughly uniform a manner, that all of them unite in the same 
 expression. For this reason the contents of a chorus must be such 
 that not only the individual but the company approves of it, and the 
 expression becomes actually an objective one. As solo singing is 
 the expression of the single person's feeling, just so is the chorus the 
 expression of the feeling of a community or congregation. The chorus 
 parts differ from each other through the character and compass of 
 their voices — treble, alto, tenor and bass; which different voice parts 
 have not inaptly been compared to the different stages of the life of 
 both sexes. By the number of persons which perform each chorus 
 part, any prominence of personality (individuality) ceases, and each 
 part again is fused into the whole of the chorus. A working out in 
 detail of the different phases of feeling or individualizing them, as it 
 happens in the aria, is in the chorus not only superfluous butinad- 
 
VOCAI. MUSIC. 8\ 
 
 missible ; on the other hand there may be a different expression given 
 to one particular part with regard to the others. The great effect, the 
 mighty power, of a chorus consists in the strength and grandeur of the 
 collective expression, in the massiveness of tone brought about by the 
 number of performers all uniting in one task. Such is the might that 
 we admire in the choruses of Schiitz (see his " Passion " from the Four 
 Evangelists), Sebastian Bach, and Handel. (6) The essential and real 
 style of the chorus is imitatory and fugal ; the chief form of the chorus 
 is actually the fugue, in which all parts participate with equal right in 
 the execution of the set task. Other styles are the rigorous and the 
 free. The rigorous style adopts the fugal treatment, and relies on the 
 system (>f double counterpoint; the free style is more like the arioso, 
 or, again, the dramatic expression. Rigorous choruses need not only 
 appear in oratorios or sacred compositions; they may be also applied 
 in the opera or secular cantata, madrigals, and glees. The work which 
 contains almost all possible forms of choruses is undoubtedly Sebastian 
 Bach's "Passion of St. Matthew," from the most artistically figured 
 chorus with canto fermo down to the turbae, the expression of the 
 enraged people. Next to this admirable work Handel's ''Israel in 
 Egypt" affords the most interesting material for deep and earnest 
 study, (c) Formal construction: the commonly-applied form for the 
 lyrical chorus is that of the aria in two parts with the da capo (see 
 Aria). For this reason these choruses were sometimes called Aria- 
 choruses. 
 
 In dramatic works (such as oratorios) the form of the chorus is 
 dependent of the situation; some are quite short, like the turbae 
 (see Schiitz, Sebastian Bach, Mendelssohn's "St. Paul," etc.). In 
 strictly sacred music the so-called choral chorus, or a chorus with the 
 choral as canto fermo, is that which is mostly found, (d) The chorus 
 a cappella, without any accompaniment (or if with accompaniment, 
 the instruments — generally stringed instruments — playing the different 
 parts of the chorus; namely, violino 1°"° (soprano), violino 2'*° (alto), 
 viola (tenor), violoncello, and double-bass (basso). In the chorus 4 
 cappella the melody has a more prominent part. In some choruses 
 the voice parts are simple, without any ornamentation or figures, 
 which latter are furnished by the orchestra; a beautiful example of 
 this kind is Mendelssohn's expressive chorus in " St. Paul," " Happy 
 and blest are they." Again, in some choruses (see Bach's Mass in B 
 minor and some of Handel's oratorios) the execution is very florid and 
 founded on a regular coloratura. 
 
 (e) With regard to the number of parts employed, the chorus is very 
 different. We have choruses from three to twelve, sixteen, and (in old 
 Italian compositions) more parts ; the normal number, and at the 
 same time most common, is the four-part chorus. In choruses of 
 five, six, seven, or eight parts the division of the respective parts de- 
 pends upon the effect the composer wishes to obtain; divided altos 
 and basses produce a greater effect of dignity and earnestness, divided 
 sopranos and tenors again give the expression of brightness and splen- 
 dor. In eight-part chorus the parts are either all together as one 
 whole, or are divided in two choruses of four parts each, thus forming 
 a double chorus. 
 
 Soprano and alto are mostly sung by female voices, but at times 
 they are also mixed or entirely sung by boys ; female voices produce 
 a softer, mo'^ raelodious, but at the same time more sensual effect; 
 
82 MUSICAL FOBMS. 
 
 the voices of boys nave a more astringent, inflexible, but more pierc- 
 ing and energetic tone-color and are entirely passionless. The mixture 
 of female with boys' voices is of the happiest effect. Less so is the 
 mixture of male contraltos with female; although the manner of em- 
 ploying the contralto in so low a register as was used by the old Italian 
 writers of the time of Palestrina up to Bach and Handel, necessitated 
 this method. In some countries the employment of female voices 
 in the church was thought inadmissible, and some writers mention as 
 a reason for this rigorous rule the words of St. Paul, in his Epistle to 
 the Corinthians, xiv. 43, " Let your women keep silence in the churches, 
 for it is not permitted unto them to speak." It was, so it is reported, 
 Cyrillus, Bishop of Jerusalem (a.d. 386), who, on the strength of St. 
 Paul's direction forbade the participation of women in the musical 
 church service, but this restriction cannot have been universal, in so 
 far as in convents women had necessarily to sing the service (compare 
 Forkel's History, vol ii. p. 140). 
 
 (/) The words for the chorus are generally a short, but terse sen- 
 tence, which explains the sense in the most concise and most intel- 
 ligible manner, without any undue elaboration or ornamentation. If 
 the chorus has a second part or a fugue, the work must consist of two 
 sentences, used alternately, so as to avoid monotony. 
 
 (g) A chorus consisting of female and male voices is called a mixed 
 chorus. This kind is of all the most desirable, as it offers not only the 
 greatest variety with regard to the characteristic tone-colors, but 
 allows of a much freer treatment, in as far as the respective voice 
 parts are not so close as they would be in a chorus written only for 
 female or male voices.* 
 
 According to Isidorus, the word Chorus has its derivation from corona, 
 in as far as the singers of olden times were placed round the altar in 
 the form of a crown or wreath {corona constantivmi). 
 
 CANTATA. 
 (Ital. cantare, to sing.) 
 
 A Cantata is a form which belongs to vocal music, and by which wa 
 generally understand a composition of several pieces, which comprise 
 choruses, recitatives, and arias. This meaning is derived particularly 
 from the form of Sebastian Bach's great church cantatas; this form, 
 however, was preceded by two different kinds of cantata form, and 
 therefore it is not easy to define clearly the meaning of the word 
 Cantata. With regard to its development as a form it must be men- 
 tioned that some composers treated it as a lyrical i)iece for one voice 
 (for example, Mozart's cantata for one voice, " Die ihr des unermess- 
 lichen Weltall's Schopfer ehrt").; some other composers again looked 
 at it from the most dramatic point of view; with others again the 
 cantata appears almost identical with the oratorio; sometimes again 
 it shows itself as a piece not unlike a song or an ode; at tinies it ap- 
 pears again as a lyrical composition with a dramatic expression, with 
 or without a mixture of the epic element, written for a solo voice or 
 
 * Comparethefollowingworks:— Nageli (Hans Georg), " Chn'Gesangschule:'' 
 Leipzig : Fr. Fleisclier, 1821. Haser (August Ferdinand), " Chor Gesangsohnle: 
 German and French; Mayence: Schott. Chorou (Alexandre Eiienne), 'Mfithooe 
 ooncertante de Flein-chant," etc. ; Paris, 1819. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 83 
 
 for a chorus. _ All cantatas, however, unite in this — that they absohitely 
 i-equire an instrumental accompaniment, and that the poetry is in 
 the lyrical style. _ The chief difi'erence between the opera, oratorio, 
 and the cantata is, that in the first two a regular dramatic action is 
 played before or related to us ; whilst the cantata expresses only senti- 
 ments, brought about by the meditation upon great events, heroic deeds, 
 scenes of nature, contemplations of divine might, moral subjects, etc. 
 The words of the cantata are founded on events of all possible time 
 and kind, on supernatural and natural incidents, on the Christian 
 faith, or the worship of the ancient mythology, etc. The aim of the 
 cantata is actually the glorification or apotheosis of illustrious persons, 
 or stirring events; the lyrical expression of the cantata, however, 
 shows itself not so purely personal as in the song, but in a more ob- 
 jective, general manner. Oratorio and cantata may be often con- 
 fou nded ; there are oratorios which are more like cantatas, and vice versd. 
 It is a great mistake to take the respective length of either oratorio 
 or cantata as decisive for the name; there is, for example, Haydn's 
 cantata "The Seasons," of the length and dimensions of an oratorio; 
 again, there are oratorios so short, that they might be considered to 
 be cantatas. The oratorio has a style of its own ; it stands between 
 secular and sacred music; it is secular in so far as it does not exclude 
 dramatic life and human passion ; again it is sacred, because its sub- 
 jects and stories are taken from the Bible, although its musical expres- 
 sion is not so rigorous and solemnly tranquil as that of the regular 
 sacred music, which forbids the delineation of human passion. The 
 cantata does not, like the oratorio, present persons or characters ;_a 
 personification will merely approach the " devout soul," but this again 
 represents in the church cantata merely the sentiments of the com- 
 munity. (See Winterfeld, " Kunst des evangelische Kirchenge- 
 gauges.") 
 
 According to its chief characteristics or principal expression we 
 class the cantata as an ode-like cantata (for one single voice), or as a 
 chamber cantata, requiring several performers, and lastly as a 
 great cantata, which has all the apparatus of the oratorio — ^grand 
 orchestra, chorus, and solo voices. The formerly much used Trauer 
 cantate, funeral cantata (a kind of short requiem) belongs to the form 
 of the great cantata, and differs only in the characteristic expression ; 
 whilst the great cantata has a grand, majestic, broad, and lofty expres- 
 sion; the funeral cantata relies on a more pathetic, mournful, and 
 quiet expression. In the cantata the influence of the madrigal and 
 motet is more observable than in the oratorio. As the choruses of a 
 cantata lack dramatic life, the composer excels more in an artistic- 
 ally refined treatment of counterpoint. The origin of the simple 
 cantata is to be sought in Italy, about 1600; the inventor of the 
 chamber cantata was Carissimi, who flourished in Eome between 
 1635 and 1672. The form of the great cantata was principally applied 
 by John Sebastian Bach, who left us splendid examples of this style. 
 It may be remarked that Handel's anthems are in fiict sacred 
 
 CANTATINA, OR CANTATILLE. 
 
 This means a smaller form of cantata, with which it corresponded 
 in its various features, excepting that the whole structure was on a 
 smaller scale and the various parts less elaborated. Like the cantata 
 it is accompanied by instruments. 
 
84 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 QUODLIBET. 
 
 (Ital., Mischianza ; Ger,, Manach.) 
 
 Prsetorius, in his " Syntagma," vol. iii. p. 18, describes a quodlibet 
 as " a mixture of all possible herbs ; of many various motets, madri- 
 gals, and other secular and humorous songs ; separate parts are taken, 
 with half a line or a whole line of a text, and from these rags and 
 fragments a new (Peltz) is patched together." Some writers inten- 
 tionally corrupted not only the melodies but also the words, and thus 
 obtained a comical and burlesque effect. National and sacred songs 
 were mostly applied to this kind of amusement. To give an idea of 
 a regular quodlibet, we select one that was sung by the members of 
 the Bach family at their annual meetings. (See Hilgenfeldt's " Biog- 
 raphy of Sebastian Bach," p. 8 ; Leipzig, 1850. See also Quodlibet in 
 Instrumental music.) 
 
 Das Vater Unsee. (The Lord's Prayer.) 
 
 ^^ 
 
 4= 
 
 Z2l 
 
 0=t 
 
 :eS= 
 
 isiz 
 
 ji=iz 
 
 Va • ter un 
 
 Dee Glattbb. (The Creed.) 
 
 Him - mel • 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 -+■ 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 -i=iz 
 
 :i^' 
 
 -1- 
 
 -!=<- 
 
 -0- 
 
 Wir . . . glau ben all' an ei nen 
 
 LOBGESANG AFP DAS OSTEEFEST. (Song of Praise for Easter.) 
 
 i 
 
 EEE 
 
 i 
 
 ]==!= 
 
 r=q==3=F 
 
 -JL i ^ 
 
 -*^^^r 
 
 '^ be*-' 
 
 Je - sus Chris - tus un - ser Hei - 
 
 Lied von der Taffe. (Christening Song.) 
 
 ^ 
 
 -0^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 SE 
 
 Christ, un - ser Herr, zum Jor - dan kam, 
 
 Die Zehen Gebot kuezbegefasst. (The Ten Commandments summarized.) 
 
 m 
 
 EEE 
 
 ::22i 
 
 ^- 
 
 zz±: 
 
 e 
 
 Mensch, willst du 
 
 ben 
 
 se - lig 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 85 
 
 
 ■ '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lr 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ifftv — 1 — i"^ 
 
 -rt- 
 
 -si- 
 
 -^— 3^- 
 
 -H — J 
 
 
 reich, der 
 
 du 
 
 uns 
 
 1 
 
 al - le 
 
 heis - sest 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 ir ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 Miff 1"^ ' 
 
 
 Ik ; , 
 
 1 ! 
 
 
 B B 
 
 
 Gott SchO 
 
 pfer 
 
 Him 
 
 mels .... 
 
 _.-^- -J- ^ -*5^ 
 
 . . und der Er - 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 1?"^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ ^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ig: -^- 
 
 land, der 
 
 .TV 
 
 den 
 
 
 Tod 
 
 il 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 ^ , 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 ill 1 
 
 
 h •• "^ 
 
 p* 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 * irf ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 «-?. J 
 
 
 Nach 
 
 sei 
 
 nes 
 
 Va 
 
 - ters Wil 
 
 
 
 
 T'' « 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ r 
 
 
 
 (t> " 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 lioh 
 
 und bei Gott blei-ben 
 
 =1= 
 
 tp==g: 
 
 rp2= 
 
 :g= 
 
 -f^- 
 
 -j=t. 
 
 -J!=t- 
 
 w. 
 
 tt 
 
 -+- 
 
 gleich Bru dersein und dich 
 
 /TV 
 
 1^=^ 
 
 fen an, 
 
 fe^E^^^ 
 
 leii 
 
 den, 
 
 der sich zum Vater ge ben 
 
 i 
 
 =1= 
 
 i 
 
 hat, 
 
 :e:ii 
 
 -dt^'iz} 
 
 -^- 
 
 ■ berwand, ist auf - er 
 
 /TV 
 
 - len von Sanct Jo-hanns die Tau 
 
 fe nahm, 
 
 den, 
 
 /T\ 
 
 l^^^^i^iE=^^E^ 
 
 etc. 
 
 /TV 
 
 ia^ 
 
 :p=(?i= 
 
 ^^e 
 
 IPIP2Z 
 
 -1—1- 
 
 ^E^^fei-Efe: 
 
 - wigllch 
 
 soUst du hal 
 
 ten die zehn Ge - bot 
 
MUSICAL FORMS. 
 II. 
 
 SECULAR FORMS. 
 
 SON&. 
 
 The name Song generally suggests a secular form. In its various 
 meanings it signifies a musical utterance by a human being, a bird 
 etc.; also, a trifle or thing of little moment, as in the phrase " bought 
 for a song." Owing to its versatility, however, it can also adapt itself 
 to the expression of religious feelings. To give an accurate definition 
 of the word Song in its special meaning {lAed in German, chanson in 
 French, canzone or canzonetta in Italian) is not an easy task. We have 
 here to consider what a song should be and what qualities it ought to 
 possess — and to enumerate the different kinds of songs. The Song 
 belongs chiefly to the lyrical domain of musical art,* and is generally 
 devoted to the illustration of some separate thought — the stillness of 
 night, the beauty of spring, the worth of liberty, etc. The more 
 clearly a song can be made to express an inward feeling, the greater 
 will naturally be its value, popularity, and effect. The expression of 
 a song is mostly that of pure joy, of hope, of consolation. Thus in 
 the Scriptures the idea of the hills breaking out into singing, the waste 
 places of Jerusalem singing together, the singing a new song unto the 
 Lord continually occurs as an expression of joy, happiness, consola- 
 tion, and triumph. It can also be made to describe anything with 
 which our fancy is greatly occupied. For these reasons "the form of 
 • the song is generally much more cantahile than other vocal forms. 
 The chief requirements of the song are completeness in the form of 
 the poem, an easy flowing metre, an agreeably striking rhythm. We 
 see these conditions thoroughly fulfilled in Shakespeare's songs, such 
 as " Hark, hark, the lark," etc. 
 
 On the other hand, the song does not often possess brillia-cy, 
 splendor, and grandeur; and for this reason it is calculated rather to 
 excite our sympathies than to arouse wonder. A good song must 
 moreover exhibit simplicity, quietness, and truth of expression, a 
 moderate compass, and an absolute musical representation of the idea 
 of the words. These conditions are exceedingly difficult to fulfil. At 
 first sight it would seem an easy task to compose a good song; but it 
 may be taken for granted that those songs which sound most simple, 
 and strike our heart at once, were produced with the greatest labor 
 
 * Franz Schubert's celebrated songs : " Margaret at the Spinning-wheel," Nacht- 
 stuck (Op. 36, No. 2), " Willkomm und Absohied" (Op. 56, No. 1), "The young 
 Nun," "Memnon," "Death and the Girl," "By the Sea," "Andie Leyer ;" and 
 Robert Schumann's not Jess celebrated songs: "Lurline" (Waldesgesprach), 
 "Beauteous Cradle" (Schone Wiege), "A Poet's Love" (Ich grolle nieht) — may 
 be said to make an exception to this rule ; in these the dramatic feeling supersedes 
 the iyricaZ expression, and it might be asserted that these songs form a connecting 
 link between the lyrical and dramatic art. On the other hand, Schubert, in many 
 of his songs, presents such rich, characteristic and descriptive accompaniments, 
 that the term Art-song would here not be misapplied. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 87 
 
 and thougnt. As examples may be taken Mozart's "Violet," Schu- 
 bert a " Wanderer," Mendelssohn's "On Song's bright pinions," and 
 Schumann's " Devotion "—songs which, with all their simplicity, show 
 evidence of an extraordinarily acute and correct musical feeling in 
 the composers. To keep a song within the right limits, to balance 
 every part of it in absolute proportion, is no easy task ; and therefore a 
 good song is, in spite of its shortness, a great work of art. All possible 
 scientific accomplishments and contrapuntal studies will not suffice to 
 give the true, the absolutely correct tone of expression. A really good 
 song must find an echo in the heart; it must vibrate in our innermost 
 feelings ; it must move us involuntarily to repeat it ourselves. If we 
 examine the different kinds of songs we possess (we can count them 
 by tens of thousands) we shall find that the oldest songs celebrated 
 religion, war, and also hunting and athletic sports. The religious 
 songs, particularly, existed in olden times in great numbers. St. Paul 
 says, "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all wisdom, 
 teaching and admonishing one another in psalms and hymns and 
 spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts to the Lord." 
 
 Love-songs date from the time of the minstrels, troubadours, and 
 minnesingers. England, France, Spain, and Germany possess a rich 
 treasure of these niediseval songs ; and these songs contributed greatly 
 to soften and improve the harsh and barbarous manners of the feudal 
 times. 
 
 But, though song-writing is a secular form, it contains a sacred 
 department. The Sacred Song demands, besides a gentle and devout 
 musical expression, wise and lofty words. 
 
 CHANSON. 
 
 (From chanter, to sing; Ital. canzona.) 
 
 The Chanson is a short lyrical vocal piece, indeed, a song. The 
 expression ot the modern French chanson is, however, not the same 
 as that of the German song (Lied). Firstly, the chanson has only a 
 melody of the length of one verse, which is not always to be found in 
 the German song; secondlj', the chanson does not always express a 
 subjective or individual feeling, but chooses generally a theme that is 
 able to reveal itself in an epigrammatic and pointed manner; it shows 
 its context in each verse as a new and differently expressed subject, 
 and tries to connect at the end of each verse its different expression 
 in a refrain, or ritomelle, which closes each verse in a happy, unex- 
 pected and spirited manner. German songs constructed in a similar 
 manner are called " Strophen-Lieder." There are chansons for almost 
 all events of family or public life, such as chansons d'amour (love 
 songs); chansons a boire ou rondes de tables (drinking songs); chansons 
 pastorales ou rustiques (pastoral or rustic songs); chansons balladSes 
 (ballads); chansons pour danser (dance songs, such as musettes, 
 gavottes, brailles, minuets); chansons guerrieres (war or military songs) 
 — a beautiful example of this kind is the "Chanson de Koland;" 
 chansons patriotiques (patriotic songs); chansons riligieuses (sacred 
 songs) ; chansons satiriques (satirical songs). Under this last head come 
 the celebrated Mazarinades, satires directed against Cardinal Mazarin, 
 in the time of the Fronde riots. The number of the Mazarinades was 
 very great. C. Moreau (1850), in his "Bibliographic des Mazarinades,'' 
 enumerates about four thousand. Another kind of French song was 
 
88 MUSICAL FOEMS. 
 
 called "les Brunettes." Diderot and d'Alembert, in their Encyclopae- 
 dia, give the following description of the word "brunette." "It is a 
 sort of song in which the air is easy and simple, and the style gallant 
 and natural, sometimes tender, and often playful. It is so called 
 because it often happens that in such a song the poet, addressing 
 himself to a young girl, has given her the name of 'brunette '—dark- 
 haired little one." 
 
 (Compare for further instruction : J. B. Wekerlin, " Echos du Temps 
 pass6," 3 vols. ; Paris : Flaxland. Schneider (K. E.), " Das musikali- 
 scheLiedin geschJchtlicher Entwickelung:" Leipzig: Breitkonf and 
 Hartel, 1863.) 
 
 The French also excel greatly in their Noels (Christmas carols). 
 They possess a great number of them, all written in a simple, unpre- 
 tending style. The works which contain the best specimens are : — 
 
 " La PhilomSle B4raphique." En la !"« partie elle chante les divots et ardans 
 soupirs de I'ame jjenitente qui s'achemine 4 )a vraye perfection; en la 2°"', la 
 " Christiade," sp^cialement les mystSres de la Passion ; en la 3°"= la "Mariad'e," 
 avec les mystSres du Rosaire ; en la 4""= les oantiques de plusieurs saintes, tons en 
 forme d'oraison et de meditation, sur les airs les plus nouveaux choisis des prinoi- 
 paux auteurs de ce temps, par Fr6re Jean I'Evanggliste d' Arras, predioateur 
 capucin. Tournay, 1640. 
 
 " Noels dijonnais" (1700), republished at Dijon, 1858. 
 
 "Noels bourguignons" (1701.) These noels were not sung in church, but at 
 home, round the fireside. 
 
 " Noels maconnais " (1720). 
 
 MAGGIOLATA. 
 
 A song in praise of the recurring spring, which the young men used 
 to sing in the first days of May, round a tree planted for the purpose, 
 before the houses of their beloved ones. This habit was particularly 
 popular in Florence. The phrase " cantare il maggio" originated in 
 this custom. (See Nemeitz, " Nachlese besonderer Nachrichten aus 
 Italien.") 
 
 BALLAD, BALLADE, BALLATA. 
 
 The word Balladia derived from the Italian balh, a dance. Already 
 in the twelftii century the old ballata, a short lyrical song, was fre- 
 quently simg as an accompaniment to the dance. In the popular songs 
 of England and Scotland the word Ballad originally designated a song 
 connected with some heroic myth, and afterwards it came to mean a 
 song descriptive of some event. The early English literature is pecu- 
 liarly rich in ballads from the time of the Saxons downward. ("Chevy 
 Chase," the ballads of "Eoliin Hood," the Scottish" Sir Patrick Speus;" 
 in 1560 nearly eight hundred ballads were entered at Stationers' Hall; 
 the number from the reign of Henry VIII, to the year 1700, printed 
 without music, is stated at ten thousand). The popular ballad or song 
 of the people has only one melody, whicli is repeated with every 
 strophe and the accompaniment remains the same. The composer 
 accordingly had to produce a melody, wliich should express the 
 general idea of the poem, as he could not vary the matter to express 
 the separate features of particular verses. Each ballad had not its 
 own tune ; it was customary to write new ballads upon wonderful or 
 startling events as they arose, and to sing them to popular melodies. 
 When Shakespeare's inimitable Autolycus comes with his stock of 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 89 
 
 peddler's wares to the sheep-shearing feast, his cnief recommendation 
 is that he brings a goodly store of ballads for the edification of the 
 rustics. "What hast there?" asks the clown. "Ballads?" "Pray 
 now, buy some," entreats the fair Mopsa. " I love a ballad in print, 
 a'-life ! for then we are sure they are true." And a very good market 
 Autolycus makes of his musical wares. 
 
 Very frequently the ballad was furnished with a burden, consisting 
 of a line, or sometimes several lines, sung in chorus at the end of each 
 verse. 
 
 Ariel, in the "Tempest," calls upon the spirits "to bear the burden 
 of his ballad : " — 
 
 Foot it featly here and there. 
 And, sweet sprites, the burden bear. 
 
 In the burden (or refrain) the original thought or idea of the ballad 
 was frequently emphasized. 
 
 The modern ballad has, to a great extent, departed from the sim- 
 plicity of the original form, the verses being varied in melody and 
 expression, according to the different emotions to be portrayed, as for 
 instance in Goethe's "Erl-king," Biirger's " Leonore," etc. The dra- 
 matic element comes prominently forward in the ballad, in which the 
 characters are often represented as speaking in dialogue, in contra- 
 distinction to the narrative form, as for instance in the charming old 
 ballad " The Bailiff's Daughter of Islinigton." 
 
 NATIONAL SONGS. 
 
 Under National Songs may be classed all songs that appeal, in any 
 form, to patriotic feeling. The best example of what a national song 
 ought to be has been furnished by Joseph Haydn in his " God pre- 
 serve the Emperor." Other good specimens are the " Marseillaise " 
 and the "Russian Hymn." Excellent examples are also found in 
 Weber's songs " Lyre and Sword " and Arne's stirring " Rule Britan- 
 nia." The popular songs, or songs of the people, are indeed excellent 
 in every country, and are the truest expression of national life and 
 sentiment; for the songs of a nation are a natural result of the man- 
 ner of life, and also depend greatly on geographical and climatic 
 relations. Thus a nation inhabiting a mountainous country has songs 
 of a livelier and richer character and of more varied expression than 
 the inhabitants of a fiat region generally possess. Again, the songs 
 of the Northern nations, as Russians, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and 
 Eskimos, are mostly of a melancholy expression ; while the Southern 
 nations, such as Spaniards and Italians, and to some extent also the 
 Hungarian, Bohemian, and Slavouia races, combine their songs with 
 dancing. Among the lovely Italian popular songs those of Tuscany 
 claim the highest place. The English, Scotch, and Irish songs are 
 justly celebrated, and have been adapted and utilized by the greatest 
 composers. 
 
 Convivial and Humorous Songs are a natural consequence of the 
 lAedertafeln, or musical convivial associations. The Liedertafeln are 
 represented in Great Britain by the madrigal and glee clubf 
 
90 MUSICAL FORMS 
 
 COUPLET. 
 
 Couplet, in the general sense, is the repetition of any amount of 
 verses that are sung to the same melody of the first verse. The songs 
 in comic operas or vaudevilles, or burlesques, which the comic actor 
 sings, and in which he alludes in a humorous and sometimes satirical 
 manner to political or social questions of the day are also called 
 Couplets. The same name is given to variations generally added to a 
 chaconne or passacaille. (Compare for instance Couperin's beautiful 
 cliaconne " La T^n^breuse.") The episodes that offer relief to the 
 repetitions of the principal subject in a rondo are sometimes termed 
 Couplets. 
 
 MADEIGAL. 
 
 A composition in three or more parts for voices, without accom- 
 paniment; each part being supported by several singers. It is prob- 
 able that the word Madrigal was originally the name of a short rustic 
 poem, and that it was afterwards given to the music to which such 
 poems were set. A similar process may have taken place with such 
 words as Kondo, Sonnet, Koundelay, Fa la. There are great varieties 
 of style and form amongst madrigals ; some consist of a short, simple 
 melody broadly harmonized; others are closely allied in form to the 
 sacred motet; some not only include all the devices of counterpoint, 
 but are also divided into distinct movements. The madrigal period 
 may be roughly set down as from 1550 to 1650. Italy and England 
 produced important schools of madrigal writers. Among the English 
 writers, the best are, Dowland, Morley, Ward, Wilbye, Tallis, 
 Weelkes, Benet, Gibbons. 
 
 GLEE. 
 
 The Glee is a form of composition peculiar to the English school of 
 music. The glee is nearly always sung by one voice to a part, and in 
 its purest style is unaccompanied. The separate vocal parts of a glee 
 are as a rule more melodious and less contrapuntal than those of the 
 madrigal, hence it is more capable of tenderness and expression than 
 a madrigal; but less capable of producing broad effects. The glee is 
 essentially a branch of Chamber-music. The best period of the glee 
 was from 1750 to 1830. Since the latter period the introduction of the 
 part-song has to a considerable extent superseded it. Amongst the 
 most successful composers of glees were S. Webbe, Dr. Cooke, Dr. 
 Callcott, E. J. 8. Stevens, Eeginald Spofforth, Stafford Smith, W. 
 Horsley. A glee of a gentle and quiet character, with words having 
 reference to the charms of rustic life, of friendship, or love, is some- 
 times called a "serious glee;" while if its words are of a jovial or 
 droll nature it is termed a " cheerful glee." The most fully developed 
 glees consist of several contrasted movements, and in many cases, 
 instead of a vigorous climax, they are brought to a soft and pathetic 
 close. 
 
 EOUNDS AND CATCHES. 
 
 A Hound is, strictly speaking, a canon at the unison so constructed 
 that when the parts are written one over the other, as is usually the 
 case, they form one well-defined musical period. To insure a proper 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 91 
 
 cadence, a round sometimes must be finished at some point before 
 the close of the line, in which case a pause is placed to point out the 
 final notes, and is only to be observed when the round is sung for the 
 last time, e. g. : — 
 
 -^- 
 
 izir 
 
 Great 
 
 Tom is 
 
 cast, 
 
 And 
 
 zt:=.tz-- 
 
 --e^=m=J^- 
 
 "^m 
 
 Christ-chuich bells ring 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 
 
 =S— *= 
 
 6, And Tom comes last. 
 
 The Catch was originally merely a round written out in one long 
 line instead of being arranged in score ; each voice that entered had 
 therefore to catch the point of entry. Afterwards, a catch was a term 
 applied to any round in which the words were capable of a double 
 meaning, according to their accent, or their division between the 
 lines. Catches were much in vogue in the reign of Charles II. 
 
 OBSOLETE FORMS OF SONGS. 
 I.— LAI, LAY, LEICH (Oer.) 
 
 A song in the popular form in contradistinction to the artistic song 
 or chanson. The name was given originally to the epic and narrative 
 poems of the Anglo-Norman Trouvferes, which were sung to Breton 
 popular melodies (" Lais historiques," " Lais de Chevalerie "). After- 
 wards the name was extended to the popular song generally, whether 
 lyric or narrative; as for instance in the old epic lays which were 
 spread among the people by the menestrels or jongleurs. 
 
 II.— CANZONE. 
 
 A very old form of song-poem or musical vocal composition, fre- 
 quently sung by the Troubadours and Minstrels ; various in its versifi- 
 cation, but generally allied to the Pindaric or Horatian metre, and 
 ordinarily secular in its contents ; love sor.gs, etc., and composed in 
 the style of a cantata. Sometimes, however, the Canzone was on a 
 sacred subject, and such compositions were called Canzoni spiritual!. 
 
 III.— CANSON EEDONDA. 
 
 A roundelay was the name given to a kind of song-poem, sung by 
 the Troubadours, in which the last line of each stanza was repeated 
 as the first line of the next, so that the whole of the stanzas were con- 
 nected with each other. 
 
92 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 PASTORAL. 
 
 (1) Pastoral is a piece of a simple, rustic expression — a shepherd's 
 song, generally in six-eight time. To this form belong the Musette and 
 SicUiano ; the Siciliano, however, is distinguished from the Pastoral by 
 dotted notes, which are wanting in the pastoral. (2) Pastoral is a 
 short, musical dramatic work, whose subject is taken from the life of 
 shepherds or country people; the music ought to express throughout 
 simplicity and innocence, and must avoid any show of dratnatic 
 passion. (3) The name pastoral is also given to pieces of larger 
 dimensions, which owe their existence to impressions received by the 
 composer through country life and scenes, and describe incidents of 
 nature. The noblest example of these kind of pieces is Beethoven's 
 Pastoral Symphony. 
 
 LIEDERSPIEL. 
 
 This is a play which is interspersed with songs or ballads, a kind of 
 vaudeville ; it must not be confounded with a singspiel or operetta, as 
 in the latter recitative and aria and regular scenes are necessary. The 
 liederspiel was invented by John Friedr. Reichardt (1752-1814)— not to 
 be confounded with Gustav Reichardt, the composer of the well-known 
 German national song "Was ist des deutschen Vaterland." J. F. 
 Reichardt was anxious to initiate a simpler, more natural style. His 
 liederspiel " Liebe und Treue " (1800) and " Kunst und Liebe " were 
 very successful. 
 
 In England we find this form already represented at a somewhat 
 earlier period by Guy's " Beggar's Opera," and subsequently it appears 
 in such works as " The Quaker," " The Waterman," and " Love in a 
 Village." 
 
 MASQUE. 
 
 A Mask is the name of a secular poem, generally of mythological 
 character, which was either performed on the stage with the aid of a 
 ballet, or merely sung in the concert-room. (See the preface to 
 Handel's "Acis and Galatea " in the third volume of the German 
 Handel Society.) 
 
 BURLETTA. 
 
 The word comes from the Italian, and designates a comic operetta 
 or farcial play, in which songs are introduced. 
 
 OPERA. 
 
 The word Opera is the plural of the Latin opus, and means " works." 
 In a musical sense it may be defined as a work of art, in which music, 
 words, and a visible action, sometimes accompanied by dancing, com- 
 bine to represent a certain story ; the whole being enhanced by the 
 effect of scenery. This story can be either serious, lync, romardic, or 
 comic. In the first case the opera is called a grand or tragic opera 
 (e. a. " Les Huguenots "), in the second a lyric opera (e. g. " La boii- 
 nambula"), in the third a romantic opera (e.g. "Der Freischutz '), 
 and in the last a comic opera, or opera buffa (e. g. " II Barbiere Qi 
 Siviglia "). The opera is divided into acts, and these again into scenes, 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 93 
 
 in the regular dramatic style. The music is vocal and instrumental; 
 the vocal part predominates ; and the independent instrumental part 
 is confined to the overture, entr'acte, and introductions. The combi- 
 nation of different arts renders the opera a work of great importance, 
 concerning whose position and value in an artistic point of view there 
 has been, and is likely to be, much controversy. The idea of uniting 
 and amalgamating the art of speech, of song, and of action in one 
 work is by no means modern : to produce a work in which all these 
 arts have an equal part, was an object which the ancient Greeks 
 desired to realize. The actual solution of this problem seems to be 
 still very distant; for as each of the separate arts has attained great 
 perfection the idea of subordinating one to another becomes less and 
 less practicable. Each of the fine arts has its particular domain, from 
 which it excludes the sister arts when it has reached a certain stage 
 of freedom and independence. A perfect drama, for instance, will 
 never unite itself to an equally perfect and independently constructed 
 musical work; for they are founded on heterogeneous, and indeed on 
 almost opposite principles. Music, if it is to develop itself according 
 to its specific nature, necessarily claims a perfectly organized and 
 systematic construction ; otherwise it sinks to the position of a depend- 
 ent art, and becomes the handmaid of Poetry. Music expresses our 
 innermost feelings by sounds; but this dogma the drama does not and 
 cannot recognize — for music interrupts the progress of the action in 
 so far as we appreciate the feeling of the hero or of any chief person 
 in the drama through action and not reflection. In the drama we want 
 to see action, but not to listen to philosophical meditations, which, 
 however, if appropriately and sparingly introduced, can contribute to 
 the general effect. The dramatic action either debars the music from 
 its necessary development into the proper artistic form, or music dis- 
 turbs the regular life of the drama. In the opera, music can only 
 admit of such a text as will be a vehicle for the expression of emotions 
 and sentiments, to be suitably portrayed by sounds. This does not 
 imply that the story and text ought not to be constructed according 
 to the principal rules of the drama; dramatic plan or design and a 
 perfect drama are two quite different things. An opera will always 
 remain a musico-dramatic work of art, and will ever be most effective 
 in expressing the more lyrical sentiments, although it can in a great 
 degree heighten and intensify the dramatic situations; it cannot, 
 however, lend itself to that delineation and development of character 
 in detail v/hich is one of the chief sources of strength in a regular 
 and perfect drama. A reason against the complete representation of 
 a character in the opera may also be that the singers, devoting their 
 chief attention to the voice, are mostly deficient in dramatic educa- 
 tion when compared with other actors. The chief aim of the opera 
 must always be a musical one. Thanks to the inexhaustible resources 
 of musical art, the great dramatic composers were capable of imbuing 
 the most varied characters with suitable musical expression; Gluck's, 
 Mozart's, and Weber's operas furnish excellent examples. Some of 
 the finest productions, constructed according to the above-mentioned 
 rule, that in the opera music shpuld be the principal element, testify that 
 this dogma is correct. Whether the new tendency to amalgamate all 
 the arts in one art-work will act as beneficially as, or even more bene- 
 ficially than, the older principle, is a question not yet answered to the 
 general satisfaction ; it would perhaps be difficult to convince the world 
 
94 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 that the tipw productions of Kichard Wagner, for instance, are as per- 
 fect models of an opera as those of Mozart or Weber— although it 
 cannot be denied that the new product, or " music of the future " as 
 it is generally but erroneously called, possesses a great many elements 
 of truth, correctness, and wonderful effect. It is certainly a highly 
 interesting subject, and one worthy of full, fair, and reasonable discus- 
 sion, and of earnest examination. 
 The pieces of which the opera consists are : — 
 
 1. Overture. 
 
 2. Recitative. 
 
 3. Aria. 
 
 4. The musical Dramatic Scene. 
 
 5. Duet. 
 
 6. Terzett (Trio). 
 
 7. Ensemble pieces. 
 
 8. Chorus. 
 
 9. Finale. 
 
 About (1) overture, (2) recitative, (3) aria, (5) duet, (8) chorus, see 
 the respective forms. 
 
 THE DRAMATIC SCENE. 
 
 If the opera contains a situation which is so grand, important, and 
 decisive on the development of the plot, that the form of an aria would 
 actually interfere with the correct comprehension of the situation (in 
 point of psychological truth), and the systematic and well ordered 
 structure of the aria would at the same time be antagonistic to the 
 feelings of curiosity, interest, awe, awakened in the listener — the com- 
 poser employs instead the dramatic scene, a mixture of recitative and 
 arioso. But not only in the recitative, but also in the arioso the 
 greatest freedom ought to be permitted; the orchestral accompani- 
 ment ought to supplement and strengthen the dramatic feeling. A 
 splendid example of this form is the scene No. 14 in Marschner's opera 
 " The Vampyre." (See the masterly analysis of this remarkable scene 
 in Lobe's " Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition," vol. iv. pp. 
 227-286). 
 
 TEIO (TERZETT). 
 
 In the Trio three persons join in a certain situation, and for this 
 reason it is necessary that, at least in one place in the piece, these 
 three persons sing together, and more particularly so at the end ; by 
 this method the composition reaches its necessary climax. This 
 necessity of finishing all three together has been acknowledged by all 
 composers, and in the seventeen trios which the six great operas of 
 Mozart contain, we find only three instances in which we miss the 
 joining of the three voices — namely, the trio between Pamina, Mono- 
 statos and Papageno in "II Flauto magico," the trio between Donna 
 Elvira, Don Giovanni, and Leporello in " Don Giovanni," and the trio 
 (No. 14) between Publius, Vitellia, and Sextus in " La Clemenza di 
 Tito." A careful examination of these three trios will show that there 
 was a sound dramatic reason for this variation of the rule, and that 
 the observation of this reason shows thf> correct dramatic feeling of 
 the composer. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 95 
 
 It is customary to compose the trio in two movements — a slower 
 and a faster movement; but of course the dramatic situation is here, 
 as in all other operatic music, the decisive rule. Beautiful examples 
 of trios are to be found in Rossini's " Guillaume Tell," Weber's " Der 
 Freischiitz," Beethoven's " Fidelio," Spohr's " Zemire and Azor," etc. 
 
 ENSEMBLE (CONCERTED) PIECES. 
 
 The meaning of Ensemble (concerted) Pieces is not certain, or de- 
 cisive. Indeed, duets and trios are called Ensemble pieces ; however, 
 these forms are described by the number of voices employed. Generally 
 ensemble pieces are called the union of four, five, six, and more 
 voices, with or without the supplement of the chorus. The dramatic 
 Hcene may be constructed in such a manner that two or three persons 
 begin, and are later joined by persons not present in the beginning; 
 but the coming, remaining and leaving of these persons ought to be 
 always the result of a natural necessity, and according to it the com- 
 poser will mould his musical form. The number and character of 
 pieces constituting the ensemble piece must also depend upon the 
 dramatic situation. If we look for instance at the introduction of 
 " Don Giovanni " we find the ensemble piece consisting of: — 
 
 1. Solo, Leporello. 
 
 2. Trio, Donna Anna, Don Giovanni, and Leporello. 
 
 3. Tri^, Don Giovanni, Gommendatore, and Leporello. 
 
 These three situations are set only in two movements — namely, 
 allegro molto and andante. The sestetto in the same opera consists 
 of:— 
 
 1. Solo, Donna Elvira. 
 
 2. Leporello. 
 
 3. Donna Anna and Don Ottavio. 
 
 4. Donna Elvira and Leporello. 
 
 5. Donna Anna, Donna Elvira, Zerlina, Don Ottavio, 
 
 Masetto, and Leporello. 
 
 These five situations are set in one movement—andante, common 
 time ; which, however, becomes a little more animated when the six 
 persons sing together. The Introduction to "II Flauto magico" is 
 again constructed in the following manner : — 
 
 • 1. Tamino, in a kind of aria, C minor, common time. 
 2. Three ladies (trio), (a) E flat and A flat. 
 
 (b) Allegretto, G major, six-eight time. 
 
 (c) Allegro, major, common time. 
 
 Other fine examples of ensemble pieces are to be found in Mozart's 
 " Nozze di Figaro," Eossini's " Guillaume Tell " (with chorus), Meyer- 
 beer's " Les Huguenots," Weber's " Der Freischutz " (first and third 
 act), Weber's " Euryanthe " (first act), Wagner's " Lohengrin " (prayer 
 in first act), Donizetti's " Lucia di Lammermoor," etc. 
 
 FINALE. 
 
 A well planned and successfully carried out finale of the act of an 
 "opera is one of the most difiicult tasks. The finale comprises actually 
 »11 possible forms of which the opera consists— from the recitative to 
 
t»6 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 the most polyphonic concerted piece. The charm of the Finale is to 
 be found in the fact that situations and places, which appear in the 
 opera divided by the recitative and dialogue, here succeed each other 
 in the greatest variety ; and thus lively contrasts, as well in pieces 
 and instrumentation, keep up a warm interest in the listener. The 
 composer has to make at first a precise disposition of all the distinct 
 parts; he has to seek and find all the varieties of the situation; has 
 to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the character of each 
 scene, and to find the proper form, key, time, movement, and instru- 
 mentation for a true and suitable musical expression. Furthermore, 
 he has to consider which parts of the Finale have to be brought for- 
 ward with great brilliancy, importance, and force; he has, therefore, 
 to put, so to say, certain parts somewhat in the shade, and has to grasp 
 with a firmness every moment of the dramatic situation that may 
 assist in giving clearness and solid strength to the whole structure. 
 Indeed the composer has not only to command the entire musical 
 apparatus with consummate skill, but has also to be a keen psycho- 
 logical observer. Of all composers Mozart was the one who combined 
 all the necessary requirements for composing a perfect Finale. We 
 subjoin here the scheme of Mozart's Finale to the first act in "II 
 Flauto magico," and invite the student to make himself acquainted 
 with its music : — 
 
 Scene 1. 
 
 1. Quartette. Three Genii and Tamino. Larghetto, C major, com- 
 mon time, 38 bars. 
 
 Scene 2. 
 
 2. Redtativo ohhligato with short Ariosi. Tamino, and a voice (the 
 Priests). 
 
 3. Arieite. Tamino. Andante, C major, common time, 68 bars. 
 
 4. Duet, Pamina and Papageno. Andante (should be allegro), G 
 major. 
 
 6. Ensemble. Monostatos and chorus of men, Pamina and Papageno. 
 Allegro, G major, common time, 97 bars. 
 
 6. Duet. Pamina and Papageno. Andante, G major, common time, 
 24 bars. 
 
 7. Ensemble and Chorus. Allegro maestoso, C major, common time, 
 44 bars. 
 
 8. Du£t. Pamina and Sarastro. Larghetto, F major, common 
 time, 46 bars. 
 
 9. Ensemble and Chorus. Allegro, F major. 
 
 10. Recitative. Sarastro. 
 
 11. Final Chorus. C major, common time, 69 bars. 
 
 It will be observed that all the pieces are in common time ; but the 
 striking contrast of th.e character of Pamina and Papageno, Tamino 
 and Monostatos, the high priest Sarastro, and the masterly instru- 
 mentation, makes us entirely forget the sameness of time. As a most 
 excellent example of an effective, carefully planned, and marvellously 
 fine composed Finale we would also mention, the Finale of the third 
 act in Kossini's " Guillaume Tell," containing the meeting of the Swiss 
 on the Eiitli, when taking the oath to deliver their country from the 
 invader. 
 
VOCAL MUSIC. 97 
 
 THE FRENCH OPERA COMIQUE. 
 
 The chief qualities that distin^ish French operas are grace, great clearness, a 
 decided charm of rhythmical life and expression, and a considerable variety of 
 happily conceived harmonious changes; also an undeniable elegance, a never- 
 failing taste; also a peculiarly French quality, best defined as piquancy, or the 
 power of exciting and maintaining the attention. In the French Op^ra Comique 
 the hostess is Thalia, the muse of Comedy, who invites as her guest Euterpe, 
 the muse of harmony. The dialogue in the French Opera Comique is an essential 
 
 Sart of the whole, and even operas with an earnest story are interspersed with 
 ialogue. In the French Op6ra Comique music forms the smaller, and dialogue 
 the larger ingredient; the story of an op£ra comique is sometimes very intricate 
 and complicated; and the process of developing the plot and bringing it to a 
 climax could not be so intelligibly' rendered by means of music, as through the 
 words. Each scene must be full of humorous, witty, and spirited dialogues; and 
 the libretto- writer is careful to provide interest and amusement to the spectators 
 at every opportunity. (" Fra Diavolo," " La Part du Diable," " Le Brasseur de 
 Preston," etc.) The performers are for this reason mostly very excellent actors; 
 and the French public would consider a rich and powerful voice in an opera 
 comique not only superfluous, but actually a disturbing element, inappropriate and 
 misplaced. But they deem, on the other hand, a graceful delivery, tasteful and 
 precise variation of light and shade, and refined and correct enunciation— the 
 ''8|)eakiiig expression "—indispensable qualities. The French Op&a Comique, 
 therefore, possesses two important qualities— pliancy and subordination to the 
 plot. In the Op^ra Comique the music has to wait patiently till it receives its 
 cue, and is allowed to appear, and even then it has to accommodate itself to the 
 character of the preceding spoken passage; an undue desire to display independ- 
 ence could here not be admitted. 
 
 Literature. — Dupuy, "Lettres sur I'origine et les progrSs de I'op^ra en 
 France;" A la Haye, 1740. Grimm (F. M. von), "Almanac historique," etc.; 
 Paris; chez Duchesne, 1752-1754, 4 vols. Noinville (Bernard de), " Histoire du 
 Theatre de I'Acad^mie royale de Musique en France;" Paris, 1752. Reichardt 
 (Johann Friedr.), "An das musikalische Publikum ;" Hamburg, 1787. "Almanac 
 des Spectacles pour I'ann^e, 1856." Jahu (Otto), " W. A. Mozart," vol. ii. pp. 
 190, 203, 208, 241-256. 
 
 THE ITALIAN OPERA. 
 
 Italian operatic music may boast pre-eminence in many points, in which French 
 and German music are deficient. The Italian melodies possess a thoroughly vocal 
 construction ; they also possess a broad and easy flow. Italian music is fresh and 
 vigor(ras, and the pieces are constructed with clearness and precision. The voice 
 part is nowhere interfered with or oppressed by the orchestra It rises, so to 
 say, triumphantly above the accompaniment. The Italian " opera buffa" (comic 
 opera) does not admit of dialogue; the so called " Recitativo secco " (see this form) 
 is the connecting link that binds one air to another ; the action of the opera buifa 
 is always simple, transparent, sometimes even exceedingly poor and meagre. (See 
 " Barbiere di Siviglia," " L'Elisire d'Amore," etc.) The criterion of the compe- 
 tency of the performers is not their power of acting, but entirely their vocal 
 skill. The Italian composers of all times have recognized the necessity of con- 
 sulting the compass, nature, and specialty of the human voice. Butfhia admira- 
 tion for the mere voice led the Italians too far. As soon as the so-called "Aria 
 di bravura" had been invented, the supremacy of the singers over instrument- 
 alists was declared; and it may safely be asserted, that where singers are the 
 judges and umpires, the beauty, truth and dignity of the art are in daiigei-. AH 
 great composers have complained that they are compelled to sacrifice dramatic 
 truth, correct rules, and the unity of their works, merely to ])]ease the whims of 
 singers, who do not in the least care for the musical work as 3uuh, and consider 
 it simply as a vehicle for showing their own cleverness as execuuints. The spirit 
 of the purely Italian opera music is more a natural than an iiiteliectnal one; the 
 opera \ in Italy considered a spontaneous and passing pleasure whilst the more 
 
 T 
 
98 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 earnest Germans look upon it as a serions art. " The Germans begin generally 
 with instrumental music, which renders it difficult for them to subject themselves 
 later to the conditions of vocal music ; they find it not easy to become simple, 
 whilst it is difficult for the Italians not to become trim"'," {" Rossini's Conver- 
 sations with Hiller.") 
 
 LiTEEATURB. — Brown (John), "Letters on the Poetry and Music of the Italian 
 Opera;" London, 1789. Mount- Edgcumbe (Earl of), "Musical Reminiscences," 
 etc.; London: Clarke, 1828. Eubbi (Andrea), "II bello armonioo teatrale;" 
 ■Venezia, 1792. Finck (G. W.), " Wesen urid Geschichte der Oper;" Leipzig: 
 Wigand, 1838. Hogarth (George), "Memoirs of the Musical Drama;" London, 
 1838. Edwards (Sutherland), " History of the Opera," vol. i. pp. 104, 140, vol. 
 ii. pp. 80, 140, 226; London, 1862. Jahn (Otto), "W. A. Mozart," vol. i. pp. 
 343, 346, 349,' 358. 
 
 GERMAN (ROMANTIC) OPERA. 
 
 Although German composers have written excellent comic operas (John Adam 
 Hiller, Dittersdorf, Sokenk, Miiller, Kauer), and may boast of a good many dis- 
 tinguished lyrical and serious operas, the Romuntic Opera seems to be the most 
 sympathetic to the nature and reeling of the German composer and the German 
 public. Among the authors who excelled in this branch of the dramatic art, we 
 name more particularly Ludwig Spohr ("Faust," "Jessorida," "Alchymist"), 
 Carl Maria von Weber ("Der Freisehiitz," "Oberon," "Euryanthe"), Heinrich 
 Marschner ("Vampyre," "Hans Heiling"), and the lately deceased Richard. 
 Wagner ("Tannhauser," "Flying Dutchman," etc.). The subject of tlie romantic 
 opera is generally based on events of the fairy or supernatural world, or depicts 
 the conflict of the evil and moral principle. The lloinautic Opera draws also 
 largely on the resources of the national myths and tales, paints with national 
 colors, mixes original with national melodies, relies on the manifold means cf 
 the orchestra to describe, heighten, and complete certain dramatic situations, and 
 finally admits the chorus for active co-operation. As in the Romantic Opera the 
 characteristic expression is the principal one, it results that the composer's fancy 
 is here more active and inventive than in other operas, which intend to show 
 off the executive skill of the singers— indeed, the Romantic Opera contains more 
 real music, and possesses, therefore, greater interest than operas which rely merely 
 on pretty melodies, tuneful ballads, or brilliant vocalization. 
 
 ENGLISH (BALLAD) OPERA. 
 
 At all times the English public liked the introduction of ballads or songs in 
 their operas. (See, for example, the celebrated " Beggars' Opera," with sixty- 
 nine songs, and its second part, " Polly," with seventy-one songs (Dr. Chrysander's 
 " Life of Handel," vol. ii. pp. 190-207). In this respect the English Opera re- 
 sembles the early French operettas. Dramatic life and glowing warmth are 
 generally wanting, and even in the present time the most gifted English com- 
 posers have to suffer from this inartistic predilection of the public fur ballads, 
 which have at times to be introduced in direct juxtaposition to the dramatic 
 requirements of the story. But not only the public is here to blame — part of 
 the fault lies with the publishers, who would not think of publishing an opera 
 withoub its containing half a dozen ballads. Many examples of correct dramatic 
 feeling in English composers could be cited; although it is certain that the very 
 works which contain dramatic life have never enjoyed that popularity which 
 was reserved for so-called Balla<l-Operas. The ballad of the English Opera is a 
 lyric form, whilst the Opera as a dramatic form requires absolutely a greater, more 
 intensive, and fiery expression, and must sometimes dispense with pieces of a 
 distinct, concise form. 
 
 The form of the Opera being one of the most important, it will not 
 be uninteresting to glance over a chronological table of the most cele- 
 brated composers of operas. (See pp. 1(X)-103.) 
 
YOCAL MUSIC. 99 
 
 INTERMEDIUM, INTERMEZZO. 
 
 Originally musical compositions interpolated in the comedies acted 
 at court festivities, to amuse the spectators while the performers were 
 resting or changing their dresses. Among the Italians they were already 
 prevalent in the last quarter of the sixteenth century ; they consisted 
 both of vocal and {instrumental pieces, the former being madrigals, with 
 a varying number of voices and dialoghi for two or more choruses ; 
 the latter, symphonies, short passages imitating the madrigal in form. 
 The vocal passages were, moreover, accompanied by instruments, the 
 madrigals of one chorus by a small, and those of more choruses and 
 the dialoghi by a full band. Afterwards this form was greatly elabo- 
 rated by the addition of arias, duets, recitatives, etc., so that the inter- 
 ludes became dramatic works, consisting of musical scenes, mingled 
 with dancing, and generally of a comic and farcial nature, even where 
 associated with serious or tragic opera. These interludes were intro- 
 duced with anything but an artistic or congenial effect between the 
 acts of some of Moli&re's comedies, as performed before the Court of 
 Louis XIV. For the. last century this form has entirely fallen into 
 desuetude, for it could not fail to be observed how absurdly the action 
 of a work was interrupted by thus interweaving a form which had no 
 relation to the main subject, and, indeed, was sometimes in contradic- 
 tion with it. 
 
 In modern instrumental musicashort movement introduced between 
 two longer ones is often designated ss an intermezzo. (See Mendels- 
 sohn's music to "A Midsummer Night's Dream," his String Quarteta 
 and Lachner's Suite in E.) , 
 
CHR ONOL GICAL TABLE OF THE MOST 
 
 1600 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1550 (about) Cavalieri, Emilio del. 
 1560 (about) Peri, Giacomo. 
 1565-1649 Monteverde, Claudio. 
 
 1580 Invention of the Opera. 
 
 1600-1670 Manelli, Francesco. 
 1600 (about) Gaspariui, Michel 
 
 Angelo. 
 1600-1662 Marazzoli, Marco. 
 1610- ? Cavalli, Francesco. 
 1610-1650 Sacrati, Paolo. 
 1610-1670 Ziani, Pietro Andrea. 
 1620- ? Eovetta, called Rovettino. 
 1620-1681 Cesti, Marc Antonio. 
 1625-1692 Legrenzi, Giovanni. 
 1633-1687 LtfLLY, Giovanni Bat- 
 
 tista (19 French Operas). 
 1640- ? Gabrieli, Soinenico. 
 1640-1710 Zanetti, Antonio. 
 1645-1678 Stradella, Alessandro. 
 
 1650-1730 Steffani, Agostiuo (Gre- 
 gorio Pivai. 
 
 1650-1720 Ziani, Marco Andrea. 
 
 1659-1725 SCAELATTI, Alessan- 
 dro (115 Operas). 
 
 1665-1740 Lottl, Antonio. 
 
 1670-1743 Vivaldi, Antonio. 
 
 1672-1750 BOKONCmi, Giovanni. 
 
 1678-1763 Caldara, Antonio. 
 
 1681-1736 Astorga, Emanuele. 
 
 1687-1767 POBFOBA, Nicolo. 
 
 1694-1756 Leo, Leonardo. (The 
 first greater Overtures.) 
 
 1703-1785 Galuppi, Baldassaro. 
 
 1706-1772 Lampugnani, Giovanni, 
 
 1707-1739 Pergolesi (Jesi), Gio- 
 vanni Battista. 
 
 1711-1778 Perez, Davide. 
 
 1712-1795 Paradies, Pietro Dome- 
 nico. 
 
 1714-1774 Jomelli, Nicolo. 
 
 1715-1787 Fiorilio, Ignazio. 
 
 1728-1800 PICCINI, Nicolo (130 
 Operas). 
 
 1730-1802 Sarti, Giuseppe. 
 1735-1786 Sacchini, Antonio Maria, 
 
 Giuseppe. 
 1741-1816 PAISIELLO, Giovanni 
 
 (94 Operas). 
 
 1600 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1617- ? Cambert, Robert. 
 
 1635- ? Philidor, Michel-Danican. 
 
 1639-1709 Colasse, Pascal. 
 
 1645 Introduction of the Italian 
 Opera through Cardinal Ma- 
 zarin. 
 
 1660 The firs: French Opera. 
 1662-1741 Desmarets, Henri. 
 
 1672 LuUy's first French gremd 
 
 Opera. 
 1683-1764 EAMEATl, Jean-PhU- 
 
 ippe. 
 
 Great progress in the French 
 Opera. 
 
 1711-1773 Mondonville, Jean- 
 Joseph. 
 1712-1778 Bousseau,Jean-Jacques. 
 
 1727-1795 PHILIDOR, Franfois- 
 AndrS. (French and Italian 
 Operas). 
 
 1727-1780 Berton, Pierre. 
 
 1729-1817 MONSIGNY, Pierre- 
 Alexandre. 
 
 1733-1829 Gossec, Francois- Joseph 
 
 1741-1813 GRETRY, Andr^-Er- 
 neste (59 Operas). 
 
 (100) 
 
CELEBRATED COMPOSERS OF OPERAS. 
 
 GEEMANY. 
 
 1585-1672 Schiitz, Heinrich von 
 (Sagittarius). 
 
 1627 Performance of the first Ger- 
 man Opera {by Schiitz). 
 
 1640-1700 Strunk, Nicholaus 
 
 Adam. 
 1641-1688 Franck, Johann Wolf- 
 
 1646-1725 Krieger, Adam. 
 
 1660-1732 Fux, Johann Joseph 
 (17 Italian Operas). 
 
 1673-1739 KEISER, Eeinhard (116 
 Operas, 75 still known). 
 
 1681-1764 Matthesou, Johann (Ger- 
 man and Italian Operas). 
 
 1681-1767 Telemann.Georg Philip. 
 
 1685-1759 HAKSEL, Georg Fried- 
 rich (8 German and 43 Italian 
 Operas). 
 
 1699-1783 BASSE, Johann Adolf 
 (51 Italian Operas). 
 
 1701-1759 Graun, Carl Heinrich 
 (30 Italian Operas). 
 
 1714-1790 Holzbauer, Ignaz. 
 
 1714-1787 6LUCK, Christoph Wil- 
 libald (8 Italian and 13 French 
 Operas). 
 
 1721-1795 Benda, Georg. 
 
 1728-1809 Hiller, Johann Adam. 
 
 1729-1774 Gassmann, Florian Leo- 
 pold (23 Italian Operas). 
 
 1732-1809 HAYDN, Joseph (10 
 German and 14 Italian Operas). 
 
 1735-1782 Bach, Johann Christian 
 (15 Italian Operas.) 
 
 1739-1799 DITTEBSDOEF, Carl 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1600 
 
 von. 
 1749-1814 Vogler, 
 Joseph. 
 
 Abb4 Georg 
 
 1650 
 
 1700 
 
 1620 (about) Eccles, John (Ei- 
 naldo e Armida, etc.). 
 
 1620-1677 Look, Matthias (Psyche, 
 1675). 
 
 1658-1695 PTJECELL, Henry. 
 
 1665 (about) Clayton, Thomas 
 (Arsinoe, the first English 
 Opera). 
 
 1710-1778 ABNE, Thomas Augus- 
 tine (23 English Operas). 
 
 1735-1795 Linley, Thomas. 
 
 1737-1814 Dibdin, Charles. 
 
 1740-1802 Arnold, Samuel (40 
 English Operas and Operettas.) 
 
 1746-1827 Hook, James (11 En- 
 glish Operas). 
 
 (101) 
 
Chronological Table — ( Coniinued) . 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1750-1825 Salieri, Antonio (41 
 Operas). 
 
 1752-1837 Zingarelli, Nicole. 
 1754-1801 CIMAHOSA (Domenioo, 
 
 75 Operas). 
 1756-1812 Righini, Vincenzo. 
 
 1760-1S42 CHEETJBINI, Luigi (29 
 Operas, French and Italian). 
 
 1763-1845 Mayer,Simon(77 Italian 
 Operas). 
 
 1767-1837 FIORAVANTI, Valen- 
 tino. 
 
 1769-1832 Asioli, Bonifazio. 
 
 1771-1839 PAER, Ferdinando (51 
 Operas). 
 
 1775-1818 ISOUARD, Nlcolo (42 
 French Operas). 
 
 1775-3 '32 Garcia, Manuel (Span- 
 iard). 
 
 1778- ? Puccita, Vincenzo. 
 
 1784-1841 Morlacchi, Francesco. 
 
 1784-1851 SPONTim, Gasparo(16 
 Italian, 7 French and 3 Ger- 
 man Operas). 
 
 1785-1849 Carafa, Michele (Italian 
 and French Operas). 
 
 1791-1849 Vaccaj, Nicolo. 
 
 1792-1868 ROSSINI, Gioachlno (36 
 Italian and 4 French Operas). 
 
 1796- 1 Pacini, Giovanni. 
 
 1797-1848 DONIZETTI, Gaetano 
 (70 Italian and several French 
 Operas). 
 
 1798-1870 MEECADANTE, Sa 
 verio. 
 
 1802-1835 BELLINI, Vincenzo. 
 1804- 1 Gabussi, Vincenzo. 
 1809- ? Ricci, Federigo. 
 
 1814- VEEDI, Giuseppe. 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1753-1809 SALATBAC, Nicolas 
 (56 Operas). 
 
 1761-1825 Gaveaux, Pierre. 
 1763-1817 MEHUL, Etienne Henri 
 
 (42 Operas). 
 1766-1831 Kreutzer, Rodolphe. 
 1767-1844 Berton, Henri Montan. 
 1768-1853 Jadin, Louis Emanuel, 
 
 1775-1834 BOIELDIEU, Fransois 
 Adrien (23 Operas). 
 
 1789-1870 AVBEB, Francois Dan- 
 iel. 
 
 1789-1861 Chelard, Andr6 Hyp- 
 polite. 
 
 1791-1833 HEBOLS, Louia. 
 
 1794-1841 Monpou, Hyppolite. 
 
 1799-1862 HALEVY, Jacques. 
 
 1803-1856 ADAH, Adolphe. 
 1808-1866 Clapisson, Antonia 
 Louis. 
 
 1811- THOMAS, Ambroise. 
 
 1818- GOUNOD, Charles Fran- 
 
 gois. 
 1822-1884 Mas8«, Victor. 
 
 (102: 
 
Chronological Table — ( Continued) . 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1751-1831 Kauer, Ferdinand (200 
 
 popular [Volks] Operas). 
 1752-1814 Eeichardt, Johann 
 
 Friedrioh. 
 1755-1825 WINTER, Peter von. 
 1756-1791 MOZART, Wolfgang 
 
 Amadeus (6 great Italian and 
 
 2 German Operas). 
 1756-1808 Wranitzky, Paul. 
 1760-1802 Zumsteg, Johann Ru- 
 dolph. 
 1761-1836 SCHENK, Johann. 
 1763-1850 Gyrowetz, Adalbert. 
 1764-1823 Steibelt, Daniel (4 
 
 ■^rench Operas). 
 1765-1814 Hiramel, Friedrioh (4 
 
 Italian and 4 German Operas). 
 1766-1846 WEIGL, Joseph. 
 1767-1835 Miiller, Wenzel (about 
 
 200 popular Operas). 
 1770-1827 BEETHOVEH, Ludwig 
 
 van. 
 1782-1849 KEEUTZER.Conradiu 
 
 1 24 German Operas). 
 1783-1859 SPOHE, Ludwig. 
 1786-1826 WEBEE, Carl Maria 
 
 von (8 German Operas). 
 
 1794-1864 METEEBEEB, Jacob (5 
 French and 9 Italian Operas). 
 
 1795-1861 MARSCHNER, Heiu- 
 rieh. 
 
 1797-1828 SCHUBERT, Franz. 
 
 1798-1859 Reissiger, Carl. 
 
 1803-1851 LORTZING, Carl. 
 1804- Lachner, Franz. 
 
 1804- Benedict, Julius. 
 1809-1849 Nicolai, Otto. 
 1811- Hiller, Ferdinand. 
 1812-1883 Flotow, Friedrich von 
 (French and German Operas). 
 1813-1883 WAGNEE, Richard. 
 1829- Rubinstein, Anton. 
 
 1838- Bruch, Max. 
 
 1750 
 
 1800 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1750-1829 Shield, William (16 
 comic English Operas). 
 
 1757-1830 (?) Reeve, William (21 
 English Operas). 
 
 1763-1796 Storace, Stephen (14 
 English Operas). 
 
 1767-1838 Attwood, Thomas (about 
 
 7 Operas). 
 1767-1844 Mazzinghi, Joseph. 
 1774-1824 Davy, John (11 English 
 
 Operas.) 
 1782-1855 BISHOP, Henry Rowley 
 
 (63 English Operas). 
 
 1802- BAENETT, John. 
 
 1808-1870 BAIFE, Michael Wil- 
 liam (Italian, French and En- 
 glish Operas). 
 
 1813- MACFAEEEN, Sir George. 
 
 1818-1865 WALLACE, Vincent 
 (about 6 English Operas). 
 
 1842- SULLIVAN, Sir Arthur 
 Seymour. 
 
 1847- MACKEirZIE, A. C. 
 
 1852- SIANPOED, Charles V. 
 
 (103) 
 
104 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 ESrSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 Instrumkntal music is one of the most important and influential 
 branches of the musical art ; and has been the means of raising music 
 as an art to that high pitch of excellence it has attained, and by virtue 
 of which it need not fear comparison with any other art, whether 
 poetry, painting, drama, or sculpture. No other art indeed is so 
 thorough and complete a boon to all classes of society. The rest 
 require education before they can be enjoyed. Sculpture, for instance, 
 is a delight for the higher and better educated classes, whilst it will be 
 more or less unintelligible, and therefore uninteresting, to the laborer 
 and handicraftsman. Music, however, appeals directly to every class ; 
 the soldier, the forester, the sailor, the schoolboy, each and all delight 
 in music. 
 
 Nought so stockish, hard, and full of rage, 
 
 But music for the time doth change his nature; — 
 
 The man that hath no music in himself. 
 
 Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds. 
 
 Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils : 
 
 Let DO such man be trusted. 
 
 Some people have affected to consider music as a secondary art, 
 and have asserted that it requires natural feeling, but not intelligence ; 
 but, on the contrary, instrumental music is one of the greatest triumphs 
 of human intelligence. To construct, from isolated sounds, a sonata 
 or symphony, to infuse into the work that irresistible energy and 
 interest which compel a large audience to listen as if spellbound — this 
 certainly requires a high degree of intellectual power in the musician. 
 Vocal music is in so far the direct expression of our feeling, as it is 
 uttered by the human voice, and thus has a close analogy with ordi- 
 nary speech. Instrumental music expresses our feelings in an indirect 
 way; it has to avail itself of a mechanical contrivance; the intended 
 expression must be evoked from the lifeless instrument. Any one can 
 sing who has a voice ; to produce music from an instrument, a certain 
 amount of skill is required. The singer expresses the feeling by soft 
 or passionate tones; the instrumentalist tries to produce the effect by 
 a sometimes involved combination of figures, rhythm, or harmonies. 
 Besides, he is compelled to describe — as it were to portray — to use all 
 possible means indirectly to produce an effect which is given in a direct 
 and immediate manner by the voice. 
 
 Thus the domain of the voice is chiefly the expression of sentiment, 
 whilst the instrument works in the domain oi fanoy. Vocal music, 
 wedded as it is to words which to a great extent already give the sense 
 of the piece, is more easily understood than instrumental music, 
 which has to depend solely on the power and faculty of the composer 
 to express his feeling and meaning in the most correct and compre- 
 hensible manner by musical tones. It is only in classical works that 
 we find vocal music supplemented and its effects heightened by fancy; 
 
INSTRUMENTAL M0SIC. 105. 
 
 and only in the best specimens of instrumental music does the com- 
 poser's fancy manifest itself in almost articulate expression of feeling. 
 Fancy and feeling go naturally together, and indeed ought to be 
 united ; but such union is rare, and is one of the surest signs of true 
 genius. One of the principal conditions of instrumental music is the 
 adherence, or we might say submission, to firm and rigorous rules. 
 If instrumental music is not founded on a solid basis — if, 'so to say, 
 the outlines of the building are not discernible to our mental view — 
 if order does not reign throughout — if the composer's fancy is not dis- 
 ciplined, purified, and sobered by being confined within strict and 
 precise limits — an instrumental piece will be little more than an inco- 
 herent mass of sounds, a kind of musical chaos. 
 
 When we consider all these indispensable conditions, and think of 
 the simple material — namely, sound — out of which such masterpieces 
 as the sonatas, quartets, and symphonies of Haydn, Mozart and Bee- 
 thoven are constructed, we cannot withhold our tribute of involuntary 
 admiration and amazement at the grandeur of the genius of these 
 men. It is a common remark that to genius everything is accessible 
 and possible, but it may be doubted whether the greatest genius is 
 equal to the task of composing a quartet or a sonata without the 
 closest and deepest study. It seems as if it were an easy thing to write 
 such quartets as those of Haydn or Mozart, to construct such sonatas 
 as those of Beethoven. But why does the achievement seem so easy? 
 For the simple reason that in these works all rules, all laws, all 
 conditions have been strictly fulfilled; the works themselves are so 
 thoroughly sufiused with the individual feeling of the composer, that 
 absolute perfection is the result; and absolute perfection ceases to excite 
 wonder, because the hearer's mind is not occupied with defects, and 
 thus a part of the reasoning and critical faculty is not brought into 
 action. In such a work the composer has brought his individual 
 feeling so entirely into harmony with the object he had in view, that 
 an equilibrium is produced which fills the hearer's inind with com- 
 plete satisfaction. 
 
 But how were these great composers enabled to Iny down such 
 rules? — to decree these laws of beauty, of symmetry, of plastic grace-^ 
 and to infuse into their works such a wonderful life ? First of all they 
 felt instinctively that it was indispensable to study the human heart, 
 and to appreciate the different degrees of feeling produced by various 
 phases of mental disposition. If, for instance, a person is melancholy, 
 this state of feeling will not always be present in the same strength; 
 a brighter moment may intervene, just as a ray of sun sometimes 
 breaks through the cloud. The reaction, indeed, will intensify the feel- 
 ing of melancholy; there will be all the more gloom after the bright 
 moment, just as the dark cloud will appear thicker in its blackness 
 after the cheering sunbeam which pierced it for a moment has disap- 
 peared. But contrast there must be; — and Nature herself shows us 
 contrast in every possible phase. This necessity of contrast was 
 clearly recognized by composers, and is musically produced by the 
 different characters of the respective subjects or themes, and by 
 their judicious distribution throughout the movement. 
 
 Again, if a piece consists of two, three, or four movements, it is 
 essentially necessary to arrange those various movements in such a 
 manner that a melancholy sentiment is relieved by a brighter tone; 
 that an outburst of passion is succeeded by a feeling of calm ; or that, 
 
106 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 on the other hand, a degree of passionate feeling, moderate at first, is 
 gradually wrought up to the height of frenzy and despair. 
 
 Our great instrumental composers had to think deeply, and to exert 
 the very highest intelligence, till they secured the characteristic and 
 correct musical expression for their ideas. When they had selected 
 the proper subjects for their work, they had still to collect all the 
 necessary adjuncts for these subjecis; they had to settle the proper 
 figure, the accurate and fitting harmonization of the theme, the 
 judicious introduction of episodes; they had to try whether a simple 
 or a scientific treatment best suited the whole — ^indeed a great many 
 points had to be considered and reconsidered — ^points which appear 
 to the uninitiated only as natural consequences or accidental contin- 
 gencies — and then only could the composer sit down and write a 
 perfect and thoroughly effective work. 
 
 Whilst the composer of a song or an aria has merely to illustrate 
 with sounds the subject provided for his fancy by the inventive genius 
 of the poet, the instrumental composer must rely solely and entirely 
 on his own inventive resources. He has to be both poet and musician. 
 It is therefore evident that there is greater difficulty, and conse- 
 quently greater merit, in composing a good quartet or symphony than 
 in writi. .g a good song. 
 
 Of a regular style of instrumental music we find no traces before 
 A.D. 1500 ; and even then the province of the instruments was chiefly 
 to play, as an accompaniment, the different voice-parts of the chorus; 
 indeed almost all the different instruments were at that time in an 
 undeveloped state, and only the organ was to a certain extent per- 
 fected. According to our most experienced historians, the first dance 
 movements for instruments alone date from 1529, and were printed 
 in Paris. When the recitative (which was preceded bjr the monody) 
 was invented, it was of course necessary to accompany it with instru- 
 ments; and we find that Carissimi in his cantatas introduced by 
 degrees independent instrumental interludes and ritornelli. The 
 same thing was done by Alessandro Scarlatti. Through the invention 
 of the stUo concertate the stringed instruments were admitted into the 
 church, where formerly only trumpets and trombones had been in 
 use. About the end of the seventeenth, and particularly in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, the labors of Corelli, Vivaldi, 
 and Geminiani drew the general attention of the public towards 
 instrumental music; the concert! grossi of Corelli, the violin concertos 
 of Vivaldi, and different solos of Geminiani became highly popular; 
 and by the invention of the suite, the forerunner of the sonata, 
 instrumental music by degrees obtained an independent position. 
 
 With respect to the oldest forms of Instrumental music, it is neces- 
 sary, in the first place, to mention the different names of the pieces 
 and their respective meanings. We find preludes (voluntaries), 
 toccatas, inventiones, ricercate, fugues, symphonies, intratas, concert! 
 grossi, arias with doubles (variations), and suites and partitas. 
 
 PRELUDE. 
 
 (1) A piece which precedes a longer or more important movement, 
 like the intrada or introduction to a symphony or sonata. The 
 prelude or intrada which precedes an allegro movement is generally 
 in slow, grave, and solemn time. (2) A prelude is more especially a 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 107 
 
 piece which precedes the choral ; by such a prelude the organist may 
 prepare the congregation for the choral to be sung, by using the 
 entire melody of the choral or a part of it. (Compare Sebastian 
 Bach's Choral- Vorspiele ; see also Figured Choral.) (3) The prelude 
 can also be used for public performances as a piece showing, like the 
 etude, the technical skill of the executant; as such, the composer may 
 use it as an independent piece, but generally the prelude is connected 
 with a fugue. (See J. S. Bach's Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues; 
 five preludes and fugues by Eberlin; Mendelssohn's Six Preludes and 
 Fugues, Op. 35; Czerny's "Die Schule des Fugenspiels.") 
 
 In Sebastian Bach's Preludes and Fugues 'for the Organ we find the 
 prelude treated in the same important manner as the fugue itself, and 
 in some respects it here resembles the toccata. It is, however, very 
 difficult to define exactly the difference between the toccata and 
 prelude. The preludes of Chopin and Heller are merely little pieces, 
 which have perhaps received this title for want of a better. The 
 prelude is the only movement used in the suite which is not connected 
 with the dance. 
 
 VOLUNTAKY. 
 
 The Voluntary is an organ solo played before, during, or after any 
 office of the church ; hence it is called respectively introductory, 
 middle, or concluding. Such solos were formerly, and are often still 
 unpremeditated, or improvisations, as the name voluntary seems to 
 imply, dementi in his " Practical Harmony " gives the name Volun- 
 taries to the five preludes of Eberlin. 
 
 TOCCATA. 
 
 The name Toccata is derived from the Italian toceare, " to touch." 
 The toccata is a piece in which a certain passage or figure is repeated 
 over and over again, either in the strict or the free style; in modern 
 music the capriccio may be considered as the descendant of the 
 ancient toccata. Organists generally selected the toccata as j. means 
 of showing their executive skill. The toccata has been greatly 
 improved and enriched by Sebastian Bach, whose celebrated Organ 
 Toccatas are not unlike fantasias. Robert Schumann has also 
 composed an exceedingly clever toccata ; and elegant and harmonious 
 toccatas have been written by dementi, Charles Meyer, Jos. Rein- 
 berger, Onslow, Czerny. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 Sebastian Bach gives this name to little rigorously written move- 
 ments of two or three parts, which are rather ideas or inventions of 
 the moment, than elaborate or seriously defined. The impromptu of 
 modern times may be designated as an Invention. 
 
 KICEECATA. 
 
 The Ricercata (from Ital. ricercare — Fr. recheroher — "to seek") is a 
 piece which is not unlike a prelude. The executant tried in it to 
 prepare the subjects to be treated afterwards in the principal piece, 
 and so to invite the attention of the audience to the contents of the 
 
108 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 latter. Another meaning of the ricercata is, " a so-called master of 
 art fugue (without episodes), in which all sorts of simple and double 
 counterpoint, inverted movements, and imitative, technically called 
 canonical, treatment of the single parts are contained." This sort of 
 ricercata was considered a great test of intelligence and learning in an 
 organist or composer. (Compare Ricercata, in Brossard's Lexicon.) 
 
 FUGUE. 
 
 (See Form with regard to the Relation of the separate parts of Poly- 
 phonic Music, p. 40.) 
 
 THE OLD SYMPHONY. 
 
 The word Symphony means a consonance or harmony of notes 
 agreeable to the ear, whether the sounds be vocal or instrumental, or 
 both. The English poets have used the word in the sense of conso- 
 nance of sounds. Thus Gray's bard, hearing with prophetic pre- 
 science the harmonies of poetry that are to grace the Elizabethan era, 
 exclaims : — 
 
 What sounds symphonions tremble on my ear ? 
 
 What strains of vocal transport round me play ? 
 
 The Old Symphony is a musical composition for a full band of instru- 
 ments, and was synonymous with Overture. The performance of any 
 one of the instrumental works already mentioned, such as the ricer- 
 cate, fugues, etc., was also called a Symphony. The Modem Symphony 
 has nothing in common with the old form but the sounding together 
 of the different instruments. In this sense the symphonies of Sebas- 
 tian Bach for the clavecin are also to be taken ; these symphonies are 
 merely pieces, in which three parts sound together. 
 
 INTRADE, INTRATA, INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Intrade, or Entrada, designates in the first place a short richly-scored 
 instrumental piece, serving as an introductory movement to greater 
 compositions of a secular style, and also used in the older operas 
 instead of an overture. (See Symphony.) The Intrade consists prop- 
 erly of two repeated parts, but the word also designates instrumental 
 introductions not confined to any particular form. But they have 
 always a solemn, pathetic and awakening character, intended to excite 
 the attention and interest for what is to come ; this is seen, for instance, 
 in the short introductions before the first allegro of modern sympho- 
 nies. (See Mattheson, " Neu eroffnetes Orchester," p. 173; "Capell- 
 meister," p. 233.) 
 
 Secondly, the name of Intrade is given to a kind of flourish (fan- 
 fare) of trumpets, accompanied by kettledrums. 
 
 Introductio, or Introduzione, is like the intrade, an introductory 
 movement to greater compositions. In movement it is slow or mode- 
 rale, and is likewise grave, and calculated to excite and arrest atten- 
 tion. Occasionally it is elaborated into the form of an overture, for 
 the overture itself is sometimes called Introductio. In Mozart's "II 
 Flauto niagico " the first movement of the opera itself, after the over- 
 ture, is called Introductio. 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. j09 
 
 CONCERTO GROSSO. 
 
 This form is best explained by a quotation from Dr. Chrysander's 
 preface to Handel's Concert! Grossi: (The works of G. F. Handel, 
 German Handel Society, part xxx.; Leipzig. Twelve grand concertos 
 for violins, etc., in seven parts, composed by Mr. Handel.) " The part- 
 books are designated violino primo concertino, violino seoondo con- 
 certo, violino primo ripieno, violino secondo ripieno, viola, violoncello, 
 basso contiiiuo. These then are concertos for stringed instruments 
 with a continuo for harpsichord accompaniment, and are set for an 
 orchestra divided as was the old Italian orchestra, then almost univer- 
 sally employed, into a concertino, generally consisting of two violins 
 and violoncello as solo instruments, and a concerto grosso, formed by 
 all the rest of the orchestra fully manned. From the addition of this 
 latter division the concertos of this kind took their name." (For 
 further instruction see Dr. Chrysander's "Life of Handel," vol. iii. pp. 
 168-182,) The distribution of the movements is the following: — Con- 
 certo I. (1), a tempo giusto, C, allegro; (2), adagio, J, allegro (fugato), 
 C; (3) allegro, I- Con-ceHo VI. (1) larghetto e affettuoso, | ; (2) fugue, 
 allejjro ma non troppo ; (3) musette, I ; (4) allegro, C ; (5) allegro, J (a 
 kind of scherzo). 
 
 It may therefore be seen that these concerti grossi are a kind of 
 suite or partita for several solo instruments and orchestra. (Compare 
 alst) the concerti grossi of Vivaldi, Corelli, and Geminiani.) 
 
 ARIA, WITH OR WITHOUT DOUBLES. 
 
 Mattheson in his " Der vollkommene Capellmeister " (p. 232) says: 
 "Aria, with or without variations — which the Italians call partite and 
 the French dovbles — is composed for the clavecin or other instruments." 
 Tiie ai'ia is generally a simple melody, consisting of two parts, so simple 
 that it admits of all possible ornaments and treatments, which again 
 ftUow the performer to show off his technical skill. The bass and 
 harmonies are but rarely changed. (See Chaconne and Variations.) 
 
 In Sebastian Bach's Partitas, also in Suites of Mattheson, Handel, 
 and others, the name of Air or Aria is given to a short movement of 
 an expressive and melodious character. (See John Sebastian Bach's 
 Partita, No. 4, in D major, and Handel's Suites Nos. 3, 5, 10, 14.) 
 
 GROUND. 
 
 (Fr. Basse consirainte; Ital. Basso ostinato; Ger. Grwnd-Baas.) 
 
 A passage of four or eight bars in length, constantly repeated, each 
 successive time accompanied with a varied melody, harmony, or 
 figure. (Compare Purcell's and Blow's Grounds ; also Bach's Ciaccona 
 for Violin, Passacaille in C minor for the Organ; Handel-'s Ciaccona 
 with sixty-two Variations," etc.) 
 
 SUITE. 
 
 The name Suite is French, and means " a succession, or series of 
 pieces." Before the sonatas attained to any degree of popularity, the 
 pieces written for instruments were toccatas, fugues, fantasias, capric- 
 cios arias with or without so-called doubles (variations). But more 
 
110 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 generally they were dances. Dance-tunes of all possible kinds, set for 
 the spinet, harpsichord, clavichord, lute, viol di gamba and other 
 instruments kept their place in the chamber, more particularly in 
 Trance. When the dance-tunes were not used for dancing, they were 
 worked out in greater dimensions and with greater care. Of the 
 dance themselves only the characteristic type or expression was 
 retained ; for the tiine was not immediately connected with the dance. 
 The form and the number of bars could be increased, great attention 
 waj bestowed on the working out, counterpoint was used to consoli- 
 date and refine the part-writing, doubles or variations were introduced 
 to give a certain elegance and brilliancy to the air — and thus the suite 
 became the legitiniate exponent of dance music. This office it retained 
 for a long time; indeed theperiod before Haydn — the period of Kuhnau, 
 Mattheson, Couperin, Rameau, Handel, Sebastian and Emanuel Bach, 
 and Domenico Scarlatti — is intimately connected with the suite and its 
 constituents, the old dance-tunes. The suite was brought to perfection 
 by Bach and Handel, who managed to retain in these dance-tunes the 
 real typical expression. The most popular old dances were the Alle- 
 mande, Bourrie, Brawl, (Xaccona, Courante, Gavotte, Gigue, Hornpipe, 
 Minuet, Passacaglio, Passamezzo, Passepied, Polonaise, Rigadoon, Sara- 
 bande and Sidliano. Generally all the pieces that Constitute the suite 
 are in the same key (a decided fault in so far as, notwithstanding the 
 greatest variety and characteristic expression shown by the illustrious 
 composers in the different movemente, the, sameness ofthe key must 
 produce a certain monotony). The suite is composed either of dance 
 movements only or is preceded fcy a prseambulum. When the col- 
 lection of pieces, generally called Suite, comprises other movements 
 such as caprice, allegro, fugue, etc.. the real name is — 
 
 PARTITA. 
 
 For the better understanding we place here, side by side, the contents 
 of a suite and again that of a partita by John Sebastian Bach. 
 
 
 SUITE. 
 
 PARTITA 
 
 
 (English Suite No. 1.) 
 
 (No. 2, C .-niuor.) 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Prelude. 
 
 AUemande. 
 
 Courante 1 and 2 with doubles 
 
 (variations). 
 Sarabande. 
 Bourr^e, 1 and 2. 
 Gigue. 
 
 1. Sinfonie. 
 
 2. AUemande. 
 
 3. Courante. 
 
 4. Sarabande. 
 
 5. Eondeau. 
 
 6. Caprice. 
 
 It will be. observed that somo of Handel's suites are actually parti- 
 tas ; for instance, we find in his Suite No. 8 the following pieces : — 1. 
 Prelude; 2. Fuga; 3. AUemande; 4. Courante; 5. Air with five 
 Doubles or Variations ; 6. Presto ^founded on the Air). The suite was 
 also called Sonata di balletto when it contained only dance movements, 
 and Sonata di camera when it was constructed like the partita. Arcan- 
 gelo Corelli, on the other hand, calls his suites Sonate da camera, and 
 not Sonate di balletti. The suites or sonate di camera of Corelli 
 are shorter than those of either Bach or Handel. 
 
INSTKUMENTAL MUSIC. Ill 
 
 Sonata di camera (suite) by Coeelli. 
 
 1. Largo. 2. Allemande. 3. Corrente. 4. Gavotta, 
 
 or 
 
 1. Allemande. 2. Corrente. 3. Oig'a,, 
 
 It is difficult to state with any certainty the time at which the suite 
 was invented; generally it is supposed that the first suites were writ- 
 ten in France about 1650; in strictness the compositions of Dr. John 
 Bull, Orlando Gibbous, and William Byrde, to be found in " Parthe- 
 nia," are also suites. When the sonata was generally adopted, the 
 suite as such fell into oblivion; although it may be said, that it reap- 
 peared in the divertimenti, cassazioni, serenades and notturnos. 
 (See these forms.) The adaptation of the minuet in the sonata and 
 symphony is decidedly a. remnant of the suite. The suite has been 
 re-established in modern music by Taubert, Lachner, Eaff, Grimm and 
 other composers. If we compare the suite with the sonata in form, 
 we find that the latter is actually a condensed or shorter suite. The 
 prelude or allemande of the suite is represented by the first move- 
 ment of the sonata, the sarabande takes the place of the adagio, or 
 andante, the gavotte or bourr^e represents the scherzo and the gigue 
 the finale. (See Dance-music.) 
 
 The best essay on the Suite has been written by Nottebohm, 
 " Wiener Monatsschrift fiir Theater und Musik " (1855), pp. 408, 475 ; 
 1857, pp. 288, 340, 399. Compare also Brossard's Lexicon ; Paris, 1703. 
 Mattheson, "Kern melodischer Wissenschaft, 1737, p. 121, C. F. Becker, 
 " Die Hausmusik in Deutschland," p. 29-32. 
 
 The modern forms of Instrumental music are divided into cyclical 
 and single forms. The Cyclical form comprises a series of numbers, 
 and under this head we find the sonata, trio, quartet, quintet, sestet, 
 septuor, etc. ; the symphony, cassazione, divertimento, serenade ; also 
 the concerto. In the category of Single forms we place the overture 
 and all the smaller pieces, as notturnos, capriccios or scherzos, im- 
 promptus, ballads, reveries, barcaroles, and in fact all the innumerable 
 trifles that crowd the music-publishers' catalogues. 
 
112 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 I. 
 
 CYCLICAL FORMS. 
 
 SONATA. 
 
 The Sonata is by far the most important form, and may be con- 
 sidered the mainstay of instrumental music. Kemarlis on the tech- 
 nical construction of the sonata apply equally to the form of the trio, 
 quartet, or symphony, which latter will therefore be treated in a 
 somewhat shorter manner. The name Sonata is derived from the 
 Italian verb sonare, "to sound," and is originally designated as a piece 
 wliich has to he played, not swng. Prsetorius in his " Syntagma musi- 
 ciim," published in 1614, says: "Sonata, a sonando, is thus called as it 
 is notsungbyhuman voices, but solelysoMntfedbyinstruments." The 
 old sonata, as we have it from Biber, Kuhnau, Mattheson, and others, 
 contains the germs of the modern sonata, but not much more; it was 
 rather to be considered as a shorter suite, in so far as the first move- 
 ment had a great analogy with the allemande. The slower movement, 
 again, has an affinity with the sarabande, and the last or quick move- 
 ment with the gigue. Most of the old sonatas were composed for 
 several instruments, generally stringed instruments and clavicembalo. 
 The latter, the keyed instrument, was chiefly used for supplementing 
 the whole with chords. In this style were the Twelve Sonatas for 
 Violin, Bass, and Clavecin by Corelli, which appeared in 1683. 
 Kuhnau, the predecessor of Sebastian Bach as choirmaster of St. 
 Thomas's School, at Leipzig, consolidated this foi-m. Domeuico Scar- 
 latti improved it in point of technical execution, but usually employed 
 the form of one movement only. In the Six Sonatas of Francesco 
 Durante, each work consists of two movements only, of which the 
 first is called Studio, the second Divertimento. The Italian composers 
 of the eighteenth century chiefly afiected this form of two move- 
 ments. 
 
 It was Emanuel Bach, the second son of the great Sebastian Bach, 
 who fixed the present form of the sonata; even the greatest works of 
 this kind by Beethoven are iounded and built on Emanuel Bach's orig- 
 inal plan. Joseph Haydn, an enthusiastic admirer of Emanuel Bach, 
 improved the sonata to such an extent, that we could pass from 
 Haydn's sonatas directly to those of Beethoven, without the interven- 
 tion of Mozart's sonatas as a connecting hnk. Beethoven's sonatas 
 were more influenced by Haydn's than by Mozarl's. Among the 
 modern sonatas those of dementi, Dussek, Weber, Schubert, Schu- 
 mann, Mendelssohn, and Brahms are most i-eniarkable and highly 
 influential works. 
 
 The modern sonata generally consists of three or four movements. 
 The first movement determines its character, and the succeeding 
 movements have to harmonize with the first, to heighten and to sup- 
 plement its effect. The following is the designof the first movement. 
 First part, chief or principal subject; transition into the second sub- 
 ject; after this the final group. This first part is generally repeated. 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 113 
 
 The second part consists of a thematic working out of both the first 
 and second subjects; after which follows the so-called repetition, con- 
 sisting of the principal subject, a short passage leading into the second 
 subject; and thel^ we have the coda, or summing up, with some con- 
 cluding chords. 
 
 Sonata Form. 
 (First movement.) 
 
 First Part. 
 
 Order of sub 
 jects and their " 
 treatment. 
 
 ' Chief or principal 
 subject, transi- 
 tion to second 
 subject. Final 
 group. Bepeat. 
 
 Key. 
 
 Middle Part. 
 
 Tliematic working out or 
 development of both 
 the subjects of first 
 part; called also the 
 Free Fantasia, because 
 unrestricted as to form. 
 
 Free modulations return 
 to the tonic. 
 
 Repetition. 
 
 Chief subject. Tran- 
 sition to second 
 subject. Final 
 group. Eecollec- 
 tion. Finale. 
 
 Beign of the tonic. 
 
 Tonic. Modula- 
 tion into the 
 dominant or a 
 related major 
 key; or rarely, 
 if the chief sub- 
 ject is in a mi- 
 nor key, to the 
 minor key of 
 the fifth above. 
 
 It is evident that this form is liable, according to the length and 
 character of the work, to certain modifications, chiefly afiecting the 
 working out of the principal subjects in the second part. The second 
 movement is generally a largo, grave, adagio, or andante ; and some- 
 times also an allegretto or moderato. It may appear either as a theme 
 or a double theme with suitable variations ; or in the form of a song 
 or aria; or, lastly, in the sonata form, under which is understood that 
 mentioned in speaking of the first movement. Another form of the 
 adagio, but one very rarely applied, is that of the rondo, in which the 
 principal subject recurs three or four times ; an excellent specimen of 
 this form is the slow movement of Beethoven's " Sonata path^tique." 
 Owing to the slower time of the adagio or andante, its length, reckoned 
 by bars, must be much shorter than that of the first movement. The 
 chief aim of the composer in the adagio is to exhibit expression and 
 feeling; the slow time precludes such a fine rhythmical design as is 
 required for the first movement. 
 
 FoBM OF Slow Movement in Beethoven's Op. 2, No. 1. 
 
 First Part. 
 
 Chief or principal subject 
 in F. 
 
 Middle Part. 
 
 Subject in T> minor. Tran- 
 sition to dominant of 
 principal subject. 
 
 Sepetition. 
 
 Chief subject in the form 
 of a variation, recollec- 
 tion, coda, or finale. 
 
114 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Poem of Slow Movement in Bebthoybn's (Sonata Path^tiqub), Op. 13. 
 
 Middle Part. 
 
 Subject in Afe minor. Mod- 
 ulation to E major ; and 
 return to 
 
 Tonic in the minor key. 
 
 Repetition. 
 
 Chief subject, variation. 
 A snort coda. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 Mrst Part. 
 
 Chief or principal subject 
 in Ab major. Transition 
 into dominant. Beturn 
 to chief subject. 
 Variation. 
 Tonic and dominant. 
 
 The third movement is either a minuet or a scherzo. This form is 
 exceedingly simple— it merely consists of two parts. The trio, which 
 alternates with the scherzo or minuet, is constructed in the same 
 manner. In some works of this kind, by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, 
 and Schumann, the scherzo appears in the sonata form just described, 
 and the place of the trio is here assigned to the second subject, a short 
 working out, leading back to the principal theme. 
 
 FOEM OF SCHEEZO OB MiNUET. 
 
 Schereo or Minuet. 
 
 Trio. 
 
 Bepetition. 
 
 I. 
 
 Chief 
 subject. 
 
 II. 
 
 Development 
 of chief sub- 
 ject. 
 
 IIL 
 
 Chief 
 subject. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Development 
 of chief sub- 
 ject. 
 
 I. 
 
 Chief 
 subject. 
 
 II. 
 
 Development 
 of chief sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 Modulation, 
 
 with close in 
 
 tonic. 
 
 Belated 
 major or mi- 
 nor key. 
 
 Modulation, 
 with close In 
 tonic of trio. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 Modulation, 
 
 with close in 
 
 tonic. 
 
 There are instances in which two trios are introduced. Examples of 
 scherzi in the sonata form are Beethoven's Allegretto vivace in Op. 31, 
 No. 3, his " Prestissimo " in Op. 199, and several scherzos in his String 
 Quartets. See also Scherzo of Mendelssohn's Octett and Quintet, Op. 
 18 ; String Quartets, Op. 44, No, 2 in E, and No. 3 in E flat ; Trios, 
 Op. 49, 66, and others. 
 
 The fourth and last movement, generally called the finale, may 
 appear in the following different forms : first, in the same form as 
 described for the first movement : — 
 
 FoEM OF Beethoven's Finale of Sonata No. 6. 
 
 (Op. 19, No. 2.) 
 (SONATA FOEM.) 
 
 Mrst Part. 
 
 Chief or principal subject. 
 Transition to the second 
 subject in the dominant. 
 
 Middle Part. 
 
 Thematic working out or 
 development of both the 
 subjects of first part. 
 Keturn to 
 
 Jtepetition. 
 
 Chief subject. Transition 
 to second subject in the 
 tonic. Short finale. 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 115 
 
 Secondly, as a theme with variations : — 
 
 (See for example Haydn's Sonata in A major, No. 26 of Breitkopf and Hartel's, 
 No. 17 in Pauer's Edition; Beethoven's Sonata No. 30 (Op. 109): Beethoven's 
 Sonata No. 32 (Op. 111). 
 
 Thirdly, as a Rondo : — 
 
 Beethovbn's Sonata No. 4. 
 (Op. 7.) 
 
 Chief or principal subject. 
 Transition to second sub- 
 ject. Eeturn to principal 
 subject, slightly varied. 
 
 New subject in the related 
 minor key ; first and 
 second part. Transition 
 and return to ... . 
 
 Chief or principal subject. 
 Transition to second sub- 
 ject, now in the tonic. 
 Kecollection and finale. 
 
 The rondo form, is the most generally used. The musical term 
 Kondo is derived from the French poetry in which the first verse, 
 after being followed by a second, is repeated. The Old English 
 roundelay was somewhat analogous in form. (See Canson redonda.) 
 
 In the musical rondo the chief subject appears three or even four 
 times. 
 
 Another rondo form employed by Beethoven in his Sonatas Nos. 1 
 and 2 is : — 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Minor Key. 
 
 Chief or principal subject. 
 Transition to second sub- 
 ject in dominant. 
 
 Major Key, 
 
 New subject in striking 
 contrast to chief subject. 
 Eeturn to 
 
 Minor Key. 
 
 Chief subject. Second sub- 
 ject in tonic. Finale. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Major Key. 
 
 Chief or principal subject. 
 Transition to the second 
 subject in dominant. 
 Eepetitiou of the first 
 subject in tonic. 
 
 Minor Key. 
 
 New subject in two parts. 
 Transition and return to 
 
 Major Key. 
 
 Chief subject (variation). 
 Repetition of second sub- 
 ject in the tonic. Coda. 
 Modulations, partly re- 
 collection of chief sub- 
 ject. Close. 
 
 Mozart in his " Rondo alia Turca " employs the following form : — 
 
 Chief subject, A 
 
 Second subject, A 
 
 Chief subject, A 
 
 Coda in A maior. 
 
 minor. Parts i. 
 
 major. Parts i. 
 and ii. in F# 
 
 minor. Parts i. 
 
 New subject. 
 
 and ii. 
 
 and ii. Repeti- 
 
 
 
 minor. Fart iii. 
 
 tion of Part i. of 
 
 
 
 A major. Repe- 
 
 second subject. 
 
 
 
 tition of Fart ii. 
 
 
 
 
 Repetition of 
 
 
 
 
 Parti. 
 
 
 
 As most interesting and instructive examples may be mentioned : 
 ozart's Bondos in A minor (six-eight time) and D major (common 
 
 Mozart' 
 
11(3 MUSICAL FOEMS. 
 
 time); Beethoven's Rondos in C and G major, also the Rondo 3, 
 capriccio in G major (Op. 129) ; Hummel's Rondo in B minor (Op. 
 103); Haydn's Gipsy Rondo ; Mendelssohn's Rondo capriccioso (Op. 
 14), etc. 
 
 Each movement of the sonata may be said to form a separate 
 whole, but each possesses a connection with the other movements. 
 A certain unity of feeling must pervade the whole. The principal or 
 chief I'eeling may pass through several modifications, and appear 
 stronger or weaker, yet will return to its first or primary state. It 
 may also happen that very opposite feelings suddenly appear, and 
 vanish without leaving any trace of their presence. Such contrasts 
 have been exhibited, though sparingly, by our great composers ; 
 judged from a psychological point of view they considered them as 
 extravagances or indications of a state of feeling decidedly morbid. 
 Notwithstanding this, our most modern music relies greatly on such 
 effects from which a judicious estimate may be made of the value of 
 modern music as compared with our grand old classics. 
 
 As regards the characteristic expression of the movements in most 
 sonatas, we shall find that the first movement, with its symmetrically 
 planned and broadly designed form, presents the firm and solid basis 
 on which is founded the whole subsequent formal and ideal develop- 
 ment. The ahv) movement is intended to soften and to tranquilize the 
 mind previously excited by the first movement, where passion is the 
 leading characteristic feature. The adagio moderates and subdues 
 this state of feeling; or it may lead the mind, through an expression 
 of suffering and grief, to a certain consciousness of calm happiness; 
 or again it may tend to prej)are it, by a temporary lull and quietness, 
 for a still greater and more intense exaltation. The Minuet or Scherzo 
 stands between these great and striking contrasts, and prepares the 
 mind for the finale. The scherzo, with its quaint humor, reconciles 
 us to the darker and more passionate passages; wit and jest here find 
 an appropriate expression, and the composer has a welcome opportu- 
 nity to show that, besides sentiment and passion, he possesses also 
 humor and a genial fund of joviality. For instance, after a first 
 movement full of passion and power, it is pleasant to find in the 
 adagio calm and tranquilizing strains: these are indeed a necessary 
 preparation for the final struggle. 
 
 Again, a first movement may be so majestic or so pompous that a 
 similar broad movement to follow would seem out of place, uncalled 
 for, and contrary to taste : the scherzo or minuet will here again be 
 welcome, as an intervening stage or moderator. It is the aim of the 
 finale to develop in the highest degree the character indicated and 
 initiated by the first movement. 
 
 Thus the sonata contains all the necessary material for a regular 
 psychological structure; and the production of a really good sonata is 
 by no means the result of mere chance or accident ; the work must be 
 founded and built up on logical principles. This system of rising and 
 falling emotion, of alternate excitement and tranquility, is analogous 
 to the construction of periods in writing, and similar to the course a 
 good speaker would adopt to arouse and refresh the attention of his 
 audience ; although in respect to music everything takes broader and 
 larger proportions. Though a single movement of a sonata may be 
 considered perfect in point of form, it is imperfect with respect to its 
 entirety, representing only a single phase of that intellectuallife which 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 117 
 
 it is the province of the sonata to express in sounds. Diversity of 
 expression is indispensable, because it enables us to understand such 
 a long work as a sonata. A single movement extended to the length 
 of an entire sonata or symphony would be wearisome in the extreme, 
 an infliction rather than a source of pleasure to the hearer. By a 
 judiciously selected variety of characteristic expression, however, one 
 movement conies in as a relief to another, and the attention is kept 
 up ; but for this very reason it is necessary that every single part 
 should be finished artistically, rounded off, and expressed in tlie most 
 strict and concise manner; for a really satisfactory clearness of the 
 whole can only result from the completeness of sequence and contrast 
 in the component parts. The lack of characteristic expression will 
 also be felt as a sad drawback ; music without character loses half its 
 value. 
 
 In music, logical reasoning and logical consequences may not, and 
 even should not be subject to such fixed rules as general logical reason- 
 ing. But logic in music originates in sentiment; while general logic is 
 derived solely from the intellect, and the presence of sentiment, so far 
 from assisting, would frustrate it. The composer can express in the 
 different movements, throughout all possible gradations, the principal 
 character with which this piece is imbued. He should here work as 
 the sculptor does in forming his first model : all the numerous musical 
 expressions, whether derived from harmony, melody, rhythm, science, 
 dynamic treatment, are at his command; and his correct feeling and 
 refined taste, his enthusiasm tempered by judgment, will here show 
 to the best advantage. The masterpieces of Haydn, Mozart, and 
 Beethoven astonish by their order, regularity, fluency, harmony, and 
 roundness, and by their splendid development into full and complete 
 growth out of the sometimes apparently unimportant germ. Those 
 great masters, Haydn and Mozart perhaps unconsciously, but the philo- 
 sophical Beethoven certainly not without premeditation, observed and 
 followed out the laws of nature; and thus it is that their works appeal 
 so directly and immediately to the heart. (See Thematic work.) The 
 solo sonata treats the form in the freest manner, more individually 
 than in the case of the quartet and symphony. This is quite natural, 
 in so far as the two latter are performed by several persons, and con- 
 sequently the composer works out his polyphonic subject from a 
 general point of view. 
 
 The solo sonata is like a mirror, reflecting the innermost ideas and 
 feelings which move the composer's heart; when these individual 
 feelings, as in the works of our classic composers, are regulated and 
 penetrated by deep study, by the observance of strict rules— which 
 observance has become wholly instinctive in the composer — a work 
 will be produced which is intelligible to every one. Certain passages 
 may be more or less interesting to certain individuals ; but there will 
 surely be a charm for every one — and this is the real and true test of 
 a classical work, that it is mainly and firmly founded on principles 
 dictated by nature and aided by science. 
 
 The piano-forte, possessing as an instrument the greatest variety 
 of resources, has naturally been selected as the favorite interpreter of 
 our classic masters' thoughts. The piano adapts itself equally to 
 homophonic and polyphonic treatment; it can effectually produce 
 melody and harmony, it offers favorable means for the most compli- 
 cated rhythmical combinations; in short, it can do justice to almost 
 
tl8 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 everything the composer desires to express. That the instrument 
 itself greatly influences the composer's inventive and creative faculty 
 is certain ; the composer's idea accommodates itself quite naturally 
 to the capabilities of the instrument. We perceive, for instance, that 
 Bonatas for the organ are conceived in a spirit quite different from 
 that which regulates those for the piano; contrapuntal and fugal 
 treatment are much more often to be found in organ than in piano- 
 forte sonatas. Again, the violin solo sonatas lend themselves more 
 freely to a melodious treatment. It is in this the musical art shows 
 its great superiority above the other arts. It can unite different instru- 
 ments for one and the same work, and thus the composer can present 
 to his hearers an almost endless variety of combination. The num- 
 berless charms in the duet-sonatas, trios, and quartets of Mozart, 
 Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and many others, give evidence 
 of the wealth, grandeur, and beauty of Music. 
 
 Plan of Beethoven's Sonata (Op. 53), Commonly Called 
 " Waldstein " Sonata.* 
 
 Allegro con brio. 
 1 2 
 
 (First Movement.) 
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 Composition musieale," etc. 
 
 See Antoine Eeicha's (1770-1836) " Traits de haute 
 Parifi, 1824. 
 
23 
 
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
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INSTRUMEKl'Al. MUSIO. 
 
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 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
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 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
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INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 129 
 
 This first movement, so great with respect to idea& and execution, 
 consists, including the repetition of the first part, of 385 bars in 
 common time, and although it has to be played in quick time, 
 it is of considerable length — a length which it would not be advis- 
 able to overstep in a solo sonata. Not less important is the point 
 that this movement is, in the original, one of the most brilliant, 
 bright, and difficult; yet, if we play through the above plan in the 
 correct time, we find its harmonious structure, from beginning 
 to end, pure, simple, and noble — indeed, it might be adapted for a 
 chorus of a sacred composition. On such dignified, solid, and noble 
 foundation rest all the great works of Beethoven — and we cannot 
 give a better advice to the student than to analyze (or rather reduce) 
 other classical works in a similar manner, and to fill up such struc- 
 ture afterwards with different melodies and harmonies; thus he will 
 soon recognize how great an importance our classical masters attached 
 to the invention of proper subjects, and how much care they bestowed 
 in findingfor them the appropriate harmonies and modulations. The 
 student will see how, in the above instance, the distinguished and 
 important first subject occupies the attention through twenty-one 
 bars; this attention is increased by the modulation (bars 18-21) into 
 a higher tone. With one single chord (bar 22), which lies outside of 
 the previous rhythmical order, Beethoven proceeds to the augmented 
 sixth on C, thence to the dominant of E minor ; on this chord a suit- 
 able cadenza prepares the entry of the beautiful, hymn-like second 
 subject in E major; this remarkable subject originates (like so many 
 other subjects of Beethoven) in the diatonic scale — 
 
 ^ ^=^g=^ g 
 
 which, on its repetition, is surrounded by a graceful figure in triplets. 
 Bars 50-58 bring a harmonious imitation, which, without any further 
 or new modulations, leads to the final cadence; after which (bars 
 74r-85) the modulation to E minor prepares, in a most natural manner, 
 the return to the principal or first subject. 
 
 The construction of the second partis (bars 86-112) founded on the 
 chief subject, and (in bars 112-141) on the imitation of the first part, 
 everywhere appearing in a most interesting, yet natural harmoniza- 
 tion, from bars 142 to 155, the return to the principal or first subject 
 is prepared in a most effective manner. The first part, with the 
 exception of a few interesting new points (bars 169-173), is merely 
 repeated; the second subject appears now (bar 194) in A major (the 
 sub-mediant). With bar 243 begins the final cadenza, which, after 
 working out in a beautiful and highly interesting manner the principal 
 subject, and after a brilliant final cadence and some tranquilizing 
 recollections of the second subject (bars 282-292), closes the whole 
 movement in a powerful, brilliant, and compact way. 
 
 The admirable unity and symmetry of the whole movement results 
 from the following reasons : First, the movement is not crammed with 
 too many different melodies or subjects ; it possesses only four — the 
 principal and second subject, the subsequent imitation and the final 
 melody (see the original sonata, bars 74-85). Secondly, the choice ol 
 the different ideas is always happy, and they are connected with each 
 
130 MUSICAL FOEMS. 
 
 other in a beautiful and entirely natural manner. Thirdly, the 
 modulations are nowhere forced or strange, and always presented in 
 a strict rhythmical order. Fourthly, each period has its appropriate 
 length. Fifthly, the form is from beginning to end beautifully 
 designed and faithfully executed. 
 
 Literature. — Kuhnau ( Johann), Preface to his " 7 Partien und einer Senate 
 aus dem B" (B flat); Leipzig, 1696, 1710, and 1724. Becker (C. F.), "Die 
 Hausmusik in Deutschland," pp. 33-39. Faisst (Imanuel), " Beitrage zur 
 Geschichte des Clavier Senate" (Cacilia, vol. xxv. p. 132, Schott and Co.). 
 Elterlein, " Beethoven's Clavier Sonaten ; " Leipzig ; English translatioh by 
 Miss E. Hill; London: Reeves. Mattheson (J.), " Neu-erofFnetes Orohester;" 
 Hamburg, 1713, p. 175. Scheibe (Joh. Adolph), " Kritische Musikus ; " Leipzig, 
 1745, 74, p. 675. 
 
 STEING QUARTET. 
 
 This form occupies a unique position in the gallery of musical 
 creations. It is well known that the Quartet, though invented by an 
 Italian, Luigi Boccherini (1740-1805), was greatly improved by Haydn, 
 Mozart, and Beethoven. Every composer of note in German has 
 thrown himself heart and soul into the composition of quartets ; more 
 pains and scrupulous care have been bestowed on the selection and 
 refinement of the proper subjects for a quartet, and more energy and 
 zeal have been displayed in the working out of the whole, than in the 
 construction of many an opera. The quartet may be considered as 
 the test of the genius, scholarship, taste, feeling, and readiness of the 
 composer. (See Thematic work.) Consummate skill is required in 
 handling the subject, the most polished taste and judgment in the 
 selection of the proper themes, and the purest and most genuine 
 feeling, to suffuse the whole with that moderate yet sufficient warmth 
 necessary to excite and maintain true interest among the audience. 
 And yet the quartet, as a form, is not so popular as, for instance, an 
 opera; and the success of a work of this kind will never be so brilliant 
 and dazzling as that of a dramatic work, which, appealing to a larger 
 and more mixed audience, has a much greater chance of general 
 approbation. The quartet will remain, at least for some time to come, 
 "caviare to the general." Nevertheless, the success of the quartet 
 rests on a more solid basis — on the sympathy and firm connection 
 between the composer, the executants, and the public — a connection 
 favored by and based on good and pure taste, solid studies, and an 
 interchange of refined feeling and intelligence. It is in fact a delight- 
 ful unanimity produced by good music, good execution, and an intel- 
 ligent audience. There cannot exist a more genuine or legitimate 
 pleasure than to listen attentively to a fine quartet well executed. As 
 already indicated, the quartet, like the trio, quintet, sestet, etc., is 
 composed in the regular sonata form. 
 
 To the same department belong the — 
 
 CASSAZIONE, SERENADE, DIVERTIMENTO, NOTTURNO. 
 
 The Cassazione was in Italy a very popular piece, consisting of an 
 indefinite number of movements, intended for outdoor performance 
 in the evening. The earliest cassazioni were nothing more than suites 
 set for different instruments ; but these various instruments were not 
 treated as an orchestra, but as solo instruments. There exist three 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 131 
 
 cassazioni by Mozart, of -which the last two are written for two string- 
 instruments (tenor and bass), two oboes, and two horns. The Diverti- 
 mento (piece for diversion) is a similar composition. The single 
 movements were not written in the rigorous style, but in an easy 
 popular manner; and it wassometimes the fashion to give the preference 
 to a solo instrument. Mozart wrote no less than eighteen divertimenti, 
 of which one (that in D major) has been successfully performed in 
 several towns in England. The Serenade is generally written for wind- 
 instruments; in it the march, and still more the minuet, is a very 
 prominent feature. Of Mozart we possess twelve serenades ; also two 
 by Beethoven. Johannes Brahms, one of the most distinguished of 
 living composers, has also written two serenades for a small orchestra. 
 The Nottumo is the same as the Serenade. Spohr's Notturno in C 
 (Op. 34) and Hummel's Notturno in F (Op. 99) have obtained great 
 celebrity. 
 
 Plan of Mozart's Cassazione in G (composed 1768), Koohel's "Verzeichniss," 63, 
 
 p. 74: — Marcia |, in G major; Allegro, C, in G major; Andante, I, in C major; 
 
 Minuet (I) in G major; Adagio, C, iii D major; Min/aet (II) in G major; 
 
 Finale, ", in G major. Seven movements. 
 Plan of Mozart's Serenade in D major (composed 1770), Koehel's ""Verzeichniss," 
 
 100^ p. 101 •.—Allegro, C, in D major; Andante, |, in D major; Minuet (I) in G 
 
 major; Allegro,l,in D major; Minuet (II) in D major; Andante, I, in D major; 
 
 Minuet (III) in t) major; Allegro, i, in D major. Eight movements. 
 Plan of Mozart's Serenade in D major (composed 1776), Koehel's " Verzeichniss," 
 
 250, p. 219 : — Allegro maestoso, C, in D major ; Andante, I, in G major ; Minuet 
 
 (I) in G minor, with Trio in G major ; Rondo, |, in G major ; Minuet (galant) 
 
 (II) in D major; Trio in D minor; .^wdom**, |, in A major; Minvxt(ll)\.n.X) 
 major; Trio (I) in Gmajor; Trio (II) in Dmajor; Adagio, C, iu Bmajor; and 
 Allegro assai, i, in D major. Eight movements, 
 
 Plan of Beethoven's Serenade, Op. 8, in D major (composed 1797) : — Marcia, C, iu 
 D major; Adagio, |, in D major; Minuet, in I) major; Adagio^ |, in D minor; 
 Allegretto alia Polacca, J, in E major; Tema con Variazioni, |, m D major. Six 
 movements. 
 
 Plan of Johannes Brahms' Serenade iu A, Op. 19: — Allegro, ^ A major; 
 k'cherzo, I, in C and Trio i in F ; Adagio non troppo, in A minor, i^ ; Quasi 
 Menuetto iu D, £; Trio, F sharp minor, |; Rondo [Allegro), in A, |. 
 
 Plan of Mozart's Divertimento in E flat (composed 1777), Koehel's " Verzeich- 
 niss," 289, p. 2i7 -.—Adagio, J, and Allegro, C, in Eflat; Minuet, iuEflat; 
 Adagio, I, in E flat ; Finale, ^, iu E flat. Four movements. 
 
 Plan of Mozart's Divertimento in D major (composed 1779 or 1780) Koehel's 
 "Verzeichniss,'! 334, p. 274: — Allegro, C, in D major; Andante, |, in D minor, 
 with six variations; Minuet (I) in D major ; Adagio, C, ia A major ; Minuet 
 (II) in D major; Rondo, §, in D major. Six movements. 
 
 Plan of Spohr's Notturno in C major. Op. 34 :— Marcia, C, in C major; Menuetto, 
 I, C minor; Andante con Variazioni, C, iu F major; Polacca,\, in C major; 
 Adagio, I, in A flat major ; Finale, |, iu C major. Six movements. 
 
 We now pass to the highest form of instrumental music, namely 
 the Symphony. 
 
 SYMPHONY. 
 
 All the remarks concerning the structure of the Sonata apply alsr» 
 to the Symphorvy. In the Symphony a certain number of instruments 
 are united, to produce a poetical representation of a series of emotions 
 
i82 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 of the soul. The emotion may be tragical, heroic, and grand, or light 
 and humorous — provided only it possesses sufficient importance to be 
 worthy of representation. Such importance is not only rendered 
 necessary by the chorus-like composition of the orchestra itself, but 
 also by the broader and grander treatment the symphony must 
 have, to distinguish it from the sonata or quartet. A quartet, even if 
 scored for all the instruments used in the symphony, will yet not 
 be a symphony. A sonata or quartet may show symphonic ideas 
 and be treated symphonically; but it could never be taken for a 
 symphony, inasmuch as the symphony, written for a larger audience 
 and for a large hall, addresses itself to a mixed audience, and must 
 necessarily rely on a more general treatment and on a still clearer 
 and more precise delineation of the component parts than are 
 absolutely demanded for the sonata or the quartet. The presence of 
 so many different instruments, each and all possessing a separate and 
 individual expression and character, the combination of so many 
 different tone-sha'des — in short, the richness of the whole material, 
 offeri? to the composer a wide scope for describing in sounds a definite 
 poetical subject. No better example of this style could be adduced 
 than Beethoven's "Pastoral" or "Eroica" Symphony; but on the 
 other hand all sorts of descriptions put forth by self-constituted 
 annotators, and purporting to interpret movements, themes, chords, 
 or passages in various symphonies, are not only in bad taste, but are 
 sometimes simply ridiculous, and have often nothing whatever to do 
 with the poetical idea in the composer's mind. 
 
 As poetry finds its fullest development in the drama, so does 
 instrumental music in the symphony; and indeed it may safely be 
 said that the symphony is the highest of all the musical forms, 
 because it demands from the composer an extraordinary^ amount of 
 power and originality, and an absolutely independent inspiration. 
 The thematic subject must contain in itself the whole idea of the 
 work; from it must be developed all the following logical conse- 
 quences. But even the invention of an excellent principal subject, 
 and one suitable for all purposes, would be an insufficient guarantee 
 for a good symphony. Many more details have to be considered. A 
 consummate mastery in handling counterpoint, instrumentation, 
 invention of figures, appropriate interpolation of episodes, grouping of 
 phrases, gradation of final effects, and a complete command over all 
 these means, these various important details, is necessary before this 
 greatest of instrumental forms can be satisfactorily constructed. 
 When the architect has drawn the plan of a gorgeous palace, he has 
 many artisans to help him to carry out his idea ; not so the composer 
 of a symphony — he must be at once the architect, the builder, and 
 decorator. No musical form, be it Opera, Oratorio, or any other, 
 could give us that noble and lofty idea of the wealth and intrinsic 
 power or of the irresistible strength of music that we find in the 
 Symphony. 
 
 CONCEETO. 
 (Concerto di camera.) 
 
 The Concerto is a piece consisting of three movements, in which one 
 pirticular instrument is regarded as the solo instrument and is 
 accompanied by a small or larger orchestra. In modern times the 
 Concerto is not reckoned as chamber-music, but belongs to the 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 133 
 
 orchestral department. The Concerto di camera consists (like the 
 more modern concertos of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Moscheles, 
 Field, Viotti, Spohr, Kode, etc.) of three movements, of which the 
 first and last are quick, and the middle movement (andante, larghetto, 
 adagio) slow. The form of the different movements is that of the 
 Sonata, with the exception of the so-called tutti (ritornello, prelude, 
 introduction), which is performed by the orchestra ; this tutti contains 
 generally both subjects, the principal and second one, and makes the 
 movement much longer. For this reason Mendelssohn and Schumann 
 have introduced most acceptable improvements, by reducing the 
 orchestral prelude to the shortest dimension, and by intrusting to the 
 principal instrument the disposition of the movement. In the older 
 form, we have actually to traverse the same road twice over, and this 
 plan results in making the performance of the solo or principal part 
 a kind of variation. Although Mozart and Beethoven succeeded to 
 impart by their genius sufficient interest to the tutti, and at the same 
 time to elaborate and enrich the solo part with such charm and 
 fascination as to make the listener forget that the solo part had 
 already been heard once before, in a simpler manner; less richly 
 gifted composers could not make the tutti or solos so interesting, and 
 the result is therefore not very happy, indeed rather monotonous. 
 The concertos of Mozart, Beethoven, Field, etc., introduce towards 
 the end a kind of "free fantasia," generally called Cadenza. This 
 cadenza offers to the executant a means of showing not only his skill 
 as a performer, but also a test for his cleverness as a composer, in so 
 far as there is in it a kind of " summing up " o f the entire movement. 
 This cadenza begins generally with the | chord on the dominant, and 
 may be long or short. The cadenza of the last movement is generally 
 shorter than that of the first movement. (See Beethoven's and 
 Mozart's cadenzas to their own concertos; A. E. Miiller's cadenzas 
 to six of Mozart's concertos ; also the cadenzas of Moscheles, Keinecke, 
 and Rubinstein to concertos of Beethoven; various cadenzas, and 
 most especially Schumann's splendid cadenza to his concerto, Op. 47, 
 A minor.) The beauty of the concertos of Mozart and Beethoven 
 consists in the interweaving of the orchestral instruments with the 
 principal part; thus making it a kind of dialogue. According to 
 Quantz, the celebrated flute-player and musical companion of 
 Frederic the Great of Prussia, Giuseppe Torelli (1616-?1708), a famous 
 violinist. from Bologna was the founder of the concerto form, which 
 was adopted by Franz Benda, Antonio Vivaldi, and others. 
 The structure of the Concerto might be thus explained : — 
 
 FiEST Movement. 
 
 Tutti. 
 
 First or chief movement. 
 Second subject some- 
 times in the tonic. 
 Solo. 
 Eepetition of first and 
 second subject. 
 Tutti. 
 
 The slow movement is generally much shorter; and in many 
 instances the romanza, barcarole, in short a lyrical form, is used. 
 
 Solo. 
 
 Thematic working and 
 development of both 
 subjects. 
 
 Short tutti generally lead- 
 ing to the 
 
 Solo. 
 
 Second subject in the tonic. 
 
 Close in the tonic. 
 Short tutti stopping with 
 
 I chord on the dominant. 
 
 Cadenza. 
 Short tutti. 
 
134 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 The composer's intention is to show, in the slow movement, grace, 
 elegance, tenderness, and suavity, as contrasted with the greater 
 energy of the first movement and the hilarity or brilliancy of the last. 
 
 The Finale is mostly written in the six-eight or two-four time. If it 
 is called Eondo, the form is that of a rondo in a sonata; but some- 
 times it receives also a characteristic expression, such as Eondo alia 
 spagnuola (Hunimel, Spohr), Eondo alia polacca (Beethoven, Op. 56), 
 Eondo guerri^re, and so on. No better examples of well-composed 
 concertos could be mentioned than those of Mozart (twenty-two), 
 Beethoven (Op. 15, 19, 37, 56, Triple Concerto, 58, 73), Spohr and 
 Moscheles. The Fifth Concerto for Piano-forte, Op. 73, by Beethoven, 
 is conceived in the manner of a symphony, and the Third Concerto, 
 Op. 37, in C minor, belongs to the most perfect works of musical art 
 — perfect with regard to the psychological correctness of development 
 of feeling, the absolute perfection of formal beauty, the nobility and 
 melodious beauty of the principal subjects, and finally, the richness 
 of harmony and ever fascinating interest of instrumentation. The 
 student is particularly advised to make himself thoroughly acquainted 
 with the mutual relations of the principal instrument and the 
 orchestra, which in this instance, as also in Beethoven's other 
 concertos, is a real artistic triumph. 
 
 The double or triple concerto is constructed after the same manner; 
 only that instead of o.ne principal instrument the composer employs 
 two, three, or four. The most celebrated examples of this form are 
 Sebastian Bach's concerto for three clavecins, several of his concertos 
 for two jsianos, two violins ; Mozart's concertos for violin and viola, 
 for two piano-fortes, for flute and harp, Beethoven's concerto, Op. 56, 
 for piano, violin and violoncello, Maurer's concerto for four violins, 
 etc. 
 
 CONCEETINO, CONCEETSTUCK. 
 
 Both these forms are smaller than that of the concerto; the tuttis 
 and the development in the second part are much shorter, the slow 
 movement is generally a romanza or a kind of song without words 
 (see Mendelssohn, Op. 25, 40), and the last movement is at times a 
 repetition of the first movement, or a rondo, or brilliant movement 
 in the sonata form (see Mendelssohn's finales to his concertos, Op. 25, 
 40). Weber's Concertstiick again is a kind of suite, consisting of four 
 movements : (a) larghetto, (6) allegro passionata, (c) tempo di marcia, 
 (d) piu moto leading into a presto assai. 
 
 The Concerto concludes the list of Cyclical forms belonging to 
 instrumental music. We have now to speak of the overture, and 
 afterwards of the minor forms which belong more or less to the 
 domain of chamber-music. 
 
 OVEETUEE. 
 
 This form may be divided into the old (French and Italian) and the 
 modern overture. The composer Lully (1633-87), the founder of the 
 French Opera, was also the inventor of the so-called French Overture. 
 Its form consisted of a movement in common time, generally called 
 the " grave " (solemn or heavy), followed by a fugue, which may be 
 set in another key and in different time; after the fugue, part or 
 whole of the grave is repeated. This form became so popular, that 
 Handel, Bach, Keiser, Telemann, Hasse, and other composers of the 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 
 
 135 
 
 eighteenth century adopted it. Where the overture was performed 
 singly, and not in connection with the opera, it took in concerts the 
 place of a symphony. The Italian Overture, as introduced by 
 Alessandro Scarlatti, was quite different; it consisted of three distinct 
 movements, the first and last of which were fast. The middle move- 
 ment was scored for fewer instruments, and possessed a different 
 character from the preceding and the following one. It was, in fact, 
 in itself a kind of short symphony. 
 
 The modern overture may be divided into three classes : the Opera 
 Overture, the Artistic Overture, and the Concert or Programme Overture. 
 The Opera Overture has been perfected by Mozart, Weber, Spohr, and 
 others with ^reat attention and care; whilst the Italian and French 
 composers did not bestow much attention on it. Thus with Rossini 
 (the overture to "Guillaume Tell" excepted), with Boieldieu, Auber, 
 Adam, Bellini, Donizetti, and others, the overture is nothing but a 
 loosely connected string of the most popular airs which occur in the 
 opera. Weber, in his overtures to "Euryanthe" "Der Freischutz," 
 and "Oberon," followed the same plan, but arranged his airs with 
 much greater care; moreover, his themes are so greatly superior to 
 those of his Italian and French contemporaries, that his overtures are 
 decidedly more important. Under the head of " Artistic Overtures " 
 must be classed Mozart's overture to " II Flauto Magico," Beethoven's 
 great Overture in C major (Op. 124), Mendelssohn's overture to "St. 
 Paul." Each of these is written in the style_ of a free fugue. The 
 Concert or Programme Overture was initiated by Beethoven's 
 "Coriolan," "Egmont," and "Leonora" overtures; and this field was 
 also most successfully worked by Mendelssohn in his four grand 
 concert overtures: the "Hebrides," "A Midsummer Night's Dream," 
 "Fair Melusina," and "Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage." The 
 Concert Overture offers an excellent opportunity for tone-painting; 
 its form is mostly that of the first movement of a sonata ; its length is 
 generally greater than that of the Opera Overture. The Festival or 
 Triumphal Overture, another form less frequently followed, is generally 
 written in the same manner. Musical literature is exceedingly "nch 
 in good, effective, and brilliant overtures; and their moderate length 
 and mostly popular style render them great favorites with the general 
 public. 
 
 PLAN OF OLDEK OVERTURES. 
 Old Fkench Overture (Lully, etc.) 
 
 Grave. 
 
 Very slow and solemn. 
 Transition in the domi- 
 nant or relative minor 
 or major key. 
 
 Fugue. 
 Quicker movement. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 Repetition (only partly) 
 of first part, with slight 
 variations of the chief 
 subjects^ 
 
 Old Italian Overture (Alessandro Scarlatti). 
 
 First Movement. 
 Quick movement. 
 
 Second Movement, 
 
 Slower time, also different 
 from the time of the first 
 movement, less richly 
 scored. 
 
 Third Movement. 
 Quick and brilliant. 
 
136 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Plan of Handel's Ovbkturb to "Theodoba." 
 
 Maestoso. 
 
 Common time. 
 G minor. 
 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 Fugue. 
 
 Common time. 
 
 G minor. 
 
 Zarghetto. 
 
 (Minuet.) 
 
 Eflat. 
 
 Three-four time. 
 
 Couramte, 
 
 Three-four time. 
 G minor. 
 
 Plan of Handel's Overture to " Solomon." 
 
 Largo. 
 Common time. 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 Fugue. 
 Common time. 
 
 Allegro. 
 Three-four time. 
 
 II. 
 
 SINGLE FORMS. 
 
 FANTASIA. 
 
 First among the smaller forms stands the Fantasia. The fantasia 
 is an immediate result of a sudden inspiration, and need not necessa- 
 rily follow any fixed rules ; although Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, 
 Hummel, Mosoheles, Mendelssohn, and Schumann could not help 
 bringing strict order even into this free, independent, and until their 
 time unrestricted, form. The classical fantasia depends on the original 
 invention of the composer, whilst the more brilliant concert^fantasia 
 is generally founded on national or operatic airs. Bach's Chromatic 
 Fantasia, those of Mozart in C major and C minor, Beethoven's G 
 minor (Op. 77) and Choral Fantasias (Op. 80), Mendelssohn's in F 
 sharp minor (Op. 28), Schumann's in (Op. 37), and Hummel's in E 
 flat (Op. 18) are standard works of the highest value. The modern 
 fantasias of Thalberg, Liszt, and others are more or less potpourris 
 (mixed compositions), made up of various themes. Although they 
 are a good vehicle for the display of technical brilliancy of execution 
 and dashing and effective playing, they cannot claim any high value 
 as compositions. A masterly fantasia is that of Moscheles on Irish 
 
 CAPRICE. 
 
 The Caprice is a movement in which one particular subject is treated 
 in every possible manner, so that it appears as if the composer were 
 capriciously resolved not to let the subject go before he had completely 
 exhausted its resources. The caprices of Miiller (176i-18D7J aad 
 Mendelssohn are, however, written in the sonata style. 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 137 
 
 OAPRICCIO (SCHEEZO). 
 
 The Varpriccio or Scherzo must not be confounded with the Caprice. 
 Although initiated by Beethoven, it may be almost called an inven- 
 tion of Mendelssohn's; for in its construction all the qualities are 
 absolutely required which made Mendelssohn famous — namely, wit 
 and spirit, an almost electric rapidity of harmonious changes, and a 
 fairylike lightness of treatment in the whole subject. A scherzo or 
 capriccio ought to float as it were in the air, and should appear 
 entirely ethereal; its whole essence is sport, jest, hilarity, and bright- 
 ness. In Mendelssohn's different scherzos these characteristics are 
 fully developed. 
 
 The Scherzo (see Sonata) was a natural consequence of the improve- 
 ment which the sonata made with respect to its progress as a psycho- 
 logically conceived and constructed form. The slow and somewhat 
 heavy minuet could not satisfy any more the demands of the com- 
 poser, and thus we see that particularly Beethoven gave to the scherzo 
 soon the place of the minuet (see his Op. 29, 80, i. ; 31, iii. ; 65, 69, i.; 
 68, 69, 74, 92, 96, 106, 110). 
 
 Thus we find in his sonatas, duet sonatas, trios, quartets, and sym- 
 phonies a greater number of scherzos than of minuets. The scherzo 
 was, however, already used by Sebastian Bach in his Partita III. ; and 
 the hurla or burlesoa of older composers is indeed very like the scherzo. 
 
 THE VARIATION. 
 
 The Variation as a form is really one of the greatest wonders of our 
 musical art. It is based on the principle that an air may appear in 
 various kinds of figure and rhythm, and in varied division and compli- 
 cation of parts, changes of harmony, with contrapuntal and even 
 fugal treatment, provided the melodious order and phrasing is pre- 
 served throughout. The form changes, but the substance remains. 
 But changes of form are not immaterial, for they involve changes in 
 the movement, expression, ajid even character of the original theme, 
 which should develop itself in ever new phases. Variations are not 
 like a chain formed by links of the same size — they represent progress 
 from simple to composite, from rest to motion, from tranquility to 
 passion, or vice versd. Variations may be treated as a mere plaything 
 with passages and ornate phrases (variazioni di bravura; see such 
 works by Kalkbrenner, Czerny, Herz, Hiinten, Dohler), without the 
 requisites j ust mentioned, from the great facilities there are for change ; 
 but we speak here of those of the highest class, and in this field the 
 musical art may achieve the greatest triumphs.* The composer, 
 
 * The student is advised to exatnine with earnest attention the following set of 
 Variations :— Sebastian Bach's Air with Thirty Variations in Bflat; Handel's 
 Air and Variations in D minor; Eameau's Gavotte and Variations in A minor; 
 Haydn's Andante and Variations in E minor; Mozart's " Unser dummer Pobel 
 meint" and Duet Variations in G; Beethoven's Variations in E flat (Op. 35), 
 Thirty-two Variations in C minor ; Thirty-three Variations in C on Diabelli's 
 Valse ; Schubert's Duet Variations in A flat (Op. 35) ; Mendelssohn's Variations 
 sMeuses in D minor; Variations (Op. 83) in B flat, and (Op. 82) in E flat — com- 
 pare the transformation of Op. 83 into the Duet (Op. 83A) ; Schumann's Varia- 
 tions (Etudes symphoniques) in C sharp minor (Op. 13), and Andante and Varia- 
 tions for two Pianos (Op. 46); Brahms' Variations on Themes by Handel, 
 Schumann and Paganini ; V. Lachner's Forty-two Variations on the Scale of G 
 major (Op. 42) ; Raff's Variations from Second Suite. 
 
138 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 bound, SO to say, to the theme, develops in it new features, elevates it 
 to a higher standard, and elicits from it fresh and unexpected beauties. 
 This faculty is an exclusive privilege of music, and is found in no 
 other art. The only equivalent we vjfould mention as approximating 
 at all to the unique form of the musical Variation might perhaps be 
 the "Essay," in which the author may ring the changes on his subject. 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 (Fr. Marche; Ger. Marsch; Ital. Marcia.) 
 
 The March is of German origin, and dates from about 200 years a^o. 
 Well-defined rhythm is the characteristic quality necessary for its 
 purpose. The utility of the march in encouraging wearied men to 
 resist fatigue and inspiring them to advance against the enemy has 
 been abundantly proved. Certain marches played by the military 
 bands are said to have had no small effect in insuring victory. There 
 are three great divisions of the march — namely, the guiek march 
 (Geschwind-marsch, Pas acceller^) the slow march, ana the funeral 
 march (Trauer-marsch, Marche funfebre, Marcia fun^bre). 
 
 1. The Quick March. — This is used at the march-past of the soldiers 
 and in the ordinary march-out. It is indispensable that the time 
 fitted to the step (one, two, one, two) should be strongly accentuated; 
 two-four time is the best, and a quaver and a quaver rest is the sim- 
 plest form — 
 
 n.i n 
 
 •i 1 • n 
 
 •i 1 J -1 
 
 but the bar may be broken up to prevent monotony. Where a mort 
 flowing figure is employed, the accompaniment must strongly mark 
 the rhythm ; the first bars should be in the strict style. In the ordi- 
 nary march, which is intended to exhilarate the soldier, the six-eight 
 time and the alia breve ((R) time are often used ; even the march-past 
 is now less stiff than formerly. A military march must be brief: in 
 the part of each instrument ten bars to a line of music and eight lines 
 to the whole march should be the limit. The march generally con- 
 sists ot two distinct parts; the first number is sometimes called the 
 Initial March, the second is the Trio; They are generally tolerably 
 equal in length. 
 
 1. Initial March. First Part (8 bars). 
 
 S 
 
 ^-^^EeE^ESEgi^ 
 
 F^^l •-H— "F= H 1— 
 
 =i"=us 
 
 :^ 
 
 =t==J:rt=:p: 
 
 3=J^=34 
 
 Second Part (8 bars). 
 
=?2^=P=Pcrp: 
 
 INSTRTIMKNTAT. MUSTC. 
 
 4U 
 
 139 
 
 E^=»±a 
 
 H=^ 
 
 3fc=ig= 
 
 Isi time. 
 
 2d tiTTte, 
 
 F=P= 
 
 w=m=m-=m: 
 
 :|^:^=S=S=*: 
 
 :^P= 
 
 :P2= 
 
 -m-^—m- 
 
 4^ 
 
 feEL^SE 
 
 =S=it 
 
 ;S=t; 
 
 =P2^ 
 
 :ffit 
 
 :pz 
 
 i^ 
 
 i 
 
 :^zi=i=S=*: 
 
 
 -^ — ^ — ^«i h- 
 
 Second Part (8 bars). 
 
 m 
 
 ■m-^s, — I — a—. 1 — rm — I — I ^-7 
 
 ^ 1 JZg^ J_JJ_ gzJ:Pj=i 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 i^t 
 
 -J^J. ^:^. 
 
 :S^ 
 
 i^^^g, ^ gg=5 ^ Bi^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 =ffi=P= 
 
 hKIS3« 
 
 ls< Kme. 
 
 2(i Wme. 
 
 i 
 
 =i: 
 
 For variety's sake a different combination from that of the initial 
 march is adopted in the trio. The trio is sometimes written in the 
 key of the sub-dominant, and in it the melodic figure is greatly 
 expanded; the second part of the trio begins in the minor key corres- 
 ponding to the major key of the initial part, which is played as a 
 termination after the trio, that the march may conclude in the key in 
 which it began. The march is generally preceded by four or eight 
 preparatory bars : — 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Straitss, Sr. 
 
 March. 
 
 ^ 
 
 S=P-=M" — ««^q=Pt. 3i 1 p : 
 
 EE 
 
 =q=p: 
 
 =C2=t: 
 
 ^^ 
 
140 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 2. The Slow March.— Ma,n&i\, in his "System of Music," p. 355, 
 remarks that the slow march is retained in no European army, except 
 in the English, which he considers a loss from a musical point of 
 view." In England it is used for the march-past and for trooping the 
 colors. Like the quick march it must not be too long ; it is also divided 
 into the initial and trio. Ai. elaborate march of this kind might be 
 mentioned — Mendelssohn's "Wedding March." The march called 
 the "Troop," and used for trooping the colors is combined of nine 
 marches, slow and quick; the "British Grenadiers" and "God save 
 the Queen " being indispensable elements. 
 
 3. I?ie Funeral March — the Marcia lugubre of the Italians, March 
 funibre of the French, Traii£r-marsch of the German (I = 66) sixty- 
 six crotchets to a minute by the metronome. — The initial is generally 
 in the minor, the second part (trio) in the major key, to represent 
 "the freedom of the disembodied spirit." Examples: Beethoven's 
 Funeral March (Op. 26), Schubert's Funeral March (Op. 40, v.), Cho- 
 pin's Funeral March. See also the movements "In modo d'unai 
 marcia " in Schumann's Quintet (Op. 44), Beethoven's Marcia Funfebre 
 of the "Eroica" Symphony. 
 
 4. The Triunh-phal or Festival March.. — ^The time is rather slower than 
 that of the funeral march; its expression that of grandeur, pomp, and 
 solemnity. The most celebrated examples are those of Beethoven's 
 solemn march and chorus from the "Euins of Athens," Cherubini's 
 march from "Medea," Meyerbeer's coronation march from the 
 "Prophfete," and "Marche des Flambeaux," Gounod's marche solen- 
 nelle from "LaEeine de Saba," Wagner's "Tannhauser,"Huldigung's 
 and Fridensmarsch, Lachner's march from " Catheriua Comaro," and 
 Suite in D minor. 
 
 5. Religious Marches. — ^lliese appear in operas and oratorios. (Com- 
 pare Mozart's march in " Idomeneo," " II Flauto Magico ;" Beethoven's 
 " Mount of Olives ;" Mendelssohn's War-March of the Priests in "Atha- 
 lia," etc.) 
 
 6. National Marches. — These are generally founded on national airs. 
 Excellent examples are the Hungarian Eakoczy March, Schubert's 
 Hungarian March (Op. 55)-, Beethoven's Turkish March (Op. 113), 
 Weber's Gipsies' March from " Preoiosa," etc. 
 
 These are piano-forte pieces of one movement, generally short, and 
 appearing with regard to form and aesthetic intention to be an imita- 
 tion of the song; consequently they have a lyrical expression, and the 
 melody is accompanied in a refined and artistic manner. The name 
 (in some respects a paradox, in as far as no song, properly speaking, 
 can exist without words — the words being the reason of the existence 
 of the song) was, according to private information given by a member 
 of the family of Mendelssohn, who introduced these little compositions 
 in this garb for the first time in 1831. The "Songs without words" 
 soon obtained a universal recognition and approbation, and are now 
 accepted as musical household words. With regard to their contents, 
 Mendelssohn's " Songs without words " are not new, inasmuch as 
 Beethoven's Bagatelles (see Op. 33, Nos. 4 and 6 ; Op. 119, No. 4 ; Op. 
 126, No. 3), and Field's Nocturnes contain similar matter, which, how- 
 ever, was not worked out in such detail or with such extreme care. 
 
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. 141 
 
 The " Songs without words " were imitated in numberless instancee, 
 but no composer after Mendelssohn succeeded in giving to them sucn 
 absolute finish and roundness of form, combined with such pure, 
 genuine sentiment. To only a few of Mendelssohn's " Songs without 
 words " names were given by the composer himself.* 
 
 ETUDE (STUDY). 
 
 The Etude or Study, originally invented by Bach, has in course of 
 time grown to great and even important proportions. At first it was 
 intended solely for practice, for acquiring proficiency in certain pas- 
 sages. Clementi (1752-1832), in his " Gradus ad Parnassum," extended 
 its sphere, and introduced fugues, toccatas, and canons. His pupil, 
 John Baptist Cramer (1771-1858), greatly influenced by Mozart, sought 
 to infuse what in reference to the students might be called a philan- 
 thropic spirit into the Study; for he introduced into it pleasant 
 melody, harmony, and elegance, in which points Clementi was some- 
 what deficient. After Cramer's came the useful but somewhat dry- 
 technical Studies of Czerny, Herz, and Kalkbrenner. Moscheles 
 (1794^1870) altered this form again, and greatly developed and 
 enlarged Cramer's idea ; till at last the beautiful and excellent Studies 
 of Chopin, Henselt, Liszt, and Thalberg appear in a form which not 
 only commands respect but excites popular admiration. 
 
 IDYLL, ETC. 
 
 The Idyll, Eclogue, and Villanella are short pastorals; the Dithyramb 
 (W. Tomaschek, 1774r-1850) and Rhapsody (Henselt, Brahms, Liszt) 
 appear as an endeavor to portray by sounds the peculiar dactylic form 
 of versification. Impromptus (Schubert, Taubert, Chopin), Intermeezi, 
 and Sketches (Bennett, Schumann, Heller) are free forms, sometimes 
 approaching the scherzo, at others again showing affinity with the 
 smaller romantic pieces. 
 
 In poetry Idyll is a short pastoral poem, written in an elevated and 
 highly finished style. Ecloguemeans in poetry a pastoral composition, 
 in which shepherds are introduced conversing with each other; a 
 bucolic. Villanella is a country (pastoral) tune. Dithyrambus, actually 
 an ancient Greek hymn in honor of Bacchus, usually sung by a -band 
 of revellers to a flute accompaniment. Rhapsody, a disconnected series 
 
 * The general public ever anxious to know the composer's meaning, are at the 
 same time not less desirous to have a name for each piece. All manner of fantas- 
 tic, nonsensical names have been bestowed upon Mendelssohn's "Songs without 
 words;" the names given by S.tephea Heller to these popular gems are, however, 
 an honorable exception to these worthless^titles. They are as follows :— 1. Sweet 
 Eemembrance; 2. Eegret; 3. 'The Hunt; 4. Confidence ; 6. Disquiet: 7. Contem- 
 plation; 8. Restlessness; 9. Consolation; 10. The Wanderer; 11. The Bivulet; ' 
 13. The Evening Star; 14. Lost Happiness ; 15. The Harp of the Poet; 16. Hope; 
 17. Appassionata; 19. On the Shore; 20. The Vision; 21. Presto Agitato : 22. 
 The Sorrowful Soul; 23. Triumphal Chant; 24. The Flight; 25. May Breezes; 
 26. The Departure; 27. Funeral March; 28. MorningSong; 30. Spring Song; 
 31. Meditation; 32. Lost Illusions; 33. The Pilgrim's Song; 34. The Spinning 
 Song; 35. The Wail of the Shepherd; 36. Serenade; 37. A Eeverie; 38. The 
 Farewell; 39. Passion; 40. Elegy; 41. TheKetnrn; 42. Songs of the Traveller. 
 <Nos. 6, 12, 18, 29 retain the names given by the author.) See also E. Pauer's 
 " Harmonious Ideas ;" " Poetical Mottoes for Mendelssohn's Songs without Words." 
 
142 MUSICAL rOKMS. 
 
 of sentences, a rambling composition. Impromptu (from the Latin in 
 promptu, "in readiness "), a piece made off-hand at the rnoment or with- 
 out any previous study, Intermezzo (see Vocal music). Sketch (Fr. 
 Esquisse; Ger. SJcizze), an outline or general delineation of anything. 
 
 POTPOURRI. 
 
 The P(5tpourri, Quodlibet, Melange, and Pasticcio, are pieces of 
 uncertain length, put together in a loose, easy manner, and consisting 
 of all possible popular airs. On the Continent such pieces are often 
 performed by orchestras in public gardens, and a good deal of inge- 
 nuity has been shown in comic potpourris by Hamm, Kiiffner, and 
 others. The potpourris and melanges for piano-forte were introduced 
 by Louis Emanuel Jadin in the beginning of this century. (Compare 
 the well-known potpourri by Hamm, " Der lustige Figaro.") 
 
 DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 OLD DANCES. 
 
 Dance music, in its various branches, has influenced the musical art 
 in a greater degree than is generally believed. Not only does the 
 orchestra owe its existence to dance music, but the delightful rhyth- 
 mical animation, which is one of the principal charms of modern 
 music, is the result of the respective dance measures, such as 
 minuets and others, adopted for the symphony, the sonata, etc. ; the 
 suite, for instance, is entirely a combination of dance movements. 
 The dances are naturally to be divided into two classes, the old and 
 the modern or national. Among the old dances are included all those 
 which are now out of fashion and obsolete. In the case of some it is 
 not easy even to describe them accurately. The first thart require 
 notice are the mediaeval dances. France, Italy, and Spain had a great 
 similarity in their dance music, Germany and England being rather 
 behindhand in that branch of art ; indeed the chief English dances, 
 like the Courante, Brawl, Pavan, etc., were foreign importations. 
 
 ALLEMANDE. 
 
 The Allemande is, as its name implies, of German origin. There 
 are two completeljr different kinds of allemandes : the first, one in 
 two-four time, which is danced by the peasants of Swabia and 
 Switzerland, and the second the allemande of the suite. The charac- 
 teristics of the latter are earnestness of expression and a moderately 
 quick movement. It ought to possess a rich harmony; and should 
 in fact convey the feeling of "a certain contentment and quiet 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 143 
 
 cheerfulness." The allemandes of Sebastian Bach are masterpieces, 
 and have never been surpassed. The allemande follows the prelude, 
 and always stands before the courante. 
 
 COURANTE (CORRENTE). 
 
 The Courante or Corrente is either of French or Italian origin. 
 According to its name, which is derived from the French courir, or 
 the Italian correre, its chief expression ought to give the idea of 
 running. Mattheson, the well-known contemporary of Handel, 
 describes it in the following quaint manner : " The passion or temper 
 which is expressed in the courante is that of a sweet hope, and we 
 detect in it something hardy, ambitious, yet cheerful. On the violin 
 the courante is confined by no limits, but tries to do honor to its 
 name by an incessant bustle and hurry, but yet in such a way that 
 tenderness and grace are not absent. In France they preferred the 
 courante played on the lute; but in Germany the masters set it for 
 the clavecin. For dancing courantes the French invented the best 
 tunes." Bach's and Handel's courantes are written either in three- 
 two or three-four time ; and it is usual to find doubles or variations 
 added to them. , ^ 
 
 BOUREflE. 
 
 According to the best authorities, the native land of this dance is 
 Auvergne; but some writers designate as its home the Basque 
 Provinces in Spain, where it is known by the name of Borea. 
 Mattheson describes it as having " a cheerful and merry character; 
 more fluent, smooth, sliding, and connected than the gavotte. The 
 peculiarity of the bourr^e is a certain jovial and pleasant expression, 
 coupled with an air of happy carelessness— an easy though not vulgar 
 movement." The bourr^e is in two-four or common time, and is 
 adapted to the dactylic metre, where two short notes follow a long 
 one. In England the bourr^e is represented by the popular hornpipe. 
 
 GAVOTTE. 
 
 The Gavot or Gavotte h.is a great similarity with the Bourr€e. The 
 actual difference between a bourr^e and a gavotte is that the former 
 begins on the last or unaccented part of the bar, while the latter 
 begins with the heavy or accented part of the second half. The 
 gavotte is of French origin; it is the dance of the Gavots or Gap-men, 
 the inhabitants of the town of Gap, in the Haute-Alpes. It was 
 mostly used for theatrical purposes, seldom as a social dance. 
 Mattheson tells us " the expression should be that of a right jubilant 
 joy; the 'jumping' and by no means the 'running' movement is a 
 particular feature of it." The gavottes of Sebastian Bach are very 
 excellent models, and have attained universal popularity. Bach and 
 other composers add to several of their gavottes a musetta or bagpipe- 
 tune. The peculiarity of the Musetta is that the fundamental bass 
 never changes ; and thus the piece imitates the quaint monotonous 
 effect of the bagpipe. 
 
 CEBELL. 
 
 "The name of an air or theme in common time of four-bar phrases, 
 forming a subject upon which to execute ' divisions ' upon the lute or 
 violin This style of air, although frequently found in books for the 
 
144 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 violin in the seventeenth century, is now obsolete ; its principal feature 
 was the alternation of grave and acute notes which formed the several 
 strains."* 
 
 SARABANDE. 
 
 The Sarabande is of Spanish origin ; and was transferred to Italy, 
 where it altered its primary expression in being converted into a stately, 
 earnest and solemn dance, very diiferent from its characteristic expres- 
 sion in Spain. When we read that the Spanish sarabande was danced 
 with castanets, we can scarcely reconcile such an accompaniment 
 with thegrandezza, the quiet grandeur, which predominates in Handel's 
 and Bach's sarabandes. The sarabande may be called the "central 
 body " of the suite, as it is the one slow movement round which the 
 quicker movements — the prelude, allemande, and courante on the one 
 side, and the gavotte and gigue on the other — revolve. Shakespeare 
 speaks of itin " Much Ado About Nothing"" as "a measure full of state 
 and ancientry;" and indeed it can hardly be more happily described. 
 Sebastian Bach treated the sarabande as the principal and most im- 
 portant piece of the suite, and bestowed on it an amount of care that 
 was extraordinary even for that ever-conscientious composer ; working 
 it out in the most minute detail. Indeed the sarabandes of the Second, 
 Third, and Sixth English Suites are models of refined workmanship 
 and exquisite taste. _ Handel's celebrated air " Lascia che piango " was 
 a sarabande from his opera "Almira," and appeared again six years 
 later as Almirena's air in the opera " Binaldo." 
 
 GIGUE. 
 
 This lively dance is also written zigg, jig, giga, gigue, gicque, Schick, 
 quique: but gigue is now the universally adopted way of writing the 
 name. Nageli in his Lectures, p. 116, says: "The suite with all its 
 dance tunes required also an artistically worked piece of more solid 
 construction, something like the fugue. As all the preceding dance 
 movements of the suite, such as allemande, courante, sarabande, ga- 
 votte, bourr^e, had been divided into two parts of equal length, it was 
 considered desirable that the gigue should also be divided in the same 
 manner, and that the first part ought to close on the dominant; other- 
 wise, almost all the devices followed out in the fugue were also applied 
 to the gigue, and thus a favorable result was gained: a lively piece 
 with a solid construction, resembling a dance movement, yet possessing 
 also a deeper interest for the connoisseur." There are four difierent 
 kinds of gigues: (1) the English; (2) the Spanish, also called Loures ; 
 (3) the Canaries; and (4) the Italian giga. According to another 
 authority the ".iig" was formerly the dance tune used during the 
 performance of the rope-dancers. At present the name of jig is given 
 to any dance music of a lively, droll, and grotesque expression. The 
 Spanish gigues or loures are slower, and have a " somewhat pompous 
 and magniloquent expression, a vain and inflated tune," as Mattheson 
 quaintly calls it. The Canaries are full of life and bustle, but ought 
 to have somewhat of a simple, even childish expression. The Italian 
 giga is that used by Handel, and sometimes also by Bach. This form 
 has retained a certain influence on modern music. (See the last 
 movement of Beethoven's "Kreutzer" Sonata.) 
 
 * See Stainer and Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical Terms," p. 81. 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 145 
 
 ANGLOISE. 
 
 The name Angloise was formerly given to three kinds of English 
 dances : (a) the Country dance ; (6) to the Ballad, and (c) to the Horn- 
 pipe. Mattheson, in his "Kern melodischer Wissenschaft," p. 117, 
 says : " The principal quality of the Angloise is ' obstinacy,' but this 
 quality is accompanied by an expression of generosity and good- 
 nature." The Country dance is the dance of the peasants, for which 
 all possible national and dramatic airs are used. The Ballad is a song, 
 to the tune of which people danced, as in France (Chansons de danse). 
 The Hornpipe is the sailor's dance (see Hornpipe and Bourr^e). 
 
 BRAWL. 
 
 The Brawl is an antiquated French dance (Branle), in which the 
 whole company joined — not unlike the modern cotillon. The old 
 writers described it as being not so lively as the courantes or galliards, 
 but danced merely by bending the knees, not by jumping with the 
 feet. Towards the end of the sixteenth century it was customary to 
 dance during the evening several kinds of Branles: the Branle double 
 (also called Branle common), the Branle simple, the Branlegai, and 
 finally the Branle de Bourgogne, or Branle de Champagne. The old 
 people danced the Branle double, the young married couples the 
 Branle de Bourgogne. Thoinet Arbeau mentions in his "Orch&o- 
 graphie " (Langres, 1588) the following kinds of Branles: (V\ Branle 
 double; (2) Branle simple; (3) Branle gai (in triple time); (4) Branle 
 de haut Barrois; (5) Branle coup6, also called "Cassandra," "Pina- 
 gay," "Charlotte," " Branle de la Guerre," "Aridan;" (6) Branle de 
 Poitou (in triple time); (7) Branle ^cossais; (8) Branle, called "Tri- 
 ori;" (9) Branle de Matta; (10) Branle des Blanchisseuses (the 
 Washerwomen's Branle); (11) Branle Margueritotte; (12) Branle des 
 Hermites; (13) Branle des Flambeaux; (14) Branle des Sabots; (15) 
 Branle des Chevaux; (16) Branle de la Moutarde; (17) Branle de la 
 Haie; (18) Branle de I'Official. 
 
 CHACONNE. 
 
 The origin of the Chaconne or Ciaccona is variously stated. It is 
 not quite certain whether it derives its origin from Italy or Spain. 
 The name itself is described as coming from the Italian deco, which 
 means " blind ;" and it is said that the inventor of the ciaccona was 
 blind. It is also asserted that chaconne comes from the Arabic, and 
 means " the dance of the king." According to Mattheson (" Vollkom- 
 mener Capellmeister," p. 233), "the dance 'Chaconne' takes its name 
 from the Spanish Admiral Chacon, commanding the fleet, 1721, in 
 America." Again, Littr6 says that the name comes from the Basque 
 chocuna, "pretty." The music of the chaconne is in three-four time. 
 It has a very sedate movement, and has the peculiarity that an air of 
 four, sometimes eight bars, with an agreeable melody and particularly 
 well-marked rhythm, is performed in the bass; this air is, like in the 
 ground, incessantly repeated, while the upper part is varied, the varia- 
 tions being called couplets. Sometimes a certain relief is brought into 
 it by the interpolation of a short phrase ; but this is rarely applied. 
 The most celebrated chaconnes are those of Bach, Couperin, and 
 Handel. In England it was called " the chacon," and was danced like 
 the sarabande or measure, of which Queen Elizabeth was very fond. 
 
 10 
 
146 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 MINUET. 
 
 In Prance this dance is called "le menuet;" in Italy, " minuetto." 
 It is said to have come originally from the French province of Poitou. 
 The name itself is derived from the Latin minutus, "small," and this 
 name was given on account of the short steps peculiar to it. The 
 minuet is distinguished for its graceful, noble, and dignified expres- 
 sion — it was especially the dance of the nobility, and every ball was 
 opened with it; its prevailing character was a moderate cheerfulness. 
 To give variety to the minuet, a second part was generally composed 
 for it, which offered a certain contrast to the first. This second part 
 is called "trio," because, while formerly the minuet was written for 
 two parts only — mostly for a violin and a bass — the second division 
 was set for three parts. We sometimes, but rarely, meet with the 
 minuet in the suite; but it had been unconditionally accepted in the 
 other cyclical forms, such as the sonata, symphony, serenade, cassa- 
 zione, etc. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven made splendid use of 
 the minuet. In Haydn's hand the minuet received another charac- 
 ter; whereas before his time it had a somewhat aristocratic expres- 
 sion, Haydn, without lowering or vulgarizing it, imparted to it a 
 popular tone, a simple and jovial manner. With him it has essen- 
 tially a cheerful and good-natured expression. Mozart understood how 
 to imbue it with a more refined wit and an artistic character; and 
 Beethoven managed to give an indescribable charm to his minuets. 
 Although in his later works the scherzo took the place of the minuet, 
 he uses it again in his Eighth Symphony. The minuet must therefore 
 be recognized as one of the principal and most important dances 
 among those which in a great degree influenced instrumental music. 
 
 PASSACAGLIO. 
 
 The Passacaglio was called in French " passecaille." According to 
 some old writers the name is also pronounced "passagallo," which 
 means in German, " Hahnentrapp," or the trotting of the cock. This 
 last term was probably an illusion to the mode in which the passa- 
 caglio was danced. The passecaille has a certain resemblance to the 
 chaconne, in so far as the bass ought to contain the melody, and the 
 upper part furnish variations to it, which, like those in the chaconne, 
 are called couplets. The old writers, Mattheson, Walther, and Koch, 
 differ in their opinion as to the quicker or slower time of the passa- 
 caglio. 
 
 PASSAMEZZO. 
 
 The Passamezzo is an old Italian dance, with a soft and quiet expres- 
 sion. Praetorius and Walther give valuable information concerning 
 it. The former says: "Pa«samezzoaj30S«ando,iranscendo, meaning that 
 he who dances it ought to proceed quietly and gradually ; and just as 
 a galliard has five steps, and is therefore called ' cinquepas ' (cinque- 
 pace), so also has the passamezzo not half this number, ' quasi dicas,' 
 ' mezzo passa,' as if you called it 'half-step.'" Walther adds; " Pas- 
 tamezzo, an old Italian dance, in which the dancer went quietly 
 through the room ; also an old Italian song, to which people danced." 
 The passamezzo is now completely forgotten. 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 147 
 
 PASSEPIED. 
 
 The Passepied was formerly the dance of the Breton sailors. The 
 expression of the passepied is that of merriment and liveliness, or as 
 Mattheson expresses it, "The character of the passepied indicates an 
 approach to negligence; it ought to show a certain vacillation and 
 unsteadiness, not passion or excitement; but such negligence must be 
 expressive not of ill-humor and caprice, but of good-nature and jovi- 
 ality." The passepied is in three-eight or three-four time, and generally 
 alternates with a second passepied of the same length; if the first is 
 in the minor key the second is set in the major key, and vice versd. 
 When the passepied is introduced in a suite, it takes the place of the 
 gavotte or bourr^e; that is, it comes between the sarabande and the 
 gigue. 
 
 According to some writers, passepied (English " paspy " — compare 
 the example of Purcell and Croft, given in the " Dictionary of Musical 
 Terms," by J. Stainer and W. A. Barrett, p. 343) is identical with pas- 
 samezzo, although " to proceed quietly and gradually " and again 
 " merriment and liveliness " do not actually harmonize. 
 
 PAVAN. 
 
 The Pavana, pava d'Espagne, pavin or pavan, is an extraordinary 
 dance. Accordmg to the Old English Encyclopaedia, " the pavan is a 
 grave dance, common among the Spaniards." In this dance the per- 
 formers described a kind of wheel before each other; the gentlemen 
 danced it with cap and sword, princes in their state robes, and the 
 ladies with long trains, the movements resembling the stately step of 
 the peacock, in Italian called "pavone." The Paduand is a similar 
 grave and stately dance, which, however, may take its name from 
 Padua, in Italy. 
 
 GALLIARD. 
 
 The name Galliard is derived, according to some old writers, from 
 valiarda (Lat. validus), " strong." In the Italian and French languages 
 gagliarda or gaillard means, " merry, jolly, free, . cheerful, fresh, and 
 healthy;" and such in fact ought to be the expression of this dance. 
 Some musical historians say that Rome was the birthplace of the 
 galliard, and that the name of -Romrenesca was then given to it; but 
 this may be doubted, because the tune which we know under the 
 name Eomanesca is not merry or cheerful, but rather the reverse. 
 The gaillarde par terre was also called Tourdion. 
 
 RIGAUDON. 
 
 The Kigaudon, called in English "Kigadoon," is an old French 
 dance, to which it was the custom to sing an accompaniment. The 
 rigaudon is written in common time, and had its origin in Provence. 
 The character of the rigaudon is merry and cheerful ; the quickest 
 notes are quavers. According to Th. Lejarte, the rigaudon was named 
 after its inventor, the dancing-master Monsieur Rigaud. 
 
 SICILIANO.. 
 
 A kind of melody to which the Sicilian peasants were accustomed 
 to dance. Its character is that of rural simplicity and tenderness. It 
 is set in six-eight time ; but its movement is rather slower than that 
 
148 
 
 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 of the pastorale. The rhythm of the Siciliano was also used for vocal 
 pieces; thus we find beautiful examples in Handel's "Susanna" and 
 "Theodora." 
 
 A cursory glance at the old dances is sufficient to convmce us that 
 they were of the greatest possible importance to the progress of in- 
 strumental music. Not only did the separate character each of them 
 possessed lend a peculiar charm to their introduction and adaptation 
 for the cyclical forms, but the composer learned by their means to 
 invent better and more fascinating tunes. Under the garb of a passa- 
 caglio or a chacoiine, it was pleasant to hear and admire contrapuntal 
 feats, whilst on the other hand the minuet offered to Haydn, Mozart, 
 and Beethoven a welcome opportunity to suff'use their works with an 
 agreeable good-nature. The old dance movements brought life, grace, 
 and rhythmical beauty into instrumental music ; and thus we perceive 
 that the music of the people becomes a most important agent in 
 enhancing the charm of instrumental music generally, in widening 
 its sphere by the simplest and most welcome means, and in consoli- 
 dating its popularity. 
 
 THE OLD DANCE MOVEMENTS. 
 Classified witli respect to their time and rhythmical expression. 
 
 Ex. 
 
 Chaconne. 
 
 
 
 Handel. 
 
 iElEElEE^ 
 
 1= 
 
 IB. 
 
 fcj£ 
 
 
 
 ± 
 
 
 *!--* 
 
 t^=*=3= 
 
 Ex. II. 
 
 Sarabande. 
 
 COCPERIN. 
 
 
 
 I ^ — ^-1 b# 1 — 
 
Ex. III. 
 
 dfc 
 
 DANCE MUSIC. 
 COTTRANTE. 
 
 149 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 «r 
 
 ^•^mmm^mm 
 
 r^- 
 
 >-n*: 
 
 ^iEi.^Sg 
 
 ^.-Jzts^B 
 
 =t=t 
 
 b± 
 
 Eggii^te^i 
 
 :^t=r--ir-t: 
 
 P^^J^J ^ 
 
 ^b^r=S=^^iid 
 
 Ex. IV. 
 
 Galiardo (Gaillarde). 
 
 William Byrde. 
 
 M^^EE^^l 
 
 ii^*=-=^= 
 
 f 
 
 
 f 
 
 ='^^^-^- 
 
 1^- 
 
 ici: 
 
 5i^ 
 
 sSs 
 
 ^"^- 
 
 2=--^_=p: 
 
 r^^"i"-=r^ 
 
 '-=#: 
 
 lElEi^-: 
 
 f 
 
 8d« 
 
 va. j -W 'r I 
 
 ■SI hr^ 
 
 r — ^- 
 
 ?fva. 
 
 ?^^^- 
 
 3-t 
 
 ^^: 
 
 "(•"P" 
 
 Ex.V. 
 
 3E3: 
 
 Minuet (the first), 
 
 '-m. 
 
 ^__,_ . . LuJLY (1663). 
 
 2^ 
 
 -^^ 
 
 ?- 
 
 i=^= 
 
 :|=4- 
 
 r i T I I 
 
 ^ii 
 
 ^^gg[ia=gi 
 
 ;»= 
 
 f 
 
 r-rcr->-p»- 
 
 1 
 
 Hornpipe. (See Mattheaon, " Der vollkommene Capellmeister,'" p. 229.) 
 Ex. VI. 
 
 bii 
 
 :Q^^^^:m 
 
 '^-r-j. 
 
 it-^ 
 
 -p— p- 
 
 :ffrtrf=t=ff: 
 
 ^U 
 
 \.f>:^-. 
 
150 
 
 MUSICAL FOKMS. 
 
 Musette (A). 
 Ex. VII. J. Ph. BAMEA.U. 
 
 E: E! ffi! 
 
 
 :4^S 
 
 ^=^=S=t=i= 
 
 • H 1- 
 
 ^^it:*- 
 
 13=*: 
 
 i 
 
 1»- -^■ 
 
 -^ 
 
 tiil 
 
 '^m^^^^^^ 
 
 ip: ?2r ?2r 2:S^ 
 jr -to^ -^■=" "p"^ 
 
 Ex. VIII. 
 
 Passepied. 
 
 «.l 
 
 Old French. 
 
 i^ 
 
 t— NN— Hi- 
 
 ^^i^^^i^^si 
 
 r 
 
 a&= 
 
 
 ^ -r- 
 
 
 Ex. IX. 
 
 Gavotte. 
 
 J. S. B^CH. 
 
 =i» 
 
 :e 
 
 i:z;:t 
 
 S^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^_EffE^E^=(^ 
 
 SE?Et^t=^^i 
 
 rifcj: 
 
 E^E^::::^: 
 
 ■•■ — i — ^ — 1- 
 
 ? ' 1^ ! 1 *— •- 
 
 =t=i=p; 
 
 ~i — I — I — I — P — ff — I — 1^_ 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 151 
 
 MtrSETTE (B). 
 
 o. 8. Bach. 
 
 ^^■^- I I ", fill , r , ■ 
 
 ta|*B^ ta^HW ta^BtaJ ^^^mmlmmJ tai^taBaUH 
 
 
 I J 
 
 
 T\r~rrrr \ 
 
 P-Vi*^- 
 
 ?u^ 
 
 X-S^'-g. 
 
 ff=tp: 
 
 t^ 
 
 iff^zpi 
 
 FT-p-rrr 
 
 I n 
 
 zJ=^^^ 
 
 
 :i^i:*i 
 
 F I ^ I r I r I P r i r 
 
 : p~-yr : 
 
 I I I I I I 
 
 I r I 
 
 I n 
 
 Ex. XI. 
 
 Cebbll. 
 
 m^m^^: 
 
 m=i 
 
 i^ 
 
 PURCELL. 
 
 Ex. XII. 
 
 BOUEBE. 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 ESE 
 
 P— •-P— ?— P-*- 
 
 t=t 
 
 ^£ 
 
 =^- 
 
 :rt=rti 
 
 
 P 
 
 i^EE-£ji 
 
 r-rr I -!=n! 
 
 -ta^MM ta^Hk 
 
 (Compare Hornpipe, under " English Dances," p. 157.) 
 BOUKEE. 
 
 Ex. XIII. 
 
 Old French. 
 
 ifi 
 
 s=± 
 
 -^= rT^~p =^-p- 
 
 -:^^SE&=^^^^= 
 
 
 'd^ 
 
 -I — I — [^1 — ^'1 — 
 
 — ^— ^ — ^- 
 
 -Niii^- 
 
 il 
 
152 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Ex. xrv. 
 
 ElGATTDON. 
 
 b8: 
 
 
 :rt=i=*: 
 
 tJr* 
 
 — —^ — I 
 
 J. Ph. Eameait. 
 
 d=t 
 
 A Hp 1 
 
 bi=ff: 
 
 ?^5=Jt*=S-=]S-: 
 
 d— "r 
 
 :^5ii^^E3EJ^ 
 
 zJ-M: 
 
 m 
 
 Ex. XV. 
 
 Bkawl (Beanle). 
 
 i-zS=i_^ 
 
 *=^ 
 
 =^: 
 
 :*rii 
 
 ■^^t^ — *- 
 
 :*:i=*:: 
 
 tirir: 
 
 =t:= 
 
 W^iWf^- ipziir Jijii^- 
 
 jzizjtf! 
 
 i*ij3^-*.-s!::*; 
 
 y-:J==M^J=1-- 
 
 
 ■' bif- 
 
 Pavanb. (L'Enteetien des Dieux.) 
 Ex. XVI. Champion de Chambonnieee. 
 ±_ -J-. r-A~r-A-n J-H H-r^- 
 
 iHe: 
 
 ^- 
 
 ie:iz 
 
 
 -23- I 
 
 S^ 
 
 lii^^ 
 
 ^E^ifts: 
 
 
 -(S>- 
 
 Ex. XVII. 
 
 Anglaisb. 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 ~:SL-'^-JL.^=f^^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 n^ 
 
 ?=^tS=^ 
 
 r*F- 
 
 bSii^ffi 
 
 
 :pi:^ 
 
 it^fiffa 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 153 
 
 Ex. XVIII. 
 
 Passacaglia (Passacaille). 
 
 Handel. 
 
 - ^^my^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 
 Ex. XIX. 
 
 Allemandb. 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 mm^^^m^. 
 
 zEiszz^j 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 F i ' 
 
 r 
 
 b- — ^ — I — I — 1-^ — I — I- 
 
 FPS- 
 
 itirjif 
 
 i^*= 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^>U 
 
 i^J^=jr*z 
 
 -■- * ^i 
 
 i - 
 
 Ex. XX. 
 
 I 
 Allemande (1.580). 
 
 Collection Philidor. 
 
 1=^^=T 
 
 t^^---^^ 
 
 :p2^ 
 
 ^^=i: 
 
 ^iH=3:s- 
 
 i 
 
 tq: 
 
 g:t: 
 
 ?=i 
 
 m—r=Ff3A — ^^«»- ^-H 
 
 -■l -^-*-l^ -r^- 
 
 j:?-- 
 
 Ex. XXI. 
 
 GiGTJE. 
 
 Handel. 
 
 S^^^^"5^^^^^^ 
 
 
 i*^~=i= 
 
154 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Ex. XXII. 
 
 LOURB. 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■M=Ji 
 
 -^-^. 
 
 m 
 
 SE^ 
 
 =^=5i 
 
 W^-r 
 
 rrj 
 
 COUPEKIN. 
 
 as 
 
 r 
 
 Ex. XXIII. 
 
 Canaries. 
 
 -^^ 
 
 ^^EgggL ^^ 
 
 Se^^ 
 
 ■^^^^ 
 
 -^^-. 
 
 % 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ■Z±L 
 
 "mL 
 
 -^^^. 
 
 1^ 
 
 FP- 
 
 Ex. XXIV. 
 
 GiGA (Italian). 
 
 CORELLI. 
 
 fi: 
 
 --^ 
 
 ^^:V&==^ 
 
 ^^ r j 1 1 - 
 
 M-- 
 
 1^:j3t 
 
 rP^ 
 
 r^^fr- 
 
 
 tt=*:S^ 
 
 i 
 
 *=3^ 
 
 ^cff 
 
 ^. I lil. 
 
 I 
 
 Ex. XXV. 
 
 Largo. 
 
 SiCILIANO. 
 
 Handel (from the Oboe Concerto in B fiat). 
 
 -T ^ 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 155 
 
 II. 
 
 MODERN AND NATIONAL DANCES. 
 
 GERMAN DANCES. 
 
 Although the Germans are certainly one of the most musical 
 nations, they cannot boast of such a variety of dances as other nations 
 (the Spaniards, for instance) possess. The chief dance of the Germans 
 is " der Walzer." This again we find in different forms in Germany 
 proper, Styria and Tyrol. The name Walzer comes from the German 
 wa/zpw, "to revolve," or more literally, "toFoU." The German, Sty- 
 rian, and Tyrolese valses are all slow and expressive of a quiet and 
 moderate enjoyment. The Styrian and Tyrolese valses sometimes 
 change the slow movement into a quicker one. The music here is 
 expressive of the dancing movement, in so far as the slower part 
 accompanies the more graceful turns of the dancing pair. The real 
 German Walzer (introduced 1787), however, does not introduce such 
 changes of movement or figures, but goes on placidly and somewhat 
 pedantically. The Styrian Walzer of Lanner (Op. 6, 11, 165, 202) are 
 models of a true characteristic expression ; and the rustic valses of 
 Beethoven, the so-called '^Deutsche" or " Ldndler" by Mozart, Bee- 
 thoven, Schubert, and the Six Valses by C. M. von Weber, convey the 
 most accurate idea of what a real German valse should be. 
 
 Old German Ringeleeigen. 
 
 Deittsohee. 
 
 MOZAKT. 
 
 ^ 
 
 A. 
 
 S 
 
 ^MM^^i^^M^M^J^^^ 
 
 fr^ fr^fT^f^/fr^frf^ f 
 
 Styrian Valse. 
 
 T— r 
 
 r 
 
 A most interesting valse (from the Upper Palatinate, Bavaria) is 
 called " Zweifacher " und " Grad und Ungrad :" — 
 Played four times. 
 
156 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 (Compare L. Kohler, " Die Tanze aller Nationen.") The modern 
 Vake, now generally called "Vienna" or " Quick Valse," is quite dif- 
 ferent from the above-mentioned kind. The old valse appears more 
 like an animated minuet, whilst the modern valse possesses fire, 
 energy, and a certain tender expression. Weber has removed the 
 monotony and Philistinism from the former dance. In his beautiful 
 " Invitation a la Valse " we find the root of all the valses which Lan- 
 ner, Strauss, Labitzky, Gungl and others wrote. A most unnatural 
 valse, a kind of anomalj', is the " Valse ^ deux temps." It is a vain 
 attempt to amalgamate the rhythm of the galop with that of the valse ; 
 but whilst the valse in three-four time is expressive of a graceful cir- 
 cular movement, the specialty of the Oulop is that of alternating 
 movement in a line with sJiurp and angular turns. The only result of 
 its introduction was to accelerate the movement of the valse in an 
 exaggerated degree and to rob it of all its natural grace. 
 
 ENGLISH DANCES. 
 
 The dances common in England in old days, such as the Brawl, the 
 Measure, the Cushion-dance, the Maypole, or Morris-dance, the Pavan, 
 the Galliard, were all foreign importations; the only real English 
 dances are, the Country-dance, the Hornpipe, and the Reel, which latter 
 belongs also to the Scotch and Irish — to the former nation especially. 
 The country-dance jconsisted of different movements, and is a kind of 
 suite. Most probably it was formerly danced at once by the whole 
 company, and its charm may have been enhanced by pantomimic 
 figures and fancy costumes. The Country-dance is said to have been 
 adopted by the French under the name of contredanse. Some writers, 
 however, assert that the name contredanse illustrates the manner in 
 which the performers danced opposite each other without taking 
 hands. The country-dance has to some extent gone out of fashion, 
 though in the rural districts it is not yet obsolete. The Hornpipe was 
 originally a Scotch dance, and takes its name from the horn or bagpipe 
 on which the tune is played. The name " hornpipe" is now generally 
 given to sailors' dances which are written in the common time, and 
 through their quaint and cheery rhythm possess a peculiar charm. 
 The Reel is a dance which is to be found in England, but which belongs 
 more particularly to Scotland, though also met with in Ireland, Sweden, 
 Norway, and Denmark. The word itself is Sn.xon, real, and means, 
 like the verb reel in English, "to stagger." The number of Scotch 
 reels is quite enormous; every clan, nay, almost every great Scottish 
 family, possesses its particular reel, as it has its coat-of-arms. The 
 monotony, harshness, and barbarous bass of the reel make it anything 
 but pleasing. There is a sort of rough and savage character in it; but 
 as the exponent of a national expression it demands attention. 
 
 English Dance (1577). 
 
 ^^ii^fe #^#^^^^pg 
 
 f^r^r r" 
 
 Country-Dance Tune (about 1300). 
 
 r 
 
 ff. f. f. y. fy. f. ff. f. f 
 
DANCE JIPSIO. 157 
 
 HOBNPIPE ("Jack at Greenwich "). C. Dibdin (1800). 
 
 NORWEGIAN AND SWEDISH DANCES. 
 
 Different collections of Scandinavian dance-tunes show that the 
 Norwegians possess three kinds of dances : first, the Spring-dance, or 
 Hopping-dance, in three-four time ; secondly, the so-called Bance-tunes 
 in two-four time; and thirdly, the Reels. In all these there is an emi- 
 nent brightness and precision of rhythmical expression. The spring- 
 dances are written either for a clarinet and bass instrument, or 
 perhaps for a bagpipe. The dance-tunes are sung by the dancers 
 themselves, and are rather slower. The reel is here, as in Sweden, 
 generally danced by the sailors. Everything that has been said about 
 Norway applies also to Sweden and Denmark. The dance melodies 
 are, however, more in use in Sweden, and the melodies of the Dale- 
 carlians — strictly, Dalarnes, which means literally iJaie-cavZes, "inhab- 
 itants of the dale or valley " — enjoy a great celebrity. The Swedish 
 dance melodies express more of a pastoral character than those of 
 the Norwegians and Danes. 
 
 Spbingdans. 
 
 Allegretto. . . =» _ 
 
 ^^mf^^ 
 
 Dance Tune. 
 
 Moderato. |^ 
 
 WALLACHIAN, MOLDAVIAN, AND ROUMANIAN DANCES. 
 
 All these are written in two-four time, and have a distinct character 
 from all other national dances. Generally, voices singing the tune 
 accompany the dance. Each profession has its own dance-tune; 
 
158 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Irhus we find a shepherd's, a soldier's, and a lover's dance. The last- 
 mentioned is known by the generic name of Sentimental dance. We 
 find in the character of the northern dances a suggestion of that 
 popular instrument the bagpipe. In the south we meetwith the violin, 
 the clarinet, the violoncello, sometimes the flute, and most particularly 
 the so-called Hackbrett, the dulcimer, or German psalterium. This 
 venerable instrument dates from the eleventh century, and is now 
 almost confined to the gipsies, or Hungarian bands. The character 
 of the Roumanian, Wallachian, and Moldavian dance music is expres- 
 sive of a tender feeling, a cheerfulness not untinged with a certain 
 melancholy, and in some parts with a martial expression. 
 
 Moderato. 
 
 Sentimental Dance. 
 
 Hi JA^ilA ^ 
 
 Moldavian Dance. 
 
 JlJJ- 
 
 ITALIAJSr DANCES. 
 
 Italy, though it has been called the cradle of music, does not possess 
 many national dances. Strictly speaking, there are only two dances 
 which are genuinely Italian, the Tarantella and the Monferina. The 
 Saltarello, which is danced in Rome, is a Spanish importation ; and 
 the Bergamasca is merely known to the inhabitants of the district of 
 Bergamo, and can therefore not be called a national, but merely a 
 provincial dance. The instruments used for playing the tunes are 
 the guitar or mandolina, the tambourine, and the castanets. Of the 
 tarantella we find a description in Goethe's " Italian Journey." He 
 says, '• The tarantella is a great favorite of the girls belonging to the 
 middle and lower classes of Naples. Three persons are required to 
 dunce it : one beats the tambourine and shakes its bells from time to 
 time in the intervals of striking the parchment ; the two others, with 
 castanets in their hands, dance the simple steps. The tarantella, like 
 almost all popular dances, does not consist of regular steps ; the girls 
 rather walk or move rhythmically, turning round, changing places, or 
 tripping about, whilst they keep opposite each other. The taran- 
 tella is merely an amusement for girls — no boy would touch a tambou> 
 rine or dance to it ; the girls, however, pass their pleasantest hours in 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 159 
 
 dancing the tarantella, and it has often served as a distraction for 
 melancholy. It is also considered an excellent remedy for the bite of 
 a peculiar spider. This insect's bite heals only through the effects of 
 exercise, -which this dance liberally furnishes; but again, the passion 
 for the dance itself is known to have grown into a sort of mania. It 
 is a general opinion that the tarantella is called after the above-named 
 spider, the tarantula ; but this opinion is false —both spider and dance 
 came from the province Tarento, and both have been named after 
 their native region. There is no real connection between the name 
 of the provincial spider and the provincial dance." Prom the best 
 examples of tarantella tunes we perceive that singing and dancing 
 proceed together; and no more beautiful and genial tarantella of its 
 kind could be named than the delightful tarantella of Eossini (" Soirees 
 musicales"). The monferina is a cheerful and lively dance-tune in 
 six-eight time. The saltarella was originally a Spanish dance. The 
 name is derived from saltare, which means " to jump." The character 
 of the saltarella is very much like that of the tarantella. Its peculiar 
 rhythm and fiery animation are very tempting to composers ; and we 
 detect its influence in the last movement of Mendelssohn's so-called 
 Italian Symphony. A certain analogy exists between the gigue and 
 the saltarella. 
 
 The monferina, belonging to the ancient Duchy of Montferrat, and 
 highly popular in the town of Monferrato (see Twelve Monferrines by 
 M. Clementi, Op. 49), is a cheerful dance of simple expression in six- 
 eight time :-^ 
 
 MONFEKRINE (No. 5). 
 
 ,_^ . ^ ^Clementi. 
 
 TO- 
 
 SPANISH DANCES. 
 
 Spanish dances are to be reckoned among the most beautiful and 
 original. The Spaniards possess all the different qualities essentially 
 necessary for excellence in dancing, especially natural grace with a 
 certain composure and dignity of deportment ; besides, the somewhat 
 indolent habits of the nation are rather more favorable to dancing 
 and amusement than to close and continued application to business 
 and work. The chief Spanish dances are the Seguidillas (sequences), 
 the Fandango, and the Bolero. 
 
 The Seguidillas might be considered as the original and model of all 
 the present Spanish national dances, and its description applies, with 
 but slight modifications only, to the not less-known fandango and 
 bolero. 
 
 The manner of dancing the seguidillas is the following: During the 
 prelude of the guitar, the dancers, mostly clad in the picturesque 
 costume of the majo and the mc0a, take their places, standing opposite 
 each other in two rows, and not farther than three or four steps ; the 
 first verse of the copla is sung whilst the dancers are standing still ; 
 the voice stops, the guitar now takes up the real dance-tune, and with 
 its fourth bar the singers join with the song of the seguidillas, accom- 
 panied by the indispensable sound of the castanets. The general 
 effect is heightened by the elegant swinging and elastic step of the 
 
o^ 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 dance, the graceful moving forward and backward, movements indi^ 
 eating the tender playfuhieSs and afl'ectionate animation of loving 
 couples. The steps themselves consist of a peculiar mixture of the 
 movements of the fandango, the jota, and the noisy taconeos. The 
 first part of the seguidillas finishes with the ninth bar; then follows a 
 short pause, filled up by soft chords on the guitar. Part the second 
 begins with the dancers changing places without touching hands. 
 With a few slight variations the figures of the first part are now 
 repeated ; and with the ninth bar of the third and last part the music 
 and the dance both stop abruptly; and it is one of the principal rules 
 of this dance that with the last note the performers rest immovably 
 in their position. The seguidillas obtained a general popularity in the 
 Spanish kingdonj. 
 
 The Fandango is on the whole more or less a modification of the 
 seguidillas, and it requires a very experienced eye to find out the few 
 instances in which a real difference shows itself. The movement of 
 the fandango is slow, and in six-eight time. It is danced by two per- 
 sons clapping the castanets. 
 
 The construction of the Bolero is very similar to that of the segui- 
 dillas, the only difference being a slower, more minuet-like step. It 
 was invented in 1780 by Don Sebastian Zerezo, one of the most famous 
 Spanish dancers. The bolero is a more dignified and quiet dance 
 than the fandango, and is performed only by two persons. Its name 
 is derived from the Spanish verb volero, " to fly," and was most prob- 
 ably given on account of some of its light, almost flying movements. 
 
 La Madrilena, "dance of Madrid," la Cachuca, Gitana, Jota Aragoneza^ 
 are dances which were introduced into ballets for demonstrating th3 
 particular artistic excellence of the famous dancers Miles. Cerrito, 
 Ellsler, Taglioni, and others. 
 
 Pomposo moderato. 
 
 Fandango. 
 
 
 nm 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 161 
 
 FRENCH DANCES. 
 
 Of all trie European nations, France bestowed the greatest care and 
 attention on the dance, considering it as a separate and important 
 branch ot art, and recognizing with liberal honors and rewards the 
 merits ot various great dancing-masters. Among the most popular 
 ot modern French dances comes first of all the Contredanse. The 
 French contredanse was introduced into France in 1710 by an English 
 dancing-master. The different melodies of the contredanse had each 
 a special name ; but as there were a great many of these tunes the 
 most favorite ones were ultimately selected, and these were then 
 united to form the Quadrille. For this reason we may compare the 
 quadrille with a sonata of five or six movements. Each of these 
 figures, called lepantalon, la poule, I'itt, la trinise or la pastourelle, and 
 le finale, has a special characteristic expression. Pantalon comes from 
 a little verse which was sung to a favorite tune of a contredanse. This 
 melody became so popular that it was introduced in every quadrille, 
 and the figure was called shortly " pantalon." The name " 6t6 " is an 
 abridgment of a celebrated contredanse, " Le pas d'^t^," introduced in 
 1800. In 1802, JuUien, a French dancing-master, introduced a contre- 
 danse in the second part of which the company supplemented the 
 tune with the imitation of the cackling of a hen. This jest became 
 popular, and its memorjr was perpetuated in the name "poule." 
 Later, the vocal accompaniment was discontinued ; but the movements 
 of the figure were retained, and with them its name. The figure " 1& 
 tr^nise " was invented in 1800 by Trenitz, an excellent Berlin dancing- 
 master. The name " pastourelle " was given to the tune in six-eigh; 
 time for its similarity to pastoral music, or the " villanelle." 
 
 During the first decade of this century the contredanses partly dis- 
 appeared from the ballrooms, and their place was filled by the lively 
 Ecossaises. The ^cossaise is a much older dance than the contredanse. 
 We perceive this from the letters of Voltaire, who praises his niece. 
 Mile. Denis, for her skillful and elegant dancing of the fcossaise. 
 Originally the 6co8saise came from Scotland, and was introduced by 
 French dancing-masters into different ballets, and afterwards adopted 
 for the ball-room. The difference between the specific French dances 
 and those of other nations is particularly that the Frenchman prefers 
 dancing opposite to his partner, a manner highly favorable for the 
 display of lively gesticulation and pantomimic action. Between 1820 
 and 1840 the German round dances, such as the Valse, the Galop, the 
 Polish Mazurek, Polonaise, and the Bohemian Polka, rivaled the French 
 Minuet and Contredanse, and were readily accepted by the majority of 
 Frenchmen. The greatest point of perfection the French dances 
 reached was in the time of Louis XIV. The Schottisch is a senseless 
 mixture of a polka and a slow valse. Les Landers is an adaptation of 
 the French quadrille called the lancers; la Redowa is the Bohemian 
 redowak ; la Polka is the Bohemian polka, called Trasdk (la Polka 
 tremblante). 
 
 BOHEMIAN DANCES. 
 
 Two Bohemian dances belong to a famous political period — namely, 
 to that of the war of the Hussites. However, only the names of these 
 two dances are still known, and live in the hearts of the people ; the 
 figures and general execution of the dances have been completely for- 
 gotten. One of these dances is called the Chodowska, and is full of a 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 warlike esrpression — at least, so far as can be judged from the style of 
 its music. The name is derived from the peasants living near to the 
 Bohemian forest, the Chodowe. The other of these two ancient polit- 
 ical dances is the Husitska, " dance of the Hussites." It belonged 
 exclusively to that sect. Another peculiar and strange custom of the 
 Bohemians was to sing sacred songs during the dance. The Skdkavd, 
 or jump-dance, was generally accompanied by a religious song, dis- 
 tinguished by a simple touching melody, later adopted by the Hunga- 
 rians. The Sousedska, very similar to the Austrian Ldndler, a rustic 
 dance, was peculiar for the dancers scarcely moving from the place 
 they took on beginning. The sousedska was not only exceedingly 
 graceful in point of the movements, but also fur its highly ingratiating 
 and pleasing music. 
 
 The world-wide renowned Polka dates from a very recent time. It 
 was about 1830 that Anna Slezak, an upper servant of a rich farmer 
 at Elbeteinitz, near Prague, invented this dance. The room in which 
 she tried her new invention being very small, the movements of her 
 feet were necessarily short, and thus the dance received the name 
 pulka, anglic6 "half." As the pulka met with an enthusiastic recep- 
 tion in Paris, it is most likely that the French, ever ready to accom- 
 modate any foreign name to their own language, changed pulka into 
 polka. The manner in which the polka is danced in Bohemia is, how- 
 ever, very different from that accepted in other countries. The Bo- 
 hemians dance the polka with retardation and acceleration of the step, 
 and try to keep strict time with the music, which has to be performed 
 in a free, tempo rubato style. 
 
 The Umrlec (Todtentanz) was, up to the last decades of the eighteenth 
 century, danced by night in the cemeteries. 
 
 The Jiejdowdk (Radowa, Eadowaczka) is identical with the old Ger- 
 man dance Eidewauz, French Rotuenge. 
 
 Moderato. 
 
 Rbjdowak. 
 
 The Bahorak or Baboraka was introduced from Bavaria, the Stajrys 
 from Styria. 
 
 RUSSIAN DANCES. 
 
 In Russia almost every district claims a special dance of its own. 
 These dances, however, contain nothing very original. The best-known 
 Russian dances are the Golubez, " dove-dance," the Rus^aka, and the 
 Cossack. The last-mentioned is performed by two persons only, who 
 approach each other and retire in turn, accompanying the figures 
 with a very lively pantomime. The dance-tune, generally in two-four 
 time and in the minor key, excels in most striking contrasts. 
 
 COSSAK. 
 
DANCE MUSIC. 
 
 163 
 
 POLISH DANCES. 
 The principal Polish dances are the Polonaise and the Masttrek (ma- 
 zure, mazurka). Owing to their agreeable and striking rhythmical 
 expression, they have been adapted by almost every composer. The 
 polonaise expresses the national spirit and character— chivalry, gran- 
 deur, and statehness; the cadence with which each part closes indi- 
 cates the deep bow of the gentleman, and the gracelul courtesy of 
 the lady. The polonaise is the court-dance por excellence; the Marche 
 aux flambeaux and the Danses de ciremonie are indeed nothing more 
 than polonaises; and their gravity and pomp, with the total absence 
 of any lively movement, are characteristic of court etiquette and the 
 reserved and official manner considered necessary at court festivals. 
 The name Mazurka is derived from Masureks, the inhabitants of the 
 district of Massovia. The mazurka (| or % time) has been ennobled, 
 nay, almost idealized, in its music by Chopin. The clinking together 
 of the spurs, a feature in this dance, comes always on the second 
 crotchet. It is the rhythmical expression that lends its great charm 
 to this national dance. The Oracoviac (I time) belongs to the district 
 of Cracow. 
 
 Polonaise. Count Oginski (1775-1833). 
 
 z f tif ^ 
 
 HUNGARIAN DANCES. 
 
 The dances of the Hungarians are of quite a special kind, and show 
 a certain similarity to those of the Cossacks. The most remarkable 
 dance of the Hungarians is undoubtedly the Csdrdds ; it begins with 
 a slow movement (Lassii) and becomes by degrees livelier and wilder 
 (Fris) but has throughout a certain chivalrous and ceremonious air. 
 We possess a very great number of Hungarian dance-tunes ; generally 
 thev are highly original, but we sometimes meet with a distant echo 
 
164 
 
 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 of Spanish music ; which may result from the fact that tlie Hungarian 
 musicians belong chiefly to the race of gipsies, many of whom are to 
 be found in Spain. 
 
 CSAEDAS. 
 Anda nte (Lassu or Lassan). 
 
 ^^ LJ^ftj ^^^ zf LT? 
 
 Presto (Fris). 
 
 fWifiJ 
 
 rru 
 
 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS. 
 
 With respect to the different character of various kinds of dance 
 music we shall find that each expresses, like all the other arts, the 
 spirit 'if the time in which it originated and was used. We find the 
 sarabandes, the minuets, the gavottes, musettes, and all the other 
 old dance movements in fashion at the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century characteristic of a measured dignity, of a certain gravity, 
 and of that most peculiar quaint humor which were the typical 
 expression of the period. In the beginning of the present century 
 we meet with an almost childlike simplicity, a certain sentiment- 
 ality, which, however, was leavened by an admixture of cheerful- 
 ness. The dance-tunes of this time are meagre, pale and colorless, 
 and devoid of striking characteristic expression. Weber at length 
 struck a new, and indeed the right chord, in his splendid " Invitation 
 alaValse;" for in Weber's beautiful valse we recognize the natural 
 expression of affection, whilst the previous dances were expressive of 
 stiff' etiquette, conventional manners, or of simplicity and quietness. 
 Another feature, and a most interesting one, is that the modern dance 
 as initiated by Weber expresses a certain melancholy feeling — and 
 this increases its popularity. 
 
 Dance music brought life, animation, and its own charm into instru- 
 mental music. As melody is the chief attribute of vocal music, and as 
 harmony is the chief ingredient, the soul of instrumental music, so 
 the pervading principle of dance music is rhythm ; and it is evident 
 that each of these three different branches of musical art gains by 
 adopting the special qualities of the others. The effect of vocal music 
 is increased by the adaptation of rich harmony. Instrumental music 
 will gain in expression and life by the cultivation of melody and 
 rhj'thm; and dance music cannot but be ennobled by adorning itself 
 with the attributes of melody and harmony. Vocal music is the 
 exponent of our direct feeling; instrumental music appeals more 
 immediately to our intellect; and dance music especially is associated 
 with cheerfulness and joy. 
 
 Literature. — Arbeau (Thoinot, pseudonym for Tehan Tabourot), "Oroh^so- 
 graphie, Traite en forme de dialogue, par leqnel toutes personnes peuveut facile- 
 ment apprendre et pratiquer I'honiiMe exercice des dances ;" Laiigres, 1588-1596 ; 
 German translation by A. Czerwinski, Danzig, 1778. Bonin, " Neue-ete Art der 
 galanten und theatralischen Tanzkunst," 1712. Meleaton, " Von der Nutzbarkeit 
 
APPENDIX. 165 
 
 4^llf ?? ' ■ ^™'"'-">'' and Leipzig, 1713. "The Dancing- Master, or Direc- 
 tions lor Dancing Country-Dances, with the Tunes to each Dance, for„the Treble 
 violin, sixteenth edition; London, 1716. Taubert, "Der rechtschaffene Tauz- 
 meister; Leipzig, 1717. Noverre (Jean-Georges', ''Lettres sur la danse et les 
 ballets ; Lyon, 1760; Vienne, 1767; Paris, 1783; Copenhagen, 1803; Paris, 1807. 
 Platter (Ihomas und Felix), "Ein Beitrag zur Sittengeschlchte des 18ten Jahr- 
 hunderts ; Basel, 1840. Waldau (Alfred), " Bohraische National Tanze ; " Prag, 
 1860. Czerwinski (Albert), " Geschiohte der Tanzliunst; " Leipzig, 1862. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MELODEAMA, MONODRAMA, DUODRAMA, 
 
 A MELODRAMA may in a general sense be defined as any play that is 
 combined with music ; in the stricter sense it is a kind of drama in 
 which the dialogue is accompanied by instrumental music. The inten- 
 tion of the music is to heighten and intensify the impression produced 
 by the spoken words, and also to give expression to those higher and 
 deeper sentiments for which the word alone is insufficient. The 
 music of the melodrama has no independent or strict forms. It is 
 entirely subordinate to the declamation. It may continue after the 
 words have ceased. It generally consists of very short phrases, some- 
 times even of only one or two sustained chords. Its great object is 
 to portray in musical notes all that the orator expresses in words. If 
 this recitation takes the form of a monologue the form of the melo- 
 drama is called monodrama ; if two persons recite so as" to lorm a 
 dialogue, it receives the name of duodrama. The invention of the 
 melodrama is generally attributed to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose 
 melodrama "Pygmalion" (written about 1770) created such a sensa- 
 tion that the well-known German actor Brandes commissioned the 
 poet Gerstenberg to write "Ariadne auf Naxos," which piece the com- 
 poser Georg Benda (1721-1795) set to music. This melodrama met 
 with such success that the poet Gotter wrote the melodrama " Medea," 
 to which Benda also supplied the music. In quick succession followed 
 the melodramas " Sophonisba," by Meissner, with music by Neefe; 
 " Lampedo," by Lichtenberg, with music by the Abb6 Vogler. Musical 
 accompaniments have been written by B. A. Weber for Schiller's 
 poem "Der Gang nach dem Eisenhammer," by Lindpaintner for 
 Schiller's " Lied von der Glocke," and by Zumsteeg for Kloi)8tock's 
 "Fruhling." The most noteworthy melodramatic applications of 
 music as an accompaniment to speech are the two monologues in 
 Mozart's opera " Zaide," Weber's Incantation Scene in " Der Frei- 
 schiitz " the same composer's opera " Preciosa," a scene in Beethoven's 
 "Fideiio" Schumann's setting of Byron's "Manfred," and parts of 
 Shakespeare's " Midsummer Night's Dream " set to music by Mendels- 
 sohn Robert Schumann wrote music for two poems, of which the 
 ballad " Der Haideknabe " is almost terrible in the tragic intensity of 
 its effect In one respect melodramatic treatment might be utilized 
 
1C6 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 for educational purposes in so far as pupils would gain freedom in 
 elocution, whilst the musical student would learn the art of accom- 
 panying in a satisfactory manner. This union of speech and music 
 is decidedly of great power, and offers a useful and agreeable amuse- 
 ment for young people. 
 
 CHAMBER-MUSIC. 
 
 According to our modern notions, chamber-music is defined as 
 music for one or more instruments. Originally chamber-music was 
 understood to be the music performed at royal courts and in the 
 palaces of the nobles of the land, in rooms to which no one had access 
 without special permission. The term was, however, also understood 
 to designate a private musical performance at a court, to which privi- 
 leged persons were invited. At first these performances were only 
 executed by solo instrumentalists. Mattheson (1681-1764) says in his 
 " Patriot," p. 64, "A stately harmony (music) may very well be executed 
 by eight persons, namely, four vocalists, two violinists, one organist 
 and one director (conductor); if the director can sing or play a part, 
 seven persons will be enough. So many parts as the composer had 
 set for the piece, so many performers were required." These older 
 performances of chamber-music were confinea (as they still are in 
 our time) to secular works, and for this reason the style of the 
 chamber-music differed alike from the sacred and from the dramatic 
 style. In former time chamber-music included also vocal works, 
 such as madrigals, cantate di camera, duetti di camera, indeed every- 
 thing that did not belong to the church or the theatre. At present 
 we apply the term chamber-music to instrumental pieces, such as 
 sonatas for one or two instruments, trios, quartets, quintets, sestuors, 
 septuors, etc., suites for the piano or violin, fantasias, toccatas, songs 
 without words, indeed everything that belongs to the domain of solo 
 performance; and we exclude from this category the concerto, over- 
 ture, and symphony, whilst in earlier times these forms, as well as the 
 concerto grosso, the cassazione, divertimento, serenade, notturno (see 
 these forms) belonged to the class of chamber-music. 
 
 Three styles of music were always recognized: (1) the Sacred style 
 or church music, (2) the Dramatic style or operatic music, and (3) the 
 style of Chamber-music. Out of chamber-music has now grown a 
 ■fourth style, namely, concert-music. The limited dimensions of the 
 rooms in which chamber-music was performed also necessitated a 
 peculiar style. Whilst the oratorio was adapted to the church or 
 large halls, and the opera to the opera-house, chamber-music was 
 originally intended for the private house, for the more limited family 
 circle. The oratorio, like the opera, depends on the full orchestra and 
 the chorus; its structure is planned on a larger, broader scale, whilst 
 the chief interest of the chamber-music is found in the refined and 
 artistic working out of the details on a regular systematic philosoph- 
 ical development of the principal subject. The oratorio depends on 
 the enthusiasm of worship or a kind of devotional attention, whilst 
 the dramatic style is founded onsubjects which arouse our psycholo- 
 gical interest: the chamber-music appeals more directly to our intel- 
 lectuality (see Quartet and Thematic work). The chamber-music 
 follows up Its work through the smallest, most delicate details. The 
 formal beauty reveals itself there in the happiest light; indeed, it is 
 rather a work of intellectuality and refinement of taste, than of spon- 
 taneous inspiration or enthusiasm; it appeals more to the intellect 
 
APPENDIX. 167 
 
 hv^wi'^^*^\r^^"^?-^^''*"''^^''-"""sic,as shown in its best examples, 
 ^^nSfl if J^o^art Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and others 
 might well be called the philosophic phase of music. 
 
 DEAWING-ROOM MUSIC. 
 There can be not the slightest doubt that this particular style has a 
 legitimate and even an important part to fulfil, and that it not only 
 presents a great charm, but constitutes a musical necessity. Music, 
 as an art, would never have reached the high degree of universal 
 popularity it has obtained, had it been confined to symphonies, orato- 
 rios, and masses alone. The popular element of an art is always a 
 very excellent agency to make the art universally beloved ; and it is 
 decidedly the drawing-room music that possesses this popular element, 
 and for this reason it has become such an indispensable adjunct to 
 our social pleasures and home enjoyment. Every other art, painting, 
 poetry, sculpture, shows the same phenomena. There is an innate desire 
 in educated persons to adorn their homes with various objects of art, 
 whether in the realm of painting or sculpture, and that music can 
 coijtribute to this feeling of home luxury almost more than any other 
 art, simply because it is the luxury most easily attainable, no one will 
 deny. The best specimens of drawing-room music rest on a lyrical 
 foundation; and like every artistic form, drawing-room music has an 
 indisputable right to respectful consideration. Its irresistible charm 
 is to be found in its clear and simple form ; in its symmetrical struc- 
 ture, in periods and groupings which may be easily understood, in the 
 short thematic figures to which the composer must strictly keep, and 
 finally, in artistic variations of a pleasing subject, which unfolds the 
 original beauty of the theme, and thus enhances our pleasure. Be- 
 sides, we find in good drawing-room pieces all possible shades of 
 feeling — sometimes simplicity, grace, melancholy, sometimes again 
 cheerfulness and mirth ; and inasmuch as a clear expression of these 
 feelings is too often not immediately recognizable in the larger 
 orchestral works, it is not astonishing, that the general public should 
 cling with such pertinacity to good drawing-room music. 
 
 DESCEIPTIVE MUSIC. 
 
 I.— TONE-PAINTING. 
 
 It is quite natural, that with the unlimited means of characteristic 
 expression possessed by musical art, the composers should have felt 
 the desire to paint, so to speak, by music. Every musical piece that 
 describes and expresses certain feelings of the soul (sometimes such 
 feelings are connected with outward circumstances or events) is in 
 itself a kind of tone-painting; but, in general, we understand, under 
 tone-painting, the endeavor to describe by music visible and tangible 
 objects, appearances of Nature, indeed, all possible outward events 
 and circumstances. All movement is easy to describe, and easiest of 
 all that which in itself possesses a sound. Lord Byron truly says :— 
 
 " There's music in all things, if man had ears. 
 Their earth is but an echo of the spheres." 
 
 " The inner life, the moods and passions of Nature express them- 
 selves forcibly in sounds. We hear this music of Nature in the uproar 
 And tumult of the elements, in the rolling and crashing of thunder, in 
 
168 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 the howling and roaring of the tempest ; we hear it in the heart-piercing 
 sounds which the storm draws from the broken rocks ; we hear it 
 through the gushing of the foam and the rolling of the mighty sea- 
 waves, in the rippling and bubbling of the stream, and of the rivulet; 
 we hear it in the entire range of the passions, half human in their 
 nature, which animate the higher brute creation ; we hear it in the 
 polyphonic warble of the birds, expressive of longing, joy, anger and 
 anxiety; we hear it in the melodious chirping of the grasshopper, 
 exhilarated by the refreshing morning dew." * All these things belong 
 to the audible ; among the inaudible but visible are, for instance, high 
 mountains, lofty towers, ruins, etc. These latter frequently ofiFered a 
 subject for musical illustration, or tone-painting. Clement Jannequin, 
 a pupil of Josquin de Pr^s, selected the noises of the Parisian market- 
 place for the subject of a vocal piece for four parts (" Les Oris de Paris"). 
 Emanuel Bach's "Battle of Hochstadt," and Beethoven's _ "Battle 
 Symphony" have been preceded by the same Jannequin's victorious 
 Battle of Marignano, of Francis I., against the Swiss. In this battle- 
 piece we hear the signals of the French cavalry, inspiriting calls o: 
 the trumpet, the thunder of the cannon, the whistling and buzzing o- 
 the balls, and at last we hear the despairing cries of the Swiss in their 
 barbarous dialect, "toute frelore la tintclore, toute frelore, bi got." 
 But as this whole battle-scene, with all its terrors and accompaniment 
 of cannon, musketry, etc., is described by human voices, and not by 
 instruments, we may easily imagine that it trenches on the domain 
 of the ludicrous. (Compare for further information the highly inte- 
 resting essay of C. F. Becker, " Tonmalerei," pp. 40-50, in his book 
 " Die Hausmuaik in Deutschland," Leipzig, 1840.) But tone-painting 
 has often been applied in the happiest and most legitimate manner; 
 to cite only a few examples, we would mention the chorus "He spake 
 the word " in Handel's " Israel in Egypt," Beethoven's Pastoral Sym- 
 phony, the aria for bass " Straight opening " in Haydns "Creation," 
 etc. These geniuses understood how to keep within the limits of the 
 artistic, and therefore their tone-painting never becomes childish or 
 insipid. In older vocal music " word-painting " was much in fashion. 
 This method aims at giving to the single word a musical description, 
 going therefore into the smallest details ; for instance, the words " he 
 descended from heaven," would be musically described by the de- 
 scending scale. Such minuteness, although it may satisfy a very 
 painstaking, conscientious composer, alfects the wnoie spirit of the 
 piece in a detrimental manner ; it may be called musical pedantry — 
 penny wisdom and pound foolishness. 
 
 II.— PROGRAMME MUSIC. 
 
 This style was formerly known under the name Symphonic, a pro- 
 gramma or pittorica. The old programme music professed to give a 
 detailed description of what the composer wishes the public to recog- 
 nize in his work. As an example we cite the programme of a Sonata 
 for Piano and Violin by Freystadtler (Vienna 1789), called " The Siege 
 of Belgrade," a Turco-historical fantasia : this sonata contains the 
 following descriptive movements: — 1. Turkish music in the camp 
 — the soldiers are in readiness — ^yelling and howling of the Turks ; 2. 
 The chaplain gives his blessing ; 3. A panic spreads before the advance 
 
 * E. Bauer's lecture on the "Nature of Music." 
 
APPENDIX. 169 
 
 v,>tnf« ^a^^^'^'^l army-the suburbs are carried by assault; 4. The 
 n Pth.?H w,>r^? ^-''^ >"«'«• The modern composers apply this 
 Hftl „?1 . ?v*-^°"'S "''° tl^ese details, and merelf point out, by the 
 „- !.?K^ . 1 . ''®y™P'^°nies or other instrumental pieces, the matter 
 or subject that suggested the creation of their works. We find, for 
 instance, the bymphonic poems of Liszt describing the following sub- 
 ]f°PT? T ^ ^^°^ entendsurlamontagne" (after Victor Hugo); 
 j. iasso, Lament and Triumph; 3. The Preludes (after Lamartine) ; 
 ?;.• P/f"®-' O; Prometheus ; 6. Mazeppa (after Victor Hugo) ; 7. Fest- 
 S*m?®^n T^^^P""^®)' ^- Heroidefun^bre; 9.Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; 
 7 ; I ?^i X ® ■^"'^^ (after Kulbach's picture); 12. The Ideals 
 
 (after bchiller). Without pronouncing any opinion as to the desira- 
 bleness of thus giving a guide to the listener, to indicate what he has 
 actually to imagine himself as hearing, we mention among the 
 universally appreciated and admired examples of programme-music 
 Mendelssohn's descriptive overtures "Hebrides," "Pair Melusina," 
 "Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage," Sterndale Bennett's overture 
 "Paradise and the Peri," his "Naiades" and the "Wood-nymph," 
 Gade's " Nachklange von Ossian," and others. 
 
 Many names have, however, been given to celebrated pieces by 
 universal consent, and without the concurrence or confirmation of 
 the composer, viz., to various symphonies of Haydn, to Mozart's Sym- 
 phony in C major, the title " Jupiter ; " to the same author's Symphony 
 in E flat, "The Song of the Swan; " to Beethoven's Sonatas, Op. 27, i., 
 "Moonlight Sonata;" to Op. 28, "Pastoral Sonata;" to Op. 31, ii., 
 " Dramatic Sonata ; " to Op. 57, the " Storm or Sonata appassionata ; " 
 to his Trio, Op. 70, i., the "Ghost Trio;" to his Quartet, Op. 74, the 
 "Harp" Quartet; to his Concerto, No. 5 (Op. 73), the "Emperor's 
 Concerto." The public sentiment is in such instances generally cor- 
 rect, and it would therefore be idle to oppose it; but if such names 
 are given by publishers, without any actual relation to the piece, and 
 merely for the sake of passing off a composition as a novelty just as 
 tailors and milliners give a " taking " title to a coat or a bonnet, the 
 practice is highly reprehensible. (See also foot-notes to Mendelssohn's 
 " Songs without words," and Robert Schumann's Fancy-pieces.) 
 
 KOBEET SCHUMANN'S FANCY-PIECES. 
 
 Schumann's works form an epoch in the annals of our piano-forte 
 literature ; and their great influence may be ascribed to their peculiar 
 intellectual richness and their romantic tendency. He understood 
 how to touch a chord which had not yet been sounded by preceding 
 composers ; he presents tone-pictures thoroughly unlike any we have 
 had oefore — it may be said that there is in each of them a poetical 
 background, which is again the expression of his own personal feeling. 
 Whilst the art of composing was regarded by the composers before 
 Joseph Haydn rather from an outward, objective point of view, the 
 individual subjective feeling was more and more allowed to penetrate 
 and suS'us'e the compositions of later_ masters. As Schumann could, 
 owing to his beginning regular musical studies much later than is 
 ordiiSirily the case, never obtain such perfect mastery over the musical 
 form as for instance his contemporary and friend Mendelssohn, it was 
 but natural that he sought to make up for this deficiency by other 
 means These means were derived from a decided intellectuality, 
 deep poetical feeling, and a meditative, contemplative disposition. 
 
170 MUSICAL FORMS. 
 
 Certain incidents of Schumann's life were presented in his works, 
 favorite friends were portrayed through musical sounds, and certain 
 melodies — like the old German Grandfather's Dance — may be traced 
 through several of his works. The limits of this book do not allow 
 of any description in extenso of Schumann's most celebrated piano- 
 forte works ; it must here suffice to call attention to the highly poetical 
 contents of some of them. We begin with his second work, called 
 " Papillons," twelve most beautiful trifles. Of these, Schumann's own 
 interpretation (see Julius Knorr, " Fiihrer auf dem Felde der Clavier- 
 unterricht's Litteratur;" Leipzig, Kahnt), p. 69, runs thus: "1. Intro- 
 ductory melody. 2. Imposing impression of the ball-room, gay flicker- 
 ing of the lights. 3. Different parties of masques walk through the 
 room, crossing each other. 4. Harlequin, who mixes freely among 
 the guests. 5. A short polonaise. 6. A scene in the refreshment 
 room; music sounding in the distance from the ball-room. 7,8. Con- 
 tinuation. 9. Owing to a pause in the music, great confusion among 
 the guests. 10. The guests rearrange themselves in order to resume 
 dancing; an affectionate dialogue in an adjoining room. 11. Grand 
 polonaise, in which the whole company joins. 12. As the end of the 
 ball approaches, the Grandfather's Dance (symbolical of Philistinism 
 and pedantry) resounds : the young people, however, wish to continue 
 their frolic, but at last become tired, and the Grandfather's Dance 
 expressive of the wish of the parents to go home, predominates. The 
 noise of the carnival night dies away. The church clock strikes 'six.' 
 Returned home at last, rest is required, although reminiscences of the 
 pleasant sounds return like an echo." (See also Schumann's letter to 
 Henriette Voigt, in Wasielewski's " Biography of Schumann," p. 340.) 
 With regard to the " Davidsbundler," Op. 6, introduced by the beau- 
 tiful motto : 
 
 At every turn we find 
 
 Pleasure and pain combined. 
 
 Enjoy with humble mind. 
 
 Endure bravely resigned. 
 
 — Schumann says, in the introduction to his " Collected Writings on 
 Music and Musicians " (Leipzig: G. Wiegand,1854): "And here mention 
 should be made of the society, which was a more than secret one, since 
 it only existed in the head of its founder— the Davidsbiindler. It 
 seemed not unsuitable, in order to express the various views of art, to 
 invent contrasted artistic characters, of which Florestan and Eusebius 
 were the most prominent, intermediate between whom Meister (Master) 
 Earo stood. This society could be traced, like a red thread, through 
 the newspaper, connecting truth and fiction in a humorous manner." 
 If the " Davidsbund " was originally founded to combat the Philistines 
 Herz, Hiinten, and their colleagues, so popular about the year 1830, 
 or to oppose the shallowness of the musical criticism of the period ; 
 yet Schumann, as a composer, retained later the form of Florestan 
 and Eusebius in many of his piano-forte works ; for like Goethe and 
 other great minds before him, he clearly recognized his dual nature, 
 ftnd separated in himself Florestan, the harsh and wild, from Euse- 
 bius, the gentle and mild. It will be seen that the single pieces are 
 signed " P," " E," or " F " and " E." (See also Wasielewski's " Biog- 
 raphy of Schumann," pp. 128, 129.) " The Carnival," Op. 9, " scfenes 
 mignonnes sur 4 notes," is actually a continuation of the Papillons ; 
 here distinct figures are introduced: Pierrot, Pantalon, Columbine, 
 
APPENDIX. 171 
 
 and Harlequin ; again, Chopin, Paganini, Chiarina (CSara) Estrella, 
 UBaroness Ji^rnestine de Pricken), and the firm Eusebius and Plorestan. 
 
 The four notes — 
 
 are identical with the German names of these notes, A, S, C, H, 
 which together form the name Asch, a small Saxon town on the frontier 
 ■? I'^u^' ^^ ■^^it'li Mademoiselle de Fricken, a friend of Schumann, 
 resided; besides a, s, c, h,were also the musical letters in Schumann's 
 own name. The celebrated " Phantasiestucke," Op. 12, with their well- 
 chosen titles : 1. Evening; 2. Soaring; 3. Why?; 4. Whims; 5. Night; 
 6. Fable; 7. Dream Visions; 8. The Climax (Ende vom Lied), are in 
 point of characteristic expression so perfect that no explanation is re- 
 quired. The "Scenes from Childhood," Op. 15, are likewise true and 
 faithful musical pictures. The " Kreisleriana," Op. 16, eight fantasias, 
 were certainly suggested by the "Kreisleriana," Fantasiestiicke in 
 Caljot's Manier, by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-1822). Hoffmann de- 
 scribes in his fragments the sufferings of the Capellmeister Kreisler (a 
 fictitious musician) : it is most probable that Schumann, in his highly 
 original and deeply-felt fantasias here portrays his own emotions. 
 The Fantasia, Op. 17, for which he chose as a motto the following 
 lines by Fr. Schlegel : — 
 
 'Mid all the chords that vibrate through 
 Earth's strangely chequered dream. 
 
 There runs a note whose gentle tone 
 
 Is heard aright by him alone 
 Who lists with care extreme. 
 
 was intended to serve by what it realized, as a contribution tow,ards 
 the fund for erecting Beethoven's monument in Bonn, and Schumann 
 desired to call it " Obolus," and to name the three different move- 
 ments "Ruins," "Triumphal Arch," and "Crown of Stars." For 
 reasons not known this plan was not carried out. The " Humoreske," 
 which Schumann himself qualifies as a little melancholy, is a kind of 
 suite, in which the dual nature of the composer is again perceptible. 
 The "Novelletten," Op. 21, might be called a continuation of the 
 " Phantasiestiicke," Op. 12, only executed with greater freedom, breadth 
 and power. The " Night Visions " (Nachtstiicke) — No. 1, mysterious; 
 No. 2, undecided and wavering in its expression ; No. 3, recalling the 
 terrors of a thunderstorm ; No. 4, an aerial procession of ghosts — ^were 
 written during a period of great mental anxiety. The " Carnival's Jest 
 from Vienna," Op. 26, is in direct connection with the Papillons and 
 the Carnival, Op. 9. Thus we see that Schumann's piano-forte compo- 
 sitions are more or less suggested by motives not at once apparent to 
 the public. To do real justice to Schumann's interesting works we 
 should remember his own words : "If heaven has bestowed on you a 
 lively imagination, you will often, in solitary hours, sit entranced at 
 the piano, longing to express in harmonies your inward fervor ; and 
 the more mystical are your feelings, while you are drawn as it were 
 into magic circles, the more obscure perhaps will the realm of harmony 
 
 ^PP®^"^" OBSOLETE FORMS. 
 
 AoatMsttts a hymn of praise in the Greek Church service; this 
 hymn was sung in honor of the holy Virgin on Saturday before the 
 
172 MUSICAI; FORMS. 
 
 fifth week of Lent ; the congregation was not allowed to be seated 
 during the ceremony. 
 
 Anacrusis, Ampeira, Dactyli, Jambiaon, Katakeleusinos and Syrringes 
 are the parts of the hymn of praise to Apollo, with which candidates 
 strove to gain the prize in the Pythian games. 
 
 Orusithyros, a song of the ancient Greeks, which was danced to the 
 accompaniment of flutes. 
 
 Bithyramhus, Dithyrambi, among the Greeks were lyrical songs in 
 honor of Bacchus, interspersed with dancing and with instrumental 
 music. Works of this character are distinguished by a wild and un- 
 restrained appearance. We have no authentic sj)ecimens of this kind 
 of poetry, but the Phrygian character prevailed in it throughout. A 
 splendid modern example is found in Schubert's setting of Schiller's 
 famous Dithyrambus "Nimmer, das glaubt mir, erscheinen die Gotter 
 nimmer allein." 
 
 Harmodion, a song which the inhabitants of Athens sung in honor 
 of Harmodius, who delivered them from the yoke of the Pisistratides. 
 
 Ithymbos, a dance song of the ancient Greeks in honor of Bacchus. 
 (Compare Dithyrambus!) 
 
 Juhs, an old Greek hymn, sung by the gleaners in honor of Ceres. 
 
 Karaklausithyron, a serenade of the ancient Greeks. 
 
 Linos-song, a plaintive song of the ancient Greeks in honor of Linos, 
 a youth of divine descent, who, whilst guarding the sheep, was torn 
 to death by wild dogs. Herodotus found the same song amongst the 
 old Egyptians, who called it Maneros, after the name of the son of an 
 Egyptian king. The ancient Greeks sung the Linos-song also during 
 the vintage (see " Iliad," xviii. 667). A similar plaintive was called 
 Jalemios. 
 
 Prosodion, (a) a song of the ancient Greeks accompanied by instru- 
 ments ; (6) religious songs, dedicated to Apollo and Diana, whiph were 
 sung as soon as the procession approached the statues of thh Above- 
 mentioned gods, also when the sacrifice was led to the altar. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acathistus, .... 
 
 . 171 
 
 Canon in diminutionem, . . -51 
 
 Accent, .... 
 
 5 
 
 " in infinitus. 
 
 
 48 
 
 " ecclesiastical . 
 
 . 16 
 
 " in the lower seventh. 
 
 
 . 49 
 
 " grammatical, . 
 
 6 
 
 " in the second, 
 
 
 49 
 
 " oratorical, 
 
 16 
 
 " in the upper third. 
 
 
 49 
 
 " transposition of the, . 
 
 . 11 
 
 " polymorphus, 
 
 
 50 
 
 Agnns Dei, .... 
 
 58 
 
 Canson redonda, . 
 
 
 91 
 
 Air, 
 
 109 
 
 Cantata, 
 
 
 82 
 
 Allemande, .... 
 
 142 
 
 Cantatina, or Cantatille, 
 
 
 83 
 
 Ambrosian hymn. 
 
 57 
 
 Canticum, 
 
 
 61 
 
 Ampeira, .... 
 
 172 
 
 Canto fermo. 
 
 
 40 
 
 Amphibrach, 
 
 20 
 
 Canzone, 
 
 
 91 
 
 Amphimaeer, 
 
 20 
 
 Canzonetta, . 
 
 
 86 
 
 Anacrusis, .... 
 
 172 
 
 Caprice, 
 
 
 136 
 
 Anapaest 
 
 21 
 
 Capriccio, 
 
 
 137 
 
 Angloise, .... 
 
 145 
 
 Carnival, 
 
 
 170 
 
 Anthem, .... 
 
 57 
 
 Carnival's Jest from Vienna 
 
 
 171 
 
 Antibacchic, .... 
 
 22 
 
 Cassaz\one, . 
 
 
 130 
 
 Antiphony, 
 
 54 
 
 Catches, 
 
 
 90 
 
 Appendix, 
 
 165 
 
 Cavata, 
 
 
 78 
 
 Aria 
 
 74 
 
 Cavatina, 
 
 
 78 
 
 " with or without doubles, 
 
 109 
 
 Cebell, .... 
 
 
 143 
 
 Arietta, 
 
 78 
 
 Chaconne, 
 
 
 145 
 
 Arioso, 
 
 78 
 
 Chamber-music, . 
 
 
 166 
 
 Ave verum corpus. 
 
 61 
 
 Chanson, 
 Chodowe, 
 
 
 87 
 162 
 
 Bacchic, 
 
 21 
 
 Chodowska, . 
 
 
 161 
 
 Ballad, 
 
 88 
 
 Choral, .... 
 
 
 65 
 
 Ballade, 
 
 88 
 
 " figured, 
 
 
 68 
 
 Ballata, 
 
 ■ 88 
 
 Chorus, 
 
 
 80 
 
 Benedictns 
 
 58 
 
 Chronological table of opera 
 
 com 
 
 
 Bergamasca, 
 
 158 
 
 posers, • . 
 Coloratura, . 
 
 
 100 
 
 Bohemian dances, 
 
 161 
 
 
 79 
 
 Bolero, 
 
 160 
 
 Concerted pieces, . 
 
 
 95 
 
 Bourree, .... 
 
 143 
 
 Concertino, . 
 
 
 134 
 
 Branle, 
 
 145 
 
 Concerto, 
 
 
 132 
 
 Brawl 
 
 145 
 
 " di camera, 
 
 
 132 
 
 Brunette, . . . ■ 
 
 88 
 
 " da chiesa, 
 
 
 70 
 
 Burletta, . . . • 
 
 92 
 
 " grosso, 
 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 Concert overture. 
 
 
 
 135 
 
 Cachuca, . . . • 
 
 160 
 
 Concertstiick, 
 
 
 
 134 
 
 Canon, . . . • • 
 
 47 
 
 Contredanse, 
 
 
 
 161 
 
 " apertus, 
 " cancrizans, 
 
 . 47 
 . 51 
 
 Convivial songs, 
 Cossak, . 
 
 
 
 89 
 162 
 
 '* clausus, . . 
 
 . 48 
 
 Counterpoint, 
 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 " duplex, . ■ 
 
 " in augmentationem, . 
 
 . 52 
 . 51 
 
 " double. 
 Country -dance, 
 
 
 
 . 42 
 . 156 
 
 " in corpo, 
 
 . 48 
 
 Couplet, 
 
 
 
 . 90 
 
 (173) 
 
174 
 
 
 INI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 EX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Courante (Corrente), , 
 
 
 143 
 
 Forms belonging to sacred and 
 
 Cracoviac, . 
 
 
 163 
 
 secular vocal music, . 71 
 
 Cretic, . 
 
 
 22 
 
 " cyclical, 
 
 . 112 
 
 Crusithyros, . 
 
 
 172 
 
 " of movements. 
 
 . 54 
 
 CsardSs, 
 
 
 163 
 
 " sacred, . 
 
 . 54 
 
 Cushion-dance, 
 
 
 156 
 
 " secular, 
 
 . 86 
 
 Cyclical forms, 
 
 
 112 
 
 " single, . 
 
 . 136 
 
 
 
 
 " with regard to the relation 
 
 Dactyl, . 
 
 . 21. 172 
 
 of separate parts of poly- 
 
 Dance movements classified with 
 
 
 phonic music, . 
 
 . 40 
 
 respect to their time and 
 
 
 French dances, 
 
 . 161 
 
 rhythmical expression, . 
 
 148 
 
 " op^ra comique, 
 
 . 97 
 
 •' music, 
 
 ^ 
 
 142 
 
 Fris 
 
 . 164 
 
 " tunes, 
 
 . 
 
 110 
 
 Fugue, .... 
 
 . 43, 108 
 
 Dances, modern and national, 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 " Bohemian, 
 " English, . 
 " French, . 
 " German, . 
 " Hungarian, 
 " Italian, . 
 " Moldavian, 
 ;; Norwegian, . 
 
 
 161 
 156 
 161 
 155 
 163 
 158 
 157 
 157 
 
 Gagliardo, Gaillarde, Galli 
 
 Gavotte, 
 
 German dances, . 
 
 Gigue 
 
 Gitana, .... 
 
 Glee 
 
 Golubez, 
 
 Gradual, . . . 
 
 ard, . 147 
 . 143 
 . 155 
 . 144 
 . 160 
 . 90 
 . 162 
 . 59 
 
 " (old), 
 
 " Polish, . . 
 
 " Eoumanian, 
 
 
 142 
 163 
 157 
 
 Grammatical accent, . 
 Ground, . . . 
 
 . . 6 
 . 109 
 
 " Russian, . 
 
 
 162 
 
 
 
 " Spanish, . 
 
 
 159 
 
 Harmodion, . 
 
 . 172 
 
 " Swedish, . 
 
 
 157 
 
 Heavy dactyls. 
 
 . 23 
 
 " Wallaohian, 
 
 
 157 
 
 " spondees, . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Danses de c^rgmonie. 
 
 
 163 
 
 Hopping dance, . 
 
 . 167 
 
 Davidsbiindler, 
 
 
 170 
 
 Hornpipe, 
 
 . 156 
 
 Descriptive music. 
 
 
 167 
 
 Humoreske, . 
 
 . 171 
 
 Dialogo (dialogue), 
 
 
 80 
 
 Humorous songs, . 
 
 . 89 
 
 Dithyramb, dithyramb! 
 
 IS, . 
 
 172 
 
 Hungarian dances. 
 
 . 163 
 
 Divertimento, 
 
 
 130 
 
 Husitska, . . . 
 
 . 162 
 
 Dramatic scene, . 
 
 
 94 
 
 Hymn, .... 
 
 . 56 
 
 Drawing-room music. 
 
 
 167 
 
 " Ambrosian, 
 
 . 57 
 
 Duet, . 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 " chamber. 
 
 
 79 
 
 Iambic, . . . 
 
 . 19 
 
 " dramatic, 
 
 
 80 
 
 Idyll 
 
 . 141 
 
 Duodrama, . 
 
 
 165 
 
 Impromptu, . . , 
 Instrumental music. 
 
 . 141 
 . 104 
 
 Ecclesiastical accent. 
 
 
 16 
 
 Intermedium, 
 
 . 99 
 
 Eclogue, 
 
 
 141 
 
 Intermezzo, . 
 
 . 99, 141 
 
 Ecossaise, 
 
 
 161 
 
 Intrade, 
 
 . 108 
 
 English dances, . 
 
 
 15.6 
 
 Intrata, 
 
 . 108 
 
 Ensemble pieces, . 
 
 
 95 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 . 108 
 
 Esquisse, 
 L'Et«, . 
 
 
 142 
 
 Introit, .... 
 
 . 59 
 
 
 161 
 
 Invention, 
 
 . 107 
 
 Etude, . 
 
 
 141 
 
 Italian dances, 
 Ithymbos, 
 
 . 158 
 . 172 
 
 Fancy pieces (Robert S 
 
 shumann's 
 
 ),169 
 
 
 
 Fandango, . 
 Fantasia, 
 Festival overture, 
 
 
 160 
 136 
 135 
 
 Jambicon, 
 
 Jota arragoneza, . . 
 
 Julos, . t . • 
 
 . . 172 
 
 . 160 
 
 . . 172 
 
 Figure, . 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 Figured choral, . 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 Finale of opera, 
 
 
 95 
 
 Karaklausithyron, 
 
 . 172 
 
 " of sonata, 
 
 
 114 
 
 Katakeleusinos, . 
 
 . 172 
 
 Form in music, . 
 
 
 5 
 
 Kreisleriana, 
 
 . 171 
 

 INDEX. 
 
 175 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lai, 
 
 Lamentations, 
 
 . 91 
 . 61 
 
 Obsolete forms of songs, 
 " forms. 
 
 91 
 
 171 
 
 Lancers, Laneiers, 
 
 . 161 
 
 Offertory, .... 
 
 60 
 
 Landler 
 
 . 162 
 
 Old dances, .... 
 
 142 
 
 Lassan, LasaH, 
 
 . 163 
 
 Opera, 
 
 " English (ballad). 
 
 . 92 
 
 Lauda Sion salvatorem. 
 
 . 61 
 
 . 98 
 
 Laudes, .... 
 
 . 62 
 
 " German (romantic). 
 
 . 98 
 
 " episcopi, .- 
 
 . 62 
 
 " French (comique), 
 
 . 97 
 
 Laudi spirituali, . 
 
 . 62 
 
 " Italian, 
 
 97 
 
 Lay, 
 
 . 91 
 
 Oratorio, .... 
 
 . 62 
 
 Leioh, . . . 
 
 . 91 
 
 Oratorical accent, 
 
 . 16 
 
 Lied, 
 
 . 86 
 
 Overture 
 
 . 134 
 
 Liederspiel, .... 
 
 . 92 
 
 " artistic, . 
 
 . 135 
 
 Liedertafeln, 
 
 . 89 
 
 " concert, . 
 
 . 135 
 
 Linos-song 
 
 . 172 
 
 " French, . 
 
 134 
 
 Love-songs, .... 
 
 . 87 
 
 " Italian, . 
 
 " opera, 
 
 " plan of older, . 
 
 135 
 135 
 
 Madrigal, .... 
 
 , 90 
 
 135 
 
 Madrilena 
 
 . 160 
 
 " programme, 
 
 . 135 
 
 Maggiolata 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 Magnificat, .... 
 
 61 
 
 Pantalon, .... 
 
 161 
 
 Maneros, .... 
 
 172 
 
 Papillons, .... 
 
 170 
 
 March, ..... 
 
 138 
 
 Partita, .... 
 
 110 
 
 " aux flambeaux, . 
 
 163 
 
 Passacaglio, Passecaille, Passa 
 
 
 " funeral, 
 
 140 
 
 gallo 
 
 146 
 
 " national. 
 
 140 
 
 Passamezzo, .... 
 
 146 
 
 " quick, . . , . 
 
 138 
 
 Passepied, .... 
 Passion-Music, 
 
 147 
 
 " religious, . 
 
 140 
 
 63 
 
 " slow 
 
 140 
 
 Pasticcio, .... 
 
 142 
 
 " triumphal or festival, 
 
 140 
 
 Pastourelle, .... 
 
 161 
 
 Mass, 
 
 58 
 
 Pastoral, .... 
 
 92 
 
 " funeral, . . . . 
 
 58 
 
 Pavan, 
 
 147 
 
 Masque, 
 
 92 
 
 Period, the, and its construction. 
 
 33 
 
 Maypole dance, . . . . 
 
 156 
 
 Phantasiestiicke, . 
 
 171 
 
 Mazurek, Mazurka, 
 
 163 
 
 Plan of Beethoven's Sonata, Op 
 
 
 Measure {daneej, . . . . 
 
 156 
 
 53. 
 
 
 Melange 
 
 142 
 
 Polish dances. 
 
 163 
 
 Melodrama, 
 
 165 
 
 Polka 
 
 162 
 
 Melody 
 
 29 
 
 Polonaise, .... 
 
 163 
 
 Metre, 
 
 18 
 
 Potpourri, .... 
 
 142 
 
 Metres, table of different, as ap- 
 
 
 Poule 
 
 161 
 
 plied in music, . . . . 
 
 18 
 
 Prelude 
 
 106 
 
 Minuet, menuet 
 
 146 
 
 Programme-music, 
 
 167 
 
 Miserere, 
 
 60 
 
 Prosodion, .... 
 
 172 
 
 Modern dances, . . . . 
 
 155 
 
 Psalmody, .... 
 
 69 
 
 Moldavian dances. 
 
 157 
 
 Psalms, .... 
 
 69 
 
 Molossus, 
 
 22 
 
 Pyrrhic, .... 
 
 20 
 
 Monferina, 
 
 158 
 
 
 
 Monodrama, 
 
 165 
 
 Quadrille, .... 
 
 161 
 
 Motet 
 
 58 
 
 Quartet, string. 
 
 130 
 
 Movements, forms of, . 
 
 54 
 
 Qnintet, , . . . 
 
 130 
 
 Musetta, 
 
 143 
 
 Qnodlibet, .... 8 
 
 4,142 
 
 Nachtstiicke, 
 
 171 
 
 Recitative, .... 
 
 71 
 
 National dances, . 
 
 155 
 
 Keel, 
 
 156 
 
 " songs. 
 
 89 
 
 Rejdowdk, .... 
 
 162 
 
 Night-visions, 
 
 171 
 
 Requiem, .... 
 
 58 
 
 Noels 
 
 88 
 
 Rhapsody, .... 
 
 141 
 
 Norwegian dances, 
 
 157 
 
 Rhythm 
 
 23 
 
 Notturno, . . • • 
 
 130 
 
 Rieercata 
 
 107 
 
 Novelletten, .... 
 
 171 
 
 Rigaudon, Rigadoon, . 
 
 147 
 
176 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PACE 
 
 Eondo, ..... 
 
 115 
 
 Sousedska 
 
 . 162 
 
 " form of, ... 
 
 115 
 
 Spanish dances, . 
 
 . 159 
 
 Boumanian dances, . 
 
 157 
 
 Spondee, 
 
 . 20 
 
 Kounds, .... 
 
 90 
 
 Springdans, . 
 
 . 157 
 
 Bussiau dances, . 
 
 162 
 
 Stabat Mater, 
 
 . 60 
 
 Bussjaka, .... 
 
 162 
 
 Stilo eoncertate, . 
 
 . 106 
 
 
 
 String quartet. 
 
 . 130 
 
 Sacred cantata. 
 
 82 
 
 Structure of the grand aria, 
 
 . 75 
 
 " forms. 
 
 54 
 
 Study, .... 
 
 . 141 
 
 Saltarello 
 
 87 
 158 
 
 Style, .... 
 Suite, .... 
 
 . 25 
 . 109 
 
 Salve regina, 
 
 61 
 
 Swedish dances, . 
 
 . 157 
 
 Sarabande, .... 
 
 144 
 
 Symphony, . 
 
 . 131 
 
 Scene, the dramatic. 
 Scherzo, .... 
 
 94 
 137 
 
 " old, 
 " modem, 
 
 . 108 
 . 131 
 
 
 161 
 
 Syrringes, 
 
 . 172 
 
 Secular forms, 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 Seguidillas, .... 
 
 159 
 
 Tarantella, . 
 
 . 158 
 
 Sentimental dance. 
 
 158 
 
 Terzett, 
 
 . 94 
 
 Serenade, .... 
 
 130 
 
 Thematic work, . 
 
 . 38 
 
 Siciliano, .... 
 
 147 
 
 Toccata, 
 
 . 107 
 
 Single forms, 
 
 136 
 
 Tone-painting, 
 
 . 167 
 
 SkSvavA, .... 
 
 162 
 
 . 161 
 
 Sketch, .... 
 
 142 
 
 Tr«nise' '. '. '. 
 
 . 161 
 
 Skizze 
 
 142 
 
 Tribrach, 
 
 . 22 
 
 Sonata, 
 
 112 
 
 Trio 
 
 . 94 
 
 " form of . . . 
 " form of finale, . 
 
 113 
 
 Triumphal march. 
 
 . 144 
 
 114 
 
 " overture. 
 
 . 135 
 
 " " first movement. 
 
 113 
 
 Trochee, 
 
 . 18 
 
 " scherzo, . 
 
 114 
 
 
 
 " " slow movement. 
 
 113 
 
 Umrlec, 
 
 . 162 
 
 " solo, .... 
 
 117 
 
 
 
 Song, 
 
 86 
 
 Variation, 
 
 . 137 
 
 Songs, convivial, . 
 
 89 
 
 Villanella, . 
 
 , . 141 
 
 
 89 
 
 Voluntary, . . 
 
 . . 107 
 
 " love 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 " national, 
 
 89 
 
 Wallachian dances, . 
 
 . . 157 
 
 " without words, , 
 
 140 
 
 Walzer, 
 
 . 155