SJ L.^ •***& \ s THE RURAL MANUALS L - H ■ BAI LEY • Editor CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY (lllllll lllill Mill Hill Hill 3 1924 in iiiii inn iiiii inn inn inn iiiii iiiii hid iiiii iiii iiii 01 429 755 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924101429755 Ube iRural /iDanuals Edited by L. H. BAILEY A MANUAL OF WEEDS TLbc IRural flDanuals Edited by L. H. BAILEY J* Manual of Gardening — Bailey Manual OF Farm Animals — Harper Farm and Garden Rule-Book — Bailey Manual of Fruit Insects — Slingerland and Crosby Manual OF Weeds — Georgia Manual OF Home-Making — In preparation Manual OF Cultivated Plants — In preparation TOOLS FOR DESTROYING WEEDS 1. Broad-bladed Hoe. 2. Warren Pattern Garden Hoe. 3. Grubbing Hoe. 4. Hake. 5. Weeding Hoe. 6, 7, 11. Hand Weeders. 8. Spading Fork. 9. Root-digger. 10. Spud. 12. Spade. 13. Weeding Harrow with shafts and teeth adjustable. 14. Cultivating Hoe. 15. Flow. 16. Cultivator, with adjustable blades ot different size. 17.WheelHoe. A MANUAL OF WEEDS WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL OF THE MOST PERNI- CIOUS AND TROUBLESOME PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, THEIR HABITS OF GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION, WITH METHODS OF CONTROL BY ADA E. GEORGIA ASSISTANT IN THE FARM COURSE, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY WITH 385 ILLUSTRATIONS BY F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS AUTHOR OP "FIELD BOOK OF AMEBIOAN WILD FLOWERS' THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1919 All rights reserved Copyright, 1914, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1914. NottoooB $««<> J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. THE REVERED MEMORY OF JOHN WALTON SPENCER MY EMPLOYER, TEACHER, AND FRIEND, TO WHOSE FIRST SUGGESTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT THE BEGINNING OF THIS BOOK IS DUE TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Preface ix What is a Weed? 1 Financial Loss due to Weeds 6 Dissemination of Weeds 9 Chemical Herbicides 13 Descriptive List and Means ok Control .... 17 Bibliography 559 List of Plants Distinctly Poisonous or Mechanically Harmful to Animal Life 563 Glossary 565 INDEX 571 PREFACE Nature is the great farmer. Continually she sows and reaps, making all the forces of the universe her tools and helpers. The sun's rays, wind, rain, frost and snow, insects and birds, animals small and great, even to the humble burrowing worms of the earth, all work mightily for her and a harvest of some kind is absolutely sure. And to the people who must wrest a living from the soil, not only for themselves but for all mankind besides, it must seem that Nature's favorites are the hardy, aggressive, and often useless and harmful plants which they have named weeds. Yet, when man interferes with the Great Mother's plans and insists that the crops shall be only such as may benefit and enrich himself, she seems to yield a willing obedience, and under his guid- ance does immensely better work than when uncontrolled. But Dame Nature is an " eye-servant" ; only by the sternest determina- tion and the most uncelaxing vigilance can her fellow-worker subdue the earth to his will and fulfill the destiny foreshadowed in that primal blessing, so sadly disguised and misnamed, when the first man was told, " Cursed is the ground for thy sake ; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life ; thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee ; and thou shalt eat of the herb of the field." A stern decree. But the civilization of the peoples of the earth is measured by the forward state of their agriculture ; and agriculture in its simplest terms is the compelling of the soil to yield only such products as shall conduce to the welfare of the people who live upon it. It resolves itself into a contest with nature as to what plants shall be permitted to grow, and the discovery of the easiest, surest, and most economical means of securing a victory in the strife. In agriculture, as in every field of labor, modern invention and discovery have greatly multiplied the power and efficiency of each pair of human hands ; but still in this contest with nature and the growing plants, it frequently happens that those hands are X PREFACE the only tools which can be used effectively — as the writer knows by many years of hard practical experience, both in garden and in field. Again, some simple expedient of little cost and easy application, may do the work of many hands and increase by many fold the soil's return for the labor. A wider acquaintance with such methods of control seems desirable and therefore the writer has endeavored to bring together, so far as could be learned, the knowledge" gained by much study and careful experiment in many different parts of the country by earnest and thought- ful workers. There is a great dearth of books on this most im- portant subject, but such as could be obtained have been diligently studied. The Bibliography on page 559 will indicate the writer's debt in this regard. Many files of agricultural periodicals have been consulted and most grateful acknowledgment is made for assistance received from the publications of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and to the Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins of the various states and of the Canadian Provinces. In nomenclature and order of classification the writer has fol- lowed Gray's New Manual of Botany, seventh edition, 1908. For plants outside of the geographic limits included in that book, Coulter and Nelson's New Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany, and W. L. Jepson's Flora of Western Middle California, have been con- sulted. For range, season of bloom and fruit, and much other very important and necessary information, most invaluable help has been obtained from the New Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, by Britton and Brown, and the revised Flora of the Southeastern United States, by Dr. J. K. Small. Statements concerning plants that are poisonous or otherwise harm- ful to health have been made on authority of publications issued by the United States Department of Agriculture. Dr. L, H. Pammel's Manual of Poisonous Plants has also been a helpful reference. Mention is made of the fact that some weeds are medicinally valu- able, and may occasionally be made to pay for the cost of their extermination. The writer's authority for prices and modes of preparation has been the interesting series of bulletins prepared by Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant, Drug-Plant Investigations, at the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington. PREFACE xi The writer desires to express most grateful acknowledgment to Professor James G. Needham for helpful suggestions as to the plan of the book and reading of the manuscript; to Professor Karl M. Wiegand for reading, criticism, and amendment of the text while in proof ; and to Miss Lela A. Gross of the Editorial De- partment of the New York State Agricultural College for reading the proof. The writer has attempted — not very.successfully — to make the terms of the descriptive text somewhat less technical and easier for the general reader to understand than that of the botanies ; but one who makes even a modest effort in that direction soon realizes the difficulties, for, after all, technical terms are exact, and no paraphrase, however carefully denned, can be made so fit. " Seeds " are often mentioned by that term, because it is the only one used by the seed merchant and the farmer, to whom, also, any capsular fruit is likely to be a "pod." Of the common names given, the writer has in every case selected for a heading the one considered to be in widest and most common use for the plant described. A few paragraphs of the introductory chapters are rearranged from some lessons about weeds which were furnished by the writer for the Leaflets of the Home Nature-Study Course, while serving as Assistant in the Bureau of Nature-Study at Cornell University. These leaflets, however, are now out of print. To make a book that would be helpful to any one who loves and grows plants, and must combat weeds in order to help them to grow, has been for many years the writer's strongest wish. In the hope that it may be one of the few wishes that " come true," this book is given to the public. ADA E. GEORGIA. Ithaca, New York, July, 1914. A MANUAL OF WEEDS WHAT IS A WEED? A weed is a plant that is growing where it is desired that some- thing else shall grow. It follows that a plant may be a weed in some places and not in others. Cockle in the wheat fields is most undesirable; New England Asters and Black-eyed Susans are detrimental when growing in the meadow ; but all are graceful and beautiful plants, and, growing in a protected flower garden, would be a feast to color-loving eyes. It is well that most pernicious plants have little beauty to make them desired in the posy beds of the farm home, for, though it is necessary to label some bad weed3 as " escapes from cultivation," they are not numerous nor among the most evil of their kind. Each weed has its own way of win/ing in its struggle with the farmer's crops and its habits must be learned in order to know how to get the better of it. This can be done only by a study of the life history of the species. According to their nature, different means of extermination must be practiced, always remembering that all living things are tender and die most easily when they are young ; and also that in every case the chief end is to prevent reproduction of kind. Weeds, like all other plants, may be classified according to the length of time they live : as annual, surviving the winter only in the seed ; as biennial, storing in fleshy root or broad green leafy rosette the food drawn from the soil and air during the first season, to per- fect the fruitage in the second year ; and as perennial, surviving through many seasons and springing up to spread abroad their kind and pester the land year after year, unless destroyed "root and branch." Purslane and the common Ragweed are good examples b l 2 A MANUAL OF WEEDS of the first class, Burdock and Wild Carrot of the second, and Fielc Sorrel and Canada Thistle of the third. Some plants that rounc their life-cycle in a year are known as "winter annuals" ; the seeds that have matured during the summer germinating in the fall, mak- ing a certain growth before the closing in of winter, and completing their development in the next summer. To this class belong the hated Penny Cress, or Frenchweed, the Corn Cockle, and the Fielc Gromwell or Wheat-thief. Obviously, the best time to compass their destruction is in the spring, before they can develop fruitin| stems. Spring plowing or harrowing is of course in order, but it is with such plants as these that the newer method of killing with s chemical spray, or herbicide, is most successful, particularly whei they appear in grain fields. The grains are resistant to injury fron the spray, for, being " center growers," they make a swift recovery from the slight harm received on outside sheath-leaves, while th< tender, outspread foliage of the weed seedlings is often totally destroyed. For biennials, also, the one sure means of destruction is preventioi of seeding. Where plowing out is impracticable, frequent cuttinj must be practiced, in the first season spudding out or cutting of the rosettes, or crown leaves, and in the second season mowinj off the flowering stems before the formation of seed. Perennial weeds are by far the hardest to fight, sometimes requir ing the cultivation of special hoed crops in order to insure thei: complete eradication. The plowing and harrowing given to ordi nary field crops often only stimulate the growth of these pernicioui plants by breaking or cutting the long-lived underground stems anc inducing them to send up new shoots. It should be remembera that their food reserves are in fleshy or woody roots, undergrouiH stems, bulbs, or tubers, and that the growth above ground neve seems to exhaust these hidden stores of nourishment. However there is a time when they are most vulnerable to attack, and it i just at that stage of growth when flowering stems are nearing ful size, but before the formation of seed. They should then be plowei down, or, if too tall for that, first mowed and then plowed undei Any and every plant, even the sturdiest tree, must die if kept de prived of leaves during the growing season ; for it is in these greei laboratories that the food gathered from soil and air is so change WHAT IS A WEED? 3 and assimilated as to become available for the making of new plant substance. Without leaf-growth the roots must die. General principles 1. Allow no weeds to ripen seeds. 2. Kill while in the seedling stage if possible, for then the weeds die most easily and in the greatest numbers. 3. Induce autumn germination of the seeds of annuals by sur- face cultivation of fields after harvest. Many weeds are thus winter-killed before seeds can be produced. Following spring cul- tivation will rid the ground of a second crop of seedlings and leave the soil comparatively free of this class of plants. 4. Never plow under weeds bearing mature seeds. Burn them. For seeds of many weeds, particularly of some of the most trouble- some annuals, have great vitality and may lie dormant in the soil for long periods, to germinate when brought to the surface by future cultivation. It is an old saying that "One year's seeding means seven years' weeding," but it may be much more than that. Mrs. Thaxter wrote that in her Island Garden she destroyed seedlings of Common Dodder every season for twenty years after the first seeding. Professor Beal's experiments demonstrated that the seeds of Charlock and Purslane will germinate after lying for thirty years in the soil, and it is said that the seeds of the Indian Mallow or Butterprint Weed have survived for more than fifty years, dormant but ready. 5. Thoroughly compost all stable manures that are known to contain the seeds of noxious weeds. Some few hard-coated seeds there may be which are able to survive the heat and ferment of the compost heap. Concerning this, the Iowa State Experiment Station, under the direction of Professor L. H. Pammel, has carried out a series of valuable experiments. Collections of various weed- seeds were made and placed in gauze bags in the heart of fermenting compost heaps for periods varying from five weeks to six months. The result proved that almost all seeds so treated were thoroughly rotted and their vitality was destroyed. The process is a costly one, in that the fermentation which kills the life-germs in the seeds also deprives the manure of some of its most useful properties, par- ticularly of nitrogen, its most valuable constituent. But to sow 4 A MANUAL OF WEEDS weed-seeds broadcast, with a fertilizer to help them to grow, is still more expensive. One advantage of feeding hay from clean mead- ows and bedding the farm animals on straw from clean grain fields, is that stable manure may then be used as fast as it is produced, without loss of much of its fertilizing power from leaching and fermentation or expense from the necessary twice handling. 6. Sow clean seed; as near to perfectly clean as it is possible to make it. A thousand Clover seeds are but a small handful and will not suffice to plant a square rod of ground. If, then, the seeds of Dodder are but one to a thousand in a field of Clover, the crop is in danger of being ruined, and the land of being infested for a num- ber of years with one of the worst of noxious weeds. Could the American farmer once be strongly convinced of the importance of this matter of sowing only the purest seed obtainable, the worst stronghold of the weed-army against which he fights would be con- quered. All purchased seeds should be accepted only on a guaranty, and even then should be examined with care. It was undoubtedly by this agency that most of the foreign weeds which harass the land were brought to our shores and it is by this means that most of our home-grown pests are carried about and introduced in sections not before troubled by them. Only the best seed is good enough to plant, and the cheapest brand in the market is by far the most costly. The expense of preparing the land for a crop is equal, but the cost of its cultivation and care is much increased and the returns are greatly lessened where any considerable proportion of the seed sown produces worthless or aggressively pernicious plants. 7. Be on the watch for weeds new to the locality, and never trust to the harmlessness of such strangers. Had a few Dakota farmers been alive to the danger when the first Russian Thistles appeared in their flax-fields, the spread of that most pernicious plant might have been prevented, to the great advantage of large areas of the country. One of the services required by the State from each staff of Experiment Station workers is the identification of weed- seeds in samples of seeds submitted and the proportion of such impurities. Unknown plants may also be sent to the Stations for name and statement of qualities, and every farmer has the right of appeal to the Agricultural Department of his State for assistance in such matters. WHA T IS A WEED ? 5 8. Call in the aid of grazing animals, particularly sheep. Turn- ing them into mutton and wool is a very profitable way of fighting weeds. In stubbles where a young and succulent growth of such plants usually springs up after harvest, and in old pastures where the more dainty neat cattle have selected the plants that they liked best and left the weeds to seed, sheep may be turned in and by their close cropping so shear down the leaf-growth as to cause many very undesirable plants to be root-smothered to death. 9. Practice rotation of crops. Continued growing of one crop not only exhausts the soil but serves to thoroughly infest it with the weeds that most commonly grow with that crop. Different plants.take food from the soil in different amounts and proportions, and a proper rotation must be decided by conditions of soil and climate. It should be a systematic alternation on each field of the three general classes of field crops : grain crops, cultivated crops, and grass crops, including the clovers. The farmer whose scheme of rotation is mainly intent on the improvement of the land and not on his immediate profit, will, in the end, make the most money and have the least difficulty in suppressing the weeds. Any rota- tion should put much stress upon a cleansing crop, requiring such close care in cultivation as to allow no opportunity for weeds to grow. This has fully as important a place in the series as the crops grown solely for their money value, or as the manurial or feeding crop which is intended to return some of the lost fertility to the soil. 10. More wide-reaching and uniform laws, dealing with the con- trol and eradication of weed plagues, should be in force. Many weeds are in the noxious class because they are so well equipped with the means of spreading their kind over large sections of the country. This quality increases the difficulty and expense of their extermination, and it should interest the entire community as well as the individual. If there are weed-laws already on the statute books, they should be made effective. If there are none, then persistent agitation for the enactment of such laws should be carried on by the persons who are most interested and who would be most benefited by their enforcement ; namely, the farmers of the com- munity. FINANCIAL LOSS DUE TO WEEDS Weeds cause a direct money loss to the farmer and to the nation. In the first place, the presence of weeds in such abundance as to attract notice, reduces the selling value of the land. A prospective purchaser who sees meadows thickly spangled with Daisies and Buttercups or looks over fields golden-yellow with Mustard, red with Sorrel, or white with the lace-like bloom of Wild Carrot, mentally subtracts the cost of cleaning the soil of these pests when estimating his offering price. And this is as it should be ; for before a profitable crop could be obtained from such ground, much careful thought and expensive labor must go to the subjugation of its enemies ; and the cost should very properly be borne by the neglect- ful husbandman who first allowed his land to be so abused. Rank growth of weeds may indicate fertihty of the soil, and often the fitness of the ground for particular crops may be judged by the kinds of weeds found growing thereon; but, nevertheless, buyers are prejudiced and would-be sellers must submit to the embarrassment of debased values when land is infested to any considerable extent by these pernicious plants. Weeds reduce the crop yield. It is thiaraop loss that is most con- sidered when estimating the damage* suffered from weeds. All living plants must have a certain amount of space for the circulation of air and moisture and to be open to the life-giving warmth and light of the sun. When crowded, even among themselves, they cannot thrive ; and if this needed space is to any extent occupied by weeds, the returns from the crop must be correspondingly less. These obnoxious neighbors also steal from the soil a large share of the food and drink belonging to the rightful tenants of the ground. The robbery of soil moisture is one of the chief forms of injury. Weeds are notoriously more resistant to drought, more rapid of growth, more sturdy of habit, and more tenacious of life than the cultivated plants that they "shade down" or "starve out." It FINANCIAL LOSS DUE TO WEEDS 7 has been estimated by the United States Department of Agricul- ture that the average yearly loss due to weeds in the crop and meadow lands of the country is about a dollar an acre. The presence of weeds not only decreases the yield, but also increases the expense of harvesting a crop. A field betangled with Bindweed or overgrown with the strong woody stems of Kinghead and Thistle enforces extra labor of draft-horses and extra wear of farm machinery, even sometimes compelling the task to be done by hand work — the most expensive form of labor in every occupation. Also, the labor and consequent cost of threshing and cleaning the seed from a weedy and inferior crop is much greater than for a heavier crop that is clean and thrifty. The market value of the crop is reduced. A report from the Grain Inspection Department of the state of Minnesota shows the average dockage on wheat for two years to be nineteen ounces to the bushel. Minnesota produces yearly more than two hundred million bushels of small grain. A dockage of but one poundT;o the bushel means a loss of over two hundred million pounds, and if the money value be calculated at no more than a cent a pound it is two million dollars yearly; and this loss is in addition to decrease of yield and increased cost of harvest. Some weeds serve as host plants for injurious fungi ; and rust, smut, and mildew may be transferred from them to the useful crops. For example, the wild Barberry harbors the wheat-rust in one of its stages, and the fungus that causes the "club-root disease" of cabbage finds a host in several weeds of the Mustard Family. Weeds serve too as nurseries and feeding grounds for injurious insects. Wild relatives of the Potato, such as Ground Cherry and Horse Nettle, have been known to harbor the Potato Stalk-borer through the winter when all the ruined stems of the cultivated crop had been carefully burned in order to hinder its appearance another season. Weedy stubbles are often a breeding ground for cut-worms, flea-beetles, and other insect plagues. Further, much serious loss is caused by a very bad class of weeds, possessed of other and much worse qualities than their mere presence where they are not wanted. Some, like the Death Camas and the Water Hemlock, or Cowbane, are poisonous, and cattle and sheep die from eating their young leaves or juicy tubers; 8 A MANUAL OF WEEDS even loss of human life is sometimes due to the deadly poison of the Hemlock, through the mistaking of its tuberous roots for harmless artichokes. In the Great Plains Region, horses and cattle are killed or made worthless by the " Loco Weeds." Some wild grasses, such as the Squirrel-tail Grass, or Wild Barley, and the Porcupine Grass, cause injury to the animals that graze on them by* the lodgment of their barbed awns in the lining of mouth, throat, and stomach, causing painful inflammation, ulceration, and death. Milk, butter, and cheese are rendered unmarketable by the taint of Wild Onion or Garlic and the bitter Mustards. Cockles "cut the grade" of the wheat and spoil the flour if ground with it. Tick- seeds and burs yearly lessen the value of the wool-clip from the farmer's flocks. Altogether, the losses sustained by the American farmer from this cause are greater than he suspects or would believe. A needless loss, too ; for there is no weed so vicious that it cannot be subdued, with profit to the owner of the soil, if its habits are well understood and sufficient determination goes to the battle. But nothing in the world is so bad as to be entirely evil. It is only fair to admit that weeds do sometimes perform useful services to the land. Their presence compels tillage, and the most profitable farming is that which keeps the ground well tilled. They form the greater part of the covering which Nature promptly spreads over soil that the shiftless cultivator has left bare and neglected, keeping it from being blown about by winds, washed away by flood or rain, or baked into a barren desert by the sun. And such a weed- blanket, if turned under the ground in preparing it for a better crop, will supply the soil with green manure or humus, which it very much needs. It is not the best type of feeding crop for the land, but it is better than none. It is well that Nature is thus able to redeem the sins of slothful and selfish men, but her processes are too slow. The world grows no larger and its population increases very fast. The surest hope of its continued comfort and prosperity lies in better husbandry. DISSEMINATION OF WEEDS Most various are the ways and most interesting are the natural mechanical appliances by which plant offspring are helped to leave the place of their birth and " strike out in the world for themselves." All seeds are great travelers ; they are carried by wind and water, by wild and domesticated animals, and by birds; they journey by highway and railroad and are parts of steamship cargoes. By far the worst culprit of all, in the distribution of seeds of the kind of plants most adverse to his prosperity, is the farmer himself. Wind-carried seeds are of many kinds. Some, like the Dandelion, Milkweeds, and Thistles, and the pernicious Orange Hawkweed, are made buoyant by a parachute of fine, downy plumes on which they are lifted and wafted away on even the gentlest breeze. In other cases, like those of Tumbling Mustard and Russian Thistle, the entire plant is broken off at its base or its shallow roots are wrenched from the soil, and it is sent rolling and tumbling along the ground, shaking out its seeds as it goes. Over the wide levels of the prairie states these weeds travel far, but they are not so much to be dreaded in the much-fenced and uneven country of the East. The encrust- ing of snow in winter makes a smooth surface over which many seeds may be blown abroad that would not otherwise be able to get far away from their parent plant. Some seeds, like the Docks, have corky, membranous wings which not only help to upbear them on the wind but also cause them to float on water. Some plants, like the Oxalis, or Ladies' Sorrel, and the Crane's-bill, are furnished with spring guns which shoot the seeds to some distance. Many very "pesky" weeds are so because their seeds are gifted by nature with such a marvelous variety of teeth, hooks, and barbs, by which they are able to catch and cling to the fur or wool of animals and to the clothing -of passers-by. Burdocks and Cockle- burs, Beggarlice, and the Pitchfork Weed, or Devil's Bootjack, are 9 10 A MANUAL OF WEEDS a few of the many that are provided with this means of helping themselves to "fresh fields and pastures new." Birds may undoubtedly be blamed for the appearance of some weeds in new locations, particularly when they are found springing up along telegraph lines or fences. But birds aid the farmer far more as weed destroyers than they do him injury as weed dis- seminators. Neglected roadsides and lanes ; old pastures where the grazing animals have persistently passed by the plants that they did not like ; stubbles where weeds have been permitted to spring up and mature seed after harvest ; borders of fields and meadows and other waste places of the land, — all are most industriously gleaned throughout the summer, autumn, and winter months by seed-eating birds. Birds have keen appetites and swift digestion. It is safe to say that each Goldfinch, Song Sparrow, or Snow Bunt- ing needs at least a quarter-ounce of food daily to sustain life ; and if the number of these feathered benefactors average no more than a dozen to the square mile, in the aggregate the amount of noxious stuff disposed of would reach many tons. The few seeds that are dropped in the culling of these bird meals or that pass uninjured through the digestive tract are of small account when compared to so great a service. The spreading of stable manure before decomposition is a very common source of weed infestation ; and the statement is here repeated that it is better to lose a large part of its fertilizing quality by composting all such material, than to ensure future loss and need- less labor by such soil contamination. One place where weeds are too frequently neglected is on land belonging to the community at large. Along roads, canals, and other public places they are allowed to bloom and mature their seeds, becoming a menace to all near-by property, because " what is everybody's business is nobody's business." The public sees the wisdom and economy of supporting Game Commissioners in every county ; and no less wise an outlay would be the appointment of County Weed Commissioners, to whom should be entrusted the supervision, not only of the public domain, but also of individual holdings which, through neglect, might become a menace to the community. The most ignorant and careless cultivator of the land is often the most easy to offend, and complaint and correction, as DISSEMINATION OF WEEDS 11 well as instruction in better methods, would be more cordially received from such an accredited officer than from aggrieved neigh- bors. But the most prolific source of weed infestation in all parts of the country is in the sale and exchange of commercial seeds and foodstuffs. It is well known that the introduction and subsequent spread in this country of some of its most aggressive and unmanage- able land-plagues, as the Orange Hawkweed, the Russian Thistle, and the Penny-cress, or Frenchweed, are due to this agency. In many parts of the country the business is carried on unchecked by inspection or restriction of any kind, and in communities possessed of laws for such regulation these are often inoperative through negligence. This is a state of affairs that works great injustice to both the merchant and the farmer. Itinerant presses are hauled about the country, putting hay and straw into bales convenient for transportation. When shipped away for sale, a hay-bale may contain a large percentage of Ox-eye Daisy, Yarrow, Ragweed, or Wild Carrot, rendering it unpalatable and innutritious to stock and a lasting damage to the fields where the refuse is spread ; yet it may bring nearly as good a price as another bale of clean Timothy or Blue Grass. Were the "pressmen" obliged by law to tag every bale according to its quality, growers would be made more heedful of their own shortcomings, and salesmen would be less blamed for a matter over which they have little control. On both sides of the steel track, long green trails, composed largely of pernicious kinds of growth, have been drawn over the country by the railways, for which they have been called to account and obliged to spend enormous sums yearly in keeping their rights-of- way in order. The cost of weed removal along the railways of the one state of Ohio is placed by Stair at over a half -million of dollars per annum. Yet it is to be remembered that the railways are merely carriers, probably preferring to haul good, rather than bad, merchandise, and having nothing to do with the composition of the cargoes that have leaked and spilled so much vexation to the cultivators along their routes. The farmer who blames the rail- way for a new pest in his fields may have shipped some that are just as troublesome to other localities. Many American farmers are very unwise and shortsighted in the 12 A MANUAL OF WEEDS matter of sowing impure seed. The labor and care required to remove all seeds of an undesirable kind, differing as they do in size, form, and weight, makes both "grain-seed" and "grass-seed" of first quality very expensive ; but in the end it is the cheapest of all, and no other should be sown. Its extra cost is never so great as to overbalance the loss from weed-starved crops, requiring extra labor to harvest, to say nothing of infesting the land itself with some long-lived nuisance which it may take years to destroy. If ever a man may be characterized as "penny-wise and pound-foolish" it is the farmer who, from ill-advised motives of present economy, would so wrong his own property and endanger all neighboring possessions. CHEMICAL HERBICIDES This is comparatively a new way of fighting weeds and further experiment is needed for discovery of all its merits. Professor Henry L. Bolley, Botanist at the State Experiment Station of North Dakota, states that "the preliminary field trials at this Station in 1896, were, perhaps, the first experiments of the kind conducted in any country." Soon afterward the discovery was made in France by M. Aime Girard that Copper sulfate would kill Wild Mustard if applied when the foliage was tender. Since then, in many parts of this country and Canada and in European coun- tries, experimenters have been at work, trying the effects on various plants of different chemicals, seeking to find the reason why the treatment succeeds in some cases and not in others, and to learn how it can be most economically and effectively used. Such experiment has proved the worth of the following chemicals as weed-killers, or herbicides : Common salt (Sodium chloride). This is the cheapest, handiest, and safest of herbicides, but not the most useful ; for, when applied in sufficiently large amounts to kill a pernicious plant such as the Orange Hawkweed, it may also kill other plant-life and so permeate the soil as to check all agricultural growth for a season. Its de- structiveness lies in its power to absorb the moisture in the soil and from the plant tissues, so that they die of thirst ; therefore, if it is to be effectual, it should be applied in hot, dry weather. Small areas of Quack Grass and Canada Thistle may sometimes be entirely destroyed by salting freely and then allowing cattle and sheep to bite down the salted herbage, repeating the operation as often as new shoots appear. In places where it is needful to expel all plant growth, salt may be used in the form of hot brine, the solution being so strong as to show forming crystals on its surface. Copperas, or Green vitriol (Iron sulfate). This chemical, being a by-product of the iron and steel industry, is comparatively cheap, 13 14 A MANUAL OF WEEDS costing only about a cent a pound. As an herbicide it should be used as a spray, in a solution of about a hundred pounds to a barrel of water (52 gallons), which should be a sufficient amount to spread over about an acre of herbage. .A dust spray of this chemical has also been used, but is effective only when the plants are wet with dew. Iron sulfate is particularly useful as a grain-field herbicide, applied in dry, clear weather, when there is no likelihood that rain will wash off the plants before the chemical has done its work. Grains and grasses are very resistant to injury from the spray, partly, no doubt, because their growth is from the center and they quickly recover from such slight harm as may have been done to the outer leaves ; also, they are smoother in texture than many of the grain-field pests, such as Com Cockle, Charlock, and King- head, so that the spray does not cling so readily to their slender, blade-like leaves. The spray must be applied before the grain begins to "head" or the weeds to bloom, at a time when both are making the most rapid growth, for then the grain recovers so swiftly as scarcely to receive any check in its growth, and the weeds succumb most readily when they are most green and succulent. In the pea-field also this spray may be used to kill weeds without serious injury to the crop, but not with beans. Clover and alfalfa leaves are blackened, but recover rapidly if the solution has not been too strong. When successfully carried out, this method of cleaning a field of its undesirable plants pays the farmer very well ; for returns from crops that have been relieved from competition with weeds for food and moisture and space to grow, are often half as large again as those from similar fields untreated, and are greatly improved in quality as well as in quantity. Bluestone, or blue vitriol {Copper sulfate). This well-known fungicide is also a most effective herbicide, if used when the weed foliage is young and tender. The formula for the solution is eight to twelve pounds of Copper sulfate to a barrel of water (52 gallons), using fifty to seventy-five gallons per acre. Professor Bolley found twelve pounds of Copper sulfate to be as effective as one hundred pounds of Iron sulfate. Like that chemical, it should be used in clear weather, when the plants are not likely to be rain-washed for at least twenty-four hours, as such a bath would render the work of CHEMICAL HERBICIDES 15 no effect and require that it be done over again. It is necessary that sprays shall be fine, like a fog or a mist, in order to be effectual ; for drops only roll off the leaves as rain would do, and small drops merely make large ones. Carbolic acid {Phenol). This can be used only on small areas because of its cost. The crude acid may be used in full strength to saturate the soil about the perennial roots of such plants as Milk- weed and Canada Thistle. It does not corrode metals and can be used with any sort of can or pump. When diluted with water it needs to be constantly shaken in order to make a good mixture. It is quick in action, but not lasting. The treated plants, if deeply rooted, often recover and send up new shoots. Caustic soda {Sodium hydrate, or Sodium hydroxide). To be used where one does not mind killing out all plant growth for a season. Better than Carbolic acid for killing Poison Ivy, Spread- ing Dogbane, or any other woody and deep-rooted plants. Apply in strong solution, preferably in hot, dry weather, and, when the noxious growth is killed, water the bare spots frequently so as to assist the chemical to leach away. Oil of vitriol {Sulfuric acid). This can be handled only in glass vessels. It is not used as a spray, but is applied directly to indi- vidual plants that are particularly hardy and pernicious. Very great care is necessary in its use, as it destroys everything that it touches; if accidentally spilled it may make painful "burns" on the flesh or eat holes in clothing. It is not recommended, as other chemicals are very nearly as effective and are very much less dangerous to handle. Corrosive sublimate {Bichloride of mercury). Make a solution in proportions of one ounce of the drug to six gallons of water. Though fatal to the weeds, this, too, is not to be' recommended for any general use because of its extremely poisonous nature. Its cost is also much greater than less dangerous chemicals. Kerosene. Crude petroleum. Either of these will kill plants, and the former is usually always at hand in the farm household. They have the merit of being safe to handle, but are relatively more costly than other herbicides. The saturated soil remains sterile longer than with applications of caustic soda or carbolic acid. Arsenite of soda. This is a very active poison, and extreme care 16 A MANUAL OF WEEDS must be exercised in its use. Do not inhale the powdered drug when making the solution, or the spray as it is delivered ; keep to the windward side while working with it. The formula for the solution is one pound of the drug in three to nine gallons of water. White arsenic is cheaper than Arsenite of soda, but needs to be combined with twice its weight of Sal soda in order to be readily soluble in water ; the formula being, one pound .of White arsenic, two pounds of Sal soda, three to nine gallons of water. These arsenical compounds are the chief ingredients of all commercial weed-killers, and are used on walks, roadways, tennis courts, and* all places, where the complete and lasting extirpation of all plant growth is required. DESCRIPTIVE LIST AND MEANS OF CONTROL COMMON BRAKE, OR BRACKEN Ptiris aquilina, L. Other English names : Eagle Fern, Upland Fern, Turkey-foot Brake. Native. Perennial. Propagates by spores and by rootstocks. Season of leaf-production : Early spring until autumn frosts. - Fruiting fronds : Ripe in August. Range: Throughout the world. In this country most troublesome on the Pacific Coast. Habitat : Upland fields and pastures, open woods, and thickets. Every one knows the Bracken under some name, for it is the most widely distributed of all the ferns and its distinctive, very large dull green, three- parted fronds are like no other. Most members of the Pern Family demand shade and mois- ture, but this one is not so par- ticular. It varies much in size. In the Eastern States it is usually one to three feet tall, but on the Pacific Coast it grows six to eight feet, and on the moors and mountains of Scotland the horns of the "stately stag" are barely to be seen above it. (Fig- 1-) Its creeping rootstock is black, somewhat less than a half-inch in diameter, often twenty feet or more long, and penetrates the soil deeply. All o " Fig. 1. — Common Brake or Bracken (Pteris aquilina). X J. One branch of three-parted frond. 18 POLYPODIAGEAE (FERN FAMILY) summer it continues to send up the green, three-parted fronds, each segment of which is in turn twice divided. The uncurled crosiers are gray and softly woolly, and when unrolling they resemble the claw of a large bird, which accounts for its name of Turkey-foot Brake. When ripe the fruiting fronds have a continuous edging of brown sporangia which at first are covered by the reflexed margin of the leaf, but later, as the spores mature,, this is pushed away. Bracken is one of the few ferns for which man has found practical uses. The uncurled crosiers are edible as "greens" cooked like asparagus ; the young rootstocks are also used for food and in brew- ing root beer ; the mature fronds are cut and dried to use as bedding for stock ; and in Europe the plant is still often used in thatching roofs. Means of control '" In June and in August, as well doth appeere, Is best to mowe Brakes of all times of the Yeere," said Thomas Tusser in "Five Hundred Pointes of Good Husban- drie," written in 1557. And the advice still holds good, especially for grasslands and for steep hillsides where tillage is not desirable. Bracken is quite intolerant of lime in the soil, and in such places a liberal dressing of lime, applied just after cutting the fern, is a check to its growth and also an encouragement to that of the grass and clover. But plowing and manuring are the surest means of suppressing the weed, for it resents cultivation. Indeed, hardy as it is, transplanting is quite difficult except when very young. The deep-running rootstocks may not all be destroyed the first year, but two or three seasons of such good tillage as to suppress all leaf growth should entirely kill the weed. SENSITIVE FERN Onoclha sensibilis, L. Other English names: Meadow Brake, Polypod Brake. Native. Perennial. Propagates by spores and by rootstocks. Season of leaf-production : April till first autumn frost. Fruiting fronds : Appear in June and July, but do not release spores until the following spring. POLYPODIACEAE {FERN FAMILY) 19 Range: Eastern North America from Newfoundland to Florida and westward to the Mississippi River and in some states west. Habitat: Moist soil ; wet meadows, pastures, fields, and woods. Ferns are usually associated with woodlands and thickets, and, though this one may be found in such places, it is equally well suited when growing in open ground, provided the soil is not dry. The plant frequents the society of the Field Horsetail and has a bad name with horsemen and sheep-keepers because of such com- pany. But those who have carefully investigated the matter say that the fern is not poisonous, the less noticeable Horsetail being responsible for the mischief gener- ally attributed to it. (Fig. 2). The plant springs from a creep- ing rootstock which is about a third of an inch in thickness and grows not far below the surface, branch- ing often and producing new fronds all summer until checked by frost, to which it is very sensitive. It is a rather coarse-looking plant, six inches to three feet high, the whole frond nearly triangular in outline but divided into oblong, lance- shaped, coarsely scalloped segments at the end of a (long stipe, or stalk. The leaf is light green and withers quickly when plucked. The fruit- ing fronds are much shorter than the sterile ones; they are twice pinnate, but the segments, or pin- nules, are at first so tightly rolled as to completely hide the sporangia and look like rows of green berries at- tached to the midrib ; later they turn from green to brown, and remain stiffly standing all winter, after the green sterile fronds are withered and gone. Indeed, the fruiting fronds of two or three successive Fig. 2. Sensitive Fern {Onoclea X*. 20 EQUISETAOEAE {.HORSETAIL FAMILY) seasons may sometimes be found on one plant ; but broken and empty, for the spores are cast and germinate in the spring. Means of control Drainage of the ground. The presence of the weed is indicative of unwholesome soil conditions. After drainage, one or two sea- sons of thorough cultivation will destroy the rather shallow-growing rootstocks and cause the plant to disappear. Distribution of the spores may be prevented by cutting the fronds in the first season, when they are immature. FIELD HORSETAIL EquisUum arvense, L. Other English names : Meadow Pine, Green Foxtail Rush, Pinetop, Pine Grass, Snake Grass. Native. Perennial. Propagates by spores and by rootstocks bearing small tubers. Spore-bearing stems appear : April to May. Sterile stems produced: All summer. Range: American continent from- Greenland to Alaska, southward to Virginia and California. Habitat : Damp grasslands, moist road embankments. In early spring one may note large colonies of the fertile stems of these plants, mere cylindrical, light brown, leafless stalks, four to eight inches high, jointed, hollow, and tipped with yellowish, club-shaped, spore-bearing heads. Each joint is ridged and grooved and edged with a brown sheath, notched with eight to a dozen teeth. The joints readily pull apart. These early, fertile plants scatter their Fig. 3. -Field Horsetail (Uoui- s P or . es to the winds and wither and • setum arvense). x I. die in a few weeks. But later, from GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 21 the same perennial, creeping, jointed, and branching rootstocks, spring the green, plume-like, sterile stems known as Horse- tails (Fig. 3). These are eight inches to more than a foot tall, also hollow and jointed, but having whorls of simple rough branches issuing from the base of each sheath ; the branches are usually four-angled, but sometimes have only three sides, and are jointed but not hollow. These green Horsetails are the food-as- similating, starch-making parts of the plant and keep busy all summer, storing the creeping rootstocks with nutriment for the next year's fruiting stems. The Horsetail is poisonous — most dangerously, sometimes fatally, so to horses, and in a much less degree to sheep, causing in the flocks merely a thin, unthrifty appearance and lack of good condition. Strangely enough, neat cattle seem to be able to digest the weed without injury. The state of Vermont, where horse- raising is so great an industry, credits to this plant a loss of some thousands of dollars annually. Means of control Drain, fertilize, and cultivate the ground. The plant thrives best in sandy or gravelly soil that is moist during the early part of the season, or where the soil water approaches near the surface. Drainage, and two or three seasons of good, thorough tillage, will drive it out ; for, though the rootstocks are deeper in the ground than ordinary cultivation penetrates, yet they will starve and die if kept deprived of the green, food-assimilating, sterile stems. Plants of waste places should receive attention, to the destruction of both fertile and sterile shoots, as the wind-carried spores may start new infestations. VIRGINIA BEARD-GRASS Andropbgon virginicus, L. Other English names : Broom Sedge. Sedge-grass. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time: Late August to October. Range: Massachusetts to Illinois and southward to Florida and Texas. Most abundant and troublesome in the South. Habitat : Meadows, pastures ; grain, corn, and cotton fields. 22 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) Broom Sedge is a southern weedy grass which is extending its range northward, It grows in thick tufts, the stems attaining a height of three to five feet, very light green when young and turn- ing to a brownish yellow as they ripen, at all times very conspicuous among other grasses. Stems slender, flattened at the base, and sparingly branched above. Sheaths smooth except for a slight hairiness at the edge ; leaves six inches to a foot long and less than a quarter-inch wide, with rough edges and upper surface somewhat hairy near the base. The flowering spikes are usually in pairs, sometimes in threes, about an inch long, protruding from smooth spathes which are longer ; they are slender and flexuous, the joints and pedicels covered with long, silky hairs. Seeds light yellow, about an eighth of an inch long, oat-like in form, with a tuft of fine hair at the base, and at the tip an awn nearly half an inch in length. These hairy attachments help the seeds to be widely sown by the winds. Means of control In newly infested ground it will pay to grub Out the tufts when they are first observed, their light color noticeably contrasting with other grasses. In any case they should be cut while in early bloom, or even before flowering in order to make certain that no seeds may be developed. But if seeds have ripened and fallen, burn over the ground so as to destroy such as are on its surface, and put the field under cultivation in order to kill the roots, following the cultivated crop with clover. In localities where this weed is most aggressive, short rotations, with very thorough tillage, are necessary in order to prevent it from possessing the land. JOHNSON-GRASS Sdrghum halep6nse, Pers. (Andropdgon halepensis, Brot.) Other English names: Means-grass, Syrian-grass, Aleppo-grass, False Guinea-grass, Egyptian-grass, Morocco Millet, Arabian Millet, Evergreen Millet. Introduced. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by rootstocks. Time of bloom : Early June to July. GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 23 Seed-time : July to August to September ; when cut for hay crop, both blooming and seeding time may be retarded. Range: Southern part of United States to latitude of Tennessee, westward to California, and along Pacific Coast to Oregon and Washington. Habitat: Fields, meadows, waste places. About 1830 there came to Governor Means, of South Carolina, a message from the Sultan of Turkey, requesting that an instructor in the art of raising cotton be sent to the Ottoman Empire. Two or three years later, when the instructor returned, he brought with him the seeds of a number of plants that seemed to him to be of economic value, and among them was this grass. An Alabama planter, Colonel William Johnson, while on a visit to South Caro- lina, became interested in the new plant, obtained a quantity of seed, and raised it extensively on his plantation in the fertile bottom lands of the Alabama River. Since then it has spread over about half of the United States, and but for the fact that it is a tropical plant, likely to be winterkilled where the ground freezes to any depth, it might have possessed the land to a much greater extent. And, once established, it is almost impossible to control it because of its deep-running, branching rootstocks. Added to the difficulty of control is the fact that, like all the Sorghums, the plant occasion- ally develops a poisonous quality, due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid. Complaints of the deaths of cattle and horses from this cause come mostly from the Pacific Coast, where the growth of the grass . on irrigated ground is especially rank. In India, where the plant is much used as fodder for cattle, it has been noted that deaths frequently occur when, because of the failure of rain, plants that have reached a good size become wilted. When a rainfall comes, the poisonous principle disappears ; just what condition develops it is not known. Culms large and stout, about a half -inch thick at base, and ordi- narily five or six feet tall but may reach a height of eight or nine feet ; pith filled with sugary juice. Sheaths smooth ; leaves a foot or more long, about an inch wide, smooth, and flat. Panicles very large and loose, the branches whorled and spreading, naked at base ; spikelets in groups of three, the central one sessile and fertile, some- times bearing an awn, usually bent, the glume purplish, covered 24 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) with fine appressed hair; the two lateral spikelets have pedicels and are staminate or empty. So rapid a grower is the grass that two, three, even four, heavy crops of hay may be harvested yearly, if cut before it blooms ; the hay is much relished by all kinds of stock and is very fattening ; even the rootstocks are tender and sweet, and hogs eat them eagerly ; were it not so ag- gressive it would be a most valued plant (Fig. 4.) Means of control With a view toward finding some means of eradication, J. S. Cates, of the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington, was employed by the Government to make a special study of the plant, and the results of his experiments and conclusions are embodied in Farmers' Bulletin 279 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. He states that the rootstocks are of three kinds, which he classifies as primary, secondary, and tertiary. "Primary rootstocks embrace all the rootstocks alive in the ground at the begin- ning of the growing season in the spring. "Secondary rootstocks are those which arise from the primaries, come to the sur- face and there form crowns, thus producing new plants. "A tertiary rootstock is one starting later in the season, about flowering time, from the base of the crown of this new plant. "These tertiary rootstocks, when the ground is soft, and especially when a large top is allowed to develop, grow to a large diameter and penetrate to a great depth, sometimes as much as four feet and normally from fifteen to thirty inches ; at other times, when the soil is compact, and especially when the plant above ground is not allowed to develop by reason of mowing or grazing, or both, the tertiary rootstocks grow to but small diameter and run along just under the surface, cropping out at intervals to form new plants. Our observations indicate that Fig. 4. — Johnson-grass (Sorghum hcUepense). X i- GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 25 the primary rootstooks (i.e., those that were in the ground at the begin- ning of the growing season in spring) all decay in the fall, after the growing season is over. Their strength has been taken up in the formation of secondary rootstooks and above-ground growth. In other words, the old rootstooks do not live over a second winter. Only the new ones (secondaries and tertiaries) do this. Under our classification, secondary and tertiary rootstooks become primary rootstooks at the beginning of the next season after their formation, and they, in their turn, send out secondary growth to reach the sur- face ; the plant formed at the surface then sends out from the base of its crown, about the time it blossoms, the large, deep-burrowing tertiary rootstooks which, in the soft land of the cultivated cotton and corn fields, cause so much mischief the following year. The longer the plants are allowed to stand after blossoming, the larger and deeper these tertiary stems become." Acting on this study of the rootstock habits of Johnson-grass, Mr. Cates advises the turning of infested land into meadow or pasture and keeping it so persistently mown or grazed as to allow it no opportunity for bloom ; then the tertiary growth of rootstocks will be small and near the surface, enabling the farmer to clean out the grass the next year by a little extra care in plowing and cul- tivating. As a soiling crop the grass may be cut every month from May until November, and this will leave little energy to be given to the formation of the deeper rootstocks. Professor Killebrew, of the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, says that the way to keep the grass in subjection is to plow the land and allow hogs to pasture on the juicy rootstocks, which they like better than artichokes. Rotation with winter grains, such as oats, barley, or rye, is practiced in many sections, wheat being too late in maturing. The ground is plowed in late summer and as many of the rootstocks are harrowed out as possible ; then the grain is sown in early fall and harvested in the spring, before blooming time for the grass, after which three crops of Johnson- grass hay may be cut during the summer. Professor Spillman, Agrostologist of the Bureau of Plant Indus- try, believes the best plan to be the sowing of infested land with alfalfa, after harrowing out as many of the rootstocks as possible, early in the fall, in order to allow the alfalfa to get a good start be- fore winter. The next season cut promptly, whenever the grass is tall enough to make a fair crop of hay. This treatment encourages the clover and discourages the grass, which will finally be crowded 26 GR AMINE AE (GRASS FAMILY) out. Professor Spillman succeeded in cleansing a plot of Johnson- grass in one year, without loss of the use of the ground, by a sys- tem of fall plowing, with a turning plow capable of turning every inch of the sod, harrowing thoroughly for the purpose of loosening the soil, and then removing the rootstocks with an implement called a root-digger, or grass-hoe. This method is discussed in detail in Bulletin 72 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. CRAB-GRASS Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop. (Syntherisma sanguinalis, Nash.) Other English names : Finger Grass, Polish Mil- let, Purple or Large Crab-grass. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds and by rooting at the lower joints. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time: August to October. Range: Throughout the world. Habitat : Cultivated ground, waste places. The seeds of this grass must be very long- lived, for, though it is never sown, let the ground be cultivated, and as a general thing Crab-grass will be there. In the Southern States this is regarded as a good thing, for the spon- taneous growth of the grass in grain fields after harvest often yields a heavy crop of nutritious hay and good pasturage after that. It is in gardens, lawns, and cultivated ground that the plant makes itself a plague, particularly in a moist season. (Fig. 5.) Culms one to four feet long, decumbent or creeping at base, and putting forth roots wher- ever the joints are in touch with moist soil. Sheaths and basal part of the blades rough and more or less hairy, the blades three to six inches long and a quarter to a half -inch wide. Spikes er^\D%itariaT^ usuall y three to six in number but occasionally guinalis). x i. as many as ten, two to five inches long, gener- ORAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 27 ally purplish or reddish brown, arranged in a whorl at the end of the stalk like the fingers of a hand. Spikelets in pairs, one sessile, the other having a minute pedicel. The seeds are very nutritious, and in Germany and Poland they are used for a table viand, cooked in milk, like sago. Means of control Nothing but careful hand labor will clean Crab-grass out of a garden or cultivated field ; and it needs to be cast into a fire or a compost heap, for an uprooted stem left on the ground promptly takes root again. In lawns the grass must be hand-pulled, for pieces scattered by lawn-mowers are likely to take root and in- crease the pest. But if the plant is not allowed to develop seed, two or three seasons of careful weeding should clean it from the soil. SMALL OR SMOOTH CRAB-GRASS Digit&ria humifiisa, Pers. (Syntherisma linearis, Nash.) Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to September. Seed-time: August to October. Range: Nova Scotia to South Dakota, southward to Florida and Louisiana. Habitat : Lawns, pastures, and waste places. Culms six to eighteen inches long, smooth, slender, usually decumbent at base, much branched and spreading. Leaves one to three inches long, very narrow and pointed. Spikes two to four inches long, two to six in number, digitate at the end of the stalk or one or two near the summit, very slender, one-sided. Spikelets usually in pairs, one sessile or nearly so, the other short-pediceled. The whole plant of a reddish color ; less troublesome than the preceding species for it does not root at the joints. Means of control Cutting so persistently as to prevent seed production. Top- dressing and enriching the ground will enable the better grasses and clovers to crowd out the annual weed. 28 QRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) OLD WITCH GRASS Pdnicum capiUare, L. Other English names: Tumbleweed Grass, Tickle Grass, Witch's Hair. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to September. Seed-time: Late August to November. Range : Nova Scotia to British Columbia, southward to Florida and Mexico. Habitat : Sandy soil ; fields and waste places. Culms stout, erect, or with decum- bent base, branched and spreading, one to two feet in height. Sheaths very hairy, the blades somewhat less so, the latter a quarter-inch to nearly an inch wide and six inches to a foot long. Panicles very large and spreading, the terminal one often more than a foot long, the branch- lets hair-like, the spikelets very small, containing one tiny, shining grayish brown seed. When mature, the branches become very stiff and brittle and the large panicles break away and are driven before the winds for long distances, often piling in thick windrows against fences. In these journeys the seed- bearing, hair-like but brittle branch- lets are broken from the stalks and the ground over which the tumblers roll is well seeded. In good sod the seed seldom " catches," but on stubbles and cultivated ground the plant is a troublesome weed. (Fig. 6.) Fig. 6. — Old Witch Grass (Par^ icwm capillare). X J. Means of control Prevent seed production by mowing, hoe-cutting or hand-pulling while in bloom or before. GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 29 SPROUTING PANIC-GRASS Pdnicum dichotomiflbrum, Miehx. (Pdnicum prollferum, Lam.) Other English names : Sprouting Crab-grass, Knee-grass, Spreading Panicum. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time : Late August to No- vember. Range : Maine to Nebraska, south- ward to Florida and Texas. Habitat: Moist, rich soil; fields and waste places. A large, coarse grass, the culms stout, flattened, succulent, at first erect, two to three feet high, later becoming decumbent and genicu- late, the stalks lengthening, some- times to six feet, branching, and sending up flowering stalks at all the upper joints. Sheaths loose, smooth, flattened, the ligule a ring of hairs; blades six to eighteen inches long, a quarter-inch to an inch wide, rough on the edges and the central nerve. Panicles large, spreading, six inches to more than a foot in length, the spikelets crowded, brown or purplish, the seeds resembling those of Old Witch but larger. Cattle and horses are fond of the succulent, sweetish stems when young, but it soon becomes hard and innutri- tious, and nearly worthless as dry forage. (Fig. 7.) Fig. 7. — Sprouting Panic-grass (.Panicum dickotomiflonun). X £. Means of control Close cutting before seed development. 30 GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) SWITCH-GRASS Pdnicum virgdium, L. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by rootstoeks. Time of bloom : August to September. Seed-time : September to October. Range : Maine to Manitoba, southward to Florida and Mexico. Habitat : Sandy soil ; prairies, in the interior ; salt marshes along the coast ; banks of streams, low meadows. In many places where the soil may be in danger of washing, the strong, creeping rootstoeks of this grass make it valuable as a binder, and its hard, thickly tufted stalks serve as a check to drifting sands in the marshes along the coast. But as forage it is practically worthless, except when very young, and it is an undesirable occu- pant of meadows and pastures. Culms three to five feet tall, smooth, often glaucous. Sheaths smooth ; blades a foot or more long, about a half -inch wide, smooth, flat, slightly rough on the margins. Panicles very large, erect, six to twenty inches long, spreading, pyramidal, purple when in bloom. Spikelets one-seeded, ovate, pointed, about a sixth of an inch long, very numerous. Means of control Where practicable the rootstoeks may be destroyed most readily by cultivation of the ground for one or two seasons. Early and frequent cutting is necessary in order to secure the forage while in good condition and to prevent the development of seed ; at the same time such treatment will starve the rootstoeks. BARNYARD GRASS Echindchloa crus-gdlli, Beauv. (Pdnicum crus-gdlli, L.) Other English names: Cockspur Grass, Cocksfoot Panioum. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time : August to October. Range: All cultivated regions of the world. Habitat: Moist, rich soil; gardens, fields, and waste places. GR AMINE AE (GRASS FAMILY) 31 The Indians of Arizona and Southern California use the seed of this grass for food ; cattle are very fond of it when green and suc- culent ; and in some parts of the country, particularly in the flooded river-bottom lands of the Southwest, it yields heavy vol- unteer crops of hay. But generally it is considered a weed. Its seed is nearly always found with that of other grasses and of clover. (Fig. 8.) Culms stout, smooth, two to five feet tall. Sheaths compressed, smooth ; blades six inches to nearly two feet long, a half- inch to an inch wide, smooth, with a strong central nerve and margins some- what rough. Panicle large, four inches to a foot or more long, variable, composed of numerous sessile branches, erect or spreading, or the lower ones reflexed. Spikelets one-seeded, nearly sessile, ovate, in three or four irregular, densely crowded rows on one side of the rachis, varying in color from deep purple to pale green, some- times long-awned, but often without awns, the glumes unequal, sharp-pointed, and bristly-hairy. Seeds about an eighth f ig . g. — Barnyard of an inch long, pointed ovoid, plump. grass (Echinochloa crus- galli). X \. Means of control Cutting so frequently that no seed can mature. In cultivated ground the weed is easily kept in subjection by hoe-cutting while small. YELLOW FOXTAIL GRASS Set&ria glaiica, Beauv. Other English names: Pigeon Grass, Pussy Grass, Summer Grass, Wild Millet. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to September. Seed-lime: August to October. 32 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) All cultivated regions of the world. Habitat: All soils; invades any crop. The seeds of this weed are among the most frequent impurities of other grass seeds and of clover and grain. It was probably in such company that it came to us from Europe, with the early set- tlers. Once in the soil, it retains its vitality for years, springing up whenever brought near enough to surface warmth and light. Cattle will eat it when young but it soon becomes woody and worthless. Birds and poultry, especially turkeys, are very fond of the seeds, which they strip from the stalks. (Fig. 9.) Culms branching from the base, growing from fibrous and clustered roots, usually one to four feet tall — though when started late, and pressed for time, Foxtail matures seed when no more than three inches high ; stalks compressed at the base, sometimes decumbent. Sheaths loose, compressed, the lower ones often tinged with red; blades three to six inches long, nearly a half-inch wide, flat, smooth, and hanging with a twist. Spikes two to four inches long, the spikelets closely crowded, one- seeded, subtended by an involucral cluster of six to ten upwardly barbed, brownish yellow bristles much longer than the spikelets. Seeds with palea and finely wrinkled lemma both adherent, yellowish :•,.; Yeiiov. F„ 4 !> rown > lon B ovoi ^ about a tenth of an (Setaria glauca). X i. inch in length. Means of control In grain fields, stubbles should be given surface cultivation; or, if the soil is dry enough, burning over will destroy the seeds that have fallen on the ground. In cultivated crops tillage should be continued very late, in order to prevent the development and dis- GRAMINEAB {GRASS FAMILY) 33 tribution of seed from tardily grown plants. Sheep may be turned in to graze down the aftermath of infested meadows. BRISTLY FOXTAIL Setaria verticilldta, Beauv. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to September. Seed-time : August to October. Range: Nova Scotia to Ontario, and eastern part of United States to New Jersey and Kentucky. Habitat: Fields, gardens, and waste places. Growing in tufts from fibrous roots like the preceding species, but lower and more spreading, the culms ten inches to two feet tall, usually de- cumbent at base, more or less branched. Leaves two to eight inches long, from a quarter-inch to a half-inch wide, rough on the upper surface. Spikes two to four inches long, the involucral bristles at the base of the one-seeded spikelets being in pairs, stout, and downwardly barbed, standing out almost at right angles to the spike. These downward barbs cause the seeds to adhere to the wool of sheep, which the seeds of other Foxtails do not do. Like the preceding species, this weed is controlled by preventing seed pro- duction. GREEN FOXTAIL Setaria viridis, Beauv. Other English name: Bottle Grass. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time: August to October. Range : Throughout North America ex- cept the far North. Fig. 10. — Green Foxtail HabUat: All soils; invades all crops. {Setaria viridis). X }. 34 GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILt) Culms one to three feet tall, erect, usually simple but sometime branched, growing in tufts. Sheaths smooth ; blades three to tei inches long, one-fourth to one-half inch wide, rough on the margins dark green. Spikes two to four inches in length, rather thick, th< involucral bristles subtending the spikelets being nearly a half-incl long, two to six for each flower, green or sometimes yellowish barbed upward. Seed similar to that of Yellow Foxtail but slightlj smaller, very common in clover seed. Also it seems a worse pest ii lawns and gardens than either of its relatives. (Fig. 10.) Means of control Hoe-cutting or hand-pulling while the tufts are small, in lawns and gar- dens ; surface cultivation or burning over of stubbles after harvest; pre- vention of seeding in all ways possible, SAND-BUR C&nchrus tribuloides, L. Other English names : Hedgehog Grass, Bur Grass, Cockspur Bur, Sandspur, Bear Grass. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: June to August. Seed-time: July to September. , Range: Maine and Ontario to the Dakotas, southward to Florida, Texas, and Southern California; most troublesome in the South. Habitat : Sandy soil ; shores and waste Fig. 11. — Sand-bur (Cenchrus tribuloides). X \. Usually this grass may be found growing near any place where wool has been stored and cleaned. The burs are said to be more difficult to remove from the fleeces than any others, and a tribulation they must be to the poor beasts in whose hides they rankle. QBAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 35 Culms ten inches to two feet in length, with many branches, the longer ones spreading and decumbent for part of their length, the shorter ones erect. Sheaths very loose, slightly flattened, smooth but with hairy margins, the ligule conspicuously fringed; blades two to five inches long, smooth, usually flat but sometimes involute. Racemes bearing eight to twenty clusters of two to six flowers, the clusters subtended by ovoid or globular involucres which later enclose the seeds, forming hairy burs about a quarter-inch in diam- eter, thickly set with stiff, sharp, finely barbed prickles, which are strong enough to penetrate shoe leather. (Fig. 11.) Means of control Small areas about sheep-washing places should be hoe-cut, hand- pulled, or burned over before the burs ripen. A sandy pasture or meadow infested with the weed should be burned over, culti- vated, and fertilized before reseeding to better growths. As a waste-land weed, a whole neighborhood should be interested in its extirpation because of its habit of making any passing animal or person its carrier to a new field. RICE CUT-GRASS Leersia oryzoldes, Sw. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by rootstocks. Time of bloom: August to September. Seed-time : September to October. Range: Newfoundland to western Ontario, . southward to Florida and Texas. Habitat: Swamps, and along streams and ditches. A bothersome weed in open ditches, which are frequently clogged by the dense, tangled masses of its interlacing rootstocks. Culms two to [four feet long, rather stout, decumbent at base, much branched. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, very rough; blades three to ten inches long, one-fourth to nearly one-half inch wide, very rough, the edges capable of cutting like a knife when drawn through the fingers. Panicle loosely branched, lax and bending, five to eight inches long, the one-seeded spikelets ar- ranged in single rows on the branchlets and overlapping one an- 36 GBAMINEAE (.GRASS FAMILT) other; they have no glumes and the lemma is boat-shaped, sharply keeled, awnless, hard, and bristly, folded over the palea, by strong marginal nerves. (Fig. 12.) Means of control Ditches infested with this weed have to be dug out, and the task should be done before any seed has matured to float downstream in the hairy, boat-like husks. Fio. 12. - Rice Cut-grass (Leersia ory- zoides). X i- Fig. 13. — Canary-grass (PAo laris canariensis) . x i. GRAM WE AE (GRASS FAMILY) 37 CANARY-GRASS Phdlaris canari6nsis, L. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to August. Seed-time : August to September. Range : Nova Scotia to Ontario, southward to Virginia. Habitat: Gardens, roadsides, waste places. First grown in this country as food for caged birds and for making a flour which is used as sizing in cotton manufacture (weaver's glue), this grass has been spread rather extensively through the accidental mixture of its seeds with better grasses ; it is worthless as hay or green forage. (Fig. 13.) Culms one to three feet tall, erect, usually simple but sometimes branched, smooth. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, rough, loose, the ligules rounded and about one line long; blades three inches to a foot long, nearly a half-inch wide, flat, very rough. Spike a short, dense head, about an inch long and nearly half as thick, the flattened, one-flowered spikelets crowded and overlap- ping ; glumes ovate, keeled, white with green veins. Seeds oblong, smooth, shining, well known as the familiar bird food. Means of control Prevent seed production, and the weed must disappear as soon as all dormant seeds have been stirred to germination and destroyed. VANILLA-GRASS Hierdchloe odorata, Wahlenb. (Savastana odorata, Scribn.) Other English names : Sweet-grass, Holy-grass, Seneca-grass, Sweet Quack-grass. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by rootstocks. Time of bloom : April to May. Seed-time : Beginning of June. Range: Newfoundland to Alaska, southward to Pennsylvania and the shores of the Great Lakes, Colorado, and Oregon. Also native to northern Europe and Asia. Habitat : Prairies ; moist meadows. 38 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) The name of "Quack" or "Sweet Quack," which western farmers have given this grass is confusing, for the true Quack- grass flowers in June and its matted "couch" of rootstocks is near the surface, while Vanilla-grass flowers in early spring and its rootstocks are deep in the soil. The whole plant has an odor much resembling the Vanilla bean, most lasting if plucked while the plant is in flower. In north- ern Europe it is strewn before churches, the trampling feet of the congregation causing it to yield its fragrance, and this custom has given it the name of Holy-grass. The Indians of the Northwest make baskets and mats of it ; the perfume has a tendency to produce sleep, and pillows are stuffed with it ; but as hay or forage it has no value. Culms one to two feet in height, very slen- der, erect, simple, smooth. Leaves of the flower- ing stalks very short, lance-shaped, smooth or only slightly roughened; but after seeding the rootstocks send up many barren stalks with long, flat, rough, and deep green leaves whose task is to assimilate and store food for next season's early bloom. The panicles show when the stalks are but a few inches above the ground and grow with them, unfolding very suddenly; they are pyramidal, two to four inches long, the branchlets spreading and drooping when green but stiffening and becoming erect and wiry as the seeds ripen, the glumes turning golden brown tinged with purple. Spikelets one-seeded. (Fig. 14.) Means of control Summer fallowing, with very deep plowing, which will expose and wither the rootstocks. The ripened grass should first be mowed and burned so as to avoid plowing under the long-lived seeds. Or deep plowing in spring when the grass is in flower, and immedi- ately seeding the ground heavily with some grass of quick growth. Fig. 14. — Va- nilla-grass (Hiero- chloe odorata) . X i GRAMINBAE (GRASS FAMILY) 39 Shallow plowing or surface cultivation merely stimulates the growth of the grass. PORCUPINE-GRASS Stlpa spdrtea, Trin. Other English names: Weather Grass, Needle Grass, Auger-seed Grass. In South. Dakota it is called Wild Oats. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : June to July. Seed-time : July to August. Range: Prairies of the Middle Western States from Ohio to the Rocky Mountains, north to Manitoba, British Columbia, and the Saskatchewan region. Habitat: Dry soil; wild meadows and pastures. A large, stout grass, growing in tufts from a matted cluster of fibrous roots. Culms two to four feet tall, simple, erect, smooth. Sheaths long, mostly overlapping, slightly rough; basal blades about half as long as the culm, involute, and tapering to a thread-like point ; stem leaves six inches to a foot long, hardly more than a sixth of an inch wide, gener- ally flat but sometimes involute, with long, attenuate points. Pani- cles long and slim, with erect branches, the base at first often enclosed by the sheath but later much exserted. Spikelets one-seeded, the glumes smooth, very narrow and bristle-pointed, exceeding an inch in length; the lemma tightly enfolding the seed, hard, stiff, brown, its lower part clothed with short rigid hairs and having a sharp- pointed beak or callus, and at the tip an awn, sometimes six inches FlQ 15 _ p orcup i ne _g raas (stipa long, rough, stiff, strongly twisted sparted). x $. 40 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) for half its length, usually with a double bend beyond the straight spiral. (Fig. 15.) This spiral awn relaxes when damp and tightens again when dry, enabling the seed to bore its way into the soil with the sharp beak at its base; but if caught in the wool of a sheep it bores just as readily into the flesh of the animal, the stiff hairs near the base of the seed holding it in place while the awn twists and untwists through days of torment, making sores which injure the quality of the wool and some- times endanger the creature's life. Hay containing the awns is worse than worthless, for, when eaten by horses, cattle, or sheep, the broken bits 'lodge in the intestines, causing inflammation so serious as sometimes to end in death. Means of control Mowing so frequently or grazing so closely as entirely to prevent the formation of seed. If the grass is very abundant, the land should be broken up and put to a soiling crop before reseeding. WESTERN STIPA Stlpa comata, Trin. & Rupr. Other English names: Needle-grass, Needle-and-thread. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seed. Time of bloom : June to July. Seed-time : July to August. Range : Plains of the Missouri River, the Rocky Mountain foothills of Northwest Canada, and in New Mexico and California. Habitat : Dry soil ; wild meadows and pastures. A close relative of the preceding species but not quite so vicious. Both these grasses make excellent forage when young, and good hay when cut before seed development ; but there are grasses, as good as these or better, that do not carry such offensive weapons. Culms erect, smooth, simple, one to two feet tall, growing in thick tufts or mats. Sheaths overlapping, mostly crowded at the base, the upper ones long and loose and often enclosing the lower part of the panicle ; basal blades about half as long as the culm, involute, with very long, thread-like tip ; stem leaves three to six inches long, broader than the basal ones, involute. Panicle erect, six to ten inches long, somewhat loose and spreading; spikelets GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 41 one-seeded, the glumes exceedingly narrow and tipped with long bristles, the lemma with an acute callus ; awn four to eight inches long, rough-hairy and twisted in the lower part, extremely slendef, flexible, and thread-like ; not harmful when caught in the coats of animals but very objectionable in hay. Means of control the same as for the preceding species. POVERTY-GRASS Aristida dichdtoma, Michx. Other English name: Three-awned Wire-grass. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : August to October. Seed-time: September to November. Range: Maine to Ontario, southward to Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and Florida. Habitat: Dry upland meadows, pas- tures, and waste places. Sterile, sandy, or gravelly soils seem to be preferred by this wiry grass. Stems tufted, six inches to two feet tall, erect, very slender, and usually forking at every joint. Sheaths short, loose, and smooth, with hairy ligules ; the blades are one to three inches long, scarcely a tenth of an inch wide, with rough surface and edges involute. Panicles very slender, two to five inches long, the lateral ones often en- closed in the sheaths ; spikelets hardly a quarter-inch long, the glumes sharp- pointed, not quite equal; the lemma hard, convolute, closely enfolding the seed with the palea, and terminated with three awns, of which the lateral ones are short but the central one is about as long as the lemma and is held horizontally with a twist at the base. (Fig. 16.) Fig. 16. — • Poverty-; tida dichotoma). (Arts- Xi. 42 GSAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) Means of control Cultivate and enrich the soil by furnishing it with humus to enable it to retain moisture, thus putting it in condition to support grasses or other plants of better quality. Fig. 17. — Few- flowered Aristida (Aristida oliganthd). Xi. FEW-FLOWERED ARISTIDA Aristida oligdntha, Michx. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to October. Seed-time: August. to November. Range : New Jersey to Nebraska, southward to Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Habitat: Dry grasslands, waste places. A worthless, wiry grass, similar to the pre- ceding, and, like it, partial to sterile soil. Stems tufted, very slender, erect, branched at base, and forked at every joint. Sheaths long and loose, smooth but with minutely hairy ligules, the blades smooth, two to six inches long, hardly an eighth of an inch wide, involute, and extended to a very long, sharp point. Panicle very narrow, and flexuous, bearing only a few, sometimes but two or three spreading spikelets, with the triple awns divergent but ascending, and usually all about equal in length or the central one somewhat exceeding the other two. (Fig. 17.) Means of control the same as for Poverty- grass. SAND-GRASS Aristida fasciculata, Michx. Other English name : Three-awned Needle-grass. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : August to October. Seed-time: September to November. Range: Kansas to California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Habitat : Dry, sterile fields, pastures, and waste places. GR AMINE AE (GRASS FAMILY) 43 In the hot, arid regions of the Southwest, which are its home, the Sand-grass is not called a weed, for its thin, wiry stems afford some grazing where otherwise there might be none; but when it appears in soils where better forage can be made to flourish, it should be crowded out. Its seeds are often an impurity of western grass seed. It grows in tufts, from tufted roots, the stems six to eighteen inches tall, many-branched. Leaves three to six inches long, but hardly more than an eighth of an inch wide, pointed and involute. Panicle slender, four to eight inches long, its short, erect branches in fascicles of two to four ; the slim spikelets have the glumes one- nerved, the first only about half as long as the second, the lemma keeled and hairy, its three awns divergent, the central one extended much beyond the other two. Means of control the same as for the two preceding grasses. MEXICAN DROP-SEED Muhlenbergia mexicana, Trin. Other English names: Meadow Muhlenbergia, Wood-grass, Knot- root Grass. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by creeping root- stocks. V Time of bloom : August to September. Seed-time : September to October. Range : New Brunswick and Ontario to the Dakotas and southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Habitat : Low ground meadows and pastures, woodlands, and banks of streams. When growing along the sides of swiftly flowing streams, the strong, creeping, knotted, and scaly rootstocks of this grass are often of much service in binding the soil and preserving it from washing, but it is otherwise of very little value. If cut or grazed while very young, it makes good hay and forage; but it soon becomes hard, wiry, and innutritious, and cattle will not eat it. Stems smooth, two to three feet high, often branching at the base, usually decumbent and taking root at the lower joints. Leaves four to six inches long, less than a quarter-inch wide, rough to the touch ; on the branches they are much smaller and more 44 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) crowded. Flowering panicles terminal on the culms and the many branches, two to six inches long, very slender and compact and usually partly enclosed in the upper sheaths. Means of control In fields and meadows, drainage and thorough cultivation of the ground are necessary in order to displace this grass. Fig. 18. — Nimble Will (Muhlenbergia Schreberi). X i. NIMBLE WILL, DROP-SEED GRASS Muhlenbergia Schreberi, J. F. Gmel. (Muhlenbergia diffusa, Schreber.) Other English name: Wire-grass. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by rooting at the joints. Time of bloom : August to September. Seed-time : September to October. Range : From Maine to - Minnesota and south- ward to Kansas, Texas, and Florida. Habitat: Lawns, pastures, and meadows. A low, slender, branching, almost creeping grass which grows on dry hills and in woods and shady places about dwellings. When young it is much liked by all kinds of stock, but it soon becomes so dry and wiry that no animal will eat it, and its tough, fibrous, inter- lacing roots make a sod which is very difficult to break up. Stems ten inches to two feet long, some- what flattened, usually prostrate at the base and often rooting at the lower joints, erecting the flowering stalks. Sheaths loose and smooth, the leaves two to four inches long but hardly more than an eighth of an inch wide and rough to the touch. Panicle very slen- der, two to six inches long, weak and bend- ing ; glumes of the spikelet very minute, the lower one often lacking ; the lemma is rough, strongly nerved, tipped with an awn, and ORAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 45 closely enfolds the seed until ripe, when it drops to the ground entire. (Fig. 18.) Means of control Where the ground can be cultivated without danger of loss from washing, the sod should be broken up and put to a tilled crop before reseeding with clover or grasses of a better quality. MARSH FOXTAIL Alopecilrus geniculatus, L. Other English names: Bent Foxtail, Water Foxtail, False Timothy. Introduced. Perennial. Propagates by seeds and by taking root at the lower joints. Time of bloom : June to August. Seed-time : July to September. Range: Newfoundland to British Columbia, southward throughout the United States ; also in Europe and Asia. Habitat: Moist meadows, banks of streams, and ditches ; often trouble- some in damp cultivated ground. A slender, low-growing grass, with the habit of forming "knees" and rooting at the lower joints ; it is said to be nutritious grazing when young and tender, but yields a very small amount of hay to the acre, and the hay is of poor, harsh quality. Culms eight to eighteen inches tall, smooth, simple or sparingly branched, erect above the decumbent base. Sheaths shorter than the in- ternodes, the upper one usually in- flated; leaves rough, two to six inches long and hardly an eighth of an inch wide. Spikes dense, cylin- drical, one to three inches long and Fig. 19. — Marsh Foxtail (Alo- pecurus geniculatus). X \. 46 QRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) about a third of an inch in diameter; spikelets one-flowered flattened, the glumes equal, united at base, obtuse, with hairj keels; the lemma much shorter, obtuse, and smooth, the awr attached slightly below the middle and bent, the portion exsertec being usually twice as long as the glumes. (Fig. 19.) Means of control Drain the ground and follow with a season of intensive cultiva tion and fertilization before reseeding heavily to better and mucl more profitable grasses, such as red-top anc timothy. SHEATHED RUSH-GRASS Spordbolus vaginifibrus, Wood Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to August. Seed-time: August to September. Range : Maine to South Dakota, southward to Florida and Texas. Habitat : Dry, sterile fields ; waste places. A thin, dry, and worthless grass whicl should not be tolerated where anything better can be made to grow. Culms tufted, fifteen to twenty inches tall, slender, smooth, divergent, or sometimes erect Sheaths about half as long as the internodes, loose and inflated; leaves short, less than an eighth of an inch wide, smooth beneath rough at base above, involute toward the point, Panicles very numerous, included anc partly concealed in all the upper sheaths, the terminal one only being usually exserted one to two inches long; spikelets thin, the glumes unequal, long-pointed, smooth, the lower one shorter ; lemma rough and hairy Rush-grass (Sporobolus f nd exce eded m length by the palea whicl vaginiflorua). x i. is very sharp-pointed. The seed is freeb Fig. 20. — Sheathed GRAMINEAB (GRASS FAMILY) 47 self-sown as it ripens, the spikelets dropping entire from the axis. (Fig. 20.) Means of control Cultivate and fertilize the ground, furnishing humus in order to enable it to retain moisture and support forage of a profitable quality. SMALL RUSH-GRASS Spordbolus neglictus, Nash. Native. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to August. Seed-time: August to September. Range : New Brunswick to the Dakotas, southward to Virginia and Texas. Habitat : Sterile and sandy fields ; waste places. Similar to the preceding species, but even smaller and more worthless. Culms tufted, six inches to a foot in height, usually decumbent to the first joint and then erect, smooth, often much branched. Sheaths much inflated, rather more than half the length of the internodes ; leaves only about one line wide, smooth below, rough at base above, with very attenuate point. Panicles very slender and almost completely enclosed and hidden in the sheaths, even the terminal one partly so. Spikelet about a tenth of an inch long, the glumes, lemma, and palea all nearly equal, smooth, acute, thin in texture, white and shining; sowing itself when ripe by dropping entire to the ground. Means of control the same as for the preceding plant. SMUT-GRASS Spordbolus Indicus, R. Br. Other English names: Indian Rush Grass, Indian Drop-seed. Introduced. Perennial. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : July to September. Seed-time : August to October. Range : Virginia to Arkansas, southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Habitat: Fields, meadows, and waste places. This grass came from the tropics and is common in all the warmer regions of the world. It is good forage only when very young, the 48 GR AMINE AE (GRASS FAMILY) stems soon becoming very hard and the slender panicles ofter overgrown with a black fungus, whence the common name. Cattl* will not touch it when other food can be found. Culms thickly tufted, strong and wiry, two to four feet tall, erect, smooth, simple or occasionally branched. Sheaths bul little shorter than the internodes, the ligule a ring of fine, shorl hairs; leaves six inches to a foot long but less than a quarter- inch wide, smooth and flat. Panicle much elongated, slim, spike- like, often half the entire height of the plant. Spikelets about a tenth of an inch long, densely crowded on the erect branchlets of the panicle ; they are smooth, shining, the glumes obtuse, very unequal, the lower one shorter and only about half the length of the third scale or lemma, which is acute and exceeds the obtuse palea. Means of control Put the land under thorough cultivation for a season in order tc destroy the perennial roots before reseeding heavily with grass oi clover of good quality. WILD OATS Avbna fdtua, L. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: June to July. Seed-time : July to August. Range: All parts of the country, but most abundant and trouble- some in the grain-growing sections of the Canadian provinces and in the United States from Minnesota to Oregon and California. Habitat : All soils ; fields of cereal grains, flax, and the large-seeded grasses. Sowing Wild Oats is proverbially a bad thing to do, but the wide distribution of this weed is almost entirely due to the practice oi allowing it to enter the soil with its betters. Once there, it is nol an easy task to get it out again. It has a number of bad traits which render it particularly obnoxious in grain fields : it thrives best under the field conditions best suited to the growth of cereals : its seeds ripen irregularly, but usually before those of the graii with which it grows, and drop easily from the stalk as soon as ripe : the seeds have long vitality, and one fouling of the ground will las! for several seasons. The plant adapts itself to the widest differ- GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 49 ences of soil and climate, from Dakota flax fields to southern Cali- fornia wheat fields. The stiff and twisted awns are frequently injurious to animals that eat them, causing serious irritation in mouth, nostrils, and digestive tract ; also, the hard skins and thick hulls of the seeds sometimes permit of their passing unharmed through the intestines to be sown with the droppings. (Fig. 21.) Wild Oats look much like the culti- vated grain, the culms growing in tufts, two to four feet tall, with long, smooth, green leaves about a half -inch wide, and loose, open seed-panicles six to ten inches long, the spikelets pendulous, the glumes nearly equal, slightly ridged; smooth and pointed. But the lemmas or hulls that enclose the seed are, in the cultivated plant, smooth and thin ; those of the Wild Oat are larger, much thicker, covered with stiff, brown hairs, and have a ring of rigid, brown hairs at base; they bear a stiff awn about an inch long, which is both twisted and bent; the awns of the cultivated oat are much shorter and not so stiff. These crooked and bristly awns are able to cling to the wool of sheep and to the insides of grain-sacks, which helps the seeds to find new homes ; when dampened they relax, and twist again Fiq 2 i. -Wild Oats (4» when dry, so boring easily into the soil. fatua). x i. Wild Oats will germinate and the young plant force its way to air and sunlight, even when buried four or five inches deep in the ground. Means of control Sow clean seed. No matter what its cost, it cannot be so expen- sive as the fouling of a whole grain crop, sometimes to such a degree 50 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) as to suffer a dockage in the market of one to fifteen pounds to th bushel. And it is to be remembered that the soil on which such crop grew is also damaged and below grade while the weed is ii tenant. If a field is newly infested and the plants are not to numerous to make the job impracticable, hand-pulling and burninj before the hardening of the seed, is not too great a price to pay fc its complete and prompt extermination. But if left until harves stubbles should immediately be plowed, very shallow, so as to indue germination of seeds in the soil, the growth being either grazed o or plowed under for humus. In the spring, plow more deeply an put in a hoed crop. Or a crop of sowed corn or rape may be grow and used for soiling or pasturage. Or, if such crops as wintt wheat or rye are to be grown, summer-fallow the land, harrowin it well about every week or ten days until time to sow the rye or th wheat. Leave cultivated oats out of the rotation of crops until th wild plants are entirely destroyed. When Wild Oats show then selves in a hay field, no stress of weather nor pressure of other wor should be allowed to interfere with the cutting of the crop befoi the Wild Oats are out of the "dough stage" of the seeds. Th plant makes excellent hay when cut green. WILD OAT-GRASS Danthdnia spicala, Beauv. Other English names: Poverty-grass, Bonnet-grass, Wire-gras Wildcat Grass,' Turkey-strip, Old Fog. Native. Perennial. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom : June to July. Seed-time: July to August. Range: Eastern part of the United States and Canada, westwar to the Dakotas, southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Habitat : Dry, sterile, or rooky soil. This miserable little grass seems best contented when makin some hard, worn-out meadow look shabby and miserable. It name of "Poverty Grass" fits it well, for its presence seems to h a sure indication of poverty of soil. The grass itself is dry an tasteless, worth nothing either as hay or as pasture. Roots fibrous and clustered, the hard, smooth, wiry stem nearly naked, most of the short, slim, curly leaves being gather© GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 51 in a tuft at their base, the few on the stems small, stiffly erect, and involute. The hard, thin little seed is covered with a hairy lemma and armed with a bristly, bent, and twisted awn, like that of the real Wild Oat but much smaller. Usually the seeds ripen and fall before the hay is cut, and after this the stems and leaves turn dry and brown and look un- sightly. (Fig. 22.) Means of control The presence of the weed is a sign of ex- hausted fertility, and the best remedy is to enrich and cultivate the ground before reseeding heavily with clover to be plowed under for humus. When the soil is in a condition to retain moisture and support the growth of better plants, the weed will be crowded out. BERMUDA GRASS Cynodon Ddctylon, Pers. (Capriola Ddctylon, Kuntze.) Other English names : Scutch Grass, Dog's-tooth Grass, Wire Grass. Introduced. Perennial. Propagates by stolons, or runners which put forth roots at the joints. Rarely by seeds. Time of bloom: July to August. Seed-time: August to September. But no seed is produced in the United States except in the most southern parts. Range : Southern part of the United States, north as far as Maryland, and westward to the Pacific Coast. Habitat: Fields, meadows, and waste places. Fig. 22. — WUd Oat-grass (Dantho- nia spicata) . X\. This is a tropical grass, subject to winterkilling north of the altitude of Virginia. It prefers warm, sandy soil, and droughts that kill other grasses harm it not at all. Only in cultivated ground is it a weed, but there its creeping habit of growth makes it a very bad one, extremely hard to destroy, particularly in cotton fields 52 GR AMINE AE (GRASS FAMILY) and other hoed crops. But it is the most valuable of southeri grasses for lawns, meadows, and pastures, and on the levees, roa embankments, and stream sides it is the best thing possible to bin and hold the soil in place. For such purpose it is usually start© by passing a quantity of the plants throug a feed cutter and sowing the pieces, ever; joint of which will probably strike roo and make a new plant. (Fig- 23.) It is small and low, the stems four inche to a foot tall, slender, slightly flattened very much branched, becoming stiff am wiry as they mature. Leaves smooth, flal stiff, light green, only two to four inche in length but very numerous. Sheath smooth, the ligule a ring of white hairs The sheaths overlap and are crowded at th base of the stalks and along the stolons When the flowering stalks do appear, th heads are divided into four or five " fingers : which are shorter and thicker than thos of the real finger, or crab, grass (Digitaria] Means of control The plant is a lover of heat and sue light and will not thrive in the shade Therefore, when a meadow or a pastur is wanted for a different crop, it can h smothered out by a thick growth of talk plants, such as cow-peas, sorghum, c millet, which will at the same time yield profitable crop of hay. In latitude whei a "cold snap" in winter is sufficient! biting, the roots may be killed by expos ing them to freeze, using a good, sharp, turning plow and mat ing the furrow as shallow as possible, for the roots are very near tl surface. The hard, wiry, interlacing stems of this grass mat tilled crops infested with it very difficult of cultivation, requirir much hand labor with the hoe. But in most localities it leaves e Fig. 23. — Bermuda Grass (Cynodon Dacty- Um). X$. GRAMINEAE (.GRASS FAMILY) 53 seed to infest the soil, and one or two seasons of careful work should conquer it. GOOSE-GRASS Eleusine indica, Gaertn. Other English names : Yard-grass, Crab-grass, Wire-grass, Crow-foot Grass. Indian Eleusine. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: June to September. Seed-time: July to October. Range : In nearly all parts of North America except the far North. Habitat : Farmyards, roadsides, and waste places ; often trouble- some in lawns. A coarse grass that came to us from India and behaves as though domesticated. It grows from clustered, fibrous roots, the culms six inches to two feet long, flattened, decumbent at base, from which there are usually several branches. Sheaths loose, overlapping, compressed, smooth but hairy at the throat; ligule very short and mi- nutely toothed, blades three inches to a foot long, often crowded at the base of the culm, rather thick, pale green. Spikes two to ten, digitate at the end of the stalk or one or two below near the top, one to three inches - long ; spikelets appressed, three- to five-flowered; glumes unequal, rough-keeled. Seeds black and wrinkled. (Fig. 24.) Means of control In yards and waste places the grass should be hoe-cut or hand-pulled before it develops seeds. In lawns, a few drops of crude carbolic acid squirted into the heart of a tuft with a common machine oil-can will kill it, without defacing the smoothness of the sward as a hoe p IG 24. — Goose-grasa would do. (Eleusine indica) . X £. 54 GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) HAIRY SPEAR-GRASS Eragrdstis pUdsa, Beauv. Other English names : Tufted Spear-grass, Slender Meadow-grass. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: July to September. Seed-time: August to October. Range: Maine to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. Habitat: Fields and waste places. Sandy or gravelly soil. Stems growing in tufts from fibrous roots, six to eighteen inchei tall, smooth, slender, erect or decumbent at base, diffusely branched Sheaths shorter than the internodes, smooth or sometimes sparingly hairy at the throat, the ligule a ring of short hairs ; blades one t( five inches long, flat, about a tenth of an inch wide, rough above smooth below. Panicle three to six inches in length, with manj slender, spreading branches, having minute tufts of hair in th axils, particularly the lower ones. Spikelets very small, hardly i line wide, five to eighteen-flowered. Seeds often an impurity o other small grass seeds. Means of control Prompt cutting before the formation of seed. This grass make tolerably good hay, but there is so small a quantity to the acre tha it is an economy to supersede it with forage of a better quality. STIHK-GRASS Eragr6stis megastachya. Link. (Eragrdstis major, Host.) Other English names: Strong-scented Meadow-grass, Pungen Meadow-grass, Snake-grass, Candy-grass. Introduced. Annual. Propagates by seeds. Time of bloom: June to September. Seed-time: July to October. Range: In southern Canada and in most parts of the United States Especially troublesome in the Southwest. Habitat : Fields and waste places. A very handsome grass, but offensive to grazing animals botl as green forage and as hay. Culms ten inches to three feet high GRAMINEAE (GRASS FAMILY) 55 somewhat weak and flaccid, often decumbent at the lower joints, very profusely branched. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, the ligule a ring of short hairs ; blades three to ten inches long, a quarter-inch to a half- inch wide, flat. Panicles three to ten inches long, with many spreading branches, densely flowered, grayish green. Spikelets ten- to forty-flowered, the florets closely imbricated, the glumes acute and keeled. Seeds reddish, very small, when ripe dropping readily from the spikelets and seeding the soil for the crop of the next year; a common impurity of timothy and other small grass seeds. (Fig. 25.) Means of control Small areas, in yards, roadsides, and waste places, should be hoe-cut or hand-pulled while the grass is in first bloom. Hay from rankly infested meadows, though not so strong-scented as the green grass, is wiry and weedy, and of such inferior quality that it is most profitable when turned under the ground for the purpose of fertilizing a better crop. CHESS OR CHEAT Brbmus secallnus, L. Wheat-thief, Williard's Fig. 25. — Stink- Grass (Eragrostis me- gastachya). x i. Propagates by seeds. Other English names: Brome Grass. Introduced. Annual or winter annual Time of bloom : June to July. Seed-time : July to August. Range: Throughout North America wherever grain is grown. Habitat : Grain fields, waste places. Probably the first settler who planted a wheat field in America sowed some seeds of Chess with it and the practice still continues. Some farmers believed that wheat changed into Chess as it grew, but it is needless to say that such a miracle never happened. The 56 OSAMINEAB (GRASS FAMILY) two plants are not even very closely related, but belong to quite distinct tribes in the Grass Family, and each comes true from its own seed. But Chess seeds, when buried in the soil, retain theii vitality for years, and their coming up in a field where clean grain had been sown might be thus accounted for. When sown with spring crops it often fails to mature its seeds, and is therefore most fre- quently found growing with the fall- sown crops of rye and winter wheat. Grain containing Chess is somewhat difficult to clean, and if ground with wheat the flour is dark-colored and has a narcotic quality which ruins it commercially. Consequently such wheat is very sharply docked in the market. It is a most prolific weed. Professor Hunt, of Cornell Univer- sity, sowed one pound of it on one- twentieth of an acre and reaped ninety-nine pounds of seed ; and as they are quite small and light, there are nearly as many seeds in a pound as there are wheat kernels in a bushel. (Fig. 26.) Stems two to three feet tall, erect, smooth, and simple. Sheaths smooth, strongly nerved, shorter than the internodes. Leaves three to ten inches long, slightly hairy above but smooth beneath, and flat. Panicle loose and open, its branches somewhat drooping. Spikelets smooth, containing five to fifteen seeds, about a quarter-inch long, the lemmas adhering like oats, but distinguished from that grain by smaller size and darkei color; they are also somewhat thicker and inrolled at the margins; awns, when present, usually short and straight bu1 weak and soft, sometimes more or less flexuose. Fig. 26. — Chess or Cheat (Bro- mua secalinus). X J. GRAMINEAE {GRASS FAMILY) 57 Means of control Sow clean seed. Chess is smaller and lighter than wheat, and care in cleaning should remove it. But if it is suspected that a few seeds remain, stir the wheat in a barrel of water just before sowing ; the Chess will rise to the top. If the grain is treated with formalin for the purpose of destroying suspected spores of smut, the Chess may be removed at the same time. When the weed makes a first appearance in clean soil, under no circumstances let it be fouled for years by allowing the Chess to ripen and scatter its seeds. Hand- pulling and burning is worth while in such an instance, even though the quantity be so large as to make the task rather strenuous. Stubbles where seeds have matured should have surface cultivation after harvest, in order to cause them to germinate ; then plow them under, and put no more grain