\NNl\ HE SPARKS LIBRARY. [MISCELLANY.] Collected by JARED Sparks, LL. D., President of Harvard College. Purchased by the Cornell University^ 1872. iL73 LIBRARY ANKEX DATE DUE PRINTED IN U.S.A. D 21.T24'T84'5""''"""' '""'"'" Manual of ancient and modern history ... 3 1924 026 423 925 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026423925 MANUAL OF ANCIEIT AID MODEM HISTORY; comfhisikg I. ANCIENT HISTORY, CONTAINING THE POLITICAL HISTOBT, GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, AND SOCIAL STATE OF THE miNCIPAL NATIONS Or ANTIQUITY, CABEFULLY KEVISED FKOM THE ANCIENT WBITEBS. II. MODERN HISTORY, CONTAINING THE BISE AND PKOGBESS OF THE PBINCIPAL ETJEOPEAN NATIONS, THEIR POLITICAL HISTOBY, AND THE CHANGES IN THEIB SOCIAL CONDITION, WITH A HISTOBY OP THE COLONIES FOUNDED BY EUEOPEAKS. y^fcrvi BY WrC.i^AYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S., OP TKINITT COLLEQB, DUBLIN. BEVISED, WITH A CHAPTEE ON Tlffll^ISTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES BY C?^S.i HENRY, D. D., ■hen; rORT _.. RK. y/—" /^CORNELL UNIVERSITY, FBOFESSOB OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTOBY IN TH E UNITEBSITY OF THE CITT OF NEW YOKK. NEW YORK: LIBRARY D. APPLETON & CO., 200 BROADWAY. PHILADELPHIA: GBOE&E e. APPLETON, 148 CHESNITT ST.. HDCCCXLT. VMi)"^tr^o. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, Bt D. APPLKTON & COMPANY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of thnUnitediStates, fbiithe Southern District of NewTSrK; PREFACE. In bringing out an American edition of this work, the publishers were desirous not only to furnish a valuable work for general readers, but also to make it in point of size and price as well adapted to the wants of public instruction as they believed it to be in intrinsic merit. In complying with their request to revise the work with this view, the present editor has made a few slight curtailments — principally in the first part of the volume of Ancient History — which could be made with- out suppressing or in any way distorting or impairing any material fact or statement. In the English edition, all that is to be found relating to the history of the United States amounts to two or three pages, interspersed in the history of England. In the place of these meager notices, the present editor has appended to the volume of Modern History a distinct and special chapter, giving to the history of the United States its proportion- ate place in general history, and to which it is certainly entitled in a work designed for public instruction in this country. He trusts that this sketch will be found to contain a fair and clear view of the leading events of our history. In the preface to the third American edition of Guizot's History of European Civilization, the present editor took occasion to offer some remarks upon the study of history as a part of the course of studies pursued in our higher institutions : in which he attempted to answer the extremely difficult question, " How best to employ the very limited time allotted to history in the usual course of public instruction ?" On the one hand, it is obvious that a thorough knowledge of history (which it is the work of years to gain) can never be acquired in the time allowed ; IT PREFACE. and on the otier hand, it is far more difficult to make a successful be- ginning, to lay a good foundation in history, than in the other studies included in the usual public course. This it is which makes the most useful employment of the little time allowed so perplexing a problem. The conclusion to which the editor arrived was, that in the impos- sibility of communicating a thorough knowledge of history in this time, thus much should be attempted : 1 . The study of some judicious work of general history ; 3. The study of some good specimen of the phi- losophy of history, as it is called, or the method of generalizing and reflecting upon the facts of history ; and 3. The thorough investigation of some small portion of special history. The editor recommended the work of Guizot, referred to above, as a good specimen of philosophical reflection upon history ; and he knows no work on general history better adapted to the purpose of public instruction than the present. C. S. H. New YohKj December 11, 1844. INTRODUCTION. The use of history is not to load the memory with facts, but to store the mind with principles — to collect from the experience of past ages rules for our conduct as individuals and as members of society. Every historical work, therefore, professes to give only a selection of events ; and the writer's choice is determined by the nature of his history : the general historian directs attention to the occurrences that have changed the general aspect of society, the revolutions of states and empires, the causes that led to them, and the consequences by which they were fol- lowed. The special historian confines his attention to one class of facts, specified in the title of his work : thus the ecclesiastical historian writes only of the affairs of the church ; the military historian confines his narrative to wars and battles ; and the commercial historian devotes his attention exclusively to trade. But even general histories may, in some degrft, be regarded as special ; their object may be called " political," that is, they profess to describe the destinies of nations, both in their external relations with foreign states, and in their internal affairs. Under the first head are comprised wars, treaties of peace or alliance, and commercial inter- course; under the second, governments, institutions, and manners. Such a history must, to a certain extent, be a history of civilization ; for it will describe the progress of social improvement, and the prog- ress of the human mind. These essential parts of civilization must not be confounded ; for we shall have more than once occasion to remark, that the social system, or, in other words, the relations between the different parts of society, may display great wisdom and justice, while men, in their individual capacity, continue the slaves of ignorance and superstition. A distinction is usually made between the narrative and the philoso- VI INTRODUCTION. phy of history : in the former are included the actions of kings and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires ; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industry and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation ; and the jfacts thus ascertained by phi- losophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the nar- rative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opinions, and gradual development of the human intellect. But unassisted reason can go no further ; the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can only be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents wprking out the great designs of God. It is proposed in the following pages to pnite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes, and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and 0|n individuals. Sacred history — the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people— ^is necessarily excluded from a political Jiistory j but thje general course of Pioyidence displayed in the moral government of his creatures is an essential element of our plan : it is, in fact, the principle of unity that binds tpg^flier its several parts. The necessary companions of history are chronology and geography ; they determine the time when, and the place where, eaph event oc- curred. The difltulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of records, and from varieties in the mode of computation '• the fprnier ' can not be remedied ; but, to pre\^ent the mistakes which may arise from this cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk : Ijhe second source of confusion is removed by using throjighont solar years for a measure of time, and the birth pf Christ as an era from vbJcli to reckpn. Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geograplfy, jt has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account pf the na- ture pf the soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable produc- tions. There is no doubt that the position, cHmate, and fertility of a country, have a powejrful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in the considera- tion of their history. INTaODUCTIOU. Tii The anangement of iMs work is "both chronological ancl geographi- cal ; the Mstory of each country 'is given separately, but the states are arrian^ecl in ihh order of their attaining a commanding rniluence in the world. To this there are two exceptions — Egypt, wticli is pkced first, on acconnt of its being tlie earliest organized government of which we have any authentic record ; and India, which is placed last, "because it exercised no marked influence over the most remarkable ■nations of ancient times. Tite histoty of Greece in this volume lias a less Ordetly appearance than in most similar wo&b, because it contains not merely die histories X)f Athens and Sparta, to which most Writers confine their attention, but adso those of the minor states, the islands and thfe colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks — a subject of great importance in itself, antl peculiarly interesting to a commer- cial countiy. To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era Tisually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In llie earlier period of the republic, notice is taken of the reasonable donbts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative ; but care has heen taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity. In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe : many of these subsist to the present day ; projects have been formed for reopen- ing others ; some account of them consequently appears necessary, for illustrating both ancient commerce and modern policy. In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely possible to avoid dryness of details ; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that may serve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of charac- ter, national and individual, in a clearer light. It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations ; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, some probable foundation in fact. Till INTKODUCTION. Political, reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided: the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the stu- dents themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge, questions for the mind ; the chief business of those who write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them. The author has to acknowledge hia great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French- Academy of Inscriptions ; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes. The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work ; some few suggestions, however, may be added on the mode of using it. Students should compare the geographical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to commence. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun ; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise to synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events in~- the history of another ; for instance, to trace the condition of the Ro- man repubhc at the time of the battle of Arbela. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY. Chaptee I. — Egypt. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 1 II. Political and Social Condition of the Egyptiana 2 III. History of Egypt from the earliest Period to the Accession of Psam- metichus 5 rV. History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichus to its subjugation by Cambyses. 9 v. Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce 11 Chapter H. — The Ethiopians, Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History ". 13 II. History of the Ethiopians '. 14 m. Arts,. Commerce, and Manufactures of Merog. 15 Chapter HI. — Babylonia and Assyria. Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Watural History 17 II. Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians 18 HI. History of the Assyrians and Babylonians 19 IV. Description of Nineveh and Babylon 23 V. Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians 25 Chapter IV. — Western Mia. Sect. I. Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline 27 n. Ancient History of Asia Minor 28 HI. Syria. — Geographical Outline 29 rV. Social and'Political Condition of the Syrians and Phoenicians. 30 V. History of the Syrians and Phoenicians 31 VT. Phoenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions 32 VH. Fhsnician Manufactures and Commerce 33 Chapter V. — Palestine. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 36 , n. History of Palestine 36 ni. The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua 39 IV. History of Israel under the Judges ......40 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE, Sect. V. History of the United Kingdom of Israel 42 VI. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The Kingdom of Israel 47 VII. The Kingdom of Judah 61 Chapter VT. — The Empire of the Medes and Persians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline .58 II. Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians. 59 III. Social *nd Political Condition of Ancient Persia 60 IV. History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty 62 V. History of the Persians under the Hytaspid Dynasty 64 Chaptee VII. — Phoenician Colonies in Northern Africa. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Northern Africa 68 II. Social and Political Condition of Carthage 69 III. History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Com- mencement of the Syracusan Wars 70 IV. History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars 73 V. From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage 76 VI. Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage 79 Chapter VIII. — The Foundation of the Grecian States. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Hellas.. ....81 II. Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus. i ... 83 III. The Grecian Islands in the iEgean and Mediterranean Seas 85 IV. The Ionian Islands 85 V. The Social and Political C ondition of Greece 86 VI. Traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Com- mencement of the Trojan War i 89 VII. From the Trojan War to the Colonization of Asia Minor 92 Chapter IX. — History of the Grecian States and Colonies btfore the Persian War. Sect, h Topography of Sparta , 95 II. Legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messenian Wars 95 III. Topography of Athens 97 IV. History of Athens to the Beginning of :the Persian War .99 V. Historical Notices of the Minor States of Greece previous to the Persian War , 102 VI^ Histoi-y of the principal Grecian Islands 103 VII. History of the Greek Colonies in Asia IMinor ...,.,,... 104 Tin. History of the Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, Coast ofThrace, Macedon, &c.., , 106 .Chapter X. — History of Greece from the Persian Wars to the Accession of Alexander the Great. Sect. I. The First Persian War , . , 108 II. The Second Persian War ,..110 III. The First Pelo^onnesian War ,„.113 TV. The Second Peloponnesian War 118 V. Tyrannical Rdle of Sparta.— Third Peloponnesian War !.'...".'.' 121 VI. The Second Sacred War.— Destruction of Grecian Freedom 128 Chapter yS.—The Macedonian Kingdom aiid Empire. Sbct. I. Geographical OutUn« of Macedon. . ; , 131 n. History of the Macedonian Monarchy .....; 132 lU. Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire.. ••....,!. 138 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi Chapter KII. — History of the States that arose from the Dismernberment -of the Macedonian Empire. Sect. I. History of Maoedon and Greece from 'the Battle of Ipsue to Che Boman-GoncineEt. ..•• 145 II. History of the -Kingdomof Syriia under the Seleucidee 153 III. History of Egypt under the Ptolemies 158 IV. History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia 162 v. History of Bactria and Parthia -....,, 166 VI. Ilistory of Idumea, and its Capital Petra '. 168 VII. History of the Jews from their Return out of the Babylonish Cap- tivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 171 Chapter XIH. — History of Ancient Italy. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 183 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy 187 in. The Greek Colonies in Italy 190 Chapter XIV. — History of Sicily. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 193 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Sicily 196 lU. The History of Syracuse 197 Chapter XV. — History of the Roman Republic. Sect. I. Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans 200 n. From the Foundation of Rome to the Abolition of Royalty 201 III. From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls '. 206 rV. From the Rebuilding of the City to the First Punic War 215 V. From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi 218 VI. From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic 228 VII. The Establishment of the Roman Empire 237 Chapter XVT. — Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire. Sect. I. European Countries. — Spain 243 II. Transalpine Gaul 243 III. Britain 1 244 IV. Northern Provinces of the Empire 245 V. Asiatic and African Provinces 247 VI. The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire 248 VII. Topography of the City of Rome 251 Chapter XVH. — History of the Roman Empire. Sect. I. The Reigns of the Family of the C^sars 256 n. From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family 265 ni. From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the Antonines 2'' IV. Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Anto- nines 278 V. From the Extinction of the Antonines to the Establishment of Military Despotism • •••. 280 VI. From the Murder of Alexander Severus to the Captivity of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants 28o XU TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Sect. VII. From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Dioclesian.. .289 Vm. From the Resignation of Dioclesian to the Death of Constantine the Great 295 K. From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire tinder Theodosius the Great.. 301 X. Overthrow of the Western Empire.. 312 Chaptek XVin. — India. Early History : 318 TABLE OF CONTENTS. MODERN HISTORY. Chapter I. — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire. FAOS. Sect. I. The Gothic Kingdom of Italy 327 II. The Reign of Justinian 329 m. The Establishment of the Civil Law 334 IV. History of the Silk Trade. — Introduction of the Silkworm into Europe 337 v. The Monarchy of the Franks, under the Merovingian Dynasty 341 TT. The Lombard Monarchy , 346 VII. The Anglo-Saxons 349 Chapter II. — The Rise and ^Establishment of the Saracenic Power. Sect. I. Political and Social Condition of the East at the Coming of Mohammed. 352 II. State of Arabia at the Coming of Mohammed 355 ni. The Preaching of Mohammed 357 rV. Early Progress of the Saracens 361 Chapter HI. — Restoration of the Western Empire. Sect. I. The Life of Charlemagne 369 II. Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty 375 ni. The Foundation of the Germanic Empire 382 rV. State of the East from the Establishment to the Overthrow of the Khaliphate 387 Chapter IV. — Growth of the Papal Power. Sect. I. The Origin of the Papacy 390 n. The early Development of the Political System of the Papacy 394 III. The Struggle for Supremacy between the Popes and Emperors 398 rV. Revival of the Papal Power 401 v. Pontificate of Gregoiy VII 406 VL The War of Investitures 412 Vn. The Crusades 416 VIII. The Crusade against the Albigenses 421 IX. Consequences of the Crusades 427 X. Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy 430 XI. Survey of the Constitution of Aragon ....434 * XII. State of Western Europe at the Commencement of the Fourteenth Centuny IV "" Xm. Pontificate of Boniface VIII ^^ -~ XIV. State of England and the Northern Kingdoms at the Commence- ment of the Fourteenth Century '/'"■'"" aSi o. XV. Revolutions in the East in Consequence of the Mongolian Invasion... 40U XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter V. — The Revival of Literatiire. — The Progress of Civili- zation and Imentwm. Ti.OE. Sect. I. Decline of the Papal Power. — ^The Great Schism of the West 453 II. First Revival of Literature, and Inventions in Science 469 III. Progress of Commerce 472 IV. Revolutions of Germany, France, and Spain 479 V. The StstiB of England and thfe Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 483 VI. Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empii'e 486 Chapter VI. — The Reformation, and Commencement of the States- System in Euroge. Sect. I. Progress of Maritime Discovery 490 II. Origin of the Reformation 495 III. History of the Negotiations and. Wars respecting Italy 500 IV. The History of Burgundy under the Princes of the House of Valois. . .502 V. The History of Burgundy (continiied) 505 VI. The History of Burgundy {concluded) 507 VII. The Agevof Charles V 512 yni. The Age of Elizabeth 524 "TX. The Ag,e, pf Gustavus Adolphus.. ... . . ,. , 536 X, Administration of the CardiAals Richelieu, and Mazarine.. . . . ,,...... .540 XI, Formation of the Stafes-Syptem in Ijhe Northern Kingdoms of Europe*. 546 XII. , Prpgiress of the Tmrkish. P®wer in Europe .^ < . , 549 Chaster VII. — The- AguatamJige» of Engiani and- France. Sect. I. State of tlie Cdritinentar Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia. . .,. .553 n; Hi^toi-J- of England under the Commonwealth; 553 III. History of Ei^landi. from th« Bestotation to the' Revdntion-} and< Rise of the Power of Louis XIV ..564 IT. General Histttry of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to tht Formatibnof the- Grand Alliance 578 V; The War of thie- Spanish' Soccession 533 VI-. Peter the Great of Russia.— Charles XIL of Sweden. 590 Chapter Vllt— Groioa of tke Stercwntile aitd' Colonial System. Sect. I. Est'abli'sh'nierit of the Hanoverian Succession in Ilugland.. ...... .....399 rr. The Colonial Struggle hetWeeii. Fi'ance and Gfreat'Britain 609 III. The Seven Tears'" War , .....613 CtUitttLUC-^The .jlge of RevoMiarcs: -f^ Sect. I. Change in the Relations of the Catholic PdWerS to the Holy See.— Dismemberment, of Poland-..,,..,.,. „. .......,, ,.,. , i,^ .^ . , . . . . gjjg,, II. History- off Bnsglan*, froBi. thlffPfeaoB of! Paris to the Commtencement of- thei American War., i... ......... i. ..630 . . . ...,.,..,, , .« .-v, .v.. ..,/,678 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV Chaptek XI.— History of the Peace. PAGE. I. State of Europe at the Close of the War ; 682 II. History of Europe during the Reiga of George IV 684 in. History of Europe during the Beign of William IV 692 Chapter XII. — History of Colonization. Sect. I. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico 706 II. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Peru 716 m. The Portuguese Colonies in South America 719 IV. The English in America , 725 V. Colonization of the West Indies 726 VI. The Portuguese in India 728 Vn. The Spaniards in the East Indies 730 VIII. The Dutch in the East Indies 730 DC. The Danes in the East Indies 732 X. The French in the East Indies 732 XI. The English in India 733 Chapter XIII. — History of China 742 Chaptek JCIV.^History of the Jews 747 Chapter XV. — History of the United States. Sect. I. Colonial History 752 II. Revolutionary History 759 HI. Constitutional History 767 Tables of Contemporary Dynasties 786 Genealogical Table of the Bourbons 796 Genealogical Table of the Royal Family of England 797 THE STUDENT'S MAIUAL or ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER I. EGYPT. Section 1.— Geographical Outline. Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and polit- ical institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems to have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers ; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, " the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river : and we shall therefore com- mence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt. The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syene, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine mUes in breadth, to Chem'mis, where the valley begins to widen. At Cercas6rus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta. The narrow valley from Syene to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt ; the wider valley. Middle Egypt ; and the Delta, Lower Egypt. Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions : the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the annual overflowings of the river. These inundations are caused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, wBJch begins to rise about the middle of June. Early ia August, the river overflows its banks, giving the valley of the Nile the appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begm to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river. The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, oi can be coatiiuiled by artificial means. 1 3 ANCIENT HISTOEY. The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pas- turage, but unfit for agriculture; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt. On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert. This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would' otherwise desolate the whple country. Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monu- ments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philse and Elephantine, containing the proudest edifices of antiquity ; lower down, the city of Apollo ; dien Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous teanples, more like mountains than human edifices, colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river ; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple. Middle Egypt is a wider valley. , It contains the lake Moeris, an immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording such facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity, was near Arsinoe. Below Arsinoe was Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces : the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper EgYpt. But the most remarkable monuments of this district are the Pyramids. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the " river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sais, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and provesby its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder. The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, would scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy' to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agricul- ture, commerce, and manufactures:, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the" pastoral and plundering tribes on their north- eastern frontiers : and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians." Section 11. — Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians. , It appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher tastes of priests and warriors were fairer than the other classes. It has been conjectured that the Egyptians derived their system of civilization from the Hindus:: but it is difficult ^to conceive how this could be. Local circumstances produced marked diffeirehciss in the habits and r EGYPT. 3 manners of the people. In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civihzed part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored ; next, the agriculturists, mer- chants, mariners, and artisans ; the lowest caste was that of shep- herds. The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous ; they formed settlements at diiferent times, in the most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into names, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a rehgious (as originally a political) distinction between these nomes : each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not respected in another. The history of these petty states is tmknown ; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Mem- phis. The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk'sos^ or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middli Egypt. Egypt became united under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the Hyk'sos : and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country into nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdi- vided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary ; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scientific knowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors. The warrior-caste ranked next to that of the priests : the royal family belonged to it. Certain nomes were assigned to the support of this caste, most of which were in Lower Egypt, where the country was most exposed to attack. The Egyptians were the earliest nation that organized a regular army, and thus laid the foundation of the whole system of ancient warfare. A brief account of their military affairs will therefore illus- trate, not only their history, but that of the great Asiatic monarchies, and of the Greeks, during the heroic ages. The most important division of an Egyptian army was the body of war-chariots, used instead of cavalry. These chariots were mounted on two wheels, and, made, especially the wheels, with great care. They were hung low ; open behind, so that the warrior could easily step in and out ; and without seat. They were drawn by two horses, and generally contained two warriors, one of whom managed the steeds 4 ANCIENT HISTORY. while the other fought. Nations were distinguished from each other by the shape of their chariots. Great attention was paid to the breeding and training of horses, in Egypt. The harness and housings of the horses were richly deco- rated ; and fixed to the chariots, on the outside, was a quiver and bow- case, decorated also with extraordinary taste and skill. The bow was the national weapon, employed both by infantry and cavalry. No nation of antiquity paid so much attention to archery as the Egyptians ; their arrows were drawn to the ear ; and their bows were more pow- erful, and their arrows better aimed, than those of other nations. The children of the warrior-caste were trained from earliest infancy to the practice of archery. The arms of the Egyptian heavy-armed infantry were a spear, a dagger, a short sword, a helmet, and a shield. Pole-axes and battle- axes were occasionally used. Coats-of-mail were used only by the principal officers, and some remarkable warriors, like Goliath, the champion of the Philistines. The light troops were armed with swords, battleaxes, maces, and clubs. The system of discipline and drill was very complete. Every bat- talion had its standard, with some symbol or sacred object represented on it, usually the cognizance of the nome or tribe. The soldiers were levied by conscription, drilled to the sound of the trumpet, and taught to march in measured time. Cavalry, in the earlier period, were not employed as a military body, but used as skirmishers, vedettes, and expresses, rather than as war- riors. The Egyptians generally treated their captives with great cruelty, putting them to death, or reducing them to slavery. The religion and government of Egypt were intimately blended : there were prescribed forms and ceremonies for every important action, which even kings dared not neglect. This gave the priests paramount control over public affairs and domestic life. The religion of the priests seems to have been more refined than the gross idolatry of the lower classes : one general idea, however, pervades the entire system — the importance of agriculture to a state. Hence, the great influence of astronomy in their theology, as determining the times and seasons for agricultural operations -, hence, also, the deification of the produc- tive powers of nature. Never were a people more dependant on priestly astrologers than the Egyptians': the stars were consulted for every undertaking, private or public, and the priests alone had the right to consult them and deliver their oracles. The belief in a future state influenced every portion of Egyptian life : but the nature of the creed is difficult to be explained. In fact, there were two inconsistent creeds, thfe belief in transmigration of souls, confined to the priestly caste ; and the belief that the soul will continue as long as the body endures — whence the practice of so carefully embalming, and of hevring sep- ulchres m the solid rock. The latter was the popular opinion ; hence, the importance of the rites of burial, and the dread of the trial after death, when a tribunal, under priestly direction, determined whether die body should be placed in the tomb, or left to natural decay. The relative position of the Ibwer castes varied at different times ; bat aH trades and professions were hereditary. It was probably sup- EGYPT. 5 posed that this exclusive dedication of families to separate employments would insure perfection in the arts ; and, certainly, the progress of the Egyptians, especially in architecture, surpasses that of any other nation. Gymnastic exercises and music were the favorite amusements of the ancient Egyptians. At their meals, they used chairs and tables not unlike our own. Women were treated more respectfully than in other countries of the East. Great respect was paid to age and rank. The principal trees of Egypt were the sycamore, the fig, the pome- granate, the peach, the locust-tree, and the vine. Great care was taken of the vines. Wine was used in great quantities, by the nobles and wealthy merchants. Of esculent vegetables growing wild, the most remarkable were the lotus, a kind of lily, and the papyrus ; the leaves of the latter, dried and prepared, were used for writing ' upon. The cultivated vegetables were corn and pulse, cotton, melons, cucumbers, onions, &c. The domestic animals of the Egyptians were the same as those of most civilized countries. The cat was held in particular honor. The animals of the mountain and desert were the wild ox, the goat and sheep, and the antelope. They seem to have obtained camels from some foreign country. Among the amphibious animals of the Nile, the crocodile and the hippopotamus deserve to be noticed, the skin of the latter being regarded as the best covering for shields. Wild and tame fowl abounded ; the eggs of geese and other poidtry were hatched in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process still used by thfe modern Copts. Section III. — History of Egypt from the earliest period to the Accession of Psammelichus. FROM B. C. 1900 TO B. C. 650. Egypt was originally composed of several small states, of which the first were founded in Upper Egypt. Though Thebes was the most ancient of the powerful states, Memphis is that of which we have the earliest accounts. It was the metropolis of a powerful kingdom when it was visited by the patriarch Abraham, and already the centre of a flourishing corn-trade. The court of the reigning Pharaoh was reg- ularly organized : the jealousy of foreigners, especially the heads of pastoral tribes, was not yet apparent, for Abraham was received with great hospitality. In the interval between the departure of Abraham from Egypt and the sale of Joseph to Potiphar, the Hyk'sos and other wandering tribes had began to make incursions into the valley of the Nile, and to ravage its fruitful fields. The poUcy which induced the Pharaoh yho then occupied the throne to grant the land of Goshen to the colony of the Israelites, was equally creditable to his sagacity and generosity ; it was a pasturage and frontier province, forming the eastern barrier of Egypt toward Syria and Palestine, the coimtries from which invasion was most dreaded. By assigning this district to Jacob and his family, it was covered in a short time by a numerous, brave, and industrious people, giving additional security and resources to the country, i 6 ANCIENT HISTORY. After the death of Joseph, but at what distance of time there is no evidence to determine, a change of djoiasty took place in Egypt. This was probably the event described by profane -wnteta as the conquest of Egypt by the Hyk'sos, and consequently the Pharaoh who so cruelly tyrannized over the Israelites was not a native Egyptian, but an intru- sive foreigner. The motive assigned for oppressing the Israelites was, " this people are more and mightier than we" — which could hardly be true of the whole Egyptian nation, but might very probably be of a race of conquerors. One of the tasks which this cruel despot imposed on the Israelites, was the building of " treasure cities." Among the cruel- ties inflicted on them, their being employed in the manufacture of brick is particularly mentioned : under the burning sun of Egypt, the process of wetting, tempering, and working the clay previous to its being moulded, was so painful and unwholesome that it was usually the work of slaves and captives. But when the Pharaoh found that the Israelites stilL continued to " multiply and wax very mighty," he had recourse to the barbarous expedient of extermination, and ordered that all the male children should be destroyed. Moses was saved from the general slaughter and educated at the Egyptian court ; after which, though the fact is not expressly stated, the cruel edict appears to have fallen into disuse. Moses never forgot his parentage and nation ; prob- ably the courtiers of Pharaoh failed not to remind him that he belonged to a degraded caste. Having been compelled to quit Egypt for having slain one of the op- pressors, Moses sought shelter in the land of Midian, where Jehovah appeared to him, and commanded him to achieve the deliverance of His chosen people, investing him with the miraculous powers neces- sary for so difficult an object. The reigning Pharaoh refused to part with so valuable a race of slaves, and his obstinacy was punished with ten dreadful plagues. The smiting of the first-born was the consum- mation of these fearful judginents : Pharaoh and his subjects hasted to send the Israelites away, and they quitted the land of Egypt. Av- arice induced the Pharaoh to pursue them with a mighty army ; but God opened a passage for the Israelites through the Red sea, while the Egyptian host, attempting to pursue them, were overwhelmed with the returning waters. This calamity (b. o. 1491) greatly weakened the power of the Hyk'sos, already menaced by the increasing strength of the Theban monarchy. Previous to this, we have scarcely any probable account of the names and ages of the Eg5rptian kings, except that Menes ap- pears to have been the founder of the monarchy, and Osirtesen I. the Pharaoh who received Joseph. But henceforth we are able to deter- mine with probability some general epochs by comparing the evidence of the monuments with that of the historians. To this period belong the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of Manetho, the founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt. In the reign of Am'e- noph I., the Thebans extended their conquests to the south, and seized - on part of Nubia. Crude brick arches were constructed at this period (b. c. 1540) and glass was soon after brought into use. , Under the fourth king of this dynasty, Thutmdsis, or Thothmes III., the children of Israel departed from Egypt, and the Theban monarch succeeded in EGYPT. 7 expelling the Hyk-'sos— rgreatly weakened by the destruction of their best warriors in the Red sea— from the greater part of the country, and shutting them up in their fortresses. Their great stronghold was taken by his son and successor, Thoth'mes IV. ; and the shepherd- kings surrendered on condition of being allowed to withdraw into Syria. The intimate connexion between these two events — the Exodus of the Israelites, and the expulsion of the Hyk'sos — have led to their being confounded together. The next remarkable monarch was Am'enoph III., who reigned conjointly with his brother ; but, soon becoming weary of divided empire, he expelled his partner. The dethroned brother was probably the Dan'aus* of the Greeks, who, leaving Egypt with his partisans, settled in Ar'gos, of which he became king (b. c. 1430). The pretended vocal statue of Mem'non was erected in honor of Am'enoph ; and in his reign the building of the great temples seems to have been commenced. He annexed the greater part of Nubia to his dominions. Among his successors the name of Ram'eses is the most distinguished. It was borne by four sovereigns ; two in the eighteenth, and two in the nineteenth dynasty. The first was expelled by his brother, and is by some identified with Dan'aus : the second, called Mi-Am'mon, " he who loves Am'mon," was the founder of the palace of Medinet Abu at Thebes ; and from the sculptures on its walls, he appears to have been a warrior and conqueror. Am'enoph IV. was the last of the eighteenth d)rnasty. In his un- fortunate reign the Hyk'sos renewed their invasions ; and the king, confiding his son, a child of five years old, to the care of a friend, fled into Ethiopia, where he remained thirteen years an exile. During this period the Hyk'sos were guilty of the most wanton excesses ; for " they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but conunitted every kind of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were worshipped ; and having com- pelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country."! Amen'ophis at length, aided by an Ethiopian army, and supported by his gallant son, expelled the shep- herd-kings, and restored the prosperity of his country. Ram'eses the Great, called also Sethos or Sesos'tris,| is the most, celebrated of the Egjrptian monarchs. The conquests attributed to him are so mighty, that he has been by some regarded as merely a sym- bolical being ; but from the evidence of the monuments, he appears to be undoubtedly an historical personage. It is indeed doubtful whether the Ram'eses who founded Medinet Abii, or the son of Am'enoph, be the great conqueror who carried his arms into Bac'tria in the east, and Thrace in the west, and before whose throne captives from the frozen Cau'casus mingled with the sable tribes from the extreme south of Ethiopia : but the existence of this conqueror, his daring hunts of the lion in the desert while a youth, his aid in the expulsion of the Hyk'sos, his extensive conquests, and the vast treasures he collected from the vanquished nations, are satisfactorily proved by the sculptured history of his exploits on the walls of the buildings he erected or enlarged- • Others assign Dan'aus to a later period. fManSthO, as quoted by Jos^phus. j Wilkinson identifies Ram'eses II. with Sesos'tris. 8 ANCIENT HISTORY. Having subdued the mountainous districts east of Egypt, and part of die Arabian peninsula, he fitted out a fleet of war-galleys to scour the Indian seas. The naval engagements sculptured on the walls of Me- dfnet Abii and Karaac fully support the account of these expeditions given by the historians, and show that they were extended to the western coast of Hindost'an. Ethiopia was subdued, and compelled to pay a tribute of ebony, gold, and elephants' teeth. The battle, the vic- tory, the offering of the booty and tribute, are represented on the mon- uments at Kalabshe, in Lower Nubia. His campaigns in Asia and Europe were equally remarkable. Northward he subdued Syria, An- at61ia, and part of Thrace ; eastward he is said to have advanced as far as Bac'tria and India. There can, however, be no doubt of his ex- ploits in the neighborhood of Assy'ria and the Euphrates ; for they are represented on the sculptures of the building called the tomb of Osy- man'dyas, but which should rather be called the temple-palace of King Ram'eses. It is singular that no record of such a conqueror should be found in the Scriptures ; for he must have subdued the land of Canaan and Syria, countries which were always coveted by the rulers of Egypt. Mr. Milman very plausibly argues that the (*)nquests of Sesos'tris took place while the Israelites were wandering in the desert, and that this providential arrangement was intended to facilitate the conquest of the promised land. There ■ can, however, be no doubt that some king of Egypt performed many of the exploits attributed to Sesos'tris, though it is very difficult to ascertain the exact period in which he flourished. The successors of Sesos The eastern districts above the Nile, now called Ndbia and Sennaar, have been possessed from a remote age by two dilferent races, the Ethiopian and the Arabian, which are even now but partially blended. The comitry is fuU of historical monuments, chiefly erected on the banks of the Nile. There were, in these countries above Egypt, all the grada- tions from the complete savage to the hunting and fishing tribes, and from them to the wandering herdsman and shepherd ; but there was also a civilized Ethiopian people, dwelling in cities, possessing a gov- ernment and laws, acquainted with the use of hieroglyphics, the fame of whose progress in knowledge and the social arts had, in the earliest ages, spread over a conisidefable portion of the earth. The Nile, before its confluence with the Astab'oras (Mugrdm), runs through a very irregular valley formed by two chains of hills, which sometimes retire back, and sometimes advance to the very margin of the river. The soil of this valley was once as fertile as the richest part of Egypt, and where protected, it still continues so ; but the hills on both sides are bordered by sandy deserts, against which they afford but a scanty protection. ' The Nubian valley below the junction of the Nile and ihs Astab'oras appears to have been sometimes subject to the Ethiopians of Meroe, and sometimes to the Egyptians. The naviga- tion of the Nile is here impeded %• the windings of the river, and by the intervention of cataracts and rapids ; so that intercourse is more generally maintained by caravans than by boats. At the southern ex- tremity of the valley, the river spreads itself, and encloses a number of fertile islands.' Along the whole course of the Nubian valley is a suc- cession of stupendous monuments, rivalling those of Thebes in beauty, and exceeding them in sublimity, i ^ The productions of the Ethiojnan and Nubian valleys do not differ materially from those of Egypt. The island of Meroe, as it was called from being nearly surrounded vsdth rivers, possessed an abundance of camels, which, as we have seen,, were little used in Egypt; but the ivory, ebony, and spices, which the Ethiopians sent down the river, were probably procured by trafiic with the interior of Africa. Meroe had better harbors for Indian commerce than Egypt : not only were her ports on the Red sea superior, but the caravan-routes to them were shorter, and the dangerous part of the navigation of that sea was wholly avoided'. The wild tracts in the Beighborhood of Meroe are tenanted by an- imals whose chase afforded employment to the ancient, as it does now 1^ ANCIENT HISTORY. to the modern hunting tribes; especially that singular creature the giraffe, or camelopard, so recently known in Europe. The elephant is found in Abyssinia, not far from the southern confines of the state of Meroe. Section II. — History of the Ethiopians. The early history of Meroe is involved in impenetrable obscurity. Its monuments bear evident marks of being the models for the wondrous edifices of Egypt ; but, shut dxA from all intercourse with civilized na- tions by the intervention of the Egyptians, it is only when they were invaded, or became invaders, that we can trace the history of the Ethi- opians. It has been already mentioned that several of the Eg)rptian monarchs carried their arms into Ethiopia, and became for a time mas- ters of the country. In the eleventh century before the Christian era, the Assyrian heroine Semir'amis is reported to have attempted its con- quest ; but there is some doubt of the truth of this, as indeed of many other exploits attributed to this wonderful queen. But we have, certain infprmation of the Ethiopians being a powerful nation (b. c. 971) when they ..assisted Shishak in his war against Judsea "with very many /Chariots and horsemen." Sixteen years after this, we have an account •of Judaea being again invaded by an army of a million Ethiopians, im- accompanied by a.ny E,gyptian force.* From the Scripture narrative, it appears that the Ethiopians had ihade considerable progress in the art :pf war, and were masters of the navigation of the Red sea, and at least a part of the, Arabian peninsula. The kingdom must have been also in a ivery flourishing condition, when it was able to bear the cost of so vast and distant an expedition. The Ethiopian power gradually increased until its monarchs were enabled to conquer Egypt, where three of them reigned in succession, SabTjakon^ Sev'echus, arid Tar'akus, the Tirhakah of Scripture. f Sev'echus, called So in Scripture, was so powerful, a monarch, that Hoshea, king of Israel, revolted against the Assyrians, relying on his assistance ; % but was not supported by his ally. , This, indeed, was the immediate cause of the captivity of the Ten Tribes ; for " in the ninth year of, Hoshda, the king df Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria," as a punishment for unsuccessful rebellion. Tir- hikahwas a more warlike prince : he led an army against Sermach'- erib, king of Assyria,^ then besieging Jerusalem ; and the Egyptian ■traditions, preserved in the- age of Herod'otus, give an accurate account of ^ 'the providential interposition by which the pride of the Assyrians was humbled. . ! In the reign of Psammet'ichus, the entire warrior-caste of the Egyp- tians migrated ■ to Ethiopia, and were located at the extreme southern frontier of the kingdom. These colonists instructed the Ethiopians in the jecent improvements made in the art of war, and prepared them for resisting the forniidable invasion of Qamby'ses. ."•Z'Chron. xiv. 8-13. : , ■ ' t Mr. Hawkins, in his recent work on Meroe, identifies Tirhakah with the priest ^ihqs,' (Jn what we deem very insufficient gcounds. • „ , , , 1 2 Kings, jvii- 4. , • § 2 Kings, xix. 9. . THE ETHIOPIANS. 15 Scarcely had the Persian dynasty been established in Egypt, when Camby'ses set out to invade Ethiopia, without preparing any store of provisions, apparently ignorant of the deserts through which it was necessary for him to pass. Before he had gone over a fifth part of the route from Thebes, the want of provisions was felt ; yet he madly de- termined to proceed. The soldiers fed on grass, as long as any could be found ; but at length, when they reached the deserts, so dreadful was the famine,«that they were obliged to /cast lots, that one out of every ten might be eaten by his comrades. / j It is said that the king of Ethiopia was always elected from the priestly caste ; and there was a strange custom for the electors, when weary of their sovereign, to send him a courier with orders to die. Ergam'enes was the first monarch who ventured to resist this absurd custom : he lived in the reign of the second Ptol'emy, and was instruct- ed in Grecian philosophy. So far from yielding, he marched against the fortress of the priests, massacred most of them, and instituted a new religion. Queens frequently ruled in Ethiopia : one named Candace made war on Augus'tus Cae'sar about twenty years before the birth of Christ, and though defeated by the superior discipline of the Romans, obtained peace on very favorable conditions. During the reign of another of the same name, we find that the Jewish religion was prevalent in Meroe, probably in consequence of the change made by Ergam'enes ; for the queen's confidential adviser went to worship at Jerusalem, and on his return (a. d. 53) was converted by St. Philip,* and became the means of introducing Christianity into Ethiopia. These are the principal historical facts that can now be ascertained respecting the ancient and once powerful state of Meroe, which has now sunk into the general mass of African barbarism. Section III. — Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe. The pyramids of Meroe, though inferior in size to those of Middle Egypt, are said to surpass them in architectural beaiity, and the sep- ulchres evince the greatest purity of taste. But the most important and striking proof of the progress of the Ethiopians in the art of build- ing, is their knowledge and employment of the arch. Mr. Hoskins has stated that these pyramids are of superior antiquity to those of Egypt. The Ethiopian vases depicted on the monuments, though not richly ornamented, display a taste and elegance of form that has never been surpassed. In sculpture and coloring, the edifices of Meroe, though not so profusely adorned, rival the choicest specimens of Egyptian art. We have already noticed the favorable position of Meroe for com- mercial intercourse with India and the interior of Africa : it was the entrepot of trade between the north and south, between the east and west, while its fertile soil enabled the Ethiopians to purchase foreign luxuries with native productions. It does not appear that fabrics were woven in Meroe so extensively as in Egypt ; but the manufactures of metal must have been at least as flourishing. But Meroe owed its greatness less to the produce of its soil or its factories, than to its po- •Actsvii. 33, * 16 ANCIENT HISTORY. sition on the intersection of the leading caravan-routes of ancient com- merce. The great changes in these lines of trade, the devastations of successive conquerors and revolutions, the fanaticism of the Sar'acens, and the destruction of the fertile soil by the encroachments of the moving sands from the desert, are causes suificient for the ruin of such a powerful empire. Its decline, however, was probably accelerated by the pressure of the nomad hordes, who took advantage of its weakness to plunder its defenceless citizens. • BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 17 CHAPTER III. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. Section I. — Geographical Outline. — Natural History. Babylonia, or Chaldae'a, was situated between two great rivers, the Euphrates on the west, and the Tigris on the east. The bed of the Tigris is much lower than that of the Euphrates, its channel much deeper, and the banks so precipitous, that it very rarely overflows them. Babylonia was properly the country on the lower Euphrates : north of it were the extensive plains of Mesopotamia, and beyond these, the moimtainous districts of Arm6nia, supposed by many writers to have been the first habitation of the posterity of Noah, after the Flood. Beyond the Tigris was the region properly called Assyr'ia, a table- land, bounded on the north and east by chains of mountains^ which have afforded shelter to plundering nomad tribes from the remotest antiquity. The soil, though not so rich as that of Babyldnia, vras generally fruitful. But almost ever since the fall of the Assyrian empire, the country has been devastated by wars between powerful monarchies and nations ; and it is now little better tian a wilderness, save that some patches of land are cultivated in the neighborhood of the few inconsiderable tovras within its precincJiS. Babylonia, in the neighborhood of the Euplirates, rivalled the fertil- ity of the valley of the Nile : the soil was so peculiarly suited for corn, that the husbandman's returns were sometimes three hundred fold, and rarely less than two hundred fold. The rich oily grains of the pan'icum and ses'amum were produced in luxuriant abundance ; the fig-tree, the olive, and the vine, were wholly wanting ; but there were large groves of palm-trees on the banks of the river. From the palms they obtained not only fruit, but wine, sugar, and molasses, as the Arabs do at the present time. Dwarf cypress-trees were scattered over the plains ; but these were a poor substitute for other species of wood. To this deficiency of timber must be attributed the neglect of the river navigation, and the abandonment of the commerce of the Indian seas, by the Babylonians. Stone and marble were even more rare in this country than wood, but the clay was well adapted for the manufacture of bricks. These, whether dried in the sun, or burnt in kilns, became so hard and durable, that now, after the lapse of so many centuries, the remains of ancient walls preserve the bricks uninjured by their long exposure to the atmosphere, and retaining the impression of the inscriptions m the arrow-headed character as perfectly as if they had only just been 2 18 ANCIENT HISTORY, manufactured. Naphtha and bitumen, or earthy oil and pitch, were produced in great abundance above Baij'ylon, near the modem town of Hit : these served as substitutes for mortar or cement ; and so lasting were they, that the layers of rashes and palm-leaves laid between the courses of bricks as a binding material, are found at this day in the ruins of Bab'ylon, as perfect as if a year had not elapsed since they were put together. Section II. — Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians. Despotism, in its most severe form, was established in the Ass)rrian monarchy, and in those by which it was succeeded. The king's wiU was the law,; no code existed to restrict his judgments; and even ancient customs were set aside at his pleasure. He was the head of the church as well as the state, and claimed divine worship. His palace was crowded with as many wives and concubines as he chose to collect, and these were placed under the guardianship of eunuchs, an unfortunate race, first brought into use in Assyr'ia. It is impossible to determine whether the priests, usually called Chaldeans, were a caste or an order ; but it is most probable that, like the Egyptians, the Jews, and the Persians, the Babylonians had an hereditary priesthood. Their religion was the kind of idolatry usually called Sabian ; that is, they worshipped the sun, the moon, and the starry host. In a later age, they added to this the worship of deified mortals, whom they supposed to be in some way connected with the celestial luminaries, just as Eastern monarchs of the present day call themselves "brothers of the sun and moon." Their supreme deity was named Baal, or Bell, which signifies Lord : the mixture of the astronomical with tVie historical character of the idol has rendered the Assyrian mythology complicated and obscure ; and the double character of their deities generally, has brought confusion not only into mythol- ogy, but history ; for many of the fabulous legends respecting Nfnus and Semir'amis are manifestly imperfect astronomical theories. Cra- elty and obscenity were the most marked attributes of the Babylonian and Assyrian idolatry ; human victims were sacrificed, and prostitution was enjoined as a religious duty. It had also much of the absurdity that belongs to the Brahminism of the present day ; monstrous combinations of forms were attributed to the gods ; their idols had many heads, and jumbled the limbs of men and the members of animals together ; these had probably at first a symbolic meaning, which the priests pre- served by tradition, but which was carefully concealed from the vulgar herd. The condition of women was more degraded in Bab'ylon than in any other Eastern country. No man had a right to dispose of his daugh- ters in marriage ; when girls attained mature age, they were exposed for sale in the public markets, and delivered to the highest bidder. The money thus obtained for beauty was appUed to portioning ugliness. Debauchery and gross sensuality were the natural results of such a system, and these evils were aggravated by the habitual intoxication of every class of society. This dissolute people were as superstitious as BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 19 they were depraved, and were the slaves of the Chaldean priests and jugglers. The Babylonians had made considerable progress in the mechanical arts, and in mathematical science : their astronomical knowledge was very extensive, but it was so disfigured by astrological absurdities as to be nearly useless. The arts of weaving and working in metal were practised in Babylon ; the naphtha and petroleum furnished excellent fuel for furnaces ; and the accounts given of their skill in metal- foimding show that they had made many ingenious contrivances, which supplied their natural wants of stone and wood. The Babylonian language belongs to that class called Semit'ic, of which the Hebrew, Arabic, aiid Syriac, are branches. They possessed an alphabetic character, and wrote on bricks and earthen cylinders. It is not certain that they possessed books, their coimtry producing no materials from which paper could be manufactured. Section III. — History of the Assyrians and Babylonians. FROM B. c. 2204 TO B. c. 538. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than traditions of the heroes and heroines, who, at some early period, founded a kingdom in the coun- tries bordering on the Euphrates — traditions without any chronological data, and in the ordinary style of Eastern exaggeration. The Assyrian history contained in the Holy Scriptnres is that of a distinct nation of conquerors that founded an empire. This history is however confined to incidental notices of the wars between the Assyrians and the Isra- elites and Jews. Herod'otus briefly touches on the Assyrian empire ; but his narrative, so far as it goes, confirms the narrative given in the Old Testament. We shaU endeavor to deduce from all these sources the most authentic account of the Assyrian monarchy. The miraculoi^s interruption of the building of Babel led to the aban- donment of that spot by the followers of Nim'rod, who appears to have been the first nomad .chief that founded a permanent monarchy. He was the Ninus of profane history — a warrior, a conqueror, the builder of cities, and the founder of an empire. Tradition has based a long romance on these few facts, which it is not necessaiy to detail. The Assyrian empire appears to have been founded b. c. 1237, and Nin eveh was its metropolis. Nfnus chose for his principal queen Semir'amis, the wife of one of his officers, to whose prudent counsels he is said to have been indebted for many of his victories. On the death of Nfnus, Semir'amis assumed the administration of the empire as regent. She is said to have founded the city of Bab'y- lon ; but this is clearly erroneous. The additions, however, that she made to the city, and the stupendous edifices with which she adorned it, in some degree justified the tradition. Her wars were waged in the most remote countries; she is said to have conquered Egypt, and invaded Ethiopia, on one side, and to have attacked India, on the other. Semir'amis was succeeded by her son Nin'yas, who gave himself up to indolence and debauchery, keeping himself secluded in his palace, and intrusting the entire care of the administration to his mimsters. 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. pis successors for several generations followed his base example ; and the Assyrian monarchy gradually decayed. Leaving the traditions respecting NinuB and Semir'amis, in which a few historical facts are quite obscured under a cloud of fables and astronomical allegories, we come to the portion of Assyrian history founded on the authentic records of the Old Testament. The Assyr- ians began to extend their empire westward beyond the Euphrates in the reign of Pul (b. c. 771). He approached the confines, of the king- dom of Israel, then ruled by the usurper Men'ahem, and inspired so much terror, that his forbearance was purchased by a thousand talents of silver .* Tiglath-pul-as'sur succeeded to the throne (b. c. 747), and prepared to pursue the plans of conquest that Pul had sketched. He conquered the kingdom of Israel, and transplanted a great number of the inhabi- tants to the remote parts of his empire.f Invited by A-liaz, king of Judah, he made war against the ancient kingdom of Syria, stormed its celebrated metropolis, Damas'cus, and removed the vanquished people beyond the Euphrates. Shalman-as'sur was the next monarch (b. c. 728). He invaded the kingdom of Israel, took Samaria after a siege of three years, and led the greater part of the ten tribes into captivity, supplying their place with colonies from other states. After the conquest of Israel, Shal- man-as'sur invaded Phoenicia, and subdued all the principal cities ex- cept Tyre. San-her'ib, or Sennach'erib, was the next monarch. He led an army against Hezekiah, king of Judah (b. c. 724), and also attacked Egypt. His impious blasphemies against the God of the Jews were punished by the miraculous destnaction of his army ; and he returned home mor- tiiSed and disgraced. A conspiracy was formed against him, and he Vras slain by his own sons. Assar-had'don-pul, the Esarhad'don of Scripture, and Sardanapalus of profane history, was the third son of San-her'ib, and was chosen his successor, in preference to the parricides, Adram-mel'ek and Shar- ez'er. The accounts given of this prince are so very inconsistent, that many have supposed that there were two of the name ; but it is more probable that he -was in the 'early" part of his reign an active conqueror, and that he subsequently sunk into sensuality and sloth. He conquered the kingdom of Judah, and made some impression on Egypt ; but, re- turning to Nin'eveh, he became the slave of intemperance, and thus disgusted the hardy warriots whom he had so often led to victory. The satraps of Media and BabyltSnla revolting, besieged Sardanapalus in his capital ; and he, finding himself deserted by his subjects, and unable to protract his defence, made a hiige pile, on which he placed Ms wives and his treasures ; then setting it on fire, he threw himself into the midst of the flames (b. c. 717). Thus ended the: Assyrian monarchy ; and the supremacy of central and western Asia was trans- ferred to the Babylonians. i The Kasdim, or Chaldeans, p, northern nomad tribe from tlje niount- ain-chains of Tau'rus and the Cau'casus, appear to have been em- • 2 Kings XV. 19. f 2 Kings xv. 29. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 21 ployed as mercenaries by the Assyrian monarcis, and to have been stationed in Babylonia. As is not unusual in the East, these soldiers revolted against their masters, and prepared to carve out an empire for themselves. That they were a conquering horde which settled in the country, is proved by the express testimony of Isaiah. " Behold the land of the Chaldeans [Kasdim] ; this people was not, until the Assyr- ian founded it for them that dwell in the wilderness : they set up the towers thereof, they raised up the palaces thereof."* The chronology of the Babylonian Chaldeans commences with the reign of Nabonas'- sar (b. c. 747), a remarkable era in history, because the introduction of the Egyptian solar year, during the reign of that prince, first sup- plied the Chaldeans with an accurate mode of measuring time. There is nothing worthy of note in the history of Nabonas'sar, and his twelve immediate successors. During their reigns, indeed, Babyl6nia appears again to have become dependant upon Assyr'ia, and not to have re- covered its freedom until the general insurrection against Sardana- palus. Nabopolas'sar, or Nebo-pul-as'sar, became king of Bab'ylon soon after the overthrow of the Ass)rrian empire (b. c. 627). Pharaoh- Necho took advantage of the distracted state of central Asia to extend his dominions to the Euphrates. He gained possession of Car'chemish (Circesium), and induced the governors of Ccele-Syria and Phcenicia to revolt against Nabopolas'sar. In the reduction of these provinces, the Babylonian monarch was greatly assisted by his son, Nebuchadnez'zar, or Nebo-kal-as'sar, who subsequently raised the empire to the summit of its greatness. Nebuchadnez'zar obtained a brilliant victory over Pharaoh-Necho, at Car'chemish (b. c. 604) ; and was about to follow up his success by invading Egypt, when he was recalled to Bab'ylon in consequence of his father's death. Nitoc'ris was probably the queen of Nebuchadnez'zar. She seems to have acted as regent while the king was employed in foreign wars, and her name is associated with the splendid buildings erected in Babylon in this reign. Before invading Eg3rpt, Nebuchadnez'zar had conquered the kingdom of Judah, and brought several of its princes to Bab'ylon as captives or hostages. Among these was the prophet Daniel.f Soon afterward the Scythians, probably some Tartar horde, invaded the Ass5T:ian provinces^ and the Jews embraced this opportunity of asserting their independence. Nebuchadnez'zar was then besieging in conjunction with Cyax'ares the Mede ; but having taken and destroyed this ancient rival of Bab'ylon, he marched against Jerusalem with a resistless force. The holy city was taken and plundered, its monarch slain, his son sent prisoner to Bab'ylon, and a new king appointed as deputy to the conqueror. The Jews again revolted, relying on the promised aid of the Egyptians, but were once more subdued, and treated with barbarous cruelty. Their city was laid desolate, their lands wasted, and the bulk of the nation led into captivity. The conqueror then proceeded into Phoenicia, which he completely subdued ; whence he advanced to Egypt, and plundered the lower valley of the Nile. It was after his return from this expedi- tion, that Nebuchadnez'zar erected the golden image in the plains of •Isaiah xxiii. 13. f Daniel ii. 1, &c. 23 ANCIENT HISTORY. Ddra.* Toward the dose of his reign, the impiety of Nebuchadnez'zar was punished by a fit of lunacy ; during which " he was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles' feathers, and his nails like birds' claws."t Evil-Merbdach succeeded, and after a short reign was murdered by his sister's husband, Neriglis'sar. But the young prince Belshaz'zar, was saved from the conspirators. He continued several years in ob- scurity, but did not profit by the stern lessons of adversity. At this time the power of the Medes had reached a formidable height, and the Babylonians summoned the kings of western Asia to aid in preventing its further extension. The Medes were commanded by Cyax'ares and his nephew Cy'rus. After a fierce engagement, the Babylonians were totally defeated, and their sovereign slain. Labosoar'chad succeeded his father Neriglis'sar (b. c. 555) ; but on account of his tyranny was dethroned, after a reign of only a few months, and the legitimate line restored in the person of Nebo-an-dal, called also Nabonadius and Labynetus, who took the surname of Bel- shaz'zar, that is, the " mighty prince of Bel." As he was a youth, the regency was intrusted to Queen Nitoc'ris. She completed the works which Nebuchadnez'zar had commenced, and is said to have connected the eastern and western banks of the Euphrates both by a bridge and a timnel. To complete the last work, it was necessary to turn the river for a time into a new channel ; and for this purpose a lake and canal were constructed to the north of Bab'ylon. When Belshaz'zar assumed the reins of government, he deserted the prudent line of policy by which Nitoc'ris had delayed the fate of the tottering empire ; not only abandoning himself to Ucentious pleasures, but provoking the hostility of the warlike Medes. Cyax'ares, the " Darawe'sh" (Dari'us), that is, king of the Medes, accompanied by his nephew Cy'rus, invaded Bab- ylonia, and soon laid siege to the metropolis. Confiding in the strength of the walls, Belshaz'zar laughed his enemies to scorn ; and while the enemy was still before the walls, gave a great feast in honor of his ex- pected success. Cy'rus, on the same evening, sent a detachment to open the canal leading to the lake that had been dug by Nitoc'ris, or- dering his soldiers, as soon as the water should be drawn from the bed of the river, to enter the city through the deserted channel. Meantime the revelry of the feast was disturbed by the supernatural handwriting interpreted by Daniel,! announcing the impending de- struction of the empire. Guided by the lights that gleamed from the chambers of revelry, the Medes penetrated into the very heart of the city, and attacked the guards before the palace. The guests within, startled by the clash of arms, flung the gates open to ascertain the cause of the tumult, and thus gave admission to the enemy. Belshaz'zar, in this hour of despair, behaved in a manner worthy of his illustrious de- scent : he drew his sword, and at the head of a few friends attempted to drive back the enemy ; but, " flushed with success, and drunk with gore, whole multitudes poured in :" he fell in his own hall ; and with him fell the empire of Bab'ylon (b. c. 538). • Daniel iii. 1, &c. t Daniel iv. 33. ■ X Daniel v. 1, &c. BABYLONIA AND ASSYaiA. 33 Section IV.—Dtscriptixm ofNifieveh and Babylon. The city of Nin'eveh, probably so named from Ninus, its fomider, stood on the east bank of the Tigris, nearly three hmidred miles north of Bab'ylon. Like all the ancient cities of Asia, it was of a rectangular form, and retained the traces of the nomad encampment in which it originated. It was of enormous dimensions, being fifteen miles in length, nine in breadth, and forty-eight in circumference. Nor will this great extent seem incredible, when we reflect that the houses were not built in continuous streets, but stood apart, as the tents formerly did, each surromided by gardens, parks, and farms, whose size varied according to the rank and wealth of the respective proprietors. Nin'- eveh, in short, was less a city, according to the modem European no- tions, than a collection of viUages, hamlets, and noblemen's seats, en- closed within one wall as a common defence. The fortifications, ac- cording to the historians, were constructed on a stupendous scale. The walls were two hundred feet in height, and so wide that three chariots might drive on them abreast, and they were further secured by fifteen hundred lofty towers. After the destruction of the city by the Medes, Nin'eveh appears to have long remained desolate ; several villages were subsequently erected from its ruins, the largest of which pre- served the name of the ancient metropolis. It is now a desert waste : even the wild vegetation that usually veils the ruins of fallen greatness has disappeared, and desolation is spread over the entire landscape. Bab'ylon stood in a plain, and was perfectly square ; the river Euphrates ran through the centre of the town, and also supplied water to the ditches, which were dug in front of the walls. The streets were perfectly straight, and crossed each other at right angles. On the western bank of the river, stood the tower of Belus, which was probably buUt on the foundations of Babel. When completed by Nebuchadnez'zar, each of the sides of the city was about fifteen miles in length, and consequently the whole circumference was sixty miles. The eastern division was the most recent : it was built by the Kasdun, or Chaldeans ; and there Nebuchadnez'zar erected the great palace whose circuit was equal to that of a moderate-sized city. Like the generality of steppe regions, the country between the Tigris and Euphrates produced neither stone nor wood fit for building ; but the vicinity of Bab'ylon furnished an inexhaustible supply of clay, which, dried in the sun or burnt in kilns, became so firm and durable, that the remains of ancient walls, which have been thrown down for centuries, have withstood the action of the atmosphere to the present day ; and, as may be seen by the specimens in the British Museum, retain the arrow-headed inscriptions with which they were impressed. Nature also provided a plentiful supply of naphtha or bitumen, which served instead of lime. Layers of rushes and palm-leaves were laid between the strata of brick; and the traveller Niebuhr found specimens of these in the ruins of Bab'ylon, so perfect that it might have been sup- posed that they had not been placed together longer than a few months. The walls of Bab'ylon were made of brick, cemented by bitumen, eighty-seven feet thick, and more than three hundred high : they were 24 ANCIENT HISTOKY. surrounded by a deep ditch, and pierced by a hundred gates, all made of sohd brass. Towers were erected for the defence of the gates and the comers of the walls, except where a morass protected the walls, and prevented the approach of an enemy. Wide, straight streets, or rather roads, from each of the gates, crossed each other at right angles, which, with the four half-streets that fronted to the walls, divided the city irito six hundred and seventy-six squares, each of four furlongs and a half on each side, or two miles and a quarter in circumference. These squares were, in fact, separate villages, and many of them were wholly untenanted, being used as parks or pleasure-grounds by the king and his nobles. A bridge passed over the Euphrates between the two palaces on the opposite banks, which, we are assured, were further connected by means of a tunnel. The length of the bridge was about a furlong, but its breadth Only thirty feet ; a long causeway on both sides of the river made the bridge appear of much greater extent than it really was. The temple of Bfelus was the most wondrous structure of the city. It was at its foundation a furlong in length, and about the same in breadth : its height is said to have exceeded six hundred feet, which is more than that of the Egyptian pyramids. It was built in eight stories, gradually diminishing in size as they ascended. Instead of stairs, there was a sloping terrace on the outside, sufficiently wide for car- riages and beasts of burden to ascend. Nebuchadnez'zar made great additions to this tower, and surrounded it with smaller edifices, enclosed by a wall somewhat more than two miles in circumference. The whole was sacred to Bel or Belus, whose temple was adorned with idols of gold, and all the wealth that the Babylonians had acquired by the plunder of the East. Next to the temple was the old palace, strongly fortified ; and on the opposite side of the river was the new palace, whose enclosures and pleasure-grounds covered a space of eight miles TOimd. Within its precincts were the celebrated hanging gardens, consisting of terraces one above another, raised upon pillars higher than the walls of the city, well floored with cement and lead, and: covered with earth, in which the most beautiful trees and shrubs were planted. From the time of its conquest, Bab'ylon gradually declined. Alex- an'der the Great designed Bab'ylon to be the capital of his empire, and was preparing to restore its ancient splendor when he was prematurely cut off. Thenceforward, its decay was rapid ; and it is now a vast heap of ruins, tenanted only by the beasts and birds that love to haunt solitary places. Thus literally has the prediction of the prophet been fulfilled : " Bab'ylon, the glory of kingdoms,^ the beauty of the Chal- dees' excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomor- rah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from gen- eration to generation : but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there ; and ostriches shall fill their houses, and the daughters of the owl shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there. And the howlers [jackals] shall cry in their desolate houses, and wild hounds in their pleasant palaces."* • Isaiah xiii, 19-22. (Gesenius's Translation.) BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 25 Section V. — Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians. Weaving of cotton, woollen stuffs, and carpets, were the principal manufactures established in- Bab'ylon ; and the cotton robes called sindones, probably a species of muslins, were so highly esteemed for their delicacy of texture and brilliancy of color, that they were appro- priated to royal use. We read in the book of Joshua, that a " Baby- lonish garment" formed part of the sacrilegious spoil which A'chan hid in his tent after the conquest of Jer'icho. Articles of luxury, such as perfumed waters, carved walking-canes, engraved stones, and seal rings, were made in the city ; and the art of cutting precious stones was carried to a perfection not exceeded by our modem lapidaries, as is manifest from the collection of Babylonian gems in the British Museum. The Babylonians had an extensive commerce eastward with Persia and northern India, whence they obtained gold, precious stones, rich dye-stuffs, and the best hounds. From Kandahar and Kashmir they procured fine wool, and the shawls which are still so highly valued. Emeralds, jaspers, and other precious stones, procured from the desert of Bac'tria, the modem Gobi, were brought in great abundance to Bab'ylon, and thence transmitted to western Asia and Europe. Cochi- neal, or rather the Indian lac, was imported in considerable quantities ; indeed, the Greeks confess that they derived their knowledge of the insect which produces this dye from th? Babylonians. Gold and gold- dust were also obtained from northern India, but more as articles of tribute than of commerce. It is uncertain whether any commerce was opened with China before the latter ages of the Persian empire ; but the Babylonians had certainly intercoiurse with Tibet and the countries round the Hindu Kiish. It was chiefly through their commercial allies, the Phcenicians, that the Babylonians had any trade in the Indian seas, though Isaiah plainly states that they had a navy of their own ; for he mentions " the Chal- deans, whose cry [exultation] is in their ships."* The trade by sea was between the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the western coasts of India and the island of Ceylon. From these countries they imported timber of various kinds, sugar-canes, spices, cinnamon, and pearls. This trade was completely destroyed by the Persians, through fear of the pirates who infested those seas, and who, by a sudden dash up the great rivers, hke the Normans and Danes of Europe, might sur- prise and plunder the chief cities of the empire. To prevent this misfortune, they blocked up the Tigris with immense dams, which effectually put an end to all navigation on the river, and to the inter- course between Bab'ylon and southern India. At a very early period the Babylonians formed commercial estab- lishments on the Bahrein islands in the Persian gulf, whence they obtained large quantities of the finest pearls. Pearl-oysters are found on almost all the coasts in this gulf, but the most considerable bank is that which extends along the western coast, from the Bahrein islands, nearly as far as Cape Dsiulfar. The pearls are both white and yellow, they are also as hard as rock, and are therefore preferred to * Isaiah xlii. 14. 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. the pearls of Ceylon, which, shiver to pieces when struck with a ham- mer. The cotton plantations on these islands were very extensive, and the staple of the cotton wool they produced was remarkable for its length and fineness, surpassing in this respect the cotton of India. From these islands the Babylonians, and after them the Phcenicians, obtained the best timber for ship-building, probably some species of the Indian teak-wood, which continues to be highly valued for this purpose. They also imported various kinds of ornamental timber, used in the manufacture of walking-canes and inlaid work, for which the Babylo- nians were deservedly celebrated. WESTERN ASIA. 27 CHAPTER IV. WESTERN ASIA: INCLUDING ASIA MINOR, SYRIA, AND PALESTINE. Section I. — Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline. Asia Minor is a terra not used by classical writers : it was invented in the middle ages, to describe the peninsula between the ^gean, the Black sea, the Caspian, and the Levant, which by, more recent authors is called Anatolia. It included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different periods. In the northern part of the peninsula, beginning from the western side, the chief countries were My'sia, Bithyn'ia, Paphlagonia, and Pon'tus. In the centre, Lyd'ia, Phrjr'gia, Galatia, Lycaonia, Isaiiria, Cappadocia, and Armenia. In the south were Caria, Ly'cia, Pisid'ia, Pamphy'lia, and Cilic'ia. The western part of My'sia, on the seacoast, was called Lesser Phry^gia, or Troas. It was celebrated for the Trojan plains and the city of Troy, immortalized by Homer. Bithyn'ia, Paphlagonia, and Pon'tus, skirt the Black sea, and were studded with Greek colonies during the flourishing age of Grecian commerce. The Halys and San'garis, the principal rivers of Asia Minor, fall into the Black sea. The entire west coast of Asia Minor was colonized by the Greeks, whose commercial cities in Ionia, iEolia, and Caria, were the most flourishing free states of antiquity, before they were conquered by the Persians. Lyd'ia, called also Mseonia, besides the Greek cities on its coasts, contained the celebrated metropolis Sar'dis, which stood on the banks of the Pactolus, at the foot of Mount Tmolus. It was the capital of the Lydian kingdom, and, after its conquest by the Persians, was re- garded as one of the chief cities of their empire. The boundaries of Phry'gia were almost constantly varying; its chief cities were Gor'dium and Celae'nae in ancient times ; but many others w;ere erected when the Macedonians became masters of the country ; of which the chief were Apamea, Laodicea, and Colossd. Galatia received its name from a body of Gauls who entered that country in the third century before the Christian era. Isauria and Ly- caonia were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. Cappadocia lay between the Halys and Euphrates : its chief town was Maz'aca. Armenia was the name of the moimtainous districts bordering on the Caspian Sea : its chief rivers were the Cy'rus and Arax'es, both of 38 ANCIENT HISTOHY. considerable magnitude. For a long time it was without cities ; but at length Tigranes, one of its monarchs, erected Tigranocer'ta. Caria was chiefly remarkable for the Greek colonies on the coast. Lyc'ia, Pisidia, and Pam'phylia, were mountainous districts. Cilicia bordered upon Syria, from which it was separated by Mount Am'anus : its chief cities were Tar'sus and Anchiale, both founded by Sardana- palus. Section II. — Ancient History of Asia Minor. The three kingdoms of Asia Minor that best deserve notice were the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. The history of Troy consists of mere traditions preserved by the Greek epic and dramatic poets ; its chronology is very uncertain, and the entire narrative very doubtful. Troy is said to have been originally founded by Dar'danus, a native of Samothrace (about b. c. 1400). To him succeeded Erichthonius, cel- ebrated for his splendid herds of horses ; Tros, who named the city Troy ; Plus, who changed the name to I'lium ; Laom'edon, during whose reigi; the city was sacked by Her'cules ; and Podar'kes, who was also called Priam. Alexander, or Paris, the son of Priam, being sent as ambassador into southern Greece, carried off Helen, the wife of Mehelaus, king of Sparta. The Grecian kings espoused the cause of the injured husband; and with their united forces warred against Troy. The city was taken after a siege that lasted ten years, and was pillaged and burned by the conquerors. Phrygian history is also composed of obscure traditions ; but that the Phrygians were originally a very powerful people, appears from the great diffusion of their national worship throughout Europe. The in- vestigations of modern travellers have brought to light new proofs of the greatness of the Phrygians in their tombs and temples excavated from the solid rock. Their chief deity was Cybele, who seems to have been a personification of the prolific powers of the earth : her priests were named Corybaii'tes ; celebrated for their frantic dances, in which they beat and cut themselves. Most of the Phrygian kings were named either Midas or Gor'dius ; but the order of their succession can not be ascertained. Gor'dius I., the founder of the city Gor'dium, was origi- nally a peasant ; when raised to the throne, he consecrated his cart to the gods. The beam was fastened to the yoke by a complicated knot ; and a traditional oracle declared, that whoever untied the. knot should be king of Asia. When this was told to Alexander the Great, he cut it through with his sword. In the reign of Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire. The Lydians, called also Meednians, were a branch of the Carians. Three dynasties reigned over them successively. That of the Aty'adse terminated (b. c. 1333) in the person of Om'phale, who was said to be the wife of Hercules. The race of the Heraclidse terminated with Candadles, who was murdered at the instigation of his queen, by Gy'- ges, a Lydian nobleman (b. c. 727). Gy'ges founded the dynasty of the Merm'nadae, imder whose sway Lyd'ia rose to great power. During the reign of Ar'dys, the second of the dynasty, Asia Minor was de- SYRIA. 29 vastated by hordes of northern barbarians, called Cimmerians, who had been expelled from their original seats by the Scythians. Their rav- ages were continued for about half a century : but they were finally driven out by Alyat'tes, the grandson of Ar'dys. Encouraged by his success against the Cimmerians, Alyat'tes endeavored to check the growing power of the Medes, and for six years Waged war against Cyax'ares. The contest was at length about to be decided by a great battle, when a total eclipse of the sim so terrified both armies in the midst of the fight, that they separated in consternation (b. c. 601). This re- markable eclipse was predicted by Thales of Miletus, and is the first recorded to have been calculated by astronomers. Croe'sus, the son and successor of Alyat'tes, subdued all the Grecian states in Asia Minor, and extended his empire on the eastern side to the river Halys. The magnificence of his court at Sardis attracted visiters from different countries ; but Croe'sus was more anxious to en- tertain philosophers and men of learning from Greece. The illustrious Solon was once his guest, and with honorable freedom refused to de- clare Croe'sus perfectlyihappy until he knew the termination of his career. The Lydian monarch was deeply offended ; but ere long he had reason to admire the wisdom of the Athenian sage. Seduced by the pretended or3,cles of l^elphi, he waged war against the rising Per- sian empire ; but was defeated by Cy'rus, and taken prisoner. Being sentenced to death by the barbarous victor, he exclaimed, when placed on the funeral pile, " O Solon, Solon !" Cy'rus asked the meaning of this invocation ; and was so struck by the impressive example of the philosopher's wisdom, that he not only spared the life of Cros'sus, but made him his friend and counsellor (b. c. 549). Lydia, and the rest of Asia Minor, remained subject to the Persian empire until the time of Alexander the Great. Section III. — Syria. — Geographical Outline. The name of Syria wag loosely given by the Greeks, as that of A'ram was by the Hebrews, nqt only to the country now called by that name, but also to Mesopotamia and part of Asia Minor ; but it is prop- erly restricted to the region between Mount Am'anus on the north, the Euphrates on the east, Arabia on the south, and Phoenicia on the west. It has been variously divided, but the most convenient division is into three unequal portions — Syria Proper, which includes the prov- inces of Commagene, Seledcis, and Coele-Syria ; Phoenicia and the country of the Philistines ; and Palestine, of which we shall treat in a separate chapter. The principal city of Commagene was Samosdta on the Euphrates : there were several trading towns of minor importance, all in the vicin- ity. Seledcis was adorned with many splendid cities during the reigns of the successors of Alexander, of which the most remarkable were Antioch and Seleucia. It contained also Hierap'olis, dedicated to the Syrian goddess Beroea, the modem Aleppo, and Heliop'olis (Baal'bec), whose magnificent ruins still attract admiration. Coele-Syria, or Hol- low Syria, was so called because it lies between two parallel chams of mountains, Lib'anuS' and Aiitilib'anus : it contained Damascus, the 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. ancient metropolis of Sjrria, which existed as a city in the days o( Abrahani, Ab'ila, and Laodic6a. The Syrian desert adjoins this difis- ion, in the midst of which is a fertile oasis, on which the city of Tad- mor, or Palmy'ra, was founded by Solomon. Its ruins rival those of Baalbec in magnitude and beauty. Southeast of this was Thap'sacus, opposite to which the Euphrates was fordable. Phoenicia, or Phoenfce, skirted the eastern coasts of the Mediterra- nean, but its boundaries were almost perpetually varying. It contained Sidon, the most ancient commercial city in the world ; Tyre, commonly called " the daughter of Sidon ;" Ar'adus, also an insular city ; Trip'- oUs, so called because it was colonized by the three preceding cities conjointly : Byb'lus and Bery'tus, the modern Beiroot, which is still a good harbor. Tyre was originally a Sidoliian colony, but rose rapidly above the parent state, and became a flourishing commercial city. After its cap- ture by Alexander the Great, Tyre gradually declined, less in conse- quence of the conqueror's vengeance than of the founding of Alexan- dria in Egypt, which soon became the seat of the commerce that had previously centred in Tyre. Section IV. — Social and Potilical Condition of the Syrians and Phanidans. Syria contained but one large river, the Oron'tes, a turbid and rapid stream, whose navigation is impeded by rapids, and whose waters can not be used for domestic purposes. But there are several minor rivers in the neighborhood of Damascus, which, as well as their tributary streams, are remarkable for their limpid waters and abundance of fish. The soil is generally better suited to pasturage than agriculture. Two large valleys of mineral salt added greatly to the natural wealth of the country ; and the mountains of Leb'anon supplied abundance of excel- lent timber both for house and ship-building. Sjiis. was consequently partly suited to a nomad, and partly to a commercial people ; and this mixture of the two opposite characters, with scarcely any trace of the intermediate agricultural class, led to many revolutions in the Syrian government ; the cities were more or less republican, while the rural districts were subject to petty despots. The Syrian religion appears to hsfve been elementary ; that is, the objects of worship were the personifications of some powers of nature : their most celebrated deity, Astar'te, or the Syrian goddess, represented both the moon and the prolific power of the earth, and was worshipped with the same licentious ceremonies as the Babylonian Mylifta. The Phcenicians, like the Syrians, belonged to the great Aramean, or Semitic family of nations. Their narrow and short line of coast, indented with excellent bays and harbors, was covered with lofty and wooded mountains, that jut out into the sea, and form bold protaonto- ries. Several islands stud the coast, on which cities and commercial establishments were founded, as well as on the mainland. Each of these cities was an independent state ; but they were generally united by a federative league, under the presidency of Sidon, and afterward SYRIA. 31 of Tyre. The religion of the Phcenicians appears to have been more sanguinary than that of most other nations. Tham'muz, or Ad6nis, was worshipped with very licentious rites, which were supposed to have a mystic signification. Section V. — History of the Syrians and Phcenicians. Syria was divided info a number of petty states, most of which were subdued by the Jewish king, David (b. c. 1044). Toward the close of Solomon's reign, Rezon, who had been originally a slave, threw off the yoke, and founded the Syrian kingdom of Damascus. Ben-hadad, the most powerful of his successors, waged a long and sanguinary war against the kingdom of Israel, during the reigns of Ahab and Jehoram. He was finally murdered by Hazael, one of his servants (b. c. 884), who usurped the vacant throne. Hazael was a warlike prince ; he gained several brilliant victories over the forces of Israel and Judah, compelling the monarchs of both to resign several important provinces, and pay him tribute. He also made himself mas- ter of E'lath on the Red sea, and greatly increased the commercial prosperity of his dominions. But these advantages were lost under the reign of his inglorious son, Ben-hadad II. The Syrians recovered some of their power under Rezin ; toward the close of his reign, he entered into alliance with Pekah, king of Israel, against A'haz, king of Judah. The Syrians and IsraeUtes gained so many advantages, that A'haz sought the protection of Tig- lath-pileser, king of Assyria, who marched against Damascus, cap- tured the city, dragged the inhabitants away captive, and put an end to the kingdom (b. c. 740). It has been already mentioned, that most of the Phcenician cities were independent states. Tyre is, however, the only one whose his- tory can be satisfactorily traced. Its first sovereign was Ab'ical (about B. 0. 1050), wpo was contemporary with David. His son and succes- sor, Hiram, was united by the strictest bonds of friendship to the great Jewish king, and also to, his son Solomon. During the reign of Hiram, Tyre acquired the supremacy of Phoenicia, and became the most flour- ishing emporium of commerce in the ancient world. The most remarkable successors of Hiram were Ethbaal I., the father of the wicked Jez'ebel, wife of Ahab, in whose reign some im- portant colonies were planted in Africa ; and Pygmalion, whose murder of Sichse'us led to the, foundation of Carthage (about b. c. 900). Dfdo, the vidfe of Sichae'us, aided by numerous Tyrians, escaped by sea with her husband's treasures, and sought a new coimtry on the northern shores of Africa. Here she erected the city of Carthage, which soon rivalled Tjnre itself in commercial prosperity. The Tyrians exercised their supremacy over the surrounding cities with so much cruelty, that the Phoenicians appUed for protection to the Assyrians, and afterward, to the Babylonians. The Assyrians, unable to cope with the Tyrians .by sea, retired, leaving the city uninjured. But Nebuchadnez'zar so exhausted Tyre by a constant blockade, that it was almost wholly abandoned by its inhabitants, who erected the city 32 ANCIENT HISTOEY. of New Tyre Upon a neighboring island. Soon after tHs event, a change was made in the form of government; annual magistrates, called Shophetim, or, according to the Greek orthography, SufTetes, being chosen instead of kings. After Cjrrus had conquered Babylon, the Phcenician cities submitted of their own accord (b. c. 538) ; but though they became dependancies of the Persian empire, they were permitted to retain their native governments. Tyre again became sub- ject to kingSi and supplied the strength of the Persian naval power. It was taken by Alexander the Great (b. q. 332), and from that time it sunk into hopeless decay. Section VI. — Phoenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The system of colonization in commercial states has been always the greatest aid to the progress of civilization : colonies are founded by trading nations for the purpose of securing a lucrative commerce, by establishing a market for the manufactured produce of the parent state, and a carrying-trade for its merchants and seamen. Such colo- nies, unlike the military establishments of despotic states, require to be placed under the guidance of persons advanced in political knowledge, who know how to vary the institutions derived from the government at home, so as to suit the altered circumstances of their position and for- eign relations : hence civil liberty has always advanced more rapidly in commercial colonies than in the states from which they were derived', and the science of legislation has attained greater perfection than in more ancient establishments. In commercial states, the distinction between the citizen and the soldier is very strongly marked ; and most commercial states, in ancient and modem times eniployed foreign mercenaries. The prophet Eze- kiel, whose account of Tyre is the most perfect record of its ancient condition, enumerates the countries that supplied the Tyrian armies and navies with warriors.* The Phoenician colonies proceeded from east to west along the coasts of the Mediterranean, occupying the principal islands. Cy'prus, called in Scripture Kittim, or Ghittim, was not only a colony but a province of the Tyrians, and vestiges of their establishments on the island still exist. From Cyprus they extended their settlements to Crete and some of the islands in the Archipelago. Thence they pro- ceeded to Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia, spreading their cities unequally along the coasts, and very rarely attempting the conquest of the inte- rior. Their establishments in Sicily and Sardinia, indeed, appear to have been only naval stations for the vessels employed in the trade with western Europe, especially with Spain, which was the Mexico or Peru of the ancient world. The Spanish peninsula, called in Scrip- ture. Tar'shish, from the city Tartes'sus, was the country with which the Tyrians had the most lucrative trade ; and tjie colonies they estab- lished there soon became independent states. It would seem that the Tyrians were by no means anxious to retain supremacy over their col- onies, wisely preferring a close alUance, cemented by common descent, • Ezekiel xxvii. 8-11. SYRIA. 33 language, and religion, to a hollow dependance. Colonies were also planted beyond the straits of Gibraltar, or, as they were called by the ancients, the Pillars of Hercules. Trade was extended to the British islands and the coasts of the North sea, which must have led to the establishment of colonies and naval stations along the western and northern coasts of Spain. The colonies in northern Africa, Leptis, Carthage, TJtica, &c., attained greater splendor than any of the other Phoenician cities, and rivalled Tyre itself in wealth and magnificence. It is exceedingly probable that they had also settlements in western Africa, and that they> had even reached the island of Madeira. But to prevent any interfer- ence with their lucrative commerce, they designedly cast a veil of mystery over their intercourse with the western regions, of which the Greek poets took advantage to embellish their narratives of fictitious voyages and travels with the most fanciful inventions. It is known that the Phoenicians preceded the Greeks in forming commercial establishments along the coast of Asia Minor and the shores of the Black sea ; but we have no account of the' mode in which they were deprived of these possessions by the Greeks. It is probable that the PhoBnicians resigned this branch of commerce to attend more closely to their lucrative trade with the western regions. In the eastern seas they had establishments on the Persian and Ara- bian gulfs ; but their settlements on the latter were probably not made until David had conquered their commercial rivals, the Edomites, or Idumeans. From that time they paid great attention to their southern trade, and seem to have become close allies of the Egyptians. Section VII. — Phoenician Manufactures and Cmmnerce. The textile fabrics of the Sidonians, and the purple cloths of the Tyrians, were celebrated from the earliest antiquity. The Tyrian purple was not a single color, but was a generic name for all the shades of purple and scarlet. The dye was obtained from a shell-fish found in great abundance on the shores of the Mediterra- nean. Vegetable dyes of great beauty and variety were also used ; the dyeing was always performed in the raw materials ; and the Phoe- nicians alone understood the art of producing shot colors by using threads of different tints. Glass was very anciently manufactured both at Sidon and Sarepta : tradition, indeed, ascribes the invention of glass to the Phtenicians ; but the Egyptians seem to have a claim at least as good to the discovery. Carvings in wood and ivory, manufactures of jewelry and toys, complete all that has been recorded of the products ' of Tyrian industry ; and it seems probable that their commerce con- sisted more in the interchange of for'eigh commodities than in the ex- port of their own wrought goods. The land-trade of the Phoenicians may be divided into three great branches : the Arabian^ which included the Egyptian and that with the Indian seas ; the Babylonian, to which is referred the commerce with central Asia and north India ; and the Armenian, including the overland trade with Scythia and the Caucasian countries. . From: Yem'en, called Arabia the Ha^py, the southern division of the 3 34 ANCIENT HISTOEY. Arabian peninsula, caravans brought through the desert frankincense, myrrh, cassia, gold, and precious stones, the gold being probably obtained from the opposite shores of Africa. But before the Pheeni- cians had a port on the Red sea, they obtained, through Ara,bia, the produce of southern India and Africa, more especially cinnamon, ivory, and ebony. This trade is fully described by Ezekiel,* by whom the traffic in the Per&ian gulf is also noticed.f The Arabian trade appears to have been principally carried on by caravans. The northern Arabs, especially the princes of Kedar and the Midianites, were in ancient times great travelling merchants : and the kingdom of Edom, or Idumsea, in the north of the Arabian peninsula, attained a very high degree of commercial prosperity- On the seacoast the Iduraeans possessed the ports of E'lath and E'zion-g6ber (Ak'aba) ; in the interior, they had for their metropolis P^tra, whose magnificent remains have been but recently discovered. So permanent and almost immutable is the aspect of civilization in Asia, that the commercial caravans of the present day scarcely differ in any particular from those which were used in the flourishing days of Tyre. The merchants trav- elled in bands organized like an army, having their goods on the backs of camels, the only animals which can endure the fatigues and priva- tions of the desert. They were escorted by armed forces, sometimes supphed from home, but more frequently consisting of one marauding tribe, hired at a large price, to save the caravan from the exactions and attacks of the rest. The greater part of the Phoenician trade with Eg)rpt was overland, at least so long as the seat of government was at Thebes in Upper Egypt : when Mem'phis rose into power, an entire quarter of the city was assigned to the Phcenician merchants, and the trade by sea to the mouths of the Nile grew into importance. The first branch of the eastern PhoBnician trade was with Judaea and Syria Proper.^ The dependance of.the PhcEnicians on Palestine for grain fiiUy explains the cause of their close alliance with the Jewish king- dom in the reigns of David and Solomon. But the most important branch of eastern trade was that through Bab'ylon with the interior of Asia. A great part of the route lay through the Syrian desert ; and to facilitate the passage of the caravans, two of the most remarkable cities of the ancient world, Baal'bec and Palmy'ra, were founded. They were both built by Solomon : " he founded," says the Scripture, " Baalath (Baal'bec) and Tadmor (Pal- my'ra) in the desert."^ They were erected by that wise monarch to , procure for his subjects a share in this lucrative traffic ; but this object was frustrated by the subsequent revolt of the ten tribes, and the wars between Israel and Judah. The northern land-trade of the Phoenicians is described by no an- cient writer but the prophet Ezekiel : " Javan [I6nia, and the Greek colonies], Tubal, and Meshech [the countries around the Black and north Caspian seas], they were thy merchants : they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy markets. They of the house of To- gar'mah [Armenia and Cappad6cia], traded in thy fairs with horses and hoirsemen and mules."|l • Ezekiel xxvii. 19-23. f lb. xxvli. 15. t Ezekiel xxvii. 17, 18. § 1 Kings ix. 18. || Ezekiel xxvii. 13, 14. SYRU. 35 But the Mediterranean sea was the great high road of Phcsnician commerce : it probably commenced with piracy ; for in the infancy of Grecian civilization, we find frequent mention of the kidnapping prac- tised by corsairs from Tyre and Sidon. But when Greece advanced in power, and Athens and Corinth had fleets of their own, the Greeks became the rivals and political enemies of the Phoenicians, purchasing from them only such articles as could not be procured from their own colonies in Asia Minor. Spain was the richest country of the ancient world in the precious metals. The Phoenician colonies enslaved the natives, and compelled them to work in the mines : these metallic pro- ductions are enumerated by Ezekiel. " Tar'shish [Tartes'sus, or south- western Spain], was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all kind of riches ; with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they traded in thy fairs."* From Spain the Phoenicians entered the Atlantic ocean, and proceeded to the south of the British islands, where they procured the tin of Cornwall ; and probably to the coasts of Prussia for amber, which in the ancient world was deemed more precious than gold. In the eastern seas, the Phoenicians had establishments on the Arabian and Persian gulf, whence they traded with the coasts of India and Af- rica, and the island of Ceylon. During the reign of Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, they discovered the passage roimd the Cape of Good Hope ; but this led to no important results, on account of the calamities that Tjrre endured from the invasion of Nebuchadnez'zar. Though their voyages did not equal in daring those of modem times, yet, when we consider that they were i^orant of the mariner's compass, and of the art of taldng accurate astronomical observations, it is wonderful to reflect on the commercial enterprise of a people whose ships were to be seen in the harbors of Britain and Ceylon. * Ezekiel xxvii. 12. 3^ ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER V. PALESTINE. Section I.-r-Geographical Outline. i|AiESTiNE, or the Holy Land, lies between Phcenicia on the north, and I'diimae'a on, the south, separated from hoth by chaips of lofty mountains ; to the east its j boundaries were the Asphaltic lake, the river. Jordan, and the sea , of .Galilee ; on the west it extended" tp the Mediterranean. The mountains are the most remarkable features in the geography of Palestine, "fhese mountains divided Palestine into a series of valleys and tahlelan^s, leaving two great plains, called "the. region'about Jordan," and thie. plain of Esdraelon,.,or, Jez'reel. These valleys and plains were of very unequal value ; some weris so impro- dlictive as to, be called deserts,, others were the most fertile spots in w^steTn. Asia. ' • ' Jprdap was the onjiy great river of Palestine ; it ffills into the As- phaltic lake, or Dead sea, which occupiesethe site.of .the ancient cities Sod'om and Gomor'rah, There is no outlet' from the Asphaltic lake, and its waters are bitter and unwholesome,. iThe sea of Galilee, through which the Jordan flows, is a beautiful fresh-water lalte, ^bound- ing in fish. The principal cities were , Jenisalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah, and Samaria, the capital of Israel. Idumae'a lay south of Palestine, beyond the chain of Mount Seir : it was in general a rocky and barren country ; but being the high road of Arabian traffic, its nat- ural capabilities were improved to the utmost, and it contained the great city of Petra, whose commercial wealth was deservedly celebra- ted. Idumse'a, or Edom, was annexed to the kingdom of Israel in the reign of David. The valleys of Palestine were in general very fruitful ; and the va- ried elevations of the country, causing so many different climates, gave the country a greater variety of natmral productions than is usually found in so confined a space. A series of calamities, unparalleled in any other portion of the globe, has now reduced Palestine almost to sterility ; but even now there are spots to be found whose luxuriance revives the memory of the verdure and beauty that once covered the entire country. Section II. — History of Palestine. FROM B. c. 1920 TO B. c. 975. God called Abram from the land of the Chaldees to Palestine, then named Canaan, to be the founder of a nation that should be his peculiar PAtESTliNS). 37 people (b. c. 1920). Abraham, at his death (b'. c. 1821), transmitted the inheritartce of the divine promise to hife son Isaac ; and he was de- ceived into making his second son Jacob, or Israel, the heir of this glorious privjlfege. The twelve sons of Jacob sold their brother Joseph as a slave to some Arabian merchants, by whom he was carried into Egypt. There he became the chief minister of the Pharaoh of Egypt ; his brethren having come into that icoUntry to pm-chase corn, he made himself known to them, and invited his father, with his whole family, to dwell to the rich district of G6shen (b. c. 1705). In process of time, the Israelites became so numerous as to excite the envious alarm of the Eg)rptians : they were in consequence cruelly persecuted, until God raised up Moses as their deliverer; The miraculous plagues he inflicted on the land, of Egypt induced the reigning Pharaoh to consent to the departure Of the Israelites (b. c. 1491). Repenting of his pejr- mission, he pursued them with a mighty host ; but he and all his' fol- lowers perished in the Red sea. After the miraculous deliverance of the Hebrews from the Egyptian ar^ny, and their safe' passage through the Red sea, it seemed as if their chief difficulties had been overcome ; that with Jghoyah for their pro- tector, and Moses for their guide, they would soon reach the froijtiers of Canaan, and find no difficulty in subduing its idolatrous inhabitants. Were there no other difficulties fo be overcome than the ruggedness of the way, and the hostility of the various warlike races in and round Palestine, the wanderings of the Israelites would soon have ternjinated, but during their protracted bondage they had been deeply imbued with all the vices of slavery ; they had become stubboni, rebellious, and in- constant ; they vacillated between the extremes of cowardice and rashness, and they had acquired an alinbst invincible fondness for idol- atry and superstition, which proved a constant source of misfortunes to themselves and of the most harassing vexations to their leader. In the beginning of the third month after the departure from Goshen', the Israelites reached the plains around Sin'ai, where amid the most awful manifestations of the Divine presence, Moses ascended th6 mountain, and received from the Lord the sacred code of laws by which the Israelites were thenceforth to be ruled under God's iihmediate gov- ernment, and 'which was moreover designed, both by its moral and ceremonial institutions, to be " a schoolmaster to the Jews to bring them unto Christ." The constitution thus given to the Israelites may be described as a theocracy ; that is, a government in which God him- self was the sovereign, communicfiting his will by certain authorized ministers. The priests through whom the Divine commands were made known, could only be chosen from the descendants of Aaron ; and all the inferior ministers of religion belonged to the tribe of 'Levi. All the institutions appointed for the people were directed to one great ^ob- ject, the preservation of the purity of i^eligious worship : the Israe^lites were not chosen to be the most wealthy or most powerful of nations, but to be, the guardians of the knowledge of the true God, until the ar- rival of that divine S,avior who was to unite both Jews and Gentiles as one flock, under one shepherd. While Moses continued on the mount, the Israelites, impatient at his long absence, formed a golden calf or representation of a young bull, as an object for their idolatrous worship. 38 ANCIENT HISTORY When, Moses, wlio had be,en|.now forty days on the mount, learned from the J^ord the crime of which, the people had been guilty, he hastily . descended toward the camp ; as he approached, the sight of the people, dancing roundthe object of their stupid veneration, filled him with such wrath that he broie the tables of stone on which the Ten Command- ments had been graven by " the finger of God." The tribe of Levi, which seems not to hav;e participated in the national guilt, slew' three thousand of the worst criminals ; the idol was broken to, pieces, and the ppople compelled to drink the water with which its dust had been min- gled; and atonenient having been made for the sin, Moses again a,scended the mountain, and, after an absence of forty days, returned with two new tables of commandments, in place of those that had been broken. , i Having broken upthe encampment at Sin'ai, the Israelites directed their march to the frontiers of Ca,naan ; but notwithstajading all the signs and wonders that had been wrougjht in, their favor, they broke out into acts of rebellion against Moses, and on every trifling occasion pro- .yoked, by their seditions, severe chastisements from the righteous anger of the Almighty ; until, at length upon the very borders of the promised land, for their rebellious murmurings at the report of the spies, the Lord ordained that none of the existing generation should enter the promised lapd, except Joshua and ,Caleb. Forty years of wandering in the Des- ert were to., expiate the national crime, after which anew generation was to inherit the promise made to Abraham. , In their wanderings, the miraculous pillar, which had guided them from Egypt, continued still to direct them, and the manna to nourish them ; their raiment and their shoes suffered no decay, and their feet were unhurt, by their long and frequent marches. Notwithstanding these, signal proofs of the Divine protection, the children of Israel fre- quently rebelled against Moses, and provokesd seyere chastisements from .their offended God. Thirty-eight years after their departure from Egypt, the march to Canaan was resumed ; but being defeated in their first attempt, and, though more successful on, a second trial, finding the western frontiers of Palestine diflicult, the Israelites resolved to make a circuit, and at- tack the country more to the eastward. On this march, Moses and Aaron, having evinced a want of confidence in the divine power, were included in the sentence of not being permitted to enter the promised land. Commanded by God to regard, the descendants of Esau as their brethren, the Hebrew army avoided the land of Edom, turning their course northward, encountering various enemies, who tried to impede their passfige. They gained signal victories over Sfhon, king of the Amprites,,and Og,,the gigantic ruler of Basan, and spread the terror of their name through the surrounding nations. In a pitched battle, which the Israelites fought also against five kings of Mid'ian, the confederate raonarchs. fell ; a terrible slaughter was made of their subjects, the cities of the land were taken and sacked, and a ■ considerable bpoty brought to Moses and Eleazar, the latter of whom had succeeded Aaron in the priesthood. ; Immediately after the punishment of the Midianites, Moses, by the PALESTINE. 39 divine direction, took a census of the people, and assigned to the tribes by lot their future inheritance in Canaan. He found that all the old murmuring generation, save Joshua and Caleb, had disappeared, as God had foretold. Being warned that his own end was approaching, he solemnly constituted Joshua his successor, and assembling the people, recapitulated all the miracles which God had wrought in their favor since their departure from Egypt, and exhorted them to be firm in their allegiance to Jehovah, setting before them the blessings promised for obedience, and the curses denounced against idolatry. Having thus completed his task, he ascended Mount Nebo, by God's command, whence Tie was gratified with a view of the promised land ; after which he breathed his last, in the one hundredth and twentieth year of his age (b. c. 1451). The place of his burial was carefully concealed, probably to prevent the IsraeUtes from making his tomb an object of idolatrous veneration. Section III. — The Conquest of Canaan hy Joshua. Nothing less than the strongest assurance of divine aid could have supported Joshua's courage in so arduous an enterprise. He was now ninety-three years of age, and wanted neither experience nor sagacity to foresee the perils which he had to encounter. Though at the head of six hundred thousand fighting men, his army was encumbered by a midtitude of old men, women, and children, beside servants and cattle ; before him was a large river, which he was to cross, equally exposed to the arms of those he went to attack, and those he left behind. The na- tions he had to subdue were warlike, remarkable for their personal strength and gigantic stature ; their towns were well fortified by nature and art ; their forces and interests cemented by mutual treaties ; they had long been aware of the meditated invasion, and had made formi- dable preparations for the defence of their country. The tribes of Reuben and Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh, pre- ferred settling in the land east of the Jordan, but they sent a contingent of forty thousand men to aid their brethren in the subjugation of Ca- naan. Passing over the river Jordan by a miraculous passage, the Israelites celebrated the feast of the passover, which had been intermitted since their encampment on Sin'ai, from the want of com to prepare unleav- ened bread -, now, also, that they were in a productive land, the mirac- ulous supply of manna ceased, being no longer necessary. So great was the alarm of the Canaanites, that no attempt was made to interrupt the Israelites while celebrating this solemn feast ; when it was conclu- ded, they advanced against the fortified city of Jer'icho, which was straightly shut up because of the children of Israel, — "none went out, and none came in. By divine command, Joshua made no military preparations for the siege of this important place, but led the army round the city once a day for six days, preserving strict silence, l"™^®^ only by the sound of the sacred trumpets which accompanied the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day, the people " compassed the city, after the same manner, seven times ; and it came to pass at the seventh time, when the priests blew with the trunjpets, Joshua said un- 40 ANCIENT HISTORY. to the people, Shout; for the Lord 'hath given you the citjr. . . . And the people shouted with a great shout, that the wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city." The king of A'i next became the victim of a stratagem devised by Joshua, and its citizens were utterly exterminated. Great fear spread over the land of Canaan in consequence of the destruction of Jer'icho arid A'i ; the Gibeonites, anxious to escape from impending ruin, sought a treaty of peace from Joshua, and obtained it by pretending to be na- tives of a distant country. Adonized'ec, king of Jerusalem, was greatly enraged when he heard that the Gibeonites had deserted the common cause; he sent ambas- sies to four of the neighboring princes to aid him in punishing their defection ; they readily assented, and " went up, they and all their hosts, and encamped before Gibeon, and made war against it." Joshua imme- diately marched to their deliverance. The five kings were completely routed ; at Joshua's command " the sun stood still and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies And there was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord hearkened iinto the voice of a man ; for the Lord fought for Israel." During the space of seven years, the Israelites were almost inces- santly engaged in completing the conquest of Canaan, but they met with no very formidable resistance after the rtiemorable battle against the five kings before Gibeon. They did not however wholly extermi- nate the idolatrous tribes, as the Lord had commanded; they became weary of the protracted warfare, and the warriors of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, were naturally anxious to return to their families beyond Jordan. This impolitic act of . disobedience was subsequently produc- tive of fatal consequences, for the surviving Canaanites eagerly sought and embraced every opportunity of taking revenge for the extermina- tion of their brethren. Even in peace they were scarcely less danger- ous to the prosperity of the chosen people than in war, for they fre- quently seduced the Israelites to join in the impure and impious rites of their hcentious idolatry. Soon after tranquillity had been established in Palestine, and the dif- ferent tribes and families had taken possession of their allotted portions, Joshua died, at the advanced age of. one hundred and ten, having ruled the country as wisely as he had conquered it bravely : " And Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord that he had done for Israel." Section TV; — History of Israel under the Judges. Under the theocracy, as established by Moses, the civil government of Israel was to be administered by Shopketim, or Judges, nominated by the divine oracle, the mysteirious Urim and Thummim^ which, were in the custody of the high-priest ; but after the death of Joshua the Israelites frequently apostatized to idolatry, the oracles of God were neglected, the appointment of chief magistrates omitted. The tribe of Jndah at first actively engaged in completing the conquest which had PALESTINE. 41 been left imperfect, but others entered into compact with the Canaan- ites, and were so insnared by the beauty of their women as to contract affinities with them. These intermarriages soon reconciled them to the worship of the false gods of the heathen, and pi'ovoked the Almighty to deliver them over to the hands of their enemies. God permitted the idolatrous Israelites to be subdued by the king of Mesopotamia, who held them in subjection for nearly eight years ; but on their repent- ance, Oth'niel was raised up to be their deliverer, and under his admin- istration " they had rest forty years." A second defection was pun- ished by a servitude to the Moabites for eighteen years, at the end of which time E'hud slew the king of Moab, delivered Israel, and restored peace. Sham'gar, the third judge, repelled the incursions of the Phil- istines, and -slew six hundred of them with an ox-goad. But " the children Of Israel again did evil in the sight of the Lord, when E'hud was dead. And the Lord sold them into the hand of Jabin, king of Canaan." For twenty years the Israelites groaned nhder the yoke of this despot, but they were at length delivered by the prophetess Deb'- orah, aided by B^rak, a leader of established reputation. A new apostacy was punished by a more sevei:e servitude ; " the Lord delivered ' them into the hand of Midian seven yeaW; And the hand of Midian prevailed against Israel ; and because of the Midian- ites, the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the moun- tains, and caves, and strongholds." The liberator chosen to deliver the Israelites from this miserable bondage was Gid' eon, who, with only three hundred men, niade anight attack on the camp of the Midianites. Thrown into confusion by the unexpected assault, and deceived as to the number of their enemies, the Midianites turried' their arms against each other, and finally fled in disorder. They were vigorously pur- sued, great numbers were slain, an immense quantity 6f valuable spoils taken, and the freedom of Israel restored. Under Gid'eon's administration, " the land had rest for forty years ;" but after his death the people of Shechem, at the' instigation of Abinr'- elech, a natural son of Gid'eon, slew all the legitimate children of Gid'eon except the youngest, and proclaimed Abim'elech king. This dreadful crime produced a civil war, and the fratricide was himself afterward killed by a woman. There was nothing remarkable in the administration of the judges Tola and Jair ; but after the death of the latter, the idolatry of the Israelites became so gross, that God delivered them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites. In thdir distress, the children of Israel, probably by divine direction, applied to Jeph'thah, the natural son of Gil'ead, who, having been refused a share of his father's inher- itance, had become the chief of a predatory band beyond Jbrdali. .Teph'thah was succeeded by Ib'zan, Elon, and Ab'don, of whom nothing remarkable is recorded. They were followed by E'li, Vho united in his person' the office of high-priest and judge. Under his administration, the apostacy of the Israelites was punished by their being delivered over to the Philistines, who harassed theni for nearly forty years. These oppressors deprived the Israelites of all their weapons of war, and of the means of jirocuring others. During this period appeared Sam'son, the most extraordinary of the 42 ANCIENT HISTORY. Jewish heroes, whose birth and prowess were miraculously foretold to both his parents. During his life he harassed the Philistines, slaugh- tering them with wonderful displays of strength ; and by his last act, in pulling upon himself and upon his enemies the temple of their national god, in which a general assembly of the people were gathered, the dead which " he slew at his death were more than they which he slew in his Ufe." The Israelites were too disorganized to take advantage of this extraordinary slaughter of the Philistine lords ; E'li, their judge, was nearly one hundred years old, and his two sons, Hoph'ni and Phin'- ehaSj who acted under him, took advantage of his weakness to commit the most profligate abominations. Samuel, whom God had called in his youth to become a prophet and the future judge of Israel, was commanded by the Lord to denounce divine vengeance against E'li ; after which he became generally known as an inspired person, divinely chosen to be E'li's successor. Samuel, though still a youth, was chosen judge of Israel after the death of Eli.' He assembled the pepple, and impressed upon them the criminality and folly of their idolatry ;' they were convinced by his reasoning, and put away their strange deities, promising to serve the Lord alone. They were rewarded by a signal victory over the Phihs- tines ; after which the land had rest, during the remainder of Samuel's administration. When Samuel had judged Israel twenty years, he appointed his two sons to assist him ; but these young men, like the sons of E'li, per- verted justice, and the elders of Israel unanimously demanded a king to rule over them like other nations. Samuel remonstrated with them for thus abandoning their peculiar distinction of having the Lord for their king ; but when the demand was renewed more urgently, on a threatened invasioii of the Ammonites, he was directed by the Lord to comply with the popular request. According to the divine instructions he selected Saul, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, to be the first monarch of the Israelites (b. c. 1095). He was presented to the tribes at Miz'peh, " and Samuel said to all the people. See ye him whom the Lord hath chosen, that there is none like him among all the people 1. And all the people shouted and said, God save the king !" , Section V. — History of the United Kingdom of Israel. Many of the Israelites were discontented with the choice that had been made of a monarch. But these symptoms of discontent were soon checked by the signal proof which Saul gave of his military qualifications. Nahash, king of the Ammonites, invaded Israel, and laid siege to Jdbesh-GU'ead ; the inhabitants proposed to capitulate, but Ndhash sternly replied, " On this condition will I make a covenant with you, that I may thrust out all your right eyes, and lay it as a reproach upon Israel." When this intelligence reached the general assenjbly of the Israelites, they burst into loud lamentations ; but Saul commanded an instant levy of the people. A numerous body of sol- diers obeyed the summons ; Saul marched against the Ammonites, and defeated them so effectually, that not two of them were left together. PALESTINE. 43 So delighted were the people with this victory, that they proposed to puiiish with death all who had resisted the elevation of their young monarch; but Saul said, "There shall not be a man put to death this day ; for to-day the Lord hath wrought salvation in Jsrael," A solemn assembly of the tribes was then convoked at Gil'gal, in order that the people should renew their allegiance. Here Samuel resigned his office. Saul was aided in his government by his son Jonathan, a young man of heroic valor 'atid the most generous dispdsition. With a select band, he attacked and stormed the Philistine garrison at Geba, which neces- sarily led to war. The Israelites were badly prepared for hostilities, and when the tribes met at Gil'gal, they showed the greatest timidity and confusion. They were also disheartened by the absence of Sam- uel, whose duty it was to offer the solemn sacrifice, and began to dis- perse ; Saul, alarmed lest he should be entirely deserted, offered the solemn sacrifice himself; but the ceremony was not concluded when Samuel appeared, and aunounced to the too hasty monarch, that for this wilful violation of the law, the kingdom should not be hereditary in his family. The Philistines, advancing with an immense army, blockaded Saul, who had only about six hundred men under his command in the mountains of Gib'eah, but he was unexpectedly liberated from his dif- ficulties by the daring valor of his son Jonathan, who, accompanied only by his armor-bearer, attacked a Philistine outpost, and spread such a panic through the whole army that they were easily routed by Saul. After this victory, Saul led his forces against the different nations that harassed the ^ frontiers of his kingdom ; when these had been re- strained from their incursions, Samuel, by the direction of the Lord, commanded' Saul to execute divine vengeance on the Amalekites, who had been long the most bitter enemies of the chosen people. Saul smote the Amalekites with great slaughter ; but, in direct violation of the Divine prohibitions,' he spared the life of A'gag, their king, and brought away with him a vast booty of cattle. Samuel bitterly re- proached the king for his ingratitude to God, and announced to Saul that his disobedience should be punished by the loss of his kingdom, which the Lord would transfer to a more worthy person. Samuel departed from Saul, whom he never again visited : directed by God, he went to the family of Jes'se, in Bethlehem of Judah, where he anointed David, Jes'se's youngest son, who thenceforth was gifted with supernatural endowments. In the meantime, Saul became subject to fits of phrensy and melancholy, which his servants supposed could be best dispelled by the influence of music : they therefore sent for David, whose skill on the harp was already celebrated, and his ex- quisite skill frequently enabled him to dispel the gloom that depressed the king's spirits. The Philistines, probably encouraged by secret in- formation of Saul's unhappy condition, renewed the war against Israel, and Saul led out an army to protect the frontiers. Whil« the hostile forces were encamped in sight of each other, the gigantic Goliath of Gath came forth as champion of the Philistines, and challenged any Israelite warrior to contend against him ; all were daunted by the stat- ure, strength, and ferocity of the giant. At length David presented himself to the combat; armed only with hi^ slaflf and a sling : the vaunt- ing Philistine treated the young hero with contempt, but a stone from ^* ANCIENT HISTOEY. the: sling, striking him full in the forehead, penetrated to the brain, and laid him prostrate on the. earth. Disheartened by, the, loss of their ehampion, the, Philistines fled in confusion, and were pursued with great slaughter beyond the frontiers of their own country. David's distinguished valor led to a warm and sincere friendship be- tween him: apd Jonathan, but it excited bitter jealousy in the mind of Saul.. The marriage Ipf David to Michal, Saul's daughter, did not allay the king's jealous. hatred; he openly declared his intention of putting •his son-in-law to death, and took active measures for the purpose. Once David was sayed by the stratagem of his wife, ftnd again by the vigilant friendship of Jonathan ; but he saw that he was no longer sure of his life, if he remained within the reach of Saul, and therefore sought safety in exile. , After a brief , residence among the Philistines, he re- turned to Palestine, and, became the leader of a bandiof men of broken fortunes, compelled . to endmre all , the vicissitudes, of such a perilous life. He was closely pursued by his vindictive enemy, Saul, and twice had it in his power to destroy his persecutor. But he was too loyal " to lift his hand against the Lord's anointed ;" he therefore only in- formed Saul of the danger to which he. had been exposed, , and thus proved his own innocence. These events led to a temporary re conr ciliation; but David, having reason to fear, that Saul meditated treach- ery, withdrew to the court of A'chish, one of the kings of the Philis- tines. , . , . / , , , The. death of Samuel left Saul i in a most wretched condition ;, the prophets fled from him,, the" priests were slaughtered, " and when Saul inquired of the Lord, the Lord' answered him not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nbr by prophets." At this crisis, the Philistines invaded the country with a numerous army. Saul was encamped ' on Mount Gil'boa, with forces far inferior to 'the enemy. Eager to leam some- thing of his fate, he resolved to fconsult one of those unlawful diviners who,' had been in bettet times severely proscribed ; he was conducted by his servants to a woman residing near;En'dor, "who had a familiar spirit," and he persuaded her to evoke Samuel from the'tomb. The image of the prophet appeared, and predicted to the terrified monarch the fatal news of his approaching, defeat and, death (b, c. 1Q55). On the second morning after this vision, Saul entered the last of his fields ; the Israelites had long, neglected the use of' the bow, and to their su- periority in this weapon the Philistines chiefly owed their victory : " the battle went sore agaitist Stiul-, and thfe archers hit him,'and he was sore wounded of the archers." Afraid of falling'alive into tiie hands, of his enemies, he fell upon his own sword ; his gallant sons had, pre- viously fallen, and the overthrow of the Hebrew army was complete. David had just returned to Zik'lag from pursuing the Amalekites, wheniheheard^of. the Calamitous resiflt of the battle on Mount Gilboa. Having consulted the Lord as to his future proceedings, he was di- rected to go to Heb'ron, .where he was anointed king over the tribe of Judah, who regarded, him: as the champion of their race. In the mean- time, Ab'ner, Saul's general, prevailed upon the northern tribes to elect Is¥bosheth, Saul's son,, their monarch, and he removed him to Ma- hanaim, which was beyond Jordan, in, order that he might have time to recruit his shattered army. One of' David's earliest measures was to PALESTINE. 45 send a message of thanks to the inhabitants of Jabesh^Gil'ead, for their honorable conduct to the deeeased king and his sons : he next caused the young men of Judah to be instructed in the use of the bow, and they soon rivalled the Philistines in archery; War was soon declared between the kings of Israel and Judah : Joabj who commanded David's forces, inflicted a severe defeat on Ab'- ner, Ish'bosheth's general, and from that time David's power began rapidly to increase. Ab'ner, while exerting himself to strengthen Ish'- bosheth, incurred the, displeasure of that prince ; he therefore resolved to seek a reconciliation with David, whom he visited in the character of a mediator, but on .his return : he was treacherously slain by Joab, who prpbably feared that Ab'ner would become a powerful rival. The death of Ab'ner disheartened the supporters of Ish'bosheth ; two of his captains murdered him in his bed, and brought the news to David, but instead of being rewarded' as they hoped, they suffered the punishment of treason., No other claimant appearing , for the throne, the heads of all the tribes of Israel canje to Heb'ron, and recognised David as their sovereign. But the breach which had taken place between the north- ern and southern tribes was never completely healed ; they continued to regard themselves as distinct in policy and iiiterest, until they were finally divided into separate states by th« folly of Rehoboam. The city of Jertisalem ,had long been, held by the Jebusites, who, ac- cording to the traditions of the east, were a tribe of the wandering and plundering Hyk'sos. Dayid resolved to besiege this important city with all the forces of r, his kingdom ; the place was carried by storm, and; David was sp pleased with the situation of the place that he made it the capital of his dominions. The Philistines, were alarmed at the increasing power of David ; as- sembling .all, their fgrces, they crossed tliie frontier, took, Bethlehem by sjtorm, and compelled David, for a^ while to seek shelter in the cave of Adul'lam ;.- but the Hebrew kipig soon gathered his forces, and he so utterly routed the Philistines in two supcessive engagements that, they never mpjre were able to compete with him or any of his successors. Hiram, king i of Tyre,; entered into a -firm alliance with the victorioua; monarch, and supplied him with workmen and materials to erect a palace in his new city. ,' David's next care was to remove the ark from Kir'jath-jearim to Jerusalem. The pious monarch was also anxious to, build a temple for, the njational; worship, but the prophet Nathan de- clared to him that jt was not fit for a warrior j. whose hands were so often stained with blood, to erect a temple to the Ood of peace, but that this glorious duty would devolve upon, his son and succesaosr. , David ijow directed his atteptiotn tp the surrounding, nations ; he overthrew th,e, Philistines, the Moabites, and'.the Amaleldtes ;, he com- pelled the Syrians and Edomites to- become tributary, and he E^Tnasseii 3 prodigious quantity of spoil, a.^rge, portion of which, he dedicated as a sacred treasure, to defray the future expenses of building the temple. The Ammonites and Syrjansi sqon reneiyed the war, but they were again vanquished, and the dominions of David, were - extended to the Euphrates. But wlule this.Av,aj: waa.continued'.David .p^o^oked tfae, anger of t^ liord, by t?lfing :Batfa,'sheb^.;the wif^, of Uriah, one: of hjs hiay^esjt cE^ptains, tp The : challenge was accepted; the supe- riority pf 1^s,;Lord was proved by the most signal miracles, and the multitude, lesiag^d at those by whon^ tjhey had been 4uped, put to death PALESTINE. 49 all the prophets of Baal, by command of Elfjah, at the brook Kishbn. The curse was then removed from the land, plenteous rain descended, aild the famine ceased. Jez'ebel was greatly enraged at the defeat of her national deity, and Elijah once more fled into the wilderness. Af- ter having witnessed some wondrous manifestations of Divine power, he was commanded to announce to Haz'ael that he should be king of Syria, to Jehu that he should be king of Israel, and to Elisha that he should be his successor in the office of prophet. When. A'hab had reigned eighteen years, Benhadad, king of Syria, at the head of thirty-two tributary princes, and a numerous army, laid «iege to Samaria. 'Encouraged by a prophet of the Lord, A'hab at- tacked this immense host with a mere handful of men, and gained a signal victory. Benhadad attempted to retrieve his losses in the fol- lowing year, but was routed with terrible slaughter. A new crime pro- voked God's wrath against A'hab ^ and his family ; he was anxious to obtain a vineyard belonging to Naboth, a native of Jez'reel, in order to enlarge his garden. The Wicked Jez'ebel contrived that the innocent man should be stoned to deaths and A'hab took possession of the vine- yard. In the moment of his triumph the prophet Elijah appeared, and denounced fearful vengeance for this crime, but A'hab, by timely re- pentance^' obtained a gracious respite, so that the evils impending over his house did not happen Until after his death, which took place in a battle against the Syrians, in which the allied forces of A'hab and of Je- hoshaphat, king of Judah were defeated. Ahaztah succeeded A'hab, and like him, was devoted to idolatry. A fall from a window, in the -second year of his reign, so severely injured him, that fears were entertained for his life, and he sent his servants to consult the oracle of Baalzebub, in Ek'ron. On their road the messen- gers were met by Elijah, who predicted the approaching death of the king, as a punishment for having consulted false gods. Ahaziah sent two detachments, of fifty men each, to arrest the prophet, but both com- panies were consumed by fire from heaven. A third captain of fifty interceded with the prophet'; Elijah accompanied him to the king's presence, where he repeated his denunciation, which was soon accom- plished by Ahaziah's death.' Jehoram, another son of A'hab succeeded, but was less prone to idol- airy than his father and brother, for he prohibited the worship of the Sidonian Baal, though he did not remove the golden calves which Jero- boam had set up at Dan and Bethel. It was about this time that Elfjah was taken up into heaven, without enduring the pangs of death, and his successor, Elisha, began to prove his mission by a series of stupendous miracles. Benhadatf^ the Sjrrian monarch of Damascus, defeated in several attacks on the kingdom of Israel, attributed his ill success to the prophet, and sent a body of his soldiers to make him prisoner ; but the Syrian troops were smitten with blindness, and in this helpless con- dition easily taken captive. The Syrian monarch was not daunted; he assembled a large army, advanced against Samaria, blockaded the city, and reduced the inhabitants to the greatest extremities of famine. Je- horam menaced vengeance against Elisha, but the prophet assured him, thJat by the next day Sam&ria would have abundance of prcwisions. On that night, under the influence of supernatural terror, they fled. 50 ANCIENT HISTORY. The rich' pluftder of the vacant tents soon restored plenty to the houses of the besieged ; Benhadadj after his return, was murdered by his ser- vant Haz'ael, who usurped the throne, and became a most formidable enemy of the kingdom of Israel. Jeh6rara eiltered into alliance with Ahazjahj king of Judah, in order to recover Ranioth-Gil'ead, but their joint forces were routed by the Syrians ; the king of Israel was severely wounded, and retired to Je2'reel_ to be healed. In the meantime, Eli- sha, by command of the Lord, sent a prophet to anoint Jehu king of Israel ; and the new sovereign who was a great favorite with the army, advanced toward Jez'reel. Hearing of his approach, Jehoram went jout to meet hinj, accompanied by Ahaziah, king of Judah. Their con- ference was brief ; Jehu shot Jehoram through the heart, with an arrow, and ordered Jiis body to be cast into the vineyaisd of Naboth, as the Lord .had foretold. Ahaziah was overtaken and slain ; but bis servants conveyed his body to Jerusalem, and buried it in the sepulchre of his lathers. , Jehu advanced to Jez'reel without opposition; as he came near the palace, Jez'ebel looked out from the window, and reproached him with his treason ; the servants, by Jehu's direction, threw her headlong down on the pavement, and her mangled body was trampled under the feet of the horses. In the evening orders were given for her inter- ment, but it was found that the greater part of the body had been devoured, by dogs and beasts of prey, as the prophet Elijah had fore- told. A'hab's family was very numerous ; seventy of his sons were in Samaria, but they were all beheaded by the citizens, who dreaded the power of Jehu ; and forty-two of the family of the king of Judah shared the same fate. Jehu completely extirpated the worship of Baal, but he continued the idolatry which Jeroboam had established, and there- fore the duration of his dynasty was limited to his descendants of the fourth generation. The Syrians, under Haz'ael, grievously afflicted the Israelites during the ^igns of Jehu and his son Jeho^haz ; but these visitations failed to turn the princes or the people from their impious idolatries. ' In the reign of the latter Elisha. died,' but his mirEtculous powers did not cease with his life, for a dead body was restored to life by touching his bones in the tomb. The Israelites gained three victories over the Syrians, and thus recovered the ancient frontiers of their kingdom ; they also conquered Amaziah, king of Judah, plundered Jerusalem, and brought its rich spoils to Samaria. The kingdom of Israel continued to flourish during the long reign of Jeroboam II. ; he enlarged his hereditary dominions by the conquest of several cities belonging to the kings of Syria and Judah, and made his kingdom respected among surrounding nations. His death was followed by a period of great confusion ; there was an interregnum of eleven years before Zacharfah, his son, succeeded him ; and he, after a brief reign of six months, was murdeKed by Shal such strength, that Hezekiah ventured to shake off the Assyrian yoke, to which his father had submitted. Shalmaneser, who had just conquered Israel, would have immediately marched against Judah, had not the wealthy cities of Phoenicia offered a more tempting prize to his avarice and ambition. His son, Sennich'erib, inherited lus revenge against Judah : he advanced to Lachish with a powerful army, but . Hezekiah, with culpable timidity, attempted to purchase his forbearance by a large bribe. This rich tribute only served to stimulate the cupidity of Sennacherib ; he sent a large army directly against Jerusalem, but Hezekiah, enqouraged by the gracious pronuses of Divine protection, communicated to him by the prophet Isafah, made the most judicious preparations for a vigorous defence. Eah'shakeh, the Assyrian gen-, eral, summoned the city to surrender, in a haughty and insolent tone, speaking in the Hebrew language, that his threats might be understood by the people. Hezekiah, who was suffering under severe illness, sought protection from the Lord, and his wavering faith was confirmed by the shadow of the sun retrograding on the dial at the command of Isaiah. In a few days, the Assyrians were summoned away to defend their dominions against Tirhakah, the king of Meroe, or Ethiopia, who had conquered Egypt, and was endeavoring to extend his empire to the Euphrates. Sennacherib defeated the Ethiopians, and, flushed with victory, renewed the siege of Jerusalem, threatening death and destruc- tion to the entire kingdom. But his vaimts were suddenly checked ; " the angel of the Lord went forth and smote in the camp of the Assyri- 5® ANCIENT HISf ORY. ams a hundred fourscore and five thouisand ; and when they arose earfy in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses." Sennacherib fled to Nin'eveh with the miserable remnant of his forcies, and was soon af- ter murdered by his own sons, "as he was worshipping in the bouse of ' Nis'roch, his god." The intelligence of this wondrous deliverance was spread over the east ; Ber'odach-Bal'adaii, king of Babylon, sent ambassadors to con- gratulate Hezekiah, and also to inquire into the phenbnienon of the retrogression of the solar shadow. Hezekiah, with foolish pride, dis- played all his treasures to the ambassadbrs. Isaiah was sent to re- prove his ostentatioHj and to inform him that these Babylonians would destroy the kingdom of Judah. The repentant monarbh heard the re- buke with pious'fesignation, and submissively yielded himself to the dispensations of Providence. His death was sincerely lamented by his subjects ; " they buried him in the chiefest of the sepulchres of the sons of David ; and all Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him hon- or at his death." Manas'seh was scarcely less remarkable for iniquity than his father for piety ; He even exceeded A'haz in impiety, for he revelled in the grossest abominations of eastern idolatry. His subjects too readily im- itated his example ; they joined him in persecuting the prophets of the Lord, who remonstrated against their transgressions ; there is a con- stant tradition among the Jews, that Isaiah was sawn in sunder during the i;eign of this merciless tyrant. But an avenger was at hand ; the Ass)nrians invaded Judah with overwhelming forces, stormed Jerusa- lem, suad carried the impious Manas-'seh in 'chains to Babylon (b. c. 676). The unfortunate monarch was treated with savage cruelty by Ms captors ; he was so loaded with iron bands, that he could not move his head. But "when he was in affliction, he besought the Lord his God, and humbled himself greatly before the God of his fathers ; and prayed unto him, and He was eiitreated of him, and brought him again to Jerusalem into his kingdom." Manas'Seh, thus restored, applied himself diligently to extirpate idolatry ; and the remainder of his reign was spent in peace and comparative tranquillity. Notwithstanding the fearful puiiishment inflicted on Manas'seh, and his example of sincere penitence, A'mOn, his son and successor, re- vived all the infamous rites of idolatry. In a brief reign of two years, the kingdom was brought to the verge of destruction ; corruption spread through every departinent of th'e adnlinistratioii, and crimes at which nature revolts were not only permitted, but encouraged. At length, some of the officers of the household slew the licentious monarch ; they were however put to death for their treason ; and Josiah, the son of A'mon, at the early age of eight years, was raided to the throne. From the moment of his aeeession, Josf ah eagerly applied himself ta restoring the worship of the true God, and reformmg the abuses of the kingdom. Josiah travelled through his kingdom, and through some of the adjoining cities of Israel which lay almost desolate, removing from' them every vestige of idolatry ; and having thus purified his king- dom^ he celebrated the feast of the Passover with the utmost solemnity and splendor. The greater part of Josiah's reign was spent iu tran- quillity ; but when he had been rather more than thirty years upon the thrqne, the overthrow 6f the Assyrian empire by the MedeS and Bab- PALESTINE. 5T ylonians, induced Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, the powerful king of Egypt, to at- tempt the extension of his dominions to the Euphrates. Josiah rashly attacked the Egyptian forces in the valley of Megid'do, and was mor- tally wounded. His servants brought him to Jerusalem, where he died. " And all Judah and Jerusalem mourned for Josiah." The people of Jerusalem raised Jehoahaz, the youngest son of Josiah, to the throne ; but he was set aside by the victorious Pharaoh-Necho, who gave the kingdom to the elder prince Eliakim, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. A complete revolution in the affairs of Asia was effected- by the victorious career of Nebuchadnez'zar, king of Babylon. He overthrew the Egyptians at Car'chemish, " and took from the river of Egj^t unto the river Euphrates, all that pertained to the king of Egypt." Jehoiakim submitted to the conqueror, and agreed to pay tribute for the kingdom of Judah, but afterward planning a revolt, Neb- uchadnez'zar returned to Jerusalem, plundered the city, sent the treasures and sacred vessels of the temple as trophies to Babylon, put Jeholalcim to death as a rebel, and left his unburied corpse a prey to the fowls of tiie air, and the beasts of the fields. He was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin, who after a brief but profligate reign of three months, was deposed by the imperious conqueror, and sent in chains to Babylon, with amiiltitude of other captives. Zedekiah, the uncle of the deposed monarch, was chosen his succes- sor ; but he did not take warning by the fate of his* predecessors, and abstain from intrigues with Egypt. Instigated by Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, and encouraged by false prophets^ he renounced his allegiance to the king of Babylon. When the forces of Nebuchadnez'zar approached, Pharaoh-Hoph'ra made but a faint effort to assist his unfortunate ally ; on the first repulse, he retreated within the frontiers of his own king- dom, leaving Zedeldah to bear the brunt of the Assyrians' rage. Neb- uchadnez'zar, after a. short siege, compelled Jeriisalem to surrender unconditionally. Zedekiah and his family flfed, but were overtaken by the pursuers in the plains of Jericho ; the degraded king was dragged in chains before the cruel conqueror ; his wives and children were slain in his presence, his eyes were put out, and he was sent in chains to terminate his miserable existence as a captive in Bab'ylon. Jeru- salem and its temple were razed to the ground ; the wretched inhab- itants were transported to Bab'ylon ; and for seventy years the holy city had no existence save in the memory of heart-broken exiles (b. c. 568). The day on which Jerusalem was taken, and that on which its destruction was completed, are observed even in our age, as days of fasting and humiliation, by the scattered remnant of the Jewish nation. The former event occurred on the ninth day of the fourth month ; the latter on the seventh day of the fifth month. Oriental conquerors subjected their captives to the most cruel treat- ment. They were bound in the most painful attitudes and driven like cattle to the slave-markets, where families were divided, by their mem- bers being sold to different masters. It is probable that the Babyloni- ans were not less severe task-masters than the Eg)rptians had been ; for we find in the later prophets that the memory of what the: Jews had suffered ever rankled in the mind of the nation ; and it is remarkable that after their deliverance, they never' again lapsed into idolatry. 58 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER VI. THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. Section I. — Geographical Outline. The boundaries of Iran, which Europeans call Persia, have under- gone many changes : in its most prosperouis periods, its limits were the Persian giUf and Indian ocean on the south, the rivers Indils and Ox'us on the east, the Caspian sea and Caucasian mountains on the north, and the Euphrates on the west. The most striking features of this ex- tensive country are numerous chains of mountains, and extensive tracts of desert, interspersed with fertile valleys and rich pasture-lands. The southern coast along the Persian gulf is a sandy plain, desolated by pes- tilential winds from the desert of Kerman, arid scarcely possessing any indentation or navigable river which could serve as a harbor. Thence to the Caspian sea and the Ox'us there is a succession of mount- ains and valleys of different elevation and extent. Few of the mount- ains are of ,extra6rdinary height, though some of the ranges are capped with perpetual snow. None of the valleys are wide, but some of them extend to the length of one himdred miles. Persia Proper, the modem province of Phars, contained the sacred metropolis of the empire, known to us only by its Greek name, Per- sep'oUs. This celebrated city was destroyed by Alexander; but its ruins testify that it must. have rivalled the most splendid cities of anti- quity. The province of Susiana (Khuzistdn) separaited Persia Proper from Babylonia ; between the two provinces was a range of mountains, in- habited by warlike pastoral tribes,: of which the most celebrated were the Ux'ii, who compelled the Persian kings to pay them tribute when they went from Sdsa to Persep'olis. Susiana was a fertile Jjrovince, watered by several small streams, that supplied a vast number of canals and water-courses. Siisa, the capital of this district, once the favorite residence of the Persian monarchs, is now a vast desert, where the ruins of a city can with difficulty be traced. Media was divided into two provinces ; Atropatene or Media Minor (Azerbijam), and Media Major (Irak Ajemi). Ecbatana (Ham'adan) was the capital of Media, arid rivalled Siisa and Persep'olis in magnificence, while it exceeded them in extent and the strength of its fortifications. The eastern districts of Media, named A'ria, formed an extensive steppe, which merged in the desert of Carmania (Kerman). The capital was named A'ria, and occupied the site of the modem Herat. MEDES AND PEESIANS. 59 North of Media lay Par'thia and Hyrcania (Taberistdn and Mazen- d«ran) ; mountainous regions, with some fertile valleys. Northeast of these were the s&ndy deserts now called Khirwan, tenanted by nomade tribes, who then and now practised alternately the arts of merchants, herdsmen, and robbers. East of A'ria was Bactridna, divided by the Ox'us from Sog'diana : its capital city was Bac'tra, which is usually identified with the inodern city of Balkh. The metropolis of Sogdiana was Maracan'da, now called Samarkand, one of the most ancient com- mercial cities in the world. East of the province of Phars were Carmania (Kerradn) and Gedr6sia (Mekran) ; flat and sandy, but interspersed with some very fertile tracts. The hills in the interior of Persia are but thinly clad with vegetation, and none but those of Mazenderan and Georgia(fcossess forests ; there are but few rivers of sufficient magnitude to be navigable : the most re- markable are the Ulaf or Eulae'us (Kariin), the Ar'ras or Arax'es, and the Etyman'der (Her'mund). The valleys of the centre of Persia aboimd in the rarest and most valuable vegetable productions. The orchards produce all the fruits of the temperate zone, and the most beautiful flowers of our gardens grow wild in the fields. The horses and dogs are of uncommon size, strength, afld beauty; and no country possesses a more robust, active, and. well- shaped race of men. In short, Persia possesses every natural advantage for becoming a powerful and prosperous empire ; but from the remotest ages it has been subjected to a blighting despotism, by which its re- sources ha;ve been not merely neglected, but wasted and destroyed. Section II. — Tke Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians. The sources of Persian history are either native of foreign ; the lat- ter including the accounts both of the Greek historians and the Jewish prophets. The first native authority is the Zend-a-vesta, a collection of the Sacred books of the ancient Persians. In this work are contained the early traditions of the nation, the religious system and moral code ascribed to Zerdusht, or Zoroas'ter, the great Persian legislator, and the liturgy still used by the "worshippers of fire." Connected with this is the Dabistan, written by a Mohammedan traveller about two cen- turies ago, in which the author treats very fully of the ancient religion of Persia, professedly deriving his information from original sources. To these must be added some minor Parsi works, collected by oriental ists in India. Next in importance to these ranks the Shah Nameh, or Book of Kings, an immense epic poem, written by Ferdousi, the greatest poet of Persia, about the middle of the tenth century. This historical poenl was com- piled from vague traditions, and from the few fragments of ancient Per- sian literature that survived the political destruction of national records by the Greeks and Parthians, and the fanaticism of the first Moham- medan conquerors ; and, consequently, facts are so disguised by a mul- titude of fictions, that it is always difficult, and frequently impossible, to arrive at the truth of his representations. Mirkhond and his son Khon- 60' ANCIENT HISTORY. demfr both wa-ote histories of Persia, about the close of the fifteenth century ; they h3ve,''howeveri in general followed the narrative of Fer- dmisf ; but in some. places Mirkhond undoubtedly haaT, used the same authorities as the compiler of the Dabistan. Herod'otus,iXen'ophon, and the fragments of Ctesias, are the princi- pal Greek authorities fen: the history of ancient Persia: of diese the first is by far the most valuable, and his account of the Persian wars with Greece is entitled to our confidence. It must also be added, that many parts of his narrative are singularly confirmed by the legends pre- served in the works of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. In the Bible, the Book of E'st'her is altogether a Persian history, and muchimportant information is given incidentally in the Books of Dan'iel, Ez'rfeii, and NehemiahA Finally, much lighthas been thrown on ancient Persian history by the writings of modem oriental scholars ; especially the philological researches of Bopp, Bumouf, and Schlegel, which have shown how closely allied the ruling people of Hindiistan was with the ruling nation of Iran, by pointing out the close resemblance between the original lan- guages of both, the Sanscrit- and the Zend. Section III. — Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia. Gbntrae Asia, from the most remote ages, has been exposed to the invasions of nomad hordes from the north and. east, most of which, ac- cording to their native legends, descended from the mountainous tracts extending from the great Altaian chain to the borders of India. Recent investigations have rendered it probable, that this was also the native country of the Brahmins and Hindus, at least of the higher castes ; but it is impossible to discover at what period migrations commenced to the south and west. The, colonists who came into Media called themselves A'rii, manifestly the same word as the Sanscrit Ar'ya, which signifies pure men, in opposition to the Ml^chas, or barbarians. They were a mixed priestly and warrior caste, who treated their subjects as beings of an inferior nature. Their early, success was chiefly owing to their skill in horsemanship ; if not the first nation of the East that employed cavalry, they were the first to make that military body the main strength of their army. A cognate race, the Persians, having nearly the same institutions, proceeded further to the southwest, and formed a nation of herdsmen anii shepherds., A monarch named Jemshid, the Achae'- menes of the Greeks, first instructed his, subjects in agriculture, and they gratefully made royalty the inheritance of his family. The Medes, having long held dominion as the ruling caste, were overthrown in an insurrection of the agricultural and shepherd tribes : this political revo- lution was effected by C3r'rus;, and it was followed necessarily by a religious change, consequent on the altered position of the priestly ca/$te. Under the Medes,; or rather the Magi, as their priests were called, a species of the Sabian; superstition seems to have prevailed : the sun, moon, S.nd planets, received divine worship, while the more ancient be- lief in one supreme God, though obscured, was not wholly lost. When th© Persians triuwphed,, the priestly caste lost much of its induence,, VEDES AND PERSIANS. 61 and seems to have been regarded as naturally hostile to the new dynasty : hence we find the Persian mqnarchs bitter persecutors of the priests wherever they established their sway, destroying the Chaldeans in Babylon, and the sacerdotal caste in Egypt. The nature of the reli- gious changes made by Cy'rus can not now be' determined, ; but the revolution was completed by Zoroaster, whose system is the most per- fect devised by unassisted human reason. God, he taught, existed from all eternity, and was like infinity of time and space. Ther« were, he averred, two principles in the universe — good and evil : the one was named Hormuzd, the other Ahriman. Each of these had the power of creation, but that power was exercised with opposite designs ; and it was from their co-action that an "admixture of good and evil was found in every created thing. But the source of good alone, the great Hor- muzd, was eternal, and must therefore ultimately prevail.* With these speculative tenets was combined a system of castes, which are described by Ferdousi, who attributes their introduction to Jemshid. The conservation of the ordinances that regulated public morals was intrusted to the Magi, who were, as we have said, originally a caste or tribe of the Medes. Zoroas'ter reformed the institutions of this body, and appears to have opened the priestly dignity to persons of every caste, though few entered on the functions of public worship who were not of the Magian descent. Thus the sacerdotal rank in Persia par- took of the nature both of a caste and an order. It was high in power: the court was principally composed of sages and soothsayers. The priests also were judges in civil cases, because religion was the basis of their legislation ; but they were strictly bound by the a;ncient code. No circumstances were deemed sufficiently strong to warrant a depar- ture from ancient usages ; and hence " the laws of the Medes and Per- sians" were proverbial for their strictness of execution. The king was as much bound by the national code as his meanest subject ; but in every other respect his power was without control ; and the satraps, or provincial governors under him, were equally despotic in their respective provinces. The court scarcely differed in any material point from the oriental courts of the present day. It was a heavy tax on the national resources to supportthe bairbarous splendor with which the kings and satraps deemed it necessary to surround their dignity ; and the exactions wrung from the cultivators of the soil al- wa,ys made the Persian peasantry the most niiserable even in Asia. The army was another source of wretchedness to the country :' a va^ amount of standing forces was always maintained, and hordes of the wandering tribes on the borders of Persia kept in pay : beside ,this, in case of any emergency", every man capable Of- bearing arrtis was- en- rolled in his own district, and forced to become a -sbldier on the first summons. This constitution enabled the Persians to make rapid con- quests, but it prevented their empire from becoming perffia:nent : the soldiers fought for pay or plunder, and were held togetheT by no com- mon principle; save attachment to their leader ; hence the fall or flight of thie commander-in-chief instantly decided the fate of a Persian army * Sir John Malcolm's Persia, vol. i., p. 194. The Jews have a tradition that Zoroaster was instructed in the true lieUgioiihy one of the prophets. 62 ANCIENT HISTORY., however great its numbers ; and when the army was defeated, the kingdom was subdued. The great oriental monarchies were liable to vicissitudes scarcely -known in European states. There was no patri- otic spirit in the people, no love of independence in the nation ; if the invader prevailed in the battle-field, he had no further enemies to dread ; the mass of the population cared little for a change of rule, which left unaltered the miseries of their situation. Section IV. — SRstory of the Medes and Persians under ike Kaianian I Dynasty. FROM B. c. 710 TO B. c. 522. Media and Persia were provinces of the great Assyrian empire ; and their native legends preserve the memory of the cruelty with which they were treated by the monarchs of Nineveh. When that empire was broken to pieces after the death of Sardanapalus, Media fell into a state of anarchy, from which it was delivered by Deioces (b. c. 710), the Kai-K6bad of oriental writers : he built the city of Ecbatana, and greatly strengthened his new kingdom by inducing his subjects to form permanent settlements ; but in the midst of his useful career, he was siunmoned to check the rising power of the Babylonians, and fell in battle. The Median power was restored by Phraor'tes, who succeeded his father ; but it attained its highest glory under Cy- ax'ares, the third inonarch of this dynasty. In the early part of his reign, Cyax'ares had to encounter many for- midable difficulties. While he was engaged besieging Nineveh, the Scythian hordes from the north entered Media, and overran the greater part of central and western Asia. Their ravages were continued for twenty-eight years, and they had compelled the Medes to give them ired admittance to their houses, when they were simultaneously de- stroyed by a conspiracy of their hosts, which Cyax'ares had organized. A party that had escaped the general massacre entered into the service of the Median inonarch ; but finding reason to dread the fate of their countrymen, they transferred their allegiance to the king of Lydia, and thvts caused a war between the two monarchs. The most memorable event of this war, which lasted five years, was the total eclipse of the sun, that took place in the midst of a battle, and so alarmed the con- tending parties, that both the Medes and Lydians fled in confusion from the 6eld. ' A peace was soon after concluded between the two crowns, and Cyax'ares renewed his war against the Assyrians. Aided by tiie king of Babylon, he besieged and took Nineveh, and totally de- stroyed that ancient city (b. c. 601). The allies next attacked the dis- tricts that the Egyptians possessed in Syria, defeated Pharaoh-Necho at Car'chemish, and subdued the principal part of western Asia. It seems probable that the supremacy of the Medes over the Persian principalities was first established during the reign of Cyax'ares, who is generally identified with the Kai Kaoos of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. Asty'ages, called in the book of Daniel Ahasuerus,* that is, "the migity hero" (Achash Zwerosh), an epithet given to several oriental • Daniel ix. 1. MEDE3 AND PERSIANS. 63 monarchs, was the next king. To reconcile the Persians to his au- thority, he gave his daughter in marriage to Oam'byses, of the family of the Achaemen'idae, and the royal tribe of the Pasargidse. The issue of this union was Agrad'ates, subsequently named Cy'rus, Khor^sh, or Khosrau, difTereht forms of a Persian word which signifies the sun. The main facts of the romantic legend that Herodotus has preserved respecting the early years of C)rrus, are confirmed by the oriental his- torians ; and when stripped of some embellishments, can scarcely be deemed incredible. The following are the facts in which the Greek and Persian historians confirm each other's testimony ; the Persian names of the principal actors are enclosed in parentheses. Camby'ses (Siyawesh) is said to have sought refuge at the court of Asty'ages (Afrasiab), king of a country north of Persia (Turan), to avoid the ef- fects of his father's jealous^. He obtained the hand of his host's daughter Mandane (Ferangiz) in marriage. Envious courtiers preju- diced the Median king against his son-in-law ; he resolved to destroy him, and the child of which 'his own daughter was pregnant. The Persian prince, according to the oriental historians, was murdered ; but the princess and her unborn child were saved by Har'pagus (Piran Wisah), the tyrant's prime minister. The posthumous child of Cam'- byses was the celebrated Cyrus : he was brought up in obscurity until he approached the age of manhood, when he learned the secret of his birth. With all the courage of enthusiastic youth, he went among his countrymen, who revered the memory of his father, and were weary ■of the tyranny of Asty'ages ; they flocked to his standard, and the young prince, entering Media, dethroned Asty'ages, and threw him into prison. Instead, however, of seizing, the 'crown for himself, he sub- mitted to the rule of Cyax'ares II. (Kai Kaoos), his maternal uncle, whom the Persians describe as his paternal grandfather. Cyax'ares, immediately after his accession to the dignity of Dara- wesh, or king of Media (b. o. 560), sent his nephew to invade the Babylonian empire, which had now fallen from its high estate. Cy'rus invested the city of Bab'ylon, and, after a long siege, took it, in the manner that has been already related. Cyax'ares, whose title of Dara- wesh, or Darius, is frequently mistaken for a proper name, removed the seat of his govenmient to the newly-acquired city, where becoming acquainted with the merits of the prophet Dan'iel, he took him into his service, and appointed him his chief vizier. Some envious courtiers at- tempted to ruin him by means of his well-known piety, and procured an edict from the Darawesh, forbidding any one, for thirty days, to ofier up prayers to any one but the king, under penalty of being exposed to lions. Dan'iel disobeyed the impious command, and was thrown into the lions' den; but God closed the mouths of the ferocious animals, and he was taken, out uninjured. He was immediately restored to his office, which he retained to the end of his life ; arid it dpserves to be added, than in consequence of his fidelity to the Median and Persian kings, he is described as. a renegade in some ancient Jewish traditions. Cy'rus succeeded Cyax'ares in the kingdojn ; and thus the suprem- acy was transferred from the Medes to the Persians (b. c. 534). But long before he, reigned alone, he had been associated with his uncle in the government, and bad th© sole command of the army that subdued 64 ANCIEKT HISTOEY. -Ly'dia, Assyr'ia, Babylonia, and western Asia,, to the confines of Egypt. Immediately after his accession, he issued an edict permitting the Jews to return to their native -land, and rebuild the walls and tem- ple of Jerdsalem, as the prophet Isaiah had pfedictfed a hundred years before his birth. .For seven years he miled his einpire in peace and prosperity, directing his attention to establishing a stable government in his extensive dominions, and- endea/voring, as we have good reason to believe, to restrict the extravagant privileges claimed by the Magij or priestly caste. Whatever may have been the manner of his death, about which there is some doubts, it is certain that he was buried at Pasargadae, where the remains of his tomb may still be see. In the age of Str^bo, it bore the following inscription^ " man, I am Cy'Tus, who founded the Per- sian empire : envy me not then the little earth which covers my re- mains." Cara'byses (Lohorasp) succeeded to the throne (b. c. 529), and im- mediately prepared to invade Egypt. ;He soon made himself master of Peliisium, and, being aided by the local information of Phanes, a Greek de'serter, he overthrew P^ammemtus, the last Egyptian monarch, and subdued the entire country. His fierce hostility to the sacerdotal caste, -which he inherited from his father, made him a persecutor of the Egyptian priests, who, in revenge, have portrayed him as the worst of tyrants. After the conquest of Egypt, he resolved to annex Ethio- pia to his dominions, and, at the same time, to plunder the Ammonium, or great temple of Jupiter Arii'mon, built on an oasis in the midst of the desert. In the midst of the desert the Persians were deserted by their perfidious guides, and the greater part of them were finally over- whelmed by the moving sands that winds sometimes raise in the desert. Camby'ses intended to have carried his arms into western Africa; but his designs were frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenician mar- iners to serve against their Carthagenian brethren. To secure his thronte, he, with the loruel precaution so common in Asia, put his brother Smer'dis to death ; but was soon alarmed Ijy hearing that a usurper, under his brother's name, had seized the Persian crown. On his re- turn home, Camby'ses died of an accidental wound from his own sword, having first solemnly assured his ofiicers of the falsehood practised by ths pretended Smerfdis. As Camby'ses died without heirs, the Kaian- ian dynasty, which, as we have seen, included both Medes and Per- ^ans, became extinct (b.jc. 523). 'Sbction y.-^Hisiory of the Persians Under the Hystaspid Dynasty. FROM jB. c. 522 TO B. c. 330. The real history of the false Smer'dis appears to be slightly dis- gtlis'ed in the narratives of 'the Grecian writers : he was manifestly taised to the throne by a, conspiracy of the priestly caste, who were de- sirous of restoring their own supremacy, and that of their allies, the Medes. Tfhe Persian nobles combined to prevent such a calamity, de- stroyed the usurper, and chose for their sovereign, or 'darawesh, Hys- tas'pes '(Gushtasp), who appears to have been a member of the family of thfe AeliaB'menidiBe. Darius Hystas'pes appears to have been the THE PERSIANS. 65 first who used the old title of royalty (Darawesh or Darius) as a proper name. When fixed upon the throne, he persecuted the magi with great severity, and patronised the religious system ascribed to Zerdusht, or Zoroas'ter. The Persian legends describe this philosopher as his contemporary ; and this is rendered exceedingly probable by a com- parison of the various accoimts given of this great reformer.* To secure his title, Darius, for henceforth he will be best known by this name, united himself in marriage with the two surviving daughters of Cy'rus, and then prepared to punish the Babylonians, who, in con- sequence probably of the ancient connexion between the Chaldeans and the sacerdotal caste of the Medes, had not only revolted but mur- dered all whom they regarded as useless mouths, to prove their de- termined obstinacy. Baby'lon sustained a siege of twenty months ; and might have baffled its besiegers, had not a Persian noble mutilated himself, and gone over to the citizens as a deserter who had escaped from the inhuman cruelty of his sovereign. His wounds gave credit to his words : he was intrusted with the command of an important post, which he betrayed to Darius, and thus enabled that monarch to become master of the rebellious city. The attention of the conqueror was next directed to quelling an insurrection of the Greek commercial cities of western Asia ; he added Thrace to his dominions, and undertook an invasion of Scythia. The Danube was passed on a bridge of boats ; and the Persians advanced without opposition through a difficult and barren country, until they had advanced beyond the reach of their sup- plies. Darius was forced to retreat, and his safety was purchased by the loss of the greater part of his followers. Having severely punished a subsequent revolt of the Greeks of Asia Minor, Darius resolved to extend his vengeance to their Grecian allies, and collected a large naval and military force, which he intrusted to the command of his son-in-law Mardonius. Mard6nius crossed the Hellespont into Thrace, whence he passed into Macedonia, at that time a Persian province. All the neighboring countries submitted ; but his fleet was shattered in a storm, while doubling Mount A'thos, and his army soon afterward was attacked unexpectedly by the bar- barous Thracian tribes, who slew a great many of the soldiers, and severely wounded Mard6nius himself. A- second expedition was sent to Greece, under the command of Datis and Artapher'nes, who forced a passage into the northern parts of that country, stormed Eret'ria, and were menacing Athens, when they were totally routed by the Atheni- ans under Miltfades, at the memorable battle of Mar'athon (b. c. 490). To avenge these losses, Darius resolved to invade Greece in person ; but an insurrection of the Egyptians, and disputes among his children respecting the succession, and not long after his own death, frustrated his designs. Xer'xes, immediately after his accession (b. c. 485), marched against the Egjrptian rebels, whom he completely subdued. Elated by this success, he prepared to invade Greece, and collected the largest army that had ever been assembled. His naval preparations were on an equally extensive scale. But on the very threshold of Greece, at the mountain-pass of Thermopylae, his countless hordes were checked and * See Professor Shea's admirable translct>a»> of mJj-Vw»>J -. ''''4, 5 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. repulsed by a handful of men under the command of Leohidas, king of Sparta. Treachery enabled him to turn the flank of the gallant war- pers, and he entered Greece ; but the account of his campaigns be- longs properly to Greciam histbry. It is sufficient to say, that after having suffered unparalleled losses by sea and landj he returned to Persia covered with disgrace. The forces that he left behind him un- der Marddmius were annihilated at the battle of Plat6ae ; and the Greeks, following up their success; destroyed the power of the Persians in the Mediterranean, and made them tremble for the security of their provin- ces in Asia Minor. Xer'xes is unknown by name to the oriental historians ; they name him Esfendiar, and ascribe to him the most eminent qualities of a gen- eral and soldieri It is probable that the memory of Xer'xes's exploits in youth were alone preserved in eastern Persia. It is generally thought that Xer'xes Was the Ahasuerus { Aohash Zwerosh, that is, " brave hero") mentioned in the book of Est'her. Xer'xes was murdered by a captain of his guards, named Artabanus (B.C. 470), and his eldest son shared his fate. The assassin conferred the crown on Artaxer'xes, the third son of the deceased monarch, sur- named Macrocheir, or " the long--handed," called by the natire histori- ans Ardeshir Bahman, who is celdsrated for his just and beneficent administration. But his virtues were insufficielit to check the decline of the empire, which began to exhibit signs of weakness in every quar- ter. After countless humiliations, Artaxer'xes was forced to sign a dis- gracefid peace, by which he recognised the independence of the Asia,tiG Greeks ; consented that his fleet should be wholly excluded from the JEgean : and that the Persian army should not come within three days' march of the coast (b. g. 449). • Internal wars &.nd rebellions were of frequent occurrence ; the royal forces were often defeated and the empire kept in a state of turbulence and confusion. On the death of Artaxer'xes (b. c. 424), his only legitimate son, Xer'xes, ascended the throne ; but within forty-five days was mur- dered by his natural brother, Sogdianus ; and he again was deposed by another illegitimate prince, O'chus, who, on his accession, took the name of Darius II. Under the administration of Darius II., sumamed ISfdthus, that is, " illegitimate," the empire declined rapidly, chiefly owing to the in- creased pov/er and consequent turbulence of the provincial satraps. On the death of Darius, his son Artaxer'xes, sumamed Mnemon, from the strength of his memoj^, ascended the throne (b. c. 405) ; but was op- posed by his brother Gy'rus, who had the support of the queen-mother, Parysatis, and of an army of Greek mercenaries, which he was enabled to levy through his connexion with Sparta. Cy'rus, at first successful, was slain at the battle of Cunax'a (b. c. 401) ; but his ten thousand Greek auxiliaries, under the guidance of Xen'ophon, a renegade Athe- nian, though a delightful historiat, succeeded in forcing a safe passage to their native land. During the remainder of his reign, the weak Ar- taxer'xes was the mere puppet of his mother, Parysdtis, whose in- veterate hatred against Queen Statira, and all whom she suspected of having contributed to the overthrow of her favorite son, Gy'rus, filled the palace witjo^ murderS) treasons, and assassinations. While the THE PERSIAHrS. 67 court was thus disgraced, Agesilaus, king of Sparta, joined with the Asiatic Greeks, was making rapid conquests in western Persia ; and he would probably have dismembered the empire, had not the troubles excited in Greece by a lavish distribution of Persian gold, compelled him to return home. The remainder of the reign of Artaxer'xes was singularly unfortu- nate : he attempted to reduce Egypt, but his efforts failed, owing to a disagreement between the Athenian auxiliaries and the Persian com- manders ; Cy'prus regained its independence ; and the spirit of revolt spread through all western Asia. His domestic calamities were still more afflicting : he was obliged to punish his oldest son Darius with death, for conspiring against him ; O'chus, his youngest son, murdered his brother, to open a path to the succession ; and Artaxer'xes, over- come by such a complication of miseries, died of a broken heart. O'chus, on the accessi'on (b. 'c. 36<)), took the name of Artaxer'xes III. ; and, to secure himself on the throne, put to death no fewer than eighty of the royal family. Artabazus, the satrap of Asia Minor, at- tempted to take advantage t)f the unpopularity which those crimes brought on the monarch ; and, aided by the Thebans and Athenians, made a vigorous effort to seize the throne. O'chus, hovjrever, was as conspicuous for his military prowess as for his crimes; he defeated Artabazus, and forced him to seek refuge in Greece. He next marched against the Phoenician insurgents, who were supported by the Cypri- ots and Egyptians : the treason of the general of the confederates gave O'chus an easier victory than he had expected,, and he levelled- the city of Sidon with the ground. Being joined by a powerful body of Greek auxiliaries, he recovered the island of Cy'prus, and once more reduced it to a Persian province. But the king's cruelties were not compensated by his victories ; and he was at length poisoned by the eimuch Bagoas, who placed Ar'ces, the youngest son of O'chus, on the throne. Ar'ces, after a brief reign, suffered the fate of his father ; and the treacherous Bagoas transferred the crown to Darius Codoman'nus, a descendant of Darius Nothus (b. c. 336). The eunuch hoped that by raising so remote a branch to the throne, he wovdd be permitted to re- tain royal power in his hands ; but Darius soon asserted his indepen- dence, and Bagdas prepared to remove him by poison. The treachery was ^scovered ; and Darius compelled the baffled eunuch to drink the medicated portion that he had prepared. But the fate, of the Persian empire was now at hand ; Alexan'der the Great of Macedon appeared in Asia, and his brave little army scattered the myriads of Persia like chaff before the wind. After the loss of the two battles of Is'sus and Arbela, Darius, while seeking refuge in a remote part of his empire, was murdered by, the eunuch Bes'sus ; and Asia received a new mas- ter.* , The Persians inherited the commercial power of the Babylonians and Phcenicians ; but they opened no new branch of trade, Sad scarce- ly maintained those they found ajready established. It is not, there- fore, necessary to repeat here what has been said in the preceding chapters on the commerce of central Asia. , . • See the history of Macedou in a following chapter. ' 68 ANCIENT HISTOKY. CHAPTER VII. PHCENICIAN COLONIES IN NORTHERN AFRICA, ESPEOIALLT CARTHAGE. Sectioh I. — Geographical Outline of Northern Africa. Although Africa was circumnavigated at a period of very remote antiquity, the interior of the country still remained unexplored, and the southern part, on account of the clifficulty of navigation in the ocean, was neglected until the knowledge of its discovery was forgotten. But the northeiTi coast bordering on the Mediterranean became the seat of flourishing Greek and Phoenician colonies. This extensive district was divided by nature into three regions, or bands, of unequal breadth, nearly parallel with the sea-line : 1, the maritime country, consisting generally of very fertile districts, whence it was called Inhabited Africa, is now named Barbary ; 3, a rugged mountainous country, whose loft- iest peaks form the chain of Mount Atlas, abounding in wild beasts and palm-groves, whence it was called by the ancients the Land of Lions, and by the modems Beledulgerid, or the Land of Dates ; the Romans usually named it Gsetulia ; 3j a vast sandy desert, which the ArabS' call Sahara. •From the chain of Mount Atlas several small rivers flow into the Mediterranean by a short northern course ; but there are no streams of importance on the south side of these mountains, and no great river in the interior until we reach the remote Niger, concerning which the ancients had very imperfect information; indeed, nothing was known with certainty of its true course, until the recent discovery of its mouth by the Landers. Proceeding westward along the shore from Egypt, Africa presented the following political divisions : 1, Marmar^ica, a sandy tract tenanted by nomad tribes ; 2, Cyrenaica, a fertile teirritory, occupied by Greek colonies, extending to the greater Syr'tis ; its chief cities were Cyrerie, and Bar'ca ; 3, R^gio Syr'tica, the modern kingdom of Trip'oli, a sandy tract subject to the Carthaginians, but almost wholly occupied by nomad hordes'; 4, the domestic territory of Carthage, wMch forms the modern kingdom of Tunis ; 5', a very fruitful co|Untry subject to the Carthagin- ians, the northern part of which was named Byzac6nia, and the south- ern Zeugitana ; and, 6, Numid'ia and Mauritania, occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad hordes ; but having some Carthaginian colonies along the coasts. CARTHAGE. 69 Carthage was built on a peninsula in the interior of a large bay, now called the gulf of Tunis, formed by the projection of the Hermaean prom- ontory (now Cape Bon) on the east, and the promontory of Apollo (now Cape Zebid) on the west. The peninsula was about midway between U'tica and Tunis, both of which could be seen from the walls of Carthage ; the former being about nine, and the latter only six miles distant ; it was joined to the land by an isthmus averaging three miles in length ; and on the seaside there was a narrow neck of land project- ing westward, which formed a double harbor, and served as a mole or breakwater for the protection of shipping. Toward the sea the city was fortified, only by a single wall; but the isthmus was guarded by the citadel Byr'sa, and a triple wall eighty feet high and about thirty wide. The African territory of Carthage extended westward along the coast of the pillars of Hercules, and eastward to the altars of the Philae'ni, which marked the frontier between the territories of Cyrene and Carthage. Southward, the dominions of Carthage extended to the Tritonian lake ; but many of the nomad tribes beyond these limits paid nominal obedience to the republic. The fertile provinces of Carthage, occupied by people who tilled the soil, extended from Cape Bon, in a direct line, to the most eastern angle of the Triton lake, a distance of nearly two hundred geographical miles. Its average breadth was one hundred and fifty miles. , The foreign :possessions of Carthage included the Balearic islands, Cor'sica, Sardinia^. and the smaller islands in the Mediterranean, the southern part of Sicily and Spain, some settlements on the western coast of Africa, and the Fortunate islands in the Atlantic, which are probably the Canaries, and the fertile Madeira. Section II. — Social and Political Condition of C'ar&iage. The government of Carthige was formed by circumstances ; it was originally monarchical, like Tjrre, its parent state ; but at a very early period it assumed a republican form, in which aristocracy was the pre- vailing element, though the power of the people was not wholly ex- cluded. There were two luBgs, or chief magistrates, called suffetes (the shnphetim, or judges, of the Hebrews), who appear to have been nominated by the senate, and then presented for confirmation to the general assembly of tJte . people. There was a double senate ; a syned'rium, or house of assembly, and a select council, denominated gerusia, which was composed of a hundred of the principal members of the syned'rium, and formed the high court of judicature. Public affairs were not submitted to the assembly of the people, ex- cept when there was a difference of opinion between the suffetes and the senate, when the decision of the general assembly was final. In one particular the Carthaginian government was more constitu- tional than that of Rome, or most of the Grecian republics ; it kept dis- tinct the civil and military power: the dignity of chief magistrate was not united to that of general without an express decree for the purpose. When a king was sent to conduct a war, his military powers expired at the close of the campaign, and previously to a new one a fresh nonuna- 70 ANCIENT HISTOEY. tion was necessary. There are also instances of a general being elected one of the suffetes, or kings, while he was engaged in conduct- ing war. Other foreign expeditions were sometimes intrusted to the kings i for Hanno, who conducted an armament to establish colonies along the coast of western Africa, is expressly called king of the Car- tha.gimans. ' The religion of the Carthaginians was the same as that of their an- cestors the Phronicians, and was consequently polluted by sanguinary rites and human sacrifices. But the Carthaginians were not averse to the introdiiction' of foreign goods j they adopted the worship of Ceres from the Sicilians, and sent ambassadors to the oracle of Delphi. It does not appear that there was a distinct sacerdotal caste, or even order, in Carthage ; the priestly functions were united with the magisterial. A species of national' banking was established at Carthage which was very curious. Pieces of a compound metal, the secret of whose composition was strictly preserved, in oirder to prevent forgery, were sewed up in leather coverings, and marked with a government seal, which declared their' nominal value. This money was, of course, cur- rent only in Carthage itself The public revenues of Carthage were derived from the tribute imposed on the dependant cities and African tribes, from the customhouse duties collected in the port, and from the Spanish mines, the richest of which were irt the neighborhood of Carthago Nova, the modem city of Carthagena. 'The Carthaginians, like their ancestors the Phoenicians, paid great attention to naval affairs, and long possessed maritime Supremacy over the western Mediterranean. They were eminent for their skill in ship- building, and it was after the model of a Carthaginian gaUey, accident- ally stranded, that the Romans built their first fleet. The Carthaginians most commonly used triremes, or galleys with three banks of oars, but we read of their using ships -Hfith five banks, and in one instance with seven. The rowers were composed of slaves bought by the state for this particular purpose, and as they required constant practice, iformed a permanent body, T^hich was not disbanded in time of peace. The office of admiral was rarely united to that of general, and the naval commanders, even when acting in concert with the military, received their orders direct»from the senate. Carthage supported numerous land armies ; but, unlike most other ancient states, its forces were chiefly composed ■ of mercenaries and slaves ; the citizens themselves, engrosse|d vby commercial pursuits, were unwilling to encounter the ihard^hips and perils of a campaign. There was, however, always one Carthaginian corps, which was re- garded as the pride of the army. Section III.-^IEstory of Carthage from the Foundation of Oie City to the ConUnencement of the Syracusan Wars. FROM B. C. 880 TO B. C. 416. :■ Di'do, after having escaped from the tyranny of her brother Pygma- lion, chose for her new country the Carthaginian peninsula. She is said to have acquired by a fraudulent purchase, the ground on which the city was bufl,t ; but this legend is unworthy of serious notice. At CARTHAGE. 71 first the Carthaginians were compelled to pay tribute to the neighbor- ing barbarian princes ; but when their riches and strength increased, they shook of this degrading yoke, and extended their dominion by the subjection of the nearest native tribes in the interior, and by npw establishments along the coasts. The more ancient Phcenician colo- nies, such as U'tica and Lep'tis, far from feeling jealous of the rising power of Carthage, joined in a federation, of which the new city was recognised as th« head. The Greek settlers at Cyrene, whose state had attained great commercial prosperity, viewed the Carthaginians with more jealousy, and war soon broke out between the rival cities. Wlule the Persian empire was rising into importance in the east, Carr thage was fast acquiring supremacy over the western world, chiefly by means of the family of Mago— a family that held the chief power of the state for more than a century. But just as they were rising into eminence, they had tp encounter a formidable enemy in the western Mediterranean, whose proved skill and courage threatened dangerous rivalry. This led to one of the first naval engagements recorded in history, and arose from the following circumstances : — After Cy'rus had overthrown Crte'sus, he intrusted the subjugation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor to Har'pagus, one of his generals, and returned to complete the conquest of Babylonia. One of the first places against which Har'pagus directed his efforts was Phocae'a, the most northern city of I6nia (b.. c. 589). Its inhabitants were celebra- ted for their commercial enterprise and skill in navigation ; they had frequently visited the coast of Spain, and ventured beyond the pillars of Hercules. But they had not strength to resist the myriads of Per- sia ; and when summoned by Har'pagus, they begged fpr a short inter- val to deliberate on his proposals. During this period, they embarked their wives, children, and moveable property, on board their galleys, and abandoned the naked walls of their ,city to the Persians. They pro- ceeded to the island of Cor'sica, part of which was already occupied by the Carthaginians, and prepared to establish themselves on its coast^. The Carthaginians and the Tyrrhenians, or Tuscans, dreading the rivalry of the enterprising Phoeaeans, entered into an alliance for their destruction, and sent a fleet of one hundred and twenty sail to drive them from Cor'sica. The Phoeaeans, with half the number of vessels, gained a brilliant victory ; but, conscious that their numbers were too weak to sustain repeated attacks, they abandoned Cor'sica for the shores of Gaul, where they founded the city of Marseilles. In the year that the Tarquins were expelled, a treaty was concluded between the republics of Rqifte and Carthage (b. c. 509); from the terms of which it appears that the Carthaginians were already supreme masters of the northern coast of Africa and the island of Sardinia, and that they possessed the Balearic islands, and a considerable portion of Sicily and Spain. Ever since the seafight off Cor'sica, the Carthagimans had a jeal- ous dread of Grecian valor and enterprise, which was naturally aggra- vated by the increiising wealth and power of the Greek colonies in Sicily and southern Italy. When Xer'xes, therefore, was preparing to invade Hel'las, they readily entered into alliance with the Persian monarch, and agreed to attack the colonies, while he waged war ^gWJift 72 ANCIENT HISTORY. the parent state. An armament was accordingly prepared, whose mag- nitude shows the extensive power, and resources of Carthage. It con- sisted of two thousand ships of war, three thousand transports and ves- sels of burden, and a land army amounting to three hundred thousand men. The command of the whole was intrusted to Hamil'car, the head of the illustrious family of Mdgo. This immense army consisted chiefly of African mercenaries, and was composed of what are called light troops. They were, however, wholly undisciplined, and if de- feated in the first onset could rarely be persuaded to renew the attack. A landing was effected, without loss, at Panor'mus (the modern Pal- ermo) ; and when the troops were refreshed, Hamil'car advanced and laid close siege to Himera. The governor Theron, made a vigorous defence, though pressed not only by the overwhelming forces of the enemy, but by the still more grievous pressure of famine. Foreseeing, however, that the town, unless speedily relieved, must be forced to surrender, he sent an urgent request for assistance to Syracuse. G^lon, king of S)rracuse, could only collect about five thousand horse and fifteen thousand foot. With this very disproportionate force he marched against the Carthaginians, to take advantage of any opportu- nity that fortune might offer. On his road he fortunately captured a messenger from the Selinuntines to Hamil'car, promising on a certain day to join him with the auxiUary force of cavalry that he had demand- ed. Though his forces were formidable, in point of numbers, Hamil'- car was too prudent to trust such undisciplined hordes, unless aided by regular soldiers, and had therefore offered large bribes to win over some of the Grecian states in Sicily to his side. The Selinuntines alone listened to his terms, and promised to aid him against their old enemies the Syracusans. Gelon sent the letter forward to Hamil'car ; and hav- ing taking measures to intercept the treacherous Selinuntines, he de- spatched a chosen body of his own troops to the Carthaginian camp in their stead at the specified time. The Syracusans being admitted with- out any suspicion, suddenly galloped to the general's tent, slew Hamil'- car and his principal officers, and then, hmrjdng to the harbor, get fire to the fleet. The blaze of the burning vessels, the cries of Hamil'car's servants, and the shouts of the Syracusans, threw the whole Carthagin- ian army into confusion ; in the midst of which they were attacked by Gelon with the rest of his forces. Without leaders and without com- mand, the Carthaginians could make no efiective resistance ; more than half of the invaders feU in the field ; the remainder, without arms and without provisions, sought shelter in the interior of the country, where most of them perished. It is remarkable that this great victory was won on the same day that the battle of Thermop'ylse was fought, and the Persian fleet defeated at Artemis'ium ; three of the noblest triumphs obtained in the struggle for Grecian freedom (b. c. 480). The miserable remnant of the Carthaginian troops rallied under Gis'- gon, the son of Hamil'car ; but the new general found it impossible to remedy the disorganization occasioned by the late defeat, and was forced to surrender at discretion. For seventy years after this defeat, little is known of the history of Carthage, except that during that period the state greatly extended its power over the native tribes of Africa, and gained important acquisi- CAETHAGE. 73 tions of territory from tlie Cyrenians. Sicily was, in the meantime, the scene of a war which threatened total annihilation to Syracuse, the Athenians having invaded the island, and laid siege to that city. But when the Athenians were totally defeated (b. c. 416), the Carthagin- ians had their attention once more directed to Sicilian politics by an embassy from the Segestans, seeking their protection against the Syra- cusans, whose wrath they had provoked by their alliance with the Athenians. Section IV. — History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars. FROM B. c. 416 TO B. 0. 264. The Carthaginians gladly seized the pretext afforded them by the Segestan embassy ; and a new expedition was sent against Sicily, under the command of Han'nibal, the son of Gis'gon. This new in- vasion was crowned with success ; Selinun'tum and Himera were taken by storm, and their inhabitants put to the sword. The Sicilians sohcited a truce, which was granted on terras extremely favorable to the Carthaginians. So elated was the state at this success, that nothing less than the entire subjugation of Sicily was contemplated, In'ules, the son of Han'no, and Han'nibal, at the head of a powerful armament, proceeded to besiege Agrigen'tum, the second city of the island. During the siege, which lasted eight months, the assailants suffered severely from pestilential disease, and the garrison from famine. After having en- dured with wonderful patience the severest extremities of famine, the Agrigentines forced their way through the enemies' lines by night, and retreated to Gela, abandoning the aged, the sick, and the wounded, to the mercy of the Carthaginians. Himil'co, who had succeeded to the chief command on the death of his father Han'nibal, ordered these helpless victims to be massacred. Gela soon shared the fate of Agri- gen'tum; and Diony'sius I., the king of Syracuse, who had taken the command of the confederated Sicilians; deemed it prudent to open ne- gotiations for peace. /'A treaty was concluded (b.-c. 405), which neither party intended to observe longer than the necessary preparations for a more decisive contest would require. Scarcely were the Cartha- ginians withdrawn, when Diony'sius sent deputies to all the Greek states in Sicily, exhorting them by a simultaneous effort to expel all in- truders, and secure their future independence. His machinations were successful ; the Carthaginian merchants who, on the faith of the late treaty, had settled in the principal commercial town, were perfidiously massacred ; while Diony'sius, at the head of a powerful army, cap- tured several of the most important Carthaginian fortresses. All the forces that the wealth of Carthage could procure were speed- ily collected to punish this treachery; and Himil'co advanced against Syracuse, and laid siege to it with the fairest prospects of success. But a plague of such uncommon virulence broke out in the Carthagin- ian camp, that the living, were unable to bury the dead, and information of this state of things being conveyed to Sy'racuse, Diony'sius sallied forth with all his forces, and assaulted the Carthaginian camp. Scarce 74 , ANCIENT HISTORY. any attempt was' made at resistance : night alone put an end to the slaughter ; and when morning dawned, Himil'co found that nothing but a speedy surrender could saVe him and his followers from total ruin. He stipulated only for the lives of himself and the Carthaginians, aban- doning all his auxiliaries to the vengeance of the Syracusans. The Carthaginians sent another armament, commanded by Mago, a nobleman of high rank, to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; but their forces were routed with great slaughter, and the leader slain.' The younger Mago, son of the late general, having received a strong rein- forcement, from Africa, hazarded a second engagement, in which the Syracusans were totally defeated. Diony'sius was induced by this overthrow to solicit a peace, which was concluded on terms honorable to both parties. The conclusion of the Sicilian war was followed by a plague, which destroyed multitudes of the citizens of Carthage (b. c. 347); and scarcely had this visitation passed away, when insurrections broke out in the African provinces, and in the colonies of Sicily and Sardinia. But the Carthaginian senate showed itself equal to the crisis ; by a course of policy in which firmness was tempered by conciliation, these dangers were averted, and the state restored to its former vigor and prosperity. "' ■ ' '' In the meantime, Sy'racuse was weakened by the death of Diony'- sius I., who, though stigmatized as a tyrant by the Greek historians, appears to have been a wise and prudent sovereign. " No one," said S'eip'io Africanus, " ever concerted his schemes with more wisdom, or executed them with more energy, than the elder Diony'sius." His son, Diony'sius II., was a profligate prince, Vi^hose excesses filled the state with tumult and distraction. The Carthaginians eagerly embra- ced the opportunity of accomplishing the favorite object of their policy, the conquest of Sicily ; and a great armament was prepared, of which Mago was appointed the chief commander. Mago, at the very first attack, made himself master of the harbor of sy'racuse. The Syracusans, destitute of money, of arms, and almost of hope, solicited the aid of the Corinthians ; and Timoleon, one of the greatest generals and purest patriots of antiquity, was sent to their assistance. A great portion of the Carthaginian army had been levied in the Greek colonies ; Timoleon, hoping to work on their patriotic feelings, addressed letters to the leaders of these mercenaries, expos- tulating with them on the disgrace of bearing arms against their coun- trymen : and though he did not prevail on any to desert, y.et Mago, having heard Of these intrigues, felt such distrust of his followers, that he at once abandoned Sy'racuse, and returned home. Great was the indignation of the Carthaginians at this unexpected termination of the campaign ; Mago committed suicide to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; two generals, Han'nibal and Hamil'car were appointed to the command, and were intrusted with an army of seventy thousand men, and a fleet consisting of two hundred war-galleys, and a thousand ships of burden. Tim61eon hasted to meet the invaders, though his forces barely amounted to seven thousand men. He unexpectedly attacked the Car- thaginian army on its msirch, near the river CrimisUs ; and the confu- CARTHAGE. 75 sion produced by the surprise termihated in a total rout. Tte Syracu- sans captured town after town, until at length the senate of Carthage was forced to solicit peace, and accept the terms dictated by the con- queror. While Carthage was thus unfortunate abroad, her liberties at home narrowly escaped destruction. Han'no, one of the principal leaders of the state, resolved to make himself master of his country by poison- ing the leaders of the senate at a banquet. This diabolical plot was frustrated by a timely discovery, and the exasperated traitor resolved to hazard an open rebellion. Having armed his slaves, to the number of twenty thousand, he took the field, and invited the native African tribes to join his standard; This appeal was disregarded ; and before Han'no could levy fresh forces, he was surrounded by an army hastily raised, his followers routed, and himself rriade prisoner. He was put to death with the most cruel tortures ; and, according to the barbarous custom of Carthage, his children and nearest relatives shared the same fate. New dissensions in Sy'racuse afforded the Carthaginians a fresh pretext for meddling in the affairs of Sicily. Agathoc'les, an intriguing demagogue of mean birth, had acquired great influence among his countrymen, and, finally, by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, be- came master of the state. But he soon showed little regard for the ties of gratitude, and declared his resolution to expel his benefactors from the island. The Carthaginian senate immediately sent Hamil'car with a powerful army against this new enemy. Agathoc'les was com- pletely defeated,, and forced to shut himself up within the walls of Sy'- racuse. The city was soon closely invested, and everything seemed to promise Hamil'car, complete success at no distant day, when Aga- thoc'les suddenly baffled all his calculations, by adopting one of the most extraordinary measures recorded in history. Having.' assembled the Syracusans, he declared that he could liberate them from all dangers, if an army and a small, sum of money were placed at his disposal; adding, that his plan would be instantly defeated, if its nature was di- vulged. An army of liberated slaves was hastily levied, the sum of fifty talents intrustfidi to his discretion, and a fleet prepared in secret ; when all was ready, Agathoc'les announced his design of transporting his forces into Africa, and compelling the Carthaginians, by the dread of a nearer danger, to abandon Sicily. Having eluded the vigilance of the blockading squadroii, Agathoeles arrived safely in Africa before the Carthaginians had received the slight- est notion of his intention (b. c. 309). To inspire his soldiers with a resolution to conquer or die, he cut off all chance of retreat by burning his transports ; then fearlessly advancing, he stormed T\inis and sev- eral other cities, the plunder of which he divided among his soldiers, and instigated the African princes to throw off the yoke of Carthage. Han'no and Bomil'car were sent to check the progress of this daring invader, with forces nearly four times as great as the Sicilian army ; but Agathoc'les did not decline the engagement. His valor was re- warded bjy a decisive victory. Following up his success, Agathoc'les stormed the enemies' camp, , where were found heaps of fetters and chains, which the Carthaginians, confident of success, had prepared for the invading army. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY. Dreadful consternation was produced in Carthage by the news of this unexpected defeat. Haniil'car, who was vigorously pressing for- ward the siege of Sy'racuse, was surprised by the unexpected order to return home and defend his own country. He broke up the siege, and sent home five thousand of his best troops. Having supplied their place byhiring fresh mercenaries,' he again invaded the Syracusan ter- ritories ; but was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and slain. Ophelias, king of Cyrene, had joined Agathoc'les with all his for- ces ; but the Syracusan monarch, jealous of his influence, had him pri- vately poisoned. Having thus removed his rival, he thought he might safely revisit Sicily, and intrust the command of the African army to his son. But, during his absence, the fruits of all his former labors were lost : the army under a young and inexperienced general, threw aside the restraints of discipline ; the Greek estates, indignant at the murder of Ophel'las, withheld their contingents ; and the African princes renewed their allegiance to Carthage. Agathocles hearing of these disorders, hasted to remedy them : but finding all his efforts vain, he fled back to Sicily, abandoning both his sons aiid his soldiers. The army, exasperated by his desertion, slew their leaders, and surrendered themselves to the Carthaginians ; and Agathoc'les died soon after, either from grief or poison. After the death of this formidable enemy, the Carthaginians renewed their intrigues in Sicily, and soon acquired a predominant influence in the island. Finding themselves in danger of utter ruin, the Greek col- onies solicited the aid of Pjrr'rhus, king of Epirus, who had married a daughter of Agathoc'les, and was then in Italy endeavoring to protect the colonies of Magna Grae'cia from the increasing power of the Ro- mans (b. C. 277). P3T:'rhus made a very successful campaign in Sicily, every Carthaginian town, except Lilybae'um, submitted to his arms. But he was soon induced to return to Italy; and the fruits of his victories were lost almost as rapidly as they had been acquired, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of HIero, king of Sy'racuse. Section V. — From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage. FROM B. c. 264 TO B. c. 146. When Pyr'rhus was leaving Sicily, he exclaimed to his attendants, "What a fine field of battle we are leaving to the Carthaginians and Romans 1" His prediction was soon verified, though the circumstances that precipitated the contest were apparently of little importance. A body of mercenaries in the pay of Agathoc'les, after the death of that monarch, treacherously got possession of Messina, and put all the in- habitants to the sword. Hiero, king of Sy'racuse, marched against the Mamertines, as the independent companies that had seized Messina were called, and defeated them in the field. Half the Mamertines in- voked the aid of the Carthaginians, and placed them in immediate pos- session of the citadel, while the others sought the powerful protection of Rome. After much hesitation, the Romans consented to grant the required aid. The citadel of Messina was taken after a brief siege, and the Carthaginians were routed with great slaughter. Thus com- CARTHAGE. 77 ffieneecl the first Punic war, which lasted twenty -three years, the de- tails of which will be found in the chapters on Roman history. In this war Carthage lost Sicily, and its supremacy in the western Mediterranean, which involved the fate of all its other insular posses- sions. The treasury was exhausted, and money was wanting to pay the arrears due to the soldiers. The mercenaries mutinied, and advancing in a body, laid siege to Tunis. Thence they marched against U'tica, while the light African cavalry that had joined in the rebellion ravaged the country up to the very gates of Carthage. The revolters were sub- dued ; but not until they had reduced the fairest provinces of the repub- lic to a desert. The mercenaries in Sardinia had also thrown off their allegiance ; and the Romans, in violation of the recent peace, took possession of the island ; an injury which Carthage was unable to resent. ^ Hamil'car Bar'ca,* grieved to see his country sinking, formed a pro- ject for raising it once more to an equality with its imperious rival, by completely subduing the Spanish peninsula. His son Han'nibal, then a boy only nine years of age, earnestly besought leave to accompany his father on this expedition ; but before granting the request, Ham- il'car led the boy to the altar, and made him swear eternal hostility to Rome. During nine years Hamil'car held the command in Spain, and found means, either by force or negotiation, to subdue almost the entire country. He used the treasures he acquired to strengthen the influence of the Barcan family in the state, relying chiefly on the democracy for support against his great rival Han'no, who had the chief influence among the nobility. Has'drubal, the son-in-law of Hamil'car, succeeded to his power and his projects. He is suspected of having designed to establish an inde- pendent kingdom in Spain, after having failed to make himself absolute in Carthage. He built a new capital with regal splendor, which re- ceived the name of New Carthage ; the richest silver-mines were opened in its neighborhood, and enormous bribes were sent to Carthage to dis- arm jealousy or stifle inquiry. Unlike other Carthaginian governors of provinces, he made every possible exertion to win the affections of the native Spaniards, and he married the daughter of one of their kings. The Romans were at length alarmed by his success, and compelled him to sigi) a treaty, by which he was bound to abstain from passing the Iberus (Ebro), or attacking the territory of the Saguntines. When Has'drubal fell by the dagger of an assassin, tbe Barcan family had sullicient influence to have Han'nibal appointed his successor, though he had barely attained his legal majority (b. c. 221). The youthful genera! having gained several victories over the Spaniards, boldly laid siege to Sagun'tum, and thus caused the second war with the Romans, for the details of which we must refer to the chapters on Roman history. During the course of this war, the Carthaginian navy, the source of its greatness and the security of its strength, was neglected. The spirit of party also raged violently in Carthage itself. At the conclusion of the • Barca signifies " thiinder" in the Phceniciaa language, and aiso in Hebrew, whicli is closely allied to Plioenician. The Hebrew root is Pl^ to thunder. "^^ ANCIENT, HISTORY. war, Carthage was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the Romans. Thenceforward Carthage was to be nothing more than a commercial city under the pro- tection of Rome. A powerful rival also was raised against the repub- lic in Africa .itself by the alliance of, the Numidian king Massinis'sa with the Romans ; and that, monarch took possession of most of the western Cartha.ginian coloni>es. Han'nibal, notwithstanding his late reverses, continued at the head of the Carthaginian state, and reformed several abuses that had crept into the management of the finances and the adiaLniBtratiQn of justice. But these judicious reforms provoked the enmity of the factious nobles who had hitherto been permitted to fatten on public plunder ; they joined with, the old ijvals of the Barcan family, ar^d even degraded themselves so far as to act as spies for the Romans, who still dreaded the abilities i)f Han'nibal. In consequence of their machinations the old general was forced to fly from the country he had so long labored to serve ; and, after several vicissitudes, died of poison, to escape the mean and malignant persecution of the Romans, whose hatred followed him in his exile, and compelled the king of Bith)mia to refuse him protection. The moundi which marks his last resting-place is still a remarkable object. But the Carthaginians had soon reason to lament the loss of their champion : the Romans were not conciliated by the expulsion of Han'- nibali) and Massinis'sa, leiying upon their support, made frequent in- cursions into the tMritories of the republic. Both parties complained of each other as aggressors before the Roman senate (b. c. 162) ; but though they received an equal hearing, the decision was long previously Bettled in favor of Massinis'sa. , While these negotiations were ptand- ing, Carthage was harassed by political dissension ; the popular party — ^believing;, and not without reason, that the low estate of the republic was chiefly owing to the (animosity that the aristocratic faction had shown to the Barcan family, and especially to Han'nibal, on account of his financial and judicial reform — ^convened a tumultuous assembly, and sent forty of the pricipal senators into banishment, exacting an oath from the citizens that they would never permit their return. The exiles sought refuge with Massinis'sa, who sent his sons to intercede with the Carthaginian populace in their favor. The Numidian princes were not oijy refused admittance to the city, but ignominiously chased from their territory. Sjich an insult naturally provoked a fresh war, in which the Cai^aginians were defeated, and forced to submit to the most oner- ous conditions. The (Roman senate, continually solicited by the elder Cato, at length came to the resohation.of totally destroying Carthage ; but it was difli- fivit to discover a preterit for war against a state which, conscious of its weakness, iiad. resolv€|d:to obey every command. The Carthaginians gave up three hundred of their noblest youths as hostages, surrendered their #hips-of- war afld'th^ir magajsines of arms; but when, after all thesjC concessions, th,€y were ordered to abandon their city, they took couTs^g^ from I despair, and ;absolutely refused obedience. War was in- stantly, pioclaimed ; the Romans n;et with almost uninterrupted suc- cess ; aa^ at tlie close ii;if ,thfe failr years that the war lasted, Carthage CARTHAGE. 79 was taken by storm, and its magnificent edifices levelled \yith the ground. Sec*ion VI. — Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carffiage. The colonial and commercial policy of the Carthaginians was far less generous than that of their ancestors, the Phcenicians ; the harbors of the capital were open to the ships and merchants of foreign nations, but admission was either wholly refused to all the remaining ports in the territory of the republic, or subjected to the most onerous restrictions. This selfish system, which has been imitated by too many modem commercial states, was forced upon the Carthaginians by peculiar cir- cvunstances. Their trade with the barbarous tribes of Africa was car- ried on principally by barter ; the ignorant savages exchanged valuable commodities for showy trifles ; and the admission of competition would at once have shown them how much they lost in the exchange. Had the Carthaginians, under such circumstances, permitted free trade, they would, in fact, have destroyed their own market. The principal commerce of the Carthaginians in the western Medit- erranean was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy, from which they obtained wine and oil, in exchange for negro slaves, precious stones, and gold, procured from the interior of Africa, and also for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage and in the island of Malta. Co/sica supplied honey, wax, and slaves ; Sardinia yielded abundance of com ; the Balearic islands produced the best breed of mules ; resin and volcanic products, such as sulphur and pumice-stone, were obtained from the Lipari islands ; and southem Spain was, as we have already said, the chief source whence the nations of antiquity procured the precious metals. Beyond the pillars of Hercules the Carthaginians succeeded the Phcenicians in the tin and amber trade with the south British islands and the nations at the entrance of the Baltic. After the destruction of Carthage, this trade fell into the hands of their earliest rivals, the PhocEsans of Marseilles, who changed its route ; they made their pur- chases on the north shore of Gaul, and conveyed their goods overland to the mouth of the Rhone, in that age a journey of thirty days. On the west coast of Africa the Carthaginian colonies studded the shores of Morocco and Fez ; but their great mart was the island of Cer'ne, now Suana, in the Atlantic ocean (39° 10' N. lat., 10° 40' W. long.). On this island was the great depot of merchandise ; and goods were transported from it in light barks to the opposite coast, where they were bartered with the native inhabitants. The Carthaginian exports were trinkets, saddlery, linen, or more probably, cotton webs, pottery, and arms ; for which they received undressed hides and elephants' teeth. To this trade was added a very lucrative fishery : the tunny fish {thynnus scomber), which is still plentiful on the northwestern coast of Africa, was deemed a great luxury by the Carthaginians. There is every reason to believe that these enterprising merchants had some in- tercourse with the coast of Guinea, and that their navigators advanced beyond the mouths of the Senegal and Gambia ; but the caution with which everything respecting this trade was concealed, renders it mi- possible to determine its nature and extent with accuracy. 80 ANCIENT HISTOEY. It is very diiBcult to discover any particulars respecting the caravan- trade which the Carthaginians carried on from their southern settle- ments with the interior of Africa. From the districts bordering on the desert the chief articles obtained were dates and salt ; but from beyond the desert, the imports were negro slaves and gold-dust. The nature of this lucrative commerce was the more easily concealed, as the cara- vans were formed not at Carthage, but at remote towns in the interior, and all the chief staples were situated on the confines of the Great Desert. OaEOIAN STATES. 81 CHAPTER VIII. THE FOUNDATION OF THE GRECIAN STATES. Section I. — Geographical Outline of Hellas. Greece was bounded on the north by the Gambiinian mountains, which separated it from Maceddnia ; on the east by the jEgean, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the west by the Ionian seas. Its extent from north to south was about two hundred and twenty geo- graphical miles, from east to west one hundred and sixty miles, and conseqttently its area was about 34,000 square miles ; making a small, indeed too small, a reduction for the irregularity of its outline. No European country was so advantageously situated \ on the eastern side, the iEgean sea, studded with islands, brought it into close contact with Asia Minor and the Phoenician frontiers ; the voyage to Egypt was neither long nor difficult, though it afforded not so many resting-places to the mariners ; and from the west there was a short and easy pas- sage to Italy. The entire line of this extensive coast was indented with bays and harbors, offering every facility for navigation ; while the two great gulfs that divided Hel'las, or northern Greece, from the Peloponnesus, or southern Greece, must have, in the very earliest ages, forced naval affairs on the attention of the inhabitants. , Nature herself has formed three great divisions of this very remark- able country. The Saronic and Corinthian gulfs sever the Pelopon- neshs from Hel'las ; and this latter is divided into two nearly equal portions, northern and southern, by the chain of Mount CE'ta, which traverses it obliquely, severing Thes'saly and Epirus from central Hel'las. TifEs'sAiT, the largest of all the Grecian provinces, may be generally deScriblSd' as an extensive table-land, enclosed on three sides by the mountains, and by th6 iEgean sea, close to whose shores rise the lofty peaks of Os'sa and Olym'pus. Its principal, indeed almost its only river, is the Peneus, which rises in Mount Pin'dus, and flowing in an easterly direction, fall's into the ^gean sea. , Thes'saly was ruined by its nat- ural Wealth ; the inhabitants rioted in sensual enjoyments ; anarchy and tyranny followed each other in regular succession ; and thus Thes'- saly prepared fOf the yoke of a master, was the first to submit to the Pei'siari invaders, and afterward to the Macedonian PhiUp. Epirus was, next to Thes'saly, the largest of the Grecian provinces ; but it was also the least cultivated. It was divided into two prorvinces; Molos'sife, and Thesprotia. Thfe interior of EpiniS is traversed by wild 6 82 ANCIENT HISTOHY. and uncultivated mountains. The wildnes'i of the country, and the rudeness of the inhabitants, have given occasion to the Greeks to rep- resent the rivers Ach'eron and Cocytus, which flow into the gulf of Acherusia, as rivers belonging to the infernal regions. Its oxen and horses were unrivalled ; and it was also celebrated for a large breed of dogs, called Molossin, whose ferocity is still remarked by the traveller. Central GREEce, or Hel'las, contained nine countries : 1, At'tica ; 2, Meg'aris; 3, Boeotia ; A, Phocis; 5, eastern Locris; 6, western Locris ; 7, Doris ; 8, .lEtolia ; 9, Acarnania. At'tica is a headland extending in a southeasterly direction about sixty-three miles into the jEgean sea. It is about twenty-five miles broad at its bage, whence it gradually tapers toward a point, until it ends in the rocky promontory of Sunium {Cape Colonna), on the sum- mit of which Stood a celebratfed temple' of Minerva. It was not a fer- tile country, never being able to produce suflicient com for the support of its inhabitants ; but it had rich silver mines in Mount Larium, ex- cellent marble quarries in Mount Pentel'icus, and the ranges of hills, by which it is intersected in every direction, produced abundance of ar- omatic plants, from which swarms of industrious bees formed the most celebrated honey. Mega'ris, the smallest of the Grecian territories, lay west of At'tica, close to the Corinthian isthmus. It capital was .Meg'ara, a town of considerable strength. BoBotia was a large plain, almost wholly surrounded by mountains : it was divided by Cithaa'ron from At'tica, a mountain celebrated by the poets for the mystic orgies of Bac'chus, the metamorphosis of Actse'on, the death of Pen'theus, and the exposure of CE'dipus. On the west were the chains of Pamas'sus and Hel'icon, sacred to the Muses, sep- arating it from Phocis ; and on the north it was divided from eastern Locris by a prolongation of the chain of Mount Cn^mis. On the east was Mount Ptoiis, extending to the Eurlpus, a narrow strait that divides the island of Euboe'a from the mainland. The climate was cloudy, and the soU marshy, as might be conjectured from the position of the coun- try ; but it was a fertile and well-watered district, and the most densely populated in Greece. ' Phocis, a district of moderate size and imequal shape, extended from the mountain chains of CE'ta and Cnemis, southward to the Corinthian gulf. It contained several important mountain-passes between north- em and southern Greece, the chief of which, near the capital city Elatela, was early occupied by Philip in his second invasion of Hel'las. Mounts Hel'icon and Pamas'sus, and the fountains of Aganipp^ and Hippocrene, are names familiar to every reader of poetry ; and these, with the temple and oracle of Del'phi, render the soU of Ph6cis sacred. Del'phi {Castri) was situated on the south side of Mount Pamas'sus, overshadowed by its double peak ; and above the city was the mag- nificent temple of Apol'lo. Here, ijnder the patronage of the god, were collected all' the masterpieces of Grecian art in countless abundance, together with costly offerings from nations, cities, and kings.' Here the AmpMctyonic council promulgated the first maxims of the law of na- tionfi ; here the Pythian games, scarcely inferior to those of Olympia, GRECIAN STATES. 83 exercised the Grecian youth in athletic contests ; while the poets, as- sembled round the Castalian fountain, chanted their rival odes in noble emulation. East Locris extends along the Eurfpus : it was inhabited by two tribesi the Opun'tii and Epicnemid'ii, deriving their names from Mounts O'pus and Cnemis. The most remarkable place in the province is the pass of Thermop'ylse, so memorable for the gallant stand made there by Leon'idas against the Persian m)Tiadsi. Western Locris, separated by Phocis from the eastern province, joined the bay of Cor'inth ; its inhabitants were called Ozolae. The mountainous district of Doris, though a small territory, was the parent of many powerful states ^ The province was enclosed, be- tween the southern ridge of GE'ta and the northern extremity of Mount Parnas'sus. jEtSlia extended from Mount CE'ta to the Ionian sea, having the Locrian territory on the east, and the river Acheloiis on the west. Acarndnia, the most western country, of Hel'las, lay west of the river Acheloiis, from which it extended to the Ambracian gulf. It was very thickly covered with wood ; and the inhabitants remained barba- rians after other branches of the Hellenic race had become thq in- structers of the world. Section II. — Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus. Southern Greece, anciently called the A'pian land, was named the Peloponnesus in honor of P^lops, who is said to have introduced the arts of peace into that peninsula from Asia Minor. It consists of a mountainous range in the centre, whence hills branch out in various directions,. several of which extepd to the sea. Its mo.dem nar^e, the Mor^a, is derived from its resemblance to a mulberry leaf, which that word signifies. It was divided into eight countries, I, Arcadia; 2, Lac6nia ; 3, Messenia; 4, E'lis ; 5, Ar'golis ; 6, Achaia ; 7, Sicy6nia; and 8, the Corinthian territory. Arcadia, so renowned in poetical traditions, occupied the central mountainous district of the Peloponnesus, nowhere bordering on the sea. It resembles Switzerland in appearance ; and this similarity may be extended to the character of the inhabitants, both, being remarkable for their love of freedom and their love of mojiey. Arcadia is sup- posed by many writers to have been the cradle of the Pelasgic race ; but though this is doubtfnl, it certainly was retained by that people long after the Hellenes had occupied every other part of Greece. Laconia occupied the southeastern division of the Peloponnesus : it was rugged and mountainous, but was nevertheless so densely inhabited, that it is said to have contained nearly a hundred towns and villages. The chief city, Spar'ta, on the river Eurotas, remained for many ages without walls or gates, its defence being intrusted to the valor of its citizens ; but fortifications were erected when it fell under the sway of despotic rulers. Messenia lay to the west of Laconia, and was more level and fruit- ful than that province. Mes'sene , (Jfawromaft), the capital, was. a strongly-fortified town ; and when the coimtry was subjugated by Spar'- ■€4 ANCIENT HISTORY. ta,its citizens escaping to Sicily gave the name of; their old metropolis to the principal town of the colony they formed, which it still retains with very slight alteration. Ar'jgolis was a foTolaiiid on the south side of the Saronic gulf, op- posite Africa, and not unlike it in shape, exteiading southward from Arcadia fifty-four miles into the iEgean sea, and terminating in the S'cyll^dan promontory. ■ The chief chief city was Argoa, on the river In'- achus, a stream that had disappeared" even in ancient times. During 4he reign of Perseus the seat of government was transferred to Mycenae, the celebrated'city of Agamem'non ; but soon after the Trojan war it was besieged 'by the Argives, and levelled to the ground. E'lis,'iti the west of the Peloponnesus, was the holy land of Ghreeoe. It was safe from the din of arms ; and when bands of wanaora traversed the sacred soil, they laid aside their weapons. It was subdivided into three districts r the northern, named' E^is Proper, from the chief city of the province; The ceiitral district, Pisitis, was named from the city of Pisa, in the neighborhood of which the Olympic games were cele- brated every five years. The maritime district occupying the northwestern portion of the "Peloponnesus was originally called iEgi'lus, or jEgialeia, either from some hero, or from its situation on the coast. Its inhabitants were afterward blended with a colony of lonians from Africa, when it took the name of loiria!; but these being subsequently expell^ by the Achseans, it received and retained the denomination of Achaia, by which it is best known in history. It was a narrow strip of country, watered by a multitude of moimtain-streams, which descended from the lofty Arcadian ridges ; but it' was not eminent either fen; fertility or pop- ulation. The inhabitatats were a peaceful, industrious people, aspiring to^neither eminence in war nor liteiatwe, but attached to liberty, and governed by wise la: ws. j'iuj >,■ . ,. ■ ' ■ s- • The territory of Sicyonia, frequeatly regarded as a part of Achaia, was remarkable only for- the city of Sic'yon, the most ancient in Greece, having been founded more than two thousand years before the Chris- •tian -eJ-a. ,' ' ''"'''' " , ', ' TH^ 'Peloponnesus was connected with Hellas byithe GorintUan isthmus, 'having'theSaionio gulf on the eastern side, and the Corinth- ian "on the Western. ' Several attenipts Were made to join these seas by a canal, ,^ tut the nature of the ground to be cut through presented insu- perable difficillties ; and hence "to cut the Corinthian isthmus" was a -proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. On' this narrow pass the Isthmian g^ameawere celebrated in honor of Neptarie, near the patipnal, temple; of that deity, which stood in the midst of a grove of fir-trf!es., Here also a stand has frequently been made in defence ©f the Mbeiiies of Gfreece'; the narrowness of the isthmus easily admit- tin:g of fortification. At the sowth of the isthmus atpodthe wealthy city f their country and themselves. Their love of refined enjoyments made them. diligent cultivators of the fine arts, but without being' destitute of martial vigor. They were favorably disposed tow- ard commerce ; but, like too many other free states, they encumbered it with shortTSighted restrictions, and they were cruel masters to their colonial dependancies. ' The Dorian race, on the contrary, was remarkable for the severe simplicity of its manners, and its strict adherence to ancient usages. It preferred an aristocratic form of government, and required age as a qualification for magistracy, because the old are usually opposed to innovation. They were ambitious of supremacy, and the chief object of their institutions was to maintain the warlike and almost savage spirit of the nation. Slavery in its worst form prevailed in every Dorian state ; and the slaves were almost deprived, of hope — for the Dorian legislation was directed chiefly to fix every man in his hereditary con- dition. Commerce was discouraged on account of its tendency to phange the ranks of society, and the fine arts all but prohibited, be- cause they were supposed to lead to effeminacy. The difierences between these two races is the chief characteristic GRECIAN STATES. 87 of Grecian politics ; it runs, indeed, through the entire history, and was the principal cause of the deep-rooted hatred between Athens and Sparta. Next to tjiis, the, most mfirked feature in the political aspect of Greece is, that it contained as many free states as cities. At'tica, Meg'aris, and Lac6nia, were civic rather than territorial states ; but there are few of the other divisions of the country that were united under a single government. The cities of A'chaia, Arcadia, and Boeotia, were independent of each other, though the Achaean cities were united by a federative league ; and Thebes generally exercised a precarious dominion over the other cities of Boeotia. The supremacy of the principal state was called by the Greeks Hegem'qny ; it included the right of determining the foreign relations of the inferior states, and binding them to all wars in which the capital engaged, and all treaties of peace which it concluded ; but it did not allow of any interference in the internal administration of each government. This parcelling out of a small country, added to the frequent revolutions, facilitated by the narrow limits of each state, necessarily led to a more rapid de- velopment of political science in Greece than in any other country. Divided as the Greeks were, there were many circumstances that united the whole Hellenic race by a common bond of nationality. Of these the chief was unity of religion, connected with which were the national festivals and games, at which all the Hellenes, and none others, were allowed to take a share. If, as is commonly supposed, the Greeks derived the elements of their religion from Asia or Egypt, they soon made it so peculiarly their own, that it retained no features of its original source. All Asiatic deities are more or less of an elementary character ; that is, they symbolize some -natural object, such as the sun, the earth, an important river ; or some power of nature, such as the creative, the preserving, and the destroying power. In many in- stances both were combined, and the visible object was associated with the latent power. On the other hand, the gods of Greece were human personages, possessing the forms and the attributes of men, though in a highly, exalted degree. The paganism of Asia was consequently a re- ligion of fear ; for it was impossible to conceive deities of monstrous forms sympathizing with man : hence, also, the priesthood formed a pe- culiar caste; for the mystery which veiled the god was necessarily extetided to the mode in which he should be worshipped. Instead of this gloomy system, the Greeks had a religion of love; they regarded their gods as a kind pf personal friends, and Jience their worship was cheerful and joyous. The priesthood was open to all ; the office was commonly filled for a limited time only, and was not deemed inconsistent with other occupations. There is no doubt that the Grecian religion received its peculiar form from the beautiful fic- tions of the poets, especially Homer and Hesiod; for in, all its features, it is essentially poetical. We need scarcely dwell on the beneficial effects produced by this system on the fine arts, or its facilitating the progress of knowledge, by separating religion from philosophy. The oracles of Dodona and Del'phi, the temples of Olym'pia and, Delos, were national ; they belonged to the whole Hellenic race. The responses of the oracles were more reverenced by the Dorian than the Ionian race, for the latter early ema.ncipated itself from the trammels 88 ANCIENT HISTOEY. qf superstition; The wors|iip in all was voluntary, and the large gifts emulously gent to them were the spontaneous offers of patriotic affection. Del'phi was under the government of the Amphictyon'ic council ; but this body did not limit its attei^tion to the government of the temple : biy its influence over the orjicle, it acquired no small share in the af- fairs of different states ; and it superintended the administration of the law of nations, even when the states represented in it were engaged in war. The great public games were the Olympian, the Pythian, the Ne- mean, and the Isthmian. Foreigners might be spectators at these games, but Hellenes alone could contend for the prize. This right be- longed to the colonies as well as to the states in the mother-country ; and, as it was deemed a privilege of the highest value, it preserved the unity even of the most distant branches of the Hellenic race. All the constitUjtions of the Grecian states were republican ; but they varied so much in the different cities, that hardly any two were alike. Tn general, however, it may be stated, that in all the most severe pub- lic and private labors were intrusted to slaves ; and in many, as Jjaconia, agriculture was managed by them exclusively. This degraded manufacturing industry, and led td an undue depression not only of ar- tisans and retailers, but even of master manufacturers. Foreign mer- chants were treated with imwise jealousy, and could never obtain the privileges of citizens. The right of coinage was reserved to the state ; but it was not until a very late period that the Greeks began to pay attention to finance. Little or no taxation was necessary while the citizens served as voluntary soldiers ; and the magistrates were re- warded with honor, not money. But when mercenary armies were eniployed, and ambassadors sent into distant laads, when the impor- tance of a navy induced cities to outbid each other in the pay of Iheir sailors, heavy taxes became necessary, and these brought many of the cities into great pecuniary embarrassment. Another source of expense was the provision for public festivals and theatrical shows ; to which was added, in Athens and dther places, the payment of the dicasts, or persons analogous to our jurymen ; though, in- s'tpad of their number being limited to twelve, they frequently amounted to several hundreds, and had no presiding judges. This was doubly injuri- ous ; the multitude of the dicasts not only entailed a heavy expense upo^ the state, but the sum paid being small, few save those of the lower classes attended, whose decisions were not unfrequently guided by prejudice and passion, instead of law and justice. The; poetical nature of its religion, and the free constitution of its state?, not only rendered Greece peculiarly favorable to the progress of literature, philosophy, and the line arts, but gave these, in turn, a de- cided influence oh the government. The tragic and lyric poets pro- duced their pieces in honor of the gods ; the comic poets at Athens discussed pubHc affairs on the stage with a freedom, or rather licen- tiousness, which the wildest excesses of the modern press have never eqi^a,Ued ; and th? influence of the orators ^t Athens rendered them the leaders of the state. The seeds of dissplution were thickly sown in the social system of the Greeks. The rivalry between the Dorian and Ionian races ; the GRECIAN STATES. 89! turbulence and sedition natural to small republics ; and the gradual de- cline of religion, followed by a consequent corruption of morals — . rendered the duration of the constitution as brief as it was glorious. Section VI. — The traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Commencetnenl of the Trojan War. FKOM AN UNKNOWN PERIOD TO ABODT 1200 B, u. Sacred history, confirmed by uniform tradition, informs us that Thrace, Macedon, and Greece, were peopled at an earlier period than the other portions of the western world. The first inhabitants were tribes of hunters and shepherds, whose earliest approaches to civiliza- tion were associations for mutual defence against robber-tribes, and the Phoenician corsairs that swept the coast of the iEgean to kidnap slaves. The Pelas'gi were the first tribe ttat acquired supremacy in Greece : they were probably of Asiatic origin ; and the first place in which they appear to have made a permanent settlement was the Peloponnesus, ■Vifhere they erected Sic'yon (*Bi c. 2000), and Argos (*b. c. 1800). In'achus was regarded by the Pelas'gi as their founder : he was prob- ably contemporary with Abraham ; but nothing certain is known of his history. To the Pelas'gi are attributed the remains of those most ancient monuments generally called Cyclopian. They are usually composed of enormous rude masses piled upon one another, with small stones fitted in between the intervals to complete the work. From the Pel- aponnesus the Pelas'gi extended themselves northward to Attica, P.OBotia, and TheSsaly, which they are said to have entered under three leaders, Achae'us, Phthius, and Pelas'gus ; though by these names we ought probably to understand separate tribes rather than individuals. Here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and continued to flourish for nearly two centuries. (From *b. c. 1700 to *b. c. 1500.) The Hellenes, a more mild and humane race, first appeared on Mount Pamas'sus, in Phocis, under Deucalion, whom they venerated as their founder {*b. c. 1433). Being driven thence by a flood, they migrated into Thessaly, and expelled the Pelas'gi from that territory. From this time forward the Hellenes rapidly increased, and extended their dominion over the greater part of Greece, dispossessing the more, ancient race, which only retained the mountainous parts of Arcadia and the land of Dodona. Numbers of the Pelas'gi emigrated to Italy, Crete, and some of the other islands. The Hellenic race was suljdivided into four great branches, the .^olians, lonians, Dorians, and Achaeans, which, in the historic age of Greece, were characterized by many strong and marked peculiarities of dialect, customs, and political government ; we may perhaps add, religious, or at least, heroic traditions, only that these appear to be con- nected rather veith the localities in which they settled liian with the stock from which they sprung. There were many smaller ramifications of the Hellenic race ; but all united themselves to one or other of the; four great tribes, whose names are derived from Deucalion's, immediate posterity. It is. the common attribute of ancient traditions to describe the achieveniettls of a Ijiibe or army as, personal exploits of the leader ; 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. and hence we find the history of the tribes and their migrations inter- woven with the personal history of Deucalion's descendants. Hel'len, the son of Deucalion, gave his name to the whole Hellenic race : he had three sons, jEolus, Dorus, and Xuthus ; of whom the first settled in the district of Thessaly called Phthiotis, and became the founder of the jEolian tribe ; the second settled in Estiaeotis, and there established the Dorian tribe ; the third, expelled by his brethren, migrated to Athens, where he married Creusa, the daughter of king Erec'theus, by' whom he had two sons, I'on and AchEeus. After the death of Erec'theus, Xiithus was forced to remove to jEgialeia (the province of the Peloponnesus afterward called Achaia), where he died. His son I'on, the founder of the Ionian race, became general of the Athenian forces, and lord of ^gialeia, to which he gave the name of Ionia. Achaeus, the founder of the Achaean race, obtained possession of the greater part of the Peloponnesus, especially Argolis and Laconia. The iEolian tribe spread itself over western Greece, Acamania, ^tolia, Phocis, Locris, E'lis in the Peloponnesus, and the western islands. The Dorians, driven from Estiaeotis by the Perrhaebians, spread themselves over Macedonia and Crete ; a part of them subse- quently returning, crossed Mount CE'ta, and settled in Doris on the Doric Tetrap'olis, where they remained until they migrated into the Peloponnesus under the guidance of the Heracleldae ; an important rev- olution, which will soon engage our attention. The lonians inhabited At'tica and jEgialeia ; but they were expelled from the latter by the Achaeans at the time of the great Dorian migra- tion, and the name of the country changed to Achaia. The Achaeans retained Argolis and Laconia until they were expelled by the Dorians, when, as we have just said, they established themselves in iEgialeia. From the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the fourteenth cen- tury before Christ, several colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phry'- gia, settled in different parts of Greece, bringing with them the im- provements in the arts and sciences that had been made in their re- spective countries, and thus greatly advancing the progress of civiliza- tion in Greece. The chief of these colonies were : — An Egyptian colony was led from Sais in the Del'ta to At'tica by Cecrops (*b. c. 1550) : he is said to have introduced the institution of marriage and the first elements of civilization. A second colony, from Lower Egypt, was led by Danaus, who fled from a brother's enmity, and settled in Ar'gos (*b. c. 1500). The fa- ble of his fifty daughters is well known ; but its historical foundation is altogether uncertain. A Phoenician colony, under Cad'mus, settled in BoBOtia, and foimded Thebes, nearly at the same time that Cecrops established himself at At'tica. He was the first who introduced the use of letters into Greece. Pelops led a colony from Phry'gia, the northwestern kingdom of Asia Minor, into the Peloponnesus (*Bi c. 1400) : he did not acquire so large a kingdom as ♦he settlers mentioned before ; but his descend- ants, by intermarriages with the royal families of Ar'gos and Lacedae'- mon, acquired such paramount influence, that they became supreme over the peninsula, and gave it the name of their great ancestor. , Several circumstances, however, impeded the progress of civilization. The coasts of Greece were temptingly exposed to the Phoenicians, GaECUN STATES. 91 Carians, and islanders of the ^gean, who at first made the art of nav- igation subservient to piracy rather than commerce ; and the Thracians, the Amazons, and other barbarous tribes from the north, made frequent incursions into the exposed Hellenic provinces. To resist these in- cursions the celebrated Amphictyonic league was founded by Amphic- tyon, a descendant of Deucalion : the federation was constantly re- ceiving fresh accessions, until it included the greater part of the Gre- cian states ; deputies frbra which met alternately at Del'phi and Ther- mop'ylse. Like Europe in the middle ages, Greece at this period was infested by bands of robbers, who deemed plunder an honorable profession, and some of whom exercised the most atrocious cruelties on the hapless passengers. The adventurers who acquired' most fame by their ex- ertions in destroying the freebooters were Perseus, Her'cules, Beller'- ophon, Theseus, and the Dioskouroi Cas'tor, and Pol'lux, whose ro- mantic histories form a very large portion of Grecian mythology. The most celebrated events in this period of uncertain history are, the Argonautic expedition, the two Theban wars, the siege of Troy, the return of the Heracleldse, and the migration of the Ionian and iEolian colonies to Asia Minor. It is not easy to discover the real nature and objects of the Argonautic expeditioii : it appears certain that in the thirteenth century before the Christian era, a Thessalian prince, named Jason, collected the yOung chivalry of Greece, and sailed on an expedition, partly commercial and partly piratical, in a ship named Argo, to the eastern shores of the Euxene sea. The Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ; they planted a colony in CoFchis, and their chief brought a princess of that country home to Thessaly. But though impenetrable darkness veils the nature of this expedition, there can be no doubt of its results. From the era of the Argonauts, we may (^iscover among the Greeks not only a more daring and more enlarged jspirit of enterprise, but a more decisive and rapid progress toward civilization and humanity. The worship of Diony'sus or Bac'chus was established at Thebes by Cad'mus ; and the Phoenician mythology is full of the miseries and crimes that debased and ruined the family of Cad'mus. CE'dipus, the most remarkable of his descendants, having been removed from the throne for an involuntary series of crimes, his sons, Eteoc'les and Polynlces, seized the kingdom, and agreed to reign in turn. Eteoc'les refused to perform the agreement ; and Polynices being joined by six of the most eminent generals in Greece, commenced the memorable war of "the Seven against Thebes" (*b. c. 1225). The result was fa- tal to the allies ; Eteoc'les and Polynices fell by mutual wounds ; and Creon, who succeeded to the Theban throne, routed the confederate forces, five of whoSe leaders were left dead on the field. After the \kipse of about ten yeirs, the sons of the allied princes, called the Epig'oni, marched against Thebes to avenge the death of their fathers. After a sanguinary conflict, the Thebans were routed with great slaughter, dieir leader slain, and their city captured. In ctosequence of these wars the Thebans weire long odious to the rest of the Greeks, and they re- paid this hatred by infidelity to tW Hellenic cause during the Persian war. 93 .J ANCIENT HISTORY. ^WTien the family of Pelops became powerful in southern Greece, they appear to have attempted to retaliate the injuries that had driven their ancestors into exile. In one of their plundering expeditions to the Phrygian coast, a young prince named Podar'kes was carried away cap- ti.v0, and detained until a large ransom had heen paid for his liberation. Erom this circumstance, he was afterward named Priam, or " the pur- chased,"' At a subsequent period, Priam having becomp king, of Troy, sent his son Paris, or Alexaa'der, as an ambassador to the Peloponoesian princes, probably to negotiate a peace. He seduced Hel'en, the beau- tiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and conveyed her, with some valuable treasures, to Troy. ^ The injured husband applied to his countrymen for redress. A,, large army, raised by the confederate kings, was placed under the cotmnand of Agamemnon, the brother of Menqlaus./ Troy was at this time the capital of a powerful kingdom, possessing numerous allies and subjects. It mustered, according to Homer, an army of fifty thousand men ; its walls could defy the imperfect machines then, used in sieges, and its citadel was impregnable. Against this powerful kingdom the Greek princes undertook their expedition, with an array of about one hundred thousand men, conveyed in eleven hun- dred and eighty-six ships. These vessels were of very rude construc- tion, having only halfdecks, and stones instead of anchors ; the soldiers acted as rowers, and when they reached their destination the ships were hauled upon land. The war was protracted ten years,, during which several battles were fought under the walls of Troy ; and we find that the military weapons used were in every respect similar to those employed by the ancient Egyptians. The city was finally taken by stratagem, and razed to the ground; most of , the inhabitants were slain or taken, and the rest were forced to become exiles in distant lands. The victors, however, suffer- ed nearly as much as the vanquished. During the protracted absence of the chiefs, usurpers had seized many of their thrones, aided by faith- less wives and the rising ambition of young men. These circumstances necessarily led to fierce wars and intestine commotions, which greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civiUzation. Section VII. — Oredan IMsiory, from the Trojan War to the Establishment (^Ihe Greek Colonies in. Asia. FROM *B. c. 1183 TO B. 0. 994. We have seen how the posterity of Pelops, by various means, ob- tained possession of the entire Peloponnesus, to the exclusion of the more ancient dynasties. Their rivals were the Perseidae, who claimed, through their ancestor Per'seus, the honors of a divine descent, and who could boast of havijig in their family such heroes as Per'seus, Jteller'ophon, and Her'cules. From the last-named hero a powerful branch, of the Perseid family received the name of the Heracleldae : they were persecuted by the Pelop'id sovereigns,, and driven into exile. After having heien hospitably received by the Ath-eidans, they retired to the mountainous district of Doris, and became masters of that wild and GRECIAN STATES. 93 barren province. The Dorian mountains were ill-calculated to satisfy men whose ancestors had inherited the fertile plains of the Peloponnesus. When the conseqiiences of the Trojan war filled Greece with confusion the HeraeleidiE were encouraged to make an effort to regain their ancient rights ; twice they attempted to break through the Corinthian isthmus, but were each time repulsed with considerable loss. Warned by these misfortunes, they aibandoned the design of entering the Peloponnesus by land, and resolved to try their fortune in a naval ex- pedition. Their rendezvous was Naupac'tus {Lupanto), on the Corinthian gulf, where they were joined by a body of^^tolians, and by several of the Dorian tribes. By secret intrigues, a party was gained in Lacedae'- mon. A favorable gale, in the meantime, wafted their armament to the eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Laconia was betrayed to the invaders ; Ar'golis, Messenia, E'lis, and Corinth, submitted to their authority ; ihe mountainous districts of Arcadia, and the coast province, iEgialeia (al'terward Achaia), were the only parts of the pen- insula that remained unsubdued.. The revolution was effected with lit- tle bloodshed ; but not without great oppression of the ancient inhab- itants, many of whom emigrated, wiiile those who remamed were re- duced to slavery. The associated victors divided the conquered provinces among them- selves by lot' Aristodemus, who olilained Laconia, happening to die, the kingdom was. secured for his twin children, Eiirys'thenes and Procles, and from that time forthSparta was gmr&mei. by two kings. The commander of the Pelop'id forces at the isthmus, instead of attempt- ing to recover his kindgom, invaded ^Egialeia, expelled the lonians, and gave that province the name of Achaia, which it ever after retained (e. c. 1104). Many of the fugitives sought refuge in At'tica, where they were hospitably entertained by the Athenians, who were alarmed by the success and ambition of the Dorians. A still greater number passed over into Asia Minor, and founded the colonies of Ionia, ./Eolia, and Caria. The jealousy of the Athenians was soon proved to be derived from reasonable fears. In the reign of Codrus the Dorians passed the bound- aries of At'tica, and seized the territory of Meg'ara, on the northern coast of the Saronic gulf. A cruel war ensued ; Codrus in vain at- tempted to drive the intruders from their stronghold : at length, hearing that a superstitious rumor prevailed among them, that they would be successful as long as they refrained from injuring the Athenian king, he entered their camp in disguise, provoked a quarrel with a Dorian soldier, and suffered himself to be slain. On recognising the body, the superstitious Peloponnesians, despairing of success, abandoned their hostilities ; and the Athenians, out of respect for his memory, declared that none of the human race was worthy to succeed Codrus, and there- fore abolished royalty altogether (b. c. 1068). Two of the Pelop'idae, having unsuccessfully traversed the northern part of Greece in search of new settlements, finally crossed the Hellespont eighty-eight years after the taking of Troy, and established themselves along the coast of the ancient kingdom of Priam. Their colonies grad- ually extended from the peninsula of Cyzicus on the Propontis to the 94 ANCIENT HISTORY. mduth of the river Her'mus, which delightful country, together with the islpkd of Les'bos, received the name of iEolia. The younger sqns of Codrus, dissatisfied with the abolition of royalty, collected a numerous band of Athenians and Ionian exiles, with which they crossed the sea, and established themselves along the coast from the river Her'mus to the promontory of Posideion, expelling the ancient inhabitants. The islands of Chios and Samos were subsequently seized, and all these countries were united by the common name of Ionia, or, as it was some- times called, the Pan-Ionian confederacy. ■ The renewal of hostilities bet'yveen the Athenians and Dorians led to the establishment of a third series of Greek colonies in Asia (b. c. 994). The Dorians having been driven from their stronghold in Meg'ara, were ashamed to return to the Peloponnesus ; part of them sailed to the islands of Crete and Rhodes, already peopled by Doric tribes ; the rest settled in the peninsiUa of Caria, to which, in honor of their mother-country, they gave the name of Doris. At a later period, the tide of emigration turned toward the west, and colonies were established in Sicily, aad on the coasts of southern Italy. The Greeks seldom made settlements in the interior of the country; for most of their colonies were designed to extend commerce rather than conquests. Most of these colonies were independent states, and their institutions were generally improvements on those of the parent-country. Owing to their freedom and their superiority to their neighbors in the arts of civilized life, many of the colonies not only equalled but greatly surpassed their parent states in wealth and power. GEECUN STATES AND COLONIES. 95 CHAPTER IX. THE HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES, BEFORE THE PERSIAN WAR. Section I. — Topography of Sparta. The city of Spar'ta, called also Lacedae'mon, a name properly be- longing to the suburbs, was built on a series of hills, whose outlines are varied and romantic, along the right bank of the Eurotas, within sight of the chain of Mount Taygetum. We have already mentioned, that it was not originally surrounded by waUs ; but the highest of its eminences served as a citadel, and round this hill were ranged five towns, sep- arated by considerable intervals, occupied by the five Spartan tribes. The great square or forum, in which the principal streets of these towns terminated, was embellished with temples and statues : it contained also the edifices in which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of Spartan miagistrates, were accustomed to assemble : there was besides a splen- did portico, erected by the Spartans from their share of the spoils taken at the battle of Platae'a, where the Persians were finally overthrown. Instead of being supported by pillars, the roof rested on gigantic statues, representing Persians habited in flowing robes. On the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Miner'va, which, as well as the grove that surrounded it, had the privileges of an asylum. It was built of brass, as that at Delphi had formerly been. The greater part of these edifices had no pretensions to architectural beauty ; they were of rude workmaHship, and destitute of omanient. Private houses were small and unadorned ; for the Spartans spent the greater part of their time in porticoes and public halls. On the south side of the city was the Hippodromos, or course for horse and foot races ; and at a little distance from that, the Platanis'tae, or place of ex- ercise for youth, shaded by beautiful palm-trees. Section II. — Legislatioii of Lycurgus, and Messenian Wars. FROM *B. C. 880 TO B. C. 500. The Dorian conquerors of Lac6nia formed themselves into a perma- nent ruling caste, and reduced the greater part of the inhabitants of the country to a state of vassalage, or rather perfect slavery. During two centuries the Spartans were engaged in tedious wars with the Argives, 96 ANCIJENT HISTOEY. and their state was agitated by domestic broils, resulting from the un- equal division of property, the ambition of rival nobles, and the dimin- ished power of the kings. At length, Lycur'gus having obtained the supreme authority, as a guardian of his nephew Charilaus, directed his attention to establishing a system of law, which might prevent the re- currence of such disorders. The legislation of Lycur'gus was not a written code ; and many things of later origin, have been erroneously at- tributed to this lawgiver. His great object, was to insure the continu- ance of the Spartans as a 'dbminant ihilitary caste, by perpetuating a race of athletic and warlike man ; and hence his laws referred rather to domestic life and physical education than to the constitution of the state, or the form of its government. He contintied the relation of caste between the Spartans and Laconi- ans, and the double line of kings as leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. He is said to -have instituted the gerusia, or senate, of which no one could be a member who had not passed the age of sixty ; but it is uncertain whether he founded fh« college of the five eph'ori, or inspectors, chosen annually, with powers somewhat similar to those of th« Roman tribunes ; he certainly did n6t invest ihem with the power they assumed in later ages. There were also popular assemblies ; but they Gould originate no law, nor make any alteration in the resolutions submitted to them by the kings and the senate, their power being con- fined to a simple approbation or rejection. Th« cfhief regulations in private life were, the equal distribution of lands, the removal of every species of luxury, the arrangement of do- mestic relations so as to insure a race Of hardy citizens, and the cora- ptete establishment of sl'avtery. Thus a military commonwealth was estaMished in Greece, which for ever banished a chance of tranquillity, since the Spartan citizens inust have been impelled to war by the rest- lessness common to man, when all the occupations of household life and of agiiculture were intrusted to the care of the Helots, as their slaves were Usually called. The strength of the Spartan army lay in its heavy-armed infantry ; they usuially fought in a phalanx or close col- umn, and were remarkable for the skill and rapidity of their evolutions. They marched to the eharge with a measured regular step, and never broke their ranks either to plunder or pursue a flying enemy. After battle, every soldier was obliged to produce his shield, as a proof that he had' behaved bravely and' steadily. The first great war in wtich the Spartans engaged was with their neighbors the Messenians (b. c. 743). After a long series of sanguinary Engagements, w'hose hoitors were aggravated by cruel superstitions, the M'essenians were totally subdued, and forced to give up half the revenue of their lands to the Sp&rtans (b. c. ^2^). During this war, the Spartan army, consisting of the greater part of the citizens who had attained thie miiitary age, Isound themselves by a voluntary oath not to return home until they had subdiied their enemies. The war being pro- tracted beyond ekpe'ctation, rfie senate, fearing that the Spartan race would become eitinct,. invited' the young men, who had.' not taken the obligationiito return hDmie,„and permitted them to! have promiscuous in- tercourse with the women.' The offspring, of these^ irregular connex- ioHS were called Parthen'iae ; they had no certaimfaliieri noi: were they, ATHENS. 97 though citizens of Sparta, entitled to any inheritance. Finding them- selves despised by the other Spartans, they entered into a conspiracy with the Helots, which was detected at the moment it was about to ex- plode. The senate, however, was afraid to punish so powerful a body ; sufScient means of transport, arms, and munitions, were supplied to the Parthen'iae, who, under the guidance of Phalan'tus, proceeded to south- ern Italy, where they founded the city of Taren'tum. The oppression of the Spartans drove the Messenians to revolt, and they found a worthy leader in Aristom'enes, a youth descended from the ancient line of Messenian kings. So rapid and decisive were his suc- cesses, that the Spartans sought the advice of the oracle, and received the mortifying response, that they should solicit a general from the Athenians. Ambassadors were sent to urge this request; and the Athenians sent back the poet Tyrtae'us, who had, indeed, borne arms, but was never distinguished as a warrior. His patriotic odes roused the spirit of the Spartan soldiers, and they renewed the war with more zeal and greater success than ever. Notwithstanding these advantages acquired by the Spartans, Aristom'enes protracted the defence of his country more than eleven years ; but at length Messene was taken by treachery, aud its heroic defenders forced to seek refuge in Arcadia. Here Aristom'enes planned an expedition against Sparta, whose citi- zens were engaged in plundering Messenia ; but he was betrayed by the Arcadian monarch, and his last plan for the redemption of his coim- try frustrated (b. c. 671). Sparta had conquered, but the struggle had greatly weakened the strength of the state ; and in her subsequent wars with the Tegeans and Argives, she was far from maintaining her ancient superiority in arms. The important island of Cythera was, however, wrested from the Ar- gives, about B. c. 550. Section III. — Topography of Athens. Athens was situated in a plain, which on the southwest, extended for about four miles toward the sea and the harbors, but on the other side was enclosed by mountains. Several rocky hills arose in the plain itself; the largest and highest of which was fortified by Cecrops as the citadel, or Acropohs, and was sometimes called Cecropia. Around this the city was built, most of the buildings, however, spreading toward the sea. The summit of the hill was nearly level for a space of about eight hundred feet in length and four hundred in breadth ; as if Nature herself had prepared a fit locahty for those masterpieces of architec- ture which announced at a distance the splendor of Athens. The only road that led to the Acrop'ohs passed through the Propylsea, a magnificent gateway adorned with two wings, and two temples full of the finest pieces of sculpture and painting. It was erected under the administra- tion of Per'icles, by the architect Mnesic'les, and was decorated with admirable sculptures of Phid'ias. Through these splendid portals was an ascent by marble steps to the summit of the hill, on which were erected the temples of the guardian deities of Athens. On the left was the temple of Pallas Athen^ (Minerva), the protectress of cities, con- taining a column fabled to have fallen from heaven, and an olive-tree 98 ANCIENT mSTOEY. believed to have sprung spontaneously from the earth at the mandate of the goddess. Beyond this was a temple of Neptune. On the right side arose the Par'thenon, sacred to the virgin Minerva, the glory pf Athens, the noblest triumph of Grecian architecture. From whatever quarter the traveller arrived, whether by land or sea, the first thing he saw was the Par'thenon rearing up its lofty head above the city and the citadel. At the foot of the Acrop'olis, on one side, was the Oddum, or music- hall, and the Theatre of Bacchus, where the tragic contests were cel- ebrated on the "festival of that deity; on the other side was the Pry- taneimi, where the chief magistrates and most meritorious citizens were honorably ientertained at a table furnished at the public expense. A small valley called Coele {the holhw) lay between the Acrop'olis and the hill on which the court of Areop'agus held its sessions ; and it also separated the Areop'agtis from the Pnyx, a small rocky hill on which the general assemblies of the people were held. It was remarkable only for the meanness and simplicity of its furniture, which formed a striking contrast to the grandeur of the neighboring buildings. Here the spot from which the eminent orators addressed the people may still be seen : for it is imperishable, being cut in the natural rock, and it has been recently cleared from rubbish, as well as the four steps by which it was ascended. Beyond the Pnyx lay the Ceramicus, or pottery-ground, containing the market-place. This was a large square, surrounded on all sides with statues and public buildings ; at the south was the senate-house, and the statues of the Epon'ymi, ten heroes from whom the tribes of Athens received their respective names. At the east were erected two splendid stoai, or porticoes ; that of the Her'mae, or statues of Mercury, on which were inscribed the names of the citizens, allies, and slaves, who had distinguished themselves in the Persian war ; and that called Poeciy, ornamented with many splendid paintings, partictjlarly one representing Miltiades at the battle of Marathon. Under this stoa the plulosopher Zeno used to ledture his piipils, whence his followers are called Stoics. There were three principal gynmdsia, or places of public exercise, near the city, where philosophers and rhetoricians delivered their lectures. The most celebrated of these was the Academy, deriving its name from having been the country-seat of the wealthy ' Acad^mus, who spent the greater part of a large fortune in ornamenting this delightfiil spot. Here Pldto delivered his eloquent lectures, and hence his followers are called Academics. The Lyceum, on the opposite side of the city, near the Ilys'sus, was chosen by Aristotle for his school after his return from Macedon, the Academy having been pre-occupied by Xen'ocrates. He generally instructed his pnpiils while walking about the groves and avenues of this highly-cultivated place, and on this account his followers were called Peripatetics. Cynosar'ges was about a mile from the Lyceum, and was the residence of Antis'thenes, the founder of the Cynic sect. The whole country round Athens, particularly the long road to the Peiras'us, was omainented with monumeiits Of all kinds, especially with tombs of great poets,. stateslnen, and warriors. This road was enclosed ATHENS. 99 by a double wall, called tie northern and southern, erected under the administration of Themis'tocles : it was nearly five miles in length on both sides, and enclosed the two harbors Peirae'us and Phal'ereus. It was rather more than eighty feet high, built entirely of freestone, and so broad that two baggage-wagons could pass each other. The Pei- rse'us and Phal'ereus, but especially the former, might be regarded as little cities, with public squares, temples, market-places, &c. ; and the commercial crowd that enliven the quays gave the chief harbor a more animated appearance than Athens itself. The Munychian port lay east of Athens, and, like the others, was formed naturally by the bays of the coast. It was a place of considerable natural strength, and was gar- risoned by the Lacedaemonians after they had subdued Athens. Section IV. — The History of Athens to the Beginning of the Persian War. FROM *B. C. 1300 TO B. C. 500. The political history of Athens begins properly with the reign of Theseus, who succeeded his father jEgeus about b. c. 1300. Certain institutions, such as the court of Areop'agus, and the division of the people into eupat'ridse {nobles), georgi [husbandmen), and demiur'gi (me- chanics), are so manifestly derived from the Egyptian system of caste, that we may without hesitation assign them to Cecrops. Theseus, however, deserves to be regarded as the founder of the state, since, in- stead of the four independent districts, or demoi, into which Attica was divided, he established one body politic, and made Athens the seat of government. Among his successors, the most remarkable were Mnes'- theus, who fell before Troy, and Codrus, whose generous devotion, as has been already related, led to the total abolition of royalty. After the abolition of royalty (b. c. 1068), thirteen archons of his family ruled in succession, differing from kings only in being accountable for their administration. The first was Medon, the last Alcmseon ; after his death (b. c. 752), archons were chosen every ten years from the family of Codrus. There were seven of these, the last of whom ceased to rule B. 0. 682. Nine annual archons were then appointed by the pow- erful class of nobility, consisting not only of the descendaiits of such foreign princes as had taken refuge in Athens, but of those Athenian families which time and accident had raised to opulence and distinc- tion. The powers of these magistrates were not equal ; their rank and offices were so arranged, that the prerogatives of the former kings and the preceding archons were divided among the first three of the nine. Nothing was gained by the great body of the people during these rev- olutions. The equestrian order, so called from their fighting on horse- back, enjoyed all authority, religious, civil, and military. The Athenian populace were reduced to a condition of miserable servitude ; the lives and fortunes of individuals were left at the discretion of magistrates, who were too much disposed to decide according to party prejudices or their own private interests. In this ddnfusion, Drdco was chosen to prepare a code of laws (b. c. 622). He was a man of unswerving integrity, but of unexampled severity. His laws bore the impress of his character ; the pimishment of death was denounced against aU crimes, small as well as great ; and this in- 100 ANCIENT HISTOaY. discriminate cruelty rendered the whole code inoperative. Human na- ture revolted against such legal butchery ; and Draco, to avoid the jpub' lie indignation; fled to jEgfnia, where he died an exile. This ineifectual effort only augmented the divisions of the state ; the excesses of the aristocratic factions produced the most violeht indigna- tion. The state was in fact reduced to perfect anarchy. To remedy these disorders, Solon, who had already won the confidence of his countrymen by planning and accomplishing an enterprise for the re- covery of Sal'amis, was uhaniihously raised to the dignity of first magistrate, legislator, and sovereign arbiter (b. c. 594). He was em- inently qualified for this important station. Descended from the ancient kings of Athens, he applied himself in early life to commercial pursuits, and having secured a competency by honorable industry, he travelled to distant lands in search of knowledge. Such was his suc- cess, that he was reckoned the chief of the sages commonly called the Seven Wise Men of Greece, who in his age laid the foundation of Grecian philosophy. The chief object of Solon's legislation was to restrain the excessive power of the aristocracy, without, however, introducing a pure democ- racy. He abolished all the laws of Draco, except those against mur- der. The state of debtors calling loudly for relief, he made an equita- ble adjustment of the claims of creditors ; but at the same time concil- iated capitalists by raising the value of money. He abolished slavery and imj)risonment for debt, which had led to great abuses and cruelties. Without abolishing the ancient local divisions he arranged the citizens in four classes, according to their property, measured in agricultural produce. 1 . The first class were the pentacos'i-medim'ni, whose annual income exceeded five hundred bushels (medim'ni ; 2, the knights (hip- peis), whose revenue was equal to four hundred j .3, the zeugitEe, who had three hundred ; and 4, the thetes, whose yearly rejvenue fell short of that sum. Citizens of all classes had a right of voting at the popular assemblies and in the courts of judicature ; but magisterial offices were limited to the first three classes. The archonship was left unaltered; but it was ordained that none of these magistrates should hold military command during his year of ofiice. A council of four hundred was chosen from the first three classes, possessing senatorial authority ; the members were selected by lot ; but they were obliged to undergo a very strict examination into their past lives and characters before they were permitted to enter upon office. The archons were bound to consult the council in every important public matter ; and no subject could be dis- cussed in the general assembly of the people which had not previously received the sanction of the' four hundred. The popular assemblies consisted of all the four classes, and usually met on the rocky hill called the Pnyx, described in the proceeding sec- tion. They had the right of confirming or rejecting new laws, of elect- ing the magistrates, of discussing all public affairs referred to them by the coimcil, and of judging in all state trials. According to Solon's plan, the court of Areop'agus should have been the chief pillar of the Athenian constitution. Before his time it was a mere engine of aristocratic oppression ; but S61on modified its constitu- tion, and enlarged its powers. It was composed of persons who had ATHENS. 101 held the office of archon, and was made the supreme tribunal in all capital cases. It was likewise intrusted with the superintendence of* morals, with the censorship upon the conduct of the archons at the ex- piration of their office ; and it had besides the privilege of amending or rescinding the measures that had passed the general assemblies of the people. Soon after this constitution was established, Solon was sent as a deputy to the Amphictyon'ic council at Del'phi, and had no small share in stimulating that body to undertake the first sacred war against the Crisseans who had invaded the sacred territories, and not only ravaged the country, but even plundered the shrine of Apol'lo. The war was protracted ten years ; but it terminated in the final destruction of the Crissean community, and the dedication of their territory to the deity whose temple they had sacrilegiously plundered (b. c. 590). The ter- mination of the war was celebrated by the revival of the Pythian games, which had been discontinued during the contest. Scarcely had the liberties of Athens been established, when they were again subverted by the usurpation of Peisis'tratus. Like S61on, the usurper was descended from the ancient kings of Athens. He was also possessor of an enormous fortune, which he distributed to the poor with lavish munificence. His generosity, his eloquence, and his cour- teous manners, won for him universal favor : but he had the art to per- suade the lower ranks of his countrymen, that his popularity had ren- dered him odious to the nobles, and that the protection of a body-guard was necessary to the safety of his- life. Scarcely had this been granted, when he seized on the Acrop'olis, and made himself absolute master of Athens (b. c. 561). Solon refused the usurper's offers of favor and pro- tection : he went into voluntary exile, and died, or at least wa^^jjuried, at Sal'amis. Meg'acles, the chief of the powerful family of the Alcmaeon'idae, retired, with all his attendants and political friends, be- yond the boundaries of At'tica ; but he entered into a secret intrigue with Lycur'gus, the chief of another faction, and by their joint efibrts Peisis'tratus was driven into exile about twelve months after he had obtained the sovereignty. Meg'acles soon quarrelled with Lycur'gus, and opened a negotiation with Peisis'tratus, offering to restore him, if he would become his soHt in-law. The terms were accepted, and Peisis'tratus was again sum- moned to assume sovereign power, amid the general exultation of the people. A quarrel with Meg'acles drove him a second time into ban- ishment ; but he returned again at the head of an army, and having recovered the reins of power, held them without interruption to the day of his death. The power thus illegally acquired, was administered with equity and mildness. Peisis'tratus ceased not to exert himself to extend the glory of Athens, and secure the happiness of the Athenians. On the death of Peisis'tratus (b. c. 528), his sons Hippar'chus and Hip'pias succeeded to his power, but not to his prudence and abilities. After a joint reign of fourteen years, Hippar'chus was murdered by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whose resentment he had provoked by an atrocious insult (b. c. 514). The cruelty with which Hip'pias punished all whom he suspected of having had a share in his brother's death, alignated the affections of the people, and encour- 103 ANCIENT HISTORY. aged the Alcmzeonfdae to make an effort for his expulsion. By large bribes to the Delphian priesthood, they obtained a response from the oracle commamding the Spartans to expel the Peisistrat'idae ; and that superstitious people immediately sent an army for that purpose (b. c. 510). After a brief struggle Hip'pias was forced to abandon Athens, and thenceforward lived in perpetual exile. Scarcely was the tyrant expelled, when the state was rent in sunder by the rivalry of contending factions. Clis'thenes, the son of Meg'acles, headed one ; the other, chiefly composed of the aristocracy, was led by Isag'oras. Isag'dras received armies to support his cause from the Spar- tans, the Corinthians, the Boeotians, the Chalcidians, and the .^Egine- tans. But the confederates could not agree ; and these dissensions broke up the alliance. After some time, the Spartans, having discover- ed the trick played upon them by the Delphian oracle, wished to re- store Hip'pias ; but, finding their allies universally opposed to the proj- ect, they abandoned him to his fate, and he fled to the court of Persia, where his exertions greatly contributed to the forcing Darfus into a war against Greece. Section V. — IRsUirwal Notices of ike minor Grecian States previous to the Persian War, FROM *B. C. 1100 TO B. C. 500. After the capture of Thebes by the Epig'oni, the BiBOtians were ex- pelled by Thracian hordes, and retired to Ar'ne in Thessaly, but about the time of the gueat Dorian migration they returned to the land of their forefathers, and became united with some jEolian tribes. Royalty was abolished upon the death of Xuthus (b. c. 1126), and the BcBotiaas formed a confederation of as many states as there were cities in the province : at the head of which was Thebes, but with very indefinite privileges. The constitutions of the states were unfixed; and they continually fluctuated between a licentious democracy and a tyrannical oligarchy. This great evilj combined with the unsettled nature of the confederation, prevented the Boeotians from taking a lead- ing share in the afl^airs of Greece. Acarnania, ^tolia, and Locris, offer nothing remarkable ; and the most important event in the history of Ph6cis was the sacred war, which has been described in the last section. The states of Thessaly were for the most part governed by arbitrary individuals. In the Peloponnesus, Corinth was the. most remarkable state next to Sparta. At the time of the Dorian conquest of southern Greece its throne was seized by Aleles, whose descendants retained the power and title of royalty for five generations. On the death of Teles'sus, the last of the Alitian race, Bac'chis usurped the throne (b. c. 777), and his descendants, called Bacchfadae, held the regal authority for five genera- tions more. Teles'tes, the last of these kings, having been murdered, the kingly oflice was abolished, and a species of oligarchy established in its stead, under yearly magistrates, called prytanes, chosen exclu- sively from the house of Bac'chis. It would have been scarcely possi- ble for such a narrow ohgarchy to maintain its ground, even if it had PKINCIPAL GEECIAN ISLANDS. 103 wsed its power with moderation and wisdom ; -but the Bacchiads, proud of their race and great commercial wealth, insulted their subjects ; and Cyp'selus, an opulent citizen of jEolian descent, aided by the com- monalty, usurped the government (b. c. 657), and held the supreme power for thirty years. On his death, he was succeeded by his son Perian'der, who is sometimes ranked among the Seven Wise Men of Greece, though he is described by many writers as a rapacious, oppres- sive, and cruel despot. His reign lasted forty yearsj and yet is supposed to have been shortened either by violence or grief for the loss of his son. He was succeeded by his nephew Psammet'ichus, whose reign lasted only three years, when he was expelled by his subjects, assisted by a Spartan army (b. c. 584). This revolution was followed by the establishment of a commercial aristocracy,, whose exact constitution is unknown, but which long kept Corinth in close alliance with Sparta. The Corinthian trade consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian merchandise, for which her position gave her many peculiar advantages. The period of Corinth's highest prosperity closed with the government of the Cyp'selids ; and the loss of Corcy'ra one of her colonies which had been kept in subjection by Per'iander, but revolted after his death, proved a blow to her power which she never recovered. The naval engagement between the Corcyrians and Corinthians (b. c. 650) is the first sea-fight recorded in history. The history of Sic'yon and the other Achaean states presents a series of revolutions similar to those of Corinth. After various revolutions and usurpations, they all adopted republican institutions, about.the time that the Cyp'selids were expelled from Corinth. The constitution of Arcadia became republican when Aristodemus, its last king, was stoned by his subjects for having betrayed Aristopi'- enes and the Messenians. The regal dignity was abolished in Argos so early as b. c. 984 ; but nothing is known of the circumstances that led to the change, or the peculiar nature of the republic by which it was succeeded. E'lis preserved its internal peace, owing to the wise laws of Iph'- itus, a contemporary of Lycur'gus ; while the sanctity of its soil ensured its external security. After the abolition of royal power two supreme magistrates were chosen, called Hellanodicae, to whose office was added the charge of superintending the Olympic games. Their number was subsequently increased to ten, one being chosen from each of the Elian tribes ; and their power was limited by a senate of ninety, whose mem- bers were chosen for life. Section VI. — History of the principal Chedan Islands. The revolutions in the Grecian islands were very similar to those on the continent, repubhcan constitutions having succeeded to mon- archy in most of them. After the Athenians had acquired the sover- eignty of the sea, the insular states lost their independence ; for though they were called confederates, they were treated as subjects ; no change, however, was made in th«ir internal constitutions.^ We shall only no- tice the islands that were most remarkable in history. Corcy'ra was occupiied by a Corinthian colony under Chersic'ratea 104 ANCIENT HISTORY. ,(b. c. 753), who expelled or subdued the former inhabitants. As the leader and njost of his comjpanioris had been driven into exile by polit- ical commotions, they retained but little affection for the parent State j while the rapid progress of the Corc)rrean power excited the commer- cial jealousy of Corinth. These circumstances led to an open war. The Corcyrean constitution appears to have been originally aristocratic or oligarchical, like that of most Dorian states ; but after the Persian wars a democratic faction arose, powerfully supported by the Athenians, which produced the most violent internal commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcy'ra. JEgina, first colonized b. c. 1358, rapidly grew, by commerce, and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. It even estabhshed colonies of its own in Crete and Pontus. jEgina was long the suc- cessful rival of Athens ; it was subdued by Themis'tocles (b. c. 485). The island of Eubos'a received many different colonies from the main- land of Greece ; but its cities were not united by any confederation, each possessing a separate constitiition. It was subdued by the Athe- nians after the Persian wars ; but the islanders made several sanguin- ary struggles to regain their independence. The Cyc'lades were all, except Delos, rendered tributary to Athens, when that state acquired the supremacy of the sea. Crete was celebrated in the heroic a^gfes for the laws of Minos (*b. c. 1300). After the death of Clean'thus (*b. c. 800), republican constitu- tions were adopted in the principal cities, which thenceforth became in- dependent states. The Cretans rarely engaged in foreign wars, but they were almost incessantly involved in mutual hostilities ; a circum- stance thSit tended greatly to degrade the national character. Cy'prus was only partially colonized by the Greeks, whose principal settlement was at Sal'amis, founded byTeucer, a little after the Trojan war (b. c. 1100). The island was successively subject to the Phoeni- cians, Egyptians, arid Persians. The kings of Sal'amis frequently re- volted against their Persian masters, and always maintained a qualified independence. When Alexand,er the Great besieged Tyre (b. c. 332), he was voluntarily joined by the nine Cypriot kings, and thenceforth thp. island was annexed to the Macedonian monarchy. The history of Rhodes belongs properly to the portion of this work which treats of the successors of Alexander, to which we refer our readers. Section VII. — History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. FROM B. C. 1200 TO B. C.,500. The colonies founded by the Greeks, between the period of the Dorian migration and the final subversion of Grecian liberty by the triumph of the Macedonians, were the most numerous and important established bv any nation, and all acted a very conspicuous part in accelerating the progress of civilization. The colonies that first engage our attention are those that were es- tablished along the western coast of Asia Minor, from the Hellespont to the confines of Cilic'ia, in consequence of the revolutions produced by the Dorian migration and conquest of the Peloponnesus. They were GREEK COLONIES IN ASIA MINOR. 105 established by the iEolians, lonians, and Carians ; their commerce soon exceeded that of the parent states ; and in them were produced the first of Grecian poets, Homer and Alcae'us ; and the first of Grecian philos- ophers, Thdles and Pythag'oras. • The jEolians, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, settled for a time in Thrace, whence they passed over, after the lapse of a genera- tion, to Asia (*B. 0. 1124), and occupied the coasts of M^sia and C^ria giving to the strip of land they colonized the name of iEolis. They acquired possession, also, of the islands of Les'bos, Ten'edos, and the cluster called the Hecatonnesi (hundred islands). Twelve cities were erected on the mainland by the .ffiolians, of which the chief were Cym6 and Smyr'na. The latter city was destroyed by the Lydians (*b. c. 600), and was not restored until four hundred years later, when it be- came a flourishing Macedonian colony. The jEolian cities maintained theit' independence until the age of Cy'rus, when those on the mainland were subdued by the Persians. When Athens acquired supremacy by sea, the insular states were forced to submit to her authority, and were in general ruled with great severity. The Ionian migration took place some years after the .^olian, about B. c. 1044. It was the largest that ever left Greece ; and fortunately it is that, with whose details we are best acquainted. It originated in the abolition of royalty at Athens : the sons of Codrus reluctant to live as private individuals, declared their design of leading a colony into Asia : they were readily joined by the Ionian exiles from the northern Peloponnesus, who were straitened for room in At'tica, and by large bands of emigrants from the neighboring states, actuated by political dis- content, or the mere love of change. They were supplied liberally with ships and munitions of war. They pursued their voyage to Asia Minor, and landed on the coast south of .^i'olis. After a long se- ries of sanguinary wars, .the native barbarians resigned their Isinds to the intruders ; and the lonians acquired possession of the whole of the valuable district between Miletus and Mount Sip'ylus. The lonians then began to erect cities; they established twelve, united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy; viz., Eph'esus, Ery'thrae, Clazom'enae, Colophon, My'us, Miletus, Pri^ne, Phocae'a, Leb'edos, Samos, Teos, and Chios, of which the last three were insular stations. Miletus was the chief of the Ionian colonies : but Eph'esus was the most renowned of the cities. All the Ionian cities were united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy. Deputies from the different states met, at stated times, in a temple of Nep'tune, eirected on the headland of Mycale, which they named Heli- conean, from Helfce, the chief of their ancient cities in the northern Peloponnesus. Here they deliberated on all matters that affected the Pan-Ionian league ; but the council never interfered with the domestic government of the several cities. They also celebrated festivals and public ga,mes, which rivalled in magnificence those of Greece. In the midst of their prosperity; the Ionian cities became engaged in a long and arduous struggle vtfith the Lydian kings, which continued aknost without intermission until both were absorbed in the rising greatness of the Persian empire. Neither the extent nor progress of the Dorian colonies could com- 106 ANCIENT HISTOKY. pare with those we have just described. Limited to a narrow and not very fruitful territoiy, their confederation always continued in a state of feebleness ; and, with theexception of Halicarnas'sus, which, at a com- paratively recent age, became the capital , of an opulent monarchy, and the isle of Rhodes, whose; daiiiing navigators rivalled those of the most potent commercial states, there is scarcely a Dorian state that rose above mediocrity. The Dorians, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, meditated new acquisitions; but, being checked by the Athenians at Meg'ara, they pro- ceeded in detached bands to , the coast of Caria, and to the islands of Cos and Rhodes. It is impossible to assign the exact age of these mi- grations ; but they were certainly later than the Ionian and iEolian ; they appear also to have been conducted without any definite plan, and to have taken place at very different times. The six cities forming the Doric confederation, called Hexapolis, were Halicarnas'sus and Cmdus on the Carian peninsula, Cos in the island of the same name, and Har lys'sus, Camirus, and Lin'dus, in the island of Rhodes. The Dorians submitted without a struggle to the Persian power, and seem to have made no effort to regain their independence. Section VIII.— 2%e Greek Colonies on Uie Euxine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace, Macedon, S/v. Most of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Propon'tis, the Euxine sea, and the , Palus Maeotis, were founded by the citizens of Miletus between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. That city, whose commerce occupied four harbors, and whose naval power amounted to eighty or a hundred galleys of war, owed its greatr ness to its possession of the northern trade ; and to secure this lucra- tive commerce, it planted several colonies, all of which became pros- perous marts of trade. Their commerce was not confined to the sea- coasts : their merchants penetrated into southern Russia, and advanced even beyond the Caspian to the countries which now form the king- doms of Khiva and Bokhara. The Phocaeans shared the honor of founding these important colonies ; but they were too much devoted to the western trad© to waste their energies on the northern ; and it may be generajly stated, that the settlements on the Euxine depended chiefly on Miletus. On the Propon'tis adjoining, , the Hellespont, stood Lamp'sacus, originally founded by some Phocseans, who obtained a grant of the site of the city from one of the native princes whom they had assisted in war. It was afterward occupied by the Milesians, under whom it becanie a place of great wealth and extensive commerce. Cyz'icus, erected on an island joined by bridges to the Asiatic coast, was a very ancient city ; it is said to have been colonized in the earli- est ages by the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi, and afterward by the Argonauts. About B. 0. 751, it was occupied by the Milesians, who at the same time took possession of the neighboring island of Proconnesus (Mar- mora). Cyz'icus, in a late age, under the dominion of the Romans, became one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in Asia. Opposite to Cyz'icus on the Thracian coast, was Perin'thus, at a la- GEBEK COLONIES ON THE EUXINE SEA. 107 ter age called Heracleia, founded by a Samian colony ; on the Euro- pean side of the Thracian Bosphorus was Byzan'tium (Constantinople); and over against it, on the Asiatic coast, Chal'cedon {Scutari), both colonized from Meg'ara. The first Greek city on the Black sea was Heracleia, on the Bithy- nian coast, which appears to have been successively colonized from Meg'ara and Miletus. Sinope, in Paphlagonia, was the most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine se a. Amisus,in Pon'tus, was, next to Sinope, the best harbor on the Euxine sea. After having been long subject to Miletus, it was seized by the Athenians in the age of Per'icles, and its name changed to Peirze'seus. During the days of its prosperity, Amisus is said to have become the parent of a colony that soon surpassed itself in importance, Trap'ezus (Trebisonde). v On the eastern coast of the Euxine were Phasis, Diosciirias, and Phanagoria. In the Macedonian age, Phanagoria became the capital of the Greek cities on the Asiatic side of the Bos'phorus : its prosperity was owing to its being the chief mart for the slave-trade, which has always prevailed in the countries round the Caucasus, and also to its being the staple for the goods brought from central and southern Asia by the route of the Caspian sea and the Oxus. The Milesians formed several establishments in the Tauric Cher- sonese ( Crimea)!, and wrested the greater part of that peninsula from its barbarous inhabitants. The city of Panticapae'um was the most important, and probably the most ancient, of these, settlements. It be- came the capital of the little Greek kingdom of the Bos'phorus, and continued to maintain its independence until, in the RoJnan age, it was seized by Mithridates the Great, who laid there the foundations of his subsequent power. The coasts of Thrace and Macedon were covered with Greek colo- nies, principally derived from Corinth and Athens. On the coasts of Africa was the celebrated Greek city of Cyrene, long the commercial rival of Carthage, founded by a Dorian colony from the island of Thera (b. c. 651), in obedience to the directions of the Delphic oracle . The govemmeAt was at first monarchical, the crown being hereditary in the family of Bat'tus, the founder. About b. c. 450, royalty was abolished, and a republic formed ; but the citizens of Cyrene never were able to form a permanent constitution ; and their state continued to be rent by factions until it was annexed to the Egyp- tian kingdom,' in the age of the Ptolemies. The history of the Greek states in Sicily and southern Italy being closely connected with the Roman wars, will be fbmid in the chapters on Italy. 108 ANCIENT HISTORY, CHAPTER X. HISTORY OF GREECE, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OP THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. FROM B. C. 500 TO B. c. 336. Section I. — The First Persian War. FROM B. c. 500 TO B. c. 490. When Darius Hystas^pes invaded Scythia, lie intrusted the guard of the bridge of boats that he had constructed over the Danube to the Greeks of Asia and Thrace, who had been so recently brought under subjection to the Persians. Many of those were anxious to recover their freedom, and they deliberated seriously on the propriety of de- stroying the bridge, and leaving the Persians to perish without resource in an inhospitable desert. The proposal was strenuously advocated by Miltiades, the king or tyrant, as he was called, of the Thracian Cher- sonese ; but he was opposed by Histiae'us, the tyrant of Miletus, whose selfish counsels finally prevailed. Miltiades retired to Athens, his na- tive city, where he subsequently rose to the highest honors ; Histiae'us accompanied the monarch he had saved to the court of Persia. But the gratitude of absolute princes is not permanent ; Histiae'us soon found that the very magnitude of his services exposed him to danger; and he concerted with his nephe*, Aristag'oras, a revolt, which in- cluded all the Ionian colonies. In order that the insurrection should have any reasonable prospects of success, it was necessary that it should be supported by the Grecian states ; and to engage this assistance Aristag'oras came to LacedaE'mon. Peing repulsed at Spar'ta, Aristag'oras proceeded to Athens, where he was more generously received (b. c. 500). Twenty ships were prepared for him with all convenient speed; and these being rein- forced by five more from the little state of Eret'ria, in the island of Euboe'a, sailed over to the harbor of Miletus, and commenced the war. The allies were at first very successful. Sar'dis, the wealthy capital of Lydia, was taken and plundered ; but Aristag'oras had not the tal- ents of a general ; the fruits of success were lost as soon as won ; the several divisions of the army quarrelled and separated ; and the Asiatic Greeks were left to bear the brunt of the vengeance of their merciless masters. Miletus was taken, its walls razed, and its citizens mas- sacred ; several minor cities suffered similar calamities. Aristag'oras GKEECB. 109 fled to Thrace, where he was murdered by the barbarians ; and Hia- tiae'us, after a vain attempt to escape, was crucified at Sar'dis by com- mand of the Persian satrap. Darius next turned his resentment against the Greeks, who had aided this revolt ; he sent ambassadors to demand homage from the Grecian states, especially requiring the Athenians to receive back Hip'pias, their exiled tyrant. All the states, insular and continental, except Athens and Spar'ta, proffered submission ; but those noble republics sent back a haughty defiance, and fearlessly prepared to encounter the whole strength of the Persian empire. * Darius, having prepared a vast armament, intrusted its command to his son-in-law Mardonius, who soon subdued the island of Thasus, and the kingdom of Macedon (b. c. 493). But his fleet, while doubling Mount A'thos, was shattered by a violent storm ; three hundred vessels were dashed against the rocks, and twenty thousand men are said to have perished in the waves. Mardonius returned home to excuse his disgrace, by exaggerating the cold of the climate, and the dangers of the jEgean sea. A second and more powerful armament was prepared (b. c. 490), over which Darius placed his two best generals, Datis, a Mede, and Artapher'nes, a Persian nobleman. The fleet passed safely through the Cyc'Iades, and arrived at the island of Euboe'a. Thence the Persians crossed the Euripus, and, by the advice of the exiled Hip'- pias, encamped with an army Said to exceed five hundred thousand men on the plains of Mar'athon, within forty miles of Athens. The Athenians could only muster an army often thousand citizens, and about double that nxmiber of slaves, who were armed in this extremity. The little city of Platae'a sent an auxiliary force of a thousand men ; but the Spartans, yielding either to superstition or jealousy, refused to send their promised aid before the full of the moon. Miltiades dis- suaded his countrymen from standing a siege, because the immense host of the Persians could completely blockade the city, arid reduce it by starvation. He led the army to Mar'athon ; but when the Persian hosts were in sight, five of the ten generals, commanding jointly with himself, were afraid to hazard a battle ; and it was not without difficulty that Callim'achus was prevailed upon to give his casting vote in favor of fighting. But when the bold resolution of engaging was adopted, all the generals exerted themselves to forward the wise plans of their leader (b. c. 490). Miltiades formed his lines at the foot of a hill that protected his rear and right flank ; his left was secured by an extensive marsh, and his front protected by trunks of trees, strewn for some distance, to break the force of the Persian cavalry. The Athenian citizens occupied the right wing, the Plataeans the left, while the raw levies of slaves were stationed in the centre. Datis saw the advantages of this position ; but confident in his superior numbers, he gave the signal for battle. The Greek centre was broken at the moment that the two wings had royted the divisions opposed to them : this had been fore- seen ; and Miltiades directed the victorious wings to attack the Per- sians rushing incautiously through the' broken centre on both flanks. Surprise is fatal to an oriental array ; in a few minutes • the Asiatics IID ANCIEWT HISTOaV. ■were wholly routed, and fled in confusion to their ships. The Greeks pursued them vigorously, and destroyed seven of their vessels. But the Persian fleet w^as still powerful, and its commanders deemed it possible to suprise Athens before the 'army could return. Miltlades, however, bafiled this attempt by rapidly marching from the field of battle to the city, and securing the posts before the hostile navy could get round the promontory of Sdnium. Thus disappointed, the Persians took advan- tage, of a favorable gale, and returned to Asia. Miltiades was subsequently accused of having taken a bribe, con- victed on rather doubtful evidence, and sentenced to pay a heavy fine, which not being able to pay, he was thrown into prison, where he died of his wounds. Themis'tocles, the most able statesman, and Aristides, the mosrt; uncorrupt patriot of Greece, for a time shared the power that had been previously possessed by Miltiades. Their struggle for power ended in the banishment of Aristides ; but when his wise counsels were required in the hour of emergency, he was recalled on the motion of his successful rival. Themis'tocles directed all his efforts to improving the naval power of Athens, and he succeeded in securing for his country the complete supremacy of the Grecian seas. In the interval between the two Persian wars nothing remarkable occurred iii any other of the Grecian states, save that in Spar'ta, one of its kings, Demaratus, was deposed and driven into exile by the in- trigues of the other, Cleom'enes. Demaratus sought refuge in the court of Persia ; Cleom'enes perished by his own hand, a victim to remorse. Leoty'chides succeeded the former, Leon'idas the latter. Section Il.—The Second Persian War, FROM B. c, 480 TO B. c. 449. , Nine years after the battle of Mar'athon, Xer'xes, the son and suc- cessor of Darius, resolved to attempt the conquest of Greece, and for this purpose collected an army, which, after making every allowance for the exaggerations of historians, appears to have been the most numerous ever assembled. When he reached the pass of Thermop- ylae, through which lay the road from Thessaly to Greece, he found a body of eight thousand men, commanded by the Spartan Leon'idas, prepared to dispute the passage. The haughty Persian instantly sent a herald, commanding these warriors to surrender their arms, and was maddened by the contimielious reply, " Come and take them." After many inefifectual efforts to break .the Grecian lines, all of which were repulsed with great slaughter, Xer'xes was on the point of retiring in despair, when the treachery of Ephial'tes, a Trachinian deserter, revealed to him a path leading to the top of thp mountain, that secured the Grecian flank. Leon'idas advised his allies to retire, dedaring that he and his Spartans were forbidden by law to abandon their posts. Retaining with him only a thousand men, he resolved to attack the Persian camp by night, hoping in the conftision and darkness to reach the royal tent, and, by the slaughter or capture of Xer'xes, to .put all end to the war. The plan had nearly succeeded when morning dawned on the assailants, wearied with slaughter; they then retreated GREECE. Ill to the upper part of the pass, where they were soon surrounded by- multitudes ; but they still fought with all the energies of despair, until they sunk, fatigued rather than vanquished. About the same time the Greeks obtained a victory over the Persian fleet off the headland of Artemis'ium, in the island of Euboe'a; but tliis triumph was rendered fruitless by the loss of the pass of Ther- mopylae ; and Themis'tocles persuaded the allies to remove the navy into the Saronic gulf, where they anchored off the island of Sal'amis. Xer'xes, having entered Ph6cis, divided his army, sending a large detachment to plunder and destroy the temple of Del'phi. They were attacked by the Phocians, and hewn down almost without resistance. A miserable remnant escaped to Xer'xes, who, having destroyed Thes'- piae and Platae'se, was rapidly advancing against Athens. On his approach, the Athenians, by the persuasion of Themis'tocles, abandoned their beloved city ; those capable of bearing arms retired to the island of Sal'amis, while those whom age or sex rendered uniit for war, found shelter in the hospitable city of Troezene. Athens was burned to the ground ; and Xer'xes, in the pride of success, resolved to anni- hilate the last hopes of Greece in a naval engagement. Euryblades, the Spartan, who commanded the allied fleet, was induced by Themis'tocles to adopt the plan of hazarding an engage- ment. Fearing, however, some change, the crafty Athenian sent a spy, as a pretended deserter, to Xer'xes, informing him that the Greeks were preparing to disperse and escape ; upon which the whole Persian navy was sent to blockade the harbor of Sal'amis. Themis'tocles learned the success of his stratagem from Aristldes, who crossed over from ^gina in a small boat with the intelligence ; a circumstance that at once put an end to the rivalry between these great men. Xer'xes witnessed the battle of Sal'amis from iEgaleos, a rocky eminence on the coast of At'tica : he had the mortification to see his magnificent navy utterly annihilated. From that moment Xer'xes resolved to return into Asia, leaving three hundred thousand men imder Mard6nius to prosecute the war. When he reached the Hellespont, he found his magnificent bridge broken down, and he was forced to cross the strait in a common fishing-boat. Mardonius having wintered in Thes'saly, before opening the next campaign, sent the king of Macedon as an ambassador to the Atheni- ans, offerii^g them the rebuilding of their city, and the friendship of his master, on condition of their seceding from the alhance. These offers were rejected. The confederates encamped at the foot of Mount Cithae'ron, in front of the Persian lines. Several skirmishes took place, in all "of which the Greeks had the advantage j but being dis- tressed for want of water, they broke up their camp to seek a better position. Mardonius, believing that his enemies were in full retreat, ordered his soldiers to pursue the fugitives and complete the victory. A battle ensued not far from the city of Platae'se, whioh ended in the total defeat of the Persians, and the annihilation of their army, with the exception of forty thousand that escaped to the Hellespont under ArtabazuS. Two hundred thousand of the barbarians aresiaidto have fallen in thik memorable battle, and ^the value of the plunder found in the Persian ^ 112 ANCIENT HISTORY. camp exceeds calculation. On the' very same day (September 22d, B. c. 479), an equally important victory was gained by the confedefate fleet, commanded by the Athenian Xamhip'pus and the Spartan Leoty'- chides at Mycale, on the cOaat of Asia Minor. Dreading the heroism of the Greeks, the Persians had drawn their ships on shore, surrounded them with fortifications, and protected them with an array of sixty thpusarid men. The allied Greeks, with far inferior numbers, landed their troops, storimed the works, destroyed the navy, and put the greater part of the Persians to the sword. The plunder taken by the Greeks was immense, but the most splendid results of these victories were the overthrow of the Persian power in the .iEgean, sea, and the freedom of the islands. It is probable that the colonies in western Asia might have regained their independence if they desired it ; but, with the exception of the lonians, most of the Asiatic Greeks preferred the tranquil supremacy of Persia to an alliance with the Grecian republics. During the half century which followed the battle of Platse'iE, the Athenian republic attained the summit of its greatness, and became the first state, not only of Greece, but of the civilized world. Themis'to- cles rebuilt the defences of the city, fortified the harbor of the Peirae'- us, and joined it to Athens by what were called " the long walls." In the meantime the Spartan Pausanias, at the head of the confed- erate Greeks, continued to wage war against the dependancies of the Persian empire in the iEgean sea and on the coast of Thrace. By- zan'tiura, already regarded as a strong and flourishing city, was taken after a short siege (b. c. 470), and its vast wealth became the prey of the conquerors. Among the captives were many distinguished Persian noblemen, and even relations of the king, who paid large sums to re- deem them from captivity. But this sudden influx of riches proved fa- tal to Pausanias ; he resolved, by the aid of the Persians, to become supreme master of Greece. Secret information of their general's trea- son was conveyed to the Spartan senate ; he was recalled, and brought to trial ; but escaped the first time, it is said, by bribing his judges. J'^resh evidence being obtained against him, he was secretly warned of his danger, and fled for safety to the temple of Miner' va. The Spar- tans did not dare to drag the traitor from the sanctuary ; they blocked up the door of the temple with huge stones, stripped off its roof, strictly guarded all its avenues, and, left the wretch to perish by cold and hun- gor. In consequence of the tyranny of Pausanias, the Spartans were deprived of the supremacy by sea, and the Athenians were chosen to lead the naval confederacy of the islands and colonies. Aristides was elected treasurer of the allies, and to prevent any complaints, he se- lected the island of Delos as the point of reunion, and tlie sanctuary where their contributions should be deposited under the protection of Apol'lo. Themis'tocles, by the artifice' of the Spartans, was involved in the fate of Pausanias : he appears to have been acquainted with the plot, but he stiienuously denied that it had ever received his sanction. He was banished by ostracism for ten years ; but the malice of his enemies pursued him in his exile, and, to save his life, he was forced to seek refuge, at the court of Persia. He soon however ended his life by poison. Nearly at the same time Aristides died full of years and hon- GaEECE. 113 OTs, haying administered the public finances with so much integrity, that he did not leave behind him a sum sufficient to defray the expenses of his funeral. A sum was issued from the public treasury to pay for the last rites to his corpse, to complete his son's education, and to por- tion his daughters. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristfdes as leader of the Athenian republic : he continued the war against the Persians with equal vigor and skill, reducing all their cities and forts, not only in ^ Europe and the islands, but even on the coast of Asia. At length he completely destroyed the whole Persian navy oif the coast of Cy'prus (b. c. 470), and then dressing his men in the vestures and arms of his prisoners, surprised the Persian camp at the mouth of the river Eurym'- edon on the very same day, and before the barbarians could recover from their confusion, completed their destruction. The war continued twenty-one years, during which the naval power and commercial wealth of the Athenians were continually increasing ; both sides at length began to entertain thoughts of peace. The articles were soon arranged, and they were worthy of the valor that the Greeks had shown in this great struggle (b, c. 449). It was stipulated that the independence of the Greek cities in lower Asia should be restored ; that no Persian vessel should appear between the Cyanean rocks and Chelidonian islands, that is, between the northern extremity of the Thracian Bos'phorus and the southern promontory of Lycia ; that no Persian array should come with- in three days' journey of the seacoast ; and that the Athenians should withdraw their -fleets and armies from the island of Cyprus. Thus gloriously were, terminated the Persian wars, which, reckoning from the' burning of Sar'dis, had lasted, with little intermission, during fifty-one years. Section III. — The First Peloponnesian War. FROM B. 0. 431 TO B. c. 422. While the Athenians were acquiring wealth and glory in the war against Persia, the Spartans, jealous of their rival's rising fame, were secretly preparing to weaken the Athenian power by a sudden war. But their animosity, before it broke into action, was diverted by a ca- lamity equally great and unexpected. Laconia was laid waste by an earthquake, which destroyed one hundred and twenty thousand of its inhabitants, and overwhelmed the city of Sparta (b. c. 469). The op- pressed Helots and the remnant of the Messenians took advantage of this calamity to make a vigorous effort for the recovery of their 'free- dom ; they failed in surprising Sparta ; but they made themselves mas- ters of their ancient fortress Ithome. Though aided by the Atheni- ans, whose assistance they repaid with ingratitude, the Spartans had great difficulty in subduing the insurgents, and were finally forced to allow them to retire from the Peloponnesus with their families and properties. These exiles were hospitably received in the Athenian colony of Naupac'tus ; and they repaid the kindness shown to them by subsequently adhering, through every vicissitude of fortune, to the cause of Athens. The Argives had declined to support the general cause of Greece in the great struggle with the Persians ; and the dependant 8 11* ANCIENT HISTORY. States, despising their treachery, had thrown off obedience to the cap* itaL Mycenas was the only city on which the Argives could wreak their vengeance ; the rest, supported by Spar'ta, maintained their inde- pendence. From similar reasons, Thebes had lost her supremacy over the Boeotian cities ; but here the Athenians embraced the cause of the minor states, while Sparta supported the sovereignty of the Boeotian metropolis. Athens had now attained the summit of its greatness, under the bril- j liant administrations of Per'icles. That eminent statesman, though sprung from a noble house, had risen to power by warmly supporting the cause of the people, and procured the banishment of his rival Ofmon, on account of his partiality to Sparta. To secure his influence, Per'icles weakened the power of the great aristocratic court, the Areop'agus, by removing various causes from its jurisdiction to that of the popular tribunals. He adorned the city with the most splendid monuments of architecture, sculpture, and painting ; and in order to defray the necessary expenditure, he augmented the contributions im- posed on the allied states, under the pretence of supporting the Persian war, and removed the treasury of the confederates from Delos to Athens. Finding that the Spartans were supporting the cause of the Theban supremacy, he sent an army to maintain the independence of Boeotia, which, though at first worsted near Tanag'ra, won a decisive victory on the same groiind in the following year (b. c. 457). A fleet at the same time ravaged the coasts of the Peloponnesus, and made the Spartans tremble for their own safety. The recall of Cimon, and the d^eat of the Athenians in an enterprise against Thebes, through the rashness of their leader Tol'nridas, led to a truce for five years (b. c. 450), which might probably have led to a permanent peace, but for the death of Cimon before the walla of Cit'ium. The close of the truce led to a brief renewal of war; but a second truce was concluded for fifty years, which gave Per'icles time to mature his favorite policy of making Athens mistress of the maritime and insular states. Some «f the islands revolted, but they were successively subdued ; and the sub- jugation of Samos, the chief city in the island of that name, gave Per'- icles the fame of a military leader as well as a statesman. About the same time he completed the overthrow of the aristocratic party, by pro- curing the banishment of its leader, the elder Thucyd'ides ; and se- cured the popular favor by his unrivalled ,shows and theatrical exhibi- tions. The brilliancy of Athens, however, provoked a host of secret enemies, especially in the Peloponnesus, who only waited an opportu- nity of combining for her destruction. Athens now formed the metropolis of an extensive territory which some of the ancients have denominated a kingdom.' In that narrow space of time which intervened between the battle of Mypale and the memorable war of Peloponnesus, Athens had established her authority over an extent of more than a thousand miles of the Asiatic coast, from C;fprus to the Thracian Bos'phorus ; taken possession of forty inter- mediate islands, together with the important straits which join the Euxine and the jEgean ; conquered and colonized the winding shores of Thrace and Macedon ; commanded the coast of the Euxine from Pon'tus to the Tauric Chersonese ; and overawing the barbarous na- GREECE. 115 tives by ihe experienced terrors of her fleet, at the same time rendered subservient to her own interests the colonies which Miletus and other Greek cities in Asia had established in those reraote regions. Thus the Athenian galleys commanded the eastern coasts of the Medifeara- nean; their merchantmen had engrossed the traffic of the adjacent countries ; the magazines of Athens abounded with wood, metal, ebony, irory, and aU the materials of the usefid as well as the agreeable arts ; they imported the luxuries of Italy, Sicily, C;^rus, Lyd'ia, Pon'tus, and the Peloponnesus. The circumstances that gave rise to the first Peloponnesian war originated in the unsettled state of colonial relations among the ancient Greeks. Corcy'ra, originally a Corinthian colony, had risen so rapidly in wealth and power, that it more than rivalled the .parent state, and possessed many flourishing colonies of its own, among which one of the most important was Epidam'nus, called in Roman history DjTrac'- chium {Durazzo), on the western coast of Maoed6nia. The people of Epidam'nus, pressed by their barbarous neighbors, sought aid from the Corcyreans ; but finding their request unheeded, they applied to the Corinthians, who readily sent an armament to their assistance (b. c. 436). Nothing could exceed the rage of the Corcyreans when they received 'this intelligence ; a fleet was instantly sent to the harbor, and its citizens were haughtily commanded to dismiss the Corintiians, and receive a Corcyrean garrison. This mandate was spumed with con- tempt, and Epidam'nus was immedia,tely besieged. The Corinthians sent a powerfiil navy to raise the siege ; but they were encountered by the Corcyreans in the Ambracian gulf, and completely defeated. Epi- dam'nus immediately surrendered ; contrary, however, to the general expectation, its inhabitants were treated with great leniency. But the haughty islanders abused their victory by ravaging the territories of the states that had assisted Corinth, and provoked universal indignation by burning the city of Cyll^ne, on the sacred coast of E'hs. Both powers applied to Athens, as the head of the maritime states, to decide their quarrel. By the advice of Per'icles, a defensive alliance was concluded with the Corcyreans, and a fleet sent to their aid, which fortunately ar- rived at the moment when the Corinthian navy, having obtained a de- cisive victory, seriously menaced the island. On the arrival of the Athenians, the Corinthians retired ; but as they returned, they sur- prised the garrison of Anactdrium, on the coast of Epinjs, which en^ abled them to bring home twelve hundred and fifty; Corcyrean prison- ers. The fatal effects produced by this capture will soon demand our attention. Potidae'a, a Corinthian colony on the Macedonian coast, which had been for some time subject to Athens, revolted during the.Corcyrean war, and was instantly besieged. The Potidje'ans sought aid from their ancient parent ,• and the Corinthians, too w«ak to afford efficient protection, be- sought the assistance of the Spsjrtans. About the same time, ambas- sadors arrived from the city of Meg'ara, complaining that . they had been, by an unjust decree, excluded from the ports and harbors of At'tica, soliciting the Spartans, as heads of the Dorian race, to procure a reversjd of so unjust a law ; and emissaries came from iEgfna to represent the miserable condition to which that island had been reduced lie ANCIENT HISTOUY. by Athenian oppression. After some affected delay, the Spartans re- solved that the Athenians had violated the principles of justice, and shoWd be coerced to redress the injuries they had inflicted ; but to give their proceedings an appearance of nloiiei:ation, it was resolved to send ambassadors to Athens with demands which they knew well would be refused. They riequired that the siege of Potidae'a. should be raised, the decree against Meg'ara repealed, the island of jEgina abandoned, the independence of the maritime states respected, and the descendants of Cy'lon's murderers banished. This last demand was levelled at Per'icles, whose maternal ancestor had headed the aristocratic party when that' sacrilegious murder was committed ; and it was lirged at a favorable moment, when Per'icles was suspected of impiety on account of his protecting the philosopher Anaxag'oras. But the haughtiness with which the Spartan ambassadors urged their injurious demands roused the fiery spirit of the Athenian people, and it required all the influence of Per'icles to induce them to couch their re- fusal in temperate and dignified language. While the declaration of war was yet withheld intelligence arrived at Spar'ta of the Thebans having been foiled in an attempt to surprise Platse'ae, and that their de- feat was owing to the instigation and aid of the Athenians (b. c. 431). War was instantly proclaimed, and the Spartan king Archid'amus elected cmef of the'Peloponnesian confederates. ' Athens, supported by the insular and maritime states, was supreme mistress of the sea ; Spar'ta, on the other hand, was joined by the chief powers on the Grecian continent, and was consequently superior by land. Both began the war by displaying their strength on their own peculiar element : a Spartan army ravaged At'tica, an Athenian fleet plundered the coasts of the Peloponnesus. The Spartans were thus fofcbd to return home to the defence of their own country ; and no sooner had they withdrawn, than Per'icles invanded Meg'aris, and laid the whole of its narrow territory desolate. Early in the next summer the Pelopohnesians again invaded At'tica ; but the Athenians were assailed by a more dreadful calamity — a plague of unparalleled viru- lence had been introduced into the Pirae'aeus from Asia, and it raged fiercely in a city crowded by the peasants who hkd sought refuge within the walls on the approach of the Spartans. At length, two years and six months after the commencement of the war, Per'icles himself fell a victim to the pestilence (b. c. 429). His death-bed was surrounded by his friends and admirers, who' recited the many illustrious exploits of his glorious life. " You forget," said the dymg patriot, " you forget the only valuable part of my character ; none of my fellow-citizens was ever com- pelled by any action of minei to assume a mourning robe." The war was supported by mutual ravages, and the success of the contending parties nicely balanced. Potidse'a surrenderd to the Athe- nians, its inhabitants were banished, and their place supplii^d by fresh colonists ; Platae'ae, after a brave and protracted defence of five years was yielded to the Spartans, and the whole garrison was mercilessly butchered (b. c. 437). In the same year that the Spartans had stained their national character by the atrocious massacre of the Plataeans, the Athenians narrowly escaped being disgraced by a similar atrocity. The Lesbians of Mitylene had revolted, and isought 'the assistance of the GREECE. 117 PeIopoiuiesians,l)ut the tardy and selfish policy of Lacedie'mon delayed the succors until the insurgents were forced to surrender at discretion. When the fate of Mitylene was discussed in the Athenian assembly, the populace, instigated by Cleon, a vulgar demagog^e, decreed that the city should be destroyed, and the male inhabitants put to the sword. But night brought better counsels ; a general feeling of pity and regret spread among the people ; and on the following day the sanguinary decree was revoked, and a fast-sailing vessel sent to prevent its execu- tion. The messengers of mercy mad« such speed, that they entered the harbor of Mitylene a few hours after the preceding boat, and thus saved Les'bos from desolation. The Spartan admiral, having failed to succor Lesbos, sailed against Corcy'ra, then agitated by the tumults of a most dangerous sedition. It has been already mentioned, that many Corcyreans had been made prisoner-s by the Corinthians ; these men were won by the kindness and bribes of their captors to aid the aristocratic party of their countrymen in an attempt to subvert the democratic constitution of Corcy'ra, and break off the alliance with Athens. On their return home, they made a vigorous effort to accomplish their designs, and very nearly succeed- ed. After a violent and sanguinary contest, in which both parties were •disgraced by the most savage atrocities, the democratic faction prevailed by the aid of an Athenian fleet, but sullied its triumph by exterminating all its opponents, under circumstances of equal treachery and cruelty. The presence of the Athenian fleet in the Ionian sea rendered west- em Greece the scene of war; and Demos'thenes, its chief commander, subdued all the allies of the Peloponnesians in iEtolia and Epirus. The term of his^coihmand having expired (b. c. 4'25), he was returning home, when the Messenians who served in his fleet proposed to effect a landing in the harbor of Py'lus {Navarino), and, fortifyitig themselves there, make the Sparfians tremble in their own capital, which was only fifty miles distant. The bold design was accomplished ; and the Spar- tans in alarm sent a fleet and army to besiege Py'lus ; they garrisoned the little island of Sphacteria ; but their navy being defeated- by the Athenians, this garrison, consisting of the noblest of the Spartan fami- lies, was brought to the brink. of ruin, and would have been utterly destroyed, but for the inadequate resources which Deinos'thenes had at his command. Under these circumstances, the Spartans sent deputies to solicit peace ; but the Athenian people, instigated bytheir unworthy favorite Cleon rejected the proffer with disdain. This arrogant boaster, whose cowardice was notorious, offered, if he were made general, that he would make the Spartans in Sphacteria prisoners within twenty days. He had no notion that his offer would be accepted ; but the Athenian populace, ready at all times to sacrifice everything for a joke, took him at his word. Cleone sailed to the scene of war, and was enabled, by an accidental fire, which destroyed the Spartan fortifica- tions, to accomplish his promise. This success was followed by the capture of the island of Cy&era, the destruction of the Megarean harbor Ni«ee- sion, and have Antig'onus acknowledged as his heir ; but, before this could be effected, the wretched monarch died of a broken heart (b. c. 179). Per'seus ascended the throne with the certainty that he was secretly hated by the Romans and his own subjects. One of his earliest acts was to put Antig'onus to death, and thus prevent the perils SYEIA. ' 153 of competition at home when hostilities abroad were inevitable. Pre- tences for war were easily found : a Roman army crossed the sea, and passed through Epirus and Athamania into Thessaly. Per'seus neg- lected many opportunities of attacking his enemies at a disadvantage ; and when he asked for peace, after having triumphed in slight skir- mishes, he found that the Romans were more haughty after defeat than after victory. The alliance of Gen'tius, king of Illyria, might probably have turned the scale of war in favor of the Macedonian monarch ; but he defrauded his ally of the subsidy he had promised to enable him to levy an army ; and the Romans, landing in lUyr'ia, subdued the whole kingdom within thirty days. Soon afterward the consul Lucius jEmil- ius Paulus appeared in Macedon ; and his name gave confidence to the friends of Rome, while it filled the partisans of Per'seus with confu- sion (b. c. 169). After some indecisive skirmishes, the Macedonian monarch was forced to hazard a decisive engagement at Pyd'na, in which he was irretrievably ruined. Twenty thousand Macedonians were slain ; Per'seus himself was taken prisoner, and was led in chains to Rome to adorn the triumph of his haughty conqueror. An eclipse of the moon had taken place on the eve of the battle. Such appearances were then superstitiously believed to be ominous of ill to states and kingdoms. C. Sulpic'ius Gal'lus, a Roman officer, had science enough to know their nature and foretell their occurrence : and he, lest the soldiers should be disheartened by the eclipse, called them together, declared that it would happen, and explained its cause. This changed the fear, which might otherwise have arisen, into wonder at the knowledge of Gallus : white in the Macedonian camp the ap- pearance was apprehended by many to portend the extinction of the kingdom. By the victory at Pyd'na the fate of Macedon and Greece was sealed : the Romans permitted both, indeed, for a time to enjoy quali- fied independence ; but they exercised over them a galling supremacy, which rendered their freedom an empty name. Above a thousand of the most eminent Achaeans were summoned at one time to Rome, and detained there seventeen years in prison, without being admitted to an audience. Some of these, on their return, stimulated their countrymen to insult the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, who had come to arrange some disputes between the Achaeans and the Spartans (b. c. 148). This of course led to a war : the Achaeans were everywhere defeated, and at length Corinth was taken by Mum'mius, the Roman consul (b. c. 146), who razed that splendid city to the ground. Thencefor- ward, Greece, under the name of Achaia, became a Roman province, and Macedon had been reduced to the same condition some years pre- viously. The shadow of freedom, Ijowever, was left to some of the cities, but especially to Athens, which became the university of the Roman empire. Section II. — History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucidte- FROM B. 0. 312 TO B. C. 64. The victory of Seleucus over the satraps of Persia and Media, already mentioned (p. 143), gave that monarch possession of the prin- 154 ANCIENT HISTORY. cipal part of, upper Asia. In less than four years he became master of the countries between the Oxus, the Indus, and the Euphrates (b. c. 306) ; and, reviving the projects of Alexander, he invaded India. More fortunate than his illustrious master, he penetrated as far as the Ganges, where he entered into a treaty with Sandracot'tus, the king of the rich country between the Sutlege and the Ganges. The great number of elephants which Seleucus obtained by this alliance enabled him to turn th6 scale at the battle of Ip'sus : but a more important advantage was, the commercial intercourse established between his subjects and those of Sandracot'tus. After the death of Antig'onus at Ip'sus, Seleucus, having obtained the greater part of the late satrap's provinces, made Syria the seat of his government — an unfortunate choice, since it exposed his kingdom to the jealousy of Egypt, in- yoived it in the troubled politics of the western world, and led the rulers to neglect the rich countries on the Tigris and the Euphrates. During the eighteen years of peace that followed the death of Antig'- onus, Seleucus founded or embellished several important cities, espe- cially Antfoch in Syria, which he made the capital of his dominions, and two Seleucias ; one on the Tigris, the other on the Oron'tes. Anxiety to add Macedon to his dominions induced Seleucus to invade Europe ; but in the midst of his career he was murdered by Ptolemy Ceraiinus (b. c. 281). He was succeeded by his son Antiochus, sur- named Soter {the savior), who had for some time governed the provin- ces of upper Asia. Antiochus pursued his father's plans of conquest in Asia Minor : but he ceded his claims over Macedon to Antig'onus Gonnatus, and gave his step-daughter in marriage to that monarch. The northern states in Asia iilinor that had asserted their independence rapidly attained matu- rity ; Antiochus was defeated by Nicomedes, king of Bith'ynia, who had obtained the support of the Gallic hordes after their defeat in Greece (b. c. 275), and he was similarly unsuccessful in a war with the king of Per'gamus (b. c. 263), whose complete defeat of the Syri- ans gave security to all the new states. Nor was Soter more fortunate in a war he undertook against Egypt : Magas, the brother of the Egyptian Ptolemy, having married into the Syrian royal faijiily, hoped that by this alliance he would be enabled to establish a new kingdom in Gyrene. Antiochus united with the usurper, and both marched against Ptolemy. The Syrians were defeated in every engagement ; their coasts were laid waste by the Egyptian fleet ; and Magas was speedily hurled from his throne. On his return, Antiochus marched against the Gauls, who had advanced toward Eph'esus (b. c. 262), and jn the neighborhood of that city he was defeated and slain. Antiochus II. avenged his fathsr's death on the Gauls, and received, from the excessive adulation pf his subjects, the surname Theos {god). In his reign, the provinces of upper Asia began to slip from the grasp of the Seleiicidse, owing to the progress of the Parthian tribes, the exactions of the provincial governors, and the unwise efforts of the monarch to force the Grecian customs and religion on his subjects. In order to encounter his eastern enemies with effect, Theos deemed it necessary to tranquillize the west, and he accordingly made peace with the king of Egypt- In pursuance of the conditions of this treaty. BYRIA. 155 Antiochus married Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy, divorcing his for- mer wife Laodicd, and excluding her children from the succession. On the death of Ptolemy, the divorced queen was restored to her sta- tion ; but she could not forget the insult she had received, nor conquer her dread of being sacrificed to some future arrangement. Influenced hy these motives, she poisoned her husband (b. o. 247), and procured the murder of Berenice and her infant son. Seleiicus, surnamed Callinicus {illustrious conqueror), succeeded to the throne by his mother's crime, and was immediately engaged in war with Ptolemy Evergetes, who was eager to avenge his sister's murder. Crossing the Syrian deserts with a numerous army, Ptolemy overran rather than conquered Palestine, Babylonia, Persia, and the wealthy provinces of upper Asia. He returned, bringing with him enormous spoils, among which were the Egyptian idols which Camby'ses had taken from Mem'phis and Thebes. On his way back he encountered Seleiicus, whom he defeated with great slaughter, and forced to take refuge in Antioch. He then returned to Egypt, having gained immense treasure, but no additional territory, in his expedition. Eiimenes, king of Per'gamus, took advantage of the Egyptian war to enlarge his dominions at the expense of the Syrian monarch ; and Hierax, the brother of Seleiicus, aided by a body of Gauls, attempted to usurp the throne. The rebellion was at first successful ; but the ravages of the Gauls provoked such general indignation, that Seleiicus found all his subjects rising in one body to support him ; and, thus strengthened, he assailed the army of the rebels and invaders in Babylonia. The battle was fierce ; but it ended in the total defeat of the Gauls, who were almost annihilated in the pursuit. Hierax fled to theEgyptian court, but was thrown into prison by Ptolemy, where he languished thirteen years, and only escaped to perish by the hands of robbers in the Syrian desert. Callinicus then turned his arms against the Parthians (b. c. 337), but was defeated by their king Arsaces ; and the Parthians date the origin of their monarchy from this battle. In a second campaign, Seleiicus fell into the hands of his enemies (b. c. 236), and was detain- ed a prisoner by the Parthians to the day of his death (b. c. 227). Seleucus III., surnamed Ceraunus [the thunderbolt), succeeded his father ; but, after a brief reign, was removed by poison (b. c. 224). The hopes of his murderers, however, were frustrated by the vigor of his cousin Achse'us, who secured the inheritance for Antiochus, the younger brother of the deceased monarch, who had been satrap of Bab'ylon. In the early part of his reign, Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, was brought into great danger by the intrigues of his prime minister Hermeias, a native of Caria. Deceived by the artifices of this crafty vizier, Antiochus quarrelled with Achae'us, to whom he was mainly in- debted for his crown, and set Molon and Alexander, the brothers of Hermeias, over the important provinces of Media and Persia. The new satraps raised the standard of revolt, and defeated the royal generals sent against them. At length Antiochus took the field in person, con- trary to the wishes and remonstrances of his minister. When the armies were about to ' engage, the rebel forces, by an almost intuitive movement, threw down their arms, and submitted themselves to their 156 ANCIENT HISTOEY. youthful sovereign. M61on and Alexander escaped a public execution by suicide, and Hermeias expiated his complicated treasons on the scafFold (b. c. 220). Whilst Antiochus was thus engaged in the re- mote east, Achae'us, whom he had forced into rebellion, had strengthen- ed himself in Asia Minor ; and the Egyptian monarch Ptolemy Phi- lop'ater was becoming formidable on the southern frontiers of Syria. Antiochus obtained possession of Coele-Syria by the treachery of Theodotus, its governor ; but he was soon after defeated by Ptolemy, at the battle of Raphia near Gaza (b. c. 217), and forced to purchase peace by the sacrifice of the newly-acquired province. This defeat was in some degree compensated, the following year, by the capture of Achffi'us, whose ravages to support his troops having provoked the re- sentment of the kings of lesser Asia, he was besieged in the citadel of Sar'dis by the joint forces of Antiochus and At'talus, king of Per'- gamus, treacherously betrayed, and ungratefully put to death. Freed from the dangers of this war, Antiochus turned his attention to the aifairs of upper Asia, and gained several victories over the Par- thians and Bactrians (b. c. 214). He was, however, forced to recog- nise the independence of both nations. To secure his dominions, he gave his daughter in marriage to Demetrius, the son of the Bactrian monarch, and joined that prince in an important expedition against northern India (b. c. 206). In return, he made some efforts to revive the commercial system of Alexander the Great, and paid particular atten- tion to the trade of the Persian gulf. On the death of Ptolemy Philop'- ater (b. c. 203), and the accession of his infant son, Antiochus entered into an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon, to wrest Egypt from the family of the Ptolemies. He conquered CcEld-Syria and Palestine ; but was prevented from pursuing his success by the interference of At'talus, the Rhodians, and the Romans. Checked in this direction, he revived the claims of his family on the northern states of Europe and Asia. While his generals besieged Srayr'na and Lamp'sacus, he con- quered the Thracian Chersonese, and prepared to invade Greece (b. c. 196). The Romans again interfered ; but the Syrian monarch, insti- gated by Hannibal, who had sought refuge at his court, treated their remonstrances with disdain. War immediately followed. Antiochus lost, the fairest opportunities of success by neglecting the advice of Hannibal : driven from Europe into Asia, he was forced to act solely on the defensive, until his total defeat at Magnesia, near Mount Sip'y- lus, laid him prostrate at the feet of his enemies. The Romans depriv- ed him of all his dominions in Asia Minor, the greater part of which were annexed to the kingdom of Per'gamus. The unfortunate monarch did long survive his defeat: he was murdered by his servants (b. c. 187) ; but the cause and manner of the crime are uncertain. Seleiicus IV., sumamed Philop'ater (a lover of his father), succeeded to a throne fast falling into decay. His reign lasted eleven years, but was not distinguished by any remarkable event. Anxious to have the aid of his brother Antiochus, who had been given as an hostage to the R,omans, Seledcus sent his son Demetrius to Rome in exchange. Be- fore Antiochus could reach home, Heliod6rus poisoned Seleiicus, and usurped the crown (b. c. 176). This is represented by many Jewish SYRIA. 157 writers as a providential punishment of the king, who had employed that very minister to plunder the sacred treasury of Jerusalem. Antiochus IV. soon expelled the usurper, and assumed the surname of Epiphanes {illustrious) which his subsequent conduct induced his contemporaries to change into that of Epiraanes {madman). He sought to combine the freedom of Roman manners with the ostentatious luxury of the Asiatics, and thereby provoked universal hatred. , His reign commenced with a war against Egypt, in consequence of the claim made by the Ptolemies to Coele-Syria and Palestine. Antiochus was very successful : in two campaigns he penetrated to the walls of Alexandria, and gained possession of the person of Ptolemy Philom'eter, the rightr ful heir of the Egyptian throne, who had been driven from Alexandria by his brother Phys'con. With this prince the Syrian monarch con- cluded a most advantageous peace ; but scarcely had he returned home, when Philom'eter entered into an accomrriodation with his brother, and both combined to resist the power of Syria. Justly enraged at this treachery, Antiochus returned to Egypt ; but his further progress was stopped by the interference of the Romans, at whose imperious command he found himself compelled to resign all his conquests (b. c. 169). The ambition of Antiochus was next directed against his own sub- jects : he resolved to establish uniformity of worship throughout his dominions, and to Hellenize all his subjects. His intolerance and rapa- city engendered a determined spirit of resistance (b. c. 168). The Jews, headed by the gallant Mac'cabees, commenced a fierce struggle, which, after much suffering, ended in the restoration of their former in- dependence ; and the Persians, equally attached to their ancient faith, raised the standard of revolt. Antiochus hasted to suppress the insur- rection in upper Asia ; but being severely defeated (b. c. 165), he died of vexation on his road to Babylon. Eupator, the young son of the deceased monarch, was placed on the throne by the Syrians ; but Demetrius, the son of Seleucus Philop'ater, having escaped from Rome, no sooner appeared in Asia tljan he was joined by siich numerous partisans, that he easily dethroned his rival (b. c. 162). With the usual barbarity of Asiatic sovereigns, he put the young prince to death, and found means to purchase the pardon of his crimes from the Roman senate. After an inglorious reign, he was slain in battle by Alexander Balas (b. o. 150), an impostor who personated the unfortunate Eupator, and was supported in his fraud by the Mac'- cabees and the Romans. Balas was in his turn defeated by Demetrhis Nicator, the son of the late monarch (b. c. 145), and forced to seek refuge in Arabia, where he was murdered by his treacherous host. Nicator, having lost the affections of his subjects, was driven from Antioch by Try'phon, who placed the crown on the head of young An- tiochus, the son of Balas ; but in a short time murdered that prince, and proclaimed himself king. Demetrius was withheld from marching against the usurper by the hope of acquiring a better kingdom in up- per Asia, whither he was invited by the descendants of the Greek and Macedonian colonists, to defend them from the power of the Parthians (b. c. 140). He was at first successful, but was finally captured by his enemies, who detained him a prisoner for ten years. In the mean- time his brother Antiochus Sidetes, having overthrown Try'phon, seized 158 ANCIENT HISTORY. the crown of Syria. He appears to have been a good and wise sover- eign ; but unfortunately he was induced, by the provincials of upper Asia, to wage war against the Parthians, and was treacherously mur- dered by his ovm allies (b. c. 130). Demetrius, about the same time, escaped from prison, and was restored to the throne. But after a brief reign he was defeated and slain by Zebfnus (b. c. 136), a pretended son of the impostor Balas. Seleiicus, the son of Demetrius, was waging a successful war against Zebinas, when he was treacherously murdered by his own mother Cleopatra, who wished to secure the crown for her favorite child Antiochus Gry'phus. She also prevailed on her relative, the king of Egypt, to declare war against the usurper ; and Zebfnas was soon defeated and slain. Gry'phus no sooner found himself secure on the throne than he' put his mother to death for the murder of Seleiicus (b. c. 122) ; and it must be added, that this measure was necessary to secure his own life. After some years, Cyzicenus, the half-brother of Gry'phus, attempted to usurp the throne ; and during the civil war that ensued, many cities and provinces separated from the Syrian kingdom. Gry'phus was assassinated (b. c. 97). His five sons and the son of Cyzicenus engaged in a dreary series of civil wars ; until the Syrians, weary of enduring the calamities and bloodshed of their protracted dis- sensions, expelled the entire family, and gave the crown to Tigranes, king of Armenia (b. c. 83). Tigranes, after a long and not inglorious reign, was involved in a war with the Romans, which ended in his complete overthrow ; and he was forced to resign Syria to the conquer- ors (b. c. 64-) Thus the kingdom of the Seleucidae was made a Roman province, and the family soon after became extinct in the person of Se leiicus Cybrosac'tes (b. c. 57)'. He was raised to the throne of Egypt by his wife, the princess Berenice, and afterward murdered by her orders. Section III. — History of Egypt under the Ptolemies. FROM B. C. 301 TO B. C. 30. Ptol'emy, the son of Lagus, was the wisest statesman among the suc- cessors of Alexander. No sooner had the battle of Ip'sus put him in possession of the kingdom of Eg3rpt, than he began to provide for the happiness of his new subjects by a regeneration of their entire social system. Unlike the Seleucidae, he made no attempt to Hellenize the Egyptians ; on the contrary, he revived, as much as altered circum- gtances would permit, their ancient religious and political constitution ; the priestly caste was restored to a portion of its ancient privileges ; the division of the country into nomes was renewed ; Memphis, though not the usual residence of the monarchs, was constituted the capital of the kingdom, and its temple of Phtha declared the national sanctuary, where alone the kings could receive the crown. But not less wise was the generous pati^onage accorded to literature and science : the Museum was founded in Alexandria as a kind of university for students, and a place of assembly for the learned ; the first great' national library was established in another part of the city; and the philosophers and EGYPT. 159 men of letters were invited to seek shelter from the storms which shook every other part of the world in the tranquil land of Egypt. Im- pressed by the example of his illustrious master, Ptol'emy paid great attention to trade and navigation. Colonists from every quarter of the globe were invited to settle at Alexandria, and the Jews flocked thither in great numbers, to escape the persecution of their Syrian masters. So many of that singular people became subjects of the Ptol'emies, that the Septuagint version of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek was made for their use, and a Jewish temple erected in Egypt similar to that of Jerdsalem. The double harbors of Alexandria, on the sea, and on the Maraeot'ic lake, were constructed at the same time, and the celebrated Pharus, or lighthouse, erected at the entrance of the haven. The city of Alexandria, which had been begun before the death of Alexander, owed most of its splendor to Ptol'emy. But among all the public buildings he planned or erected, there is none better deserves our attention than the Museum, or College of Philosophy. Its chief room was a great hall, which was used as a lecture-room and common dining-room ; it had a covered walk or portico all round the outside, and there was a raised seat or bench on which the philosophers some- times sat in the open air. The professors and teachers of the college were supported by a public income. Ptol'emy's love of art, his anxiety to reward merit, and his agreeable manners, brought to his court so many persons distinguished in science, literature, and the fine arts, that the Museum of Alexandria became the centre of civilization for the known world. The arts and letters thus introduced, did not bear their richest fruit in the reign of the founder : they flourished most in the age of his son ; but this does not detract from the merit of the first Ptol'emy, who gave the institutions he planted such permanence, that they struck deep root in the soil and continued to flourish under all his successors, unchoked by the vices and follies which unfortunately grew up around them. In return for the literature which Greece then gave to Egypt, she gained the knowledge of pap)r'rus. Before that time books had been written on linen, wax, or the bark of trees : and public records on stone, brass, or lead : but the knowledge of papy'rus was felt by all men of letters like the invention of printing in modem Europe ; books were then known by many for the first time, and very little else was afterward used in Greece and Rome ; for when parchment was invent- ed about two centuries later, it was found too costly to be generally used so long as papy'rus could be obtained. The papy'rus reed is only found in Egypt and a small district in Sicily. Successful attempts have been made to manufacture it in modern times, but the process is too tedious and uncertain to be remunerative, and the papy'rus is only prepared as a matter of curiosity. The external security of Egypt was strengthened by the conquest of the Syrian frontiers, the ancient kingdom of Cyrene, a considerable part of Ethiopia, and the island of Cyprus. Hence, during the ad- ministration of Ptol'emy I., Egypt was free from the fear of foreign in- vasion, and its inhabitants, for the first time during several centuries, were free to develop the great internal resources of the country. Few 160 ANCIENT HISTORY. sovereigns were, more deservedly lamented than the son of Lagus (b, c- 284) : his death spread universal sorrow among his subjecta, who at once lamented him as a father, and worshipped him as a god. The reign of Ptol'emy II., surnamed Philadel'phus (a lover of his brethren), was disturbed only by the rebellion of Magas, which was supported by Antiochus II., as has been mentioned in the preceding section. Under the peaceful administration of Philadel'phus, Egyptian commerce made the most rapid sifides ; ports for the Indian and Ara- bian trade were constructed on the Red sea, at Arsinoe (Suez), My'oa Hor'mus (Cssseir), and Berenice. From the two latter stations cara- van roads were made to the Upper Nile, and the lower river was united to the Red sea by a canal, which was further continued to the lesser harbor of Alexandria, on the Maraeotic lake. The Ethiopian trade was revived with great spirit ; and. remote countries of central and southern Africa were opened to the enterprise of the Alexandrian merchants. Unfortunately, the luxury of the court increased in the same proportion as the wealth of the country. Philadel'phus fell into all the effeminate dissipation of the Asiatic sovereigns, and adopted their pernicious habits of intermarriages between near relations. He set the example by repudiating his first wife, and marrying his own sister Arsinoe, who exercised the greatest influence over her husband. She brought him no children, but she adopted the offspring of her predecessor. It was during the reign of Ptol'emy Philadel'phus that Pyr'rhus was driven out of Italy by the Romans (b. c. 274) ; and this event induced the Egyptian king to send an ambassador to the senate, to wish them joy of ^their success, and to make a treaty of peace with the republic. The Romans received the envoy with great joy, and in return sent four ambassadors to Egypt to' seal the treaty. Ptol'emy showed the Roman deputies every kindness, and explained to them those processes of Greek art yrith which they were acquainted. Subsequently two of the ambassadors, Quin'tus Ogul'nius and Fabius Pic'tor, having been elected consuls, introduced a silver coinage at Rome, the advantages of which they had been taught in Egypt. , .Philadel'phus was succeeded by his son Ptol'emy III., surnamed Eyerg^tes (the benefactor) (b. c. 246). Uidike his father, he was a ■yvarlike, enterprising prince, and his conquests extended into the re- mote regions of the east and south. His war with Seleiicus II., in which the Egyptian army penetrated as far as Bactria, has been de- scribed in the preceding section ; but the result of the Asiatic cam- paigns was plunder, not any permanent acquisition of territory ; very different was the result of the southern wars, by which a great part of Abyssinian and the Arabian peninsula was added to the Egyptian do- minions, and new roads for trade opened tfirough these remote coun- tries. With the death of Evergetes (b. c. 221), ended the glory of the Ptol'emies. His son Ptol'emy, surnamed Philop'ater (a lover of his father), was a weak, debauched prince, who was, during his whole life, under the tutelage of unworthy favorites. At the instigation of his fiirst minister, Sosib'ius, he put to death his brother Magas, and Cleom'enes, the exiled king of Spar'ta. ' Antiochus the Great, who then ruled in Syria, took advantage of Philop'ater's incapacity to wage war against EGYPT. 161 Egypt ; but was defeated at Raphia, as already mentioned in the pre- ceding section. After his victory, Ptol'emy visited Jerusalem, and made an attempt to enter the sanctuary of the temple ; but being pre- vented by the priests, he was so indignant, that on his return to Egypt he prepared to exterminate all the Jews that had settled in the king- dom. Tradition says that his cruel project was miraculously frustrated, and that the Jew;s were again res^red to favor. Soon afterward the king murdered his wife and sister, and transferred his affections to Agathoclea, whose brother, the infamous Agathocles, succeeded to the power of Sosib'ius. At length his continued dissipation broke down his constitution, and he died of premature infirmity, though in the very prime of life (b. c. 204). He left behind him only one son, a child about five years old. The guardians of Ptol'emy V., surnamed Epiphanes {illustrious), proving unworthy of their trust, the regency was transferred to the Ro- man senate, a circumstance which saved Egypt from being involved in the Macedonian or Syrian war. Epiphanes was a weak, debauched prince, and before he attained his thirtieth year, he died, the victim of dissipation or poison (b. c. 181). He left behind him two sons, Ptol'- emy, surnamed Philom'eter [a lover of his mother), and Phys'con, both of immature age. The claims of the Egyptians on Coele-Syria led to a war between the regents and the king of Syria, in the course of which Philom'eter fell into the hands of Antiochus Epiphanes, as has been related in the preceding section. After the retreat of the Syrians, Philom'eter, being a second time expelled by Phys'con, appealed to the Romans, who di- vided the Egyptian dominions between the two brothers. He sup- ported the pretender Balas against Demetrius, and mainly contributed to the placing of that imposter on the Syrian throne ; but being un- gratefully treated, he led an army against Balas, and defeated him (b. c. 145). But the victory was fatal to Philom'etef ; he died of the wounds that he had received in the engagement. Phys'con, by marrying Cleopatra, who, according to the infamous practice of the Ptol'emies, was Philom'eter's wife and sister, succeeded to the Egyptian throne. On the very day of his marriage he murdered his infant nephew ; and his conduct toward every class of his subjects was in accordance with this atrocious crime. At length he was com- pelled by the Alexandrians to abandon his kingdom, and the crown was given to his sister Cleopatra, whom he had previously divorced in order to marry her daughter, who had the same name. He was subsequently restored by the aid of a mercenary army, and retained the sceptre to the day of his death (b. c. 116). He left behind him two sons by his niece Cleopatra, Ptolemy, surnamed Lathes, from the resemblance of a wart on his face to a small pea ; and Ptolemy, sur- named Alexander. Cleopatra endeavored to secure the crown for her younger son, but was compelled by the Alexandrians to allow Lathyrus to ascend the throne. She however compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cy'prus with Alexander. The new king, unable to bear the tyranny of his mother, caused her to be murdered, upon which his subjects revolted, and restored Lathyrus. The remainder of this prince's reign was 11 162 ANCIENT mSTOEY. passed in tranquillity. He died b. c. 81, leaving behind liim one le- gitimate daughter, Berenice, and two natural sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes {the flute-player). A long series of obscure civil wars, and uninteresting intrigues with the Roman senate, followed. They ended in placing Ptolemy Auletes on the throne, which, however, he retained only three years. Auletes left four legitimate chiliren ; but his daughter, the too-cel- ebrated Cleopatra, set aside the claims of het brothers and sister, by the influence which her personal charms gave her with Julius Caesar, and afterward with Mark Antony. The battle of Actium was fatal to her and her protector. In the year following that decisive engagement she was taken prisoner by Augustus Caesar, and poisoned herself to avoid being led in triumph (b. c. 30). Egypt thenceforth became a Roman province, but it preserved its commercial importance ; and Alexandria long continued to be the most wealthy and busy city of trade in the world. Section TV .-^History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia. FROM B. C. 301 TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. The principal kingdoms formed from the fragments of the Macedo- nian monarchy in western Asia were: I, Per'gamus ; 2, Bith'ynia; 3, Paphla'gonia ; 4, Pon'tus ; 5, Cappadocia ; 6, Greater Armenia ; 7, Lesser Armenia ; 8, Judaea ; to which may be added, 9, the com- mercial state of Petra and the republic of Rhodes. A very brief notice will suffice for these petty states, with the exception of Petra, the cap- ital of the Idumeans, and Judaea, which are so important as to require separate sections. The little kingdom of Per'gamus, in Mysia, was founded by Philelae'rus, the lieutenant of Lysim'achus, during the wars of that monarch with Seleucus. It did not attain any eminence before the accession of At'talus I. (b. c. 24), whose alliance with the Romans during the iEtolian and Macedonian wars was rewarded by the protec- tion of the republic. He was a generous patron of literature and sci- ence, as were his immediate successors, Eiimenes and At'talus II. The latter was the most faithful ally the Romans had in the east, and his services were rewarded by a gift of the rich provinces that had been taken from Anjiochus. His nephew, At'talus III., bequeathed his dominions to the Romans, who made this inheritance their first A.siatic province (b. c. 130). Brief as was the duration of this little kingdom, the patronage of its enlightened sovereigns conferred the most important benefits on letters. To them we owe the invention of parchment (cAarto Pergamina), and the establishment of a library that rivalled the library of Alexandria ; to which city, indeed, it was trans- ferred by Anthony, as a present to Cleopdtra. . Bith'ynia was created into a kingdom about the same time as Per'- gamus. Its most remarkable sovereign was Prdsias, a devoted ally of the Romans, who offered to resign Hannibal to their vengeance, and had the meanness to style himself a freedman of that republic (b. c. 82). He was murdered by his own son Nicomddes ; and the parricide was, in his turn, assassinated by Soc'rates, a son that trod in his father's WESTERN ASIA. 163 footsteps. Soc'rates was placed on the throne by the aid of Mithri- dates, king of Pon'tus ; but on the defeat of that monarch, he was de- posed by Syl'la, and the crown given to Nicomedes III. This mon- arch died after a brief reign (b. c. 75), and bequeathed his dominions to the Romans. Paphlaconia was, for the most part, subject to the kings of Pon'tus, and shared the fortunes of that country. Even under the Persian em- pire the kings of Pon'tus enjoyed a qualified independence, and were said to be descended from the royal family of the Acheemen'idse, as well as the Persian kings. Pon'tus became independent after the bat- tle of Ip'sus ; but the first of its monarchs remarkable in history was the last that swayed its sceptre, Mithridates VII., deservedly sumamed the Great. He Came to the throne while yet a boy (b. c. 121) ; by de- voting himself to manly sports, and inuring his body to support extreme hardships, he acquired such great personal strength, that he defeated all the plots formed for his assassination by his treacherous guardians. As he grew up, he became formidable to the neighboring princes, from whom he wrested several important provinces. He then directed his attention to the countries around the Black sea, conquered the kingdom of Col'chis, and delivered the Greek cities in the Tauric Chersonese from their Scythian oppressors. His rising greatness excited the jealousy of the Romans, who had good reason to suspect that he was a deadly enemy of their power. To strengthen himself for the coming contest, Mithridates gave his daughter in marriage to Tigranes, king of Armenia, and invited that monarch to attack the allies of the repub- lic. At length war was openly declared (b. b. 89), and Mithriddtes, in the first two campaigns, became master of lesser Asia. He made a cruel use of his victory, by ordering all the Italian merchants resident in Asiatic cities to be murdered, and secured the execution of his san- guinary edict, by giving up their properties as rewards to the assassins. From Asia he passed into Greece, and having captured several of the islands, made himself master of Athens. At length Syl'la was sent against him : he defeated the Greek partisans of Mithridates in three successive battles, all fought within the confines of Boeotia; while Fim'bria, another Roman general, was equally successful in Asia. Mithriddtes was thus forced to beg terms of peace, which Syl'la readily granted (b. c. 85), because he was jealous of Fim'bria, who belonged to a rival faction, and was, besides, anxious to return to Italy, in order to rescue his party from the destruction with which it was threatened by Marius. The large forces raised by Mithridates, under the pretence of subdu- ing the Colchians and other nations on the eastern shores of the Black sea, gave umbrage to Murae'na, the Roman proconsul of Asia, as the ancient kingdom of Per'gamus was rather ostentatiously named by the senate (b. c. 83). Without any formal declaration of war, he invaded Pon'tus, but was severely defeated by Mithriddtes, and compelled tore- new the peace by command of Syl'la. Taking advantage of the civil wars that raged in the Roman territories between the partisans of Ma- rius and Syl'la, the king of Pon'tus made several large additions to his kingdom, and finally seized on Bith'ynia, which Nicomedes had recently 164 ANCIENT HISTOEY. b,eq,iaeatlied to tlie Eomans (h, c. 75). He even, attacked ^Iie Roman province ;, but hp was driyen out by Julius Caesar, then a young student in the island of Rhodes, who, without any orders from the government, assembled a |bw, troops, and defeated the king's lieutenants. When the Roman senate heard of the state of affairs in Asia, they appoimed Lucul'lus to undertake the management of the war ; hut the soldiers placed under his command were so mutinous, that Mithridates was ^t first victorious both by land and sea. Enconragpd by this suc- cess, the king, laid siege to Cyz'icus; but scarcely had he completed his lines, when he found himself blockaded in turn by Lucullns, and, after enduring the most dreadful hardships, was forced to purchase a re- treat by tte sacrifice of the greater part of his army. His fleet was, soon aftej-, almost wholly annihilated in a naval engagement, and several of his hest towns taken* Finally, bis army mutinied, and he was forced to abandon Pon'tus, and seek refuge with his son-in-law, Tigranes, in Armenia. Tigranes readily joined Mithridates in renewing the war ; but was defeated by Lucul'lus (b. c. 70). His courage, howeyeor, was soon re- animated by a great victory, which the king, of Pon'tus gained over Triarius, a lieutenant of Lucul'lus, who, contrary to Ms better judg- ment, had ■ been forced to hazard an engagement by the impetuosity of his soldiers. The main army mutinied against Lucul'lus when they heard of this defeat, and his enemies at home made it the pretext for procuring his recall. Glabrio, his successor, remained inactive during his year of office ; and at length the celebrated Pom'p«y was appointed to conduct the Mithridatic war, and extraordinary powers were confer- red on him by the Manilian law — a law that announced too plainly the speedy downfall of the Roman republic. Pom'pey, after some mmor successes, blockaded the king in his camp, and reduced him to gieat distress ; but Mithridates, by an unexpected sally, broke, with his anny, through the hostile lines, and took the road to Armenia. He was hotly pursued, overtaken, and his army routed with great slaughter. The un- fortunate monarch, at the head of eight . hundred horse, cut his way through the Roman army ; but being closely pressed, he abandoned these faithful followers, and, with only three attendants, continued his flight to Armenia. Tigranes gave no welcome reception to the fugitive, and Mithridates was forced to seek shelter in the wilds of Scythia. Pom'- pey followed; the enemy of Rome into the deserts ; but after two years spent in warring against the barbarous nations round the. Black sea, he ■\Yas unable to hear any tidings of Mithridates, and returned fully con- vinced of his death. Scarcely had the Romans rested from the fatigues of this expedition, when they were astounded by the intelligence of, Mithridates having re- turned into Pon'tus at the head of a considerable array, and recovered , several important fortresses. But the unfortunate monarch fojind in his kingdom and family, worse enemies than his open foes. His daughters were betrayed to the Romans by a faithless escort ; his army mutinied ; and, finally, his own son revolted, and was acknowledged king by the soldiers. , . Borne down by this complication of miafortunes, the aged monarch attempted to commit ^uioide, but weakness prevented him from giving WESTERN ASIA. 165 Mmself a mortal wound ; in the meantime the Roman army broke into his retreat. He was found languid, bleeding and deserted, by a Gallic soldier, who compassionating his misery, put an end to his pain aindlife together (b. c. 64). Thus ended the kingdom of Pon'tus : after some years it was permitted to have nominal sovereigns ; but even the shadow of independence was removed by the emperor N6ro, and the country be- came a Roman province. Cappadocia was one of the Asiatic kingdoms founded after the battle of Ip'sus ; none of its monarchs were remarkable in history, and the country itself was proverbial for the infamy of its inhabitants. Some •of the Cappadocians were and continue to be Troglodytes, or dwellers in caves ; but die period when the excavated habitations were first con- structed is uncertain. The two Armenias did not become kingdoms until after the defeat of AntiochHS the Great by the Romans (b. c. 190), when the lieutenants of the king of Syria proclaimed their independence. The only Arme- nian monarch requiring notice was Tigranes, the son-in-law of Mithri- dates. He was involved in the fate of the king of Pon'tus, and his dominions were subjected to the Romans, under whose sway both the Armenias continued until near the commencement of the Christian era, when they were seized by the Parthians. For several centuries the possession of Armenia was contested by the Romans and Parthians ; and ■when the latter power was overthrown, the same country continued to be a constant source of war between the eastern empire and the restored kingdom of Persia; After the death of Alexander, Rhodes first became remarkable by its gallant resistance when besieged by Demetrius Poliorcetes. Thirty thousand men were employed in the labors of this siege. When the first wall crumbled under the blows of the helepolis {taker of cities), a formidable engine of destruction invented by Demetrius during the siege, the brave garrison erected a second with the materials of their temples, their theatres, and their, houses ; and when that was demolished, they erected a third. Fifty deputies from the states of Greece came to the besieger's camp as mediators : Demetrius granted peace on condition of receiving one hundred hostages and a small auxiliary force (b. c. 305). During the siege he had shown his respect for the works of art that ornamented this splendid city, by preventing his engines from playing upon the buildings in which the most celebrated paintings of Protogenes were preserved. It was in memory of this siege that the wonderful Colossus was erected. In the war between Antiochus and the Romans, the Rhodians joined with the letter : though at first defeated in a naval engagement, they ex- erted themselves so strenuously, that they soon became masters of the eastern sea, and obtained a decisive victory over the Syrian fleet, even though it was commanded by the illustrious Han'nibal. But jealousies soon arose between the two republics ; and in the second Macedonian war the Rhodians preserved a strict but suspicious neutrality. The Roman senate sent ambassadors to the islanders, who acted as supreme magistrates rather than as envoys ; and thenceforward the Rhodian m^ 166 ANCIKNT HISTORY. dependence existed only in name. Mithridates attacked the island when he invaded Greece ;' but he was repulsed by the inhabitants, whose fidelity was rewarded by the constant protection of Syl'la. During tlie great civil war of Rome between Pompey and Caesar, the Rhodian fleets fought sometimes on one side and sometimes on the Qther ; but maintained under all circumstances, a very high character. Pompey was refused admittance into the island after his defeat at Phar- salia ; and the murderers of Caesar was similarly excluded during the great civil war that followed his assassination. Cs^sius, in consequence, besieged,the city of Rhodes, into which ^e obtained admittance by the treachery of some of the inhahitants : he resigned the unfortunate citi- zens to the discretion of his' licentious soldiery, and extorted from the inhabitants all that he could obtain by violence or threats. In the reign of the emperor Claudius Caesar, the Rhodians were deprived of their liberties for having crucified two Roman citizens ; but their privileges were subsequently restored. At length the island was made a Roman province by Vespasian (a. d. 70). Section V. — History of Bactria and Parthia. FROM B. c. 256 TO B. c. 226. The Bactrian kingdom differed from those whose history was de- scribed in the preceding section, in being a Grecian state, although es- tablished at the extreme western verge of the ancient Persian empire. It was formed into a state by Diodatus, the Grecian governor (b. c. 254), who threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, Antiochus II. The Bactrian monarchs made extensive conquests in India, and at one time (b. c. 181) their dominions extended to the' banks of the Ganges and the frontiers of China. The nomad hdrdes of the desert that re- side to the east of the Caspian sea, and whb, Ijoth in ancient and mod- em times, have frequently changed the political aspect of the western world, poured down on the descendants of the Macedonian colonists, and forced them to retreat toward the south. The Greeks, driven from 'Bac'tria, appear to have ascended the Ox'us (b. c. 126) and to have maintained their independence in the fastnesses Of the lofty mountains called the Indian Caucasus (Hindu KusK) to a very late period, while their ancient territory was annexed to the Parthian empire, It is not yet determined whether any traces can be found of this Greek colony at the present day ; but it is to be hoped that some of the enterprising travellers now exploring northern India will direct their attention to the subject. The Parthian kingdom was founded about the same time as the Bac- trian, by some of the nomad hordes that subsequently overthrew the latter. Its general limits were the Euphrdtes, the In'dus, and the Ox'- us ; but its dominions were sometimes extended beyond these streams. Though thus holding the ancient empire of Persia, the Parthian mon- archs never regarded themselves as descendants of Cy'rus ; they pre- ferred the Greek religion, manners, and customs, to those of the Persians, and they conferred great privileges" on the Grecian colonies that were established in their dominions. To the modem Persians this dynasty. BACTBIA AND PARTfflA. 167 which ruled their country for more than four centuries, is scarcely known even byname ; a clear proof that the Parthians and their reign- ing family, the Arsac'idse, must have been foreigners. In one import- ant respect they imitated the exclusive policy of the Tartar rulers of China, excluding strangers from their dominions, and sacrificing com- merce to their watchful jealousy. Their establishment in the Persian empire consequently effected a great revolution in the lines of traffic between the eastern and western world. The East India trade, stop- ped in its passage through Babylonia, was thrown further to the south, and began to shape its course through northern Arabia and the Red sea. To this change, the great wealth and splendor obtained by the great commercial cities Palmy'ra and Alexand'ria must be chiefly at- tributed. Arsaces I. commenced the war of independence (b. c. 256) by put- ting to death the Syrian governor of upper Asia, who had offered a grievous insult to his brother. The heads of the Parthian tribes that supported him formed a government similar to the feudal aristocracy of Europe in the middle ages, giving to the monarch little more than nominal authority, and maidng the crown elective, under the restriction, however, that the monarch should be chosen from the family of the Arsac'ldae. War with the Syrian kings, of course followed; but the light cavalry of the Parthian troops, which have always formed the main strength of the armies of central Asia, by their rapid evolutions disconcerted the steady discipline of the Syrians and Macedonians. It was a remarkable peculiarity of the Parthian tactics, that their armies were never so formidable as in flight : when the enemies advanced in pursuit, as if to assured victory, these active horsemen turned on their steeds, and assailed them with a flight of arrows which invariably threw them into confusion. The wars between the Parthians and Syrians terminated (b. c. 131) in the total annihilation of the Syrian army led by Antiochus Sidetes. During half a century after their deliverance from the rivalry of the Syrians, the attention of the Parthian monarchs was chiefly engrossed by the eastern nomad tribes, whom the fall of the Bactrian kingdom had set at liberty to attack the rich provinces of southern Asia. These hordes were either subdued or incorporated with the Parthian army ; and scarcely had this danger been averted, when the Romans, being brought into contact with the Parthians by their occupation of the king- dom oP Mithridates, prepared to contend with them for the empire of Asia. The war commenced by Cras'sus, the Roman triumvir, invading Par'thia (b. c. 53) : his incapacity led to the utter annihilation of his army and the loss of his own life. In the Roman civil wars the Par- thians supported the cause of Pom'pey, and afterward that of Brutus and Cas'sius. Subsequently, alarmed at the great power to which Augus'- tus Caesar attained, they sought terms of peace, and purchased it by surrendering the arms and standards which had been taken from the army of Cras'sus. The wars between the Parthians and the succeed- ing Roman emperors were almost incessant ; but none of them pro- duced any decisive result. After Christianity began to spread, its prog- ress was tolerated, if not directly encouraged, by the Parthian mon- 168 ANCIENT HISTORY. Mchs, who liberally afforded shelter to Christians flying from the per- secutions of the pagans, and we must add, from those of their byethren who belonged to a different sect. But unfortunately the Arsac'ldse never gained the affections of their Persian subjects : after the lapse of more than four centuries, the Parthians continued to be an army of occupation, separated by habits,' prejudices, and feelings, from the great bulk of the nation. At length Ardeshir Bab'egan, called by the Greeks Aitaxer'xes, a native Persian, of the illustrious house of Sassan, de- scended, or claiming to be descended, from the ancient line of Cy'rus and Jemshid, raised the national standard of Persia, and drove the Parthians into the northern mountains and deserts (b. c. 226). Iran, the ancient national name of Persia, was revived ; the religion of Zer- dusht restored in its pristine splendor; the progress of Christianity eastward was checked, and it was thrown back on the western world, bearing unfortunately too many marks of its having been brou^t into close contact with oriental mysticism and superstition. The destruc- tion of the Parthian kingdom, in Asiatic annals, holds the same place as the overthrow of the Roman empire in European : it forms the epoch which Separates ancient from modern history. We shall resume Per- sian history under the princes of the house of Sassan in the second part of this work. Section VI. — History ofldumea, and its capital, Petra. FROM B. C. 1048 TO B. C. 133. While the Israelites were detained in bondage in Egypt, the Edom- ites, descended from Esau, became a rich and powerful nation, posses- sing a rampart of impregnable fortresses in the fastnesses of Mount Seir, a country generally, fruitful, and a command of the great roads by which the earliest commercial caravans travelled. Its capital city, called Bozrah in the Old Testament and . Petra by the Greeks, was situated at the foot of Mount Hor, in a deep valley ; the only means of access to this metropolis was through a defile partly natural, and partly cut' through the solid' rocks, which hung^over the passage, and often in- teiSBepted the view of the heavens. "Hie. breadth of this pass is barely 9i^cient for two horsemen to ride abreast, and near the entrance, a bold arch is thrown across at a great height connecting lie opposite eUffs. The pass gradually slopes downward for about two mUes, the mouatain-ridge still retaining its level, until at the close of the dark perspective, a multitude of columns, statues, and graceful cornices, burst upon the view, retaining at the present day their forms and colors as little injured by time and exposure as if they were just fresh from the chisel. The sides of the mountains are covered with countless exca- vations, of which some are private dwellings and some sepulchres. To this extraordinary peculiarity the prophet Jeremiah probably alludes in his denunciation of God's vengeance against Edom. " Thy terrible- ness hath deceived thee, and the pride of thine heart, O thou that dwel- lest in the clefts of the rock, that holdest the height of the hill : though thov shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle, I will bring thee dowQ from thence, saith the Lord." When David ascended the throne of Israel, the Edomites had greatly IDUMEA. 169 extended their dominions ; they possessed the ports of Elath and Ez'ion Geber on the Arabian sea (gulf of Akaba), and through these places had opened a flourishing trade with India and Ethiopia. They also had an extensive commerce with Phoenicia, Egypt, and Babylonia. David's general, Abishaii, invaded Idumea, routed the Edomites with great slaughter in the valley of salt, and compelled them to receive garrisons into their cities. In the reign of Sol'omon, Hadad, an Edomite prince whb had sought shelter in Egypt when his native country was subdued, returned to E'dom and headed a formidable revolt. The only account we have of Hadad is contained in the first Book of Kings, and is too remarkable to be omitted. " God stirred up an adver- sary unto Solomon, Hadad the Edomite : he was of the king's seed in Edom. For it came to pass, when David was in Edom, and Joab the captain of the host was gone up to bury the slain, after he had smitten every male in Edom (for six months did Joab remain there with all Israel, until he had out off every male in Edom) ; that Hadad fled, he and certain Edomites of his father's servants with him, to go into Egypt ; Hadad being yet a little child. And they arose out of Midian, and came to Paran : and they took men with them out of Paran, and they came to Egypt, unto Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; which gave him a house, and appointed him victuals, and gave him land. And Hddad found great favor in the sight of Pharaoh, so that he gave him to wife the sister of his own wife, the sister of Tahpenes the queen. And the sister of Tahpenes bare him Gen'ubath his son, whom Tahpenes wean- ed in Pharaoh's house : and Gen'ubath was in Pharaoh's household among the sons of Pharaoh. And when Hadad heard in Egypt that David slept with his fathers, and that Joab the captain of the host was dead, Hadad said to Pharaoh, Let me depart, that I may go to mine own country. Then Pharaoh said unto him. But what hast thou lacked with me, that, behold, thou, seekest to go to thine own country 1 And he answered, Nothing ; howbeit let me go in any wise.'' The native traditions of the country in some degree preserve the memory of Hadad's reign, for one of the ruined edifices at Petra is still called by the Arabs, " the Palace of Pharabh's daughter." It seems probable that Hadad's efforts were only partially successful, for we find that the Edomites continued subjects to the kings of Judah, until the reign of Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat (b. c. 888). " In his days," says the sacred historian, " Edom revolted from under the hand of Judah, and made a king over themselves. So Joram went over to Z4ir; and all the chariots with him : and he rose by night, and smote the Edomites which compassed him about, and the captains of the chariots : and the people fled into their tents. Yet Edom revolted from under the hand of Judah unto this day. Then Lib'nah revolted at the same time." Lib'nah was one of the cities of refuge belonging to the king- dom of Judah, and its adherence to Edom tended to perpetuate the hereditary animosity between the two nations. Amaziah, the son of Joash, severely punished the hostility of the Edomites, for we read in the second Book of Chronicles, that " Amaziah strengthened himself, and led forth his people, and went to the valley of salt, and smote of the children of Seir ten thousand. And other ten thousand left alive did the children of Judah carry away captive, and brought them unto the 170 ANCIENT HISTORY. top of the rock, and cast them down from the top of the rock, that ,they were all broken in pieces." When , Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians, the Edomites took an active , part in the calamities inflicted upon the Jews. The prophet Obadiah declares that Edom " stood on the other side in the day that the strangers carried away captive Judah's forces, and for- eigners entered into his gates and cast lots upon Jerusalem. Edom rejoiced over the children of Judah in the day of their destruction, spoke proudly in the day of their distress, and laid bands on their substance in the day of their calamity." The Edomites also " stood in the cross- way, to cut off those that did escape, and to deliver up those that re- mained." Edom (says the prophet A'mos), " did pursue his brother with the sword, and did cast off all pity, and his anger did tear per- petually, and he kept his wrath for ever." During the captivity of the Jews, the Edomites conquered the southern part of Palestine and seized the city of Hebron ; the name of Idumeans was thenceforth given to those who occupied the frontiers of Palestine, while those who re- mained in Petra were called Nabatheans. Against this people Athe- nae'us, the general of Antig'onus, was sent during the wars between the successors of Alexander ; the greater part of the Nabatheans having gone to a neighboring fair to meet a caravan from the south to receive spices in exchange for the woollen goods of Tyre, had left their passes lightly guarded.; Athenae'us therefore surprised the magazines at Petra, and returned laden with plunder to the borders of Syria. The Naba- theans, enraged at the tidings of this calajnity, collected their forces, and urging their dromedaries with incredible velocity through the desert, overtook Athenee'us near Gaza, and , almost annihilated his army. Demetrius hasted to avenge this loss, but the fastnesses and deserts of Arabia baffled his intentions ; we are told that an Arab chief addressed the Grecian .general from a rock, and set before him in such lively terms the danger of the enterprise in which he was engaged, that Demetrius, convinced of the great hazard of his undertaking, imme- diately returned to Syria. The Idumeans who had settled in Judea, exhibited their ancient ayersion to the Jews during the wars of the Maccabees ; but they were severely punished by Judas Maccabseus, who took and sacked their chief city Hebron, destroyed more than forty thousand of their soldiers, and levelled their strongholds to the ground. Their subjugation was completed by John Hyr'canus (b. c. 130), who reduced them to the necessity of embracing the Jewish religion or quitting their country. They chose the former alternative, and submitting to be circumcised, became so completely incorporated with the Jews, that they were re- garded as one people, so that during the first century after Christ, the name of Idumean was lost and quite disused. The Nabatheans long maintained their independence. Petra, their capital city, was vainly besieged by the Romans under Pompey and Trajan ; but it sunk by gradual decay when the commerce wluch had caused its prosperity was directed into other channels. So completely was ancient E'dom cut off from the rest of the world, that the very exist- ence of the once flourishing Petra fell into oblivion, and its recent dis- covery in the loneliness of its desolation seemed as if the earth had HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 171 given up the dead. No human habitation is in it or near it, and the fearful denunciation of the prophet Isaiah is literally fulfilled : " The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it ; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it : and he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness. They shall call the nobles thereof to the kingdom, but none shall be there, and all her princes shall be nothing. And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof; and it shall be a habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow ; the screech owl also shall rest there, and find for herself a place of rest. There shall the great owl make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and gather under her shadow : there shall the vultures also be gathered, every one with her mate." Section VII. — The History ofOie Jews from their return out of the Babylonish Caplimly to the Destruction of Jerusalem hy 2\ius. FROM B. C. 536 TO A. D. 73. When Cy'rus, as God had foretold, issued a decree permitting the return of the Jews to their native land (b. c. 536), he intrusted the ex- ecution of it to Zerubbab'el, who was the grandson of the last king of Judah. The number of those who retvirned appears not to have ex- ceeded fifty thousand persons ; and hence the Jewish traditions declare that " only the bran came out of Babylon, while the flour stayed behind." When the returned exiles began to rebuild their city, the Samaritans, who were descended from the mixed multitude which had occupied the country around Samaria when the ten tribes were carried away captive by the Assyrians, applied to Zerubbab'el to receive them into commu- nion, and thus form a single nation. The application was peremptorily refused, and hence arose the grievous feuds between the Jews and the Samaritans which continued to rage during the six succeeding cen- turies. The Samaritans, after their repulse, successfully exerted themselves to impede the progress of the work, representing to the Persian court that the Jews sought to erect ,a fortress, whjch might become the focus of a general insurrection, and sending out armed detachments to harass those who were employed in collecting materials. Darius Hystas'pes, however, renewed the decree of Cy'rus (b. c. 518), and the Jews taking -courage, labored so strenuously, that in three years the temple was completed. Under the reign of Xei/xes, the Jews appear to have been treated with great respect : they furnished a contingent to the army which that monarch led into Greece, and are said to have shown more bravery than any other division of the host. Artaxer'xes, the Ahasuerus of Scripture, was induced by his wicked vizier, Haman, to issue an edict for the extirpation of the Jews ; but his queen, Est'her, who was of Jewish descent, revealed to the monarch the wickedness of his minister, and obtained from him a second procla- mation, permitting the Jews to stand upon their defence. Soon after- ward, probably through the queen's influence, Ez'ra received a com- 173 ANCIENT HISTORY. mission from Artaxer'xes to return to Jerusalem, with as many as chose to accompany him, and there to regulate all matters of church and state as he should deem most expedient. Ez'ra continued to rule the Jews for about thirteen years, during which time he collected all the sacred books, arranged them in order, and thus formed the canon of the Old Testament. He restored the worship of the temple, according to its ancient form before the captivity, adding particular prayers and thanksgivings for the festivals, which were added to commemorate the dedication of the new temple, and the deliverance of the Jews from the malice of Haman. On account of these services, the Jews regarded him as a second Moses, and assert that the blessings he conferred on their nation were not inferior to those derived from their great legislator. Ez'ra was succeeded in the government by Nehemiah, who had been cup-bearer to the king of Persia (b. c. 445). Under his administration the fortifications of the city were completed, in spite of the opposition made by the Samaritans and other adversaries ; several evils which had arisen in the government were corrected, and the observance of the Sabbath strictly enforced. After Nehemiah's death, Judea appears to have been joined to the satrapy of Syria, and the government to have been administered by the high-priests under the Persian prefect. When Alexander invaded the Persian empire, the Jews, faithful to their obliga- tions, resisted him while they could; but when the conquest of Tyre left them exposed to the victor, the high-priest Jaddiia made offets of submission, which were graciously accepted. After the death of Alexander, and the 'division of his empire among his generals, Judea was exposed to great calamities ; being situate be- tween Syria and Egjrpt, it was coveted by the rulers of both, and suf- fered severely from alternate invasions. Ptolemy Soter besieged Jerusalem, and stormed it on the sabbath-day ; he carried away one hundred thousand captives ; whom he dispersed through Egypt, Lib'ya, and the country round Gyrene, where their posterity continued to exist as a separate people for several centuries. Duriftg this anxious period, Simon surnamed the Just, possessed the high-priesthood ; he was em- inent for his virtues as a prince and governor, but he was still more remarkable for his piety. It was under his direction that the canon of the Old Testament was aompleted, and thenceforward received and transmitted to future generations without further revisal or correction (b. c. 292). It was about this time that the sect of the Sadducees was formed, which denied the doctrines of the resurrection and a future state. This creed was chiefly embraced by the rich and po'werful, while the opposite doctrine of the Pharisees was more popular with the lower orders. In the reign of Ptolemy Philadel'phus, and under his patronage, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek, for the benefit of the Jews residing in Egypt. This version is usually called the Septuagint, because, according to tradition, its preparation was in- trusted to seventy persons. In general the Egyptian monarchs proved kind sovereigns to their Jewish subjects, and it was with equal folly and ingratitude that they abandoned the cause of Ptolemy Epiphanes, and placed themselves under Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. The descendants of Seledcus, who possessed the kingdom of Syria, HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 173 were anxious to establish a uniformity of customs throughout their do- minions, and to frame all institutions, civil and religious, on a Grecian model. We have already seen hovy their effort to Hellenize the Per- sians led to their being deprived of the empire of upper Asia ; but this loss did not hinder them from making, similar attempts on the Jews. A pretext for interference was afforded during the high priesthood of Onias, who expelled Simon, the governor of the temple. Simon sought refuge with the Syrians, and informed them that there were vast treas- ures preserved in the sanctuary of Jerusalem ; and the Syrian monarch Seledcus, whose own resources were exhausted, sent his servants to bring them to Antioch. Onias had sufficient energy to prevent this profanation ; he went in person to Seleiicus, and afforded him such sat- isfactory explanations that Simon was banished. Antiochus Epiphanes, soon after succeeding to the throne of his fa- ther Seleucus, was bribed tot deprive Onias of the priesthood ; he conferred it. on Jason, who had: already so far conformed to Greek cus- toms as to abandon his original name, Jesus. Under Jason's rule a general apostacy overspread the nation, the service of the temple was neglecteid, academies on the Greek model were opened in Jerusalem, and the high-priest himself publicly sent an offering to the Tyrian Her'- cules. Jason was, in his turn, supplanted by his brother Menelaus, who stripped the temple of all its ornaments to pay the large bribe he had promised to the king. Onias, who since his deposition had lived at Antioch, remonstrated against this sacrilege ; his denunciations alarmed the wicked Menelaus, and he procured the murder of the wor- thy priest, who fell regretted even by the idolators. Menelaus now pursued his iniquitous course without restraint, until the multitude, un- able to endure his exactions, raised a formidable riot in the city, and killed the captain of the Syrian guard, which had been brought to pro- tect the high-priest. The sanhedrim, or Jewish council, allayed the tumult, and sent three deputies to represent the state of affairs to the king, AntiQchus, and expose the crimes of Menelaus. But the crafty priest was prepared to meet the danger ; he had woft the royal favor- ites by large bribes, and at their instigation the deputies,i when they presented themselves to Antiochus, instead of being heard were hur- ried to execution. This atrocity was so revolting, that the Tyrians, though generally hostile to the Jews, showed their sense of the injus- tice that had been committed by giving the bodies of the unfortunate deputies an honorable burial.. Antiochus invaded Egypt (b. c. 170), and while he was engaged in the conquest of that coimtry, a report was spread through Syria and Palestine, that he had been killed before Alexandria. Jason, believing that this was a favorable opportunity for recovering the authority of which he had been deprived, mustered a small army, marched to Jeru- salem, and being admitted into the city by some of his partisans, butch- ered all whom he suspected of opposing his claims. The return of Antiochus soon induced Jison to seek shelter in exile ; he wandered about from city to city, detested by all who knew him, as a betrayer of his country, and monster of mankind. > Antiochus was highly provoked by Jason's rebellion, especially as he was informed that the Jews had made public rejoicings on hearing the 174 ANCIENT HISTOaY. report of his death. He marched against Jerdsalem, and, after en- countering a sharp resistance, forced his way into the city. He spared no cruelty against the unhappy inhabitants ; in three days forty thousand ■were slain, and as many more sold as slaves to the neighboring nations. Nor did his fury stop here : he entered into the Holy of Holies, offered unclean animals upon the altar of burnt-offerings, polluted the whole building by sprinkling it with water in which flesh had been boiled, dedicated the temple itself to Jupiter Olympius, and erected the statue of that deity, " the abomination of desolation," foretold by the prophet Daniel, on the altar of the Lord in the inner court of the temple. All who refused to worship the idol were cruelly tortured until they either compUed or sunk under the hands of the executioner. An edict was issued, forbidding the observance of the sabbath, or of the rite of cir- cumcision ; and two women having been found guilty of circumcising their children on the eighth day aecordfeig to the law of Moses, were led round the city with the infants hurig from their necks, and then cast headlong from the highest pinnacle of the city walls. To escape these cruelties, many of the Jews fled to the craggy rocks and caverns which abound in Palestine, living upon wild roots and herbs, to avoid the dangers of death or apostacy. Even in these desolate places of refuge they were pursued by the emissaries of the cruel king ; in one cave more than a thousand Jews, who had assembled to celebrate the sabbath, were massacred by the soldiers of the provincial governor. The noble constancy exhibited by many Jewish martyrs of every age, sex, and condition, frequently com- pelled the idolaters to yield them involuntary admiration, and many of the Syrian officers secretly evaded the orders of their tyrannical mas- ter, and tried to win the Jews by gentleness and persuasion instead of persecution and torture. Mattathias, the head of the Asmonean family, which was the first in the classes of the hereditary priesthood, unable to endure the scenes of cruelty and profaneness which were displayed at Jerusalem, retired to his native place, the village of Modin, where for some time he was permitted to follo\v the religion of his fathers. At length a Syrian offi- cer was sent to this remote place ; he assembled the inhabitants, and offered the king's favor and protection as a reward for apostacy. Some miserable wretches complied, but as one of them was about to offer sacrifice to the idol, Mattathias slew the renegade upon the spot. His sons, imitating his example, overthrew the altai>) and broke the idol. But as they were aware that their conduct would be regarded as trea- sonable, they abandoned their village, and withdrew into the Jewish deserts, whither they were soon followed by bands of brave followers, determined at all hazards to vindicate the law of Moses. Mattathias restored the worship of the Lord in several of the cities from which he had expelled the Syrian garrisons, and he would probably have recov- ered Jerusalem itself, had he not been prevented by death (b. c. 166). In his last moments he appointed his son Judas to command the army of the faithful, and exhorted his sons to persevere in their heroic efforts for restoring the purity of Divine worship. The contest between the Syrians and the Jewish insurgents now as- sumed the form and importance of regular war. The latter were named HISTOaV OF THE JEWS. 175 Maccabees, because they engraved on their standards the four Hebrew letters 15^)3, being the initial letters of the words in the eleventh verse of the fifteenth chapter of Exodus, Mi Kamoka B'elohim Jehovah. Under the command of Judas, the Maccabees gained several great vic- tories over the Syrians, and reduced some of the strongest fortresses in Palestine. The defeat of the Syrians at Bethzura was the most signal and decisive of his exploits ; the garrison at Jerusalem fled from their posts, and the Maccabees recovered the sanctuary and metropolis of their nation without meeting any resistance. When they came to Mount Zion, and beheld the desolation of the city and temple, they rent their clothes, and gave vent to their sorrow in loud lamentations. Ju- das waited until their first emotions of sorrow had abated, and then, having secured the avenues to the city by suflicient guards, he employed his men in purifying the temple, and restoring its ruined altars. Three years after its profanation, the holy place was restored, and the feast of its dedication celebrated with all possible solemnity. But his religious duties did not divert Judas from his exertions to maintain the indepen- dence of his country ; he secured the frontiers by fortresses, repulsed many successive invasions of the Syrians, and gained a signal triumph over the Idumeans, who had joined the oppressors of the Jews. At length, having engaged the Syrian army under Bacchides against fear- ful odds, Jiidas was abandoned by his followers, and slain, after having destroyed a multitude of his enemies (b. c. 161). His body was re- covered by his brethren, and buried in the sepulchre of his father at Modin ; his loss was universally mourned, and as he was borne to the tomb, the Jews sung a funeral hymn, in imitation of that which David had composed on the death of Jon'athan, exclaiming, " How is the mighty fallen ! How is the preserver of Israel slain !" Bacchides easily recovered Jerusalem, after which he marched against the remnant of the Maccabees, who still held together under the command of Jon'athan, the brother of Jddas. After several inde- cisive engagements, a treaty of peace was concluded, and Jon'athan soon after was elevated to the high-priesthood by Alexander Balas, the competitor with Demetrius for the Syrian crown. Under the adminis- tration of Jon'athan, Judea soon became a flourishing and powerful state ; he entered into alliance with the Romans and the Spartans, and at the same time won the friendship of the Syrian kings by his un- shaken fidelity. He was at length treacherously murdered by Try'- phon, who dreaded that Jon'athan would oppose his usurpation of the Syrian throne (b. c. 143). Simon, the last surviving son of Mattathias, succeeded to the priest- hood, and obtained from the Syrian king the privilege of coining money, which in the East is regarded as an acknowledgment of independence. One of his coins has been preserved ; it bears on the front an inscrip- tion in the old Samaritan character, which signifies " the fourth year," and on the reverse " from the deliverance of Jerusalem." After a glorious administration of eight years, Simon and his two eldest sons were treacherously murdered by his son-in-law Ptol'emy ; but Hyr'canus, the younger son, escaped,, and was immediately recog- nised head of the nation. He succeeded in finally shaking oif the Syrian yoke, and at the same time he incorporated the Idumeans with 17ft ANCIENT HISTOEY, the Jews, as has been related in the preceding section. Hyr'canua was a zealous friend of the Pharisees in the early part of his reign, and they in turn exalted him as the only prince who had ever united the three offices of prophet, priest, and king ; but toward the close of his reign he quarrelled with this haughty sect, and, was in consequence subjected to so many annoyances, that he died of sheer vexation. He was suzceeded by his son Aristob'ulus, a weak and feeble-minded prince, who died of remorse for having put his brother to death on groundless suspicion. The crown and priesthood next devolved on Alexander Jannse'us, whose reign was disturbed by the intrigues of the Pharisees. Several insurrections were raised against him, whitih he suppressed, and pun- ished the revolters with great severity. He was a brave and skilful warrior, but unfortunately devoted to licentious pleasures. Fatigues and debauches soon brought him to the grave (b. c. 79) : at his death he bequeathed the regency to his queen Alexan'dra, and the crown to whichever of her sons, Hyr'canus and Aristob'ulus, she should find most worthy of the succession. Alexandra gave herself up completely to the Pharisaic faction, and through the influence of that party soon established her authority. Anxious to retain power, she conferred the high-priesthood on her eld- est son Hyr'canus, because he was of a less enterprising spirit than his brother, and kept Aristob'ulus carefully secluded in private life. On her death Aristob'ulus, in spite of the Pharisees, deposed his eldest brother, and Hyr'canus, who had little ambition, gladly acquiesced in the new arrangement. But Antip'ater, an Idumean proselyte, believing that he might easily reign in the name of Hyr'canus, conveyed that prince to Petra, and, having levied a numerous army of Arabs, invaded Jtidea, and besieged Aristob'ulus in Jerdsalem. Aristob'ulus appealed to the Romans, who had now extended their empire into Asiai and both parties agreed that the succession should be decided by the victo- rious Pompey, who had just concluded the Mithridatic war. Aristob'ulus soon had reason to I'ear that Pompey would decide in favor of his brother ; he therefore stood upon his defence, and fortified Jerdsalem. Getting alarmed at the advance of the Romans, he went a!s a suppliant to Pompey's camp ; but the Jews during his absence closed the gates of their city, and refused to admit a Roman garrison, upon which Pompey ordered Aristob'ulus to be kept in chains, and laid siege to Jerdsalem. After a siege of three months the city was stormed, and twelve thousand of the inhabitants slain. The walls and fortifications were levelled to the ground, but the temple and its treas- ures were spared by the conquerors. Hyr'canus was nominally restored, but all the real power of the state fell into the hands of Antip'ater. This crafty politician supported the cause of Pompey during the Roman civil wars until that general was slain, and then won the favor of Caesar by rendering him efiective aid when he was blockaded in Alexandria. In reward for these services, Her'od, the second son of Antip'ater, was appointed governor of Gali- lee, where he signalized himself by extirpating the bands of robbers that infested the country. In the civil wars after the death of Caesar, Judea was not less distracted than the Roman empire ;, Antip'ater was HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 177 poisoned, his eldest son Phas'ael put to death, and Her'od driven into exile. Through the influence of Mark Antony, however, Herod was not only restored to his former power, but created king of Judea (b. c. 40). He had to conquer his kingdom ; for the Jews were reluct- ant to submit to an Idumean, and were not conciliated by his marriage with Mariam'ne, a princess of the Asmonean race. Herod's rule was tyrannical and oppressive ; he put to death the high-priest Hyycanus, his own wife Mariam'ne, and several of his sons, and massacred all whom he suspected of being discontented with his dominion. While he thus lived in constant dread of being hurled from his throne by his discontented subjects, " there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, saying, Where is he that is bom king of the Jews 1 for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him." Herod was greatly troubled by this announcement ; he assem- bled the chief-priests and scribes, and inquired of them where Christ should be bom. Having heard that Bethlehem was the place foretold by the prophets, he sent the wise men thither, " and said. Go and search diligently for the young child ; and when ye have found him, bring me word again, that I may come and worship him also." Our Lord Jesus Christ, whose birth was thus wondrously announced, was miraculously saved from the wrath of the cruel king, for the wise men, " being warned of God in a dream that they should not return to Herod, they departed into their own country another way. And when they were departed, behold, the angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dream, saying. Arise and take the young child and his mother, and flee into Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word : foir Herod will seek the young child to destroy him. When he arose, he took the young child and his mother by night, and departed into Egypt : and was there until the death of Herod." When Herod found that the wise men did not return, he was exceeding " wroth, and sent forth, and slew all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had diligently inquired of the wise men." Herod did not long survive this atrocious craelty; he died in the seventieth year of his age, to the great joy of all his subjects, and was succeeded by his son Archelaus. Several insurrections were raised by the Jews against their new raler, which were not suppressed with- out great bloodshed. At length all parties appealed to Caesar, who divided the dominions of Herod among his children, giving Archelaus Judea, with the title of Eth'narch. But Archelaus proved so unworthy a governor, that the Roman emperor, wearied by the complaints urged against him, deprived him of power, and banished him into Gaul. Judea was now formally made a Roman province, and subjected to taxation. It was about this time that our blessed Lord, being twelve year* of age, was brought by his parents to celebrate the passover, according to the Jewish custom, which obliged all males who had attained that age to repair to the temple on the three great festivals. The Jews were very reluctant to submit to taxation, and frequently took up arms against the publicans^ or tax-gatherers : but when Pilate was appointed to the government (a. d. 20) they were still more alanned for their religion, because Pilate, on entering the city, brought 12 17$ ANCIENT HISTOEY. with, him the Roman standards, wMch, from their bearing images, the Jews regarded as idols. With great difficulty Pilate was induced to remove the offensive ensigns, but he soon provoked a fresh insurrection by attempting to pluader the sacred treasury. He ordered his soldiers to faU on the riotous mob that resisted the attempt, and many innocent lives were sacrificed in the confusion. The state of society in Judea became very corrupt during Pilate's administration ; there was no class that escaped the demoralizing effects of profligacy in the government, aad discontent in the people. John the Baptist, a prophet, the forerunner of the Mes- siah, appeared in the wilderness of Judea, preaching the necessity of repentance, and announcing that the kingdom of heaven was at hand. The austerity of bis life, and the novelty of his doctrines, induced great numbers to become his disciples, who were " baptized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins" (a, d. 30). Many believed that he was th3 Messiah ; the Evangelist declares, " the people were in expecta- tion, and all men mused in their hearts of John, whether he were the Christ, or not ; Jolm answered, saying imto them all, I indeed baptize you with water ; but one mightier than I cometh, the latchet of whose shoes I am not worthy to unloose : he shall baptize yon widi the Holy Ghost and with fire : whose fan is in his hand, and he. will thoroughly purge his floor, and will gather the wheat into his gamer; but the chaff he will bum with fire miquenchable." But the preaching of John was pnly designed to prepare the way for a greater teacher. Our Lord Jesus Christ Eaving attained the thirtieth year of his age presented himself to be baptized, and as he went up out of the water a remarka- ble miracle attested his divinity, for " the heavens were opened unto him, and John saw the spirit of God; descending like a dove, and light- ing upon him : and lo, a voice from heaven sa5dng, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." Immediately after his baptism our Lord enter^ on his nussion, and " preaching the gospel of the king- dom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people." But in spite of his many stupendous miracles, the great body of the Jews refijsed to believe in his mission, and plotted against his life. Herod An'tipas, and his brother Philip, still held the provinces which had been granted them after the death of their father, Herod the Great. The former was married to the daughter of an Arabian, the latter to his own niece Herodias. Herod An'tipas sent away his own wife and married his sisterrin-law, though she had chiMren by his brother Philip, which was contrary to the Mosaic law. The whole nation exclaimed against this incestuous union ; John the Baptist, espe- cially, had the courage to reprove both the king and his paramour in the severest terms. Her6dias, stung by his reproaches, induced her husband to throw his faithful monitor into prison, and subsequently, by means of her daughter, obtained an order for his execution. John was beheaded in prison, but his disciples gave his body an honorable burial, antl tbi? whole nation lamented his death. When pur Lord Jesus Christ had fulfilled the object of his mission, by preaphing the glad tidmgs of salvation, God permitted him to be delJMered into the hands of his enemies and put to a cruel death, in HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 179 order that his sufferings shovild make atonement for the sins of man- kind. The Jews falsely accused him before Pilate of a design to sub^ vert the government ; Pilate, though convinced of his innocence, pro- nounced sentence of condemnation, and Jesus was crucified between two malefactors (a. d. 33) ; but God did not " suffer his Holy One to see corruption ;" on the morning of the third day Christ was raised from the dead, and after continuing forty days with his disciples ascend- ed into heaven. Previous to his departure he promised his disciples that they should receive another Comforter, and this was fulfilled by the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. The murder of our blessed Lord did not prevent the spread of his doctrines ; on the day of Pentecost three thousand persons were conr verted by the preaching of Peter, and every succeeding day fresh addi- tions were made to the church. In the wicked and distracted condiT tion of Jewish society, the conduct of the Christian community afforded a remarkable example of purity, harmony, and self-denial. " The mul- titude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul : nei-r ther said any of them that aught of the things which he possessed was his own ; but they had all things common." In consequence of the great increase of the church, seven deacons were appointed to take charge of " the daily ministration," of whom the most remarkable was Stephen, who, " full of faith and power, did great wonders and mira- cles among the people." The rulers of the synagogue, unable to con-r fute Stephen, accused him to the sanhedrfm, or council, of having blasphemed Moses and God. False witnesses were suborned to sup- port the accusation, and Stephen was subjected to the mockery of a trial. He easily refuted the charges brought against him, but when he repeated his belief that Jesus was the Messiah, his enemies were fillexi with fury ; " they cried out with a loud voice, and stoppejd their ears, and ran upon him with one accord, and cast him out of the city, and stoned him ; and the witnesses laid down their clothes at a young man's feet, whose name was Saul. A'ild they stoned Stephen, caUing upon God, and saying. Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. And he kneeled down, and cried with a loud voice, Lord, lay not this sin to their charge. And when he had said this, he fell asleep." Saul, who was subsequently called Paul, had consented to the death of Stephen, and was so eager a persecutor, that he obtained a commis- sion to search after the Qhristians who sought shelter in Damas'cus. On his way to that city, he was miraculously struck to the earth, and God was graciously pleased to convince him of the truth of the gos-- pel. Thenceforward he becarne a zealous apostle of the faith, speak- ing boldly in the name of the Lord Jesus. The continuance of the persecution at Jerusalem was, by divine providence, turned into a means of propagating the gospel ; for the disciples, being dispersed, carried their doctrines into every city where the Jews had synagogues. In the meantime, Pilate was stripped of hi8 government, and sent to answer charges of tyranny apd misgovernment before the emperor ; his defence was go unsatisfactpry, that he was banished to Gaul, where, unable to pndure tj^e stings of a guilty conscience, he killed yffliself with his own sivoyd- Herod Agrip'pia, the grandson of Herod the Great, h?4 been kept i» priso^ dwing the reign of the emperor 180 ANCIENT HISTORY. Tiberius, but on the accession of Calig'ula he was not only restored to liberty, Ijut obtained th& provinces that had belonged to his uncle Philip, with the title of king (a. d. 41). Through his influence, Calig'- ula was induced to recall his edict for desecrating the temple of Jeru- salem by erecting his own statue in it, and to pardon the Jews for resisting the imperial commands. In the reign of the emperor Clau- dius, Agrip'pa obtained the government of all the territories which had belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Great. He returned to his kingdom, where he showed an extraordinary attachment to the Jewish religion ; and, to please the Pharisees, he began to persecute the Christians. St. James, the brother of John, sometimes called the Less, to distinguish him from St. James the first bishop of Jerusalem, was beheaded, and St. Peter cast into prison ; but Peter was miracu- lously delivered by an angel, and Herod Agrip'pa soon after died in great misery from a painful and loathsome disease. On the death of Herod Agrip'pa, Judea was once more reduced to the condition of a Roman province. The cruelty and rapacity of the provincial governors filled the land with wretchedness ; bands of rob- bers not only infested the roads, but even ventured to attack the towns ; certain pretended zealots, called Sicarii, or assassins, committed the most horrid murders, in the name of religion and liberty ; while false prophets and messiahs raised repeated insurrectioiis, which were pun- ished with dreadful severity. All these evils were aggravated under the administration of F^lix, whose avarice was unbounded, and who never hesitated to commit any crime by which he might gratify his depraved passions. Before this wicked governor the apostle Paul was brought, when falsely accused by the Jews of disturbing the public peace. On the public trial nothing could be proved against the apos- tle, but F61ix detained him in custody. After some time he privately sent for Paul, to hear him concerning the faith in Christ, " and as he reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come, Felix trembled, and answered. Go tny way for this time; when I have a convenient season I will call for thee. He hoped also that money should have been given him of Paul, that he might loose him ; where- fore he sent for him the oftener, and communed with him. But after two years Por'cius Ffts'tus came into Felix's room : and Felix, willing to show the Jews a pleasure, left Paul bound." Fes'tus, on assuming the government, found the priests at war with each other respecting their shares of the tithes. To such a height did their rancor rise, that the rival parties hired troops of assassins, and filled both city and country, and even the very temple, with blood. Seditions against the Eomans vere also frequent, and the bands of robbers plundered and .massacred everywhere without mercy. While Fes'tus was endeavor- ing to provide some remedy for these disorders, Paul was brought before him for trial ; the apostle observing the vindictive temper of the Jews, and having little confidence in the firmness of Fes'tus, appealed to Cssar, and was of course sent to Rome. Fes'tus was succeeded by Albinus, and afterward by Florus, the last and worst governor the Jews ever had (a. d. 64). F16rus resolved to drive the Jews into open rebellion, to prevent any inquiry into his manifold oppressions. The unhappy nation seemed blindly to second HIBTOay OF THE JEWS. 181 Ms efforts by taking up arms to drive the Syrians out of Csesarea, and by raising seditions in almost every city where they were settled. At length the zealots attacked the Romans in the fortresses which had been erected to secure Jerdsalem, and put all who opposed them to the sword, including even the garrisons that capitulated. The governor of Syria marched into Judea to punish these disorders, bat he was compelled to retreat, and the Jews now resolved to brave the entire strength of the empire (a. d. 67). The Christians of Jerusalem, re- membering our Savior's warning,' retired to Pel'la, beyond the Jordan, whither the war did not reach, and their example was followed by several Jews in the higher classes. Vespasian, a Roman general, who had already distinguished himself in Germany and Britain, was appointed by Nero to conduct the war against the Jews. He encountered everywhere a fierce resistance, and at length, when he reached Caesarea, he halted his army, trusting that the Jews, by their intestine tumults, would become ^o weakened as to afford him an easy victory (a. d. 70). Such an expectation was but too reasonable ; the zealots, who had fled before the Romans, were now collected in Jertisalem, under the command of a vile demagogue, John of Gis'chala, and being joined by the Idumeans, committed the most horrid butcheries, and polluted the temple itself with horrid mur- ders. Another party was formed by Simon, the son of Gorias, whose atrocities in the country rivalled those of John in the city ; he was in- vited to Jerusalem, as a counterpoise to John and the zealots, but the remedy was worse than the disease, for Simon proved the worse scourge of the two. A third faction was formed by EleAzar, who seized the upper part of the temple, and thus, while the enemies were advancing against the devoted city, its garrison and its citizens were engaged in mutual slaughter. In the meantime, Vespdsian, having been raised to the empire in- trusted the command of the army to his son Titus, who entered Judea with a very numerous and well-appointed army (a. d. 73). He ad- vanced against Jerusalem, meeting no resistance in the open country, a circumstance which led him to believe that the Jews had repented of their rebellion, and were preparing for submission. Under this mis- taken impression, he exposed himself negligently in the difficult defile called the valley of Jehosh'aphat, where he was separated from his cavalry. In this situation he was suddenly assailed by the factions, and was exposed to such danger that his escape was regarded as little short of a miracle. The siege was now formally commenced ; the Jews, shut up in the city, suffered dreadfully from famine and pesti- lence, but the factions did not lay aside their mutual fury ; they con- tinued to slaughter each other, even while their walls were shaken by the battering engines of the Romans. Language would fail to describe the horrid sufferings of the besieged ; hunger reduced them to the ne- cessity of using the most revolting and unnatural substances for food, while the zealots made the miseries and groans of their starving breth- ren the subject of their cruel mirth, and carried their barbarity even to the sheathing their swords on these poor wretches, under pretence of trying their sharpness. At length the walls of the city- were battered down, and the Romans 182 ANCIENT HISTOBY. besieged the temple, where the desperate faetions still maintained an energetic resistance. Titus was very anxious to save the sacred ed- ifice, but one of his soldiers threw a lighted brand into one of the win- dows, and the whole building was soon in flames. A fearful massacre followed ; the Romans refused all quarter, and many thousands perished by the fire, the sword, or by throwing themselves headlong from the battlements. This scene of butchery was continued for several days, imtil Jeriisalem was left utterly desolates The numbei of prisoners reserved for a fate worse than death amounted to ninety-seven thousand, eleven thousand of whom were starved to death by the neglect or cu- pidity of their keepers. According to Jos6phuSj there perished at Je- rusalem during the siege, by fEOnine, pestilence j and the sword, more than a million of Jews and proselytes ; but this statement appears to be exaggerated. When the soldiers had ended their destructive work of burning and slaughter, Titus ordered that the entire city should be razed to the gfound, with the exception of a portion of the western wall, and three towej;s, whieh he left as memorials of his conquest. So punctually were his orders executed, that, except these few buildings, nothing was left save shapeless ruins, which would indicate that the plade had ever been inhabited. The victory of Titus was celebrated at Rome by a splendid triumph ; a triumphal arch, which still exists, was raised to commemorate the event ; and a medal struck, in which the captured land of Judea was significantly represented as a disconsolate female sitting beneath a palm-trecj while a soldief, standing byj laughed at her misery and mocked at her calamity. ANCIENT ITALY. 183 CHAPTER XIII. HSTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY. Section I. — Geographical Outline. Italy, m its earliest signification, was the name given to the small tongue of land between the Syllet'ic and the Nepetic gulfs, that is, the southern portion of Brut'tium ; but it was gradually extended to include more northern provinces, until, in the reign of the Emperor Augustus, it was applied to the great peninsula included between the Alps, the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian and the Mediterranean seas. It was also called Hesp^ria, from its western situation ; Satur'nia, from the fable of Saturn's flight thither ; Aus'onia and CEnotria, from some of the most ancient tribes of inhabitants. The most convenient division of the peninsula is into three portions : Cisalpine Gaul in the north, Italy Proper in the centre, and Magiia Grsecia in the south. Subalpine Italy received the name of Gaul from the Gallic hordes that settled in the northern and western districts ; it was called for dis- tinction Cisalpine, or Citerior, because it lay on the side of the Alps next to Rome, and Togdta, because in a late age, its inhabitants began to use the t6ga;, or national dress of the Romans. From the Alps, this province at first extended to the city of An'cona, in the province of Picenum ; but, in the later ages of the Roman republic, the river Ru- bicon (Rugone), between Ravenna and Arira'inum, was considered the limit of its frontiers. The principal Subalpine tribes were the Vedian'tii, inhabiting the small tract lying on the east bank of the Varus (Var), and extending from the territory of Nicse {Nice), to the Maritime Alps, or that branch Of the mountain-chain which joins the Western Mediterranean : the Va- gsen'ni, north of the Maritime Alps near the source of the river Pddus (Po) ; and the Taurlni, at the other side of the Padus, on which stood their capital, Tauiisia, subsequently called Augus'ta Taurinorum {Turin). North of the Taui'ini, and among the mountains, was the kingdom ttf Cottlus, who gave his name to the Cottian Alps. Thence to the Greek Alps, which extended to Mons Jovis ( Great St. Bernard), there were several warlike Gallic tribes, but none of any particular note in history. Ligiiria lay south of the river Pidus, extending to the Mediterranean sea, between the rivers Micra and Varus. Its chief cities on the sea- coast were Nicie'a {Nice or Nizza), erected by the Massilians to pro- tect their froutier against the Ligurian mountaineers : Portus Her'culis 184 ANCIENT HIKDOEY. MonoB'ci (Monaco), Alljium Intemelium {Vintimiglia), Al'bium Ingan'- num (Albengia), Sab'ata (Savona), Gen'ua or Jan'ua ( Genoa), Por'tus Delphini (Porto Fine), and Por'tus Ltinse (Golfo delle Spezie). Of these Gen'ua was the most important, being the great emporium of Li- gurian commerce. The principal towns in the interior were Poll^ntia (PoUenza), As'ta (Asti), and Indus'tria (Tortona). This last city was called Bodencomagum by the earlier Ligurians, because it stood on the Po, which they named Boden'cus, a word in their language signifying "bottomless." Next to Liguria lay the district named Gallia Cispa- dana, or Gaul south of the Po ; it was chiefly inhabited by the Boii, the Lingones, and the Senones. The principal towns of the Boii were Placentia, Par'ma, Mutina (Modena), and Bononia (Bologna). The Lin- gones possessed Riaven'na, Faven'tia (Faenza), Solona (CiUa di Sole), and Cse'sena ; and to the Senones belonged Arimin'um (Rimini), Pisaii- rum (Pesaro), Sena Gal'lica (SinigagUa), and An'cona. Gal'lia Transpadana, or north of the Padus, had the great Alpine chain on the north and west, between which and the Po it extended to the river Formio (II Risano), which separated it from Istria. It was inhabited by the Orobii, the In'subres, the Lae'vi, the Cenoman'ni, the Euganei, and the Ven'eti. The principal cities in the territory of the Orobii were Con'rum (Conro), Ber'gamum (Bergamo), s.-aA. Forum Li- cin'ii (Berlasina) ; the In'subres possessed Mediolanum (Milan), Laus Pompeii (Lodi), and Forum Intuntorum (Crema): to the Cenoman'ni belonged Brix'ia (Brescia), Cremona, Man'tua, and Ver'ona : the Eu- ganei, owned Sabium, Vobem'a, Ed'rum, and Van'nia, cities long since demolished : and the Ven'eti were masters of Patavium, (Padua), Vi- cen'tia (Vicenza), Ates'te (Este), Forum Allieni (Ferrara), Tar'visum {Treviso)i Aquilela (Aquilea), Forum Jiilii (Friuli), and Tergeste (Tri- este). In later ages, a horde, called the Garni, wrested from the Ven'- eti the cities and country between the rivers For'mio and Talaven'tum (Piave). Central or Proper Italy extended along the Adriatic coast from the city of An'cona to the river Freii'to (Fortore), and on the Mediterranean side was limited by the rivers Macra and Sil'arus (Sek). It compre- hended Etniria, Um'bria, Sabin'ium, Latium, Picenum, with the coun- tries of the Vestini, Mamicini, Pelig'ni, Mar'si, Fret'ani, Samnites, Hirpini, Campani, and Picentini. Etruria was inhabited by two distinct races, that seem to have very slowly 9,malgamated, the Tyrrheni and the Hetrus'ci. It was bounded on the east by the river Tiber, on the west by the Macra, on the north by the chain of the Apennines, and on the south by that portion of the Mediterranean commonly called the Tuscan sea. It was divided into a dodecarchy, or government of twelve tribes and cities. These ruling cities in the most flourishing period of Etrurian history were, Volsin'ii (Bolsena), Clusium (Chiusi), Periisia (Perugia), Cort6na, Aret'ium (Arezzo), Falerii {Civita Castellana), Volater'rae (Volterra), VetuI6nium (Grosseto), Rusel'Iae (Cerveleri), and the cities of Veii, Tarquinii, and Cae're, w:hich at^ present lie in ruins. There were many dlher places of importance in Etruria : on the seacoast were Luna (UErice), Pisae (Pisa), Por'tus Her'culis Libur'ni (Livorno or Leghorn), Papulonia now in ruins, Tal'araon (Telamone), Centumcel'lae (Civita Veechia), and ANCIENT ITALY. 185 Al'sium (Palo)^ There were besides, in the interior, Nep'ete (Nepe), Sritrium {Sutri), Finum Voltum'nae (Viterbo), Hort^num (Orti), Her- b^num (^Orvieto)f Sense Julioe {Saona), Floren'tia {Fiorema, Firenze, or Florence), Pistoria {Pistoia), and Ltica (Lucca). Umbria was bounded on the south by the river Nar {Nera), on the north by the Adriatic sea, on the east by the jEsis {Fiumicino), and on the west partly by the Tiber, and partly by the Bedesis (// Roneo), which falls into the Adriatic near Ravenna. But the maritime part of Umbria having been early conquered by the Senonian Gauls, the cities it con- tains have been already mentioned in the account of Gallia Cispadana. ■The Umbrian cities on the Adriatic side of the Apennines were Sarslna, XJrbinum (Urbino), Metauren'se {Castel Durante), Sentinum (Sentimo), and Cam'ers {Cainerino). On the other side of these mountains were Igdvium (Ugubio), Mevania (Bagagna), Spolet'ium (Spoleti), Tifer'num {Citta di Castella), Nuceria (Nocera), Assis'ium (Assisi), Hispellum (Ispello), Fulgin'ium [Foligno), Interam'nimn (Terni), Namia (Narni), and Ocric'ulum {Ocricoli). The territory of the Sabines lay between the Nar, which divided it from Umbria, and the A'nio (Teverone), by which it was separated from Latium. It contained the city of Clires, whose inhabitants, migra- ting to Rome, are said to have given its citizens the name of Quirites ; Reate (Rieti), Nur'sia (Norcia), E'retum (Monte Rotondo), and Amiter'- num (Lamentaria). Latium was at first restricted within very narrow limits, being bound- ed by the Tiber, the A'nio (Teverone), and the Circsean promontory (Monte Cercilli) ; but after the subjugation of the ^'qui, Hernici, Vol'sci, and Ausdnes, it was extended to the Liris (Garigliano) ; ani hence arises the distinction between Old and New Latium. The chief cities of Old Latium were Rome, Tibur (TivoU), Praenes'te (Palestrina), Tus'- culum (Frascati), Aric'ia, Lantivium (Citta Lavind), Al'ba Lon'ga (Albano), Lauren'tum (Paterno), and Os'tia. There were, besides, four Latin towns, of which the ruins can now scarcely be traced, Gabii, Antem'nae, Collatia, and Ar'dea. The chief cities of the Mqai were Car'sula (Arsuli), Valeria (Vico Vara), Sublaqueum (Subiaco), and Al'gidum, now in ruins. To the Hernici belonged Anag'nia (Anagni), Alatrium (Alatri), Ver'ulse (Veroli), and Ferentinum (Ferentino). In the country of the Volsci were An'tium, Cir'cse, and Sues'sa Pometia, all three long since ruined; Anx'ur (Terracina), Vel'itrae (Veletri), Pri- ver'num (Pipemo), Aqulnum (Aquino), Casinum (Monte Cassitio), Arpinum (Arpino), Fregel'lae (Ponte Corvo), and Interam'na (L'Isola). The Ausones possessed Careto (Gaeta), Fun'di (Fondi), and For'mite (Mola). Picenum extended from the Adriatic to the Apennines, between the JE'sis (Esino) and the Atemus (Pescara). ; The chief cities of the Picen'tes were Ancona, As'culum (Ascoli), Interam'nium (Teramo), and A'tria (A tri). Several other nations besides the Picen'tes were included within the boundaries of Picenum, Of these, the Vestmi possessed An'gulus (Civita di Sancto Angela) and Avel'la; the Mar- rucini owned but one city, Teate ( Ghiete) ; , the Peligni possessed Cor- fin'ium, now in ruins, and Sul'mo (Sulmona) ; the Mar'si, in the interior of the country, close to the Apennines^ had only one important town, 186 ANCIENf HISTORY. Maittibitim (Mofrta). On the southern seacoast were the Frentani, Whose Chief cities were Ortona, Anax'onum [Lanzano), and Histonium {Giiatto d^Amme) : the Samnites possessed the country between the territory of the Frentani and the Apennines ; their chief cities Were Bovlaniim (Moiano), iESer'nia (Isernid), Seplnutn (Sepina), AUifffl (AUfi); and Tel'^esia (Telest). Finally, the Hirpini held the sotrth ■western side of the Apennines, and possessed Beneven'tum {Benevento), Equotfiticum (Ariano), and Coitp'sa ( Cohza). Campania, the most pleasant and fruitful divisiofl of Italy, extended between the territories of the Samnites and Herpini and the Mediter- ranean from the river Liris to the promontry of Minerva. On its coast were Liter'num {Toirre di Pattia), Baiae (Baia), Misenilm (Monte Miseno), Parthen'ope or Neap'olis (Naplis), and Sorren'tium (Sortento), together with the cities of Herculaneum and Pom'peii, overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In the interior of the country were Capuaj, Sues'sa AUrun'ca {Sessa), Venafrum (Venafro), Gasilmum {Nova Capua), Teanum Sidicfnura (Tiano), Calatia (Cajaazo), Gales {Calvi), Atel^la {Aversa), Acer'rse (Acerra), N61a and NucSria {Nocera). Between the promontory of Minerva and the river Sil'artis (Sele) Was a small district inhabited by a Picentine colony, whose chief city was Saler'num {Salerno). Magna Grsecia, so called from the number of Greek colonies that settled in it, comprised Apulia, Lucania, and the territory of the Brut'tii. Apulia {La Puglid) extended from the river Fren'to {Fortore) to the Japygian promontory (Capo di Leuca), at the southeastern extremity of Italy. It was divided into three portions : Datinia, lying between the Fren'to and the Alifidus (Ofanto) ; Peucetia, stretching from the Aufidus to the isthftms between Brundtisium and Taren'tum ; and Japy'gia, or Galabria, comprising the southeastern peninsula of Italy, or the heel of the bcrot to Which Italy has been fancifully compared. In the first two divisions were Tednum Ap'ulum (Civitate Tragonara), Sipuntum {Siponto) Lticeria (Lucera), Ai'pi {Foggia) As'culum Ap'u- lum (Asicli), Venusia (Venasa), Acheron'tia (Acirema), Canusium {Canosa), Can'nas (Cama), Salapia (Salpe), Barium {Bari), and Egnatia (Terra d'Ana:^zo). The Chief cities of Calabria were Brundusium (Brindisi), Hydrjintum (Otranto), Callip'olis {GallipoU), Ner'itum (Nardo), and A16tium (Leg:se). LuCania lay between the Silarus and the Laiis (Laino). It was divided from Peucetia by the Bran'danlis {Brandimo), and from Caldbria by the upper part of the Tarentine gulf. On the Mediterranean, or Tyrrhenian sea, stood Pses'tum or Posidonia {Pesto), Velia (Pisciotta), and Buxen'tum {Policastro). On the Tarentine gulf were Metapon'tum {Tere di Mtne) and Heracl6a, called also Syb'aris and Thurii (Poliiore). The inland cities were Poten'tia (Potenza), and Grumen'tum {Clart- monte). Greek colonies occupied the southwesterti peninsula of Italy. Their chief cities on the western coast were Ceril'li (Cirella), Cltiaip'etia (Amaftiea)^ Tom'Sa (Torre Loppa), Lametia {Sant Euphemia), Scyllte'- urn (Seiglia), and Rh^gium {Reggio). On the eastern coast stood L6cri Epiaephy'rii {Jir^ees), Oaulonia (Castel Veteri), Scylaceum {Squillaci), Cr6t6 (CroMoiie), Petil'ia (Belicastro), and Ruacianum (Rossana). ANCIENT ITALY. . 187 The chief cities of the interior were ConSfen'tia {Gosenza) and Hip- ponium, called by the Romahs Vibo Valen'tia (Mont Leone). The chief Italian mountains are the Alps, which extend round the north of the peninsula in an irregular chain about eight hundred miles in length ; and the Apennines, which go through Italy from the Mari- time Alps to the straits of Sicily. The Massic, Gaurian, and Garganian mountains are detached ridges, celebrated for theiy fertility ; and Vesu- vius, near Naples, has been long remarkable for its volcano. From the Alps flow the Padus {Po), the Druria (Dora), the SeSsitfes {Sessia), the Ticinus (Tewino), the Ad'dua (Adda), the Ol'liUs {Oglid), the Min'crus (Mincio), the Tan'arus {Tanaro), the Trebia, alid the Rhenus Bononiefl'sis (Reno di Bologna) : all these are tributaries of the Padus. The Ath'esis [Adige) has also its source in the Alps, but it falls into the Adriatic. The Ar'nus (Arno) and the Tiber flow from the Apennines into the Mediterranean : the tributaries of the latter river are the Clanis (Ckiana), the Nar (JVera), and the A'nio (Teverone). Be- sides these, there are the Liris ( Garigliano), separating LStium from Campania ; the Vultur'nus ( Voltorno), in Campiilia ; the Sil'arus {Silaro), severing the territories of the Pincentini and Lucani ; the Syb'aris (^Cockile), and the Crathis (Crati), in Lucania ; the Aufidus (Ofanto), in Apulia ; and the Ater'nus (Pescara) and Metaurus (Metauro), in Picenum. Italy has ever been celebrated for its fertiUty and beauty ; its inhab- itants were once the triumphant conquerors and lords of the known world ; but ages of misgovemment have blighted this lovely peninsula, and it is now among the most degraded and miserable countries in Eu- rope. Section 11. — Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy. CHRONOLOGY UNCERTAIN. The earliest inhabitants of Italy appear to have been branches of the great Pelasgic nation. Of these, the CEnotrians occupied the south of the peninsula, the Sicilians possessed the plain of the Tiber, and the Tyrrhenians were settled in Etruria. In process of time, the CEno- trians were subjugated by Hellenic colonies, the Sicilians subdued by some mountain-tribes who took the natne of Latins, and the Tyrrheni- ans conquered by the Hetrusci, a people that probably descended froih the Rhaetian Alps. Between CEnot'ria and Tyrrhenia was the territory of the Opicans or Oscaiis, called also Ausoniaus. Their language was intelligible to the Latins ; for the Latin tongUe is compoutided of Greek and Oscafl. To this race the JE'qui and Vol'sci appear to have belonged. The Latins, according to tradition, were driven down the A'nio by the Sabines, and they in their turn expelled a great portion of the Si- culians from their habifationa, who proceeded southward, and passed over the strait of Messina into the island which took from them the name of Sicily. In the old legends these Latin conquerors are called Sacrani ; they Were also named Priscans and Cascahs. From the lat- ter name, and the sitnilftrity of language, they must have been a branch 188 _ ANCIENT HISTORY. of the Oscan nation. The agreement between the Greek and Latin languages in words that relate to agriculture and the arts of social life, while they diifer wholly in the names of objects belonging to war or the chase, is a strong proof that the agricultural laborers or serfs were of Pelasgian origin, and the warriors a superior caste of Oscan de- scent. Little is known of the religion of the ancient Latins, or the deities they worshipped. Jinus, or Dianus, was the god of the sun, Saturn the vivifying power of nature,. and his wife Ops the productive energy of the earth ; but the distinctive character of these deities was lost when, in a late age, the native legends of Latium were blended and confounded with the mythology of Greece. The Sabines and their cognate tribes are included under the common name of Sabellians ; they were the most widely extended and the greatest people in Italy when the Romans adva,nced beyond the fron- tiers of Latium. Their original home was in the neighborhood of Ami- ter'nium, among the highest of the Apennines that are now included in Abruzzo Ultra. From these they descended at a very remote age, dri- ving the Cascans before them in one direction, and the Umbrians in another. Their colonies were sent out according to a singular religious institution called the " Ver Sacrum," or sacred spring. Every twenty years the children and cattle born within the twelvemonth were conse- crated and set apart for founding a colony ; and, as soon as they reached mature age, were sent forth for the purpose. One of these occupied Picenum, then inhabited by the Pelasgians ; another passed into the land of the Opicans, or Oscans, and became the founders of the great Samnite race. To the SabeUan race belonged also the Frentanians on the coast of the Adriatic, the tribes that conquered Campania, the pow- erful nation of the Lucanians, and the four confederate tribes of Mar- sians, Manucinians, Pelignians, and Vestinians. The Hernicans were a sub-colony of the Marsians. The Lucanians, pushing their conquests into CEnotria, were soon in- volved in war with the Greek colonies, most of which they subdued. They were joined by the Samnites from Campania (b. c. 437), who gained possession of Vultur'num. They soon advanced to the Laiis (b. c. 423), and confirmed their power by the total defeat of the Thu- rians (b. c. 387). At length they were brought into hostile contact with the Romans, and soon stripped of all their power. The Sabellian tribes, more especially those in the north, were dis- tinguished for their love of divination, the rigid severity of their mor- als, and their cheerful contentedness. In other respects their charac- ters differed. The Sabines and most of the northern tribes lived in open villages ; the Samnites fortified the hills on which they dwelt ; and the Lucanians became attached to residence in cities. The want of union between the Sabellian tribes prevented that race from becom- ing predominant in Italy. The Samnites owed their downfall to the want of a central metropolis, and the unity it confers. It was only in time of war that they elected a commander-in-chief, called emberator ; a term which the Latins borrowed, and changed into imperator, using it instead of their old words dictator and prtBto^. The Etrurians or Etruscans, who conquered the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, were called in their own tongue " Rasena :" they established a kind of ANCIENT ITALY. 189 feudal supremacy over the subjugated nation, and deprived the Tyr- rhenians of all political privileges. All public affairs were decided in the general council of the Lucumones, a ^cerdotal caste whose privi- leges descended by inheritance. From the want of a free and respec- table commonwealth, the Etruscans, though possessed of great wealth and power, having been at one time masters of the commerce and nav- igation of the western Mediterranean, proved unequal to cope with the Romans, whose infantry was composed of free citizens. The regal office was not hereditary, but elective, and the power of the kings was very limited. Before the conquest the Tyrrhenians were remarkable for their piracies, and the Etruscans followed the same course. Their corsairs were the terror of the western Mediterranean, until their navy was almost annihilated, in a sea-fight off Ciimae, by Hiero, king of Syra- cuse. About two centuries afterward, they partially recovered their poweV, and extended their piracies even into the .lEgean sea ; but they were finally subdued by the Rhodians. The Etruscans had made great advances in the arts and sciences. The ruins of their public works rival those of ancient Egypt in magni- tude, and surpass them in utility, especially the dikes for fencing the delta of the Po, and the tunnels for draining the lakes that formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes. Their pottery and metal works, if not of Greek origin, were certainly improved by Grecian artisans, and may therefore be attributed to the Pelasgic Tyrrhenians. No Italian nation was so religious, or rather superstitious, as the Etrurians : from them the Romans borrowed most of their ritual and ceremonies, the rules of augury and divination, and the solemnities in the declaration of peace or war. At a very early age Greek literature supplanted the na- tive literature of Etruria, and the ancient lore of the Tuscans fell into what seems to have been unmerited oblivion. The Umbrians were a nation consisting of several distinct races; the most remarkable being the Camer'tes and the Sarsinates. Their lan- guage appears to have been a mixture of Etrurian and Oscan. It is the misfortune of the Umbrians that their greatness had disappeared before the age of certain history ; their glory seems to have passed away when the rich countries bordering on the seacoast were occupied by the Gauls. The southeast of Italy, or Japy'gia, was occupied by the Messapians, the Peucetians, and the Daunians. The Messapians are said to have been an ol'd Pelasgian colony from Crete ; they were a very powerful people until the city of Tarentum had acquired sufficient strength to contend for the supremacy of southern Italy, when, after a tedious struggle, they were compelled to enter into an alliance of inferiority with the Tarentines. The Peucetians appear to have been a Libumian colony from Illyria ; the Daunians, a Pelasgic colony from iEt61ia. The latter were sub- dued by the Apulians, an Oscan horde, and their name was lost in that of their conquerors. The language of the inhabitants of that part of Italy called Japy'gia was Greek. The Ligurians and Venetians appear to have been branches of the great Libumian nation, which at one time possessed both sides of the northern Adriatic. The former were a braive, warlike people ; for more ISO ANCIENT HIBTOftY. thfin forty ygar^.tlwyTesisted the- Roman aTnjs,and it is perhap? on thi? account that they are stigmatized as liars and deceivers by classical wri- ters. On the other hand, th^Yenetians submitted witliQut a struggle j but it is probable that the evil3 Aey had suffered from the invasion made them anxious to obl^n the protection of some powerful state. Section III.— The Greek Colonies in Italy. FROM B. c, 1030 TO B. c, 277. The earliest Greek settlement in Italy, of which we have any cer- tain historical information, came from Chalcis in the island of Euboea, and settled ^t Cumae (b. c. 1030). This city soon attained a high de- gree of prosperity, e6ta,blished a, powerful navy, and founded flourishing colonie?,, of ifhich Neap'olis find Zan'cle (afterward called Messana) were the chief. Its form of government was aristocratic ; but this 'con- stitution was subverted (b. c. 544) by the tyrant Aristodemus. Free- dom was restored after bis assassination ; but the Cumans, weakened by internal dissensions, suffered severely in a war with the Eretrians and Daunians (b. c. 500), and were finajjy subdued by the Campanians. Cumae was annexed to the Eoman dominions (b. c. 345) ; but in con- sequence of its harbor at Puteoli, it retained a considerable share of its importance even after the loss of its independence. Tarentum was fonnded by the Parthenii from Spar'ta, under Phalan'- tijs (b. c. 707), as has been already mentioned. The colonists had to maintain long wars egainst the Italian tribes in their neighborhood, especially the Messapians ^nd Lucanians ; but they prevailed over these imcivilized barbarians, and made their city one of the most flour- ishing maritime states in western Europe. JjHxwy, however, finally brought effeminacy and weakness. To escape frwn" the grasping am^ bitjon of die Romans, the Tarentines invited Pyr'rhus, king of Epinis, into Italy ; but softer the departure of that monarch, the city became 4er pendant on Rome (b, c. 377). CrotoB was founded by the Achaeans (b. c. 710). Even in the first centuiy trf its existence the city attained such power as to be able to raise an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men. The consti- tution was in a great degree democratic, and continued so until the phiio^wpher Pythag'or*s came to reside in Croton (b. c. 540). He established a secret association among his disciples, the chief object of vr^hich was to secure a mone^oly of political power to the members of the Pythagorean society. In a few years l^ee hundred men, all Pythagoreans, held tha sovereignty of Croton ; and the influence of tla® new sect was established not only in the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily, but over a great part of ancient Greece and the islands of the jEgean. The Crotonians soon after engaged in war with the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. Success proved ruinojjs ; the inferior ranks of men in Orotona, intoxicated with prosperity, and instigated by the aitCul B#d, ambitious Cy'lon, whose turbulent manners had excluded Mm from the order of Pythag'oras, into which his had repeatedly attempted to «nter, became clambrons for an equal partition of the conquered ter- ritory. «f Syb'aris, which b^ing denied, as inconsistent with the nature of the oUgfirchy established by the Pylhagoieains, they secietly con- ANCIENT ITAIY. 191 spired against their magistrates, attacked them by surprise in the senate- house, put many to death, and drove the rest from their country. Py- thag'ora? himself died soon afterward at Metapon'tum, in Lucania, har- iag lived just long enough to witness the ruin of the structure he had labored so anxiously to raise. Croton never perfectly recovered from the fatal effects of this civil war ; it was repeatedly captured by the kings of S3rracuse ; and after the departure of Pyr'rhus from Italy, it became dep.mdant on Rome. Syb'aris was founded by an Acheean colony (b. o. 720). The ex- treme fertility of the soil, and the generous admission of all strangers to the right of citizenship, caused the population to increase so rapidly, that, in a war against the Crotonians, the Sybarites are said to have brought three hundred thousand men into the field. Its vast wealth, de- rived chiefly from an extensive trade in wine and oil with northern Africa and Gaul, rendered it the most extensive, populous, and luxurious city in Europe from about b. c. 600 to b. c 550 ; so that the debauchery and effeminacy of the Sybarites became proverbial. Disputes arose be- tween the aristocratic and democratic factions, which led to a civil war. At length, Telys, the leader of the multitude, obtained possession of the supreme power, and expelled five hundred of the principal nobles, who fled for refuge to Crotona. The Sybarites sent to demand these refu- gees, and, meeting with a refusal, put to death the Crotonian ambas- sadors. Such an outrage naturally led to a war between the two cities (b. c. 5J0). With far inferior forces the Crotonians defeated the Sybarites in the field, took their city by storm, and razed it to the ground. The Syharites, driven from their habitations, besought the Lacedae- monians and the Athenians to restore them, requesting them, at the same time, to send a colony to share in the new city they had resolved to build. The ambassadors were rejected at Spar'ta ; but the Athenians, who delighted in such applications, cheerfully granted their aid (b. c. 446). A squadron of ten ships, having a considerable number of troops on board, was sent to Italy, under the command of Lam'po and Xenoc'- rates ; and, at the same time, proclamation was made throughout Greece, that all persons willing, to emigrate to the new colony should receive the protection of the Athenian fl«et. Great numbers availed themselves of the proposition, and the Sybarites, aided by the new settlers, soon rer covered their former possessions, and founded Thuriuro, near the site of their ancient city. Peace did not long inhabit these new dwellings ; the inhabitants, coming from so many various quarters, could not for- get their old animosities, and began to dispute which section among them could claim to rank as founders of the city. An appeal was made to the Delphic oracle (b. c. 433) : the priests of that temple declared the city to be a colony of Apol'lo. But this did not put an end to dis-- cord ; the Sybarites, believing that they had the best right to their own country, began to exclude the foreign colonists, who were by far the majority, from all honors and employments ; this provoked a civil war, which ended in a second expulsion of the Sybarite families. The Thu- rians then invited fresh colonists flrom Greece, and formed themselves into a commonwealth, (jhposing Cb^oa'das, of Cafeaiaa, for their legist lator. Th*y soon sunk under the enervating effects of laxury, and, being imable to defend themselves against the LucanianSj pfeiced them- 192 ANCIENT HISTORY, selves under the protection of the Romans. This afforded the Taren- tines an excuse for attacking the city, of which they made themselves masters, and thus brought upon themselves the vengeance of Rome. At the close of the Tarentine war, Thiirium became a Roman depend- ancy. It suffered very severely in the second Punic war, and, having been almost depopulated, was occupied by a Roman colony (b. c. 190). The city of Locri Epizephy'rii was inhabited by the people of the same name. The original colonists were sent out by the Locri O'zolae (b. o. 683) ; but these were joined by a great variety of settlers, chiefly from western Greece. Zaleucus, one of their own citizens, became the legislator of the Locrians, and his wise institutions remained unchanged for nearly two centuries. The constitution appears to have been a ju- dicious mixture of aristocracy and democracy. The Locrians contin- ued to be honorably distinguished by their peaceful condition, quiet conduct, and good manners, until Diony'sius IL, tyrant of Syracuse, having been expelled by his . subjects, sought refuge in Locri, which was the native country of his mother (b. c. 357). His insolence, his licentiousness, and the excesses of his followers, brought the state to the verge of ruin ; and, when he returned to Syracuse (b. c, 347), the Lo- crians revenged their wrongs on his unfortunate family. When P3rr'rhus invaded Italy, he placed a garrison in Locri (b. c. 277) ; but tiie Lo- crians rose in revolt, and put the intruders to the sword. The king of Epirus, in revenge, stormed and plundered the city. After his return home, it submitted to the Romans, and was one of the places that suf- fered most severely in the second Punic war. Rhegium was colonized jointly by the Chalcidians and Messenians (b. c. 668) ; but the chief power was possessed by the Messenian aris- tocracy. This oligarchy was subverted by Anaxilaus (b. c. 494), and an absolute despotism established. After some time the Rhegians re- covered their freedom, and attempted to secure tranquillity by adopting from the Thurians the constitution of Charon'das. Thenceforward Rhegium enjoyed tranquillity and happiness, until it was captured and destroyed by Dionys'ius I., of Syracuse (b. c. 392). It was partially restored by Dionys'ius II. ; but, during the wars of Pyr'rhus in Italy, it was still so weak as to require the protection of a Roman garrison. A legion, raised in Campania, was sent to Rhegium, under the command of Deems Jubel'lus . These soldiers having been used to a life of hard- ship, began soon to envy the luxurious ease and wealth of the citizens they had come to protect, and they formed a perfidious plan for- their destrucuon (b. c. 281). They forged letters from the Rhegians to Pyr'- rhus, offermg to put that monarch in possession of the city, and under this pretence, they put the principal part of the citizens to death, and drove the rest mto exile. The Roman senate was not slow in punishing this atrocious outrage ; they sem an army against the guilty Campani- ans, who had been reinforced by several bands of profliiate plunderers, and, after a severe struggle, obtained possession of the dity. The sur^ yivors of the wicked legionaries were beaten with rods, and beheaded in bands of fifty at a time ; and a few Rhegians who survived were re- mstated m possession of their estates, liberties, and laws. But the city was too weak to mamtam its independence, and it became thenceforth subject to Home. SICILY. 193 CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF SICILY. Section I.— Geographical Outline. The fertile island of Sicily was known by various names to the an- cients. It was called Triquet'ra, or Trinac'ra, from its triangular shape ; Sicania and Sicilia from the Sic'ani and Sic'uli, Italian hordes who peopled a great part of the country. Its three extreme promontories were named Pelorum , (Faro), Pachy'num {Passaro), and Lilybse'um [Bocco) ; the first of these faces Italy, the second Greece, and the third Africa. From the narrowness of the strait opposite Pelorum, it has been supposed that Sicily was broken off from Italy by some convulsion of nature ; and the Greek city Rhegium, which stood on the Italian side of the strait, derives its name from this common opinion.* The strait is remarkable for the rapidity of its current, and for the rock Scyl'Ia, and whirlpool Charyb'dis, the passage between which was accounted very dangerous. These places are frequently described by the Latin poets. Ovid thus alludes to the opinion of Italy having been joined to Sicily near the city of Zan'cle, or Messana : — " So Zan'cle to the Italian earth was tied, Ai^d men once walked, where ships at anchor ride ; Till Neptune overlooked the narrow way, And in disdain poured in the conquering sea." The most remarkable cities on the eastern coast of Sicily were Zan'- cle, or Messana {Messina), deriving its first name from the old Sicilian word Zan'clos signifying a reaping-hook, to which its curved shore bears some fanciful resemblance ; and its second from the Messenian exiles, who conquered the city : Tauromin'ium {Tdormina), on the river Tauromin'ius ( Cantara), near which was the coast called Cdp'ria, or " the dunghill," from the nimiber of wrecks cast upon it by the whirl- pool of Charyb'dis : Cat'ana, a Chalcidian colony on the river Amenes (Judicello) : Morgan'tium, a city of the Italian Sic'uli, near the mouth «rf" the Sigmas'thus (La Jaretta) : Ledntfni, a flourishing Chalcidian col- ony : Hyb'la, celebrated for its honey, founded by the Sicanians, and ^bsequently colonized by the Megarians : and Syracuse, the ancient capital «f the island. Syracuse contained within its walls. Which were eighteen miles in circumference, four very considerable cities united into one, like Lon- • From (Siyyv/ii, to break. 13 194 ANCIENT HISTORY. don, Westminister, Southwark, and Lambeth. Acradina, the largest of the four, contained the principal public buildings, such as the Prytane- um, the palace of justice, and the temple of Jupiter Olympius. Ty'che,* which stood between Acradina and the hill Epip'ol8e, contained the Gymnasium for the exercise of youth, and several temples, especially one dedicated to Fortune, from which this division of the city derived its name. The third quarter, called Orty'gia, was an island, connected with the other parts by a bridge ; it contained two beautiful temples, one sacred to Diana, and the other to Minerva, the tutelary deities of Syra- cuse. Neap'olis, or the new city, was the latest erected : it contained the temples of Ceres and Proserpine, and the statue of Apol'lo Tem- en'ites, celebrated by Cicero' as ihW most valuable monument of Syra- cuse. Near Syracuse was .a steep hill named Epip'olae, defended in the later ages by a fort called Lab'dalon. On this hill was the famous prison called Latom'iae, on account of its being partly excavated from the liv- ing rock.* It was a cave one hundred aind twenty-five paces long and twenty feet broad, constructed by order of Dionys'ius the t3Trant, who imprisoned there those whom he suspected of being opposed to his usur- pation. A winding tube, constructed on the model of the human ear, ascended ftom the cavern to a private apartment, where the tyrant used to sit and listen to the conversation of his unhappy captives. The celebrated fountain of Arethusa, now dried up, arose in the is- land of Orty'gia. The poets fabled that the Al'pheus, a river of E'lis, in the Peloponnesus, rolled its waters either through or und^the waters of the sea, without mixing with them, as far as the fountain of Arethii- sa; which gave occasion to the following lines of Vjrgil: — Thy sacred suceoi;, Aiethuau, bring, To crown my labor ; 'tis the last I fling : So may thy silver streams beneath the tide. Unmixed with briny seas, securely glide ! On the African side of Sicily stood Camarina, between the rivers O'anus {Frascolari) and Hip'paris {Camarana) : it was anciently a very wealthy city ; but its inhabitants "having drained a marsh by which the city was protected, the enenjies found easy access, and destroy- ed it ; hence Ne moveas Camarinam, " Remove not Camarina," has passed into a proverb. Following the line of coast westwaid,, we meet Gela {Te.rra Nova), now in ruins, and Ag'ragas or Agrigen'tum {Gir: fenti), between the rivers Ag'ragas {San Biaggio) ajod Hyp'sa IDrago). t was anciently the rival of Syracuse : and we may judge of its former strength and splendor from the following description givBn of it by the historian Polybius : " It pxceeds most of the Sicilian cities in strength beauty, and situation, and magnificent edifices. Though erected at the distance of eighteen hHndred furlongs from the sea, it can conveniently import a;ll kinds of j^royi^ion and munitions of war. From its natural gtren^th, increased judiciously by fortifications, it is one of the most impregnable places m the island. Its walls are built upon a rock, ren- dered inaccessible by art. The river, from whjch the city takes its nam?, protects it on the south, and it is covered by the IJyp'sa on the • From Tixt' exploded in the senate-house : the aged king was murdered, and his body flung into the streets (b. c. 535). Tul'lia, his wicked daughter, in her haste to congratulate Tar'quin on his success, drove her chariot over her father's corpse, and proceeded onward, though her vest was sitained with his blood. Tar'quin, sumamed the Proud, was raised to the throne by the pa- tioians, without the assent of the people being asked. In the history given of his reign, it is scarcely possible to separate what is merely legendary from what is worthy of credit; but it seems pretty certain that he gratified his supporters by diminishing the privileges of the pie- beian order, and that he soon after made the patricians themselves fieel the weight of his tyranny. He confirmed the supremacy of Rome over the Latins, united the Hemicans to the confederation by treaty, and gained several advantages over the Vol'sci. While the tyrant was besieging Ardea, his son Sex'tus violated the honor of Lucretia, a noble Roman lady. She summoned her relatives, and, having informed tiiem of the .outrage, committed suicide. Lucius Junius Brutus, who up to this time is said to have concealed patriotic resolutions under the mask of pretended insanity, though he held an important magistracy, convoked an assembly of the people, and exhibited the bleeding body of Lucretia to the multitude (b, c. 509). A decree was immediately passed for expelling the Tar'quins and abolishing royalty. The army sent in its adhesion, and Tair'quin, finding himseS" universally shunned, fled into Etruria. Section III.— JVoto the JEstablishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the G,ty by the Gauls, FROM B. C. 509 TO B. c. 386. The abolition of royalty was a purely patrician revolution, from which the great. body of the peiople gained no immediate advantage. Two annual magistrates, at first called praetors, but afterward consuls, chosen from tb* patricjaa ranksi inherited th^ entire royal power, but did not, like the kings, possess my priestly dignity. Xhe first magistrates ROMAN aEPDBLIC. 307 elected under the new system were Briitus, and CoUatinus, the hus- band of Lucretia. Scarcely had they entered on their oiBce, when ambassadors arrived from Etruria to plead the cause of Tar'quin. Though these deputies met with no public success, they were enabled to organize a conspiracy among the younger patricians, who had shared in the tyrant's debaucheries ; and among the acoonftplices of the plot, were the sons of Brdtus and the nephews of Tar'quin. The plans of the conspirators were accidentally overheard by a slave, concealed in the apartment where they assembled, and information of the treason given to the consuls. Public duty triumphed over parental affection : Brdtus not only pronounced sentence of death upon his sons, but wit- nessed their execution without shedding a tear. The property of the Tarquin'ii was confiscated ; the whole family condemned to perpetual banishment ; and the consul, CoUatinus, w' ose relationship to the late family excited suspicion, was included in the sentence. Pub'lius Vale- rius was elected to the vacant magistracy. Soon after, in an engage- me-nt between the Etruscans and Romans, An'cus the eldest son of. Tar'quin, and Brutus, fell by mutual wounds; but the victory was decided in favor of the young republic. Valerius delayed some time before proceeding to the election of a new colleague. This circumstance, arid a splendid house he was erecting on one of the Roman hillsi inspired a suspicion that he was aiming at royalty. To prove his innocence, he demolished the build- ing, proposed laws for restraining the consular power, and resigned the. ensigns of his dignity to Spdrius Lucretius. For his patriotic conduct^. Valerius was honored with the surname Pop'licola (a friend of the peo^ pie). In the following year Valerius and Horatius were chosen con- suls, the latter of whom had the honor of dedicating the national tem- ple of Jupiter Capitolinus. In this sanctuary were preserved the Sibylline oracles, and the records of the pontiffs and augurs. To the first year after the banishment of the Tar'quins belong the celebrated lew de prevocatione (law of appeal), and the first treaty between Rome and Carthage. The patricians had always the right of appeal from the sentence of the supreme magistrate to the general council of their own body : a similar right of trial by their peers was secured to the plebeians hy the law of Valerius Pop'hcola, to which the senate seems to have yielded a very ungracious assent.* The treaty with Carthage shows how extensive the possessions of Rome had been under the monarchy : Ardea, An'tium, Aricia, Ciic^ii, and Terracfna, are enumerated as subject cities, and Rome stipulates for them as well as herself. From these historical facts, we now turn to a legendary naaaative, in which truth is so blended with fiction, that it is impossible to determine more than one or two circumstances on which aaay reliance can be placed. After their former defeat, the Tarquin'ii had recourse to the aid of Lar Porsen'na, king of CWsium, the most powerM of die Tus- can princes, who at once led an overwhelming force to the Janic'ulmn, a fortified hiU on the north bank of the Tiber, joined to the city by a • The Valerian law was imperfect ,i|i it^sanctiDn; tiiere was no othpr penalty to enforce it tb&a the declaration that he who violated it acted wrongly. 308 ANCIENT HISTOEY. wooden bridge. The Romans were defeated, and fled over the bridge ; the enemy would have gained admission into the city along with the fugitives, had not Horatius Coc'les, with two companions, defended the entrance of the bridge until it was broken down behind him, when he feaped into the Tiber, and swam safely to his friends. As a mark of gratitude, every citizen, during the famine caused by the subsequent siege, brought him a portion of provision ; a statue was erected to him at the expense of the republic, and as much land was bestowed upon him as he could plough round in a day. Porsen'na continuing to blockade the city, a youth, named Caius Mucins, undertook, with the approbation of the senate, the task of assassinating the invading king. He entered the cairtp in disguise, but slew only a secretary instead of Porsen'na. When brought before that monarch, to show his contempt for tortures, he thrust his right hand into a fire that burned upon the ahar, and held it there until it was consumed. The king, admiring such heroism, gave him his life and liberty : Miicius, in gratitude, informed him that three hundred Roman youths had similarly sworn his destruction ; and Porsen/na, alarmed for his life, immediately offered terms of peace to the Romans. In memory of his daring exploit. Mu- cins was thenceforth named Scae'vola (lifl-handed), and was rewarded as munificently as Coc'les. Hostages were given by the Romans for the due performance of the treaty ; and the legend relates that one of them, a noble lady named Clcje'lia, won the admiration of Porsen'na by es6aping; from her guards, and swimming on horseback over the Tiber, amid a shower of darts hurled at her by her baffled pursuers. The aid which the Romans subsequently afforded Porsen'na when he was defeated before Aricia, induced him to render back .the territory which had been yielded to him as part of the price of the peace. Thus far the legend : but there is certain evidence that, in this war, the Romans surrendered their city and became tributary to the Tus- cans, and it is probable that they embraced the opportunity afforded them by the defeat of Porsen'na in Latium, to regain their indepen- dence. A war with the Sabines, who wished to take advantage ofthe weak- ened condition ofthe republic, followed. It was chiefly remarkable for the migration of At'tus Cfeiisus, a noble Sabine, with all the mem- bers and clients of his house, to Rome. There he changed his name to Ap'pius Claudius, and founded one of the most distinguished fami- lies of the republic. Though they lost their able leader, Pop'licola, the Romans were victorious in three successive campaigns ; and the Sabines were forced to purchase peace with corn, money, and a part of their lands. Tar'quin's son-in-law, Mamil'ius, induced the Latins to arm them- selves in behalf of the exiled king, taking advantage of the violent dis- putes > that raged between the patricians and plebeians respecting the law of dtebt. jEver since the expulsion of the king, the Roman nobles, after the abolition of royalty, had, by a series of iniquitous measures, usurped the most fertile portion of the conquered lands, which they leased out to the plebeians. Having thus the monopoly of the only property existing at the period, they became the sole capitalists of the republic, and lent out money at an exorbitant rate of usury. By the ROMAN REPUBLIC. 209 Roman law, those who were unable to discharge their debts became slaves to their creditors (nexi), and were subject to whatever punish- ment barbarous masters pleased to inflict. Goadied to madness by their wrongs, the plebeians refused to enlist in defence of their country until their grievances were redressed. The reasonable demands of the peo- ple were strenuously supported in the senate by Mar'cus Valerius, the brother of Pop'licola ; but they were obstinately opposed by Ap'pius Claddius, whose haughty and selfish counsels had a predominant effect on a short-sighted aristocracy. After Idng delay it was resolved to elect a single supreme magistrate, with the title of dictator, and invest him with absolute authority (b. c. 497). The people assented to the law ; and Titus Lar'tius, one of the consuls, was appointed to the new office. After having ravaged the territories of the enemy, he dismissed all his prisoners without ransom ; and this generosity so gratified the Latins, that they agreed upon a suspension of arms. When the truce was expired, war again commenced, and the senate again appointed a dictator. Alilus Posthiimius, the second dictator, encountered the Latins at the lake of Regil'lus, and inflicted on them a decisive defeat. Tar'quin, thus frustrated in his last hope, retired to CumsB, in Campania, where he soon after clied in exile. While Tarquin'ius excited alarm, and the wars with Latium and Etrd- ria continued, the senate ruled with some show of justice and modera- tion. But when danger was passed, the patricians began to treat the plebeians as slaves. To the palace of every noble was attached a pris- on for debtors ; and, in seasons of distress, after the sittings of the courts, herds of sentenced slaves were led away in chains to the private jails of the patricians. At length the plebeian armies, after having been frequently deceived by false promises, deserted their officers in the very midst of war, and marched in a body to a hill called Mons Sa- cer, on the river A'nio, within three miles of Rome, where they were joined by vast multitudes of their discontented brethren (b. c. 493). The patricians and their clients took up arms ; their numbers were not contemptible ; but, unaccustomed to military service, they dared not en- counter a peasantry inured to warfare. The pressure of foreign enemies rendered an accommodation necessary ; ten senators were sent to nego- tiate a peace with the plebeians, and a treaty was concluded, by which all the contracts of insolvent debtors were cancelled, those who had been reduced to slavery were set at liberty, the Valerian laws were restored to their former efficacy, and five annual magistrates were chosen to watch over the rights of the people, whose persons were declared to be invi- olable. In the same year a league was made with the Latins, not, as be- fore, on the basis of Roman superiority, but on tyms of perfect equality. A similar federation was subsequently made with the Hernicans ; and both these treaties prove indisputably, that the disturbances produced by aristocratic tyranny, subsequent to the abolition of royalty, had seriously diminished the Roman power. These losses began to be retrieved by successful wars against the iEquians and Volscians. The common histories of this period are full of extraordinary difficulties and contradictioris ; the accounts extracted ifrom them must, therefore,'be received with the siispicion that necessa- rily attaches to all traditionary legends. We are informed, that the suc- 13 210 ANCIENT HISTOBY. cess of the . Volscian war was mainly owing to a young nobleman, Caius Mai'cus, who acquired the surname of Coriolanus, from his conduct at the capture of Corioli. Soon after, Rome suffered grievously by a fam- ine ; but a Sicilian prince, hearing of the dearth, sent a large supply of corn to relieve the distresses of the citizens. Coriolinus proposed in the senate that this com should not be distributed to the poor until the pletjeians had resigned all the privileges they had acquired by their re- cent secession. For this detestable attempt he was impeached by the tribunes (b. c. 490), and brought to trial before that form of assembly {comitia trihuta)., in which the plebeians had the superiority. He was condemned to exile, and in his rage joined the Vol'aci. Guided by his superior talents, the Volscians defeated the Romans in every engage- ment, and at length laid siege to the city. Rome must have fallen, had not Vetiiria the mother, and Volumniathe wife of Coriolanus, prevailed upon the enraged exile to grant his countrymen terms of peace. On his return to the Volscian territories he was put to death in a tumult raised by Attius Tul'lius, a celebrated chief of the Vol'sci, who envied the fame of Coriolanus, and persuaded his countr3rmen that the illustri- ous exile had betrayed them. An opposing tradition is recorded by several historians, namely, that Coriolanus lived to a very advanced age, and often used to exclaim, " How miserable is the state of an old man in banishment !" It is impossible to ascertain which deserves the great- er credit ; but it is sufficiently manifest that the history of Coriolanus is not to be received without a considerable share of skepticism. The Vol'sci, after the death of Coriolanus, lost rapidly all the advan- tages they had acquired, and were besides involved in a war with the JE'qxd, their former allies. But the Romans could not avail themselves of these favorable circumstances, being harassed by disputes respecting the agrarian law proposed by Spiirius Cas'sius. The general purport of the law was, that lands conquered from the enemy should be divided into small estates, and assigned to the plebeians, instead of being leased out in large portions to the patricians. This appears to have been mere- ly a revival of the ancient constitution of Servius, and was obviously based in equity ; for no persons had a better claim to the public lands than those by whose valor and labors they had been acquired. The senate and patricians obstinately opposed a project that threatened to destroy the source of their profits ; and Spiirius Cas'sius, in his anxiety to accomplish his great objects, is said to have aimed at royalty. He was brought to trial on this charge before the collective body of the pa- tricians, which has been by later writers confounded with the general assembly of the people (b. c. 484). He was convicted, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock. Another account of the death of Cas'sius has been given by some historians not unworthy of credit. They inform us that he was put to death by his own father as a traitor to his order. There are few circumstances in Roman history more remarkable than that during seven consecutive years (from b. c. 483 to b. c. 479),one of the seats in the consulship was held by some member of the Fabian family. This a,rose from the powerful support which that family gave to the older patrician houses in their effort to monopolize the chief digni- ties. Civil dissensions were thus aggravated ; the populace demanded an agrarian law ; the minor patrician houses clamored for a share in the ROMAIC REPUBLIC. 211 honors of the state ; and the senate could only evade the difficulty by keeping the nation constantly involved in war. At length the soldiers refused to conquer ; and Cbb'so Fabius had the mortification to see a certain victory wrested from his hands by the determination of his fol- lowers not to pursue their advantages. This unexpected disgrace had such an effect on the Fabii, that they resolved to conciliate the favor of the commonalty, and declared themselves the patrons of popular meas- ures. They thus lost the favor of the senate ; and though the affection of the soldiers enabled them to acquire military glory, they were unable to carry, any of the measures that they advocated. Weary of disap- pointment, they resolved to establish a colony of the members of their family, their clients, and dependants, on the frontiers, to guard the Ro- man territories from the Viren'tes. The number of persons capable of bearing arms mustered by this single house amounted to three hundred and six. They took post on the Cremera, where they were all cut off by the Etrurians (b. c. 476). It is said that only one young man of the Fabii escaped from this ruin of his family, and became the progenitor of a new race ; but this is manifestly an exaggeration. The Etruscans, following up their success, advanced within sight of Rome, formed a camp on the Janic'ulum, ravaged both sides of the river, and crowded the city with fugitives. The consuls, Virgin'ius and Ser- vil'ius, at length attacked. the enemy in different quarters, and, after a desperate battle, forced them to retreat. From this time fortune began to favor the Romans, probably on account of the Etrurians being engaged in war with Hiero, king of Syracuse ; and peace was at length conclu- ded for forty years (b. c. 470). Niebuhr conjectures, with apparent plausibility, that it was at this time the Romans recovered the territory of which they had been deprived by Porsen'na. In the year after the conclusion of the peace, Cneius GenVicius, trib- une of the people, impeached the consuls, Furius and Man'lius, before the general assembly of the commonalty, for refusing to give effect to the agrarian law. The consuls made a feeble defence ; and the patri- cians, failing to bribe or intimidate the bold tribune, had him assassin- ated. Taking advantage of the consternation produced by this daring crime, the consuls ordered a general levy, intending to divert the peo- ple from their purpose of engaging them in foreign war. This plan would have succeeded, had not the refusal of one man, Vol'ero Pub'lius, to serve in the ranks, after having previously held the commission of centurion, led to a fierce commotion, which frustrated the consular plans. Vol'ero, being chosen tribune by his countrymen, instead of seeking personal revenge, by impeaching the consuls, struck a fatal blow at the supremacy of the patrician faction, by transferring the election of the tribunes from the centuries to the tribes, and establishing the right of the general assembly of the commonalty to deliberate on all matters affecting the common weal, which should be brought before them by the tribunes ; a law which was in effect the same as the establishment of the liberty of the press in om: own days. While these laws were under discussion, the consul, Ap'pius Claddius, was pre-eminently distinguish- ed by his opposition to the popular claims ; and when they were extort- ed from the senate, he unwisely vented his dissatisfaction on the army that he led against the Vol'sci. His soldiers, in revenge, fled before 21^ ANCIENT mSTOHY. the enemy. Ap'pius punisted theirt By decimation, putting every tenfli man to death,. When his year oC office expired, he was impeached capitally for snch atrocious vengeance ; but he escaped the pemalty of Lis tjrranny by committing suicide. For several years the Roman history presents little more than a rep- etition of the struggles between the patricians and plebeians ; desultory wars with the jEqui and Yol'sci ; and a succession of physical cala,m- ities, uniting the horrors of plague, pestilence, and famine. Ap'pius Herdonius, a Sabine adventurer, took advantage of these circumstances, and one night' surprised and seized the capitol with an army of about four thousand men, composed of outlaws and slaves (b. c. 459). In- stigated by the tfibimes, the people refused to take up arms unless secu- Tity was given that their grievances should be redressed ; particularly insisting on the legal restriction of the consulai: power by a written code, according to the proposal of Terentillus {lex Terentilla) a few months before. The consul Valerius promised compliance ; and the people stormed the Capitol, slew Herdonius, arid punished his associ- ates : but Valerius having fallen in the assault, the senate refused to fulfil the conditions he had stipulated. During the ^quian war (b, c. 457), a consular army was intercepted by the enemy in the defiles of Mount jE'gidiis, and so closely blockaded, that there Seemed no choice between death or disgi-acreful submission. Some horsemen, breaking through the hostile lines, hrought the news to Rome ; and the sena!te, in alarm, resolved to create a dictator. Their choice fell upon Titus Quinc'tius Cincinnatus, a patrician violently op- posed to the popular claims, but celebrated for personal integrity. His son Cffi'so had recently fled from Rome to escape a trial for high crimes and misdemeanors ; and Cincinnatus had been reduced to great pecu- niary distress by being compelled to pay the surety he had given for his son's appearance. The dictator delivered the consul Miniicius and the army from their danger ; but before resigning oflice he used the absolute power with which he was invested, to recall his son Cse'sO from banishment, and drive his accuser into exile. There is, indeed, some reason to believe, that the dictatorship of Cincinnatus, which has been so much lauded, was a mere artifice to baffle the demand of the people for a written code of laws. It, however, failed of success : the tribunes succeeded in getting tlieir numbers increased from five to ten : Sic'cius Deritatus, a veteran plebeian of approved valor, stimulated his Order to fresh exertions in behalf of their freedom ; and at length the senate yielded a reluctant assent to the formation of a code. Anibassadors having been sent to the principal Grecian states and colonies for the purpose of collecting the best codes of celebrated legis- lators, ou their return, ten persons, hence called decemviri, were chosen. With, consular power, to arrange and digest a body of laws. A new constitution was established, known in history as the laws of the Twelve Tables, which continued, down to the time of the emperors, to be the b9.sis of all civil and penal jurisprudence . It established the legal equality of all the citizens ; but it preserved some of the most odious privileges of the aristocracy, especially the exclusive eligibility to the consulship. a,nd it prohibited thb intermarriage of patricians and plebeians (b. c' 450). The patricians, hoping to procure some modification in laws ROMAN REPUBLIC. 213 which they regarded as ruinous to their interests, and the plebeians, gratified by the advantages they had obtained, united to continue the decemviral authority for another year. The decem'vira, now secure of power, threw off the mask, grievously oppressed the people, and treach- erously betrayed old Sic'cius Dentatus, whose approved valor they dreaded, to the enemy. At length Ap'pius, one of their number, at- tempted to make Virl'ginia, the daughter of a brave officer, the victim of his lust, by illegally assigning her as a slave to one of his creatures. Her father, Vir'ginius, slew the girl in the public court to save her froni dishonor, and, aided by her lover Icil'ius, raised such a storm against the decemvirs, that they were forced to resign their office, and the ancient forms of government were restored. The tribimician power was not only re-established, but formidably increased by a law of the consul Valerius (b. c. 446), which invested the votes of the commons with the force of laws.* Civil commotions were renewed in consequence of the exertions made by the tribune Canuleius to abolish the law against intermarriages, and *.o open the consulship to plebeians. The repeal of the marriage-law was conceded, after a difficult struggle (b. c. 455); and the second popular demand was evaded by transferring the consular power to the annual camtnanders of the legions,t who were to be six in number, and one half chosen from the people (b. c. 443). But even this concessioa was for some tune evaded by the senate, under the pretence of informal- ities in the election .of those officers. Soon afterward (b. c. 442), new magistrates, called censors, were chosen, not only to regulate the taking of the census, but also to superintend public morals ; a power that soon enabled these magistrates to take rank among the very highest dignitaries of the state. These changes, however, did not conciliate the people, and a severe famine (b. c. 438) aggravated their discontent. In the midst of this distress, Spiirius Mae'lius, a plebeian knight, pur- chased with his private fortune a large qu,a,ntity of corn in Tuscany, which hq distributed gratuitously to the people. His object probably was to become the first plebeian consul, which laudable object the patricians perverted into the crime of aiming at the sovereignty. They therefore appointed Cincianatus dictator, who at once sent Spurius Ahala, hig master of the horse, to summon Mae'lius before his tribunal. The knight was standing unarmed in the forum when thus called upon to take his trial ; he showed some reluctance to obey the dictator's command, and was cut down by Ahala. The old dictator applauded this murder of a defenceless man as an act of patriotism ; but the people took a different view of the transaction, and Ahala only escaped con- demnation by voluntary exile. While these commotions raged in the city, the Romans were engaged in desultory wars sigainst the Sabines, the iEquians, and the Volscians, which generally terminated to the ad,Tautage of the republic, though they led to no decisive result. A more important affair was the war against Veii, provoked by Lar Tolum'nius, king of the Veien'tes, who put to death the Roman ambassadors to the people of Fidenae. Satis- faction being refused for this outrage (b. c. 404), the Romans came to * Lex Valeria ; ut quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret. f Tribuoi militam consulari potestate. 214 ANCIENT HISTORY. the resolution of destroying Veii, which, being the richest city of Etruria, had long been a dangerous rival of their republic. To effect this object, it was necessary to have a permanent standing army; and a property-tax was levied to supply payment for the troops. After the blockside and siege had continued nearly ten years, Furius Caminus, who had distinguished himself by defeating the Etrurian armies that attempted to aid the Veien'tes, was chosen dictator. By his directions a mine was constructed from the Roman camp into the Veientine citadel, through which an entrance was obtained, and Veii taken (b. c. 3&5). Its riches were shared by the soldiers, its inhabitants enslaved or held to ransom, and the images of its gods transferred to Rome. Notwithstanding his great services, Camil'lus was condemned to exile on the charge of having embezzled part of the plunder of Veil ; but scarcely had he departed, when the Romans were involved in the most calamitous war that has yet occurred in their history. The barbarous Gauls, having crossed the Alps in numerous hordes, laid waste the fer- tile fields of Etruria, and besieged the important city of Cliisium. The Etrurians sought aid from the Romans, who sent some of the young nobility to remonstrate with the Bren'nus, or chieftain of the Ganls. This barbarous chieftain treated the deputies with such scorn, that, for- getting their sacred character, they entered the besieged city, and joined ill a sally of the garrison. The Bren'nus, enraged at such a violation of the law of nations, demanded satisfaction from the senate ; and when this was refused, broke up his camp, and marched direct against Rome. A body of troops, hastily levied to repel the invasion, took post on the river Al'lia, about eleven miles from Rome (b. c. 389). In the very commencement of the engagement, the Romans, seized with sudden panic, broke and fled ; they were pursued with dreadful slaughter to their very gates ; and had not the victors paused to gather the spoil, an end would have been put to the Roman name and nation. To defend the city of Rome against such an enemy was impossible ; it was therefore resolved to place the best troops as a garrison in the citadel, supplying them with whatever provisions remained in the city, while the mass of the population should seek refuge in the neighboring towns. The priests and principal objects of reUgious reverence were removed to the old Pelasgic city, Cae're Agyl'la. About eighty of the chief pontiffs and patricians, probably devoting themselves, according to the superstition of the age, for the safety of the republic, remained quietly sitting on their cunUe chairs in the forum. When the Gauls entered the city, they were amazed to find it deserted : pursuing their march, they entered the forum, and slew those whom they found there. They then laid siege to the capitol ; but soon became weary of so tedious a task, especially after their attempt to take the citadel by storm had been frustrated by the cackling of the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno, and the valor of Mar'cus Man'lius. They finally agreed to quit the city, on receiving a ransom of one thousand pounds' weight of gold. According to the ordinary legend, Camil'lus, recalled from banishment by a hasty decree of the people assembled at Veii, appeared with an army while the gold was being weighed, defeated the Gauls, and liberated his country. Polyb'ius, a Greek historian, gives a much more probable account. He says, that the Gauls returned home ROMAN EEPUBLIC. 215 to protect their own country from an invasion of the Ven'eti, and inti- mates that they bore off tljeir plunder without interruption. Section IV. — From the Rebuilding of ike City to Oie first Punic War, FROM B- c. 363 TO B. c. 264. So helpless was Rome after the departure of the Gauls, that it was exposed to repeated insults from the neighboring townships, which had hitherto been subject to its sway. The citizens looked forward with dismay to the task of rebuilding their walls and houses ; they clamored for an immediate removal to Veii, and were with difficulty prevented from accomplishing their purpose by the firmness of Camil'lus. While the subject was under discussion, a lucky omen, probably preconcerted, decided the irresolute. Just as a senator was rising to speak, a centu- rion, coming with his comply to relieve guard, gav# the usual word of command : " Ensign, plant your colors ; this is the best place TO STAT IN !"* The senators rushed out of the temple, exclaiming, " A happy omen : the gods have spoken — we obey." The multitude caught the enthusiasm, and exclaimed with one voice, " Rome for EVER !" Under the prudent guidance of Camil'lus, the military strength of Rome was renewed, and the states which had triumphed in the recent humiliation of the city were forced again to recognise its superiority. Man'lius, the brave defender of the capitol, finding himself excluded from office by the jealousy of his brother patricians, declared himself the patron of the plebeians. This revived the old dissensions with all their former virulence. Camil'lus was appointed dictator ; and by his orders Man'lius was brought to trial, convicted of treason, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (b. c. 383). A plague, which burst forth soon after, was popularly attributed to the anger of the gods at the destruc- tion of the hero who had saved their temples from poUulion. By their triumph over Man'lius, and their steadiness in opposing popular claims, the patricians acquired such strength, that the populace became over- awed, and the commons ceased to display the spirit and courage they had previously shown in their contests with the nobles. " Rome was on the point of degenerating into a miserable oligarchy ; her name is the utmost we should have known of her, had not her irretrievable de- cline been arrested at the moment by the appearance of two men, who changed the fate of their country and of the world." t The renovators of the constitution were Caius Licin'ius Stolo, and Lucius Seu'tius Lateranus. They were aided in their patriotic labors by Mar'cus Fabius Ambus'tus, a patrician, the father-in-law of Licin'- ius, who is said to have favored the popular cause to gratify the ambi- tion of a favorite daughter. There were three rogations, or bills, brought forward by Licin'ius : the first opened the consulship to the plebeians ; the second prohibited any person from renting more than five hundred acres of public land, and forbade any individual to feed on a common pasturage more than one hundred of large, and five hundred of small cattle. It also fixed the rents of the public lands at the tenth • Hie manebimus optim^. f Nietahi. 216 ANCIENT HISTORY. of the com produce (fruges), and a fifth, of the produce of vines, aloes, and other fruit-trees. The third rogation proposed that, in all cases of outstanding debts, all the interest which had been paid should be de- ducted from the capital, and the balance paid by equal annual instal- ments in three years. The patricians protracted their resistance to these laws during five years, using every means of force and fraud in their power to frustrate the designs of Licin'lus. At length the people took arms, and occupied Mount Aventine. Camil'lus, being chosen dictator, saw that npthjng but concession could avert the horrors of a civil war ; and the senate allowed the three bills to become law (b. c. 366),. stipulating only that the consuls should no longer act as civil judges, and that new magistrates should be chosen, with the title of praetors,, to exercise judicial functions. The plebeians having once njade good thei?- claim to the consulship, acquired successively, as a matter of course^ participation in the oth^ high offices of stale: the dictatorship was opened to them b. c. 353 ; the censorship, b. c. 348 ; the praetorship, b. c. 334 ; and even the priestly ofiice, b. c. 300. During these civic struggles the, Romans maintained their reputation abroad by several victories over their enemies, especially the Gauls -^nd the Etrurians. But they were soon engaged in a more important struggle with the Samnites j and this contest, vyhich lasted, with little uitermission, more than half a century, opened a way for the subjuga- tion of southern Italy, and laid the foundation of Rome's future great- ness. The Samnites having invaded Campania, the people of Cap'ua, to ward off impending danger, declared themselves subjects of Rome. Ambassadors being sent to warn the Samnites against invading the new province, the Samnites treated thpir remonstrances with contempt, and war was immediately declajred. It was carried on slowly at first, but generally to the advantage of the Romans, until the Samnites sought terms of truce. During this interval the Latins attacked the Samnites, who requested assistance from their recent enemies, and orders were issued by the senate that the Latins should desist from hpstilities. These commands being disobeyed, war was declared against the Latins, and the conduct of it intrusted to the consuls Man'- lius. and, Decius, To prevent the confusion which might arise between armies speaking the same language, Manlius commanded that no Ro- njan soldier should quit. his ranks under pain of death (b. c. 330). The consul's own son, challenged to single combat by a commander of the enemy, disobeyed these orders, and was instantly sent to execution by the stem father. In the engagement which ensued, the Romans were on the point of being routed, untU Decius, the plebeian consul, devoting himself, according to. the superstitions of the age, for the good of his cpjmtry, rushed into the thickest of the fight, and fell covered with wounds. The soldiers, now persuaded that the gods had been concil- iated, renewed the fight with enthusiastic confidence, and the Latins were completeljr defeated. The Romans followed up their success with so much spirit during the three ensuing campaigns, that all La- liium and Campania were subdued, and annexed as provinces to the territory of the republic. These great advantages gained by their rivals, alarmed the Sam- nites ; many al^o of the states in southern Italy, especially the Luca- KOMAN REPUBLIC. 317 nians and Tarentines, became jealous of the rising greatness of Rome. Papir'ius Cur'sor was appointed dictator to crush this dangerous con- federacy : he gained several victories over the Samnites ; and these successes being improved by the generals that followed hira, reduced the enemies so low, that they were once more forced to solicit a ces- sation of arms (b. c. 321). But these peaceful appearances lasted only a few months : Pon'tius, an able Saranite general, stimulated his coun- trymen to renew the war, and bade defiance to the Roman power. The consuls Vetiirius and Posthumius were sent with a large army to in- vade Sam'nium (b. c. 320) ; but the crafty Pon'tius contrived to draw these generals, with their leaders, into a mountainous and rocky defile, called the Caudine Forks, where they could neither fight nor fly ; and while they were in this situation, the Samnites blockaded all the pas- sages. The Romans being forced to capitulate, Pon'tius sent to ask his father in what manner the persons should be treated : the old man recommended that they should either be dismissed with all honor and freedom, or slaughtered without mercy. Pon'tius unwisely adopted a middle course ; he spared the lives of the Romans, but compelled them all, officers and soldiers, to pass under the yoke, and forced the consuls to give hostages for evacuating Sam'nium. This disgraceful treaty was disavowed by the senate, and the offi- cers who had signed it were sent bound to Pon'tius, that he might wreak his vengeance upon them ; but the Saranite general spurned such poor satisfaction, and vainly demanded either that the whole Ro- man army should be again placed in his power, or that the articles of capitulation should be strictly observed. The Romans turned a deaf ear to these proposals ; Papir'ius Cur'sOr once more showed them the way to victory ; his successors in command followed his example ; and the Samnites, completely humbled, sought and obtained conditions of , peace (b. c. 303). But amity could not long subsist between nations aspiring each to the supremacy of Italy : the war was renewed (b. c. 297) ; and Fabius Max'imus, with his colleague, the younger Decius, rivalled the exploits of Papir'ius Cur'sor. The Samnites were aided by the Umbrians, the Etrurians, and the Gauls ; but the desperate valor of the Romans enabled them to triumph over this formidable con-: federacy. Once they were on the point of being defeated by the Gauls (b. c. 294) ; but the younger Decius, imitating the example of his father, devoted hinsself an offering to the gods, and, at the sacrifice of his life, purchased a decisive victory for his countrymen. At length the Samnites, having lost their brave general Pon'tius, were completely subdued by Ciirius Dentftus (b. c. 290), and forced to submit to the terms dictated by the conquerors. In the same year the Sabines were conquered ; and Ciirius had the unusual honor of having two triumphs decreed to him in one consolate. The Tarentines, and the other states in southern Italy, dreading that the Romans would take vengeance on them for their having aided the Samnites, incited the Gauls to attack the republic. These barbarians were at first successfvil ; but they were finally crushed by Dentatus and Fabricius. Preparations were made for a war against Taren'tum, and its luxurious citizens placed themselves, under the protection of Pyr - Thus, king of Epirus. That royal knight-errant, believing that it was 218 ANCIENT HISTORY. in his power to found as extensive an empire in the western world as Alexander the Great had recently established in Asia, readily obeyed the summons ; and having sent his friend Cineas with a strong de<- tachment to secure the citadel of Taren'tum, soon followed with a powerful army, having some elephants among his forces, the first that had been used in the wars of western Europe (b. c. 279). It was solely to these animals that Pyr'rhus was indebted for his first victory over the consul Lsevlnus ; and so little were the vanquished terrified by defeat, that they vainly offered him a renewal of battle before the termination of the campaign. He was still more unsuccessful in his attempts at negotiation ; his bribes were rejected by the Roman consul and ambassador Fabricius ; and the offers of peace which he sent to the senate by the orator Cineas were peremptorily rejected. A second time Pyr'rhus defeated the Romans ; but was so little sat- isfied with his success as to exclaim, " Another such victory and I am undone !" The war then lingered, and Pyr'rhus passed over into Sicily, with his usual inconstancy, to deliver the Greek states in that island from the Carthaginians. During his absence his allies suffered very severely, and sent pressing messages soliciting his return ; an ex- cuse of which Pyr'rhus readily availed himself to cover the shame of his failure in Sicily (b. c. 374). Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Len'- tulus were chosen consuls to oppose him, and two considerable armies were placed at their disposal. Pyr'rhus marched against the former, hoping to surprise him in his camp near Beneven'tum ; but his lights failing him, he was obliged to halt, until the dawn revealed his ap- proach to the Romans. Instead of being the assailant, the Epirote monarch was himself attacked by Dentatus ; his elephants were driven back on his own lines by fireballs and torches ; and after vainly en- . deavoring to stop the slaughter of his bravest troops, he was forced to fly with a small escort to Taren'tum. Thence he returned to Greece, leaving a garrison under the command of Milo in the citadel, which, however, finally surrendered to the Romans. The Samnites, Bruttians, and Lucanians, who had joined Pyr'rhus, were easily subdued after his departure ; and Rome established her supremacy over all the coun- tries in Italy, from the northern frontiers of Etruria to the Sicilian straits, and from the Tuscan sea to the Adriatic. Section V. — From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Qrac'chi. FROM B. c. 264 TO B. c. 134. The Mamer'tine mercenaries, who had seized Messena and slaugh- tered the citizens, justly dreading the vengeance of the Syracusans, divided into two parties ; one seeking the protection of the Cartha- ginians, the other that of the Romans. Thus the first pretence of quar- rel between the two mightiest republics of ancient times was, which should have the honor, or rather dishonor, of shielding from merited punishment a piratical banditti, stained by every species of crime. The Romans were long delayed by their reluctance to acknowledge such discreditable allies ; but finding that the Carthaginians had gained possession of the Messenian citadel, they made speedy preparations to ROMAN REPUBLIC. 219 prevent their rivals from becoming masters of Sicily. An army in- trusted to the command of the consul Ap'pius Claudius, was conveyed across the straits (the vigilance of the Carthaginian fleet being eluded by stratagem), and gained possession of Messena. Successive victo- ries over the Syracusans and Carthaginians soon procured the Roman allies among the Sicilian states, and inspired them with the hope of becoming masters of the island. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted his former allies, and by his early alliance vfith. Rome, secured the tranquillity of his kingdom in the coming contest. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, who had looked upon Sicily as an almost certain conquest, were filled with .rage when they learned the danger that threatened their possessions in that island. They hired a vast number of mercenaries in Gaul, Liguria, and Spain ; they made Agrigen'tum their chief naval and military depot, storing it plentifully with the mu- nitions of war. Notwithstanding the great natural and artificial strength of Agrigen'tum, the Romans, eager to seize the Carthaginian magazines, laid siege to the city, and defeated an immense army that had been sent to its relief (b. c. 262). Dispirited by this misfortune, the garrison abandoned the city, which, with all its stores, fell into the hands of the Romans. But this success only roused the senate and people of Rome to fresh exertions ; they saw that their conquests could not be secure while the Carthaginians held the supremacy of the sea, and they there- fore directed all their energies to the preparation of a fleet. Though not wholly unacquainted with ships, the Romans had hitherto paid little or no attention to naval affairs ; and their model for building ships-of-war was a Carthaginian vessel that had been driven ashore in a storm. After some indecisive skirmishes, the consul Duil'ius, relying on his invention of the " corvus," a machine which served both as a grappling-iron and drawbridge, hazarded an engagement with the Carthaginian fleet (b. c. 260). No sooner had the hostile ships closed, than the Romans lowered the new machines on the enemies' decks,- and, fighting hand to hand, carried no fewer then fifty galleys by board- ing. The Carthaginian admiral finding naval tactics of no avail, drew off" the rest of his fleet. To commemorate this their first victory by sea, the Romans erected a rostral* column in the forum, which still continues in excellent preservation, the chief injury it has sustained being the loss of part of the inscription. In a second naval engage- ment, near the island of Lip'ara (b. c. 256), the Carthaginians lost eighteen vessels, of which eight were sunk and ten taken. From this time forward the Romans began to pay great attention to maritime af- fairs ; they maintained navies in the two seas of Italy, and when the ships were not employed in war, they were sent to make surveys of the coasts. The increasiiig importance of navigation appears manifest, from the repeated representations of war-galleys on the Roman coins ; these do not occur before the first Punic war, but after that period we find them becoming very common. The struggle between the rival republics had lasted about eight years, when the Romans, following the example of the Syracusan Agathoc'les, resolved to invade Africa, knowing that the native tribes of that con- • That is, ornamented with representations of the rostra, or beaks of ships. 220 ANCIENT HISTOEY. tinent were weary of the tyranny and rapacity of Carthage. An arma- ment of three hundred and thirty ships was prepared for this great en- terprise, and intrusted to the command of the consuls i^eg'ulus arid Man'lius (b. c. 255). A third sea-fight was a necessary preliminary to t^iis invasion ; the Carthaginians were once more defeated, sixty-four of their galleys were taken, and thirty destroyed. The victorious fleet pursued its voyage ; Reg'ulus effected a landing without loss, and took the city of Clypea by storm. Soon after, he defeated the Carthaginian army in a general engagement, and seized the city of Tunis. In great terror the Carthaginians sought for peace ; but the terms demanded by Reg'ulus were so harsh, that they resolved, at all hazards, to continue the war, and were confirmed in their determination by the arrival of a body of mercenary troops from Greece, under the command of Xanthip'- pus, a Spartan general of high reputation. To this foreigner the Car- thaginians intrusted the command of their army : he eagerly sought an opportunity of bringing the enemy to an engagement ; the Romans did not decline his challenge ; but they found that one man was sufiicient to change the fortune of the war. Xanthip'pus won a complete vic- tory ; the greater part of the Romans were taken prisoners or cut to pieces, two thousand alone escaping to the city of Clypea ; Reg'ulus himself was among the captives. The Spa.rta,n general, after this brilliant exploit, returned home. A Roman fleet was sent to bring off the garrison of Clypea, and gained on the vpyage a great victory over the Carthaginians ; but on the re- turn of the ships, three hundred and twenty of them, with all on board, were destroyed by a tempest. A second naval armament suffered a similar fate ; and the Romans, disheartened by these repeated misfor- tunes, abandoped for a time the sea to their enemies. But they were in some degree consoled by a second triumph obtained near Panor'mus, in Sicily, over As'dnibal (b. c. 249), which gave them a decided supe- riority in the island. The Carthaginians, daunted by this misfortune, took Reg'ulus from his dungeon to go as their ambassador to Rome, trusting that, weary of a long captivity, he would urge the senate to grant favorable terms of peace. Reg'ulus, however, persuaded his countrymen to continue the war, assuring them that the resources of Carthage were exhausted. It is generally stated, that the patriotic general, after his return to Africa, was tortured to death by the disappointed Carthaginians. On the other hand, there is reason to believe that he died a natural death, and that the tale of lus savage murder was invented to excuse the cruelty with ■yvhich his family treated their Carthaginian captives. The renewed war began unfavorably for the Romans, their entire fleet having been wrecked on the south coast of Sicily (b. c. 248), and Hamil'car Bar'ca, thgi new commander of the Ca,rthaginians, proving a worthy successor of Xanthip'pus. But they were not dispirited by these losses ; a new fleet, of better construction than any they had yet possessed, was built, and placed under the command of the consul Lutatius Cat'ulus ; at the same time strong reinforcements were sent to the army in Sicily. The hostile navies met near the iEgates ; the consul had lightened his ves- sels by landing all unnecessary burdens on one of these islands ; but Han'iio, the Carthaginian admiral, in his hurry to engage, left his ves- EOMAN REPUBLIC. 221 sels encumbered with baggagfe. The battle was brief but decisive ; fifty of Han'no's vessels were sunk, and seventy taken ; and the Car- thaginians were for ever deprived of the empire of the sea (b. c. 241). But the consequences of this defeat threatened still more fatal results to Carthage : Hamil'car Bar'ca, with the last army on which the re- public could depend, was closely blockaded in a corner of Sicily, and the Roman cruisers cut him ofT from all communication with Africa : were he forced to surrender, Carthage would be left at the mercy of the barbarous tribes in its neighborhood. Under these circumstances the Carthaginians sought peace, but could obtain no better terms than those which Reg'ulus demanded when in sight of their gates (b. c. 240). These conditions were, that the Carthaginians should evacuate all the islands of the Mediterranean, restore the Roman prisoners without ransom, and pay three thousand talents 6f silver (about 600,000L) to defray the expenses of the war. After the termination of the first Punic war, Rome enjoyed a brief period of domestic and external tranquillity; and the temple of Janus was*shut for the second time since the foundation of the city. Tedious wars were waged against the Ligurians and the Gallic tribes which had ■settled in northern Italy, when the people became weary of peace ; but a more important contest was provoked by the piracies of the lUyrians, whose queen, Teiuta, procured the murder of the ambassadors sent to remonstrate against the outrages of her subjects. A navy was soon established in the Adriatic, and an arm/ sent into Illyricum, whose rapid successes compelled Teiita to purchase peace by resigning the 'greater part of her territories (b. c. 227). This speedy conquest diffused the fame of the Romans throughout eastern Europe ; for most of the Greek states had suffered severely from the piracies of the Illyrians. The war was subsequently renewed (b. c. 218), and the Illyrians again overthrovifn with greater disgrace and loss. The Carthaginians were anxious to compensate their losses in Sicily by the subjugation of Spain ; and their extensive conquests in that pen- insula gave great umbrage to their suspicious rivals. A pretext for in- terference was soon found. Han'nibal, the son of Hamil'car Bar'ca, who had been brought, while yet a child, to the altar by his father, and sworn never to relax in his enmity to Rome, laid siege to Sagun'tum, a Greek colony on the Iberus, and treated with contempt the remon- strances of the Roman ambassadors (b. c. 218). His conduct having been approved by the Carthaginian senate, both parties made instant preparations for renewing hostilities, and soon commenced the second Punic war. Before the Roman armies were ready to take the field, Han'nibal had completed the conquest of Spain, and Crossed the Pyrenees on his road to Italy. The consul, Scip'io, hastened to prevent him from passing the Rhone ; but being frustrated by the superior diligence of the Car- thaginian general, he sent the greater part of his forces into Spain, and sailed with the remainder for Italy, in order to intercept his enemies as they descended from the Alps. Even these formidable mountains caused but little delay to the emerprisiiig Han'nibal. He led his army across -them in fifteen days (b. c. 217) ; and, advancing through thfe country of the Taurini, tbOk theii capital city {Turin) by storm. 233 ANCIENT HISTOEY. Scip'io hasted to meet the invaders on the banks of the river Ticinus ; but he was defeated with great loss, and further weakened by the de- sertion of his Gallic mercenaries, who eagerly flocked to the standard of Han'nibal, regarding him as another Bren'nus. In the meantime, Scip'io had been reinforced by Sempronius, the other consul ; but he found that these succors were more than counter- balanced by the impetuosity of his colleague. Sempronius, eager to engage, imprudently forded the river Trebia, though its waters were swollen by rain and melted snow. The Romans, suddenly attacked as they came out of the river, were not able to cope with their enemies, who were fresh and vigorous ; nevertheless they made a brave resist- ance, and the central division, unbroken, made its way from the field to the city of Placen'tia. The victory, however, was of the greatest ser- vice to Han'nibal, as it secured him the alliance of the Gauls in north- ern Italy. Flamin'ius, the consul of the next year, displayed even more impet- uosity and imprudence than Sempronius. Marching incautiously in search of Han'nibal, he fell into an ambuscade near the Thrasyin|nian lake, and was slain, with the greater part of his army (b. c. 216). The Romans were so alarmed by the intelligence of this great calamity, that they created Fabius Max'imus dictator, though, in the absence of the surviving consul, they were obliged to dispense with the legal for- malities. Fabius adopted a new system of tactics ; he declined fight- ing ; but moving his camp along the summit of the hills, he closely watched the motions of the invaders, harassed their march, and inter- cepted their convoys. From his steadfast adherence to this policy, Fabius received the name of Cunctator (the delayer). During this pe- riod, the Roman armies in Spain, under the command of the Scip'ios, gained many important advantages, and thus prevented the Carthagini- ans from sending succors to Han'nibal. At the close of the year, Fabius resigned his authority to the consuls Paul'lus ..^mirius and Teren'tius Var'ro (b. c. 215). The latter hur- ried his more prudent colleague into a general action at the village of Can'nae, near the river Aufidus, where the Romans suflfered a more se- vere defeat than any they had received since their fatal overthrow by the Gauls on the Allia. This victory gave Han'nibal a^secure. position in southern Italy : it is even supposed, that he would have got posses- sion of Rome itself, had he inarched thither immediately after the battle. But the Romans, notwithstanding their great losses, did not despair : Scip'io, a young man destined at no distant period to raise his country to the summit of greatness, encouraged the nobles of his own age to stand firm at this crisis ; and Fabius Cunctator being appointed to the cornmand of the army, resumed the cautious systeni, the advantages of which had been already so fully proved. Han'nibal, in the meantime, led his forces to Cap'ua, where his veterans were enervated by the lux- ury and debauchery of that licentious city. At the same time he con- cluded an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon ; but the Romans, by their intrigues in Greece, found sufficient employment for that monarch at home, to prevent his interference in the aflairs of Italy. They even sent an army against him, under the command of the praetor LBevimus, ROMAN REPUBLIC. 223 and thus, thougli exposed to such danger in Italy, they maintained a vig- orous contest in Greece, Spain, and Sicily. It was in Sicily that success first began to dawn upon the Roman cause (b. c. 211^: the ancient city of Syracuse was taken by the prae- tor Metel'lus ; and the celebrated mathematician, Archim'edes, by whose engines the defence had been protracted, was slain in the storm. Two years afterward, Agrigen'tum, the last stronghold of the Carthaginians, was betrayed to Lsevinus ; and the Romans remained masters of the entire island, which henceforth became a regular province. In the meantime the war lingered in Italy ; the Roman generals were rarely able to cope with Han'nibal, though Marcel'lus is said to have gained a general battle over the Carthaginians. On the other hand, Han'nibal, receiving no reinforcements from Carthage, feared to peril his limited resources in any decisive enterprise. At length he sum- moned his brother As'drubal, who had long maintained the Carthaginian cause against the Scipios in Spain, to join him in Italy ; and As'drubal, without encountering any great difficulty, soon crossed the Pyrenees and Alps. The consuls, Liv'ius and N6ro, having discovered the di- rection of the Carthaginian's march, hastened to intercept him. As'- drubal, misled by his guides, was forced to hazard an engagement at a disadvantage on the banks of the Metaiirus, and was cut to pieces with his whole army (b. c. 206). The first information Han'nibal received of this great misfortune, was the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. Soon after, the Romans alarmed the Carthaginians by the prospect of a war in Africa, having en- tered into a treaty of alliance with Massinis'sa, the legitimate king of Numidia, and also with the usurper Sy'phax. At length Scip'io, the conqueror of Spain, was chosen consul, and, contrary to the strenuous exertions of Fabius, he prevailed upon the sen- ate to permit him to transfer the war into Africa ; and this was the more readily conceded, as the conclusion of peace with Philip (b. c. 203) had placed a fresh army at their disposal. Scip'io, on landing in Africa (b. c. 202), found that Sy'phax had been won over to the Carthaginian side by his wife Sophonis'ba, the daughter of As'drubal. The Roman general, knowing, however the inconstancy of the Numidian, com- menced negotiations, which were protracted with equal duplicity. While Sy'phax was thus amused, Scip'io suddenly surprised and burned his camp ; then attacking the Numidians in the midst of the confusion, he put forty thousand of them to the sword. After this achievement, Scip'io laid siege to U'tica : the Carthaginians raised a large army to relieve a place of so much importance ; but they were routed with great slaughter, and pursued to their very walls. This victory exposed Car- thage .itself to the perils of a siege ; Tunis, almost within sight of the city, opened its gates to the Romans ; and the Carthaginian senate driv- en almost to despair, recalled Han'nibal from Italy to the defence of his own country. Han'nibal, on his return home, would have made peace on reasonable terms, had not the Carthaginian populace, elated by the presence of the hero of a hundred fights, obstinately resisted any concession. With a heavy heart the brave old general made preparations for a decisive en- gagement in the field of Zama. Han'nibal's abilities were not less con- 224 ANCIENT HISTOEV. spicuous in this fatal fight than in the battles he had won in Italy : but the greater part of his forces \*ere raw troops, unfit to cope with Scip- io's disciplined legions. After a dreadful struggle, the Romans prevail- ed, and they followed up their advantages with so much eagerness, that twenty thousand of the Carthaginians fell in the battle or the pursuit. Han'nibal, after having performed everything that a general or brave soldier could do to restore the fortune of the day, fled with a small body of horse to Adrum^tum, whence he was soon summoned to Carthage to assist the tottering republic 'with his counsels (b. c. 301). There he informed the senate that " Carthage had no resource but in peace ;" and these words, from the mouth of the warlike Han'nibal, were decisive. Ambassadors were sent to seek conditions from the conqueror ; and the humbled Carthaginians accepted the terms of peace dictated by Scipio. who henceforward was honored with, the title of Africanus. Thfe chief articles of the treaty were, that Carthage should deliver up to the Romans all their deserters, fugitive slaves, and prisoners-of-war ; sur- render all her ships-of-the-line, except ten triremes, and all her ele- phants ; restore Numidia to Massinis'sa ; enter into no vvar without the permission of the Roman people ; pay as a ransom ten thousand talents of silver (a,bout two millions sterling) : and give one hundred hostages for the performance of the treaty. To these harsh terms the Cartha- ginians subscribed : Scip'io returned home, and was honored with the most magnificent triumph that Jiad yet been exhibited in Rome. Rome was now become a great military republic, supreme in western Europe, and commanding a preponderating influence in the east, where the kingdoms formed from the fragments of Alexander's empire had sunk into weakness from the exhaustion of mutual wars. The Athenians, exposed to the attacks of Philip, king of Macedon, sought the protection of the Romans, which was readily granted, as the senate had long been anxious to find a pretext for meddling in the affairs of Greece (b. c. 206). War was declared against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition of the tribunes of the [people; and it wasresoliredto follow up Scipio's policy, by making the enemy's country the theatre of hostilities. An army was sent into Macedonia, and its conduct was soon intrusted to Quin'- tius Flamin'ius, whose diplomatic skill was even more conspicuous than his military talents. After some minor engagements, in none of which did Philip evince much ability as a general or statesman, a decisive bat- tle was fought at Cynosceph'alae (b. c. 206), in which the Macedoni- ans were irretrievably overthrown, and forced to submit to such terms of peace as the conquerors pleased to dictate. This success was followed by the solemn mockery of proclaiming liberty to Greece at the Isthmian games, which filled the foolish spectators with so much delight, that they virtually became slaves to the Romans through gratitude for freedom. Antiochus, king of Syria, hoping to establish the empife of tlie Se- ledcidae in the east, soon caused a renewal of the wars in Greece. Han'nibal was accused to the Romans by his treacherous countrymen of having secretly intrigued with this monarch ; and having reason to fear that he would be surrendered to his enemies, he fled to Antiochus in Asia. The great general, however, found that the vain-glorious Syr- ian was unable to comprehend his prudent plans for conducting the war, and had the mortification to find himself suspected of being secretly in ROMAN EEPUBLIC. 225 league with the Romans. In the meantime the iEtolians, displeasedby the policy which the Romans were pursuing, invited Antiochus, into Europe ; and that monarch, passing over into Greece, made himself master of the island of Euboe'a (b. c. 191). War was instantly de- clared ; the consul, Acil'ius Glabrio, appeared in Greece with a power- ful army ', he gained a signal victory over the Syrians at the straits of Thermop'ylse, and reduced the .ffitolians to such great extremities, that they were forced to beg a peace ; but the senate demanded such harsh conditions, that they resolved to endure die hazards of war a little longer (b. c. 190). In the following year, the senate intrusted the conduct of the war to Ldcius Scip'io, under whom his brother Africdnus served as a lieuten- Bnt.» Having soon tranqmllized Greece, the two brothers passed into Asia : after many minor successors, they forced Antiochus to a general battle near the city of Magnesia, in which that monarch was complete- ly overthrown (b. c. 189). He was forced to purchase peace by re- signing all his possessions in Europe, and those in Asia north of Mount Taurus ; paying a fine of fifteen thousand Euboean talents (about "three millions sterling) ; and promising to give up Han'nibal. That illustri- ous exile fled for refuge to Prusias, king of Bith'3nttia ; but finding that he was still pursued by the vindictive hatred of the Romans, he put an end to his life by taking poison, which in anticipation of such an ex- tremity, he always carried with him concealed in a ring. On their return home, the Scip'ios were accused of having taken bribes from Antiochus and embezzling the public money (b. c. 186). Africanus refused to plead, preferring to go into voluntary exile at Li- ter'num, where he died. Lucius was condemned ; and on his refusal to pay the fine imposed, all his property was confiscated. About the same time Rome exhibited the first example of religious persecution : a sect called the Bacchanalians, having been accused of the most monstrous crimes, several laws were enacted for its extirpation ; but it is scarcely possible to discover how far the charges against this unfortunate society were supported by evidence. The mastery assumed by the Romans in Greece gave great and just offence to the principal states ; but their yoke was felt by none so griev- ously as Per'ses, king of Macedon, who openedforhimself a way tothe throne by procuring the judicial murder of his brother Dem6trius. Mii- lual complaints and recriminations soon led to open war (b. c. 170). Per'ses having collected his forces, entered Thessaly, captured several important towns, defeated a Roman army on the river Peneus, and was joined by the greater part of the Epirote nation. His successes con- tinued until the Romans intrusted the conduct of the war to jEmil'ius Paul'lus, son of the general that had fallen in the battle of Can'nae, though he was past the age at which they usually sent out commanders. While the new general advanced against Macedon, the praetor Ancius invaded Illyr'icum, whose monarch had entered into alliance with Per'- ses, and subdued the entire kingdom in the short space of thirty days. Per'ses being hard pressed, resolved to hazard a battle near the walls" of Pyd'na (b. c. 167). After both armies had remained for some days iaa sight of each other, an accident brought on an engagement contrary to the wishes of the leaders ; it ended in a complete victory of the Ro- 15 S36 ANCIENT HISTORY. mans. Per'ses fled to Samothrace, but was soon forced to surrendei', and was reserved to grace the triumph of the conqueror. Macedon, Epirus, and Illyr'icum, were reduced to the condition of provinces, and it became evident that the independence of the remaining Grecian states would not long be respected. The triumph of .ffimil'ius Paul'- lus was the most splendid which had been yet exhibited in Rome, and it became the precedent for the subsequent processions of victorious generals. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was soon followed by that of the miserable remains of the once proud republic of Carthage. To this war the Romans were stimulated by the rigid Cato, sumamed the Censor, who was animated by his envy of Scip'io Nasica, on ac- count of his great influence in the senate, and by a haughty spirit of revenge for some slights which he imagined he had received from the Carthaginians when sent as ambassador to their state. The pretext for the war was some quarrels between the Carthaginians and the Numid- ians, in which, however, the former only acted upon the defensive. At first, the Cartliaginians attempted to disarm their enemies by sub- mission ; they banished all who had incurred the displeasure of the Romans, and surrendered their arms and military stores to the consuls ; but when informed that they must abandon their city and consent to its demolition, they took courage from despair, and set their insulting foes at defiance (b., c. 168). They made the most vigorous exertions to supply the place of the weapons they had surrendered : men of every rank and station toiled night and day in the forges ; the women cut off their long hair, hitherto the great source of their pride, to furnish strings for the bows of the archers, and engines of the slingers ; and the ban- ished As'drubal was recalled to the defence of his- country. From this unexpected display of courage and patriotism, the Romans found Carthage not quite so easy a conquest as they had anticipated : during the first two years of the war they suffered repeated disappoint- ments ; but at length they intrusted the command of their armies to .Scip'io iEmilianus, the adopted son of the great Africanus (b. c. 147). On his arrival in Africa Scip'io's first care was to restore the discipline of the soldiers, who had been allowed by their former commanders to indulge in dangerous licentiousness. His strictness and moderation • wOn him the friendship of the African nations, and enabled him in his second campaign (b. o. 146) to press vigorously the siege of Carthage. After a severe struggle, the Romans forced an entrance into the city on the side of Cothon, or. the port, and made themselves masters of the great wall. Thence Scip'io, with a large body of soldiers, cut his way to the principal square of the city, where he bivouacked all the follow- ing night. On the next morning the fight was renewed, and the whole city, except the citadel and the temple of iEsculapius, taken : six days were spent in preparation for the siege of these strongholds ; but, on the seventh, the garrison in the citadel surrendered at discretion ; and the deserters in flie temple of iEscul4pius, setting fire to that building, perished in the flames. Scanty as are our limits, two incidents connected with the. destruc- tion of this ancient commercial metropolis, so long the rival of Rome for supremacy in the western world, must not be omitted. When Scip'io EOMAN REPUBLIC. 237: beheld Carthage in flames, his soul was softened by reilections on the instability of fortune, and he could not avoid anticipating a time when Rome herself should experience the same calamities as those which had befallen her unfortunate competitor. He vented his feelings, by quoting from Homer, the well-known lines in which Hector predicts the fall of Troy :— " Yet come it ■will, the day decreed by fates ; (How my heart trembles, while my tongue relates !) The day when thou, imperial Troy, must bend. And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." The second incident is still more tragic : As'drubal, the.first mover of the war, had fled with the deserters, accompanied by his wife and children, to the temple of iEsculapius, but went over to the Romans a little before the destruction of that edifice. While the fire was kindling, the wife of As'drubal, having decked herself in the best manner she cotild, appeared with her two children on the top of the temple, whence, calling out to Scip'io, she begged him to punish her husband according to his deserts, that traitor to his God, his country, and his family. Then directing her speech to As'drubal — " Thou wicked, perfidious wretch," she exclaimed, " thou most cowardly of men ! This fire will quickly consume me and my children : but thou, once ruler of mighty Carthage, what a triumph shalt thou adorn ! And what punishment wilt thou not suffer from him at whose feet thou art sitting !" This said, she cut the throats of her children, threw their bodies into the burning building, and sprung after them into the very centre of the flames. During the third Punic war, the disturbances exqited in Macedonia by an impostor, Andris'cus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, kindled a new war, which proved fatal to the independence of Greece. The Achaeans stimulated by some factious leaders, took up arms but were subdued the very same year that Carthage was destroyed. Mum'mius, the consul who conducted this war, sacked and burned Corinth ; and after having plundered the city of its statues, paintings, and most valua- ble effects, levelled its walls and houses to the ground. Thebes and Chalcis soon after shared the same sad fate. If we may believe Vel- lelus Pater'culus, Mum'mius was so little acquainted with the value of the beautiful works of art which fell into his possession, that he cov- enanted with the masters of the ships, whom he hired to convey from Corinth to Italy a 'great number of exquisite pieces of painting and statuary, that " if they lost any of them, they should furnish others in their stead." Spain next began to attract the attention of the Romans. No nation that the republic had subdued defended its liberties with greater obsti- nacy. The war for the subjugation of the Spaniards commenced six years after the expulsion of the Carthaginians from the western penin- sula, and was exceedingly obstinate (b. c. 300). This struggle was protracted partly from the natural state of the country, which was thickly populated and studded with natural fortresses, partly from the courage of the inhabitants, and partly from the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were accustomed to employ their allies to subdue other nations. The chief enemies against whom the invaders had to contend were the 228 ANCIENT HISTORY. Geltiberians and Lusitinians ; and so often were the Romans defeated!, that nothing was more dreaded by die soldiers at home than an expedi- tion against such formidable- foes. At length the Lusitanians found a, Jealder worthy of their bravery (B. o. 146) in Viriatus, who, from a shepherd, became a hunter and a robber ; and in consequence of his distinguished valor was chosen general-in-chief by his countrymen. This bold leader long maintained his ground against the Roman armies, and was equally formidable whether victorious or Vanquished. Indeed, he was never more to be dreaded than immediately after defeat, because he knew how to inake the most of the advantages arising from his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. Unable to oOmpete with Viriatus, the Con^l Cse'pio treacherou&ly pro- cured his assassination (b. c. 140) ; and the Lusitanians, deprived of their leader, were easily subdued. The Numantine war in hither Spain had been allowed to languish while the Lusitanians remained in power ; it vyaa now renewed with fifesh vigor on both sides, and the pro-consUl Pompey laid siege to Nuihan'tia. He was soon compelled to raise the siege, and even to enter into a treaty whh the Numantines ; but dreading the resentment of the senate, he disavowed the negotiation, and, by his great interest, escaped the punishment of his perfidy. A similar disgrace befell Pom- pey's successor, Mancfnus ; and the Romans, alarmed by the great Victories of the Numantines, raised Scip'io jEmilianus a second time to the consulship, and assigned him Spain as his province. Scip'io spent his entire consular year in restoring the discipline of soldiers dispirited by defeat, and neglected by their former generals; he then, with the inferior title of pro-cwisul, directed all. his attention to concluding the war. Having obtained reinforcements from Africa, he laid close siege to Numdn'tia, blockading every avenue to the town. After a protracted defence of more than six mtjhths, the Numantines destroyed their wives and children, set fire to their city, threw themselves on their swords or into the flames, and left the victbrs nothing to triumph over but empty walls (b.C 133). Spain henceforth becattie a Roman province, gov- erned by two annual prtetors. A rich province in Asia was obtained nearly at the same time on much more easy terms. At'talus, king of Per'gamus, d,ying, bequeathed his dominions to the Roman republic : and the senate took possession of the valuable inheritance, without heeding the remonstrances of the legitimate heir. But this acquisition of the wealthiest and finest dis- tricts in Asia Minor eventually cost the Romans very dear, both by the corruption of morals, consequent on the great influx of Asiatic wealth. And the dreadful wars in which this legacy involved them with Mithri- dStes, king of Pon'tus. Section Vl.-^From the Beginning of the Civil Mssensions under the Grau^dhi, to tkt Downfall of ike Sepublic and Death of Pompey. FROM B. C. 134 TO B. G. 48. During the Punic, Macedonian, and Spanish wars, the power of the sehite, on which the administration of the government necessarily de- volved, increased veljr ra:pidly, aind the form oif the constitution con- ROMAN RBPUBLIO. 229 set[Bently was changed more and more into that of a hateful aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people struggled rather as fectious demagogues than g,s honest defenders of popular rights. The aristoc- racy acquired vast wealth in the government of the provinces, and they employed their acquisitions in extending their political influence. The most obvious means of effecting this purpose was jobbing in the public lands, undertaking the management of extensive tracts, and sub-lettirag them to a crowd of needy dependants. Tiberius Grac'chus, the son of a consul, whose mother Cornelia was a daughter of the celebrated Soip'io Africanus, witnessed with indig- nation the progress of corruption, and, to check it, resolved to enforce the Liciniaii prohibition against any individual renting more than five hundred acres of the piiblic land. His office of tribune enabled him at once to commence operations ; but before committing himself to the hazards of a public struggle, he sought the advice of the most virtuous and respectable men in Home, all of whom sanctioned his project. Not daring to oppose directly the attempt to enforce a well-known law, the corrupt nobles engaged one of the tribune's colleagues to thwart his measures. Grfeved, but not disheartened, Tiberius procured the depo- sition of this unworthy magistrate, and carried a law, constituting a triumvirate, or commission of three persons, to inquire into the admin- istration of the public lands, and the violations of the Licinian law {b. c. 133). This was followed by a proposal, that the treasures which At'talus, king of Per'gamus, had bequeathed to the Romans should be distributed among the poorer classes of the people. During the agitation of this and sonie similar laws, his year of tribuneship expired, and the patricians resolved to prevent his re-election by abso- lute violence. So great was the. uproar on the first day of the comitia, that the returning officer was obliged to adjourn the proceedings. Early in the following morning, when the assembly met, Tiberius received iijformation that some of the nobles, accompanied by bands of armed retainers, had resolved to attack the crowd and take his life. Alarmed by this intemgence, he directed his friends to arm themselves as well as they could with staves; arid when the people began to inquire the cause of this strange proceeding, he put his hand to his head, intima- ting that his life was ia danger. Some of his enemies inunediately ran to the senate, and reported that Tiberius Grac'chus openly demand- ed a crown from the people. Scip'io Nasica, a large holder of public lands, seized this pretext tq urge the consul to destroy the reformer. On the refusal of that magistrate to imbrue his hands in innocent blood, Nasica, accompanied by a large body of the patricians, with their clients and dependants, assaulted the unarmed multitude ; Tibe- rius was slain in the tumult, and many of his friends were either mur- dered or driven into banishment without any legal process. So great was the odium Nasipa incurred by his share in the murder of his kins- man, that the senate, to screen him from popular resentment, sent him to Asia, under a pretext of public business, but in reality as a species of honorable exile : he died in a few months, the victim of mortification and remorse. While the city was thus disturbed by civil tumults, Sicijy was harassed by the horrors of a servile war ; and the new province of 230 ANCIENT HISTORY. Per'gamus was usurped by Aristonfcus, a natural brother of the late kimg At'talus. Both wars were terminated by disgraceful means, which the Romans would have scorned to have used at an earlier, period of their history : Eunus, the leader of the slaves, was betrayed by some wretches the consul had bribed : and Per'gamus was not subdued until the springs which supplied water to the principal towns were poi- soned. Caius Grac'chus had been a mere youth when his brother Tiberius was so basely murdered ; but, undaunted by that brother's fate, he re- solved to pursue the same course, and was confirmed in his determina- tion by his mother Cornelia, a woman of undaunted spirit, animated by the purest principles of patriotism. He commenced his career by offering himself a candidate for the office of quaestor, to which he was elected without opposition. His integrity and ability in this station won him " golden opinions from all sorts of men." On his return to Rome he was chosen tribune of the people ; and he immediately began to t3,ke measures for enforcing the agragrian law (b. c. 123). In his second tribuneship, he procured the enactment of a law transferring the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senators to the equestrian order ; a change rendered absolutely necessary by the im- punity that I had long been granted to the grossest delinquency and extortion. At length the senate set up Drusus, another tribune, as a rival to Grac'chus. This wretched minion of an unprincipled faction made several grants of public money and remissions of taxes to the people, with the direct sanction of the senate ; and soon became a favorite with the ignorant multitude. A severer blow was the exclu- sion .of Grac'chus from the tribuneship when he stood candidate the fhird time, the officers having been .bribed to make a false return ; and this was followed by the election of Opim'ius, the most violent of the aristocratic faction, to the consulship. A contest could not long be avoided : the nobles, confiding in the numbers of their armed retainers, were anxious to provoke a battle ; but Grac'chus, though personally menaced by the consul, was desirous that peace should be preserved. An accident precipitated the struggle. While the consul was performing the customary morning sacrifice, Antyl'ius, one of his lictors, carrying away the entrails, said, with con- temptuous voice and gesture, to the friends of Grac'chus and Ful'vius, " Make way there, ye worthless citizens, for honest men !" The pro- voked bystanders instantly assaulted the insolent lictor, and slew him with the pins of their table-books. This imprudence affiarded Opim'ius the opportunity he had so eagerly desired ; the senate hastily assembled, and passed a vote investing him with dictatorial power.* Grac'chus, with his most zealous followers, took possession of Mount Aventine : here he was soon attacked by the sanguinary Opim'ius ; three thousand of his followers were slain, and their bodies thrown into the Tiber ; and Caius himself chose to fall by the hands of a faithful slave, rather than glut his cruel enemies by his tortures (b. c. 120). With the Grac'chi perished the freedom of the * The vote by which absolute power, in cases of emergency, was given to the consuls, consisted in the following formula : " £7/ darent operam cmauka ne respub- lica quid dettimenti caperet." ROMAN aEPUBLIC. 231 Roman republic ; henceforth the supreme power of the state was wielded by a corrupt, avaricious, and insolent aristocracy, from whose avarice and oppression even the worst tyranny of the worst of the em- perors would have been a desirable relief. The profligacy and corruption of the senate, now that the check of popular control was removed, soon became manifest by their conduct in the Jugurthine war. Micip'sa, king of Numidia, the son of Massi- nis'sa, divided his monarchy on his death-bed between his two sons Hiemp'sal and Ad'herbal, and his nephew Jiigurtha, though the latter was of illegitimate birth. Jugurtha resolved to obtain possession of the entire inheritance, procured the murder of Hiemp'sal, and com- pelled Ad'herbal to seek refuge at Rome. The senate at first seemed disposed to punish the usurper ; but soon won over by his bribes, they actually voted him a reward for his crimes, decreeing that the kingdom of Numidia should be divided equally between him and Ad'herbal. Impunity only stimulated Jugurtha to fresh iniquities ; he declared war against his cousin, gained possession of his person by a capitulation, and, in violation of the terms, put him to death. £ven this atrocity failed to rouse the senate ; and Jiigurtha would have escaped unpun- ished, had not Mem'mius, one of the tribunes, exposed the profligate venality of the aristocracy in a general assembly of the people, and persuaded them to send Cas'sius the praetor into Africa, to bring Jugur- tha thence to Rome, on the public faith, in order that those who had taken bribes might be convicted by the king's evidence. Jugurtha, being brought before the assembly, was interrogated by Mem'mius ; but Bae'bius, another tribune, who had been bribed for the purpose, forbade the king to make any reply. The Numidian, however, soon added to his former crimes, by procuring the murder of his cousin Massiva in Rome, suspecting that he was likely to be raised to the throne of Numidia by a party in the senate. Such an insult could not be borne; Jugurtha was instantly ordered to quit Italy (b. c. 109), and an army raised against him was intrusted to the command of the consul Al'binus. Instead of prosecuting the war, Al'binus left his brother Aulus, a vain, avaricious man, in command of the army, and returned to Italy. Aulus invaded Numidia, hoping that Jugurtha would purchase his forbearance by a large sum ; but he was surrounded, betrayed, and forced to capitulate on the most disgraceful terms. The Roman people was roused to exertion by this infamy ; a commission was issued for inquiring into the criminality of those who had received bribes ; several of the leading nobles, among whom was Opim'ius, the murderer of Caius Grac'chus, were convicted on the clearest evidence, and sen- tenced to difiierent degrees of punishment. Finally, the conduct of the war was intrusted to Quin'tus Metel'lus, a strenuous partisan of the aristocracy, but an able general, and an incorruptible statesman. When Metel'lus had almost completed the conquest of Numidia, he was sup- planted by his lieutenant Caius Marius, a man of the lowest birth, but whom valor, talent, and a zealous devotion to the popular cause, had elevated to fame and fortune. Raised to the consulship, and intrusted with the conduct of the war a,gainst Jugurtha, by the favor of the people, Mdrius showed little respect for the vote of the senate that had con- tinued Metel'lus in command. He raised fresh levies, and passed over 833 ANCIENT HISTOEY into Africa just when Jdgurtha had been forced to seek refuge with Boc'chuB, king of Mauritania (b. c. 106). The principal cities and fortresses of Numidia were speedily subdued, and the united army of Jdgurtha and Boc'chus routed with great slaughter. The Moorish Mng, terrified by his losses, was at length prevailed upon to betray Jdgurtha to Syl'la, a young nobleman who held the important office of qiiaestor in the array of MSrius ; and this wicked usurper, after having been exhibited in the conqueror's triumph, was starved to death in prison. In the meantime, the barbarous hordes of the Cim'bri and Teutones were devastating Trsinsalpine Gaul, and had defeated the Roman armies sent to check their ravages. At length, their total defeat of Cse'pio's army, and slaughter of eighty thousand men, spread such general consterna- tion, that the senate and pedple combined to raise Mdrius to the con- sulate a second time, contrary to law. It was not, however, until his- fourth consulship (b. c. 100), that Marius brought the Teutones to a decisive engageinent at A'quae Ldtiee. The annals of war scarcely re- cord a more complete victory ; more than one hundred thousand of the invaders having been slain or made prisoners. He was no less fortu- nate in a second engagement with the Cimbrians ; but on this occasion his old qusestor, but now his rival, Ldcius Syl'la, had fair grounds for claiming a large share in the honors of the day. About the same time, a second servile war in Sicily was terminated : so cruelly was the re- volt of these unhappy men punished, that more than a million of the insurgents are said to have perished in the field, or been exposed to wild beasts in the arena. A much more dangerous war, called the Marsic, the Social, or the Italic, was provoked by the injustice with which the Romans treated their Italian aUies. The different states having in vain sought a re- dress of grievances from the senate and people, entered into a secret conspiracy, which soon extended from the Liris eastward to the ex- tremity of ancient Italy. The Mar'si, long renowned for their bravery, were foremost in the revolt, and hence their name is frequently given to the war. After a tedious contest of three years, in which half a million of men are supposed to have perished, the Romans granted the freedom of their city to the states that laid down their arms (b. c. 87), and .tranquillity was restored in Italy. But the Roman power was exposed almost to equal danger in Asia by the rising greatness of Mithridates, the celebrated king of Pon'tus, who, in a short time, made himself master of all the towns and islands in Asia Minor, with, , the single exception of Rhodes. Marius and Syl'la eagerly contended for the, chief command in this important war; the latter prevailed, and procured the banishment of his rival, who very narrowly escaped with bis life. Sylla departed with his army to Asia ; but, during his absence, the consul Cin'na recalled Mdrius, and Italy was involved in all the horrors of civil war (a. c. 86). After a severe struggle, the aged exile having everywhere defeated the partisans of the nobles, made his triumphant entry into Rome, and filled the entire city with Slaughter. Having caused the murder of most of the leading senators and knights that had joined in procuring his banishiuent, he ROMAN REPUBLIC. 233 declared himself consul without going through the formality of an elec- tion, and died soon after, in the seventy-first year of his age. In the meantime, Syl'la defeated the armies of Mithridates in Greece, took Athens by storm, slaughtered its citizens without mercy or com- punction, and coriipelled the king of Pon'tus to solicit peace. Syl'la willingly consented, for he had neither ships nor money to carry on the war ; and he longed impatiently to be in Italy, that he might re- venge himself on his enemies, who were so cruelly persecuting his partisans. ,0n the news of the approach of Syl'la with a victorious array (b. c. 83), the consuls, Cin'na and Car'bo made every preparation for the im- pending war ; but the former was murdered by his mutinous troops, and the latter, though aided by the younger Marius, did not possess abilities adequate to the crisis. After a severe struggle, Syl'la prevailed, and became master of Rome. He surpassed even the cruelties of Mdrius, slaughtering without mercy not merely his political opponents, but all whom he suspected of discontent at his elevation. While the city was filled with mourning and consternation, he caused himself to be elected dictator for an unlimited time (b. c. 81) ; but, to the great astonishment of everybody, he resigned his power at the end of three years, and re- tired to private life. He died soon after (b. c. 77) of a loathsome dis- ease brought on by intemperance and debauchery. The consul Lep'idus attempted to seize the power which Syl'la had abdicated ; he was declared a public enemy, defeated in the field, for- saken by his friends, and abandoned by his faithless wife : he sunk under this complication of misfortunes, and died of a broken heart. But though the senate escaped this danger, they were alarmed by the rapid progress of the Marian faction in Spain (b. c. 76), where Sertorius had collected a powerful army from the relics of that party. After some de- liberation, the management of this war was intrusted to Pom'pey, after- ward surnamed the Great, though he had not yet attained the consular age, and was still a simple Roman knight. Sertorius proved more than a match for the young general, defeating him in several engagements ; but treach- ery proved more efficacious than valor ; the bold adventurer was murdered by Perper'na (b. c. 73) ; and the insurgents, deprived of their able leader, were finally subdued by Pom'pey (b. c. 70). Before the Spanish war was terminated, Italy was thrown into confusion by the daring revolt of Spar'tacus (b. c. 72). This dangerous insurgent, with about eighty com- panions, forced liis way out of a school for training gladiators at Cap'ua, and resolved, instead of hazarding his life in the arena, for the brutal sport of the Roman populace, to make war on the republic. Two bril- liant victories so established his fame, that the slaves, deserting their masters, flocked to his standard from all quarters, and he soon found himself at the head often thousand men. Fresh successes now crowned his arms ; praetors and consuls were sent against him, and defeated ; his forces rapidly increased to one hundred and twenty thousand ; and he even attempted to make himself master of Rome. At length the praetor Cras'sus succeeded in suppressing this formidable revolt ; but his victory was chiefly owing to the want of union and discipline in the anny of the insurgents (b. c. 70). Spar'tacus himself fell in the 234 ANCIENT HISTORY. field, and great numbers of his followers were crucified by the bar- barous conquerors. Cras'sus and Pom'pey were chosen consuls the next year : both were ambitious of supreme power, and both began to pay their court to the people ; Cras'sus by largesses of com and money, Pom'pey by re- storing the tribunitian power, and repealing many of the unpopular laws of Syl'la. These measures gave Pom'pey so much influence, that he was chosen to manage the war against the Cilician pirates, in spite of the most vigorous opposition of the senators ; and to this commission there were added, by the Manilian law, the government of Asia, and the entire management of the war against Mithridates (b. c. G5). Little did the tribune Manil'ius foresee that he was placing the whole power of the Roman empite in the hands of a man who would soon become the most strenuous supporter of the senate. Pom'pey made a judicious use of the power with which he was in- trusted ; he subdued Mithridates, and established the sway of the Ro- mans over the greater part of western Asia. But while he was thus engaged gathering laurels in the remote east, the republic narrowly escaped destruction from the conspiracy of Cat'iline (b. o. 62). The original contriver of this celebrated conspiracy, Ser'gius Cat'iline, was a young man of noble birth, sullied, however, by the most infamous de- bauchery and crimes. The recent examples of Marius and Syl'la stimulated him to attempt making himself master of his country ; and he found many associates among the profligate young nobles, whom their riotous extravagance had overwhelmed with a load of debt. The great impediment to the success of the plans of the conspirators was the vigilance of the consul Cicero, who had raised himself to the high- est rank in the state by his consummate eloquence and great skill in political aflairs. His murder was deemed a necessary preliminary to any open efibrts ; but Cicero received secret warnings of his danger from Curius, one of the conspirators, whose mistress had been bribed by the consul ; and he was thus enabled to disconcert all the plans of Cat'iline. While the city was alarmed by rumors of danger, Cat'iline had the hardihood to present himself in the senate-house, where Cicero pronounced so dreadful an invective against him, that the hardened con- spirator was unable to reply, and fled from the city to commence open war. In the meantime, his associates in the city attempted to form an alli- ance with the AUob'roges, a people of Gaul that had sent ambassadors to petition the senate for some relief from the debt with which their na- tion was oppressed. These ambassadors betrayed the negotiations to Cicero, who took his measures so well, that he arrested the chiefs of the conspiracy with the proofs of their guilt on their persons. After a warm debate in the senate, it was resolved that the traitors should be put to death ; Julius Caesar, who was now fast rising into notice as the chief of the popular party, protesting almost alone against the danger- ous precedent of violating the Porcian law, which forbade the capital punishment of a Roman citizen. When Cat'iline heard the fate of his associates', he attempted to lead his forces into Gaul ; but he was over- taken by a consular army, defeated, and slain. So pleased were the senate with the conduct of Cicero on this occasion, that they gave him the honorable title of Father or his Country. ROMAN EEPUBLIC. 235 Pom'pey soon afterward returned to Rome, and the old jealousies be- tween him and Cras'sus were renewed ; but Julius Caesar, whose emi- nent abilities were now known and valued, succeeded in bringing the rivals together, and uniting ihem with himself in a partnership of power, generally called " the first triumvirate" (b. c. 59). They were supported in this project by the infamous Clodius, whose sole aim was to be revenged on Cicero for having given evidence against him on a criminal trial. To wreak his vengeance more effectually, he had himself transferred from the patrician order to the plebeian, and then becoming a candidate for the tribuneship, was elected without much op- position. By the exertions of Clodius, Cicero was driven into banish- ment ; but he was honorably recalled after a year's exile, and restored to his dignity and estates. While' Clodius, by his violence, kept the city in constant agitation, Pom'pey and Cras'sus were again elected consuls together; the former chose Spain, the latter Syria, for his province, hoping that its wealth would be the prey of his boundless avarice (b. c. 54). Ciaesar was in the meantime winning fame by the conquest of Gaul, and establishing a military reputation which soon eclipsed that of all his contemporaries. The union of the triumvirs was first disturbed by the death of Julia, Caesar's daughter, who had been married to Pom'pey, and exercised great influence over both her father and her husband. But the compact was completely broken by the unfortunate termination of the rash expe- dition which Cras'sus undertook against the Parthians, in which he perished, with the greater part of his army (b. c. 52). Caesar's victorious career in Gaul lasted nearly eight years (from B. v. 57 to B. c. 49). During this space of time he subdued all the barbarous and warlike tribes between the Pyrenees and the German ocean ; he even crossed the Rhine, and gained several victories over the Germans ; and, passing over into Britain, he subdued the southern part of the island. Pom'pey at first favored all the projects of his col- league, procured him a prolongation of his command and supplies of troops ; but he soon became envious of exploits that obscured the fame of his own achievements ; his creatures began to detract from the brilliancy of Caesar's victories, and many of that general's official let- ters were suppressed by the senate. It became soon obvious that the jealousies of the two surviving triumvirs could be arranged only in the field of battle, and their partisans began to prepare for combat long be- fore the principals had any notion of breaking the peace. The contest began by Caesar's demanding permission to hold the consulship while absent. He had secured his interest and in- creased his adherents by the most lavish bribes, having spent nearly half a million on the purchase of Caius Ciirio alone. This powerful and popular tribune placed the senate in a very difficult position, by proposing that both Pom'pey and Caesar should re- sign their offices, and retire into private life (b. c. 51). Some time was wasted in negotiations ; but at length the senate (Jan. 7, B. c. 49) passed a decree by which Caesar was commanded to disband his army before a specified day, under the penalty of being declared a public enemy, Mark Antony and Qu'in'tus Cas'sius, tribunes of the people, put their negative on this vote ; but their prerogative was dis- 336 ANCIENT HISTOaY. puted, and, a debate ensued, in the course of which many severe speeches were made agajnst them. Finally, the vote for suspending the constitution passed by a. large majority in a very full house. It was decreed that " the consuls, praetors, proconsuls, and other magistrates near Rome, should take care that the republic received no detriment." Antony and Cas'sius fled from the city the same night, disguised as slaves. They were followed by Curio and Cae'lius. When Caesar received this intelligence, he resolved to march imme- diately into Italy, before Pom'pey could collect forces sufficient for the defence of the peninsula. The rapidity of his movements disconcerted' his enemies ; and the news of his having passed the Rubicon, spread such alarm at Rome, that the senate and Pom'pey's party abandoned the city, leaving the public treasure behind them. All Italy was subdued in sixty days. On the 17th of March, Pom'pey sailed from Brundd- siura for Greece, abandoning his country to his rival. Sicily and Sar- dinia speedily followed the fate of the peninsula. Elated by this great success, Caesar returned to Rome, took the funds from the public treasury, and, after a brief respite of six or seven days, set out to attack Pom'pey's lieutenants in Spain. He met with unex- pected resistance from the city of Marseilles, but, leaving a detachment to besiege the place, he continued his march to Iler'da, where he found his enemies posted under the command of Afranius and Petreius. An undecisive battle was fought at Iler'da ; but Caesar, taking advantage of the inexperience and incapacity of his opponents, soon reduced them to such straits, that they were forced to surrender at discretion. The reduction of- the remainder of the Spanish peninsula was soon com- pleted, and Caesar returned into Gaul to finish the siege of Marseilles. Caesar's presence soon forced the citizens to surrender. Their lives were spared, but they were forced to give up all their arms, magazines, and money. But while he was thus everywhere victorious in person, the armies commanded by his lieutenants met with some reverses in Ill3T:icum and Africa. On his return to Rome, Caesar was created dictator. Having made proper arrangements for the government of the city, he prepared to fol- low Pom'pey into Greece, where that general had collected an immense army from the principal states of the east. His inferiority by sea ex- posed Caesar's soldiers to great dangers and hardships in their passage from Brundiisium to Dyrac'chium; but they were finally transported into western Greece, and a tedious campaign, in which both leaders showed themselves equally reluctant to hazard a general engagement. From Epirus both armies moved into Thessaly ; and on the 30th of July (b. c. 48), the battle, which decided the fate of the world, was fought on the plains of Pharsalia. Pom'pey's forces were completely routed, their camp stormed, and the bodies of fugitives that preserved a semblance of regularity in their retreat, forced to yield themselves prisoners. The unfortunate general himself made no effort to retrieve the fortune of the day : when his squadron of cavalry, on which he placed his principal reliance, were routed, he retired to his tent, whence he fled in disguise when the enemy began to storm his entrenchments. From the field of battle Pom'pey fled to the iEgean sea, probably designing to renew the war in Syria ; but finding the Asiatic states in- ROMAN UEPOBLIC. 237 clined to withdraw their allegiance when they heard of his defeat, he sjeered for Egypt, acdompanied by his wife Cornelia, trusting he would receive protection from the young king of that country, with whose fa- ther he had been united by the strictest bonds of friendship. But the guardians of the young king resolved to murder the unfortunate fugi- tive, and intrusted the execution of the crime to Septim'ius, a Roman deserter, and Achil'las, the captain of the Egyptian guards. Lucan has given a very vivid description of the catastrophe. " Now in the boat defenceless Pompey sate, • Surrounded and abandoned to his fate ; Nor long they held him in their power abroad, Ere every villain drew his ruthless sword : The chief perceived their purpose soon, and spread His Roman gown, with patience, o'er bis head : And When the cursed Achillas pierced his breast. His rising indignation close repressed. No sighs, no groans his dignity profaned, No tears his still unsullied glory stained : Unmoved and firm he fixed him on his seat, And died — as when he lived and conquered — great." At the sad sight of the Egyptian treachery, Cornelia's attendants, disreg;arding her lamentations, weighed anchor and stood out to sea. Porh'pey's body was flung into the waves, but it was dragged out in the night by one Cor'dus, who had been Pom'pey's quxstor in Cy'prus, and interred with the Roman rites of sepulture. Plutarch informs us that his ashes were subsequently removed to Italy, and deposited in a vault in his Alban villa, by Cornelia : but Lucan asserts that they re- mained in Egypt, and remonstrates against the neglect shown to the remains of the hero. Section VII. — The Eslahlishment of the Soman Empi,ret FROM B. C. 48 TO B. C. 30. The news of Pom'pey's death occasioned a fresh division among his fugitive friends. Many who were attached personally to him, and who held out in hopes of seeing him again at their head, determined to have recourse to the conqueror's clemency. Cornelia returned to Italy, well knowing that she had nothing to apprehend from Caesar. Cato, with Pom'pey's two sons, remained in Africa, and marched'over- land to join Varus and Juba, king of Numidia. We shall see imme- diately how they renewed the war, and exposed the victor to fresh fatigues and dangers. Caesar, immediately after his victory, commenced a close piursuit of his competitor ; and did not hear of his death until his arrival in Alex- andria, when messengers from the Egyptian king brought him Pom'- pey's head and ring. Caesar turned with disgust ftom these relics. He ordered the head to be inhumed with due honor ; and to show his dis- approbation of Egyptian treachery, he caused a temple to be erected near Pom'pey's tomb, dedicated to Nem'esis, the avenging power of cruel and inhuman deeds. His next task was to arrange the disputed succession of the crown ; but, seduced by the charms of the princess Cleopatra, he showed an undue preference for her interests, and thus 238 ANCIENT HISTORY. induced the partisans of the young king Ptolemy to take up aims. As Csesar had only brought a handful of men with him to Alexandria, Ije was exposed to great danger by this sudden burst' of insurrection. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Caesar succeeded in firing the Egyptian fleet ; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated public library, and the greater part of that magnificent collection of the most valuable works of ancient times perished in the flames. After the struggle had been protracted for some time, Ceesar at length received reinforcements from Syria, and soon triumphed over all his enemies. From Egypt he marched against Phamaces, the unnatural son of the great Mitlu-idates, and subdued him so easily, that he described the campaign in three words, " Veni, Vidi, Vici" — (/ came, I saw, I con- quered). Having thus settled the affairs of the East, he departed for Rome, having been created dictator in his absence ; and found on his return the affairs of the city in the g'reatest confusion, caused by the quarrels between Antony and Dofabel'la. Caesar with difliculty reconciled their differences, and began to make preparations for his war in Africa against Cato and the sons of Pom'pey. On his arrival in Africa, he did not find victory quite so easy as he had anticipated ; but at length he forced his enemies to a decisive engagement at Thap'sus, and gave them a complete overthrow. Thence he advanced to U'tica, which was garrisoned by the celebrated Cato, whose hostility to Caesar was inflexible. It was not, however, supported by his followers ; and Cato, seeing his friends resolved on yielding, committed suicide. The sons of Pom'pey made their escape into Spain, where they soon col- lected a formidable party. Having concluded the African war in about five months, Caesar returned to Rome (b. c. 45) to celebrate his triumph. The senate placed no bounds to their adulation, passing, in their excessive flattery, the limits even of ordinary decency. They decreed that in his triumph his chariot should be drawn by four white horses, like those of Jupiter and the Sun : they created him dictator for ten years, and inspector of morals for three years : they commanded his statue to be placed in the capitol, opposite to that of Jupiter, with the globe of the earth beneath his feet, and with the following inscription, " To Caesar, the demigod." During his residence at Rome, the dictator distinguished himself by several acts of clemency, more truly honorable to his character than all the titles conferred upon him by a servile senate. Having provided for the safety of the city during his absence, he hasted into Spain to terminate the civil war by crushing the relics of his opponents, who still made head under the sons of Pom'pey. Early in the spring (b. c. 44), the two armies met in the. plains of Mun'da : the battle was arduous and well contested ; Caesar had never been exposed to such danger ; even his veterans began to giye ground. By leading, how- ever, his favorite tenth legion to the charge, he restored the fortune of the, field, and his exertions were crowned with a decisive victory, which put m end to the war. The elder of Pom'pey's sons was taken and slain ; Sex'tu^ the younger escaped to the mountains of Celtiberia. Having thus completely extinguished the last embers of the pivil war, Caesar contemplated Sieveral vast designs for extending and im- ROME. 239 proving the empire he had acquired. He resolved to revenge the defeat and death of Cras'sus on the Parthians ; he undertook to rebuild and repair several towns in Italy, to drain the Pomptine marshes, to dig a new bed for the Tiber, to form a capacious harbor at Os'tia, and to cut a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. But these gigantic projects did not compensate, in the minds of his countrymen, for the criminal design he was understood to have formed of making himself king of Rome. Mark Antony, it is supposed at Caesar's secret instigation, of- fered the dictator a regal crown at the feast of the Lupercalia, which Csesar, perceiving the displeasure of the people, deemed it prudent to refuse : Antony, however, had it entered in the public acts, " That by the command of the people, as consul, he had offered the name of king to Caesar, perpetual dictator ; and that Caesar would not accept of it." A large body of the senators, regarding Caesar as a usurper, con- spired for his destruction, among whom Brutus and Cas'sius were the most conspicuous. They resolved to put their plot into execution in the senate-house (March 15, b. c. 44) ; but they very narrowly escaped detection, from a variety of untoward accidents. As soon as Caesar had taken his place, he was surrounded by the conspirators, one of whom, pretending to urge some request, held him down by his robe : this was the signal agreed upon; the other conspirators rushed upon him with their daggers, and he fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pom'pey's statue. The murderers had no sooner finished their work, than Brutus, lifting up his dagger, congratulated the seriate, and Cicero in particular, on the recovery of liberty ; but the senators, seized with astonishment, rushed from the capitol and hid themselves in their own houses. Tranquillity prevailed until the day of Caesar's funeral, when Mark Antony, by a studied harangue, so inflamed the passions of the populace, that they stormed the senate-house, tore up its benches to make a funeral pile for the body, and raised such a con- flagration that several houses were entirely consumed. This was a clear warning to the conspirators, who immediately quitted Rome, and prepared to defend themselves by force of arms. Mark Antony long deceived the conspirators by an appearance of moderation, and an affected anxiety to procure an act of amnesty ; but when joined by Octavius Caesar, the nephew and heir of the murdered dictator, he threw off the mask, and proposed extraordinary honors to the memory of Caesar, with a religious supplication to him as a divin- ity. Brutus and Cas'sius at length discovering that Antony meditated nothing but war, and that their affairs were daily growing more desper- ate, left Italy, and sought refuge in the East. Octavius Caesar, becom- ing jealous of Antony, joined the party of the senate ; and Antony, retiring into Cisalpine Gaul, levied an army of veterans, and came to an engagement with the armies of the republic, in which both the consuls ■were slain. Antony, defeated in the field, fled to Lep'idus in Spain : and' Octavius Csesar, whom the death of the consuls had placed at the head of the army, entered secretly into a correspondence with the ene- mies of the senate. Their mutual interests led to the formation of a league between Octavius, Lep'idus, and AntOny, called the second tri- umvirate (November 27, b. c. 43), and their confederacy was cemented 240 ANCIJSNT HISTORY. by the blood of the noblest citizens of Rome, shed in a pfoscription more ruthless and sanguinary than those of Marius and Syl'la. The most illustrious of the victims was the celebrated Cicero, whose severe invectives against Antony had procured him the relentless hatred of the triumvir. Octivius is said to have hesitated long before consenting to the sacrifice of the greatest orator that Rome ever produced, and the most patriotic of her recent statesmen ; but at length he permitted the fatal consent to be extorted, and Cicero fell a victim to a band of assas- sins, headed by a tribune whom he had formerly defended and preserved in a capital cause. The triumvirs having taken vengeance on their enemies in Italy, be- gan to prepare for carrying on war against Brutus and Cas'sius. Mace- donia became the theatre of the new civil war : the republicans at first seemed destined to conquer ; they appeared to possess superior talenta and greater forces by land and sea. But in the double - battle at Phi- lip'pi, fortune rather than talent gave the victory to the triumvirs ; and Cas'sius destroyed himself after the first contest, and Brutus after the second (b. c. 43). Antony, made a cruel use of his victory, putting to death his political opponents without mercy. Octavius emulated the crimes of his colleague, and treated the most illustrious of his prison- ers with barbarity and abusive language. After his victory Antony visited Greece, where he was received with the most refined flattery. Thence he passed into Asia, where all the sovereigns of the East came to offer him homage ; but he was most gratified by a visit from the celebrated Cleopatra, who rendered the voluptuous triumvir a captive to her charms. Resigning all his plans of war against the Parthians, he followed this celebrated beauty into Egypt, and in her company neglected all care of public affairs. Octavius Caesar, on the other hand, proceeded to Italy, and took the most efficacious means fat securing the permanence of his power. Lucius the brother, and Ful'via the wife of Antony, excited a new war against Octavius ; but they were soon defeated, and the capture of their principal stronghold, Perusia (b. c. 41), rendered Csesar's nephew master of Italy, and almost the recognised heir of his uncle's power. Antony was still immersed in pleasure at Alexandria, when he re- ceived the account of his brother's defeat, and the ruin of his party in Italy ; at the same time he heard that Octavius had made himself mas- ter of both Gauls, and had got all the legions into his hands that were quartered in those districts. He was roused by these tidings from his lethargy, and immediately proceeded toward Italy ; but blaming Ful'via for all his disasters, he treated her with so much contempt, that she died of a broken heart. This circumstance paved the way to a recon- ciliation ; Antony married Octivia, the half-sister of his rival, and a new division was made of the Roman empire. Sex'tus Pom'pey, who during the troubles had become powerful by sea, was included in the new arrangements, and obtained the possession of the Peloponnesus and several important islands. But the mutual jealousies of the triumvirs rendered peace of short duratjion. Octivius drove Pom'pey from Sicily, and compelled him to seek refuge in the East, where he was put to death by one of Antony's lieutenants ; and about the same time he deprived Lep'idus of all his ROME. 241 poWeif, and took possession of his dominions. Antony, -while Lis rival was thus acquiring strength, degrEtded! hirhself by an unsuccessful war against the Parthi-aras ■; aft^r which he retwrned to Alexandria, and lost (all regard to bis character or his interest in the company of Cleopatra, Octavia went to thie Eatst, hoping to withdraw her husband from the fasiinaiiing siren ; but the infatuated triumvir refused to see her, and sent her otders to returnhome. He completed this insult by sending her a bill df divorce^ and pi^fesaing a previous marriage with Cleopa- tra. Praparations for War were instantly made on both sides ; but Antony's debauchery, and slavery to' the daprices of an abandoned Woman, disgusted his best friends, and many t>f them deserting him brought sutih.au' account of 'his extravagance to Rome, that thie indignant citizens passed a decree for deposing himi from the consulship. The gr^atariVals were soon in readiness for action. Antony had the mo^t numerous forbes ; but Octwius had the ad.vantage of a more disci- plined army, and, at least inappearance, a better cause. Their fleets and armies were soon assetablediat the Opposite sides of the gulf of Ambracia, where they remained for several months wiihout coming to a decisive engagemient.. At lengthy Antony^ instigaited by Cleopatra, formed the fatal resolution of deciding the contest by a naval battle. The fleets met off the promontory of Ac'tiutn (September 2, b. e. 31), While the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were 'siiflple spfectators. of the battle. iFor a long, time success was doubtful ; until Cleopatra, wearied with expectation, and overcome with fear, unexpectedly tacked about, and fled toward the Peloponnesus with the Egyptian squadron of sixtjr sail ; and, what is more surprising, Antony hmself, now regardless of his honor, -fled after her, abandoning his men who so generously ex- posed their lives for his interest. The battle, notwithstanding, con- tinued till five in the evening, when Antony's forces were partly con- strained toisubmitby the great conduct of Agrip'pa, and pdrtly persuaded by the liberal promises of Octavius. The army of Antony could not believe in the flight of their general, and held out for seven days in ex- pectation of his returning to join them ; but hearing no tidings of him^ amd being deseirted by their allies, they hasted to make terms with the conquerors . . Antony. and.Cleejp&ra conJrinued their flight to Egypt, where the queen displayed more ! courage and . enterprising spirit than her lover. She caiised'sotae of her g^leys to be carried over the istiunusi (of Suez) into the Red sea, proposing to save herself, with her treasures, in an un* known world; buB the Arabians having burned her vessels, 'she was forced to abandon a design so full of difiiculties, and she therefore com- menoed fortifying the avenues of her kingdom; and making preparations for war. She also solicited foreign assistance, addressing herself to all the. princes in the alliance of Antony.' While OleopStra W&s thus em- ployed, Antony exhibited the most lamentable weakness : at first he affected to imitate Timon the misanthrope, and shut himself up without either friends or domestics ; but his natural temper did not allow him to remain long in this state, and quitting his cell, he gave himself up to feasting and every kind of extravagance. In the meantime, the forces of Octavius advanced on each side of Egypt. Cornelius Gal'lus took possession of Paretdnium, which was the 2*^ ANCIENT HISTORY. key of Egypt on the \*'est.side ; and Antony, who speeded with his fleet SBid army to wrest it out of his' hands, was forced to retire with great loss, especially of his ships. Pelusium, the eastern security of' the kingdom, was surrendered to Gctavius at the first summoiis : it was re- ported that Seleucus the governor betrayed, the place by Cleopatra's orders ; but she, to clear herself from such an imputaUon, delivered up his wife and children into Antony's hands. Csesar advanced to besiege Alpxandria:, Antony ma'de an pfFort to impede his march, but he was abandoned by his soldiers; and finding he could not die with glory in the field, he (returned to Alexandria, overcome with rage and fury, run- ning and crying out, " that Clfeopate had betrayed him, when he had ruined all his fortunes for her sake alone." The queen, hearing, his violent trailsjiorts, retired in terror to a monument she had erected, seciired the dbors,' and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news, Antony attem^ed to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound : hearing, however, in the midst of his agonies, that Cleopatra still lived he caused himself to be transported' to her monument, and expired in her presence. Cleopatra seems to have formed some hope of obtaining the same influence 6ver Octavius Caesar that she had exercised over Antony ; but finding the. ' conqueror insensible to her charms, and having received secret information that he reserved her to adorn his triumph, she bribed a countr3Tnan to coiivey an asp to her in a basket of figs, and applied the venomous creature to her arm, and thus died. Egypt was then reduced into the form of a Roman province, and its immense riches transported to Rome, which enabled Octavius to pay all he owed to his soldiers. On his return to Rome, the senate saliited him by the hon- orable name of Augus'tus, and by a unanimous vote conceded to him the entire authority of the state. The era of the Roman empire is usually dated from Jan. 1st, b. c. 28. The title of Augus'tus was at first only personal, and did not con- vey any idea of sovereignty : several of the imperial femily took it who never were emperors, such as German'icus. "The female line, who had not the least shadow of sovereignty with the Romans, had it as Antonia Major ; and thus Liv'ia first took the name of Augusta when she was adopted, by her husband's will, into the Julian family. After the time of Dioclesian it. was changed into Sem'per Augus'tus ; and this title was, in modem times, assumed by the emperors of Germany and Austria. It may appear surprising that the Romans made no vigorous efibrt to recover their republican constitution ; but, in truth, Roman liberty was destroyed when the Grac'chi were murdered : all the subsequent civil dissensions were contests for power between different sections of the oligarchy ; and the people, weary of the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly sought shelter from the .tyranny of the nobles in the despotic sway of a single master. BOMAN EMPIRE. 243 CHAPTER XVI. GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE Section I. — Ei^rc^efm Qourftries. — Spain. In general the boundaries of the Roman empiFC may be described as the great western j)cean, th« rivers Rhine arid Danube in Europe, the chain of Mount Caucasus, the river' Euphrates and the Sjrrian deserts in Asia, and the sandy deserts of Africa. It thus included the fairest portions of the known world surrounding the Mediterranean sea. Its most western province was the Spanish peninsula, whose bound- aries, being fixed by nature, continue unvaried. This great country, usually called Iberia by the Greeks, either from a colony of Iberians, or from the river Iberus {Ebro), was known to the Romans by the names Hispania or Hesperia. • It. was usually divided into three great portions, Lusitania, Bsetica or Hispania Ultierior, and Tarraconensis or Hispania Citerior. The chief islands were the major and minor Baleares (ikTo/orea and Minorca), whose, inhabitants were celebrated for their skill as slingers and archers. Section 11.— ■Transalpine' Gaul. Ancient Gaul was bounded qn the north and south by the sea, on the west by the Pyrenees, and on the east by the rivers Rhine and Var. It was divided into three great sections, Bel'gia, Aquitania, and Gal'lia Prdpria; in which (the language, manners, and customs, differed con- siderably. , .1 The religion of the ancient Gauls, like that of the ancient Britons,' was druidical ; they worshipped a supreme deity called H^sus, or jEsar, to whom they believed the oak to be sacred, especially if the parasitical plant called mistletoe were found growing upon it. Their rites were very sanguinary : human victims were sacrificed in their groves and circles of stone ; and it is said that theiri nobles occasionally volunteered to offer themselves upon the national altars. Temples were not erected in Gaul, until after its conquest by the Romans ; but long before that period. the >vorship of a crowd of inferior deities had been introduced; The several Gallic tribes were Usuially independent of each other i but on great occasions a general council of the nation was summoned. 244 ANCIENT HISTORY especially when preparations were made for any of the great migrations •which proved so calamitous to Greece and Italy. Their superior valor rendered these tribes very formidable to all the southern nations ; it was commonly said, that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls for actual existence. But from the time of the subju- gation of their country by Julius Csesar, their valor seemed to have disappeared together with their liberty ; they never revolted, except when the extortions of their rulers became insupportable ; and their efforts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. In no province did Roman civilization produce, greater ,e|ieotB- tjian in Gaul ; many public works of stupendous size and immense utility were constructed j roads were constructed and paved with stone ; durable bridges were built, and a^tiyiibt^ formed to'^ Supply the cities 'with water.' ' 'Remains of these mighty works are still to be found, and they can not be viewed without wonder and-adttlfitabBL ■' Hf < >') 'iH'f - Sectiow III. — Britamt, Thouoh Biitain was not reduced t6 the fonrt of a: Rottfen '^irovince writil long after the tinie of JniUus Caesari yetj aS' thatigeneral brought it nominally under subjection, it will be better to describe- its ancient state here than to interrupt the history of the empire in a subsequfent chapter. The name of Britain wai originally^given W the chistCT of islands in the':MaHtie now cfailledBritisb, the krgeist of which bore the name of .^bi'on. The southbm pari of Albiwni, oir England, Was originally colo- nized' from! Ga;nl;- 'the tribes that inhabited the east and north are said to have been of GeriiJan descent ; and there is a consent tradition, that the Scots in 'the northwest cartie originally frWm Ireland. ThatiJ»*rt of Britain now included in the kirigdom of England and principality of Wales, was anciently divided among seventeen tribes, to whom probably some' bfinferiornote were' subjtftjtc ■ '. ■ The principality of Wales, formerly comprehending the whole country beyond the Severn, was inhabited, in the Roman times, by the Silures, the Dem'etaB, and the Ordovfces. The. lasVnained tribe possessed North Wales, and long bade defiance to the Roman power in their mountain fastnesses;' The island of MtSna (^Anglesey), celebrated as the' ancient seaVdf the Druids, belonged to the Ordovfces. ' '-i ' The' inhabitants of the country beyond the Firths of Solway and the Forth 'were named' M'etae and Galedonii, btrt, ih a later age, the Picts and Scots. Juverna, or Hiber'nia (Ireland), was known only by naiiie to 'the Romans."^ ''^ '-■ '•''■■■-■• -!,;■'! ■( ,: ,• ■ ,; .-•>;,. i- .-'3^ree' walW, strengthened by castles, were successively raised to (iiheck the incursions of the Picts and Scots by the emperors ' Adrian, AntMiittiiai, and Sev^rus. The last w^as the most important; according tio'Giflndia diteh't^Bl'i^e'yardsbroad. '" '■ >' EOMAN EMPXEE. 345 When Britain was first visited by ttci Romans, the inhabitants had made considerable advances in civilization. Theii conn,t];y vras well people^. {^n.d ^tocked vy^ith ,ca,ttle ; their Jbo^^ses were as good ag, those of ^e Gaufe, and tUey used iron and copper plates fpr money. They in^de little use ot clothes, instead of, which they painted and tattpoed their skins- In war they njiade, use of ?^ariots, with sharp blades foed to the axl,e-trees, which they drpve at full speed against the hostile ranks. Their chief tra^c was with the Gauls -and .thePhcenicians^ who came to the C^^gitej^^^es {Spilly w/4^i| to cut. ROMAN EMPiaS. , , 247 North of the Qanube was the proyince of Dacia, annexed to the Ro- man empire in the reign of Trajan. Some geographers describe it loosely as including all Uie country between the Borys'thenes (Dnieper) and th« Dan'ube; hut its proper boundaries were Mon'tes Carpy the Romans, who were never remarka- ble for th^r zeal jn, mantime discovery. Indeed,, they seem to have regarded Scandinavia, or Scan'dia (Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Enn'gia, or Fumin'gia (Finlandl as isles of the Gennan ocean. When Britain was circunmavjgated, the Or'cades I Orkney islands) mt ere discovered: but prenons to that time, some indistinct account had be^n received of a distant island, named Thule, which some believe to have been one of the Zedand cluster, and odiere Iceland. ^ The Genpans took t^eir name from their own language, Giordans, ^i^ryipg warlike men, or warriors ; for, like most savage tribes, diey prmcipally pnded fliemselves on dieii military virtues. They were ROMAN EMPIRE. 249 called in the earliest ages Cim'bri and Teutones by the Romans ; but it is not easy to determine whether these may not have been very dif- ferent races, accidentally united in a common migration. The Cim'bri gave their name to the Cherson6sus Cim'brica {Jutland) ; from that of the Teutdnes the modern names Teutschen and Dutch have manifestly been derived. A' confederation of several tribes, formed in the third century, took the name of Alleman'ni, or All-mans, that is, complete men, from virhich the French of the present day call Germany Alle- magne. It would be impossible, within our limits, 'to enumerate all the tribes of ancient Germany, but a few of thie principal may be noticed. On the east bank of the Al'bis {Elbe), between that river and the Vistula, were the Cim'bri and Sax6nes, of whom the former were the most re- markable in ancient times, and the latter during the middle ages. West of the Al'bis were the upper and lower Ghadci, divided from each other by the Visurgis ( Weser) ; and the Fris'ii, separated from the Chaiaci by the river Amasia [Erus), whose territpiy still preserves the name of Friesland. The Marcoman'ni anciently possessed all the country between the sources of the Rhenus (Rhine) and the Is'ter, or Danubius {Danube) s they afterward fixed themselves in Bohemia and Moravia, and also in part of Gaul,_.driving the Boii before them. On this side of the Rhine, bety^een that river and the Mosa {Maese), were the U'bii, who were invited by Agrip'pa to this country during the reign of Augus'tus. To commemorate this migration they named their capital Colonia Agrip'pina ( Cologne), in honor of theif^ patron. Higher up the Rhine, and beyond the Mosellk {Moselle) were the Treviri, whose chief city was Augusta Trevirorum {Triers), and some minor tribes, possessing the city of Argentor^tum, or Argeutinae {Strasburgh). The Hercynian forests and mountains, by which the'- Romans feeeili to have understood all the unexplored part of eastern Germany, appear to have been the original abode of the Quadi, the Suevi, and the Herman- dun, who became very formidable to the Romans in the age of Antoni- nes. The original seat of the Longobar'di, celebrated in Italy under the name of Lombards, was the upper part of the Elbe : they are said to have derived their national appellation from their *' long barts," or spears ; but others think that they were so called from the length of their beards, or from having been formed by a coalition of the Ling6nes and Bar'di. Near the mouth of the Vistula were the Gep'idae ; and it is supposed that the first seat of the warlike Burgundians was on the same river ; but they, as well as the Semn6nes, had pushed forward to the Elbe in the first century of the Christian era. The jEs'tui, cele- brated for their trade in amber, resided on the coasts of the Baltic sea. Beside the Hereynian forest already mentioned, Germany contained Sylva Meliboe'a {the Hartz), Sylva Barcenia {the Black Forest), Sylvi Stideta (the Thuringian Forest), and Sylva Cae'sia {Forest of Teutoberg). Most of the rivers have been already mentioned ; but we must notifce the northern embouchure of the Rhine, called Flaviim Gs'tium {Vlie), in the territory of the Batavians ; the I'sela {Isel), separating the Bruci teri from the Fris'ii ; the Lupias {Lippe), in the territory of' the Marsi -, and the Viadrus (Oder), near whose source many authors place the original habitation of the Burgundians. 250 ANCJENT HISTOaY. •In considering the state of ancient i;Grermany, it must , be borne in mind -that, the tribes frequently migrated .from one quarter to another, especiaiily after, the secpndi century of our era, and that the name of a principal ;tribe, such as that of the Suevi, was frequently given to a lajge confederation. Thijs is particularly the case with the Franks (yj-ee men), who were not so much a tribe, as a union of several hordes determined to, maintain their national independence. ' - , The religion of the ancient. Germans seems to have resembleid that of the Gauls, except that it was rather more sanguinary, and that greater regard was paid to oracles and old prophetesses. Their chief deity was Odin, or Woden, ,^heir gpd.of war,, whose name is preserved ini our Woden's day, or Wednesday. . Their notion of future happiness was to sit for ever in Odin's presence,, quaffing beer from the sculls of their, enemies. ;This opinion is forcibly expressed in the. death-song which .Lodbrog sings for himself in the Edda,: — ■ "With flashing swords our might we proved; But this my hearty laughter moved, That bliss eternal shall be mine ' Where the halls of Odin shine j To him, great sire, my deeds are known, > For me he has prepared a throne. Where richest ale incessant flows In the hollow sculls of foes; ' The brave man nev«r shrinks at death. Gladly I resign my breath ; No regrets my soul appal i , As r haste to Odin's haU." , This is manifestly the creed of. a savage race of warriors, and such all the Gejimans were ; they tpok np pleasure but in military weapons ; they never attended any festival or public assembly without arms ; and so sacred was .the. sword among them, that their most solemn oath was taken by. kissing, its naked blade. . j ' , In .Asia,' the Roman empire was bounded ,by the wild tribes of the Caucasus, and the kingdoms of Armenia 'and Parthia: Qn the south it was limited by the imcpnquered Arabs, who defied every eifort made to reduce them to obedience. India became known to -the .Romans after the conquest of Egypt; and some efforts were made; to. establish an extensive commerce with that empire by the route of the Red sea, in th^ reigns, of the later em- peijors.. It was divided into India Proper,, or India at this side of the Ganges, whose western coast (MaZaiar) appears to have been pretty well known ; and India beyond the Ganges, which included the Bur- man empire and the peninsula of Malacca. . The extreme south of the Indian, peninsula, called Regio Pandi^nis (the Carnatic), was said to haye been the seat of a powerful and enlightened dynasty, whose capi- tal; ^was Madura. Malacca -jvas known as the Chersonesus Aurea (golden peninsulft) ; the island of Ceylon was called Taprobane or Sal'- icQ, and that,af Sumatra,, Labodii or Hor'dei. The frontier races of the empire in Africa have been mentioned in the preceding section. , , ROMAN EMPI&E. 351 Section YU.— Top6gtaphy of the City of Borne. Rome was originally; built in a square form, whence it is called Roma Quaiirata, on the Palatine hill. When the city was founded, and when it was at any subseJquent period enlarged, the first care was to mark out the Pomoe'rium, a consecrated' space round the walls of the city on which it was unlawftil to erect any edifice. This custom manifestly arose from the necessity of preventing besiegers from finding shelter near the fortifications ; " and in this, as in a thousand other instances, the early legislators gave Utility the sanction of superstition. A set form was prescribed for marking the 'Pomoe'rium ; a bullock and heifer were yoked to a bronze or' copper plotfghshare, and a furrow was' drawn marking the course of the future wall. The plough was so guided that all the sods fell to the inside, and if any went in an opposite direc- tion, 'care was taken that they should be' turned into the proper way. As the plough was sacred, it would have been profanation if anything impure passed over the ground which it had once touched ; but as things clean and unclean must necessarily piass into a city, when the plough came to a place where the builders designed to place a gate, it was taken up, and carried to the spot whesre the wall was resumed. Hence the Latins named. a gate ^oria, from the verb portare, to carry. The comitium, or place of public assembly, was next consecrated : the most remarkable part of this cereinony was the preparation of a vault, named mundus, in which were deposited the first-fruits of all things used to support life', and a' portion of each colonist's native earth. To this ' structure many superstitious' notions were attached; it was sup- posed, to be the entrance to the invisible world ; and it was opened three days in the y6ar; with many solemn forms, to admit the spirits' of the deceased. ' , It' is' probable that the first extension of' the Pomoe'rium was occar sioned by enclosing the Quirinal hill for the Sabines, when, under Tdtius,' they united themselves to the people of Rom'olus. i The next addition was the Coelian hill, on which the followers of Coe'fes Viben'- na, whoever that Etruscan adventurer may have been, erected" their habitation. Tul'Ius 'Hos'tilius enclosed ^the Viminal hill ■ after the de- struction of Al'ba, lo which An'cus Mar'tius added the Aventine, w^Mch was regai^ded as the peculiar habitation of the plebeians: In the reign of the first Tar'quin, Rome was increased by the Esquilin* and Capito- line; these completed the number of the seven hills for which the city ■viraH celebrated. At a much later period the Pincian and Vatican rnounts were added ; and these,' with the Janic'ulum on the north bank of the Tiber, made the niimber ten. ■ -' .' An'cus Mar'tius was the first who fortified the city with outworks, especially by raising a castle' and garrison on the Janic'ulum, which was connected with Rome by a wooden hiiige (pons sublicius). But the elder Tar'quin was the first who beautified his capital with splen- did buildings, not only Ornamental, but useful. To him the great sewer by -which the city was draindd, whose vast proportions still' claim ad- miration, is generally attributed. ' ' ' Though Rome ifegan to be more regularly built when it was re^ stored after the' departure of the Gauls, and many splendid edifices, 253 ANCIENT HISTOIY. both public and priv^te^ were erected, when wealth was so vastly in- creased as it must have been after tlie Conquest of Carthage and west- em Asia ; it could rscarcely be called a splendid city before the reign of Augus'tus, who boasted that "he found it brick, and left it marble." When Corinth was subdued by Mum'mius, so little were the Romans acquainted with the fine arts, that many precious pieices of statuary were; destroyed for the sake of their materials } but from that time taste was improved by a more constant intercourse with the Greeks, es- pecially when Athens became the university of the empire. But the long civil wars between the aristocratic and democratic factions pre- ventedi the development of these; improvements, until the battle of Ac'tium gave Rome tranquillity and a master. , In the days of itp great- est pirosperity the circumference of Rome, enclosed by walls, was abput twenty miles ; but there were also very extensive suburbs. , The' city hadthirty gfites, some authors say more, of which ithe most remarXablss were the Tergeminal, the Carmental, the Triumphal, and the Naval ,; to whiehi we may add the Capena, near the great aqueduct. The most remarkable buildings were the amphitheatres, the Capitol with ijs: temples, the senate-house, and the forum. The first amphitheatre was the Cir'cus Max'imus, erected by Tar- quiniusijpriscus ; but so enlarged by subsequent addinions, that it, was eaipable of containing two hundred thousand spectators. , In the arena were exhibited the cruel fights of gladiators, in which; the Romans took a pleasure equally infamous and extravagant, together with races, ex- hibitioJi>3 .of strange animals, and combats of, wild beasts. A still lajrger edifice was erected for the, same purpose in the reign of Vespasian, whose massive ruins are called the Colos'seiuja^ , Theatres, public baths,, and buildings for the exhibition of nauinachiae, or naval combats, were erected by the emperors, who seemed anxious to compensate the people fw the loss of theit liberty by the magnificence of their public ehlffiws and' enterteihrnents. ; ,,. The Capitol was :0ommenced on the Satumian hill, which received the, name Capitoline from a human head being found by the laborers tliggjng the foundation, in the reign of Tarquin'ius Pris'cus. It was erected onithe iioitherja summit of the hill ; the rocky eminence to the BOfith was . called; the Tarpeian oliflT, to commemorate, the treason of Tarpefe ; and public criminals were frequently executed by; being pre- cipitated from its peak. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was usually ?iegard!ed as the nations,! sanctuary of the Romans: it was begun by Tarquin'ius ,Pris'cus, and finished by Tarquin'ius Super'bus, ai>d it was ahw»st , yearly improved by the rich presents that successful, generals and foreign princes, eager to conciliate the Romans, offered as votive gifts,. Augus^tus $3,o&fS presented gold and jewels exceeding five thou- sand, pounds in value. , During the civil wars between Marius and Sylla,;this temple was bwmt to the ground; but it was rebuilt with greater splendor ;. and Cicero informs us, that tl^e statue ; of Jupiter Capitoliiuis was erected on its pedestal at the very time .that the cpn- spirftOyiof Cat'iUne was discovered. It was destroyed twice again during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian, but was restored each time with additional splendor. The Sibylline, books, and other oracles, supposed tO; contain, important predictionsi respecting the fate of the city, ROMAN EMPIRB. 263 were preservediin the ffanotuaryj under the charge of fifteen persons of the highest rank, called the Quhldec^mviri. Here, also, were pre- served the ehronolagibal archives of the city. A nail was annually- driven into the terajfle by the chief magistrate ; and this tniriotis: custom is supposed to have been the first rude mode of marking the lapse of time. • There were sevbral other terflplefe on this hill, the most remarkable €(f which was that of Japitei* Feret'rius, erected by Rom'ulus where the spolia apima were deposited. The spolia opiiAa were the trophies pre- sented by a Roman general who had slain the leaderof the enemy with his own hand ; they were only thrice offered, by Rom'ulus, Cossus, and Marcelliis. From the ferei't^um, or bief^ on which these* spoils were borne to the temple, the deity was called Feret'rius. ' The.Gapitol was the citadel of Rome, except in the teligft' of Numa, when the Quir'inal was chosen as the chief place of strength. This circumstance tends greatly to confirm Niebuhr'S' theory, that an ancient Sabiiie town, named Quiar'iumj stood on that hill, which modern writers confounded with Cures :' perhaps ihe double-faced Janus, whose temple was closed during pbace, was the symbol of the united cities, and the opening ofthe temple gates was to enable the inhabitants df the one in time of wiar to assist the other. In the valley between the' Palatine and Capitoline hills; was the forum, or place of public assembly and great market. It was sur- founded with temples, halls for- the administration of justice; called bamiiciB, and public oflSces ; it was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and statesmen, and with various trophies from ctmqiuered nations. Among these memorials of conquest wete several rostra, or prows iof ships taken at Antium, which' were used to ornament the pulpits from which thai magistrates- and public orators haVangued the general assemblies of the people :■ from this custom the phrase " to mount the rostrum''- originated. In the middle of the forum was a drained marsh, called the Curtian lake, to w'hich a singular le- gend was attached. TraHitiotts recorded that an immense chasm had suddenly opened in this place, which the augurs declared could aot be closed: until the most precious things in Rome were thrown into it. Cur'tius, a Roman iknight, armed and mounted, leaped into the yawning pit, declaring 'that nothing was more ;valuable ihkn courage and patriot- ism j 'after, which it is added that the fissure closed.^ A much more probable, account is, that, the place derived its- name from a Sabine general named' Cui'tius, smothered there whilefthe place' was as yet a swamp. ' ' ' ' In the forum was the celebrated . temple of Janus, built entirely! of bronze, supposed to have been erected during the reign of Numa. Its gates were only closed three tirates in eight centnriesj so incessant were the w;ars in which the Romans were etogaged. Not far from this was the temple of Concord, in which the senate frequently assembled : storks were encouraged to buildiin the roof of the edificei, oh- account of the social instincts lattiibutedi to those birds. ' In the same quarter of the city was -the.iteiDiple of;¥es'ta, where a pMpetUal fire was main- tained by the Vestal virgins : in it were said to be preserved the Palla- 254 ANCIENT HISTOEY. dium, or sacred .. image of Pal'las Min'erva, on which the fate of Troy depended, and other relica consecrated by' superstition. - ' , i The senate-house was above the pulpits belonging to the i^ublic orators : • it was said to have been originally erected by Tul'lus Hostil'- ius : but the senate had. several other places. of meeting, frequently as- sembling in the temples. Near it was the comitium, or court in which the patrician curice were convened : it was not roofed until the end of thie second Punic war, soon after which the comilia curiata fell grad- ually itito disuse., This space, befttte it. was covered, was called a temple ; because tentplwrn. properly signifies not merely an edifice, but an enclosure consecrated by the augurs., The principal theatres and public baths' were erected in this vicinity. The elections of magistrates; reviews of troops, and the census or registration oif the citizens, were held in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, which was also the ifavorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was originally a large common, whidhi had formed part of the estate of the younger Tar^quin, and being confiscated after the banishment of that monarch, was dedicaited to the god of war, because the Romans be- lieved Mars, to, be the father of their founder, > It long remained un- improved ; but- in the reign of Augus'tus it began to be surrounded by several splendid edifices ; ornamental trees and shrubs were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected, under which the citizens might continue their exercises in rainy weather. Most of these improvements were due to Mar'cus Agrip'pa, the. best general and wisest statesman in the court of Augus'tus. He erected, near the Cam'pus Martins, the celehrated Pantheon, or temple, of all the gods ; the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that has survived the ravages of time.* At present it is used as a Christian church, and is universally admired forits circular form, and the beautiful dome that forms, its roof. Near .the. Pantheon were the gardens and public baths, which Agrip'pa at his death bequeathed to the Roman people. 1 Perhaps no public edifices at Rome were more remarkable than the ^ueducts.for supplying the city with water. Pure streams were sought at a great distance, and conveyed in these artificial channels, supported by .arches, many of which were more than a hundred feet high, over steep mountains, deep valleys, and, what was still more difficult, dan- gerous morasses, which less enterprising architects would have deemed insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected during the censorship of Ap'pius Cae'cus, about four hundred years after the foundation of the city ; but under the emperors notfewer than twenty of these stupendous and "useful structures were raised, which brought such an abundant supply of water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even at the present day, when only three of the aqueducts remain, after the lapse of centuries, the neglect of rulers, and the ravages of barbarians, no city in Europe has a better supply of fCholesome water than Rome. „ It would be tedious to enumerate! all the public buildings that deco- rated "the Eternal City ;" wp may therefore conclude by. observing, that itome, when in the zenith of its gl6ry, contained four hundred and * The Collosseum in the Regent's Park is built on the model of the Pantheon. UOMAN EM?IEE.'' 255 twenty temples, five regular theatres, two amphitheatres, and seven cir- cuses of vast extent : there were sixteen public baths, built of marble, and furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From the aqueducts a prodigious number of fountains were supphed, many of which were remarkable for their architectural beauty. The pala- ces, public halls, columns, porticoes, and obelisks, were without num- ber ; and to these must be added the trixmiphal arches erected by the later emperors. The public roads in the various parts of the empire, but more espe- cially in Italy, though less ostentatious than the aqueducts, were not inferior to them in utility and costliness. Of these the most remarka- ble was thej^PPi^'? road, from Rome ' to; Brundusium, through the Pomptine marshes, which were kept well drained during the flourish- ing ages of the empire, but, by subsequent neglect beqame a pestilential swamp. This road extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was pa;ired through its entire length with enormous square blocks of hard stone. Nineteen centuries have elapsed since it was formed, and yet many parts of it still appear nearly as' perfect as when it was first made. Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural' beauty, but it far sur- passed it in works of public utility. Every succeeding emperor deemed it necessary to add something to the edifices that had been raised for the comfort and convenience of the citizens : even after the seat of government had been transferred to Constantinople, we find the son of Constantine evincing his gratitude for the reception he met with in the ancient capital, by sending thither two magnificent obelisks from Alex- andria in 'Egypt. ANCEENT HISTOaY. CHAPTER XVIL HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sbctiow t.—,Thi Reigns of iUt Family of the Cessafs. FKOM B. d. 30 To A. D. 96. ' ' . jr Xhoogh. theribjattle - lemnity until his death. This event probably tended to hasten his dissolution ; he was seized with a dangerous attack of illness at Naples, and as he was returning home to the capital, the disease compelled him to stop at Nola, in Campania, where he expired (a. d. 14). It was cur- rently reported that the empress Liv'ia accelerated his death by admin- istering poisoned figs, in order to secure the succession for Tiberius. Tiberius Claddius Nero, or, as he was called after his adoption, Augus'tus Tiberius Cse'sar, commenced his reign by procuring the murder of young Agrip'pa, grandson of the late emperor, whom he dreaded as a formidable rival. As soon as his accession was known at Rome, the consuls, senators, and knights, ran headlong into slavery, pretending to hail Tiberius with extravagant joy, while they professed Squally extravagant sorrow for the loss of Augus'tus. Tiberius met them with duplicity equal to their own : he affected to decline the sov- ereign power ; but, after long debates, allowed himself to be won over by the general supplications of the senators. Having bound himself by oath never to depart from the regulations of his predecessor, he ex- erted himself to win the aflfections, or rather disarm the suspicions, of the virtuous German'icus, whom Augus'tus had compelled him to declare his heir. But the jealousies of the emperor were greatly aggravated by a mutiny of the troops in Germany, who offered to raise German'icus to the throne ; and though he firmly refused, and severely rebuked their disloyalty, yet Tiberius thenceforth was resolved upon his destruc- tion. The glory which the young prince acquired in several successful campaigns against the Germans, at length induced the emperor to recall him to Rome, under the pretence of rewarding him with a triumph. But Tiberius soon became anxious to remove from Rome a person whose mildness and virtue were so powerfully contrasted with his own tyranny ROMAN EMPIRE. 859 and debauchery : he appointed him governor of the eastern provinces ; but at the same time he sent Pfso, vi^ith his infamous Wife Plancina, into Syria, secretly instructing them to thvirart German'icus in all his under- takings. The wicked pair obeyed these atrocious commands ; and the brave prince, after undergoing many mortifications, at last sunk under them. Attacked by a severe disease, aggravated by suspicions of Piso's treachery, whom he believed to have compassed his death by magic or by poison, he sent for his wife Agrippina ; and having besought her to hmuble her haughty spirit for the sake of their children, expired, to the general grief of the empire (a. d. 19). His ashes were brought to Rome by Agrippina ; and though she arrived in the very middle of the Saturnalia, the mirth usual at that festival was laid aside, and the whole city went into mourning. In the early part of his reign Tiberius had affected to imitate the clemency of Augus'tus ; but he soon began to indulge his natural cruelty, and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death under pre- tence of high treason. The emperor's depravity was exceeded by that of his minister, the infamous Sejanus, whose name has passed into a proverb. This ambitious favorite secretly aspired at the empire, and applied himself to win the favor of the praetorian guards : he is also ac- cused of having procured the death of Driisus, the emperor's son, and of having tried to destroy Agrippina and her children. But his most successful project was the removal of Tiberius from Rome, persuading him that he would have more freedom to indulge his depraved passions in Campania than in the capital. The emperor chose for his retreat the little island of Cap'reBe, where he wallowed in the most disgusting and unnatural vices : while Sejanus, with an entire army of spies and informers, put to death the most eminent Romans after making them undergo the useless mockery of a trial. Tiberius, however, soon began to suspect his minister, and secret warnings were given him of the dangerous projects that Sejanus had formed. It was apparently neces- sary, however, to proceed with caution, and the emperor felt his way by withdrawing some of the honors he had conferred. Finding that the people gave no signs of discontent, Tiberius sent the commander of the praetorian guards privately to Rome with a letter to the senate, instruct- ing him to inform Sejanus that it contained an earnest recommendation to have him invested with the tribunitian power. The minister, deceived by this hope, hastily convened the senate, and on presenting himself to that body, was surrounded by a horde of flatterers, congratulating him on his new dignity. But when the fatal epistle was read, in which he was accused of treason, and orders given for his arrest, he was imme- diately abandoned, and those who had been most servile in their flat- teries became loudest in their invectives and execrations. A hurried decree was passed condeihning him to death, and was put in execution the very same day ; a general slaughter of his friends and relations fol- lowed ; his innocent children, though of very tender years, were put to death with circumstances of great barbarity ; and the numerous, statues thalt had been erected to his hbnor' were broken to pieces by the fickle multitude. This memorable exattiple of the instability of human gran- deur is powerfully described by Juvenal, in his satire on the Vanity of Human Wishes. ' The passage- is thus translated by Dryden : — 260 ANCIENT HISTOBT. " Some ask^d for enyied power, which public hate Pursues and hurries headlong to their fate ; Down go the titles, and the statue crowned Is hy base hands in the liext river, drowned. The guiltless horses and the chariot-wheel The same effects of vulgar fury feel : The smith prepares his hammer for the stroke. While the lunged bellows hissing fire provoke } ^ejanus, almost first of Roman names. The great Sejattus crackles in the flames ! Formed in the forge the pliant brass is laid On anvils : and of head and limbs are made Pans, cans, and gridirons, a whole kitchen trade. : Adorn your doors with laurel; and a bull, , Milk-white and large, lead to the Capitol ; Sej anus, with a rope, is dragged along, The sport and laughter of the giddy throng ! ' Good Lord,' they cry, ' what Ethiop lips hfi bears I See what a hang-dog face the scoundrel wears ! By Jove, I never could endure his sight ;— But, say, how came his monstrous crimes tO light ? What is the charge, and who the evidence ? The savior of the nation and the prince V — 'Nothing of this ; but our old Csesar sent A tedious letter to his parliament.' — ' Niy, sirs, if Csesar wrote, I ask no more j He's guilty, and the question's out of door.' How goes the mob ! for that's a mighty thing — When the king's trump, the mpb are for the kii^ : They follow fortune, and the common cry- Is still against the rogue condemned to die. But the same very mob, that rascal crowd. Had cried Sej anus, with a shout as Idud^ Had his designs, by fortune's favor blept, , Succeeded, and the prince's age opprest." „ Tte cruelty of Tiberius was increased tenfold after the removal of his favorite ; the least circumstance rendered him suspicious ; and when once a jioble was suspected, Ms, fate was sealed., In all hig extravagan- cips ,he was supported by the servile senate j and this body, once so independent, never ventured even to remonstrate against his sanguinary decrees. At length, continued debauchery undermined the emperors constitution.: but with the usual weakness of UcBntioug sovereigns, he ^d;eq,vored to disguise the state of his health, not merely from' his court, but' his physicians. At length, finding death approach very rapidly, he bequeathed the empire to Caius Calig'ula, the only survi-ving son pf his nephew and victim German'icus. It is said that he chose thig prince, though well aware of hisi natural depravity, that his own reign might be regretted, when contrasted with the still more sanguinary rule, of his successor. Soon after having signed his will, Tiberius was seized with a fainting fitj and the courtiers, believing him dead, hastened to offer their homage to Calig'ula ; but the, emperor rallied, and there was reason to I fear his vengeance. Mac'ro, the commander of the guaidsj .werted the danger by smothering the weak old man with a weight.of ;COverings, under pretence of keeping him warm (a. p. ,37). In fiiiSsreign, though the forms of the constitution were ret^iined, its spirit and substance were icpmpletely altered ; the government became aOMAN EMPIRE. 261 a complete despotism ; and thepnly use of the senate was to register the edicts of the sovereign. While Tiberius was emperor, Jesus Christ was crucified in Judea, under the propraetorship of Pontius Pilate (a. d, 33). It is said, but on very doubtful authority, that Tiberius, having received an account of his miracles, wished to have him en- rolled among the gods, but that his designs were frustrated by the op- position of the senate. Caius, sumamed Calig'ula from the military boots (ca%. 270). Extraordinary hon- ors were paid to his memory by the senate. His brother was elected emperor by acclamation ; but in seventeen days he so displeased the army by attempting to revive the ancient discipline, that he was deposed and murdered. Aurelian, a native of Sir'mium, in Pannonia, was chosen emperor by the army ; and the seriate, well acquainted with his merits, joyfully confirmed the election. He made peace with the Goths, and led his army against the Germans, who had once more invaded Italy. Aure- lian was at first defeated ; but he soon retrieved his loss, and cut the whole of the barbarian array to pieces. His next victory was obtained over the Vandals, a new horde that had passed the Danube ; and hav- ing thus secured the tranquillity of Europe, he marched to rescue the eastern provinces from Zenobia. The queen of Pal'myra was one of the most illustrious women re- corded in history : she claimed descent from the Egyptian Ptolemies, but was probably of Jewish origin, since she is said to have professed the Jewish religion. She was well acquainted with the principal lan- guages of the eastern and western worlds, skilled in the leading sci- ences of her day, and so well versed in affairs of state, that the suc- cesses of her husband, Odenatus, are generally attributed to his having acted by her advice. For nearly six years she. ruled Syria and Meso- potamia, discharging all the duties of an excellent sovereign and intrepid commander. Ambition, however, precipitated her ruin : not satisfied with the conquest of Egypt, she aspired at the sovereignty of Asia, and Aurelian resolved to put an end to usurpations so disgraceful to the Roman fame. On his march through Thrace, the emperor fought a great battle with the Goths. Not satisfied vidth a single victory, he pursued them across the Danube, routed their forces a second time, and slew one of their kings. Passing over into Asia, he encountered the forces of Zenobia near Antioch ; the battle was sanguinary and well contested, but in the end the Romans prevailed. A second victory enabled Aurelian to be- siege Palmy'ra, which the dauntless queen defended with great spirit and resolution. At length, finding that there was no hope of succor, she attempted secretly to fly into Persia, but was betrayed by her ser- vants, and taken prisoner. Palray'ra surrendered; but the citizens soon revolting, this great commercial capital was stormed, its inhabitants put to the sword, and its trade and prosperity irretrievably ruined. Scarcely had this revolt been subdued, when Aurelian was called upon to quell a formidable insurrection in Egypt. The celerity of his march disconcerted the rebels ; they were speedily conquered ; and the emperor, having thus suppressed all the troubles of the east, resolved to recover Gaul, Spain, and Britain, which had now for thirteen years been the prey of different tyrants. A single campaign restored these provinces to the empire ; and Aurelian, returning to Rome, was honored with the most magnificent triumph that the city had ever beheld. Far more honorable to him, however, was his generous tireatment of his cap- lives— a suitable estate was granted at Tibur {Tivoli) to Zenobia and ner children. The princess, reconciling herself to her lot, became a ROMAN EMPIEB. 291 respectable Roman matron ; and her family was not extinct in the fifth century. Tranquillity \ws first disturbed by a violent insurrection excited at Rome by the debasing of the coinage. The imperial troops, sent to drive the mob from the Coelian hill, were routed with the loss of seven thousand men, and it was with the utmost difficulty that the insurgents were reduced. Aurelian punished the principal authors of the tumult with gxeat severity, not to say cruelty, and, finding that he had thus be- come unpopular, left the city. He directed his course to Gaul, where he appeased some growing disturbances ; thence he marched to Vinde- licia, and restored it to the empire : but he abandoned the province of Dacia to the barbarians, withdrawing all the Roman garrisons that had been stationed beyond the Danube. Aurelian's virtues were sullied by the sternness and severity that naturally belongs to a peasant and a soldier. His officers dreaded his inflexibility, which had been already shown in his sentencing his own nephew to death. While he was thus preparing to lead his army against the Persians, he discovered an act of peculation committed by Mnestheus, one of his secretaries, and threatened a severe punishment. The guilty functionary, having no other hope of escape, conspired with several others exposed to legal vengeance : they assailed the empieror, escorted only by a few friends, on his road to Byzantium, and slew him with innumerable wounds (a. d. 275). But the assassins did not escape the punishment due to their crimes ; the soldiers, attached fondly to an emperor who had so often led them to victory, tore the authors of his death to pieces. They showed, at the same time, greater respect for the law than had ever been displayed by their predecessors, cheerfully referring the choice of an emperor to the senate. After a tranquil interregnum of more than six months, the senate elect- ed Mar'cus Claudius Tacit'us, a member of their own body, in spite of his great age, for he was already passed his seventy-fifth year. Having enacted some useful laws, the emperor marched against the A'lans, who had overrun Asia Minor. He defeated the barbarians ; but the fatigues of the campaign proved too much for his constitution, and he died in Cappadocia, after a short reign of about seven months. Floran, the brother of Tacit'us, was elected emperor by the senate, but Mar'cus Aurehus Probus was the choice of the Syrian army ; and a civil war soon began between these rivals. But Florian's own soldiers took offence at some part of his conduct, rose in sudden mutiny, and put him to death. Probus, now undisputed master of the empire, led his troops from Asia to Gaul, which was again devastated by the German tribes ; he not only defeated the barbarians, but pursued them into their own coimtry, where he gained greater advantages than any of his pre- decessors. Thence he passed into Thrace, where he humbled the Goths ; and returning to Asia, he completely subdued the insurgent Isaurians, whose lands he divided among his veterans. Alarmed at these victories, Bahram H., king of Persia, called Var'ames by the western writers, sent ambassadors to solicit peace, and submitted to the terms dictated by the emperor. Three competitors in different provin- ces were next subdued ; but when wars were at an end, the emperor employed his armies in useful public works, which so offended the licen-. 293 ANCIENT HISTOEY. tious soldiery, that they suddenly attacked and slew him (a. d. 282)< They subsequently repented of the crime, and united to raise a stately monument to his memory. Cams, the captain of the praetorian guards, was elected emperor by the army ; and the senate, not without reluctance, assented to the ar- rangement. The new emperor gave the title of Caesar to his sons Ca- rinus and Numerianus, the former of whom was one of the most depraved young men of his time; the latter a model of every virtue. The new emperor signalized his accession by a brilliant victory over the Sarmatians : he would have pursued these barbarians into their na- tive wilds, had he not been summoned to Asia by a new invasion of the Persians. Leaving the care of the western provinces to Carlnus, the emperor, accompanied by Numerianus, hastened into Mesopotamia, where he defeated Bahram, and, pursuing the Persians into their own country, besieged Ctes'iphon. The city would probably have been taken, had not the emperor fallen a victim to disease, or, as others say, to a thunderbolt (a. d. 283). Numerianus was chosen his successor; but, after a few months' reign, he was assassinated by A'per his father- in-law and captain of his guards. The crime, however, was discovered, and the murderer put to death by the army. Dioclesian, said to have been originally a slave, was imanimously saluted emperor, by the army. He was proclaimed at Chal'cedon on the 1 7th of December, a. d. 284 ; an epoch that deserves to be remem- bered, as it marks the begiiming of a new era, called " the era of Dio- clesian," or " the era of martyrs," which long prevailed in the church, and is still used by the Copts, the Abyssinians, and other African na- tions. When Carinus heard of his brother's death, he assembled a nu- merous army, marched from Gaul into Illyr'icum, where he conquered a usurper named Juliinus, and thence advancing into Moe'sia, inflicted a severe defeat on the army of Dioclesian, in the plains of Mar'gus (Morava Hissar). But in the very moment of victory a tribune, whose wife he Ijad seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, and by a single blow put an end to the civil war. Dioclesian made a generous use of his victory : in an age when death, exile, and confiscation, were the usual fate of the conquered party, the new emperor did not even deprive his rival's ministers of office. The troubles of the empire appearing too great to be managed by a single mind, Dioclesian voluntarily gave himself a colleague, selecting for this high situation his friend Maximian, a brave and skilful soldier, but un- fortunately also an ignorant and ferocious barbarian. Scarcely had the appointment been made, when Maximian was called upon to exert his miUtary talents in Gaul, both in suppressing insurrections and checking the barbarians. He effected his purposes with great skill ; while his colleague gained several victories over the Sarmatians in the east. A brief interval of tranquillity was followed by new and more alarm- ing disturbances in every part of the empire. The two sovereigns, in great alarm, resolved on a further division of authority ; each chose an associate and successor, with the title of Caesar, who was to be invested with a considerable share of imperial power : to this new dignity Dio- clesian nominated Max'imin Gal^rius ; and Maximian, Constan'tius Chldrus. A division of the empire followed : Dioclesian took the prov- ROMAN EMPIEE. 293 inces beyond the ^gean sea ; Thrace and lUyr'icum were assigned to Galerius ; Maximian received Italy and Africa ; Gaul, Spain, and Brit- ain, were intrusted to Constan'tius. Although this arrangement appears to have been rendered necessary by the circumstances of the empire, it undoubtedly hastened its decline : four courts, with all their expensive adjuncts, were now to be maintain- ed, instead of one : taxes were multiplied ; the inhabitants of several provinces reduced to beggary, and agriculturists, unable to meet the imposts levied on land and produce, left the fields in many districts un- cultivated. Italy, which had hitherto borne a very light share of the public burdens, was no longer permitted to claim exemption as the seat of domestic empire, and was soon reduced to a deplorable condition. Britain, which had been usurped by Garaiisius, early claimed the at^ tention of Constan'tius : it was, however, necessary to prepare a fleet for the invasion, as the usurper was powerful by sea ; and while the naval armament was preparing, Constan'tius gained several victories over the German hordes. Just as he was about to set sail, he learned that Carusius had been deposed and murdered by a new usurper, named Allec'tus, far inferior to his victim in talent and popularity. The Caesar instantly hastened to cross the channel ; Allec'tus was defeated and slain in Kent, the remainder of the province quickly reduced to obedience, and the ravages of the barbarians on the northern frontiers prevented. Galerius was as successful on the Danube as Constan'tius in Britain and on the Rhine ; Maximian reduced the barbarous tribes that had in- vaded Africa, while Dioclesian quelled a dangerous revolt in Egjrpt. He was soon summoned to protect the empire from a dangerous inva- sion of the Persians ; Galerius had been sent from the Danube to the Euphrates to check their progress, but he was defeated by the Sassa- nid monarch Narsf, on the very field which had been so fatal to Cras'- sus and his legions. Dioclesian showed great indignation at the mis- conduct of Galerius, to which he attributed the recent calamity ; but at length he permitted himself to be mollified, and intrusted the Caesar with a new army for a second campaign. In the following year the Romans again invaded Persia ; but, profit- ing by recent and bitter experience, the leader left the plains of Meso- potamia on the right, and led his forces through the Armenian mount- ains, which were more favorable for the operations of his infantry, in which the principal strength of his army consisted. Masking his course from the enemy, Galerius unexpectedly rushed down from the the hills on the Persian lines : the surprise, the impetuosity of the at- tack, and the desire for revenge which animated the Romans, rendered their onset irresistible. Narsi was severely wounded, but escaped by the swiftness of his horse, leaving his entire family, his magnificent tents, and his sumptuous camp-equipage, as a prize to the conquerors. A bag of embossed leather filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a private soldier : unacquainted with the value of his prize, he flung the pearls away, keeping the bag as something that might be useful. Ga- lerius treated his royal captives with the greatest kindness and gener- osity ; his conduct produced such an effect on Narsi's heart, that he so- licited peace. The great province of Mesopotamia [(Juzirah) was yielded to the Romans, together with five districts beyond the Tigris, 394 ANCIENT HI&TOUy. including the greater part of Carduchia (Kurdistan), a country more fruitful in soldiers than grain, but which, from its strength and position, commands the greater part of western Asia. These districts were taken from Tiridates, king of Armenia, the ally of the Romans ; but he waa indemnified, at the expense of Persia, by the fine province of Atropa- tene [Azerbijdn). When the Armenian took possession of this country, he made its chief city, Tauris (Tabriz), the metropolis of his kingdom, and greatly improved that ancient capital. But these triumphs were sullied by a general persecution of the Christians (the tenth and last), which Dioclesian is said to have com- menced at the instigation of Galerius (a. d. 303). It lasted ten entire years, and exceeded all the preceding in its indiscriminate massacres and severities. Such multitudes of Christians suffered death, in all the provinces of the empire, that the ,emperors believed that they had ac- complished their purpose, and completely extirpated Christianity. They told the world in a pompous inscription, that they had extinguish- ed the Christian name and superstition, and everywhere restored the worship of the gods to its former purity and lustre. But the church triumphed over all their artifices and power ; and, in spite of the ut- most eflforts of tyranny, many years had not elapsed after the publica- tion of this boast, when it reigned triumphant in the very metropolis of idolatry and superstition. Dioclesian prepared to return to Rome, but was delayed for some time by a strange reTOlt in Syria. Eugenius, an officer of little or no reputation, had been intrusted with the command of five hundred men in Seleucia, who, being employed all day in cleansing the harbor, and compelled to work all night baking their own bread, resolved to de- liver themselves from such insupportable drudgery ; and forthwith pro- claimed their governor emperor. Eugenius at first refused the dignity ; but being threatened with instant death, he allowed himself to be in- vested with the purple, and by a rapid march, got possession of Anti- och. When the citizens, however, recovered from their surprise, they fell upon the insurgents, and cut them to pieces. Dioclesian, instead of rewarding the people of Antioch for their fidelity, ordered their chief magistrates to be put to death without inquiry or trial ; a crime which rendered him so odious to the Syrians, that for more than ninety years they could not hear his name pronounced without a shudder. Rome, on the return of the two emperors, witnessed for the last time, the splendid ceremonial of a triumph j-^twas less costly than those of Aurelian and Probus, but it commemorateo^eater and more useful vic- tories. In his triumph, and in the spectacles that followed it, however, Dioclesian having displayed more parsimony than was pleasing to the people, he was assailed by jests and lampoons, which annoyed him so much, that he quitted the city for Raven'na. On his journey a severe storm arose, and the cold which he caught produced a long and linger- ing disease that affected his reason . After he had begun to recover, he was induced, or perhaps compelled, to resign the empire, by Galerius (a. d. 305). He persuaded Maximian to abdicate also. The two Cffisars became emperors, and chose two other nobles to fill the station they had occupied. Dioclesian survived his abdication nearly nine years ; he resided EOMAN EMPIRE. 395 during this time at his country-seat near Salona {Spalatro), where the ruins of his palace, may still Ije seen. He never regretted the power he had resigned ; and when Maximian and others wrote, inviting him to make a struggle for empire, he replied : " I wish you would come to Salona, and see the cabbages I have planted : after having once visited my garden, you .would never again mention to me the name of empire." The close of his life was embittered by domestic misfortune, by tlie in- gratitude of Constantine and Licin'ius, and by the calamities which he foresaw that the dissensions of these rivals would bring upon the em- pire. There are various accounts given of the manner of his death, and it is impossible to discover whether he fell by his own hand or by natural 4isease. Section VIII. — From the Abdicaiion ofJDioclesian to the Death of Constan- tine the Great. PROM A. D, 3Q3 TO A. D. 337. The Caesars, Severus and Max'imin, owed their elevation to Gale- yius ; but they were not quite so subservient to his wishes as he ex- pected, both showing themselves favorable to the toleration of the Christians. Arrangements were made for the division of the empire ; Constan'tius and Severus received the western provinces ; Galerius ancl IVIax'imin ruled all the territories east of the Adriatic. Constantine, the celebrated son of Constan'tius, was sick in the provinces assigned to Galerius when the empire was thus divided ; some effprts were made to assassinate a prince whose talenfs and popularity had already renr dered him formidable. He escaped the danger by a rapid flight, and came to his father, who was just about to embark at Gessoriacum (Boulogne) for Britain. The presence of Constantine was required in that inland by a formidable invasion of the PictSj a nation now for the first time mentioned in history ; but while on his march against these barbarians, he was seized with a mortal disease, and died at Ebor'acum (York), where his body was honorably interred by his son Constantine (a. p. 306). Constantine was instantly proclaimed Augustus hy 'lie soldiers ; but Galerius would only give him the title of Caesar, declaring thq,t Severus was his partner in the empire. Maxen'tius, the son of Maximian, in- (iignant at his exclusion from power, caused himself to be prqclaimed emperor by the dissatisfied soldiery, and induced his father to abandon his splitude, and remount the throne. Severus led an army against them ; but he was abandpned by the greater part of his troops, taken prisoner, a,nd put to death (a. d. 307). Maximian, knowing that Ga- lerius would revenge the murder of Severus, strengthene4 himself by entering into close alliance with Constantine, to whom he gave his daughter Fausta in marriage. Nor did he dread Galerius without a cause ; that eniperor hastened from the east with a large army, and attempted, to besiege Rome ; but failing in this enterprise, he permitted his soldiers to devastate Italy. Maximian had gone to Gaul, hoping to receive aid from Constantine ; but finding that prudent prince by no means disposed to encounter the hazar^ds of a dangerous war, and hear- ing that Qalerius had retreated precipitately, he returned to Rome, 296 ANCIENT HISTORY. where he reigned conjointly with his son. In the meantime, Gal^rius conferred the title of emperor on his friend Licinius ; and thus the em- pire was shared between six sovereigns.* Maximian having quarrelled with his son, returned to Gaul, where he began to plot against the life of Constantine ; but his treachery was discovered, and he was deservedly executed (a. d. 310). In the fol- lowing year a loathsome disease, produced by debauchery, removed Galerius from the stage ; his dominions were divided between Maximin and Licinius. It was scarcely possible that peace could long continue between the four princes who now shared the empire. Constantine had won the affections of his subjects by his wise and beneficent ad- ministration in Gaul, while the cruelty and rapacity of Maxen'tius filled Italy and Africa with confusion. But the tyrant was not conscious of the weakness that resulted from his crimes. Under pretence of re- venging the death of his father, he ordered all the statues erected in honor of Constantine throughout Italy to be thrown down, and thus pro- voked a war with the most able prince of the age, Constantine having passed the Alps, defeated the lieutenants of Maxen'tius at Augusta Tau- rinorum (Turin) and Ver'ona, while the tyrant himself remained sunk in sloth and luxury at Rome. At length he was roused from his lethargy by the rapid approach of the victorious army ; a dreadful battle was fought at a place called Sax'a Rubra, within nine miles of Rome, near the little river Cremera, so memorable for the destruction of the Fabii. The result was fatal to Maxen'tius ; the praetorian ^ards, on whom he chiefly relied, were broken and cut to pieces by the repeated charges of the Gallic horse. The tyrant himself was drowned in the Tiber, while attempting to make his escape through the crowd over the Milvian bridge (a. d. 312). It was during this campaign that Constantine is said to have seen a miraculous vision of a luminous cross in the heavens, a little before sunset ; and to have been warned in a dream to take this sacred symbol as his standard. The principal -evidence for the truth of this miracle is the emperor's own account of the event, related many years afterward to Eus6bius ; one circumstance, however, greatly weakens his testimony ; the vision was so far from producing the con- version of Constantine, that he did not receive baptism until a short time before his death. No sooner had the death of Maxen'tius made Constantine master of Rome, than he removed the great source of all the calamities that had befallen tKe city under the empire, by disbanding the praetorian guards, and destroying their fortified camp. He restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, recalled all those who had been banished by Maxen'tius, and dismissed the entire tribe of spies and informers. He revoked all the edicts that had been issued against the Christians and paid great respect to the bishops and clergy, either on account of the miraculous vision already mentioned, or, as is more probable, through gratitude for the efiicient aid he had received from the Christians in the recent contest, and anxiety to secure their assistance in any future struggle. Maximin was a devoted adherent of paganism ; he viewed the in- novations of Constantine with great hostility ; and when Licinius mar- * Maximian, Galerius, Licinius, Maximin, Constantine, and Maxentius. ROMAN EMPIRE. 297 tied the sister of that prince, he resolved to destroy both. Taking ad- vantage of the war in which Constantine was involved with the Franks, he marched against Licin'ius, hoping to destroy him before any as- sistance could arrive from the west. His first efforts were crowned with success ; but being totally defeated near Adrianople, he fled with- out attendants to Nicomedia, where he soon died of rage and disap- pointment (a. d. 313). Licin'ius made a cruel use of his victory, slaughtering without mercy all whom he deemed likely to become com- petitors for empire : among the most illustrious of his victims were the wife and daughter of Dioclesian. Constantine, during this war, was engaged in securing the tranquil- lity of western Europe ; he gave an unquestionable proof of his attach- ment to Christianity by convening a general council of the bishops at Arelate (Aries), to suppress the heresy of the Donatists ; but before the assembly met, he was forced to take the field against Licin'ius, who had thrown down his statues in iEnona (Laybach), a city of upper Pan- nonia. With his usual celerity, Constantine hastened into Pannonia before Licin'ius could expect his arrival ; but he found that prince al- ready in the field. A fierce battle was fought at the little town of Cib'alis or Ceb'alae {Sevilei), not far from Sir'mium, in which Licin'ius was defeated, and forced to fly into Thrace. Thither he was followed by Constantine, vanquished a second time, and forced to consent to an accommodation, by which lUyr'icum, Macedon, Greece, and lower MoB'sia, were yielded to Constantine (a. d. 314). The conqueror im- mediately took the most prudent measures to secure his new acquisi- tions ; while Licin'ius continued to provoke his subjects by repeated cruelties and exactions. Foreign invasions led to a renewal of the civil war. Constantine having conquered the Sarmatians and Goths, pursued the latter into ter- ritories of Licin'ius, and that prince immediately declared that the recent articles of peace had been violated (a. d. 323). Great prepara- tions were made on both sides for the renewal of hostilities, but Con- stantine was the first to take the field, and entering Thrace he found his rival encamped on the Hebrus (Maritza), not far from Adrianople. The battle was in some measure a struggle between Christianity and paganism : Constantine displayed the banner of the cross, Licin'ius the ancient idolatrous standards of the empire : the struggle was fierce — it ended in the total overthrow of Licin'ius, who had the further mortification of learning that his fleet had been destroyed in the straits of Callip'oUs (Gallipoli) by Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine. An attempt was made to terminate the struggle by negotiation, but it was frustrated by the insincerity of Licin'ius : he hazarded a second engagement, and was irretrievably ruined. From the field of battle the defeated tyrant fled to Nicodemia, but he was soon taken prisoner, and put to death (a. d. 324). Constantine being thus sole master of the empire, restored the churches, of which the Christians had been de- prived in the eastern provinces, to their respective pastors, and issued several edicts for the suppression of idolatry. New controversies in the church led to the convocation of the cele- brated council of Nice, in which the doctrine of the Trinity was fixed and defined, the heresy of Arius condemned, and the spiritual suprem- ?98 ANOJENT HISTQHY. 3cy of the emperor virtually asej^nowledged (a. d. 325). Wten the labors of this celebrated ass^mbfy terminated, Gonstatitinie returned to the western provinces, and paid a visit to Epine, His reception in the city was anything but flattering ; the populate- loa,ded him with insujts and execrations for abandoning the; religion of his forefathers ; and his rage at such injurious treatment is said, to have greatly influenced his determination of transferringr the seat of govemnient from Rome to By- zantium. At the same time he was harass.ed by domestic troubles, which led him to. coinmit a horrid crime. Instigated by the empress Fausta, he put his eldest son, the virtuous Crispus, to deatji without a trial ; and when he too late discovejced hia error, he ca,used Fausta and her acconf)lice& to be slain. Th«(M-Je*r)i,, and though he capture^ that strong city, he lost the favorable season of' invading Syria, >nd was forced to content Mmself with' reducing Sinfgara (Sanjar) and Bezabde {JezkaK): Con- stan'tius made an effort to recover Bezabde, but was compelled to raise the siege. He returned ito Anfipch, where his mortification was increased by intelligence of the brilli3,nt ; achievernents of Julian in Gaul. The young prince had vanquisjhed the, ADemajis, the. Franks^ and' several other formidable trijjes ; he had piirsiled his yictcffious career beyond the Rhine, and by his; Tapid, conquests filled .Germany with cpafusion ; while the prudence of his : civil adnlinistration raised Gaul to imexampled prosperity. .Constaji'tiUs resolved to weaken the strength of the Caesar,' and pummbned his best Ifegions from Gaul to defeftd the east ; the soldiers refused tp obey, and proclaimed Julian emperor. Preparations for civil war were made on both sides ; but its calamities were averted by the death of Constan^tiusj(A. d. ,361). During this entire reign, the Christian church, was scandalized and distracted by fierce disputes arising otit of the Aijan heresy: Constan'tius was the avowed partisan of the Anans, and encouraged them in their per- secution of the orthodox, especially sanctioning the efforts inade for the destruction of the celebrated Afhanasius, bishop of Alexandria. When J'ulian reached Heraclea,(JEreAZi), though he was still sixty mile? distant from the capital, the whoje populationi. of Constantinople came put to welcome his; arrival, and he made his triumphal entry amid general acclariJ^tions. One of his earliest measures Was to constitute a court at Chal'cedon (.^attari) fpr the trial pf such ministers of Con- stan'tius as might bp accused of.pecufe4a)i)n. Many of them indeed well' deserved punishment; bi^ the ostentatious mode in which they were 20 306 ANCIENT HISTOHY. bmuglit to trial was an ungenerous attack on the memory of the late emperor, and the inquisitions were conducted with such , indiscriminate severity,' that many innocent persons suffered with' the guiltiy. He then commenced a complete reform of the court, banishing the eunuchs and other ministers of luxury; but with the idle parade of , pomp, Julian discarded many of the decencies of life, ostentatiotijsly exhibiting a dis- regard for personal cleanliness, aS if filth was a necessary clement of philosophy. But the great object of his sLfflb|itibn was to restore ancient paganism ; he revoked the edicfts'that had been issued against idolatry, under the plausible pretext of granting freedom of 'opinion to all hl^ sub- jects ;.hfe encouraged the philosophei's to veil the most revolting fictions of mythology under allegorictal; explanations.; he showed a marked dis- like to I the Christians who visitldd' the (?ourt ; and .finally he closed the schools which were kept by the 'eilergy'. ' But the most' remarkable of his enterprises for the overthrow of .Christianity iyras his celebrated attempt to rebuild: the temple of Jeru- salem,' which appears to have been miraculously defeated.' Seeing'that the i condition of the Jews was a standing miracle in proof of' ChrisT tianity, he resolved to weaken or destroy its ! effect, by restoring to i^ha^ people: their ancient city and iiational worship, erecting for them at the same time a temple on 'Mount M'oriah, whose sfilendo'r . should sufipas's that of the church of the holy sepulchre; ' This measure was frustrated, after ■ great : expense had been incurred in making preparations for ifs iBxecution,' as iiiiost historians declare, in conse'quehce pf balls of fire that burst from the earth, and scared the workmen employed to dig the foun- dation. ' Whether these phenomena were Supernatural, or whether they ever had existence, is really of little importance in the' great weight that the occurrence gives to the evidence in favor of the divine origin of Christianity : the most powerM monarch of the earth attempted to erect a building, in one of lus cities ; he was aided by a wealthy and zealous people! ; pride, passibn, and interest, equally urged him to per- severe ;' yet was 'he fojrced to abandon the enterprise. Assuredly we must say, 'f the finger of God is here '." While Julian, by withholding his countenance from sincere believers on the one hand, and placing every possible, impediment in the way of instruction on the other, was using all his efforts to check the progress of Christianity, he was summoned to take the field against the Persians, who. had renewed their incursions. Julian invaded thfeir dominions, and gained several great triumphs, though he was unable to bring the enemy to ai decisive engagement. His' march led him through the deserts, of Hat'ra, which skirt the Tigris ; but the city of Hat'ra, erected like Balmy'ia. in a fertile oasis, appears to have been deserted at his approach. From the' magnificence bfitfe ruins, and the fact that the city continued to be inhabited until the'twdfth century' of but' era, it is probable that this, with sevbj'al other cities,,' was dismantled by the Persians to deprive the Romans of the resources which these " settle- ments in the' desert>'' might 'have sup{)lied. At length, deceived by- treacherous, i guides, he burned his boats, arid EtdvUaced'iptp a desert CQUbtry, where: his army was sOon redliced to great distress from want of proTfisions. Under these circumstances heresolvfed to return; but his. retrograde march was greatly impeded by'the'Ii^'ht caValry of tie' ROMAN EMPlaE. 307 Persians, who hovered round the flanks and rear, discharging showers of darts and arro-wfs, but retreating, like the Parthians their predecessors, whenever any eflfort was made to bring them to a regular' engagement. At length Julian himself was mortally wounded; in a skirmish which proved favorable to the Romans. He died the same night (a. b. 363), about twenty months after his becoming sole master of the empire. Jovian, the first of the domestics; was saluted Augustus by the army; and his 'first care was to conclude a dishonorable peace with the Per-' sians, resigning to Sapor not only the five provinces beyond the Tigris, but the whole of Mesopotamia, including the fortified cities of Nis'ibis and Sih'gara, which had so often bafiled the njost vigorous efforts of the Sassan'ides. His next enterprise was more glorious : he restored the Christian religion to its ancient supremacy; but he calmed the fears of his pagan subjects by a wise edict of toleration, in which he pro- hibited no rites, however idolatrous, save those of magic. On his jour- ney toward Constantinople, he slept in a damp room, which his attend- ants had heated with charcoal ; he was suffocated by the mephitic va- por, and found dead in his bed (a. d. 364). For ten days after the death of Jovian, the empire remained without a sovereign. At length the Count Valentinian was chosen by the coun- cil of ministers and generals, and the army unanimously acquiesced in their decision. Soon after his election' the new emperor divided his dominions with his brother Valens, to whom he assigned the eastern provinces, reserving to himself Illyr'icum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Africa. The ' emperor of the west made Milan the seat of his gov- ernment ; Valens established his court at Constantinople. This divis- ion of the Roman dominions into eastern and western empires was so manifestly required by the necessity of the times, that it provoked nei-r ther observation nor remonstrance. Henceforth their histories re- quire separate consideration ; and we shall, in the first place, direct our attention to the reign of Valentinian. The emperor had scarcely reached Italy, when he was summoned to cross the Alps by an invasion of the Germans, who devastated all north- ern and western' Gaiil,: defeating two Roman armies that had been sent to check their inroads. Valentinian made the most vigorous efforts tO' retrieve the fame of the empire, and succeeded ; but his exertions brought on a disease that nearly deprived him of life. The anjgry dis- putes respecting the succession which had taken place during lus ill- ness, filled him with just alarm : and immediately after his recovery^ he took care to have Ms son Gratian recognised as his hpir, and pro- claimed Caesar in the presence of the 3,rmy. The piracies Of the Sax- ons in the northern seas first began to attract attention in the reign of' Valentinian ; and so severely did they harass the northern coasts -of' Gaul, that it was necessary to ' appoiut a maritime court for their pro" tection. : At the same time the province of Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots : so rapid was the progress of the barbarians, aided probably by some of the discontented natives, that Britain would have been lost to the empire, but for the heroic exertions ofTheodosius, to whom Valentinian intrusted the pacification, or rather the recoveij^iof the island. This able commander not only restrained the barbarians,- but in some measure restored,the ancient prosperity of the province .•* 306 ANCIEIIT HISTOBY. he was rewarded by tke emperor with the office of ma;ster-general of the. cavalry, and appointed to protect th^ frontiei.of the upper Danube ffpnjtthe Inroads of the (AtHeiftana, jtotil he was chosen to' a more im- poTtimt station, and intru&tei with the suppression of 'the' formidable re- yjolt, of Afritai . : ' Count Kom^us, the military gorernor of Africa, had proroked, gen- eral- resentment by his avarice and exactions ; complaints were made of , him if) Valentinian,' and a commissioner appointed to investigate his ^elmqidency ; b,ut the count bribed the imperial ministers and commis- sioners, purchased security from a venal court, and: severely punished those, who had been guUty of the treason of complaint. Provoked by such, .accumulated wrongs, the Africans revolted, choosing for their leader Fiii'nus, the son of the wealthy Nabal, who had been summoned to appear before the governor's tribunal on a eharge. of murdering ihis broiler. Numidia and Mauritania were already in pOsseasioa of the insurgents; when the entire face of the war was changed by the arrival of Theodosius : from the moment of his landing, the revolters seem to have lost all courage ; after a weak struggle, Fin'iius abandoned his army, to seeik refuge with the prince of a native tribe in the ioteribr; but he was betrayed to the Bomafts, and could only escajje a public ex- ecution by committing suicide. Scarcely had this war terminated, when Valentinian died suddenly, wjule waging war against the Quadi (a. d. 375). He had conquered these savage warriors, and deputies had been sent to' deprecate his resentment ; but while reproaching the ambassadors with, national perfidy, he worked himself into such a pas- sion, that he .burst a blood-vessel, and 'ilistantly expired. Valentinian was naturally cruel and severe, but he was disponed to be inflexibly just; and the many unmerited executions that he Sanctioned must be attributed to the artifices of conrupt ministers. He was warmly attached to the orthodox: faith, and readily gave shelter to thfe bishops and clergy who sought refuge in his court from the persecutions of hisi brother Valens. The emperor of the east, soon after his accession, went, Jnto Syria, which was threatened by a Persian invasion ; but ' before he could complete his preparations for War, he was alarmed by the revolt of Pro- copius, a kinsman of'th'e emperor Julian, but possessing no other merit, whose pretensions were acknowledged by a considerable body of the army, and the; citizens of Constantinople. Valens was defeated in his $rst efforts to overthrow the usurper ; but Procopius, soon disgusted his supporters by excessive haughtiness and tyranny ; he was deserted by those who had been foremost in placing him upon the throne, and was taken prisoner almost without a contest. His fate involved that of many Othe.rs, for Valens was a stranger to mercy. The emperor was soon more tonotably engaged in a war with the Goths,, whom he completely subdued, and compelled to submit to humiliating conditions of peace. The dangerous schism in the church caused by the heresy of A'rius was greatly aggravated by the intemperate zBal, and in some instances, by .the unhallowed ambition of rival pielates : V.ilens declarted himself a, patron of the Arians, and caused no fewer than eighty orthodox ecclesiastics to be murdered, for maintaining the election of a bishop of their : weed tp ithe see of Constantinople. Annenia was at the same BX)MAN EMPIEB. 309 time invaded by the Persians ; but Sapor having received a severe dp- feat, and the Armenian prince Paras, on whose aid he relied, having been treacherously murdered by the Romans, the truce was once more renewed. In the. western empire Valentinian had been succeeded' by his sons Gratian and Valentinian II. ; the latter, a child only five years old, was Added as a colleague to Gratian by the general council of the army. Giatian II. commenced his reign by punishing those ministers and sen- ators who had been guilty of extortion ; but yielding ,to the suggestions of envious courtiers, he sanctioned the execution of the gallant Theodo- sius, who had just completed his conquest of the Moors :'. 'the etfiperor, after some time, discovered by what gross misrepresentations he had been Jed to commit so great a crime, and bitterly repented of his guilt. He made several laws favorable to the interest of the church, ordaining that all controversies respecting religion should be decided by the bishop and isynod of the provinces in which they occurred ; that the clergy should be free from personal charges ; and that all places where hetero- dox doctrines were taught should be confiscated. The western empire was enjoying profound peace, and the eastern provinces were beginning to taste the unusual sweets of repose^ when a people more ferocious than any barbarians hitherto known appeared for the first time on the northeastern frontiers. The Huns, crossing the Tanais (Don) and Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov)., drove before them the nations that dwelt north of the Danube ; and these fugitives, hurled one upon another, were forced to invade the Roman provinces, and com- mence the dismemberment of the empire. The earliest accounts of the Huns are to be found in the Chinese historians, who call these savages, "Htiing Nd," and describe them as masters of the country between the river Irtish, the Altaian mountains, the Chinese wall, and Mantchevr Tartary. Their personal appearance was almost a caricature of hu- manity ; so that the Romans compared them to a block of wood which had been only partially trimmed ; this is said to have been in some de- gree caused by the strange custom of flattening the nose of male in- fants the moment they were bom, in ordei: that the vizor which they wore in battle should fit closer to the face, and also to their plucking out the beard by fhe roots as soon as it began to grow. They lived on raw flesh, or at best only sddden by being placed under their saddles and pressed against the backs of their steeds during a sharp gallop: devoted to war and the chase, they left the cultivation of 'their, fields to women and slaves ; they built no' cities ; they erected no houses ; any place encircled/by walls they looked upon as a sepulchre, and never believed themselves in safety beneath a roof. About the commence- ment of the second century of the Christian era, the southern Huns, aided by the Chinese and the eastern Tartars, expelled their northern brethren from their ancient habitations, and compelled them to seek refuge in the territories of the Bashkirs. Here they were brought into contact with a fiercer but less warlike race, the A'lans, whom they gradually drove before them, being pressed forward themselves by fresh hordes from the east, until they took possession of the plains between the Rha ( Volga) and the Tanais; , ' , t, j ' Joined by the Alans and other barbarous tribes that thfey had con- 310 ANCIENT HISTORY. quered, the innumerable cavalry of the Huns passed the lower Tanai's, and swfept'the rich fields of the Ostrogoths. .The Gothic armies were ■defeated, and at length the greater part of that nation abaiidoned the country that they had laboriously brought to a high state of cultivation, and retired beyond the Borys'thenes {Dnieper) and the Danas'tus {Dnieiter). The Huns made a horrible bamagei of those who remained, .sparing neither women nor children ; and a;ll who did not save them- -selves by a precipitate flight, perished by the edge of the sword. The conquerors soon passed the Danas'tus, and inflicted the same calami- ties on the Visigoths to which they had already subjected their eastern brethren. Athan^aric, the Gothic monarch, after having suffered a se- vere defeat, saw no better mode of defence than to fortify himself be- tween the Hieras'Bus (Pruth) and the Danube, by a wall extending from one river to the other, leaving the; rest of his country exposed to the ravages of the dreadful Huns. The whole Gothic nation was reduced to despair ; their warriors, who had so often maintained! a fierce struggle against the legions, now appeared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, petitioning for per- mission to cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. Their request was granted, on condition of their resigning their arms ; but the officers sent to see this stipulation enforced were bribed to neglect their duty' : most of the Goths rfetaiiied their weapons, which they regarded as the means of obtaining more valuable possessions than those they had lost. Abdut the same time, Arianism was established among the Goths, by .th6 fexertions of their bishop> the celebrated Ul'philas, who invented the Gothic alphabet : this subsequently aggravated their hostility to the Komans ; for the enmity of rival sects had, toward the close of the fourth century, become greater than tha:t between Christians and pa- gans. The officers whom Valens chose to superintend the settlement of the Goths were the most profligate extortioners even of his corrupt court ; instead of supplying provisions to the fugitives until their new lands would yield a hiirvest, as had been promised, they closed the mag- azines, and charged exorbitant prices for the worst and most revolting kinds of food. At length Lupiclniis attempted to murder Frit'igern and the other chiefs of the.Goths, at a banquet in Marcianop'olis. (Prauadi) to which they had been treacherously invited. The plot exploded pre- maturely ; the Gothic leaders escaped ; and their followers took revenge for the atrocious breach of hospitality by massacring' the greater part of the Roman legions. In the meantime, the Ostrogoths, pressed for- ward by the Huns, had crossed the Danube and reinforced Prit'igem just as the war was about to commence : thus supported, the irritated sovereign devastated Thrace, Macedon, and Thessaly^ approached the walls of Constantinople, and destroyed its suburbs. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid ; and the young emperor, though harassed by wars with the Germanic tribes and the A'lans, marched to his assistance. He was delayed, however, by illness at Sir'mium ; and before he could re- suitie his march, Valens was no more. The eastern emperor, baffled by the artifices and enraged by the boldness of Frit'igern, hazarded a decisive battle near Adrianople, in which he was defeated and slain (a. d. 378). The Romans had not suffered so severe a loss since .they were overthrown by Han'nibal at Cannae : two thirds of the legions. e EOMAN EMPIBE:. 311 including tMrty-five tribunes and commanders of rcohorts.fell in the fatal field. ,GratiE>n was incfipable of remedying this disaster ■ytrithout the aid of a colleague, for he could not advance against the Goths without ileaving, the western prqvinces a, prey to the Germans. He chose as Jus asso-i ciate, Theod6siiis,, afterward named the Great, son of the elder The- odosius, whom he had unjustly put to death. .■.>>,■!•.,,■,, The accession of Theodosius was hailed with delight by all the east- ern provinces ; he defeated the Goths in the field ; but what was of still greatgr importance, he won their affections by his justice and modera- tion ; sa that they voluntarily promised not only to abstain from hostili- ties, but to protect the frontiers of the Danube. ' Being himself sin- cerely attached to the orthodox faith, he summoned a general, council at Constantinople to check the progress. of heresy, and issued several edicts to restrain the teachers of erroneous opinions. While he; was thus engaged, Max'imus, the governor of Britain, revolted against Gra-^ tian, and was joined by the whole of the ivestern lemons. The em^ peror, seeing himself abandonpd by his troops, fled toward Italy, but was overtaken, at Lugdunum [Lyons), and put to death (a. b. 383),. St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, courageously went into Gaiil, claimed, the body ot the deceased eniperor from the usurper,, obtained it after some delay, and honorably interred the. remains of iGratian in the sep- ulchre that had been raised for the Valentinian faraily in the Milanese cathedral.. :,,, Max'imus, to support his usurpatioUj had brought with him the fiowiM of the, British youth ; but the Roman province, thus deprived of its dfei- fenders, was exposed to the ravages of the Picts and Scots, who broke through the Roman wall, and pushed their incursions far into the south, Theodosius, harassed by the attacks of, the barbarians in the east, at first entered into a treaty with Max'imus : but the usurper, encouraged by impunity, soon meditated depriving Valentinian II. of Italy,. though that prince had shown little inclination to revenge the murder' of Gra- tian, his brother andbenefactor., ■ Valentinian, unable to defend his ter- ritories, fled to Theodosius, who instantly marched against Max'imus. The usurper was defeated in two decisive battles ; he sought shelter in Aquileia ; but he was arrested by his ovna, soldiers, brought in' chains to Theodosius, and executed (a. d. 388). It is said that his. death was hastened by the imperial ministers, who feared that he might extort a pardon from their master's compassion. The generous conqueror not only restored Valentinian tO: his ancient dominions, but resigned to him the provinces that had belonged to Gra- tian. Having visited Rome, and sanctioned some severe measures for extirpating idolatry in that city, he returned to the e4st, where he made similar efforts to crush pagan superstitions and Christian heresies. Th^ young Valentinian did not long retEiin his. throne ; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, a Frank,, whom he. had unwisely admitted to too great a share of sovereign power (a, p. 392), The Frank, did not dare to as- sume the purple himself, but he conferred the empire on one of the royal secretaries, named Eugenius, whom he, trusted that he could make the mere instrument of his ambition. ,, : ' Thpodosius refused to enter into any hegbtia;tion with the usurper. in ANCIENT HISTORY. but made preparations for war, ■ Having levied a powerful arrttyi' he forced the passes of the Alps (a d. 394), and encountering the forces of Eugeniiis on the banks' of the Frig'idtim ( W^iiacA), put thfem to the rout. The usurper was murdered by his own ' soldiers, and Arbogas'- tes committed suicide. Theodosius, in consequence of this victory, be- came master of the whole Roman empire, which was thus once more reunited under a single head. ' Section X. — ^the Overthrma of tlie Western Empire. .. FROM A. D. 394 TO A. D. 476.!^, Theodosius was well aware that the partition of the emjpire origin- ally made by Valentinian was rendered necessary by the condition' of &e Roman dominions in Europe and Asia ; he therefore invited his yoiinger son Honorius to receive the sceptre of the western empire, ap- pointing Arcadius, ihe elder, his successor on the ilhrone of Constanti- nople. He did not long survive this artangement ; the easeairtd luxury in which he indulged after his victory proved fatal to a constitution already eiifeebled by the fatigues of a severe campaign : he died uni- versally lamented by his subjects, who knew too well that they " ne'er should look upon his like again." Arcadius and Honorius ascended thei thrones bequea;thed to them by their father, but both abandoned the cares of empire to their -Ministers Kufinus and Stil'icho. There are few greater stains on the character of TheddoSius than his eleva,tion dl such an unworthy fa^voirite as Ru- finus, a Wetch whom all parties describe as stiained with every crime. He was the scourge of the east, and was universally hated ; aware df his unpopularity, he resolved to secure his power by uniting Arc£ditis in marriage *ith his daughter ,' but some courtiers, jealous of his in- fluence, took advantage of his absence to persuade the young emperor to share his throne with Eudox'ia, universally regarded as the most beautiful woman of her age. Though disappointed in this darling ob- ject of his ambition, the wealth and poveer of Ruiinus enabled him to triumph over Arcadius and his courtiers ; but he dreaded more justly liife gteat rival in the western empire. ■ Stil'icho, the minister and ifaaster-general of the west, was worthy of the ehrinent station to virhich he had been rdised by Theodosius. On his death-bed the emperor recommended: to him the chairge df both em- ptea ; but some pretext was necessary for assembling a force suffi- cient to depose Rufihus, without givitig i such alarm as would put that Wary statesman on his guard. The Gothicwar furnished the desired excuse ; Stil'ichd led his forces reund 'the Adriatic ; but he had scarce- ly' ieaohed Thessalonica, whett he received orders to return, with a threat that his nearer approach to Constantinople -Would be considered a declaration of war. Leaving the army in the charge of the Gainas, Stil'icho returned to Italy ; and Rtifirius, believing all danger paSt, wett ioTfeview the western troops. As he passed along the ranks, he was suddenly ^Unrounded by a chosen band, and, on a signal from Gafnas, pinned to the earth by a lance, and mangled with a thousand vi»-dunds. If Stil'icho had contrived this murder, he'derived no advantage from it. ROMAN EMTHIB. 313 Galnas,, the eunuoLt Eutropius, and the empress Eudox'iar, combined to exclude him from Constantinople ; their puppet Arcadius procured a decree from his obsequious senate, dedlaring him a public enemy, ahd confiscating all his property in 4he east. ' Instead of hazarding a civil war, Stil'icho exerted himself to sup- press the revolt which Gil'dO, the brother of Fir'mus, had excited in Africa. He intrusted the command of the forces raised for this pur* pose to Mas'cezel, the brother and deadly enemy of Gil'do. Ac6ideirt left the Romans an almost bloodless victory. Before giving the signal to engage, Mas'cezel rode to the front of the lines with fair offers of peace aiid pardon; he encountered one of the standard-bearers of the Africans, and, on his refusal to yield, struck him on the arm with his sword. The weight of the blow threw the standard and- its bearer pros- trate. This was regarded by the rest as a signal of submission, which all the African lemons hastened to imitate ; they flung down their en- signs, and, with one accord, renewed their allegiance to their rightful sovereign. Gil'do attempted to fly, but he was arrested by the citizens of Tab'raca (Tabarca), and thrown into a dungeon, where he commit- ted suicide, to avoid the punishment of treason. Mas'cezel was subse- quently murdered by Stil'icho, who feared the hereditary eimiity of the house of Nabal. The Goths were now become more formidable than they had ever been. Instead of being guided by several independent chiefsj they were united into a compact body under the renowned Al'aric ; and thd withholding of the subsidy paid them by Theodosius, afforded a plau- sible pretext for war (a. d. 3%). Disdaining to ravage the exhausted lands of Thrace, Al'aric led his soldiers into Greedej passed the strait^ of Thermop'ylsB without opposition, devastated Boeotiai, At'tica, and the Peloponnesus, while Athens, Corinth, Ar'gos, and Spar'ta, yielded to the barbarous invaders without opposition. Stil'icho hastened to repel the Goths from Greece. His masterly movements drove Al'aric into a corner of Elis, whence his extrication appeared impossible ; but the Goth, perceiving that the watchfulness ,of his enemies was relaxed, gained the gulf of Corinth by a rapid march, passed over the narrow- Strait between the headlands of Rhium and Antir'rhium [Dardanelles of Lepanto), and was master of Epirus before Stil'icho could renew his pursuit. The Romans were preparing to pass into northern. Greece, when they received information that Al'aric had not only made his peace with the Byzantine court, but had been appointed master-general id ,the Greeks by the name of Sandracdp'tus or Sandracbt'tus, whp hag teeii completely identified with the Chan'dra-Gup'ta of the Hindoo' poets. The Greek and Hindoo writers Concur in the name, in thB private his; tory, in the political elevation, and in the nation and, capital bf an In- dian king, nearly if not exactly contemporary with Alexander ; sijch an approximation could not possibly be the work of accjdeilt, and we^' may therefore regard this monarch's reign as historical. .' , Combining and comparing the different ' 'accounts given of 'Gtian'dra- Gup'ta it appears that about the time of Alexander the kingdom of Magad'ha was ruled by a" monarch' named Mahapad'iAa Nan'da. He was a powerful and anibitious prihc'e, but Cruel and avaricious, by which defects, as well as by his infericirity of birth, he p'robably J)rQ-i'bked the hostility of the Brahmins. By one wife he had eight sOns, who, with their father, were' called the nine ,Nan'das ; and by a wife'bf lo*' e^^ traction he had accordiriglto'traditioh, a son called Chan'dra-.Gup'ta. I is, however, by no means certain that Chan'dra-Gup'ta was the son of 320 ANCIENT HISTOEY. .Nan'da, b,ut; frppi .uniform testimony he appears to have beeji .(j^ogely Jfe* lated to the royal family by his father's side, though his.mqther was of a very inferior caste. But whatever may have been the origin of this prince, it is very likely that he was made the instrument of the rebellious spirit of the Brahmins, who, having effected the destruction of Nan'da and his sons, raised Chand the Gavanas, the Lakas, or La,C9e, and the KamboJE^s; or people of Arachosia, the northeastern prpvince of P;ersia; ,! The; failure of : Seleucus NicatQr, in hisattepipt iQ:e3?tend his power in India,, and ' his relinquishment of texritoryj may be connected with the discomfiture and, retreat of Malayaketu, as nar- jrated ;n ,the drama, although; it is improbable [tba,t the Syrian monarch find the king of Magad'ha ever came into direct collision. 'The retreat of Mal^yaketij was occasioned- by jealousies and quarrels among the confederates ; 'he; returned, baffled and humbled, to his ; own country; Clfan'dra-Gup'ta's power was now so firmly established that Seleucus Nic^tor relinquished tp hi™ all the country beyond the Indiis, r^eiving fifty elephants, in (exchange ; he also formed a matrimonial alliance with the Hindoo prince, and sent Megasthenes as an ambassador to , his cpnrt,. Chan'dra-Gup'ta reigned twenty-four years, and left th.« kingdpm to his son. There is a complete blank in Indian history from the death of Chan'- dra-Gup'ta tp the accession of Vicramadit'ya, who is called the sover- eign pf all Ijidia. He ruled with such extraordinary success that his reigii forms animportant era in history, commencing b. c. 58, according to one account, and ten years later, according to another. Toward ;the close of his reign he was conquered by Shapour, the second Persian monarcli of th,e Sas^anian dynasty, and ,the empire of India bwame INDIA. 321 subject to that of Persia. The Hindoo accounts of Vicramadit'ya are intermingled with the most extravagant fables, and all that we can learn from them with certainty is, that this prince was a sedulous upholder of the influence of the Brahmins. From this period to the Mohammedan invasion, India appears to have been divided into a number of petty independent states, in which the rajahs were completely under the influence of the Brahmins. As the royal power declined, the rules of caste, on which the influence of the hereditary priesthood depended, were rendered more rigid and severe. The caste of the Brahmins arrogated to itself the exclusive privilege of studying and expounding the Vedas, and as these are the source of all Hindoo learning, whether religious or scientific, the priesthood thus obtained a monopoly of knowledge. Brahmins alone could exercise the medical art, for sickness being considered as the punishment of transgression, it is remedied only by penances and religious ceremonies : they alone had the right to interpret the lawSj to offer sacrifices, and to give counsel to the sovereign. The Kshatriya or warrior caste, is generally regarded as extinct ; it was naturally viewed with great jealousy by the Brahmins, and the in- stitutions imposed upon it by them, were little calculated to foster a war- like spirit. Hence Hindoostan has so frequently and so easily become the prey of foreign conquerors, for the priestly caste made it the chief object of their policy to humiliate and weaken the caste of warriors. The Vaisy'a caste includes the higher industrial classes, and was perhaps one of the most numerous. The Sudras formed the lowest class, and were slaves to the rest. In process of time, the number of mixed castes was greatly multiplied, and the determination of their re- lations to each other became a matter of considerable diflSculty. At a very early but uncertain period, the religious institutions of the Brahmins were opposed by a reformer named Bud'dha, who rejected the Vedas, bloody sacrifices, and the distinction of castes. His follow- ers, called Buddhists, must have been both numerous and powerful at a very remote age, for a greater number of the oldest rock-temple§ are dedicated to him. From the Christian writers of the second century it is evident that in their day the religion of Bud'dha was very prevalent in India, and in the drama of the Toy-Cart, Bud'dha observances are described with great accuracy, and the members of the sect represented in a flourishing condition, for they are not only tolerated but publicly recognised. One of the characters in the play is a Bud'dha ascetic, and he describes his creed in the following hymn :— " Be virtue, friends, your only store, And restless appetite restrain, Beat meditation's drum, and sore Your watch against each sense maintain; The thief that still in ambush lies, To make devotion's wealth his prize. " Cast the five senses all away That triumph o'er the virtuous will. The pride of self-importance slay, And ignorance remorseless kill; So shall you safe the body guard. And Heaven shall be your last reward. 21 323 ANCIENT HISTOaY. "Whjr shave the head and mow the chin, Wnile bustling follies choke the breast 1 Apply the knife to parts within, And heed not how deformed the jest ; The heart of pride and passion weed, And then the man is pure indeed." At some uncertain period, but probably not much later than the twelfth century of the Christian era, nor earlier than the fourth, the Buddhists were expelled from India by the Brahmins ; they sought shelter in Cey- lon, in the mountains of the north, in the countries beyond the Ganges, in Tartary, and ih China, where their religion had been previously preached by active missionaries. By the persecution of the Buddhists in their native country, a great portion of the literature of India has been lost, and in particular, according to Professor Wilson, all the an- cient literature of the people that. speak the Tamul language. But in the countries surrounding India, Buddhism still prevails ; it is indeed the most widely extended of any religion, being professed by not less fhali two hundred millions of people. Its success is mainly owing to the excellent organization of its hierarchy, and the solemnity of its cer- emonies. Celibacy is enjoined on its priesthood, and thus a monastic corporation is formed, which in Tibet possesses the sovereign power, and in the other countries enjoys considerable political influence. The Buddhists were not the only reformers that opposed the Brah- mins ; they were followed by the Jains, who cut down more extensively the vast forest of fraud and superstition. The rise of Jainism was con- temporary with the decline of Buddhism in Hindoostan. Both affect to be new doctrines produced by a fresh incarnation of Vishnoo, the con- servating principle of the Hindoo Triad. The ancient trade of the Egyptians and Phcsnicians with India has been already noticed in the earlier part of this work ; but Indian com- merce did not excite much attention in the western world untU the first Ptolemy ascended the throne of Egypt, and prepared to realize the vast projects of his master, Alexander the Great. His' successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, attempted to connect the R«d sea with the Mediterranean, by cutting a canal 'from Arsinoe (^Suez) to the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This was not found so useful as the king anticipated; he there- fore built a city lower dotvB the Red sea; dearly under the Tropic, called ' Berenice, which became the Staple of the trade with India. Goods 'Were transported from Berenifce to Cop'tos on the Nile, and thence floated down the- river to Alexandria. 'The Egyptian vessels sailed from Berenice either if) tl^e mouths of the Indus or to the Mala- bar coast ; they were too small to venture direcUy out to sea, and there- fore crept timidly along the shores. The Persians had an insuperable aversion to maritime Stffairs, else they might have opep.ed the same trade by a shorter and safer coufse, of 'navigation tjirough the Persian gulf. They procured Indian comihoHities overland from the banks of the In- dus, and the northern provinces were supplied by the caravans which travelled from the Indus tp the Oxus, ,aj)id sent their goods down that river into the Caspian sea, ' ,, , ,, . After Egypt had been some time 'srtibject to the JR.6mans, the discovery of the reg^ar shifting of the periodicEdivinds' or monsoons brought In- INDIA. 323 dia nearer to the rest of the world. Hippalus, the commander of a ship engaged in the Indian trade, about eighty years after Egypt was an- nexed to the Roman empire, stretched boldly from the mouth of the Arabian gulf across the ocean, and was wafted by the western monsoon to Musius on the Malabar coast, somewhere between Goa and Tel- licherry. From tliis time the Indian trade rapidly increased, and the merchants of Alexandria supplied Europe with spices, and aromatics, precious stones, pearls, silk, and cotton cloths. Taprobane or the island of Ceylon, was not known by name to Eu- ropeans before the age of Alexander the Great. The Egyptians seem not to have visited it or the Coromandel coast, until after the discovery of the periodicity of the monsoons, but so early as the reign of the empe- ror Claudius an ambassador was sent from the island to Rome. It sub- sequently became a great mart of trade for the commodities produced in the countries beyond the Ganges, and probably even for the productions of China. Little change was made in the commercial routes of communication with India from the time of the Romans, until the discovery of the pas- sage round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Gama. The ancients were contented with traffic, and after the time of Alexander made no efforts to establish colonies in Hindoostan ; hence their accounts of the country and its inhabitants are very loose and indefinite. But even from these vague accounts we find that the social institutions of the Hindoos have scarcely been altered by the many changes of realm and chances of time which have since occurred ; and hence we may con- clude, that its system of civilization, so original and so stereotype in its character, belongs to an age of very remote antiquity, and that there is no improbability in its having been connected with that of ancient Egypt. THE STUDEIT'S MANUAL MODERN HISTORY. THE STUDEIT'S MAIUAL OF MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL OF THE WEST- ERN EMPIRE. Section I. — The Gothic Kingdom of Italy. There is no period in the annals of the human race which presents to the historical student a greater scene of confusion than the century succeeding the overthrow of the Western Empire. The different hordes of barbarians, following no definite plan, established separate monarchies in the dismembered provinces, engaged in sanguinary wars that had no object but plunder, and were too ignorant to form anything like a political system. There is consequently a want of unity in the narrative of a time when nations ceased to have any fixed relations toward each other, and history must appear desultory and digressive until some one state, rising into command, assume such importance, that the fate of all the rest may be connected with its destinies. It is necessary, before entering on the various incidents of this calamitous time, to take a geographical survey of the places occupied by the prin- cipal nations who succeeded the Romans in the sovereignty of Europe. The Visigoths, after their establishment in Spain, began gradually to adopt the refinement of their new subjects ; that peninsula had ad- vanced rapidly in civilization under ■ the' Roman dominion, and had escaped from much of the corruption which had degraded Italy; the conquerors, more advanced than any other of the barbarians, soon learned to appreciate the advantages of social order, and began to cul- tivate the higher arts of life. In Pannonia, the OstrogcJtfis derived great improvfenlent from their vicinity to Italy on the one side, and the court of Constantinople on the other ; they were thus gKidually trained to civilization, and their early adoption of Christianity secured- them the benefits of literature, which was sedulously cultivated by the clergy. Tribes of a very different character pressed intbHroemJiire from the 328 MODEEN HISTORY. German forests — the Burgundians, the Lombards, and the Franks, of whom the last were long distinguished for their hostility to all refine- ments, and their exclusive attention to the military virtues. Still more barbarous were the Saxons and Angles ;, they were not only strangers to the civilization and religion of the empire, but were kept in their rude state by the practice of piracy, for which their maritime situation afforded them great facilities ; their government, divided among several petty chiefs, was favorable to personal independence, and furnished a striking contrast to the absolute despotism that had been established in the Roman empire., All the Germanic tribes were remarkable for the respect which they showed to the delicacy of the female character ; they neither treated their women like slaves, as most other barbarians have done, nor did they degrade them into mere objects of sensual gratification, like the Romans and Byzantines. The German woman was the companion and counsellor of her husband ; she shared his labors as an equal, not as a servant. It was from the sanctity of the domestic circle among the northern nations that races of conquerors derived the firmness and courage which ensured them victory. The northeastern part of Europe was occupied by Sclavonic tribes, differing from the Germans in language, manners, and tactics ; like the Tartars of more, modem times, they placed' their chief reliance on their cavalry ; and they were more opposed to civilization than any of the Germanic nations. Their form of government was a kind of aristo- cratic republic, but in war the tribes generally united under a single leader. They were very averse to fixed residences, and when they occupied a country they rarely entered the cities, but remained in their camps or in rude circular fortifications called rings. The Sclavonians hated the Germans, and could rarely be induced to imite with them against their common enemy, the Romans. After the fall of the Western Empire, the court of Constantinople simk into obscurity, from which it did not emerge for half a century, when its supremacy was restored during the memorable reign of Jus- tinian. The Isaurian Zeno, raised to the purple by his marriage with the princess Ariadne, was forced to fly into the mountains by a fierce revolt which his mother-in-law Verina had instigated. He was restored to the throne chiefly by the aid of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who had been carefully educated as a hostage at the court of Con- stantinople. The turbulence of the Goths, and the faithlessness of the Byzantines, soon destroyed the amity of the two sovereigns ; a desul- tory, but sanguinary warfare harassed the Eastern Empire, imtil Zeno purchased peace by ceding to Theodoric his right over Italy, or rather stimulated the Goth to undertake the conquest of that peninsula. The march of Theodorib was the emigration of an entire people ; the Goths were accompanied by their wives, their children, and their aged parents, a vast multitude, of wagons conveyed their most precious ef- fects, and their store of provisions for a toilsome march undertaken in the depth of winter. Odoacer boldly prepared to meet this formidable invasion'; he took post on the river Sontius {Isonzo) with a powerful host; but he was unable to resist the daring energy of the Goths, and his defeat gave Theodoric possession of the Venetian province as far as the walls of Verona (a. d. 489). Italy, however, was not won FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 329 without further struggles : Ravenna alone sustained a siege of more than three years ; but at length Odoacer capitulated (a. d. 493), and was soon after assassinated at a solemn banquet by his rival. Theodoric secured his conquest by distributing one third of the lands of Italy to his soldiers in military tenures. This partition was effected with very little violence to the ancient possessors ; the Goths were in- structed to spare the people, to reverence the laws, and to lay aside their barbarous customs of judicial combats and private revenge. The Gothic sovereignty was soon extended from Sicily to the Danube, and from Sirmium (Sirmich) to the Atlantic ocean ; thus including the fair- est portion of the Western Empire. The monarch of this new king- dom showed great wisdom and moderation in his civil government, but unfortunately his attachment to the Arian heresy led him to persecute the Catholics. The legal murder of the philosopher Boethius and the venerable Symmachus were crimes which admit of no palliation ; they hastened Theodoric's death, for remorse brought him to the grave in the thirty-third year of his reign (a. d. 526). Section II. — Reign of Justinian. A Dacian peasant, named Justin, who had travelled on foot to Con- stantinople in the reign of the emperor Leo, enlisted in the imperial guards, and, during the succeeding reigns, so distinguished himself by his strength and valor, that he was gradually raised to the command of the household troops. On the death of the emperor Anastasius, the eunuch Amantius, anxious to secure the throne for one of his creatures, intrusted Justin with a large sum of money to bribe the guards ; but he used it to purchase votes for himself, and was thus elevated to the em- pire (a. d. 518). Totally ignorant himself, Justin was not insensible of the value of education ; he made his nephew Justinian his associate in the empire ; and as this prince had been instructed in all the learn- ing of the times, he soon obtained the whole power of the state. After the death of Justin (a. d. 527), Justinian ruled alone ; but his first exercise of authority fixed a lasting stigma on his reign. He chose for his empress, Theodora, a woman of mean birth and infamous char- acter, whose vices had disgusted even a capital so licentious as Con- stantinople. Among the most singular and disgraceful follies of the Eastern Empire were the factions of the circus, which arose from the colors worn by the charioteers who competed for the prize of swiftness. Green and blue were the most remarkable for their inveterate hostility, though white and red were the most ancient : all, however, soon ac- quired a legal existence, and the Byzantines willingly hazarded life and fortune to support their favorite color. Justinian was a partisan of the blues ; his favor toward them provoked the hostility of the opposite faction, and led to a sedition which almost laid Constantinople in ashes. The disturbances first burst forth in the circus ; Justinian ordered the rioters to be secured ; both factions immediately turned against the monarch, the soldiers were called out, but they were unable to contend against the citizens in the narrow streets. Assailed from the tops of the houses, the barbarian mercenaries flung firebrands in revenge, and thus kindled a dreadful conflagration, which destroyed a vast number 330 MODERN HISTOHY. of public and private edifices. After the City had been for several days iji the hands df the rioters, Justinian contrived to revive the ancient animosity between the greens and blues ; the latter faction declared for the emperor, a strong body of veterans marched to the Hippodrome, or race-course, and tranquillity, was restored by the slaughter of thirty thousand of the insurgents. WhUe the internal state of the empire was thus disturbed by faction, a costly and unprofitable war was waged against the Persians, until the emperor purchased a disgraceful and precarious truce, which both he and his rival chose to designate as an endless peace. The usurpation of the throne of the Vandals in Africa by Gelimer, who owed his success chiefly to the support of the Arian clergy, in- duced Justinian to undertake a war, in which he appeared both the generous friend; of an allied sovereign and the protector of the Catholic faith. Belisarius, the best general of his age,- was appointed to the command of the imperial forces, and a large fleet was assembled for the transport of the army in the harbor of Constantinople (a. d. 533). After the armament had been blessed by the patriarch it set sail ; and, after a prosperous voyage, Belisarius efiected a landing on the coast of Africa without opposition. He advanced toward Carthage, defeating the Vandals on his march, and became master of the city wita little opposition. Gelimer made one effort more to save his kingdom ; it was unsuccessful, his army was irretrievably ruined, and he was closely besieged in the castle where he sought refuge. The unfortunate king, after having borne the most, dreadful extremities of famine, was forced to surrender unconditionally ; he was carried captive to Constantiflople, where he was led in the triumphal procession that honored the return of Belisarius. The dethroned monarch showed no sorrow for his fall, but consoled himself by Solomon's reflection on the instability of hu- man greatness, frequently repeating. " Vanity of vanities, saith the preadher, all is vanity." The murder of Amalasontha, queen of the Goths, by her ungrateful husband Theodatus, afforded Belisarius a pretext for attacking the king- dom of Italy. He sailed from Constantinople to Sicily, and easily con- quered that important island (a. d. 535). Theodatus^ in great terror, hasted to avert danger, by declaring himself the vassal of Justinian ; but hearing in the meantime that two Byzantine generals had been de- feated in Dalmatia by the Gothic troops, he passed suddenly from ex- treme despair to the height of presumption, and withdrew his allegi- ance. Belisarius soon appeared to chastise his perfidy ; he transported his army across the Sicilian strait, and effected a landing at Rhegium {Reggio). The greater part of southern Italy, including the important city of Naples, was speedily subdued by the imperial forces ; while Theodatus, secure within the walls of Rome, made no effort to protect his subjects. At length the Goths, disgusted by the incapacity and weakness of their sovereign, removed him from the throne, aiid chose the valiant Vitiges for their king. But Vitiges was forced to commence his reign by abandoning Rome, of which Belisarius took possession without encountering any opposition (a. d. 537). During the ensuing winter, the Goths assembled from every quarter to save, if possible, their kingdom in Italy : a powerful army, animated by dauntless spirit, PALL OF T]^E WESTERN EMPIRE. 331 was soon collactedy and Vitiges led hjs followers to the siege of .Ronie., Selisaxius coftpeatpated ljis;^orces in tie Jlt^Drna,!' city, wticb. was der fended wij;h equal skill and bravery ; but famine soon appeared within the walls, and;the qitiz^ns became ansiiious'. fqr, a capitul^tioii. A con- spiracy was formed- uader the sanction of the pope, Sylyerius, for be- traying the city to the Gqths ; but it was discovered by an intercepted letter, BeUsaj;ius senf Sylverius into b^nis^ent, and ordered the bishopisi to elect a new pontiff: before however .a synod could.be assem- bled for the purpose, the general's wife, the infamous Antonina, sold the^ Holy See to Vigilus for a bribe of two hiyvdred poun4s weight of gold. Reinforeements soon after arrived {jam the east, and the Goths were force4 to raise the siege of Rome, having lost one third of their number before itsi walls,. Belisarius pursued the retreating enemy to the, marshes of Ravenna, and would, probably have captured that city; but for thp jealousy of ihe eunuch Narses, whom Justinian had intrusted, with the independent cpinmand of a large division of the Byzantine army. Though the differences between the two leaders were finally adjiisted, the Goths had taken advantage of the interval to collect new strength ; and ten thousand Burgundians, sent to invadp Italy by the command of Theodobert, king of the Pranks, had stormed and plun- dered Milan. Soon after, Theodobert passed the Alps in person at the head of one hundred thousand men. The. Franks stormed, Genoa, and, devastated Liguria ; but their excesses brought pestilence into their camp, they perished by thousands and Theodobert "Vfs.^ induced, by his jncreasiiig distresses,, to enter intp t^rms of accommodation with the emperor.: Delivered from this pressing danger, Belisarius lajd siege to Ravenna, which was forced to capitulate (a. p. 539) ; and thus the Gothic kingdom of Italy was destroyed. Belisarius returned to Constantinople in triumph, leading with him the captive Vitiges ; he was sent to conduct the Persian war, but was soon recalled and disgraced by the ungrateful Justinian. While the conquests of Belisarius were restoring the western provinces to the (empire, barbarous hordes ravaged, almost with impunity, the northeast-' em fj^odtiers, Unable or unwilling to meet, the Gepidte in the field, Justinian entered into alliance with the Ijiongpbardi or Lombards (ao( called from their long barts or lauces), who had, just! thrpwn pff the yoke bf the Heruli, and gave them settlements in Bannonia. A war of forty years'' duration, between the Lombards and Gepidae, protected the em- pire from the invasions of both hiQrdes ; but , it w^fS still exposed tp the incursions of the Sclaypnians and Bulgariansj who annually purchased a passkge through the territories of the Gepidse, and extended their in-' roads even into southern Greece. Commotions in the, remote ea^st broilght Jjuropeans, about this time, acquainted with new and more for- midable races of barbarians, the Avars and the Turks, "iy&o?e impor- tance may justify a short digression on their origin. The Avars, frPm an unknown age, possessed the mountains an4 flesierts that border on the lake , Baikal in nprljieastem Asig.. Thence they advanced sputhward under a monarch named Tulun, and extended their empire to the eastern sea, which separates Corea from Japaji, The conqueror took the title of Chakan or Chagan, a name still used on the coins of the Turkish sultan. But the prosperity of the Ay3.rs W3? 332 MODBEN mSTOKY. not of long duration ; they were assailed by rival tribes from the north, and at the same tinie harassed by civil wars ; while thus distressed, they were attacked by a new hordie, called Thidkhid by the Chinese writers, but known to the Europeans as the Turks. The Ava!rs were Overthrown by these new competitors for empire, and their poWer totEilly destroyed ; but their name was taken by a new nation, the OgorS or Varchonites, who after being defeated by the Turks, migrated toward Europe by the route of the Volga. They chose the false designation, because the name of the Avars was still formidable, and they preserved it on abcount of the terror which they saw it produced. The Turks first appear in history as the slaves of the original Avars ; they inhabited the great Altaian mountains, and were engaged in work- ing the mines and attending the ' forges of those rich mineral districts. Their skill in fabricating armor and weapons was very great, and they prided themselves uponthe excellence of their manufactures so much, that, when they became lords of eastern Asia, their Khakahs annually forged a piece of iron in the presence of the heads of the nation. ' Un- der the guidance of Thd-men, they asserted their independence, and made slaves of their former masters. So rapid was their progress, that during the reigns of Thd-meh and his successor Dizabul,:theur empire was extended from the Volga to the sea of Japan./ They were thus brought to the frontiers' of the Byzantine and Persian dominions, and engaged in commercial relations with both, by their occupation of the countries through which the silk-trade was carried. The great rival of Justinian was Chosroes or .Nushirvan, the most celebrated Persian monarch of the Sissanid dynasty ; in the early part of his reign he won the afiection of his subjects, by extirpating the perni- cious system of policy and religion which his predecessor Kobad, seduced by an impostor named Mazdak, had patronised. His next care was to give conudeUce to the laboring classes .by judicious laws securing the rights of industry, and by a sedulous attention to the administration of justice. Having thus secured the tranquillity and prosperity of Persia, he directed his attention to the favorite project of the Sassahides, the re-establishment of the empire of Cyrus, and perceiving that the forces of Justinian were engaged in the west, invaded Syria, at the head of a powerful army (a. d. 540). His victorious career was checked for a brief space by Belisarius, but after the recall and disgrace of that general, he urged forward his conquests with alarming rapidity. Justihian, in his distress, repented, of his ingratitude ; Belisarius was restored to command, and by his judicious exertions,' Niishfrvan was forced to re- turn across the Euphrates, loaded, however, with the spoils of western Asia. His next enterprise was the conquest of the Caupasian districts, inhabited by the ,Lazi, the Colchians, and other semi-barbarous tribes, which- the Byzantines struggled to prevent, and this led to the tedious Lazic war, in which the strength of both empires was uselessly wasted. In consequence of the Persian war, Justinian entered into a treaty with the Abyssinians, whose monarch had subdued the greater part of Arabia, in the expectation of opening, by his means, a naval communic3,tion with China and India ; but the designi was frustrated by the reluctance of the Ethiopian monarch to engage in a doubtful contest with the power of Persia. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIEE. 333 The provinces of Africa and Italy, acquired by the valor of Belisarius, were nearly lost by the incapacity and tyranny of his successors. Their weakness provoked the Moors to take arms ; and, though these barbarians were finally reduced, the African province was changed from a fertile and populous country into a savage and silent desert. Still, more dangerous was the revolt of the Goths under the gallant Totila (a. d. 541), who in a very brief space recovered the greater part of Italy. Finding his generals successively defeated, Justinian sent Belisarius to the theatre of his former glory ; but he neglected to supply the hero with sufficient forces ; and Home was captured by Totila, al- most in sight of the imperial army. The city was recovered soon after, and the old general gained some advantages over Totila ; but finding himself imsupported, he solicited permission to return, and departed from Italy disgraced, not so much by his failure, as by the plunder he had permitted Antonina to extort from those he was sent to defend (a. d. 548). Totila, after the departure of Belisarius, again made himself master of Rome, but the maritime cities of Italy resisted his assaults, and supported the imperial interests until the eunuch Narses was sent into the peninsula (a. d. 552). Justinian granted to this favorite what he had denied to Belisarius, a coinpetent supply of the munitions of war ; allies were entreated to send contingents, and mercenaries were hired from the principal bar- barous tribes. Thus supplied, the eunuch eagerly sought to bring the Goths to an engagement ; but Totila showed equal ardor for the combat, and the. hostile forces soon met in the vicinity of Rome. In the very commencement of the battle the Gothic cavaby, hurried forward by their impetuosity, advanced so far beyond their infantry, that they were surrounded and cut to pieces before they could receive assistance. Totila, hasting with a chosen troop to remedy the disorder, was struck to the earth mortally wounded, and his followers instantly fled in con- fusion. Rome , opened its gates to the conquerors ; but the imperial forces, especially the barbarian mercenaries, treated the city more cruelly than the Gothic conquerors had done, and inflicted on the citi- zens the mingled horror of lust, rapine, and murder. The bravest of the Goths retired, after their defeat, beyond the Po, and chose Teias for their king. War was of course renewed ; but in a fierce battle, which lasted two entire days, Teias was slain, and the power of the Ostrogoths irretrievably ruined. Narses had scarcely time to recover from the fatigues of this campaign, when he was sununoned to repel an invasion of the Franks and Allemans; he routed them with great slaughter ; and then returning to Rome, gratified its citizens by the semblance of a triumph. Italy was thus reduced to a Byzantine prov- ince, governed by the exarchs of Ravenna ; and Narses himself, the first and most powerful of the exarchs, governed the whole peninsula for fifteen years. In the meantime Belisarius had been simimoned to defend the em- pire from the dangers with which it was menaced, by an invasion of me Bulgarians. He gained a decisive victory over the barbarians, but was prevented from improving his advantages by the intrigues of the courtiers. The Bulgarians were induced to return beyond the Danube, by the payment of a large ransom for their captives ; and Justjmaa 334 MODEMl HISTORY. claimed tie gratitude of Ws subjects for accelerating their departur^fe by the threat of placing armed vessels in the Dantibe. This was the'Mt campaign of Bfelisarius ; he was soon after disgj-aced and itnpiisbnea, under'a false charge of treason : his innocence wis subsequently proved, and Ms freedom restored,' Wit; gri«f and resentment hurried him t(^ the ^ve-*, aiid his treasures were seized by the rapaciotife feiiiperor., ' Eighi months afterwkifd Justinian sunk into the tomb, scarcely iregrkted' by his snbjecfcs. ■ He was a pious and diligent soverei^, but hfe. wanted energy to contend 'Against the vices of his court and the age. His talents as aiegidator and statesman were great; had he acted Oti his own principles, he would have surpassed Augiistus^ but he yifelded his power to the infamOus Theodora^ and to unworthy ministers who aliused his coiifidencfe, and ojppressed the empire. ^t.cT!ioN ill.^iPhe Esiahlishment of the Civil' Law. Early in his reign, Justinian directed his attention tb the stkte of the law in his empire, and formed the useful project of cfi^esting into a tltii- form code me vast mass of laws, nfleS; and judicial maxims,' which the various interests of the Romans and Byzantines, their progress in civ- fliisatibn, and 'the inconstancy of their rulers, had pfroduced, duting the course of thirteen hundred yeiirs. He saw that the multitude of ordi- nances 'Occasioned confusion and disorder, and that the hedp Of incon- sistent decisions and ■regulations, formed a labjrrinth in Wmch jUstite went astray, and iniqui^foiind avenues 'for escape. -The execution of this great 'plan was not worthy of the design, At the head of the com- miss^n appointed to prepare the code was Tribonian, a lawyer' of great eminence, but tmfortunately an interested 'flatterer and cOrrtifit judge;' accustomed to sell justice, he altered, pefvetted, or suppressed many excellent laws. He frequently persuaded the emperor to destroy, by Supplementary edicts called Novels, the "principles of right which had ' been p'reviously established in the Code ahd the Digest. ' Jtrstinian commenced with the Code. In an edict, dated the 3.d of February, a. d; 528,-addi-essed tO the senate of Constantinople, he de- «lat«d his resSltition bf Collecting into a single volume, not hiertlx^ the la-ivs'in the thriee previous codes of Gregory, Hermogteman'as,^nd' "Mte- odbsius-, 'Ivut also the'laws that had been published by imperial, atithoirity sifice the ibrmatiOn Of the Theodosian code. A commission of teft'fem- iaent laWyerai with Tilibonian at its head. Was charged with "flid ejrectt- doa of this *ask, T^ey were permitted to suppress repetitions, -to re- move hasi:been always .the name sfiven to China by the nations of western Asia. In the preceding pages mention has been made of tlje enfba^sy sen^ fi;ora the, Rotaans to the Chinese, in the age of tJie Antonines ; ani it is only necessary tp' add, in proof of the conmieTcial relatiftos between this ancient empire and the western 338 MODBaN mSTOEY. world, that a tolerably accurate account of the revolutions in the Persian and Parthian kingdoms may be found in Chinese histories.* . ' The silk was imported from China in packages, which caravans of merchants brought across the extreme breadth of Asia,>in a journey of two hundred 'and forty-three days, to the seacoast of Syria. The Per- sians who supplied the Romans, usually made their purchases from the Sogdians, on the batiks: of the Oxus, and their i traffic was liable • to te interrupted by the White Huns and the Turks, who successively con- quered that industrious 'people. But the difficulties of the road between tiie Sogdi?i/n capital, Maracanda {Samarcand), and. the first Chinese city in the province of Shensi, led to frequent effiarts for opfeninga new and less perilous route, which, however, proved unsuccessful. Prom the time they passed the^ Jaxartes, the enterprisiiig Sogdians had 'to contend, not only with the,- dangers and^ difficulties of the intervening deserts,, but also against the waindering hordesj who have always con- sidered the citizen and traveller as objeots-oflawftd rapine. • It is recorded as aproof of the vast expense of the' magnificent spec- tacles with which. Julius Caesaj sought. at once to dazzle and conciliate the populace; that he decorated: the actors in his varied pageants with, a profusion of silk dresses, which wete viewed by: the Italians with equal wonder^ and admiration. In consequeiice of the difficulties of transit, the vast length of desert which the caravans had to traverse, and,, prpbabZy,' the limited supply of silkrin China itself, this article bore a very , high price in Roime, and' was often sold for its weight in -gold. Silken dresses were eisteeraed too expensive and delicate for men, and were appropriated wholly to ladies of eminent rank and opulence. In the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, a law was passed enacting, that " no man should disgrace himself by wearing a silk dress." This might, however, have beto a religious as well as a sumptuary ordi- nance, for it. is a singular circumstance in the history of silk, that, on account of its.being the excretion of a worm, several religious bodies in the East, but more especially the Mohammedans, consider it an un- clean dress. Indeed, it has been decided by the unanimous consent of flU the Sonnite doctors, that a person wearing' a garment made en- tirely, of silk, can not offer up the daily prayers enjoined by the Koran; The, proflig9,te and effeminate Heliogabalus was the first of the Ro- man emperors who wore a garment entirely of silk ; andj in conse- quence of his examplej the custom of wearing silk soon became general among the wealthy citizens of Rome, and even extended to the provin- ces. It seems probable, also, that the price of the article had dimin- ished, in consequence of itsibeginning to be iinported by the maritime route through: Alexandria, instead of biy caravans through the arid des- erts of Tartary and Turkestan. .Chinese histories inform ns, that an • The Arm^iiians call the Chinese Jenk, and China Jenistdn. 'theii relations •with this country asceild to' the beginning of the third century of our era. About that time a Chinese colony was established in Armenia. The chief of this colony wais I probably one of the imperial dynasty of the Huns : driven from his country by ^ivil wars, he at first sought refuge at the court of Aideshir, the ijbunder of the Sassanid dynasty iii Persia, thence he passed into Persia, where he was received about' A. n. 260, by Tiridates, the Armenian sovereign, who gaVe him the prov- ince of Jaron. This personage, whose name was Mamkon, becaine the founder .of the family of the Memigonians, who ars justly celebrated in Armenian history. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIHE. 339 ambassador from one of the Antonines came to their remote country for the purpose of concluding a commercial treaty, and this , is rendered highly probable by the fact that oriental commodities became both plentiful and cheap under and after their dynasty. Ammianus Marcel- linus ihforms us, that in his age (a. d. 370) silk was generally worn even by the lower classes. i After the restoration of a native d3masty in Persia under the' Sassan- ides, and the establishment of the eastern empire at Constantinople, a long series of wars ensued between the Persian sovereigns, who deem- ed themselves legitimate inheritors of the power of Cyrus, and the "(Byzantine emperors, who wished themselves to be considered succes- [sors of Alexander the Great. The command of the sea of Oman gave 'the Persians a decided advantage over the Egjrptian merchants, who ; iwere forced to import oriental commodities by the tedious and danger- " ous navigation of the Red sea. Until the introduction of steam naviga- j^tion, the Red sea, or Yam Suph* as it is called by the Orientals, was ^universally dreaded by voyagers. The strait at its entrance was sig- i nificaintly named by the Arabs Bab-el-Mandeb, or, " the gate of tears ;" ; and it was a common proverb with eastern sailors, " Yam Suph is a ; double-locked sea ; [ there are six months in the year that you can not 'get into it, and six more that you can not get out of it." But the Per- sians were not satisfied with this natural superiority ; , having it in their power to molest or cut off the caravans, which, in order to procure a supply for the Greek empire, travelled by land to China through the northern provinces of their kingdom, they laid such onerous transit du- ties on foreign merchants, that the Greeks were forced to abandon this branch of commerce, and purchase their silk from the Persians and Sogdians. These, with the usual rapacity of monopolists, raised the price of silk to such an exorbitant height, that the Greek manufacturers, whose looms depended on a supply of this raw material, were thrown out of employment dnd nearly ruined. , The Emperor Justinian, eager, not only to obtain a full and certain supply of a commodity which was become of indispensable, use, but solicitous to deliver the commerce of his subjects from the exactions of his enemies, endeavored, by means of his, ally the Christian monarch of Abyssiiiia, to wrest some portion of the silk trade from the Persians. In this attempt he failed ; but when he least expected it, he, by an un- foreseen event, attained his great object of procuring his subjects an abundant supply of silk, independent both of ships and caravans. 1 Two Persian monks having been employed as Christian missionaries ' by some of the churches which had been established in India, pursued their evangelical labors until they had penetrated into the remote coun- try of the Seres, or Chinese (a. d. 551). There they observed the la- bors of the silkworm, the mode in which these animals were fed on the mulberry-leaf ; the care bestowed upbn them in the several periods of insect transformation, and the attention necessary to obtaining perfect cocoons. Without such knowledge, the mere possession of the insects would have been useless ; for the time that, elapses while the silk- caterpillar is undergoing its change? varies according to the tempera- tae and the quantity of nourishment with which it is supplied ; the * That is, « the Sea of Weeds." 340 MODEEN HISTORY. health also of the insect and the subsequent perfection of the silk de- pends upon the mode in which these cha,nges are made, and the inter- vals between the successive moultings of the skin, which take place before the animal attains its full growth,. The Chinese, calculate that the same number of insects which w^ould, if they had attained the full size in twenty-three or twenty-four days, produce twenty-five ounces of silk, would produce only twenty ounces if their growth occupied twenty-eight days, and only ten ounces if forty da,ys. In order, there- fore, to accelerate their growth, they supply the insects virith fresh food every half hour dgring the first day of their existence, and then gradu- ally reduce the number of meals as the worms grow older. Itdeserves to be remarked as an unnoticed fact in natiiral theology, that the sub- stance on which this valuable caterpillar feeds, is the leaf of the mul- berry-tree ; and Providence, as if to ensure the continuance of this liseful species, has so ordained it, that no other insect will partake of > the same food ; thus ensuring a certain supply for the little spinster. Having made themselves acquainted with, these particulars, the moi^kg repaired to Constantinople, and revealed the infotmation they had ac- quired to the Emperor Justinian. Encour^ged-by the liberal , promises of that monarch, ihey undertook to bring to his capital a sufficient num- ber of those wonderful insects to who^e labors man is so much indebt- ed: They proceeded to China, and finally accomplished the object of their mission by obtaining a competent supply of the eggs of the silk- worm,' which they concealed in a hollow cane. Having returned safe to Constantinople, the eggs were, under their direction, hatched by the artificial heat of a dunghill, and the insects were fed on the leaves of the wild mulberry-tree. Such care was bestowed upon them, that they soon multiplied, and wprked in the same manner as in those climates where they first became the objects of human attention and care. Justinian at first attempted to monopolize this source of profit, but the rapid increase of the worms opened the trade. A singular circumstance enabjes us to appreciate the speedy success of the Greeks in the rnanu- facture of silk. Before the sixth centuiry clpsed, the Turks, descending from the Altaian mountains, conquered Sogdiana. The conquered peo- ple ha,d found the demand for silk rapidly diminishing, which they at- tributed to the commercial jealousy of the Persians. They complained of their losses to their new master, the Turkish khakan, who sent am- bassadors to form a commercial treaty with the Persian monarch, the celebrated Nushiryan. It Was obviously unwise policy to strengthen the power of the new state vvhich had bee^ formed beyond the Oxus ; and Nushiryan was, besides, eager, to open a direct communication with China, through the Persian gulf. To show his contempt for the o/Ters of the Sogdians, he purchased up all their goods, and committed them to the flames. The khakan next sent ambassadors to Justinian II., who, after a toilsome journey, reached Constantinople (a. d. 571), just twenty years after the introduction of the silkworm; when, to their great astonishment, they fojind the Byzantines in the possession of silk of tlieir own growth^, and so skilled in its use, that their manufactures already rivalled those of China. From this time the Sogdian carrying ; tra^e declined; it was^tpfally ^innihilated about the middle of the ninth,: centiiry, when a fanatic insurgent, in China, rnuxdered the foreign mer- PALL OP THE WESTERlir EMPIRE. 341 chants, and cut down the mulberry-trees, to destroy this silk that enticed strangers to the celestial empire. For nearly six hundred years, the Greeks were the only Europeans who possessed the silkworm: at length, Roger I., king of Sicily, en- gaged in war with the Byzantine empire, having captured some persons skilled in the production and manufacture of silk, established factories at Palermo, which rose rapidly into celebrity. Thence the trade spread into Italy, Spain, and France ; but in most of these countries the mai\- iifacture was loiig deemed of greater importance than the production of the raw materiaL France owes her present superiority in the trade to the patriotic exertions of Heiiry IV., who made extensive nurseries of mulberry plants, and distributed them gratuitously to all desirous of es- tablishing pltotations. James I. endeavored to introduce the production of raw silky as a trade, into England ; since his time the experiment has beea frequently repeated, but it never has been attended with complete success. Similar trials have also been made in Ireland, but the result has not yet answered the expectations of the patriotic projectors. Section V.—The Monarchy of the Franks under the Merovingian Dynasty. Thk histoiy oif the Franks properly begins with the establishment of a' large body of that nation in Belgic Gaul, under a chief named Merewrig,* from whom the dynasty received the name Merovingian. t He was succeeded by his son Hilderik,| a brave warrior, but the slave of his passions. An insult that he offered to the wife of one of his offi- cers occasioned a revolt ; Hilderik was dethroned, and a Count Egidius, or Giles, proclaimed king. After an exile of eight years, Hilderik was restored, and the remainder of his reign appears to, have passed in tran- quillity. Hlodowigll was the next sovereign : his harsh German name was softened by the Latins into Clodovecus, or Clovis, the origin of the modern Ludovicus, or Loiiis. At his accession (a. d. 481), Clovis had scarcely reached his twentieth year ; the ardor of youth combined with the circumstances of his position to urge him to foreign conquests ; foir the fertility of the Belgic soil, the purity of its waters', and its atmo- sphere, continually attracted fresh hordes to the lower Rhine, who sought admission into the Belgic colony. Clovis found it necessary to enlarge his frontiers, arid invaded the Roman province. Near Soissons he encountered Syagrius, the son of his father's rival, Egidius, and gained a decisive victory. . Syagrius sought refuge with, the Visigoths, but that nation had lost much of, its martial spirit ; Alaric II., unworthy of the name hp bore, sent the unfortunate general bound to CloVis, by ■whom he, was beheaded. The conqueror was now the most powerful monarch of his age, and the neighboring princes eagerly sought his alliance : he chose for his queen,' Hlodohilde,^ or Clotilda, whose uncle was king of the Burgun- 4ians. Clotilda was a Christian ; she labored earnestly to convert her husband; and especially urged him when his crown and life were en- * Mere- wig, eminent warrior. t' The other Pranks were named Ripe-Warians ; that is, inhabitants of the banks of the Rhine. . , i JlMe-^, bold in combat. || ffiodo-wig, /amWJ wornor. § Hlodo-hilde, brillicmt and nMe. 342 MODERN HISTORY. dangered by an invasion of the Germanic confederation of tribes, called the AUemans. Clovis, persuaded that he owed the great victory of Tolbiac to the prayers of Clotilda, became a convert, and received the sacrament of baptism from the bishop of Rheims (a. d. 496). He gave the prelate, as a fee, all the land he could ride round while he himself slept after dinner, a gift very characteristic of a conqueror, who felt that Jie had only to wake and acquire new dominions. Soon afterward he undertook new conquests. Advancing in the direction of Genabum (Orleans), he crossed the Loire, spreading everywhere the terror of his name. The, Bretons, long subject to the Romans,' consented with- out reluctance to a change of masters. Clovis, having traversed their country, entered Aquitaine, pillaged the houses, laid waste the fields, plundered the temples, and returned to Paris, " leaving," as the cotem- porary historian says, " nothing to the wretched inhabitants but the soil, which the Franks could not take away." The kingdom established by Clovis extended from the Rhin.e to the Pyrenees, from the Alps to the ocean, but its security was very uncer- tain. Wherever the conqueror appeared, he met nothing but submis- sion from the various races settled in Gaul ; as soon, however, as he passed onward, his nominal subjects closed upon his rear, retaining no more trace of his march than the furrowed wave does of a vessel's keel. Neither was the Frankish monarch absolute over his own soldiers ; his army was composed of freemen, who disdained to submit to despotic rule. They gave to their monarch his share of the booty, and nothing more.* When they disappi-oved of the expedition for which they as- sembled, they abandoned it without scruple ; or if the monarch refused to undertake a war which they deemed advisable, they forced him to comply with their wishes, not merely by menaces, but by actual force.f On the death of Clovis (a. d. 511), his dominions were divided be- tween his four sons, Hildebert:}: (Childebert), Hlodomer|| (Chlodomer), Hlodher§ (Clotaire), and Theodoric,T[ who respectively occupied the capitals of Paris, Orleans, Soissons, and Metz. This distribution gave rise to a new geographical division ; all the districts between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Moselle, received the name of Oster-rike,** since corrupted into Austrasia ; and the country between the Meuse, the Loire, and the ocean, was named Ni-oster-rike,f t or, as it was latinized Gregory of Tours furnishes us with a curious anecdote on this subject. " About this time the army of Clovis pillaged a great number of churches and houses. His soldiers had taken away, from one of the cathedrals, a vase of sur- prising size and beauty. The bishop of the diocese sent a messenger to reclaim it,. To this man, the king , said, ' Follow me to Soissons, where the plunder will be shared, and should chance give me the vase, I will do what your prelate re- quires.' When they reached Soissons, they went to the place where the.iJunder was piled, and the king said, ' I entreat you, my brave warriors, to give me this vase in addition to my share.' Upon this, a presumptuous soldier exclaimed, ' You shall have nothing but the portion assigned you by lot.' " < t The historian ctuoted in the preceding note says, " After this, Clotaire and Childebert (sons of Clovis) formed the design of marching; against the Burgundi^ ans. Their brother, Theodoric, was unwilling to engage in the expedition, but the Franks who followed him, said unanimously, ' If you will not join your broth- ers, we will quit you, and choose another leader.' " i Hilde-berlh, brilliant warrior. || Hlodo-mer, celebrated chief. § Hlod-her, celebrated and excellent. ir Theod-e-rik, brave among the people. •• That is, JEastem kingdom. ft That is, Northeastern fcJAgrfom. PALI OB" THE WESTBEN EMPIEE. 343 Neustria. All that was not comprised in this division, belonged not to the Merovingian Franks, but retained its ancient name of Gaiil. Chlodomer and Theodoric engaged in vear Gmidumer,* king of the Burgundians. In a great battle fought near Vienne (a. d. 523), Chlodr omer was slain,t but Theodoric gained a decisive victory, and added the Burgundian kingdom to his own dominions. Clotilda took the guardianship of her infant grandchildren, but the favor she showed to ■tiie three sons of Chlodomer provoked the resentment of Childebert, king of Paris. He secretly proposed to his brother Clptaire, that they should secure the persons of the young princes, shave their heads,t and divide their dominions. Clotaire readily joined in the project, ajid put the two eldest of his nephews to death ; the third, saved by faithfiil servants, cut off his hair with his own hands, and entering into a mon- astery, spent a life of celibacy.|| Ten years after this event, Theodoric • Gundn-mer, pacific and great. t " The brothers joined their forces at Veserjihcia, a place situated in the ter- ritory of the city ,of Vienna, and gave battle to Gundnmer. The Burgundian having taken to flight wi;ai his army, Chlodomer- pursued him, and when he was at a distance from his friends, the Burgundians, imitating the signals of the Franks, exclaimed, ' Come this way, we are thine.' He believed them, and spurred his horse into the midst of the enemy.. They surrounded , him, cut off his head, and fixing it on a pike, displayed it to their pursuers." — Gregory of tours. t To shave the head was the form of dethroning a sovereign at this period. Among the early Franks, the crown of hair was as much a symbol of royalty as the crown of gold. If The account given of this transaction by Gregory of Tours is too interesting to be omitted; '' Clotaire readily adopted 'his brother's prefect, and came to Paris. Childebert had already spreiad a report that he and his brother had agreedto in- vest their nephews with royalty, and they sent a messenger to Clotilda, then re- siding in the same city, who said, 'Send your grandchildren, that they may be raised to the throne.' She, joyous, and knowing nothing of the plot, after having made the children eat and drink, sent them to their uncles, saying, ', Go, children, I will believe that my son is not lost, when I see you on the throne.' When thq children came to their uncles, they were taken and separated from their servants and governors. Then they shut them up apart, the children in one place, and the attendants in another. When this was done, Childebert and Clotaire sent Areai. dius (one of their officers), to the queen, with a scissors and drawn sword. ' When he came into her presence, showing her these, he said, ' Thy sons, qur lords, de- sire to know thy pleasure, gracious queen, respecting the manner in which they should treat the children. Order either their hair or tiieir throats to be cut.' As- tounded by these words, and enraged at beholding tie scissors and naked sword, the queen gave vent to her wrath, and, scarcely knowing what sbe said, so trou- bled was her mind, imprudently replied', ' If they are not to reign like their father, I would rather see them dead than shaven.' ' Then Arcadius returned promptly to those who sent hiin, and Said, ' You may persevere ; the queen approves what you have begun, and her will is, that you complete your project.' Immediately, Clo- taire, taking the eldest of the children by the arm,, threw him on tbe ground, and stabbing him under the shoulder, put him cruelly to death. His brother, terrified at the scene, threw himself at the feet of CKildebert, and kissing bis knees, ex- claimed, ' Help me, my good father, let me not be murdered Uke my poor brother.' Then, Childebert, melting into tears, said to Clotaire, ' Oh ! I entreat you, my very dear brother, have the kindness to spare this child's life;,, if you consent to spare him, I wiU give you whatever you may, demand.' But Clotaire, overwhelm- ing him with reproaches, said, ''Thrust tbe child away, or you shall die in his stead, for you were the first to urge me to this deed, though you now shrink from its completion.' Then Childebert, alarmed, pushed the child over to Clotaire, who struck his dagger into the boy's side, and slew him on the body of his brother. Afterward they murdered the servants and tutors. When they were dead, Clotaire mounted his horse, without showing any compunction for the murder of Jus 344 MOPBEN. HISTORY. died, and was succeeded by his son, Theodobert,* -who took the title of king of Austrasia. His uncles attempted to deprive Thebdobert cyf his dominions, but being daunted by the mere ;display of his power, they turned their arms against gpain, laid waste Arragon, Biscayj and Cata- lonia, stormed. Pampeiluna,. besieged Satagossa, land were ctoly induced to retire by »a present of the tunic of St. Vijioent, a teUc which, in that superstitious age, was deemed. an invaluable treasure, i The fame of Theodobert extended to Constailtin»ple ; Justinian en- deavored to win his friendship, by the cession of the nominal clciims which the empire retained over Provence, but the Austrasian mbhartth entered into an alliance with Totila, the emperor's enemy, crbssed the Alps, and quickly subdued the greater part of northern Italy- After his return, the army he left behind met with some reverses, and the inflated vanity of Justinian led him to issue a medal, on which he styled him- self Conqueror of the Franks. ' Theodobert was so enraged at this ar- rogance, that he prepared to lea,d an army through Hungary, into Thrace, and assail Justinian in his capital, but this daring enterprise Vas frus- trated by his sudden death ; he was killed by the fall of a tree (a. d. 548), while hunting the wild buffalo, a dangerous sport, to which he was passionately addicted. Theodobaldf succeeded to the Austrasian throne, but died after an inr glorious reign of seven years. Childebert soon followed him to the tomb, and thus Clotaire acquired the sole, but riot the undisturbed possession of Neustria and Austrasia. His own son, Chramn6,|' headed a revolt of the turbulent Bretons, but he was defeated , and barbarously put to death, with his entire faraily,||'by command of his cruel father. The chroniclers add, that Clotaire died the next year (ai d. 561), at Com- peigne, on the anniversary of his son's death, and ut liie precise hour of thfe horrid butchery. Clotaire left four sons — Charibert,^ Gontram,Tr Chilperic,** and Sige^ bert,tt who shared his dominions. The turbulent period that followed, is principally remarkable for the troubles occasioned by the crimes of two infamous women, Bnmilda and Fredegorid^', the wives of Sigebert and Chilperic. Fredegonda had won her way to the throne by mur- dering Galswintha, the sister of her rival j and the jealousy btetween nephews, and rfetiiedwith Childebert to the suburhs. The queen Clotilda, having placed the bodies on a bier, conducted them, with litanie^, sacied songs, and pro- found grief, to the church of St. Peter's, wherS they were biiried together. One was ten years old, and the other six. The third son, named Clodoald, was saved by the interference of some brave men, cailed barons. , Renouncing his eaithly Idngdom, he became a clerk, and, persisting in good works, finally received priest's orders. The two kings shared among them the inheritance of Clodomer." * Theode-bett, very brilliant among the people. t Theode-bald, vigorous above all. j Hram, warlike. II "The two armies having come to an engagement, the count of the Bretons ran away, and was slaiil in flight ; after which Hram (Chramnfe) began to fiy tow- ard the ships he had prepared on the sea, but, while he was endeavoring to save his wife and children, he Was overtaken by his father's army, made pjrisoner, and bound. When thfe news was brought to Clotaire, he ordered that the prince, toi- getherwith his wife and daughters, should be burned. They shut them np in a poor hut, where Htdm, extended on a bench, was strangled ; they then set fire to the house, and it was consumed with all its inmates." — Gregqry of Tours. § 'H.axi-beit, glarioas in the Ofiriy, ir Gont-mm, gen^roua man. •• Hilpe-rik, brave in combtit. ff Sighe-bert, ghrigua oonq'oeror. FALL OF THE WESTERS EMPIRE. 345 two ambitious and unprincipled women was aggravated, on one side, by the desire of revenge, and, on the other, by the difficulty of maintain- ing her dignity, when she was changed from a mistress into a wife. During the-long period over which their resentments spread, it is diffi- cult to distinguish anything but murders and assassinations, in the gloomy annals of thetime. Fredegonda procured the death of Sigebert, and afterward of Chilperic and his two sons, being chiefly enraged against Meroveej* who had married Brunilda. Childebert inherited the kingdom of his father, Sigebert, and that of his uncle, Gontram;' aided by his mother, Brunilda, he maintained a long and sanguinary struggle against Fredegonda, and her young son, Clotaire : but he died eiriy; leaviiig two children to divide his distract- , e4 dominions, i Both of these were destroyed by Brunilda, whose hatred they bad ;provpked, by remonstrating against her crimes, and after a 1 dreary scene of confusion, France was again united into a single mon- archy, under Clotaire II., son of Chilperic and Fredegonda (a. d.613). His;first care was to punish Brunilda, the ancient enemy of his mother and his house : she was exhibited for. three days, moimted on a camel, to the derision of the ; array, subjected to the most cruel tortures, and finally fastened to the tail of a wild horse, which tore her wretched car- cass to pieces, in the presence of the soldiers. Clotaire published a code of laws, which enjoys some reputation ; but his adnninistration wa:s deficient in vigor, and during his reign sev- eral encroachments were made on the royal power, by the ambitious nobles. His son, Dagobert I.,t succeeded (a.:d. 628), and had the mortification to see his authority weakened by the growing greatness of the mayors of the palace : he died, after a feeble and dissolute reign (a. d. 638), but vsras strangely enough canonized as a saint. | The successors of Dagobert were mere phantoms of royalty ; the entire sovereignty was possessed by the mayors of the palace, who finally acquired absolute possession of half the monarchy, as dukes of Austrasia. Pepin D'Heristal, the .greatest of these nominal ministers, and real raonarchs, governed France in the name of several successive kings. : After his death, (a. d. 714), his power descended to his grand- son, Theodobald, a child only eight years of age, who was thus singu- larly, .appointed guardian to a king that; was not yet sixteen. Karl,|| the * Mere-wig, eraiwcjit toarnor. : f Dago-hej:t,brillicmt asthe day. t,The cause of his Can,(JnizatjOn is, aingidsirly illustrative of the superstitions otthe age. Audoald, bishop of Poictiers, while on an embassy in Sicily, was mi- jraculously, as he .declared, informed of the king's death by a holy hermit namfid John. This pious anchoret said, "While I was asleep last tight, an old man with a long beard bade me get up, and pray for the soul of King Dagobert, who was on the point of death. , I .arose, and looking throiigh the window of my her- initeige,,IjSaw, in the middle of the sea, a ho?t of d.evils carrying the king's soul to h'eii;' The unfortunate soul, grievously tormented, invoked; tl\e aid of St. Mar- tin, St.'Maurice, .akd St. Denis. At his cries, the spirits of these holy martyrs descended from heaven, in the inidst of thunders and lightnings, delivered thfe king's soul, and bore it up with them through the air, singing the canticle of Da- vid, Lord, how happy is the man that thou, hast chosen," , Audoald redled this r^elation to ^he king's ehancellor, on his return, by whom it was entered in the archives of the kingdom, and Dagobert enrolled among the number of saints. — Ga^uin. II Karl, robust. 346 MODBEN HISTOEY. natural son of Pepin, better, known in history byitha name of Charles . Martel, set aside, this absurd arrangement, and succeeded to more than his father's power. His numerous victories over the . Saxons, Burgun- dians, Frisians, &c., have rendered his name illustrious : but he is more justly celebrated for his triumph over the Saracenic invaders of France (a. d. 732), between Tours and Poictiers, by which he delivered Christendom fjrom the imminent danger of being subjected to the Mo- hammedan yoke. His son, Pepin, finally compelled Chilperic IH. to abdicate (a. d. 752), and the crown of France was thus transferred to the Carlovingian dynasty, from the descendants of Clovis. Section VI. — The Lombard Monarchy. The Lombards were encouraged to settle on the frontiers of the empire by Justinian, who deemed that they Would prove a check on the insolence of the Gepidse. While these barbarous tribes were engageld in war, Thrace enjoyed comparative tranquillity ; but when Alboin became head of the Lombard tribes, he entered into alliance with the Avars for the extirpation of the Gepidae, purchasing their aid by a tithe of his cattle, and a promise of all the conquered lands. The emperor, Justin n., unwisely abandoned the Gepidae to their fate ; Cunimund, their monarch, hasted to .encounter Alboin before he could join the Avars, but he fell in the field which proved fatal to the existence of his nation, and his scull was formed into a drinking vessel by his barbarous enemy. Rosamond, the daughter of the slaughtered king,' became the prize and spouse of the victor; the bravest of the surviving Gepidae were incorporated in the army of the Lombards. Though the Avars had contributed but slightly to the success of the war, they received a large share of the spoils ; the greater part of ancient Dacia was resigned to them, and in this country their chagans ruled for more than two hun- dred years. Alboin's ambition was fixed on a higher object ; fifteen years before, a body of Lombards had served under Narses in the con- quest of Italy, and they still preserved a vivid remembrance of the wealth and fertility of the peninsula. Alboin encouraged them to hope that this fair land might yet own their sway, and to stimulate their ardor, produced some of its finest fruits at a royal feast. When his designs became known, adventurers flocked to his standard ftoln'th^ neighboring Slavonic and German tribes. Having made every prepa- ration for the expedition, the Lombards resigned their lands to the Avars, ' on the simple promise of receiving them back, if they failed in the con-, quest of Italy. , , I As if the court of Constantinople had resolved to aid. the projects of the invaders, the brave Narses was contumeliously removed from his post by the Empress Sophia ; and Longinus, a person wholly imac- quainted with Italy, appointed exarch in his stead. Alboin met no army to oppose him the field ; few even of the cities ventured to resisf his progress ; Ticinum, or, as it began now to be called, Pavia,, almost alone closed its gates against the conqueror, and detained him three years before its walls-. It was at length forced to yield by the pressure of hunger ; Alboin threatened a general massacre, but his horse hap- ! pening to stumble as he entered the gates, he believed that Heaven had sent this omen to warn him against cruelty, and he assured the trem- FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 347 bling multitude of pardon and safety. Before he could regulate the affairs of the kingdom he had so easily -won, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife. One evening, heated with wine, he sent her the skull of her father Cunimund, fashioned, as has been stated, into a gob- let, filled to the brim, with an insulting message, that she should rejoice ) with her sire. Rosamond, stifling her resentment, simply replied, " Let the will of the king.be obeyed ;" but she secretly resolved on vengeance, and, by infamous means, procured two officers of the household to mur- der her husband (a. d. 573). She was compelled by the indignation of the people to fly with her paramour to the court of Ravenna, where she was poisoned by a potion which she had prepared for the partner of her guilt. ' Clepho, one of the noblest of the Lombard chiefs, was chosen king after the murder of Alboin, by the great council of the nation ; but at the end of eighteen months, he was stabbed by a domestic. His cruelty gave the Lombards such a distate for royalty, that after his death, they changed their form of government, and for ten years were ruled by a federation of thirty-six dukes, each of whom was chief of some impor- tant city. During this period, they made several efibrts to acquire pos- session of some part of Gaul, but were invariably beaten by the Franks ; in It^ly, on the contrary, they were generally successful, adding con- siderably to their territories at the expense of the exarchate of Ravenna, and the other provinces dependant on the Greek empire. A confederacy between the imperial exarch and Childebert, king of the Franks, so alarmed the Lombards that they chose Autharis, son of Clepho, for their sovereign. He established a perfectly feudal mon- archy, assigning their dutchies to the dukes in perpetuity, on the condi- tion of their giving one moiety of their revenue to support the royal dignity ; they could not be deprived of their possessions except for high- treason, but they held power only at the sovereign's will. A similar form of government seems to have prevailed among the Franks almost from the foundation of their monarchy ; but feudal law first received a complete form among the Lombards, and the rules respecting the suc- cession, acquisition, and investiture of fiefs among other nations, were generally derived from their code. The new monarch gained several victories over the Franks, who had been bribed to invade Italy by the Emperor Maurice, and punished the hostility of the Byzantine by sub- duing a great part of ancient Samnium, which he formed intq the dutchy of Benevento. Autharis died without issue (a. p. 590), after a brief but glorious reign, and die crown was transferred to Agilulf, duke of Turin. Hitherto the Lombards had been either Arians or pagans ; but Agi- lulf, instigated by his queen, established the Catholic faith throughout his dominions, and chastiseil several dukes who made this change a pretext for rebellion. His son and successor, Adaluald, completed the triumph of the orthodox faith, a circumstance which tended greatly to reconcile the Italians to the supremacy of the Lombards. The Arian party was, however, sufficiently powerful to raise another to the throne ; both the rivals, however, died without issue, and the general , assembly chose Rotharis for their sovereign (a. d. 636). This monarch, though tainted with the Arian heresy, won the, afiection of all his subjects by 3'48 MODEEN HiSTCtEY. ' the Wise la-W^s He enacted ; he also wrested some important places froiii ^he exarch of Ravenna, and reduced the imperial interests in Italy so low, that it might be said to exist only by the sufferance of the Lom- bards. On his death (a. d. 652), a scene of wekkijess aid revolution followed, which was only terftiinated by the accession of Grimvald, duke of Benevento (a. d. 662). Grimvald was soon involved in war with the Franks, -vvho invaded Italy, but were completely defeated. Scarcely had he repelled this invasion when the Byzantine emperor, Con'st'aris, appeared in Italy at the head of a powerful army, and laid si'egfe to Betlev'erito. But the imperialists, nieeting a fierce resistaiic'e'frorti -the garrison. Were soon forced to retreat, and being overtaken on their march, were' Iro'uted with great slaughter. Constahs fled' to Sicily with the shattered remnant of his forces, and was murdered in a bafh by some of his own ser- vants. Grimvald did not long survive his' triumph ; he died universally lamented (a. d. 672), and his de^th was followed by a setiefe of obscure and uninteresting revolutions, which, however, delhged Italy with blood. ' The accession of Liiitprand (a. d. 711), once more restored the prosperity of the Lombards ; he enacted several wise laws, rectified the evils which during the recent disturbances had crept into the admin- istration of justice, and won the favor of the nobles whb had opposed his elevation by a judicious display of cotra^ aiid' prudence. Unfor- tunately, he was prompted by ambition' 'io aittem'pt the complete conquest of Italy ; taking advaiitage of the troubles occasioned by the edicts of the empferor Leo for the destruction of images. The Exarchate was invaded, and Ravenna taken ; but Luitpraiid's success provoked the jealousy of the pope, who, though pleased With the punishment of the Iconoclasts,* was by ho means gratified with the accession, of power of the Lombards. At the pontiff's instigation, the Venetians aided the exarch to recover Ravenna ; but the emperor Leo, instead of showing any gratitude to pope Gregory II. for his interference, sent emissaries to arrest hirti, and he was only saved from prison by the prompt inter- ference of Luitprand. The Italians, provoked at Leo's, fierce zeal against images, began to revolt, and several cities voluntarily subniitteri to the Lombard monarch, who pr6tbnded to ah 'extravagant zeal for the 'Catholic faith. The pope, however, dreaded Luitprand, and sought a protection in Charles Martel agaiiist'the enipei'or cd" Byzantium, who was equally hostile to the 'Lombards and the pontiff. Italy was now- distracted by religious disputes arid political jfealousies, while the dOath of Luitprand, at this critical period (a. d. 743), afflicted the Lombards with a new series of revolutionary wars. After some minor changes, Astulphus was chosen king (a. p. 751) ; during his reign, thelsingdom of the Lombards touched the summit of its greatness; he subdued the exarchate Of Raventia, an3 changed it into a hew dukedom, and then led his forces against Rome, which, nominally subject to the emperor, was really governed by the pope. Alarmed at' the danger that threatetied him. Pope Stephen first applied for aid to the emperor, but finding that the Byzantine cburt cared little * Image-'btdaker's. PALL or THE WESTBB.N EMPIRE. 349 fo7 Italy, he appealed to ]?epin, the .first monarch of the parlovingian. dynasty ii^ France. Pepin immediately crossed the Alps with a pow- erful army, besieged Astulphus in Pavia, and forced him, to purchase peace by the cession not only of the places he had seized in the Ro- man dukedom, but also of the exarchate and the marches of Ancona, to the Holy feee. The Franks had to return a second time tocdmpel the fulfilment of these engagements ; Astulphus once more submitted, but secretly resolved td renew the war oij a favorable opportilnity ; be- fqre his preparations were comjpleted, l^oweTrer, he was killed by a fall from his, horse, and the Lombard kingdom distracted by a disputed suc- cession. By the aid of the pope, Desiderius prevailed in the contest ; but sub- sequently being exposed to the jealousy of the pontifical power, he tried to secure himself by giving his daughters in marriage to Charles and Carloman, the two sons of Pepin. This alliance was of no long duration ; Charles divorced hip wife under pretence of her barrenness ; and, Desiderius, in revenge, endeavored to persuside the pope to anoint Carloman's children monarchs of the Franks. Adri9,n I., who then filled the poiitifical chair, steadily refused ; Desiderius invaded his dominions, and the pojpe unable to make effective resistance, placed himself under the protection of Charles, or, as he is more generally called, Charlemagne. The king of the Franks ci:osse,d the Alps, and, after a brief war, put an end to the kingdom of the Lombards by the capture of Pavia (a. d. 774)! Desiderius and his family were sent into France, where, they died in obscurity ; Charlemagne, as conqueror, received the iron crown of Loml)ardy. Section VII. — The Anglo-Saxon^.. When Britain was deserted by the, Romans, the country remained exposed to the savage incursions of the Picts and Scots ; the inhabi- tants, unable to protect themselves, and refused aid' by the emperors, who. were oppressed by other barbarians, deserted their habitations, abandoaed their fields, and sought shelter in ' the hiJls and woods, where they suffered equally from famine and the 'enemy; When the retreat of the barbarians afforded thepi a ternpprary respite, they wasted their energies in theological controversies arising ■ out of' the Pelagian heresy ; and when the invasions were renewedj; domestic rancor prevented thpir' combining for th,eir common defence. Vorti- gern, prince of Dumnoniuin, advised his countrymen to seek foreign aid ; and they^ forgetting prudence in the extremity of their fe^s, invi- ted the Saxons to their aid from Germany. The ^axons and. Angles, from small beginnings, had, . g^aduajly extended their sway .froni th,e mputh of the Rhine to the coast, of 'Jut- land ; their piratical vessels scoured the seas, of western .Europe ; and the maritime cities of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, were frequently plun- dered by their corsairs, or forced to purchase safety by the payment of a large tribute. Among the chiefs of their warlike tribes, iioiie esnjoyed greater authority than the two brothers Hengist and Hprsa, who ckipied fo be descended from Woden, the tutelary god of the nation. To these leaders the appli:cati(in of Vortigem was niade ; they readily accepted his invitation, and, accompaivied by ajbout, sjxteep, hundred oftHeir 350 MODERN HISTORY. countrymen, landed in the isle of Thanet. The Picts and Scots were subdued with so much facility, that the adventurers bega,n to reflect hpw easily they might conquer a nation unable to resist such:feeble in vaders ; instead»of returning home, they invited over fresh hordes of their countrymen, and received from Germany a reinforcement of flv thousand men. .A long and cruel series of wars ensued, in which th« , Saxons and another barbarous tribe, the Angles, continually supportec by crowds of volunteers froni Germany, triumphed over the Britons ir almost every encounter, and finally ^'^P^® the miserable remnant of the nation to seek refuge in the mountains of Wales and Cornwall. The struggle lasted nearly one hundred and fifty years, and ended in the di- ' vision of southern Britain into seven Saxon kingdoms, commonly called the Heptarchy. The Christian religion was first established in the kingdom of Kent, the earliest and long the most powerful of the Saxon monarchies. Ethelbert, its sovereign, though a pagan, had married a Christian prin- cess, Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, one of the successors of Clovis, and had promised to allow her the free exercise of her religion. Ber- tha, by the exercise of her conduct, acquired considerable influence over the mind both of her husband' and his courtiers ; her popularity was probably one of the principal motives that induced Pope Gregory the Great to send missionaries into England.* Augustine, the chief of the mission, was honorably received at the court of Ethelbert (a. d. 597), and began to preach the gospel to the people of Kent. The rigid aus- terity of his manners, and the severe penanqes to which he subjected himself, wrought powerfully upon the minds of a barbarous people, and induced them readily to believe the pretended miracles he wrought for their conversion. Ethelbert and the great majority of his subjects were soon received, into the church, and Augustine was consecrated the first arclfbishpp of Canterbury. , t . , The petty wars between the princes of the Heptarchy are totally devoid of interest, and the history of the separate , kingdoms is , little more than a list of obscure names. An exception may be made in fa- vor of Ofia, king of Mercia, who zealously labored to extend the power of the Romish see in England, and founded the magnificent monastery of St. Albans. So considerable were his power. and fame, that the emperor Charlema,gne so,^ght his friendship apd , alliance ; Offa, at his desire, sent the celebrafe^ Alcuin to the pourt of Charlemagne, and this learned Saxon became , tlie, ^ipperor'S preceptor in the sciences. To AJciun, France was indebted for all the polite learning it boasted *.It is said that, this prelate, while yet in a private station, beheld some Saxon youths exposed for sale in the slave-market at Rome. Struck with their beauty, he inquired to what country they belonged, and being told that they were Angli, exclaimed "They would not be Mgli, but ^ngdi (angels), if they were Chris- tians." Continuing his questions, he asked the name of their province; he was told jpciri (a district of Northumberland). "Deirjil" he exclaimed, "Be ira (frdm the Wrath of GOd), they 'iire summoned to his mercy." He further asked the hamfe of their king, and 'hearing that it was Mlla, or Mlh, he joyously cried out, " Mlelujak I i -we must endeavor that the praises of God be sung in that coun- tryj" Moved'by,^hese; punning allusions, he designed to visit Britain hinjself as a missionary, bfit Jjeil^g . detained by the Roman people, he embraced the earliest opportunity of uitrustihg the task to' qualified legates. •' • '• •> -i>: J-ALL OP THE WESTERN EMPmE. 351 of in that and the following ages ; the universities of Paris, Tours, Fulden, Soissons, and many others, owe to him their origin and in- crease ; those of which he was not the superior and founder, being at least enlightened by his doctrine and example, and enriched by the benefits he procured them from Charlemagne. The kingdom of Mercia had nearly obtained the sovereignty of the heptarchy when Egbert ascended the throne of Wessex (a. r. 799), as the kingdom of the West Saxons was called. He broke down the Mercian power, aided not a little by the hatred with which the tyran- nical conduct of the Mercians had inspired the subject nations. His policy was as conspicuous as his valor, and both enabled him to unite the realm of Knglaind into an orderly monarchy, possessing tranquillity within itself, and secure from foreign invasion. This great event oc- curred (a. d. 827) nearly four hundred years after the first arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. ^P^ MODERN HISTOEY. CHAPTEI?,!!. THE. RISE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SARACENIC PQ WEB.. : , ', . Section I. — Political and Social Condition of the East at ffie coming of Mohammed. The reign of Justin II., the nephew and successor of Justinian, at Constantinople, was remarkable only for disgrace abroad and misery at home. At his death (a. d. 578), he bequeathed the empire to Tiberius, whose virtues amply justified his choice ; but the reign of Tiberius lasted only four years ; he was succeeded by Maurice, who inherited many of his predecessor's virtues as well as his crown. Soon after his accession, the attention of the emperor was directed to the unsettled state of Persia, which had been distracted by sanguinary civil wars since the death of the great Nushirvan. Hormdz, the son and succes- sor of that monarch, was deposed and slain ; Bahram, a brave general but a feeble statesman, usurped the throne, and Khosru or Chosroes, the legitimate heir, sought shelter in the Byzantine empire. Maurice lev- ied a powerful army to restore the royal exile, and intrusted its com- mand to Narses, a valiant general, who was himself of Persian de- scent. The expedition was crowned with success ; Bahram, driven beyond the Oxus, died by poison, and Khosru, grateful for his recovered throne, entered into close alliance with the emperor. Freed from all danger on the side of Persia, Maurice resolved to turn his arms against the Avars ; but the incapacity of his generals, and his own avarice, provoked the resentment of the soldiers ; they mutinied, and marched to Constantinople under the command of one of their centu- rions, named Phocas. Had the metropoUs continued faithful, this sedi- tion might have been easily quelled ; but the licentious populace, dis- gusted by the parsimony of their sovereign, assaulted him as he walked in a religious procession, and compelled him to seek safety in his palace. The unfortunate emperor was compelled to abdicate ; Phocas was tu- multuously invested with the purple, and welcomed into Constantinople by the acclamations of a thoughtless people. The tyrant commenced Ms reign by dragging Maurice from the sanctuary where he had sought refuge, murdering his five sons successively before his eyes, and then putting the deposed monarch to death by torture (a. d. 603). One of the royal nurses attempted to save the prince intrusted to her charge, by presenting her own child to the executioners in his stead ; but Maurice refused to sanction the deceit, and as each blow of the axe fell on the ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SARACENIC POWEE. 353 necks of his children, he exclaimed, with pious resignation, " Righteous art thou, O Lord, and just are thy judgments !" The usurpation of Phocas was basely sanctioned by Pope Gregory who received in return for his adulation the title of Universal Bishop. But the pontiiF's flatteries could not save the tyrant from the resentment of his subjects, who soon discovered their error in preferring such a miscreant to the virtuous Maurice. Heraclius, exarch of Africa, invited by the unanimous voice of the empire, sailed to Constantinople : scarcely had his fleet appeared in the Hellespont, when the citizens and imperial guards entered the palace, bound Phocas in chains, and sent him a helpless captive to his rival (a. d. 610). Heraclius reproached him with his manifold vices, to which the deposed tyrant simply replied, " Wilt thou govern better V These were the last words of Phocas : after suffiering much variety of insult and torture, he was beheaded, and fais mangled body thrown into the sea. But the death of Phocas did not deliver the empire from the calami- ties his crimes had produced ; Khosri Parviz had no sooner learned the sad fate of his benefactor Maurice, than he assembled the entire strength of Persia to avenge his murder. The unwise system of persecution which had been gradually established both by the Byzantine prelates and emperors, supplied the invader with allies in every province :. the Jews, the Nestorians, and the Jacobites, believed, with reason, that they would find the worshippers of fire more tolerant than the orthodox Christians ; and scarcely had the Persians crossed the Euphrates, when insurrections were raised in their favor throughout Syria. Khosrd, victorious in two decisive battles, was encouraged to undertake the hereditary enterprise of the Sassanid dynasty — the restoration of the Persian empire, as it existed in the age of Cyrus the Great. Herac- lius had scarcely ascended the throne, when he received intelligence of the fall of Antioch ; and this was soon followed by the account of the storming of Jerusalem, where the Jews, encouraged by the Per- sians, wreaked dreadful vengeance on the heads of their Christian per- secutors (a. d. 614). The fugitives from Palestine sought refuge in Egypt, where they were hospitably entertained by the archbishop of Alexandria. But Egypt itself, where the din of arms had not been heard since the reign of Dioclesian, was invaded, conquered, and for a time annexed to the Persian empire (a. d. 616). Asia Minor was sub- dued with equal facility ; in a single campaign, the armies of the Per- sians advanced from the banks of the Euphrates to the shores of the Thracian Bosphorus, and during ten years their hostile camp was in sight of the towers of Constantinople. While Khosrd was indulging in the pride that such brilliant conquests inspired, and da,zzling his subjects by the display of his magnificent plunder, he received an epistle from the almost unknown city of Mecca, written by an obscure individual, who yet claimed the king's obedience, and demanded to be recognised as the prophet of God. The grandson of Nushirvan was indignant at such a claim ; he tore the letter to pieces, and flung the fragments to the winds. When this was reported to the writer, Mohammed, then beginning for the first time to taste the sweets of gfetified ambition, and to find his prospects enlarging as he ascended the height of power, he exclaimed, " It is thus that God will 23 354 MODEHl? HISTORY. rend the kingdom of KkoMP^. !" a prophecy whicli, Jifeei many others, not a little accelerated its own accomplishment. WhiJe the Asiatic provinces were thus a prey tp . the Persians, Con- stantinople itself was so hardly pressed by the Avars, that Hemclius was on the point of abandoning the capital, and seeking refuge with his treaswes in Carthage. He wa^ with difficulty dissuaded from this dis- honorable measure by the esatreaties of the patriarch ; but his prospects appeared to, become da;rker every hour ; the Avstrs, by a treacherous agtack, hiad. nearly seized the capital, and the. ambassadors sent to sup,- plipajte pardqn and peace from Khosrti, were dismissed with contumely and scorn; the Perisian despot declaring that he would not grant peace until either iljeraclius: was brought bound in. chains to hia footstiao], or hsid abjured Christianity and embraced the Magian religion. .: For a,bput tw-eJife years HeracUus had patiently witnessed the calam^ ities of the empire without making a,ny effort to, proteet his subjects ; but this Icist insult roused his slurabgicing energies, sqoA he entered on a career a,s glorious as his fornier inactivity had been disgraeefuL He did not venture with his raw levies to attack the Persian camp at Chal- cedpn ; but he passed over to. the coast of Cilicia, a,nd fortified himself pn the ground where . Alexander had fought the bgtttje of Issus, not fai frorn the. mosbem town of Scanderoon, whose excellent harbor pffered a g^dstatipii for the, imperial fleet. A splendid victory oyer the Persian cavalry enabled hini to establish his winter-quarters in Caipp.adocia^ on the banks of the* Halys {Mizil IrmaX), and to mature his plans for one pf the boldest enterprises recorded in history-^the invasion of Persia through its northern provinces (a. d, 623). Early in the enduing, spring, Heraclius, with a chosen band of five thousand men, sailed from Con- stantinople to Trebizond, assembled his forces from the southern regions, and, joined by the Christians of Armenia, entered the province of Atuor p^tene {Azerbijan). Tajjris {Tabriz),, thg ancient and modem capital of the country, was take^i by storm, almost in sight of Khosru's army, while lie Persjan monarch had neither the courage to hazard a battis, nor the justice to conclude an equitable peace. Seyeral equally glorious campaigns foUOiWed ; the greater part of Persia was overrun by the jvictpripus ■ Byzantines ; they, defeated tie Asiatics wherever they en- (cpu^itered them,. and marched in one direction as far as the Caspian, in i^e. other to Ispahan, destroying in their progress all Khosrii's splendid palaces, plnndering his. hoarded treasures, and dispersing in every dL- atfiption the conatless, slave? of his ,pleasure. Khosiii made no effort to stop *ihe mighty wprik of ruin, and yet he rejected the terms of peace pffered him by the humanity of the conqueror. His subjects soon lost ail regard for a monarch whpm they deemed tjie sole cause of the des- o).q.tipn of .his. country: a conspiracy was formed against him; he was deposedj by his, eldest son Shiroueh, cast into a dungeon, aad put to 4e3th by, w unnatural prince, who pretisnded that he was compelled to ^g;p3,rricid6 by the clamors and importunities of the 'people and nobles ^ the empire. •jjijfter sis glpriovs, campaigns, Hiaraclius returned to Constantinople, bringing with him the wood of the " True Cross," whjcl^ Khosrii had taken at;J.^i»s?,lejn — a precious relic, whiqh was deemed jPiporie, splen- did- trophy pf his victpri^s than all his spoils and conquests. The ESTABLISHMENT OF.THESAEACENIC POWER. 355 kingdom af Persia, exhausted by the late Sjanguiimry contest, was left to perish under the accaniulated evils of a dreadful famine, the disputes of proud and luxurious nobles, a succession of weak sovereigns, or ra- ther pageants of power, and the, attack of a new and terrible enemy. The flame which Mohammed had kindled in Arabia already begaa to spread, and to threaten an equal fate to the degraded and decaying mon- archies of Byzantium and Persia. Victory itself was fatal to Heraclius ; the best and bravest of his sol- diers had perished in the sanguinary war, his treasury was empty, taxes were levied witk difficulty in the desolated provinces^ aad the eraperra: himself, as if exhausted by his great efforts, sunk into hopeless lethargy. While Heraclius was enjoying the empty honors of a trir- umph, the Saracens appeared on the confines of Syria : thenceforth the. empire sunk rapidly before their fanatic valor ; and in the last eight years of his xeign, the emperor lost to them all that he had rescued' from the the Persians. Section II. — State of Arabia at the coming of Mohammed.- The peninsula of Arabia is in shape a, large, and irregular triangle, between Persia, S3rria, Egypt, and Ethiopia ; its .extreme length is about fifteen hundred, miles, apd its mean breadth about seven hundred. Though it cont^joiiiS. sei^eral lofty ranges of mountains, the greater part of the country consists of level, sandy, and arid plains, which can supr port but few inhabitants. Water is difficult 'to be obtained; there ip scarcely any wood to shelter from the direct and intense rays of a tropical sun ; the winds, instead of being refreshing breezes, frequently come loaded with pestilential vapors, or raise eddying billows of sand that have overwhelmed, not only caravans, but entire armies. The high lands that border on the Indian ocean are distinguished by a superior abundance of wood and water, and hence this part of the peninsula haa • been called Happy Arabia : but the groves, even of this favored district,; are thinly scattered ; the streams, though pure, are small, and the coun-- try cojild only be deemed delightful by persons whose eyes were unac- customed, to vegetation, and who: had often felt the want of a coqling shade or a refreshing drink. The northern part of Arabia is occupied by ranges of naked, rocky mountains, from whicji it received the name of Arabig, Petraea, or the Stony ; but notwithstanding its ruggeid and desert aspect, it was in ancient tjmes the centre of a flourishing trade, being the great high road of trade between Egypt and southeastern Asia. The Arabs are an original and unmixed; race ; they boast, that their country has never been subdued, but the greater part of it has little that could tempt the cupidity of a conqueror. In the reign of Trajan, the Romans made Arabia Petraea a province ; Yemen, or Arabia Felix, has been frequeijitly subject to Persia, and. g-bqut;' the time of Mohammed's appearance, the southern part of the peninsula w^s ruled.by the NajasW' of Ethiopia. The Arab is not very robust, but he is active: and well made,, able, to endure great fatigue, and, .IJioth; from habit and education,: reckless of danger. In his mental constitution, he displays quickness rather than intelligence ; hi^ injggination is warm, but his judgment is 356 MODERN HISTORY not vigorous. In all his pleasures, dangers, and fatigues, he makes the horse and camel of his deserts associates rather than servants, and these animals appear to have obtained an actual superiority in Arabia, from being elevated into the companions of their masters. The horse of Arabia is equally remarkable for speed, temper, and power of en- durance ; and it is remarkable that the best breeds of this animal in Europe, Asia, and Africa, have been derived from an Arabian stock. The camel and dromedary of the desert are regarded by the Arab as scarcely inferior to his horse. This patient and powerful animal sup- plies him, with milk for his sustenance, transports his property and family from one quarter of the desert to another, and when occasion re- quires, enables him to pursue or fly from his enemy with almost in- credible speed. The ancient religion of the Arabs was the Sabean form of idolatry, which consisted in the worship of the sun, moon, and planets ; but long before the coming of Mohammed, they were distracted by a great va- riety of creeds ; some adhered to the faith of their ancestors, others embraced Judaism, and several tribes became Christians. Unfortunately Christianity, when introduced into the peninsula, had been deeply sul- lied by man's devices ; the different Christian tribes were imbued with a fierce sectarian spirit, and hated each other more bitterly than Jews or pagans. The vivid imaginations of the Arabs led them to in- vestigate questions beyond the powers of man's understanding ; and the consequence was so abundant a supply of new doctrines, that one of the early fathers described Arabia as the land most fruitful in heresies. The principal Arabian cities of ancient times were in Yemen ; but their fame was destined to be eclipsed by the glories of Mecca and Medina, both in the Hejaz, the two great sanctuaries of the national religion. Mecca was a place of considerable trade from the eariiest stages, being situated at the intersection of two important routes, that between S)Tia and Arabia Fehx, and that between Abyssinia or upper Egypt and southeastern Asia. Commerce flourished under the sanctu- ary of religion. The temple of Mecca was regarded as the national metropolis of the Arabic faith, before Judaism and Christianity appeared in the peninsula ; its custody raised the Koreishites to a rank above the other tribes, and the failure of the attempt made to storm it by the Ethiopians in the very year that Mohammed was bom, may be con- sidered the great check that impeded, or rather prevented, the further extension of Christianity in the country. Mecca is built in a winding valley at the foot of three barren mountains ; the soil is a rock, and the waters brackish. The pastures are remote from the city, and good fruits can not be procured at a nearer place than the gardens of Tayef, which are about seventy miles distant. The Arabs believe that Mecca was founded by Adam, and the tem- ple erected by Abraham. Its early prosperity they ascribe to Ishmael, who fixed his residence there, because, as their traditions assert, the brackish well Zemzem was that to which Hagar was directed by the angel. It must have been a very ancient city, if, as commentators sup- pose, it was the Mesha which Moses mentions as inhabited by the pos- .terity of Joktan.* • Genesis x. and xxxi. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SAHACENIC POWEE. 357 Medina, called Yatreb before the appearance of Mohammed, enjoys more natural advantages than Mecca ; but it is not so conveniently- situated for traffic. Its citizens appear to have been always jealous of the supremacy claimed by the Meccans, and this probably induced them to espouse the cause of Mohammed when he was banished by their rivals. Literature was zealously cultivated by the ancient Arabs ; they were enthusiastically attached to eloquence and poetry, for both of which, their rich harmonious language affords peculiar facilities. A meeting of the tribes was held annually, at which the poets recited their ct rapo- sitions, and those which were judged the best, were preserved in the public treasury. The most celebrated of these were seven poems called Moallakat, which were written on Egyptian silk in letters of gold, and suspended in the Kaaba, or temple of Mecca. Science was not similarly valued ; their history was merely genealogical tables ; their astronomy such a rude knowledge of the stars as served to mark the variation of the seasons ; and the mechanical arts were almost wholly neglected. They used to say that God had given them four peculiarities : turbans instead of diadems ; tents instead of houses ; swords instead of fortresses ; and poems instead of written laws. Section III. — Tke Preaching of Mohammed. Mohammed, the great legislator of the Arabians, and the founder of a religion which has long prevailed over the fairest portions of the globe, was born at Mecca. His father, Abdallah, was an idolater ; but his mother, Emina, was a Jewess, who had been converted to Christi- anity, and from her early instructions he probably derived the religious impressions for which he was distinguished even in boyhood. Both his parents died while he was yet a child, but their place was supplied by his uncles, Abd-al-Motalleb, and Abu-Taleb, the latter of whom be- came a tender parent to the orphan. At the age of thirteen he accom- panied Abu-Taleb on a mercantile journey into Syria, and soon after made his first campaign against some neighboring tribes of predatory Arabs. From this time Mohammed appears to have engaged actively in trade. He displayed so much talent, that a rich widow, named Kadijah, ap-i pointed him her chief pastor ; and after some years, was so pleased with his zeal and industry, that she gave him her hand in marriage, and made him master of her splendid fortune. After his marriage, Mohammed ranked among the first citizens of Mecca, and it must be added that he was not corrupted by good fortune. The earliest use he made of prosperity was to relieve his kind guardian and uncle Abu- Taleb, who had fallen into distress ; he placed Abu-Taleb above want, and undertook the education of a portion of his family. Little is known of Mohammed's history during the next fifteen years, but there is every reason to believe that this interval was spent in ma- turing his plans for the great revolution he contemplated. Every year he retired for a month to a cave in Mount Hira, near Mecca, where he spent his time in meditation and prayer. His travels as a merchant had made him acquainted with the principal forms of religion that then 358 MODEBN HISTORY. prevailed in the east. In Syria he met Christians of various sects, Jews, Magians, and Sabeeans ; Arabia presented to him countless va- rieties of idolatry ; exiiles from the Persian and Byzantine empires in- formed him of the dangerous doctrines preached by the Mani and Maz- dak. A singular dream led him to believe that he v^as chosen by the Deity to reconcile all these jarring creeds, and to unite mankind in the worship ©f the one tnie God. In the solitude of his cave he dreamed that the angel Gabriel appeared to him, and hailed him as a prophet. On his return he announced his mission to Kadijah, vifho at once rec- ognised his claims. Her example was followed by Ali, the son of Abu-Taleb, by Abu-Beker, Olhman, and a few friends accustomed to regEfrd the recluse of Hira with reverence. These converts were called Mmssulmans, that is, persons resigned to the divine will .; theii" faith was confimied by revelations which Moham- med^ pretended to receive from Gabriel; and which, as he did not then know how to read and write, or at Ibast but imperfectly, he communica- ted orally to his disciples. ■ These revelations were preserved by them in a volume, which they callfed the Koran, or book that ought to be read. The progress of the new religion was slow ; many of Mohammed's friends rejected his prophetic claims with somethiriig like horror, and three years elapsed before he ventured to announce his mission pub- licly. Having invited his friends and relatives to a splendid banquet, he declared to them that God had chosen him to preach the doctrine of the divine unity ; Ali, with the generous enthusiasm of youth, warinly offered to support the prophet's claims, but many of the other guests doubted or laughed theiri to scorn. Undismayed by the imperfect result of his first essay, Mohammed began to preach to the people of Mecca in the market-place. Converts were rriade glowly ; aiid the guardians of the city opposed doctrines ihat threatened to subvert the influence they derived from thte wOlrship of the Kaaba', Several of the Mussulmans, most remarkable for their zeal, were forced by persecution to abandon their homes, and seek refuge in Abyssinia ;' but the spirit of Mohammed quailed not; he re- fused to quit Mecca, and when asked to suspend his preaching for a season, he replied, " Were my enemies to place the sun on my right hand, and the moon on my left, they would not reduce me to silence." At one of the great annual fairs held in Mecca, Mohammed preached his mission to the merchants assembled from all parts of Arabia. Among his auditors were some citizens of Yaireb, or, a's it was after- ward called, Medina, whom peculiar circumstances rendered attentive to his claims. The Yatrebites had just conquered a Jewish 'tribe ; they heard their captives boast of their speedy liberation on the coming of the Messiah, and supposing that the new prophet might be the expected deliverer, they resolved to conciliate his favor. Mohiamined profited by their delusion ; and this appears to have been his first direct step in imposture, though in the- tangled web of human motives, it is hard to say where enthusiasm ends and fraud begins. Inspired by his success with the Yatrebites, and some other tribes in the interior of Airabia, Mohammed, who had hitherto preached patience and submission under persecution, directed his disciples to defend themselves when attacked, declaring that all who died in defence of ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SABACENIC POWER. 359 his person or his creed, would assuredly inherit Paradise. At the same time he averred that he had been taken up into heaven by Gabriel, and admitted to a personal interview with the Omnipotent. The Meccan chiefs, enraged at his hardihood, took measures for his destruction, and he could only save his life by a speedy retreat to Yatreb. This event, called Hejira (the flijght), occurred about the fiify-third year of the prophet's age (a. d. 622), and is the era used by all Maliommedan nations. Mohammed was received in triumpn at Yatreb ; he changed its name to Medinet al nabi (the city of the prophet), or Medina (the city), whicli it still retains. (Sonverts flocked to Medina, and were formed into war- like bands, which infested all the roads to Mecca, and took severe ven- geance for the insult offered to their master. The plunder was shared equally among the soldiers ; enthusiasm generally insured success ; and warriors from all parts of the peninsula were attracted by the hopes of wealth and glory. In one of the frequent encounter-s hetween the Meccans a;nd Mussulmans, near the well Bedr, Mohammed was on the point of being defeated, when he stooped down, took up a handful of dust and flung it toward the enemy, exclaiming : " May their faces be confoiinded !" this simple action revived the courage of his followers ; they gained a decisive victory, which he failed not to ascribe 'to a miraculous interposition. After this success Mohammed made a great change in the character of his religion ; hitherto he had preached patience and toleration ; he now began to inculcate the doctrine of propagating the true faith by the sword} and of executing divine vengeance on idolaters aitd unbelievers. " In the shade of the crossing cimeters," he declared, " Paradise is prefigured," and this sublime Orientalism , was long the favorite war-cry of his followers. The Jews became special objects of his hatred; he seems to have hoped that they wduld acknowledge him as their Mes- siah, but they wBre too well acquainted with their sacred Scriptures to beUeve that the liberator of Israel should be descended from the bond- woman. A severe defeat at Ohod increased rather than abated the pride and fanaticism of Mohammed ; he ascribed it to the fault of his companions in having granted quarter to their enemies on a former occasion, and thenceforward the war assumed a most murderous and sanguinary character. The Meccans sutfered much more severely than their adversaries ; depending for their prosperity, and almost for their existence, on commerce, they saw their trade almost annihilated, their caravans plundered, and their flocks swept away. They made one great effort tq remove their enemy, and besieged Mohaihnted in Medina, but were soon forced to retire with great loss. " Hitherto they have sought us," exclaimed the prophet, " it is now our turn to go in search of them." After this defeat, the Meccans seem to have lost all courage ; Mo- hammed ra,pidly became the most powerful prince in Arabia, his follow- ers received his words as the inspired oracles of God, nor were they undeceived by the gross licentiousness in which the pretended prophet indulged; At length, he marched against Mecca, but found the defiles which lead to the city too strongly garrisoned to allow of an attack with any prospect of success. Under thesei circumstances, he concluded a 360 MODERN mSTOET. truce, much against the will of his followers, by which a peaceful ad- mission into the city was secured to him in the ensuing year. Feeling that his power was now established, Mohammed sent ambassadors, in- viting the most powerful kings of the earth, especially the emperors of Persia and Constantinople, to become his disciples. Khosru Parviz, who then ruled in Iran, was indignant at receiving a letter, in which " a poor lizard-eater," as the Arab was then called by his haughty neighbors, dared to place his name before that of " the king of kings." He tore the paper to pieces, and dismissed the ambassador with insult ; when this was told to Mohammed, he exclaimed, "Thus God hath torn his kingdom." The Byzantine emperor, Heraclius, treated the message with respect, though he declined acceding to the invitation. During the year that preceded the pilgrimage to Mecca, Mohammed subdued several of the surrounding tribes that had hitherto spumed his power ;' but the seeds of mortal disease were sown in his constitution by a dose of poison, which a Jewess administered as a test of his prophetic pre- tensions. At length the day arrived which was to consummate the triumph of Islamism ; Mohammed made his public entry into Mecca with unparal- leled magnificence ; he did homage to the national faith by worshipping in the Kaaba ; and such was the effect produced by his presence, that many of his former enemies, and among others, the chief guardian of the idolatrous sanctuary, proclaimed themselves his disciples. Soon after this success he began his first foreign war. The ambassador he sent to the Byzantine governor of Bosrah, having been murdered at Muta, a little town south of the Dead sea, an army was sent under the command of Zeid, the freedman of the prophet, to avenge the insult. The Mussulman general, and the two officers that succeeded, were slain ; but the command devolving upon Khaled, the son of Walid, he obtained a decisive victory, and returned to Medina laden with booty. This success induced Mohammed to break his truce with the Meccans ; disregarding their remonstrances and offers of submission, he marched against the city ; an entrance was forced by the fiery Khaled, and the prophet with difiiculty prevented his followers from involving his fellow - citizens in one promiscuous massacre. The Kaaba became the prop- erty of the conqueror ; all traces of idolatry were removed from this national sanctuary ; the only emblem of former superstition permitted to remain, was the celebrated Black Stone, an aerolite which the Arabs had venerated from an unknown age, the reverence for which was too deeply graven in their hearts to be easily eradicated. ■ This success led to the subjugation of most of the northern Arabian tribes ; ambassa- dors flocked to congratulate the prophet from every side ; the lieuten- ant Khosru, at the western side of the Euphrates, became a Mussul- man ; the governor of the provinces that the Najashi of Abyssinia held in Arabia, followed the example ; and Mohammed might be regarded as the undisputed sovereign of the peninsula. His two great objects seemed thus to be effected ; Arabia was liberated from the yoke of foreign powers, and the Arabs began to regard themselves as one na- tion. A second expedition against the southern provinces of the By- zantine, or, as it was still called, the Roman empire, was crowned with success ; and so rapid had been the progress of Islamism, that when ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SAEACENIC POWEiE. 361 the prophet performed his last pilgrimage to Mecca, his followers amounted to nearly one hundred thousand warriors, independent of women, slaves, and other attendants. On his return to Medina, the poison which Mohammed had taken from a Jewess, who is said to have taken this means of testing his claim to the title of Messiah, began to show its effects. He was seized with mortal disease ; and, at his own request, was removed to the house of his favorite wife Ayesha, on whose prudence he depended for con- cealing any incautious avowal he might make under the pressure of sickness. On the 8th of June, 632, he died, declaring with his last breath that he was about " to take his place with his fellow-citizen on high,'" meaning the angel Gabriel. He made no will, he appointed no successor, owing to the contrivance of Ayesha, who feared that Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet, would be nominated the heir of his power ; and that she would thus be inferior to her beautiful step- ■daughter, Fatima, the wife of Ali. Section IV. — Early Progress of the Saracens, The fabric of Islamism was shaken to its very foundation after Mo- hammed's death, by the disputes that arose respecting the choice of a successor. Ali had the best hereditary claims, but his literary tastes, and ascetic manners, rendered him unpopular with the fierce soldiery ; and he had a powerful enemy in Ayesha, whom he had once charged with infidelity. After three days of fierce dispute, the controversy was decided by Omar's proffering the oath of fidelity to Abii Bekr, the father of Ayesha, and one of Mohammed's most faithful followers. Abu Bekr assumed the title of Khaliph, or vicar, which thenceforth became the designation of the Saracenic emperors. Having superin- tended the sepulture of his illustrious predecessor at Medina, the kha- liph sent an army against Mosseilama, an impostor, who, following the example of Mohammed, attempted to found a new religion. Mosseilama and his followers were exterminated by the gallant Khaled, surnamed from his fiery valor "the sword of God," and Islamism was thencefor- ward established in Arabia. Perceiving that it was necessary to find employment for the ener- getic spirits by which he was surrounded, Abii Bekr prepared to invade the Byzantine and Persian empires, both of which had fallen into a state of deplorable weakness. Os^ma, the son of Zeid, ravaged Syria, while the province of Irak, the ancient Babylonia, was subdued by Khaled. The conquest of Syria was a more important enterprise ; cir- culars announcing the undertaking, were sent to the principal Arabian tribes ; and the army which assembled on the occasion was the most numerous that had yet been raised by the Saracens. The emperor Heraclius, alarmed at the approach of such formidable forces, sent a large detachment to meet the enemy on the frontiers, which was defeat- ed with great slaughter. But the imperialists were more successful at Gaza, where they gained a victory over a Moslem division, commanded by Abu Obeidah. The Khaliph invested Amrd with the supreme com- mand of the expedition, but intrusted Obeidah's division to Khaled. 363 ,,; , MODEEN HISTOaY. The latter made himself master of the city of Bosra, aad after gaining several other advantages over the Romans, laid siege to Damascus. Jerusalem was regarded with as much veneration by the Mussulmans as by the Jews or ChristjMs, and Abli Bekr felt that the capture of so holy a city would give immense strength to the cause of Islam. In his celebrated directions to his generals he displays great knowledge of the country as well as much political wisdom. But these directions are still more remarkable fot their almost verbal coincidence with a passage in the Book of Revelations (chap, ix., verse 4), wMeh most commentators have regarded as A prophetic description of the Saracens. A reference to the passage will enable the reader to see the striking similarity between the language of the apostle and of the khaliphi When the army was assembled, Abu Bekr addressed the chief com- mander in the following terms : " Take care, Yezid-Abn-Abu Sofianj to treat your men with tenderness and lenity. Consult witi your oASt cers on all pressing occasions, and encourage them to face the enemy with bravery and resolution. If you conquer, spare the aged, the in- firm, the women, and the children. Cut down no palm-trees, destroy not the fields of corn. Spare all fruit-trees, slay no cattle but such as are absolutely necessary for food. Always preserve your engagements inviolate; spare the religious persons who dwell in monasteriesj and injure not the places in which they worship God.. As foT those mem- bers of the synagogue of Satan, who shave their crownsj cleave their sculls, unless they embrace. I slamism, or pay tribute." But Jerusalem was not the only city to which sanctity was astribed in the Mussulman traditions ; it was reported that Mohammed, after viewing the lovely and fertile plains in which Damascus stands, from one of the neighboring heights, proclaimed it to be the earthly paradise designed to be the inheritance of true believers. The fiery Khaled re- cited this tradition to his enthusiastic followers as he led them before the walls, and thus excited their ardor for the siege to a fury that bor- dered on insanity. Heraclius sent an array of 100,000 men to relieve the capital of Syria^ but the imperialists were thrice routed ; and in the last of these battles more than half their number fell in the field. This calamity led to the fall of Damascus, one Side of which was stormed by Khaled, just as the other capitulated to Abu Obeidah. A warm dispute a,rose between th« generals as to the claims of the citizens to the benefit of the capitula- tion ; but mercy finally prevailed, and the lives of the Damascenes were spared. Abii Bekr died on the very day that Damascus was taken (a. d. 634) ; his memoiy was justly venerated, not only because he poiilted the Saracens the way to conquest beyond Arabia, but because he gave their rehgion its permanent form, by collecting the scattered passages of the Koran, and arranging them in the order which they hold to the present day. His character was remarkable for generosity and moderation ; he did not reserve for himself any portion of the vast wealth acquired by his vietorious armies, but distributed his share to his soldiers and to the poor. . He was always easy of access ; no petitioner for mercy or claim- ant of justice went unheard from his presence ; both by precept and example he labored to maintain the republican simplicity so remarkable ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SARACENIC POWER. 363 iffi the early Mstorjr of the Saraceiis ; and' though' the partisans of Ali regard him as a usurper, 'th^yi still reverence his rafemory on account of his moderatibn and his virtue. Omar was chosen second khaliph by the unanimous conseni of the army. Soon after his accession he received the intelligence of the cap- ture of Damascus ; but instead of evincing his gratitude, he yielded to the suggestions of petty jealousy, and transferred the commalid of the army from Khaled to Abu Obeidah. The conquest of Syria was fol- lowed by the subjugation of Persia. Yezdijird, the last monarch of the Sassanid- dynasty, sent a large army to recover lr4k, under the command of Ferokshadj a general of high reputation. Saad-ebn-Wakass, the leader of the Saracens, relying upon the impetuous courage of his sol- diers, eagerly sought a general action ; and Ferokshad, after many vain efforts to protract the war, was forced to a decisive engagement in the plains of Kadseah, or Kadesia. The battle lasted several days, and ended in the almost total annihilation of the Persian army, while the loss of the Ai'abs did not exceed three thousand men. The celebrated standard of Persia, originally the apron of the patriotic blacksmith Gravah, but which had been enlarged, by successive monarchs, to the length of twenty-two feet and the breadth of fifteen, enriched with jew- els of the highest value, fell into the hands of the conquerors and was broken up fox distribution. Nor was this the only rich booty obtained by the " soils of the desert," who were yet ignorant of its value. " I will give any quantity of this yellow metal for a little white," was an ex- clamation made, after the battle was over, by an Arabian soldier, who desired to i exchange gold, which he had never before seen, for silver, whlchhe had learned to appreciate (a. d. 638). Yezdijird assembled a new army in the northern and eastern provin- ces, frhile the khaliph reinforced the invaders with fresh bodies of en- thusiasts,. The battle which decided the fate of Persia was fought at Navahend (a. d. 641). Noman, the leader of the Saracens, attacked the Persians in their intrenchments ; nothing could resist the fury of the onslaught ; the Persian lines were completely broken ; it was a carnage rather than a battle. For ten years Yezdijird, " a hunted wanderer on the wild," protracted a faint but unyielding resistance ; he was at length slain by a miller with whom he had sought refuge (a. d. 651). Thus ended the dynasty of Sassan, which ruled Persia for four hundred and fifty years, and the memory of which is still cherished by a nation, whose ancient glory is associated with the fatfle of Ardeshir, Shah-pur, and Nushirvan. Nor were the Saracens less successful in Syria ; Abu Obeidah's caution tempered the fiery zeal of Khaled, and rendered victory more secure, though less rapid. City after city yielded to the Moslems, and the army which Heraclius sent to the defence, of his unfortunate sub- jects was irretrievably ruined in the battle of Yermuk. Inspired by this victory, Abu Obeidah laid seige to Jerusalem, and in four months reduced the garrison to such distress, that a surrender was unavoidable. The Khaliph Omar came in person to receive the submission of the holy city. His equipage was a singular characteristic of the simplicity that still prevailed among the Saracens. He rode upon a red camel; with a sack of com and water-bag slung from the saddle, to supply his 364 MODERN HISTORY. wants during the journey. A wooden platter was the only utensil he brought with him ; his dress was of camel's hair, coarse and torn ; a single slave constituted his attendance and escort. In this guise he reached the Moslem camp, where he recited the public prayers, and preached a sermon to his troops. He then signed the capitulation, se- curing to the Christians of Jerusalem protection in person, property, and religious worship, on the payment of a moderate tribute, and entered the city in triumph (a. d. 637). In his triumphal entry the khaliph marched at the head of his troops, in familiar conversation with So- phronius, the Christian patriarch of Jerusalem, whom he hoped to protect from the fanaticism of his followers by this exhibition of confidence. Nor was this the only proof of good faith displayed by Omar ; he re- fused to pray in any of the Christian churches, lest the Mussulmans should take advantage of his example and convert it into a mosque. He chose the ground on which the temple of Solomon anciently stood for the foundation of the mosque which bears his name ; and as it was covered with filth of every kind, he set the example of clearing the spot, to his soldiers, by removing some of the rubbish in his robe. Aleppo, the ancient Beroea, was the next city besieged by the Sara- cens ; it was valiantly defended for four months, but was finally taken by assault, and its governor, Gukinna, with several of his principal offi- cers, embraced the Mohammedan faith. Antioch and Caesarea were taken with less difiiculty ; the emperor Heraclius fled from the province, and his son, after a few unsuccessful efforts, followed him to Constanti- nople. In six years from their first appearance in Syria, the Saracens completed the conquest of that province, and of Palestine, and secured their acquisitions by occupying the mountain-fortresses on the borders of Cilicia. Egypt was next attacked by Amru, and subdued without much difficulty. Alexandria alone made a vigorous defence ; but it was finally taken by storm, and its valuable library consigned to the flames, through the fanaticism of Omar, who was ignorant of literature and science. In the midst of these triumphs the Khaliph Omar was assassinated by a slave (a. d. 643). During his reign of ten years and a half, the Saracens could boast that they had subdued Syria, Chaldeea, Persia, and Egypt ; taken thirty-six thousand cities, towns, and castles ; destroyed four thousand Christian churches, fire and idol temples, and built, fourteen hundred mosques. Omar's memory is held in the highest veneration by the Soonnees, and is eqally execrated by the Sheeahs. His severity and simplicity, which bordered on barbarism, are strikingly contrasted with the luxury and magnificence of his successors. He had no state or pomp, he lived in a mean house ; his mornings were spent in preaching or pray- ing at the mosque, and during the rest of the day he was to be found in the public market-place, where, clothed in a tattered robe, he adminis- tered justice to all comers, directed the afiairs of his increasing empire, and received ambassadors from the most powerful princes of the east. To him the Arabs are indebted for the era of the Hejira ; before his reign they counted their years from such epochs as wars, famines, plagues, remarkable tenjpests, or harvests of unusual plenty. He was the first to establish a police in Medina and the other great cities of the empire. Before his reign; the Arabs, accustomed to lawless independence, would ESTABLISHMENT OP THE SAEACENIC POWEE. 365 admit of no restraint, and the immense conquests of the Saracens had caused such a concourse of strangers in the seats of government, tliat cities became nearly as insecure places of residence as the open coun- try. Omar also established a regular system of pay for soldiers in the field, and he also instituted pensions for the wounded and disabled sol- diers ; indeed the old companions of Mohammed, those who had borne the dangers and difficulties that beset the prophet in the earlier part of his career, having been rendered incapable of acquiring fresh plunder by wounds and age, would have perished miserably but for the provis- ion which Omar made for their support in their declining years. Omar, by his will, appointed six commissioners to elect a new kha- liph, and their choice fell on Othman-ebn-AfTan, whose pliancy of dis- position appears to have been his chief recommendation. The change of their sovereign did not abate the rage for conquest among the Sara- cens. They ceased to limit their exertions to land ; a fleet fitted out by Moawiyah, the governor of Syria, subdued the island of Cyprus (a. d. 647), while the Syrian and Egyptian armies penetrated into Armenia and Nubia. The island of Rhodes was a still more important acquisi- tion : it yielded to Moawiyah almost without a struggle ; its celebrated Colossus was broken to pieces and sold to a Jew, who loaded nine hundred camels with the metal that it contained. Othman's weakness soon rendered him odious to his warlike subjects. The Egyptian army revolted, and marched to besiege him in Medina ; their discontents were appeased for a time by the exertions of Ali, but the insurgents having reason to suspect that the khaliph meditated vengeance, retraced their steps, and murdered him in his palace (a. d. 656). The Koran, stained with the blood of Othman, is said to be still preserved at Da- mascus. Iriimediately after the murder of Othman, Ali, the cousin and son-in- law of the prophet, was proclaimed khaliph. His accession was the signal for disorders, which threatened the speedy ruin of the Saracenic empire. His old enemy Ayesha, the widow of Mohammed, excited a revolt in Arabia, afiiecting to avenge the murder of Othman, though she had more than consented to his death ; Moawiyah headed a revolt in Syria ; and the turbulent army of Egypt set their sovereign's authority at defiance. The first combat was against the partisans of Ayesha, who were routed with great slaughter, and she herself made prisoner. Ali not only spared the life of this turbulent woman, but assigned her a large pension. Moawiyah was a far more dangerous enemy. By his affected zeal for religion, he had won the friendship of many of the companions of the prophet, while his descent from the ancient chiefs of Mecca pro- cured the support of many who had yielded reluctantly to the sway of Mohammed. The rival armies met in the plains of Safl^ein, on the west- em bank of the Euphrates, and more than ninety days were spent in undecisive skirmishes. At length Moawiyah, finding his forces rapidly diminishing, adopted the following singular expedient, on the recommen- dation of Amrd ; he ordered a copy of the Koran to be fixed on the top of a pike, and directed a herald to proclaim, in the presence of both armies, that he was willing to decide all differences by this sacred code. All's soldiers forced hira to consent to a truce ; two commissioners were 36S . . MODERN HISTORY chosen to regulate the articles of peace ; and Amni, who appeared on the part of Mo^wiyah, contrived to have his friend proclaimed khaliph. The virar was renewed, but no decisive battle was fought. At length some enthusiasts met accidentally at Mecca and began to discuss the calamities tha|t threatened the ruin of Islamism. On© of them remarked th,at no one of the claimants of the throne deserved to reign, since they had jointly and severally inflicted great sufferings on the faithful, and brought rehgion into jeopardy. Three of them then agreed to devote themselves for the public good, and on the same day to assassinate Am- ru, Moawiyah, and AH. The two former escaped ; Ali became a vic- tim (a. d. 661), and Moawiyah, without much resistance, became chief of the Saracenic empire, and founded the Ommiade dynasty of khaliphs. There is a tradition that Mohammed, a little before his last illness, declared, " .rfh© khaliphate will not last more than thirty years after my death ;" if this predictioiti was not devised after the event, it was singu- larly fulfilled, by the murder of his nephew and son-in-law. All's mem- ory is ju^i;^y; venerated by the Mussulmans; he was inferior in states- iliaiiship.to his, predecessors, but he was certainly the most amiable of the khaliphs. His mildness, placidity, and yielding disposition,; which rendered him so beloved in private life, were however fatal to him in an age of distraction and civil warfare. His family continued to be revered long after his death ; but their popularity excited the jealousy of suc- ceeding khaliphs, and most of them perished by open violence or secret assassination. The maatyidom of Hassan and Hossein, the sons of AH, is yearly celebrated by the Sheeahs of India and Persia with great solemnity ; and on these occasions the affecting incidents of &ese events are so vividly represented, .that tsaveliers would suppose the bursts of grief they witness, to be caused by some recent and over- whelming calamity. During these commotions the career of Saracenic conquest had been suspended ; but under the Ommiade dynasty the military spiirit of the Arabs was restored to its former strength. Egypt furnished aa excel- lent key to southern E,urope and western Africa. Thrice the Saracens wene comjieUed to abandon their enterprise against the countries west ofj ^gypi ; but at length djeir perseverance was crowned with success, ai^d the creed of Mohammed was extended through northern Africa to thjS ,sh,or«s of the Atlantic. Count Julian, a Gothic noble,, itritatlad by the treatment he had re- ceived from his sovereign, Roderic, invited the Saracens into Spain (a, D.,71;0). A nimierous army of adventurers crossed the straits, and, ?jded by t^e resentment pjf the persecuted Jews, subdued the entire p^ainsHlai with the- exception af a small district in the Asturian mount- Wi^, Notf content with this success, the Saracens crossed the Eyre- Hee?, afld, advanced through France to the Loire :. ,they;even meditated ^, pJ3Jjr|Qif conquest, whipfi would have subjected all Christendom to their ypl}« ; : tjiey; proposed to conquer, France, Italy, and Germany, and then dp^^wdwg the Danube to exterminate, the Gareek empire, whose capital tJ3ii?y>,))^d, ?ti;eE||dyii1iwipe. a,ssailed. .The valor of Charles. Maitel, who completely i^foi^tedi (the Saracens in a memorable baittlej that lasted sev,em(3flySs.(i4(, b., 732), rescued Europe from the Mohamhiedian yoke. I^is,..g);q^Qft,.Chwleinagne,, drove the Saracens back, toitihe Ebro ; and ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SARCENIC POWER. 367 though they aubsequently recovered their Spanish provinces, they were forced to respect the Pyrenees as the bulwark of Christendom. The revolution which transferred the khaliphate from the descendants of Moa,wiyah to the posterity of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, led to the dismemberment of the empire. Mohammed, the grandson of Abbas, had long beea engaged in forming a party to support the rights of his house, and from his obscure residence in Syria, sent emissaries into, the remotest parts of the empire, to secure partisans for an approaching struggle. On the death of Mohammed, his son, Ibrahim, succeeded to his influence and his claims ; he sent Abu Moslem as the representative of his party into Khorassan, and there that intrepid warrior for the first time raised the black standard of the house of Abbas. From this time the parties that rent the Saracenic empire were distinguished by the colors chosen as their cognizance ; black was the ominous badge of the Abbassides, white of the Ommiades, and green of the Fatimites, who claimed to be descended from Mohammed, through Fatima, the daughter of the prophet and the wife of Ali. Abdl Abbas, surnamed Al SafFah, or the Sanguinary, overthrew the last of the Ommiade line near the river Jab, and not only put him to death, but massacred all the princes of his family whom he could seize, broke open the sepulchres of all the khaliphs from Moawiyah downward, burned their mouldering contents, and scattered the ashes to the winds. Ninety members of the Ommiade family were living at Damascus after their submission, under what they believed the safe protection of Abdallah-Ebn-Ali, the uncle of the khaliph. One day, when they were all assembled at a feast to which they had been invited by the governor, a poet, according to a preconcerted arrangement, presented himself be- fore Abdallah and recited some verses enumerating the crimes of the house of Moawiyah, calling for vengeance on their devoted heads, and pointing out the dangers to which their existence exposed the house of Abbas. " God has cast them down," he exclaimed ; " why dost not thou trample upon them V This abominable exhortation fell upon willing ears ; Abdallah gave the signal to the executioners whom he had already prepared, and ordered the ninety guests to be beaten to death with clubs in his pres- ence. When the last had fainted under the hands of the executioner, he ordered the bodies of the dead and dying to be piled together, and carpets to be thrown over the ghastly heap. He then, with the rest of his guests, ascended this horrible platform, and there they revelled in a gorgeous banquet, careless of the groans and agony below ! Abd-er-rahman, the youngest son of the late khaliph, alone escaped from this indiscriminate massacre. After a series of almost incredible adventures, he reached Spain, where the Saracens, fondly attached to the memory of Moawiyah, chose him for their sovereign, and he thus became the founder of the second dynasty of the Ommiade khaliphs. This example of separation was followed by the Edrissites of Mauri- tania, and the Fatimites and Aglabites of eastern Africa. Bagdad, founded by Almansiir, became the capital of the Abbasside dynasty. The khaliphs of this line were generous patrons of science, literature, and the arts, especially Harun-al-Rashid, the hero of the Arabian Nights, and his son Al Maraun. The love of learning spread from Bag- 368 ' MODERN HISTORY. dad into the other Saracenic countries ; the Ommiade khaliphs founded several universities in Spain, the Fatimites established schools in Egypt, and the Mahommedan nations were distinguished for their attainments in physical science, while Europe remained sunk in barbarism. The Saracenic empire gradually passed from splendor into weakness ; the Turkish mercenaries employed by the later khaliphs became the mas- ters of their sovereign ; and the dignity, after being long an empty title, was finally abolished (a. d. 1258). RESTOEATION OiP THE WESTERN BMPIEE. 369 CHAPTER in. RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. Section I. — The Life of Charlemagne. When the last of tlie feiej)le descendants of Clevis was dethroned by Pepin, France, by being brought into close connexion with the See of Rome, became the most prominent state in Europe, and the foundation was laid for the system of polipy which has since prevailed in Europe, by the union of the highest ecclesiastical authority with the most exten- sive civil power. Many circumstances had previously conspired to ^ve the papes, as the bishops of Rome were called from an unknown period, great and commanding authority over the Christian nations of the West. Among the most influential, was the extravagant claim to the ancient sway- of the Caesars, gravely urged by the Byzantine empe- rors, when they had neither means nor ability to support their preten- sions. Wearied by the pride and cruelty of the Greeks, the ItaUans supported the papal power as a counterpoise to the imperial, and were eager to have the bishop of Rome recognised as head of the Christian church, to prevent the title from being usurped by the patriarch of Con- stantinople. The recognition of Pepin's elevation to the throne of France was something more than a mere form : it was a ratification of his cUims by the only authority that was respected by the nations of western Europe. In return, Pepin gave military aid to the popes, in their wars with the Lombards, and openly proclaimed himself the champion of the church. The French king intrusted the command of the armies he employed in Italy to his youthful son, Karl, better known by his French name, Charlemagne. The prince, thus early brought into public life, displayed more than ordinary abilities, both as a general and a statesman ; he acted a distinguished part in the subjugation of Aquitaine, and deservedly obtained the fame of adding that fine province to the dominions of the Franks. Pepin did not long survive this acquisition ; pursuing the pernicious policy which had already proved so destructive to the preceding dynas- ty, he divided his dominions between his sons Charles and Carloman. Their mutual jealousies would have exploded in civil war, but for the judicious interference of their mother Bertha. At length Carloman died suddenly j his wife and children fled to the Lombards, his subjects, with one accord, resolved to have Charlemagne for their sovereign, and thus the French monarchy was again reunited under a single head. The protection granted to the family of Carloman was not the only ground of hostility between Charlemagne and the Lombard king Desid- prius ; Charlemagne had married, and afterward repudiated, that mon- 24 370 MODERN HISTOBY. arch's daughter ; Desiderius menaced war, but had not the means of executing his threats ; Charlemagne was prevented from crossing the Alps, by the appearance of a more formidable enemy on his eastern frontiers. The Saxons, and other Germanic tribes, were still sunk in idolatry : they frequently devastated the frontier provinces of the Christian Franks, and showed particular animosity to the churches and ministers of re- ligion. A missionary, St. Libuinus, had vainly endeavored to convert the Saxons by denouncing the vengeance of Heaven against their idol- atry ; irritated by his reproaches, they expelled him from their country, burned the church erected at Daventer, and slew the Christians. The general convocation of the Franks, called from the time of meeting the Champ de Mai, was at the time assembled at Worms under the presi- dency of Charles ; its members regarded the massacre at Daventer as a just provocation, and war was declared against the Saxons. As the assembly of the Champ de Mai was at once a convention of the estates and a review of the military power of the Franks, an army was in im- mediate readiness : Charlemagne crossed the Rhine, captured their principal fortresses, destroyed their national idol, and compelled them to give hostages for their future good conduct. He had scarcely re- turned home, when he was summoned into Italy, to rescue the pope from the wrath of Desiderius, who, enraged at the pontiff's refusal to recognise the claims of the sons of Carloman, had actually laid siege to Rome. Like Hannibal in ancient, and Napoleon in modem times, Charlemagne forced a passage over the Alps, and was actually de- scending from the mountains before the Lombards knew of his having commenced his march. Desiderius, after vainly attempting to check the Franks in the defiles, abandoned the field, and shut himself up in Pavia. The cily was taken after a year's siege : during the interval, Charlemagne visited Rome, and was received with great enthusiasm by the pope and the citizens. Soon after his return to his camp Pavia surrendered, Desiderius and his queen were confined in separate mon- asteries, and the iron crown, usually worn by the kings of Lombardy, was placed upon the head of the French monarch. The Saxons and Lombards made several vigorous efforts to shake off the yoke, but their insurrections were easily suppressed ; while, how- ever, alarming discontents prevailed in both nations, Charlema^e was involved in a new and perilous war. A Saracenic prince sought refuge in the French court, and persuaded the monarch to lead an army over the Pyrenees. The frontier provinces were easily subdued, owing to the disputes that divided the Mohammedans in Spain. Charlemagne gained a decisive victory over the Saracens at Saragossa, but before he could complete his conquest, he was recalled home by a new and more dangerous revolt of the Saxons. The rear-guard of the French, com- manded by the gallant Roland, was treacherously assailed on its return, by the Gascons, in the defiles of Roncesvalles, and almost wholly de=^ Stroyed. The celebrated valley of Roncesvalles is the line of commu- nication between France and Navarre ; the road through it is rugged and tortuous, with narrow gorges between steep mountains. While the Franks were toiling through these defiles, the Gascons and Navarrese formed ambuscades on the summits of the mountains, concealed by the UESTOEATION 01" THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 371 thick forests with which they abound. After the greater part of the army had passed, the mountaineers suddenly rushed down the steeps, fell upon the rear-guard, and the divisions intrusted with the charge of the baggage. The Fpranks were surprised but not disheartened; they made a desperate resistance, and vainly tried to cut their way to the main body ; but the assailants had the advantage of a light equipment and a favorable position ; the whole of the rear-guard was cut off, and the baggage plundered before Charlemagne knew that they were en- dangered ; and the mountaineers disappeared so rapidly with their booty that all pursuit was unavailing. Such was the battle of Ronces- valles, which has been strangely exaggerated and misrepresented by writers of romance. But though the legendary account of Roncesvalles contains a very small portion of truth, it is not devoid of historical importance, because there never was a history which possessed wider influence than this ro- mantic tale. It was by singing the song of Roland that the Normans were encouraged at the battle of Hastings, and the French inspired to their most glorious deeds. We must therefore give an abstract of the ancient tradition. According to the legend, Charlemagne, in a war which lasted more than seven years, had nearly completed the conquest of Spain. The Moorish monarch, whom the romancers are pleased to designate Mar- siles, in dread of total ruin held a council of his principal emirs and nobles, who unanimously recommended him to conciliate Charles by immediate submission. A Saracen ambassador, with the usual incon- sistency of romance, is said to have been pitched close to the Spanish marches, and he addressed the monarch in the following words : " God protect you ! Behold here are presents which my master sends' ; and he engages if you withdraw from Spain to come and do you homage at Aix-la-Chapelle." Charlemagne summoned his twelve paladins to council, to deliberate on this offer. Roland strenuously opposed entering into any terms with an infidel, and declared that it was their duty to rescue Spain from the dominion of the crescent, and place it under the banner of the cross. Two of the paladins, however, Ganelon and the duke Naimes, main- tained that it was contrary to the rules of chivalry to refuse grace to a conquered enemy. Charlemagne, who in the romances is represented as a perfect model of knightly courtesy, yielded to the arguments of the friends of peace, and inquired which of his peers would undertake to return with the ambassador, and bear back a suitable reply to the king Marsiles. Ganelon proffered his services, but Roland contemptuously declared him unfit for such a duty, and offered himself in his stead. A warm debate arose in the council ; Ganelon, irritated by the scorn w;ith which Roland treated his pretensions, and indignant at some im- putations on his fidelity and courage, said angrily to his rival, " Take care that some mischief does not overtake you." Roland, among whose virtuous qualities moderation can not be entimerated, replied, " Go to, you speak like a fool ! We want men of sense to carry our messages ; if the emperor pleases, I will go in your place." In great irritation Ganelon replied, " Charles is commander here ; I submit myself to his wUl." At these words Roland burst into an immoderate fit of laughter ; 372 MODEEN HISTOHy. but tiijs act of discourtesy so ofiende'd the rest of the paladiiTB, tliat ■with one voice they recommended Gaaelon as the most suit ible ambas- sador to be sent to Marsiles. The iSaracenic arnbassador had received private iaformation of the angry discussion -which had taken pliace in the imperial council. A» he returned to his court, he took every opportunity of remiTiding Gane- lon of the insult he had received, and though he did not immediately suc- ceed, he. certainly weakened the paladin's loyailiy, and led him secretly to deliberate on the (possibility of obtaining revenge by means of trea- son. At his first interview with Marsiles, he maintained the pride and dignity, of a French chevalier. "Charles is now old," said the Moorish monarch, " he must be close upon a hundred years of age ; does he not think of, taking some repose 1" Ganelon firmly replied, " No ! no ! Charles is ever powerful ; so long as he has round him the twelve peers of France, ibut particularly Oliver and Roland, Charles need not fear a living man." Subsequent conversations, however, enabled the Moorish monarch to work upon Ganelon's cupidity, and his jeailousy of Roland, so effectually, that he agreed to supply him with such information as would enable him to cut off the rear of the Christian army, when it re- turned to Roncesvalles, according to the terms of the treaty. Ganelon rptumed to the Christian camp, and informed the emperor that Marsiles had consented to become his vassal, and pay him tribute. Charles immediately gave orders that this army should return to France ; he took the command of the van in person ; the rear-guard intrusted with the care of the baggage and plirader, followed at a little distance through the passes of Roncesvalte. In the meantime Marsiles had collected an immense army, consisting not merely of his own subjects, but of numerous auxiliaries from Bar- hary, Morocco, and the wild tribes in the interior of Africa. According to the instructions of Ganelon, he sent large detachments of his men to occupy the woods and mountains which overhung "the gloomy Ronces- yall^s' strait." , When the Christians were involved in the pass, they were soddenly attacked, at the same moment, in front, flank, and rear. Oliver clam- bered up a tree in order to discover the num]3er of the enemy. Per- ceiving that their hosts were vastly superior to the French, he called out to Roland, " Brother in arms ! the pagans are very numerous, and we Christians are few ; if you sounded your horn the emperor Charles would bring us succor." Roland replied, " God forbid that my lineage should be -dishonored by such a deed ! I will strike with my good sword Durandel ; and the, pagans falling beneath my blows, will discover that they have been led hither by their evil fate." " Sound your hbrn^ companion ia arms !" reiterated Oliver ; " the enemies hem us in on every side." " No !" repeated Roland, our Franks are gallant warriors ; they will strike heavy blows, and out through the host of the foul pay- aim." He. then prepared. iiis troops for action. Archbishop Turpin, perceiving that the' fight would be desperate and bloody, commanded all the soldiers to J4neel,and join in 3, general confiesaion of faith, after which he. rbestowed upon them absolution, a»d his episcopal benedic- tion. The Christians made a gallaiit defence; but numbers finally tri- BESTORATION OF THB WESTERN EMPIRE. S73 umphed over valor. ■' Down went many a noble crest ; cloven was many' a plumed helmet. The lances were shivered in the grasp of Christendom's knights, and the swords dropped from their wearied arms." Turpin, Oliver, and Roland, still survived, and faintly main- tained the fight. At length, Roland turning to Oliver, exclaimed, " I will sound my horn, Charles will hear us, and we may yet hope again to see our beloved France." " Oh ! shame and disgrace," answered Oliver, " why did you not sound when first I asked you ? The best war- riors of France have been sacrificed to your teinerity : we must die with them !" Turpin, liowever, insiisted that the horn should be blown as a signal to the emperor ; and Roland blew such a blast, that the blood spurted from his mouth, and his wounds, opened afresh, poured forth torrents. Charles, though thirty leagues distant, heard the sounds and said, " Our men are engaged at disadvantage ; we must haste to their assistance." " I do not believe it," replied the traitor Ganelon, and dissuaded the emperor. Roland once more, with his dying breath, rung a wailing blast from the horn. Charles knew the character of the sound. " Evil has come upon us," he exclaimed ; " ihose are the dy- ing notes of my nephew Roland !" He hastily returned to Roncesval- les ; but Roland, and all his companions, lay dead upon the plain, and the emperor could only honor their corpses with Christian burial. Such are the salient points in the old romance, on which the song of Roland' is founded. So late as the close of the fifteenth century the narrative was received as an historical fact ; and when John, king of France, a little before the fatal battle of Poictiers, reproached his nobles that there were no Rolands to be found in his army, an aged knight replied, " Sire, Rolands would not be wanting, if we could find a Charlemagne." The devastations of the Saxons, which recalled. Charlemagne from Spain, exceeded anydiing which Europe had witnessed since the days of Attila, Witikind, prince of Westphalia, was the leader of this dan- gerous revolt ; he had united his coun,trymen into one great national confederacy, and long maintained a desperate struggle against the whole strength of the French monarchy. He was at length irretiieva- bly routed, and submitting to the conquetor, became a Christian. Sev- eral minor revolts in his extensive dominions- troubled the reign of Charlemagne, but he quelled them all, and secured the tranquillity of Germany, b6th by subduing the Saxons, and destroying the last rem- nant of the barbarous Avars who had settled in Hungary. The brief intervals of tranquillity were spent by this wise monarch in extending the blessings of civilization to his subjects, by establishing schools, and patronising science and literature. In these labors he was assisted by ABuin, an English monk, the most accomplished scholar of his age./ Such was the fame of the French monarchy at this time, that embassies came to the court from the most distant contemporary sover- eigns. The most remarkable was that sent from the renowned Hariin- er-Rashid,' khaliph of Bagdad ; ainong the presents they brought were some beautiful pieces of clock-work, whiclj were regarded as something c^lmost miraculous in western Europe, where the mechanical arts were still in their infancy. But in the midst of these glories, Charlemagne was alarmed by the 374 MODEEN HISTOEY. appearance of a new enemy on the coasts of France, whose incur- sions, though repelled, filled the monarch's prescient mind with sad bodings of future danger. These were the Northmen, or Normans, pirates, from the distant shores of Scandinavia, whose thirst of plun- der was stimulated by the desire of revenging the wrongs that their idolatrous brethren, the Saxons, had endured. At their first landing m France, they had scarcely time to commit any ravages, for they fled on the news of the dreaded king's approach. Charlemagne saw their de- parting ships without exultation; he burst into tears,* and predicted that these;!; sea-kings" would soon prove a dreadful scourge to southern JEurope. . \ . r Probably about .the, same time that Charles was excited by, the ap- pearance of these pirates, whose ferocity and courage he had learned \f) dread during his expeditions into the north of Germany, three ships of a similar character to those described, entered oiie of the harbors on the southeastern coast of Britain, about a century and a half after the Anglo-Saxons had established their dominion over the southern part of the island, and given it the name of Angle-Land, or England. Here the sight of the strange ships produced the same doubts as in France. The Saxon graf. Or magistrate of the district,, proceeded to the shore to inquire who these strangers were, and what they wanted. T,he foreigners, who had just disembarked, attacked him and his escort without provocation, slew them on the spot, pillaged: the neighboring houses, and then returned to their vessels. Some time elapsed before it was discovered that ithese pirates were the Danes; or Normans, naines with which the ears of Anglo-Saxons were destined soon to form a terrible familiarity. , . ' Soon after the retreat of the Normans, Charlemagne was induced to visit Italy, both to quell the rebellion of the duke of Beneventura, and to rescue Pope Leo from his insurgent subjects. He succeeded in both' enterprises, and the grateful pontiff solemnly crowned his benefactor Emperor of the West. A project was soon after formed for re-es- tg,blishing. the ancient Roman empire, by uniting Charlemagne to the Byzantine empress, Irene, but this was prevented by the factions of Constanitinaple ; the degraded Greeks dreaded nothing so much as the vigorous administration of such a sovereign as the restorer of the Wfistem Empire. Charlemagne intended to divide his dominions equally between his three sons ; but two of them died while the arrangements were in progress, and Louis, the weakfest in mind and body, became sole heir to the empire. His claims were solemnly recognised in a national assembly of the Frank nobility, at Aix-la-Chapelle ; soon after which, the emperor died, in, the seventy-second year of his age, univlsally lamented throughout his extensive dominions. ^ » The monk of St. Gall tells us, that when Charlemagne was asked the cause of these tears, he replied, "My faithful friends, do you inquire why I weep thus hitterly T Assuredly it is not that I dread any annoyance to myself from the pi- racy df those wretches; but I am defeply affected to find that they have dared to visit. these coasts even in my lifetime;, and violent grief overwhelms me, when I look forward to the evils they will inflict on my subjects." BBSTOBATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 375 Section II. — Dediwe and Fall of the Carlomngian Dynasty. The Western Empire, established by Charlemagne, extended from the Ebro in the west to the Elbe and Raab in the east, and from the dutchy of Beneventum and the Adriatic sea to the river Eyder, which separated the Germanic tribes from the Scandinavian hordes, or, as they began ahout this time to be called, the Danes and Normans. It consequently included all ancient Gaul, a great portion of Spain and Italy, several islands in the Mediterranean, especially Corsica, Sar- dinia, and the Baleares, western and northern Germany, with a consid- erable part of Pannonia, or Hungary. No other European power could compete with that of the Franks ; the monarchies of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, were not yet founded ; Eng- land was still divided by the Heptarchy; the Saracenic empire in Spain was distracted by civil commotions, and the Christian kingdom of the Asturias was barely struggling into existence ; finally, the By- zantine empire was sunk into hopeless lethargy, and owed its continued existence only to the decay of the spirit of enterprise among the Arabs, after the seat of the Khaliphate was removed to Bagdad. But the con- tinuation of an empire including so many nations essentially diiferent in interests, habits, and feelings, required a superior genius in the sov- ereign- Louis the Debonnaire, the son apd successor of Charlemagne, was deficient in every quality that a ruler should possess ;, foolish, weak, and superstitious, he could not make himself beloved, and he failed to inspire fear. Yielding to the suggestions of bis queen, Her- mengarde, Louis sanctioned the murder of his nephew Bernard, and forced the three natural sons of Charlemagne to assume the clerical tonsure, by which they were for ever prevented from taking a share in temporal affairs. These crimes had scarpely been committed when Louis became the victim of remorse. Unable to Stifle the reproaches of conscience, he appeared before the general assembly of his sub- jects,, and publicly confessed that he had been deeply criminal in con- senting to the murder of Bernard, and in forcing his brothers to enter religious orders ; he humljiy besought pardon from all present, solicited the aid of their prayers, and undertook a solemn penance. This strange scene rendered Louis contemptible in the eyes of his subjects ; some doubted his sincerity, others questioned his motives, but all believed this public confession a needless sacrifice of the royal dignity. Louis chose for his second wife, Judith, the daughter of a Bavarian count. His three sons were indignant at a marriage which threatened to produce new sharers in their inheritance, but nearly four years elapsed without any appearance of such an event. At length the em- press gave birth to a child, afterward known as Charles the Bald, who was popularly said to be the son of her unworthy favorite, Bernard, count of Barcelona. The three former sons of Louis not only refused to acknowledge their new brother, but took up arms to force their father to dismiss his ministers and divorce his wife. After a desultory war Louis prevailed over his rebellious children, but the fatigues of cam- paigning broke down his feeble constitution, and put an end to his in- glorious life. The seeds of discord were thickly sown during his life. 376 MODERN HXSTORy. tiey were forced into maturity after his death by his rnnftvise' distribution of his dominions between his three sons. Scarcely had Louis been Taid ill the grave, when his sons Louis the Germanic and Charles the Bald took up amis against their elder brother Lothaire, and engaged liim in a general battle at Pontenay, which proved fatal to the flower of the ancient Frank nobility (a. d. 841). After a desilltory war, tiie brothers finally sfgteed on a partition of the empire, by which Lothaire obtained Italy, and the eastern prov- inces of France ; Louis received his fethBr's Germanic dominions' ; and to Charles were assigned the provinces of France west of the Saone and the Rhone, together with the Spanish marbhes (a. d. 843). Thus Charles the Bald maiy be considered aS the founder of the French monarchy properly so called, for hitherto the sovereigns of the Franks were Germans in language, customs, country, and biood. It is unne- cessary to detail the petty revolutions in the family of Charlema'giie ; it is sufficient to say, that the entire was momentarily reunited undei* Charles the Fat, younger son of Louis the Germanid (a. b. 884)-, but he being deposed by Ms subjects, its dissolution became inevitable i from its fragments were formed the kingdoms of Italy, France, and Germany, with the states of Lorraine, Burgundy, and Navarte. These new states owed theit^ origin less to the disputes Aat con- vulsed the Carlovingian family than to the exorbitant power of the? nobles, which had been increasing rapidly from the death of Charie- magne. The titles of duke and count were not in that age merely honorary; they conferred nearly despotic sway over the prbvinces. The great feudatories of the crown Were invested, not merely with thef administration of justice and regulation of police in their respective districts, but had also the command of flie army and the direction of the revenue. It is easy to see that the union of such different and im- portant departments of govemrhent in a single person must necessarily have been datigerous to royal authority,, and constantly tertipted ambi- tious nobles to proclaim their independence. Charleftiagoe saw this evil, and endeavored to abate the danger by dividing the great dntchies into several counties ; but in the civil wars among his Josterhy, riVal competitors, to secure the support of powerful fiendatotiest, offered the restored dutchies as tempting bribes, and further weakened themselves by alienating the royal domains to secm'e the favor of the Chonch. Tasking advantage of this impolicy, the dukes and counts contrived to make their dignities hereditary ;. and this dangerous innovation was not - sertion of a divine right to the crown ; while the popes represented it, not as a simple recognition, but almost an appointment of the sovereign. Both the kings and the pontiffs shared in a profitable fraud, which gave security to the one, and power to the other ; the Frank nobles murmured, without being able to discover the exact nature of the princi{des which destroyed for the future their ancient rights of election, though these principles were very intelligibly expressed by a new effort of Pope Ste- phen to gratify the new dynasty. Pressed by his enemies in Italy, Stephen III. sought Pepin's court to obtain aid, and gratified the mon- arch by solemnly crowning both his sons. In Pepin's case, the coro- nation had followed the election ; and thus the popular rights were abol- ished almost at the moment that they were most strongly asserted. Royalty and popery gained, but not in equal proportions : for AoUgh the principles of divine right and inheritance by descent were estab- lished for kings, the higher power of pronouncing on these rights was reserved for the. pontiffs. The Carlovjngians, grateful for the secinity thus given to theix title. QKOWTH OP THE PAPAL POWER. 395 enlarged the papal dominions by territories wrested from the Lombard kingdom— ^;he Greek exarchate. To secure these acquisitions, the pontiffs had recourse to a more daring fraud than any they had yet per- petrated : a forged deed was produced, purporting to be a donation from the first Christian emperor, Constantine, to the successors of St. Peter, of the sovereignty over Rome, Italy, and the western provinces. Thus the gift of the French monarch was made to appear the restitution of ancient possessions, and the temporal power of the popes, while yet in its infa'tfcy, was invested with the sanction of remote antiquity. It is useless to expose the falsehood of this audacious forgery, which is now condemned by even the most bigoted writers of the Romish churbh ; but in its day it Was universally received as valid, and was long regarded as the legal instrument by which th6 papal power was established. Adrian I. was the pontiff who first combined the elements of the pa- pacy into a system. He was startled at the very outset by a difficulty which seemed to threaten the foundation of his power. The Greek emperess, Irene, who administered the government during the reign of h6» son, Constantine the POrphyrogennetp, re-establi.shed the worship of images, and persecuted the Iconoclasts. Adrian, however, was nat- urally relilctant to return under the Byzantine yoke, and were he even so inclined, he would probably have been prevented by the Romans ; the popes had tasted the pleasures of sovereignty, and the people of freedom ; neither, therefore, would sacrifice such advantages to the Greeks. A closer union was made with the Franksy though Charles and his bishops had stigmatized the worship of images, and declared they should be regarded only as objects of reverence. But the pope foresaw that the use of images would soon lead to their adoration, and he courted Charlemagne as a friend and protector. Leo III., who succeeded Adrian, sent to Charlemagne the standard of Rome, requesting him to send delegates to receive the allegiance of the Romans. From the latter circumstance, it has been rather hastity inferred that the popes acknowledged the sovereignty of Charles'; but, in truth, the relations between the pontiffs and the Frank mon- archs were purposely left indefinite ; any attempt to state them would have shown that the claims of both were irreconcilable, but their mu- tual interests required that they should combine, and each avoided ex- planations that might provoke a contest. Leo soon experienced the benefits of his moderation ; driven from Rome by the relatives of the late pope, he sought refuge among the Fraiiks ; and Charlfemagne not only sent him back with a powerful es- cort to his ca]^ital, but went thither in person to do him justice. LeO was permitted to purge himself by oath of the crimes laid to his charge, and, in gratitude for his acquittal, he solemnly crowned CbaJrles, Em- peror of the West. The ceremony was performed on the festival of Christmas, in the last year of the eighth tenttiry ; and the pontiff who had so recently stood before his sovereign as a criminal making his de- fence, now appeared as his superioi:, conferring on him the highest earthly title by the authority Of Heaven. There was obvious danger to papal ambition in the establishment of an empire ; the successors of the Caesars must of necessity have beea 396 MODERN HISTORY. fo];midj^|>le rivals to the successors of St. Peter ; but there were many important advantages to be gained, which did not escape the notice of the crafty pontiffs. The secure enjoyment of their temporal dominions, as the, most honorable species of fief or benefice, was obviously an im- mediate result, but there was. a remote one of much greater importance, the change of the precedence, universally conceded, to the Romish see, into an acknowledgment of its supremacy. , It is not easy to discover at what timp the papacy directly fixed its attention upon destroying the independence of national churches, but assuredly the, period was not very, remote from that which we have been considering. The contests between the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, like those of more modem times between the archbish- ops of York and Qanterbury, were struggles for dignity rather than power. The primacy which Boniface III. assumed, by taking the title of universal bishop, was nothing more than presidency : this was a good foundation for a future claim to supremacy, but there is no proof that any such claim was contemplated by Boniface, and every probabil- ity is against the supposition. But when the independence, of nations was compromised by the establishment of an empire, it was very natural that the independence of national churches should also be endangered. In the age erf Chs^rle- magne, law, order, and intelligence, had no sure support but religion : the popular opinion identified with ecclesiastical influence all that so- ciety enjoyed or hoped for ; it was the bond that; held the discordant parts iof the empire together, and the emperor joined with the pope in giving it strength and unity. The death of Charlemagne relieved the pontiffs from the pressure of imperial power ; his successor, Louis the Debonnaire, had not strength of mind sufficient to support the weight of empire, while the popes stood ready to grasp the reins of power as they slipped from his hands ; they began to exercise their pontifical functions immediately after their election, without waiting for the confirmation of their power, and Louis, embarrassed by nearer dangers, was unable to punish the usurpation. Louis divided his empire among his sons ; a fatal error, for in their con- tests for supremacy the sovereign authority was sacrificed to the feudal lords, and to the spiritual power. It must, however, be confessed, that the usurpations of the churehj during the sanguinary wars between the successors of Charlemagjie, were almost rendered necessary by the circumstances of the time. The competitors for empire were weak and cruel, the profligacy of the feu- dal lords was only equalled by their ignorance, and the church alone preserved the semblance of justic^. The clergy of all ranks profited by the popular opinion in their favor ; usurpation followed usurpation without provoking opposition: Charles the Bald acknowledged the right of the bishops to depose him, , and the bishops of his council bound, themselves by a canon to remain united, " for the correction of kings, the nobility, and the people." This gross assumption was ap- plauded by the laity, at once ignorant, wicked, and devout : it was felt by all parties that supreme power should exist somewhere : kings, no- blei^, and commons, equally felt the want, and, in a greater pr less , de- gree, the consciousness tjiat it could not safely be intrusted to them- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWEE. 397 selves. Nicholas I., more bold than any of his predecessors, constitu- ted himself the judge of bishops and kings : he deposed the archbishop of Ravenna for asserting his independence, and would not permit him to be restored until he acknowledged himself a vassal of the holy see : he even cited the king of Lorraine to appear before his tribunal (a. d. 860). Lothaire, king of Lorraine, had divorced his first wife, Theut- berga, on a charge of adultery, and, by the advice of his council, cho- sen a beautiful young lady, called Valdrade, for his second queen. The pope annulled the second marriage, and compelled Lothaire to take back his first wife ; he persevered in enforcing his edict, even after Theutberga herself hkd submitted to the pretensions of her rival. Adrian II. was. chosen successor to Nicholas ; the imperial ambassa- dors were excluded from the election, and their remonstrances treated with neglect. He interfered on the side of justice, to secure the inher- itance of Lorraine for the emperor Louis II., but the pontiff was foiled by the firmness of Charles the Bald, and his claims to decide between the competitors refuted by Hincmar, aschbishop of Rheims. Adrian re- solved to conciliate the prince whom he could not subdue, and won ■ Charles to submission by promising him the succession to the empire. This project was executed by Adrian's successor, John VIII.; finding that the king of France was determined to have the title of emperor on any terms, he made him stipulate to acknowledge the independence of Rome and its territory, and to confess that he only held the empire by the gift of the pope. In an assembly held at Pavia (a. d. 878), Charles was recognised by the Italian prelates and nobles in the following memorable words : " Since the Divine favor, through the merits of the holy apostles and of their vicar Pope John, has raised you to the empire, according to the judgment of the Holy Ghost, we elect you unanimously for our protec- tor and lord." The pontiff by no means suffered Charles to forget that the empire was his gift : when the Saracens invaded Italy, he wrote to Charles, reproaching him for his delay in affording succor, and desiring him, " to remember the hand that had given him the empire, lest, if driven to despair, we should change our opinibn." But while the popes were thus triumphant over the emperors, they were severely harassed by the turbulent feudal lords, who had taken ad- vantage of the weakness of their sovereign, to establish a virtual inde- pendence. They interfered in the pontifical elections, and generally controlled them ; they insulted, imprisoned, and murdered the pontiffs ; while the claims of the apostolic see to complete supremacy were tacitly acknowledged throughout Europe, it was itself held in disgraceful ser- vitude by petty tyrants. Two infamous prostitutes, by their influence with the profligate nobles, procured the throne of St. Peter for their paramours, and their illegitimate children ; and the disorders "bf the church finally attained such a height that the imperial power was once more raised above the papal, and Pope John XII. deposed by the em- peror Otho. The vices of this dark period are not. justly attributable to popery; they were the result of feudalism, and so far as the papal system was able to exert any influence, it was employed in counteracting these evils. The great error of the pontiffs was, that they did not arrange a 398 MODERN HISTORY. judicious plan for elections ; they left tlieir power lihus exposed to the disturbances df a disputed succession which had already proved fetal to the imperial power ; had the arrangements been such as to prevent any lay interference, ecclesiastical influence would have gone on increasing without iuterniption. But the vice and violence of the Roman nobles rendered popery, as a system, for a time iaoperative, and prevented a Nicholas from anticipating a Hildebrand. Section III.— The Struggle far Supremacy between the Popes and Emperdrsi, Otho, deservedly called the Great, was the third emperor of Ger- many, elected by the suffrage of the German princes. His high char- acter pointed him out to Pope John XII. as a proper protector for the church and the republic, against the fierce nobles of Lombardy, but especially against Berengarius, who claimed the kingdom of Italy. Otho crossed the Alps, tranquillized Italy, and was rewarded with the iron crown of Lombardy, and the revived title of Emperor of the West. But both the pope and the Romans were jealous of their bene- factor, and even during the ceremony of his coronation, Otho had to take precautions against the daggers of assassins. John soon found that the German emperor was not content with an empty title ; enraged at the progress of the imperial authority, he entered into a secret com- pact with Adelbert, the son of his ancient enemy, to expel foreigners from Italy, and, at the same time, he invited the Hungarians to invade Germany. Otho promptly returned to Italy, and having entered Rome, he com- pelled the nobles and people to renew their oath of allegiance. He then summoned a council for the trial of Pope John, whose immoralities were flagrant and notorious. The charges against the pontiff" contained a dreadful catalogue of crimes, but we can not vouch for the integrity of the witnesses, or the impartiality of the court. There is, however, no doubt th^ John was a licentious profligate, whose vices not only dis- graced his station, but were shocking to humamity. The pope refusing to appear before the tidbunal, was condemned as contuinacious, after having been twice summoned in vain. Leo VIII. was elected to the papacy, in the room of John, and: he not only torfc an oath of obedience and. fidelity to the emperor, but issued a bull, ordaining that Otho and his successors should have a right of appointing the popes, and investing bishops aad archbishops ; and that none should dare to consecrate a hii^hop without the permission of ^the emperor. This fatal blow to the papacy was unpopular with the bishops ; they CfliiiiiiplaiBed that Leo had subverted, at one blow, the structure which his predecessors had toiled to raise during two centuries. When John, after the emperor's departure, returned to Rome, he easily' procured the diaposkion M Leo, and the acknowledgment of his own claims. The restored pope began to exercise great cruelties against his opponents ; but in the midst of his career, he was assassinated by a young noble- man.,, whom he had rivalled in the affections of his mistress. Such houton had this pontiff's; crimes inspired, that many of the Romans be- lieved tha* Satan in proper person had struck the fetal 'blow which sent hiiu to his dareai account, " with all his imperfections on his head." GROWTH OF 'THE PAPAI. POWER. 399 The a(Jherents of John still refused to acknowledge Leo, and without ewsulting the emperor, they chose Benedict to succeed the murdered pontiff. But the return of Otho threw them into confusion : Benedict hastily tendered his submission to Leo, by whom he was banished ; and the Roman nobility and clergy promised the emperor that they would never confer the papal dignity on any but a native of Germany. On the death of Leo, the electors, obedient to their promise, chose John XIIL by the emperor's permission. The pope was too grateful to his sovereign, to resist the encroachments of the imperial power on the city and the church: the turbulent Romans revolted and threw John into prison, but Otho soon came to suppress these disturbances. He restored John, and severely punished the authors of the revolt. Thus the political system of popery seemed utterly ruined, the pontiiF ruled the Roman states as a lieutenant instead of a prince, and, far from being regaxded as the supreme umpire of monarchs, he was reduced to tiie condition of a subject. We have seen that the papacy owed its first success to the national hatred between the Latins and the Byzantines ; strength for a new struggle to. retrieve its fortunes was derived from the animosity with which, the Germans were regarded by the Italians. The death of Otho (a. d. 973)j was the signal for new convulsions in Italy; the feudal lords aimed at independence, the cities tried to establish freedom ; Pope John tried to uphold the imperial cause, but he was arrested by Cincius, the head of the popular party, and strangled in prison. Cincius and his faction chose Boniface -VII. for their spiritual head ; the aristocratic party, headed by the counts of Tuscany, elected Ben- edict VII. ; the former was soon driven from the capital ; he sought shelter at Constantinople, where he strenuously urged the Greek em- perors to invade Italy. These prinees took his advice, and, uniting themselves with the Saracens, subdued Apulia and Calabria. Otho H. vanquished these enemies ; but when he returned to Germany, Boni- face came back to Italy, made himself master of Rome, arid threw his rival into prison, where he was starved to death. Four months after- ward the murderer died suddenly, and was succeeded by John XV. Sa low had the papacy now sunk, that the entire of John's reign was occupied by a struggle for the government of the city of Rome. Crescentius, an ambitious noble, eager to establish his own despotism under the. name of freedom, persuaded the citizens to reject the au- thority both of the pope and the emperor^ Otho II. crushed the revolt, and so firmly established the imperial authority, that he was enabled to nominate one of his creatures successor to John ; and the cardinals re- ceived as their head Bruno, a Saxon stranger, who took the title of Gregory V.* Crescentius had little trouble in exciting a new insurrection ; but the Italians were too feeble to contend with the entire strength of the em- pire ; they were defeated with ruinous loss ; their leader was captured and beheaded. On the death of Gregory, Otho nominated Gerbert to the papal dignity, and he was installed under the title of Sylvester II. Although he did not foresee the consequences, Sylvester may be rer • Every pope changes his name on his accession, in imitatiOp. of St. Peter, whom our Lord called Cephas, or Peter, instead of Simon. ' 400 MODERN mSTOEY. garded as the first who made any progress in restoring the power of popery. His personal virtues removed the scandal which had long weakened the influence of his see, his patronage of learning restored to the church its superiority in intelligence, and, through his intimacy with the emperor,. he obtained a renewal of the temporal grants which Charlemagne and Pepin had made to his predecessors. The popes now began to support the imperial cause against the turbulent noble^ of Italy ; in return they were aided by the emperors in their struggles with the Roman princes and cidzens ; but by this alliance the pontiffs were the principal gainers, for the empefor's attention was distracted by various objects while the popes were always on the spot to secure the fruit of every victory. So rapidly had their power been i"etrieved, that when Benedict VIII. crowned the emperor Henry, to whom ho owed the preservation of his dignity, he demanded of his benefactor, before he entered the church: " Will you observe your fidelity to me and my successors in everything ?" and the emperor had the weakness to answer in the afiirmative. But the factions of the Roman nobles and citizens prevented the papal, power from being consolidated ; three rival popes, each remarkable for his scandalous life, shared the revenues of the church between them (a. d. 1045) ; they were finally persuaded to resign by-John Gratian, a priest of piety and learning, and he was elected to the vacant throne by the title of Gregory YI. The emperor Henry procured the deposi- tion of Gregory, and the election of Clement II. The most remarkable of the deposed popes was Benedict IX. ; he was the son of a Tusculan count, and was raised to the chair of St. Peter at the early age of ten years. His vices induced the Romans tc raise rivals against him ; but, supported by the aristocratic faction, he would probably have held his place, had he not been bribed to resign in favor of Gregory. The agent in this transaction was Hildebrand, the son of humble parents, who had raised himself by the force of his abilities and his reputation for piety to high rank in the church, and commanding influence in the state. Gregory was undoubtedly a better ruler than his immediate .predecessors ; he expelled the robbers and freebooters who infested the roads around Rome ; he opened a secure passage for the pilgrims who wished to visit the shrine of St. Peter, and he vigorously exerted himself to reform the administration of jus- tice. It was imprudent in the emperor Henry to depose such a man at the instigation of the enemies of order; Clement II. felt great aversion to the proceeding, and very reluctantly consented to his own elevation. Gregory and Hildebrand, to the great regret of the Italian people, and especially the citizens of Rome, were driven into exile ; they re- tired to the celebrated monastery of Clugni, where Gregory died of vexation, leaving Hildebrand the heir of his wealth and his resentment. Clement was poisoned by an emissary of Benedict nine months after his consecration ; and his successor, Damasus II., shared the same fate. When the news reached Hildebrand; he immediately departed from the imperial court, hoping to have some influence in the nomina- tion of the next pope, but on the road he learned that the Diet of Worms, directed by the emperor, had elected Bruno, bishop of Toul, under the title of Leo IX. (jaoWTH OF THE FAPAl POWER. 401 We have now reached an important crisis in the struggle between the papal and the imperial power ; the latter had touched the highest point of its greatness, and was destined to fall by the dauntless energies of one man, Hildebrand, the humble monk of Soano by birth, the con- troller of the destiny of nations by talent and position. Section IV. — Revival of the Papal Power. FROM A. D. 1048 TO A. D. 1070. We have seen that papal usurpation began by an attack on the power of the Greek empire, and prevailed over the Byzantine court, because it was supported by the public opinion of western Europe. To secure its acquisitions, the papacy entered into alliance with the Carlovingian djmasty on terms favorable to both ; but in the struggle that followed the partition of Charlemagne's empire, it was shorn of its strength, for the growth of its greatness was too rapid to be permanent. When the nobles of Italy had attained the rank of petty princes, the territorial possessions of the church, naturally excited their cupidity, and when the German emperors had extended their sway beyond the Alps, they felt that a controUiMg influence in the papal elections was necessary to the permanence of their power. Had both coinbined, the papacy would have been annihilated, the pope would have been a mere vassal of the emperor, and his temporal dominions would Iiave been rent in sunder by rival princes. But even when the papacy was enslaved, either' to aristocratic factionis, or to despotic autocrats, it was secretly collecting materials for its liberation and future triumph. It was generating an opinion which gave the papacy, as an institution, greater strength and surer permanence than it possessed in the days of its former prosperity. It was under the pressure of the feudal system that the organization of popery was completed and defined ; opposed both to princes and emperors, it was thrown for support entirely on the people. By its nu- merous gradations of rank, the church of the middle ages linked itself with every class of the community : its bishops were the companions of princes ; its priests claimed reverence in the baronial hall ; its preach- ing friars and monks brought consolation to the cottage of the suffering peasant. Great as were the vices of individualls, the organization of the clerical body continued to be respectable, and this was an immense ad- vantage when every other portion of civilized society was a mass of confusion. When the distinction of oasste was rigidly established in all the political forms of social life, the ' chiirch scarcely knew any aristocracy but that of talent ; once received into holy orders, the serf lost all traces of his bondage ; he was not merely raised to an equality with the former lord, but he could aspire to dignities which threw those of temporal princes into the shade. The clerical was thus identified with the popular cause, and the bulk of the laity not only received the claims of the priesthood, but gave them additional 'extension. Hildebrand was the first who perceived the tendency and the strength of this current, and hei probably was sincere in his belief that, the church supplied the only means by which the regeneration of Europe could be effected. Feudalism, the worst of foes to social order, stood opposed to the sovereignty of the monarch and the liberty of the 26 402 MODEHN mSTOEY. subject ; the emperors were too weak, the people too ignorant, to strug- gle against it ; and the wise arrangements of Providence, hy which good has been so frequently wrought out of evil, made the revival of popery the instrument by which Europe was rescued from barbarism. Hildebrand's personal character is really a matter of no importance ; his measures in the present age would justly subject him to the charge of extravagant ambition and blundering tyranny ; but in the eleventh century, every one of these measures was necessary to counteract some evil principle, and milder or more justifiable means would not have been adequate to the occasion. We must not pass sentence on an institution without examining the opinion on which it is founded ; and before we judge of the opinion, we must estimate the circumstances by which it was engendered. The disorganized state of Europe produced a strong opinion that some power for appeal and protection shoidd be constitu- ted ; a power with intelligence to guide its decisions, and sanctity to en- force respect for them : the revived papacy seemed an institution suited to these conditions, and under the circumstances it was capable of being rendered the great instrument for reforming civil society. Hildebrand's own writings prove that his design was to render the papacy such an institution as we have described ; it was indeed a bea,utiful theory to base power upon intelligence, and concentrate both in ,the :c}iurch. But . Hildebrajid did not make a discovery which too often has eluded reformers and legislators, that his plan was suited only to peculiar circumstances,-that it was only applicable to a period when state power was corrupt and popular intelligence restricted, and that to give it permanence was to extend its duration beyond the period of its ^itility, and cqnsequently prepare the way for its becoming just as mis- chievous as the evils it had been devised to counteract. This general view of the state of society will enable us to form a better judgment of the struggle in which Hildebiand engaged than could be done if we confined ourselves to a simple narrative ; we shall now proceed to relate the course adopted by the enterprising monk to exalt the spiritual power. Leo "IX., on whom the emperor, as we have said, conferred the papacy, was a prelate of virtuous principles and strict integrity, but he was a man infirm of purpose, and weak in understanding. Hildebrand was well aware of the advantages that might be derived from the pope's character, and, in his first interview he gained such an ascendency over Lett's mind, that henceforth the pope was a passive instrument in the hands of his adviser. The pontiff naturally dreaded that the circum- stance of his having been nominated by the emperor, and elected by a German diet, would render him unpopular in Italy ; but Hildebrand smoothed the way, and by his personal influence secured Leo a favor- able reception at Rome. This service was rewarded by an accumula- tipn of dignities ; Hildebrand soon united in his person the titles and offices of cardinal, sub-deacon, abbot of St. Paul, and keeper of the alta^r and treasury of St. Peter. The clergy and people of Rome ap- plauded these proceedings, because the favorite had induced Leo to gratify the na^tional vanity, by submitting to the form of a new election immediately after his arrival in the city. Lep maidppnjeyiitting exertions to reform the clergy and the monas- GROWTH OB" THE PAPAL POWER. 403 tic orders ; but, in the fifth year of his reign he marched against the Nor- mans, who were ravaging the south of Italy, and was unfortunately taken prisoner. Though the conquerors showed every respect to their cap- tive, the misfortune weighed heavily on his proud spirit ; and his grief was aggravated by the reproaches of some of his clergy, who con- demned him for desecrating his holy office by appearing in arms. He died of a broken heart soon after his liberation, and the deposed Bene- dict IX. seized the opportunity of reascending the papal throne. Hildebrand was opposed to the imperial influence, but he hated more intensely the nearer and more dangerous power of the Italian no- bles, and therefore he became an active and energetic opponent of their creature, Benedict. The monastic orders supported one whom they justly regarded as the pride and ornament of their body, and by their means Hildebrand gained such a commanding influence over the Roman people, that he could truly represent himself to the emperor as their delegate in choosing a new pope. Henry nominated a German bishop to the dignity, who took the name of Victor II., and the cardinal-monk hoped to exercise the same authority in the new reign that he had pos- sessed under Leo IX. The pope, however, soon became weary of having " a viceroy over him ;" he sent his ambitious minister into France with the title of legate, under the honorable pretext of correct- ing the abuses that had crept into the Galilean church. Hildebrand performed his task with more rigor than it would have been prudent for a less, popular minister to display ; he excommunicated several im- moral priests and bishops, and even sentenced some monks to death for a breach of their monastic vows. After a year's absence he returned to Borne more powerful than ever, and Victor was content to receive him as his chief adviser and director. In the meantime the emperor Henry died, and was succeeded by his son of the same name, who was yet an infant. Hildebrand was too sagacious not to discover the advantage with which the papal power would struggle against the imperial during a minority, and he secretly prepared for the contest. The death of Victor, speedily followed by that of his successor, Stephen IX., delayed, but did not alter, the car- dinal-monk's intentions, for circumstances compelled him to appear as an advocate of the imperial authority. On the death of Stephen, the aristocratic faction, presuming on the minority of the emperor, rushed at night, with a body of armed men, into the Vatican church, where they declared John, bishop of Velitri, one of their body, pope, with the title of Benedict X. Hildebrand received this intelligence as he returned from Germany ; it was brought to him by the terrified cardinals and bishops who had fled from Rome ; he assembled the fugitives at Sienna, and prevailed upon them to elect the bishop of Florence, who took the name Nicholas II. The empe- ror's sanction was easily procured for the latter election, and the impe- rial court was persuaded that it was supporting its own interests when it placed Nicholas upon the papal throne. Circumstances soon occurred to prove that the Germans had been deluded ; Nicholas assembled a council at Rome, in which it was de- creed that the cardinals alone should in future have a voice in the election of the pope ; hut to avoid any open breach with the emperor, 404 MODEHN HISTOEY. a clause was added, reserving to him all due honor and respect. A less equivocal proceeding soon followed ; the Normans, who had set- tled in the south of Italy, had become more amenable to the church than they had been in the days of Leo. The lust of conquest was abated, and they were now anxious to obtain some security for their possessions ; they therefore tendered their alliance and feudal allegi- ance to the pope, on condition of his confirming their titles. By the advice of Hildebrand, Nicholas gave to Richard Guiscard the princi- pality of Capua, and granted Robert Guiscard the title of duke, with the investiture of all the lands he had conquered, or should conquer, in Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria. The pope readily granted that to which he had no right, a proceed- ing that might have cost him dear, if the old emperor had survived : the Normans, in return, lent their aid .to punish the enemies of Nicho- las in the Roman territory. The lands of the turbulent aristocracy were ravaged with unsparing cruelty, and it is to the desolation thus produced, that the depopulation of the country round Rome, even at the present day, must be attributed. While Hildebrand was maturing his plans for re-establishing the papacy, many circumstances occurred, which proved the expediency of estabhshing a central controlling power in the church. The eccle- siastics of Milan had been, for nearly two hundred years, independent of the holy see, and their church had become the scandal of Italy. Benefices were openly sold, immoralities flagrantly practised, imtil at length a respectable portion of the laity requested the interference of the pope. Peter Damian was sent as a legate to Milan, but the popu- lace, incited by the priests, raised a formidable insurrection, and threat- ened to murder him for menacing their independence. Peter, undis- mayed, ascended a pulpit in one of their principal churches, and made such an effective discourse, that the rioters not only submitted, but en- couraged him to pursue his task of investigation. The inquiry proved, that nearly every priest in Milan had purchased his preferment, and lived with a concubine. The archbishop, after an obstinate resistance, was brought to confess, that he had transgressed the canons ; but he was pardoned by the legate, on condition of swearing, with his clergy, to observe the ecclesiastical rules for the future. Scarcely, however, had the legate departed, when the clergy assailed the archbishop for betraying the rights of their church, and compelled him to retract the conditions to which he had so recently sworn. The troubles in Milan burst out afresh, and the profligacy of the clergy seemed to have been increased by the temporary interruption. Ere Nicholas could make any effort to terminate these disorders, he was seized by a mortal disease ; his death made a great change in the political aspect of Italy, for the church party, encouraged by Hilde- brand, set both the emperor and the aristocracy at defiance. The car- dinals and bishops, without waiting for the imperial sanction, conferred the papacy on Anselmo, bishop of Lucca, who took the title of Alex- a,nder II. ; on the other hand, the counts of Tuscany, hoping to recover the lands that, had: been wrested from them by the Normans, declared that they would support the emperor's right of nomination. The Ro- man nobles had hitherto owed their partial success to their having sup- GEOWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 405 ported a national prelate ; they soon found that their strength was gone, when they gave their aid to a foreign competitor. Supported by a German and Lombard army, Cadislaus, who had been chosen by the emperor, appeared before the gates of Rome, but the citizens refused him admission. At first the imperialists gained some advantages, but the arrival of Duke Godfrey, with an auxiliary force of Normans, changed the fortunes of the war, and Cadislaus was compelled to make a hasty retreat. He sought refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, where he was closely besieged. Soon afterward, the young emperor, having been removed by a stratagem from the protection of his mother, was placed under the control of the archbishops of Bremen and Cologne ; at their instigation he recognised Alexander as the legitimate pope, and Cadislaus, finding himself abandoned by his principal protector, fled in disguise from the castle of St. Angelo to his native diocese, where he died in obscurity. During the brief reign of Alexander, Hildebrand was the real gov- ernor of the church. As soon as the war with Cadislaus was ended, he directed his attention to the affairs of Milan, excommunicating the perjured archbishop, and ordering that all the priests who were mar- ried, or who lived in concubinage, should be ejected from their cures. Supported by the populace and a large body of the nobles, the papal legate not only enforced this decree, but obtained from the clergy and people a solemn oath, that, for the future, they would hold no election of a bishop valid, unless it was confirmed by the pope. The excommunicated archbishop resigned his see, and sent the in- signia of his office, the pastoral rod and ring, to the empipror. God- frey, a deacon of Milan, was appointed to supply the vacancy by the imperial council ; but the citizens of Milan refused to receive him, and chose for their archbishop, Atto, a nominee of the pope. A fierce war raged between the rival prelates, and Alexander, indignant at the support that Godfrey received from the emperor, summoned that prince to appear before his tribunal, on a charge of simony, and granting in- vestitures without the approbation of the see of Rome. Neither the ambition nor the cares of Pope Alexander, or rather his instigator Hildebrand, were confined to the Italian peninsula. By means of the popularity which the pretensions of the mendicant friars had given their order throughout Europe, he established an interest for himself in every part of Christendom. Faithful agents kept a strict watch over the proceedings of the emperor Henry, legates were sent to Denmark and Norway, the allegiance of the king of Bohemia was secured by permission to wear the mitre, and the virtual independence of the Anglo-Saxon church was destroyed by the Norman conquest, to the success of which the interference of the pope and of Hildebrand materially contributed. The pretexts of the pontiffs are characteristics of the superstitions of the age. Harold, the last Saxon monarch of England, had, during an accidental visit to Normandy, been forced to swear that he would favor the succession of William, whose claims were founded on a real or pretended promise of Edward the Confessor. This compulsory oath, it seems, woidd not have been considered binding, had not Harold un- wittingly sworn it on a chest of relics, collected from aU the surround- 406 MODERN HISTORY. ing churches. When, therefore, on the death of Edward, he accepted the crown, proffered to him by the free voice of the Anglo-Saxons, he was regarded, not as a patriot resolved to maintain his country's inde- pendence, but as a perjured Wretch who had trampled on the most sol- emn obligations. Hildebrand eagerly seized this opportunity of estab- lishing the papal supremacy over a national church, whose claims to independence had long given offence at Rome. At his instigation, the claims of the Norman duke to the English crown were solemnly recog- nised by the papal council : a bull containing this decision was sent to William, together with a consecrated standard, and a ring, said to con- tain a hair from the head of St. Peter, enclosed in a diamond of consid- erable value. But we learn from a letter, subsequently addressed by Hildebrand to the conqueror, that therie were some in the conclave who opposed this iniquitous interference with the rights of nations, and se- verely reproached the cardinal-monk for advocating the cause of a ty- rannical usurper. But Hildebrand did not extend to the Normans in Italy the same fa- vor that he showed to their brethren in England. Aided by the forces of the countess Matilda, a devoted adherent of the church, and heiress to a considerable territory, he forced them to resign the districts they had wrested from the holy see. Anxious to retain this sovereignty, Hildebrand violently opposed a marriage between the countess and God- frey Gobbo, a son whom her step-father had by a former wife, before his marriage with her mother. Such a union, indeed, was warranted by the strict letter of the canonical degrees, biit still it was, in some degree, -revolting tq^the feelings. G6bbo was excommunicated, but Hildebrand secretly hinted that he might be reconciled to the church, on maMng .proper submissions. But all these political struggles -were cast into the shade, by the daring citation of the emperor Henry : every one regarded it as a dec- laration of war between the spiritual and temporal authorities, and it must have been obvious to all, that the death of Alexander II. only de- layed the contest. More had been done during the reign of this pope to extend the authority of the papacy, than in any former pontificate ; but this must not be attributed either to the faults or to the merits of Alexander, who was a mere instrument in the hands of his ambitious minister. Th6 monks, to raise Hildebrand's fame, pubUshed tales of the numerous miracles he wrought, which were greedily received by the superstitious populace, and tended greatly to extend his influence : we have taken no notice of these legends ; a greater miracle than any they record, is, that rational beings should be found sufficiently credu- lous to believe and repeat such monstrous absurdities. Section V. — Pontificate of Chegory VII. FROM A. D. 1073 TO A. D. 1086. There were few statesmen in any part of Christendom, who did not dread the accession of Hildebrand to the papacy, but there were none prepared to provoke his resentment by interfering to prevent his elec- tion. The irregular and precipitate manner in which he was chosen, seems to prove that some opposition was dreaded by his partisans ; aind GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 407 Hildebrand himself fdund it necessary to disann hostility, by an afFec- tation of submission to the emperor. He wrote to Henry, that he had been chosen against his will, that he had no wish for the ofSce, and that he would not be consecrated without the imperial sanction. Deceived by this hypocrisy, Henry ratified the irregular election, and Hildebrand was enthroned with the title of Gfregory VH. No sooner was he secured on the throne, than he began to put in ex- ecution his favorite plan for securing the independence of the church, by preventing lay interference in the collation of benefices. Before he had been a mon^ elected, he sent a legate into Spain, to reform the ec clesiastical abuses of that kingdom ; but principally to claim for the apos- tolic see all the conquests that had recently been made from the Moors, under the pretence that the Spanish peninsula, before the Saracenic invasion, had been tributary to the successors of St. Peter. Henry was so much daunted by this and similar displays of vigor, that he sent a submissive letter to the pontiff, acknowledging his former errors in his dispute with Alexander, which he attributed to his youth and the influ- ence of evil counsellors, desiring him to arrange the troubles in the church of Milan at his discretion, and promising to assist him in every- thing with the imperial authority. The two great objects of the pope were, to enforce the celibacy of the clergy, and the papal right to the investiture of bishops. The for- mer of these projects was a matter of discipline, defended on plausible grounds of expediency. Its advocates pleaded that a clergyman unen- cumbered with the cares of a family could devote his whole attention to the flock intrusted to his charge ; and that a bishop without children would be free to exercise his patronage without being warped by domes' tic affection. On the other hand, men were thus forced to sacrifice the noblest and best of human feelings ; Ihey were denaturalized, cut off from the influences of social life : the church became the country and the home of every person who embraced the ecclesiastical profession. After drdinatioHj the priest and the bishop were no longer Germans, Spaniards, or Englishmen ; they were Romans — ^ministers and peefs' of a mighty empire, that claimed the dominion; of the whole globe. Like the envoy or minister of any foreign government, a member of the Romish hierarchy observes the laws of the state in which his master may have placed him, and respects for a time the authority of the local magistrate : but his order is his country, the pontiff is his natural sover- eigUi and their welfare and their honor are the appropriate objects of his public care. The constant sight of siioh a sacrifice of the natural feel- ings of mankind, was obviously calculated to win the respect of the laityj and gaiin credence for the superior sanctity that was supposed to invest the character of a priest. The pope's determination to destroy the practice of lay investitures, was defended on more plausible grounds. The administration of eccle- siastical patrctoage by the emperor and other temporal princesj was lia- ble to great abuses, and had actually led to many : they supplied vacan- cies with the ignorant, the depraved, and the violent ; they sought for the qualifications of a soldier or a poKtician, when they had to elect a bishop. In a dark age, when monarchs audi nobles were rarely able to write their own names ; when the knowledge of the alphabet, even in 408 MODERN mSTORY. aristocratic families, was so rare, as to be deemed a spell against witch- craft ; and when the fierce qualities of a warrior were valued more highly than the Christian virtues, it seemed almost necessary to render ap- pointments in the church independent of the state. But to this obvious expediency, Gregory VII. added a blasphemous claim of right, as Christ's vicar on earth, and inheritor of his visible throne. While, however, we condemn such impious assumptions, we should not re- fuse to Hildebrand the credit of higher and purer motives than those of personal aggrandizement, mingling in his schemes for extending his own power and that of his successors. It is undeniable that the cor- porate authority he procured for the church became, in many Euro- pean countries, a source of much benefit during the middle ages, overawing the violent, protecting the forlorn, mitigating the prevailing fprocity of manners, and supplying in various ways the defects of civil institutions. Gregory having assembled a general counci} at Rome, ordained, by consent of the bishops present, that if any one shoiild accept investiture from a layman, both the giver and the receiver should be excommuni- cated ; that the prelates and nobles who advised the emperor to claim the collation of benefices should be excommunicated ; and that all mar- ried priests should dismiss their wives, or be deposed. These decrees were communicated to the sovereigns of Europe by Gregory himself, in letters that must ever remain a monument of his consummate abilities. His monstrous claims for the universal supremacy of the church and of the Romish see, are proposed in a tone of humility and candor, well calculated to win the unthinking and unwary ; his dictations assume the form of afiectionate suggestions, and his reihonstrances resemble those of a tender and affectionate father. But the pope did not confine his exertions to mere words ; he obliged the Normans to quit their conquests in Campania, proposed a crusade against the Saracens, who were menacing Constantinople, and offered a province in Italy to Sweno, king of Denmark, under the pretence that the inhabitants were heretics. The emperor Henry was not deceived by Gregory's professions ; he hated the pontiff in his heart, and had good reason to believe that the enmity was reciprocal. It was there- fore with mingled jealousy and indignation that he saw a new power established which more than rivalled his own, and he entered into a se- cret alliance with the Normans against their common enemy. In the meantime, a conspiracy was formed against the pope in Rome itself by some of the aristocracy, whose privileges he had invaded. Cincius, the prefect of the city, arrested the pontiff while he was celebrating mass on Christmas day, and threw him into prison ; but the populace soon rescued their favorite, Cincius would have been torn to piecea but for Gregory's interference, and all who had shared in this act of violence were banished from the city. Soon afterward, Gregory cited the empe- ror to appear before the council at Rome, to answer to the charge of protecting excommunicated bishops, and granting investitures without . the sanction of the holy see. Henry, enraged by the insult, and re- lieved from his anxieties in Germany by a recent victory over the Sax- ons, resolved to temporize no longer. He assembled a synod at Worms, of the princes and prelates devoted to his cause, and procured sentence GEOWTH OF THE PAPAI. POWER. 409 of deposition against Gregory, on a charge of simony, murder, and atheism. Gregory was far from being disheartened by the emperor's violence ; he assembled a council at Rome, solemnly excommunicated Henry, ab- solTed his subjects in Germany and Italy from their oath of allegiance, deposed several prelates in Germanyj France, and Lombardy, and pub- lished a series of papal constitutions, in which the claims of the Roman pontiffs to supremacy over all the sovereigns of the earth were asserted in the plainest terms. The most important of these resolutions, which form the basis of the political system of popery, were — . , That the Roman pontiff alone can be called universal. That he alone has a right to depose bishops. , That his legates have a right to preside over all bishops assembled in a general council. That the pope can depose absent prelates. That he alone has a right to use imperial ornaments. That princes are bound to kiss his feet, and his only. That he has a right to depose emperors. That no synod or council summoned without his commission can be called general. That no book can be called canonical without his authority. That his sentence can be annulled by none, but that he may annul the decrees of all. That the Roman church has been, is, and will continue, infallible. That whoever dissents from the Romish church ceases to be a catholic Christian. And, that subjects may be absolved from their allegiance to wicked princes. Some cautious prelates advised Gregory not to be too hasty in ex- communicating his sovereign ; to their remonstrances he made the fol- lowing memorable reply : " When Christ trusted his flock to St. Peter, saying, ' Feed my sheep,' did he except kings ? Or when he gave him the power to bind and loose, did he withdraw any one from his visita- tion 1 He, therefore, who says that he can not be bound by the Donds of the church, must confess that he can not be absolved by it ; and he who denies that doctrine, separates himself from Christ and his church." Both parties now prepared for war, but all the advantages were on the side of Gregory At the very commencement of the struggle, Gobbo, the most vigorous supporter of the emperor, died, and his widow, the countess Matilda, placed all her resources at the disposal of the pontiff. So completely, indeed, did this princess devote herself to support the interests of Gregory, that their mutual attachment was suspected of having transgressed the limits of innocence. The duke of Dalmatia, gratified by the title of king, and the Norman monarch of Sicily, prof- fered aid to the pontiff; even the Mohammedan emperor of Morocco courted his favor, and presented him with the liberty of the Christian slaves in his dominions. Henry, on the contrary, knew not where to look for support ; in ev- ery quarter of his dominions monks and friars preached against their 410 MODBKN HISTORY. isoyereign, and the prelates by whom he had been support^ ; the Saxon nobles eagerly embraced a religious pretext to renew their insurrection ; the dukes of Suabia and Carinthia demanded a change of dynasty j even the prelates who had been most zealous in urging Henry forward, terrified by threats of excommunication, abandoned his cause. A diet was assembled at Tribur, attended by two papal legates, in which it was resolved that Henry should be deposed, unless within a limited period he presented himself before the pope and obtained absolution. The prelates and nobles of Lombardy alone maintained their courage, and boldly retorted the excommunications of Gregory. Animated by the hope of obtaining their eificient aid, Henry resolved to crOss the Alps instead of waiting for Gregory's arrival in Germany; The hard- ships which the unfortunate monarch underwent during this journey, in the depth of a severie winter — the dangeris to which he was- exposed from the active malice of his enemies — ^the sight of the sufferings of his queen and child, who could only travel by being enclosed in the hides of oxen, and thus dragged through the Alpine passes — would have bro- ken a sterner spirit than Henry's. He entered Lombardy completely disheartened, and, though joined by considerable forces, he thought only of conciliating his powerful enemy by submission. Having obtained a conference with the countess Matilda, Hqnry prevailed upon her to in- tercede for him with the pope ; and her intercession, supported by the principal nobles of Italy, induced Gregory to grant an interview to his sovereign. On the 21st of January, 1077, Henry proceeded to Canosa, where the pope resided, and was forced to submit to the greatest indignities that were ever heaped upon imperial majesty. At the first barrier, he was compelled to dismiss his attendaiits ; when he reached the second, he was obliged to lay aside his imperial robes, and assume the habit of a penitent. For three entire days he was forced to stand barefooted and fasting, from morning till night, in the outer court of the castle, during one of the severest winters that had ever been known in northern Italy, imploring pardon of his transgressions from God and the pope; He was at length admitted into the presence of the haughty pontiff, and, after all his submissions, obtained, not the removal, but the suspension of the excommunication. Such harsh treatment sank deep into Heniy's mind ; and his hostili^ to Gregory was exasperated by the pontiff accepting a grant of the countess Matilda's possessions for the use of the church, which would legally revert to the empire after her decease. The reproaches of the Lombards also induced him to repent of his degradation, and he renewed the war by a dishonorable and ineffectual attempt to arrest Gregory and Matilda. In the meantime the discontented nobles of Germany had as^^ sembled a diet at Fercheim, deposed their sovereign, and elected Ro- dolph, duke of Suabia, to the empire. This proceeding greatly embar- rassed the pope ; he dared not declare against Henry, who was power- ful in Italy, and if he abandoned Rodolph, he would ruin his own party in Germany. He resolved to preserve a neutrality in the contest, and in the meantime he directed his attention to the internal state of the church, which had for some time been distracted by the controversy respecting the eucharist. GROWTH OF THH PAPAL POWBE. 411 It is not easy to determine by whom the doctrine of transubstantiation was first broached : Seldenrery justly says, " This opinion is only rhet- oric turned into logic," and it is easy to see how the spiritual presence of our Savior in the holy communion might, in a dark and ignorant age, be represented as an actual change of the consecrated elements into his material substance. We are not concerned with the theological errors of this doctrine ; our subject only inquires us to notice the political pur- poses to which it was applied. No article Of faith was better calcu- lated to exalt the power of the priesthood ; it represented them as daily working a miracle equally stupendous and mysterious ; true, its nature was incomprehensible, but this circumstance, instead of exciting a sus- picion of its absurdity, only increased the reverence with which it was regarded. We must not then be surprised at the zeal that the Romish priesthood has ever manifested in defending an opinion which has so materially strengthened its influence. The confessor to the queen of Spain is said to have rebuked the opposition of a nobleman, by saying, " You should respect the man who every day has your God in his hands and your queen at his feet." In this brief sentence, the purpose of the doctrine is distinctly stated ; it conferred political power, and was there- fore to be defended at all hazards. But common sense frequently re- volted at a doctrine contracted by sight, feeling, and taste ; in the elev- enth century it was ably exposed by Berengarius, a priest of Tours, who assailed it at once with ridicule and with argument. But in his eightieth year, Berengarius was prevailed upon by Gregory to renounce his for- mer opinions, and transubstantiation was generally received as an article of faith. A victory obtained by Rodolph induced Gregory to depart from his cautious policy ; he excommunicated Henry, and sent a crown of gold to his rival. The indignant emperor summoned a council in the moun- tains of the Tyrol, pronounced Gregory's deposition, and proclaimed Gilbert, archbishop of Ravenna, pope, by the name of Clement III. Gregory immediately made peace with the Normans, and, supported by them and the Countess Matilda, he bade his enemies defiance. But in the meantime, Rodolph was defeated and slain, the discontented Germans were forced to submit to the imperial authority, and Henry, at the head of a victorious army, crossed the- Alps. The Norman dukes, engaged in war with the Greek emperors, neglected their ally, and the forces of the countess Matilda were unable to cope with the imperialists. Twice was Henry driven from before the walls of Rome ; but the third time he gained an entrance, by a lavish distribution of bribes, and procured the solemn installation of Clement. The emper- or's departure left his partisans exposed to the vengeance of Gregory ; the pontiff returned at the head of a Norman army, and gave the city to be pillaged by his barbarous auxiliaries. Having reduced Rome al- most to a mass of ruins, Gregory retired to Salerno, where he was seized with a mortal disease. He died tmconqnered, repeating with his latest breath the excommunications which he had hurled against Henry, the antipope, and their adherents. He viewed his own conduct in the struggle with complacency, and frequently boasted of the good- ness of his cause. " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity," he exclaimed, " and it is therefore I die an exile." 412 MODERN HISTORY. Gregory may be regarded as the great founder of the political system of popery ; and therefore, while he is extolled by some historians as a saint, others have described him as a disgrace to humanity. But the character of this remarkable man was formed by his age, and developed by the circumstances that surrounded him. He was the representative both of popery and democracy, principles apparently inconsistent, but which in ancient and modern times have frequently been found in close alliance. With the sanctity of the church he shielded the people ; with the strength of the people he gave stability to the church. In the course of his long career as the secret and as the acknowledged ruler of the papacy, he displayed unquestionable abilities of the highest or- der ; his pretensions to ascetic piety gained him the enthusiastic ad- miration of the multitude ; the soldiers regarded him as a brave warrior and successful general ; the higher ranks of the clergy yielded in the council to his fervid eloquence and political skill. His very faults be- came elements of his success : he was severe, vindictive, and inexor- able : he knew not what it was to forgive ; none of his enemies could elude the patient search and the incessant vigilance with which he pursued those against whom he treasured wrath. It was his custom to witness the execution of those whose death he decreed ; and it was awful to contemplate the serenity of his countenance and the placidity of his manners while he presided over tortures and massacres. It can not, therefore, be a matter of wonder that the power of such a man should have swept over Christendom like a torrent, and hurried every- thing into the vortex of his new and gigantic institutions. Section VI. — The War of Investitures. FROM A. D. 1086 TO A. D. 1152. Henry gained only a brief respite by the death of his formidable and inveterate antagonist. Victor III. was elected by the cardinals, and during his brief reign he gained several advantages over the impe- rial party. He was succeeded by Urban II., the friend and pupil of Gregory, who commenced his pontificate by sending an encyclical let- ter to the Christian churches, declaring his resolution to adhere to the political system of his deceased master. Supported by the Normans, Urban entered Rome, and assembled a council of one hundred and fif- teen bishops, in which the emperor, the antipope, and their adherents, were solemnly excommunicated. At the same time he negotiated a marriage between Guelph, son of the duke of Bavaria, a distinguished supporter of the papal cause in Germany, and the countess Matilda. From this union, the present dukes of Brunswick and Lunenburgh, and the reigning family of England, trace their descent. Henry marched into Italy, and though vigorously opposed by Guelph, gained several important advantages ; but the papal intrigues raised enemies against him in the bosom of his family ; his eldest son Conrad rebelled, and was crowned king of Italy by Urban. This revolt compelled Henry to abandon his recent acquisitions, and retire toward the Alps. A council was summoned to meet at Placentia, and so large a num- ber of bishops assembled, that no church could contain them, and they were forced to deliberate in the open air. Most of Gregory's decrees GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWEB. 413 were re-enacted ; but, in addition to the affair of investitures, the atten- tion of the council was directed to the rapid progress of the Moham- medans in the east, and the dangers that threatened the empire of Con- stantinople (a. d. 1095). The tales of the persecutions to which the Christian pilgrims were exposed by the ferocious Turks, who had be- come masters of the Holy Land, had excited general indignation throughout Europe. Peter the Hermit, a wild fanatic, preached every- where the necessity of rescuing the faithful from the infidel Saracens, as he ignorantly called the Turks, and such a flame was kindled by his exertions, that a decree was issued by the council of Clermont, author- izing the first crusade ; and at the same time the king of France, in whose dominions the council met, was excommunicated, and could only obtain absolution by humiliating submissions. The general insanity diffused through Europe by the preaching of the first crusade, the multitudes that abandoned their homes to follow Walter the Pennyless or Godescald the Fanatic, the massacres of the Jews, the sufferings and exploits of the disciplined adventurers that marched under the banners of Godfrey, will form the subject of the next section ; it is enough here to say that the general fanaticism proved of essential service to the papal cause, and that the partisans of Henry suffered severely from the fury of the crusaders in their passage through Italy. Paschal 11. was the successor of Urban, and, like iiim, steadfastly pursued the policy of Gregory ; he easily triumphed over the antipope, who died of a broken heart, and he urged a second general crusade, which the reverses of the Christians in the Holy Land rendered neces- sary. To consolidate the papal structure, he assembled a council at Rome, and procured the enactment of a new oath, to be taken by all ranks of the clergy. By this oath they abjured all heresy, they prom- ised implicit obedience to the pope and his successors, to affirm what the holy and universal church confirms, and to condemn what she con- demns (a. d. 1104). Soon after, the old emperor, Henry, was treach- erously arrested by his own son Henry V., and deprived of his impe- rial dignity : he subsequently escaped, but .before hostilities made any progress, he died of a broken heart. The bishop of Liege honorably interred the body of his unfortunate sovereign, but papal enmity pur- sued Henry beyond the grave ; the benevolent prelate was excommu- nicated, and could only obtain absolution by disinterring the corpse. Though Henry V. owed his throne to papal influence, he would not yield the imperial right to granting investitures, and his example was followed by the kings of England and France. The form in which monarchs gave investiture by bestowing a pastoral ring and staff, was regarded by the popes as an interference with their spiritual jurisdic- tion, and when the form was altered, they gave no further trouble to the English and French monarchs, but, in their disputes with the em- perors, they not only forbade ecclesiastics to receive investiture from laymen, but even to take an oath of allegiance to them. The fifth Henry proved a more formidable enemy to the papacy than his father ; he led an army into Italy, made Paschal prisoner, compelled him to perform the ceremony of his coronation, and to issue a bull se- curing the right of investiture to the emperor and his successors. But 414 MODEKN HISTOBY. the remonstrances of the cardinals induced the pope to annul the treaty, and he permitted Henry to b,e : excommunicated by several provincial councils. The pontiff, however, did not ratify the sentence until the de?i,th of the countess Matilda, and the disputes about her inheritance created fresh animosities between the empire and the holy sge. The death of Paschal prevented an immediate war. His successors, Gelasius II. and Calixtus II., however, supported his policy, and, after a long struggle, the emperor was forced to resign his claim to episco- pal investitures, but he was permitted to retain the investiture 'of the temporal rights belonging to the sees. During the pontificate of Honorius II., the successor of Calixtus, the church of Ireland, for the first time, was brought under the suprem- acy of the pope by the exertions of St. Malachi, a monk of great influ- ence and reputation. The greater part of the reign of Honorius was spent in a co,nte?t with the Normans in southern Italy,, whom he forced to continue in their allegiance. Innc|cent II. and Anacletus, elected by rival factions, were both en- thronejd the same day, and the papacy was consequently rent by a schism. Anacletus was the grandson of a converted Jew ; he posses- sed great wealth, was a favorite with the Roman populace, and had an undoubted inajority of the cardinals in his favor, yet he is stigmatized as an antipope. This was principally owing to the exertions of the celebrated St. Bernatrd, who warmly espoused the cause of Innocent, and procured him the support of the king of France and the German emperor. On the dgath of Anacletus, his party elected another anti- pope, but he soon made his submission to Innocent, and the schism was A gei^eral council was soon afterward assembled at Rome (a. d. 1139), at which no less than a thousand bishops were present ; several ordinances were made for coinpleting the ecclesiastical organization of the church. The opinions of Arnold of Brescia were condemned at this council ; they were derived from the celebrated Abelard, whose controversy with St. Bernard began to excite universal attention. Abelard was generally regarded as the most accomplished scholar and the best logician in Europe ; crowds of disciples flocked to hear his lectures, and though he did , not break through the trammels of scho- Uj^tip philosophy, he gave an impulse to the spirit of inquiry which, in a future age, produced beneficial eflects. St. Bernard, whose opinions were invested by the bishops .^yith a kind of apostolic authority, accused Abplard of teaching hereticalopinions respecting the doctrine of the trini- ty. Abelard denied the.imputaticin, and the dispute turned on metaphys- ical! subtleties, to -yvhiish neither party afiixed a definite meaning. Abel- ard'? opinions werp condemned by a council at Sens, but he was permitted to retire into the monastery of Clugny, where he died in peace. This obscure cpAtroversy was the first symptom of the struggle be- t-vvefin .scholastic diyinity and philosophy. Abelard was subdued, but he bequeathed his cause to a; succession of faithful disciples, who grad- ually eing^ncipatgd, knowledge from the confinement of the cloister, and libsers^t^ the human mind from the thraldom of popery. Abelard's opin- ions .^fere purely theqlogical ; his disciple, Arnold of Brescia, abandon- ing his wastpr's myaticisra, directed his attention to the reform of the GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWEK.. 415 church and of the government. He declared that the political power and wealth of the clergy were inconsistent with the sanctity of their profession, and he began to preach these doctrines in Italy and Ger- many ; so great was his influence, that he was invited to Rome, in order to revive the republic. Innocent II., Celestine II., Lucius II., and Eugenius III., had to struggle with " the politicians," as the followers of Arnold were called, for the maintenance of their domestic power ; and during this period the aggressions of popery on the rights of kings and nations were suspended. Rome set the example of resistance to the pontiffs ; Italy, for a brief space, furnished the boldest opponents to the papal usurpations ; but when Europe began to profit by the example, the Italians discovered that the overthrow of the papacy would diminish the profits which they derived from the payments made by superstition and-ignorance to the Roman exchequer ; and they lent their aid to the support of the lucrative delusion they had been the first to expose, and even yielded their liberties to the pontiffs, on condition of sharing in their unhallowed gains. The claims of the popes to spiritual and teniporal power, the means they employed to effect their object, their struggle against royal power on the one side, and national independence on the other, form the most important part of European history during several centuries. A calm and careful examination of the origin and growth of the papal system is therefore necessary to a right understanding of the social condition of Europe in the ages preceding the Reformation. To render this portion of history satisfactory to the student, it is necessary to trace baclc the early history of Christianity, and point out some of the corruptions by which its purity was early disfigured. Section VII. — The Crusades. The wars undertaken by the crusaders for the conquest of Palestine, at the instigation of the popes, form an essential part of the history of the great struggle between the spiritual and temporal powers. To un- derstand aright the influence they exercised, it will be necessary to cast a retrospective glance at their origin, and at the state of society in the eastern and western world, when first this great movement began. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and the localities that had been hallowed by our blessed Savior's presence, were common in the earliest ages of the church. They began to multiply very rapidly at the beginning of the eleventh century, in consequence of an opinion very generally dif- fused, that the end of the world was at hand ; many persons sold their estates, and migrated to the Holy Land, to wait there the coming of the Lord. While the Saracens remained masters of Palestine, they encour- aged and protected visiters whose arrival brought them considerable profit, but when the Seljukian Turks wrested the country from the kha- liphs of Egypt, the pilgrims were subjected to every extortion and out- rage that fanaticism and ignorance could dictate. Their sad recital of the calamities they were forced to endure excited universal indignation, and Gregory VII. was the first to propose a general arming throughout Christendom, for the purpose of driving the Turks beyond the Euphrates. The time was not propitious for such an undertaking ; the wars of the 416 MODERN HISTOEY. empire engaged the attention and employed the arms of the chief mili- tary leaders. But when the Normans had completed the conquest of England and the two Sicilies, when the imperial power had sunk before the popes in Italy and the ieudal princes in Germany, vast hordes of military adventurers who remained without employment, ready to em- brace any cause that promised to gratify their love of glory and plunder. At this moment an enthusiastic monk, usually called Peter the Hermit, indignant at the oppression of the Christians, which he had witnessed in Palestine, began to preach the duty of expelling the infidels from the patrimony of Christ, and by his energetic labors, widely diffused his own fanaticism. Peter's zeal was vigorously seconded by Pope Urban II. ; the pontiff went personally to France, and held a council at Clermont (a. d. 1095), where the war was sanctioned with great enthusiasm, and multitudes assumed the badge of the cross, as the symbol of their enlistment. The first hordes of crusaders were ignorant fanatics, guided by men of no note or experience. They marched without order or discipline, pil- laging, burning, and plundering the countries that they traversed. So great was the delusion that whole families joined in these wild expedi- tions ; farmers were seen driving carts containing their wives and chil- dren in the line of march, while boys bearing mimic implements of war, sported round, mistaking every stranger for a Turk, and every new town for Jerusalem. Most of these wretches perished by fatigue, famine, disease, or the swords of the people they had outraged, but not before their excesses had indelibly stigmatized the cause in which they were engaged. The Jews along the Rhine suffered most severely from these fanatics, who were persuaded that the sacrifice of this unfortunate race would be the best propitiation for the success of their expedition. M5t:- iads of the hapless Jews were massacred with every torture and indig- nity that malice could suggest ; whole families committed suicide by mutual agreement; a few submitted to be baptized, and purchased safety by apostacy. The archbishop of Mayence exerted all the means in his power to protect the wretched victims, but had the mortification to wit-' ness the murder of those who sought refuge in his own palace. At length a regular army was organized, under the command of God- frey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, one of the most celebrated generals of the age. No sovereign joined his standard, but the leading nobility of Christendom were enrolled among his followers, among whom may be mentioned, Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror, Hugh, brother of the king of France, Bohem- ond, prince of Tarentum, and Raymond, count of Toulouse. When the divisions of this formidable army arrived near Constantinople, Alexis, who then ruled the Byzantine empire, was naturally terrified by the appearance of hosts too powerful to be received as auxiliaries, and too formidable to be rejected as enemies. The crafty Greek had recourse to treachery and dissimulation ; after a disgusting train of fraudulent negotiations, the Latin warriors passed into Asia, leaving behind them worse enemies in the Christians of the Byzantine empire, whom it was part of their object to protect, than the Turks they had come to assail. Their early career in Asia was glorious, but purchased at an enormous expenditure of life. Nicea, the capital of the sultany of Riim, was GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 417 taken ; a great victory over the sultan Soleiman opened a passage into Syria ; Antioch vi^as captured after a seige of unparalleled difficulty, and finally, Jerusalem, which had been recently wrested from the Turks by the Egyptians, fell before the arms of the crusaders, and became the capital of a new kingdom (a. d. 1099). Jerusalem was obstinately defended by the Mussulmans ; they hurled beams and stones on the heads of those who tried to scale the walls, and flung burning oil and sulphur on the moveable towers and bridges employed by the assailants. The crusaders displayed equal energy, but on the second day of assault, just as they were sinldng under the united effects of weariness and a burning sun, Godfrey declared that he saw a celestial messenger on the Mount of Olives, cheering the Chris- tians to the combat. The enthusiasm awakened by such a declaration bore down every obstacle ; the crusaders made good their lodgement on the wall, and the Mohammedans fled into the city. Amid the most rapturous shouts of triumph the baimer of the cross was planted on the towers of Jerusalem, and as it unfurled itself in the wind, many of the bravest warriors wept for joy. But the triumph was sullied by an indis- criminate and unsparing massacre ; a helpless crowd sought shelter in the mosque of Omar, but the gates were speedily forced and the fugi- tives butchered ; the knights boasted that they rode in Saracen blood up to the knees of their horses. The massacre lasted all day, but when the shades of evening began to close around, the crusaders sud- denly recollected that they were in the midst of those places which had been hallowed by the presence and sufierings of their Savior. As if by some common and supernatural impulse, the savage warriors were suddenly changed into devout pilgrims ; each hasted to remove from his person the stains of slaughter ; they laid aside their weapons, and in the guise of penitents, with bare heads and feet, streaming eyes and folded hands, they ascended the hill of Calvary and entered the church of the Holy Sepulchre, The services of religion were performed by the clergy of Jerusalem, who hailed their deliverers with enthusiastic gratitude. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen sovereign of Palestine ; he refused the title of king, declaring that Christ was the true monarch of the Holy Land, and declined to wear a crown of gold, where his Savior had borne a crown of thorns. Baldwin, his brother and successor, was less scrupulous ; he assumed the royal ensigns and title, and transmitted the throne to his cousin, Baldwin du Bourg, whose posterity continued to reign in Palestine until the kingdom was overthrown by Saladin (a. d. 1187). Several minor states were established by the crusaders, of which the most remarkable were the county of Edessa, the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and, at a later period, the kingdom of* Cyprus. None of these states had long duration ; the Christians of the east, continually assailed by powerful enemies, could not be persuaded to unite cordially for mutual defence ; victories were scarcely less calamitous to them than defeats, on account of the difficulty of obtaining reinforcements from Europe ; and though the crusading enthusiasm en- dured for two centuries, its heat gradually abated, and nothing would have kept it alive but the privileges and grants made by the popes, and the principal European potentates, to those who joined in such expedi- 27 418 MODERN HISTORY. tions. Six principal crusades followed the first great movement ; they ■were all either unsuccessful or productive of advantages as fleeting as they,virere trivial. Forty-eight years after Jerusalem had been taken by the Christians, the emperor, Conrad III., and Louis VII., king of France, undertook a second crusade to support the sinking fortunes of their brethren in Pal- estine (a. D. 111^7). The Atta-beg Zenghi, who had, by his superior prowess, obtained the chief command over the Turkish tribes in Irak, attacked the Christian territories beyond the Euphrates, and made him- self master of Edessa, justly regarded as the bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Conrad proceeded to Constantinople, without waiting for his ally. He had to encounter the treacherous hostility of the By- zantine emperor, which proved fatal to an army containing the flower of German chivalry, including a troop of noble ladies who served in the attitude and armor of men. Manuel, who then held the throne of Constantinople, gave the sultan secret intelligence of the German line of march, and furnished Conrad with treacherous guides. After a glorious but unsuccessful battle on the banks of the Maeander, Conrad was forced to retreat ; he met the French advancing from the Bospho- rus, and the contrast of his own condition with the pomp of Louis, led him to desert the cause. The French, undismayed and unwarned, pur- sued their march with inconsiderate speed ; their rear-guard was sur- prised by the Turkish troops, while the van was at a considerable dis- tance, and the greater part put to the sword. Louis brought the shat- tered remnant of bis forces by sea to Antioch ; the Christians of Pales- tine joined him in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus, after which the monarch returned to Europe, dishonored by a faithless wife, and de- serted by ungrateful allies. This disgraceful termination of an expedi- tion from which so raueh had been expected, diffused feelings of mel- ancholy^and surprise tluroughout Europe. St. Bernard, abbot of Clair- vaux, through whose influence the crusade was undertaken, had to en- counter the storm of public indignation ; he was stigmatized as a lying prophet, who, by pretended inspiration and false miracles, had lured myriads to a miserable doom. But Bernard was not daunted by these reproaches ; he replied to those accusations by pointing out the true causes of the failure, the follies and vices of the crusaders themselves ; he asserted that a new expedition, undertaken in a spirit of piety, would be crowned with success ; and he urged the states of Christen- dom to combine in one great effort for securing the kingdom of Jerusa- lem. His eiforts to revive the crusading spirit were, however, una- vailing, and death surprised him in the midst of his exertions. Noureddin,* the son of Zenghi, destroyed the dynasty of the Fati- Hfite khaliphs in Egypt. His favorite, Saladin.f usurped the govern- ment of Egypt, and, though a Kurd by descent, became the favorite hero both of the Turks and Arabs. On the death of his ancient master, Saladin invaded the Christian territories, and, after a brief siege, made himself master of Jerusalem (a. d. 1187). The loss of the holy city .filled aU Europe with sorrow ; the emperor, Frederic I., the lion-hearted • Nur-ed-din signifies "the light of religion." t Salah-ed-din signifies "the safety of religion." GROWTH OP THE PAPAL POWEH. 419 Richard of England, Philip Augustus of France, and several minor princes, assumed the cross, while the maritime states of Italy, by send- ing immediate reinforcements to the garrisons on the coasts of the Mediterranean, arrested the progress of Saladin. Frederic advanced through the Byzantine-territories, harassed at every step by Greek fraud and treachery. Having wintered at Adrianople, he crossed the Hellespont, defeated the Turks in several engagements, and stormed the city of Iconiura. But in the midst of his glorious career he was drowned in the river Cydnus (a. d. 1190). The army persevered, and joined the eastern Christians in the famous* siege of Acre. While Acre was closely pressed by the Christians, the besiegers were, in their turn, so strictly blockaded by Saladin, that they suffered more than the garrison. The kings of England and France, however, followed by the flower of their dominions, appeared together as com- panions in arms, and reached Palestine by sea. The siege of Acre was so vigorously prosecuted after the arrival of the English that the town was soon forced to surrender, and the Christians began to indulge the hope of recovering Jerusalem. Their expectations were frustrated by the jealousy which arose between the French and the English ; Philip, unable to brook the superiority which Richard acquired by his military prowess, and perhaps, in some degree, by his wealth, returned home, leaving a part of his army under the command of the duke of Burgundy, for the defence of the Holy Land. But the animosity be- tween the French and English parties was increased rather than abated by the departure of Philip ; the envy of his companions rendered the valorous exertions of Richard una' ailing ; he entered into a treaty with Saladin, obtaining for the Christi ,hs free access to Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre, and then hastei home to defend his dominions from the attacks of his ancient rival (a. d. 1192). On his return, the English monarch was seized and imprisoned by the duke of Austria, whom he had grievously insulted in Palestine ; he was subsequently re- signed to the custody of the emperor of Germany, from whom he had to purchase his liberation by the payment of a large ransom. The il- lustrious Saladin did not long survive the departure of the royal crusa- der ; he died at Damascus, and the disputes that arose respecting his inheritance, prevented the Mohammedans from completing the destruc- tion of the Latin kingdom of Palestine. The fourth crusade was undertaken at the instigation of Innocent III. (a. d. 1202), aided by a fanatic preacher, Foulke of Neuilly. The fer- vor of enthusiasm was now abated ; no great sovereign joined in the enterprise, but several of the most potent feudatories offered their ser- vices, and Boniface, marquis of Montferratj was chosen commander-in- chief. The crusaders obtained transports from the Venetians, by con-t quering Zara, in Dalmatia, for the republic of Venice, in spite of the threats and remonstrances of the pope, who was justly indignant at seeing their first efforts directed against a Christian city. But this de- parture from their original design was followed by a still more remark- able deviation ; instead of proceeding to Palestine, they sailed against Constantinople, to dethrone the usurper, Alexius Angelus. The cru- saders succeeded in restoring the lawful emperor, Isaac, to his empire ; but the reward they claimed for their services was extravagant, and 420 MODERN HISTORY. Isaac's efforts to comply with the stipulations proroked such resent- ment, that he was deposed by his subjects, and put to death, together with his son. The crusaders instantly proclaimed war against the usurper, Mourzoufle, laid siege to Constantinople, took the city by storm, pillaged it with remorseless cruelty, and founded a new Latin empire on the ruins of the Byzantine (a. d. 1204). Baldwin, count of Flanders, was chosen sovereign of the new state, which, under five Latin emperors, lasted little more than half a century. Constantinople was recovered by the Greeks (a. d. 1261), and the hopes of uniting the eastern and western churches, which the possession of the Byzantine capital had inspired, were blighted for ever. The fifth crusade was conducted by the king of Hungary. Two hundred thousand Franks landed at the eastern mouth of the Nile, persuaded that the conquest of Egypt was a necessary preliminary to the recovery and safe possession of Palestine (a. d. 1318). After having obtained some important successes, their cause was ruined by the arrogance and presumption of the papal legate, who assumed the direction of the army. They purchased some trivial concessions, by evacuating all their conquests ; and the pope, who at first proposed to come in person to their assistance, was too busily engaged in checking the progress of heresy, to venture on an expedition to Pales- tine. Frederic IL, emperor of Germany, led a formidable army to Pal- estine, after having been excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. for delaying his expedition, a sentence which was renewed because he ventured to sail without waiting for the papal orders (a. d, 1228). This war exhibited the strange anomaly of a champion of the cross exposed to the bitterest hostility of the church. Frederic was every- where victorious, but the papal legates and the priests harassed him by constant opposition ; a crusade was preached against him in Italy, and efforts were made to weaken his authority in his own hereditary dominions. On receiving this intelligence, Frederic concluded an equitable treaty with the sultan Melek Kamel, crowned himself at Jerusalem, for no ecclesiastic would perform the ceremony, and re- turned to Europe, after having effected more for the Christians of Pal- estine than any of their former protectors. Gregory again hurled anathemas against a prince who had made a treaty with the infidels ; but Frederic's vigorous exertions soon changed the aspect of affairs ; he reduced those who had rebelled during his absence, dispersed the papal and Lombard troops, and won absolution by his victories. Tranquillity, which endured fifteen years, raised the Latins of Palestine to a prosperous condition ; but a new and more formidable enemy, issuing from the deserts of Tartary, subverted the kingdom which had been founded at such an expense of blood and treasure. The Khorasmian Turks, driven from their native deserts by the Mon- gols, threw themselves upon Palestine, stormed Jerusalem, subverted the Latin principalities, and the small Turkish states in Syria. Jeru- salem, and the greater part of Palestine, was subsequently annexed to the sultany of Egypt. Louis IX., of France, commonly called St. Louis, led the ninth crusade. Egypt was the scene of his operations ; after obtaining some GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 421 important triumphs, he was defeated, made prisoner, and forced to purchase his freedom by the payment of a large ransom (a. d. 1250). The pope'? inveterate hostility to Frederic was one of the chief causes that led to the ruin of this crusade. At the moment that Louis sailed, Innocent was preaching a crusade against the emperor in Europe, and the Dominicans were stimulating their hearers to rebellion and assassi- nation. The lamentable loss of the Frejich array, the captivity of the " most Christian king," and the utter ruin of the Latin kingdom in Pal- estine, failed to shake the obstinacy of the pontiff. It seemed even that the death of Frederic redoubled his fury, as if his prey had escaped from his hands. " Let the heavens rejoice, and let the earth be glad," was his address to the clergy of Sicily, " for the lightning and the tempest, wherewith God Almighty has so long menaced your heads, have been changed, by the death of this man, into refreshing zephyrs and fertilizing dews." Untaught by calamity, he prepared for a second crusade ; on his voyage to the place of rendezvous, he was induced to steer to Tunis, in the wild hope of baptizing its king (a. d. 1270). Instead of a proselyte, Louis found a tedious siege, and a mortal disease. On his death, the remnant of his army was led back to Europe without making any further effort. The fate of Palestine was for a time delayed by the valor of Edward I., of England, who extorted a three years' truce from the Mohammedans. At length, some excesses of the Latins pro- voked the resentment of the Mameluke sultan, Khalil ; he resolved to expel them completely from Palestine, and laid siege to their last stronghold. Acre (a. d. 1291). The city was taken after a tedious siege, and after its fall the title of King of Jerusalem, still preserved by the Christian princes, became an empty name. Section VIII. — The Crusade against the Atbigenses. It has been already mentioned that the growth of heresy was be- ginning to alarm the advocates of papal supremacy in the reign of Alexander III., and that a general council had pronounced a solemn decree against the Albigenses. But the feudal lords of France and Italy were slow in adopting an edict which would have deprived them of their best vassals, and the new opinions, or rather the original doc- trines of Christianity, were secretly preached throughout the greater part of Europe. It may be conceded to the defenders of the papal system that there were some among the preachers of a reformation who had given too great a scope to their imaginations, and revived many of the dangerous errors of the Manichaeans and Paulicians. There seems no just cause for doubting that a few enthusiasts ascribed the Old Testament to the principle of Evil ; because, as they~ asserted, " God is there described as a homicide, destroying the world by water, Sodom and Gomorrah by fire, and the Egyptians by the overflow of the Red sea." But these were the sentiments of a very small minori- ty ; the bulk of the Albigensian reformers protested simply against the doctrine of transubstantiation, the sacraments of confirmation, confes- sion, and marriage, the invocation of saints, the worship of images, and the temporal power of the prelates. Their moral character was 432 MODERN HISTORY. confessed by their enemies, but while they acknowledged its external purity, they invented the blackest calumnies respecting their secret practices, without ever bringing forward a shadow of proof, and conse- quently without incurring the hazard of refutation. The progress of reform was silent ; for the efforts of the palerins, or Albigensian teach- ers, were directed rather to forming a moral and pure society within the church, than to the establishment of a new sect. 'Hiey seemed anxious to hold the same relation to the Romish establishment that John Wesley designed the Methodists to keep toward the church of England. Their labors generated an independence of spirit and free- dom of judgment which would probably have led to an open revolt, had not Innocent III. discerned the danger to which the papal system was exposed, and resolved to crush freedom of thought before its exercise would subvert his despotism. Innocent's first step was to enlist cupidity and self-interest on his side ; he abandoned to the barons the confiscated properties of heretics, and ordered that the enemies of the church should be for ever banished from the lands of which they were deprived. He then sent commis- sioners into the south of France, to examine and punish those suspected of entertaining heretical opinions, and thus laid the first foundation of the Inquisition. The arrogance and violence of these papal emissaries disgusted every class of society ; finding that their persecutions were unpopular, they resolved to support their power by force of arms, and they were not long in discovering the materials of an array. Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, was engaged in war with some of the neighboring barons, and Peter de Castelnau, the papal legate, offered to act as mediator. He went to the barons, and obtained from them a promise that, if Raymond would consent to their demands, they would employ all the forces they had assembled to extirpate heresy. Castelnau drew up a treaty on these conditions, and oifered it to Ray- mond for his signature. The count was naturally reluctant to purchase the slaughter of his best subjects, by the sacrifice of his dominions, and the admission of a hostile army into his states. He peremptorily refused his consent, upon which Castelnau excommunicated Raymond, placed his dominions under an interdict, and wrote to the pope for a confirmation of the sentence. Innocent III. confirmed the legate's sentence, and began to preach a crusade ; but his violence transcended all bounds, when he learned that Castelnau had been slain by a gentleman of Toulouse whom he had personally insulted (a. d. 1208). Though Raymond appears to have had no share in this mm-der, it was against him that the papal vengeance was principally directed : he was excommunicated, his sub- jects absolved from their oath of allegiance, and the French king was invited to despoil him of his estates. Philip Augustus was too busily engaged in wars with the king of England and the emperor of Germany to turn his attention to the extir- pation of heresy ; but he permitted a crusade against the Albigenses to be preached throughout his dominions, and the monks of Citeaux be- came the chief missionaries of this unholy war ; they promised the pardon of all sins committed from the day of birth to death, to those who fell in the war, unlimited indulgence, the protection of the church, • GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 423 and a large share of spoil to all who survived. While the monks were enlisting ferocious bands of wretches, who believed that they might expiate their former crimes by the perpetration of fresh atrocities, In- nocent was preparing a new mission to Languedoc, whose savage bru- talities exceeded even those of the crusaders. A new monastic order was instittited, at the head of which was placed a Spaniard named St. Dominic, whose special object was to extirpate heresy, by preaching against the doctrines of those who dissented from the church, and pun- ishing with death those who could not be convinced by argument. This institution, too well known by the dreaded name of the Inquisi' tion, appears to have been originally planned by the bishop of Tou- louse, who introduced it into his diocese about seven years before it was formally sanctioned by Pope Innocent at the council of Lateran. Raymond VI., and his nephew Raymond Roger, viscount of Albf, alarmed at the approaching danger, presented themselves before the papal legate, Arnold, abbot of Citeaux, to avert the coming storm by explanations and submissions. They protested that they had never sanctioned heresy, and that they had no share in the murder of Castel- nau. The severity with which they were treated by the legate, con- vinced the young viscount that nothing was to be hoped from negotia- tion, and he returned to his states, resolved to defend himself to the last extremity ; the count of Toulouse showed less fortitude ; he prom- ised to submit to any conditions which the pope would impose. Raymond's ambassadors were received by the pope with apparent indulgence ; but the terms on which absolution were offered to the count could scarcely have been more severe. He was required to make common cause with the crusaders, to aid them in the extirpation of heretics — that is, his own subjects — and to give up seven of his best castles as a pledge of his intentions. Innocent declared that, if Ray- mond performed these conditions, he would not only be absolved, but taken into special favor ; yet, at the very same moment, the pope was inflexibly resolved on the count's destruction. In the spring of the year 1209, all the fanatics who had taken arms at the preaching of the monks of Citeaux, began to assemble on the borders of Languedoc ; the land was spread in beauty before them — ere long it was to be a howling wilderness. Raymond VI. sank into abject cowardice ; he yielded up his castles, he promised implicit sub- mission to the legate, he even allowed himself to be publicly beaten with rods before the altar, as a penance for his errors. As a reward for his humiliation, he was permitted to serve in the ranks of the cru- saders, and to act as their guide in the war against his nephew. Raymond Roger showed a bolder spirit ; finding the papal legate implacable, he summoned his barons together, and having stated all his exertions to preserve peace, made a stirring appeal to their generosity and their patriotism. All resolved on an, obstinate defence ; even those who adhered to the church of Rome justly dreaded the excesses of a fanatical horde eager to shed blood, and gratify a ruffian thirst for plun- der. The crusaders advanced : some castles and fortified towns were abandoned to them; others not subject to the imputation of heresy were allowed to ransom themselves ; Villemur was burned, and Chas- eeneuil, after a vigorous defence, capitulated. The garrison was per^ 424 MODERN HISTORY. mitted to retire, but all the inhabitants suspected of heresy, male and female, were committed to the flames amid the ferocious shouts of the conquerors, and their property abandoned to the soldiery. Beziers was the next object of attack ; the citizens resolved to make a vigorous resistance, but they were routed in a sally by the advanced guard of the crusaders, and so vigorously pursued, that the conquerors and conquered entered the gates together. The leaders, before taking advantage of their unexpected success, asked the abbot of Citeaux how they should distinguish Catholics from heretics ; the legate's mem- orable answer was, "Kill all: God will distinguish those who belong to himself." His words were too well obeyed ; every inhabitant of Beziers was ruthlessly massacred, and when the town was thus one immense slaughter-house, it was fired, that its ruins and ashes might become the monument of papal vengeance. Carcasonne was now the last stronghold of Raymond Roger, and it was gallantly defended by the young viscount. Simon de Montfort, the leader of die crusaders, found himself foiled by a mere youth, and was detained for eight days before he could master the suburbs and invest the town. Peter II., king of Aragon, whom the viscount of Albi and Beziers recognised as his suzerain, took advantage of this delay to interfere in behalf of the young lord, who was his nephew as well as his vassal. The legate, unwilling to offend so powerful a sovereign, accepted his mei diation, but when asked what terms would be granted to the besieged, he required that two thirds of Carcasonne should be given up to phm- der. Ra)rmond Roger spumed such conditions ; Peter applauded his courage, and personally addressed the garrison. " You know the fate that waits you ; make a bold defence, for that is the best means of finally obtaining favorable terms." The prudence of this advice was proved by the legate's consenting to a capitulation ; but when the vis- count, trusting to the faith of the treaty, presented himself in the camp of the crusaders, he was treacherously arrested, and thrown with his attendants into prison. Warned by the fate of their leader, the citizens of Carcasonne evacuated the town during the night, but some of the fugitives were overtaken by the cavalry of the crusaders ; the legate selected a supply of victims from his prisoners ; four hundred of them were burned alive, and about fifty were hanged. It seemed that the object of the crusade was obtained ; the count of Toulouse had submitted to every condition, however humiliating ; the viscount of Narbonne abandoned every notion of resistance ; and the gallant lord of Beziers was a prisoner. The crusaders too began to grow weary of the war ; the French lords were ashamed of the cruel- ties they had sanctioned, and the faith they had violated ; the knights and common stfldiers, having completed the term of their service, were anxious to revisit their homes. But the legate, Arnold, was still un- satisfied ; he summoned a council of the crusaders, and tried to induce them to remain, in order that they might protect their conquests of Beziers and Carcasonne, the investiture of which he conferred on Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. But the greater part of the French nobles refused to remain longer, and Montfort had to defend his new acquisitions with the vassals from his own estates. The gallant QBOWTH OP THE PAPAL POWER. 425 Raymond Roger was detained a close prisoner in his own baronial hall at Carcasonne, where he soon died, the victim of a dysentery, produced by grief, or, as was generally suspected, .by poison. The armies of the crusaders withdrew ; they left a desert, and called it peace ; but the sufferings of the Albigenses ^re not exhausted ; the monks of the Inquisition, attended by trains of executioners, went at their will through the land, torturing and butchering all who were sus- pected of heresy; Nor were the monks of Citeaux idle ; they had found honor and profit in preaching a crusade, and they were not dis- posed to relinquish the lucrative employment. Thus a new crusade was preached when there was no enemy to combat, and new hordes of fanatics were poured into Languedoc. They forced their chiefs to renew the war, that the exertions of those who profited by preaching extermination should not be lost, and that the bigotry of those who hoped to purchase their salvation by murder should not remain un- gratified. Strengthened by these reinforcements, Simon de Montfort threw oflT the mask of moderation, and declared war against the unfortunate count of Toulouse. Raymond was once more excommunicated, and his do- minions placed under an interdict. But the earl of Leicester soon found that he had been premature in his hostilities ; the king of Aragon refused to receive his homage for the viscounties of Beziers and Car- casonne, declaring that he would support the claims of the legitimate heir, Raymond Trencanel, the only son of the unfortunate Raymond Roger, a child about two years old, who was safe under the guardian- ship of the Count de Foix. A dangerous insurrection was raised in the states so recently assigned to Montfort ; and out of the tvro hundred towns and castles that had been granted to him, eight alone remained in his possession. The count of Toulouse was too much afraid of ecclesiastical ven- geance to defend himself by arms ; he sought the protection of the king of France, and he went in person to Rome to implore absolution. In- nocent promised him pardon on condition of his clearing himself from the charge of heresy and of participation in the murder of Castelnau ; but when' he presented himself before the council, he found that his judges had been gained over by his inexorable enemy, the abbot of Citeaux, and instead of being permitted to enter on his defence, he was overwhelmed by a series of new and unexpected charges. His re- monstrances were neglected, his tears afforded theme for mockery and insult, and the sentence of excommunication was formally ratified. In the meantime the crusaders, under Simon de Montfort, pursued their career of extermination ; those whom the sword spared fell by the hands of the executioner ; and the ministers of a God of peace Were found more cruel and vindictive than a licentious soldiery. Even the king of Aragon became alarmed, and sought to secure the friendship of the papal favorite, by afiiancing his infant son to a daughter of De Montfort. The monarch probably expected that by this concession, he would obtain more favorable terras for Raymond, and he accompanied the count to Aries, where a provincial council was assembled. The terms of peace fixed by the legate were so extravagant, not to say ab- surd, that even Raymond rejected them, and secretly withdrew from 426 MODERN HISTORY. the city in company with the king of Aragon. Once more the count was excommunicated, pronounced an enemy of the church and an apos- tate from the faith, and declared to have forfeited his title and estates. The war was now resumed with fresh vigor ; after a long siege, De Montfort took the strotg castle of Lavaur by assault, hanged its brave governor, the lord of Montreal, and massacred the entire garrison. " The lady of the castle," says the Romish historian, " who was an execrable heretic, was by the earl's orders thrown into a well, and stones heaped over her : afterward, the pilgrims collected the number- less heretics that were in the fortress, and burned them alive with great joy." The same cruelties were perpetrated at every other place through which the crusaders passed ; and the friends of the victims took re- venge, by intercepting convoys, and murdering stragglers. It was not until he had received a large reinforcement of pilgrims from Germany, that the earl of Leicester ventured to lay siege to Toulouse. Raymond, in this extremity, displayed a vigor and courage, which, if he had man- ifested in the earlier part of the war, would probably have saved his country from ruin. He made so vigorous a defence, that the crusaders were forced to raise the siege, and retire with some precipitation. The friendship between the monks of Citeaux and the crusaders soon began to be interrupted by the ambition of the former. Under pre- tence of reforming the ecclesiastical condition of Languedoc, they ex- pelled the principal prelates, and seized for themselves the richest sees and benefices. The legate, Arnold, took for his share the archbishop of Narbomie, after which he abandoned Montfort, and went to lead a new cruscHe against the Moors in Spain. Innocent III. himself paused for a moment in his career of vengeance, and, at the instance of the king of Aragon, promised Raymond the benefit of a fair trial. But it is easier to rouse than to allay the spirit of fanaticism ; disobeyed by his legates, and reproached by the crusaders, the pope was com- pelled to retrace his steps, and abandon Raymond to the fury of his enemies. The king of Arragon came to the aid of his unfortunate relative, and encountered the formidable army of the crusaders at Muret ; but he was slain in the beginning of the battle ; the Spanish chivalry, disheartened by his fall, took to flight ; and the infantry of Toulouse, thus forsaken, could oflfer no effective resistance. Trampled down by the pilgrim- knights, the citizens of Toulouse who followed their sovereign to the field, were either cut to pieces, or drowned in the waters of the Garonne. Philip Augustus had triumphed over his enemies, the king of Eng- land and the emperor of Germany, just when the victory of Muret seems to have confirmed the power of De Montfort. But the ambitious adventurer derived little profit from his success, for the court of Rome began to dread the power of its creature (a. d. 1215). His influence with the papal legates and the prelates who had directed the crusade was, however, still very great, and he procured from the council of Montpellier the investiture of Toulouse and all the conquests made by " the Christian pilgrims." Philip Augustus was by no means disposed to acquiesce in this arrangement ; he sent his son Louis with a niuner- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWEB. 437 ous army into the south of France, under pretence of joining in the crusade, but really to watch the proceedings of De Montfort. Louis subsequently returned to accept the proffered crown of England, and the quarrel in which this proceeding involved him with the pope di- verted his attention from Languedoc. Arnold of Citeaux, having returned from his Spanish crusade, took possession of his archbishopric of Narbonne, where he began to exer- cise the rights of a sovereign prince. Simon de Montfort, who had taken the title of duke of Narbonne ki addition to that of count of Tou- louse, denied that his old companion in arms had a right to temporal jurisdiction ; he entered the city by force, and erected his ducal stand- ard. Arnold fulminated an excommunication against De Montfort, and placed the city under an interdict while he remained in it ; he found, however, to his great surprise and vexation, that these weapons were contemned by the foriiftdable champion of the church. But a more vigorous enemy appeared in the person of Raymond VII., son of the count of Toulouse, who, in conjunction with his father, made a vigorous effort to recover the ancient inheritance of his race. Simon de Mont- fort, contrary to his own better judgment, was induced by Foulke, bishop of Toulouse, to treat the citizens with treacherous cruelty for showing some symptoms of affection to their ancient lord ; the conse- quence was, that they took advantage of his absence to invite Raymond to resume his power ; and on the 13th of September, 1217, the count was publicly received into his ancient capital amid universal acclama- tions. Simon, by the aid of the papal legate and the clergy, was able to collect a large army, but the bravest of the crusaders had either fallen in the preceding wars, or returned disgusted to their homes. Every one now knew that heresy was extinguished in Languedoc, and that the war was maintained only to gratify private revenge and individual ambition. De Montfort laid siege to Toulouse, but he was slain in a sally of the inhabitants, and his son Almeric, after a vain effort to re- venge his death, retired to Carcasonne. The Albigensian war was not ended by the death of its great leader. Almeric de Montfort sold his claims over Languedoc to Louis VIII., king of France ; and though this prince died in the attempt to gain pos- session of Toulouse, the war was so vigorously supported by the queen- regent, Blanche, that Raymond VII, submitted to his enemies, and his dominions were united to the crown of France (a. d. 1239). The In- quisition was immediately established in these unhappy countries, which have never since recovered completely from the calamities in- flicted upon them by the ministers of papal vengeance. Section IX. — Consequences of the Crusades. Though the popes did not succeed in establishing their supremacy over the eastern churches, yet they derived very important advantages from the wars of the crusaders. Not the least of these was the gen- eral recognition of their right to interfere in the internal management of states ; they compelled emperors and kings to assume the cross ; they levied taxes at their discretion on the clergy throughout Christen- 428 MODERN HISTORY. dom for the support of these wars ; they took under their immediate protection the persons and properties of those who enhsted, and grant- ed privileges to the adventurous warriors, which it would have been -deemed impiety to contravene. Those who joined in these wars, fre- quently bequeathed their estates to the church, in the not improbable case of their death without heirs ; those whom cowardice or policy de- tained at home, atoned for their absence by founding ecclesiastical en- dowments. While the papal power increased, that of monarchs declined ; in Germany, the Hohenstauffen gradually lost all influence ; in England, the barons extorted a charter from John, and the Hungarians chiefs placed similar restrictions on their sovereign. Peculiar circumstances led to a contrary result in France ; many of the great feudatories hav- ing fallen in a distant land, the monarchs were enabled to extend their prerogatives, while their domains wei^ increased by seizing the properties of those who died without feudal heirs, or of those who were suspected of heretical opinions. The Christian kings of Spain and northern Europe derived also some profit from the fanaticism of the age, being aided by troops of warlike adventurers, in extending their dominions at the expense of their Mohammedan and pagan neigh- bors. Chivalry, though older than the crusades, derived its chief influence and strength from these wars. The use of surnames, coats of arms, and distinctive banners, became necessary in armies composed of men diflfering in language, habits, and feelings, collected at hazard from every Christian kingdom. Tournaments were the natural result of pride and courage, in warriors naturally jealous of each other's fame, while the institution of the military orders invested knighthood with a mysterious religious sanction. The first of these was the order of the Hospital- lers, or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, known subsequently as the Knights of Malta. They were formed into a confraternity by Pope Pascal (a. d. 1114), but their order was greatly enlarged by Pope Car lixtus. They bore an octagonal white cross on their black robes, and were bound to wage war on infidels, and attend to sick pilgrims. After the loss of the Holy Land, they removed successively to Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta. Their order held Malta until a. d. 1798, when they were deprived of their last possession by Napoleon. The Knights Templars, distinguished by the red cross, were institu- ted soon after the Hospitallers. Their original duty was to keep the roads free for the pilgrims that visited the Holy Sepulchre, but as their numbers increased, they became the great bulwark of the Christian kingdom of Palestine, and the possessors of rich endowments in every part of western Europe.* At length their wealth excited the cupidity of monarchs ; they were overwhelmed by a mass of forged accusations ; many of the noblest knights were put to death by torture, and the order wholly abolished at the council of Vienne (a. d. 1312). The Teutonic order was originally a confraternity of German knights, formed during the seige of Acre, for the relief of the sick and wounded. It was formally instituted, by Pope Celestin HI. (a. d. 1192), and a • The Temple in London belonged to the Red-cross knights ; the Hospitallers possessed a splendid preceptory in Clerkenwell, part of which is still standing. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 429 code of regulations prescribed for its direction. Their ensign was a black cross, on a white robe. They subdued the kingdom of Prussia (a. d. 1230), of which they held possession until the progress of the Reformation gave that country to a protestant prince (a. d. 1525). The last great order was that of St. Lazarus, instituted originally for super- intending the treatment of leprosy, a loathsome disease which the cru- saders introduced into Europe. It soon became military, like the pre- ceding, but never rose to similar eminence. The Italian maritime states supplied the crusaders with transports, and conveyed to them provision and the munitions of war. This traf- fic led to a rapid increase in the commerce and navigation of the Med- iterranean ; a taste for spices and other articles of oriental luxury was gradually diffused throughout Europe, and trading depots were formed by Venice, Genoa, and other Italian powers, on the shores of the Le- vant, and the coasts of the Greek empire. Several French towns imi- tated this example, and in the remote north an association was formed for the protection and extension of commerce between the cities of Lu- beck and Hamburgh (a. d. 1241), which laid the foundation of the Hanseatic league. The progress of industry, the encouragement which sovereigns found it their interest to grant to trade, and their anxiety to check the arrogance and rapacity of their feudal vassals, led to a great change in most European countries, the establishment of municipal in- stitutions. The royal authority gained considerably by the extension of munici- pal freedom. The cities and towns saw that the sovereign was the person most interested in protecting their growing freedom, and they therefore gladly gave him their support in his struggles with the aris- tocracy and the clergy. The emancipation of the serfs was a conse- quence of municipal freedom. The free cities granted protection to all who sought shelter within their walls, and the nobles saw that they must either ameliorate the condition of their vassals, or witness the de- population of their estates. Liberty thus gradually recovered its right ; civilization consequently began to extend its blessings over society. The imperial house of HohenstaufFen fell from its pride of place on the death of the emperor Frederic II., the great opponent of the pa- pacy (a. d. 1250). His son Conrad fell a victim to disease, after a brief but troubled reign ; and the anarchy which succeeded in Ger- many, is justly named the calamitous period of the great interregnum. William of Holland, and an English prince, Richard, ^arl of Cornwall, were successively elected emperors, and enjoyed little more than the title. At length, Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was chosen (a. d. 1273), and showed himself worthy of the crown by his energy in sup- pressing the predatory wars that were waged by his vassals. In the meantime, the popes, in defiance of the rights of the Hohenstauffen, had bestowed the kingdom of Naples on Charles, duke of Anjou, brother to the king of France. The cruelties of Charles led the Italians to invite young Conradin to assert the hereditary claims of his family. At the age of sixteen this brave prince entered Italy, where he was enthusiastically received. But the Italians were not able to compete with the French in the field ; when Conradin encountered Charles, Mn followers' broke at the first on- 430 MODKUK HISTORY. set, and he remained a prisoner. The duke of Anjou subjected the young prince to the mockery of a trial, and commanded him to be exe- cuted. Thus fell the last prince of the house of Suabia, which had long been the most formidable obstacle to papal usurpation. The triumph of the papacy appeared complete : Italy was severed from the German empire ; but the peninsula recovered its independence only to be torn in sunder by factions ; the church did not succeed to the empire, and the pontiffs found that the spirit of freedom, which they had themselves nurtured, was a more formidable foe than the sovereigns of Germany. Section X. — Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy. For several hundred years after the great Saracen invasion in the beginning of the eighth century, Spain was broken up into a number of small but independent states, divided in their interests, and often in deadly hostility with one another. By the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury, the number of states into which the country had been divided was reduced to four; Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The last, comprised within nearly the same limits as the modern province of that name, was all that remained to the Moslems of their once vast possessions in the peninsula. Its concentrated pop- ulation gave it a degree of strength altogether disproportioned to the extent of its territory ; and the profuse magnificence of its court, which rivalled that of the ancient khaliphs, was supported by the labors of a sober industrious people, under whom agriculture and several of the mechanic arts had reached a degree of perfection probably unequalled in any other part of Europe during the middle ages. The little kingdom of Navarre, embosomed within the Pyrenees, had often attracted the avarice of neighboring and more powerful states. But since their selfish schemes operated as a mutual check upon each other, Navarre still continued to maintain her independence when all the smaller states had been absorbed in the gradually increasing do- minion of Castile and Aragon. This latter kingdom comprehended the province of that name, together with Catalonia and Valencia. Under its auspicious climate and free political institutions, its inhabitants dis- played an uncommon share of intellectual and moral energy. Its long line of coast opened the way to an extensive and flourishing commerce ; and its enterprising navy indemnified the nation for the scantiness of its territory at home by the important foreign conquests of Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and the Balearic Isles. The remaining provinces of the peninsula fell to the crown of Castile, which, thus extending its sway over an unbroken line of country from the bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, seemed, by the magnitude of its territory, to be entitled to some supremacy over the other states of the peninsula ; especially as it was there that the old Gothic monarchy may be said first to have revived after the great Saracen invasion. This claim, indeed, appears to have been recognised at an early period of her history. The Saracens, reposing under the sunny skies of Andalusia, so con- genial with their own, seemed willing to relinquish the sterile regions GROWTH OP THE PAPAL POWEE. 431 of the north to an enemy whom they despised. But when the Span- iards, quitting the shelter of their mountains, descended into the open plains of Leon and Castile, they found themselves exposed to the pred- atory incursions of the Arab cavalry. It was not until they had reach- ed some natural boundary, as the river Douro, that they were enabled, by constructing a line of fortifications behind this natural fence, to se- cure their conquests. Their own dissensions were another cause of their tardy progress. More Christian blood was wasted in these na- tional feuds than in all their encounters with the infidel. The soldiers of Fernan Gonzales, a chieftain of the tenth century, complained that their master made them lead the lives of very devils, keeping them in the harness day and night, in wars not against the Saracens, but one another. These circumstances so far checked the energies of the Christians, that a century and a half elapsed after the invasion before they had penetrated to the Douro (a. d. 850), and' nearly thrice that period before they had advanced the line of conquest to the Tagus (a, d. 1147), not- withstanding this portion of the country had been comparatively desert- ed by the Mohammedans. But it was easy to foresee that a people living as they did under circumstances favorable to the development of both physical and moral energy, must ultimately prevail over a nation oppressed by despotism, and the effeminate indulgence to which it was naturally disposed by a sensual religion and a voluptuous climate. In truth, the early Spaniard was urged by every motive which can give energy to human purpose. His cause became the cause of Heaven. The church published her bulls of crusade, offering liberal indulgences to those who served, and paradise to those who fell in the battle against the infidel. Indeed, volunteers from the remotest parts of Christian Europe eagerly thronged to serve under his banner, and the cause of religion was debated with the same ardor in Spain as on the plains of Palestine. To the extraordinary position in which the nation was placed may be referred the liberal forms of its political institutions, as well as a more early development of them than took place in other countries of Europe. From the exposure of the Castilian towns to the predatory incursions of the Arabs, it became necessary, not only that they should be strongly fortified, but that every citizen should be trained to bear arms in their defence. An immense increase of consequence was given to the burgesses, who thus constituted the most effective part of the national militia. To this circumstance, as well as to the policy of in- viting the settlement of frontier places by the grant of extraordinary privileges to the inhabitants, is to be imputed the early date, as well the liberal character of the charters of community in Castile and Leon. These, although varying a good deal in their details, generally conce- ded to the citizens the right of electing their own magistrates for the regulation of municipal affairs. In order to secure the barriers of jus- tice more effectually against the violence of power, so often superior to law in an imperfect state of society, it 'was provided in many of the charters that no nobles should be permitted to acquire real property within the limits of the municipality ; that no fortress or palace should be erected by them there ; that such as might reside within the terri- 432 MODEEN HISTOE.Y. tory of a chartered city or borough should be subject to its jurisdiction ; and that any violence offered by the feudal lords to its inhabitants might be resisted with impunity. Thus, while the inhabitants of the great towns in other parts of Europe were languishing in feudal servitude, the CastiUan corporation, living under the protection of their own laws and magistrates in time of peace, and commanded by their own officers in time of war, were in full enjoyment of all the essential rights and priv- ileges of freemen. The earliest instance on record of popular representation in Castile, occurred at Burgos in 1169 ; nearly a century antecedent to the first convocation of the EngUsh house of commons, in the celebrated Lei- cester parliament. Each city had but one vote whatever might be the number of its representatives. The nomination of the deputies was originally vested in the householders at large, but was afterward con- fined to the municipalities ; a most mischievous alteration which sub- jected their election eventually to the corrupt influence of the crown. They assembled in the same chamber with the higher orders of the nobility and clergy ; but on questions of importance retired to deliber- ate by themselves. After the transaction of other business, their own petitions were presented to the sovereign ; and his assent gave them the validity of laws. The Castilian commons, by neglecting to make their money grants dependant on corresponding concessions from the crown, relinquished that powerful check on its operations so bene- ficially exerted in the British parliament, but in vain contended for even there until a period much later than that now under consideration. Whatever may have been the right of the nobility and clergy to attend the Cortes, their sanction was not deemed essential to the validity of legislative acts ; for their presence was not even required in many as- semblies of the nation which occurred in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The extraordinary power thus committed to the commons was, on the whole, unfavorable to their liberties. It deprived them of the sympathy and co-operation of the great orders of the state, whose authority alone could have enabled them to withstand the enactments of arbitrary power, and who in fact did eventually desert them in their utmost need. But notwithstanding these defects, the popular branch of the Castilian Cortes, very soon after its admission into that body, assumed functions and exercised a degree of power superior to that enjoyed by the com- mons in other European legislatures. It was soon recognised as a principle of the constitution, that no tax should be imposed without the consent of the representatives of the people. The commons showed a wise solicitude in regard to the mode of collecting the pubUc revenue. They watched carefully over its appropriation to its destined uses. A vigilant eye was kept on the conduct of public officers, as well as on the right administration of justice, and commissions were appointed by the Cortes to inquire into any suspected abuses of judicial authority. They entered into negotiations for alliances with foreign powers, and by determining the amount of supplies for the maintenance of troops in time of war, preserved a salutary check over military operations. The nomination of regencies was subject to their approbation, and they de- fined the nature of the authority to be intrusted to them. Their con- GEOWTHOE THE. PAPAL POWBH. 433 sent was.esteemed indispensable to the validity of a title to tlie crown ; and this prerogative, or at least the shadorw of it, long continued to sur- vive the wreck of their ancient liberties. Finally they more than once set aside the testamentary provisions of the sovereign in regard to the succession. It tvould be improper to pass by without notice an anomalous insti- tution peculiar to Castile, which sought to secure the public tranquillity by means which were themselves scarcely compatible with civil subor- dination. This was the celebrated Hermandad, or " Holy Brotherhood," which was designed as a substitute for a, regularly-organized police. It consisted of a confederation of the principal cities, bound together by solemn league and covenant for the defence of their liberty in seasons of civil anarchy. Its affairs were conducted by deputies, who assem- bled at Stated intervals for the purpose, transacting their business under a common seal, enacting laws which they were careful to transmit to the nobles and the sovereign, and enforcing their measures by an armed body of dependants. This wild kind of justice, so characteristic of an imsettled state of society, repeatedly received the legislative sanction ; and however formidable such a popular engine may have appeared to the eye of a monarch, he was often led to countenance it by a sense of his own impotence, as well as of the overweening power of the nobles, against whom it was principally directed. Hence these associations, though the epithet may seem somewhat overstrained, have received the appellation of " Gortes Extraordinary." With these immunities the cities of Castile attained a degree of opu- lence and splendor unrivalled, unless in Italy, during the middle ages. At a very early period indeed their contact with the Arabs had familiar- ized them with a better system of agriculture and a dexterity in the mechanic arts unknown in other parts of Christendom. Augmentation of wealth brought with it the usual appetite for expensive pleasures; but the surplus of riches was frequently expended in useful public works. The nobles, though possessed of immense estates and great poUtical privileges, did not consume their fortunes or their energies in a life of effeminate luxury. From their earliest boyhood they were accustomed to serve in the ranks against the infidel, and their whole subsequent lives were occupied either with war, or those martial exercises which reflect the image of it. Lopking back with pride to the ancient Gothic descent, and to those times when they had stood forward as the peers, the electors of their sovereign, they would ill brook the slightest indig- nity at his hand. Accordingly we find them perpetually convulsing the kingdom with their schemes of selfish aggrandizement. The petitions of the commons are filled with remonstrances on their various oppres- sions, and the evils resulting from their long desolating feuds. The over-weening self-confidence of the nobles, however, proved their ruin. They disdained a co-operation with the lower orders in defence of their privileges, when both were assailed by the Austrian dynasty, and relied too unhesitatingly on their power as a body, to feel jealous of their exclusion from the national legislature, where alone they could make an effectual stand algainst the usurpations of the crown. The long minorities with which Castile was afflicted, perhaps more 28 434 MODERN HIBTOUT. than any bouiitry in Europe, frequently threw the gbvemment into the hands of the principal nobility, who penrerted to theit own emoliiment the high powers intrusted to them. They usurped the possessions of the crown, and invaded some of its most valuable privileges ; so that the sovereign's subsequent life was frequently spent in fruitless attempts to recover the losses of his minority. He sometimes, indeed, in the impotence of other resources, resorted to such unhappy expedients as treachery and assassination. Section XI.— Survey of (he Constitution of Aragon. Aragon was first raised to political importance by its union with Catalonia, including the rich country of Barcelona, and the subsequent cohquest of the kingdom of Valencia. The ancient country of Barce- lona had reached a higher degree of civilization than Aragon, and was distinguished by institutions even more liberal than those we have de- scribed in the preceding section as belonging to Castile. It was in the maritime cities, scattered along the coasts of the Mediterranean, that the seeds of liberty, both in ancient and modern times, were implanted and brought to maturity. During the middle ages, when the people of Europe generally maintained a toilsome and unfrequent intercourse ^ith each other, those situated on the margin of this great inland sea found ah easy mode of communication across the great highway of its waters. Among these maritime republics, those of Catalonia were eminently conspicuous. By the incorporation of this country, there- fore, with the kingdom of Aragon, the strength of the latter was greatly augmented. The Aragonese princes, well aware of this, liberally fos- tered the institutions to which the country owed its prosperity, and skill- fully availed themselves of its resources for the aggrandizement of their dominions. The Catalan navy disputed the empire of the Mediterranean with the fleets of Pisa, and still more with those of Genoa. With its aid the Aragonese monarchs achieved successfully the conquest of Sici- ly, Sardinia, and the Balearic isles, which they annexed to their empire. It penetrated into the farthest regions of the Levant, and a Catalan ar- mament conquered Athens, giving to their sovereign the classical tide of duke of thfeit city. But though the dominions of the kings of Aragon were thus extended abroad^ there were no sovereigns in Europe whose authority was so limited at home. The national historians refer the origin of their gov- erntaent to a written constitution of about the middle of the ninth cen- tury, fragments of which are still preserved in certain ancient documents and chronicles. On the occurrence of a vacancy in the throne at this epochj a monarch was elected by the twelve principal nobles, who pre- scribed a. code of laws, to the observance of which he was compelled to swear before assuming the sceptre. The import of these laws was to circumscribe within very narrow limits the authority of the sovereign- ty, distributing the principal functions to a justieia or justice ; and these peers were authorized, if the compact should be violated by the mon- arch, to withdraw their allegiance, and in the bold language of the or- duiance " to substitute any other ruler in his stead, even a pagan if they Usted." The gtreat barons of Aragon were few in number, they claimed GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 435 descent from tlie twelve electoral peers we have described, and they very reluctantly admitted to equality those whom the favor of the sov- ereign raised to the peerage. No baron could be divested of his fief unless by public sentence of the justice and the cortes. The nobles filled of right the highest offices in the state ; they appointed judges in their domains for the cognizance of certain civil causes, and they exer- cised an unlimited criminal jurisdiction over certain classes of their vas- sals. They were excused from taxation, except in specified cases ; were exempted from all corporal and capital punishments ; nor could they be imprisoned, though their estates might be sequestrated, for debt. But the laws conceded to them privileges of a still more dangerous character. They were entitled to defy and publicly renounce their al- Itegiance to their sovereign, with the whimsical privilege in addition, of commending their families and estates to his protection, which he was obliged to protect imtil they were again reconciled. The mischievous right of private war was repeatedly recognised by statute. It was claimed and exercised in its full extent, and occasionally with circumstances of peculiar atrocity. The commons of Aragon enjoyed higher consideration, and still larger civil privileges, than those of Castile. For this they were perhaps somewhat indebted to the example of their Catalan neighbors, the influ- ence of whose democratic institutions naturally extended to other parts of the Aragonese monarchy. The charters of certain cities accorded to their inhabitants ^privileges of nobility, particularly those of immunity from taxation ; while the magistrates of others were permitted to take their seats in the order of the lesser nobles. By a statute passed in 1307, it was ordained that the cortes should assemble triennially. The great of- ficers of the crown, whatever might be their personal rank, were jealously excluded from their deliberations. It was in the power of any mtember to defeat the passage of a bill, by opposing to it his veto or dissent for- mally registered to that effect. He might even interpose his negative on the proceedings of the house, and thus put a stop to the prosecution of all further business during the session. During the interval of the sessions of the legislature, a committee of two from each department was appointed to preside over public affairs, particulariy in regard to the revenue and the security of justice ; with authority to convoke a cortes extraordinary, whenever the exigency might demand it. The cortes exercised the highest functions, whether of a deliberative, legislative, or judicial nature. It had a right to be consulted on all mat- ters of importance ; especially on those of peace or war. No law was valid, no tax could be imposed without its consent ; and it carefully pro- vided for the appUcation of the revenue to its destined uses. It deter- mined the succession to the crown ; removed obnoxious ministers ; re- formed the household and domestic expenditure of the monarch ; and exercised the power in the most unreserved manner of withholding sup- plies, as well as of resisting what it regarded as an encroachment on the liberties of the nation. The governments of Valencia and Catalonia were administeredjinde- pendent of each other long after they had been consolidated into one monarchy, but they bore a very near resemblance to the constitution of Aragon. The city of Barcelona, which originally gave its name to the 436 MODEEN HISTORY. county of which it was the capital, was distinguished from a very early period by ample municipal privileges. Under the Aragonese mohaichs, 'Barcelona had so- well profited by the liberal administrations of- its rulers as to have reached a degree of prosperity rivalling that of any of the Italian republics. The wealth which flowed in upon Barcelona, and the result of the activity and enterprise which the merchants of the place exhibited, was evinced by the numerous public works in which it set an example to all Europe. Strangers who visited Spain in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, expatiate on the magnificence of this city, its commodious private edifices, the cleanliness of its streets and public squares, and on the amenity of its gardens and cultivated environs. But the peculiar glory of Barcelona was the freedom of its municipal institutions. The government consisted of a senate or council of one hundred, and a body, of corregidorcs or counsellors, varying at times from four to six in number ; the former intrusted with the legislative, the lat- ter with the executive functions of administration. A large proportion of these bodies was selected from the merchants, tradesmen, and me- chanics of the city. They were invested, not merely with municipal authority, but with many of the rights of sovereignty. They entered into commercial treaties with foreign powers ; superintended the de- fence of the city in time of war ; provided for the security of trade j granted letters of reprisal against any nation who might violate it ; and raised and appropriated public money for the construction of useful works, or the encouragement of such commercial adventures as were too hazardous or expensive for individual enterprise. Under the influence of th'ese democratic institutions, the burghers of Barcelona, and, indeed, of Catalonia in general, which enjoyed more or less of a similar freedom, assumed a haughty independence of character beyond what existed among the same class in other parts of Spain ; and this, combined with the martial daring fostered by a life of maritime adventure and warfare, made them impatient, not merely of oppression, but of contradiction on the part of their sovereigns, who have experi- enced more frequent and more sturdy resistance from this part of their dominions than from any other. Navogiers, the Venetian ambassador to Spain early in the sixteenth century, although a republican himself was so struck with what he deemed the insubordination of the Barcelo- nians, that he asserts, " The inhabitants have so many privileges that the king scarcely retains any authority over them-, their liberty " he adds, "should rather go by the name of licentiousness." Such, in the earlier stages of Spanish history, were the free consti- tutions of Castile and Aragon ; but when these two kingdoms were united into one great monarchy, it became the settled pohcy of the sov- ereigns to destroy all the institutions by which the liberties of the people were secured. As the power of the Mohammedans grew weaker, the kings of Castile had less reason to grant municipal privileges on condi- tion of defending the frontiers ; and their nobles, continually engaged in mutual dissensions, were unable to check the inroads of the crown on their aristocratic privileges. The nobles of Aragon, indeed, were al- ways ready to combine m a common cause, and it was aptly said by one of the monarchs, in reference to these two aristocracies, that " it GEOWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 437 was equally difficult to divide the nobles of Aragon, and to unite those of Castile." But union availed little to the Aragonese nobles, when the seat of government was placed beyond the sphere of their influence, . and when Castilian armies were ready to crush the first appearance of insurrection. It is also to be remarked, though rather in anticipation of what we shall have to discuss hereafter, that the conquest of Ainer- ica not merely gave the kings of Spain vast supplies of gold, without their being compelled to have recourse to their parliaments or cortes, but it also enabled them to create many lucrative monopolies, for which the Spanish nobles bartered the privileges of their order and the rights of the people. There is a closer connexion between freedom of trade and freedom of institutions than is generally imagined : every protected interest exists at the. expense of all the other classes of the community, and being itself based on injustice, must connive at injustice in others. Prospective loss, however great, is constantly hazarded by the ignorant and unthinking for immediate gain, however small, and it was this self- ish folly which mainly enabled the Austrian line of Spanish monarchs to overthrow the ancient constitution of their country, and to render Spain a memorable and sad example of the great truth, that a land of monopoly soon becomes a land of slavery, and eventually a land of misery. Section XII. — State of Western Europe at the commencement, of the Four- teenth Century. RoDOLPH of Hapsburgh had no sooner obtained possession of the empire, than he resolved to strengthen the sovereign authority, by an- nexing some of the great fiefs to the crown. The usurpation of the dutchy of Austria by Ottokar, king of Bohemia, afibrded him a pretext for inter- fering in the disposal of that province ; he defeated Ottokar, and deprived Mm not only of Austria, but also of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, which were formed into a new principality, and the investiture given to Albert, the emperor's son (a. d. 1282), who founded the imperial house of Austria. . But while the' emperor's authority was extended in Germany, it was almost unknown in Italy, where the republican cities generally withdrew even nominal allegiance from their former masters. Of these commer- cial states Venice was the most important. This city had been origi- nally founded by some refugees who sought shelter in the islands and Ia,gopns of the Adriatic, from the ferocity of the Huns (a. d. 452) ; but it first rcse into importance under the doge Pierre Urseolo II. (a. d. 992), who obtained freedom of commerce for his fellow-citizens from the By- zantine emperor and the sultan of Egypt, and subjected, the maritime cities of Istria and Dalmatia. In the wars between the empire and the papacy, they had generally supported the latter ; Pope Alexander III., as a reward for their services, conferred on them the sovereignty of the Adriatic, and hence arose the singular ceremony of celebrating annu- ally a mystic marriage between that sea and the Venetian doge. The crusades tended greatly to extend the power of the republic, especially the fourth, in which, as we have already stated, the Greek empire wa,s dismembered. On this occasion, the Venetians received from their allies several maritime cities in Dalnjatia, Albania, Epirus, and Greece, 438 MODERN HISTOBYi • the islands of Crete, Corfu, Cephalonia, and several others in the Ionian cluster. But the increasing wealth of Venice led to a fatal change in its po- litical constitution. The government was originally democratic, the power of the doge being limited by a council, who were freely chosen by the citizens. Several tumults at these elections furnished the doge, Peter Grandenigo, with an excuse for proposing a law abrogating an- nual elections, and rendering the dignity of councillor hereditary in the families of those who were at the period members of the legislative as- sembly (a. d. 1298). This establishment of a close aristocracy led to several revolts, of which that headed by Tiepolo was the most remark- able (a. d. 1310). After a fierce battle within the city, the insurgents were routed ; ten inquisitors were chosen to investigate the conspiracy, and this commission was soon rendered permanent under the name of the Council of Ten. the most formidable tribunal ever founded to support aristocratic tyranny. Genoa, like Venice, owed its prosperity to its extensive commerce, which flourished in spite of the several political convulsions that agi- tated the republic. The Genoese embraced the cause of the Greek emperors, and helped them to regain Constantinople. Their services were rewarded by the cession of Caffa, Azov, and other ports on the Black sea, through which they opened a lucrative trade with. China and India. They obtained also Smyrna, a,nd Pera, a suburb of Constantino- ple, together with several important islands in the Archipelago. Nor were they less successful in extending their power in Italy and the -western. Mediterranean,-though they had to contend against powerful "rivals in the citizens. of Pisa. The mutual jealousies of tUese republics, and the anxiety of both to possess the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, led to a long and sanguinary war. It ended (a. i^. 1290) in the com- plete overthrow of the Pisans, whose commerce was annihilated by the loss of the island of Elba^ and thgs, could not enforce the obedience of the Roman citizens. But this is not the only instance of a similar anomaly in the history of the papacy, Peter of Aragon, feigning obedipnce, exchanged his title of king for that of a sin^ple kmght, retaining, however, all the power qf royalty ; but dreading the succors that the king of France sent to his pncle more than the p^pal menaces, he sought out means of gaining time to organize the defence of Sicily, Knowing the vain-glorious dis- position of his rival, Peter proposed that Charles and he, with a hundred knights at each side, should decide their respective titles in a combat, near Bordeaux. The duke of Anjou, elated by the hopes of a duel with a prince who added to his modest title, " Knight of Aragon," the sound- ing designations, " Lord of the Seas, and Father of Three Kings," ac- cepted the terms ; and, while he prepared for the expected field, neg- lected his pri^parations for war.. Martin ftdminated against the duel, single comJ^ats being forbidden by the church ; but Peter had never intended to expose himself to the chance, and on the appointed day, Charles discovered, from the npji-appearance of his adversary, that he had been bafSed by superior policy, perhaps we should rather say, perlSdy, Martin more than shaaced the indigniation of his favorite ; he renewed th? preaching of the crusade against Peter, granting to all who fought in the papal cause the same indulgences assigned to those who joined in the eKpeditipns for the recovery of Palestine ; and he sent ambassar dors urging the French king to hasten the invasion of Aragon. It is not ^4sy to conceive hpw monarchs could be blind to the consequences of accepting these proffered crowns ; they thus recognised the principle of tjie pope's right to depose sovereigns, and sanctioned a power which rnigiu, a,i ajjy time be enaployed against themselves or their successors. But the lessons of prudence are slow in penelarating hearts fascinated by ambition or fanaticisn^. The anathemas of Martin did not deprive Peter of his crown ; they scarcely even checked the current of his fortunes. All his subjects, clergy, nobles, and commons, ostentatiously displayed their attachment to their soverei^, and laughed the papal decrees to scorn. The Ara- gonese admiral' defeatjed the fleet of the dulie of Anjou witMn sight of Naples, and made bis son, Charles the Lame, a prisoner (a. p. 1284). This scion of a detested race would not have escaped the fury pf the Messenians, who wished to sacrifice him in revenge for the murder of Conradin, only for the generous interference of Queen Constance, Man- fred's daughter, who rescued him from the fury of the populace, and sent him for security to Catalonia. Charles pf Anjou did not long sur- vive this calamity ; the remembrance of his former triumphs and pros- perity, his pride, his contempt for his enemies, and shame for having been baffled by policy, aggravated the mortification of a defeat which he no longer had power to retrieve, Spain continued divided into several small kingdoms, Christian and 440 MODEEN HISTOEY. Moliattiinedan. ' To thfe fornjer belonged Wavarre, Aragon, and Castile, 6f which the last t*o were; gradually extendingthemselves at the ex- pense of their Mohammedun neighbors,- The Castiliah monarch, Al- phonso I., captured Madrid and Toledo (a. p. 1085),; he would proba- bly have expelled the Moors from Spain, had not a new burst of fa- naticism in Africa' supplied the Mohammedans with hordes of enthusi- astic defenders in the moment of danger. The Moors not only recov- ered their strength, but became so formid'able, that Pope Innocent III. published a crusade against them. A numerous Christian army assem- bled on the confines of Castile and Andalusia; thejr encountered their enemies hear the city of Uleda, and iiiflicted oii them a defeat, from which the Spanish Mohammedans never recovered (a. d. 1312). Fer- dinand III., king of Castile and Leon, profiting by the weakness of the Moors, subdued the little kingdom of Cordova, Murcia, and Seville (a. r>. 1256), so that the Mohammedans' were reduced to the single kingdom of Granada. The crusade in Spain led to the foundation of a new kingdom in Europe. Henry of Burgundy, a member of the royal family of France, was so eminently distinguished by his. valor in the Mohammedan wars, that Alphonso VI., king of Castile, gave him his daughter in marriage, with the investiture of the country of Portugal as her dowry. Henry enlarged his territory at the expense of the Mdhammedans, but his fame was eclipsed by that of his son Alphoiiso, whom his soldiers proclaimed king on the glorious field of battle in which the power of the Moham- medans was destroyed (a. d: 1139). To secure his new royalty, Al- phonso placed himself and his Idngdom under the protection of the holy see, and declared himself a liege subject of the pope. His suc- cessors found the Roman pontiiTs by no means slow in availing them- selves of the power thus ceded to them ; several violent struggles were made by the kings to free themselves from theyoke, but the power of the popes prevailed, and a treaty was concluded, by which the Portu- guese clergy were secured in extensive possessions, almost royal priv- ileges, and a complete exemption from secular jurisdiction (a. d. 1289). As the governments of France and England began to assume a sta- ble form, rivalry arose between the two nations, which led to a long series of sanguinary wars. From the time of Capet's usurpation, the policy of the French kings had been to lessen the power of the great feudatories ; and it was a perilous error in Philip I. to sanction the duke of Normandy's conquest of England, for he thus permitted a vas- sal, already dangerous, to become his rival sovereign. The danger was ^eatly increased when Louis VII. divorced his faithless wife Eleanor, the heiress to the provinces of Guienne, Poitou, and Gasoony. She married Henry II., king of England, and thus enabled him to add her inheritance to that of the' Plantagenets in France, whieh included the dutchies of Normandy and the counties of Anjou and Maine (a. d. 1252). The vassal was now more powerful than his sovereign ; the throne of France indeed would scarcely have been secure, had not the family dis- putes of the Plantagenets, secretly fomented by the wicked Eleanor, caused Henry's sons to revolt against their indulgent father, and brought that able sovereign with sorrow to his grave. Philip Augustus was the founder of the greatness of the French monarchy. The Plantagenets GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 441 of England sank rapidly before his superior talents. Richard I. was nothing more than a brave warrior, and unable to compete with the policy of his rival ; his successor, John, was neither a soldier nor a statesman ; he provoked the resentment of all his subjects, and while assailed in England by the discontented barons, and menaced abroad by the pope, he was deprived of most of his continental dominions by the watchful king of France. Philip's neighbors, and many of his vassals, were alarmed at the vast increase of his power after his con- quest of the Norman. provinces ; they formed a league against him, but at the battle of Bouvines (a. d. 1214), he triumphed over the united forces of the Germans, the English, and the Flemings, and by this vic- tory secured the possession of his acquisitions. After the death of Nicholas (a. d. 1292), the papacy, as if exhausted by its own excesses, seemed to have fallen into a lethargy. The holy see remained vacant for two years and three months ; an interval which the heads of the church might have improved to accommodate the ec- clesiastical system to the improved state of intelligence, and the con- sequent changes in the wants and wishes of Europe But, in an evil hour, they haid adopted the doctrine of infallibility, and believed them- selves bound to keep their system stationary while everything around was in progress. In a former age the papacy had taken the lead in the advancement of intelligence ; the clergy and the friars were the mis- sionaries of knowledge ; biit the church had now fallen into the rear ; kings, not pontiffs, were the patrons of learning ; in the new contest between the Spiritual and temporal powers, we shall find the latter con- quering, because on their side were ranged all who took a share in the advancement of civilization. Intelligence, emancipated from the clois- ter, found a temporary abode in the palace, and finally spread even to the cottage ; .the popes became its enemies from the moment it quitted their protection, but they were necessarily vanquished in the struggle ; one age beheld monarchs despise the deposing power, the next witnes- sed the pope's authority a mockery, and his very name a reproach in one half of Europe. The vacancy in the papacy became the signal for civil wars in Rome, and throughout Italy ; superstition attributed these calamities to the car- dinals, who left the church without a head : an insane hermit stimula- ted the populace to menace them with death unless they proceeded to an election, and they chose a feeble, ignorant, old fanatic, who took the name of Celestine IV. Though destitute of any other qualification, Celestine had at least the pride of a pontiff — the bridle of the ass, on which, with blasphemous imitation, he made his public entry into Aquilla, was held by two kings, Charles II., the perjured sovereign of Naples, and his son Charles Martel, nominal king of Hungary. But the cardi- nals soon became weary of an idiot monk forced upon them by an in- sane hermit ; Benedict Cajetan worked upon the weak mind of Celes- tine to resign a dignity which he was unable to maintain, and, having previously gained the suffrages of the college, ascended the throne un- der the narhe of Boniface VIII.* In its altered circumstances, the * Almost the only thing meuiorable in the pontificate of Celestine, is the f'^t'l^^ miracle of the chapel of Loretto, which was said to have been transported by- angels from Nazareth to the place where it now stands, that it should not be 4*3 MODERN HISTOBV. papacy thus found a ruler who had' fartitudfe and courage sufficient to maintain its pretensions against the kings who had now begun to dis- cover their rights ; but the defeat of the pontiff added one t(J the many examples that history affords of the failure of antiquated pretensions when opposed to common sense and common honesty. Section XIII. — Pontificate of Boniface VIII. Most historians assert that Boniface had recourse to very treacher- ous artifices, in order to obtain the resignation of Celestine, : however this may be, the abdicated pontiff was immediately shut up in a prison, lest his scruples, or his remorse, should trouble bis successor. Bonir face, to the ambition and despotic character of Gregory VII , »dded a more crafty manner, and more dissimulation, than had been recently seen in the chair of St. Peter. He aspired to universal sovereignty over ecclesiastics, princes, and nations ; and he diligently sought out means for rendering them submissive to his laws. Aware that it would be impossible to revive the crusading passion in Europe, he resolved to make the recovery of Palestine a pretext for interfering in the quarrels of sovereigns. He wrpte to Philip the Fair, king of France, to Ed- ward I. of England, and to Adolphus, emperor of Germany, command- ing them, under pain of excommunication, to accommodate their differ- ences ; and he mediated a peace between the sovereigns of France and Aragon. James, king of Aragon, anxious to conciliate the pope, resigned his pretensions to Sicily ; but the islanders, detesting the house of Anjou, and despising the commands of a sovereign who had so weakly aban.- doned his rights, crowned Frederic, the brother of James, at Palermo, and expelled the papal legates. Excommunications were fulminated against the Sicilians, and the sovereign of their choice ; even the fee- ble James was induced to arm against his brother, and aid in has expul- sion from the island ; and this violation of natural ties was rewarded by the cession of Sardinia and Corsica, over which the pope had not a shadow of right,- But the ambition of Boniface was not limited to bestowing islands and- Italian principalities ; he resolved to establish his authority over the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. Philip the Fair was one of the most able monarchs in Christendom ; resolute in establishing his influence over the great vassals of the crown, be strengthened himself by the support of his people, ai)d re- solved that the nobles and the clergy should, henceforth, form classes of his subjects.. Feudal anarchy disappeared, and equal jurisdiction was extended over aU ranks ; the lower classes were delivered from the most galling burdens of vassalage, and the despotism of the sover- eign became a blessing to the nation. In the midst of his career he re- ceived an embassy from the pope, commanding him to spare a con- quered vassal, to abstain from taxing the clergy, and to submit his dis.- putes with the count of Flanders to the arbitratipn of the holy see. Philip spurned these demands, upon which the pope issued the cele- brated bull, called, from the words with which it commences, Ckricis polluted by tjie Saracens, This absxird story was long credited by the B,oinaiu3tSi bnt it ia now derided even in Italy. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 4'43 laicos, excommunicating the kings who should levy ecclesiastical subsi- dies, and the priests who should pay theni^ and withdrawing the clergy from the jurisdiction of lay tribunals. This attempt to establish a theocracy, independent of monarchy, excited general indignation. In England, Edward ordered his judges to admit no causes in which ecclesiastics were the complainants, but to try every suit brought against them, averring that those who refused to contribute to the support of the state, had no claim to the protection of the law. This expedient succeeded, and the English ecclesiastics hastened to pay their subsidies, without further compulsion. Philip the Fair exhibited even more vigor ; he issued an edict prohibiting the ex- port of gold, silver, jewels, provisions, or mimitions of war, without a license ; and he forbade foreign merchants to establish themselves in his dominions. Boniface, aware that these measures would destroy the revenue which the court of Rome derived from France, remonstrated in urgent terms, explained away the most offensive parts of his former bull, and offered several advantages to the king if he would modify his edicts. Philip allowed himself to be persuaded ; the bull Clericis laicos was rendered less stringent : Louis IX. was canonized, and Philip could boast of having a saint for an ancestor ; finally, the pope prom- ised that he would support Charles of Valois, as a candidate for the empire. Dazzled by these boons, the French monarch accepted the arbitration of the pope, in his disputes with the king of England and the count of Flanders. But Boniface, to his astonishment, decided that Guienne should be restored to England, that all his former posses- sions should be given back to the count of' Flanders, and that Philip himself should undertake a new crusade. When this unjust sentence was read in the presence of the French court, by the bishop of Dur- ham, Edward's ambassador, the king listened to it with a smile of con- tempt ; but the count of Artois enraged at such insolence, snatched the bull, tore it in pieces, and flung the fragments into the fire. This was the only answer returned : Philip, heedless of the pope's anger, renew- ed the war. Boniface VIII. little dreamed that Philip's resistance would be so energetic, or of such dangerous example ; but he prepared for the coming struggle, by securing his authority in Italy, and especially in Rome, where the papal power hia.d been long controlled by the factious nobles. Immediately after his elevation to the pontificate, he had caused himself to be elected senator, but the Ghibellines rendered the dignity of such a magistrate very precarious ; it was necessary to de- stroy them, and in this instatice personal vengeance was united to the projects of ambition. The leaders of the GMbelline faction at Rome were the illustrious family of the Colonna : two cardinals of that name had strenuously resisted the abdication of CeleStine, and had long been marked out as victims. Under the pretext of their alliance w;ith the kings of Sicily and Aragon, they were summoned to appear before the papal tribunal ; but, justly dreading that their doom was predetermined, they fled to their castles, protesting against the sentence of him whom iSkey denied to be a legitimate pope. Boniface hurled the most terrible anathemas. against them, declaring them infamous, excommunicate, and incapable of any public charge, to the fourth generation : he devoted 44i MODEEN HISTORY. tKeih to' the fires of the Inquisition, and preached a crusade for their de- , struction. Intimidated for afconieht, the Colonnas submitted, and sur- rendered their town of Palestrina as a pledge of their' fidelity. No sooner was Boniface master, of this stronghold, than, regardless: of his oaths, he levelled the fortress to the ground, forbade it to be rebuilt, re- newed his persecutions against the Colonnas, aiid compelled them to fly from Italy. They" sought shelter at the court of France, where they were hospitably received by Philip, who thus gave a signal proof of his independence and his generosity. Boniface was alarmed, but not dismayed ; he resolved to lull the king's vigila:rice by stimulating his ambition: for this purpose he pro- posed to dethrone Albert, emperor of Germany, and give the crown to Charles of Yalois, whom he had already created imperial vicar, and captain-general, of the holy church. Plulip turned a deaf ear to this tempting proposal ; he even entered into alliance with Albert, and ce- mented the union by giving his sister in marriage, to the emperor's son, Rodolphj, duke of Austria. Boniface was enraged at this disappoint- ment, but his attention was diverted by the institution of a jubilee, to mark the commencement of a new centtry (a. d. 1300). He published a bull, promising full pardon and remission of all sins to those who, being confessed and penitent, should visit the tombs of the apostles at Rome, during fifteen days. Multitudes of pilgrims, anxious to obtain the benefits of the crusades, without the perils of war, flocked to the city, and, by their liberal expenditure, greatly enriched the Romans. This profitable contrivance was renewed by the successors of Boniface, at intervals of fifty years, and proved to be an eflicacious means of re- cruiting the papal treasury. Scarcely had the jubilee terminated, when the disputes between the pope and the king of France were revived, in consequence of the rival claims for supremacy, between the archbishop and the viscount of Narbonne. The king supported his vassal ; the prelate appealed to the pope, and Boniface promptly responded to the call. A legate was sent to Philip, and the choice of an ambassador was almost a declaration of war. The pope's messenger was the bishop of Pamiers, a rebellious subject, whose treasons were notorious, and whose insolence to his sovereign excited general indignation. The seditious prelate was driven from the court ; but the king, instead of bringing him to trial, complained to his metropolitan, the archbishop of Narbonne, and de- manded justice. Boniface addressed an insolent bull to the king, sum- moned the French bishops to meet at Rome, to consult respecting the 'doom that should be pronounced on their sovereign, and invited Philip himself to be present at this unprecedented conclave. But the king^ supported by the legists or professors of the law, a body rising rapidly into iijiportance, defied the papal power, and appealed to the good sense of his people. Boniface had sent a bull, known in history by the name Auscultafili* to France, in which, all the delinquencies of Philip, not Only toward the church, but every class of his subjects, were portrayed with apparent moderation, but with great vigor and eloquence. Peter Flotte, the royal chancellor, presented an abridgment of this document to the great council of the nation, craftily culling out those passages in • " Listen, aon," the words with wliich it commenced. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 445 which the papal pretensions were most offensively put forward. This, document, called " the little bull," was as follows : — " Boniface, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to Philip, king of the Franks. Fear God and keep his commandments. We desire you to know that you are subject to us in temporal as well as in spiritual affairs ; that the appointment to benefices and prehends belongs not to you ; that if you have kept benefices vacant, the profits must be reserved •fo^iihe legal successors ; and if you have bestowed any benefice, we de- clare the appointment invalid, and revoke it if executed. Those who oppose this judgrrient shall be deemed heretics." Philip ordered this declaration to be publicly burned, and he published a memorable reply, which, however, was probably never sent to Rome. It is a very remarkable proof of the decline of the papal power that such a manifesto should be issued, and presented to the states-general of France, as their monarch's answer to the supreme pontiff. The let- ter of the king is thus given by historians : — " Philip, by the grace of God, king of the French, to Boniface, claiming to be pope, little or no greeting. May it please your sublime stupidity to learn, that we are subject to no person in temporal affairs ; that the bestowing of fiefs and benefices belongs to us by right of our crown ; that the disposal of the revenues of vacant sees, is part of our prerogative ; that our decrees, in this respect, are valid, both for the past and for the future ; and that we will support, with all our might, those on whom we have .bestowed, or shall bestow, benefices. Those who oppose this judgment shall be deemed fools or idiots." The manifestos sent to Rome by the three orders of the states-gen- eral, the nobles, the clergy, and the commons, are of greater importance to the historian than " the little bull" or the royal reply. That of the French barons was addressed to the college of cardinals ; it openly accused the pope of having periled the unity of the church by his ex- travagant ambition, and it denied, in the strongest terms, his right to appellate jurisdiction over the kingdom of France. The clergy ad- dressed Boniface himself in a measured and respectful tone, but they declared that they had taken, a new oath to their sovereign, that they would firmly maintain the independence of his crown. The declara- tion of the commons has not been preserved, but like that of the nobles, it appears to have been addressed to the college of cardinals.. The court of Rome was alarmed, letters of explanation were sent to' the dif- ferent orders, but the pope declared he would not write to the kingj whom he considered subject to the sentence of excommunication. While Boniface VIII. was thus engaged with France and its ruler, he did not lose sight of his pretensions over other kingdoms. Edward of England, having overcome the feudal turbulence of his vassals, was about to undertake the conquest of Scotland, when the holy see forbade the enterprise. Edward in reply traced his right to Scotland, up to the age of the prophet Samuel, and a synod of the' English cl«rgy declared, that the claims of their sovereign were better founded than those of the potitiff. A legate, by command of Boniface, labored to pacify Hungary, which was divided between the grandson of Charles the Lame, king of Naples, and Andrew the Venetian. On the death of the latter prince, the Hungarian barons, fearing the loss of their liberties under a king 446 MODEEN fflSTORY. irtitJosed upon them by the church, elected for their sovereign the son of the king of Bavaria, and he was solemnly crowned by the arch- bishop of Colreza. The pope wrote fierce denunciations against the election, and even commanded the king of Bavaria to dethrone his own son. But though Hungary refused submission, the obedience of Spain consoled the pontifFj he declared the marriage of Sancho the Brave valid, after his death, and in consequence of this decision, Ferdinand IV., the eldest son of that monarch, was permitted to retain the king- dom of Castile. Though Philip had ordered that the goods of all the clergy who quitted the kingdom should be confiscated, many of the prelates braving the penalty, proceeded to the court of Rome. Conscious that this dis- obedience portended a struggle between the spiritual and temporal power, the French king took the unexpected precaution of denouncing the horrors of the inquisition, and thus representing royalty as the shield of the people against the tyranny of the priesthood! Boniface, encouraged by the presence of the French bishops, yielded to the impetuosity of his passions, and issued the famous bull tlnam sanctami, in which the claims of the papacy to universal dominion are stated with more strength and precision than the court of Rome had yet ventured to use. After this document had been sanctioned by the council, a legate was sent to France, whose instructions contained the demand that the king should not oppose the prelates who wished to travel, the disposal of benefices by the holy see, or the entrance of legates into his kingdom ; that he should not confiscate the properties of ecclesiastics, nor bring them to trial, before civil courts ; that the king should appear in person at Rome, and answer to the charge of having burned a bull sealed with the effigies of the holy apostles; and finally, that he should recompense the losses occasioned by the depreciation of the currency, and abandon the city of Lyons to its archbishop, as an ecclesiastical fief. Philip the Fair, undaunted by the threat of excommunication, peremptorily rejected all these demands, and iii his turn caused Boniface to be accused by William de Nogaret, the royal advocate, of usurpation, heresy, and simony. The advocate required that a general council should be summoned to investigate these changes, and that the pope should be detained in prison until his guilt or innocence should be decided. Boniface was now seriously alarmed ; when he ascended the throne, Gelestine had declared " This cardiilal, who stole like a fox into the chair of St. Peter, will hav® the reign of a lion, and the end of a dog ;" his violence in the struggle with die king of France, tended to realize both predictions. But it was necessary to obtain allies, and Frederic, king of Sicilyi was won over to declare himself a vassal of the holy see, by obtaining the recognition of his royal title, and absolution from the many anathemas hurled against him. The emperor Albert was similarly prevailed upon to recognise the extravagant pretensions of the papaoys on obtaining a bull confirming his election ; he even issued let- ters patent confessing that the imperial power was a boon conferred at the pleasure of Hie holy see. Thus strengthened, Boniface laid aside all appearance of moderation, and solemnly excommunicated the con- tumacious king of France. GROWTH OP THE PAPAL POWEE. 447 Philip on the other hand assembled the states of his realm at the Louvre, and presented to them a new act of accusation against Boni- face, in which he was charged with the most detestable and unnatural crimes. It was voted that an appeal should be made to a new pope and a general council, and so general was the disapprobation of the pontiff's ambitious schemes, that the greater part of the French ecclesi- astical dignitaries, including nine cardinals, sent in their adhesion to the appeal. Boniface met the storm with firmness ; he replied to the charges urged against him with more temper than could have been anticipated, but he secretly prepared a bidl of excommunication, depriving Philip of his throne, and anathematizing his posterity to the fourth generation. This final burst of hostility was delayed until the 8th of September (a. d. 1303), when the Romish church celebrates the nativity of the blessed Virgin, and Boniface awaited the day in the city of Anagni. On the eve of the Virgin's nativity the pope had retired to rest, hav- ing arranged his plans of vengeance for the following day ; he was suddenly roused by cries of " Long live Philip ! Death to Boniface !" Nogaret, at the command of the king of France, had entered Anagni with three hundred cavaliers, and being joined by some of the towns- men, was forcing his way into the palace. Sciarra Colonna and No- garet rushed together into the chamber of Boniface ; they found the old man clothed in his pontifical robes, seated on his throne, waiting their approach with unshaken dignity. They made him their prisoner, and prepared for his removal to France until a general council. But Nogaret having unwisely delayed three days at Anagni, the citizens and' the neighboring peasants united to liberate the pontiff; Colonna and his French allies were forced to abandon their prey, and could only save their lives by a rapid flight. Boniface hastened to Rome ; but fatigue, anxiety, and vexation, brought on a violent fever, which soon put an end to his troubled life. The reign of Boniface was fatal to the papal power ; he exaggerated its pretensions at the moment when the world had begun to discover the weakness of its claims ; in the attempt to extend his influence fur- ther than any of his predecessors, he exhausted the sources of his strength, and none of his successors, however ardent, ventured to re- vive pretensions which had excited so many wars, shed so much blood, and dethroned so many kings. The priesthood and the empire, fa- tigued by so long and disastrous a struggle, desired tranquillity, but tranquillity was for the court of Rome a political death. The illusion of its own omnipotence vanished with the agitations by which it had been produced, and new principles of action began to be recognised in its policy. The death of Boniface marks an important era in the history of popery ; from this time we shall see it concentrating its stsength, and husbanding its resources ; fighting only on the defensive, it no longer provokes the hostility of kings, or seeks cause of quarrel with the em- perors. The bulls that terrified Christendom must repose as literary curiosities in the archives of St. Angelo, and though the claims to universal supremacy will not be renounced, there will be no effort made to enforce them. A few pontiffs will be found now and then reviving 44^8 MODERN HISTOEY. .,, : the claims of Gregory, of Innocent, and of Boniface ; butitheir.attempts will be found desultpry and of brief duration, like the last flashes, fierce but few, that break out from the ashes of a conflagration. Benedict XL, the successor of Boniface, hasted to exhibit proofs of the moderation which results from defeat. Without waiting for any solicitation, he absolved Philip the Fair from the anathemas fulminated against him by Boniface ; recalled the Colonnas from exile, and en- couraged the Roman people to restore the ancient inheritance of that illustrious family ; finally, he exerted himself to reconcile the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Tuscany, but unfortunately without effect. His early death prepared the way for a new crisis, in which the political system of the papacy was destined to suffer greater shocks than any to which it had been yet exposed, and to give fresh proofs that it coidd not be improved, even by the stern lessons of adversity. Section XIV. — State of England and the Norihe¥n Kingdoms at the Com- ^ mencement of the Fourteenth Century. William the Conqueror reduced the Saxon population of England to the most degrading state of vassalage, but he could not destroy the love and memory of their ancient laws and liberties retained by the nation. His sons, William Rufus, and Henry I., were successively enabled to seize the throne in prejudice of the rights of fheir elder brother Robert, by promising to restore the ancient laws of the kingdom. Henry, to conciliate the English more eflectually, married a princess of Saxon descent ; on his death he bequeathed the crown to the surviving child by this marriage, Matilda, the wife of Geofiry Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. This arrangement was defeated by the usurpation of Stephen,: England was convulsed by a civil war, which was terminated by Ste- phen's adopting Henry, Matilda's son, as his successor. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenet dynasty, on ascending the throne, united to England the dutchy of Normandy, the county of Anjou, and the fairest provinces of northwestern France (a. d. 1154). To these he added the more important acquisition of Ireland, partly by a papal donation, and partly by right of conquest. Ireland was at this period divided into five petty sovereignties, whose Hionarchs harassed each other by mutual wars, and could rarely be in- duced to combine for their common interest. The island had been fre- quently devastated, and once completely subdued, by . the Danes ; several septs of these foreigners retained possession of the, chief com- mercial cities, and even the king of Man was formidable to a country- distracted by intestine wars. When their Norman brethren conquered England, the Danes in Ireland entered into a close correspondence with William and his successors, a circumstance which probably first suggested to Henry .the notion of conquering the island. He applied to the pope for a sanction qf his enterprise. Adrian, the only En'glishr man, that ever filled the papal throne, was at that time the reigning pon- tiff; his desire to gratify his .native sovereign was stimulated by his anxiety to extend the papal authority. The Irish church had been long independent of Rome ; and the connexion between its prelates and the papacy was as yet insecure ; it was therefore on the condition of GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 449 subjecting Ireland to the jurisdiction of the RomisH church that a bull was issued, granting Henry permission to invade the country. The bitter feuds ' in the Plantagenet family, and the state of his continental dominions, long prevented the English monarch from availing himself of this permission. At length Dermod, king of Lfeinster, driven from his dominions by a rival sovereign, sought English aid, and was per- mitted to engage the services of Strongbow, and some other miUtary adventurers, on condition of doing homage for his kingdom to Henry. The.rapid successes of Strongbow awakened Henry's jealousy ; he went to Ireland in person, and received the submission of its principal sovereigns (a. d. 1173). He returned without completing the conquest of the country, a circumstance productive of much misery and blood- shed, through Several successive centuries. The reign of Richard I. was a period of little importance in English history ; but that of his brother and successor, the profligate John, led to the most important results. The barons, provoked, by his tyranny and his vices, took up arms, and compelled him to sign the Great Char- ter, which laid the first permanent foundation of British freedom ; the pope forced him to resign his crown, and to receive it back again, only on condition of vassalage to the holy see, while Philip Augustus took advantage of these circumstances to deprive the English monarchs of most of their continental possessions. John's death saved England from becoming a province of France : absolved by Pope Innocent III. from his oath, he ventured to abrogate the Great Charter, upon which the English barons proffered the crown to Louis, the eldest spn of Philip Augustus, who invaded England with the fairest prospects of success. John was completely defeated (a. d. 1316); he fled' toward Scotland, but died upon the road. The English, already disgusted, with their French allies, embraced this opportunity of ralljdng round Prince Henry, and Louis was glad to conclude a treaty for abandoning the island. Henry III. was a monarch wholly void of energy ; it was his misfor- tune to fill the throne at one of the most turbulent periods of English history, without talents to command respect, or resolution to enforce obedience. During his long reign, England was engaged in few for- eign wars, but these were generally unfortunate. On the other hand, the cotintry was agitated by internal commotions during the greater part of the fifty years that he swayed the sceptre. The discontent of the prelates and barons at the favor that the king showed to foreigners induced them to form an association, by which the king was virtually deposed, and the supreme authority vested in a committee of peers, with the earl of Leicester at its head. Leicester introduced an impor- tant change into the constitution, by summoning representatives of counties, cities, and boroughs, to unite with the barons in the great council of the nation'(A. d. 1365}. This innovation laid the basis for the house of commons, which henceforth had an increasing share in English legislation. The tyranny of the bar.ons being found less en- durable than that of the king, Henry was restored to his former power ; and his authority seemed fixed so permanently, that Prince Edward led an armament to the Holy Land, in aid of the last crusade of St. Loiiis. Henry died during his son's absence (a. d. 1273); but though two 29 450 MODERN HISTORY. years elapsed before Edward's return home, the tranquillity of the country continued undisturbed. The chief object of EdVard's ambition was to unite the whole of Great Britain under one soverei^ty. Under the pretext of the Welsh prince, Llfewelyn, having refused homage, he invaded the country, and comjrfetely subdued it, but riot without encountering a desperate riesist- ance. The English monarch stayed more than a year in Wales to complete its pacification, and during that time his queen, Eleanor, gave birth to a son in the castle of Carnarvon (a. d. 1284). The Welsh claimed the child as their coimtryman, and he was declared' Prince of Wales, a title which has ever since been borne by the ©Idest sons of the English kings. The failure of the direct heirs to the crown of Scotland gave Edward a pretence for interfering in the affairs of that kingdom. Three com- petitors, Baliol, Bruce, and Hastings, laid claim to the crown ; to avert the horrors of divil war, they agreed to leave the decision to Edward ; and he pronounced in favor of the first, on condition of Baliol's becom- ing a vassal to the king of England. Baliol soon grew weary of the authority exercised over him by Edward, and made an effort to recover his independence ; but being defeated and taken prisoner, he abdicated the throne (a. d. 1296), and was confined in the Tower of London. The Scottish nation, though vanquished, was' not subdued ; several in- surrections were raised against the English yoke ; but after the defeat and capture of the Scottish hero. Sir William Wallace, all hope of in- dependence seemed to have vanished. At length, Robert Bruce raised the standard of revolt, and was crowned king at Scone (a. d. 1306). Edward once more sent an army into Scotland, and soon followed in person to subdue that obstinate nation. His death on the border '(a. d. 1307) freed Bruce from his most dangerous foe ; and in the following rei-gn the independence of Scotland was established by Jhe decisive battle of Bannockbum (a. d. 1314). The northren kingdoms of Europe, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, offer little to our notice but scenes of horror and carnage. The natural ferocity and warlike spirit of the Northmen, the want of fixed rules of succession, and the difficulty of finding employment for turbulent spirits in piratical expeditions when the increase of civili' zation had given consistency to the governments of the south, and enabled them to provide for the protection of their subjects, multiplied factions, and produced innumerable civil wars. Crusades, however, ^were undertaken against the Sclavonian and other pagan nations, by ■which the kings of D«nmark and Sweden added considerably to their 'dominions, and gave them a high rank among the states of Europe. iPrussia and Livonia were subdned by the knights of the Teutonic order ; and Hungary, after having been almost ruined by the Mongohan hordes, began gradually to recover its importance after the retreat of these barbarians (a. d. 1244). Section XV. — Reuolutions in the liast in consequence of the Mongolian Invasion. There is no phenomenon more remarkable in history than the rise, ^progress, and extent of the Mongolian empire. Jenghiz Khan, in a GROWTH OP THE PAPAL POWER. 451 single reign, issuing from a petty principality in the wilds of Tartaiy, acquired an empire stretching about six thousand miles from east to west, and at least half that space from north to south, including within its limits the most powerful and wealthy kingdoms of Asia. The Mongols were first, raised into eminence by Jenghiz Khan ; hia original name was Temujin, and he was the chief of a small horde which his father's valor had elevated above the surrounding tribes. At an early age he was invited to the court of Vang Khan, the nominal head of the tribes of the Tartarian deserts, and received the hand of that potentate's daughter in marriage. Mutual jealousy soon led to a war between Temujin and his father-in-law ; the latter was slain in battle, and Temujin succeeded to his authority. On the day of his installation, a pretended prophet named Kokza, addressing the new sovereign, declared that he was inspired by God to name him Jenghiz Khan, that is, supreme monarch, and to promise him the empire of the universe. Inspired by this prophecy, which, however, he is suspected of having suggested, Jenghiz zealously labored to establish military discipline among the vast hordes that flocked to his standard ; and when he had organized an army, he invaded those proviric«s of north- ern China called Khatai by the oriental writers, and Cathay by our old English authors. In five years this extensive country was subdued, and Jenghiz directed his arms westward, provoked by an outrage of the ' sultan of Kharasm. This kingdom of Kharasm was among the most flourishing in central Asia ; the literary eminence of Bokhara, and the commercial prosperity of Samarcand, were celebrated throughout the East. The sultans Mohammed and his son and successor, Jalaloddin, were monarchs of dauntless bravery, but nothing could withstand the fury of the Mongols, and not only Kharasm, but the greater part of northern and eastern Persia, full under the sway of Jenghiz. Astrachan was taken by a Mongolian detachment, and some of the hordes pushed their incursions as far as the confines of Russia. Jenghiz died in his seventy-sixth year (a. d. 1227), continuing his career of conquest almost to the last hour of his life. Few conquerors have displa5'ed greater military abilities, none more savage ferocity. He delighted in slaughter and devastation ; his maxim was to slaughter without mercy, all that offered him the least resistance. The successors of the Mongolian conqueror followed the course he had traced. They completed the subjugation of China, they overthrew the khaliphate of Bagdad (a. d. 1258), and rendered the sUltans of Iconium tributary. Oktai Khan, the immediate successor of Jenghiz, sent two armies from the centre of China, one against the peninsula of Corea, the other to subdue the countries north and east of the Caspian. This latter army, under the guidance of Batd Khan, pene- trated and subdued the Russian empire (a. d. 1237); thence the Mongols spread into Hungary, Poland, and Silesia, and even reached the coasts of the Adriatic sea. The dutchy of Wladimir was the only native Russian dynasty that preserved its existence ; it owed its good fortune to Alexander Newsld, whose prudent measures conciliated the. favor of the conquerors, and secured him a tranquil reign. After the death of Kublai Khan, the grandson of Jenghiz, the Mongolian ©jnpire 452 MODERN HISTORY. was partitioned by the provincial governors, and gradually sank into decay. The overthrow of the Seljukian sultans and the Fatimite khaliphs, by Noureddin and Saladin, has been already mentioned. The dynasty of the Aytibites was founded by Saladin's descendants in Syria and Egypt, and this, after having been divided into several states, was over- thrown by the Mamelukes in the thirteenth century. The Mamelukes were Turkish captives, whom the ferocious Mon- gols sold into slavery ; great numbers of them were imported into Egypt in the reign of Sultan Saleh, of the Ajmbite dynasty. This prince purchased multitudes of the younger captives, whom he formed into an array and kept in a camp on the seacoast, where they received instruction in military discipline.* From this they were removed to receive the charge of the royal person, and the superintendence of the officers of state. In a short time, these slaves became so numerous and so powerful that they were enabled to usurp the throne, having murdered Turan Shah, the son and successor of Saleh, who had vainly endeavored to break the yoke which the Mamelukes had imposed upon their sultan (a. d. 1250). This revolution took place in the presence of St. Louis, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of Mansurah, and had just concluded a truce for ten years with Turan Shah.- The Mameluke insurgent, named at first regent or atta-beg, was finally pro- claimed sultan of Egypt. The dominion of the Mamelukes over Egypt lasted for more than two centuries and a half. Their body, constantly recruited by Turkish and Circassian slaves, disposed of the throne at its pleasure ; the boldest of their chiefs, provided he could prove his descent from Turkestan, was chosen sultan. Notwithstanding the frequent wars and revolutions ' necessarily resulting from the licentiousness of military election, the Mamelukes made a successful resistance to the Mongols, and after the death of Jenghiz Khan's immediate heirs, conquered the kingdoms of Aleppo and Damascus, which the Mongolian khans had taken from the Ayubites (a. d. 1260). The surviving princes of the Ayubite dynasty in Syria and Arabia tendered their submission to the Mamelukes, who were thus masters of all the ancient Saracenic possessions in the Levantine countries, with the exception of the few forts and cities which were still retained by the Franks and western Christians. The Mame- lukes soon resolved to seize these last memorials of the crusades. They invaded the principalities of Antioch and Tripoli, which were subdued without much difficulty. A fierce resistance was made by the garrison of Acre, but the town was taken by assault and its gallant defenders put to the sword. Tyre soon after surrendered by capitula- tion (a. d. 1291), and thus the Christians were finally expelled from Syria and Palestine. •Hence they were called the Baharite or Maritime Mamelukes, to distinguish them from the Borjite or Garrison Mamelukes, another tody of this militia, formed by the Baharite sultan, Kelaun, to counterbalance the authority usurped by the Turkish emirs. Th^ Borjites derived their. name from the forts which they garri- soned i they soon increased in power, and made the Baharite dynasty undergo the fate it inflicted on the Ayubite aultans. They rose against their masters (a. d. 1382), gained possession of the supreme authority, and placed one of their chiefs on the throne of Egypt. The Borjites in their turn were overthrown by the Ottomans (A. D. 1517). PBXJGaKSS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 453 CHAPTER V. THE REVIVAL OF LITERATURE ; THE PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. Section I. — Decline of the Papal Power. — The Crreai Schism of the West. Clement V., elevated to the papacy by the influence of the French king, Philip the Fair, to gratify his patron, abstained from going to Roine, had the ceremony of his coronation performed at Lyons, and fixed his residence at Avignon (a. d. 1309). Philip further insisted that the memory of Boniface should be stig- matized, and his bones disinterred and ignominiously burned. Clement was afraid to refuse ; hnt, at the same time, he dreaded the scandal of such a proceeding, and the danger of such a precedent ; he therefore resolved to temporize, and persuaded Philip to adjourn the matter until a general council should be assembled. But some sacrifice was neces- sary to appease the royal thirst for vengeance, and the illustrious order of the Templars was sacrificed by the head of that church it had been instituted to defend. On the 13th of October, 1307, all the knights of that order were simultaneously arrested ; they were acrfused of the most horrible and improbable crimes ; evidence was sought by every means that revenge and cupidity could suggest ; the torture of the rack was used with unparalleled violence to extort confession ; and sentence of condemnation was finally pronounced on these unfortunate men, whose only crime was the wealth of their order, and their adherence to the papal cause in the reign of Boniface. The assassination of the emperor Albert inspired Philip with the hope of procuring the crown of Charlemagne for his brother, and he hastened to Avignon to claim the promised aid of the pope. But though Clement had abandoned Italy to tyrants and factions, he had not resigned the hope of re-establishing the papal power over the penin- sula, and he shuddered at the prospect of a French emperor reconciling the Guelphs and Ghibellines, crushing opposition by the aid of his royal brother, and fixing the imperial authority on a permanent basis ; he therefore secretly instigated the German princes to hasten the elec- tion, and Henry VII. of Luxemburg was chosen at his suggestion. Though Henry possessed little hereditary influence, his character and talents secured him obedience in Germany ; he had thus leisure to at- tend to the affairs of Italy, which no emperor had visited, during the preceding half century. He crossed the Alps with a band of faithful followers ; the cities and their tyrants, as if impressed by magic with unusual respect for the imperial majesty, tendered him their allegiance, 454 MODEEN HISTORY. and tte peninsula, for a brief space, submitted to orderly government. But the rivalry of the chief cities, the ambition of povi^erful barons, and the intrigues of Clement, soon excited fresh commotions, which Henry had not the means of controlling. The council of "Vienne had been summoned for the posthumous trial of Boniface VIII., and an examination of the charges brought against the Templars (a. d. 1309). Twenty-three viritnesses gave evidence against the deceased pontiff, and fully established the charges of profli- gacy and infidelity ; but Clement's own immoralities were too flagrant for him to venture on establishing such a principle as the forfeiture of the papacy for criminal indulgences, and the confession that Chris- tianity had been described by a pope as a lucrative fable, was justly " regarded as dangerous, not only to the papacy, but to religion itself. Philip was persuaded to abandon the prosecution, and a bull was issued acquitting Boniface, but^ at the same time, justifying the motives of his accusers. The order of the Templars was formally abolished, and their estates transferred to the Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John of Jeru- salem ; but the Hospitallers were forced to pay such large sums to Philip and the princes who had usurped the Temple lands, that they were impoverished rather than enriched by the grant. The council passed several decrees against heretics, and made some feeble efforts to reform the lives of the clergy ; finally, it ordained a new crusade, which had no result but the filling of the papal coffers with gifts from the devout, bribes from the politic, and the purchase-money of indul- gences from the cowardly. When the emperor Henry VII. was crowned at Rome, he establish- ed a tribunal to support his authority over the cities and princes of Italy ; sentence of.fprfeiture was pronounced against Robert, king of Naples, on a charge of treason, and this prince, to the great indignation of the French monarch, was placed under the'ban of the empire. The pope interfered to protect the cousin of his patron, PhiUp ; the wars between the papacy and the empire were about to be renewed, when Henry died suddenly at Bonconyentio, in the state of Sienna. It was generally believed that the emperor was poisoned by his confessor, a Dominican monk, who administered the fatal dose in the' eucharist. Clement fulminated two bulls against Henry's memory, accusing him of perjury and usurpation ; he also annulled the sentence against Rob- ert of Naples, and nominated that prince imperial vicar of Italy. The death of Henry exposed Germany to the wars of a disputed succession ; that of Clement, which soon foUoived, produced alarming dissensions in the church. Philip did not long survive the pontiff, and his successor, Louis X., was too deeply sunk in dissipation to regard the concerns of the papacy. Twenty-seven months elapsed in contests between the French and Italian cardinals, each anxious to have a pon- tiff of their own nation. When first they met in conclave, at Carpen- tras, the town was fired in a battle between their servants, and the car- dinals, escaping from their burning palace through the windows, dis- persed without coming to any decision. At length, Philip the Long, count of Poictiers, assembled the cardinals at Lyons, having voluntarily sworn that he would secure their perfect freedom. During their de- liberations, the death of Louis X. gave Philip the regency, and soon PaOGRBSS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 455 after the crown, of France ; the first use he made of his power was to shut up the cardinals in close conclave, and compel them to expedite the election. Thus coerced, they engaged to choose the pontiff who should he nominated bjr the Cardinal de Porto ; this prelate, to the great surprise of all parties, named himself, and was soon after solemnly installed at Avignon, under the title of John XXII. Europe was at this period in a miserable state'^ of distraction. Italy was convulsed by the civil wars between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, whose animosities were secretly instigated by the intrigues of the king of Naples ; Spain and Portugal were harassed by the struggles between the Christians and the Moors ; England and France were at war with each other, while both were distracted by internal commotions ; two emperors unfurled their hostile banners in Germany ; and, finally, the Ottoman Turks were steadily advancing toward Constantinople. In these difficult times,, John displayed great policy ; he refused to recog- nise either of the rivals to the empire, and took advantage of their dis- sensions to revive the papal claims to the supremacy of Italy. But the battle of Muhldorf haying established Louis of BaVaria on the imperial throne, John, who had previously been disposed to favor the duke of Austria, vainly attempted to gain over the successful sovereign. Louis sent efficient aid to the Ghibellines, and the papal party in Italy seemed on the point of being destroyed. John, forced to seek for allies, re- solved to offer the imperial crown to Charles the Fair, who had just succeeded his brother Philip on the throne of France. The Germans, ever jealous of the French, were fiUed with indignation when they heard that the pope was endeavoring to remove their popular emperor ; Louis summoned a diet, in which he publicly refuted the charges ■brought against him by the court of Avignon ; several learned men published treatises to prove the subordination of the ecclesiasticaj to the imperial authority ; the chapter of Freysingen expelled the bishop for his attachment to the pope ; and the citizens of Strasburg threw a priest into the Rhine, for daring to affix a copy of John's condemnation of Louis to the gates of the cathedral. Even the religious orders were divided; for, while the Dominicans adhered to the-pope, the Francis- cans zealously supported the cause of the emperor. Irritated rather than discouraged by anathemas, Louis led an army into Italy, traversed the Appenines, received the iron crown of Lom- bardy at Milan, and, advancing to Rome, found a schismatic bishop willing to perform the ceremony of his coronation. It was in vain that John declared these proceedings void, and issued new bulls of excom- munication ; the emperor conciliated the Guelphs by his ;real or pre- tended zeal for orthodoxy, and, confident in his strength,- ventured to pronounce sentence of deposition and death against John, and to procure the election of Nicholas V. by ;tlie Roman clergy and people. The Franciscans declared in favor of the antipope, who was one of their body ; and if Louis had shown prudence and forbearance equal to his vigor, the cause of Pope John would have been irretrievably ruined. But the avarice of the emperor alienated the affections, not only of the Romans, but of many Italian princes, who had hitherto been attached to the Gh^jellihe party ^ he was deserted by his chief supporters, and he embraced the pretext afforded lum by the death of the duke of Aus- 456 MODERN HISTOEY. tria, to return to Bavaria. Nicholas, abandoned by his allies,^ was forced to surrender to the pope, and only obtained his life by submitting to ap- pear before John, with a rope round his neck, and to ask pardon of the pope and the public, for the scandal he had occasioned (a. d. 1330). Though by this humiliation the antipope escaped immediate death, he was detained a close prisoner for the remainder of his days, " treated," says a contemporary, " like a friend, but watched like an enemy." The emperor would doubtless have suffered severely for his shaire in the elevation of Nicholas, had not the church been disturbed by a re- ligious controversy. In a discourse at Avignon, the pope maintained that the souls of the blessed would not enjoy the full fruition of celes- tial joys, or, as he termed it, "the beatific vision," until the day of judg- ment. The university of Paris, and several leaders of the mendicant orders, declared that such a doctrine was heretical ; Philip of Valois, who had only recently obtained the crown of France, required; that the pope should retract his assertions, and John was compelled to appease his adversaries by equivocal explanations. The dispute afforded the emperor a pretext for refusirig obedience to the papal bulls, and appeal- ing to a general council ; new wars were about to commence, when John died at Avignon, leaving behind him the largest treasure that had ever been amassed by a pontiff. It was not without cause that the Italians named the sojourn of the popes in Avignon, " the Babylonish captivity." The strength of the papacy was shaken to its very foundation, when its possessors appear- ed mere dependants on the kings of France, the instruments of war and of power, whose possession monarchs contested, while they spurned their authority. The successor of John owed his election to his prom- ise, that he would not reside at Rome : he took the title of, Benedict XII., and began his reign by an attempt to restore peace to the church and to the empire. Philip of Valois had other interests, and he com- pelled the pope to adopt his views. Edward III. was preparing to as- sert his claims to the crown of France, and Philip feared that he would be supported by his brother-in-law, the emperor ; he therefore threat- ened Benedict with his vengeance, if he should enter into negotiations with Louis, and, as a proof of his earnestness, he seized the revenues of the cardinals. The king of England and the German emperor, aware that the pope was a mere instrument in the hands of their enemies, dis- regarded his remonstrances and derided his threats. Benedict had not courage or talents adequate to the crisis ; his death delivered the papacy from the danger of sinking into contempt, under a feeble ruler, who sacrificed everything to his love of ease ; the cardinals, in choosing a successor, sought a pontiff whose energy and ambition might again in- vest the church with political power. Clement VI., unanimously chosen by the electors, commenced his reign by claiming the restoration of those rights of the holy see which had fallen into abeyance during the government of his feeble predeces- sor. The Romans sent a deputation to request that he would return to the city, and appoint the celebration of a jubilee at the middle of the century ; Clement granted the latter request, but he refused to visit Rome, through dread of the turbulent spirit of its inhabitants (a. n. 1343). But Clement did not neglect the affairs of Italy, though he PROGEESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 457 rfefused to reside in the country: Roger, king of Naples, at his death bequeathed his kingdom to his daughter Jane, or Joan, and named a council of regency : Clement insisted that the government, during the minority of the princess, belonged to the holy see ; he, therefore, an- nulled the king's will, and sent a papal legate to preside over the administration. The emperor Louis V. sent an ambassador to the pope, soliciting absolution ; Clement demanded humiliating submissions, which were indignantly refused ; upon which the anathemas were re- newed, and the German electors were exhorted to choose a new sover- eign. As if resolved to brave all the princes that opposed the king of France, Clement nominated cardinals to the vacant benefices in Eng- land ; but Edward III., supported by his clergy and people, refused to admit the intruders ; nor could any threa.ts of ecclesiastical censure shake his resolution. About the same time, Clement conferred the sovereignty of the Canary islands on Prince Louis of Spain, as Adrian had given Ireland to the English king. " In these grants," says Henry, " the pretensions of the popes seem to be less Remarkable than the cre- dulity of princes." The pusillanimity of Louis V. is more surprising than the credulity of those who obtained papal grants to confirm' questionable titles ; though supported by all the princes and most of the prelates in Ger- many, the emperor sought to purchase pardon by submission ; but the Diet would not allow the extravagant claims of the pope to be recog- nised, and the humiliations to which Louis submitted alienated his friends, without abating the hostility of his enemies. But Italy was now the theatre of events calculated to divert public attention from the quarrels of the pope. Jane, queen of Naples, had married Andrew, brother to the king of Hungary, whose family had ancient claims on the Neapolitan crown. Political jealousy disturbed the harmony of the marriage ; a conspiracy was formed by the courtiers against Andrew ; he was murdered in his wife's bed, and she was more than suspected of having consented to the crime. Clement shared the general indignation excited by this atrocity, and, in his chimerical quality of suzerian of Naples, ordered that a strict search should be made after the' murderers, against whom he denounced sentence of ex- communication (a. d. 1346). Jane soon conciliated the pontiff, and purchased a sentence of acquittal, by selling her pretensions to the county of Avignon for a very moderate sum, which, it may be added, was never paid. But -the king of Hungary was not so easily satisfied ; he levied a powerful army to avenge the murder of his brother ; and the emperor of Germany gladly embraced the opportunity of venting his resentment on the Guelphs and the partisans of the king of France, to whose intrigues he attributed the continuance of the papal excommuni- cations. Clement saw the danger with which he was menaced by the Hunga- rian league ; to avert it, he negotiated with the king of Bohemia, and prevailed upon some of the German electors to nominal" that monarch's son, Charles, marquis of Moravia, to the empire. The new sovereign agreed to recognise all the extravagant claims of the popes, which his predecessors had so strenuously resisted ; but no real authority was •added to the papacy by this degradation of the empire ; even Clement 4S8 MODERN HISTORY. • was aware that his authority shojal^ be supported by artifice and nego- tiation, rather than by any direct assertion of power. ^ , While the princes of Europe were gradually emancipating them- selves from the thraldom of the pontiffs, a remarkable revolution wrested Bome itself from their grasps and revived for a moment the glorias of the ancient republic. Rienzi, a young enthusiast of great learning, hut humble origin, addressed a pathetic speech to his countrymen on the deplorable state of their city and the happiness of their ancieni liberty. Such was the effect of his eloquence, , that the citizens immediately elected him tribune of the people, and conferred upon him the supreme power (a, d. 1347). He immediately degraded the senators appointed by the pope, punished with death several malefactors of high rank,, and banished the Orsini, the Colonnas, and other noble families, whpse fac- tions had filled the city with confusion. The messengers sent by the tribune to announce his elevation were everywhere received with great respect ; not only the Italian cities, but even foreign princes, sought his alliance : the king of Hungary and the queen of Naples appealed to him as a mediator and judge, the emperor Louis sought his friendship, and the pope wrote him a letter approving all his proceedings. Such unex- pected power intoxicated the tribune ; he summoned the candidates for the empire to appear before him, he issued an edict declaring Eome the metropolis of the world, and assumed several strange titles that prove both his weakness and his vanity. This extravagance proved his ruin ; Rienzi was excommunicated by the pope, the banished nobles entered Rome, the fickle populace deserted the tribune, and after wandering about for some time iji various disguises, he was arrested by the papal ministers, and sent to Avignon, where he was detained a plose prisoner. In the meantime, the king of Hungary had entered Italy ; Jane, whose recent marriage to the duke of Tarentum, one of the murderers of her husband, had given great offence to her subjects, abandoned the Neapolitan territories at his approach, and sought refuge at Avignon. But a dreadful pestilence, which at this time desolated southern Europe, compelled the king of Hungary to abandon the territories he had so easily acquired. About the same time, the death of the emperor Louis left Charles without a rival ; and Clement resolved to take advantage of the favorable juncture to restore the papal authority in Italy. IJe ordered a jubilee to be celebrated at Rome ; he excommunicated Vis- conti, archbishop of Milan, but afterward sold absolution to this prelate,, who was formidable as a statesman and a soldier ; finally, h(e persuaded the king of Hungary and the queen of Naples to submit their differences to his arbitration. But the court of Avignon was devoted to the housp of Anjou ; it did not venture to pronounce the queen innocent, but it declared that a weak woman could not resist the temptations of evi^l spirits, and decided that she should be restored to her kingdom on payr ing a subsidy to the lung of Hungary. That generous prince refused the money, declaring that he had taken up arms to avenge the murder of his brother, not to gain a paltry bribe. Thus the pontiff still seemed the arbitrator of kings ; some years before he had engaged Humbert, a prince of southern France, to bequeath his dominions to the French king, on the cdndition that the eldest son ,ot that monarch should take the title of dauphin ; he had been victorious, though by accident, in hia PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 459 contest with the emperor Louis, and at H^ death Clement left the papacy iri full possession of all its titles to supreme power. But while the nominal authority of the papacy was as great as ever, its real power was considerably weakened. Innocent VI., unable to escape from the yoke which the kings of France had imposed on the popes during their residence at Avignon, resolved to recover the ancient patrimony of St. Peter ; Rienzi was summoned from his dungeon, and was sent back to Rome with the title of senator. But the turbulent Romans soon grew weary of their former favoritis and Rienzi was mur- dered by the populace, at the time he was most zealously laboring to chastise the disturbers of public tranquillity, and rescue the people from the oppression of the nobles (a. d. 1354); Soon afterward the emperor Charles IV. entered Rome, and, by the permission of the pope, was solemnly crowned. This feeble prince negotiated with all parties, and betrayed all ; he sold liberty to the cities, because he had neither the military force nor the political power to defend a refusal, and he sub- mitted to receive a passport from the pope, and to abide in Rome only the limited period prescribed by the jealousy of the pontiff. But though the popes, during their residence at Avignon, favored the discords of Italy, stimulated the mutual animosity of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and encouraged civil war in the empire, they were desirous to terminate the sanguinary struggles for the crown of France, and made several efforts to reconcile the English Edward to the house of Valois. Edward was not to be checked in his career of victory; the glory of the French arms was destroyed at Crecy, and the king of France him- self became a prisoner at Poictiers. It was through the mediation of Innocent VI. that King John recovered his liberty, and the war between England and France was terminated by the peace of Bretigny. Soon after his deliverance, John, distressed for money, was induced by a large bribe to give his daughter in marriage to Visconti, the most formidable enemy of the church, while Innocent was too occupied by nearer dan- gers to prevent an alliance so injurious to his interests. The numerous /bands of mercenaries, who were thrown out of employment by the res- toration of peace, formed themselves into independent bands, called Free Companies, and quitting. the southern districts of France, already deso- lated by frequent campaigns, directed their march toward Provence. The anathemas hurled against them neither retarded their progress nor diminished their numbel: '; a crusade was vainly preached ; no soldiers would enlist, when the only pay was indulgences ; the plundering hordes approached Avignon, and the treasures of the ecclesiastics were on the point of falling into the hands of these unscrupulous spoilers. By paying a large bribe, and giving them absolution for all their sins. Innocent prevailed upon the Free Companies to turn aside from Avignon and enter into the service of the marquis of Montferrat, who was engaged in the war against the Visconti. Urban V. succeeded Innocent, and though, like him, inclined to favor the king of France, he became convinced that the residJence of the popes at Avignon was injurious to his interests. The emperor solicited Urban to visit Rome, and the Free Companies having again extorted a large bribe, for sparing Avignon, the pope hasted to leave a residence where he was exposed to insult and subservient to foreigh authority. The 460 MODERN HISTOEY. pope was received in Italy with great joy, the emperor Charles has- tened to meet him, and gave the last example of imperial degradation, by leading the horse on which the pontiff rode when he made his tri- umphal entry into Rome (a. d. 1368-). This spectacle, instead of grati- fying the Italians, filled them with rage ; they treated the emperor with so much contempt, that he soon returned to Germany ; and Urban, finding that he could not check the republican licentiousness which had so long prevailed in Rome and the other cities of the patrimony of St. Peter, began to languish for the more tranquil retirement of Avignon. The only advantage he gained by his visit to Italy, was the empty honor of seeing the emperor of the east bow at his footstool, and offer as the reward of aid against the Turks, the union of the Greek and Latin churches. But Urban could not prevail upon the western princes to combine in defence of Constantinople ; and the Greek emperor would have been unable to gain the consent of his subjects to lay aside either the peculiar ceremonies or doctrines that had severed their church from the papacy. The renewal of the war between France and England, when Charles V. succeeded the imbecile John, afforded Urban a pre- text for returning to A'v^ignon. Death seized him soon after he reached the city, and Gregory XI. was chosen his successor. Gregory's great object was to break the power of the Visconti, who had become the virtual sovereigns of northern Italy ; but he did not neglect the general interests of the church, exerting himself diligently to suppress heresy. The emperor created the pontiff his vicar, and Gregory, to support his authority, took some of the free companies into pay, and among the rest a band of Englishmen commanded by John Hawkwood. It was of importance to gain over the city of Flor- ence ; the papal legate thought that this object could best be obtained by producing a famine, and stimulating the citizens by the pressure of want to rise against their government. In pursuance of this infamous policy, means were taken to cut off the import of corn, while Hawk- wood ravaged the territory of the city and destroyed the harvests. Of all the Italian people, the Florentines had been the most constant in their attachment to the cause of the holy see — their indignation was therefore excessive, and their hate implacable. A general revolt against the papal power was soon organized through Italy by the outraged Florentines ; they embroidered the word LiBERTAS on their standards in letters of gold, while their emissaries preached freedom in the cities, in the castles, and in the cottages ; the summons was eagerly heard, and the states of the church soon refused to recognise the sovereignty of its head. Gregory sent new legates, and menaced the confederates with excommunication ; he pronounced sentence of excommunication against the Florentines, exhorting all princes to confiscate the property of those who should be found in their several dominions, and to sell their persons into slavery; an iniquitous edict, which was partially acted upon both in France and England : new hordes of mercenaries were taken into pay, and when the citizens of Bologna applied to the legate for pardon, he replied that he would not quit their city until he had bathed his hands and feet in their blood. The Florentines were undaunted, but the dis- union and mutual jealousies between the other confederates proved PaOGEESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 461 fatal to the national cause ; the citizens of Rome were anxious to have the pontifical court restored to their city, and to obtain this desirable object, they willingly sacrificed their claims to freedom. In their state of moral degradation, indeed, they were unable to appreciate the advan- tages of rational liberty, and unfit to exercise its privileges. During these commotions in Italy, Gregory, being informed of the reformed doctrines, or, as he called them, the heresies published in England by John Wiokliffe, wrote to the chancellor and university of Oxford, severely reproving them for permitting such opinions to be promulgated, and ordaining that WicklifFe should be brought to trial before an ecclesiastical tribunal. Similar letters were sent to Richard II., the young king of England, who had just succeeded his grand- father Edward III., but the duke of Lancaster and several other nobles took the reformer under their protection ; Wickliffe was rescued from the malice of his enemies, while his doctrines rapidly, though secretly, spread not only through Italy, but through Germany. The chief articles he was accused of teaching, were, that the wafer in the eucharist, after consecration, is not the real body of Christ, but its figure only ; that the Roman church had no right to be the head of all churches ; that the pope has no more authority than any other priest ; that lay patrons may, and ought to, deprive a delinquent church of its temporal possessions ; that the gospel was sufficient to direct any Christian ; that no prelate of the church ought to have prisons for punishing delinquents. The publication of these sentiments enraged Gregory, who had, from the very commencement of his teign, shown himself a virulent persecutor, and procured the burning of several un- fortunate wretches accused of heresy, both in France and Germany. Scarcely had he made his triumphal entry into Rome, when he pre- pared to take some effective measures for checking the progress of innovation. But domestic troubles soon engaged his attention ; the Romans, who had received him on his first arrival with so much en- thusiasm, soon began to brave his authority and disobey his edicts ; baffled in his expectations of peace and power, he even contemplated returning to Avignon, where part of the papal court still continued. But before taking this step, he resolved to secure the tranquillity of Italy, and, if possible, avert the divisions which he foresaw would probably trouble the church after his death (a. d. 1378). A congress was opened at , Serazanae, but before its deliberations could produce any important result, Gregory was seized with mortal illness, and all hopes of peace were destroyed by the schism which arose respecting the choice of his successor. ' The death of Gregory XI. was the commencement of a new era for the ancient capital of the world, from which the popes had been absent during so many years. Pride, interest, and self-love, combined to attach • the Romans to the papacy ; had they combined with the Florentines, it is possible that the cities of Italy might have formed a confederacy suf- ficiently strong to defy an absent pope, and an emperor powerless and distant ; perhaps they might even have solved the problem which still continues to bafile statesmen, and form a federative union in Italy. But the Romans were incapable of such > profound views ; they looked to nothing beyond the advantages to be derived from the residence of the 462 MODERN HISTORY. papal court ; and, instead of aiming at reviving their ancient glory, they contented themselves with disputing the profits that had hitherto been enjoyed by the city of Avignon. No sooner had the cardinals, the majority of whom belonged to the French party, shut themselves up in a conclave, than the Romans were filled with alarm lest a Transalpine prelate should be chosen, who would establish his court at Avignon. They assembled in arms round the Vatican, and by their menaces sent terror into its inmost recesses. They demanded that the new pope should be an Italian ; this was the only virtue they required in the successor of St. Peter. The French cardinals, already disunited, were intimidated by these clamors ; they gave their votes to a Neapolitan archbishop, who took the title of Ur- ban VI. The cardinals seem to have expected that Urban, who was cele- brated for his modesty, his humility, and his skill in the canon law, would have acknowledged that hiis election was vitiated by the force that had been used; and that he would therefore have abdicated the pontificate. But Urban soon convinced them of their error ; he not only showed a determination to retain his power, but openly set the discontented cardinals at defiance. In a^ublic discourse, immediately after his coronation, he severely reprehended their pomp and luxury, threatened to punish those who had been convicted of receiving bribes, and reproached some of them by name for corresponding with the enemies of the church. Exasperated by this austerity, the discontented cardinals fled to Anagni, proclaimed the late election void, sent circu- lars to all Christian princes warning them not to acknowledge Urban, took a body of Bretons into their pay, and, relying on the protection of this military force, excommunicated the new pope as an apostate usurper. The duke of Brunswick, the husband of Jane, queen of Naples, alarmed at the prospect of a schism, attempted to mediate ; but his efforts to effect a reconciliation were baflled by the resentment of the cardinals and the haughtiness of Urban. On all sides proposals were made to assemble a general council, but the pope, the cardinals, and the emperor, disputed the right of convocation ; the fortune of war could alone determine the fafe of the church. Urban showed no desire to conciliate his opponents ; he announced a speedy creation of new cardinals to overwhelm their votes, and threatened the queen of Naples for granting th«m protection. He showed similar severity in his conduct to the Roman aristocracy, and, on a very slight pretext, ventured to deprive the count of Fondi of his fiefs. The count at once declared himself a partisan of the cardinals ; he gave them shelter in the town of Fondi, where, pro- tected by Neapolitan troops, they proceeded to a new election. It is said by many historians that they would have chosen the king of France, Charles V., had not his being maimed in the left arm incapaci- tated him from performing the ceremonies of the mass ; but their se- lection was scarcely less swayed by temporal motives when they gave their votes to GSusdinal Robert of Geneva, who assumed the titlie of Clement VII. This prelate had served in the field, and even acquired somie reputation a* a warrior ; but he was generally and justly hated by PROGRESS OP CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 463 the Italians for having massacred all the inhabitants of Cesena during the Florentine war. The death of the emperor Charles IV. added new troubles to the complicated pohcy of Europe ; that despicable slave of superstition had purchased from the venal electors the nomination of his son Wences- laus as his successor ; and the young prince, from the moment of his succession, gave himself up to the practice of the meanest vices, and wallowed in disgusting debauchery. These crimes, however, did not prevent him from enjoying the favor of Urban, whose cause he warmly espoused — a merit which, in the eyes of the pontiff, compensated for the want of all the virtues. The queen of Naples declared in favor of Clement, and invited him to her court. So great, however, was the hatred of a French pontiif, that, in spite of the turbulent disposition of Urban, the defection of the cardinals, the authority of the queen, and the jealousy of the states so recently at war with the court of Rome, all Italy declared against Clement, and the Neapolitans showed such hatred to his cause, that he was forced to escape by sea to Marseilles, whence he proceeded to establish his court at Avignon. The king of France, Charles V., had eagerly espoused the cause of the cardinals who had elected the antipope ; most of them were his subjects, and all were devoted to the interests of France ; he therefore declared himself the partisan of Clement, trusting that he would obtain hnportant political advantages by the residence of the pope at Avignon. Unfortunately the result was to involve his kingdom in a ruinous war, which long doomed France to loss and calamity. Urban's vengeance was promptly directed against the queen of Na- ples, whose supposed murder of her husband, thirty years before, was still remembered to her disadvantage ; he declared that she had forfeited her right to the throne, which he conferred on her cousin Charles of Durazzo ; and to support this king of his vengeance, he not only sold ecclesiastical benefices, but pledged the plate belonging to the churches. Jane, driven from her kingdom, adopted the duke of Anjou as her son and successor ; the French monarchs believed themselves bound to support his claims, and exhausted their resources in the effort. All Europe was divided by the schism : Italy, Holland, Germany,. Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Flanders, and England, declared for Ur- ban ; while Clement was supported ' by Spain, Navarre, Scotland, Savoy, Lorraine, and France. The rival popes hurled anathemas against each other ; excommunication was answered by excommunica- tion ; and both prepared piles to bum the partisans of their adversary as heretics. Charles V. set the example, by issuing an edict confisca- ting the property and life of those who ventured to recognise Urban in Ms dominions. Urban retorted, by preaching a crusade against Charles ; the English eagerly seized tlus pretext for renewing ■War against France, and a powerful army entered Britanny to support its duke against his liege lord. The death of Charles V., and the minority of his son Chailes VI., added to the embarrassments of France ; the duke of Anjou seized the royal treasures to support his claims on Naples ; the new taxes imposed upon the people provoked insurrection ; the' revolters were punished' 464 MODERN HI3T0EY. with remorseless cruelty, and tbey;;on the other hand, practised horri- ble retaliations whenever they had an opportunity. Charles Durazzo, in the meantime, found little difficulty in taking possession of the Nea- politan territories ; Jane, abandoned by her subjects, was forced to sur- render to her cousin, and, by his command, was strangled in prison (a. d. 1382). Louis of Anjou immediately claimed her inheritance, and, having obtained the investiture of Naples from Clement, entered Italy at the head of fifteen thousand men. No opposition was offered to the French in their passage ; Louis reached the frontiers of the Abruzzi in safety, and was there joined by several Neapolitan nobles attached to the memory of Jane, and anxious to avenge, her death. , Durazzo was unable to meet his enemy in the field ; but he garri- soned his fortresses, encouraged the peasantry of the Abruzzi to hara-gs the French by a guerilla warfare, and destroyed all the forage and pro- visions in the open country. Famine and pestilence wasted the gallant chivalry of France ; the duke of Anjou fell, a victim to a fever, whose severity was aggravated by his disappointment ; his army dispersed, and many noble barons, who had joined his banners, were forced to beg their way home, amid the jeers and insults of the Italians. The English, commanded by the bishop of Norwich, made a feeble attack upon the schismatic French ; they were defeated, and the bishop re- turned with shame to his diocese. Urban disapproved of the cautious policy of Durazzo, and, proceed- ing to Naples, began to treat the king as his vassal ; Charles tempo-; rized, until the death of the duke of Anjou delivered him from pressing danger, but then he refused all obedience to the pope, and treated him so uncivilly, that Urban removed to Nocera. Several of the cardinals, weary of the tyranny to which they were subjected, plotted the murder of the pope ; but their conspiracy was discovered, and six of them were sentenced to suffer the tortures of the rack that they might be compelled to betray their accomplices. Urban personally superintended these cruelties, and suggested new modes of torture to the execution- ers. "When confessions were thus obtained, he degraded the cardinals from their dignity, and pronounced sentence of excommunication, not only against them, but against the king and queen of Naples, the, anti- pope Clement, his cardinals, and his adherents. Durazzo, justly en- raged, marched against Nocera, and captured the town ; but the pope found shelter in the citadel, from which he, several times-a-day, fulmi- nated anathemas with bell and candle against the king of Naples and his army. Urban at length made his escape, and,, embarking on board some Genoese galleys, reached Genoa in safety, where he was honor- ably received by the doge, who deemed the city honored by his, pres- ence. During his flight, he ordered the bishop of Aquila to be mur- dered, suspecting that he meditated desertion ; and soon after: he put to death five of the- guilty cardinals, sparing the sixth, who was an Eng- lishman, at the intercession of Richard II. — a monarch who had given the weight of England's influence to Urban's cause. Clement VII. did not conduct himself one whit better than his rival ; he insulted and imprisoned' the German and Hungarian ambassadors, who were sent to propose expedients for terminatipg the schism ; his exactions from the chiirches that acknowledged , his authority alienated PEOGEESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. , 465 the minds of those whom their political position had ranged on his side ; his intrigues and his servility were offensive to the kings that supported him. The double papacy was found a heavy tax on Christen- dom ; each pontiff collected aroUhd' him a court of dissolute and prodi- gal cardinals, whose lavish expenditure was supported by alienating the revenues of all the benefices within their grasp. But the kingdom of Naples was especially destined to suffer from the sphism; the rival pontiffs claimed the right of bestowing the Nea- politan crown at their discretion, and their pretensions perpetuated civil discord. Charles Durazzo quitted his kingdom to seek a new crown in Hungary, but fell a victim to assassins in the hour of success ; Margaret, his queen, on receiving the news, assumed the regency, and caused her son Ladislaus to be recognised as sovereign by the states of the realm. But Urban VI., who had excommunicated Charles Du- razzo, pretended that the kingdom of Naples reverted as a vacant fief to the holy see, and began forming a party against the queen. Clem- ent on his side raised a similar claim, and sold the church plate to pay troops ; he zealously supported the house of Anjou, and employed Otho of Brunswick, the widower of the unfortunate Jane, to expel the family of Durazzo. ■Hitherto the division in the church had been political ; a doctrinal controversy, however, was added to the schism, which, though it led to no immediate results, deserves to beibriefly described. A Dominican doctor of divinity, John de Mon^on, preaching on the doctrine of ori- ginal sin, declared that the virgin Mary was conceived in sin. But the faculty of theology in the university of Paris, the Sorbonne, declared that his assertion was an impious outrage against the mother of Christ : the doctors added that the prophesied sacrifice of Christ had an effect before its accomplishment, on his birth and that of his mother, and to this exemption from the ordinary law of humanity, they gave the name of the Immaculate Conception. The worship of the virgin Mary has always been the most popular portion of the Romish liturgy ; the doctrine of the Sorbonne seemed to confer new honor upon her name, and it was ardently received by multitudes of ignorant enthusiasts. Mon9on, alarmed at the ferment he had unwittingly excited, fled to Avignon. The entire order of the Dominicans, enraged to find one of their brethren accused of heresy, sent seventy of their most eminent doctors to support Mon9on's opinions before the papal tribunal. The Sorbonne, on the other hand, deputed its most eminent professors to prosecute Mon§on, and procure the condemnation of his opinions. The pope was sorely embarrassed ; the opposing parties were so pow- erful that he did not wish to alienate either ; and he, therefore, had re- course to the expedient of dismissing Mon9on secretly, and sending him to seek refuge in Aragon. But the theologians of the Sorbonne would not rest satisfied with an imperfect victory ; profiting by the popular ferment to work on the mind of their sovereign, Charles VI., they persuaded the king, who had not yet attained his twenty-first year, and whose ignorance was extreme, to undertake the decision of a question beyond the limits of human knowledge. The young and stupid king took upon himself, to 30 466 MODEEN HISTOBTf. mairifiain that tie virgin Mary was free jrom the stain of Original sin ; he even sent to prison all vrho denied the doctrine of th« IramacuLate Conceptidil. , Clement VII., always in fear d'f'fifeiiig'^acTificed to his rival, Urban VI., and relying for sapport chiefly on the court of France, did not venture to make any futther resistance. He issued a bull conderiining John de Mon90n, and all his adherents : he permitted the king to' insti- tute a new festival in honor of the Immaculate Conception. The whole order of St. Dominic was degraded to the lowest rank Of monastics, and it was Ordained that no one of their body should, in fntute, hold the Office of confessor to the king. Urban VI. paid little regard to theological controversies ; he was more anxious to re-establish his authority over southern Italy. But as he matched toward Naples, his troops mutinied for want of pay, and he was forced to return to Rome. The citizens proved to be as discon- tented as the soldiers; to -stifle their murmurs be published a bull foi the celebration of 6, jubilee the following year at Rome, and ordered that this solemnity should be repeated every thirty-three years, accord- iiig to the number of years that Christ remained upon earA. He hoped that this festival would enrich the Romans and himself, but he died be- fore the time for its celebration (a. d. 1389). It is supposed that his end was hastened by poison, for his most ardent supporters were weary of his tyranny. • A few days after the death of Urban, the cardinals at Rome chose a new pontiff, who took the title of Boniface IX., and commenced his reign by an interchange of anathemas and excommunications with his rival at Avignon. More prudent than his predecessoTj Boniface hasted to make terms with the family of Durazzo at Naples ; he recognised young Ladislaus as a legitimate king, and sent a legate to perform the ceremony of his coronation. Ladislaus, in return, took an oath of fidelity and homage, binding himself never to recognise the antipope at AvignoiJi Clement Vll. strengthened himself by a closer union with the king of France, whom he induced to visit Avignon, and to witness the cere- mony of the coronation of Louis II. of Anjou, as king of Naples. The imbecile Charfes was so gratified by his reception, that he pro- jected a crusade against Rome, but he was soon induced to abandoii his purpose, and he gave very feeble aid to his cousin of Anjou, when he prepared an armament to invade the Neapolitan territories. The doctors of the Sorbonne became eager to terminate the schism ; and, encouraged by their success in the controversy of the Immaculate Con- ception, they presented to the king a project for restoring the peace of the ohurchj by compelling the rival popes to resign, and submit the choice of a new pontifl" to a general council (a. d. 1394). Though this counsel was not favorably received by the king, it gave great alarm to Clementy and agitation of mind is supposed to have produced the apdpletie fit which occasioned his death, The French ministers wrote to the cardinals at Avignon, urging them to embrace the opportunity of terminating the schism ; but these prelates hasted to conclude a new election without opening the letter, with the contents of wMch they were acquainted. Peter de Luna, cardinal of PROGRESS OF On^ILIZATION AND INVENTION. 467 Aragon, was nominated pope ; he took the name of Benedict XIII., and the schism became wider than ever. When the news oif the election reached Paris, Charles, instead of recognising the pope of Avignon, convoked the clergy of his kingdom to deliberate on the means of fe- stering peace to the church. After some delay, the convocation met, and came to the inconsistent resolution of recognising Benedict, and pro- posing that the schism should be terminated by the abdication of the two popes. Ambassadors were sent with this proposal to Avignon, but a ridiculous though insuperable difficulty prevented the success of their negotiations. The plenipotentiaries on both sides preached long ser- mons to each other, until the French princes who were joined in the legation, completely fatigued, and seeing no probable termination of the conference, returned home indignant and disappointed. The king of England and the emperor of Germany joined the French monarch in recommending the double application ; Boniface declared his readi- ness to resign, if Benedict would set the example, but the latter pontiff absolutely refused submission. An army was sent to compel him to obedience ; Avignon was taken, and Benedict besieged in his palace, but his obstinacy continued unshaken, and the party feuds which the' weakness of the king encouraged in France, gave him hopes of final triumph. The state of the western governments tended to protract the schism of the church ; the king of France fell into idiotcy ; Richard 11. was de- posed in England by his cousin Henry IV. ; the duke of Anjou was' driven from Naples ; the Byzantine emperor and the king of Hungary were harassed by the Turks, whose increasing power threatened ruin to both ; the Spanish peninsula was distracted by the Moorish wars ; and the emperor Wenceslaus was forced to abdicate by the German electors. Boniface took advantage of these circunistances to establish the papal claim to the first-fruits of all ecclesiastical benefices, and to render himself absolute master of Rome, by fortifying the citadel and castle of St. Angelo. The Roman citizens were deprived of the last shadow of their former franchises ; the readiness with which they sub- mitted, is, however, a sufficient proof that they were unworthy of free- dom. The pope did not long survive this triumph ; the Roman cardinals elected Innocent YII. to supply his place ; but he died about twelve months after his elevation, and was succeeded by Gregory XII. (a. d. 1406). Benedict having, in the meantirtie, recovered his freedom, pro- tested against the Roman elections, but offered to hold a personal con- ference with Gregory for reconciling all their differences. The cardi- nals, weary of these controversies, deserted the rivals, and having assembled a general council at Pisa, elected a third pope, who took the title of Alexander V. There were now three heads to the Christian church : Ladislaus and some of the Italian cities supported Gregory ; the kings of Scotland and Spain adhered to Benedict ; while Alexander was recognised in the rest of Christendom. The disputes of these hostile pontiffs had greatly tended to enfranchise the human mind, and weaken the hold of superstition. WicklifFe's doctrines spread in England, and in Gter-' many they were advocated by John Huss, who eloquently denounced the corruptions that debased the pure doctrines of Christianity.' Pope 468 MODEEN HISTORY. Alexander was preparing to resist the progress of tlie courageous reformer, when his death threw the affairs of the church into fresh con- fusion. The presence of an armed force induced the cardinals to elect John XXIII., whose promotion gave great scandal, as he was more remark- able for his military than his religious qualifications (a. d. 1411). John soon compelled Ladislaus to abandon Gregory's party ; he then assem- bled a general council at Rome, where sentence of condemnation was pronounced on the doctrines of Huss and Wickliffe. But Ladislaus soon grew weary of peace ; he led an army against Rome, plundered the city, and compelled the pope to s"eek protection from Sigismond, emperor of Germany. John consented very reluctantly to the imperial demand, that the schism should finally be terminated by a general council ; he made an ineffectual effort to have the assembly held in one of his own cities, but Sigismond insisted that it should meet in Constance. John then attempted to interpose delays, but the general voice of Christendom was against him ; he judged his situation accurately, when, pointing to Constance from the summit of the Alps, he exclaimed, " What a fine trap for catching' foxes !" The attention of all Christendom was fixed upon the deliberations of the council of Constance, whitherljishops, ambassadors, and theologians, flocked from every part of Europe (a. d. 1415). John Huss, having obtained the emperor's safe conduct, appeared before the council to de- .fend his doctrines, but Sigismond was persuaded to forfeit his pledge, and deliver the courageous reformer to his enemies, to be tried for heresy. Pope John was not treated better ; a unanimous vote of the council de- manded his abdication ; he fled to Austria, but he was overtaken and detained in the same prison with Huss, until he ratified the sentence of his own deposition. Gregory XII. soon after abdicated the pontificate, but Benedict still continued obstinate ; his means of resistance, however, were so trifling, that the council paid little attention to his refusal. John Huss, and nis friend Jerome of Prague, were sentenced to be burnt at the stake as obstinate heretics, but their persecutors could not stop the progress of the truth ; the Hussites in Bohemia had recourse to arms for the defence of their liberties, and, under the command of the heroic Zisca, maintained the cause of civil and religious liberty, in many glori- ous fields. The emperor, the princes of Germany, and the English deputies, stren- uously urged the council to examine the abuses of the church, and form some plan for its thorough reformation ; but the prelates, fearing that some proposals might be made injurious to their interests, steadily re- sisted these efforts ; declaring that the election of a pope ought to have precedence of all other business. After long disputes, the choice of the electors fell on Otho Colonna, a Roman noble, who took the title of Martin V. The new pontiff combined with the cardinals to strangle all the plans of reform, and the council, from whose deliberations so much had been expected, terminated its sittings, without having applied any effectual remedy to the evils which had produced the schism. A prom- ise, indeed, was made, that another council would be convened, for the reform of the church, at Pavia, but no one cared to claim its perform- ance ; the conduct of those who met at Constance convinced the world PKOGBESS OB CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 469 tLat no effectual redress of grievances could be expected from such assemblies. The projects of reform, begun at Constance, were revived at the coun- cil of Basle (a. d. 1431) ; but Eugenius IV., the successor of Martin, soon felt that the proposed innovations would be fatal to the papal au- thority, and dissolved the council. This precipitancy caused another schism, which lasted ten years ; but at length the ex-duke of Savoy, who had been chosen pope by the partisans of the council, under the name of Felix v., gave in his submission ; and the council, from whose labors so much had been expected, ended by doing nothing. Still the convo- cations of the prelates of Christendom at Constance and Basle struck a fatal blow against the despotism of the popes. Henceforth monarchs had, or seemed to have, a court of appeal — one so dreaded by the pon- tiffs, that the mere dread of its convocation procured from them liberal concessions. But a new and more formidable enemy to the despotism of the pontiffs than the resistance of kings or of councils, was the prog- ress of literature and knowledge, wMch brought the extravagant claims of spiritual and temporal rulers to be investigated on their real merits, not according to their asserted claims. Section II. — First Reijival of Literature, and Inventions in Science. In the controversy between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIIL, liter- ary talent was for the first time employed against the church by John of Paris, a celebrated Dominican, who advocated the royal indepen- dence with great zeal and considerable ability. The celebrated poet Dante Alighieri, who may be regarded as the founder of Italian litera- ture, and almost of the Italian language, followed the same course, advo- cating strenuously the cause of the emperor Louis of Bavaria. Their example was a model for many other writers, who laid aside the shackles of authority, and supported the independence of states. But literature itself was subject to trammels which checked the progress of improve- ment. It was deemed a crime scarcely less than heresy, to doubt of any explanation given by the schoolmen of physical, mental, or moral phenomena. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk, was the first who re- vived experimental science ; he made several important discoveries in mechanics and chymistry, but his great merit is to be found, not so much in his various inventions and projects, as in the bold appeal which he made to experiment, and the observation of nature. His lectures at Oxford, published under the title of " Opus Majus" (a. d. 1266), raised against him a host of enemies ; he was prohibited from giving instruc- tions in the university, and was subjected to confinement in his convent. His scientific discoveries were deemed a species of magic in that age of ignorance ; he was the first of the long list of victims of ecclesiastical persecution, and the leader of a long line of patriots who supported the cause of intellectual and moral liberty against the odious encroachments of spiritual despotism. The emancipation of literature accompanied that of science ; the impulse which Dante had given to the cultivation of Italian poetry was long felt ; he was followed by Petrarch and Boc- cacio, whose writings at once elevated the character and formed the language of their countrymen. 470 MODERN HISTORY. Several aew inventions, or perhaps importations from the remote East, accelerated the* progress of men in learning and the arts. Of these we may mention more particularly the art of forming paper from linen- rags, painting in oil, the art of printing, the use of gunpowder, and of the mariner's compass. Beforfe the invention of linen-paper, parchment was generally used in Eur9pe, both for copying books and preser>ring public records. This material was scarce and dear. When the Arabs conquered Bokhara (a. d. 704), they are said to have found a large manufactory of cotton- paper at Samarcand, which is not improbable, as the fabric was known in China before the Christian era. They brought the knowledge of the art into their western territories, but the scarcity of the materials long impeded its progress. At length, in the thirteenth century, it was dis- covered that linen would answer all the purposes of cotton ; but when, where, or by whom, this valuable discovery was made, can not be ascer- tained. The first great factory of linen-paper of which we have any certain accoimts, was established at Nuremberg (a. d 1390), but there is reason to believe that paper was manufactured in western Europe a century earlier. The invention of painting in oils is usually attributed to two brothers. Van Eyck, of whom the younger, called John of Bruges, flourished tow- ard the close of the thirteenth century. The invention, however, is of much earlier date, but the brothers deserve the merit of having brought it into practical use, and carried it to a high degree of perfection. Owing to this invention, modern paintings excel the ancients both in finish of execution and permanence. More important than either of these was the invention of printing, which seems to have been at least partially derived from the East. Solid blocks of wood, graven with pictures and legends, were used in China from a very remote period. The great improvement of having separate types for each letter, was made by John Gutenberg, a citizen of Mayence (a. d. 1436) ; he used small blocks of wood, but the matrix for casting metal types was soon afler devised by Peter SchoefFer, of Gemheim. Gutenberg established the first printing-press known in Europe, at Strasburg ; thence he removed to Mayence, where he entered iiito partnership with John Fust, or Faustus, whose ingenuity greatly contributed to perfect the invention. Gutenberg did not put his name to any of the books he printed ; Faustus, more ambitious of fame, placed his name and that of his partner to his celebrated Psalter, and thus re- ceived no small share of the glory that properly belonged to the first discoverer. The art of engraving on copper, was discovered about the same time as the use of moveable types, but its history is very obscure. Scarcely less important than printing was the manufacture and use of gunpowder. The explosive power of saltpetre was probably known in the east from a very remote age. With less certainty we may conjecture that the process of compounding saltpetre with other ingredients, was brought from the remote east by the Saracens. Friar Bacon, the first European writer who describes the composition of gun- powder, derived his knowledge of chymistry chiefly from the Arabian writers, who were the originators of that science. The employment of PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 471 gunpowder for throwing bullets and stones began in Europe about the commencment of the fourteenth century ; it was introduced by the Sar- acens in their Spanish wars ; and the first certain account of this change in warfare, is in an Arabian history of the sie^^e of Baza, by the Jiing of Grtinada (a. d. 1312). It is g'enerally supposed that the Genoese were the first who used powder in tnines, to destroy walls and fortifica- tions, at the siege of Seranessa {i. d. 1487). Bombs and mortars are said to have been invented by Malatesta, prince of Eimini (a. d. 1467) ; and about the same time guns, or rather portable cannons, began to be used by soldiers. Several circumstances prevented the immediate adop- tion of firearms and artillery in war : long habit made many prefer their ancient weapons ; the construction of cannons was injperfect, they were made more frequently of wood, leather, or iron hoops, than soHd metal, and were therefore liable to burst ; the gunpowder was of imperfect manufacture, and frequently failed in the field. Above all, the mail-clad chivalry of Europe opposed a change in the art of war which greatly lowered the value of knights and cavalry. The last great invention that requires notice, is the polarity of the magnet, and its application to the mariner's compass. It was generally believed that the inventor of this precious instrument was FlaviO Gioia, a native of Amalfl, in the kingdom of Naples ; and so precise were the iiistoiians, that they specified the date of the invention as either a. d,. 1302, oir 1303. A more careful examination of the subject showed that the magnet's polarity had been noticed by Chinese, Arabian, and even European writers, long before the coflmiencement of the fourteenth century. The time wheti the polarity of the magnet was first known to the Chinese is lost in the night of antiquity. But many centuries before the Ghristi^n era, this property of the loadstone was a^phed to the construction of magnetic chariots ; but it was probably not until the Chinese began to direct their attention to navigation, under the Tsin dynasty, that is, between the middle of the third and the commence- ment of the fifth centuries of our era that it was used for the guidance of vessels at sea. We have no Certain account of the introduction of the compass into Europe, but writers of the twelfth century, speaking of it, as far as we know for the first time, mention it as a thing gene- rally known. From this sudden notoriety of the polarity of the magnet, it seems probable that its use had beeii practically known to sailors, be- fore it engaged the attention of the learned. Oiily one century previ- ous to this notoriety, we find that the northern navigators had no better expedient for directing their Course, than watching the flight of birds. " The old northern sailors," says a Danish chronicle, " took a' supply of ravens for their guides ; they used to let these birds fly from their barks when in the open sea; if the birds returned to the ship, the sailors concluded that there was no land in sight, but if they flew off, the ves- sels were steered in the direction of their flight." The improvements in the compass were made by slow degrees, aiid for the most important of them the world is indebted to Englishmen. 473 MODERN HISTORY. Section III. — Progress of Commerce. From the beginning of the fourteenth to the middle of the fifteentli century the commerce of Europe was engrossed by the Italian, Han- seatic, and Flemish cities. The Italians, but more especially the Florentines, Genoese, and Venetians, possessed the trade of the Le- vant. The jealousy of the rival republics led to sanguinary wars, which ended in rendering the Venetians supreme in the Mediterranean. The manufacture of silk, which had been introduced into Sicily from Greece, spread thence into various parts of Italy, but the largest fac- tories were estabhshed at Venice. This city supplied the greater part of Europe with silks, spices, and Asiatic produce. Italian merchants, commonly called Lombards, carried these goods into the northern and western kingdoms. The privileges and exemptions granted them by sovereigns, enabled them to rule the traffic of Europe, and to become the chief bankers and money-dealers in its different states.* But all the Italian free cities did not enjoy equal prosperity. The states of Lombardy that had wrested their freedom from the German empetors, soon fell into anarchy. Disgusted with the advantages by which they knew not how to profit, som« voluntarily resigned their lib- erties to new masters, while others yielded to usurpers. Thus the marquis of Este became lord of Modena and Reggia (a. d. 1336) ; the house of Gonzago gained possession of Mantua, and the Visconti took the title of dukes of Milan (a. d. 1395). Florence retained its freedom and prosperity for a longer period. It was not until the reign of the em- peror Charles V. (a. d. 1530), that its republican form of government was abolished, and the supreme authority usurped by the princely family of the Medicis. The rivalry between the Genoese and the Venetians led, as we have already mentioned, to long and deadly wars. The last and most mem- orable of these, was that called the war of Chiozza (a. d. 1379), in which the Genoese received so severe a check,, that they were no longer able to contest the supremacy of the sea with their rivals. But these wars were not the only cause of the decline of Genoa ; the stlreets of the city frequently streamed with the blood of rival fac- tions ; the nobles and commons fought for supremacy, which want of internal union prevented either party from maintaining ; and at length, incapable of governing themselves, they sought the protection of foreign powers. With their usual inconstancy, the Genoese were ever chan- ging masters ; twice they placed themselves under the king of France, but after a short experience of French rule, took for their sovereign, first the marquis of Montferrat, and afterward the duke of Milan. From the year 1464, Genoa remained a dependancy on the dutchy of Milan, until 1528, when it recovered its former freedom. While the power of the Genoese republic was declining, that of Venice was increasing by rapid strides. The permanence given to its government by introducing the principle of hereditary aristocracy, saved •The street in London where these foreigners were settled, still retains the name of Lomhard street, and continues to be the chief seat of banking establish- ments. It is not generally known that the three balls exhibited over pawnbroker's shops, are the arms of Lombardy, and have been retained as a sign, ever since the Lombards were the sole money-lenders of Europe. PKOGEESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 473 the states from internal comnilsions, while the judicious establishment of commercial stations, on the shores of the Adriatic and Levant, se- cured and fostered its trade. The greatest advantage that the Vene- tians obtained over their commercial rivals, arose from their treaty with the sultan of Egypt (a. d. 1343) ; by this alliance, the republic obtained full liberty of trade in the Syrian and Eg)'ptian ports, with the privilege of having consular establishments at Alexandria and Damascus. These advantages soon enabled them to acquire supreme command over the trade of central and southern Asia ; the spices and other commodities of India were brought to Syrian markets, and the Genoese establish- ments on the Black sea soon became worthless. The territorial ac- quisitions of the republic on the northern coasts of the Adriatic, formed a powerful state about the middle of the fifteenth century. But the power of the republic was less secure than it appeared ; oppressive to its dependancies, it provoked hostile feelings, which only waited for an opportunity to blaze forth in open rebellion ; insolent to all the sur- rounding powers, a secret jealousy and enmity were excited, which, at no distant date, exposed Venice to the resentments of a league too powerful to be resisted. We have already mentioned the Hanseatic confederation of the com- mercial cities in northern and western Europe, to protect their trade from pirates and robbers. In the fourteenth century, the league be- came so extensive as to form an important power, that claimed and re- ceived the respect of kings and emperors. The maritime cities of Ger- many, from the Scheldt and the isles of Zealand, all round to the bor- ders of Livonia, joined the confederacy, and several cities in the in- terior sought its protection, and admission into its alliance. The first known act of confederation was signed by the deputies of the several cities at Cologne (a. d. 1364). All the allied cities were divided into four circles, whose limits and capitals varied at different periods ; the general administration of the confederacy was intrusted to a confeder- acy which assembled triennially at Lubeck. In the early part of the fifteenth century, no less than eighty cities sent delegates to the con- gress, while many others were connected with the league, though they had not the power of sending delegates. Possessing the exclusive commerce of the Baltic sea, the Hanse towns exercised the right of making war and peace, and forming alliances ; they equipped powerful fleets and waged successful wars with the northern sovereigns that at- tempted to interfere with their monopoly, or limit the privileges extorted from the ignorance or weakness of their predecessors. The principal marts were Bruges for the Flemish countries, London for England, Bergen for Norway, and Novogorod for Russia. In the close of the fifteenth century, Novogorod was deprived of its republican constitution, and the merchants migrated to Narva and Revel. Through the Flemings the Hanseatic commercial cities were brought into con- nexion with those of Italy ; the merchants of both met in the fairs and markets of Bruges, where the produce of the unexplored north was ex- changed for that of the unknown regions of India. The progress of trade, and the intercourse thus eiffected between remote nations, excited a love for maritime and inland discovery, which soon produced impor- 474 MODEEN HISTOaY. tant changes, and aided the other causes that necessarily led to the pyerthrow of the confederation. Extensive as was the commerce of the Hanseatip cities, it possessed neither permanence nor durability. Having neither produce nor man- ufactures of their own, the merchants had merely a carrying trade, and the produce of simple barter ; consequently the progress of industry, especially in countries where the useful arts were cultivated, raised powerful rivals against them, and_gave commerce a new direction. The establishment of stable government was also injurious to a con- federation ; the German princes gradually recovered iheir supremacy over the cities that had been withdrawn from their authority. This re- sult was hastened by the internal dissensions of the confederate cities. When the northern sovereigns, enlightened on the advantages that their subjects might derive from commerce, assailed the privileges of the Hanse towns by force of arms ; many of the southern cities withdrew themselves from the league ; and the northern confederates, thus de- serted, were unable to preserve their monopoly of the Baltic trade, which they were forced to share with the merchants of England and Holland. The confederacy thus gradually declined, until in the seven- teenth century, this league, once so extensive, included only the cities .of Hamburg, Lubeck, ajid Bremen. In Flanders, commercial prosperity was based on manufacturing in- dustry ; the Flemings supplied the principal markets of Europe with cloth in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; while, through the commercial cities of Italy, they were enabled to send the produce of their looms to the ports of the Levant, and exchange them for spices, jewels, and other articles of oriental luxury. The wealth, the popula- tion, and the resources of these cities, rendered the earls of Flanders more wealthy, and scarcely less powerful than their nominal sovereigns, the kings of France. When Edward I. of England wished to recover Guienne, which had been wrested from his predecessors, he sought the alliance of Guy de Dampierre, earl of Flanders, and proposed to make the earls daughter, Philippa, his queen ; being attracted both by her personal charms and the enormous sums promised as her dowry. So great was the lady's wealth, and such the importance attached to the Flemish alliance, that Philip the Fair had recourse to the most infamous treachery in order to defeat die marriage. As he was the godfather of the young lady, he invited her and the earl to pay him a visit in Paris ; but no sooner did they reach the capital thap he threw them both into prison, declaring that the marriage of so wealthy an heiress could not te arranged without the consent of the superior lord, and that the earl was guilty of felony in promising the hand of his daughter to an enemy of the kingdom. Guy escaped from prison, but his daughter died 9, captive, under circumstances which led to a strong suspicion of poison ; .the earl, believing, or feigning to believe the charge, assembled his chief vassals at Grammont, and there, in the presence of the ambassa- dors from England, Germany, and Lorraine, he solemnly renounced his allegiance to the crown of France, and proclaimed war against Philip. Such was the commencement of the long series of Flemish wars, \yhich jarly assumed the form of a desperate struggle between the mercantile and landed aristocracy. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 475 Commerce and manufactures had brought together a large and ^wealthy populg.tion into the cities of Flanders ; the burgesses had pur- chased charters of privileges from their respective lords, being well aware that municipal freedom was necessary to commercial prosperity ; they began to rival their former masters in wealth and influence, and they formed an order of their own, which was as much respected in the trading communities as the landed aristocracy in the rural districts. The nobles soon began to view the rapid progress of the merchants and traders with jealousy and dislike. Not only were the lords grieved at the loss of their power to distort discretionary imposts, but they regret- ted the growth of that mercantile wealth which invested counting-houses and stores with a political influence not inferior to that which had hitherto attached exclusively to eastfes and estates. Municipal im- munities were found to be at variance with feudal privileges ; neither the merchants nor the nobles would make such concessions as might form the basis of a reasonable compromise, and war was thus rendered inevitable. Under the guidance of several eminent and popular lead- ers, particularly the two Artaveldes, the mercantile Flemings main- tained a long and vigorous warfare against their earls and aristocracy, though the latter were supported by the whole power of France. At the close of the contest, the trading cities preserved their immuni- ties ; but in the course of the war, capitalists had beep ruined, artisans had fled to more peaceful lands, the nobles were impoverished, and the peasants reduced to despair. Though the Flemings continued to retain a large share of their commercial and manufacturing supremacy, they hiad the mqrtification to witness the rise of a powerful rival in England, where the wopllen manufacture gradually attained to a greater height than it had reached even in Flanders. Wool was the most important article of British produce ; and about the middle of the fourteenth century, we find that wool constituted about thirteen fourteenths of the entire exports of the kingdom. Little cloth was made in England, and that only of the coarsest description, until Edward III., in the year 1331, invited weavers, dyers, and fullers, to come over from Flanders and settle in England, promising them his protection and favor on condition that they would carry on their trades here, and teach the knowledge of them to his subjects. The native wool-growers and merchants looked upon these foreign manufacturers with very jealous eyes, especially when Edward .created a monopoly in their favor^ by prohitjiting the wearing of any clotli but of English fabric ; and many petitions are preserved from the weavers of wooUen stuffs, complaining of the heavy impositions laid upon them, by the cofporatipns, in which the corporation of Bristol is espe- cially conspicuous. The manufacture, however, took root and flourished, though it received a severe cheek from the jealousy of parliament, which, by a very unwise law, prohibited the export of woollen goods, and per- mitted that of unwrought wool. The land-owners of England were slow in discovering that their own prosperity was connected with that of the manufacturing interest. Their 'avowed object in le^slation was to keep up the high price of the raw material, the wool grown upon their estates ; and their had the honesty to say so in the preamble to a statute (14 Rich. II. c. 4) prohibiting 476 MODERN HISTORY, any denizen of England from buying wool except from the owners of the sheep and for his own use. This of course closed the home market ; the grower, in his anxiety to grasp the profits of the wool-merchant and retailer in addition to his own, found that he had turned off his best customers ; and we learn from a contemporary historian that the growers were reduced to the greatest distress by having the accumulated stock of two or three years left on their hands. In the reign of Henry VI., not more than a century after its introduc- tion, the woollen manufacture had thriven so well, that it was made to contribute to the revenue, and we were enabled to compete with the nations by whom we had been taught it, on equal terms : a reciprocity law, passed at this time, ordains, that " if our woollen goods were not received in Brabant, Holland, and Zealand, then the merchandise grow- ing or wrought within the dominions of the duke of Burgundy shall be prohibited in England under pain of forfeiture." But there was already a growing jealousy between the landed and manufacturing interests, caused by the rise in the price of labor, resulting from increase of em- ployment ; for so early as the reign of Henry IV., an act was passed that " no one should bind his son or daughter to an apprenticeship, un- less he was possessed of twenty shillings." This attempt to limit the supply of labor in manufacture would have wholly destroyed the woollen trade, had not the first monarch of the house of Tudor granted an ex- emption from the act to the city of Norwich, and subsequently to the whole county of Norfolk. The besetting error of legislators in this age was the belief, that gold and silver had some inherent and intrinsic value in themselves, independent of their exchangeable and marketable value. They could not understand that the very essence of all commerce is barter, and that money only serves as a third term or common measure for ascertaining the comparative value of the articles to be exchanged. Ignorant of this fact, they made several attempts to compel foreigners to pay for English goods in money. In 1429, a law was passed, that no Englishman should sell goods to foreigners except for ready money, or other goods delivered on the instant. This was such a fatal blow to trade, that, in the very next year, the parliament was compelled to relax so far as to admit of the sale of goods on six months' credit. With equal wisdom, and for the same perplexing reason, " the prevention of the exportation of treasure out of the country," a law was passed prohibiting " foreign merchants from selUng goods in England to any other foreigner." This precious piece of legislation did not, of course, prevent the exportation of the precious metals, but it pre- vented the import of merchandise and of bullion, a result which quite per- plexed the legislature, but did not lead to the abolition of the foolish law. Henry VII., removed a still greater check to industry, by restraining the usurpations of corporations. A law was enacted, that corporations should not pass by-laws without the consent of three of the chief officers of state ; they were also prohibited from exacting tolls at their gates. The necessity of legislative interference was proved by the conduct of the corporations of Gloucester and Worcester, which had actually im- posed traiisit tolls on the Severn — these, of course, were abohshed. But the monarch was not superior to the prejudices of his age ; he PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 477 affixed prices to woollen cloths, caps, and hats, which, of course, led to a deterioration of the several articles. Yet this law was highly ex- tolled as a master-stroke of policy by the statesmen of the day. The parliaments in the reign of Henry VIII., were too busily engaged in enforcing the king's caprices, by inconsistent laws against heresy and treason, to pay much attention to trade and commerce. One cir- cumstance, however, connected with the woollen trade deserves to be noticed. So greatly had our woollen manufactures increased, that the Flemings, no longer able to compete with the English as producers, entered into the carrying trade, bought the English commodities, and distributed them into other parts of Europe. In 1528, hostilities com- menced between England and the Low Countries ; there was an im- mediate stagnation of trade ; the merchants having no longer their usual Flemish customers, could not buy goods from the clothiers ; the clothiers in consequence dismissed their workmen, and the starving operatives tumultuously demanded " bread or blood." Wolsey scarcely knew how to account for these riots ; he tried force with the workmen, but hunger was stronger than the law ; he threaten- ed the clothiers unless they gave employment, but wages could ' not be paid from empty purses ; at length he sent for the merchants, and com- manded them to buy cloth as usual ! The merchants replied, that they could not sell it as usual; and, notwithstanding his menaces, would give no other answer. At length the true remedy was discovered ; an agree- ment was made that commerce should continue between the two states even during war. In the reign of Edward VI., an act was passed, by which every one was prohibited from making cloth, unless he had served an apprentice- ship of seven years ; this law was repealed in the first year of Queen Mary, as the preamble of the act states, " because it had occasioned the decay of the woollen manufactory, and had ruined several towns." It was, however, subsequently restored by Elizabeth. The persecution Of the protestants in France, but more especially in Flanders, drove many eminent manufacturers to seek refuge in England, where they were graciously received by Elizabeth. She passed an act relieving the counties of Somerset, Gloucester, and Wiltshire, from the old oppressive statutes, which confined the making of cloth to corporate towns ; and trade, thus permitted to choose its own localities, began to flourish rapidly. In a remonstrance of the Hanse towns to the diet of the empire, in 1582, it is asserted that England exported annually about 200,000 pieces of cloth. Iii this reign, also, the English merchants, instead of selling their goods to the Hanseatic and Flemish traders, began to export themselves ; and their success so exasperated the Hanse towns, that a general assembly was held at Lubeck to concert measures for distressing the English trade. But the jealousy of for- eigners was far less injurious to British commerce than the monopolies which Elizabeth created in countless abundance. An attempt, indeed, was made to remove one monopoly ; but the experiment was not fairly tried, and its consequent ill-success was used as an argument against any similar efforts. By an old patent, the company of Merchant Ad- venturers possessed the sole right of trading in woollen goods. This monstrous usurpation of the staple commodity of the kingdom was too 478 MODERN HISTORY. bad even for that age of datkhess, and Elizabeth opened the trade ; but the Merchant Adventurers entered into a conspiracy not to make pur-- chases of cloth, and the queea, alarmed at the teiftporary suspension of trade, restored the patent. In the reign of James I. it was calculated that nine tenths of the commerce of the kingdom consisted in woollen goods. Most of the cloth was exported raw, and was dyed a;nd dressed by the Dutch, who gained, it was pretended, 700,000Z. annually by this manufacture. The king, at the instigation of Cockayne and some other London merchants, issued a proclamation prohibiting the exportation of raw cloths ; the Dutch and Germans met this piece of legislation by prohibiting the im- portation of English dyed cloth; the consetjuence was, that our export trade was diminished by two thirds, and the price of wool fell from seventy to eighty per cent. The king was forced to recall his procla- mation. In the year 1622 a board of trade was erected, as the com- mission states, " to remedy the lov? price of Wool, and the decay of the woollen manufactory." It is recommended to the commissioners to examine " whether a greater freedom of trade, and an exemption from the restraint of exclusive companies, would not be beneficial." A grati- fying proof of the progress of intelligence ; but, unfortunately, it led to no practical result. English commerce increased greatly under the commonwealth, be- cause no regard was paid to the prerogative whence the charters of the exclusive companies were derived, and because the progress of demo- cratical principles led the country gentlemen to bind their sons aippren- tices to merchants. But with the restoration came the old rage for pro- hibitions and protections ; two thousand manufacturers from Warwick- shire, and a great number from Herefordshire, emigrated to the Pala- tinate ; and, in 1662, the company of Merchant Adventurers declared, in a public memorial, that the yvhite clothing trade had abated from 100,000 pieces to 11,000! In 1668, however, some Walloons were encouraged to introduce the manufacture of fine cloths, from Spanish wool only, without the admixture of any inferior wool ; but the progress of this branch of trade was very slow, owing chiefly to our municipal laws, which pressed heavily on foreigners. It is not necessary to bring down the history of our great staple manufactory to a later date. What has been already stated is suffi- cient to illustrate the evils which arose from legislative interference with the natural course of commerce, industry, and capital, in past ages. It must not, however, be supposed thait this impolicy was peculiar to England ; on the contrary, English statesmen were generally in ad- vance of the rest of Europe, and monopolies were only supported by corrupt adventurers. The nobility and the country gentlemen of Eng- land resisted the imposing of any unnecessary shackles on trade until after the restoration of Charles II., when the system of protection be- gan ;to be introduced ; that system derived its chief support from the short-aighted cupidity of the manufacturers themselves, and the entire blame must not therefore be attributed to the legislature. The extension of English commerce during ^e period of history we have been examining was very slow. The long wars with France, and the civU wars of the Boses,< diverted attention from the peaceful pursuit PROGRESS 01" CIVILIZATION ANb INVENTION. 479 of trade. It was not until after the accession of Henry "VII. that Eng- land began to feel the^ impulse for maritime discovei*^ and commercial enterprise which had hitherto been confined to southern Europe ; the effects of this change belong, however, to a more advanced period of history, and will come under consideration in a future chapter. Section IV. — Revolutions of Germany, France, and Spain. From the period of the accession of Rodolph, the first emperor of the house of Hapsburgh, the German empire began to assume a constitu- tional form, and to be consolidated by new Jaws. Under the govern- ment of Albert, the son of Rodolph, an important change took place in Switzerland, which, at the commencement of the fourteenth century, was divided into a number of states, both secular and ecclesiastical. The cantons of Uri, Schwitz, and TJnJ^prwalden, were immediate de- pendancies of the empire, while some minor adjoining districts belong- ed to the dukes of Austria as counts of Hapsburgh. Albert, anxious to found a. new kingdom for one of his younger children, resolved to an- nex the imperial to the Aust^an cantons ; and in order to reconcile the hardy mountaineers that inhabited them to the intended yoke, he sanc- tioned and encouraged the cruel tyranny of their German governors. Three brave men resolved to attempt the delivery ot their country ; they Secretly engaged a number of partisans, who surprised the impe- rial forts on the same day (a. d. 1308), and accomplished a revolution without shedding a drop of blood. The Austrians made a vigorous ef- fort to recover their supi'emacy, but they suffered a ruinous defeat at Morgarten (a. d. 1315), which secured the independence of the Can- tons. Their league of union was renewed at Brunnen, in a treaty that became the base of the federative union of Switzerland. Five other cantons successively joined the former three, and the Helvetic posses- sions of the house of Austria were conquered by the Swiss during the interval in which the family of the counts of Hapsburgh ceased to wear the imperial crown. On the death of Albert (a. d. 1308), Henry VII., count of Luxem- burg, was chosen emperor ; he was a brave and politic prince ; taking advantage qf the pope's absence at Avignon, and the distracted state of Italy, he made a vigorous effort to restore the imperial authority in the peninsula, and would probably have succeeded but for his premature death. The troubled reign of the emperor Louis of Bavaria, his contest for the empire with Frederic, duke of Aiistria, and the wars occasioned by his efforts to restrain the extravagant pretensions of the popes, led the German princes to discover the necessity of having a written constitu- tion. On the accession of Charles of Luxemburg (a. d. 1347), the calamities of a disputed election to the empire were renewed, and after' a long series of wars and disorders, a diet was convfened at Nur6rttburg, to form a code of laws, regulating the rights and privileges of the spir- itual and temporal authorities. The resuh of the diet's labors was pub- lished in a celebrated edict, called a Golden Bull, from the bulla, or seal of gold, affixed to the document (a. d. 1356). This bull fixed the order and form of the imperial elections, and the ceremonial of the 480 MODEEN HISTORY. coronation. It ordained tliait the crown should be given by the plurality of votes of seven electors ; the prince chosen emperor having a right to give his suiTrage. The right of voting vras restricted to possessors of seven principalities, called electorates, of which the partition was prohibited, and the regularity of their inheritance secured by a strict law of primogeniture. Finally, the Golden Bull defined the rights and privileges of the several electors, confirming to the princes of the Pala- tinate and Saxony the administration of the empire during an interreg- num. The next reign, nevertheless, evinced the danger of investing the electors w'ith such preponderating authority. Wenceslaus, the son and successor of Charles, was a supine and voluptuous prince, who paid lit- tle attention to the interests of the empire ; he was deposed by a plu- rality of votes (a. d. 1400), and Robert, the elector palatine, chosen in his stead. Several of the states continued to acknowledge Wences- laus, but Robert is usually regarded as the legitimate emperor. On Robert's death, the empire returned to the house of Luxemburg, Wen- ceslaus having consented to resign his pretensions in favor of his brother Sigismond, king of Hungary. A cloud had long hung over the house of Hapsburgh ; it was dis- pelled by the fortunate union of Albert, duke of Austria, with Sigis- mond's only daughter, queen in her own right of Hungary and Bohe- mia. On the death of his father-in-law (a. d. 1437), he succeeded to the empire, but survived his elevation only two years. Albert's pos- thumous son Ladislau's inherited his mother's realms ; his cousin Fred- eric, duke of Stiria, was chosen emperor, and from his posterity the imperial dignity never departed until the ' extinction of his male issue (a. d. 1740). The wise policy of Philip Augustus, in weakening the power of the feudal aristocracy and reuniting the great fiefs to the crown, was vig- orously pursued by his successors, but by none more efiectually than Philip the Fair. On the death of that monarch (a. o. 1314), the king of France was undoubtedly the most powerful sovereign in Europe. Philip left three sons, who successively reigned in France ; Louis, sumamed Hutin, Philip the Long, and Charles the Fair ; together with a daughter named Isabel, married to Edward II., king of England. The three French sovereigns just mentioned, died without leaving male issue ; all had daughters, but Philip and Charles asserted that no fe- male could inherit the crown of France. The claims founded on this law of succession were but slightly questioned ; and on the death of Charles IV., Philip, Count de Valois, the nearest male heir, ascended the throne without encountering any immediate opposition (a. d. 1328). Edward III. of England resolved to claim the kingdom in right of his mother Isabel, but the distractions of his native dominions long pre- sented insuperable obstacles to his projects. He even did liege hom- age to Philip for the province of Guienne, and for several years gave no sign of meditating such a mighty enterprise as the conquest of France. Aided by his son, the celebrated Black Prince, the English monarch invaded France, and, contrary to the opinions of all the contemporary princes, was everywhere victorious (a. d. 1338). The war was main- tained by PhiUp of Valois, and his son and successor John, with more PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION' AND INVENTION. 481 -obstinacy than wisdom ; the former suffered a terrible defeat at Crecy, the most glorious field ever won by English valor ; King John was •taken prisoner at the battle of Poictiers. But these achievements, .however glorious, could not ensure the conquest of France, the country was too large, the French nation too hostile to the invaders, and! Ed- ward's army too small for such a revolution. Both sides became weary of the contest, a treaty was concluded at Bretigni, by which several important provinces were ceded to Edward, on the condition of his re- nouncing his claims to the French crown (a. d. 1360). A troubled period of eight years followed, which can scarcely be called a peace, although there was a cessation from open hostilities. There is scarcely a calamity by which a nation can be aiHicted that •did not visit France during this disastrous season. A foreign enemy was in the heart of the kingdom ; the seditions of the capital deluged its streets with blood; and a treacherous prince of the blood, Charles ,the Bad, king of Navarre, was in arms against the sovereign authority. Famine devastated the land, and a plague of unparalleled virulence (a. d. 1348) consummated the work of hunger and the sword. The compa- nies of adventurers and mercenary troops that remained unemployed during the truce that followed the victory of Poictiers, spread them- selves over the land, in marauding troops, which there was no force to withstand. So little scrupulous were they, that they assailed the pope in Avignon, and compelled the pontiff to redeem himself by a ransom of forty thousand crowns. Finally, the peasantry of several districts, impatient of distress, and maddened by the oppressions of their lords, broke out into a fearful insurrection. This was named the Jacquerie, from the contemptuous phrase, " Jacques bon homme," applied by the nobles to their serfs, and it was marked by all the horrors that neces- sarily attend a servile war, when men, brutalized by tyranny, and mad- dened by wrongs, seek vengeance on their oppressors. Edward the Black Prince was intrusted by his father to the govem- .ment of the French provinces. A brave and adventurous warrior, Ed- ward was deficient in the qualities of a statesman. Having exhausted his finances by an unwise and fruitless invasion of Castile, he laid heavy taxes on his subjects, and they in anger appealed for protection lo their ancient sovereigns. Charles V., who had succeeded his father John on the throne of France, gladly received this appeal, and sum- moned Edward to appear before him as his liege lord (a. d. 1368). Though enfeebled by sickness, the answer of the gallant prince to this summons was a declaration of war, but the tide of fortune was changed, .and in a few campaigns the English lost all their acquisitions in France, ^th the exception of a few important seaports. The weakness of Richard II., and the doubtful title of Henry IV., iprevented the English from renewing the war with France during their Teigns ; indeed they would probably have been expelled from all their continental possessions, but for the deplorable imbecility of the French monarch, Charles VI., and the sanguinary contests of the factions of Orleans and Burgundy. The English nation had been long commer- cially connected with Flanders, and when that 'country was annexed to the dutchy of Burgundy, provision had been made for the continuance of trade by separate truces. Encouraged by the prolnised neutrality, 31 4(83 MOBEEN HISTORY. if jiot the active co-operatioa of the Burgundian duke, Henry V. inva- ded France, and destroyed the flower of the French chivalry on the- memorahle field of Agincourt (a. d. 1415). The progress of the En- -giish. was uninterrupted until the defection of the duke of Bnrgundy (a. d. 1419), an event which seemed to threaten Henry with ruin ; but that prince having been assassinated, his partisans in revenge joined the English, and this circumstance, combined with the unnatural hatred of the French queen Isabel to her son the dauphin, led to the treaty of Troyes, by which Henry, on condition of marrying the princess Catharine, was appointed regent of France, and heir to the unconscious Charles VI. J^otwithstanding this arrangement, Charles VII. on the death of his father, was recognised as king in the southern provinces of France, while Henry VI., the infant inheritor of the crowns of England and France, was proclaimed in the northern provinces, under the reign of his uncle, the duke, of Bedford (a. d. 1423). At first the fortunes of Charles wore the most unfavorable appearance ; and the siege of Orleans (a. d. 1428) threatened to deprive him of hope. A simple country girl overthrew the power of England. Joanof Arc, called also the Maid of Orleans, whether influenced by enthusiasnj or imposture, it is not easy to determine, declared herself supernaturally inspired to undertake the deliverance of her country. The English felt a superstitious awe, and lost their conquests one by one, and after a protracted but feeble struggle,, no memorial of the victories of Edward and Henry, remained but the town of Calais and an empty title (a. d. 1449). The' destruction of the- French nobility in this long series of wars, enabled Charles VII. to mould the government into a despotic form, which was permanently fixed by his crafty successor Louis XI. Scarcely a less important change was made in ecclesiastical affairs ; Charles VII. secured the Galilean church from any future encroachment of the holy see, by adopting several decrees of the council of Basil, which were solemnly recognised in a national assembly held at Bourges (a. d. 1438),, and published under the name of the Pragmatic Sanction. Spain, during this period, continued to be divided in several king- , doms ; the Christian monarchies of Navarre, Castile, and Aragon, could not be brought to combine against the Moors, whose strength was con- centrated in the province of Granada. Alphonso XI. was the only Cas- tilian monarch who distinguished hiniself in war against the Moham- medans ; he defeated the combined forces of the kings of Morocco and Cranada, who had united to besiege Tariff'a(A^D. 1340),, and by thi& victory, not only delivered his own frontiers, but acquired several im- portant fortresses. The power of Castile was weakened by the unex- ampled tyranny of Peter the Cruel. He was dethroned by his illegit- imate brother, Henry, count of Trastamare, but was subsequently re- stored by Edward the Black Prince. Proving uijgrateful to his bene- , factor, he provoked a second contest, in which he lost his kingdom and IJf^,, The kingdoim now passed to the house of Trastamare (a. d 1368), .3^4 iox a considerable period enjoyed peace and prosperity Though the kingdom of Aragon was inferior in extent, to that of Castile, yet the Sidyfintages of a better gpvemmeAt, an,d wiser sovereign, with those of iud,ustiy a|i;kd commerce, along a line of seacoast, rendered it almost PROGRESS OF CIVIEIZATION AND INVENTION. 483 equally important. The Aragonese kings acquired the kingdom of the . two Sicilies, the Balearic islands, Sardinia, and the county of Barcelona, with several other Catalonian districts. They would probably have struggled for the supremacy of Spain, had not the crowns of Aragon and Castile been united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (a. d. 1469). A similar event had nearly united the crovpus of Gastile and Portugal. Ferdinand, king of Portugal, having no male heir, wished to secure the succession for his daughter Beatrice, and married her, at the early age of eleven, to John I., king of Castile. On the death of Ferdinand, his illegitimate brother, Don Juan, commonly called John the Bastard, profiting by the national hatred between the Portuguese and Castilians, usurped the regency. A fierce war ensued^ the Castilians were over- thrown in the decisive battle of Aljubarota (a. d. 1385), and John was proclaimed king by the states of Portugal. The war was continued for several years, but finally a treaty was concluded, by which the Castilian monarchs resigned all claim to the inheritance of Beatrice. Section V. — The State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. The inglorious reign of Edward II. in England was not on the whole unfavorable to the progress of constitutional liberty. After the weak- ness of the king and profligacy of his favorites had for four years dis- gusted the nations, the barons compelled the monarch to grant a reform of abuses in full parliament (a. d. 1311). The Great Charter was re- newed, and a fresh clause added, of too much importance to be omitted even in this scanty page : " Forasmuch as many people be aggrieved by the king's ministers against right, in respect to which grievances no one can recover without a common parliament; we do ordain that the king shall hold a parliament once in the year, or twice, if need be." But this security against mis-government proved inefficacious, the mon- arch was deposed, and soon after murdered (a. d. 1327). Edward III. was proclaimed king ; and during his minority, the administration was intrusted to Queen Isabella. After the lapse of three years, Isabella, who had disgraced herself by a criminal intrigue with Mortimer, eairl of March, was stripped of power, and her paramour beheaded. Edward III. rendered his reign illustrious, not more by his splendid achievements in France, than by the wise laws he sanctioned in Eng- land. These, perhaps, must be ascribed less to the wisdom of the sovereign than the increasing spirit of the commons. It was during this long and prosperous reign that parliament , established the three fundamental principles of our government — the illegality of raising money ■without the consent of parliament ; the necessity of both houses con- curring in any alteration of the laws ; land the right of the commons to investigate public abuses, andimpeach the royal ministers for malradmin- istration. While in the midst of victory, able to boast of his queen having conquered and captured the king of Scotland, and of his son hav- ing, taken the king of France prisoner, Edward found his parliaments weil-dijspased to second all his efforts, and gratify all his wishes ; hut, when the tide of fortune tumedi he had to encounter the hostility of a 484 MODERN HrSTORY. : constitutional opposition, at the head of which appealed the prince of Wales. On the death of the heroic Black Prince, the royal favorite, the duke of Lancaster became supreme in parliament, but the fruits of the victories acquired by the;patripts were not lost, the statute law of the realm wa^ improved,) the administration of justice improved, and the great security of ministerial responsibility established. English litera- ture began to assume a settled form ; Chaucer, the greatest poet that modern Europe had pitoduced, with the exception of Dante, flourished in the time of Edward; and the language had become so far perfect, that it was resolved to have all laws written in Eiiglish, instead of the Norman French, which had been used since the time of the conquest. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, succeeded his grandfather (a. d. 1377), ere he had attained his twelfth year. The early part of his .reign was troubledby the. contests of his ambitious uncles for the regency, and by a dangerous insuri-ection of the peasants, headed by the celebra- ■ted blacksmidi, Wat Tyler.. About the same time, the zeal with which Wickliffe denounced the corruptions of the church, provoked the hostili- ty of the clergy ; his doctrines were condemned by a national synod (a. d. 1382), but they had taken fast hold of the people, and some of his disciples carried them to the continent, more especially into Bohemia, where they continued to flourish in spite of persecution. The continued misgovernment of Richard provoked a revolution, while he was absent in Ireland. Henry of Lancaster, duke of Hereford, enraged at the for- feiture of his paternal estate, headed the revolt ; Richard, on his return, finding the rbyal cause hopeless, surrendered to his haughty cousin, and was forced to abdicate the crown (a. d. 1399). The throne, thus vacated, was claimed by Henry, as representative of the dulce of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III., but the hered- itary right belonged to Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the lineal descendant of Lionel, duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III. The Mortimer claim, at a later period, was vested by marriage in the family of York, descended from the fourth son of Edward. Henry of Lancaster, however, was the idol of the people, and the master of the parliament ; his demand passed without question, and the first acts of his reign were well calculated to make the nation acquiesce in his title. The efforts of some discontented nobles to restore Richard, were crushed by the spontaneous exertions of, the populace, and the death of the deposed monarch seemed to secure tranquillity. But the fourth Henry found that discontented friends- were the most dangerous ene- mies ; the proud Percies, to whom he owed his elevation, dissatisfied with the scanty reward of their services, took up arms, and involved the country in civil war. The Percies were overthrown at Shrewsbury (a. D. 1403), but their Welsh ally, Owen Glendower, maintained a stern resistance to the house of Lancaster for several years. On the death of Henry IV., his son, Henry of Monmouth, ascended the throiie (a. d. 1413). His dissipation in youth gave little promise of a glorious reign, but immediately after his accession he resigned all his follies, and having secured the tranquillity of England by judicious measures of reform, he revived the claims of Edward to the throne of France. The glorious battle of Agincourt left him master of the opea field, the crimes and follies of the French court gave him possessioa PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 485 of Paris; he died in the midst of victory (a. d. 1422), leaving a son Qilly nine months old to inherit his kingdoms. ' The early part of Henry VI. 's reign is occupied by the series of wars that ended in the expulsion of the English from their continental possessions. The loss of trophies so gratifying to popular vanity, alien- ated the affections of the nation from the house of Lancaster, and this dislike was increased by the haughtiness of Henry's' queen, Margaret of Anjou, and the ambition of unprincipled farorites.' Richard, duke of York, sure of succeeding to the crown, would probably not have E^sserted the claims of his house, but for the unexpected birth of a prince, on whose legitimacy some suspicion was thrown. Encouraged by many powerful nobles, he took up arms ; the cognizance of the Yorkists was a white rose, that of the Lancastrians, a red rose, and the fierce contests that ensued are usually called the " wars of the roses." After a sanguinary struggle, marked by many vicissitudes of forturie, the white rose triumphed, and Edward IV., son of Richard, duke of York, became king of England (a. d. 1461). Ten years afterward, his tri- umph was completed, and his rights secured, by the battle of Tewkes- bury, in which the Lancastrians were decisively overthrown. Ed- ward's reign was sullied by cruelty and debauchery ; after his death (a. d. 1483), the crown was usurped by Richard, duke of Gloucester, who endea.vored to secure himself by the murder of his nephews. But the claims of the Lancastrian family were now revived by Henry Tudor,: earl of Richmond, the heir to that house by right of his mother, and a proposal, favored -by the principal nobles, was made for uniting this nobleman in marriage to the princess .Elizabeth, ^daughter of Edward IV., and thus for ever extinguishing the hostility between the rival houses. At the decisive' battle of Bosworth field, Richard was defeated and slain (a. d. 1586) ,- Hertry became king of England, and his mar- riage with Elizabeth united the rival claims of York and Lancaster in the Tudor family. The wars excited by disputed successions in Scotland, were termin- ated by the transfer of the crown to the family of the Stuarts (a. d. 1371). IJnder this dynasty, the royal authority, which had been almost annihi- lated by the nobles, was greatly extended, and judicious laws enacted for restraining the turbulence of the aristocracy. Intestine wars long harassed the northern kingdoms, but their tran- quillity was restored by Queen Margaret, commonly called the Semi- ramis of the North, who united Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, into one state, by the treaty of Calmar (a. d. 1397). ' The predilection shown by Margaret's successors for their Danish subjects, displeased the Swedes, an4 on the death of King Christopher, without issue, they separated from the union, and chose Charles VIII., one of their native nobles, to be their sovereign. The Danes conferred their crown on Christian I., count of Oldenberg (a. d. 1450), and it has ever since continued in his family. : ,. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Russia was divided into several principalities, all of which were under the Mongolian yoke, while the western provinces had the additional misery of being ravaged by the Poles and Lithuanians. A diversion in their favor was made by the Teutonic knights, who added several rich provinces to their Prus- 486 MODEEN HISTORY. sian dominions, but the oppressive government of the order proVokeii insurrections, of which the Poles took advantage, not only to regain their former provinces, but also to acquire a considerable portion ' of Prussia, which was ceded to them by the peace of Thorn (a. d. 1466), A great revolution in the Polish form of government rouSed the martial enthusiasm, but proved fatal to the tranquillity of the Poles. Casiinir the Great, having no male issue, wished to secure thej succession for his nephew, Louis, king of Hungary, and convoked a general assembly of the states (a. i). 1339). The nobles, to whom an appeal was thus made, took advantage of the circumstance to render the throne elective, dnd to place great restrictions on the royal authority. When Louis of Hungary became king of Poland (a. d. 1370), he was obliged to swear fealty to a constitution which changed the monarchy into a republican jaistocracy. On his death, the crown of Poland was given to Jagellon, duke of Lithuania (a. d. 1382)j who renounced paganism on his eleic- tion, and established the Christian religion in his hereditary estates. Though the crown continued elective, the Polish kings were always chosen from the Jagellon family, until its extinction in the sixteenth century. Sectioit VI. — Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empire. Under the administration of the Palaeologi, the Byzantine empire sunk into hopeless decay ; its history presents an unvaried picture of vice and folly ; the weakness of the sovereigns, the exorbitant power of the patriarchs and monks, the fury of theological controversy, the multiplication of schisms and sects, would have ruined the state, but for the external pressure of the Mohammedan dynasties ; while, on the other hand, the triumph of these enemies was delayed by the revolu- tions in the sultanies of Anatolia, and the difficulties that the siege of a maritime capital presents to hordes ignorant of navigation. But when the power of the Ottoman Turks became consolidated, it was manifest that the fate of Constantinople could not be averted, though its fall was long delayed; The power of the Ottoman Turks commenced in Asia Minor ; when the Mongolian hordes overthrew the Selj^kian dynasties, k small wan- dering tribe of Turks sought refuge in Armenia, but after seven years of exile, seized what they deemed a favbrable opportunity of returning to their ancient possessions. While fording the Euphrates, the leader of the Turks was disowned, and the tribe was divided into four, by his sons. Ertogruli th'e warlike leader of one division, resolved to return into Asia Minor : the sultanies into which the Seljdkian empire had been divided, were harassing each other Vith itiutual wars, and could not be persuaded to combine against either the Mongols or the crusaders, and consequently a band of adventurous warriors might reasonably hope to obtain fame and fortune in such a distracted country. During Erto- grul's retrograde march, he met two armies engaged in mortal combat,' a;nd without giving himself the trouble of investigating the cause, he took the chivalrous resolution of joining the weaker party. His unex- pected aid changed the fortunes of the day, and he was rewarded by the conqueror, who proved to be a chief of the' Seljdkians, with the gift PaOGUESS OF diflLIZATlON A'lJD- INVENTION. 48t' ■ of a rtiountainous district, forming the frontiers 6f aiclent Bithynia and Phrygia. Othman, or Ottomatt, usually regarded as the founder of the Turkish •-efifi'^ire (born a. d. 1258), succeeded his father Ertogrul at an early age. He was fortunate in winning the friendship of a yoxing Greek, who emhraced Islamism to please his patron, and instructed the Turkish prince in the art of government. From this renegade descended the family of Mikal-ogli,* which so often appears conspicuous in Turkish "history. To the information obtained from this Greek, Othman owed the supremacy which he speedily acquired over his Seljtikian rivals ; ; aided by the surrounding emirs, he wrested several important places -from the Byzantine empire, particularly Prusa, the ancient capital of Bithynia. which under the slightly altered name of Briisa, became his metropolis (a. d. 1337). The new kingdom, thus formed at the expense of the sultans Of Iconiiun and the Greek emperors, increased rapidly, and soon became one of the most flourishing states in the east. Orkhan, the son and successor of Othman, instituted the military force of the Janissaries, to which the Turks owe the chief part of their success. Having greatly enlarged his dominions, he took the title of sultan and began to expel the Greeks from Anatolia. While Orkhan pursued his victorious career in Asia, his son Soliman crossed the Hel- lespont (a. d. 1358), captured Gallipoli, and thus laid the first founda- tion of the Turkish power in Europe. Ainurath, or Morad I., steadily pursued the policy of his father and btother. He captured Adrianople (a. d. 1360), which he made his capital. He subdued Thrace, Macedon, and Servia, but fell at the bat- tlte of Oossova, one of the most sanguinary ever fought betvi^een Turks and Christians. Bayezid, sumamed Ilderin, or'the Thunderer, pilt an end to all the petty Turkish sovereignties in Asia Minor ; he stibdued Bulgaria, and maintained his conquest by the decisive victory that he gained at Ni- copolis over Sigismond, king of Hungaiy. The pride, the cruelty, and the bravery of Bayezid have been celebrated in history and romaiice, Soufliem Greece, the countries along the Danube, and the western dis- tricts of Thrace, submitted to his anus; the empire of Constantiiipple ■was bounded by the walls of the city ; even this was held blockaded for ten years, and must eventually have fallen, had not Bayezid's attention been directed to Asia, by the rapid successes of a conqueror, more sav- -age than himself. Timiir Lenk, that is to say, "Lame Timur," a name commonly cor- rupted into Tamerlane, was the son of a Jagatay Turk, who ruled a horde, nominally subject to the descendants Of Jenghiz Khan. His ama- zing strength,' exhibited even in early infancy, procured him the name Timtir, which signifies " iron." "While yet a youth, he resolved to de- liver his country from the Mongolian yoke, but at the same tinie, awaire of the high value placed upon illustrious birth, he pretended to be de- scended from Jenghiz, and on this account he is frequently called Tiraur the Tartar ; and this error was perpetuated in India, where his descend- -antsf, the emperors of Delhi, have been denominated the Great Mogul^. 'J ■ ' - * Sons of Michael. 488 . i , MODEEN HISTOay. His empire wa^ rapidly extended from th.e wall of China to the Medit*^ erranean sea ; India in the south, and Russia in the north, acknowledged-: his sway, and his determination to wrest Syri^; and Anatolia from the Tiirks, compelled Bayezid to abandon the siege of Constantinople, and., hasten to the defence of his, Asiatic dominions (a. j>.I403). Before he could reach the scene of a,ction, Sivas (the ancient Sebaste) had fallen, and the Bravest warriors of the garrison had been buried aUv? hy the ferocious victor. Damascus soon after shared the same fate ; it was laid w;aste by fire and sword, and a solitary tower alone remained to mark the spot that had once been a city. : Bayezid encountered Timiir in the plains of Angora ; he was defeated with great loss, and taken prisoner. The Turkish historians assert that Bayezid was confined by the conqueror in an iron cage,, but Timor's own companion and historian asserts that the conqueror treated his cap- - tive.'with great lenity j all that can, be .determined, with certamty is that- the- sultan died i^i.the enemy's' camp. Timiir himself fell a victim to- disease, while preparing toinvade China(A.,D. 1405). His empire was dismembered after his .death, but Baber,.o;ie of his descendants, estab-- lished ,ah empire at Delhi, in nortliem tndia (a. d. 1526), which, sadly, shorn of its ancient glories, subsisted almost to pur own times, under the name of , the empire of the Great Moguls. ■. , ,■ After a long fratricidal war, Mohammed I., the, youngest of Bayezid's sons, succeeded to his father's dominions. The greater part of his reign. . was spent in restoring, the Ottoman power in westeiini A^ia, and ,thus the .Byzaiitines obtained a respite, by which they knew not ho:^, to ■ profit. Morad, or Aniurath II., raised the glory of the Ottomans to a height greater than it ha^ yet attained. He deprived the Greek? of all their cities and castles on the Euxine sea, and along the .coasts, of Thrace, Macedon, and Thessaly.; he ev,en stormed the fortifications that had been constructed across the Corinthian isthrnus, and carried his vic- torious arms into the midst of the, Peloponnesus. The Grecian empe- rors acknowledged him as their superior lord, and he, in turn, accorded, . them protection. Two Christian heroes arrested the progress of the sultan— John Hunniades, and George Castriot, better known by the, name of Scanderbeg. Hunniades was a celebrated Hungarian general ; he drove the Turks' from Servia, whose possession they eagerly coveted,,;^ and long impeded their progress westward. Scanderbeg was an Alba- nian prince, possessing a small district in the Epirote , mountains, of which Croia was the capital. At the head of a small but faithful band ^ of followers, he long resisted the mighty armies of the Ottomans, and' cdhipelled Amurath hinjself to, raise the siege of Croia. At length Mohammed II. ascended the Ottoman throne (a. d. 1451),. arid from the moment of his accession, directed all his efforts to the capture of Constantinople. At the head of an arpiy of three hundred thousand men, supported by a fleet of three hundred, sail, he laid siege to this celebrated metropolis, and encouraged his men by spreading re- \ ports of prophecies and prodigies, that portended the triumph of Islam- ism. Constantine, the last of the Grpek emperors, met the storm writh,., be'coming resolution ; supported by the Genoese, and a scanty band, of followers from western Europe, he maintained the city for fifty-three ■ days, though the fanaticism of hi^ enemies was raised to the highest- PBOGRBSS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. 48* pitch by their confident reliance on the favor of Heaven, while prophe- cies of impending wo and desolation proportionably depressed the in- habitants of Constantinople. At length, on the 29th of May, a. d. 1453, the Turks stormed the walls, the last Constantine fell as he boldly dis- puted every inch of ground, multitudes of his subjects were massacred in the first burst of Turkish fury, the rest were dragged into slavery, and when Mohammed made his triumphal entry, he found the city a vast solitude. The conquest of Constantinople was followed by that of Servia, Bos- nia, Albania, Greece, including the Peloponnesus, several islands of the Archipelago, and the Greek empire of Trebizond. All Christendom was filled with alarm ; Pope Pius II. conveiied a council at Mantua, for the purpose. of organizing. a general association to resist the progress of the Turks (a. d. 1459). A crusade was preached by his order, and he was about to uudprtake the comma;nd, of the expedition in;person, when death cut short his projects at Ancona (a. d. 1464). The Christian league was dissolved by his death, the Turks were permitted to estah- lish their empire in Europe, and this received a great increase, both of security and strength, by the voluntary tender of allegiance which ,the- khans of the Crimea made to Mohammed II. (a. d. ,1478). After the first burst of fanaticism was over, Mohammed granted protection to his Christian subjects, and, by his wise measures, Constantinople was re- stored to its former prosperity. -4^ MODERil HISTOEY. CHAPTER VI. THE REFORMATION, AND COMMENCEMENT OF THE STATES-SYSTEM IN EUROPE. Section I,.— Progress of Maritime IKsaniery- The scene of the earliest-known navigation was the Mediterranean «ea,- which naturally seemed to the ancients to be situated in the middle of the earth; as is implied by its name. As navigation advanced only at a creeping pace, and as but a small amount of fresh experience was laid up by one generation for the benefit of the next, it took very many ages to explore the Mediterranean, Tyrrhene, Hadriatic, and ^gean «eas. The great natural relief, given to ancient navigation, was the discov- ery of the trade-winds which prevail in the Indian ocean. These peri- odical changes of winds, if noticed by the Arabians, were not made to serve their maritime trade, until the keener enterprise of the West, in the person of Hippalus (about a. d. 50), first ventured to steer oif from the Arabian and Persian shores, and to be impelled eastward, in the direction of the wind. A voyage which had consumed years, now took up but as many months, by a conformity on the part of the mariner with this invariable law of nature. The means of profit and information were now less monopolized, and the west became better acquainted with the inhabitants and produce of the east. The navigation to the Indies was continued, when the Romans be- came masters of Egypt, by sailing down the Arabian gulf, and thence to the mouth of the river Indus, along the southern coasts of Arabia and Persia. But under the emperor Claudius this route was so far changed, that after emerging from the Arabian gulf, they cut across the Indian ocean directly to the mouth of the Indus, by noticing, and taking advan- tage of, the time when the southwest trade-wind blew. When the Arabians, in their rapid career of conquest, had reached the Euphrates, they immediately perceived the advantages to be de- rived from an emporium situated upon a river which opened on the one hand a shorter route to India than they had hitherto had, and on the other, an extensive inland navigation through a wealthy country ; and Bassora, which they built on the west bank of the river (a. d. 636), soon became a great commercial city, and entirely cut off the indepen- dent part of Persia from the oriental trade. The Arabian merchants of Bassora extended their digcoveries eastward, far beyond the tracks of all preceding navigators, and imported directly from the place of their THE STATES-SYSTEM OF fiUROPE. 491 grOTirthi many Indian articles, hitherto procured at second hand in Cey- lon ; -which they accordingly furnished on their own terms to the nations of the west. As an instance of the depressed state of human knowled^ during the middle ages, we may mention that Cosmas, a Greek merchant of the sixth century, wrote a book called " Christian Topography" the chief intent of which was to confute the heretical opinion of the earth being a globe, together with the pagan assertion that there was a tem- perate zone on the southern side of the torrid zone. He informed his readers that, according to the true orthodox system of cosmography, the earth was a quadrangular plane, extending four hundred courses, or days' journeys, from east to west, and exactly half as much from north to «outh, enclosed by lofty mountains, upon which the canopy or vault of the firmament rested ; that a huge mountain on the north side of the earth, by intercepting the light of the sun, produced the vicissitudes of day and night ; and that the plane of the earth had a declivity from noirth, by reason of which the Euphrates, Tigris, and other rivers run- ning southward, are rapid ; whereas the Nile, having to run up-hill, has necessarily a very slow current. The Feroe islands had been discovered about the latter end of the ninth century, by some Scandinavian pirates ; and soon after this, Ice- land was colonized by Flok, the Norwegian. Iceland, it appears, had been discovered long before the Norwegians settled there ; as many* relics, in the nature of bells, books in the Irish language, and wooden crosses, were discovered by Flok, in different parts of the island : so that the Irish seem first to have set foot tipon that isle. The Icelandic chronicles also relate that, about these times, the Northmen discovered a great country to the west of Ireland, which account has by many been deemed apocryphal : for, if true, they must be held to be some of the early discoverers of America ; but it seems pretty clear that they made their way to Greenland in the end of the tenth century. The settiement effected in Greenland, though comprising but a small popu- lation, seems to have been very prosperous in these early times in mercantile affairs. They had bishops and priests from Europe ; and paid the pope, as an annual tribute, twenty-six hundred pounds of wal- rus-teeth, as tithe and Peter's pence. The voyage from Greenland to Iceland and Norway, and back again, consumed five years; and upon- one occasion the government of Norway did not hear of the death of the bishop of Greenland until six years after it had occurred ; so that the' art of navigation, after all, must have been in these times but at a very* low pitch. Greenland seems to have been called Viinland, or Finland, from the- vines which were discerned by the early discoverers as abounding in this country ; and, in fact, wild vines are found growing in all the nor- thern districts of America. This Viinland is, however, supposed hf some persons to have been Newfoundland ; and if so, America rnvist in reality have been discovered as much as five centuries before Columbus sailed so far as the West Indies ; and moreover, it has been supposed that the many traditions about the west, existiiig in the time of Co-' hniibus, first set him to prosecute the idea of discovering another world. 492 MODEEN HiSToay. The impulse which the cultivation of ancient learning had received in Europe was greatly strengthened by the downfall of Constantinople, which drove the most learned Greeks into exile ; they sought refuge foi the most part in Italy, and the libraries of that peninsula became the de- positories of what remained of the ancient treasures of Greek literaturie and philosophy. It was hence that the first stimulus was given to the study of the Greek language in Europe. Translators of the Greek au- thors, and commentators upon them, began to multiply ; and the rapid progress of the art of printing gave an additional impidse by the facili- ties it afforded for the dissemination of learning. The belief that there existed a fourth division of the globe, larger than any yet discovered, had been encouraged by some of the ancient .philosophers ; and it had been, so generally received, that two eminent fathers of the church, St. Ajigustine and Lactantjus, had zealously labored to refute the theory^ believing it inconsistent with the dpptrines of Christianity! Withithe cultivation: of Greek litpiature the old notion was revived, and at the same time the rapid development of the spirit of maritime discovery in- duced several nations, but especially the Portuguese, to search out new and unknown lands. The Canaries, or Fortunate islands, were the first discovery that fol- toyred the introd;i;ction of the majriner's compass ; they became known to the Spaniards early in the fourteenth century, but no regular atteinpt was made for their colonization. ,. In thC; early part of the fifteenth century, John I., king of Portugal, had effected some very important cqnquests over the Moors ; in which he had been very materially assisted by his son. Prince Henry, whoheing an able and active-minded cavaUer, took delight rather in the more solid glories of learning and science, than in the fame of war, in which he had, however, of late so highly distinguished himself. Upon the cessa- tion of hostilities he retired to the promontory of St. Vincent, and lived at the seaport town of Sagres, which he had himself founded, where he ci(ltivated the science of astronomy, for the purpose of making it avail- able to the rnariner, in guiding him over the ocean, when he had quitted the servile tracking of the shore. He, in fact, established a naval col-: lege, and an observatory. He engaged to his assistance all the best- ioformed men of his time ; and the point to which he especially directed^ his attention, was the practicability of sailing round Africa, and of thus reaching the East Indies. Prince Henry did not live to see the whole of hisTiews accomplished; but the many minor discoveries which were effected under his auspices, laid up a fund of knowledge and experience for succeeding generations to profit by. Maps were formed under his. superintendence : by which means all the geographical knowledge re- Sfpecting the earth was brought together ; the different parts were marked- out ; and the rocks, coasts, and quicksands, to be avoided, were all noted down. The southernmost cape of Africa known in those days was Cape Non, which received this appellation from the idea that it was utterly impos- sible to get beiyond this cape ; but the ofiicers of Henry having at length- doubled it, found C^pe Bojador in the distance, whose violent currents- and raging breakers, running for miles out to sea, seemed a barrier which could not even be approached with safety by mariners, who were? THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 493 m the habit of coasting along the shore. Seamen now began to be more alarmed than ever at the idea of the torrid zone, and to propagate the notion, that he who should double Cape Bojador would never re- turn. At length this awful cape was parsed by; the region of the tropics was penetrated, and divested of its fancied terrors ; the river Senegal was observed, the greater part of the African cbiist, from Cape Blanco to Cape de Verdej was explored, and the Cape' de Verde and the Azore islands were discovered ; the Madeiras and Canaries having been visited for the first time by the Spaniards some years before. This prince died in the year 1473, after having obtained a papal bull, investing the crown of Portugal with sovereign authority over all the lands it might discover in the Atlantic, to India inclusive. The passion for discovery languished after the death of Prince Henry, but it was revived by his grand-nephew. King John II., with additional ardor (a. d. 1481). In his reign, the Portuguese, for the first time, crossed the equator, and for the first time beheld the stars of a new hemisphere. They now discovered the error of the ancients, respect- ing the torrid zone, and practically refuted the common belief that the continent of Africa widened toward the south, for they beheld it sensibly contracting and bending toward the east. The hopes inspired by this discovery, induced the Portuguese monarch to send ambassadors in search of an unknown potentate supposed to profess the Christian re- ligion, by whose aid it was hoped that a lucrative trade might be opeiied with India, and the progress of the true faith secured. Early in the thirteenth century, reports were prevalent in Europe of some great potentate in a remote part of Asia having embraced the Christian faith.* In consequence, the pope, Innocent IV., sent two monks to preach Christianity in the Mongolian court (a. d. 1246) ; and soon after, St. Louis of France employed the celebrated Rubruquis to seek the aid of the supposed Christian sovereign, who was commonly called Prester John, in the crusade that he contemplated. A Venetian, named Marco Polo, visited the most distant parts of Asia (a. d. 1363), and penetrated to Pekin, the capital of China. He was followed by Sir John Mandeville, an Englishman (a. d. 1322), and the narrations of both, though deficient in accuracy of information, contributed to keep alive the feelings of interest and curiosity which had been excited in Europe. While the Portuguese monarch's emissaries were engaged in a hope- less search for Prester John, and the more useful task of investigating the state of navigation in the Indian seas, an expedition from Lisbon, conducted by Bartholomew Diaz, had actually discovered the southern extremity of the African continent (a. d. 1483). A storm preventing him from pursuing his career, he named the promontory that terminated his voyage "the cape of Tempests ;" but King John, aware of thevast importance of the discovery, called it "the cape of Good Hope." At the same time letters were received from the monks who had been sent overland, in which the practicability of reaching the East Indies, by sailing round Africa, was strenuously maintained. But the intervening * It is probable that this error arose from some inaccurate description of Budd,- hism. Most persons are aware that the rituals and ceremonials of the Buddhist priests bear a striking resemblance to those of the Roman Catholic church. 494 MODEttN HISTOBY. discovery of Ameiica diverted, fpr a season, men's minds from this voyage round Africa ; and fifteen j'ears had nearly elapsed before "Vasco de Gama,, having rounded the cape of Good Hope, reached India, and anchored in the harbor of Calicut, on tho coast of Malabar (May 22, A. D. 1498). Among the- adventurers who flocked to join the Portuguese from every part of Europe was Christopher C(don, or Columbus, a native of Genoa. The narrative of Marco Polo had led to the belief that the extent of India, beyond the Ganges, was greater than that of the rest of Asia ; and, as the spherical figure of the earth was known, he was naturally, led to the conclusion that India might more easily be reached by sailing westward, than by the long, and tedious circumnavigation of Africa. After enduring many disappointments, Columbus obtained a small armament, from Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; and, on the third of August, a. d. 1493, sailed from the little port of Palos, in An-r dalusia, to discover a new world. During the long voyage, the crew of Columbus was more than once on the point of mutinying and turning back in despair ; at length land was discovered on the twelfth of October, and Columbus found himself soon in the midst of that cluster of islands, which, in consequence of the original error about the extent of India, were named the West Indies. On his return to Europe, he was received by Ferdinand and Isabella with the highest honors ; a secopid expedition was prepared to extend and secure his discoveries, but, before his departure, applica- tion was made to the pope for a grant of these new dominions, and Alexander VI. shared all the unknown rjegion^ of the earth inhabited by infidels between the Spaniards and Portuguese, fixing as their com- mon boundary an imaginary line drawn from pole to pole, one hundred Jeagues to the west of the Azores, and assigning all west of that line to Spain, and all east of it to Portugal. ; The colonies established by the Spajniaiids difiered from thos:e founded by other European countries. , The Spaniards were not a tra- ding people, indeed ignorance of the advantages that result from com- merce has been always a characteristic of that nation ; the precious metals were the only objects that excited their attention, and for a series of years they devoted tlj,emselvep exclusively to the exploratdon. of mines. It was only when the augmentation of the European, popula- tion, and the diminished "returns frojti;the mines, forced their attention to agriculture, that they began to pay any attention to raising colonial produce. In consequence of these restricted views, the commercial and colonial policy of Spain was always the worst possible; it was fettered by monopolies, exclusions, aiii,d restrictions, equally injurious to the parent state and its dependancies ; and perseverance in this erro- neous system is a principal cause of the low state of civilization both in Spain and its late colonies. Not only the Dutch, but the English apd French, were roused to emulation by the success of the Spaniards and Portuguese. In the reign of Henry VII., Cabot, a mariner of .Bristol, made some consid- erable additions to maritime knowledge ; but it was not until the tune of Elizabeth that regular plans of colonization were formed. The growth of commerce in this age was very r^id, but there ap- THE STATES-SYSTEM OJP EUROPE. 495 peared still coom for further discoveries until the globe was circumnav- igated by Magellan (a. d. 1521). From that time the attention of na- tions b^gan to be directed more to completing old discoveries than to the search for new lands. The navies of Europe began to assiime a formidable aspect; manufactures multiplied, and states, previously poor, became suddenly rich. Sovereigns and governments began to direct their attention to commerce, justly persuaded that mercantile wealth, is equally the source of the prosperity and glory of nations. Section II. — Origin of the Reformation. The extravagant claims of the popes to temporal, as well as spirit- iial supremacy, had been resisted by several men of learning, whose works did not die with them, but continued to exercise a powerful, though secret effect, on succeeding generations. This repugnance to ecclesiastical domination was greatly increased by the scandalous schism at the close of the fourteenth and commencement of the fifteenth century. Two or three popes reigning at the same time, excommvmi- cating each other, appealing to the laity for support, compelled men to exercise the right of private judgment, and directed attention to the ecclesiastical abuses that had produced such unhappy fruits. The par- tial reforms, or rather attempts at reformation, made Ijy the councils of Constance and Basil, spread the disrespect for the !^oraish see still wider ; their deposition of contending pontiifs taught men that there was a jurisdiction in the church superior to the papal power, their fee- ble efforts to correct abuse brought the evils prominently forward, and left them unamended to meet the public gaze. While this dissatisfac- tion was hourly increasing, the papal chair was filled successively by two pontiffs, whose career of unscrupulous guilt was sufficient to dis- gust even a less enlightened age. Alexander Vl., profligate in private life, cruel and tyrannical in his public administration, was followed by Julius II., whose overbearing ambition led him to trample on the very semblance of justice and moderation when they interfered with the success of his schemes. The sovereigns of France and Germapy, alternately engaged in active hostilities with these heads of the church, could not prevent their subjects from ridiculing papal, pretensions, and assailing papal vices. Nor were these scandals confined to the papa- cy ; the licentious lives of the ecclesiastics in Italy and Germany, the facility with which they obtained pardons for enormous crimes, t}ieir exorbitant wealth, their personal immunities, and their encroachments on the rights of the laity, had given just offence ; and this was the more sensibly felt in Germany, because most of the great benefices were in the hands of foreigners. When men's minds were everywhere filled with disgust at the exist- ing administration of ecclesiastical affairs, and ea,ger for some change, a dispute, trivial in its origin, kindled a flame, which rapidly spread over Europe, destroying all the strongholds that had been so laboriously erected for the security of tyranny and superstition. Leo X., on his accession to the papal chair, found the treasury of the church exhausted by the ambitious projects of his predecessors, Alexander VI. and Ju- lius II Generous in his dispositipn, magnificent in his habits of life, 496 ' MODERN HISTORY. eagSr for the aggrandizement of his' family, the princely Medicis, he could not practise the economy necessary to recruit his finances, and he therefore had recourse to every device that his ingenuity could sug- gest to raise money for the splendid designs he contemplated. Among these he introduced an extensive sale of indulgences, virhich often had proved a source of large profits to the church. The origin of indulgences has been sometimes misrepresented by eminent writers; and as we have now reached a period when their abuse produced the most decisive blow which the papacy had yet re- ceived, it will be necessary to take a brief survey of their history. In the primitive church it was customary that those who had committed any heinous offence should perform a public penance befoi-e the con- gregation, " that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord ; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to ofiend." In process of time rich and noble bifenders became anxious to avoid public exposure, and private penances or a pecuniary compensation were substituted for the former discipline. On this change the popes founded a new doctrine, which, combined with the commutation of indulgences, opened the way for profitable traffic. They taught the world that all the good works of the saints, over and above those which were necessary to their own justification, are de- posited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in one inex- haustible treasury. The keys of this were committed to St. Peter and his successors the popes, who may open it at pleasure, and by trans- ferring a portion of this superabundant merit to any particular person for service in a crusade, or for a sum of money, may convey to him either the pardon of his own sins, or a release for any one, in whose happiness he is interested, from the pains of purgatory. These indul- gences were first issued to those who joined personally in the expedi- tions for the recovery of the Holy Land ; subsequently to those who hired a soldier for that purpose ; and finally to all who gave money for accomplishing any work which it pleased the popes to describe as good and pious. Julius II. bestowed indulgences on all who contributed to the building of St. Peter's at Rome, and Leo continued the trafiic under the same pretence. Different orders of monks derived considerable profit from the sale of indulgences, and great indignation was excited among the Augus- tinian friats when the monopoly of the trade in Germany was granted to their rivals, the Dominicans. Tetzel, the chief agent in retailing them, was a man of licentious morals, but of an active spirit, and re- markable for his noisy and popular eloquence.* He executed his com- • The following is the form of absolution used by Tetzel: — "May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by all the merits of his most holy passion j and I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostlesj Peter and Paul, and of the most holy. pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred, and then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how enor- mous soever they may bd, even from such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see : and as far as the keys of the holy church extend, I remit to you all punishment which sou deserve in purgatory on their account; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the cliurch, to the unity, of the faithful, and to that in- nocence and purity which you possessed at baptism ; so that when you die, the THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 497 mission v^ith little regard to discretion or decency, describing the merits of the indulgences in such a blasphemous style of exaggeration, that aU men of sense were disgusted, and even the ignorant began to sus- pect the worth of pardons for sins dispensed by men whose profligacy was notorious and disgusting. The princes and nobles of Germany were enraged by witnessing the large sums of money drained from their vassals to support the lavish expenditure of the pontiff, and many of the higher ranks of the clergy viewed with jealousy the favor dis- played to the monastic orders. Martin LtrTHER, an Augustinian friar of great learning and indom- itable courage, had prepared his mind for the noble career on which he was about to enter by a diligent study of the Holy Scriptures ; the question of indulgences early engaged his attention, and he convinced himself that the Bible, which he began to consider as the great stand- ard of theological truth, afforded no countenance to a practice equally subversive of faith and morals. Having vainly sought to procure the suppression of the traffic from the archbishop of Magdeburgh, he ap- pealed to the sudrages of men of letters, by publishing ninety-five theses condemning the sale of indulgences as contrary to reason and Scripture,' • Mnch has been written respecting the personal character of this daring reformer ; . his boldness frequently degenerated into violence, his opposition to the corrupt discipline of the church sometimes passed the bounds of decency ; but these errors arose from the circumstances of his position ; he was in fact the representative of the public opinion of his age; and before we pass too severe a censure on the aberrations that sully his career, we must remember that the age had scaircely emerged from barbarism, and that the human mind, as yet unaccustomed to freedom, when suddenly delivered from habitual restraint, necessarily rushed into some extravagances. While hostile writers describe Luther as the vilest of sinners, or the purest of saints, they forget that there is a previous question of some importance, the standard by which his conduct must be. measured. We have no right to expect that Luther, engaged in a struggle for life and d^ath, should display the moderation of a modem controversialist, or to look for the intelligence of the nine- teenth century at the commencement of the sixteenth. Remembering the school in which he was educated, it is reasonable to believe that many monkish absurdities must long have been perceptible in his words and actions ; we need not, therefore, deny that he was' sometimes wrong, we need not disguise nor palliate his errors, for the cause which he promoted depends not on the character of him or of any other per- son. His adversaries, however, have never ventured to deny his cour- age, his sincerity, his. integrity of purpose, and his superiority to all pecuniary considerations. He lived and died poor, though Rome would have purchased his return by wealth and dignity, though the leading reformers were ready to reward his perseverance by any grants he might have required. gates of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall bB opened j and if you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full force when you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and' of the Holy Ghost." 32 498. MODEEIf HISTOET. Luther cofflprehendedi tte state of public oipinion; his publicatioirs' were the. manifestation of tiie revolt of reason against authority, rather than a thesis, in his theology. His per^severancei the veTyvioIence anct grossness. of his, invectives, showed that he felt human reason to be on his side; If he had not at first cakulated the effect! of his first blow, he showed great sagacity, in measuring its results. Numerous^ echoes responded to his summons; Zuinglius began to preach in Switzeriand, and the, leforipri. engaged the attention of enlightened men of letters; .among others, the celebrated Erasmus pointed out corruptions in the church, though he had not moral courage enough to separate himself fromi it, openly. The' papal party accepted Luther's challenge, fully believing that the slightest exertion of power would at once stifle op- position (a. d. I52O,). Leot X., too indolent to examine the state of the' public, mind, and too proud to trouble himsell about the- opposition of a- simple, friar, published a bull condemmiiig the theses of Luther ' as he~ letical and, impious (a. d^ 1520'):. The hiJld leformeir at once declared- open, war agfiinst the papacy, by appealing- to a general: council, and^ burning the bull of excommunication in presence of a vast multitude at Wittemberg. He treated- the volumes of the. canon law with: the same contumely, and justified his action in a manner more offensive to the' ad.vocg,tes. of the papacy than, the action itself. Having collected from lie canon law, some of the most extravagant propositions with regard to' the- plenitude and omnipotence of the papal power, as well as the sub- ordination of all secular jurisdiction to the authority of the- holy seie, he' published these, with a commentary, pointing out the impiety of such tenets, and their, evident tendency to subvert all- civil governments. From this, time, the, interests of princes were even more deeply en- gaged- on the side of Lutlier than popular reason. In fact, as a Romish historian, has remarked^ " policy became more Lutheran' than religous reform !" Sovereigns naturally received with enthusiasm^ a doctrine which placed a;t their disposal the enormous wealth of the clergy, and gave them mastery over more riches than, could be acquired by the' most formidable force, or the most sanguinary combats. Thus^ in Ger- many,, Luther, who could at first with difficulty procure a horse when- he had to appear before the diet^ soon coimted princes and entire nations among his disciples. Frederick the Wise, duke of Saxony, was the first, among his converts, and the most powerful of his protectors^ It is assuredly very inconsistent in the advocates of the Romish church, to expose the mixture of secular and religious motives in the- active supporters of ther Reformation ; for the abuses which they con-' demned. were eq,ually .temporal and spiritual. Indeed, it is very obvi- ous, thatthecDirmptionsof doctrine were introduced; to serve the politi- cal purposes of the papacy ; a sordid desire for wealth was the fbunda.- tion ojC the sysjem. of indulgences, which, first provoked; the revolt ; an ambitious, lust, for power had caused the subversion of the independence of the- national, churches,; which it was the earliest object of- the Luther- ans to restore. Politics influenced the enemies of the > papacy only be- cause popery was itself a political system, and because in the struggle that now menaced its existence, it had' at once recourse to secular aux- ilrgiries, John Calvin, another reformer, was a follower of Zuingtius ; he was THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUEOPE. 4'99 a natire of Noyon, in Picardy, and feegan first to publish his opinions at Paris (a. d. 1532), Driven thence by the persecutions of the French clergy, he removed to Strasburgh, where he soon rendered himself so eminent by his talents as a writer and a preacher, that the na,me of Calvinists were given to that section of the reformed congregatiotis which had at first been named Zuinglians. Calvin was subsequently invited to Geneva, where he organized a system of church-government on the presbyterian principle ; and under the pretence of providing for purity of morals and the continuance of sound doctrine, he contrived to transfer no small' portion of .the p'owef of the state to the' ecclesiastical courts. Unfortunately, these courts soon began' to emulate the tyranny' of the Romish inquisition, by per^ secuting those who differed from the standard of religious dplniofl' adopted by the church of Geneva, and an unfortunate Spaniard, named Servetus, was burii^d alive fpr publishing some obnoxious doctrines on the silbject of the Trinity. The diiferences whiph arose between the followers of Luther and Galvin, the obstinacy manifested by each of the parties iii support of their own opinions, and the virulence with •vvhich they inveighed againist each other, sadly checked the pirb'^ess of the Reformation:, and produced a reaction -W-hich enabled 'the! court of Rome to recover several countries which it had vbry nekrly lost. Although much of the early success of the Reformktion was owirlg to the general progress of intelligence and scientific research, there' were maily ambng the leading reformers who viewed all secular learn- ing with suspicion, and thus enabled theii^ adversaries to' identify itheir cause with ignorance and barbarism. This was a seriouS injury to thei progress of iiUpiovement, for there were many like Erasmus who ■would gladly have joined in overthrow'ing the monkish corruptions which had defaced Christianity, but who were alarined at the prospect of beiiig subjected to the bigoted caprice of the presbyteries aild other bodies which began to claim and exercise a power of control over opinion; in most of the cities where the reformed religion was established. Whether the Romish church would have displayed a greater spirit of concession, had the reformers exhibited more mb'defalion iii their de- mands for innovation, may be questioned, but it is certaiii'that the papal party could not haVe made so effectual a struggle as it maintiiined, ha,d' it not taken advantage of the violence, the imprudence, aUd the disseil- sions of the reformers themselves. The rapid progress of the new doctrines traS attempted tobe cheick- ed by the diet of Spires (a. d. 1529), where a decree was promulgated, forbidding any innovation until the assembling of a general council. Luther's friends and followers protested against' this decree, aSin hence the professors of the reformed religion received the common nattle of Protestants. Soon afterward they presented a gdneral confession of their faith to the emperor at Augsb'Urgh ; but unfortunately this cele- brated document showed that there were irrecojicilabl'e diffe'rehces be- tween the Calvinistic and Lutheran sections of the reformers. As- the struggle, once begun, was miaihtained with great' ob'^tiriady, it soon led to serious political' convulsions-. Half of Germany, Den- mark, Sweden, Norway, Pi'ussia, ahd Livonia', adopted the doctriiies of Luther, as taught iii the confessidri of AUggbttfg. England; ScotEnd; 500 MODEEN HISTOSY. Holland, and- Switzerland, embraced the tenets of Zuinglius and Cal- vin ; whilp efforts to establish similar principles were made in France, Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. : , The means tajien to end the controversy only aggravated the evil. It viras proposed; that the entire matter of dispute should be submitted to a general council, but it was impossible to deitermine the .basis on which it should be convoked. After much delay, a council was assem- bled at Trent (a. d. 1545), whose sittings were continued, with some interruption, for several years j but when at the close (a. D; 1563), its decrees wctc published, they were rejected, not onlyby theprotestants, but by many catholic princes, especially the king of France, as subver- sive of the independence of national churches, and destructive of the lawful authority of sovereigns. Section III. — History of the Negotiations and Wars respecting Italy- In the midst of the civil and ecclesiastical changes produced by the progress of intelligence, a system of policy for regulating the external relations of states was gradually formed, and attention began to be paid to what was called the Balance of Power ; that is, the arrangement of the European states in such a system that the weak might be protected from the aggressions of the powerful and the ambitious. This system first began in Italy, which was divided into a nimiber of petty states ; its chief members were the dutchy of Milan, and the republic of Venice, in, the north ; the republic of Florence, and the states of the cliurch, in th^ centre; and the kingdom of Naples, in the south. Encouraged by the distracted condition of the peninsula, foreigners were induced to attempt its conquest ; and the kings of France and Spain, and the em- perors of Germany, made this country the battle-field of rival ambition. After the expulsion of the'house of Anjou from Italy, it was estab- lished in the petty principality of Provence, where the graces of courtly refinement and light literature were more sedulously cultivated than in any other part of Europe. Ren^, the last monarch of the line, the father of the heroic English queen, Margaret of Anjou, had the prudence not to hazard his security by mingling in the troubled politics of France and Burgundy, but amused himself and his subjects by floral games and poetic contests, heedless, of the sanguinary wars that convulsed the surrounding states. OnRend's death Provence became a county under the French crown, and was justly deemed a most important acquisition (a.d. 1481). But with the substantial dpminipns of the house of Anjou, the French mon- archs also inherited its pretensions to the thrones of Naples and Sicily. Louis XI. was far too prudent a monarch to waste his strength on the assertion of such illusory claims ; he directed his attention to a far more useful object, the establishment of the royal power over the great vassals of the crown, several of virhom possessed greater real power than the nominaji sovereign. Charles' VIII. departed from his father's prudent line of policy ; in- stead of securing the royal authority at home, he directed his attention tq foreign, conquests, and resolved Jo assert his imaginary .claims to the throne of Naples, He was instigated also by the invitations of Ludov- THE STATES-SYSTEM OP EUROPE. 501 icD Sforza, duke of Milan, and by some romantic hope of overthrowing the Turkish empire. A French army crossed the Alps (a. d. 1494), and marched through the peninsula without encountering any effective opposition. Rome, Florence, and Naples, submitted to the conqueror, and Ferdinand II. fled to the island of Ischia. But during the progress of the expedition, a league was formed for the expulsion of all foreign- ers from Italy ; the Venetian republic was the moving power of the confederacy, in which the pope and even Sforza were associated, while the emperor Maximilian-, and Ferdinand of Spain, secretly favored its designs. Alarmed by the coming danger, Charles, leaving half his army to protect his conquests, led the remainder back to France. He encountered the Venetians on his road, and gained a complete victory ; but the forces he left in Italy were compelled to capitulate, and Fer- dinand II. was restored to the throne of Naples. Charles VIII. was bent on vengeance, and the distracted state of the peninsula gave him hope of success ; but before he could complete his arrangements for a second expedition, he was snatched away by a sud- den death (a. d. 1498). The duke of Orleans, Louis XII., in addition to his cousin's claims on Naples, inherited from his grandmother a title to the dutchy of Milan. But the French monarch, before undertaking such an extensive conquest, deemed it necessary to strengthen himself by alliances with the republic of Venice, Pope Alexander VI., and Ferdinand, king of Spain. Thus strengthened, he found little difficulty in overrunning Italy ; Milan was captured (a. d. 1499), and the turbu- lent Sforza, after vain attempts to re-establish his power, died in cap- tivity. Naples was next attacked ; Ferdinand of Spain had entered into alliance with the Neapolitan monarch Frederick ; and his invader, Louis, secretly determined to cheat both. By his aid the kingdom of Naples was subdued, and the dupe Frederic imprisoned for life (a. d. 1501) ; but no sooner was the conquest completed, than the Spaniard prepared to secure the whole of the spoil. Aided by the abilities of Gonsalvo de Cordova, Ferdinand succeeded in expelling the French from Naples ; and the kingdom was finally confirmed to him on his marriage with Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XlL, with whom the French monarch on the receipt of a million of ducats, assigned over his claims on Naples as a dowry (a. d. 1505). Italy, however, was soon destined to have its tranquillity disturbed by the grasping ambition of Pope Julius II. Anxious to recover the dependencies of the holy see which had been seized by Venice, he organized a confederacy against that republic, of which he w.as himself the head ; while Louis, Maximilian, and Ferdinand, were active mem- bers (a. d. 1509). The republic would have been ruined, had the union of the confederates been sincere and permanent ; but, owing to the mutual jealousies of its enemies, it escaped when brought to the verge of destruction. The impetuous valor of the French disconcerted all the measures the Venetians had taken to preserve their territories ; and the total ruin of their army at Aguadello (a. d. 1509), left them wholly without defence. Julius seized all the towns which they held in the ecclesiastical territories ; Ferdinand added all their seaports in Apulia to his Neapolitan dominions ; but at the moment when the dis- memberment of the republic seemed inevitable, the mutual jealousies of 50^2 MODERN HISTOKY. Louis and Maximilian dissolved the confederacy. The "Venetians ap- peased the pope and Ferdinand, by largp concessions, which were the more readily accepted, as Julius had now formed the design of expel- ling all foreigners from Italy, especially, the French, of whose valor and ambition he was jiistly afraid. From the fragments of the league of Cambray, a new and stronger confederacy was formed a,gainst France, and Henry yill., who had just ascended the throne of England, was engaged to divert the atten- tion of Louis from Italy, by an invasion of his dominions (a. d. 1511). The master-stroke, however, qf the pope's policy was winning over the 3wiss, whose mercenary infantry was the best body of troops then used in war. Louis '^11. resisted all the efforts of this formida;ble conspir- acy with tmclaunted fortitude. Hostilities were carried on during sev- eral campaigns in Italy, on the frontiers of Spain, and in Picardy, with alterp^te success. Bvit weakened by the loss of his allies, Florence and Navarre, pf which the former having been subjected to the Medicis, joined the league (a. d. 1512), and the latter was conquered and annex- ed to Spain, Louis would probably have been reduced to great distress, had not tie death of Pope Julius (a. d. 1513) come to his relief. Leo, of the princely house of the Medicis, suceeeded to the papacy, and im- mediately made ppace with France. Spain, England, and the empire, followed this example, and the war terminated with the loss of every- thing which the French had acquired in Italy, except the castle of Milan and a few inconsiderable towns in that dutchy. Section IV The History of Bvfgun4y wndfr the Princes of the House qf No feudal state was more important in the middle ages than the dutchy of Burgundy, and its history is the best calculated to illustrate the political, condition of states, and the relations between powerful princes and th^ir sovereign, produced by the institutions of feudalism. At the same time, the history of Burgundy must in some degree be regarded as an episode in the general annals of Europe, for though its existence was brilliant, it left no permanent trace behind, save the re- sentment between the houses of France and Austria, arising from the division of its spoils. Thp dutchy of Burgundy lapsed to the crown of France soon after ^he liberation of King John from the captivity in which he had been detained by the English after the battle of Poictiers. He resolved to bestow this rich inheritance upon his third son, Philip, surnamed the Jlardy, wlio had foHght gallantly by his side in the unfortunate battle of Poictiers, though only sixteen years of age, and who when John was f^ken prisoner had accornpanied him to England to share his captivity. J^lin's bequest was honorably executed by his son and successor, ph^rles "V. of France ; he gave to Philip the investiture of the dutchy with all legal forms, and on the 2d of June, 1364, the new duke entered upon his inheritance,; he soon afterward married the only daughter of t^e cc^t qf Flanders, and thus became involved in the wars which that nobleman waged against the insurgent citizens of Ghent, and at the sanje .time be actively assisted his brother against the English. After a long war, in which the burgesses of the free cities of Flan- THE STATrES-SY-STEM OP -BUEOPE. 503 derssustaiofid with gr^at bravery tkeir municipal franchises Against the feudal chivalry of .theiir count and his .allies, the insurgents siiiFered a severe defeat at ,Rosebecque, in which itheir .gallant leader, the younger ^rtavelde, was slain. Philip took advantage ,of the crisis to mediate a peace between the count of Flanders and the revolted cities, which was finally concluded on very eqjiitable conditions. When tranquillity was restored^, the du^e directed his whole attention to the affairs of France, and during ,the reign of his unfortunate nephew, Charles VI., took a principal share in the government of that kingdom . While he was thus engaged, ambassadors arrived from the king of Hungary 'to announce that uie Turks not only menaced his territories with ruin, but avowed their determination to subdue the whole of Christendom. Sultan Ba- yezid openly vaunted that .his cavalry should trample on the cross in every European city, and that he would himself feed his horses on the altar of St. Peter's in Rome. Duke Philip eagerly seconded the solicitations of the Hungarian am- |}assadors.: under his auspices a crusade was proclaimed; the great body of French chivalry and all the young nobility embraced the proj- ect with the greatest ardor, and the young count de N.evers, heir of Burgundy, was appointed to command the expedition (1396). Sigismund of Luxemburg, king of Hungary, was far .from being grat- ified by the arrival of such auxiliaries. Bayezid, engaged in suppres- sing some petty insurrections in his Asiatic dominions, had concluded a truce with the Hungarians, and the prudent king was far from being disposed to revive a war with so dangerous an enemy. His remon- strances were wasted on the proud chivalry of France ; the count de Nevers at once crossed the Turkish frontier, and after icapturing some places of minor importance, laid siege to Nicopolis. In the hurry of their advance ithe French had lefl; their battering artillery behind ; they were therefore compelled to blockade the plaqe in the hope of rediicing it by .famine. So little vigilance was exhibited hy the Christiana, that the garrison of Nicopolis had intelligence of the jiear approach of Bayezid before the Christians knew that he had commenced his match. The news that the sultan was close at hand filled their camp with confusion ; .the siege gf Nicopohs was prfioipitately raised, and in the first alarm the knights massacred all their prisoners, forgetting that the chances of war might expose them to a terrible retribution. They, howejfer, were all eager to come to an injmediat* engagement; the Hungarians vainly advised them not to hazard a battle until they had ascertainetj. the num- ber .of the Turks, and the tactics which the sultan intended to eniploy. .Some lOf the more aged and experienced warriors seconded this advice, but they were overborne by the clamors of the young knights, whose ardor was far too great to be moderated by prudence. Bayezid had arranged his troops in the form of a crescent, with the convex side turned toward the enemy : he expected thus to induce the Christians to attack his centie, hy gradually withdicawing which he might reverse the form of his line, and thus getting his enemies into the concavity «f the crescent, avail himself of his vast superiority of numbers to overwhplni them on both flanks. The Christians fell into the saare, and were surrounded. The Hungarian infantry, left exposed 504 MODERN HISTORY. by the rapid advance of the French knights, was broken by a charge of a select body of the Turkish cavalry ; Sigismund and the grand mas- ter of Rhodes escaped in a small boat, leaving their allies to their fate ; the palatine of Hungary alone remained with a small body of his coun- trymen to rescue the French from the consequences of their rashness. Friends and foes have equally celebrated the desperate valor of the French knights on this fatal day. The Turks at first gave no quarter ; it was late in the day before Bayezid commanded them to make/pris- oners, and even then he was induced to do so by no feelings of mercy, but by his desire to have s,n opportunity of revenging the fate of the Turks who had been slaughtered in the camp before Nicopolis. Bayezid recognised Sir James de Helly (one of the prisoners) as one of his old companions in arms, and ordered him to be set at liberty by his captors. He then commanded him to point out. who were the greatest lords among the Christian captives, that they might be spared for the sake of their ransoms. The count de Nevers and several Other princes were pointed out to the sultan as "of the noblest blood in France, nearly related to the king, and willing to pay for their liberty a great sum of money." The sultan said, " Let these alone be spared, and all the other prisoners put to death, to free the country from them, and that others may take example from their fate." Heavy taxes were laid on the, states of Burgundy to raise the enor- mous sum which the sultan demanded as a ransom for the heir of the dutchy. To increase the difficulty of the transaction, the kin^'of Hun- gary refused to allow such rich treasures to pass through his dominions for the purpose of strengthening his enemies. It was not until after the lapse of several months that a Genoese merchant, nained Pellegrini, in the island of Chios, undertook to arrange the terms of ransom ; and the sultan more readily accepted the security of a commercial house, which could only exist by credit, than the plighted oaths of kings and princes, which he knew were too often most flagrantly and shamelessly violated. While the count de Nevers was thus engaged in the east, his brother- in-law, the count of Ostrevant, aided by his father, Albert, duke of Ba- varia, was carrying on a war scarcely less destructive against the Fris- ons. These barbarous tribes sent out piratical expeditiotis, which rav- aged the coasts of Holland, Flanders, and sometimes of France ; the naval forces maintained to keep them in check were found very expen- sive, and not always efficacious, so that the Flemings and Hollanders supplicated their princes to attack the Frisonsin their native fastnesses. An immense armament was prepared for this hazardous enterprise ; auxiliaries were obtained from England, France, and western Germa- ny, while crowds of Hollanders and Flemings hastened to volunteer their services against enemies who had been their constant plague. . In about five weeks after the landing, winter set in with unusual se- verity, and at an earlier period than had been known for many years before. The duke was forced to evacuate the country and disband his army ; but about three years after he took advantage of the civil dissen- sions among the Frisons to reduce the entire country to obedience. The administration of the government of France by Philip, duke of Burgundy, was on the whole advantageous to the nation. It was chiefly owing to his prudence that the insanity of Charles VI. did not produce THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 505 the calamities of civil war. He had, however, one great fault ; his ex- penditure, both public and private, was most extravagant, and at his death his sons were forced to sell his plate in order to defray the ex- penses of his funeral. He died of fever (April 27th, 1404), generally- regretted, for it was not difficult to foresee the commotions that would ensue when the conduct of the state, which had taxed his talents and energies to the utmost, should be intrusted to a feebler hand. Section V. — TTie History of Burgundy (continued). John the Fearless succeeded Philip the Hardy, and immediately be- gan to take measure for procuring to himself the same influence in the government of France which his father had possessed ; he was opposed by the queen and the duke of Orleans, who justly dreaded his ambition. In the fury of civil contest he hired assassins to murder the duke of Orleans ; and this atrocious crime was perpetrated in the very midst of Paris. Such, however, were the power of the duke and the apathy of the times, that he would probably have obtained a justification of his conduct from the court, had he not been obliged to retire to his territo- ries to quell an insurrection of the citizens of Liege ; the partisans of Orleans took advantage of his absence to raise a cry for justice, and being joined by all the enemies of Burgundy, they soon formed a very powerful faction. The general belief that the duke had committed treason against the state, enabled the faction of Orleans to persuade the dauphin that his death was necessary for the safety of the kingdom, and to join in a perfidious plot for his assassination. Ambassadors were sent to invite John the Fearless to an interview with the dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, in order that they might in common concert measures for the defence of the kingdom. He went to the appointed rendezvous with a very scanty train, armed only with such weapons as gentlemen of the period usually wore on visits of ceremony. So soon as he came into the dauphin's presence, he took off his velvet cap, and bent his knee in token of homage ; but before he could rise, he was struck down by the axes and swords of the royal guards, and butchered with such of his train as had entered the saloon (a. d. 1419). The murder of the duke of Orleans was almost the only stain upon the memory Of John the Fearless ; his Flemish subjects, whose franchises he had protected, and whose trade he had fostered, were most grieved for his loss ; but they respected his memory most for his having intrusted the education of his eldest son to the magistrates of the free cities, and in fact the young prince had been educated as a Fleming rather than as a Burgundian. Philip the Good, immediately after his accession, prepared to take vengeance for the murder of his father; his Flemish education had prevented him, from having any very strong sense of the feudal obliga- tions which bound the dutchy of Burgundy to the crown of France, he therefore did not hesitate to enter into alliance with Henry V. of Eng- land, and recognised him as the legitimate heir to the crown of France, on condition that Charles VI. should not be deprived of his regal dig- nity during the remainder of his unhappy existence. ,506 MODEEN HIBTORY. The war between the English and French now became identified with the strijggle between the Burgundians and Armagnac|S,>s the fa- vorers of Orleans were called,; the virulence i of private animosities was ,thus added to the horrors of open war,.and the ajtrpcities committed on both sides were shocking to human iiature. The death of Henry V. of England, foEowed sppedily by .that of Charles VI. of France, produoepl a great change in the aspect, of thp war. Henry YL, who was proclaimed king of England and France, was an infant in the cradle, while the dauphin was in the very prime of life, surrounded by the greater part of the French nobility, and warmly supported by the bulk of the nation, fhowff'i severely de^Jeat- ed, and apparently brought to the brink of ruin, when his chief city Orleans was besieged, a deliverer suddenly appeared in the person of Joan of Arc, the tide of prosperity which had hitherto flowed in favor of the English, suddenly turned, and the dufee ,of Burgundy opened ^negotiations with the dauphin. It was at this crisis ithat Philip insti- tuted the order of the Golden Fleece, on the occasion of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal (a. d. 1430), an order of knighthood which soon became the most illustrious in Europe. Soon after ,his marriage, the alienation of the duke from the English interest continued to in- crease, and finally, under the auspices of the pope^ he concluded a treaty with Charles VII., whom he consented to recognise as legitimate sovereign of France. Having disengaged himself from the French wars, the duke of Bur- igundy devoted himself to the improvement of his dpminipns in the Low .Countries. His brilliant court realized the visioijs of chivalry; thp jousts and tournaments given under his sanction surpassed in magnl^ cence any that had yet been witnessed in Europe ; the wealth of the commercial cities in Flanders was freely poured forth to ,defray thp ex- penses, and noble knights from all parts of Europe flocked to the coui;t of Burgundy to prove their valor in the lists. PhiUp encouraged thi^ taste for display among his subjects from political motives ; he found that luxury diverted the attention of the turbulent municipahties and their magistrates from affairs of state, and suspended, if it did not erad- icate, the ancient jealousies between commercial freedom and feudalism. Nearly a century and a half had now elapsed since the Swiss can- tons had emancipated themselves from the yoke of the house of Aus- tria ; the free states had become jealous of each other, some leagued with their ancient enemies, others sought allianpes with the petty prin- ces of Germany, and the feudal powers, to whoi|i the example of Swiss independence seemed fraught with dangerous consequences, believed ,that an opportunity was pfTered for reducing the mountaineers to their former bondage. A league for the purpose was formed by the poten- tates of; western Germany under the direct sanction of .the emptor, and application was made to the duke of Burgundy for assistance. He Received the proposal very coolly, upon which the imperiahsts sought the aid of the king of France, who was very anxious, now that the wars were over, to get rid of the Armagnaos, and other companies of soldiens, who lived at free quarters on the peasantry, and prevented'the country frprp enjoying the blessings of tranquillity. An imniense army was soon raised and placed under the command pf thp da^phi^. THE STATES-SYSTEM QF BUKOPB. 507 On the morning of the 24^ of August, 1444, Switzers and French- men met for the first time in mortal combat. The advanced gua/rd of the French, which alone was ten times more numerous than the entire Swis^ army, occupied the heights on the right bank of the river Firse, while the main body remained on the left bank, urging .forward the siege of Basle. The Swiss were routed, but the dauphin's victory was obtained with the loss of eight thousand of his best soldiers. The French were apt willing to fight a second battle with such fearless war- riors ; in spite of the remonstrances of the iGermans, the dauphin re- solved to apt the part of mediator, and a peace was concluded under his auspices, by which the liberties of the Swiss cantons were formally recognised. The' duke of Burgundy took ino share in this war ; he was too deeply engaged by the troubles of -Flanders, where a formida- ble revotlt had bepn raised by the citizens of Ghent. After a sanguin- ary struggle, the insurgent Flemings were subdued, and Ghent was de- prived of most of its municipal privileges. The dauphin of Fiance, afterward Louis XL, having provoked his father to war, was obliged to fly from his estates and seek shelter with ■the duke of Burgimdy, who was at the time rendered imeasy by the turbulent disposition of his owa soji, the count of Gharolais, subse- quently known ia history as Charles the Bold. These family disturb- ances embroiled the courts of France and Burgundy for several years, but at length tjie deafii qf Charles VIL rendered the dauphin king of Prance ; the duke escorted him safely to his dominions, rendered him Jiomage as his sovereign, and assisted in the .ceremonies of his corona- tion, tiouis was fjir from being grateful for these benefits ; he formed several plots to seize the person of the count of Gharolais, foreseeing that he would become his most formidable rival, and he broke all the .engagements he had made tp restoie the towns which had at varipus times been wrested from the dukes of Burgundy by the mpnarehs of Fra,nce. The count of Charolais was not disposed to endure these wrongs with patience ; contrary to the wishes of his father, he support- ed the nobles of France in their revolts against their sovereign, and 'had just organised a fprmidable league against Louis, when the death of Duke Philip compelled him to adjourn his warlike designs, until he had, secured tp himself his inheritance of the dutehy pf Burgundy. Few sovereign? w^tg more geaerally and justly lamented than Philip the Good ; during tJie fifty years of his reign, Burgundy was the most wealthy, prospe;rons, and tranquil of all the states of Europe ; and had he pleased to assert his independence, lie might have become a mpre powerful sovereign than the king of Fr^moe himself. The general grief for his Ipss was increased by the dread which the character pf his successpr inspired ; the jashaess, the pride, the pbstinaey, and the cruelty pf Charles the Bold had stained his entire career as count of Charolais ; his subjects and his neighbors were equally filled with alarm, lest the same qualities should be still more signally manifested in the duke of Burgundy. Section VI. — The History of Biurgvindy (concluded). Immediately on the in^taUlation pf Charlies the Bpld, as duke «f Burgundy, an iijs,yp:ection jyas orgaijizfjd in Ghent, The 4pi* was 508 MODERN HISTOBY. forced to yield to the popular demands, but in doing so, he made a se- cret vow that he Avould exact deadly vengeance for the insult which had been offered to his authority. His indignation was increased by similar revolts in the cities of Brabant and in Liege, which he justly attributed to the example of Ghent, aided by .the secret intrigues of French emissaries. The troubles of Brabant were easily quieted ; but the citizens of Ijiege, relying on the indistinct promises of aid made by the king of France, not only raised the standard of revolt, but committed such atrocious crimes, that Charles determined to destroy the city. With some difficulty his councillors dissuaded him from executing his design. In revenge for the incentives to rebellion which the king of France was more than suspected of having supplied to the people of Liege, Charles entered into a close league with the discontented French prin- ces who had taken up arms against Louis XL, while that monarch re- newed his intrigues with the discontented burgesses in all the cities subject to the duke of Burgundy. Louis was, however, far the more successful in this species of unavowed warfare ; cold, cautious, arid cunning, he was able to conduct complicated intrigues, and to await their success with patience, while the violent temper of Charles frequently led him to frustrate the plans on which he had bestowed the most care and attention. In one memorable instance, the reliance of Louis on his own craft had nearly proved his destruction ; finding that his envoys did not produce the effect he desired on the mind of his rival, he re- solved to try the effect of a personal interview, and unexpectedly pre- sented himself at the duke of Burgundy's court in Peronne, escorted by a feeble company of his personal retainers. The interview be- tween the king and the duke was far from satisfactory ; their mutual jealousies soon began to threaten a rupture, when the intelligence of a new revolt in Liege, and the massacre of all the partisans of Burgundy in that city, including the prince-bishop, so roused the fury of Charles, that he made his sovereign a prisoner, and would probably have pro- ceeded to further extremities, but for the interference of his council. Louis, taken in his own toils, was obliged to submit to the terms of peace dictated by Charles ; the most mortifying condition of his libera- tion was that he should lead an army against the insurgent citizens of Liege, and thus aid his vassal in suppressing a revolt which he had himself secretly instigated. The ducal and royal armies were soon assembled, and they marched together against the devoted citizens of Liege, who had never imagined the possibility of such a combination. They did not however despair, but defended themselves with great courage, until the advanced guard of the Burgundians had forced its way through the breaches of the walls, and made a lodgement in the princi- pal street. All resistance was then at an end ; the city became the prey of the barbarous soldiers ; it was cruelly pillaged for several days, and those citizens who escaped the sword either perished of hunger as they wandered through the woods and fields, or were delivered over to the executioner. After this scene of massacre had lasted eight days, Charles left , the city, after having given orders that every edifice in Liege should be destroyed, except the churches, and the houses belong- ing to the clergy. As Liege was an episcopal city, the clergy pos- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 509 sessed or claimed a very considerable portion of it, and the exception made in their favor saved it from ruin. Louis never forgave the indignities which he had endured at Pe- ronne, and in his forced march to Liege ; without openly declaring war against Burgundy, he secretly raised up enemies against the duke in every quarter, and Charles, by the violence of his passions, constantly exposed himself at disadvantage to the machinations of his rival. Ren- dered insolent by continued prosperity, he alienated from him the brave chivalry of Burgundy, by bestowing all his confidence on a foreign fa- vorite, the count of Campo-Basso, who flattered his vanity by an ab- solute submission to his caprices. Louis had the good fortune to win the friendship of the Swiss, whom his rival had changed from friends into foes by the most wanton violation of treaties ; and Charles, to whom the very name of freedom was odious, on account of the revolts of Ghent and Liege, resolved to bring the independent mountaineers once more under the yoke of feudal bondage. Rarely had Europe seen so splendid an army as that which Charles led to the invasion of Switzerland : it consisted of thirty-six thousand soldiers, long inured to military exercises, accompanied by the most formidable train of artillery that had ever yet been brought into the field. The duke advanced to besiege Granson ; it was bravely de- fended, but the walls soon began to crumble under the heavy fire of the Burgundian artillery, and several of the citizens, seduced by prom- ises and bribes, clamored for a capitulation. It was agreed that the governor and the best soldiers of the garrison should present themselves before Charles and demand to be admitted to mercy, as his emissaries had promised. The moment, however, that they appeared, Charles ordered them to be seized ; the governor and his officers to be hanged, and all the rest to be hurled as they were, bound hand and foot, into the lake. About two hundred Swiss were thus treacherously mas- sacred. Intelligence of this event spread rapidly through the cantons ; on every side the bold mountaineers flew to arms, while the duke, having formed an entrenched camp at Granson, advanced with a strong de- tachment toward Neufchatel. Pride had rendered him so regardless of ordinary precautions that he came unexpectedly in presence of the main body of the Swiss in the mountain defiles, when with his usual impetuosity he gave, the signal to engage. The Swiss pikemen formed in close line, drove back the Burgundian cavalry, and, steadily advancing in close order forced the squadrons of horSe before them, destroying some of the bravest knights of the enemy as they got en- tangled in the press. Every efibrt which the duke made to extricate his gallant chivalry only added to the confusion, and while he vainly strove to form his lines, fresh troops appeared upon the heights on his left flank, raising the war-cry of " Granson ! Granson !" to show that they came to revenge the massacre of their brethren. Soon after the horns of Uri and Unterwalden were heard in the distance ; they were two enormous horns, which according to tradition had been bestowed upon these cantons by Pepin and Charlemagne ; their sound had often filled invaders with dread during the old wars of Austria, and appeared on the present occasion scarcely less ominous to the Burgundians. : 510 MoiffiaN HISTOKY. The retreat of the advanced gilard of Charles became every moment more disorderly, it viras at length converted iiito a precipitate flight, arid the ftigitives on reaching the entrenched camp, filled it with the same terror and confusion by -which they were possessed theriiselTes'. In vain did Charles Jrttempt to reffledythe disorder; his artillery'meh after 3; feeble and ineffectual fire aba;fldoned' their giilns ; his Italian auxiliaries' fled without striking a blow, and at length, being left almost alone, he quitted his camp with a few attendants, leaving to the Swiss the richest booty that had been gained in war for several centuries. Among the spoils thus abandoned were three celebrated diamonds, of which one now adorns' the tiara of the pope, a second is reckoned among the nioSt splendid treasures of the emperor of Austria, and the third, usually called the Sbuci diarnond, was long the richest brilliant ifi the crowri- of France. Grief and rage for his defeat reduced Charles to a state bordering' on insanity. It was not until after the lapse of sevferal weeks that he' began to take active measures for repairing his losses, and preventing the king' of Fi"ance' from profiting by his reverses. All the wealth which he had' hoarded during his reigft ; all the treasures which he- could procure from' the wealthy commercial cities in Flanders and Bra- baht, were freely poured forth to retihiit his.arriiy; the bells of the churches were riielted down and cast into cannon to repair the loss of his artillery at Granson ; he hired auxiliaries frottl' France, frorh Italy, and from England. O'ri the other hand the SWissemployed themselves in fortifying' Morat, which they regarded as the key of Berne, and sent pressing messages" to their confederates' to hasten 'the arrival of their respective contingents. On the' 37th of May, 1-476, Charles quitted his camp at Lausaune to commence the siege' of Mbrat ; rarely has a place been more vigorously assailed or more obstinately defended ; the wlaHs were breached in several places, but every assault of the Burgundians was repulsed, and the duke himself was twice driven back frOta the ruined ramparts. This marvellous resistance gavis the &*iss time to assemble their ar- mies, but Morat was on the' point of falhng^ yifheh they advanced to its relief. . Sevetal' of his oiHcersi adVi'sed Chafles to raise the siege on the approach of the Svnss, and retire' to ground more favorable fO'r a field of battle ; but' he was as obstinately deaf to gbod counsel as he had been at Granson, and his passions had pr*d*ic;ed' a kind' of fever which ren- dered hirii SO irritable that M^ d'eatest' friends were afraid to apfjrOach him. The Swiss formed their line' of 'battle under the shelter Of a line of hills covered With trees, which' effectually concealed their' move- ments ' from* tlieii? enemies ; Charles advanced to dislodge them frdrri- this position in a tempest of rain which injured hiS'powder and relaxed the bowlings of his afchets. The BurgtindiartB, firiding that they eould" not get through the wood, nor entice the Swiss from theiir lines', begaft' tO' retire toward their camp, drenched with ralrt and exhausted by theit useteSB ' march. The SSviss- general, Ha'fts die' Hallwyll, who had"al!fi6ady earned high' fame iii the wars of Hiingary, gave the sigtjal' of pnfsult ; Ren^i lilie young duke of Lorrain^; whotti! Charles had' stripped! of his pateftial' dottiinioris, advanced at meh^ad of the oavaliy* of the?' Confederates, and the Btirgundians'Wete attacked' ifl their' ifi" THE STATES-SYSTEM OF BitEOPB. 511 trenched camp. Charles could scarcely be petsuaded that the Swiss ■would have hazarded so perilous an attempt ; he hastened to bring up his men at arms to the place where the chief assault was made, and at the same time opened a heavy fire frctm his batteries On the advancing columns. His best artillerymen however had fallen at Granson ; his cannon being ill-served did but little execution, while Hallwyll under cover of the smoke led a body of troops along the Burgundian lines and suddenly falling on their exposed flank, forced his way into the midst of the camp before the manceuvxe was discovered. On the other extreme the Burgundians were equally surprised by an unexpected sally from the garrison of Moral ; they fell into remediless confusion, the battle was no longer a fight but a carnage, for the Swiss sternly refused quarter, so that "cruel as at Morat," long continued to be a proverb in their mountains. The stjates of Burgundy, Flanders, and Brabant; refused to grant the duke the enormous sums which he deniand'ed to raise a third army,, and while he was engaged iri threatening them with his wrath, and- collecting -as many soldiers as he could procure from his own resour- ces, he learned that ILiorraine was nearly recovered by its young duke Ren^, who, after making himself master of several towns, with little or no' oj^position,' had laid siege to Nancy. The city was taken before Charles was ready to march, and Rene having secured it with a faith- fid garrison, proceeded to the Swiss cantons to solicit aid against their common enemy. Sieges were always unfavorable to the duke of Bur- gundy ; he was unable- to reduce Nancy, but he obstinately persisted in remaining before the xvalls, while his army'snffered severely from an inclement winter and' the increasing want of pay and provisions. In facWthe unfortunate duke was now sold to his enemies by his favor- ite Campo^BasSo; and his rash cruelty had led him to precipitate the execution of the chief agent of the plot, whom he had by chance made prisoner. On the 4th of January, 1477, Rene of Lorraine, at the head of the Swiss confederates, was seen from the Burgundian camp advancing to the relief of Nancy. In the very beginning of the battle the desertion of the traitor Campo-Basso deicided the fate of the day, but the brave chivalry of Burgundy in this, the last of their fields, maintained a des- perate resistance until night put an end to the combat. The fate of the' diike of Burgundy was- for a long time uncertain, but after a tedious: search his body was found covered With wounds, some of: which had every appearance of being inflicted by assassinsi Rene paid: every possible respect to the' remains of the unfortunate Chairles, and he lib- erated' all his Burgundian prisoners that they might attend the funeral. The history of Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and successor of Charies the Bold, must be related briefly. No sooner was the news of her father's death known, than the king of France prepared to seize on her dominions in Burgundy, and the Flemings -rose in insurrection against her authority. Louis' at first was- disposed- to force her to marry the dkuphin, and thus' reunite Burgundy to- France, but llie tortuous course of policy which he pursued defeated his object. The Flemings discov- ered the intrigue ; they seized on the favorite counsellors of the unhap- py princess, and behea'ded them before her eyes' in the market-place of 513: MODEEN HISTOHY. Ghent. Mary was subsequently married to Duke Maximilian of Aus- tria, but he only obtained possession of her dominions in the Nether- lands ; Burgundy was conquered by the French, and Maximilian had neither the energy nor the wisdom to recover it from Louis. This was the origin of the bitter hostility between the sovereigns of France and Austria, which for a long series of years kept -the continent of Europe in almost perpetual war. Section VII. — 'The Age of Charles V. The political idea of maintaining a balance of power, which, was first formed in Italy, began to spread north of the Alps, in consequence of the rapid and overwhelming increase of the Austrian power. Maxi- milian 06 Austria, son of the emperor Frederic III., married Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (a. d. 1477), as has been already related, and in her right obtained pos- session of the fertile and wealthy provinces of the Netherlands. His son, Philip the Fair, was united to Joanna, infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose union had joined the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. The fruit of Philip's marriage with Joanna was two sons, Charles and Ferdinand ; and the elder of these, at the age of sixteen, inherited the crown of Spain and its colonies, in addition to his paternal dominions in the Netherlands (a. d. 1516). The death of his grandfather Maximilian transmitted to him the Austrian territories, and the other domains of the house of Hapsburgh, and the electors chose him to fill the vacant throne'of the empire. Thus Charles, the first of Spain, and the fifth of the empire, possessed greater power than any sovereign that had flourished in Europe since the days of Charlemagne, ^n the beginning of his reign, he resigned his hereditary dominions in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, who afterward succeeded him in the empire, and became the founder of the second Austrian line of emperors, which ended with Charles VI. (a. d. 1740). From the emperor Charles de- scended the Austrian family of Spanish kings, which was terminated by the death of Charles II. (a. d. 1700). , . These two branches of the Austrian house, the German and the Spanish, long acted in concert, to procure reciprocal advantages, and were fortunate in strengthening their power by new alliances. Ferdi- nand married Anne, sister , of Louis, king of Hungary and Bohemia; and when that monarch fell in war against the Turks, • added both these kingdoms to the hereditary dominions of Austria. Charles V., by his ina,rriage with Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, king of Portu- gal, prepared the way for his son Philip's annexation of that country to Spain. Two monarchs, contemporary with Charles, were almost equally bound by their interests to check the preponderance of the house of Austria — Henry VIII. of England, and Francis I. of France. Henry VII., after the victory of Bosworth-field had given him undisputed pos- session of the crown, labored diligently and successfully to extend the royal authority, and to raise the commercial prosperity of the nation. On hia, death (a. d. 1509), he bequeathed to his son a rich treasury and a flourishing kingdom. Possessing such advantages, Henry VHI. might THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 513 have been the arbitrator of Europe ; but his naturally line talents were perverted by flattery ; he allowed free scope to all his passions, and his actions were consequently the result of caprice, vanity, or resentment — rarely, if ever, of enlightened policy. Many of the defects in his ad- ministration must, however, be ascribed to the pride and ambition of his prime minister. Cardinal Wolsey, who sacrificed the welfare of England tmd the honor of his sovereign to further his private ends or gratify his idle vanity. Francis I. was a prince of higher character ; he had many of the noble qualities, and not a few of the faults, usually ascribed to the spirit of chivalry ; bold, enterprising, and personally brave, he did not always regulate his actions by prudence, and his rashness lost what his valor had won. Soon after coming to the crown, he undertook to recover Milan, and overthrew Sforza and the imperialists at Marignano. The defeated duke resigned his country for a pension ; the pope and the northern Italian states assented to the arrangement, and the possession of the contested dutchy seemed secured to France by the conclusion of a treaty with the Swiss cantons (a. d. 1516). Nearly at the same time a treaty was made with Charles, who had not yet succeeded to the empire, which seemed to establish peace, but only rendered war more certain. Henry and Francis were both candidates with Charles for the em- pire ; the former, however, had no rational hopes of success, while Francis could not hide his anticipations of success, no more than his riiortification when he failed. The mutual jealousies of the French and 'Spanish monarchs were aggravated by hostile claims ; Charles, by right of descent, could demand the ancient possessions of the duke of Bur- gundy, and he was feudal sovereign, as emperor, over the northern Italian states, the chief dutchy of which had been recently annexed to France. On the other hand, Francis had claims to the thrones of Na- varre and Naples, which he was very unwilling to resign. Peace could not long subsist between these potentates, neither were their forces so xmequally matched as might at first be supposed. The extensive domin- dons of Charles were governed by different constitutions ; in none, not even in Spain, was he wholly unfettered, while in Germany, where the Reformation was constantly raising embarrassing questions, and the princes ever anxious to circumscribe the imperial authority, added more to his nominal than to his real strength. His finances were also ern- barrassed, and he often found it an almost insuperable diflSculty to pro- Tdde for the payment of his troops, most of whom were necessarily mer- cenaries. On the other hand, Francis inherited almost despotic au- thority ; his power concentrated, his own subjects were enrolled as his -soldiers, and the regular organization of the French government freed him from the financial embarrassments of his rival. Both strengthened -themselves by alliances : Charles gained the aid of the pope, and won Henry VIII. to his side by duping the egregious vanity of Wolsey; Francis, on the other hand, was supported by the Swiss and the Vene- tians. The war began nearly at the same moment in Navarre, the Netherlands, and Lombardy. The treachery of the queen-mother, who withheld from the French commander, Lautrec, the money necessary ■ to pay the troops employed in Italy, led to the ' loss of Milan and the 33 514 MODERN HISTORY. greater part of -the dutchy. An effort made to recover the lost gronpd ' led to the battle of Bicocca (a. d. 1522), in which the French were to- tally defeated^ and finally expelled from Italy ; and Genoa, their most faithful ally, was subjected to the power of their enemies. An event of scarcely less importance was the death of Leo, and the elevation of Adrian, a devoted adherent of Charles, to the papal chair ; and this was soon followed by the desertion of the Venetians to the imperial side. Francis inight have still recovered the Milanese, where the emperor's troops had been disbanded for want of pay, had not the queen-mother, blinded by passion, induced him to treat the constable of Bourbon with such gross injustice, that this powerful noble entered into a secret in- trigue with the emperor, and agreed to raise the standard of revolt. The discovery of the plot delayed the French king's march into Italy ; and though he protected his own territories, the Milanese was irrecoverably lost. Encouraged by this success, Charles commanded the imperial generals to invade France on the side of Provence, while the king of England promised to attack it on the north. Had this plan been exe- cuted, Francis must have been ruined ; but Wolsey, provoked by the elevation of Clement VII. to the papacy, on the death of Adrian, avenged himself for the broken promises of the emperor, abated Henry's ardor for the enterprise, and persuaded him to keep his forces at home, under pretence of resisting the Scots, who had embraced the side of the French king. Charles, unable to command money, could not make a diversion on the side of Spain or the Netherlands ; and the imperial- ists, having uselessly wasted the country, were compelled to retire from Provence. Elated by his success, Francis hastened to invade Italy ; but instead of pressing the pursuit of the shattered imperialists, he laid siege to Pavia, and thus gave his adversaries time to strengthen and recruit their forces. With similar imprudence, he sent a large detachment to invade Naples, hoping that the viceroy of that kingdom would withdraw a large portion of the imperialists from the Milanese for its defence ; but Charles's generals, having received a strong reinforcement raised in Germany by the constable of Bourbon, attacked the French in their in- trenchments, and gained a decisive victory, in which Francis himself was made prisoner. This great calamity was principally owing to the romantic notions of honor entertained by the French king : he had vowed that he would take Pavia or perish in the attempt ; and rather than expose himself to the imputation of breaking a promise of chivalry, he remained in his ia- trenchments, though the means of safe retreat were open to him. Never did armies engage with greater ardor than the French and imperialists before the walls of Pavia (February 24, 1525). On the one hand, a .gallant young monarch, seconded by a generous nobility, and followed by subjects to whose natural impetuosity indignation at the opposition w'hich they had encountered added new force, contended for victory and honor. On the other side, troops more completely disciplined, and con- ducted by generals of greater abilities, fought, from necessity, with courage heightened by despair. The imperialists, however, were una- ble to resist the first efforts of the Fiench valor, and their firmest battfil- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 515 * ions began to give way. But the fortune of the day was quickly changed. The Swiss in the service of France, unmindful of the repu- tation of their country for fidelity and martial glory, abandoned their post in a cowardly manner. The garrison of Pavia sallied out and attacked the rear of the French during the heat of the action with such fury as threw it into confusion ; and Pescara, falling on their cavalry with the imperial horse, among whom he had prudently intermingled a consider- ble number of Spanish foot, armed with the heavy muskets then in use, broke this formidable body by an unusual method of attack, against which they were totally unprovided. The rout became universal, and resistance ceased in almost every part but where the king was in person, who fought now, not for fame or victory, but for safety. Though wounded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed under him, Francis defended himself on foot with an heroic courage ; many of his bravest officers, gathering round him, and endeavoring to save his life, at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. The king, exhausted with fatigue and scarcely capable of further resistance, was left almost alone, exposed to the fury of some Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank, and enraged at his obstinacy. At that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman who had entered, together with Bourbon, into the- eraperor's service, and placing himself by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in protecting him from the vio- lence of the soldiers ; at the same time beseeching him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant. Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he rejected with indignation the thoughts of an action which would have afforded such triumph to his traitorous subject ; and calling for Launoy, who also happened to be near at hand, gave up his sword to him ; which he kneeling to kiss the king's hand, received with profound respect ; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him, saying that " it did not become so great a monarch to remain disarmed in the presence of one of the emperor's subjects." / Although Launoy treated his royal captive with all the marks of re- spect due to his rank and character, he nevertheless guarded him with the utmost precaution. He was solicitous, not only to prevent any possibility of his escaping, but afraid that his own troops might seize his person, and detain it as the best security for the payment of their arrears. In order to provide against both these dangers, he conducted Francis, the day after the battle, to a strong castle, and committed him to the custody of an officer remarkable for the strict vigilance which such a trust required. Francis, who formed a judgment of the empe; ror's disposition by his own, was extremely desirous that Charles should be informed of his situation, fondly hoping that, from his gener- osity or sympathy, he should obtain speedy relief. He therefore gave a passport to an imperial officer to carry the intelligence of the battle of Pavia and his own capture through France, as the communication with Spain by land was the most safe and certain at this season of the year. Charles received the account of this signal success with affected mod- eration, but at the same time deliberated with the utmost solicitude how he might derive the greatest advantages from the misfortunes of Msr 516 MODERN HISTOEY. adversary. His first demands were that Francis should restore the dutchy of Burgundy, which, as we have seen, was dishonorably wrested from his ancestors by Louis XL ; that Provence and Dauphin^ should be erected into an independent kingdom for the constable of Bourbon ; that satisfaction should be made to the king of England for his claims on France ; and that all the pretensions of France to territories in Italy should be renounced for ever. Francis was so indignant at being re- quired to make such ignominious concessions, that he drew his dagger, and made an attempt to commit suicide ; he was, of course, prevented, and it was hinted that a personal interview with the emperor would lead to the offer of more equitable conditions. Francis himself was of the same opinion. He was sent in a Spanish galley to Barcelona, whence he was removed to Madrid ; but on reaching that city, he was sent to the Alcazar, and guarded more carefully than ever : and it ap peared evident that the king's reliance on the emperor's generosity had been wholly misplaced. But this triumph, which seemed to have made Charles master of Italy and arbiter of Europe, so far from yielding the substantial advantages which might reasonably have been expected, served only to array against him the jealousy of England, of the Italian states, and of the protestant princes of Germany. At the same time, the disorganized condition of his finances, and the consequent difficulty of finding pay, subsistence, or ■the munitions of war, for his soldiers, reduced his Italian armies to in- activity in the very moment of victory. Henry VIII. was the first of the imperial allies to set the example of defection ; he entered into a defensive alliance with Louise, the queen-regent of France, in which all the differences between him and her son were adjusted ; at the same time he engaged that he would employ his best ofl[ices in order to deliver his new ally from a state of captivity. Imprisonment soon began to produce such injurious effects on the mental and bodily health of Francis, that Charles began to fear that all his plans might be frus- trated by the death of his captive, and he therefore sought a personal interview with him, in which he held out a hope of milder conditions of liberation. The chief obstacle that stood in the way of Francis's liberty was the emperor's continuing to insist so peremptorily on the restitution of Bur- gundy as a preliminary to that event. But the history of Burgundy while an independent dutchy, as detailed in preceding sections, suffi- ciently proves that compliance with such a demand would have reduced the monarch of France to a state of complete dependance on his nomi- nal vassals. Francis often declared that he would never consent to dismember his kingdom ; and that, if even he should so far forget the duties of a monarch as to come to such a resolution, the fundamental laws of the kingdom would prevent its taking effect. Finding that the emperor was inflexible on the point, he suddenly took the resolution of resigning his crown, with all its rights and prerogatives, to his son the dauphin, determining rather to end his days in prison than to purchase his freedom by concessions unworthy of a king. Charles was so alarmed by this resolution, that he consented to mod- ify his demands so far as not to insist, on the restitution of Burgundy flntil the king was set at liberty. The remaining conditions of the THE STATES-SYSTEM 01" EUROPE. 517 treaty were sufficiently onerous ; but a few hours before signing them, Francis assembled such of his counsellors as happened to be in Madrid, and having exacted from them a solemn oath of secresy, he made a long enumeration in their presence of the dishonorable acts as well as unprincely rigor which the emperor had employed in order to ensnare or intimidate him. For that reason, he took a formal protest in the hands of notaries that his consent to the treaty should be considered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and void. By this disingenu- ous artifice, for which the treatment he had received was no apology, Francis endeavored to satisfy his honor and conscience in signing the treaty, and to provide at the same time a pretext on which to break it. About a month after the signing of the treaty, the regent's ratification of it was brought from France, and two princes of the blood sent as hostages for its execution. At last' Francis took leave of the emperor, whose suspicion of the king's sincerity increasing as the time of putting it to the proof approached, he attempted to bind him still faster by ex- acting new promises, which, after those he had already made, the French monarch was not slow to grant. He set out from Madrid, a place which the remembrance of so many afflicting circumstances ren-r dered peculiarly odious to him, with the joy natural on such an occasion,, and began the long-wished-for journey toward his own dominions. He was escorted by a body of horse, under the command of Alar9on, who,, as the king drew near the frontiers of France, guarded him with more scrupulous exactness than ever. When he arrived at the river Andaye, which separates the two kingdoms, Lautrec, one of his favorite gene- rals, appeared on the opposite bank, with a guard equal in number to Alar^on's. An empty bark was moored in the middle of the stream ;. the attendants drew up in order on the opposite banks ; at the same in- stant Launoy put off with eight gentlemen from the Spanish, and Lau- trec with the same number from the French side of the river ; the former had the king in his boat ; the latter the two princely hostages, the dauphin and the duke of Orleans ; they met in the empty vessel ; the exchange was made in a moment ; Francis, after a short embrace of his children, leaped into Lautrec's boat, and reached the French shore. He mounted at that instant a Turkish horse, waved his hand over his head, and, with a joyous voice, cried aloud several times, " I am yet a king !" then, putting spurs to his ' horse, he galloped at full speed to St. Jean de Luz, and thence to Bayonne. This event, no less impatiently desired by the French people than their monarch, happened on the 18th of March, 1526, a year and twenty-two days after the fatal battle of Pavia. The states of Burgundy afforded Francis the first opportunity of refusing to fulfil the conditions of his liberation. They represented to the monarch that he had no right to make a transfer of their allegiance without the;r consent, and that they would rather assert their indepen- dence than submit to a foreign dominion. Upon this, Francis, turning toward the imperial ambassadors, represented to them the impossibility of performing what he had undertaken, and offered, in lieu of Burgundy, to pay the emperor two millions of crowns. The ambassadors, who were well aware that the entire scene had been concerted between the 518 MODERN HISTORY. king and the states, refused to admit any modification of the treaty ; they returned to Madrid, and Charles, who perceived that he had been overreached, exclaimed in the most public manner and in the harshest terms against Francis, as a prince void of faith and honor. The French king, on the other hand, asserted that no promise obtained by force was binding, and easily obtained from the pope a full absolution from all the obligations which he had contracted. During this period, Germany was cruelly harassed by insurrections of the peasants, goaded to madness by the oppressions of their lords. In Thuringia, where a great part of the population had been converted to Lutheranism, Muncer, a wild fanatic, became the leader of the insur- gents, and by stimulating their ignorant zeal, added religious bigotry to the horrors of civil war. Luther sincerely lamented the scandal that these disturbances brought on the cause of the reformation ; but.his own marriage with a nun who had broken her vows, gave such general of- fence, that his influence, for a season, was greatly diminished. Francis was not long at liberty before he not only protested against the treaty of Madrid and refused to fulfil any of its stipulations, but or- ganized a new league against Charles, which was named " Holy," because the pope was its nominal head. The Venetians, the duke of Milan, and the English king, joined the confederacy ; but their opera- tions were so slow and feeble, that the imperialists easily maintained their ascendency in the north of Italy. The constable of Bourbon, irritated by the vacillating conduct of the pope, marched against Rome, heedless of the truce that had been granted to the pontiff by the viceroy of Naples. " The eternal city" was taken by assault, and suffered more severely from the soldiers of a catholic king than from the barbarous pagans of an earlier age. Bourbon fell in the assault ; but the com- mand of the imperialists devolved on the prince of Orange, who be- sieged the pope in the castle of St. Angelo, and compelled him to yield himself a prisoner (a. d. 1537). Charles received the intelligence of this success- with contemptible hypocrisy ; he professed the most sin- •cere sorrow for the captivity of the holy pontiff, and ordered prayers to be offered for his deliverance in all the Spanish churches, instead of sending orders for his liberation. So great was the indignation excited by the harsh treatment of the pope, that Francis was enabled to invade Italy and penetrate to the very walls of Naples. But here his pros- perity ended ; the pope, liberated from captivity, resolved to conciliate the emperor ; the Venetians became jealous of the French power, and, finally, the Genoese hero, Andrew Doria, roused by the wrongs which Francis had inflicted on himself and his country, revolted to the empe- ror, and turned the scale of the war by making the imperialists superior at sea. Doria's first care was to restore the republic of Genoa ; and such was the opinion entertained of his patriotism and disinterestedness, that he was universally called " The father of his country and THE RESTORER OF ITS LIBERTY" (a. d. 1538). Thcsc circumstanccs, and the defeat of his army in the Milanese, inclined Francis to peace ; a treaty was negotiated at Cambray by the emperor's aunt and the king's mother, but the fair diplomatists left enough of disputable points unset- tled to furnish grounds for a future war. Charles having thus prevailed over France, resolved to make a vigorous THE STA.TES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 519 Struggle to crush the reformation in Germanyy hut the protestant princes, UBdismayed by his power, formed a leagiie for their mutual protection at Smalkald (a. d. 1530), and applied to the kings of France and England to patronise their confederacy. Heiiry VlII . was eager to grant them support ; he was desirous to be divorced from his wife, Catharine of Aragon, the emperor's aunt, and attributed the pope's reluctance to the intrigues of Charles. Hostilities were for a time averted by the emperor's making some important concessions, for he was anxious to have his brother Ferdinand chosen as his successor, with the title of king of the Romans, and the progress of the Turks, on his eastern frontiers, could only be resisted by the united strength of the empire. Francis had concluded peace at Cambray, because he was no longer able to maintain war. He sought the earliest opportunity of renewing hostilities, and secured the friendship of the pope, by uniting his son, the duke of Orleans, to the pontiff's niece, Catherine de Medicis. But, though he thus gained one ally, he lost others. Henry VIIL, inflam- ed by love of Anne Boleyn, and enraged by the pope's confirmation of his marriage with Catharine, no longer kept any measures with the court of Rome ; his subjects seconded his resentment ; an act of par- liament was passed, abolishing the papal power and jurisdiction in Eng- land (a. d. 1534) ; by another act, the king was declared supreme head of the church, and all the authority of, which the popes were deprived, was vested in him. Henry was thus disinclined to support the pope's ally, and the protestant princes of Germany viewed Francis with some suspicion, because he persecuted the reformed in his own dominions. The death of Clement VH., and the election of Paul HI., an adherent of the emperor, suddenly deprived Francis of the papal aid, on which lie had confidently calculated, and compelled him to delay his projects for troubling the peace of Europe. The insurrection of the anabaptists, a new set of fanatics in Germany, and the emperor's expedition against the piratical states of Barbary, employed men's minds for a season. The suppression of the fanatics, and the conquest of Tunis, crowned the emperor with glory, yet it was at this moment that Francis chose to renew the war (a. d. 1535). Savoy was immediately overrun by the French troops, and its unfor- tunate duke in vain implored the aid of the emperor, whose resources had been exhausted in the African war. It was on this occasion that Charles challenged his rival to single combat, in which proposal he only imitated the former follies of Francis. On the other hand, the death of the dauphin, amid the joy occasioned by the repulse of the impe- rialists, who had invaded Provence, was absurdly attributed to poison, administered by emissaries of Charles. To complete the exhibition of folly, Francis summoned Charles, as count of Flanders, to appear before the parliament of Paris, and on his refusal, he was declared to have forfeited the Low Countries to his feudal superior. The war itself was languidly conducted, but the pope, alarmed by the progress of the Turks, personally interfered, and a truce for ten years was concluded between the two sovereigns at Nice (a. d. 1538). The religious disputes in Germany ' between the princes of the protestant and those of the catholic league, the struggles made by the pope to prevent the meeting of a general council, unless imder ciroum- 520 MODERN HISTORY. Stances that would give him complete control over its deliberations,- filled Charles -with anxiety, which was not a little increased by the tur- bulent disposition of his Flemish subjects, and the success of the Turks- in Hungary. Notwithstanding all these difficulties, he undertook an expedition against Algiers (a. d. 1541), but his fleet was shattered by a storm, his army wasted by a pestilential disease, and his stores of provision rendered unavailing. He was compelled to return , overwhelmed' with loss and disgrace, and his defeat raised the courage of his enemies- so high that he had to encounter a new war in Europe. Francis was eager to take advantage of his rival's distress, and the crime of the imperial governor of the Milanese furnished him with a de- cent pretext. This imprudent functionary seized two ambassadors, sent from the Parisian court to Turkey, and put them to death, in direct' violation of the law of nations. Francis now changed his plan of opera- tions ; acting on the defensive in Italy, he invaded the Netherlands and Rousillon (a. d. 1542), but failed to make any permanent impression. Charles found an ally in the king of England : the death of his aunt had' removed the great source of enmity between the emperor and Henry, and the close alliance between France and Scotland, recently cemented by the marriage of the Scotch king, James V., to a French princess, Mary of Guise, had excited great jealousy and alarm in England. Henry, with his usual impetuosity^ having introduced the reformation* into England, became anxious that Scotland should also withdraw its allegiance from the pope, and endeavored to win his nephew James to adopt his plan, by the most advantageous offers. The influence of the Scottish clergy prevailed over that of the English monarch, and Henry in his fury proclaimed war against Scotland. In the midst of these troubles, James V. died leaving his dominions to his infant daughter, Mary, the celebrated and unfortunate queen of Scots. This changed all- Henry's plans ; he aimed at uniting the two kingdoms, by effecting a marriage between his son Edward and Mary, but he knew that this^ could only be affected by crushing the French party in Scotland, and eager to accomplish this object he readily entered into the alliance - against Francis. The French monarch, on the other hand, entered into close union with the Turks, and courted the support of the German protestants ; but the princes of the empire refused to join so bitter a persecutor of the reformed doctrines, and his only ally, the duke of Cleves, was forced to submit to Charles. The sultan afforded him more effective support ; he invaded Hungary in person, and sent the celebrated admiral ■ and pirate, Barbarossa, to join the French in invading Italy. Nice was besieged by their united forces : to the astonishment and scandal of all ■ Christendom, the lilies of France and the crescent of Mohammed ap- ■ peared in conjunction against a fortress, on which the cross of Savoy- was displayed. The allies were finally compelled to raise the siege, and Francis had not even the poor consolation of success, in return for the infamy of having taken as auxiliaries the deadly enemies of Chris- tianity. The battle of Cerisoles (a. d. 1544) gave his arms the fame-* of useless victory, but it did not prevent the contemporary invasion of France by the emperor on the side of Lorraine, and the English through Calais. Had Charles and Henry acted in concert, Francis must haves THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 521 yielded unconditionally, but he took advantage of their disanion to con- clude a separate peace with the emperor at Crespy (a. d. 1544). Henry VIII. continued the war for some time longer, but it did not produce any event of consequence. Charles had now secured his pre- . dominance in Italy, and was secretly- preparing to restore the imperial authority in Germany. Death removed his two powerful contemporaries, Francis and Henry, in the same year (a. d. 1547),bothof whom would'. have been dangerous antagonists. Though Henry's motives in favoring the reformation were not very pure, his intense hatred of the popes must have induced him to protect the protestant interest in Germany. The secularization of Prussia, by Albert of Brandenburg (a. d. 1525), was the first example of the seizure of church property, consequent on the change of religion ; but the indignation of the catholic princes, and the ambition of the protestants, were restrained by the Turkish and the French wars. Still the emperor's conduct at the diets of Spires and Augsburg, the pope's anxiety to convene a council subservient to his will, and the intrigues of the ecclesiastics in the states that retained' their connexion with Rome, compelled the protestants to renew the league of Smalkald, and assign the fixed contingent of men and arms that should be supplied by the several members. When the council of Trent finally opened (a. d. 1545), its very form and its first decision rendered it impossible for the protestants to take any part in it. But the peace of Crespy left them unprotected, and their want of mutual confidence prevented them from acting in concert. At the very com- mencement of the war. Prince Maurice of Saxony deserted the league, and joined the emperor ; John Frederic, the elector of Saxony, and chief leader of the protestants, was made prisoner at the battle of Miihlberg (a. d. 1547), and his dominions rewarded the treachery of Maurice. The landgrave of Hesse, the last hope of the refonners, was inveigled to visit the emperor, at Halle, and dishonorably detained as a captive. This rapid success of the emperior alarmed the pope, who began tO' fear that Charles would prevail upon the council to limit his pontifical authority, and the two potentates, apparently believing the protestant cause crushed, began to seek for their own private advantages. Charles- published a code of doctrines called the " Interim," because the regula- tions it contained were only to be in force until the convocation of a free general council, and this edict, which was strictly conformable to the tenets of the Romish church, he resolved to enforce on the empire (a. d. 1548). Catholics and protestants equally declaimed against this summary mode of settling a nation's faith, but the emperor scarcely encountered any open resistance, except from the free city of Magde- burgh, and an army sent to reduce this disobedient place, was intrusted to Maurice of Saxony. Maurice was secretly dissatisfied with the conduct of the emperor,, and was especially grieved by the detention of his father-in-law, the landgrave of Hesse. He formed a bold plan for compelling the emperor, by a sudden attack, to establish religious freedom, and libe- rate the landgrave, but concealed his projects until the most favorable moment for putting them into execution. On the surrender of Magde- burgh (a. d. 1551), he contrived to win the confidence of the garrison •523 MODERN HISTOEY. and'the eitizeris, without awakening the suspicions of the emperOr, and be entered into a secret treaty with Henry 11. of France, the son and successonof Francis. No words can describe the astonishment and distress of the emperor, wheii Maurice, having completed his prepara- tions, published his manifesto, detailing the grievances which he requir- ed to be redressed. The active prince proceeded with so much prompti" .tude and vigor, that Charles narrowly escaped being made prisoner at Innspruck. The council of Trent was broken up ; the prelates tumult- uously voted a prorogation for two years, but more than ten elapsed before its proceedings were renewed. The emperor had the mortifica- tion to see all his projects overthrown by the prince whom he had most trusted, and was compelled to sign a treaty at Passau, by which the captive princes were restored to liberty, and a free exercise of their religion secured to the protestants (a. d. 1552). The war with France lasted three years longer ; it was conducted without any great battles, but on the whole, proved unfavorable to the emperor. From the hour that the treaty of Passau had wrested from Charles V. the fruits of his whole political career, he felt that his crowns were heavy on his brows. The principles of mutual toleration were formally sanctioned by the diet of Augsburg : Paul IV., who may be esteemed the successor of Pope Julius — for the twenty days' reign of Marcellus produced no political event — was so offended, that he became the avowed enemy of the house of Austria, and entered into close alliance with the king of France. A storm was approaching, when Charles, to the great surprise of the world, abdicated his dominions. Though a prince of moderate abilities, Charles V. had reigned with more glory than most European sovereigns. A king of France and a pope had been his captives ; his dominions were more extensive than those of Alexander, or of Rome. By his generals, or his ministers, he had acquired all the objects which usually excite ambition ; he had gained even the distinction of being regarded as the champion of ortho- doxy, in an age when toleration was a crime. But the triumph of civilization over the system of the middle ages, of which he was at once the last support and the last representative, was certain and complete, and he could not resist the mortification of finding himself vanquished ; the peace of Passau was to him " the hand-writing on the wall ;" it announced that his policy was past, and his destiny accomplished. The feebleness of old age overtook him at fifty-six ; harassed by vain repi- nings, overwhelmed by infirmities, he felt that he could no longer appear a hero, and he desired to seem a sage. He became a hermit, removed all his diadems from his head, and sank into voluntary obscurity. He was, however, sure to be regretted, for he bequeathed to the world his successor, the sanguinary Philip, just as Augustus -adopted Tiberius. The protestant religion was first legally established in England by Edward VI., the pious son of the profligate Henry. But the troubles occasioned by his minority, and the ambition of his guardians, prevented the reformed church from being fixed on a permanent foundation. Ed- ward died young (a. d. 1553), and the papal dominion wafe restored by his bigoted successor and sister, Mary. Charles, having failed to pro- cure the empire for his son Philip, negotiated a marriage between that prince and Queen Mary, which was concluded, much to thj dissatisfac- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 523 tion' of the British nation. Maiy'si cruel persecutions of the protestants failed to reconcile her subjects to the yoke of Rome, and on her death (a. d. 1558), the reformed religion was triumphantly restored by her sister Elizabeth. The diet which assembled at Augsburg (a!, d. 1555), did not secure to the protestants all the advantages they had a right to expect. Mauri- ice had fallen in a petty war, and they had no leader fit to be his suc- cessor. With strange imprudence, the Lutherans consented to the ■exclusion of the Calvinists from the benefits of religious toleration, and left several important questions undecided, the pregnant source of future wars. When the labors of the diet terminated, Charles, mortified at being forced to resign the hope of securing the empire to his son, sad- dened by his experience of the instability of fortune, and broken down by illness, resolved to abdicate his double authority. He resigned the sceptre of Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II., and the imperial crown some months after to his brother Ferdinand : he then retired to the monastery of St. Justus, in ValladoUd, where he died (a. d. 1558). The long struggle for religious freedom during the reign of Charles V. terminated in the favor of the Reformation ; but the Romish church was far from being subdued, and it derived most efficient support from the institution of the Jesuits, a political rather than religious society^ admirably organized for the support of the highest and most unyielding assumptions of papal authority. This body became formidable from its unity and the secrecy of its operations, but it at length excited the alarm of catholic princes, and was suppressed in the last century. In the course of the wars between Charles and Francis, the republic ■of Venice, which, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, had ap- peared so formidable that almost all the potentates of Europe united in a confederacy for its destruction, declined from its ancient power and ■splendor. The Venetians not only lost, a great part of their territory in the war excited by the league of Cambray, but the revenues as well as vigor of the state were exhausted by their extraordinary and long-con- tinued eflforts in their own defence, and that commerce by which they had acquired their wealth and power began to decay without any hopes of its reviving. All the fatal consequences to their republic, which the sagacity of the Venetian senate foresaw on the first discovery of a pas- sage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, actually took place. Their endeavors to prevent the Portuguese from establishing themselves in the East Indies, not only by exciting the Mameluke sultans of Egypt and the Ottoman monarchs to turn their arms against such dangerous intruders, but by affording secret aid to the infide]^ in order to ensure their success, proved ineffectual. The activity and valor of the Portu- guese surmounted every obstacle, and obtained such a firm footing in that fertile country, as secured to them large possessions with an influx ence still more extensive. Lisboa instead of Venice became the staple for the precious commodities of the east. The Venetians, after having possessed for many years the monopoly of that beneficial commerce, had the mortification to be excluded from almost any share in it. The discoveries of the Spaniards in the western world proved no less fatal to inferior branches of commerce. When the sources from which the 524 MODERN HISTOEY. State derived its extraordinary riches and power were dried up, its inte>' rior vigor declined, and of course its external operations became less formidable. Long before the middle of the sixteenth century, Venice ceased to be one of the principal powers in Europe, and dwindled into a secondary and subaltern state. But as the senate had the address to conceal the diminution of its power under the veil of moderation and caution ; as it made no rash effort that could discover its weakness ; as the symptoms of political decay in states are not soon observed, and are seldom so apparent to their neighbors as to occasion any sudden alter- ation in their conduct toward them, Venice continued long to be con» sidered and respected. She was treated, not according to her present condition, but according to the rank which she had formerly held. Charles V., as well as the kings of France, his rivals, courted her assis- tance with emulation and solicitude in all their enterprises. Even down to the close of the century, Venice remained, not only an object of at- tention, but a considerable seat of political negotiation and intrigue. That authority which the first Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo his grandson had acquired in the republic of Florence by their beneficence and abilities, inspired their descendants with the ambition of usurping the sovereignty in their country and paving their way toward it. Charles V. placed Alexander de Medici at the head of the republic (a. d. 1530), and to the natural interest and power of the family added the weight as well as the credit of the imperial protection. Of these his successor Cosmo, surnamed the Great, availed himself; and es- tablishing his supreme authority on the ruins of the ancient republican constitution, he transmitted that, together with the title of grand duke of Tuscany, to his descendants. Their dominions were composed of the territories which had belonged to the three commonwealths of Florence, Pisa, and Sienna, and formed one of the most respectable of the Italian states. Section VIII. — The Age ofElizaheih. The accession of Elizabeth was the crisis of the Reformation in Great Britain ; as she was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, whose mar- riage with Henry VIII. had not been sanctioned by the Romish church, her title was not recognised by the catholics, and the king of France permitted his daughter-inrlaw, Mary, queen of Scots, to assume the arms and title of England. Elizabeth secured herself by entering into secret alliance with the heads of the protestant party in Scotland, who succeeded in withdrawing that kingdom from its allegiance to the pope, and so fettering the royal authority, that the queen dowager, who acted as regent for her daughter, was too much harassed at home to make any hostile attempt on England. Connected with the cause of the Reformation by her own interests, Elizabeth was naturally regarded as the head of the protestants in Europe, while Philip II. was the cham- pion of the catholics. Hence England became the counterpoise to Spain in this age, as France had been in the preceding. But the an- cient rivalry between France and Spain was of the highest importance to England ; it prevented a cordial union between the catholic powers of Europe for checking the progress of the Reformation, and it secured THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 525 support for her dolibtful title, ere her noble qualities becoming known, earned for her the best of aU securities, the affections of the English nation. Mary, queen of Scots, was the niece of Henry VIII., and next heir to his crown if the illegitimacy of Elizabeth were established ; she was wedded to the heir-apparent of the French monarchy ; her maternal uncles, the princes of Lorraine, were remarkable for capacity, valor, and daring ambition, and she had reasonable prospects of success at a time when Scotland was divided between the contending communions, Ireland altogether catholic, and while catholics predominated in the north of England. The death of Henry II., by a mortal wound in a tournament; raised Mary's husband, the feeble Francis II., to the French throne, and through the young queen's influence transferred the power of the monarchy to the princes of Lorraine. The bigoted Philip II. was so alarmed at the probable accession of power to his great rivals, that he not only acknowledged Elizabeth's title, but proffered her mar- riage. She declined the offer, and Philip gave his hand to the princess Elizabeth of France, and concluded a treaty with that power at Chateau Cambresis. Though no express stipulations were made, it was well known that the extirpation of heresy formed a part of this alliance be- tween the two great catholic powers ; it led to a furious war of religion, which ended in the establishment of a new European state. Before entering on the history of the religious wars in France and the Netherlands, it is of importance to examine the state of England and Scotland during the early part of Elizabeth's reign. On the death of Francis II. (Dec, 1560), Mary was compelled to return to her native dominions by the jealousy of her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medicis, who secretly envied the power of the princess of Lorraine. She left France with a heavy heart, and from the very first moment of her land- ing had to endure indignities the most mortifying to her proud spirit. Popery had been overthrown in Scotland, but the protestantism erected in its stead was just as bigoted and as intolerant as the ancient creed had been in the worst of times. Still, the winning manners of the queen, and the weakness of her party, prevented any immediate out- break ; and the confidence of the protestants in the earl of Moray re- strained the violence of their fanaticism. The marriage of Mary to the young Lord Damley, in spite of the remonstrances both of Elizabeth and Lord Moray (a. d. 1565), led to the first open breach between the queen and her subjects. Several lords, indignant at the refusal of security to the protestant religion sought safety in England, and they soon gain- ed Darnley himself to join their association. An Italian, of mean birth, David Rizzio, having been appointed private secretary to the queen, gained such an ascendency over her, that Damley's jealousy was roused ; he entered into a conspiracy with the exiled lords, introduced an armed band secretly into the palace, arrested Rizzio in the queen's presence, and murdered him at the door of her chamber. The birth of a son led to an apparent reconciliation between Mary and her husband ; but its hollowness was proved by Damley's being excluded from witnessing the baptism of his own child. The appearance of renewed affection was maintained notwithstanding this insult ; Darnley fell sick, Mary visited him with apparent anxiety, and, under the pretence that quiet 526 MODERN HISTORY. was necessary to an invalid, remoyed him to a solitai(|r house called the Kirk of Field. On the 9th of February, 1567, this house was blown up with gunpowder, and the unfortunate Damley's lifeless body carried to some distance, where it was found without any external mark of violence. The measures taken by Mary to screen Bothwell, univer- sally regarded as the author of this crime, and her subsequent marriage to that nobleman, seemed conclusive evidence that she had countenanced her husband's murder^ The Scottish lords flew to arms ; Mary was forced to yield herself a prisoner to her irritated subjects, and Bothwell fled into exile. The unfortunate queen, confined in Lochleven castle, was forced to abdicate in favor of her son, who was crowned with the title of James VI. She escaped from her prison, and soon found herself at the head pf a numerous army, but within eleven days from her deliverance she was completely defeated in the battle of Langside, and forced to seek refuge in England (a. d. 1568). Elizabeth placed the fugitive in dose custody, a measure which her safety perhaps demanded, but which was scarcely consistent with her honor. The insurrections of the catholic lords in the northern counties, and Mary's intrigues with the duke of Norfolk, combined with the open attempt;? of the catholic states against Elizabeth, rendered the unfortunate queen's detention a matter of pru- dent expediency, if not of prime necessity. The imbecile Francis II. succeeded his father Henry on the throne of France ; during his brief reign he was the mere tool of the Guises, whose great anxiety was to establish the inquisition in France. Philip 11. was engaged in a similar attempt in the Netherlands, and both pro- voked a desperate resistance. Like his father Charles V., Philip was ambitious of universal monarchy, but he used different means ; he hoped to gain the clergy by his zeal, to win the nobles by the bribes which the wealth of Spanish America enabled him to offer, and to subdue the people by the united efforts of ecclesiastical and aristocratic influence. But in the Netherlands, as in France, the proposal to establish the in- quisition was a fatal error of despotism ; it provoked the fierce resistance of all who were worthy of their country, it identified the papacy with cruelty and slavery, it gave to the reformed leaders the proud title pf deliverers of their country. The election of Pius IV. to the chair of St. Peter precipitated the civil war in France (a. d. 1560). A con- spiracy was formed for removing the Guises, in which many ardent catholics joined ; it was discovered and defeated, but the sanguinary cruelty of the Lorraine princes rendered their victory injurious to their cause ; the memory of the martyrs they slaughtered won proselytes, and confirmed opposition. So powerful were the Huguenots, that lib- erty of conscience was sanctioned in an assembly of the Notables at Fontaiijebleau ; and it was proposed to convoke a national council for regulating the affairs of the Gallican church. Had France been ruled by an energetic sovereign, acquainted with thp interests of his crown and the wishes of the nation, the French church at this moment might have been rendered as independent of Rome as the English : the pope saw the danger, and he induced Francis to abandon the national synod, by promising the speedy convocation of a general council. Both the emperor and the king pf France objected to reassewbjing the bjishops THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 537 a{ Trent, declaring that its name was odious to the protestants ; but the ill health of Francis II., who was fast sinking into the grave, induced Pius to quicken his proceedings, and bulls for the continuation of the council wore issued. In the meantime the states-general assembled in France. The prince of Conde and the king of Navarre, the great leaders of the Huguenot parly, were arrested when they appeared at court, and the former received sentence of death. But the queen- mother, Catherine de . Medicis, dreading that the regency would be seized by the Guises when the king died, secretly intrigued with the Huguenots to secure their support, and the life of Conde was the pledge and the reward of their assistance. ■ But while she thus courted the alliance of the protestants, she secretly informed Philip II. that her hatred of the Reformation was unabated, and that she only waited a fa- vorable opportunity to imitate his example of merciless butchery and persecution. She intrigued with both parties, a fatal error ; for had she frankly embraced one, she would have stamped the other with the character of revolt ; her Italian cunning only served to render civil war inevitable. The duke of Guise saw clearly that, to sustain the part he designed to act, it was necessary to attempt something of more than ordinary magnitude ; he raised the cry '■ the church is in danger ;" ignorance and bigotry responded to the summons ; he placed himself at the head of the zealous supporters of papal infallibility^ hoping to destroy, by one blow, the queen-regent, who was suspected of culpable indifference to the interests of the faith, the government, which seemed ready to rec- ognise the principles of toleration, and the Huguenots. Like his op- ponents, he appealed»to the people, and attempted to guide public opin- ion ; like them, too, he declared himself the steadfast friend of the monarchy : thus the struggle between the two parties had for its prize the throne of France, and for its pretext the defence of royalty. In the meantime, the council of Trent continued its deliberations, without showing any symptom of a desire to conciliate the spirit of the age, by improving .either the doctrine or the discipline of the church. The bishops wasted their time in scholastic disputations, and proved how delusive were their professions of a desire for peace, by celebra- ting the victory obtained over the Huguenots at Dr;eux, by a public thanksgiving. In fact, the council terrified nobody but Pius IV., who saw his power attacked on every side. Maximilian, the son of the emperor Ferdinand, having been elected king of the Romans, refused for a long time to receive the sanction of his election from the pontiff, and finally accepted it as a mere ceremony, venerable on account of its antiquity ; it would have been better for the holy see to have abjured such a privilege, than to have it preserved as a subject of ridicule and mockery. But though the public proceedings at Trent were far from injuring the progress of the Reformation, there were secret plans devised fraught with imminent peril to the protestants. One of these was revealed, by the imprudence of the cardinal of Lorraine. On the 10th of May, 1563, he read a letter from his niece, Ma,?y, queen of Scots, " submit- ting herself to the council, and promising that when she succeeded to the throne of England, she woidd subject both her kingdoms to the 528 MODERN HISTORY. obedience due to the apostolic see." He added, verbally, that she would have sent prelates; as representatives of Scotland, to the council, had she not been restrained by the necessity of keeping terms with her heretical councillors. The Italians were engaged everywhere alarming monarchs with the republican tendency of the Reformation ; a charge which seemed to derive some support from the revolts of the peasants in Germany, the troubles in Flanders, and the confusion of France. Philip II. was not the only sovereign who regarded heretics as rebels, •and believed that the papacy would be found an efficient aid to despo- tism in crushing civil as well as religious liberty. At length the council of Trent terminated its sittings ; eighteen years of debate had produced no plan of reform for ecclesiastical morals, discipline, or doctrine (a. d. 1564). One of the last acts of the assembled fathers was to issue an anathema against heretics, which justified the protestants in their refusal to recognise the acts of the council. But we should commit a great error if we supposed that this last of the general councils produced no change in the constitution of the papacy, it organized the spiritual despotism of the popes, clearly per- ceiving that the temporal empire was irrecoverably lost, and it placed the holy see in the position of an ally to the monarchs who were eager to maintain despotic power. From the time of this council to the pres- ent day, every sovereign of France and Spain, remarkable for hostility to constitutional freedom, has been equally conspicuous for his attach- ment to the holy see, and the articles of faith ratified by the council of Trent. It was by this assembly that the marriage of priests was definitely prohibited! We have already shown how necessary an element this law has been to the spiritual despotism possessed, and temporal supremacy claimed, by the pope. Family and country had no ties on the bishops of the catholic church ; Rome enjoyed exclusive possession of every feeling that can render man a good subject or a good citizen ; the infallibility and omnipotence of the pope were made articles of faith, by prelates whose whole heart was engaged in sup- porting the supremacy of the holy see ; the popes could rouse nations to revolt, and trouble empires, because they had obedient emissaries in every parish ; the doctrine of implicit submission to the successors of St. Peter was taught by priests, when it could not be enforced by armies, and it was found sufficiently efficacious to harass Europe with a century of war. Pius IV. comprehended the immense value of an unmarried clergy ; though he had violently pondemned the administra- tion of the eucharist in both kinds, he relaxed the prohibition at the in- stance of the emperor Maximilian, and permitted the cup to be given to the laity in Germany ; but on the point of celibacy he was inflexible, for he was justly convinced that it was the great bond by which all the portions of papal domination were united, and that if it should be relaxed, the entire edifice would fall in sunder. After the dissolution of the council, a general suspicion was diffused through the protestants of Europe, that a league for their destruction had been formed by some of the leading catholic powers. It is now sufficiently notorious that these suspicions were not groundless, and that Pius IV. was weary of the slow steps by which the members of this pretended holy alliance advanced to the verge of an exterminating THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 52i9 war. He earnestly urged a personal interview between Catherine de Medicis and Philip II. ; it was declined by the latter on account of his ill health, but he sent a worthy representative, the duke of Alva, to hold a conference with the queen-regent and her son, Charles IX., at Bayonne. The pretext for the meeting was an interview between the young queen of Spain and her mother, Catherine de Medicis ; but the presence of the duke of Alva, the avowed enemy of the protestants, whose extirpation he openly proclaimed to be his most solemn duty to God or man, was a clear proof that more important designs were con- templated. The days were spent in all the sports and festivities that are to be found in a luxurious* and licentious court. But at the dead hour of midnight, when the courtiers, exhausted by the tournament, the table, and the dance, retired to repose, Catherine held secret conferen- ces with Alva in the apartments of her probably unconscious daughter, Elizabeth, They agreed in their object, the destruction of the Hugue- nots, and all the parties disposed to place restrictions on the royal au- thority in the French and Spanish dominions, but they differed very widely as to the means by which this might be most effectually accom- plished. Alva recommended the most violent measures, edicts of ex- termination supported by powerful armies, military execution of all who ventured to offer any opposition, and a general massacre of the Hugue- not congregations. But though Catherine would not have shown any scruple in adopting these, or even more atrocious plans, she was well aware that Alva's projects could not be executed without the aid of a Spanish army, and she was too jealous of her own authority to allow a foreign court to eX:ercise any influence in the kingdom which she gov- erned as regent. She relied on her own craft and cunning to retain power, for her zeal for religion was always made subservient to her ambition, and she was infinitely more afraid of any combination of the nobles of France to restrain the royal authority, than of the real or silp- posed progress of heretical opinions. She hated the Huguenots rather as a political than as a religious body, for the aristocratic leaders of the sect were more bent on rendering the nobles independent of the crown, than of delivering the Galilean church from the power of the pope, and it was the aristocratic character thus imprinted on the principles of the reformation in France, which prevented the protestant movement from ever becoming popular with the great body of the middle and the lower ranks in France. In their minds it was associated with feudalism, which had become so odious to the French people that they would have accepted the worst form of oriental despotism in preferetice. Philip began to execute his part of the agreement by a vigorous effort to establish the Inquisition in Flanders ; and to put an end to the insur- rection which such a measure provoked, he appointed the duke of Alva lord lieutenant of the Netherlands, with almost absolute authority. Many of the Flemish merchants and manufacturers left their country ; they brought their industry and their capital to England ; a circum- stance which had no small share in the' rapid growth of England's com- mercial prosperity. The cruelties of Alva, the noble resistance of the prince of Orange, long the head and hope of the protestant party in Europe, and the final establishment of the independence of the Seven United Provinces,. belong to general history;' but in this narrative we 34 530 MODERN HISTOKY. must not omit to mention, that Philip's brutal obstinacy was frequently- blamed by the court of Rome ; the crafty Italians would have preferred fraud to violence, and assassination to the perils of open war (a. d. 1572). It must also be mentioned, that the Turks joined in the contest- as the protectors of the Flemings, and that their defeat by Don John of Austria, at Lepanto, finally delivered Europe from the perils with- which it was menaced by Mohammedan barbarism. Pius V., who as- cended the papal throne (a. d. 1566), was disposed to take advantaga- of the victory at Lepanto, and organize a league against the Turks ; but- Philip was jealous of the glory acquired by his brother, and he declared: that nothing should divert him from the -prosecution of the war in Flan-- ders. This pontiff, -who was afterward canonized as a saint, was in- flexible in his hatred of the protestants, but he made some efforts to- remedy the evils of the church by founding schools and colleges, and excluding persons of immoral life from ecclesiastical dignities. H& was succeeded by Gregory XIII. In the spring of 1560, the French protestants were detected in a. conspiracy for taking the infant king out of the hands of the persecu- ting Guises, and expelling the entire Lorraine family from France. . The massacres with which this crime was punished, produced retalia- tion ; a civil war ensued, which, interrupted by short and unsteady truces, lasted to 1570, when a treaty, favorable to the Huguenots, was ■ concluded at St. Germains. To cement this peace^ a marriage was proposed between the young king of Navarre, the hereditary leader of the French protestants, and the princess Margaret, the beautiful sister of the king of France. The proposal diffused such universal joy, that, even the more violent of the catholic party were forced to acquiesce,, and preparations were made for celebrating the nuptials at Paris with, extraordinary magnificence. Admiral Coligni and the other protestant . leaders were invited to witness the festivities, and the chief catholic lords, headed by the duke of .Guise, came to share in the general, reconciliation. The events which led to the fearful tragedy that accompanied this-- marriage, have been so misrepresented by party writers on every side, that it is desirable to state the facts at some length, as they have beea. narrated by the principal actors themselves. At this period the popu- lace of Paris was the most bigoted and sanguinary mob to be found in., Europe. They went beyond the most cruel edicts of their rulers in., persecuting all who were suspected of heretical opinions, and not un— frequently took the law into their own hands, against the wishes of the-.- court and the clergy. The presence of Coligni and the protestant lords, was, therefore, a source of indignant grief to the fanatical multi- - tude, and nothing but the presence of the royal guards prevented out- burst of popular violence. Guise and his friends, opposed to the Hu- guenots as heretics, and to their leaders as-rivals, fostered this general discontent, while the queen-mother, Catherine, negotiated with both; parties, believing that she could only retain power by balancing one against the other. Charles IX., feeble in body, and weak in intellect, had just attained his legal majority, but the real power of the state was wielded by Cath- erine £tnd her favorite son, Henry, for whom she always showed herself THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 531 ■willing to sacrifice the rest of her children. In some of his conversa- tions with the protestant lords, Charles complained very bitterly of the state of thraldom in which he was held, and Coligni, commiserating the unhappy monarch, promised to aid in his deliverance. The king soon began to vaunt of his design to assume the reins of power, and to remove his mother and brother from the court. They took the alarm, and easily discovering by whose counsels the king was influenced, resolved to assassinate the admiral Coligni. Henry hired a man for the purpose, and lent him his own gun ; but in order to avert suspicion, he stationed the assassin in the lodgings of a retainer of the duke of Guise. Coligni was shot as he passed the house, but the wound was not mortal ; before his friends could break open the door, the assassin had escaped, leaving his gun behind him. At first, the suspicions of the protestants were directed against the duke of Guise, but the gun, and some other circumstances, soon led them to discover the real instigators of the plot, and they very imprudently proclaimed their intention to exact heavy vengeance upon Catherine -and her favorite son. In this emergency, Catherine convoked a secret council of her friends, and there it was resolved to massacre all the Huguenots on the eve of St. Bartholomew (a. d. 1572), and thus crush the entire party at one blow. The conspirators, seven in number, were well aware that they could rely on the royal guards, who were still animated by all^he passions of the late religious wars, and they also knew that the Parisian populace waited but a signal to indulge in the excesses of savage bigotry. It was further resolved that the atrocious plot should be kept secret from the king until it was on the eve of execution, but that all ar- rangements for effectually accomplishing the general slaughter should be made, and everything kept in readiness to begin, the moment that his consent had been obtained. It was late in the evening when Catherine went to Charles, accom- panied by her chosen advisers, and told him that the protestants had formed a plan for the extermination of the royal family, which could only be frustrated by the most immediate and decisive trieasures. The feeble monarch, who was not many degrees ; removed from idiotcy, exhibited every sign of helpless alarm. While in this condition, his mother placed before him the dreadful decree of extermination, and demanded his signature; Charles at first, refused, and for some time it was doubtful whether his consent could be obtained. At length, in a paroxysm of rage mingled with insanity, he exclaimed, " I con- sent, provided that you kill them all, and leave no survivor to reproach me." It was about midnight that the sounding of the tocsin summoned the bands of murderers to commence the work of destruction. Most of the unsuspecting Huguenots were massacred in their beds, or shot on the roofs of their houses while attempting to escape. Charles himself, armed with a gun, stationed himself in a tower, from which he fired upon such fugitives as attempted to escape across the Seine ; the palace itself was not respected ; several of the attendants of the young king (rf Navarre were murdered in the royal apartments, and he was himself exposed to considerable danger. 532 MODEUN HISTORY. The massacre lasted for eight days and nights without any apparent diminution of the fury of the murderers. Several catholics perished, the victims of mistake or of private animosity, and similar atrocities were perpetrated in the principal cities of the kingdom. At first, the court seemed disposed to throw the blame of this fearful atrocity on the duke of Guise and his faction, but finding that the guilt could not be concealed, it was openly avowed, and a royal manifesto issued in its justification. The wish of Charles that none should survive to reproach him was not fulfilled : nearly two millions of Huguenots still survived to avenge the fate of their murdered brethren. The civil war was re- newed with greater fury than ever ; the protestants felt themselves strengthened by the sympathy of all whom bigotry had not rendered callous to every feeling of humanity ; and the authors of this unparalleled crime had the mortification to discover that it had been perpetrated in vain. While public rejoicings were made at Rome and Madrid, for the sup- posed overthrow of heresy in France, the horror and indignation excited by the massacre in northern Europe, not only among protestant, but even catholic princes, proved a serious injury to the catholic cause. The prince of Orange placed himself at the head of the revolters in the Netherlands — the Gueux, or Beggars, as they were contemptuously called by their oppressors. Though at first unsuccessful, he gaA^e the i]^urrection a determinate character hy the capture of Brille (a. d. 1572), a conquest which secured him a naval station for his daring cruisers, and encouraged the cities of Holland and Zealand to reject the Spanish yoke. The massacre of St. Bartholomew weakened the insurgents, by . depriving them of the aid of the French Huguenots ; but instead of quelling their courage, it only stimulated them to perseverance. De- ifeatedjby land, and deprived of their strongest cities, they attacked the Spaniards on sea, and captured several rich freights. At length Alva • retired in despair, and was succeeded by Zunega y Requesens (Decem- ^ber, 1573). In the very commencement of his administration, Requesens gained a decisive victory over the insurgents at Monher Moor, near Nimeguen. , The three blothers of the prince of Orange fell in this fatal battle, which would probably have terminated the war, but for a mutiny of the Span- ish soldiers. The turbulence of the royal army, the insolence and • licentiousness of the Spaniards, and the pillage of Antwerp by the muti- ,neers, excited the indignation of catholics and protectants. Five of the • Batavian and six of the Belgic provinces entered ifito the pacification J of Ghent, which provided for the expulsion of foreigners, the repeal of Alva's sanguinary edicts, and restoration of the ancient power of die ^states-general (a. d. 1576). Don John of Austria, who had succeeded tRequesehs in the government, disarmed suspicion by acceding to the ■league of Ghent; but this confederacy soon fell to pieces, owing to the , jealousy between the protestant and catholic states. It now became manifest that freedom could only be attained by a close union of the northern provinces,, and a final rupture with Spain. Acting on this be- lief, the prince of OBange organized the confederacy of Utrecht, the "basis of that commonwealth so renowned under the name of the Repub- lic of the United Provinces (a. d. 1579). THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 533 .. Bill, notwithstanding these precautions, the nomination of the duke of Parma to the regency threatened to ruin all the projects of the prince of Orange. The southern provinces, inspired with a jealousy of the Protestant designs on the catholic religion, entered into an alliance with the regent, and levied an army against the insurgents of the north. But the Hollanders, thus deserted, did not lose courage ; they formally re- nounced their allegiance to the Spanish crown, and chose the duke of Anjou, brother to the king of France, for their sovereign (a. d. 1581). But this choice did not produce the expected advantages ; and the duke of Anjou, after a brief struggle, abandoned all hopes of competing with the duke of Parma, and returned to France. It is probable that the states would have chosen the prince of Orange for their constitutional sovereign, but that hero was stabbed by a fanatic, whether instigated wholly by bigotry, or partly seduced by Spanish gold, it is now difficult to determine (a. d. 1584). Amid the general gloom spread over the protestant confederates by the loss of their illustrious leader, the Hol- landers and Zealanders chose Maurice, his son, a young man of eigh- . teen, their stadtholder and captain-general by sea and land. The war still continued ; but though the duke of Parma prevailed in the field, and finally captured the important city of Antwerp (a. d. 1585), the confed- erates never dreamed of submission. They offered the sovereignty of their republic to Queen Elizabeth on certain conditions ; and though she rejected the proffer, she sent the earl of Leicester to their aid with a considerable army- The misconduct, of Leicester prevented the Hol- landers from gaining all the advantages from the English auxiliaries that might have been expected ; but the breaking out of war between Eng- land and Spain, the death of the duke of Parma in the civil wars of France, and the heroism of Prince Maurice, gave them such a decided ' superiority by sea and land, that their independence was secured and finally recognised by Spain (a. d. 1609). Before entering on the history of the war between England and Spain, it is necessary to take a retrospective view of the state of France. On. the death of Charles IX., his brother Henry III., resigned the throne of Poland for that of France (a. d. 1574). Thisprince, on his return, be- gan a war of persecution, and concluded by an ignominious peace with his own subjects, in less than a year. He then abandoned himself to the lowest debaucheries, strangely combined with the practice of the; most degrading superstitions. Opposed to the king, were the princes of Jjorraine, whose chief, Henry, duke of Guise, was deservedly re- garded as the leader of the violent catholic party in France. Noble in person, polished in demeanor, endowed with superior talents, and ani- mated by grasping ambition, he seemed formed by nature to become the leader of a faction, and art had lent its aid to improve all, these advan- tages. The utter contempt into which Henry III. had fallen, and the rage of the catholics at the tolerance granted to the protestants by the late pacification, encouraged the duke of Guise to raise the cry of re- ligion, and the fanatic populace, roused by this hypocritical pretext, be- gan to take arirts to defend their church. The Holy League, drawn up. by Guise's uncle, the cardinal, of Lorraine, for the defence of the cath- olic religion, was signed aud sworn to by catholics of all ranks and conditions in Paris and the provinces. The duke of Guise was ap- 534 MODERN HISTORY. pointed head of the league ; the pope and the king of Spain declared themselves its protectors, and the wretched Henry was forced to yield to the faction, assemble the states at Blois, and revoke the freedom of conscience granted to the Huguenots. The consequence was a civil war, the ninth which afflicted France since the death of, Francis 11. The fate of the unhappy queen of Scots, which had been determined ever since the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was precipitated by the formation of the Holy League. Some enthusiastic English catholics entered into a conspiracy for assassinating Elizabeth ; Mary was cog- nizant of their plans, but her participation in the plot is very doubtful. However, an act of parliament was passed authorizing her trial ; com- missioners were sent for the purpose to Fotheringay castle, the place of her confinement, and after an investigation, in which the forms of law and the principles of justice were little regarded, she was con-'^ demned to death. Elizabeth, with much apparent, and some real reluc- tance, signed the warrant of execution, and placed it in the hands of Davison, her private secretary, enjoining him not to use it without fur- ther orders (a. d. 1587). Davison, however, showed the warrant to the members of the council, and they, without further consulting Eliza- beth, had the unhappy Mary beheaded. Henry HI. of France, soon afterward, had his capital enemies, the duke and cardinal of Guise, assassinated ; but this atrocious crime only roused the leaguers to more vigorous measures. They assembled a parliament, deposed the king, and created the duke of Mayenne lieutenant-general of the king- dom. Philip n., in the meantime, prepared an expedition which he fondly hoped would conquer England, and thu^ destroy the great stay of prot- estantism in Europe. Ships were prepared in all the ports throughout his extensive dominions ; Spain, Portugal, Naples, and those parts of the low countries which still recognised his authority. An army of 30,000 picked men was assembled under the most experienced officers of Italy, Spain, and Germany, and the chief command was intrusted to the celebrated duke of Parma. The pope blessed an expedition that seemed destined once more to restore the supremacy of the holy see ; and the catholics throughout Europe were so confident of success, that they named the armament " The Invincible Armada." Elizabeth un- dauntedly prepared to meet the danger. She intrusted the command of her fleet to a catholic nobleman. Lord Howard of Effingham, while the land army was placed under the command of the earl of Leicester. Nothing could exceed the enthusiastic determination of the English people to defend their religion and liberties, though the queen had but one ally on whose assistance she could reckon, James, king of Scot- land ; she trusted to the attachment of her people, and found that the love of her subjects was the best security of her throne. On the thirtieth of May, 1588, the armada sailed from Lisbon : but having been shattered by a storm, it was forced to stop at Gorunna, and it did not reach the English channel until the nineteenth of July. Here the Spanish admiral, the duke. of Medina Sidonia, was surprised to find that the duke of Parma was not prepared to join him with a fleet and army. While he hesitated, the light English squadrons assailed THE STItBSSYSTEM Or EUROPE. 535 4iis heavy vessels on air sides, and after seven days, three of which ■only passed vcithout v^arm actions, though there viras no decisive en- gagement, the armada' was so shattered by English skill and bravery, that it was forced to take shelter in thei roads of Calais. The earl of Effingham, following up his advantage, sent in fireships during the night, which destroyed several vessels, and threw the others into such confu- ■sion, that the Spaniards no longer thought of victory, but escape. The •duke of Medina Sidonia, dreading again to encounter the English fleet, attempted to return home by sailing round the north of Scotland ; but dreadful storms overtook the armada, many of the ships were driven on 4;he shores of Norway, Ireland, and the north of Scotland, and out of the triumphant navy that sailed from Lisbon, only a few shattered ves- sels returned to bring intelligence of the calamity that had overwhelmed the rest. This glorious success was deservedly regarded, not so much as the triumph of England, as of the protestant cause throughout Europe ; it virtually established the independence of the Dutch, and it raised the courage of the Huguenots in France. It completely destroyed the de- cisive influence that Spain had acquired in the affairs of Europe ; ever since the shipwreck of the armada, the Spanish state and people seem to have lost all energy, and sunk into almost hopeless decay. Henry III. of France, obliged by the violence of the league to seek the aid of his protestant subjects, was murdered by a fanatic monk, •just as he was upon the point of driving his enemies from Paris. By his death, the house of Valois became extinct, and the right of inheri- tance passed to the Bourbon family, descended from Robert, the sixth son of St. Louis. Its representative was Henry of Navarre, who now claimed to be Henry IV. of France, a warlike, chivalrous prince, en- dowed with many amiable qualities, but disliked by his new subjects on account of his attachment to the protestant religion. After a long struggle, Henry found it necessary to abjure his faith, in order to se- cure his crown ; but he atoned to the Huguenots for his compulsory desertion, by issuing the celebrated edict of Nantes. Still he had to make good his rights by the sword ; for his abjuration could not induce either the pope or Philip II. to give up their plans. He received some aid from Elizabeth, but his final success was mainly due to his own eminent abilities ; his triumph was virtually completed by the capture of Paris (a. d. 1594), but Spain persevered in its hostility until the peace of Vervins (a. d. 1598). The close of Elizabeth's reign was clouded by sanguinary wars against her Irish subjects, whose insurrections were too often provoked by the injustice of their rulers, and by the execution of her ill-fated fa- vorite, the earl of Essex. But notnrithstanding these domestic calami- ties, she maintained the war against Spain with great vigor, and en- couraged her subjects to undermine the strength of that kingdom by enterprises against its commerce. The annexation of Portugal to the crown of Spain, apparently gave the subjects of Philip II. complete command of the Indian, as well as the South Ameri9an trade ; but the wars of that monarch with England and Holland, raised both countries to a rivalry that terminated to the disadvantage, if not to the ruin of the -.Spanish commerce. In 1591, the English, for the first time, performed ^36 MODERN HISTORY. ithe voyage to India ; and in 1600, the year in which the East India.- J50inpany was founded, they took possession of the island of St. Heler-- ma. The Hanseatic league, now fast sinking into decay, complained loudly of the encouragement given by the English government to its ijative merchants, and prohibited the English from trading in Germany ; but this unwise attempt to enforce monopoly produced measures of retaliation that speedily proved fatal to their privileges and their power. During Elizabeth's reign, England attained the highest rank among European states, and may be said to have held the balance of power in Christendom ; that this was owing, in no small degree, to the personal character of the sovereign, is manifest from the rapid decline of British influence, when the sceptre passed to the feeble house of Stuart. Section IX. — The Age of Gustaims Adolphus. From the death of Charles V. to the accession of Ferdinand II., there were few events in German history that produced any important result in the general politics of Europe. Ferdinand I. and his son Maximilian II. were sincerely attached to peace, and Rudolph II. was ■Hfilling to leave the world in quiet, if the world would have left him undisturbed. From the time of his accession (a. d. 1576), Rudolph's great anxiety was to unite the Germanic princes in a firm league against the Turks ; but theological discussions, united with political ambition, served to prepare the way for fresh convulsions. The influence of the Jesuits in the imperial court so alarmed the protestants, that they formed a new alliance, called " The Evangelical Union," of which the elector-palatine was declared the chief (a. d. 1609), and this was op- posed by a catholic league, in which foreign as well as German prin- ces were joined. In this unsettled state of affairs, the competition for SiiiPtieasion to a small principality had nearly involved Europe in a gen- eral war. Henry IV. of France, after having secured himself on the throne, intrusted the chief management of his affairs to the duke of Sully, under whose wise administration the finances were so improved, and the strength of the kingdom so consolidated, that France began to take the lead in European policy. Henry had formed a great scheme for making all Christendom a federate republic, in which the rights and independence of the several states should be firmly secured. A more immediate project was the humiliation of the house of Austria, whose increasing power in Germany and Spain was deemed dangerous to all the surrounding countries. The vacancy in the dutchies of Cleves and Jifliers, which, on the death of the duke without male heirs, had been seized by the emperor as lapsed fiefs, gave Henry a pretext for interfering in the affairs of Germany ; he formed alliances with several of his neighbors, and especially with the king of England and the Ital- ian princeSi But while preparing to assist at the coronation of his queen, Mary de Medicis, he was stabbed by a fanatic, named Ravaillac (a. d. 1610), and the disturbances that ensued prevented the French from making further exertions in Germany. The dissensions in the Austrian family contributed to avert a general war. Rudolph was grad- ually driven from his whole dominions by his brother Matthias ; deserted by his ancient partisans, he became melancholy and distrustful, shutting THE STATES-SYSTEM OP EUROPE. 537 himself up in Ms -palace, where grief and want of exercise soon pro- duced a mortal disease, which brought him prematurely to the grave (a. D. 1611). Matthias succeeded to the imperial crown, and though he had been previously befriended by the protestants, he threw himself into the arms of die catholic party, and thus increased the dissatisfaction which had led to the evangelical union ; he procured the crown of Bohemia for his cousin Ferdinand, archduke of Gratz, and this bigoted monarch soon forced his protestant subjects to revolt. While the war was yet in progress, Matthias died, and Ferdinand, to the great alarm of the protestant party, was elected emperor (a. d. 1619). Ferdinand entered into close alliance with the Spanish branch of the house of Haps- burgh, but this family compact was not so formidable as it had been heretofore. The union of the crown of Portugal to that of Spain had not added much real strength to Philip II. ; the Portuguese hated the Spaniards, especially as they were compelled to abandon their lucrative commerce with the revolted Hollanders, and were finally deprived of the greater part of their Indian colonies by the successful republicans. The defeat of the armada, followed by these colonial losses, rendered the reign of Philip II. calamitous to the peninsula ; but on his death (a. d. 1598) it was destined to suffer still greater losses from the bigotry of his successor. Philip III. expelled the Moriscoes or Moors, who had remained in the peninsula after the overthrow of the last Moham- medan djTiasty, and thus ^deprived himself of the services of more than a million of his most industrious subjects (a. d. 1610). He intrusted the administration of the kingdom to favorites, chosen without discrim^ ination, and made the custom of governing by ministers a maxim of state. On his death (a. d. 1621), Spain, though still respected and even feared, was in reality deplorably weak ; but the reign of Philip LV. almost completed its ruin ; the Catalans revolted, and placed them- selves under the protection of France ; the Portuguese, choosing for their monarch the duke of Braganza, achieved their independence (a. d. 1640), and the Neapolitans, harassed by the premier, the count- dnke of Olivarez, attempted tp form a republic. These events were not foreseen when Ferdinand became emperor. The Bohemian protestants, dreading his bigotry, chose Frederic, the elector-palatine, son-in-law of the British monarch, for their sovereign, and in an evil hour for himself, Frederic assumed the royal title. James I. was a monarch of much learning and little wisdom ; the nat- ural timidity of his disposition, and his anxiety to secure the hand of a Spanish princess for his son, induced him to observe a neutrality in this dispute, contrary to the ardent wishes of his subjects. Duped by vanity, he believed himself a consummate master of diplomacy, and entered into a series of negotiations, which only showed his weakness,, and rendered him contemptible in the eyes of Europe. Deserted by his father-in-law, and by mSny of the protestant princes, on whose as- sistance he relied, the elector-palatine lost not only Bohemia, but his hereditary dominions, which were shared by his enemies (a. d. 1623). Circumstances, in the meantime, had occurred to change the neutral policy of England. The young prince Charles, accompanied by his favorite, the duke of Buckingham, had made a romantic journey to S^ MODERN HISTORY. Madrid j "which, contrary to general expectation, led to the breaking off of the Spanish match. The discovery of a conspiracy for blowing up' the British king and parliament with gunpowder (a. d. 1605), inflamed the English nation against the catholics, becaus'e the plot had been devised by some fanatics of that religion, who hoped in the confusion that must have ensued, to restore the supremacy of their church. Final- ly, Count Mansfelt, the ablest of the protestant leaders, succeeded in convincing James that he had been egregiously duped by the Spaniards. A new protestant union was formed, of which Christian IV., king of Denmark, was chosen the head, and the war burst forth with fresh violence. The imperial generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, were far superior to their protestant adversaries. Wallenstein, having been created duke of Friedland and chief commander of the imperial army raised by himself, acted with so much vigor, that Christian, threatened with the loss of his own dominions, was forced to purchase peace by renouncing all right to interfere in the affairs of Germany, and abandon- ing his allies, especially the dukes of Mecklenburg (a. d. 1629). Wallenstein obtained the investitute of Mecklenburg, and claimed hence- forth a rank among the princes of the empire. England had borne little share in this arduous contest. On the death of James (a. d. 1625), his son Charles I. ascended the British throne, and was almost immediately involved in a contest with his parliament, which effectually diverted his attention from foreign affairs. "The principal causes of this were the growing love of liberty in the English people ; the suspicions of danger to religion from the king's marriage with so bigoted a catholic as the princess Henrietta Maria, of France ; the unpopularity of Buckingham, the royal favorite ; and the increasing hostility of the puritans to the episcopal form of church government. The troubles and distractions by which France was weakened during the minority and the early part of the reign of Louis XIII. began to dis- appear when Cardinal Richelieu was placed at the head of the admin- istration. His great talents and singular firmness acquired for his country a new and vigorous influence in the political system of Europe, at the very moment whefti a counterpoise was most wanting to the over- grown power of the house of Austria. Richelieu's first operations were directed against the Huguenots, Tvhom he completely subdued and rendered utterly helpless by the capture of Rochelle. Scarcely had the reduction of this important city been effected, when the cardinal commenced his war against Austria by endeavoring to secure the dutchy of Mantua for the duke of Nevers, in opposition to the emperor, the king of Spain, and the duke of Savoy. The war was terminated by the treaty of Chierasio (a. d. 1631), which ^stroyed the Spanish supremacy in Italy, restored the old influence of France, and gave that power possession of several of the most important fortresses on the frontiers. But far more important was the share which Richelieu had in renewing the war in Germany, and bringing forward a protestant leader, able and willing to cope with the imperial generals. During the war of the Mantuan succession, the emperor Ferdinand published an edict at Vienna, commanding the protestanls to restore all the ecclesiastical benefices of which they had taken possession since ilae treaty of Passau. Some submitted, others remonstrated ; imperial THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUEOPE. 539 commissioners were sent to decide on the claims of the bishops and monks to restitution ; the execution of the decree was intrusted to \VallensteiD, who acted with so much rigor that the protestants were inflamed with just, rage, and even the catholics joined in demanding justice against him from the emperor. So great was the clamor, that the emperor was forced to dismiss his general, and confer the command of the imperial army upon Count Tilly. Scarcely had this important step been taken, when Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, secretly urged by some of the discontented protestant princes, published a dec- laration of war against the emperor, and after having captured thfe im- portant island of Rugen, landed in Germany (June 24, 1630). An alliance was formed between the king and the leading protestant princes of Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Hesse ; Saxony, after some efforts to preserve neutrality, was forced to accede to the league ; and Richelieu, who had no small share in forming the original plan, secured for the confederates the active co-operation of France. The early successes of Gustavus would have been more decisive but for the jealousy of the Saxon princes, who prevented his passage through their dominions, and thus hindered him from relieving the city of Magdeburg, hard pressed by Count Tilly and the imperial forces. The unfortunate city was finally taken by assault ; the cruel Tilly would show no mercy, thirty thousand of the inhabitants perished by water, fire, and sword ; and of this once flourishing city nothing was left standing except the cathedral and about one hundred and fifty fishing huts on the banks of the Elbe. This atrocious cruelty cemented the alliance between Gustavus and the protestant princes ; the elector of Saxony, justly alarmed by the fate of his neighbors, and irritated by the menaces of Tilly, whom his recent success had filled with presumptuous pride, joined the king with all his forces at Wittemburg. A resolution to try the chances of battle was taken ; and at Leipsic the imperialists were so decisively over- thrown, that if Gustavus had marched immediately to Vienna, that city would probably have fallen. All the members of the evangelical union joined the king of Sweden ; the measures of the catholic confederates were disconcerted, and the whole country between the Elbe and the Rhine was occupied by the protestant forces. Early in the following year Count Tilly was killed in disputing with the Swedes the passage of the Lech, and Gustavus overrun Bavaria. The emperor, in his distress, had recourse to Wallenstein, who was restored to command with unlimited powers. Gustavus attacked the imperialists in their intrenchments at Nuremberg, and was defeated with some loss ; but, anxious to retrieve his fame, he sought an early opportunity of bringing his rival to a second engagement. The armies met at Lutzen (Nov. 16, 1632), the confederates attacked the impe- rialists in their intrenchments, and after a dreadful contest, that lasted nine hours, put them completely to the rout. But the victors had little cause to triumph ; Gustavus fell, mortally wounded, in the middle of the engagement, and died before the fortune of the day was decided. His death produced great changes in the political state of Europe. The elector-palatine, believing all his hopes of restoration blighted, died of a broken heart ; the protestant confederates, deprived of a head, were divided into factions ; while the Swedes, overwhelmed with sorrow, 540 MODERN HISTORY. saw the throne of their heroic prince occupied by a girl only seven years old. But the council of regency, appointed to protect the minori- ty of the young queen Christina, intrusted the management of the Ger- man war to the Chanceller Oxenstiem, a statesman of the highest order ; under his guidance, the protestant alliance again assumed a formidable aspect, and hostilities were prosecuted with vigor and suc- cess by the duke of Saxe Weimar and the generals Banier and Horn. An unexpected event added to their confidence ; Ferdinand became jealous of Wallenstein, and suspected him, not without cause, of aiming at sovereign power. The emperor was too timid to bring this powerful leader to a legal trial ; he, therefore, had recourse to the dishonorable expedient of assassination (a. d. 1634), and Wallenstein was murdered in his own camp. The confederates did not gain all the advantages they anticipated from the fall of the duke of Friedlahd ; the emperor's eldest son, the- king of Hungary, having succeeded to the command, gained several advantages, and twenty thousand Spaniards arrived in Germany to the aid of the imperialists, under the duke of Feria. The protestant leaders,, anxious to stop the progress of the king of Hungary, attacked him at Nordlingen. The battle was one of the most obstinate recorded in his- tory ; it ended in the complete rout of the confederates, notwithstanding the most vigorous efforts of the Swedes. The emperor improved his victory by negotiation ; he concluded a treaty with all the protestant princes, except the landgrave of Hesse, at Prague (a. d. 1635), and tiius the whole weight of the war was thrown on the French and the Swedes. Section X. — Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine. Richelieu ruled France with a rod of iron ; hated alike by the nobili- ty and the people, he continued to hold the reins of government, and all conspiracies formed against hini ended in the ruin of the contrivers. Jealousy of Gustavus prevented him from cordially co-operating with that prince, and Oxenstiem afterward was unwilling to give the French any iniluence in Germany. But the bdttle of Nordlingen rendered a change of policy necessary, and the Swedish chancellor offered to put the French in immediate possession of Philipsburg and the province of Alsace, on condition of their taking an active share in the war against the emperor. Richelieu readily entered into a treaty so favorable to- his projects for humbling the house of Austria. He concluded treaties with the Dutch republic and the duke of Savoy, proclaimed war against Spain, and in a very short space equipped five armies to act at once in Italy, Germany,, and the Netherlands. The balance now turned against the imperialists ; the duke of Saxe Weimar proved a worthy successor to the king of Sweden, and Banier restored the lustre of the Swedish arms by the victory he gained over the elector of Saxony at Wislock. The death of the emperor Ferdinand 11. (a. d. 1637), and the accession of his son Ferdinand III., made little alteration in the state of the war j the victorious leaders of the confederates invaded the hereditary do- minions of Austria, but in the midst of their triumphant career, the duke of Saxe Weimar fell a victim to poison (a. d. 1639), said to have been administered by an emissary of Richelieu, for the cardinal had reason THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUBOPB. 541 to fear that the prince's patriotism would prove a serious obstacle to the aggrandizement of the French power. The war was still continued, but though the imperialists were gener- ally worsted, disunion crept into the councils of the confederates, and prevented them from improving their advantages. Banier's death might have proved their ruin, had he not been succeeded by Torstenson, a general of scarcely inferior abilities. While the Swedes, under their new leader, maintained their former eminence in Germany, and gained a complete victory at Leipsic, almost on the very ground wjiere Gus- ta-vus had triumphed, the French were equally successful in Spain, having reduced Colioure and Perpignan.* The death of Richelieu, and his master, Louis XIII., the accession of the infant Louis XIV. (a. d. 1643), and some changes in Germany, for a time inclined the Swedes to peace ; but when it was found that Cardinal Mazarine had resolved to pursue Richelieu's plans, and that France possessed such generals as Conde and Turenne, the hopes of the confederates were once more revived, and the Swedes had even the courage to provoke a fresh enemy by invading the dominions of Denmark. After several vicissitudes, the triumph of the confederates was so decided, that the emperor found it necessary to solicit terms of peace. After long and tedious negotiations, which varied according to the vicissitudes of the war, the celebrated peace of Westphalia was signed at Munster (a. d. 1648), and became a fundamental law of the empire. While the protestant cause was thus triumphant in Germany, Eng- land was convulsed by civil war. The failure of the expedition to re- lieve RocheUe, and the complete overthrow of the Huguenots in France, had caused great discontent in England, and embittered the dispute be- tween the king and his parliament respecting the extent of the royal prerogative. The Petition of Right, extorted from Charles I., might have laid the foundation of a constitutional monarchy, had the king ad- hered strictly to its spirit ; but he continued to levy taxes by his own authority, and when the remonstrances of the commons became too en- ergetic, he dissolved the parliament (a. d. 1629), with a fixed resolution never to call another until he should see signs of a more compliant dis- position in the nation. Religious disputes aggravated these political animosities. When the ecclesiastical jurisdiction was wrested from the see of Rome, the people of England had submitted to a jurisdiction no less arbitrary in the prince, and the sovereign obtained absolute power in all affairs relative to the government of the church and the con- sciences of the people. An ecclesiastical tribunal, called the high com- mission court, was established under the immediate .direction of the crown. Its judges enforced conformity with established ceremonies by fines and imprisonment. There were many who thought the English reformation incomplete ; they deemed that the church had not been suf- ficiently purified from Romish errors, and they wished for the simpler forms of worship that had been estabished in Scotland and Germany. Many of the puritans, as these reformers were called, had more justi- , fiable reason for discontent ; they regarded the ecclesiastical sovereign- • Bichelieu had just detected and punished a conspiracy, when Perpignan was . taken. He sent intelligence of both events to Louis XIII., in the following laconic ' letter ; " Sir, yoilx enemies are dead, and your troops in possession of Perpignan." 542 MODEaN HISTORY. ty of the monarch as dangerous to general liberty, and they were anx- ious to transfer a portion of the authority to parliament. About this time, a sect, called from their founder, the Arminians, had rejected the strict doctrines of predestination and absolute decrees, maintained by the first reformers. Their number, in England, was yet small, but by the favor of James and Charles, some who held the Arminian doctrines were advanced to the highest dignities of the church, and formed the majority of the bench of bishops. They, in return for this countenance, inculcated the doctrines of passive obedience and unconditional sub- mission to princes. Hence Arminianism was regarded by the patriots in the house of commons with as much horror as popery, and the preacher of either doctrine was voted a capital enemy to the state. The success of Charles I. in his struggle with the commons de- pended very much upon the character of his ministers. The chief of these were Wentworth, earl of Strafford, a deserter from the popular party, and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; they were both men of arbitrary principles, and Strafibrd, especially, was very unscrupulous in the use of means to gain a favorite end. Without any regard to the petition of right, which was directly opposed to such measures, ton- nage, poundage, and other taxes were levied ; the penal laws against catholics were suspended on the payment of stipulated sums ; and such extensive jurisdiction given to those arbitrary tribunals, the courts of star-chamber and high commission, that the ordinary constitutional -administration of justice almost entirely ceased. While these innovations spread secret discontent throughout England, Laud's efforts to model the Scottish church after the English form pro- duced a dangerous outbreak in Scotland. The attempt to introduce a liturgy, similar to that used in the English church, provoked a formida- ble riot ; and finally, " The solemn League and Covenant," a bond of confederation for the preservation of the national religion, was signed by a vast number of the higher and lower classes (a. d. 1638). Car- dinal Richelieu, fearing that the English government might oppose his designs on the Low Countries, and aware that he was disliked by the English queen, Henrietta, secretly encouraged the Scottish covenant- ers, and supplied their leaders with money, which, in spite of their exaggerated pretensions to patriotism and sanctity, they did not scruple to accept. Armies were levied, but neither party wished to merit the imputation of commencing civil war. A treaty was concluded at Ber- wick (a. d. 1639), by which Charles displeased his friends, who thought that he made concessions unworthy of a prince, and did not conciliate his opponents, who were resolved to be satisfied with nothing less than his full acceptance of the covenant. As might have been foreseen, the treaty of Berwick proved to be merely a suspension of arms. Strafford and Laud considered the re- bellion of the Scots to be so manifest, that they deemed the people of England could not entertain a doubt on the subject, and that the king would be supported in its suppression by a parliament. Charles adopt- ed the same opinions, and called a parliament, hoping to obtain a suffi- cient grant for carrying on the war (a. d. 1640) ; but the house of commons, postponing 3.11 consideration of taxes, applied itself directly to the redress of grievances, and an examination of the recent measurea THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 543 of the government. Incensed by this conduct, Charles dissolved the parliament, and attempted to raise money by newr and unconstitutional expedients. The Scotch, not waiting to be attacked, crossed the bor- ders, defeated the earl of Northumberland at Newburn, and occupied Newcastle and Durham. The king was unable to cope with them in the field, and he therefore! entered into a treaty by which he agreed to provide subsistence for the hostile army, until terms of pacification could be arranged. A new parliament was convoked, and, on the very first day of its meeting, the house of commons manifested its uncom- plying disposition, by choosing as its speaJcer a vehement opponent of the court. A more important and decisive step, was the impeachment of the earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud on a charge of high trea- son ; after which, the armistice with the Scottish army was prolonged, and the Scots described not as enemies or rebels, but brethren ! Straf- ford's trial soon engrossed public attention ; he was condemned to death by an act of attainder, and Charles, after a long delay, was forced to consent to the public execution of his favorite minister. An attempt was next made to exclude the bishops from parliament ; a bill for the purpose passed the commons, but was rejected by the lords ; as, how- ever, the public excitement continued, the bishops resolved to abstam from further attending their duty in parliament, and twelve of them published a protest, declaring everything null and void that should be determined during their absence. For this ill-advised proceeding they were accused of high treason, and committed to the Tower (a. d 1641). Charles, dismayed by the hostility of the English, resolved to seek a reconciliation with his Scottish subjects, and for this purpose undertook a journey to Edinburgh. His measures were not well suited to effect his object, and before anything satisfactory could be done, the insurrec- tion of the Irish catholics produced a change in the position of parties most fatal to the royal interests. Few events have been so much mis- represented as the Irish civil war, and in order to view it correctly, we must go back to an earlier period of history. The Norman settlers in Ireland paid but a nominal allegiance to the English crown, the most powerful of them acted as independent prin- ces, and adopted the customs of the native Irish. The Tudor monarchs were anxious to break the power of this aristocracy, which was as in- jurious to the national happiness, as it was opposed to the royal power ; but unfortunately, they combined this object with the reform of religion, and with a system of confiscation equally impolitic and unjust. The Irish lords took up arms, to defend at once their religion and their pow- er ; they were defeated by Elizabeth's generals, and many of them were deprived of their estates, which were shared among English col- onists. James I., under the pretence of a meditated rebellion, confis- cated the greater part of the. province of Ulster, and deprived all the innocent vassals of their property, for the unproved guilt of their chiefs. Property was rendered still more insecure by an inquisition into titles, on the legal pretence that the right to land belongs primarily to the Jdng, and consequently, that every estate ought to be forfeited for which. a royal grant could not be produced. The effect of this principle would Jbe, not only to strip all the native Irish of their estates, but also to con- 544 MODERN HISTORY. fiscate the lands belonging to the greater part of the lords descended from the conipanions of Strongbow and Henry II. When Strafford be- came lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he began to enforce the system of con- fiscation with a rigor which exoeeded all former precedent. Every le- gal pretext was employed to expel the Irish from their possessions, and transfer them to strangers ; judges were bribed, juries threatened, and witnesses suborned with the most shameless effrontery. The English nation was induced to countenance this injustice by the belief that it would be useful to substitute a more noble and civilized race of men for the barbarous Irish ; though, in fact, the new settlers were for the most part rapacious adventurers, or indigent rabble. Religious intoler- ance was united to political wrongs ; catholics were excluded from all public offices and the acquisition of landed property ; their churches and chapels were violently closed, their clergy expelled, and their chil- dren given to protestant guardians. They applied to the king for pro- tection, and gave a large sum for a charter of graces, which would se- cure their persons, property, and religion. Charles took the money, but refused the graces ; instigated by Strafford, who had devised a plan for rendering his master absolutely despotic in Ireland, as a preparatory step to his becoming supreme in England. The success of the Scots in securing their national religion, and placing restrictions on the royal power, induced many of the Irish lords to devise a plan for obtaining similar advantages. Accident pre- cipitated an outbreak ; the Ulster Irish, who had been expelled from their lands, hastened to attack the settlers that occupied them as intru- ders, and they sullied their cause by many acts of violence, which were easily exaggerated by persons who had derived much profit, and ex- pected more, from the trade of confiscation. The English house of commons regarded the Irish as a degraded and conquered people ; they deemed their efforts acts of treason, not so much against royal power as English supremacy, while the difference of religion embittered this feeling of national pride, and rendered a peaceful termination of the contest hopeless. It was studiously reported that Charles himself had instigated this revolt in order to obtain unlimited power by aid of the catholics ; to refute this suspicion, he intrusted the conduct of Irish affairs to the English parliament ; and that body, with inconceivable precipitation, resolved that the catholic religion should no longer be tolerated in Ireland ; that two millions and a half of acres should be confiscated to pay the expenses of the war ; and that no quarter should be given to the insurgents or their adherents. These ordinances led to a civil war, whose history may be told in a few words : the Irish catholics, after having gained possession of nearly the entire kingdbiri, were broken into parties more opposed to each other than to the corri- mon enemy : in the midst of this disunion, Cromwell, with a mere handful of men, conquered them in detail, and gave their estates to his victorious followers. The new settlers were confirmed in their pos- session after the restoration of Charles II., and the greater part of the ancient Irish landowners were reduced to beggary. Charles gained little by sacrificing the Irish to the parliament ; find- ing that his concessions only provoked fresh demands, he attempted to arrest five of the leading members for high treason,, but the popular in>- THE STATES-SYSTEM OE EUROPE. 545 dig;nation compelled him- to abandontbe charge, and soon after to quit the - capital. Negotiations were tried to avert the horrors of civil war, but the .reqiii^itions of the commons, if granted, would have destroyed all royal aiithoxity, and Charles, on the 25th of August; 1643, Caused the royal standard to be raised at Nottingham. War immediately commenced ; it was conducted with spirit, and was at first favorable to the king. The English parliament, alarmed at the progress of Charles, entered into an alliance with the Scottish covenanters, and on the 1:5th of Janu- ary, 1644, a Scotch' auxiliary, army, commanded by General Leslie, entered England. Fairfax, the parliamentary leader in the north, united his forces to those of Leslie, and both generals immediately laid siege to York. Prince Rupert, the son of the unfortunate elector-palatine, hasted to the relief of this important city, and eiFected a junction with the army of the marquis of Newcastle. Fairfax and Leslie retired to Marston Moor, whither they were followed by the royalists, who were urged to this rash proceeding by the fiery Rupert. Fifty thousand British combatants engaged on this occasion in mutual slaughter ; the victory was long undecided ; but, finally, the skill of Lieutenant-Gen- eral iCromwell prevailed over the rash valor of Rupert, and the royalists were signally defeated, with the loss of all their baggage and artillery. A second defeat, at Newbury, so weakened the royal cause, that the king must have been forced to immediate submission, but for the divis> Ions that arose among his adversaries. The presbyterians and the independents had combined against the church of England as their common enemy ; but when episcopacy was abolished, the latter saw with great indignation the presbyteiian efibrts to establish a system of ecclesiastical tyranny, differing from the papal only in form, the power being lodged in the general assembly of the clergy instead of a single head. The presbyterians had the majority in parliament, but the great bulk of the army favored the views of the independents, which were also supported by some of the most active members of the house of commons. A law, called the Self-denying Ordinance, prohibiting members of parliament from holding military commissions, gave the greater part of the army into the hands of the independents, especially as an exception was made in favor of Oliver Cromwell, their principal leader. The battle of Naseby was decided in favor of the parliamentarians, principally by Cromwell's prudence and valor, an event which gave so rfiUch strength to his party, that the presbyterian majority in the house of commons feared to accept the king's proposals for an accommodation, contrary to their open profes- sions and secret wishes. Meanwhile Charles, being unable to keep the field, threw himself on the mercy of his Scottish subjects ; and having opened negotiations with their leader, through the French am- bassador, ventured on the faith of uncertain promises to present him- self in their camp. He had the mortification to find himself treated as a prisoner, while all the towns and fortresses that had hitherto support- ed his cause fell into the hands of the parliament. The war was at an end, but civil dissensions raged with more fury than ever. The presbyterians and independents were each anxious to gain the king over to their side ; and the former, by a treaty with the Scots, gained possession of his person. Scarcely had they acquired 35 546 MODERN HISTORY. this sidvantage, when the discontent of the army threatened them with unexpected, danger ; Cromwell encouiraged the soldiers to resist the orders of the parliament, and by a bold measure gave fresh confidence to his party. Cornet Joyce, acting under his orders, removed the king :from Holmby house, and hrought him to the army. Cromwell and his friends made such a judicious use of ■ the .advantage thus obtained, that the presbjrteidan party soon lost all their influence. The behavior of Charles at this crisis was very injudicious ; he negotiated with both parties, and, by his obvious insincerity, displeased all. Finally, he at- tempted to escape ; but seeking shelter in the isle of Wight, he was seized by its governor, Hammond, and from that moment Cromwell be- came the master of his fate. Another opportunity of escaping from the perils that surrounded him was offered to the king ; the Scotch took lup arras in his favor, but they were routed by CromwfeU with great slaughter, and all hopes from their assistance destroyed. But the par- liament' having reason to dread Cromwell's ambition, opened negotiar tions with thfe king on receiving the news of this victory, and the wisest of the ;royal counsellors entreated their master to seize this opportunity of concluding a treaty. Unfortunately he hesitated and delayed the arrangements for more than three months, until the army once more took possession of his person, and conveyed him to Hurst. The two houses, indeed, voted that the royal concessions were sufficient grounds for settling the peace of the kingdom ; but two days afterward the avenues to the house of commons were beset with soldiers, and all the members supposed favorable to the king forcibly prevented from taking their seats. In this diminished house the resolutions leading to a rec- onciliation with the king were revoked, and proposals were made for bringing him to a public trial. The final resolution for impeaching the king of high treason before a court of justice constituted for the purpose, was adopted by the house of commons (January 2, 1649) : it was at once rejected by the lords; but their opposition was disregarded, and the court regularly constituted. The form of trial was but a solemn mockery ; Charles with great spirit refused to acknowledge the juris- diction of the court, upon which some whnesses were called to prove what everybody toew, that he had appeared at the head of his army, which 'his judges declared to be treason against the people, and a crime worthy of death. Sentence was pronounced on the 27th of January.; and, on the 30th of the same month, the misguided and unhappy Charles was beheaded in front of Whitehall, amid the unaffected sympathy of crowds of spectators. The death of Charles was followed by the usurpation of Cromwell, and Great Britain was subjected to a despotism more galling and severe than that of any monarch who ever swayed its sceptre. Section XI. — Formation of the States-system in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe. ' ' The revolutions in the northern kingdoms during the progress of the Reformation were scarcely less important than those in central Europe. Norway, SwedeUj and Denmark, united by the treaty of Calmar, were neyer blended into a uniform goverraent : the Swedish nobles kept their THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 547 country in continued agitation ; without severing the union, they chose administrators of the kingdom whose allegiance to the crown of Denmark was merely nominal. Christian II., a tyrannical prince, resolved to de- stroy the Swedish independence, he overthrew the administrator at the battle of Bagesund, and. had the" ceremony of his coronation performed at Stockholm (a. d. 1520). A few days after this solemnity, Christian perfidiously violated the amnesty he had published ; and to gratify the vengeance of the archbishop of Upsal, whom the Swedes had deposed, caused ninety-four of the principal nobles to be publicly executed. This massacre was the signal for a revolution ; Gustavus Vasa, son of one of the murdered nobles, escaped to the mountains of Dalecarlia, and supported by the hardy peasants of that province, proclaimed the freedom of his country. Victory crowned his efforts, and he finally became king of Swedeil (a. r. 1533). Christian II. was deposed by the Danes, and the crown conferred on his uncle Frederic ; he wan- dered about for some years, vainly seeking support, but was finally seized by his subjects, and thrown into a prison, where he ended his days. The Danish monarchs, for nearly half a century, renewed their pretensions to the Swedish throne ; but finding that their efibrts only exhausted their own resources, they recognised the independence of Sweden by the treaty of Stettin (a. d. 1570). Denmark thus lost the ascendency which it had long maintained, and it was further injured by a disastrous change in its internal constitution. The aristocracy egtablished a vicious supremacy over the prerogatives of the crown and the rights of the people. The senate, composed en- tirely of nobles, seized on all the authority of the state; the national assemblies ceased to be convoked; the elections of the kings were confined to the aristocratic order, and the royal power was restrict- ed by capitulations, which the senate prescribed to the kings on their accession to the throne. It was in the reign of Frederic I.', the uncle and successor of the tyrannical Christian, that the principles of the Reformation were first established in Denmark. The king invited several of Luther's disci- ples to preach the new doctrines in his kingdom ; he openly professed them himself, granted liberty of eonscience to all his subjects, and sanctioned the marriages of priests throughout his dominions. Chris- tian III. completed the religious revolution ; in a general assembly of the states he procured the abrogation of episcopacy, and the suppression of the Romish worship (a. d. 1536). The castles, fortresses, and vast domains of the bishops, were reunited to the crown ; and the rest of their revenues applied to the maintenance of protestant ministers, the purposes of general education, and the relief of the poor. From Den- mark the revolution extended to Norway ; and about the same time this kingdom, having supported the deposed Christian II., was deprived of its independence, and reduced to a Danish province. Christian IV. was distinguished among the northern sovereigns by the superiority of his talents, and the zeal that he showed in reforming the difierent branches of the administration. In his reign the Danes first directed their attention to Asiatic trade, and founded an East In- dia company ; a commercial establishment was formed at Tranquebar, on the coast of Coromandel, which was ceded to the company by the 548 > MODERN HISTOSY. rajah of Tanjore. Several large manufactories were established, and many cities founded by this wise monarch, who was also a judicious patron of science and literature. He was less successful in his wars against Austria and Sweden, but this was owing rather to the restric- tions which the nobles had placed on his power, than to any want of talent. Sweden, from having been subject to Denmark, rose to be its suc- cessful rival, and even menaced its total overthrow. It owed this pre- ponderance to two of the greatest men of the period, Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus. After Vasa had liberated his country, he was raised to the throne, and by his wise government justified the choice of the nation. He directed his attention both to the political and reli- gious reformation of the country ; instead of the aristocratic senate, he introduced a diet, composed of the different orders of the state, and by his influence with the commons, introduced Lutheranism, though op- posed by the bishops and nobles. He also established the hereditary succession of the crown, which was extended to females in the reign of his son Charles IX. Gustavus Adolphus, the grandson of Vasa, raised Sweden to the sum- mit of its greatness. Involved in wars at his accession (a. d. 1611), he gained signal advantages over the Russians and Poles, which so ex- tended his fame, that he was chosen, as we have seen, to be the leader of the protestant confederacy against the house of Austria. After a glorious career of two years and a half, he fell in the battle of Lutzen : but the victory which the Swedes won after his death was chiefly owing to his skilful arrangements. The war was continued imder the minority of Ghnstina, and brought to a successful issue, as was also the war waged at the same time against Denmark. By the peace of Bromsebro (a. d. 1645)^ Sweden obtained the free navigation of the Sound, and the cession of several important islands in the Baltic. Prussia, under the electors of Brandenburg, gradually increased in strength and power, especially during the administration of Frederic William, the true founder of the greatness of his house. His abilities were particularly conspicuous in the protestant wars of Germany ; and he obtained such an accession of tewitory by the treaty of Westphalia, that his son Frederic assumed the title of king of Prussia. The dismemberment of Livonia led to a fierce struggle between the northern powers, each of which sought a portion of the spoil. Russia, which had slowly acquired consistency, obtained a considerable portion, which, however, it was forced to yield to Poland. After having long submitted to the degrading yoke of the Mongols, the grand-dukes of Moscow, strengthened by the union of several small principalities, began to aspir« after independence, which was achieved by Iwan III. This able ruler, haying refused to pay the customary tribute to the barbarians, was attacked by the khan of the Golden Horde, as the leading s,ect of the Mongols was denominated. Instead of acting on the defensive, Iwan sent a body of troops into the very centre of the horde, and ruined all their establishments on the Volga. So great were the losses of the Mongols, that the Golden Horde disappeared, and left no traces but a few feeble tribes. Iwan IV. labored to civilize the empire acquired by the valor of bis predecessors : he invited artisans from THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 549 England and Gennany, established a printing-press at Moscow, and raised the standing army of the Strelitzes to curb his turbulent no- bles. It was in his reign that Siberia was discovered and annexed to the Russian dominions, but the complete reduction of that country be- longs to the reign of his son Fedor (a. d. 1587), who founded the city of Tobolsk. On the death of Fedor, without any issue (a. d. 1598), Russia was involved in a series of calamitous civil wars, which ended in the eleva- tion of Michael Fedrowetsch to the crown. He found his dominions exhausted by the late commotions, and could only procure peace from Sweden and Poland by the cession of many valuable provinces (a. d. 1634). During the reigns of the Jagellons, Poland was one of the most flour- ishing northern powers. The reformation was favored by Sigismond Augustus XL, the last of this dynasty ; but the want of a middle order of society, which has ever been the cause of Polish misery, prevented evangelical principles from taking deep root in the country, and produ- cing the benefits that had resulted from them in other states. When the male line of the Jagellons became extinct on the death of Sigismond (a. d. 1572),, the throne of Poland became elective (without any restric- tion),* and the right of voting was given to all the nobles, who met in arms to .choose a sovereign. These elections were generally marked with violence and bloodshed ; but though the nobles were divided among themselves, they rieadily united to restrict the royal authority ; every sovereign, on his accession, was obliged to sign certain capitulations, which greatly limited his rule, and secured the chief powers of the state to the aristocracy. Under its new constitution, Poland was inter- nally weak and miserable, though some of its monarchs still distin- guished themselves by foreign conquests, especially Vladislaus IV., who wrested the dutchy of Smolensko from Russia. Section XII. — Progress of the TurMsh Power in Europe. The successors of Mohammed II. on the throne of Constantinople imitated the vigorous policy of that conqueror, and for nearly a century were the terror of Christendom. Bayezid II. subdued Bessarabia, and acquired some important provinces in Asia. He was forced to resign the throne by his son Selim (a, d. 1510), and was murdered in pirison. Selim I., surnamed Gaviiz, or the Savage, was obliged to maintain the throne he had so criminally gained, by a series of sanguinary wars with the other members of his family. Having triumphed over these com- petitors, he turned his arms against the Persians, and gained a complete victory over Ismael Soff at Tabriz (a. d. 1514). In consequence of this and other successes, Diarbekr and several other provinces beyond the Tigris were annexed to the Turkish empire. The Mameluke sul- tans of Egypt having assisted the Persians in this war, Selim led an army into Syria, and encountered Sultan Gaurl near Aleppo. After a sanguinary engagement, the Manielukes were defeated and their leader slain, upon which Aleppo and Damascus submitted to the Turks. This * See page 486. 650 MODEEN HISTOEY. success opened the way for invading Egypt : Tuman Bey, who had been elected sultan in place of Gauri, assembled the remnants of the Mame- lukes under the walls of Cairo, and having procured some auxiliary forces from the Arabs, prepared to meet the enemy. Selim advanced steadily, and attacked the hostile camp. The battle was obstinate and bloody, but the superior fire of the Turkish artillery, which was served principally by Christian gunners, decided the fate of the day ; and Tu- man Bey, after having done everything that could be expected from an able officer and a brave warrior, was driven into Cairo (a. d. 1517). Selim stormed the city ; but Tiiman, not yet disheartened, fled across the Nile, and by incredible exertions once more collected an army. The Turks pursued him closely, and forced him to a final engagement, in which the Mamelukes were utterly routed, and their gallant sultan taken prisoner. Selim was at first disposed to spare the captive, but his ofiicers, who feared and envied Tuman, persuaded him that such clemency might inspire the Mamelukes with the hope of recovering their dominions, and the unfortunate sultan was hanged at the principal gate of Cairo. Soleyman, usually surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded his father Selim, and emulous of the fame acquired by* the conquest of Egypt, re- solved to turn his arms against the princes of Christendom. Hungary, during the reign of Matthew Corvinus, had become a powerful and flour- ishing kingdom. Inspired by the example of his father, the renowned Hunniades, Corvinus wrested Bosnia from the Turks, and maintained his supremacy over Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. But du- ring the reigns of his indolent successors, Uladislaus II. and liOnis, who were also kings of Bohemia, Hungary was distracted by factions, and ravaged by the Turks. Soleyman took advantage of the minority of Louis, and the weakness of Hungary, to invade the kingdom. He captured, with little difficulty, the important fortress of Belgrade, justly deemed the bulwark of Christian Europe (a. d. 1521). Inspired by his first success, he returned to the attack ; having traversed the Danube and the Drave, without meeting any resistance, he encountered the Christians in the field of Mohatz, and gained over them one of the most signal victories that the Turks ever won (a. d. 1526). King Louis, and the principal part of the Hungarian nobility, fell in this fatal battle, the entire country was laid at the mercy of the invaders ; but Soleyman, instead of securing a permanent conquest, laid waste the land with fire and sword, and carried myriads of the inhabitants as slaves to Constan- tinople. A triumph of even greater importance was gained by the Turks du- ring the Hungarian war. Rhodes, the seat of the heroic knights of St. John, was besieged by Soleyman's vizier. All the arts of assault and defence that had yet been devised by humaji ingenuity were used in this siege, which lasted more than five months. The assailants and the garrison fought with such fury that it seemed a contest rather for the empire of the world than the possession of a single city. The sultan himself came in person to superintend the operations of his army, while the knights were not only neglected by the Christian powers, but ex- posed tb the open hostilities of the Venetians. Thev protracted their resistance until every wall and bulwark had crumbled beneath the over- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF, EUEOPE. 551 ■whelming fire of the Turkish batterie?, when they surrendered on hon- oiable conditions ; and on Christmas day (a. d. 1522), Soleyman made his triumphant entry into what had been a city, but was now a shapeless mass of ruins. On the death of Louis, Ferdinand of Austria, who had married the sister of the unfortunate monarch, claimed the crowns of. Hungary and Bohemia. He received quiet possession of the latter kingdom ; but the Hungarians chos^ for their sovereign John Zapolya, prince palatine of Transylvania. Zapolya, finding himself unable to resist the power of Ferdinand, claimed the protection of the Turks. Soleyman marched in person to his aid,. and, not satisfied with expelling the Austrians from Hungary, pursued them into their own country, and laid siege to Vienna (a. d; 1529). He failed in this enterprise, and was conipelled tQjretreat, after having lost eighty thousand men. The emperor Charles V., alai?med at the progress of the Turks, tried to form a general confederation of the German princes against them, but found that the troubles occasioned by the progress of the Reformation would prevent any cordial union. He resolved, however, to check the growth of their naval power in the Mediterrenean, where Khair-ed-din,* or Barbarossa, a pirate whom Soleyman had taken into his service, captured Tunis and Algiers, and was collecting a formidable naval force. Charles took advantage of Soleyman's being engaged in conquering the pachalic of Bagdad from the Persians, to invade Africa,- where he made himself master of Tunis. Soleyman, returning victorious from Asia, was so enraged at his losses in Africa, that he resolved to attempt the conquest of Italy. The imprudence of a Venetian captain turned the wrath of the sultan upon the republic of Venice ; he attacked two Turk- ish galleys in the Adriatic, for some mistake about their signals, and satisfaction being refused, Soleyman proclaimed war. But while thus engaged in the west, Soleyman did not neglect the enlargement of his eastern dominions. His generals conquered the whole of Arabia, and his admirals issuing from the Red sea, attacked, but without success, the Portuguese dominions in India. In the mean* time the Venetian senate entered into an alliance with the emperor, Charles V., and the pope, Paul III. ; their united navies were placed under the command of the celebrated Doria, but his success was far from according with the expectations that the allies had formed. The war, however, led to no decisive result ; it was suspended by occa sional truces, during which Soleyman took the opportunity of enlarging his Asiatic dominions at the expense of Persia. The knights of St. John, expelled from Rhodes, obtained a settlement in the island of Malta ; they directed their attention to naval affairs, and inflicted severe damages on the Turks by sea. Soleyman, roused by the complaints of his subjects, resolved that Malta should share the fate of Rhodes, and collected all his forces for the siege (a. d. 1565). The knights maintained their character for obstinate valor with more success than on the former occasion : after a sanguinary contest for five months,, the Turks were forced to retire, with the loss of twenty-four thousand men and all their artillery. Soleyman prepared to take revenge by com- • Khair-ed-din signifies "the goodness of the faith." This terror of the Chris- tians was Jiamed Barbarossa, on account of his " red beard." 552 MODERN HISTORY. pleting the bonquest of Hungary ; but while besieging Sigeth, he fell a victim to disease, produced by old age and fatigue (a. d. 1566), after having raised the Turkish empire to the highest pitch of its greatness. Selim II., soon after his accession, made peace with the Germans and Persians, but renewed war with the Venetians, from whom he took the important island of Cyprus (a. d. 1571). But while the Turkish ariny was thus engaged, their fleet was utterly destroyed in the battle of Lepanto, by the allied Venetian, imperial, and papal ilavy. The alUes neglected to improve their victory, and Selim soon repaired his losses. But this sultan sank into the usual indolence of oriental sovereigns, his successors followed his example, and the Ottoman power began rapidly to decline. The Austrian rulers became convinced of the impolicy of harsh nrtiasures, and conceded to the Hungarians full security for their political and rehgious liberties, at the diet of Presburg, Hungary was thenceforth united to Austria, and the last war, direct^ resulting from the Reformation, happily terminated. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FEANCB. 553 CHAPTER VII. THE AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. Section I. — State of ike Continental Kingdoins after ike Peace of Westphalia^ Though the treaty of Westphalia restored tranquillity to northern Europe and Germany, France and Spain continued the war in which they had originally but a secondary share, with all the obstinacy of principals. At the same time, France was distracted by civil broils less fatal than those of England, but scarcely less sanguinary. The prime mover in these disturbances was the poadjutor'-archbishop of Paris, al'terward known as the Cardinal de Retz ; he wished to gain the post of prime minister from Cardinal Mazarine, and he induced several princes of the blood, with a large portion of the nobility, to espouse his quarrel. The parliaments of France resembled those of En^and only in name ; they were colleges of justice, not legislative assemblies, and the members purchased their seats. This was the body with which Retz commenced his operations ; instigated by the ambitious prelate, the parliament of Paris thwarted all the measures of the queen-regent and her minister, until Anne of Austria, irritated by such factious opposition, ordered the president and one of the most vio- lent councillors to be arrested. Her orders were scarcely executed when the populace arose, barricaded the streets, threatened the cardi- nal and the regent, and procured the release of the prisoners. Alarmed by the repetition of similar outrages, the queen, attended by her chil- dren and her minister, retired from Paris to St. Germains,, where their distress was so great that they were obliged to pawn the crown jewels to procure the common necessaries of life. These intrigues led to a desultory civil war, which began to assume a serious aspect after the arrest of the ambitious duke of Conde, who had repeatedly insulted the queen and the cardinal ; the factious took up arms in all the provinces, and the duke of Orleans, uncle to the young king, placed himself at the head of the malcontents (a. d. 1650). Mazarine was unable to resist the confederacy ; he liberated Conde and his associates, in the vain hope of conciliating their favor, but was obliged to fly to Cologne, where he continued to govern the queen-regent as if he had never quit- ted Paris. By his intrigues, which were now seconded by de Retz, the duke of Bouillon, and his brother Turenne, were detached from the confederates, and by their aid Mazarine was enabled to enter the king- dom at the head of an army, and resume his former authority. Conde, proclaimed a traitor by the parliament of Paris, threw himself upon the 554 MODERN HISTORY. protection of Spain, and obtained from that power a body of troops, with which he pursued the court from province to province, and finally en- tered Paris. Turenne, who commanded the royal forces, brought the young king within sight of his capital ; and Louis witnessed a fierce conflict in the suburb of St. Antoine, which terminated in the defeat of his army. Encouraged by this success, the parliament of Paris proclaimed the duke of Orleans " lieutenant-general of the kingdom," and the prince of Conde, " commander-in-chief of the armies of France." But the danger with which these app6intments threatened the monarchy, was averted equally by the rashness of Conde and the prudence of the king. Conde ' instigated a tumult, in which several citizens lost their lives ; Louis conciliated his subjects by sending the cardinal into temporary exile, and was received into his capital with the loudest acclamation?. No sooner was the royal authority re-established, than Mazarine was recalled and invested with more than his former power. During these commotions, the Spaniards had recovered many of tjxe places which they had previously lost to the French, and Louis de Haro, who governed Spain and Philip IV. as absolutely as Mazajine did France and its youthful sovereign, hoped by means of Conde's great military talents to bring the war to a triumphant issue. But the French found a general in Marshal Turenne, who was more than a rival for Conde ; he compelled the Spaniards to raise the siege of Arras, arid seized all their baggage, artillery, and ammunition (a. d. 1666). He was himself soon after' compelled to raise the siege of Valenciennes, but he made a masterly retreat as honorable as a victory; and even took the town of Capelle in the presence of his enemies., Still the fortune, of the war was doubtful, when Mazarine, by flatteripg the passions of the usurper Cromwell, engaged England to take a share in the cpntest. Dunkirk, the strongest town in Flanders, first engaged the attention of the allies ; the English blockaded it by sea; Turenne, with an auxiliary British force united the French army, besieged it by land (a. d. 1656). The Spaniards sent an array to its relief; Turenne did not decline an engagement; the obstinate valor of the English, combined with the impetuosity of the French troops, procured him a decided victory ; Dun- kirk surrendered in a few days, and was given to the English according to treaty, while France obtained possession of the strongest towns in Flanders. Peace was now necessary to Spain, and it was also essential to tlie success of Mazarine's favorite policy ; the procuring for the hpuse of Bourbon the eventual succession to the Spanish monarchy, by uniting King Louis to the infanta, Maria Theresa. The preliminaries were adjusted by Mazaripe and Louis de Haro, in person, at a conference in the Pyrenees, and France obtained an extent of territory and the pros- pect of an inheritance, which soon made it formidable to the rest of Europe. About a year after the conclusion of this treaty, JVIazarine died (a. d. 1661) ; and Ijouis, who had borne the ministerial yoke with secret impatience, took the reins of government into his own hands. Germany, exhausted by tedious wars, remained undisturbed after the peace of Westphialia until the death of Ferdinand IIL (a. d. 1657), when the diet was agitated by fierce debates respecting the choice of AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND PRANCE. 555 a successor. Recent events had shown how dangerous was the ambi- tion of the house of Austria to the independence of the minor states, and several of the electors wished to have as their head some monarch whose hereditary dominions would not be of sufBcient importance to raise him above the control of the Diet. But these considerations were forced to yield to more pressing circunistances ; the presence of the Turks in Buda, of the French in Alsace, and of the Swedes in Pbme- rania, required a powerful sovereign to prevent further encroachments ; and Leopold, the son of the late emperor, was unanimously chosen. His first measure was to form an alliance with Poland and Denjuark against Sweden, a power which, ever since the victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus, menaced the independence of the neighboring states. We have already mentioned that the renowned Gustavus was suc- ceeded by his daughter Christina. She was fondly attached to study, and assembled in her court the most distinguished professors of science, literature, and the fine arts. Her favorite pursuits were, however, too antiquated and abstruse for practical life ; she was pedantic rather than wise, and her great learning was never applied to a useful end. She consented to the peace of Westphalia, not from any regard for the tranquillity of Europe or her own kingdom, but simply to indulge her passion for study, with which the cares of state interfered. The Swedish senate felt little sympathy in the learned pursuits of their sovereign ; they pressed her to marry her cousin, Charles Gustavus, for whom she had been designed in her infancy, but Christina dreaded to give herself a master, and she only nominated this prince her suc- cessor. The states renewed their importunity, and Christina offered to resign the crown to her cousin ; after some delay, occasioned by rea- sonable suspicions of her sincerity, she carried her design into execution, and abdicated in favor of Charles Gustavus, who ascended the throne under the title of Charles X. (a. d. 1654). The remainder of Chris- tina's life was disgraceful to her character. Designing to fix her resi- dence at Home,' she renounced Lutheranism, and embraced the catholic faith at Innspruck, not because she deemed it the preferable religion, but because she thought it convenient to conform to the tenets of the people with whom she intended to reside. Her profligate life, her want of any valuable information, and her loss of po\Ver, soon rendered her contemptible in Italy ; she made two journeys into France, where she was received with much respect, until her infamous conduct excited genieral abhorrence. In a fit of jealousy, she commanded one of her paramours to be assassinated in the great gallery of Fontainebleau, and ahnost in her very presence (a. d. 1657). This atrocious violation of the laws of nature and of nations, perpetrated in the midst of a civilized kingdom, and a court that piqued itself on refinement, was allowed to pass without judicial inquiry ; but it excited such universal detestation, that Christina was forced to quit France and seek refuge in Italy There the remainder of her life was spent in sensual indulgence and literary conversation, if such a term can be applied to the language of a, capricious woman, admiring many things for which she had no taste, and talking about others which she did not understand. While Christina was thus disgracing her sex and country, Charles 556 MODERN HISTORY. X. indulged the martial spirit of his people by declaring war against Poland. After the death of Sigismond III. (a. d. 1632), his son Ladislaus was elected to the throne, and proved to be a prince of great courage and capacity. He gained several victories over the Eussians and the Turks ; he forced the Swedes to resign the places which Gus- tavus Adolphus had ;seized in Prussia ; but unfortunately he combined with his nobles in oppressing the Cossacks, and thus drove those un- civilized tribes to a general revolt. In the midst of this war Ladislaus died (a. d. 1648) ; he was succeeded by his brother John Casimir, who would gladly have entered into terms with the injured Cossacks, but was forced to continue the war by his turbulent nobles. Alexis, czar of Russia, took advantage of these commotions to capture Smolensko and ravage Lithuania, while Poland itself was invaded by Charles X. The progress of the Swedes was rapid, they obtained two brilliant vic- tories in the fields captured Cracow, and compelled the terrified Casimir to seek refuge in Silesia, But the insulting demeanor of the Swedes, and the cruel massacre perpetrated at the capture of Warsaw, confirmed the Poles in the determined spirit of resistance, of which the burghers of IDantzic set them a noble example ; while the chief, powers of the north combined to check the dangerous ambition of Sweden. Attacked at once by the czar of Russia, the emperor of Germany, and the king of Denmark, Charles, though deserted by his ally the elector of Bran- denburg, did not lose courage. He led an army over the ice to Funen, subdued that and several other Danish islands, and laid siege to Copen- hagen. The city was saved by an insincere peace, which proved to be only a suspension of arms ; but when Charles renewed his exer- tions, he was opposed by the republics of Holland and JBngland. Ne- gotiations for peace were commenced under the auspices of these great naval powers ; but ere they were brought to a conclusion, Charles died of an epidemic fever (a. d. 1660). The Swedes, deprived of their active and ambitious monarch, were easily brought to resign their pre- tensions to Poland of the treaty of Oliva ; and the general desire of preventing the minority of Charles XI. being disturbed by foreign wars, induced the regency to adjust a pacification with Denmark and the other powers. Section II. — History of England under the Commonwealth. The civil and religious constitution of England was dissolved by the execution of Charles I. ; the great body of the nation was dissatisfied with the result of the civil war, but it was overawed by an army of fifty thousand men, entirely devoted to the service of Cromwell-; and the commonwealth parliament, as the inconsiderable remnant of the house of commons was called, found itself in possession of the supreme authority. The state of affairs in Ireland and Scotland soon engaged the attention of the new government, and they were especially interest- ed to maintain the dominion that England claimed over the former country. The revolt of the Irish, like the revolt of the Americans in later ds^ys, was regarded as treason against the English people, rather than rebellion against their joint sovereign ; the partial successes of the insurgents were viewed as national wrongs, and the use of the phrase " our kii\gdom of Ireland" made every Englishman imagine that he AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND PBANCB. 557 would be robbed of some portion of his hereditary rights, were that island to establish its independence. Cromwell, aware of the great celebrity which might be gained in a war so popular as that undertaken for the recovery of Ireland, successfully intrigued to have himself ap- pointed lord-lieutenant and commander-in-chief of the army. The state of Ireland could not be more favorable to the purposes of an invader. -When Charles I. entered into a treaty with his revolted Irish subjects, he disgusted one party without conciliating the other ; for he gave both reason to suspect his sincerity. He appointed the marquis of Ormond lord-lieutenant, a nobleman possessed of many high qualities, but who had imbibed the principles of the unfortunate earl of Strafford, and was bigotedly attached to the support of the royal author- ity and the episcopal church. Ormond conciliated Inchiquin and some other protestant leaders who had refused to acknowledge the cessation of arms which Charles had granted to the insurgents, but he protracted the negotiations with the catholic confederates until their aid was use- less to the royal cause. Alarmed at length by the progress of the par- liament, while the confederates were at the same tirne incensed by the intolerant ordinances of the English commons, he concluded a treaty with the catholic deputies at Kilkenny (a. d. 1646), on the basis of a general pardon and Ml toleration. The native Irish were dissatisfied with this pacification, which did not restore to them lands of which they deemed themselves unjustly deprived ; the bigoted catholics sought the supremacy, not the toleration of their religion, and many of the more irioderate entertained suspicions of Orraond's good faith. Under such circumstances they were influenced by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, to reject the treaty of Kilkenny, and Ormond at once was deprived of all authority. As the king was unable to assist him, he delivered' up the fortified towns to an officer of the English parliament, a fatal meas- ure, which rendered the restoration of the royal power impossible. The Irish soon grew weary of Rinuccini's pride, bigotry, and inca- pacity ; a powerful body of the catholic nobles, headed by the earl of Clanricarde, expelled the nuncio, and invited Ormond to resume the government. The lord-lieutenant returned, and found the royal author- ity established everywhere except in the towns which he had himself surrendered to the parliament. His first care was to remedy this blun- der ; he subdued several important garrisons, but he allowed himself to be surprised near Dublin by an inferior force, and was routed with great loss. At this crisis Cromwell landed with an army of enthusias- tic soldiers trained to arms, and flushed by recent victories. He be- sieged Drogheda, took it by storm, and put all the garrison to the sword. The town of Wexford was next assailed, and its defenders similarly butchered ; and this cruelty produced such alarm, that thence- forth every town, before which Cromwell presented himself, surrendered at the first sununons. The declining season, a failure of provisions, and epidemic disease, soon reduced the invaders to great distress ; but they were relieved by a revolution as sudden as it was unexpected. The protestant royalists in Munster, always jealous of their Irish- al- lies, revolted to the parliament at the instigation of the lords Broghill and Inchiquin, and the gates of all the important garrisons in the south of Ireland were opened to Cromwell's sickly troops. The Irish could 558 MODERN HISTORY. no longer be brought to pay obedience to a protestant governor, Ormond quitted the country in despair, and the confederates, having no longer any bond of union, were overpowered in detail. Cromwell freed him- self from all future opposition, by permitting the Irish officers and sol- diers to engage in foreign service. About forty thousand catholics went on this occasion into voluntary exile. The young king, Charles II., had intended to place himself at the head of the Irish royalists ; but when their cause was ruined, he en- tered into negotiations with the Scottish covenanters, and submitted to terms the most ignominious that ever a people imposed upon its prince. He was forced to publish a proclamation, banishing all malignants, excommunicated persons from his court — that is, the royalists who had perilled their lives and fortunes in the service of his family ; to pledge his word that he would take the covenant and support the presbyterian form of government ; and promise, that in all civil affairs, he would conform to the direction of the parliament, and submit all ecclesiasti- cal matters to the general assembly of the kirk. Charles did not con- sent to these disgraceful conditions, until the royal cause in Scotland was rendered desperate by the overthrow of its greatest supporter, the marquis of Montrose. This gallant nobleman, immediately after the execution of Charles I., renewfed the war in Scotland, but was made prisoner by the covenanters, and ignominiously put to death as a traitor (A. D. 1650). Soon after this tragical event, Charles landed in Scotland, and found himself a mere pageant of state in the hands of Argyle and the rigid covenanters, at whose mercy lay his life and liberty. The intolerance of these bigots was not assuaged by the approach of an English army under the command of Cromwell, whom the parliament of England had recalled from the Irish war, so soon as the treaty between Charles and the covenanters was published. Cromwell entered Scotland, but found a formidable competitor in General Leshe, the head of the covenanters. The Enghsh were soon reduced to great distress, and their post, at Dunbar, was blockaded by a Scottish army on the heights that overlook that town. Cromwell was saved by the fanatical and ignorant preach- ers in the hostile camp ; they pretended that a revelation had descended to them, promising a victory over the sectarian host of the English, and forced Leslie, in despite of his urgent remonstrances, to quit his advan- tageous position. Cromwell ,tbok advantage of their delusion ; he at- tacked the Scotch, disordered by their desceiit from the hills, before they could form their lines, aild in a brief space gained a decided vic- tory. Edinburgh and Leith were abandoned to the, conquerors, wrhile the remnant of the Scottish army fled to Stirling. This [defeat was by no means disagreeable to Charles; it so far diminished the pride of the bigoted party, that he was permitted to accept the aid of the episcopal royalists, the hereditary friends of his family. Still the king felt very bitterly the bondage in which he was held,, and, when Cromwell crossed the .Forth, he embraced a resolution worthy of his birth and cause, and disconcerting that general by a hasty marchj he boldly entered England at the head of fourteen thousand men. Butithe result disappointed his expectations ; the English roy- alists disliked the Scotch, and detested the covenant ; the presbyterians AUaUSTAK AGES OF ENGLAND AND rRANCB. 559 were not prepared to join him, and both were overawed by the militia which the parliament raised in the several counties. At Worcester the king was overtaken by Cromwell with thirty thousand men (Sept. 3, 1651). The place was attacked on all sides: Charles, after giving many proofs of personal valor, saw his cause totally ruined, and sought safety in flight ; the Scots were all killed or taken, and the prisoners, eight thousand in number, were sold as slaves to the American planta- tions. Charles wandered about for forty-five days in various disguises and amid the greatest dangers : more than fifty persons were intrusted with his secret, but they all preserved it faithfully, and he finally escaped to France. In Scotland the presbyterian clergy, formerly all-power- ful, found themselves treated with scorn by the English army. Their assembly at Aberdeen was dispersed by a military force, their persons were paraded through the town in insulting mockery, and they were forbidden to assemble in greater numbers than three at a time. In the meantime, the English republic was engagfed in a foreign war. The increase of the naval and commercial power of the Dutch had been viewed with great jealousy by the English nation ; but the com- mon interests of religion, and afterward the alliance between the Stuart family and the house of Orange, had prevented a rupture. After the death of William II., prince of Orange, the Dutch abolished the office of stadtholder ; and this advance toward a purely republican constitu- tion induced the English parliament to seek a closer alliance with Hol- land. Their ambassador, however, met but an indifferent reception at the Hague,* and on his return to London it became obvious that the mutual jealousies of the two commonwealths would soon lead to open hostilities. The English parliament passed the celebrated Act of Navigation, which enacted that no goods from Asia, Africa, or America, should be imported into England, except in English vessels ; and the prohibition was extended to European commodities not brought by ships belonging to the country of which the goods were the growth or manufacture. This, though apparently general, particularly affected the Dutch, whose commerce consisted chiefly in the carrying trade, their own country producing but few commodities. The war commenced in a dispute on a point of naval etiquette : the English required that all foreign vessels in the British seas should strike their flags to English ships-of-war ; Van Tromp, a Dutch admiral, with a fleet of forty sail, met Blake, the commander of the British fleet, in Dover road. Conscious of his supe- rior force, he refused to conform to the degrading ceremony, and an- swered the demand by a broadside. Though Blake had only fifteen ships, he immediately commenced an engagement, and being reinforced during the battle by eight more, he gained a glorious, though not a very valuable victory. A fierce naval war ensued between the two repub- • Mr. St. John, the English plenipotentiary, was a stern republican, and a haughty man. He had the presumption to take precedency of the duke of York, who was then at the Hague, in a public walk. The prince-palatine, happening to be present, struck o£F the ambassador's hat, and bade him respect the son and brother of his king. St. John put his hand to his sword, refusing to recognise either the king or the duke of York ; but the populace, compassionating fallen royalty, took part with the prince, and forced the stern republican to seek refuge in his lodgings. 560 MODERN HISTOKY. lies ; it was, on the whole, disadvantageous to the Dutch, though they were commanded by such excellent admirals as De Ruyter and Van Tromp. The death of the latter in an engagement that lasted three days (a. d. 1654), decided the contest, and the Hollanders were forced to beg peace from Oliver Cromwell, who had, in the meantime, dis- solved the parliament and usurped the government of England. When Scotland and Ireland were subdued, the parliament became jealous of Cromwell's power, and resolved to diminish it by disbanding a portion of the army. But the parliament, if such a name could fairly be given to a minority of the house of commons, had lost its sole strength, the confidence of the people, by its obstinacy in retaining the power with which it had been invested by circumstances ; it would not dissolve itself, but seemed determined to perpetuate its sovereignty.*' An angry remonstrance from the army was rejected, and the soldiers reproved for interfering in public affairs. This brought affairs to a cri- sis : on the nineteenth of April, 1653, Cromwell turned out the mem- bers with military force, locked the doors, put the key in his pocket, and retired to his lodgings at Whitehall. The council of state was similarly dismissed, and so weary were the people of their late rulers, that addresses were sent to Cromwell from almost every part of Eng- land, thanking him for his boldness and courage. It was necessary still to preserve the forms of the constitution, but Cromwell could not venture on an appeal to the people, and allow them their ancient liberty of election, much less a more extended franchise ; he therefore adopted a middle course, and by the advice of his officers, nominated one hundred and sixty persons on his own authority, to form a new parliament. This extraordinary body was named the Barebones parliament, from one of its fanatic members, named Praise-God Bare- bones, who rendered himself conspicuous by his alTectation of superior sanctity. Cromwell, finding this convention not so pliant as had been expected, contrived, by his creatures, that a majority should vote for an immediate dissolution, and when about thirty members con- tinued to meet, they were unceremoniously ejected by a file of mus- queteers. A new constitution was formed, by which the legislative power was granted to a lord protector and parliament, and the executive to the protector and a council of state. On the 16th of December, 1653, Cromwell took the oath of fidelity to the new form of government, and was invested with the dignity of lord protector.. On the 3d of the fol- lowing September, the new parliament assembled, but though the strictest regulations consistent with the forms of election had been de- vised to exclude all but partisans of the government, the protector's au- thority was menaced on the very first day of debate, arid it was resolved, by a majority of five, to refer the examination of the new constitution to a seleict commij.tee. Cromwell first excluded half the members for refusing to take ah oath of allegiance to the protector, and finding that the house,, even after this mutilation, continued refractory, he dissolved • Ladlov asserts, without a shadow of proof, that the parliament was about to dissolve itself, and give the nation a free general , election on a reformed plan, when Cromwqll interfered. Such aproject, indeed, was discussed, hut there ap- pear no proofs of its being intended to put it into execution. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLANJ?, 4.ND FEANCE. 5,61, the parliament befpreiit had sat th^five months requiied^by the consti- tution, which, he had himself framed and, sworn to support. A new parliament was summoned, but notw;ithstanding'the inter- ference of Cromwell and the major-generals that ruled the twelve dis- tricts into which England was divided, so many opponents of the gov- ernment were returned, that Cromwell posted soldiers at the door to exclude those members to whom he had not granted tickets of admis- sion. The parliament, thus modified, proved sufficiently subservient, and on the 26th of March, 1656, it gratified Cromwell's secret am- bition, by offering him the title of king. But Fleetwood, the protec- tor's son-in-law, and Desborough, his brother-in-law, disconcerted the entire plan by joining the republicans in the army, and procuring a pe- tition from the officers against royalty, which it would have been dan- gerous to disregard.* Cromwell was forced to resign his darling ob- ject at the moment it seemed within his grasp, and to content himself with the protectorate for ■ life, and the power of nominating his suc- cessor. To divert the attention of the nation from its internal affiiirs, Crom- well resolved to engage in some foreign war, but ysras at first undecided whether he should -attack France or Spain. t Mazarine's cunning de- cided the question ; he conciliated the protector by banishing the Engr lish princes from France, and thus obtained auxiliaries at a critical moment, whose support, as we have already seen, he paid by the ces- sion of Dunkirk. Two formidable fleets were prepared in England ;' one, under the command of Blake, was sent to cruise in the Mediterra- nean ; the other, intrusted to admirals Penn and Tenahles,- proceeded to the West Indies. To justify hostilities, Cromwell demanded of the Spanish ambassador, that his master shpuld abolish the Inquisition, and open the trade of South America to the English. The ambassador replied, that this was asking for his master's two ^eyes ; indeed, neither demand, under the circurnstances, was reasonable. The Spanish In-! quisition certainly exercised an unjust tyranny toward protesta,nts, but Cromwell did not treat the Irish catholics with, greater mildness ; and when England had just given an example of monopoly by passing the navigation act, it showed little regard for consistency to detnand free trade from Spain. But both proposals were in accordance with the -spirit of the times, and the knowledge of their having been made, brought back to Cromwell a considerabJ|e share of the popularity he had forfeited. Admiral Blake first sailed to Leghorn, and having cast anchdr be- fore the town, demanded and obtained satisfaction for the injuries which the duke of Tuscany had done to English commerce. Repair- ing thence to Algiers, he compelled the dey tp restrain his piratical sub- * " Certain persons," said the petition, " are endeavoring to reduce the nation to the old state of slavery, and urge the protector to assume the royal title, wisfc ing by this means to ruin him. We, therefore; petition the parliament to oppose such intrigues, and to abide by the old cause, for which we are ready to hazard our lives." f " In order to maintain himself, he, in common -jwith Lambert, and some of the council, wishes for war, and is only revolving whether it were better for him to raise it against France or Spain." — Report of the French Ambassador, Jpril 20^ 1654. 36 562 MODERN HISTOEY. jects from further depreciations on the English. Failing to obtain sim-* ilar satisfaction at Tunis, he battered its fortifications with his artillery^ and burned every ship in the harbor. His fame spread through the entire Mediterranean, and no power dared to provoke his vengeance^ Penn and Venables attempted to take Hispaniola, then considered th&' most valuable island in the West Indies, but failing in this effort, they conquered Jamaica, which has ever since been annexed to the domin- ions of England. Cromwell, however, was so little satisfied with the- conduct of the two admirals, that on their return, he committed them to- the Tower. The English, through the entire war, maintained their supremacy by sea ; several of the galleons, laden with the precious.- metals from South America, were taken or destroyed, and an entire fleet burned by the heroic Blake in the bay of Santa Cruz.* These conquests silenced many opponents for a time, but secret dis- satisfaction pervaded the nation, and pamphleteers bitterly assailed the- protector, both in verse and prose.f Public attention was roused by the assembling of parliament on the 20th of January, 1 658 ; the house, of commons showed its hostility to the government, by admitting the members who had been previously excluded by the privy council, anct still more by severely scrutinizing the constitution of the upper house. After a vain effort to conciliate his opponents, Cromwell dissolved the> parliament on the 4th of February, and resolved to hazard the perilous, experiment of governing alone. But he encountered violent opposition^, even in his own family ; Elizabeth, his second daughter, keenly re- proached him on her dying bed, and the father, who loved her fondly,, felt his grief for her loss sharpened by the pangs of conscience. A. pamphlet was published, and widely circulated, in which the assassina- tion of the protector was recommended as an act of justice and patriot- ism ; Cromwell read it, and never smiled again. He lived in continual fear, always wore a coat of mail, never slept two successive nights in- the same chamber, had guards posted everywhere, and secret avenues> contrived, by which he might esbape on the least alarm. In such a. condition, his death must be considered a happy release ; it took place- on the 3d of September, 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Worcester and Dunbar. He was interred with great pomp in West- minster Abbey, but the conduct of the populace evinced anything but sorrow for the loss of their ruler.| • April 21st, 1657. — " This was the last and greatest action of this gallant naval? commander, who died in his way home. He was, by principle, an inflexible re- publican, and only his zeal for the interests of his country induced him to serve under the usurper. Though he was above forty-four years of age before he en- tered into the military service, and fifty-one before he acted in the navy, he raised the maritime glory of England to a greater height than it had ever attained in any former period. Cromwell, fully sensible of his merits, ordered him a pompous- funeral at the public expense ; and people of all parties, by their tears, bore tes- timony to his valor, generosity, and public spirit."— jDr. Johnson's Life of Blake. t Satirical poems were published, in one of which is the following passage :— " A protector I what 's that ! 'Tis a stately thing That confesses himself but the ape of a king ; A tragical Cfesar, the actor a clown, Or a brass farthing, stamped with a kind of a crown." t Evelyn says, "This was the merriest funeral that I ever saw, for no one howled but the dogs, with which the soldiers made sport, amid barbarous noise, parading through the streets, drinking and smoking." Ludlow adds, " The folly AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. -568 Richard Cromwell had hitherto lived a thoughtless and rather ex- travagant life, but on his father's death he was acknowledged as pro- tector both at home and abroad, without opposition. He had, however, soon to contend against a powerful republican minority in parliament, while still greater dangers menaced him from the discontent of the army, which was equally dissatisfied with the protector and the parlia- ment.* The officers urged Richard to dissolve the refractory com- mons, and when he had taken this imprudent step, seized the reins of government into their own hands. Having deliberated on several proj- ects, the military junta came to the resolution of re-assembling the Long parliament. About ninety members were hastily collected, but those who displeased the new rulers were excluded, and the delibera- tions of the rest were fettered, by what was called " an humble petition and address from the officers to the parliament of the commonwealth of England." Richard, wearyof his situation, resigned the protectorate, and the chief power of the state passed to the cabal of officers, at whose head were Lambert, Fleetwood, and Desborough. In the contests that followed between the parliament and the council of officers, the nation generally took no interest. It was a period of complete anarchy ; prin- ciple was forgotten, every one was guided by his caprice, or by some prospect of private advantage. All true friends of their country were heartily tired of this confusion, and the illusion of the republicans had so completely vanished, that if we except those who wished for a pro- tector, or expected the personal reign of Christ, not more than a few hundreds could be found anxious to restore the commonwealth. In this state of afiairs, George Monk, afterward duke of Albemarle, re- solved to act a decided part. He had been intrusted by Cromwell with the government of Scotland, and the command of the army : though suspected of a secret attachment to the royal cause,t he continued to hold his place during the protectorates of Oliver and Richard. On the abdication of the latter, he professed the utmost anxiety for a reconcilia- tion between the parliament and the English army ; but if that could not be effected, he declared that he would support the former, because the establishment of a commonwealth was .dear to his heart. This declaration gave so much confidence to the opponents of the officers, that Fleetwood found it necessary to permit the parliament to assemble ; and the Rump parliament, as the house of commons so often mutilated was ignominiously termed, met amid the loudest acclamations of the soldiers, who only two months before had dispersed it by mihtary violence. The house promptly made use of the power which it had and profusion (of the lying in state) so far provoked the people, that they threw dirt in the night on his escutchedn that was placed over the great gate of Somer- set house." • Eichard derided the fanatical pretensions of his father's officers ; when a re- monstrance was made against his granting commissions to "the ungodly," he re- plied, " Here is Dick Ingoldsby, who can neither pray nor preach, and yet I will trust him before ye all." " These imprudent, as well as irreligious words," says liUdlow, " so clearly discovering the frame and temper of his mind, were soon published in the army and city of London, to his great prejudice." f Cromwell once wrote to lum, " I have been informed that there is in Scotland, a cfirtain cunning fellow, George Monk by name, who has a scheme for restoring Charles Stuart ; endeavor to catch him, and send him hither." S6i MODERN HISTORY. regained ; the members^ and officers of whom it did not approve were removed ; Desborough, with some others, fled to Lambert. Fleetwood was overwhelmed with consternation. On the 1st of January, 1660, Monk, at the head of six thousand men, commenced' his march toward London; he was received everywhere -with the- greatest enthusiasm; in all the towns on his road the people rang the bells, lighted bonfires, and declared- their ardent wish for a free parliament. Lambert's army melted away as he advanced ; but -Fleetwood's soldiers excited so rriuch alarm, that the speaker wrote to Monk to hasten his march. On the -6th of February he appeared in parliament, and first excited some suspicions of his real designs by re- fusing to take the oath of abjuration against the Stuarts. The parlia- ment tried to embroil him with the citizens of London, by sending, -him to arrest some members of the common council fdr resolving that no taxes should be paid until the parliament was filled. Monk performed this disagreeable duty ; but immediately after reconciled himself to the city, and sent a letter to the speaker, demanding a dissolution of par- liament and a new election. While this letter was fiercely' debated, Monk took the decisive step of introducing the old excluded members, by which, he gained a! triumphant majority. On the 17th of March the Long : parliament concluded its sittings; to the great joy of thei nation, and a; new house of commons met on the . .25th of April. In the interval, Lambert made a-desperate efibrt to place himself 1 at the head ' of a, new army, but by Monk's promptitude and ■-vigor he was, taken prisoner and sent to the Tower. When the ne>v padiament, consisting both of upper and lower house, ' met, it was manifest that the royalists had such a preponderance that the only question remaining to be decided was, whether Charles IL should be restored with or without conditions. The latter course was unfor- tunately chosen, perhaps because it would have been impossible to frame . ternjs, the discussion of which would not have roused the slumbering ' ffijids of hostile parties. On the 39th of May, the day on -which he completed his thirtieth year, Charles triumphantly entered London. He was accompanied by the members of parliament, the, clergy, the civic authorities, and, about twenty thousand persons on ifoot or horseback. The streets were strewed with,flowers, the houses decorated with tapestry, the bells rung in every church, the air resounded with acclamations. The monargh, sp recently a hopeless exile, might well ask, as he witnessed the tuMialt -Df universal joy, " Where then are my enemies 1" Section III.— History of England, from ilie. Restoration to the Revolution ; and Rise of the Power of Louis XIV. Few ffioij-arphs ever ha^ such gin opportunity of rendering hirpself popular, and his subjects happy,, as Charles II. ; there is scarcely one who failed more lamentably. His first measures promised well ; a few of the regicides and their adherents Were indeed excepted from the act of indemnity, Eind executed ; but pardon was granted to the chief par- liamentary leaders,, and many of them received into favor. Ecclesias- tical affairs, however, began to disturb the harmony of th^ nation, when AUGUSTAN AGES 0* ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 565 a new parliament was assembled, in which the episcopal and royalist party had a triumphant majority. An act was passed, requiring" that every clergymen should p6ssess episcopal ordination, declare his assent to' everything contained in the book of common prayer, take the oath of canonical obedience, abjure the solemn league and covenant, and the ri'ght of taking up arms against the king under any pretence whatever. About two thousand of the clergy rejected" these conditions, and resign- ed their ■ benefices, rather than do violerice to their religious opinions. The ejected clergymen were persecuted with unwise rigor ; severe laws were enacted against conventicles, and a non-conformist minister was prohibited from coming within five miles of a corporation. The marriage of the king to Catherine of Portugal, when his ' sub- jects hoped that he would make a protestant princess his queen, and the sale 6f Dunkirk to the French monarch, tended still further to diminish the royal popularity; and a war, equally unjust and impolitic, undertaken against the Dutch, completed the public dissatisfaction. Hostilities were commenced without a' formal declaration of war ; the English seized several of the Dutch colonies in Africa and America, especially the province of Nova Belgia, which Charles, in honor of his brother, named the state of New York. Holland was at this time ruled by the Louvestein, or violent republican party ; its head, the celebrated John de Witt, who, with the title of pensionary, enjoyed almost dictatorial power, feared that Charles might make some effort to restore William HI., prince of Orange, to the office of stadtholder, which his ancestors had enjoyed ; and to avert this danger, entered into close alliance with France. The pensionary found, however, that he must rely upon his own resources ; he fitted out a powerful ^fleet ^ the English exerted themselves with equal diligence, and a furious engagement took place upon the coast of Holland (a. d. 1665). Vic- tory declared in favor of the English ; more than thirty of the enemy's ships were taken or destroyed, 'and the whcrte would probably' have fallen had hot the pursuit been stopped by the oversight or cowardice- of the duke of York, who had been created lord high-admiral of England by his brother. , The joy occasioned by this victory was diminished, by the ravages of the great plague, which swept away seventy thousand citizens of London in the course of a year, ' ' De Witt, in the meantime, exetted himself to restore the naval power of the Dutch ; he formed- an alliance with the king of Denmark, procured aid from France, and soon sent out a more powerful fleet than that which had been defeated. But the English still maintained their wonted superiority ; and the Dutch, disheartened by repeated defeats, began to murmur against the govern- ment of the grand pensionary. Scarcely had the plague ceased, wheft London was subjected to a second calamity ; a dreadful fire, which raged for four days, destroyed four hundred streets and lanes, including thirteen thousand houses ; but it is remarkable that not a single life was lost by the conflagration. Great discontents were excited by the severity with which the non-conformists were treated in England and Scotland; about two thousand of the discontented, in the western counties of Scotland, had recourse to arms, and renewed the covena,nt, but they were overpowered by the royal forces, and their insurrection 566 MODERN HISTOEY. punisked with I remorseless cruelty. One of the first stipulations made, with Charles on his accession was, that he should not disturb the grants which Cromwell had given to his followers in Ireland. But as many, if not most, of these estates had beea forfeited for the attachment of the proprietors to the royal cause, it was necessary that some corapen-^ sation should be made to the sufferers. After a long struggle, the best arrangement that was perhaps possible, under the circumstances, was effected by the act of settlement ; and though many of those who had been dispossessed complained of injustice, the island was restored to tranquillity. It was fast recovering its prosperity, when the unwise jealousy of the English parliament produced considerable distress, by prohibiting the importation of Irish cattle.* While these circumstances embarrassed the British government, the pensionary, De Witt, sent out a new fleet, which destroyed several vessels at the mouth of the Thames, reduced Sheemess, insulted Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for several week rode triumphant in the channel (a. d. 1667). The conclusion of a peace at Breda dissipated the alarm, but at the same time increased the discontent, of the English nation ; it was felt that the prodigality of the king had exhausted the treasury and left the king- dom exposed to insult and disgrace. The ambitious projects of Louis XIV. began now to excite general alarm ; his personal qualities won him the affections of his people ; the splendor of his court dazzled the nobility, and changed the factious lords of France into a body of the most subservient courtiers that had ever been seen in modem Europe. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis claimed the Spanish Netherlands in ri,ght of his wife, the daughter of Philip by his first marriage, asserting that females could inherit according to the custom of Brabant, and that his queen should have precedence of her infant brother, the offspring of a second marriage. Anna Maria of Austria, queen-regent of Spain, was a weak woman, entirely governed by her confessor, a German Jesuit, named Nithard, who was more anxious to check the growth of heresy than to protect the monarchy.! Louis entered Flanders at the head of a powerful army, and found the Spaniards almost wholly unprepared for resistance. The principal towns surrendered immediately ; Lisle, though a place of considerable, strength, capitulated after a siege of nine days, and Louis secured his conquests by intrusting the repair of their fortifications to the celebrated Vauban, and garrisoning them with his best troops. The Dutch were alarmed at the prospect of having their frontiers exposed to such a powerful neighbor ; they received succor from an • The discussion of this act, in the house of lords, gave rise to some singular debates. It was secretly opposed by the king, who felt its obvious impolicy ; it was urged forward by the eccentric duke of Buckingham, who hoped to force him- self into power by means of the house of commons. The commons declared the importation of Irish cattle " a nuisance." The lords rejected a term so revolting to common sense, and substituted " a grievance." The duke of Buckingham in- sisted on retaining the obnoxious phrase ; another noble lord moved that the im- portation of Irish cattle should be deemed " a felony," or a " prffimunire :" a third, with more wit and as much reason, proposed that it should be accounted " adultery." t His arrogance and ignorance were displayed in his reply to a nobleman who had addressed him in a tone of disrespect. " You ought," said he, " to revere the man who has every day your God in his hands and your queen at his feet." AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 567 Mnexcepted quarter. Charles II., either jealous of Louis, or eager to acquire popularity, concluded a defensive alliance between England and Holland (a. d. 1668) ; a^ Sweden soon after concurred in the nreaty. Louis found it necessary to stop short in his career ; he made .peace with Spain', retaining a great portion of his cpnquests, which, iiowever, were not sufRcient to console him for the brilliant prospects 'he was compelled to resign. He had to endure another mortification; ihe Turks one more became formidable, under the administration of the Yizier Kuproeli, and compelled the German emperor to conclude peace on terras highly favorable to their interests ; and they wrested the im- jsortant island of Candia from the Venetians, in spite of the efforts made by the French monarch to save the place. Louis saw that his designs on the Netherlands, and his revenge against Holland, could not be accomplished without the active partici- 3)ation of England. Knowing the profligate habits of Charles, whose court was a scene of extravagance and dissipation, he concluded a secret treaty with that monarch, in which it was agreed that Charles should receive a large pension from Louis, in return for which he jshould co-operate in the conquest of the Netherlands, propagate the catholic faith in his dominions, and publicly announce his conversion to that religion. France and England commenced the war by atro- ciously outraging the laws of nations ; Louis, without the shadow of a pretext, seized the dutchy of Lorraine ; Charles attempted the capture of a rich Dutch fleet, before he had announced his dissatisfaction with the recent treaty. The Dutch were wholly unable to resist this storm ; at sea they maintained their equality, but the armies of France bore down all opposition ; Louis crossed the Rhine, advanced to Utrecht, and had he not delayed there, might have conquered Amsterdam. The Dutch populace vented their rage on the unfortunate pensionary, to whom they unjustly attributed all their calamities. John de Witt and his brother CorneUus were arrested, but ere they could be brought to trial, a furious mob burst into their prison and tore them to pieces. William III., prince of Orange, was immediately chosen stadtholder ; his exhortations revived the sinking spirits of the Dutch ; they resolved, that rather than submit to disgraceful terms, they would abandon their country, seek their settlements in the East Indies, and re-establish their republic in southern Asia.* Louis soon found the results of this determined spirit ; the emperor, thoroughly alarmed, sided with the Dutch, and many of the northern German states followed his example. Indecisive engagements were fought at sea ; but the conquest of Cologne by the Dutch and Germans, intercepted the communication between France and the United Provinces, in consequence of which Louis was compelled to withdraw his forces and abandon his conquests. A more important change was the secession of England ; Charles, distressed for want of money, loaded with debt, and rendered anxious by the progress of public discontent, concluded peace with Holland on very equitable conditions (a. d. 1674). He then ofiered his mediation to the contending powers. ♦ Several efforts were made to corrupt the prince of Orange, but he sternly re- jedted them. When told that the ruin of his country was inevitable, he replied, " There is one way by which I can be certain not to see the ruin of my country ; and that is, to die disputing the last ditch." 568 MODERN HISTOH.Y. Lotiis surprised sill Europe by the magnitude of his efforts, but they did not produce any corresponding re^lt ; and the desolation of the- Palatinate by Marshal Turenne excited such general indignation, that Louis bribed Charles to dissolve the parliament, lest it should force its sovereign to declare war against France. The war was maintained with great fury duHng the ensuing campaigns ; it was on the whole favorable to the French, but the rapid progress of Louis, in the year ■ 1677, excited so much alarrai, that the English parliament addressed the king to conclude an offensive and defensive alliance with Holland. Charles, however, had sold his neutrality, and would not abandon his - pension to promote either the honor or advantage of his kingdom ; but he tried to conciliate the nation by giving his iiiece, the daughter of the duke of York, in marriage to the prince of Orange. Louis continued his victorious career uninterrupted by England, until the Dutch sought peace on any terms, and a treaty was concluded at Nimeguen (a. d. 1678), by which France acquired an increase of power dangerous to all the neighboring states. ' , The jealousy of the English nation at the exaltation of a rival, long regarded as their natural enenij'^, the feeling that the national honor had been sacrificed, and the fear of the design of the court to establish the Romish religion aiid arbitrary power, spread a deep gloom over Eng- land, and disposed the people to suspicions that led them to become the dupes of the vilest impostors. Just as the account of the cruelties practised on the covenanters in Scotland excited most alarm and indig- nation, the three kingdoms •Were roused to sudden phrensy by the an- nouncement of a popish plot. A wicked impostor, named Titus Oates, friamed a tale of a conspiracy by the Jesuits for the subversion of the jjrotestant religion and the murder of the king ; his narrative was ini- probable, confused, and contradictory, but it suited the temper of the hation, and it was favorable to the ambition of some designing men, anxious to obtain power at any hazard. Before censuring too severely the credulity of the nation, we must remember that a plot for the re-es- taiblishment of the Romish religion really existed, but it was formed by the king, not against him ; many catholics, aware of the king's secret attachfrient to their religion, and encouraged by the dulte of York's open profession of it, indulged hopes of the speedy reconciliation of the British kingdoms ,tb the holy see, and several enthusiastic phrases in ^eir letters were capable of being distorted into confirmation of a plan ioirmed to accelerate such a consummation.* The inexplicable murder of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, an active magistrate who had taken Oates's depositions, completed the delusion ; to deny the reality of the plot was now to be reputed an accornplice ; even to doubt of it was criminal. Several catholics were brought to trial ; the evidence against tJhem was a tissue of palpable falsehoods, but, in the phrensy of the moment, every absurdity received credence ; they were condemned and eXecutied. The parliament at the same time passed a law excluding from both houses all who would not swear that " the sacrifice of the , * This is especially the case with the letters of the first victim to the national delusion, Edward Coleman, secretary to the duke of York. Bryden has well de- scribed the plot in a single line :— _ " Some truth there was, but dashed and brewed with lies." ' AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 5'69 mass was damnable and idolatrous," and it was With great diifeculty that an exception was made in favor of the king's brother, the duke of York. The covenanters in Scotland were driven to such desperation by the severities of the royal government, that they murdered Archbish- op Sharpe, and broke out into open rebellion. Their revolt was sup- pressed, and those who had shared in it, or who were suspected of fa- voring the views of the covenanters, were punished with remorseless cruelty. It deserves to be remarked that, during this turbulent period, Ireland, to the great discredit of the popish plot, continued perfectly trahtiuil. Still its name was dragged into the controversy, and it lent A title to a party. The supporters of the court were named tories, from the Irish robbers, who, under that name, harassed the Cromwelli- an settlers ; the leaders of the opposition were denominated whigs, the appellation of the fiercest of the Scottish covenanters (a. d. 1681). A bin to exclude the duke of Yoi:k from the succession piassed the com- mons, but was rejected by the lords ; Charles seized the moment when the violence of his adversaries disgusted the soiind part of the nation, to dissolve the parliament, and to summon a new one to assemble at Oxford. This second parliament proving refractory, it was suddenly dissolved, and a declaration vindicating the king's proceedings was or- dered to be read in all churches and chapels. Charles won the support of the clergy by vigorously enforcing the act of uniformity and persecuting sectaries, and at the same time chose some of the rhost pliant lawyers to be judges. By these means the doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance were revived, and the bench and the pulpit seemed to contend with each other which should show most zeal for the unlimited power of the crown. , He next assailed his opponents with their own weapons ; the spies, the inform- ers, -and false witnesses, who had been employed by the popular party to establish the reality of the popish plot, were now enlisted .against, their former patrons, and gave theif perjui-ed support to one party as freely as they had done to another. The spirit of independence still reigned in the hearts of the citizens of London, but, on the most flimsy legal pretexts, the capital was deprived of its charter, and the power of the corporation virtually transferred to the king. The popular lead- ers, not disheartened, formed a plan of insurrection; they were be- trayed by one of their party : Lord Howard, who had been a leader, became a witness against his associates ; several of them were tried, condemned, and executed ; but the victims whose fate excited the most sympathy were the popular Lord Russell and the virtuous Algernon Sydney. The duke of York was now placed at the head of the royal councils, but Charles soon became weary of his brother's violence and bigotry ; he is even said to have meditated a change in the government, and the adoption of popular measures, when he died suddenly (a. d. 1685), not without strong suspicions of poison. It was supposed that some of the violent catholics attached to the duke of York perpetrated the crime without that prince's knowledge or participation. While England was thus convulsed at home, its foreign interests were wholly neglected by its profligate sovereign, who continued to be the pensioner of the French king. Louis XIV. thus had full scope to gratify his ambition ; he continually enl'alrged his frontiers on the most 57-0 . „ MODERN HISTORY. ■h; frivolous pretences, while Spain and Hp^land were toO; weak, and ther Germanic empire too much harassed by other enemies, to check his progress. The emperor Leopold, -by flagrantly violating the pyivileges of his Hungarian subjects, provoked a formidable revolt ; it was headed by Count Tekeli, a leader possessing great courage and resolution, and he called the Turks to the assistance of his countrymen., While these allies were ravaging Silesia, the sultan Mohammed IV. was preparing one of the most formidable armies that the Ottoman empire had ever sent against Christendom. Leopold, convinced that his own resources were not equal to the crisis, entered into close alliance with the cele- brated John Sobieski, who, in the year 1674, had been raised to the throne of Poland. Before the Polish levies could be completed, the Turkish army, commanded by the grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, entered Austria ; the duke of Lorraine, who commanded the imperialists, was unable to re- sist the progress of the invaders ; they advanced rapidly, and at length laid siege to Vienna. During several weeks the city was vigorously defended, but, at length, its fortifications crumbled under the heavy fire of the Turkish artillery ; the suburbs were destroyed, and the final as- sault was expected every moment (a. d. 1683). The garrison, reduced to despair, was about to resign all thoughts of resistance, when the banners of John Sobieski, approaching to their relief, were seen on the till of Schellenberg. Kara Mustapha led the main body of his forces to meet the Poles, while a body of twenty thousand men attempted to storm the city. But the courage of the garrison was now revived, and the confidence of their enemies abated ; the assailants were repelled ; a panic seized the Turks ; they broke at the first charge of the Polish cavalry, and fled in such confusion, that they abandoned their artillery, baggage, and treasures. Even the consecrated banner of Mohammed became the prize of the victors, and was sent as a trophy to the pope. Leopold, in consequence of this decided triumph, recovered possession ■of Hungary, but his ingratitude to his deliverers was as signal as their merits. Louis XIV. had raised the siege of Luxemburg when he heard of the advance of the Turks, declaring that he would not attack a Chris- tian prince while Christendom itself was endangered by the invasion of the infidels. No sooner, however, had Sobieski's valor crushed the Mohammedans, than he renewed his aggressions. Spain was thus provoked into a war which it had not strength to support, and a hasty peace confirmed Louis in his conquests. His naval power was steadily increased at the same time ; he humbled the Algerines, compelled the republic of Genoa to submit to the most degrading humiliations, and did not even spare the pope. But while his ambition was provoking the resentment of Europe, he weakened his kingdom by a display of fero- cious bigotry, at the moment when all its strength was required to re- sist justly-provoked hostility. The religious toleration of the Hugue- nots had been secured by the edict of Nantes, which was designed to be perpetual ; Louis, after the death of his wisest minister, the virtuous Colbert, revoked this edict, and attempted to impose his religion on his subjects by the sword. He began by issuing an edict, authorizing Huguenot children, above seven years of age, to change their religion AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 571 without the consent, of their parent^; this pernicious law introduced dissension into the hosom of families ; children were enticed to ingrat- itude and disobedience by the arts of clerical kidnappers who over- spread the country. The parents were next persecuted ; they were excluded from all public employments and the incorporations of the trades. Bribes were offered on the one hand, punishments were men- aced on the other ; apostacy was assured of reward, and the payment of conversions became a heavy charge on the state. Finally, a brutal and licentious soldiery was let loose on the hapless protestants ; dra- goons were sent as missionaries among them, and the edict of Nantes, their last security, was formally revoked. Exposed to all the cruelties and horrors that bigotry could dictate, or brutality execute, nearly four hundred thousand of the Huguenots abatidoned their country, and car- ried into lands hostile to France, their wealth, their commercial intelli- gence, their manufacturing industry, and their desire of vengeance. The accounts of their sufferings published by the exiled Huguenots in England, Holland, and Germany, aggravated the hatred of France, which was spreading through these countries, and accelerated a general war. A league was formed by all the princes of Germany to restrain the encroachments of Louis ; Spain and Holland joined it as princi- pals ; Sweden, Denmark, and Savoy, were afterward gained : and a sudden revolution in England placed that country at the head of the confederacy. James II. succeeded to the English crown on the death of his brother Charles ; he commenced his reign by liberal promises, which procured him general popularity, notwithstanding his open adhesion to the Ro- mish church, and his going to mass with all the ensigns of regal dig- nity. But there were many discontented spirits who lamented his ac- cession, and these secretly instigated the duke of Monmouth, the natu- ral son of Charles II., to assert his mother's marriage, and his own consequent claim to the throne. Monmouth was a weak, vain man ; he readily adopted the scheme, and in concert with the earl of Argyle, prepared for the simultaneous invasion of Scotland and England. Arr gyle, who was the first, readily effected a landing in Scotland, but soon found that the country was not so ripe for revolt as he had believed. Surrounded by superior forces, he attempted to force his way into the disaffected part of the western counties, but his followers gradually abandoned him ; he was taken prisoner and sent to Edinburgh, where he expiated his imprudence on the scaffold. In the meantime, Mon- mouth had landed in the west of England, where he was received with great enthusiasm. Encouraged by the proofs of attachment he received, he ventured to attack the royal army encamped at Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater. But the cowardice of Lord Grey, who commanded the horse, and the incapacity of Monmouth himself, proved fatal to the in- surgents ; they were routed with great slaughter, and their unfortunate leader, after wandering about several days in great distress, was taken pirisoner. James II. induced the unhappy Monmouth to degrade himself by a mean supplication for life,* and then informed him that his offence was * Monmouth displayed great firmness and intrepidity on the scaffold. The exe- 572 MODERN HISTORY. too great to be pardoned. The cruelties exercised on all suspected of having shared in the insurrection, by the inhuman Colonel Kirke, and the Still more infamous Judge Jeffries, were shocking to human nature ; they spread general consternation through the western counties, but at the same time they excited a spirit of secret hostility to the tyrannical king. Encouraged by his success, James resolved to dispense with the test acts, by which catholics were excluded from the public ser- ■Vice, and, finding the parliament opposed to his views, he dissolved that body. Eleven out of the twelve judges asserted that the dispens- ing power was an essential part of the royal prerogative ; and the king, fortified by their opinion, gave several places of trust to catholic lords and gentlemen. The lord-lieutenancy of Ireland was intrusted to the earl of Tyrconnell, a zealous adherent of the Romish church ; many of the catholics, who felt that their religion was the cause of their be- ing deprived of their estates, began to look forward to the repeal of th& Act of Land Settlement, and several of the more timorous protestants^ sought refuge in England. Their representations, and the tales of hor- ror related by the exiled Hugufenots, filled the nation virith a general hatred of popery ; the king, however, unconscious of his increasing unpopularity, unwisely deprived himself of his chief security by quar- relling with the chutch. He commenced by endeavoring to open the doors of the universities to catholics ; more opposition was offered than had been anticipated, but. the king persevered, and a catholic, named Parker, was installfed into the presidency of Magdalen college, Oxford. Although there was much discontent in England, no project had aa yet been foriiied against the king ; it was believed that Mary of Mode- na, James's queen, would never have any children, and the nation was disposed to wait quietly for the accession of one of his daughters by hia former marriage, both of whom were known to be strongly attached ta the church of England. Mary, the eldest daughter of James by Anne Hyde, was married to the prince of Orange, who was engaged in sup- porting the liberties of Europe, and the protestant religion against the ambition and bigotry of Louis XIV. ; she was less popular in England than her husband, to whom she was known to be fondly attached, and it was generally believed that she would relax the laws against prot- festknt dissenters, if ever she came to the throne, in order to gratify the attachment of her husband to presbyterian principles. She was,, however, childless, and the national hope of a protestant successor to the throne centred in her sister. The princess Anne, afterward queen, had been educated in the strict- est principles of the Anglican church by her maternal grandfather, the- celebrated earl of Clarendon. She was married to Prince George of Denmark, by whom she had several children, all of whom, except the duke of Gloucester, either died in their infancy, or were still-born. She was the favorite child of her father, and nothing had ever occurred to interrupt their affection, until nearly at the same time James's queen cutioner, touched with pity, or respect for the victim's noble heaiing, struck him three times without effiect, and then threw aside the axe, declaring he was unable to perform his office. The sheriff compelled him to renew his efforts, and the- head of the unhappy duke was at length severed from his body. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND EBANCE. 5T3 appeared likely to give an heir to the throne, and he himself became im'olyed in a contest with the church of England. Anxious to relieve the catholics from the civil disabilities under which they labored, as a monarch of the same religion, as themselves must naturally have been, and at the same time desirous to obtain the support of so powerful a body as the protestant dissenters, in the new course of policy which he meditated, James published a new declara- tion of indulgence, suspending all the penal laws against every species of dissent, and soon after issued a proclamation commanding it to be read in churches. The legality of such a command was questioned by the prelates, for though royal declarations had been read in churches with their sanction during the preceding reign, considerable doubts were entertained of the king's power to suspend the penal laws, and in fact, such an exercise of the royal authority had been pronounced un- constitutional by the best lawyers of the kingdom. Had the declaration related to a less obnoxious matter than the virtual abrogation of the laws against non-conformity, Syhich had been only procured by the most vigorous exertions of the hierarchy, it is probable that the king's orders might have been obeyed : but it was unwise to call upon the English prelates to undo their work, and to proclaim in the churches that they had hitherto pursued an erroneous course of policy. It was also known that the great majority of the English dissenters, far from ieing grateful for the king's favor, viewed ]jis edict of toleration with . suspicion, believing that it was not intended to serve them, but to ad- vance the cause of popery. Under these circumstances six bishops, in concert with Bancroft the primate, prepared a remonstrance in the form of a petition to the king, which stated, in firm but respectful language, their reasons for refusing to comply with his injunctions. When this document was presented to James, he was so violently enraged, that he ordered the prelates to be arrested on the charge of having, uttered a seditious libel, and as they all refused to find bail, they were committed to the Tower. At this crisis the queen gave birth to a prince of Wales, and the ab- sence of the archbishop, imprisoned in the Tower, who ought in virtue of his office to have been present on the occasion, gave rise to a report that he had been purposely retnoved out of the way, lest he should de- tect the king and queen in their attempts to impose a spurious child on the nation. This monstrous tale was studiously circulated ; and though the queen's delivery had been as public as decency would permit, the story that the prince of Wales was supposititious was received with equal credulity in England and Holland. James at first paid no regard to the reports which were in circulation, but when he learned that the prayers for the young prince were discontinued in his daughter's chapel at the Hague, he remonstrated very strongly on the subject, but was forced to rest satisfied with excuses so disingenuous that their falla- ciousness was transparent. As the king, according to the constitution as settled at the Reforma- tion, was the head of the English church, it was impjssible to avoid some collision when the monarch professed a religion at variance with that of the establishment ; and though such an evil might be endured for a season, the members of a protestant establishment naturally shrunk 574 MODERN HISTORY. from the prospect of being governed by a continued succession of Ro- mish sovereigns. The birth of a prince of Wales forced men to take into serious consideration the position of the church and the country, especially as it took place at a time when seven prelates of the church ■were persecuted by its head for defending what they believed to be the proper privileges of the established religion. Such an anomaly was too glaring to escape notice, and James exhibited extraordinary weak- ness in forcing it on the consideration of the country. There never, perhaps, was a trial which excited such interest as that of the seven bishops for the pretended libel contained in their petition to the king. The best lawyers in England were engaged on each side, and the question between prerogative and privilege was never more ably deba- ted. The trial lasted during the whole of the day. In the evening the jury were desired to retire and consider their verdict. They re- mained together in close consultation all night, without fire or candle : great difference of opinion appears to have prevailed among them, for it was not until ten o'clock on the following morning that they pro- nounced the acquittal of the prelates. " The moment the verdict was pronounced," says the earl of Claren- don, who was present, " there was a wonderful shout, that one would have thought the hall had cracked." — " The loud shouts and joyful ac- clamations were," as Sir John Reresby expresses, " a rebellion in noise, though not in intention." From London the tumultuous sounds of joy extended rapidly into the country, and a well-known expression of James is preserved, on hearing acclamations, even among the soldier* in his camp at Hounslow. He was told by his general. Lord Faver- sham, of whom he had inquired the cause of the noise, that it was nothing but the rejoicing of the soldiers for the acquittal of the bishops. " Do you call that nothing V he replied, " but so much the worse for them." Bonfires were made, and the bells of the churches rung not only in London, but in the greater part of the country towns, as soon as the news of the acquittal reached them, although the strictest orders were given to prevent such proceedings. So strong was the general feeling, that though several persons were indicted at the next sessions for Middlesex for riotous behavior, yet the grand jur)' would not find bills against them, though they were sent out no less than three times. It is stated further, that the churches of London were crowded on that forenoon with multitudes, eager to pour forth their gratitude to God for this great deliverance. " what a sight was that," says Nichols, " to behold the people crowding into the churches to return thanks to God for so great a blessing, with the greatest earnestness and ecstacy of joy, lifting up their hands to heaven ; to see illuminations in every window and bonfires at every door, and to hear the bells throughout all the city ringing out peals of joy for the wonderful deliverance." It was in the midst of this popular excitement, and most probably in consequence of it, that the project of a revolution was first formed. In order to form a right estimate of this great event, which for nearly half a century becan\p the great turning point of European policy, it will be necessary to take a brief retrospect, in order to explain the position of parties in England. From the time of the restoration, a party, consisting of a few nobles and a very large body of country gentlemen, labored to AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND PRANCE. 575 introduce so much of the principles of the old commonwealth as con- sisted in restraining the power of the crown, and the ecclesiastical priv- ileges of the establishment. They were at first called the puritanical, and afterward the whig party ; they were animated by a perfect horror of popery, or of anything which seemed approaching to it, but they were more favorable to the protestant non-conformists than to the episcopal clergy, and their main strength rested on the support of the protestant dissenters. Except in hatred of popery, the English people of that day had little community of feeling with the whig leaders ; the rigid rule of the presbyteries in the time of the commonwealth and Cromwell, when the most innocent amusements were strictly prohibited, had alienated the lower orders, and though they were rallied round the whigs for a time when the perjuries of Titus Gates and his associates had filled the nation with senseless terror, the reaction against this delusion had re- duced the party to more than its former weakness, and it had found little support out of doors when an attempt was made to exclude James from succeeding to the throne on account of his obnoxious religion. Another reason for the small amount of popular favor enjoyed by the whig party was the notorious fact that many of the leaders, in spite of their loud professions of patriotism, accepted bribes from foreign pow- ers. Some took money from Holland, others from France, and not a few from both governments, excusing such conduct to themselves by the necessity of obtaining foreign support to resist the prerogatives of the crown, and the many advantages of position enjoyed by the court party. The more ardent whigs had raised a rebellion against James, to give the crown to the duke of Monmouth, and the ease with which that rebellion was crushed seemed to prove the extinction of their power as a party. James certainly undervalued them, and had he not taken measures which constrained a coalition between them and their rivals, he might have continued to despise the English whigs with impunity. Matters were very different in Scotland : presbyterianism was there the favored religion of the nation, and prelacy was scarcely less hated than popery. So far as the important question of church government was concerned, the Scotch were whigs and something more, but James and his court made little account of Scotland ; they had taken no warn- ing from the fate of Charles I., which had been decided by a Scottish army. A far more powerful party was known by the names of prelatists, cavaliers, or tories ; it included the great majority of the nobility, the entire body of the clergy, a large proportion of the country gentlemen, and in general the masses of the agricultural and laboring population, so far as the latter were capable of forming any opinion, or selecting a party. Their great principle of union was to support the exclusive su- premacy of the church of England, and to extend the influence of that sovereign in his capacity of head of that church: their rallying cry was " church and king," in which church came first not only in name but in reality. From the very moment of James's accession, the tories found themselves in an awkward and false position. They had long taught the doctrines of the divine right of kings and passive obedience to the will of the sovereign, denouncing all resistance as sinful ; but when the monarch began to exercise his prerogatives as head of the church, in & 376 MODERN HISTORY. ■Spirit of direct hostility to the principless on which the church had been established, they found themselves invoked in diiBculties which every day became more embarrassing. The trial of the bishops was the crisis of their loyalty ; it was not unjustly regarded as a kind of declaration of war by the monarch against the national establishment, and all - the friends of. that establishment felt themselves coerced to take measures for its defence and protection. It is true that the adoption of such meas- ures was a virtual abandonment of the doctrine of non-resistance, and so far a concession to the principles of tReir old adversaries the whigs'; hence the first movements of the tories to join in inviting the prince of Orange to England were slow and unsteady, and the most for whidh they looked was that the .prince might act as mediator between the king, the church, and the nation. We have next to examine the connexion between the position of the king of England in relation to the general politics of Europe. At this period the arbitrary designs of Louis XIV. had excited universal dis- trust, and alliances were secretly formed to resist his designs, whether covert or avowed, to the different districts and territories over which he sought to ejctend his sway. England was prevented from joining in -this coalition only by the strict alliance between its monarch and Louis, and hence the reign of James was odious to the princes of Germany, the houses of Spain and Austria, and even to the pope himself, who had been harshly treated by the French monarch, stripped of his terri- tory of Avignon, and menaced with further injurieg. Holland was still more deeply interested in detaching England from the French alliance : Louis had openly avowed his intentions to destroy its independence, and if he had procured the promised support of the naval power of England, the Dutch would in all probability have become subjects of Fraflce. The combination of parties by which the prince of Orange was invited into England, had little unity in itself, and might have been dissolved in a moment if James had shown a disposition to adopt concil- iatory measures and regain the friendship of the tories and churchmen. William was well aware of these circumstances, and made the most vigorous exertions to take immediate advantage of the crisis.^ While he was thus engaged, the invasion of western Germany by Louis XIV. ■without the formality of a declaration of war, and .the fearful ravages perpetrated by the French in the palatinate, excited universal alarm and indignation throughout Eitrope. ,. The states of Holland immediately placed their fleets and armies at the disposal of William ; he set sail yfhh a powerful armampnt, and on the 5th of November, 1688, landed safely at Torbay. The perplexity into which all parties were thrown by the landing of William was almost ludicrous. At first he was joined by so few par- .tisans, that he began to think of returning ; then on a suddpn the nohle^ and leading men of England flocked to him from aU quarters ; the favor- ite ofiicers of James, those who were solely indebted to him for rank and fortune, even his favorite daughter Anne, joined in the general de- fection — while he, sinking at once into despondency, abandoned his army, and after a brief delay in London, fled to France. It is unfortu- nately true that the prince of Orange made use of many dishonorjable artifices to terrify the unfprtvmate monarch, and induce hiwi to seek safe- AUGUSTAN AGES 01" ENGLAND AND paANCE. ' 577 tyia flight; but James seems to have adopted the fatal resolution Of abandoning his kingdom, in the belief that the complicated embarrass- nuents of parties would, lead to his recall ; and that returning at the head of a French army, he ni:^ht yet triumph over all his enemies. Confi- dence in the powrer of JLiOuis XIV. had been his bane from the begin- ning, and his connexion with that detested monarch was the principal cause of his dying in exile. William assumed so much of royal power as to summon a convention to regulate- the affairs of the nation. Three proposals w;ere made to this;body : first, that terms should be made "with James, and the chief administration intrusted to the prince of Orange as lieutenant-general of the kingdom ; secondly, that the flight of James should be taken as an abdication, and a regency proclaimed, with the prince of Orange at its head ; and thirdly, that the throne should be declared vacant, and William and Mary declared king and queen of England. The first pro- posal was the most acceptable to the consistent tories, including the pri- mate, Sancroft, and several of the bishops whom James had so recently prosecuted, but the great majority felt the absurdity of turning a king out for the mere purpose of calling him back, and it had already passed into a proverb that " the worst of all revolutions was a restoration." In the consideration of the second prppositicm was involved the ques- tion of the legitimacy of the prince of "\¥ales, which nobody really doubt- ed,, but a,Imost everybo(iy affected to deny. There were, hpwever, great practical difiiculties in recognising the infant prince as heir to the crown. It was tolerably certain that James would, not consent to reside in France, and send; his son to be educated as a protestant in England ; the princesses Mary and Anne were naturally opposed to a plan which would have deprived them of their fondly-cherished hopes of, wearing a crown, and WiUiam had taken pains to maie it known that if a regency sho.uld be determined upon, somebody else must be sought to exercise the functions of regent. In fact, the circumstances of the time rendered the third plan the oflly one possiljle to be adopted ; but the majority of those ijrho voted for conferring the crown on WUliam and Mary did so with, undisguised reluctance, as men submitting to a painful necessity. The subsequent eflTorts of James to recover his dominions by the aid of Frenph armar ments completed the alienation of the English people from his cause, while the cowardice and incapacity he displayed in Ireland, particularly at the battle of the Boyne, led to theutter ruin of his unfortunate parti- sans in that country. Louis was himself injured by his efibrts in favor of the dethroned king : bis futile attempts to invade England, his in- trigues to provoke insurrections, ai^d his continued menaces of conquest, provoked and kept' alive against him, the flame of popular indignation in Great Britain, and induced the people to bear the brunt of expensive continental wars, in which England was very remotely and indirectly^ concerned, for the mere purpose of restraining his ambition. It was in the same way at a later period that Napoleon's menace of invading England, excited a spirit among the people which led them similarly to fight the battle of continental Europe, and pay its sovereigns for main- taining their own independence. 37 578 MODERN HISTORY. Section IV. — General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the Formation of the Grand Alliance. The domestic history of England, during the reign of Williani III., is so remotely connected with the progress of the war to restrain the ambition of Louis XIV., that it will be convenient to limit our attention to the former before commencing the narrative of the latter. Several parties, as we have seen, joined in effecting the revolutiun ; scarcely had they succeeded, when their old jealousies were renewfed with ag- gravated fpry. The Scottish convention made the establishment rf presbyteriahism an essential part of the settlement of the crown ; the protestant sectarians in England were thus encouraged to hope for some modifications in the discipline of the English church ; they did obtain a general toleration, to the great disgust of the tory or high-church party. Ireland remained faithful to James, though William not only offered wealth and dignity to the lord-lieutenant, Tyrconnell, but promised to secure the catholics in their civil rights, and give them one third of the churches. But the protestants, who had so recently been secured in their lands by the acts of Settlement and Explanation, conscious that the justice of their titles would not bear a very rigid scrutiny, and dreading that, under a catholic monarch and a catholic parliament, these acts might be re- pealed, boldly took up arms, and atoned for their deficiency of number by martial vigor and a daring spirit. They felt that under Cromwell they had won their possessions by the sword, and by the sword they were resolved to retain them. Some of them foirmed guerilla bands, and scoured the country ; others threw themselves into Londonderry, Enniskillen, and other garrison towns, resolved to hold out until aid could arrive from England. James, with a small French force, pro- ceeded to Ireland, and convened a parliament in Dublin. The act of Settlement was repealed, and all the protestants who favored, or were supposed to favor, the prince of Orange, were declared guilty of high treason. But in the meantime, the adherents of the abdicated monarch had been ruined in Scotland by the loss of their leader, the brave Vis- count Dundee, who fell in the arms of victory. The Highlanders who followed his standard dispersed, and the jacobite party had no person of sufficient influence to collect another army. James began his opera- tions in Ireland by the siege of Londonderry ; it was nobly defended by the inhabitants, whose religious enthusiasm more than supplied their deficiency in martial discipline. They were, however, on the point of sinking under the joint sufferings of fatigue and famine, when a rein- forcement arrived from England, with provision and ammunition, upon which the besiegers abandoned their undertaking. Ere James could recover from this disaster, the duke of Schomberg landed at Carrickfergus with ten thousand men ; but as the operations of this general were too slow for the impatience of the people of Eng- land, \yilliam followed with a considerable reinforcement, and hasted to meet his father-in-law. The hostile armies met on the 1st of July, 1690, on the banks of the river Boyne ; the skill of William procured him a victory, which the cowardice of James rendered decisive ; he fled from the field of battle, and scarcely halting in Dublin hasted- to take shipping at Waterford for France, abandoning his faithful subjects AUGUSTAK AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 579 to their fate. The Irish, though forsaken, did not despair ; they threw themselves into Limerick, *hich William immediately invested, hut was finally forced to raise the siege. This failure was, however, com- pensated by the success of the earl of Marlborough, in Munster, who with five thousand men reduced Cork, Kinsale, and some other places of less importance. But Ireland was not yet subdued, and William intrusted the completion of the task to Baron Ginckle, who took Ath- lone almost in the presence of the Irish army, chiefly through the neg- ligence of St. Ruth, whom Louis had sent over at the request of James. Stung with remorse, St. Ruth hazarded a battle at Aughrim, but he was defeated and slain. The Irish a second time sought shelter in Limer- ick, which Ginckle once more besieged. All parties were now weary of the war, and a treaty was concluded at Limerick, by which it was stipulated that the catholics should enjoy the same toleration as in the reign of Charles II. ; that they should be restored to the privileges of subjects, on taking the oath of allegiance ; and that as many as chose to follow the fortunes of the late monarch should be transported to the continent at the expense of the government. About ten thousand men took advantage of the last article, and, under the name of the Irish brigades, were taken into the service of the king of France. William had, in the meantime, become disgusted with the constitu- tional jealousy of the whigs, and had sought the friendship of the tories, who were remarkable for their zealous support of the royal prerogative. But a sanguinary act of vengeance, the massacre of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, under circumstances of great treachery, brought so much odium on the new government, that James began to entertain some hopes of a restoration. The Macdonalds had recognised the new government a day later than that named in the act of parliament, but as their allegiance was formally accepted by the authorities, they believed themselves in perfect security. A military force was received into their glens with- out distrust or suspicion. But in the dead hour of the night, the sol- diers, pursuant to previous orders, rose upon their hosts, set fire to the houses, and shot down the wretched inhabitants as they attempted to escape from the flames. This atrocity excited universal indignation throughout Europe ; the French king hoped that it would enable him to replace James on the throne ; and had he been able immediately to transport his forces across the channel, the liberties of England and the crown of William would have been exposed to serious ' danger. A camp was fornjed betweein Cherbourg and La Hogue ; twenty thousand Irish and French soldiers were prepared to invade England, and a powerful navy was equipped to support the expedition. The whole was frustrated by the valor of the British seamen ; Admiral Russell having formed a junction with a Dutch squadron, attacked the French fleet ofi" La Hogue, burned sev- eral of their men-of-war and transports, and drove the rest into their harbors. James beheld from the shore this annihilation of his hopes, but could not forbear expressing his admiration of the valor of his former subjects.* The death of Queen Mary revived the hopes of the Jacobites, as the * When he saw the French fleet set on fire, he exclaimed, " Ah ! none but my brave English tars could have performed so gallant an action 1" 580 MODEEN HISTORY. partisans of the Stuarts were called ; "bat instead of open' rebellion, they resolved to remove the king by assassination. The plot was discovered, and the nation was so disgusted with the intended treachery, that Wil' liam was restored to all his former popularity. From this time to the accession of Queen Anne, there is little worthy of note in the domestic history of England. On the death of the duke of Gloucesfter, the last protestant heir to the crown, an act was passed by which the eventual succession was settled on Sophia, dutchess dowager of Hanover, and her heirs, being protestants (a. d. 1701). She was the grand^daughter of James I., by the 'princess Elizabeth, married to the unfortunate elec- tor-palatine. Party animosities between the whigs and tories were gccasionally violent, and William III. was not always on the best of terms with his parliament. The emperor Leopold, the head of the league of Augsburg, was a prince of great abilities, sullied, however, too often, by cruelly and big- otry. Though the chief of a confederacy for maintaining the liberties of Europe, he trampled on the privileges of his Hungarian subjects, and persecuted the protestants. But the overthrow of the Turks at Vienna, and the subsequent capture of Belgrade, left the discontented without an ally, and th6y were forced to submit in silence. Louis was not daunted by the power of the league ; he assembled two armies in Flan- ders, sent a third to check the Spaniards in Catalonia, and, to form a barrier on the side of Germany, ravaged thp Palatinate with fire and sword (a. d. 1688). This barbarous policy filled Europe with horror ; men, women, and children, driven from their habitations, in the inclem- ent month of February, wandered by the light of their own burning houses over the frozen fields, and fell victims by thousands to cold and hunger. Nor did this detestable expedient produce the desjred effect; the German armies, in the ensuing campaign, gained several important triumphs. I^ouis sought to recover his former superiority by nobler means ; he intrusted his armies to new generals of approved talent, and the fortune of the war instantly changed. Savoy was overrun by the French marshal Gatinat ; Marshal Luxemburg gained a brilliant victory over the allies in Flanders ; the united Dutch and English fleets were defeated off Beachy Head, and the Spaniards were scarcely able to de- fend Catalonia (a. d. 1 690). Little was done on the side of Germany, for the emperor was once more assailed by Tekeli and the Turks, whose progress threatened the ruin of his hereditary dominions. Had this course of fortune continued, Louis must have become the master of Europe, but in the following campaigns, the Turks, deprived of all their advantages, left the emperor at leisure to watch his western frontiers, and Gatinat was driven from Italy by the duke of Savoy. But in Flan- ders the French continued to be eminently successfuli Mons and Na- mur were taken in spite of all the efforts which the united forces of the English and Dutch could make for their relief, and the allies were de- fea,ted in two great general engagements by the duke of Luxemburg. But William III. was never daunted by ill success, and he adopted such prudent, measures, that Luxemburg was unable to derive any im- portant advantages' from his victories. Similar success attended the armies of Louis in Savoy, Spain, and Germany ; but the triuniphs were eqtialiy Unproductive. Even at sea, notwithstanding the tecent lOss at, AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. S81 La Hogue, the French navy rode triumphant, afld gained a decided gliperiority over the Enghsh and Dutch fleets. But France was ex- hausted by these efforts ; a drfeadful famine ravaged the country, arising partly from an unfavorable season, and partly from the vi^ant of hands to till the ground ; and the finances of the state were fast falling into con- fusion. The allies, aware of these circumstances, made vigorous efforts to recover their losses, but they were generally unsuccessful, except on the side, of Flanders, where William recaptured Namur, and thus, iii some degree, retrieved his military reputation. All parties became weary of a war in which much blood was shed, much treasure expend- ed, and no permanent alcquisitions made.' Negotiations were com- ' menced under the mediation of Charles XL, of Sweden, at Ryswick (a. d. 1697), and a treaty concluded, in which Louis made many im- portant concessions, to purchase an interval of tranquillity for his future projects. The French king's renunciation of the Spanish succession, which it had been the main object of the war to enforce, was not even mentioned in the articles of pacification, and several other omissions left abundant grounds for a renewal of the war at no distant period. The emperor, though severely harassed by the Turks, consented to the peace with great reluctance, and complained bitterly of the desertion of his allies. But no one of the confederates derived more advantages from the treaty ; he was enabled to direct his whole force against the Ottomans, who, under their iiew sultan, Mustapha XL, became, for a brief space, formidable to Europe. The danger was averted by the celebrated Prince Eugene, of Savoy, who now began to attract admira- tion. Aft«r the peace of Ryswick, he took the command of the impe- rialists, and encountered Mustapha at Zenta, a*small village on the banks of the river Theysse, in the kingdom of Hungary,' The. battle was brief, but, for its duration, one of the most sanguinary on record ; fifteen thousand Turks were slain, and eight thousand more drpwned in their flight across the river ; their artillery, baggage, and ammunition, the sultan's magnificent pavilion, countless standards, a,nd the great seal of the Ottoman empire, remained the prize of the victors ; the grand vizier, the aga of the janissaries, and twenty-seven pachas, were among the victims of this fatal field. Mustapha, having vainly attempted to retrieve his losses in a new campaign, was forced to consent to the peace of Carlowitz, by which several provinces were resigned to the Austrians, Azof cedefd to the Russians, now fast rising into importance und^er the administration of the Czar Peter, a,nd the Venetians gratified by the cession of the Morea, anciently called the Peloponnesus. The declining health of the king of S|)ain, Charles II., engaged the general attention of Europe after the peace of Ryswick: three princes were candidates for the succession, Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Bavaria. It is unnecessary to canvass their several claims, but it is manifest that the general interests of Europe pointed to the electoral prince as the most eligible of the competitors. A secret treaty Of partition was concluded between William and Louis, but Charles II. received information of the tran$a:ction, and enraged that his dominions should be shared during his life, proclaimed the electoral prince of Bavaria sole heir. Scarcely, however, had this arrangement been made, when that prince died suddenly, not without strong suspi- 582 MODERN HISTORY. cions of poison (a. d. 1699). A new treaty of partition was arranged by Holland, France, and England^ but the ertiperor Leopold refused his concurrence, expecting to obtain for his family the inheritance of the whole Spanish monarchy. During these negotiations, the affections of the Scotch were alienated from William, by his sacrificing the settle- ment which they had established at a great expense, on the isthmus of Darien, to quiet the fears of the Spaniards, and the commercial jeal- ousy of the English., Could they have found leaders, they would probably have had recourse to arms, but fortunately they were contented to vent their rage in violent language, and furious invective. Charles II. was long disposed to favor the Austrian claimant to his crown, but the arrogance of his queen and her German favorites, alienated the nation from the court of Vienna, "while the Spanish nobility and clergy urged the dying monarch to bestow the sovereignty on the house of Bourbon. Charles applied to the pope for advice ; Innocent XII., who then filled the pontifical chair, was very jealous of the progress of the Austrian power in Italy ; he therefore strenuously recommended the choice of a French prince ; a new will was made, and Philip, duke of Anjou, sec- ond son of the dauphin, was nominated heir to the crown of Spain. Not long after Charles died (a. d. 1701), and Louis, after some hesi- tation between the will and the partition treaty, proclaimed his grandson king of Spain and the Indies, under the title of Philip V. Though England and Holland were equally alarmed at this proceed- ing, both powers were obliged to acquiesce for a season. William found his parliament reluctant to engage in a new war, and Louis, by. an unexpected movement against the barrier towns, had secured a great portion of the Dutch army. The emperor, however, commenced a war, claiming the dutchy of Milan as a fief of the imperial crown, and his army, under the command of Prince Eugene, gained several advantages over Marshal Catinat, in Italy. During this campaign, the states-gen- eral and William, having failed to make any satisfactory explanations of his designs from the French king, concluded a treaty, called the Grand Alliance, with the emperor. Its avowed objects were " to pro- cure satisfaction to his imperial majesty in the case of the Spanish suc- cession ; obta,in security to the English and Dutch for their dominions and commerce ; prevent the union of the monarchies of France and Spain, and hinder the French from possessing the Spanish dominions in America." But this treaty would probably have been frustrated by the English parliament, but for the imprudence with which Louis haz- arded an insult to the British nation (a. d. 1701). On the death of James II., he caused his son, commonly called the Old Pretender, to be recognised king of Great Britain and Ireland, under the title of James III. Xbe parliament at once entered heartily into the war, which they had hitherto disapproved, and their martial ardor was not abated by the death of William, who fell a victim to a fall from his horse, and the unskilfulness of an inexperienced surgeon (a. d. 1702). The intelli- gence of this event filled the allies with consternation ;, but their fears were of short duration, for Queen Anne, who next ascended the throne, declared her resolution to adhere steadily to the policy of her predecessor. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 583 Section V. — The War of the Spanish Succession. The accession of Queen Anne gave great satisfaction to the English people ; William was disliked as a foreigner, who was more strongly- attached to Holland than to his adopted country, and his coldness of manner had greatly tended to increase his unpopularity. He was sus- pected hy the tories of secret designs against the church, on account of his attachment to presbyterianism, and the whigs had ceased to respect him, because he had not shown himself sufficiently grateful for their services in raising him to the throne. Though, his military talents were great, he had not been a very successful general, and it was stu- diously circulated, that he endeavored as much as possible to keep back the earl (afterward duke) of Marlborough, through envy of his superior abilities. He had, at first, recognised the duke of Anjou to the crown of Spain, and therefore, when he joined the grand alliance formed to prevent what he had previously sanctioned, he was exposed to suspi- cions of insincerity, and it was generally believed that if Louis made any large sacrifices to conciliate the Dutch, the English monarch would not persevere in his resistance. It is scarcely necessary to say that it was of very little importance to England, whether an Austrian or a French prince became monarch of Spain ; the war of the succession, in which this country bore the principal share, was that in which its interests were the least involved ; and this country lavishly poured forth its blood and treasure to accomplish objects which had no connex- ion with its real position. It was the indignation excited by the at- tempt of Louis to impose upon the English people a sovereign of his choice, which induced the queen and her people to enter on a bloody and expensive war, for no other purpose than humiliating the insolence of a despot. They subsequently found out that they had to pay too dear a price for the luxuries of war and vengeance. • Queen Anne infused vigor into the grand alliance, not only by the prompt declaration of her adhesion, but by her judicious choice of ministers ; Lord Godolphin was placed at the head of the treasury, and the earl of Marlborough, who was connected with the premier by mar- riage, was appointed commander-in-chief of the English array in Flan- ders, andL appointed ambassador extraordinary to the states-general. War was declared against France on the same day, at London, the Hague, and Vienna ; and the campaign was simultaneously opened in Italy, Germany, and Flanders (a. d. 17,02). The earl of Marlborough, who commanded in Flanders, was the only one of the allied generals who obtained success ; he captured several important towns, and wojild probably have defeated the French in the open field, had not his motions been fettered by the presence of the Dutch field-deputies, who were too cautious or too timorous to allow of his hazarding an engagement. At sea the ancient renown of the English navy was re-established ; Sir George Rooke sailed against Cadiz with a fleet of fifty sail, having with him the duke of Ormond and an army of twelve thousand men, Qadiz was too strong to be taken, and Rooke sailed to Vigo, where tha galleons, laden with the treasures of Spanish America, lay protected by a French fleet and a formidable castle and batteries. The English admiral broke the boom that protected the narrow entrance into the in- 584 MOBEBN HISTOHY. ner harbor, Ormond stormed the castle, and the French losing all hope, set fire to their ships. But the English and Dutch were at hand to ex- tinguish the flames ; six ships of the line and nine galleons became the trophies of the conquerors. - These losses, and the defection of the duke of Savoy, did not abate the courage of Louis ; and the confederates, though joined by the king of Portugal, did not improve theii; advantages (a. d. 1703). The elector df Bavaria, the firm ally of France, being joined by Marshal Villars, gained a great victory over the imperialists at Hochstet, by which a road was opened to Vieiina. The armies of Louis retained their supe- riority in Italy; even at sea the French disconcerted the plans of the confederates, and these disasters were poorly compensated by the ac- quisition of a few fortified towns in Flanders, which were captured by Marlborough. Even these slight successes gave courage to the allies ; the English parliament voted liberal supplies for continuing the war, and the emperor, though menaced on one side by the Hungarian insur- gents, and on the other by the French and Bavarians, ordered his sec- ond son, Charles, to assume the title of king of Spain, and to proceed to Portugal, for the purpose of invading that couiltry. Marlborough had hitherto been greatly impeded by the timid caution of his Dutch colleagues; he concerted the plan of his next cartipaiga with a more congenial spirit. Prince Eugene. As his Flemish con- quests, in the preceding campaigns, had secured a good barrier for the united provinces, Marlborough now advanced to the title of duke, leaving the defence of the fohresses to the Dutch garrisons, concen- trated his forces, with the professed design of invading Franee, and' then suddenly marched into Germany. A junction was efffeeted with the imperialists, the electoir of Bavaria!s lines at Donawert were forced, and the allies advanced to the Danube.' The Bavarian prince having been reinforced by thirty thousand French under the command of Mar- shal Tallard, resolved to hazard a battle, and the duke having been joined by Prince Eiigene, with an equal number, eagerly sought- for an engagement (August 13, a. d. 1704). The French and Bavarians were advantageously posted on a hill between the Da.nube and the village of Blenheini ; but their line was weakened by detachments, and Marlbor- ough, taking advantage of their error, charged through, and won a de- cisive victory. Thirty thousaiid French and Bavarians were killed, wounded, or taken ; their camp-equipage, baggage, artillery, and stand- ards, became the prize of the conquerors ; Tallard was taken prisoner, and the Bavarian prince narrowly escaped the same fate. The allies, however, suffered very severely ; their loss amounted to no less than five thousand killed and seven thousand wounded. The consequences of this brilliant but bloody victory were, the im- mediate liberation of the emperor from all danger; the Hungarian insurgents were terrified into submission, Bavaria was abandoned by its sovereign to the ravages of the imperialists, and the shattered relics of the French army wei'e driven to seek shelter within their ©wn fron- tiers. The moral influence of the victory was even of more impor- tance than the immediate resuUs : it not only compensated for the ill success of the allies in Italy and Spain, but changed the whole com- plexion of the war. At sea the English navy began to retrieve ita AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 585 fame ; though Sir George Rooke failed in an attack on Barcelona, he stormed Gibraltar, a fortress hitherto deemed impregnable, and gained a glorious but unprofitable victory over the French fleet off Malaga. Had all the allies exhibited the same vigor as the English, Louis must have been speedily ruined ; but the Germans virere sluggish ; the death of the emperor Leopold, and the accession of his more enter- prising son Joseph, made no change in their policy (a. d. 1705): the prince of Baden, the general of the imperialists, obstinately refused to join Marlborough on the Moselle, and the allies could attempt no con- quest of importance in Flanders. In Italy the French obtained so many advantages that the duke of Savoy -was forced to shut himself up in his capital, where he wss besieged, with but little prospect of relief; but on the side of Spain the allied arms were crowned with brilliant success. Sir John Leake defeated a French fleet off Gibraltar, and thus forced the marshal de Tesse to raise the siege of that fortress ; the confederates, entering Spain on the Portuguese side, captured several places in Estremadura, while the earl of Peterborough, having been convoyed by Sir Sir Cloudesly Shovel to the coast of Catalonia, took the important city of Barcelona, ancjl established the authority of Charles in. in the whole province of Catalonia, and the greater part of the kingdom of Valencia. These variations of success inflamed the couragle and obstinacy of the belligerant powers. Louis was so elated that he ordered Marshal Villeroy to act on the offensive in Flanders, while his Italian army be- sieged Turin, and the forces he sent into Germany drove the prince of Baden and the imperialists before them (a. d. 1706). The English parliament, now composed prineipaHy of whigs, showed the greatest eagerness for the prosecution of the War, and voted liberal supplies for the ensuing campaign. Marlborough joined the united army of Hol- land and England in May, and soon after received a subsidiary Danish force. Villeroy, relying on his superior strength, advanced to attack the allies, and the two armies met near the village of Ramillies. The French marshal posted his left wing behind a morass, where it could not be attacked, but where it was equally incapable of advancing against the enemy. Marlborough took immediate advantage of this errqr ; amusing the French left wing by a feigned attack, he poured his inj fantry in masses on the centre ; they encountered a brave resistance, but the duke, bringing up the cavalry just as the French, lines began to waver, broke through them with a headstrong charge, and in an instant Villeroy's army was a helpless mass of confusion. Seven thousand of the French were slain, six thousand taken prisoners, and a vast quan- tity of artillery and ammunition abandoned to the victors. The loss of the allies, in killed and wounded, did not exceed three thousand five hundred men. The results of this brilliant victory were the immediate conquest of Brabant, and almost all the Spanish Netherlands ; but its consequence^ were felt even in Italy. Marshal Vendome having been recalled to remedy, if possible, Villeroy's disaster, Prince Eugene resolved to raise the siege of Turin, and baffled the efforts of the duke of Orleans tQ ob-: struct bis march. Orleans therefore joined the besieging army, and as a battle was manifestly inevitable, the French marshals anxiously de- 586 MODERN HISTOaY. liberated whether they should wait for the enemy in their intrench- ments. The majority voted against the measure, but Marshal Marsin produced an order, signed by the king, immediately after receiving the account of his defeat at RamilUes, commanding his generals not to offer, but to wait for battle. This order hurt the pride ^nd confused the measures of the duke of Orleans. While the French generals were angrily debating what arrangements should be made, Prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy fell upon their lines ; the French got entangled in their extensive intrenchments, ^the river Doria running through their camp prevented one part of their army from coming to the assistance, of the other ; they were speedily routed, and fled with precipitation, not halting until they had passed their own frontiers. In men, the loss of the French army was not great, but they abandoned all their cannon, baggage, ammunition, and military chest. By this single blow, the house of Bourbon lost the dutchies of Milan and Mantau, the principality of Piedmont, and eventually the kingdom of Naples. That the success of the allies was not equally decisive in Spain, must be attributed to the want of energy and Austrian sluggishness of the archduke Charles. Philip besieged his rival in Barcelona, but was forced to retire by the appearance of Sir John Leake, with an English squadron, before the town. The retreat was made in great disorder, partly occasioned by an eclipse of the sun, which the superstitious Spaniards regarded as an omen of their ruin. Forty thousand English and Portuguese, under the command of the earl of Galway and the marquis de las Minas, advanced through Estremadura toward Madrid, and Philip was forced to abandon his capital ; at the same time, the count de Santa Cruz surrendered Carthagena and the galleys to the allied powers. Had the archduke gone immediately to Madrid, and closely pressed his rival, the crown of Spain would probably have been lost to the house of Bourbon ; but he lingered unaccountably in the neighborhood of Barcelona, until Philip and the duke of Berwick,* hav- ing collected a superior army, compelled the English and Portuguese to abandon Madrid. Carthagena was soon after recovered, but this was more than compensated by the loss of the islands of Majorca and Ivica, which surrendered to the English fleet under Sir John Leake. Louis was so disheartened by his losses, that he sought for peace on very humble conditions, but the allies, intoxicated with success, de- manded such humiliating terms, that he resolved to try the hazards of another campaign. While the English ministers were lavishing blood and treasure to support foreign wars, they did not neglect the internal afiairs of the na- tion. A treaty for uniting England and Scotland under one legislature, was ratified by the parliaments of both countries ; but the Scottish na- tion generally was opposed to a union that galled their national pride, and the advantages of which time alone could develop (a. d. 1707). Louis derived one advantage from his recent misfortunes ; the expulsion of his force from Italy enabled him to send powerful succors into Spain, where the allies were acting with the greatest negligence and miscon- duct. The earl of Galway and the marquis de las Minas, having ex- • The duke of Berwick was the natural sou of James II., and one of the ablest generals in the service of France. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND raANCE. 587 hausted all their provisions in Valencia, attempted to pass into New Castile ; the duke of Berwick, having received large reinforcements, and aware that the allies had been weakened by the departure of the archduke, did not hesitate to attack them at Almanza, and won a vic- tory as complete as any that had beea obtained during the war. This great triumph restored the cause of the Bourbons in Spain, and sim- ilar success attended the French army in Germany, where Marshal Villars penetrated to the Danube, and laid the dutchy of Wirtemberg under contribution. Nothing of importance occurred in Flanders, and the only naval enterprise was the siege of Toulon. Prince Eugene, and the duke of Savoy, marched through France to besiege this great port, while. Sir Cloudesly Shovel appeared off the coast to second their operations. But unfortunately, the garrison of Toulon had been re- inforced two hours before the appearance of the allies ; they retreated through Provence, wasting the country as they passed, and diffusing consternation almost to the gates of Paris. Nor was this the only evil that Louis suffered from the invasion ; the detachments withdrawn from the army of Marshal Villars so weakened that general, that he was forced to relinquish his high projects in Germany, and repass the Rhine, instead of advancing beyond the Danube. Great expectations had been formed in England, which the results of the campaign miserably disappointed ; Godolphin and Marlborough lost a considerable share of their popularity ; they were opposed even by the members of the cabinet, and though they persuaded the queen to dismiss Mr. Secretary Harley, and Mr. St. John, they saw that their influence with her majesty, and their power in parliament, had been considerably diminished (a. d. 1708). Marlborough felt that a vigorous campaign was essential to his future interests, especially as the duke de Vendome had, by treachery, gained possession of Ghent and Bruges ; he therefore resolved to risk a general battle, and crossing the Scheldt, came up with the French army strongly posted at Oudenarde. The British cavalry broke their opponents at the first charge, the French lines fell into confusion, and though the approach of darkness prevented the allies from completing their victory, the enemy fled in such disorder, that nine thousand were taken prisoners, and nearly six thousand de- serted. Marlborough, being reinforced by Prince Eugene, undertook the siege of Lisle, the principal city in French Flanders, and though it was vigorously defended by Marshal Boufilers, it was forced to surren- der after a siege of two months, while Ghent and Bruges were re- covered ere the close of the campaign. Nothing of importance occur- red in Italy, Germany, or Spain ; but the English fleet conquered the island of Sardinia, and terrified the pope into the acknowledgment of the archduke Charles as lawful king of Spain. The confidence of the allies now rose to the highest pitch ; Godol- phin and Marlborough found the English parliament ready to grant additional supplies ; the Dutch agreed to augment their troops, and the imperialists promised to lay aside their inactivity. Ijouis, on. the con- trary, disheartened by defeat, his treasury exhausted, his ooimcils dis- tracted, and his kingdom suffering from- famine, offered to purchase peace by every concession that could reasonably be demanded (a. d. 1709). Once more his proffers were rejected, except upon conditions 588 MODERN HISTOEY. inconsistent with Ms personal honor and, the safety of his kingdom, and once more he appealed to the hazards of war. The confederates in Flanders, finding that Marshal Villars had taken a position from which he could not be dislodged, laid siege to Tournay, and on the surrender of that place invested Mons. Villars, unable to relieve the place, took possession of a strong camp, at Malplaquet, whence he trusted that he could harass the besiegers. The confederates, elafted lyith past suc- cess, resolved to attack the French in their intrenchments. Few bat- tles, since the invention of gunpowder, have been more obstinate and bloody ; victory finally declared in favor of the allies, but it was dearly purchased by the loss of fifteen thousand men ; while the French, who had foiight under cover, lost only ten thousand. Mons was now closely invested, and the surrender of that important place closed the campaign. Nothing of importance occurred in Germany, Italy, or Spain ; but Louis, finding his resources exhausted, once again made an unsuccessful effort to obtain peace. Conferences were opened at Gertruydenb,erg (a. d. 1710), but the allies, influenced by Marlborough and Prince Eugene, rejected the propositions of the French king ; he was, however, unwilling to break off the negotiations, and the conferences were continued even a,fter the hostile armies had actually taken the field. The duke of Marlborough took several fortified places in Flanders ; but notliing of importance was done in Germany or Piedmont ; and the misfortunes of the allies in Spain more than counterbalanced their other successes. The arch- duke Charles, aided by the English general, Stanhope, twice defeated his rival, and a second time gained possession of Madrid ; instead of improving these advantages, he loitered in the capital until forced to retire by the united forces of the French and Spaniards, under the duke of Vendome. The allies retired toward Catalonia, and marched, for the sake of subsistence, in two bodies. Stanhope, who commanded the rear division, allowed himself to be surrounded at Brihuega, and was forced to surrender at discretion. Staremberg, who led the prin- cipal division, was soon after forced to engage at a disadvantage, but he made such able dispositions, that Vendome was compelled to retreat,, and the imperialists continued their march in safety. They , were, however, so weakened and dispirited by Stanhope's misfortune, that they could not check the victorious progress of Philip. A revolution in the English cabinet proved of more consequence to Louis than even the success of his arms in Spain. The queen, a wo- man of feeble mind, had long been under the influence of the dutchess of Marlborough, who did not always use her power with discretion. A new favorite, Mrs. Masham, supplanted the dutchess, and was gained over, by Harley and St. John, to induce the queen to make a total change in the administration. This would have been impossible if the whigs had continued to enjoy the confidence of the nation ; but many circumstances contributed to diminish their popularity. The weight of taxes,. occasioned by the expenses of the war, began to be felt as a burden, when victories, from their very frequency, ceased to excite joy ; the conduct of the allies, who contrived that " England should ^ght for all and pay for all," gave just dissatisfaction ; and the rejection of the French king's pffers at Gertruydenberg was justly regarded as the tri- AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND PUANCB. 589 iimph of private ambition over public policy. In addition to these grounds of discontent, the tories raised the cry that the " church was in danger," on account of the favor shown to the dissenters ; and the whigs, instead of allowing the imputation to refute itself, unwisely attempted to silence the clamor by force. Dr. Henry Sacheverell preached a ser- mon before the lord mayor, in which he bitterly attacked the dissenters, and advocated the exploded doctrines of passive obedience and non-re- sistance. Though it was but a poor contemptible production, such is the violence of party, that it was printed, and forty thousand copies are said to have been sold in a week. In another week, it would probably have been forgotten, had not Godolphin, who was personally attacked in the commons, persuaded his friends to make it the subject of a parlia- mentary impeachment. Common sense revolted from such an absurdi- ty ; the generous feelings of the nation were enlisted on the side of the preacher, and this sympathy was soon transferred to his cause. During his trial, the populace showed the liveliest zeal in his behalf ; and when he was found guilty, the house of lords, dreading popular tumults, passed a sentence so lenient, that it was hailed by the tories as a triumph. The persecution of Sacheverell was the ruin of the whigs ; the queen, aware of their unpopularity, dismissed all her ministers except the duke of Marlborough ; and a new cabinet was formed under the auspices of Mr. Harley, who was soon aftercreated earl of Oxford. A new parlia- ment was summoned, in which the tories had an overwhelming majority (a. d. 1711), but the ministers did not abandon the foreign policy of their predecessors, and copious supplies were voted for the maintenance of the war. At this crisis an unexpected event changed the situations and views of all parties. The emperor Joseph died without issue ; his brother Charles, the claimant of the Spanish crown, succeeded, to the empire, and the liberties of Europe were thus exposed to as much danger from the aggrandizement of the house of Austria, as from that of the Bourbon family. The campaign was languidly conducted in every quarter, ^nd ere its conclusion, the English ministers were secretly negotiating with France. After many disgraceful intrigues, in which all the actors sacrificed the interests of the nation to party purposes,, the duke of Marlborough was stripped of all his employments, and conferences for a general peace commenced at UtreCht. The successii^e deaths of the dauphin of France, his son the duke of Burgundy, and his grandson the duke of Bretagne, left only the sickly duke of Anjoii between Philip and the throne of France. The union of the Frfeiich and Spanish imonarchies filled the confederates with no unreasonable apprehension, and the Eng- lish ministers were obliged to threaten that they would renew the war, unless Philip renounced his right of sucdession'to the throne of France (a. d. 1712). When this important point was obtained, the English and French agreed upon a cessation of arms ; the Dutch and the impe- rialists continued the campaign, but with such ill success, that they were induced to renew the conferences for peace. On the 31st of March, 1713, the treaties between the different powers were signed at Utrecht by the plenipotentiaries of France, England, Prussia (recently exalted into a kingdom), Savoy, and the United Provinces. The em- 590 MODERN HISTORY. peror held out until the following year, when he signed a treaty at Rad- stadt, less favorable than that which had been offered at Utrecht ; and the king of Spain, with more reluctance, gave his adhesion to the general arrangements. Few subjects have been more fiercely contested than the conduct of the English ministers in relation to the treaty of Utrecht. ■ The reason is perfectly obvious : both the political parties that divided the nation had acted wrong ; the whigs continued the war after all its reasonable objects had been gained ; the tories concluded a peace in which the ad- vantages that England might have claimed, from the success of her arms, were wantonly sacrificed. The people of England generally dis- liked the peace, and the commercial treaty with France was rejected by a majority of nine votes in the house of commons. The whigs now began to pretend that the protestant succession was in danger, and the alarm spreading rapidly, brought back to their party a large share of its former popularity. Nor were these apprehensions groundless ; through the influence of the Jacobites, th« earl of Oxford was removed from his oiRce, and a new administration, more favorable to the house of Stuart, formed under the auspices of St. John, Lord Bolingbroke. But before the court of St. Germains could derive any advantage from this change, the queen, harassed by the intrigues and quarrels of her servants, sank into a lethargy, and her death disappointed the hopes of the Pretender and his adherents (August 1, 1714). Several whig lords, without being summoned, attended the council, which was of course held at the de- mise of the crown ; and the tories, overawed, concurred in issuing an order for the proclamation of the elector of Hanover, as George I., king of Great Britain and Ireland. Section VI. — Peter the Cheat of Russia. — Charles XII. of Sweden. In the last two sections, we have confined our attention to the wars which the ambition of Louis XIV. excited in the south and west of Europe. During this period, the northern and eastern divisions of Christendom were occupied by the rivalry of two of the most extraor- dinary men that ever appeared on the stage of human life — Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles XII. of Sweden. Before entering on their history, we must take a brief retrospect of the affairs of the north, after the accession of the C?ar Alexis, and the resignation of Queen Christina. Under the administration of Alexis, Russia began rapidly to emerge from the barbarism into which it had been plunged by the Mongolian invasion and subsequent civil wars. He reformed the laws, encouraged commerce, and patronised the arts ; he recovered Smolensko from the Poles, and prevented the Turks from establishing their dominion over the Cossack tribes. His son Theodore, though of a weak constitution, steadily pursued the same course of vigorous policy. " He lived," says a native Russian historian, " the joy and delight of his people, and died amid their sighs and tears. On the day of his decease, Moscow was in the same state of distress which Rome felt at the death of Titus." John, the brother and successor of Theodore, was a prince of weak in- tellect; his ambitious sister, Sophia, seized for a time on the sovereign- AUGTOSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 591 ty, excluding her young brother Peter, to whom Theodore had bequeathed the crown. During seven years of boyhood Peter endured Sophia's galling yoke ; but when he reached his seventeenth year, he took advan- tage of the general indignation excited by the misconduct of the govern- ment, to shut that princess up in a nimnery, and banish her favorite into a distant part of the empire. Denmark was the scene of an extraordinary revolution (a. d. 1661). The tyranny of the aristocracy arose to such a height, that the clergy and commons voted for the surrender of their liberties to the king, and Ferdinand III., almost without any eflFort of his own, was thus invested with absolute power. On his death (a. d. 1670), his successor. Chris- tian v., commenced war against Charles XL, king of Sweden, who, though assailed by a powerful league, defended himself with great abili- ty and success. Charles XL, after the restoration of peace, tried to make himself as absolute as the kings of Denmark, but he died prema- turely (a. d. 1697), leaving his crown to his son Charles XII., who has been deservedly styled the Alexander of the North. Peter the Great commenced his reign by defeating the Turks, from whom he wrested the advantageous port of Azof, which opened to his subjects the commerce of the Black sea. This acquisition enlarged his views ; he resolved to make Russia the centre of trade between Europe and Asia, to connect the Dwina, the Volga, and the Don, by canals, thus opening a water communication between the northern seas and the Black and the Caspian seas. To complete this magnificent plan, he de- termined to build a city on the Baltic sea, which should be the empori- um of northern commerce, and the capital of his dominions. A still greater proof of his wisdom, and of his anxiety to secure the prosperity of his subjects, was his undertaking a tour through Europe, for the pur- pose of acquiring instruction, and bringing back to his subjects the im- provements of more civilized nations. In 1698, having established a regency to direct the government during his absence, he departed from his dominions as a private gentleman, in the train of the ambassadors that he had sent to the principal courts of Europe. Amsterdam, at that time one of the most flourishing commercial cities in Europe, was the first place that arrested his attention ; he entered himself as a common carpenter in one of the principal dockyards, laboring and living exactly like the other workmen. Thence he went to England, where he ex- amined and studied the principal naval arsenals. King William present- ed the czar with a beautiful yacht, and permitted him to engage several ingenious artificers in his service. After a year's absence, Peter re- turned home, greatly improved himself, and accompanied by a train of men well qualified to instruct his subjects. Anxious to extend his dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic, he entered into an alliance against Sweden with Frederick Augustus, elec- tor of Saxony, who had succeeded John Sobieski on the throne of Poland, and Frederick IV., king of Denmark (a. d. 1700). The Danes commenced the war by invading the territories of the duke of Holstein- Gottorp, brother-in-law and ally of the king of Sweden. Their progress was slower than they expected, and, in the. midst of their career, they were arrested by intelligence of the dangers which menaced their own capital. Charles XII., undaunted by the power of the league, resolved 692 MODBEN HISTOaY. to carry the wax into the dominions of Denmark. While his fleet, strengthened by an English squadron, blockaded Copenhagen, he suA:- denly embarked his troops at Carlscrona, and having easily effected a passage, laid siege to the city, by land. Frederic, cut off from his dot- minions by the Swedish cruisers, and alarmed by the imminent danger of his fleet and capital, concluded a peace highly honorable to the Swedes, leaving his Rusgian and Polish allies to continue the contest. No sooner had Charles concluded the treaty, than he resolved to turn his arms against the Russians, who were besifeging Narva with a force of eighty thousand men; though hia own army did not exceed ten thousand, the heroic king of Sweden boldly resolved to attack his ene- mies in their intrenchments. As soon as his artillery had opened a small breach, he commanded his men to advancfs to the charge with fixed bayonets. A storm of snow, that blew full in their faces, added to the confusion into which the undisciplined Russians were thrown by this daring assault ; the very superiority of their numbers added to their confusion ; after a contest of three hours' duration they were to- tally routed ; eighteen thousand of the besiegers fell in the battle or flight, thirty thousand remained prisoners, all their artillery, baggage, and ammunition, became the prey of the conquerors. The czar was not disheartened by this defeat, which he attributed to the right cause, the ignorance and barbarism of his subjects ; " I knew," he said, " that the Swedes would beat us, but they will teach us to become conquer- ors in our turn." Though at the head of forty thousand men, he did not venture to encounter his rival,, but evacuated the provinces that he had invaded. Having wintered at Narva, Charles marched iagainst the Poles and Saxons, who were encamped in the neighborhood of Riga ; he forced a passage across the Duna, and gained a complete victory. Thence he entered as a conqueror into Courland and Lithuania, scarcely encoun- tering any opposition. Encouraged'by this success, he formed the pro- ject of dethroning King Augustus, who had lost the affection of the Poles by the undisguised preference Which he showed for his Saxoa subjects. With this design he entered into a secret correspondence with Radzrewiski, the cardinal primate, by whose means such a spirit of opposition was raised in the diet and senate, that Augustus sought peace as his only means of safety. Charles refused to treat unless the Poles elected a new king ; and Augustus, convinced that he could only protect his crowi^ by the sword, led his army to meet the Swedes, in a spacious plain near Clissau (a. d. 1702). The Polish monarch had with him about twenty-four thousand men, the forces of Charles did not exceed half that number ; but the Swedes, flushed by recent con- quests, gained a complete victory,; and Augustus, after having made in y^iin the most heroic efforts to rally his troops, was forced to fly, leaving the enemy in possession of all his artillery and baggage. A second triumph at Pultusk, in the following campaign, gave such encourage- ment tothe enemies of Augustus, that he was formally deposed by the diet (a. d. 1704), and the vacant crown given to Stanislaus Leczinski, who Jiad been nominated by the king of Sweden. Peter hij,d not been in the meantime inactive ; though he had not given much assistance to his ally Augustus, he had made a powerful AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 593 fliversion by invading Ingria, and taking Narva, so recently the scene of his misfortunes, by storm. At the same time he founded his pro- jected capital in the heart of his new conquests, and by his judicious measures protected the rising city from the attacks of the Svredish gen- erals. St. Petersburgh, founded on a marshy island in the river Neva, during a destructive virar, and surrounded by countries recently subdued or still hostile, rose rapidly into importance, and remained in perfect se- curity while all around was in confusion. Augustus had not yet re- signed all hopes of recovering his crown ; he concerted a scheme of operations with Peter, and sixty thousand Russians entered Poland to drive the Swedes from their recent acquisitions. Charles was not daunted by the numbers of his enemies ; he routed the Russian divis- ions successively, and inspired such terror by the rapidity of his move- ments, which seemed almost miraculous, that the Russians retreated to their own country (a. d. 1706). In the meantime a victory obtained by a division of the Swedish army over the Saxons, opened to Charles a passage into the hereditary dominions of his rival, and crossing the Oder, he appeared in Saxony at the head of twenty-four thousand men. Augustus was forced to conclude peace on the most humiliating condi- tions. Charles wintered in Germany, where his presence created con- siderable alarm. He demanded from the emperor toleration for the protestants of Silesia, and the relinquishment of the quota which Swe- den was bound to furnish for its German provinces. Involved in the war of the succession, Joseph submitted,* and the fears with which the presence of Charles filled the allied powers were soon dispersed by Tiis departure in quest of new adventures. t From Saxony Charles marched back into Poland, where Peter was making some ineffectual efforts to revive the party of Augustus. Pe- ter retired before his rival, who had, however, the satisfaction of de- feating an army of twenty thousand Russians, strongly intrenched. In- toxicated by success, he rejected the czar's offers of peace, declaring that he would treat at Moscow ;:j: and without forming any systematic plan of operations, he crossed the frontiers, resolved on the destruction of that ancient city. Peter prevented the advance of the Swedes, on the direct line, by destroying the roads and desolating the country ; Charles, after having endured great privations, turned off toward the • The pope was greatly displeased by the emperor's restoring the Silesian church- -es to the protestants ; Joseph facetiously replied to his remonstrances : " Had the king of Sweden demanded that I should become a Lutheran myself, I do not know what might have been the consequence." t The duke of Marlborough went into Saxony to dissuade the Swedish monarch from accepting the offers of Louis XIV. Marlborough was too cautious a poli- tician to enter immediately on the object of his mission. He complimented Charles on his victories, and even expressed his anxiety to derive instruction in the art of war from so eminent a commander. In the course of the conversation, Marlbo- jrou^h perceived that Charles had a rooted aversion to, and was not, therefore, likely to form an alliance with Louis. A map of Russia lying open before the kin<' and the anger with which Charles spoke of Peter, revealed to the duke the reaf intentions of the Swedish monarch. He, therefore, took his leave without making any proposals, convinced that the disputes of Charles with the emperor mi''ht easily be accommodated, as all his demands would be granted. t When Peter was informed of this haughty answer, he coolly replied, " My "brother Charles affects to play the part of Alexander, but I hope he will not find in me a Darius." 38 594 MODERN HISTORY. Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, the chief of the Cossacks, who, disgusted by the conduct of the czar, had resolved to throw off his allegiance. In spite of all the obstacles that nature and the enemy could throw in his way, Charles reached the place of ren- dezvous ; but he had the mortification to find Mazeppa appear in his camp as a fugitive rather than an ally, for the czar had discovered his treason, and disconcerted his schemes by the punishment of his asso- ciates. A still greater misfortune to the Swedes was the loss of the convoy and the ruin of the reinforcement they had expected from Livonia. General Lewenhaupt, to whose care it was intrusted, had been forced into three general engagements by the Russians ; and though he had eminently distinguished himself by his courage and conduct, he was forced to set fire to his wagons to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. Undaunted by these misfortunes, Charles continued the campaign even in the depth of a winter* so severe that two thousand men were at once frozen to death almost in his presence. At length he laid siege to Pultowa, a fortified city on the frontiers of the Ukraine, which contained one of the czar's principal magazines. The garrison was numerous and the resistance obstinate ; Charles himself was dan- gerously wounded in the heel while viewing the works ; and while he was still confined to his tent he learned that Peter was advancing with a numerous army to raise the siege. Leaving seven thousand men to guard the works, Charles ordered his soldiers to march and meet the enemy, while he accompanied them in a litter (July 8, 1709). The desperate charge of the Swedes broke the Russian cavalry, but the in- fantry stood firm, and gave the horse an opportunity of rallying in the rear. In the meantime, the czar's artillery made dreadful havoc in the Swedish line ; and Charles, who had been forced to abandon his can- non in his forced marches, in vain contended against this formidable disadvantage. After a dreadful combat of more than two hours' dura- tion, the Swedish array was irretrievably ruined ; eight thousand of their best troops were left dead on the field, six thousand were taken prisoners, and about twelve thousand of the fugitives were soon after forced to surrender on the banks of the Dnieper, from want of boats to cross the river. Charles, accompanied by about three hundred of his guards, escaped to Bender, a Turkish town in Bessarabia, abandoning all his treasures to his rival, including the rich spoils of Poland and. Saxony. • This catastrophe is powerfully described by Campbell : — " Oh ! learn the fate that bleeding thousands bore. Led by their Charles to Dnieper's sandy shore. Faint from his wounds, and shivering in the blast, The Swedish soldier sank and groaned his last ; File after file the stormy showers benumb, Freeze every standard sheet and hush the drumj Horseman and horse confessed the bitter pang, And arms and warrior fell with hollow clang. Yet, ere he sank in Nature's last repose. Ere life's warm current to the fountain froze, The dying man to Sweden turned his eye, Thought of his home, and closed it with a sigh. Imperial pride looked sullen on his plight. And Charles beheld, nor shuddered at the sight." AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND TaANCE. 595 Few victories have ever had such important consequences as that ■which the czar won at Pultowa ; in one fatal day Charles lost the fruits of nine years' victories ; the veteran army that had been the ter- ror of Europe was completely ruined ; those who escaped from the fatal field were taken prisoners, but they found a fate scarcely better than death, for they were transported by the czar to colonize the wilds of Siberia ; the elector of Saxony re-entered Poland, and drove Stan- islaus from the throne ; the kings of Denmark* and Prussia revived old claims on the Swedish provinces, while the victorious Peter invaded not only Livonia and Ingria, but a great part of Finland. Indeed, but for the interference of the German emperor and the maritime powers^ the Swedish monarchy would have been rent in pieces. Charles, in his exile, formed a new plan for the destruction of his hated rival ; he instigated the Turks to attempt the conquest of Russia, and flattered himself that he might yet enter Moscow at the head of a Mohammedan army. The bribes which Peter lavishly bestowed on the counsellors of the sultans, for a time frustrated these intrigues ; but Charles, through his friend Poniatowski, informed the sultan of his vizier's corruption, and procured the deposition of that minister. Pu- pruli, who succeeded to the office of vizier, was averse to a Russian war, but he was removed at the end of two months, and the seals of offic.e given to the pacha of Syria, who commenced his administra- tion by sending the Russian ambassador to the prison of the Seven Towers. The czar made the most vigorous preparations for the new war by which he was menaced (a. d. 1711). The Turkish vizier, on the other hand, assembled all the forces of the Ottoman empire in the plains of Adrianople. Demetrius Cantemir, the hospodar of Moldavia, believing that a favorable opportunity presented itself for delivering his country from the Mohammedan yoke, invited the czar to his aid ; and the Rus- sians, rapidly advancing, reached the northern banks of the Pruth, near Yassi, the Moldavian capital. Here the Russians found that the prom- ises of Prince Cantemir were illusory ; the Moldavians, happy under the Turkish sway, treated the invaders as enemies, and refused to supply them with provisions ; in the meantime, the vizier arriving, formed a fortified camp in their front, while his vast host of light cav» airy swept round their lines and cut off all foraging parties. The Rus- sians defeated three successive attempts to storm their intrenchments ; but they must have yielded to the effects of fatigue and famine, had not the emperess Catherine,! who accompanied her husband during the campaign, sent a private message to the vizier, which induced him to open negotiations. A treaty was concluded on terms which, though severe, were more favorable than Peter, mider the circumstances, could reasonably have hoped ; the Russians retired in safety, and Charles * The Danish monarch invaded Schonen, but his troops were defeated by the Swedish militia, and a few regiments of the line, commanded by General Steen- bock. When intelligence of this victory was conveyed to Charles, he exclaimed, " My brave Swedes ! shovild God permit me to join you once more, we will beat them all." „ . f Catherine was a Livonian captive, of low condition, whom the emperor nret saw waiting at table. Her abilities and modesty won his heart, he raised her to his throne, and never had reason to repent of his choice. 596 MODERN HISTORY. reached the Turkish camp, only to learn the downfall of all his expect- ations. A new series of intrigues in the court of Constantinople led to the appointment of a new vizier ; but this minister was little inclined to gratify the king of Sweden ; on the contrary, warned by the fate of his predecessors, he resolved to remove him from the Ottoman empire (a. d. 1713). Charles continued to linger ; even after he had received a let- ter of dismissal from the sultan's own hand, he resolved to remain, and when a resolution was taken to send him away by force, he determined, with his few attendants, to dare the whole strength of the Turkish empire. After a fierce resistance, he was captured and conveyed a prisoner to Adrianople ; on his road, he learned that Stanislaus, whom he had raised to the throne of Poland, was likewise a Turkish captive ; but, buoyed up by ardent hopes, he sent a message to his fellow-suffer- er, never to make peace with Augustus. Another revolution in the divan revived the hopes of Charles, and induced him to remain in Turkey, when his return to the North would probably have restored him to his former eminence. The Swedes, under General Steenbock, gained one of the most brilliant victories that had been obtained during the war, over the united forces of the Danes and Saxons, at Gadebusch, in the dutchy of Mecklenburg ; but the conqueror sullied his fame by burning the defenceless town of Altona, an outrage which excited the indignation of all Europe. This, however, was the last service thffiit Steenbock could perform to his absent master ; unable to prevent the junction of the Russians with the Danes and Saxons, he retreated be- fore superior numbers, and, by the artifices of Baron Goertz, obtained temporary refuge in a fortress belonging to the duke of Holstein. The allies, however, pursued their advantages so vigorously that Steenbock and his followers were forced to yield themselves prisoners of war. Goertz, however, in some degree averted the consequences of this calamity by a series of political intrigues, which excited various jeal- ousies and discordant interests between the several enemies of Sweden. The czar in the meantime pushed forward his conquests on the side of Finland ; and the glory of his reign appeared to be consumma- ted by a naval victory obtained over the Swedes near the island of Oeland (a. d. 1714). This unusual success was celebrated by a triumphal entry into St. Peterburgh, at which Peter addressed his subjects on the magnitude of the advantages they had derived from his government. Charles heard of his rival's progress unmoved ; but when he learned that the Swedish senate intended to make his sister regent, and to make peace with Russia and Denmark, he announced his intention of returning home. He was honorably escorted to the Turkish frontiers ; but though orders had been given that he should be received with all due honor in the imperial dominions, he traversed Germany incognito, and toward the close of the year reached Stralsund, the capital of Swedish Pomerania. Charles, at the opening of the next campaign, found himself sur- rounded with enemies (a. d. 1715). Stralsund itself was besieged by the united armies of the Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, while the Russian fleet, which now rode triumphant in the Baltic, threatened a descent upon Sweden. After an obstinate defence, in which the AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 597 Swedish monarch displayed all his accustomed bravery, Stralsund was forced to capitulate, Charles having previously escaped in a small vessel to his native shores. All Europe believed the Swedish mon- arch undone ; it was supposed that he could no longer defend his own dominions, when to the inexpressible astonishment of every one, it was announced that he had invaded Norway. His attention, however, was less engaged by the war than by the gigantic intrigues of his new favorite Goertz, who, taking advantage of a coolness between the Russians and the other enemies of Sweden, proposed that Peter and Charles should unite in strict amity, and dictate the law to Europe. A part of this daring plan was the removal of the elector of Hanover from the English throne, and the restoration of the exiled Stuarts. But while the negotiations were yet in progress, Charles invaded Norway a second time, and invested the castle of Frederickshall in the very depth of winter. But while engaged in viewing the works, he was struck by a cannon-ball, a,nd was dead before any of his attendants came to his assistance (a. d. 1718).* The Swedish senate showed little grief for the loss of the warlike king ; on the first news of his death, his favorite, Baron Goertz, was arrested, brought to trial, and put to death on a ridiculous charge of treason. The crown was conferred upon the late king's sister, but she soon resigned it to her husband, the prince of Hesse, both being compelled to swear that they never would attempt • Dr. Johnson's character of Charles XII. is the test comment on the life of that adventurous warrior : — " On what foundation stands the warrior's pride. How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide ; A frame of adamant, a soul of fire. No dangers fright him, and no labors tire ; O'er love, o'er fear, extends his wide domain, Unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain ; No joys to him pacific sceptres yield. War sounds the trump, he rushes to the field ; Behold surrounded kings their powers combine. And one capitulate, and one resign ; Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain : ' Think nothing gained,' he cries, ' till naught remain : On Moscow's walls, till Gothic standards fly, And all be mine beneath the polar sky.' The march begins in military state, And nations on his eye suspended wait ; Stern famine guards the solitary coast, And winter barricades the realms of frost ; He comes, nor want, nor cold, his course delay ; Hide, blushing Glory, hide Pultowa's day : The vanquished hero leaves his broken bands. And shows his miseries in distant lands ; Condemned a needly supplicant to wait While ladies interpose, and slaves debate. But did not chance at length her error mend ? Did no subverted empire mark his end ? Did rival monarchs give the fatal wound ? Or hostile millions press him to the ground ? His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress, and a dubious hand ; He left the name, at which the world grew pale, To point a moral, or adorn a tale." 598 MODERN HISTORY. the re-establishment of arbitrary power. Negotiations for peace were commenced with all the hostile powers, and treaties concluded with all but Russia (a. d. 1720). The appearance of an English fleet in the Baltic, coming to aid the Swedish squadron, however, finally disposed the czar to pacific measures ; and he consented to grant peace, on con- dition of being permitted to retain Ingria, Livonia, and part of Finland (a. d. 1721). Thus the great northren war terminated, just as it was about to be connected with the politics of southern Europe. MEHCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 599 CHAPTER VIII. GROWTH OF THE MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. Section I. — Establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in England. During tlie wars that had been waged against Louis XIV., the funding -system was established in England ; it commenced by the founding of a national bank (a. d. 1694), which lent its capital to the government at a lower rate of interest than was then usual. Further loans were contracted to support the exigences of the wars ; parliament guarantied the payment of the interest, without entering into any obligation to restore the capital, which was transferable to any one. The gradual ■extension of the wealth of the nation facilitated the growth of this system, which soon gave England commanding influence on the con- tinent. The facilities of raising money possessed by the English government enabled it to conclude subsidiary treaties, and set the armies of allied states in motion. Internally the funding system wrought a still greater change ; a great portion of the political influ- ence previously possessed by the landed aristocracy was transferred to large capitalists and manufacturers ; the banking and funding systems .^fibrded great facilities for accumulating the profits of industry, and thus fostered the growth of an intelligent and opulent middle class, whose strength was soon displayed in the increasing importance of the house of commons. Even at the treaty of Utrecht, the mercantile system began to manifest itself in all its strength. Grants of com- mercial privileges were made the conditions of peace with the maritime powers, and territorial concessions were made with a regard to the interests of trade rather than power. Justly as the British negotiators at Utrecht may be blamed for not taking sufficient advan- tage of the position in which their country was placed by the victories of Marlborough, it is undeniable that the treaty they concluded laid the foundation of the commercial superiority of England ; it also contained the germes of two future wars, but these consequences were slowly developed ; and at the commencement of the eighteenth century, the republic of Holland was still the first commercial state in Europe. The accession of George I. produced a complete change in the English administration ; the tories were dismissed with harshness, the whigs were the sole possessors of office, and on the new election con- sequent on the demise of the crown, they obtained a decided majority in parliament. Unfortunately they used their power to crush their 600 MODEEN HISTOaY. political adversaries ; the chiefs of the late ministry were impeached for high treason, and their prosecution was hurried forward so vindic- tively, that Lords Bolingbroke and Ormond fled to the continent. This seemed a favorable moment to make an effort in favor of the exiled Stuarts, but Louis XIV-., broken down by age, infirmities, and misfortune, was unwilling to hazard a new war, which might disturb the minority of his great-grandson, for in consequence of the mortality in the royal family, this remote descendant was destined to be his successor. The death of Louis (Sept. 1, 1715) further disconcerted the projects of the Pretender and his adherents ; the duke of Orleans, who was chosen regent by the parHament of Paris during the minority of Louis XV., adopted every suggestion of the English ambassador, the> earl of Stair, for counteracting ■ the designs of the Jacobites; and he did them irreparable injury by seizing some ships laden with arms and ammunitio»,-at a time when it was impossible for them to purchase any fresh supply. The Jacobites, however, persevered, and a plan was formed for a general insurrection ; but this was defeated by the Pre- tender's imprudence, who prematurely gave the earl of Mar a commis- sion to raise his standard in Scotland. The earl of Mar- possessed' considerable influence in the highland counties ; no sooner had he pro- claimed the Pretender, under the title of James IIL, than the clans crowded to his standard, and he was soon at the head of nine thousand" men, including several noblemen and persons of distinction. Thus supported, he made himself master of Perth, and established his authori- ty in almost all that part of Scotland which lies north of the Frith of' Forth. In the meantime the government was alarmed ; the Jacobite leaders who had agreed to raise the west of England were taken into custody, and the duke of Argyle was sent against Mar with all the forces of North Britain. An ill-contrived and worse executed insurrection of the Jacobites exploded in the north of England ; its leaders, the earl of Derwentwater, Lord Widdrington, and Mr. Foster, a Northumbrian gentleman of great influence, were joined by several Scottish lords and ' a body of Highland infantry. But being unable to agree upon any rational plan of operations, they were surrounded by the royal forces in, the town of Preston, and forced to surrender at discretion. It would' have been better for the character of the government had lenity been shown to these unhappy men, but unfortunately most of the leaders were doomed to suflfer the penalties of high treason. In the meantime the earl of Mar had fought an indecisive battle with, the duke of Argyle, which proved nevertheless ruinous to the Pretend- er's cause. Many who had been previously in doubt, declared for the- royal cause, and several of the insurgent leaders returned to their alle- giance. In this desperate state of his affairs, the Pretender landed" with a small train in Scotland : but finding his cause hopeless, he re- turned to France with such of the leaders as did not expect pardon,, and the whole country quietly submitted to the duke of Argyle. Before entering on the singular changes wrought by the policy of the duke of Orleans in Europe, it will be convenient to cast a brief glance at the affairs of Russia and Turkey. No sooner had Peter the Great concluded peace with Sweden than he assumed the title of em- peror, with the consent of all the European powers. By sending anc MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 601 auxiliary force to aid the lawful sovereign of Persia against an Afghan usurper, he obtained the cession of the provinces on the south and west of the Caspian sea ; and, while he thus extended his dominions, he did not neglect their internal improvement, but constructed canals, planned roads, and established manufactories. But Peter's own character re- tained many traces of barbarism, and his treatment of his eldest son, Alexis, excited general horror. This unfortunate prince is said to have been induced by some of the Russian priests and boyars to promise,, that in the event of his accession, he would restore the old state of things, and abolish the new institutions of his father. He was arrested and forced to sign an abdication of the crown ; soon after this, he died in prison, but whether violent means were used to accelerate his end, has never been satisfactorily ascertained. The second son of the Russian emperor died in infancy, and Peter chose his emperess as his successor. He assisted at her coronation after his return from the Persian war; and on his death (a. d. 1725) she became emperess of all the Russias, and by the excellence of her administration justified the choice of her illustrious husband. . The Turks were enraged at the diminution of their national gloryin the war that was terminated by the treaty of Carlowitz, and eagerly longed for an opportunity of retrieving their lost honor. Ahmed HI., the most warlike sultan that had recently filled the throne, was far from being displeased by their martial zeal, and he took the earliest opportu- nity of declaring war against the Venetians, whom he expelled from the Morea in a single campaign (a. d. 1715). The emperor, Charles VI., was solicited by the pope to check the progress of the Mohamme- dans ; he therefore interfered, as protector of the treaty of Carlowitz ; but finding his remonstrances disregarded, he assembled a powerful army, and published a declaration of war (a. d. 1716). Prince Eugene, at the head of the imperialists, crossed the Danube, and attacked the forces of the grand vizier, near Peterwaradin. He gained a complete victory, twenty-five thousand of the Turks were either killed or drown- ed, while the loss of the Austrians did not exceed one fifth of that num- ber. In the ensuing campaign, the prince laid siege to Belgrade, and having defeated with great slaughter the vast Turkish army that march- ed to its relief, became master of that important fortress. The conse- quence of these victories was the peace of Passarowitz (a. d. 1718) by which Austria and Russia gained considerable acquisitions ; but the republic of Venice, for whose sake the war was ostensibly undertaken, did not recover its possessions in Greece, and found its interests neg- lected by its more potent allies. These wars were very remotedly connected with the political con- dition of southern Europe, which now depended entirely on the main- tenance of the terms of ihe peace of Utrecht. Several powers were interested in their preservation ; England's flourishing commerce de- pended in many essential particulars on the articles of the treaty ; they were the best security to Austria, for the provinces lately ceded in Italy ; and the Dutch, unable or unwilling to garrison the barrier towns, felt that peace was necessary to their security. But above all, the re- gent of France believed that this treaty was the sole support of his power, since it involved the Spanish king's renunciation of his claims €02 MODERN HISTORY. to the French crown. Altogether opposed to these views were the de signs of the court of Spain ; the marriage of Philip to Elizabeth Far- nese, heiress to the dutchies of Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany, inspired him with the hope of recovering the provinces that had been severed from the Spanish monarchy ; his prime minister, Cardinal Alberoni, flattered him with hopes of success, and at the same time diligently la- bored to improve the financial condition of the country. Alberoni's projects included an entire change in the political system of Europe ; he designed to reconquer Sardinia and Sicily for Spain ; to place James III. on the throne of England by the aid of the Russian emperor and the king of Sweden ; to prevent the interference of the emperor, by engaging the Turks to assail his dominions. Pope Clement XL, a weak and stupid pontiff, could not comprehend the merits of Alberoni's schemes ; he refused to pay the ecclesiastical subsidies to Philip V., and before the ambitious cardinal could further develop his schemes, the Quadruple Alliance was formed by the alarmed potentates of Eu- rope, and Philip V., was forced to dismiss his intriguing minister. The pope had the mortification to find that his interests were totally disregarded in the new arrangements made for preserving the tranquilli- ty of Europe ; his superiorities in Parma and Placentia formed part of ithe bribe tendered to the court of Spain by the rulers of France and ■Germany ; he remonstrated loudly, but, in spite of his efforts, they were accepted and retained. On the death of Clement XL, Alberoni became a candidate for the - papacy, and was very near being elected. Fortunately for the per- manency of Romish power, this violent prelate was excluded from the chair of St. Peter, and Innocent XIII. was chosen. During his pontifi- cate the society of freemasons began to be regarded with suspicion by the heads of the church, especially as several other secret associations were formed in Germany and Italy for the propagation of what were called philosophical tenets ; but these doctrines were, in reality, not «nly hostile to popery, but subversive of all religion and morality. Though Austria, France, England, and Holland, united against the dangerous schemes of Alberoni, and formed the Quadruple Alliance <(a. d. 1716), yet the cardinal steadily pursued his course, and war was proclaimed against Spain by France and England. The strength of Spain, exhausted by the war of the succession, could not resist this powerful combination ; the English fleet rode triumphant in the Mediterranean ; a German army expelled the Spaniards from Sicily ; the French, under the command of the duke of Berwick, inva- ded Spain, and captured several important fortresses ; the duke of Or* mond failed in his attempt to land a Spanish army in Great Britain ; and Philip, completely subdued, dismissed Alberoni (a. d. 1730), and acceded to the terms of the Quadruple Alliance. During this war, France and England were involved in great financial difiiculties, by the Mississippi scheme in one country, and the South sea speculation in the other. A Scotch adventurer, named Law, proposed a plan to the regent of France for speedily paying off the vast nationfil debt, and delivering the revenue from the enormous interest by which it was overwhelmed. He effected this by an extraordinary issue 'Of paper, on the seciarity of the Mississippi company, from whose com- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 603 mercial speculations the most extravagant results were expected. So rapid was his success, that in 1719, the nominal value of the funds was eighty times greater than the real value of all the current coin pf the jealm. This immense disproportion soon excited alarm ; when the holders of the notes tried to convert them into money, there was no ■specie to meet the demands, and the result was a general bankruptcy. •Some efforts were made by the government to remedy this calamity, but the evil admitted only of slight palliation, and thousands were com- pletely ruined. The South sea scheme, projected by Sir John Blount, in Englandj was a close imitation of Law's plan. He proposed that the South sea company, to which great commercial advantages had been secured by the treaty of Utrecht, should become the sole creditor of the nation ; and facilities were offered to the owners of stock to exchange the se- curity of the crown for that of the South sea company. Never did so wild a scheme meet such sudden success ; South sea stock in a short time rose to ten times its original value ; new speculations were started, and for a time had similar popularity ; but when suspicion was excited, and some cautious holders of stock began to sell, a universal panic suc- ceeded to the general delusion. By the prompt interference of parlia- ment a general bankruptcy was averted, and the chief contrivers of the fraud, including many individuals of rank and station, were punished, and their estates sequestrated for the benefit of the sufferers. The confusion occasioned by the South sea scheme encouraged the Jacobites to make another effort in favor of the Stuarts (a. d. 1723); But their plans were discovered, a gentleman named Layer was capi- Jtally punished for enlisting men in the service of the Pretender, and Dr. Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, the soul of his party, was exiled. Fortunately for the repose of Europe, the prime ministers of France and England, Cardinal Fleury, who succeeded to power soon after the death of the duke of Orleans, and Sir Robert Walpole, were both bent on the preservation of peace, and for nearly twenty years they prevent- ed any active hostilities. Walpole's administration, however, began to lose its popularity, on account of his not gratifying the national hatred against Spain. A powerful opposition was formed against him, com- posed of the old tories, and some disappointed courtiers, which he con- tended against by unbounded parliamentary corruption. The death of George L (a. d. 1727) made no change in the position of parties, for George IL intrusted Walpole with the same power he had enjoyed imder his father. The emperor Charles, having no prospect of male issue, was natu- rally anxious to secure the peaceful succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, to his hereditary dominions ; and for this purpose he prepared a solemn law, called the Pragmatic Sanction, and procured its confirma- tion by the principal states of Europe. The guarantee of France was not obtained without war. Stanislaus Leczinski, father-in-law to the French monarch, was elected king of Poland, but was dethroned by the influence of the German powers (a. d. 1733). To avenge this insult, the French king formed a league with the courts of Spain and Sardinia against the emperor ; and, after a brief struggle, the court of Vienna was forced to purchase peace by considerable sarrifii'Pe TKa aueoesa 604 MODERN HISTOKY. of the Russians under the reign of the emperess Anne, niece to Peter the Great, against the Turks, induced the German emperor to commence a second unfortunate war. Scarcely was it concluded, when the death of Charles (a. d. 1740) involved Europe in the contentions of a new- disputed succession. Sir Robert Walpole had long preserved England at peace ; but the interested clamors of some merchants engaged in a contraband trade with the Spanish colonies, compelled him to commence hostilities (a. d. 1739). Admiral Vernon, with a small force, captured the important city of Porto Bello, on the American isthmus. This success induced the minister to send out large armaments against the Spanish colonies. Vernon with a fleet, and Lord Cathcart with a numerous army, under- took to assail Spanish America on the side of the Atlantic, while Com- modore Anson sailed round Cape Horn to ravage the coasts of Chili and Peru. The death of Lord Cathcart frustrated these arrangements ; he was succeeded by General Wentworth, an officer of little experience, and very jealous of Vernon's popularity. An attack was made on Carthagena, but it failed lamentably,. owing to the disputes between the naval and military commanders. Both were reinforced from England, but they effected nothing of any importance, and returned home after more than fifteen thousand of their men had fallen victims to the climate. Anson, in the meantime, encountered such a severe storm in rounding Cape Horn, that two of his ships were forced to return, and one was lost. His diminished squadron, however, took several prizes off the coast of ChUi, and plundered the town of Paita, in Peru. His force was finally reduced to one ship, but with' this he captured the Spanish galleon, laden with treasure, that sailed annually from Acapul- co to Manilla. He then returned to England triumphant ; but the loss at Carthagena was so severely felt, that the English would not venture to renew their enterprises against Spiinish America. Scarcely had Maria Theresa succeeded her father, the emperor Charles, when she found herself surrounded by a host of enemies. The elector of Bavaria laid claim to Bohemia ; the king of Sardinia revived some obsolete pretensions to the dutchy of Milan ; while the kings of Poland, Spain, and France, exhibited claims to the whole Austrian succession. An unexpected claimant gave the first signal for war. Frederic HL, who had just ascended the Prussian throne, in- herited from his father a rich treasury and a well-appointed army. Relying on the goodness of his troops rather than the goodness of his cause, he entered Silesia, and soon conquered that fine province (a. d. 1741). At the same time he offered to support Maria Theresa against all competitors, on the condition of being permitted to retain his acquis- ition. The princess steadily refused, though she knew that France was arming against her, and that her enemies had resolved to elevate Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, to the empire. The forces of the king of France entered Germany, and being joined by the Bavarian array, made several important conquests, and even threatened Vienna ; but Maria Theresa, repairing to Presburg, convened the states of Hun- gary, and appearing before them with her infant son in her arms, made- such an eloquent appeal, that the nobles witJi one accord exclaimed, " W.ajHrilLdie_fiaiUQiir Kino, Maria Theresa." Nor was this a moment- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 605 ary burst of passion ; they raised a powerful army for the defence of their young and beautiful princess, and a subsidy was at the same time voted to her by the British parliament. So great was the attachment of the English people to her cause, that the pacific Sir Robert Walpole was forced to resign, and a new administration was formed by his politi- cal rivals. The new ministers had been raised to power by a sudden burst of popular enthusiasm, but they soon showed themselves unworthy of the nation's confidence. They took the lead in suppressing the measures which they had themselves declared necessary to the security of the constitution, and they far outstripped their predecessors in supporting German subsidies, standing armies, and continental connexions, which had been so long the theme of their severest censure. They augmented the army, sent a large body of troops into the Netherlands under the command of the earl of Stair, and granted subsidies to the Danes, the Hessians, and the Austrians. The French had some hopes of gaining the support of the Russians, who were now ruled by the emperess Eliz- abeth. On the death of the emperess Anne, her niece, the princess of Mecklenburgh, assumed the government, as guardian of her son John. Bui the partiality that the regent showed for her German countrymen displeased the Russian nobles ; their discontents were artfully increased by a French physician named Lestocq ; a bloodless insurrection led to the deposition of the Mecklenburgh princess, and Elizabeth, the daugh- ter of Peter the Great, was raised to the throne. She fovmd the country involved in a war with Sweden, which she brought to a successful is- sue, and secured the inheritance to the Swedish crown for her favorite, Adolphus, bishop of Lubeck. Though the czarina owed her elevation in a great degree to French intrigue, she was inclined to support the Austrian cause ; but she did not interfere in the contest until she had completed all her arrangements. The republic of Holland showed still more reluctance to engage in the war ; and the English army in the Netherlands, deprived of the ex- pected Dutch aid, remained inactive. In Germany, the Bavarian elec- tor was driven not only from his conquests, but from his hereditary do- minions,* while the king of Prussia took advantage of a brilliant victory to conclude a treaty with Maria Theresa, by which he was secured in the possession of Silesia. The French army, thus deprived of its most • Dr. Johnson has powerfully described the fate of this unfortunate prince : — " The hold Bavarian, in a luckless hour. Tries the dread summits of Caesarean power, With unexpected legions bursts away, And sees defenceless realms receive his sway : Short sway ! fair Austria spreads her mournful charms, The queen, the beauty, sets the world in arms ; From hill to hill the beacons' rousing blaze Spreads wide the hope of plunder and of praise ; The fierce Croatian and the wild hussar. With all the sons of ravage, crowd the war ; The baffled prince, in honor's flattering bloom, Of hasty greatness finds the fatal doom ; His foes' derision, and his subjects' blame, And steals to death, from anguish and from shame." 606 MODERN HISTORY. powerful ally, must have been mined but for the abilities of its general, the count de Bellisle, who effected one of the most masterly retreats record- ed in history, from the centre of Bohemia to the frontiers of Alsace. The Spaniards failed in their attacks on the imperial territories in Italy, chiefly owing to the activity of the English fleets in the Mediterranean ; and the court of Versailles, disheartened by these repeated failures, made proposals of peace. Maria Theresa, intoxicated with success, re- jected all the proffered conditions (a. d. 1743). She urged forward her armaments with such vigor, that the French were driven to the Rhine, and the unfortunate elector of Bavaria, abandoned by his allies, and stripped of his dominions, sought refuge in Frankfort, where he lived in indigence and obscurity. The errors of the French in Flanders led to their defeat at Dettingen, just when a little caution would have insured the ruin of the English and Austrians. But the allies made no use of their victory, owing to the irresolution of George II., who took the man- agement of the campaign into his own hands, and superseded the earl of Stair. The war lingered in Italy, but the haughtiness and ambition of the emperess began to excite the secret jealousy of the German princes ; 9ai the French and Spanish courts, alarmed by her treaty with the king of Sardinia, drew their alliance closer by the celebrated Family Compact, which bound them to maintain the integrity of each other's dominions. England had now become a principal in the war, and the monarchs of France and Spain resolved to invade that country, and remove the Hanoverian dynasty. A powerful army was assembled, and a fleet pre- pared to protect the transports ; but the French ships were shattered in a storm, and forced to take refuge in Brest from a superior English force (a. d. 1744). The English navy was less successful in the Mediterra- nean : the combined fleets of France and Spain were met by the British admirals, Matthews and Lestock ; but owing to the misconduct of some captains, and Lestock's remaining aloof with his whole division, the re- sult of the engagement was indecisive. It is a sad proof of the violence and injustice of faction, that when these ofBcers were brought to trial, Matthews, who had fought like a hero, was condemned, and Lestock acquitted. The war in Italy was sanguinary, but indecisive. In Ger- many, however, the king of Prussia once more took up arms against Maria Theresa, and invaded Bohemia. He was defeated with great loss, and forced to retire precipitately into Silesia. Soon afterward, the death of the elector of Bavaria removed all reasonable grounds for the continuance of hostilities ; his son, who had no pretensions to the empire, concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa, and promised to sup- port the election of her husband, the grand duke of Tuscany, to the im- perial dignity. But the national animosity between the French and English prevent- ed the restoration of peace (a. d. 1745). The Austrians were completely vanquished in Italy by the united forces of the French and Spaniards, whose vast superiority of numbers could not be resisted ; and on the side of the Netherlands, the misconduct of the allies gave a signal tri- umph to the Bourbons. The French army under Marshal Saxe was strongly posted at Fontenoy, but was, notwithstanding, attacked by the English, Dutch, and Germans. In few battles has the valor of the MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 607 British infantry been displayed more . signally or more uselessly. Form- ing themselves into a column, they bore down everything before them, until, deserted by their Dutch and German auxiliaries, they were out- flanked and driven back by the entire force of the French army. The loss on both sides was nearly equal ; but though the victory was not decisive, it enabled Marshal Saxe to reduce some of the most consider- able towns in the Netherlands. Tranquillity was restored to Germany by the election of the grand duke of Tuscany to the empire, under the name of Francis I. ; and about the same time Maria Theresa, as queen of Hungary, concluded the treaty of Breslau with the king of Prussia, and thus quieted her most dangerous enemy. The discontent occasioned by the loss at Fontenoy induced the grand- son of James II., commonly called the Young Pretender, to attempt the restoration of his family. He landed in Scotland with a small train, but being soon joined by the enthusiastic Highland clans, he descended from the mountains and marched toward Edinburgh. The cky surrendered without any attempt at resistance, but the castle still held out. Sir John Cope, the royal commander in Scotland, had marched northward to raise the loyal clans ; having collected some reinforcements, he pro- ceeded from Aberdeen to Dunbar by sea, and hearing that the insurgents were resolved to hazard a battle, he encamped at Preston Pans. Here he was unexpectedly attacked by the Young Pretender, at the head of about three thousand undisciplined and half-armed soldiers. A panic seized the royal troops ; they fled with the most disgraceful precipita- tion, abandoning all their baggage, cannon, and camprequipage, to their enemies. The reduction of the French colony of Cape Breton, in North Amer- ica, had revived the spirit of the English ; and the time that the Pre- tender wasted in idle pageantry at Edinburgh afibrded the ministers an opportunity of bringing over some regiments from Flanders. Notwith- standing the formidable preparations thus made, the Pretender, probably relying on promised aid from France, crossed the western borders, and took Carlisle. But the vigilance of Admiral Vernon prevented the French fleet from venturing out ; and the Pretender having failed to raise recruits in Lancashire, and unable to force a passage into Wales, baffled the royal armies by an unexpected turn, and suddenly marched to Derby. Had he continued to advance boldly, London itself might have fallen ; but he delayed at Derby until he was nearly enclosed be- tween two powerful armies, and was forced either to retreat or to hazard a battle on very disadvantageous terms. It was finally determined that they should return to Scotland, and this retrograde movement was efiect- ed by the Highlanders with extraordinary courage and expedition. This retreat did not produce the dispiriting efiect on the insurgents that had been anticipated. The Pretender's forces were greatly aug- mented after his return to Scotland ; but finding that Edinburgh had been secured by the royal army during his absence, he marched to Stir- ling, captured the town, and besieged the castle. General Hawley was sent with a strong force to raise the siege, but despising the undisci- plined Highlanders, he acted so imprudently that he suffered a complete defea.t near Falkirk (a. d. 1746). The Pretender, instead of following up his advantage, returned to the siege of Stirling castle, while the royal 608 MODERN HISTORY. army, reinforced by fresh troops, was placed under the command of the duke of Cumberland, a prince of the blood, who, though by no means a skilful general, was a great favorite with the soldiery. The insurgent army retired before the royal troops until they reached Culloden Moor, where they resolved to make a stand. Warned by the errors of Cope and Hawley, the duke of Cumberland took the most prudent precautions to meet the desperate charge of the Highlanders ; they rushed on with their usual impetuosity, but being received by a close and galling fire of musketry, while their ranks were torn by artillery, they wavered, broke, and in less than thirty minutes were a helpless mass of confu- sion. The victors gave no quarter : many of the insurgents were mur- dered in cold blood, and their unfortunate prince was only saved from capture by the generous devotion of one of his adherents, who assured the pursuers that he was himself the object of their search. The' cruelties of the royalists after their victory were perfectly dis- graceful ; the country of the insurgent clans was laid waste with fire and sword ; the men were hunted like wild beasts on the mountains, the women and children, driven from their burned huts, perished by thou- sands on the barren heaths. When all traces of rebellion, and almost of population, had disappeared, the duke of Cumberland returned to London, leaving a large body of troops to continue the pursuit of the surviving fugitives. During five months the young Pretender remained concealed in the Highlands and Western isles of Scotland, though a re- ward of thirty thousand pounds was set on his head, and more than fifty persons were intrusted with his secret. At length he escaped on board a French privateer, and, after enduring incredible hardships, arrived safely in Brittany. The vengeance of the government fell heavily on his adherents : numbers of the leaders were tried and exe- cuted, and though they died with heroic firmness, their fate excited little commiseration. In the meantime the French, under Marshal Saxe, had overrun the greater part of the Netherlands ; Brussels, Antwerp, and Namur, were captured, while the confederate army was defeated in a sanguinary but indecisive engagement at Raucoux. In Italy, the allies were more suc- cessful ; taking advantage of the mutual jealousies between the French and Spaniards, the Austrians, reinforced by the king of Sardinia, drove their enemies from Italy, and pursued them into France. The death of their monarch had abated the vigor of the Spaniards, for the designs of Ferdinand VI., Philip's son and successor, were for some time un- known ; but when he declared his resolution to adhere to the Family Compact, the hopes of the partisans of the house of Bourbon were re- vived. About the same time the imperialists were compelled to evacu- ate the south of France by the judicious measures of the marshal de Bellisle ; and the Genoese, irritated by the severity with which they were treated, expelled the Austrian garrison, and baflled every attempt that their oppressors made to recover the city. The national animosity between the French and English was aggravated by commercial jeal- ousy ; they mutually fitted out armaments against each other's colonies ; but these expeditions, badly contrived and worse executed, led to no decisive results, and all parties began to grow weary of a war which produced no consequence but a lavish waste of blood and treasure. MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 609 Conferences were commenced at Breda, but the demands of the French appeared so exorbitant to the aUies, that the negotiations were abruptly- terminated, and the hostile powers made the most vigorous preparations for a decisive struggle (a. d. 1747). The exertions of the allies were -long paralyzed by the indecision of the Dutch rulers ; even when their own country was invaded, they could not be induced to adopt more vig- orous councils, until a popular revolt compelled them to revive the office of stadtholder, and confer that dignity on the prince of Orange. Though this revolution gave more vigor to the operations of the allies, the whole weight of the war was ungenerously thrown upon the Eng- lish. The obstinate and bloody battle of Val would have been won by British valor, but for the timidity and slowness of the Dutch and Aus- trians ; in consequence of their misconduct it terminated to the disad- vantage of the confederates. Soon after, the fortress of Bergen-op- Zoom, generally believed to be impregnable, was captured by the French, who thus became masters of the whole navigation of the Scheldt. In Italy, the allies, though forced to raise the siege of Genoa, were gener- ally successful, while the British navy gained several important triumphs at sea. A valuable French convoy was attacked by Admirals Anson and Warren, off Cape Finisterre, and, after an obstinate engagement, six ships-of-the-line and several armed Indiamen were taken. Seven weeks after, a fleet laden with the rich produce of St. Domingo fell into the hands of Commodore Fox ; and at a later period of the year, Admiral JHawke, after a sharp battle, took six ships-of-the-line in the latitude of Bellisle. These reverses, and the sailing of a powerful British arma- ment to the East Indies, so alarmed the court of Versailles, that nego- tiations for peace were once more commenced. While conferences were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle (a. d. 1748), Mar- -shal Saxe continued to carry on the war with great vigor : he laid siege to Maestricht, which was obstinately defended, but before the contest could be decided, intelligence was received that the preliminaries of peace had been signed. The basis of the treaty was a restitution of all conquests made during the war, and a mutual release of prisoners with- out ransom. It left unsettled the clashing claims of the Spaniards and British to the trade of the American seas, and made no mention of the light of search which had been the original cause of the war ; the oiily advantage, iudeed, that England gained, was the recognition of the Han- overian succession, and the general abandonment of. the Pretender, whose cause was henceforth regarded as hopeless. This result, from .so expensive a contest, gave general dissatisfaction ; but the blaiiie should fall on the authors of the war, not of the peace ; England had no interest in the contests for, the Austrian succession ; under the peaceful .administration of Sir Robert Walpole, her commerce and manufactures iad rapidly increased ; but through an idle ambition for military glory, and a perverse love of meddling in continental aifairs, the prosperity of the country received a severe check, and an enormous addition was made to the national debt. Section II. — The Colonial Struggle hetioeen France and Great Britain. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was soon discovered to be Uttle better -than a suspension of arms. Two causes of a very different nature 39 610 MODERN mSTOBY. united to produce a new and fiercer struggle, which no arts of diploma- cy could long avert. The first of these was the jealousy with which the- court of Austria regarded the great increase of the Prussian monarchy ; the extorted renunciation of Silesia could neither be forgiven nor forgot- ten, and its recovery had long been the favorite object of the court of Vienna. The Prussian monarch was not popular with his neighbors — all new powers are naturally objects of jealousy — ^^and the selfish policy which Frederic displayed, both in contracting and dissolving alliances, prevented him from gaining any permanent friend ; he was the personal enemy of Elizabeth, emperess of Russia, and of Count Bruhl, the lead- ing minister in the court of Saxony, and both readily joined in the plans formed for his destruction. But with these confederates, the Austrian cabinet was reluctant to engage in hostilities, while France might at any time turn the balance, by renewing its former relations with Prussia. Prince Kaunitz, the real guide of the court of Vienna, and, during four reigns, the soul of the Austrian councils, resolved to unite the empire and France in one com- mon project for sharing the rule of Europe. Louis XV., who had sunk into being the slave of his mistresses, was induced, by this able diplom- atist, to depart from the course of policy which for two centuries had xnaintained the high rank of France among the continental powers ; from being the rivals and opponents of the Austrian dynasty, the house of Bourbon sank into the humble character of assistants to that power — a change which eventually brought the greatest calamities on themselves and their country. The commercial jealousy with which the English regarded the French,, was the second cause for the renewal of the war. During the late war, the French navy had been all but annihilated, and the exertions made for its restoration were viewed with secret anger. Owing to incapacity, or defective information, the negotiators at Aix-la-ChapeUe had left most of the colonial questions at issue between England and France wholly undecided. The chief subjects contested were, the limits of the Eng- lish colony of Nova Scdtia, the right claimed by the French to erect forts along the Ohio, for the purpose of connecting the Canadas with Louisiana, the occupation of some neutral islands in the West Indies by the French, and, finally, the efforts of both nations to acquire political supremacy in Hindustan. The maritime war between England and France had no immediate connexion with the struggle between Prussia and Austria. But when the French king, at the commencement of the contest, ttienaced Han- over, George II., who; preferred the interests of this petty principality to those of the British empire, entered into a treaty with Frederic for its defence. Thus these two wars, so distinct in their origin and na- ture, were blended into one ; but before their termination, they were again separated and concluded by distinct treaties of peace. The empire which the descendants of Baber bad established in Hin- dustan, touched the summit of its greatness in the reign df Aurungzebe ; under his feeble successors the imperial power rapidly declined, and after the silccessfhl eiruptioh of Nadir Shah (a. d. 1738), it was almost annihilated. The governors of provindes and districts became virtually independent sovereigns, and the allegiance they paid to the court of MERCANTII/B AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 61 1 Delhi was merely nominal. Both the French and' the English* East India companies took advantage of this state of things to extend their influence and enlarge their territories. Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had long sought an opportunity of interfering in the troubled politics of India ; it was afforded him by the contests which arose on the vacancies in the souhbadary of the Deccan, and the nabob- ship of the Carnatic. He supported the claims of Chundah Saheb to the latter post, and endeavored to make Murzafa .Ting souhbadar; or viceroy of the Deccan. He succeeded in these objects, but his favor- ites did not long retain their elevation-; still, however, a precedent was established for the interference of the French in the contests between the native powers, and their aid was purchased by fresh concessions in every revolution. The rapid progress of their rivals roused the Eng- lish from their supineness, and, fortunately, they found a leader whose abilities, both as a general and statesman, have scarcely been surpassed by any European that ever visited the east. Mr. Clive, the son of a private gentleman, had been originally employed in the civil service of the East India company ; but war no sooner broke out than he exchanged the pen for the sword, and the union of caurage and skill which he displayed at the very commencement of his career, excited just expect- ations of the glory which marked its progress. He gained several brilliant advantages over the allies of the French, and greatly strength- ened the English interest in the Deccan or southern division of Hin- dustan. But the French East India company had begun to distrust the flattering promises of Dupleix ; they found that his plans of territorial aggrandizement involved them in expensive wars, and were, at the same time, destructive of their commerce. A similar feeling, though to a less extent, prevailed in England, and the rival companies prepared to adjust their differences by the sacrifice of Dupleix. No regard was paid by his countrymen to his defence ; he was loaded with obloquy, as a selfish and ambitious man, though it was notorious that he had sacrificed his entire private fortune to the support of what he believed to be the true interests of France. The successor of Dupleix concluded a treaty with the English au- thorities, in which all the objects of that able governor were abandoned. Mohammed Ali, the friend of the English, was recognised as the nabob of the Carnatic ; the claims of the French upon the northern Circars were relinquished, and it was agreed that the colonists from each na- tion should, for the future, abstain from all interference with the affairs of the native princes. It was scarcely possible that these stipulations 'could be strictly observed ; indeed, the treaty had scarcely been signed, when mutual complaints were made of infractions ; but, in the mean- time, events had occurred in another part of the globe, which frustrated it altogether. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the British ministry, anxious to secure the province of Nova Scotia, as a barrier for the other American colonies, induced many disbanded soldiers and sailors to settle in that country. The town of Halifax was built and its harbor fortified, and Nova Scotia began to rise rapidly in importance. The French, who had hitherto viewed the province as little better than a barren waste, began now to raise disjJutes conceMng its limits ; and the setders, 612 MODERN fflSTORY. Aom both countries, did not always arrange their controversies by •peaceful discussion. Still more important were the differences which ■arose in the interior of North America. The French were naturally ■anxious to form a communication between the Canadas in the north and Louisiana in the south. This could only be effected by depriving the English of their settlements west of the Allegany mountains, and ■seizing the posts which the British settlers in Virginia and the Caroli- nas had established beyond that chain for the convenience of trade with the Indians. Hostilities were commenced by the colonial authorities, without the formality of a declaration of war ; the Virginian post of Logs' town was surprised by a French detachment, and all its inhab- itants but two inhumanly murdered ; the North American Indians were stimulated to attack the British colonists, and large supplies of arms and ammunition were imported from France (a. d. 1755). The British ministers immediately prepared for hostilities ; all the French forts within the limits of Nova Scotia were reduced by Colonel Monckton ; but an expedition against the French forts on the Ohio was defeated, owing to the rashness of General Braddock, who refused to profit by ■the local knowledge of the provincial officers. He fell into an ambus- cade of French and Indians, and instead of endeavoring to extricate iimself, attempted to make a stand. At length he was slain, while ■vainly striving to rally his troops, and the regular soldiers fled with dis- -graceful precipitation. It deserves to be remarked, that the provincial militia, commanded by Major Washington, did not share the panic of the royal army, but displayed great coolness, courage, and conduct. Two other expeditions, against the forts of Niagara and Crown Point, failed, though General Johnson, who commanded the latter, gained a vic- tory over the hostile army. But at sea the British strength was more effectually displayed ; two sail-of-the-line were captured by Admiral Bos- cawen, off Newfoundland ; and more than three hundred merchant-ships were brought as prizes into the ports of Great Britain. Notwithstanding these hostilities, a formal declaration of war was delayed ; its publica- tion was the signal for one of the fiercest struggles in which modern Europe had been involved. Before, however, we enter on this part of our history, we must briefly notice the important events that for a time threatened the total ruin of the English in Bengal, but whose final re- sults made their power paramount in northern India. The privileges which the emperor of Delhi had granted to the Eng- lish settlers in Calcutta excited great jealousy among the provincial governors, and were violently opposed by Jaffier Khan, the souhbadar of Bengal. Means were taken, however, to conciliate this powerful feudatory, and peace was preserved until the accession of the ferocious Suraja Dowla, who was enraged at the shelter which the English af- forded to some of his destined victims (a. d. 1756). He advanced against Calcutta, when most of the local authorities were seized with a scandalous panic ; the governor and the militai^ conunanders escaped in boats, leaving Mr. Holwell, Mr. Perks, and about one hundred and ninety more, to provide for their own safety as they best might. After endeav(^ring vainly to bring back even one vessel to aid their removal, this handful of men, after a vigorous defence, fell into the power of the ferocious Suraja. They were all thrust into a room twen- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 613 ty feet square, where, from the heat and foulness of the atmosphere, all but twenty-three died before the morning. The news Of this catas- trophe reached Madras just when Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson, flushed by their recent victory over the celebrated pirate Angria, had arrived at Madras to aid in the destruction of the French influence in the Deccan. The troops assembled for that purpose were now sent to recover Calcutta, and this object was effected by the mere appearance of the fleet before the city. Several of the Suraja's own places were taken and plundered, and the French fort of Chandemagore reduced ; conspiracies were formed against Suraja Dowla, and that haughty chieftain felt that the sovereignty of Bengal must be decided by a battle. Contrary to the opinion of all his officers, Clive resolved to hazard an engagement, and took up a position in the grove of Plassy (June 23, 1757). The British force consisted of three thousand two hundred, not more than nine hundred of whom were Europeans ; their artillery consisted of eight six-pounders, and two howitzers. On the other hand, Suraja Dowla had with him fifty thousand foot, eighteen thousand horse, and fifty pieces of cannon. Though the engagement continued the greater part of the day, the British did not lose more than seventy in killed and wounded ; they owed the victory, indeed, more to the errors of their adversaries than to their own merits ; for the contest seems to have been little better than an irregular cannonade, occasion- ally relieved by ineffectual charges of cavalry. Its consequences were not the less decisive from the ease with which it was won ; Suraja- Dowla, after wandering for some time as a fugitive, was murdered by one of his personal enemies ; and the viceroyalty of Bengal was given to Jaffier Khan, who purchased the favor of the British by large public grants and larger private bribes. This brief campaign established the supremacy of the English in northern India, where their power has never since been shaken. Section III. — The Seven Years' War. When the French government received intelligence of the events that had taken place in India and America, vigorous preparations for war were made throughout the kingdom, and England itself was menaced with invasion (a. d. 1756). Never was the national character of the British nation so tarnished as it was by the panic which these futile threats diffused ; Hessians and Hanoverians were hired to protect the kingdom, while the presence of these mercenaries was justly re- garded as dangerous to public liberty. It is more honorable to Britain to relate, that when Lisbon, on the very eve of this war, was almost destroyed by an earthquake, parliament voted one hundred thousand pounds for the relief of the sufl^erers. But the l^rench government menaced an invasion only to conceal its project for the reduction of Minorca ; a formidable force was landed on the island, and close siege laid to Fort St. Philip, which commands the principal town and harbor. Admiral Byng, who had been intrusted with the charge of the English fleet in the Mediterranean, was ordered to attempt the relief of the place ; he encountered a French squadron, of equal force, but instead of seeking an engagement, he would not even support Admiral West, who had thrown the French line into confusion. After this indecisive 61*) MODERN HISTOKY. sjcirmish, he returned to Gibraltar, abandoning Minorca to its fate, General Blakeney,the governor of Fort St. Philip, made a vigorous de- fence, though his garrison was too small by one third ; but finding that he had no prospect of relief from England, he capitulated. But his conduct vsras so far from being disapproved of, that he was raised to the peerage by his sovereign, and welcomed as a hero by the people. The rage of the people at the loss of Minorca was directed against the unfortunate Byng ; popular discontent was still further aggravated by the ill-success of the campaign in America, where a second series of expeditions against the French forts signally failed ; while the mar- quis de Montcalm, the governor of Canada, captured Oswego, where the British had deposited the greater part of their artillery and military stores. Our ally, the king of Prussia, displayed more vigor ; unable to obtain any satisfactory explanation from the court of Vienna, he resolved to anticipate the designs of the Austrians, and invade Bohemia. For this purpose it was necessary that he should secure the neutrality of Saxony, but the elector was secretly in league with Frederic's enemies ; and the Prussian monarch, finding pacific measures ineffectual, advanced, against Dresden. The elector Augustus, who was also king of Poland, fortified himself in a strong camp at Pima, where he resolved to wait for the junction of the Austrian forces. Frederic blockaded the Saxon army and cut off its supplies ; the imperialists, who marched to the relief of their allies, were defeated at Lowositz, and the Saxons, thus left to their own resources, were forced to lay down their arms. Au- gustus fled to his kingdom of Poland, abandoning his hereditary domin- ions to the Prussians, who did not use their success with extraordinary moderation. But the victories of their ally only exasperated the rage of the Eng- lish people against their rulers ; the king was forced to yield to the storm, and dismiss his ministers. William Pitt (afterward earl of Chatham), the most popular man in the kingdom, was appointed head of the new administration, though the duke of Devonshire was nomi- nally premier ; a spirit of confidence was spread abroad, and abundant supplies voted for the war. Unfortunately, as a concession to popular clamor, the unhappy Byng, whose worst fault appears to have been an error of judgment and the dread of the fate of Admiral Matthews,* was brought to trial, found guilty of a breach of the articles of war, and sen- tenced to death. Great exertions were made to save the life of the unhappy admiral, but all in vain ; he was ordered to be shot on board the Monarque, and he met his fate with an intrepidity which effectually clears his memory from the stain of cowardice (a. d. 1757). In France, the attention of the court was engaged by an attempt on the king's life. A maniac, named Damien, stabbed Louis with a penknife as he was entering his carriage ; the wound was not dangerous, but it was sup- posed that the assassin might have accomplices in his treason., Every refinement of cruelty that scientific ingenuity could devise was exhaust- ed in the tortures of this unhappy wretch, whose manifest lunacy made him an object of compassion rather than punishment. The danger to which Louis had been exposed did not prevent him from making vigorous exertions to continue the war. Two armies • See page 606. MEECANTILH- AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 615' were sent into Germaoy; one destined toinvade Hanover, the other tb join the imperial forces against Prussia. 'George II;, anxious to save Hahover, wished to send over a body of British troops for the defence of the electorate, ■ but being opposed by the Pitt administration, he dismissed his ministers, and tried to form a new cabinet. The burst of national indignation at the removal of the popular favorite was, however, so great, that Pitt was soon recalled to power, but not until he had evinced a desire to make some concession to the royal inclinations. At the commencement of the campaign, the prospects of the king of Prussia were very gloomy ; the Russians were advancing through Lithuania, the Swedes threatened him in Pomeranla, the united forces of the French and Imperialists were advancing through Germany, and the emperess-queen, Maria Theresa, covered her hereditary dominions with four armies, whose united strength amounted to one hundred and eighty thousand men. Frederic, baffling the Austrians by a series of masterly movenients, opened a passage into Bohemia, where he was joined by the prince of Bevem and Marshal Schwerin, who had defeated the Austrian divisions that opposed their progress. Confident in the excellence of his troops he resolved to engage without delay, though his enemies were posted in a camp strongly fortified by nature (May 6). The memorable battle of Prague was vigorously contested, and success continued doubtful until the Austrian right wing, advancing too rapidly, was separated from the left. Frederic poured his troops through the gap, so that when the Austrian right was forced back by the intrep.idity of Marshal Schwerin, it suddenly found itself surrounded, and fled in confusion. The centre and left, thus abandoned, could not resist the successive charges of the Prussians, and sought shelter in Prague. Frederic ventured to besiege this city, though the numbers of the garrison nearly equalled those of his own army ; and his delay before the walls gave the Austrians time to recover their courage and recruit their forces. Count Daun began soon to menace the Prussian communications ; Frederic sent the prince K)f Bevem to drive him back ; Daun, though his forces were superior, retreated before the prince, until he could procure such additional strength as to render victory certain. When this was effected, he re- sumed the offensive, and Frederic was forced to hasten to the prince's assistance. A junction was effected at Kolln, and Frederic marched to attack the imperial camp (June 18). The Prussians charged their enemies with their usual vigor, but they were unable to force the Aus- trian lines, and were finally driven from the field. In consequence of this defeat, the Prussians were forced, not only to raise the siege of Prague, but to evacuate Bohemia. Nor were the arms of Frederic and his allies more successful in other quarters. The Russians having defeated General Lehwald, Invaded the Prussian do- minions on the side of Germany, and committed the most frightful devas- tations ; the British and Hanoverian troops, under the duke of Cumber- land, were forced to accept the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, by which thirty-eight thousand soldiers were reduced to a state of inac- tivity ; and the French, thus released from an enemy that might inter- lupt their communications, advanced to join the Austrians in the invasioa 616 MODERN HISTOEY. of Prussia; finally, an Austrian army, by a rapid march, smived at the- very gates of Berlin, and laid that city under contribution. An expedition, planned by Mr. Pitt soon after his restoration to- power, was defeated by the weakness and indecision of the officers in- trusted with its execution. The object of attack was the French port and arsenal of Rochefort, which would have fallen an easy prey, had it been assailed when first the fleet arrived before the place. But the- time which ought to have been employed in action was wasted in de- • liberations, and the expedition returned ingloriously home. The con- ■ duct of British affairs in America was. equally disastrous ; an armament was sent against Louisbourg, but it returned without having made any efibrt to eff'ect its object ; while the French, under the marquis de Mont- cahn, captured the strong fort William Henry, the bulwark of our nor- thern frontier, without meeting the slightest interruption from a British, force posted in its immediate neighborhood. These disasters would have proved fatal to the new ministry, had it not been generally understood that the officers, whose cowardice or incapacity had led to such inglorious results, were the choice of their predecessors, and were maintained in their posts by court favor. This conviction proved favorable to Mr. Pitt, the king was compelled to grant full powers to his ministers, and the secret intrigues by which the cab-' inet was controlled were rendered powerless for a season. An unex- pected change of fortune on the continent brightened the prospects of the British and Prussians toward, the close of the year. Frederic,^, though his dominions were invaded by three hostile armies, never lost courage ; though his aimy did not exceed half the number of his ene- mies, he resolved to give battle to the united forces of the French and Austrians (Nov. 5). Frederic, by a series of judicious movements, led-, his enemies to believe that he dreaded an engagement ; confident of victory, they hasted to force him to action, near the village of Rosbach. .. They advanced so precipitately, that their lines were thrown into dis- order ; and before they could remedy the error, they were broken by the headloag charge of the Prussian horse. Every effiart made by generals of the combined army to retrieve the fortunes of the day was ~ anticipated by the genius of Frederic ; they were forced to retreat in great confusion, having lost nearly nine thousand men in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners, while the total loss of the Prussians did not exceeds five hundred. From this field Frederic hasted to another scarcely less glorious. The Austrians and Hungarians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine,.. entered Silesia, captured the important fortress of Schweidnitz, drove the prince of Severn from his intrenchments, and made themselves masters of the greater part of the province. Frederic, by a rapid march, formed a junction with the relics of the prince of Bevern's army, and thus reinforced, attacked -the Austrians at Lissa (Dec. 5). Pretending to direct all his force against the Austrian right, Frederic suddenly poured his chief strength against their left wing, which was speedily broken; Prince Charles attempted to restore the courage of his flying soldiers by sending reinforcements from the centre and right, but these fresh, troops were unable to form under the heavy fire of the Prussians, and thus the Austrian battaUons were defeated one after another. Night MBaCANTILE AND COLONIAI. SYSTEM. 61T alone prevented the total ruin of the vanquished army. About five thousand men were killed and wounded on each side ; but within a week after the battle the Prussians pressing vigorously the pursuit of their retiring foes, captured twenty thousand prisoners, three thousand wagons, and two hundred pieces of cannon. The Austrians a,bandoned' all Silesia except the town of Schweidnitz, which surrendered in the following spring. The effects of the victories of Rosbach and Lissa were felt throughout Europe ; the French had flagraiitly violated the convention of Closterseven ; it was now disavowed by the British and Hanoverians (a. d. 1758). Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick was chosen by George II. to command his electoral forces, and this able general in a short time not only recovered Hanover, but drove his adversaries across the Rhine. Mr. Pitt changed his policy, and consented to rein- force Prince Ferdinand with a body of British troops, while liberal sup- plies were voted to subsidize the German princes. The campaign was honorable to Prince Ferdinand's abilities, but its most important result was the diversion it made in favor of the king of Prussia, by compelling the French to employ their chief force on the Rhine. •Frederic in this campaign endured several vicissitudes of fortune. Having taken Schweidnitz, he unexpectedly entered Moravia, which had hitherto escaped from the ravages of war, laid that fine province- under contribution, and even menaced Vienna. He failed, however, at the siege of Olmutz, but he effected a retreat as honorable as a vic- tory, and suddenly directed his march against the Russians, whose rav- ages in Brandenburgh were shocking to humanity. He gained a com- plete victory over the invaders at Zomdorff, and' then, without resting a moment, hasted to relieve his brother Henry, who was almost surrounded with enemies in Saxony. Count Daun, the commander of the impe- rialists, was a worthy rival of Frederic ; he surprised and routed the Prussian right wing at Hochkirchen; but the judicidus measures of the king saved the rest of his army, and Daun was unable to pursue his advantages. Indeed so little was Frederic affected by the reverse, that he drove the Austrians a second time from Silesia, and then returning,, compelled Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipsic, and even retreat into Bohemia. The enterprising spirit of Mr. Pitt, freed from the trammels which secret intrigues had formed, diffused itself through the British empire, and particularly animated the officers of the array and navy. Several French ships-of-war were captured by the British ; an armament, destined for North America, was dispersed and driven on shore by Sir Edward Hawke, whose fleet rode triumphant in the channel. From apathy and despair the nation passed at once to the opposite extreme of overweening confidence. It was resolved to carry the war into- France itself, and two successive expeditions were sent against the French coast. As might reasonably have been anticipated, these armaments produced no important result ; the only consequence arising from such a waste of blood and treasure, was the destruction of Cher- bourg, a triumph dearly purchased by the . subsequent loss of some of the best of the troops in the hurried embarkation. But in North America, where the British arms had been tarnished) by delay, disaster, and disgrace, the removal of the earl of Loudon^ "6318! ; .. MODERN HIST0P,Y, ..:;:,: {rem di« commandj led. to a complete change in the. fortnne of ^hp war. His successor, General Abercrombie, planned three sirauka^eQus ext; p^ition, two of which produced triumphant results. General Amherst laid siege to Louisbourg, and aided by the talents of Brigadier Wolfe, who was fast rising into eminence, forced' that important garrison to surrender.' This was followed by the entire reduction of the island of Cape Breton, and the inferior stations which the French occupied in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Brigadier Forbes was sent against Fort du Quesne, which the French abandoned at his approach, and led down the. Mississippi. Abercrombie marched in person against Ticonderoga, which he found better fortified than he had anticipated, and after a Uiseless manifestation of desperate valor, he was forced to retire with considerable loss. The French were, at the same time, deprived of all their settlements on the coast of Africa ; but the count de Lally not only presjei;ved their East Indian possessions, but wrested from the English, Fort St. David and Guddalore. Great anxiety was felt at the opening of the next campaign (a. d. 1759). Early in the year, the Prussians destroyed the Russian maga- .zines in Poland, laid Bohemia, under contribution, and reduced the imperial armies to inactivity. But Prince Ferdinand was unable to prevent the French from sending succors to the Austrians ; and his ill-success once more exposed Hanover to an invasion. . Had Ferdinand wavered, the British and Hanoverians might have been forced to a second convention as disgraceful as Clostei'seven, but his courage rose •with the crisisi he engaged the French at Minden, and gained a complete victory. Minden, indeed, would have been as illustrious and decisive a battle as Blenheiin, but for the unaccountable conduct of Lord George Sackville, who commanded the cavalry, and either misunderstood or ■disobeyed the order to charge the discomfited French. There had been some previous disputes between the prince and Lord George ; they threw tlje blame mutually on each other, but which ever was in fault, it is certain that on this occasion the best opportunity that could have been desired for humbling the power of France was irretrievably lost. The victory of the British, at Minden, was more than counter- balanced by the defeat of the Prussians by the united forces of Austria -and Russia, at Cunersdorff. But the heroic Frederic soon retrieved this disaster, and he would probably have triumphed in his turn, had he not exposed a large division of his troops in the defiles of Bohemia, "which was surrounded and taken by Count Daun. Still the only per- manent acquisition that the Austrians made was Dresden, for Frederic's Tigor and rapidity of movement rendered even their victories fruitless. This indecisive campaign greatly diminished the ardor of the English for their ally, the king of Prussia, while their victories in North America and the West Indies, directed their attention to their colonial interests. Imraediiitely after the conquest of Louisbourg, which was justly con- sidered the key of Canada, an expedition was planned against Quebec. The' colonists were prepared to submit to a change of masters by the politic protection granted to the French settlers in Gaudaloupe, which had been subdued early in the year (a. d. 1758) ; and by the guarantee given to the inhabitants for the enjoyment of religious freedom. When General Wolfe, therefore, proceeded up the St. Lawrence, he did not MEBCANTItE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 619 encounter any serious opposition from the Canadians, who seemed to view the struggle with indifference. -While Wolfe advanced toward Quebec, General Amherst conquered Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Sir William Johnson gained possession of the important fortress of Niagara. But Amherst, as had been originally intended, was unable to form a junction with General Wolfe, who- was thus employed in a ha.zardous enterprise, with very inadequate means. Though he almost despaired of success, Wolfe resolved to persevere ; he adopted the dar- ing plan of landing at night under the Heights of Abraham, leading his men up the steep, and securing this position, which commanded the town. The stream was rapid, the landing-place narrow, and the pre- cipices formidable even by day, but the " soldiers, animated by thein heroic commander, triumphed over these difficulties ; and when morning dawned, the marquis de Montcalm was astonished to learn that the British army occupied those heights which he had deemed inaccessible. A battle was now inevitable, and both generals prepared for the contest with equal courage. The battle was brief but fierce ; the scale of victory was just beginning to turn in favor of the British, when Wolfe fell mortally wounded. This loss only roused the English regiments to fresh exertion, their bayonets broke the French lines, and a body of High- landers, charging with their broad swords, completed the confusion. The French fled in disorder ; the intelligence was brought to Wolfe, he collected his breath to exclaim, " I die happy !" and instantly expired ^September 13). The marquis de Montcalm fell in the same field ; he was not infe- rior to his rival in skill and bravery, nor did he meet death with less intrej-pidity. When told, after the battle, that his wounds were mortal, he exclaimed, " So much the better : I shall not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." Five days after the battle, that city opened its gates to a British garrison, and this was soon followed by the complete subjugation of the Canadas, which have ever since remained subject to the crown of Great Britain. The success of the English in the East Indies was scarcely less ■decisive than in America. Lally, the French general", possessed more courage than prudence ; he engaged in enterprises beyond his means, and especially wasted his limited resources in a vain attack on Madras. Colonel Coote, the commander of the English forces, was inferior to his adversaries in numerical strength, but he enjoyed ampler pecuniary resources, and was far superior to Lally, both as a general and. a state- man. Coote and Lally came to an engagement at Wandewash (Jan. 21, 1760), in which the French were completely overthrown, and their influence in the Carnatic destroyed. During the campaign, Admiral Pococke defeated a French fleet off the coast of Ceylon ; the English, in consequence, became masters of the Indian seas, and began to form reasonable expectations of driving their rivals from Hindustan. A Dutch armament arrived in Bengal, under suspicious circumstances, but Clive ordered that it should be immediately attacked by land and sea ;* the * Clive was enc;aged in a rubber of whist, when an express from Colonel Forde brought him intelligence of the advance of the Dutch. He replied by the follow- ing pencil-note, on a slip of paper torn from the colonel's letter : " Dear Forde— Fight them immediately, and I'll send you an order of council to-morrow." 620 MODEEN HlSTOay. Dutcli were forced to surrender, and ample apologies were made by the authorities of Holland for this infraction of treaties. The French court threatened to take revenge for the destruction of Cherbourg, by invading Great Britain and Ireland ; but the ports were so strictly blockaded by the English squadrons, that no vessel could venture to appear in the channel. Admiral Boscawen pursued a squad- ron from Toulon, that tried to slip unnoticed through the straits of Gibraltar, overtook it off Cape Lagos, on the coast of Portugal (August 18), destroyed two ships-of-the-line, and captured two more. A still more important triumph was obtained by Sir Edward Hawke, between Belleisle and Quiberon (November 20). Conflans, the French admiral, taking advantage of the gales that drove the blockading squadrons off the coast, put to sea, but was soon overtaken by Hawke. Conflans, unwilling to hazard a battle, sought shelter among the rocks and shallows of his own coast. Hawke unhesitatingly encountered the perils of a stormy sea and a lee shore ; he gained a decisive victory, destroying, four ships-of-the-line, and compelling another to strike her colors. A tempestuous night alone saved the French fleet from destruction. Though this victory delivered the English from all fears of the invasion, some alarm was excited by the enterprises of Commodore Thurot, whe sailed from Dunkirk with five frigates, and hovered round the coasts of North Britain. Having failed to make any impression on Scotland, he entered the Irish sea, and landing at Carrickfergus, stormed and pillaged that town.* Having heard the news of Conflans' defeat, he steered homeward, but was swiftly pursued by a squadron under Com- modore Elliot, and overtaken near the Isle of Man (February 28, 1760). After a fierce engagement, Thurot was killed, and all his vessels forced to surrender. Vigorous preparations were made by all parties for the maintenance of the war in Germany, although the people of England had become weary of continental connexions, and the French finances had fallea into a state of lamentable disorder (a. d. 1760). The conduct of the people of France to their sovereign was, indeed, truly generous ; the principal nobility" and gentry sent their plate to the treasury to be- coined for the public service ; an army of nearly one hundred thousand men was assembled in Westphalia, under the duke de Broglio, while an inferior army was formed upon the Rhine, under Count St. Germain. Prince Ferdinand could not have coped with such an overwhelming force, had not the French generals quarrelled with each other. Several battles were fought, but they were all more or less indecisive ; and, rarely has there been a campaign in which such numerous and well- appointed armies were opposed that produced so few memorable events. The king of Prussia resolved to act on the defensive in Saxony, while his brother Henry opposed the Russians and Austrians in Silesia, * An interesting example of humanity softened the horrors of war during the attack on Carrickfergus. While the French and the garrison were engaged in the streets, a beautiful child, unconscious of its danger, ran between both parties. A French grenadier, moved with compassion, threw down his musket, rushed into- the midst of the fire, took up the child, and having placed it in safety, returned to hb companions, who with loud shouts applauded the heroic deed. MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 621 But his plans were deranged by the" enterprise of Marshal Laudohn, ■who surrounded the Prussian general, Fouquet, slew three thousand of his array, ^d compelled the remainder to surrender at discretion. Frederic attempted to retrieve his affairs by a sudden advance on Dres- den, but he failed to capture the city ; his brother, Prince Henry, was more fortunate in raising the siege of Breslau, which Laudohn had in- vested after his victory. But Frederic's ruin seemed unavoidable, as the Russians were advancing with overwhelming forces, and he was iimself surrounded by three Austrian armies at Lignitz. Count Daun marched to storm the Prussian camp, in full confidence of victory ; but, to his astonishment, he found it deserted, Frederic having marched that very night to meet the army of Marshal Laudohn, who was eagerly pressing forward to share, as he fondly believed, in assured victory. The heights of Pfaffendorff, judiciously protected by a formidable array of artillery, prevented Daun from marching to the assistance of his -colleague ; Laudohn was completely defeated, and the Austrian grand army driven from Silesia. But this victory did not prevent the success of the enemy in other quarters; the Russians,, being joined by a con- siderable body of Austrians, under General Lascy, pushed forward through Brandenburgh, and made themselves i]M,sters of Berlin. They levied a heavy contribution on the city, and destroyed its arsenals, foun- dries, and public works. The Prussians were equally unfortunate in Saxony, but Frederic resolved to run every risk to recover a country that had hitherto sup- plied the chief support to his armies. Daun, equally convinced of the importance of Saxony, protected the electorate with a force of seventy thousand men, advantageously posted in a fortified camp, near Torgau. Frederic, with only fifty thousand men, resolved to attack the Austrians in their intrenchments, and to stake his life and crown on the hazard of the engagement (November 3). The battle was furious, but the ardor of the Prussians, who felt that they fought for the very existence of their country, was irresistible. Dunn was Tjorne from the field severely wounded ; the Austrians were broken by separate charges, and night alone saved them from total ruin. The result of this glorious victory was, that Frederic recovered all Saxony except Dresden, and compelled the Russians, Austrians, and Swedes, to evacuate his dominions. The Canadian war was not terminated by the capture of Quebec ; the French had still formidable forces in the country, and they made a vigorous effort to recover that city. They were baffled by the intre- pidity of General Murray ; and General Amherst soon after having ob- tained reinforcements from England, advanced to Montreal, and com- pelled the entire French army to capitulate. The savage tribes of Indians who had been induced by French gold to attack the British settlements, were now severely chastised, and compelled to make the most humiliating submissions. Not less complete was the success of the English arms in India ; Pondicherry and Mahie were reduced by Colonel Coote, the French power in the east completely subverted, and the English rendered mas-, ters of the commerce of the vast peninsula of Hindustan. These im- portant acquisitions made the English very impatient of the German war ; they complained of the inactivity of the navy, and asserted that 622 MODERN msTcmy. Ae French islands in the West Indies, more valuable to a commercial (people than half the German empire, might have been gained with far less risk and loss than attended the protection of the useless electorate of Hanover. In the midst of these disputes, George 11. died suddenly, in the seventy-seventh year of his ag« (October 25). He was succeeded by his grandson, George III., a young prince in his twenty-third year, ■who had hitherto taken no active part in public life. The death of George II. produced little change in European politics ; but that of" the peaceful Spanish monarch, Ferdinand VI. (a. d. 1759), led to some important results. His successor, Charles III., was king of the Two Sicilies, and by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, it had been agreed, that on his accession to the throne of Spain, his former kingdom should devolve to Don Philip, duke of Parma and Placentia, and that these dutchies should be resigned to the empire. By the me- diation of France yvith Austria, Charles was enabled, to procure the Neapolitan throne for his third son, Ferdinand, while Philip was per- mitted to retain Parma and Placentia. Grateful for such a benefit, Charles signed the family compact, which bound the Bourbon princes to afford each other mutual assistance, and secretly prepared to join France in the war agaiast Great Britain. The haughty conduct of the English diplomatists, which was not unjustly offensive to Spanish pride, greatly contributed to strengthen the resolution of the court of Madrid, especially as the naval superiority of the English menaced the communications of Spain with her American colonies. Negotiations for peace were commenced by the courts of France and Great Britain, soon after the accession of George III., but with little sincerity on either side (a. d. 1761). Mr. Pitt was firmly resolved to humble the house of Bourbon ; the duke de Choiseul, the French min- ister, relied on the secret promises of Spanish aid, and thus it was im- •possible to arrange preliminaries. The war languished in Germany; Prince Ferdinand succeeding in protecting Hanover, but he could not prevent the French from ravaging Westphalia and East Friesland. The king of Prussia, exhausted even by his victories, was forced to act on the defensive ; though he lost no battle, he had the mortification to see the Russians make themselves maste"^s of Colberg, and the Austrians surprise Schweidnitz. The possession of these important places ena- bled the Russians to establish their winter-quarters in Pomerania, and the Austrians in Silesia. On sea, the honor of the British flag was maintained in several actions between single ships and small squad- rons. The island of Belleisle, on the coast of France, was captured by a British armament, but at a very disproportionate cost of blood aind treasure. This languid campaign seemed to prove that all parties were weary of the war, and negotiations were resumed. In their progress, Mr. Pitt discovered the intimate connexion that had been formed between the courts of Versailles and Madrid ; and he proposed to anticipate the hostile designs of the latter by seizing the pkte-fleet, laden with the .treasures of Spanish America. But the colleagues of Mr. Pitt, already dissatisfied with his imperious manners, refused to adopt such bold measures, and he instantly resigned the seals of office. The king, anxious to introduce his favorite, the earl of Bute, into the cabinet, MEKCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 62S adopted the opinions of the majority of his council, and accepted the resignation. Fierce political disputes arose, whose effects were felt th'roughout Europe ; the hopes of the French court were raised, and the German allies of Great Britain were greatly dispirited. But the new ministry showed no want of alacrity in maintaining the honor of the country. One of their earliest measures was a declaration of war against Spain, the conduct of the court of Madrid having amply justified Mr. Pitt's anticipations of its hostile designs (a. d. 1762). The superiority of the British navy over the combined fleets of France and Spain, hindered these powers from making any attempt at colonial conquests ; but they believed themselves equally superior by land, and therefore resolved to attack Britain through the side of its ancient ally, Portugal. Few kingdoms had sunk into such a state of degradation as Portugal at this period. Trusting to the protection of England, and enriched by the treasures of Brazil, the court of Lisbon reposed in ignorance and indolence ; its fortresses were neglected, its army mouldering away, its subjects destitute of martial spirit. The earthquake that laid Lisbon in ruins was followed by a dangerous conspiracy against the life of Joseph, the reigning sovereign. This monarch, less superstitious than most Portuguese kings, had banished the Jesuits from his court, and had resented with spirit the encroachments of his nobles. Some of the dissatisfied Jesuits and nobles formed a plot to murder the king, and he was dangerously wounded by assassins while on his road from his country-seat to Lisbon. The principal conspirators we're arrested and punished by cruel deaths; and all the Jesuits banished from the kingdom (a. d. 1759). But the nobles continued discontented; the pope and the clergy resented the expulsion of the Jesuits, while the superstitious Portuguese seemed ready to renounce their allegiance to a sovereign who had incurred the resentment of the church. Such was Joseph's situation, when the ministers of France and Spain pre- sented a joint demand that he should instantly renounce his alliance with Britain, under pain of incurring their resentment, arid allowing him only four days to deliberate on his answer. Joseph at once returned a spirited refusal to such an insolent memorial, and the Spanish army crossed the frontiers. An auxiliary British force of eight thousand men was sent to Portugal, together with a large supply of arms and ammu- nition. Joseph intrusted the command of his army to the count de la Lippe, who had already distinguished himself in Germany. The skill of this commander, and the valor of the British officers, compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the kingdom with loss and disgrace, before the close of the campaign. 1 he French hoped that the invasion of Portugal would facilitate the progress of their arms in Germany ; but Prince Ferdinand, and the mar- quis of Granby, not only protected Hanover, but recovered the greater part of Hesse. An unexpected event delivered the king of Prussia from the ruin that seemed to threaten him at the close of the last campaign. Elizabeth, emperess of Russia, died, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter HI., who entertained a romantic admiration of Frederic. The new emperor not only put an end to hostilities, but entered into alliance with the Prussian monarch ; and ijurope saw with astonishment the *24 MODERN HISTORY. ■unprecedented spectacle of an army marching off from its former allies to the camp of its enemies. Sweden followed the example of Russia in concluding peace ; and Frederic, taking advantage of these favorable circumstances, recovered Schweidnitz and drove the Austrians from Si- lesia. A new revolution in Russia compelled the Prussian king to halt in his victorious career. The reforms of Peter III. had given offence to a great body of his subjects ; he was dethroned by his wife, who usurped the throne, vrith the title of Catherine II. Peter died in prison a few days after his deposition, but it has not been ascertained whether he was the victim of disease or violence. Catherine did not renew the war against Prussia, as had been at first expected, but she withdrew her forces, and resolved to observe a strict neutrality. Frederic's vic- tories had in the meantime, so seriously alarmed the Austrians, that they consented to a cessation of hostilities for Silesia and Saxony. This impolitic truce laid Bohemia open to Frederic : one division of his army advanced to the very gates of Prague and destroyed a valuable magazine ; another laid the greater part of Egra in ashes, while de- tachments ravaged Franconia, and even Suabia. The princes of the empire hasted to conclude treaties of neutrality, and the war was left to be decided by the powers of Prussia and Austria, between which the contest had begun. In the meantime the English conquered the chief islands that the French still retained in the West Indies, Martinique, St. Lucie,' Gre- nada, and St. Vincent ; while the Spaniards suffered the more severe loss of Havana, the capital of Cuba, and the large fleet that lay in its harbor. Nor was this the least alarming of the consequences that resulted to the court of Madrid from its unwise interference ; an arma- ment from Madras, under the command of Admiral Cornish and General Draper, captured Manilla, and the fall of this city involved the fate of the whole range of the Philippine islands. France and Spain, heartily tired of a war which threatened ruin to the colonies of both, became desirous of peace, and they found the earl of Bute, who now ruled the British cabinet, equally anxious to termi- nate the war. Indeed, so anxious was that minister to avoid a contin- uance of hostilities, that he not only stopped the career of colonial conquest, but consented to sacrifice several acquisitions that Britain had already made. Still the British nation gained. by the war the whole of Canada and part of Louisiana, the chief settlements on the western coasts of Africa, and a decided superiority in India ; had the war lasted another year, had even the fair claims of Britain's position been sup- ported by her negotiators, these gains would have been more extensive and more secure. Contrary to all expectation, the preliminaries were sanctioned by a majority of the British parliament, and soon after the definite treaty was signed at Paris (Feb. 10, 1763). The king of Prussia and the emperess of Austria, deserted by their respective allies, agreed to a reconciliation about the same time, on the basis of a resti- tution of conquests and an oblivion of injuries. The result of the continental war was, that Prussia and Austria be- came the principal European powers, France lost her political pre- eminence when united to the empire, and England abandoned her in- MBBCANTILB AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 625 iluence in the European system, maintaining an intimate relation only with Portugal and Holland. Britain, by the colonial war, obtained com- plete maritime supremacy ; she commanded the entire commerce of North America and Hindustan, and had a decided superiority in the West Indian trade.' But during the seven years' war a question arose which led to very important discussion! ; France, unable to maintain a commercial intercourse with her colonies, opened the trade to neutral powers ; England declared this traffic illegal, and relying on her naval superiority, seized neutral vessels and neutral property bound to hostile ports. The return of peace put an end to the dispute for a season, but it became the subject of angry controversy in every future war. The internal condition of England improved rapidly during the contest by the extension. of the fimding, system ; the pecuniary affairs of the gov- enunent became intiinately connected with those of the nation ; by far the greater part of the loans required for the war was raised at home, so the increase of the national debt more closely united the rulers and the people in the bonds of a common interest. This altered state of things scarcely excited notice,. though it was the chief source of the permanence and stability displayeld by the British government when revolutionary movements threatened to subvert the other dynasties of Europe. 40 626 MODERN fflSTORY. CHAPTER IX. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. Section 1 Change in the Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy $ee. Distriemherment of Poland. No country had suffered so severely as France during the late war; the finances had long been iaiconfiision, and the profligate expenditure of, a demoralized court aggravated the indignation produced by national distress. Louis XV.j thbugh not destitute of abilities, was the slave of his sensilal appetites ; ruled by his mistresses, and other unworthy fa- vorites, he connived at glaring abuses, and sanctioned the grossest acts of tyranny and rapacity. A spirit' of opposition spread through the kingdom, several of the parliaments refused to register the edicts for the continuance of war-taxes, and others remonstrated in a tone of censure to which the French monarchs had been long unaccustomed. This un- usual liberty of the parliaments had been in some degree fostered by the court itself ; the king permitted these bodies to set bounds to eccle- siastical tyranny, and to suppress the order of the Jesuits in France (a. D. 1762) ; and their spirit was further increased by the intrigues of the duke de Choiseul, who persuaded the king to allow the Parisian parliament to pass sentence on Lally, the unfortunate commander of the French in India, whose only crime was failure under circumstances that rendered success impossible. Popular discontent was at the same time rapidly spreading in Spain, where the reforms of the prime minister, Squillace, offended the obsti- nate prejudices of an ignorant and bigoted nation. Charles III. yielded to the clamors of his subjects and dismissed the minister, but he firmly resolved to take vengeance on the Jesuits, who were supposed to have secretly instigated the insurrection. A reforming minister in Portugal maintained his post in spite of opposition ; the marquis of Pombal ruled the land with iron sway, and confident in the rectitude of his in- tentions, scorned all opposition. But though he removed all impedi- ments, including the higher order of nobility and the society of Jesuits, his reforms took no root in the land, and the institutions which he es- tablished by force perished when that force was taken away. The enmity of Pombal and Choiseul to the Jesuits was felt in the Spanish cabinet ; the king was indignant at their share in the late dis- turbances, his minister, Count d'Aranda, regarded the order as hostile to all existing governments. Both took their measures with profound secresy (a. d. 1767). The houses of the Jesuits in Madrid were sur- rounded at night, and the inmates commanded to set out instantly for THE AGE OF REVOIUTIONS. 627 the coast. An edict was then issued for the banishment of the regu- lars of that community from Spain and its colonies, and the confiscation of their temporalities. The Jesuits in Mexico and Peru were similarly- seized ; and in Paraguay, where they had established an almost inde- pendent empire, they were suddenly deposed and transported to Europe. The king of Naples and the duke of Parma followed the example of the court of Spain, in spite of the urgent remonstrances of Pope Clem- ent XIII. ; they also placed new restrictions on the pontiff's jurisdic- tion in their states, and when Clement made a vigorous effort to sup- port the ancient privileges of the holy see, he found himself opposed to all the Italian powers, except the king of Sardinia, to the remon- strances of Spain and Portugal, and the active hostility of France. While these disputes between the catholic powers and the head of their church proved that the supremacy of the papacy no longer exist- ed, but in name, the struggles of a small insular people to maintain their national independence excited general sympathy. The Genoese transferred their nominal claims over the island of Corsica to the crown of France, and Choiseul sent a large array to occupy this new acquisition. But the Corsicaiis, justly enraged at the transfer of their allegiance without the formality of asking their consent, boldly flew to arms, and under the command of the heroic Paoli, prepared for an ob- stinate resistance. Had the British ministry interfered, the result of the contest would have been very doubtful ; but Paoli could not resist the entire force of France, he w£|,s driven by the vast superiority of numbers from post to post, until every strong place had yielded to the invaders, when he cut his way through the enemy, and embarked for Leghorn (a. d. 1769). The island submitted to Louis, but many of the Cor&icans long continued to harass the French by a guerilla war in their mountain fastnesses. Choiseul, finding his influence with Louis XV. on the decline, sought to strengthen it by cementing the alliance between the courts of Paris and' Vienna. He effected a marriage between the king's grandson and heir and Marie Antoinette, daughter of the emperess-do wager. These ill-omened nuptials were celebrated with extraordinary splendor during a season of great public distress : during the festivities a fatal accident cast a shade of melancholy over all parties ; some confusion arose in the crowd of spectators, and nearly two hundred persons lost their lives in the tumult. Choiseul involved the king in a quarrel with the parlia- ments, which precipitated the fall of that able minister ; the lung re- luctantly consented to abandon the new forms of jurisdiction which were proposed, and allow the' old courts to resume their ' functions. This unfortunate and dishonorable proceeding Qompleted the abasement of. France ; it was notorious that the duke de Choiseul owed his dis- grace to the intrigues of the king's profligate mistress;* and whatever' may have been the faults of that minister, he would certainly never have permitted the influence of his country to sink so low as it did during the administration of his successor, the duke d'Aguillon. While France was thus declining, the Russian empire was rapidly acquiring a preponderating influence in eastern Europe. The emperess'. * Madame dU Barri. She was subsequently one of tlie victims of the Frencli revolution. $38 MODERN HISfOaY. Catherine procured! the throne of Poland for, one of her fa^orities, Stan- islaus Augustus (a. d. 1765), having. sent a Rjis^ian army to, overawe the diet, virhen it assembled to choose a sovereign. Frederic of Prus- sia,, anxious to remedy the calamities vrhich the seven years' war had brought upon his country, did not venture to oppose the schemes of the ambitious czarina ; on the con.trary, he was, gained mex. by some qom- j^ercial concessions tp aid' her projects with all his influence. The new sovereign of Poland, opposed by a licentious aristocracy aj»d a big- oted people, was unable to remedy the disorders of the state, or control the events that soon furnished a pretext for the interference of his pow- erful neighbors. Poland had long been agitated by religious disputes ; the oppressions of the catholics compelled the dissidents, as the dis- senting sects: were called, to seek foreign protection ; those of the Greek church appealed to the emperess of Russia, while the Lutherans sought , aid from the kings of Prussia and Denmark. Catherine, with great promptitude, sent an army to enforce the claims of the dissidents, and paying little regard to the remonstrances of Stanisiaus, acted as if Poland had been one ofi her own provinces. The catholic lord^ formed a confederacy to maintain the purity of their religion, and the indepen- dence of their country, but they were unable to compete with the over- whelming, forces of Russia ; Cracow, where they attempted to make a, stand, was taken by storm, the fugitives were pursued beyond the Tmrk- ish frontiers, and,l5ae country that had afibjded them refuge was cruelly devastated. Mustapha HI. was more peacefully inclined than most qf the sultans th^thave filled the throne of Constantinople, l)ut he felt tha.t.the power ■which Russia, was acquiring in, Poland would be dapgerous to the se- curity of his northern proviiicea ; he was indignant at the violation of his dominions, and he was secretly instigated by the French courts.. The king of Prussia vainly remonstrated with the sijjtan ;* Mustapha had formed an extravagant estimate of his military resources, and he is said to have been aninaatedj by a personal dislike of Catherine. The war was commenced by the Turks (a. d. 1769),; their irregular troops entered southern Russia, and^ committed the most frightful ravages; hut when they hazarded a regular, engagement, at Chpczim, they suffered a severe defeat. Catherine prepared to strike a decisive blow against, the Turkish power ; . slj e sent a fleet from the Baitic round to the Med^-, iterranean, to support an insurrection which her emissaries had exci- ted in Southern Greece (a. d. 1770). The insurgents, aided by, a Rus- sian force, at fiist gained some. advantages, but on the first reverse they were,abandoned by; their allies to the brutal, retaliations of their Turkish masters. Soon after^j the Turkish fleet of fifteen ships-of-the,-;line was burned by a. Russian squadron in the bay of Chesme, with the excep- tion of a, single vessel that was captured. This w^s followed by the defeat of the grand, Ottoman army near. the. Pruth, the capture of Ben- dei, Akerman, andlsmail, and the occupation of the entire province ofi Bessarabia. Stanislaus wag, forced to join in the war against, the Turks, though he> fcn«^w, that one of the chief causes of tiieir, taking up arms was to, , «!, ITjederip, w^lq;^y?d,tp, indujge JB.sarcasflj, said th^J a vw; betjsjeen tbe.Rus- sians and the Turks would be a contest between the one-eyed and the bljj>4. THE AGE OF REVOL'yTIONS. 62& defend the independence of Poland. But Joseph, who had succeeded his father in the German eihpire (a. d. 1765), began to dread the dan- 'gerous ambition of Russia ; and even his mother, Maria Theresa, began to court the friendship of her old rivd, Frederic, as a counterpoise to the 'governing power of thte czarina. It was obviously the interest of the northern states, Denmark and Sweden, to adopt a similar course of policy ; but the governments of both countries were too deeply en- gaged by their domestic affairs to attend to the state of their foreign relations. Frederick V., one of the best liionarchs that ever occupied the throne of Denmark, was succeeded by Christian V., a prince of weak intellect and dissipated habits (a. d. 1766). Soon after hia accession, Christian married Caroline Matilda, one of the sisters of the queen of England, and the engaging manners of this princess won her the favor of thd Danish king and people. To maintain her ascendency over the mind of her husband, Caroline favored the ambition of Struensee, a foreign adventurer, who was raised to the office of prime minister, or rather, sole ruler of Denmark. Struensee's adniini^tratioh was vigorous and useful, but his haughtiness gave great offence to the Danish nobles ; a conspiracy was formed against him, of which the king's step-mother and her son iPrederic were the prihcipg,l instigators, and it was resolved to involve the unfortunate queen Caroline in his fate. Struensee and his friend Brandt were arrested at midnight, by virtue of an order which had been extorted ftom the imbecile Christian ; they Were insulted with the mockfeiy of a trial, and put to a cruel death. The qiieen was also arrested and sent a prisoner to Cronenberg castle ; dread of British ven- geance, however, saved her from personal violence. She was permitted to retire to Hanover, where the remainder of her life was spent in com- parative obscurity. The queen dowager, having removed her rival, usurped the royal authority ; a young nobleman named Bernstorif was' appointed prime minister, and the court of Copenhagen became remark- able for its subserviency to that of St. Petersburgh. Gustavus III., a young prince of great vigor and sagacity, ascended the Swedish throne on the death of his father, Adolphus Frederic (a. d. 1771) ; he had early formed a project for removing the restrictions which the senate had imposed on the royal authority after the death of Charles XII., and his efforts were seconded by the bulk of the nation, long weary of aristocratic tyranny. The senate, suddenly surrounded by armed bands, was intimidated into assenting to the instrument of government which Gustavus had prepared, and a revolution Which changed Sweden from one of the most limited into one of the most ab- solute monarchies of Europe, was effected without spilling a drop of blood. Diread of a counter-revolution, and the necessity of providing some remedy for the distress which prevailed in Sweden, prevented Gustavus from interfering in the affairs of Poland, a country that had often occupied the anxious, cares of his predecessors. Stanislaus was sincerely anxious to confer the blessings of tranquil- lity and good government on Poland ; but all his judicious measures were frustrated by the Polish nobles, who clung to their tyrannous aiid absurd privileges-, though they Were known to be as peinicious to theni- selves as they were ruinous to the country. An attempt on the personal .630 MODERN HISTORY. liberty of the unhappy king gave Catherine a pretext for sending a Rus- sian array into the country, and suggested to the Prussian king a scheme for the dismemberment of Poland, A treaty was concluded between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, for dividing the Polish provinces between them. Their armies instantly occupied their , several shares ; and the diet, overawed by the united forces of the three powers, was forced to acquiesce in an arrangement that left Poland S merely nominal exist- ence (a. d., 1773). Thq unhappy Stanislaus, reproached for calamities which it was not in his power to avert, could not avoid retorting on his accusers, and attributing the national ca,lamities to the bigotry, ,the fac- tious spirit, and the incessant contentions, of the turbulent nobles;. • By the intervention of Prussia, a treaty was subsequently concluded be- tween Russia and Turkey, by which the emperess gained several ifn- portant fortresses, a large acquisition of territory, and permission for her subjects to navigate the Black sea (a. d. 1774). Great as these gains were, they were less valuable in themselves than as means for obtain- ing other objects of Catherine's sepret ambition. Degraded as Louis XV. was, he could not receive, without emotion, intelligence of events which showed the low ebb to which the influence bf France was reduced. When informed of the partition of Poland, he could not refrain from exclaiming, " Had Choiseul been still in the cabi- net, this disgraceful transaction might have been averted." The duke d'Aguillon merited this reproach, but he resolved to atone for his negli- gence by gratifying the national hatred against the Jesuits, though he had long been suspected of secretly favoring that order. The death of Clement XIII. favored his projects (a. d. 1769). Ganganelli, who suc- ceeded to the papacy under the title of Clement XIV., fcjltthat the time was for ever gone by when the extravagant claims of the pontiffs could be rnaintained, and he therefore sought a reconciliation with the, catho- Jic sovereigns by making reasonable concessions. After a long but not unjustifiable delay, he issued a bull suppressing the order of Jesuits ; and most of the catholic prelates, who had long been jealous of that fraterni- ty, eagerly enforced the papal edict (a, d. 1773), Little oipposition was made by the Jesuits to this decree, but the insurrection in Sicily and the deaths of Louis XV. and Pope Ganganelli (a. p. 1774) were at- tributed to their secret practices, though not a shadow of proof could be adduced to support such severe accusations. Indeed, it is notorious that Loui? died of small-pox, and Ganganelli of a constitutipnal disease to which he had long been a martyr. Louis XVI., of whom his, sub- jects had long been taught to form the most favorable expectations, as- cended the throne of France : Angelo Braschi was elected to the papacy, under the title of Pius VI., by the influence of the more bigoted cardie nals,'who believed that he would be a more zealous supporter of the church than his predecessors. Section II. — History of England from tJie Peace of Paris to the Commence- ment of the American War. When the British ministry concluded a separate treaty with France, they disseverpd their country from its expensive connexion with the continent, but at the same time they diminished, its influence in Euro- THE AGE OF HE VOLUTIONS. 631 peun politics. Extensive colonies, rapidly increasing commerce, and improving manufactures, afforded tlie nation ample amends for this loss ; but a spirit of faction began tO' appear in the national councils, which produced a pernicious influence on the growing prosperity of the nation. While there was any reason to apprehend danger from the house of Stuart, the Brunswick dynasty was necessarily thrown for support on the whigg',. for the tories were from principle more or less disposed to feivor the claims of the exiled house ; but when all fears from the Pre- tender had disappeared, the zeal which the tories had ever shown for the maintenance of the royal prerogative naturally recommended them to royal favpr. Personal friendship induced George III. to introduce the earl of Bute into his cabinet ; his influence excited the jealousy of the w;higs, who had long monopolized the favor of the king and the na- tion; they accused him of an attachment to toryism, of partiality to his Scottish countrymen, and of having sacrificed the interests of the nation at the peace. Unable or unwilling to face popular clamor, the earl of Bute resigned his office, but it was believed he privately retained his in- fluence in the qabinet ; and thus no small portion of his unpopularity was inherited by his successors. John Wilkes, member of parliament foi Aylesbury, assailed the min- isters with great bitterness in a paper called the North Briton. The for- ty-fifth number of this periodical contained a fierce attack on the king's speech at the opening of the parliamentary session ; and the ministers, forgetting discretion in their rage, issued a general warrant against the authors, printers, and publishers of the libel. Wilkes was arrested, but was soon liberated, on pleading privilege of parliament. The house of commons, in opposition to the legal authorities, voted that privilege of parliament did not extend to the case of libel ; but it subsequently joined with the lords in voting the illegality of general warrants. Wilkes, in the meantime, quitted the country, and not appearing to take his trial,i was outlawed. So much was the nation engrossed, by this dispute be- tween the government and an individual,, that little attention was paid to colonial affairs ; .but during this period the East India company acquired several rich districts in Bengal, and displayed a gra,sping ambition, which threatened the independence of the native powers. A more dangerous prospect was opened in the American sta,tes. The French being removed, and the Indians driven into the backwoods, the colonies began to increase rapidly in wealth, and their prosperity sug- gested to Mr. Grenville a scheme for making them share in the burden of taxation. The late war had been undertaken principally for the se- curity of the colonists, they had been almost exclusively the gainers by its successful termination, and it was therefore deemed equitable that they should pay a portion pf the cost. But the Americans were not represented in the British parliament, and they, together with a large party in Britain, maintained that they could not be constitutionally taxed vtithout their, own consent. Mr. Grenville, supported by his royal mas- ter, disregarded opposition, and an act was passed ijnposing stamp-duties. on a multitude of articles (a. d. 1765). The dispute seemed to be allayed by a change in the British minis-/ try ; the marquis pf Rockingham, much against the king's will, repealed the obnoxious Stamp Act,; but he was forced to assert, in strong terms, 632 MODERN HISTOKY. tile right of lihe Icing aniJparUaraent to enact laWs,bm3iiig the colonies ill all cases whatsoever. The marquis of flotildngham was s^oon obligeS to give way to Mr. Pitt, who had 'been created eaf 1 of Chaiiiam ; but the eaM- net constructed by this once-pt)pular minister had fto 'priiicifQe rf utoion, and soon fell to pieces. The appointment of Lord Noirth to the chan* cellprship of the exchequer aggravated party animosities (a. ». 1767) ; the new minister was suspected of hostility to the American claims, and Had taken a prominent part against Wilkes. That d.emdgbgae returned to England ; he was chosen member for-fliie county of Middlesex at the general election, after whicjh te sijn^endered himself to justice, obtained the reversal of his 6utlav?ry, and was sentenced to imprisonment for the libel he had published. When parliament met, it was supposed that Wilkes would take his seat for Middlesex, and a crowd assembled to escort him to the hoiiSe -, some rioting occurred, the military were caHed out, and a scuffle ensued, in which some lives were lost. Wilkes •stig-' matized the employment of the soldiers on this occasion in the most unmeasured terms ; the ministers took advantage of this second libel to procure his expulsion from the house of commons, but the electors ttf Middlesex re-elected him without any hesitation. The commons re- solved that an expelled rnember was incapable of sitting in -the parlia- ment that had passed such a sentence wpon him, and issued a writ for a new election, Once more Wilkes wa? xmanimously chosen, and once more the commons refused to admit him. A' new election was held, and Wilkes was returned by a great majority over Colonel Lnttrell, the ministerial candidate. The Jiouse of commons persetered in its decla- ration of Wilkes's incapacity, and resolved that Colonel Luttiell should bie the sitting member. In their anxiety to crush a worthies? individual, the ministers had now involved themselves in a contest on an important point of constitutiomi[ law, with all the constituencies of the nation. A fierce opposition was raised against them iU England, wd this npt a little encouraged the ^.mericans to persevere, in their resistance. The resignation of the duke of Grafton, who wished to conciliate the colonies, the removal of Earl Camden, who disapproved of the decision respecting the Middlesex election, and the appointment of Lord North as premier, added to the exasperation of parties (a. d. 1770). The im- position of a light duty on tea kept alive, the dispute with America, while the concessions made to the court of Spain, in a dispute ifespecting the Falkland islands, were represented as a deliberate sacrifice of the honOT of the country. The only beneficial result from these disputes was, the indirect license given to the publication of the parliamentary debates, which had hitherto been deemed a breach of privilege. The commons sent tj. messenger to arrest some printers and publishers, b^t the execu- tion of their orders was opposed by the civic mkgi^trates, Crosby, di- ver, and Wilkes . The two former were sent to the Tower ; but Wilkes refused to attend, unless permitted to take his seat for Middlesex, and the commons gave up the point by adjourning over the day on which he had been summoned to appear. Since that time the debates fejite been regularly published in the newspapers. The abuses in the government of the dominions of the East India company having attracted considerable attention, a law was passed for THE AGE OF RBVOLD^IONS. 633 bringing the affairs of that commercial association in some degree under the control of government ; but to reconcile the company to such inter- ference, a loan was granted on favorable terms ; and also permission to export teas without payment of duty.. A quantity of tea was shipped for Boston, and IJ^ord .North hoped that the low price of the commodity would induce .the New jEnj^anders to pay the, small, duty charged on importation ; but when the vessels arrived at Boston, they were boarded during the night by a party of the townsmen, and the cargoes thrown mtD the sea. This outrage, followed by other acts of defiance, gave such offence in England, that acts were passed for closing the port of Boston, and altering the constitution of the colony of Massachusetts (a. d. 1774). It was hoped that the other colonies would be warned by this example ; but, on the contrary, they encouraged the people of Massachusetts in their disobedience, and signed agreements against the importation pf British merchandise, until 'the Boston port bill should be repealed, and the grievances of the colonies redressed. But though the colonists acted firmly, they showed the greatest anxiety for reconcilia- tion ; they prepared addresses to the government and their fellow- subjects, and they sent a memorial to the king, couched in terms equally spirited and respectful. The address to his majesty was not received, as it had emanated from an illegal assembly ; and the determination evinced by the new parliament, which met in 1775, to support ministe- rial measures, defea;ted all hopes of an accommodation. The continental powers, jealous of the maritime and commercial pros- perity of England, exulted in the, contest thus unwisely provoked. Even the moderate king of France, though severely harassed by the disordeTed State of his finances, and the embarrassing disputes which had been raised by his grandfather between the court and the parlia- ments, seemed disposed to favor the revolted colonies ; several of his ministers urged him to offer them support, but the opinion of Turgot, the wisest of the French cabinet, prevailed for a. season ; he strenuously condemned such interference as impolitic and, unjust. Spain, involved in a disastrous war with the piratical states of Barbary, and in a less formidable dispute with Portugal, respecting the boundaries of their South American colonies, was slow to engage in fresh hostilities, and was resolved to imitate the example of France. Tke king of Prussia; indignant at the desertion of his interest^ in the peace of 1763, openly rejoiced in the, embarrassment of the British ministry; and Catherine pf Russia exulted in the hope of seeing the naval power most likely to oppose her ambitious schemes preparing to destroy what was believed to be the secret source of its strength. Undervaluing the power and the fortitude of the provincials, the king and his ministers resolved to force them into obedience, parliament seconded these views, and the great bulk of the people applauded their determination. It is useless to conceal that the American war was popular at its commencement. The vague notion of dominion over an entire continent flattered Eng- lish pride, and the taxes which the ministers demanded, promised some alleviation to the public burdens. The colonial revolt was regarded by many as a rebellion, not against the British goveriiment, but the British people, and the contest was generally looked upon in England as an PH MODBEN HISTOKY. effort to establish, not the royal authority, but the supremacy of thtf nation. Section III. — The American War. Blood having once been shed, it was manifest that the dispute b.er tween Britain and her American colonies could only be decided by the sword. Both parties, therefore, prepared for the struggle, but ap- parently with some lingering hope of , a restoration of peace. Mutual forbearance was exhibited by the hostile ,'generals, when the English were compelled to evacuate Boston ; Howe, the British commander, made no attempt to injure the town, and Washington permitted the royal army to retire unmolested. But the enjployment. of German mer- cenaries, by the English ministry, completed the alienation- of the colonists ; they resolved to separate themselves wholly from the mother- country, and on the 4th of July, 1776, the congress pubHshed the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES. The first campaign, after some important successes gained by the British forces under General Howe,, terminated ,in the entire destruc- tion of the army of the north commanded by General Burgoyne. But this did not abate the confidence of the British ministers or the British people. Conciliatory acts were, indeed, passed by the parliament, but before intelligence of this altered policy could be received in America, France had entered into a treaty recognising the independence of the United States (a. d. 1778). There were already some in Britain who advocated this extreme measure ; the earl of Chatham vehemently op- posed the dismemberment of the empire, but while addressing the lords, he was struck down in a fit, and died within a few days. The nation mourned his loss, but it did not the less prepare vigorously to meet impending dangers. A declaration of war was issued against France, and a respectable fleet, commanded by Admiral Keppel, sent to cruise in the channel. Keppel met and engaged, the French fleet off Ushant, but being badly supported by Sir Hugh Palliser, the second in command, he was unable to make anyuse of the slight advantage he obtained. , The peace of the continent was momentarily menaced by the efforts of the emperor Joseph to obtain possession of Bavaria, but the prompt i^lterference of the king of Prussia, the remonstrances of the emperess Catharine, and the unwillingness of France to second the ambitious designs of Austria, compelled Joseph to relinquish his prey when it was almost within his grasp (a. d. 1779). France alone, of the conti- nental powers, had yet interfered in the American contest, but the in- timate connexion between that country and Spain, led to a general be- lief that the latter would not long remain neutral. Nor was the expect- ation groundless ; the court of Madrid, after an insincere offer of media- tion, threw off the mask, and openly prepared for active hostilities. Washington adopted a cautious defensive policy, by which his adversa- ries were more exhausted than by a loss of a battle. The English sub- dued Georgia, and made some progress in the Carolinas ; but the French captured ^ several islands in the West Indies, and a SpaJajsh, THE AGE OF B,EV0LUT10NS. 635: fleet, for a time rode triurrlpliant in the channel, and even insultbd Plymouth. Serious riots in London tended more to lower the character of the English, among foreign nations, than these reverses. Some of the penal laws against the catholics having been repealed, an association was formed by some ignorant fanatics for the protection of the protestant religion ; they stimulated the passions of the mob, and roused an im- mense multitude to acts of outrage. For several days, London was at the mercy of an infuriate populace ; some catholic chapels were burned, and many private houses destroyed. Tranquillity was at length re- stored by the interference of the military, and several of the rioters capitally punished. These disgraceful transactions alienated the court of Madrid at a time when it was disposed to negotiate, and the promise of the French to aid in the reduction of Gibraltar, confirmed the hostile dispositions of the Spaniards. The English had reduced all the French settlements in the East Indies in 1778, and humbled the Mahrattas ; but a new and formidable enemy now appeared. Hyder Ali, a soldier of fortune, raised by chance to the throne of Seringapatam, resolved to drive the European intruders from Hindustan, and entered the Carnatic with overwhelming forces. The local government of Madras was unprepared for this event, and the resources at its command were wasted by the obstinacy and incapacity of the council. Owing to this mismanagement, the English forces, commanded by Baillie and Fletcher, were all either slain or taken by Hyder and his son Tippoo. , The maritime glory of England was ably maintained by Sir George Rodney ; he captured four Spanish ships-of-the-line off Cape St. Vin- cent, drove two more on shore, and burned another : thence proceeding to America, he thrice encountered the French fleet, under the count de Guichen, and though he obtained no decisive success, he prevented Washington from receiving naval aid in his meditated attack on New York. But the progress of the war now threatened to involve England in a new contest with all the maritime powers, respecting the trade of neu- tra,l vessels. The eraperess of Russia took the lead in demanding freedom of trade for neutral vessels not laden with the munitions of war, to all ports not actually blockaded ; she proposed that the northern powers should unite to sujpportthis right ; a confederacy, called the Armed Neu- trality, was formed by Russia, Denmark, and Sweden ; Holland promptly acceded to the league ; the courts of Vienna, Berlin, and Naples, adopted its principles ; the republic of Venice, and even Portugal, the oldest ally of England, joined the association. The British ministry temporized, they expected," probably, that the smothered jealousy between Austria and Prussia might lead to a war that would divert the attention of the continental powers, but these hopes were frustrated by the death of Maria Theresa, whose inveterate hatred of the Prussian monarch was not inherited by her successor. The conduct of the Dutch government had long been suspicious ; but proof was at length obtained of its having concluded a treaty with the American congress, and the remonstrances of the British minister were treated with disdain. War -was instantly declared, and several of the Dutch colonies in the South American seas were subdued by the Eng- 636 MODBEN HISTOKY. lish forces. . Ndir was this the only calamity that Ibefell the Dutch re- public ; no sooner had the emperor Joseph succeeded to the ample in- heritance of Maria Theresa, than he cornmanded a seHes of important re- forms, among which was included the dismailtling of the barl^er towns in the Netherlands, which had been fortified at a Vast expense to save Hol- land from the encroachments of France (a. D. 1781). A Dutch fleet, under Zoutman, was defeated by Admiral Parker, at the Doggers' bank ; but the English had less success in the Ainerican seas, where Sir Samuel Hood was reduced to inactivity by the superior force of Coflnt de Grasse. The defeat of Lord Comwallis, and the loss of the second British army that had been forced to surrender, led to a general feeliiig in Eng- land that amy further protraction of the contest would be hopeless (a. d. 1782). The miiiisteTs, indeed, seemed at first resolved to continue thte war, but they could no longer command a parliamentary majority, alid were forced to resign. A new ministry, formed by the marquis of Rockingham and Mr. Fox, commenced negotiations for peace, without at all relaxing in their efforts to support the war ; but before thfe results of the change could be fully developed, the ministry wafe dissolved by the death of the marquis. But ere this' event produced any effect on the political aspect of affairs, two signal 'triumphs shed lustre oft the arms of Britain. Admiral Rodney gained a decisive victory over the French fleet under Count de Grasse, between the islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe ; and General Elliott, who had long been besieged in Gibraltar, defeated the formidable attack of the combined Freiiih and Spanish forces on that fortress, and burned, by showers of red-hot balls, the floating batteries, which the besiegers had fondly believed irresisti- ble. In the East Indies, Sir Eyre Coote partly retrieved the fortunes of the company ; he recovered the Carnatic, and totally routed Ryder's army at Porto Novo (a. d. 1781); and again at Pollalore. All the Dutch settlements were captured (a. d. 1782), but this success was interrupted by the defeat of Colonel Braithwaite, whose forces were surprised, surrounded, and cut to pieces by Tippoo and an auxiliary French force under M. Lally. Several indecisive engagements tdok place between Suffrein and Hughes, the French and English admirals, in the Indian seas ; and the operations of the British by land were im- peded by the jealousies of the civil and military authorities (a. d. 1783). The death of Hyder, and the restoration of peace between France and England, induced Tippoo to listen to terms of accommodatioli, and the English terminated this most unfortunate and disgraceful war, by sub- mitting to humiliations from the son of Hyder, which greatly diminished the respect that had hitherto been paid to their name in Asia. The changes of ministry in England protracted the negotiations for peace. The earl of Shelburne succeeded the marquis of Rockingham ; but he was forced to yield to the overwhelming parliamentary strength of Lord North and Mr. Fox, who formed an unexpected coalition. The independence of America Was recognised by the signature of pre- liminaries Sit Versailles (November 30, 1782) ; littile difflcuhy was found in arranging terms with France ahd Spain; but the English wished to gain some compensation for their losses from Holland, and THE AGE OP EBVQIUTIONS. 637 tjiis circumstance occasione)d a delay in the final arrangement of the treaty. Sbction IV. — The British Umpire in India. The British eippire in India was, as we have already stated, founded on the ruins of the empire of Delhi. The French were the first who aimed at acquiring sovereignty by interfering in the contests of the local governors who had established their independence ; they gained a de- cided superiority in the Camatic and on the Coromandel coast, until the naval supremacy of England, va, the seven years' war, intercepted their communications, and enabled their rivals to seize all their settle- ments. It was soon discovered, that Coromandel cost more than it was worth, and that the territorial acquisitions most desirable were the coun- tries round the Ganges. Under the gpyernment of Lord Clive, the l^nglish obtained the sovereignty of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, on the condition of paying twelve lacs of rupees annually to the emperor of Delhi. No sooner had the company acquired the sovereignty of this rich and opulent country, than an opposition of interest arose between the directors at home and their officers in India. The former were anxious, to augment their commercial dividends by the territorial rev- enues, the latter were as obstinate in applying the surplus income to their own advantage. The want of control over the subordinate au- thorities in India led to most calamitous results-; the officers of the company established monopolies in all the principal branches of domes- tic trade, rendered property insecure by arbitrarily, changing the tenure of land, and perverted the administration of justice to protect their avarice. The injustice with which the native princes were treated, roused a formidable enemy to the English in Hyder Ali, sultan of My- sore ; Mid had he been supported by European aid as efiiectively as he might have been, the company's empire in Hindustan would soon have ended. Some improvements were made in 1774, by concentrating the power of the three presidencies in the governor-genera,! ajid council of Bengal, and the establishment of a supreme coiirt of judicature. Bu,t Warren Hastings, the first governor-general, by a series of oppressions and extortions, provoked a second war with Hyder and the Mahratta states, the general rp^ul^^ Pf which have been stated in the preceding chapter. r Notwithstanding the foxtunate termination of the Mysorean aad ^tahratta wars, and the extension of the company's territory, in Bengal, by the capture of Ne,gapat^m fi^om the Dutch, the aspect of aflairs was very glp.omy and threatening. All the exactions of the company did not enable it to fulfil its engagajients with the government ; and it?, af- fairs were considered as ; fast, approaching bankruptcy. It had also been found very inconvenient to have a, merpantile association existing as a state within the state, and all parties agreed, that the company ought to be placed more diirectly under the control of the government. Under ■ the administra.tion ofi the marquis of RQekingham, Mr. Fox had tai^en the lead' in arranging the affajrso^ Ireland, That country had been, left unprotecteii, during the late, war ; theinhabitants, menaced by inyiasipp,, arm^ed, in their own d*if|?ncft, a^d, tlw wlnntaers ihns raised, 638 MODEEN HISTOEY. resolved, while they had the power, to secure the legislative indepen- dence of their country. The prudence of their leaders averted the horrors of a civil war, which would probably have ended in the separa- tion of the islands ; but they could not long have restrained the impa- tience of their followers, had not the Rockingham administration showed early its desire to comply with their demands. The legislative inde- pendence of Ireland was acknowledged (a. d. 1782), and a federal union of the two governments arranged, which promised to produce permanent advantages to both countries. His success in Ireland in- duced Mr. Fox to prepare a measure for regulating the complicated affairs of India ; and a bill was introduced, on whose success he staked the existence of the coalition ministry. The principle of Mr. Fox's measure was to placfe the whole civil and military government of India under a board of nine members,' chosen for four years, and not remov- able without an address from either house of parliament. Such a board would manifestly be an independent authority in the state'; and it was said that its design was tb make the power of a party rival that of the king. When the bill had passed the commons, his majesty, through Earl Temple, intimated to the peers his hostility to the measure, and the lords rejected it by a considerable majority. A new ministry was formed under the auspices of Mr. Pitt, second son to the great earl of Chatham ; and as it was impossible to resist the stretigth of the coali- tion in the house of commons, the parliament was dissolved at the ear- liest moment that the state pf public business would permit (a. d. 1784). The success of this measure surpassed the expectations of the new minister ; the nation had been disgusted by the coalition of parties,, that had been so long and so bitterly opposed to each other as those of Mr. Fox and Lord North ; their friends were in most places beaten by the supporters of the new cabinet, and Mr. Pitt found himself firmly estab- lished in the plenitude of power. A new bill was framed for the gov- ernment of India, which transferred to the crown the influence which Mr. Fox had designed to intrust to parliamentary commissioners ; but some share of power, and the whdle management of commercial affairs, was allowed to remain with the court of directors. , The most important branch of commerce monopolized by the company was the tea trade with China, and this was thrown completely into their hands by a re- duction of the duty, which removed alt temptation to smuggling. This change in the governnient of India was followed by the mem- orable ittipeachment pf Mr. 'Hastings, whose trial ,la,sted several years. It ended in the acquittal of thkt gentleman, at least qf intentional error; but his fortune and his health were ' ruined by the protracted prosecu- tion. A wise selection of rulers greatly improved the condition of the British empire in India ; under the administ];atioh of Lord Comwallis, the situatioh of the natives was greatly ameliorated ; but the seeds of corruption, arising from ancient misgovernment and internal wars, could not be wholly eradicated. ' The'glreat extension of the British^ colonies gave a fresh stimulus to the spirit Of maritime discovery, arid' the English penetrated' into the remotest seas, stopping only where nature had interposed impenetrable barriers of ice. The three voyages of Captain Cook awakened a spirit of enterprise scarcely inferior to that which had been rouSied by the THE ASE 05' REVOLUTIONS. 639 discoveries of Columbus. The islands of the south Pacific ocean be- came soon as well known as those of the Mediterranean sea, and their natural pr'oductions speedily formed articles pf trade. Cook himself suggested the expediency'of forming a settlement on the coast of New Holland; in less than half a century this colony has risen into great importance as an agricultural community ; it promises, at no very dis- tant day, to outgrow the fostering care of the mother-country, to afford her a rich reward, and become one of her most flourishing descendants. From the period of Mr. Pitt's accession to power until the commence- ment of the French revolution, there was little beyond the strife of par- ties remarkable in the domestic history of England. The illness of the king (a. d. 1787), gave indeed alarming proof that the federal union of the English and Irish legislatures was by no means sufficient to secure the permanent connexion of the countries ; for, while the British parlia- ment adopted a restricted regency, the Irish offered the entire royal power to the prince of Wales. The speedy recovery of the king avert- ed the evils that might have resulted from so marked a discrepancy, but from that time Mr. Pitt seems to have determined on his plan for uni- ting the two legislatures. The chief parliamentary struggles were for a repeal of the disqualifying laws that affected the dissenters, and the abolition of the infamous slave-trade ; but the success of both these measures was reserved for later times. Section V. — History of Europe, from the end of the American War to the commencement of the French Revolution. Ddring the progress of the American war, a gradual improvement in the science of government began to be manifested in the European states. Many of the German princes began to moderate the stern ex- ercise of their despotic authority, to reform their expenditure and mili- tary establishments, and to adopt new institutions suited to the advanced state of civilization. The emperor Joseph was the most enterprising of the royal reformers ; his measures for regulating the church involved him in a contest with Pope Pius VI., who hated and dreaded innova- tion, and was bigotedly attached to the ancient pretensions of the Romish see. Persuaded that his personal influence Would be sufficient to dis- suade Joseph from pursuing his course of change, the pontiff undertook an expensive journey to Vienna, but the emperor only gave him an abuii- dance of compliments, and persevered in his resolutions. His failure covered the pontiff with ridicule, especially as he had to endure similar disappointments in his negotiations with the courts of Russia and Prus- sia. Joseph was willing to join the emporess Catherine in the dis- memberment of Turkey, and permitted that princess to seize, the Crimea ; but the principal western powers still dreaded the aggrandize- ment of Austria, and the threat of their confederacy saved the Ottomjin empire. The king of Prussia was foremost in checking the encroach- ments of the emperor ; he secretly instigated ' the Dutch to refuse the free navigation of the Scheldt to the ships of the A-ustrian Netherlands, and he planned a confederacy for maintaining the integrity of the Ger- manic states. Frederic died when he had completed the consolidatioia of a kingdom which his coiiquests had nearly doubled (a. d. 1786) ; he 640 MODERN HISTOaY., was succeeded by his nephpw Frederic Willia,rp, "wJiose attention vraa early directed to the affairs of Hollanpl, The success of the iurosricans in establishing a commonwealth, inr duced many of the Dutch to aim at. restoring their old republican con- stitution, and abridging or destroying the power of the stadtholdeii!, which had become in all but name monarchical. The French secretly encouraged the opponents of .the. prince of Orange, hoping to obtain from the popular party an addition to t!heir East' Indian colonies, or at least such a union of interests as would counterpoise British ascend- ency in Asia ; but the new king of Prussia, whose sister was married to. the stadtholder, resolved to prevent any change, and the English am- bassador vigorously exerted himself to counteract the intrigjies of the French. An insult offered to the princess of Orange brought matters to a crisis ; Frederic William immedia,tely. sent an army to redress his sister's wrongs ; the republicans, deserted by France, made but a feeble resistance, and the stadthplder was restored to all his former authority. The disordered state of the French finances was the cause of this desertion of their party by the ministers of Louis ; through; mere jeal* ousy of England, they had involyed their country in the American warj and had' thus increased the ponfusion in which the prodigaUty of the preceding year had snnk the treasury. Minister after minister had at- tempted to palliate the evil, but M. de Calonne, who owed his, eleva- tion to the unwise partiality of the queen, Marie Antoinette, aggravated the disorder by a series of measures formed without prudence, and sup- ported with obstinacy. Opposed by the parliaments, Calonne recom- mended the king to convene an assembly of the notables, or persons selected from the privileged orders (ai d. 17&7) ; but these orders had hithprto paid far less than their fair proportion of the imposts, and- an equitable system of ta^xation could not be expected; from such an inter^' ested body-. Necker, a Swiss banker, who had been for a short time the French minister of finance, joined in the opposition to Calonne, and it must be confessed that he demonstrated' the tOtaL inadequacy of the proposed measures to, remedy, the decline of public credit. Louis dis- missed: GaJonne, but he : wiould not gratify his subjects by recalling Neckerto.ithe cabinet.; and he dismissed the notables, whose uncom'' plying disposition rendered all .hopes of aid from that assembly fruitless. But the derangement of the finances was not the only evil that the French court suffered from its interfespenoe in the American war ; the officers and soldiers who had fought for liberty in one hemisphere be- came, dissatisfied with diespotism in the other. , A general desire for the establishment of a free constitution, like that of: England, was diffused through ,tlie, nation, and some more ardent spirits began to speculate on a repablic. The connexion .of the coujrt widi Austria was the cause of rnuch secret diseontent;: the decline of the infltjeace and the power of France was traced to, its unfortunate allianee with ih& court of Vienna dufing the seven years' war, and the; queen, who was naturally inclined tpperpetuatethisiUnpopdAlar union, became an object' of suspicion and dislike. It; was mortifying to find that Fraaaiceno longer held the bal- ance, of. power on the continent ; tha.t she cooild not save Turkey from t^S; aggressions pfi the, ambitious Catherinev nor potect the republican party in Holland \from. punishment for acts done iii her service. THE AGE OF BEVOIUTIONS. 641 While France was thus disturbed, the progress of reform in other «tates was unimpeded ; the rulers of Spain and Portugal improved their kingdoms by institutions for the protection of trade, and by placing checks on the exorbitant powers of the clergy. They joined in an ef- fort to chastise the piratical powers in the Mediterranean, but the strength of the Algerine capital frustrated the attempt. The emperor Joseph and his brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, distinguished -themselves by enacting new and salutary codes of law; they abol- ished the use of torture to extort confessions, and they greatly limited the number of offences to which the penalty was affixed. Their ex- ample was followed by the erriperess Catherine, whose code was the greatest blessing that her glorious reign conferred on Russia ; and even ■the sultan evinced a desire to improve the institutions of Turkey. But the course of events in France soon inspired all the sovereigns t)f Europe with a horror of innovation. After the dismissal of the no- tables, M. de Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse, had become minister of finance, and he soon involved himself in a dispute with the parlia- ments, by refusing to produce the accounts, which they insisted on ex- amining before registering any new edicts of taxation. The great ob- ject of the parliament was to maintain the immunities of the privileged ■orders ; the minister justly recommended a less partial system, when his opponents, yielding to temporary irritation, demanded the convoca- tion of the states-general. The nobles and the clergy joined in the demand, without any expectation of its being granted, but merely to annoy the court ; the people, however, took up the matter in earnest, and determined to enforce compliance. Various schemes were tried hy the archbishop to overcome this powerful opposition, but all his plans were disconcerted by the obstinacy of the parliaments, and the king, finding every expedient fail, consented to recall Necker (a. d. 1788). At the same time, a solemn promise was given for the speedy assembly of the states-general, a body that had not been convened since the year 1614. Before the assembling of this legislative body, it was necessary to determine the number of representatives that should be sent by each of the three orders, the nobles, the clergy, and the people ; the majority of the notables voted that an equal number of deputies should be sent by the respective classes, but it wks subsequently determined that the representatives of the third estate should equal in number those of the nobles and clergy conjoined. The king declared that the three estates should form separate chambers, but this very importa:nt matter was not so definitely fixed as to prevent future discussion. On the 5th of May, 1780, the states-general met at Versailles, and the democratic party, confident in i^ strength, demanded that the three orders should sit and ^ vote together. After a short stniggle, the court was compelled to con- cede this vital point, and the united bodies took the name of the National Assembly. A spirit of insubordination began to appear in Paris, caused in some degree by the pressure of famine ; artful and ambitious men fanned the rising flame, and directed the popular indignation against the king and his family. The arms in the Hospital of Invalids were seized by the mob, and the insurgents immediately proceeded to attack the Bastile, or 41 643 MODERN HtSTO BY.- i; ' Btdte-prison of Paris. After a brief resistance, the governor, having an^ insufficient garrison, capitulated, but the conditions of .the surrender were not observed by the infuriate multitude ; the governor was torn to -pieces, and many of the soldiers inhumanly massacred. Louis, greatly alarmed, tried by every means to conciliate his subjects ; he removed the regular troops from Paris and Versailles, intrusting the defence of the capital to a body of civic militia, called the National Guards. The command of this new force .was intrusted to the marquis de la Fayette,, who had acquired great popularity by his liberal sentiments and his services to the cause of freedom in the American war. But all the king's concessions failed to conciliate the democratic, or rather, as we m-ay henceforth call it, the republican party ; relying on the support of the Parisian populace, the leaders of this, band resolyed that the legis- lature should be removed to the capital, and a mob was secretly insti- gated to make the demand. A crowd of the lowest rabble, accompa- nied by some of the national guards, proceeded to Versailles, the palace was violently entered, several of its defenders slain, and the king com- pelled instantly to set out for Paris, a prisoner in the hands of a licen- tious crowd, whose insults and indecencies were revolting to human nature. This atrocious outrage may fairly be regarded as the commencement of the French Revolution ; thenceforth the royal authority was an empty name, and all the ancient forms of government set aside ; visionaries indulged in speculations on a new order of things, ardent patriots hoped to establish a constitution more perfect than the world ever yet had witnessed, but the base and the depraved sought to gain their own selfish ends by stimulating popular violence ; and the last class was the only one whose expectations were realized. Section VI. — The French Revolution. From the moment that Louis XVL was brought a prisoner to his- capital, the ancient constitution of France was overthrown ; the mon- archy continued to exist only in name, and the abolition of feudal rights, the extinction of hereditary titles, and the secularization of ec- clesiastical property, established popular sovereignty on the ruins of thfr ancient structure. Several German princes, who had possessions in Alsace, protested against these violent changes, but the popular rulers would not listen to any proposal of a compromise,, and thus the leaders of the revolution were embroiled with the empire in the very outset of their career. A club, called from its place of meeting, the Jacobin As- sociation, was formed by the leading democrats, and from this body de- nimciations were issued against all who were believed favorable to th^ ancient institutions of the country. Through the machinations of the Jacobins, popular hatred was directed against the court, and violent tu- mults excited in various parts of France. Infinitely more dangerous to the repose of Europe were the emigrations of the nobles, who were dissatisfied with the revolution ; instead of remaining at home and or- ganizing a constitutional resistance, they resolved, to seek the restora- tion of the old government, with all its abuses, by the intervention of foreign powers. A meeting and conference took place at Pilnitz, be- THE! .AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 643 tween the emperor of Germany, the king of Prussia, and ' the elector of Saxony ; the Count d'Artois, brother to the French monarch, and head of the emigrants, came uninvited, and he engaged the sovereigns to issue a vague declaration in favor of the rights of kings. Louis, wearied by the violence of the Jacobins, the licentiousness of the Par- isian mob, and the disappointments he vi^as daily forced to meet, re- solved to escape from the captivity in which he was detained, and seek- refuge on the frontiers. He fled from Paris, accompanied by his queen and children, but was unfortunately discovered at Varennes, seized, and brought back a prisoner to his capital. This failure exposed the royal family to suspicions of which the Jacobins took advantage ; but the more moderate of the patriots were for a time sufficiently powerful to restrain their violence ; and after a long deliberation, they prepared a constitutional code, which was tendered to the king for acceptance. The readiness with which Louis assented to this instrument of govern- ment, and his frank communication of his satisfaction with the arrange- ment to his ambassadors at the different European courts, for a time restored his popularity. The emperor Leopold notified to the other powers that all danger of war was averted, and the external and inter- nal tranquillity of France seemed to be assured. But the constitution, thus established, could not be permanent ; it was itself defective ; and the minds of the French people, once ani- mated by the desire of change, could not rest satisfied with any fixed form of government. The assembly by which it had been framed was dissolved, and a new legislative body chosen, according to the system recently established, and in this assembly the more violent partisans of democracy had more influence than in the preceding. It was the great object of the revolutionary party to involve the kingdom in foreign war ; and the suspicious proceedings of the emigrants, their intrigues in the German courts, and the avowed determination of the emperor to maintain the feudal rights of the German princes in Alsace, furnished plausible pretexts for the commencement of hostilities. The death of the emperor Leopold accelerated a nipture ; his successor, Francis IL, continued to' make alarming military preparations, and on his refusal to give any satisfactory explanation, Louis was compelled to declare war against him (a. d. 1792). But the strife of parties in the royal cabinet and the national assembly, led to such confusion in the councils of the French, that their armies, though superior in number., were defeated with loss and disgrace ; while the Jacobins, whose intrigues were the real cause of these misfortunes, ascribed them to royalist treachery, and to the influence that Austrian councils possessed over the court from its connexion with the queen. These malignant slanders, industriously circulated, and generally believed, stimulated the Parisian mob to dis- graceful acts of violence and disorder, against which La Fayette and die friends of rational liberty protested in vain. A new incident gave fresh strength to the Jacobin party ; Frederic William, king of Prussia, engaged to co-operate with the emperor Francis to restore the royal authority in France ; their united forces were placed under the command of the duke of Brunswick ; and this prince issued a sanguinary and insulting manifesto, which had the effect of uniting all the French factions in the defence of their common 644 MODERN HI8T0EY. country. A declaration issued soon after by the emigrant brothers and relatives of Louis, in which the revolution was bitterly condemned, proved still more injurious to the unfortunate king ; scarcely did intelli- gence of the publication reach Paris, when the palace was attacked by an infuriate mob, the Swiss guards ruthlessly massacred, and Louis, with his family, forced to seek shelter in the hall of the national assem- bly. The deputies protected his person, but they suspended his regal functions, and committed him a prisoner to a building called the Tem- ple, from having been once a monastery of the knights of that order. La Fayette was equally surprised and indignant at these outrages of the Jacobins ; he tried to keep the army firm in its allegiance ; but all his exertions not being sufficient to accomplish this result, he fled into the Netherlands, when he was seized and imprisoned by the Austrians for his former opposition to the royal power. He was suc- ceeded in the command of the army by Dumouriez, who made energetic preparations to resist the coming invasion. Confident in their strength, the allied armies entered France with the proudest anticipations, and their rapid progress in the beginning seemed to promise the most decisive results. To diminish the number of their internal enemies, Robespierre, Marat, and other chiefs of the Jacobins, planned the mas- sacre of all the suspected persons confined in the prisons of Paris, and this diabolical plot was executed by the licentious populace. Similar horrors were perpetrated in other parts of France ; a reign of terror was established, and no man dared to remonstrate against these shock- ing excesses. In the meantime the invaders had met with unexpected reverses ; trusting to the representations of the emigrants, that the rev- olution had been the work of a few agitators, not of the nation, and that there was a general reaction in favor of royalty, the allies had advanced without providing adequate stores, and when they received a check at Valmy, their camp was attacked by famine and disease ; they were soon compelled to retreat, and to purchase an inglorious security by resigning the fortresses they had occupied. Dumouriez pursued the Austrians into the Netherlands, and gained a decisive victory, which encouraged the Belgians to throw off the imperial yoke ; Flanders and Brabant were soon in possession of the victors, and their arms had made considerable progress in the reduction of Luxemburg. The con- vention, as the national assembly began to be called, having made their own country a republic, resolved to extend the revolution into other states ; they offered their alliance to every nation that desired to recover its liberties, and they ordered the ancient constitutions of all the coun- tries occupied by the French troops to be subverted. As the republican arms had conquered Savoy, and were fast gaining ground in Germany, the adoption of such a decree was virtually a declaration of war against all the kings of Europe. The Jacobins, aided by the Parisian mob, and still more by the cow- ardice and indecision of their opponents, were now masters of the con- vention, and* the first use they made of their power was to bring the unfortunate king to trial, on the ridiculous charge of his having engaged in a conspiracy for the subversion of freedom. Louis defended himself with great spirit and energy, but his judges were predetermined on his conviction; six hundred and eighty-three deputies pronounced him THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 645 guilty of treason against the sovereignty of the nation, while there were only thirty-seven who took a more favorable view of his conduct. A motion for an appeal to the people was rejected ; but the sentence of death was passed by a very inconsiderable majority, and this probably induced the Jacobins to hasten the execution. On the twenty-first of January, 1793, the unfortunate Louis was guillotined in his capital city ; and the severity of his fate was aggravated by the insults of his cruel executioners. This judicial murder excited general indignation throughout Europe ; Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was dismissed from the British court, and many persons in England, who had hitherto applauded the efforts of the French people, became vehement opposers of revolu- tionary principles. A similar result was produced in Holland, where the government had been justly alarmed by the progress of the French in the Netherlands. The convention did not wait to be attacked ; a vote was passed that the republic, was at war with the king of England and the stadtholder of Holland, by which artful phraseology it was intended to draw a marked distinction between the sovereign and the people of both coun- tries. Spain was soon after added to the enemies of France, and the new republic had to contend against a coalition of all the leading powers of Europe. None of the allies threatened more loudly than the em- peress Catherine ; she had just concluded a successful war against Turkey, in which her general, SuwaroiF, had won a large- addition of territory for his mistress, and the power of Russia in the , Black sea was secured ; she had also triumphed over the king of Sweden, more, however, by the insubos'dination of her rival's officers, than by the valor of her own troops. Poland was in everything but name subjected to Russia, and the emperess was secretly maturing a plan to blot that coun- try from the list of nations. As the coalition against the French repub- lic was regarded as a war in the defence of the rights of kings, it was intended that a king should be placed at the head of the allied armies ; and Gustavus, who had subverted the free constitution of Sweden, of- fered his services ; but while he was preparing for the expedition, a conspiracy was formed against him by his discontented nobles, and he was murdered at a masked ball by Ankarstrom, an officer who beheved himself personally injured by the king (a. d. 1793). After the death of Gustavus, the insincerity of Catherine became more manifest; she issued violent proclamations against the French, but carefully abstained from active hostility ; indeed, it was manifestly her purpose to involve the continental powers in a war, which would prevent them from watching too jealously the aggrandizement of R.ussia. The English and Prussians, deeming the defence of Holland a mat- ter of primary importance, combined to check the progress of Dumou- riez, who had overrun Dutch Brabant, with little opposition (a. d. 1793). But the progress of the Austrians, on the side of Germany, stopped the French in their career of conquest. Dumouriez quitted Holland to defend Louvain ; he suffered a complete defeat at Neer-winden, by which his soldiers were so discouraged, that they deserted in great numbers. Dumouriez, finding himself suspected by the tv^o great par- ties which divided the republic, and weary of the disorganized state of 646 MODERN HISTORY. the French government, entered into negotiations with the allied gert- erals, and arfested the deputies sent by the convention to watch his movements. But the army did not share the anti-revolutionary feel- ings of Dumouriez, and he was forced to seek shelter in the Austrian camp. Custine, the successor of Dumouriez, was unable to check the prog- ress of the allied armies ; being reinforced by a British force under the duke of York, they captured the important fortress of Valenciennes, and seemed to have opened a way to Paris. The revolutionary gov- ernment punished Custine's failure by a public execution, and employed the terrors of the guillotine as an incentive to patriotism. But the sep- aration of the allied forces was more serviceable to the cause of the convention than the cruelties of the " Committee of Public Safety," to which the supreme power in France was intrusted. Austria, Prussia, and England, had separate interests, in the pursuit of which the com- mon cause was forgotten ; the imperialists laid siege to Le Quesnoi, while the English and Dutch proceeded to invest Dunkirk. The duke of York attacked Dunkirk with great spirit, but not receiving the sup- port by sea that he had expected, and the Hanoverian force that cov- ered his operations having been routed by Houchard, he was obliged to raise the siege and abandon the greater portion of his artillery and mil- itary stores. The Austrians were for a time more successful, but when Hoche, the defender of Dunkirk, was promoted to the command of the republican armies, they were driven from all their conquests in Alsace, and forced to seek shelter within the imperial frontiers. In Italy, the French maintained their hold of Savoy, but they experienced some se- vere reverses on the Spanish frontier. The revolutionary excitement produced the most dreadful effects be- yond the Atlantic ; the colored population in the French division of St. Domingo took arms to force the whites to grant them equal privileges ; their claims were supported by the three deputies sent by the conven- tion to regulate the affairs of the colony, the negroes were seduced, by offers of liberty, to revolt against their masters, and St. Domingo, which had been one of the most flourishing islands in the West Indies, was devastated by a civil war, scarcely to be paralleled for its sanguinary fury and the wanton destruction of life and property. The wars of southern and western Europe permitted Catherine of Russia to accomplish the favorite object of her policy, the dismember- ment of Poland. Austria and Prussia joined in this iniquitous scheme, for the purpose of sharing the plunder, but the Poles made a gallant struggle to maintain their independence. Kosciusko, who had served in America, under Washington, was the chief of the patriots, and his heroic efforts protracted a struggle which from the first was hopeless. Kosciusko, severely wounded, fell into the hands of his enemies, War- saw was stormed by the brutal Suwaroff, and the kingdom of Poland, erased from the list of nations, was divided between the three confed- erates (a. p. 1795). The king of Prussia, more anxious to secure his new acquisitions than to support the objects of the coalition, made peace with the French, and offered to mediate between the republic and Anistria. Scarcely had thef Austrians been driven from France, when that THE AGE OE REVOLUTIONS. 647 country was convulsed by civil war (a. d. 1793.) The jacobins hav- ings by the aid of the Pairisian populace, triumphed overtTie rival faction in the convention, mercilessly proscribed their political adversaries as traitors, and after a mockery of trial, hurried them to execution. Among the victims to their fury was the unfortunate queen of France, Marie Antoinette, but death was to her pot a punishment, but a release from suffering. The tyranny of the Jacobins provoked formidable insurrec- tions in the south of France, and encouraged the royalists of La Vendee to take up arms in the cause of their church and their king. Nothing .could exceed the fury of the Jacobins when they he?ird of these revolts ; severe decrees were passed against the cities which had resisted their authority, but no place was so cruelly punished as Lyons, which had continued for four months in a state of insurrection. After having en- dured a furious bombardment, it was forced to surrender at discretion ; five deputies, of whom Callot and Fouche were the chief, received a communication from the convention to punish the Lyonese revolters by the summary process of military law, and about four thousand victims were shot or guillotined after the mockery of trial before this savage tribunal. But, in the midst of their butcheries, the Jacobins did not neglect the military defence of their country ; a decree of the conven- tion declared, that all the French were soldiers; and a levy of the pop- ulation, en masse, was ordered. To support such numerous armies, private property was seized and paid for in promissory notes, called ■assignatx, whose value was speedily depreciated, a circimistance which ruined public credit in France. Toulon having revolted, an English garrison, strengthened by Span- ish and Neapolitan detachments, occupied that important seaport. It was soon besieged by the troops of the convention ; the artillery of the besiegers was directed by a young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had risen by his merits from an inferior station. Owing to his exertions, the English soon found the place untenable ; they evacuated Toulon, without loss, after having destroyed the arsenal and shipping, but they abandoned the inhabitants to the fury of the conquerors, who punished their revolt with indiscriminate severity. In the Netherlands and Germany, the French, under Pichegru and Jourdan, gained many important advantages over the imperialists and their allies ; but though many battles were fought, nothing of any con- sequence was effected in the early part of the campaign (a. d. 1794). A more important event was the downfall of the sanguinary faction which had so long deluged France with the blood of its best citizens ; Robespierre's enormities were too numerous and too shocking to be borne, even by many of the Jacobin party ; a conspiracy was formed against him ; the convention was induced to resume its authority, and order his arrest, and, after a brief struggle, he and his accomplices were hurried before the revolutionary tribunal, which' they had them- selves organized, and sent to the scaffold. This revolution did not pro- duce the beneficial results that had been expected ; Robespierre's suc- cessors were little better than himself, and they were confirmed in their hostility to Britain by the recent defeat of their navy. Lord Howe, who had been distinguished as a naval commander in the two preceding ■wars, encountered a French fleet of rather superior force (June 1), and 648 MODBEM HIBTORY. haying broken the enemy's line, took six ships-of-war and sanktwoj. This success revived the declining spirits of the English nation, dis- couraged by the ill success of the war in Holland. Corsica was soon- after annexed to the dominions of England, but the French were victo-- rious on the Spanish frontier, and Holland was completely subdued by • Pichegru and Moreau. The prince of Orange and the English forces escaped by sea ; the Dutch abolished the office of stadtholder, and adopted a new form of government, similar to that of the French repub- lic. If there were any in Holland who expected to derive advantage from this revolution, they were grievously disappointed ; the French despised their new confederates, and treated them as a conquert5d peo- ple, while the English seized the colonies and destroyed the remains^ of the once unparalleled commerce of Holland. The alarm which the French revolution excited in England, led the- government to prosecute some enthusiastic advocates of reform in par- liament for higl\ treason ; three of them were brought to trial and ac- quitted, upon which the prosecutions of the others were abandoned.. There were few in the country anxious to make a change in the estab- lished institutions, the crimes and follies of the French Jacobins had" rendered innovation unpopular, and many who had hitherto been in opposition to the court, tendered their aid to the minister ; the most" remarkable of these converts was the eloquent Burke, whose denuncia- tions of French principles, produced a powerful effect on the nationalx mind. The dismemberment of Poland, and the desertion of the coalition by^ the king of Prussia, gave great dissatisfaction to the British parliament, and the character of our faithless ally was made the theme of severe; and not unmerited censure. He had accepted a large subsidy from' England, and employed the money lavishly granted him, against the' Polanders instead of the French. But the defection of Prussia did not dishearten the English or the Austrians, who were encouraged to con- tinue the war by the distracted state of France. In Paris, the conven- tion partially succeeded in throwing off the yoke of the Jacobins, but' the city was frequently endangered by their machinations, and the in- surrections of the ferocious populace who supported them. The royalist war was renewed in La Vendee, and the south of France continued ■ discontented. But the allies profited little by these commotions. The- Spaniards, completely humbled, were forced to make peace with the republicans ; the Austrians barely maintained their ground in Italy, and- success was evenly balanced on the side of Germany. Great Britain, . however, maintained its supremacy at sea ; Admiral Cornwallis com- pelled a fleet of very superior force to retire, and Lord Bridport, with-- ten sail-of-the-line, attacked twelve of the enemy, three of which were compelled to strike their colors. The French were deprived of Mar-- tinique, Gaudaloupe, and St. Lucie, in the West Indies, and their re- luctant allies, the Dutch, lost their settlements at the Cape of Good- Hope, and in the island of Ceylon. The convention, by an attempt to perpetuate its authority, provoked • a formidable insurrection in Paris ; Bonaparte had a considerable . share in subduing the revolters, more than two thousand of whom were- mercilessly slaughtered. Soon afterward, France had a new constitu- THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 649 tion, consisting of a legislative assembly, an upper house, called the council of anpients, and a directory of five members, intrusted with the executive functions of government. The directors soon began to limit the powers of the legislative body, and the new constitution was found t& be a delusion. But an approach had been made to regular government, and the war was carried on with fresh vigor by the directory (a. d. 1796). Marshals Jourdan and Moreau made successful irruptions into Ger- many, but they encountered a formidable antagonist in the archduke Charles of Austria. He stopped the invaders in their mid-career of victory, completely routed Jourdan at Kornach, and then suddenly marching against Moreau, he nearly succeeded in surprising and over- whelming that general. Moreau's celebrated retreat was more honor- able to his abilities than the most brilliant victory ; he led his forces through the black forest, from position to position, often compelled to yield his ground, but never thrown into confusion, until he safely crossed the Rhine with all his artillery and baggage. The campaign in Italy, where the French were commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, was more eventful. The king of Sardinia, completely routed and cut oif from his communications with the Austrians, was forced to purchase a dishonorable peace from the re- public, by the cession of his most important fortresses. Napoleon thea led his forces against the Austrians, forced, but with great loss, a pas- sage over the bridge of Lodi, and gained possession of Milan and the principal cities of Lombardy. The victors made a harsh use of their triumph, the unfortunate Lombards were treated with great cruelty, the duke of Tuscany was compelled to exclude the English from the port of Leghorn, and the pope was forced to purchase the forbearance of the republicans by ceding to them Bologna, and several other towns, pay- ing a heavy ransom, and sending three hundred precious manuscripts and pictures to enrich the national museum at Paris. The dukes of Modena and Parma were subjected to similar exactions, but the king, of Naples had providently made a truce with the French before they approached his frontiers. Mantua, the last stronghold of the Austrians. in Italy, was closely besieged, but the court of Vienna made vigorous preparations for its relief. Marshal Wurmser twice pushed forward against the French, but was each time defeated with great loss, a calamity owing to his unwisely dividing his forces. Alvinzi, who succeeded to the command of the Austrians, committed the same fault, and was compelled to retire ; Mantua, however, was still obstinately defended, but the garrison ceased to entertain sanguine hopes of success. In the meantime, the Corsicans grew weary of their connexioa with Great Britain, drove the English from the island, and placed themselves under the protection of France. Ireland was exposed to- the horrors of an invasion ; a formidable squadron, having a large body of troops on board, appeared in Bantry Bay. Hoche, who had acquired considerable fame by his suppression of the insurrection in La Vendee, commanded the expedition, and, could he have effected a landing, the safety of the British empire would have been perilled; but a violent storm dispersed the ships, most of which were subse- quently either sunk or captured. The death of the eraperess Catherines 659 MODEEN HISTORY. inspired the English minister with this hope of gaining more effective assistanbe from Russia ; but her successor, the emperor Paul, disre- garded all the solicitations addressed to him by the courts of London and Vienna. A new enemy appeared against England; the Spanish government, always jealous of British naval power, and overawed by the French directory, entered into alliance with the republic, and began ta increase its navy (a. d. 1797). At this moment, when the existence of England depended on its sailors, a formidable mutiny broke out in the fleet at Spithead ; the officers were suspended from their authority and dismissed from their ships ; the malcontents blockaded the mouth of the Thames, and committed several acts of depredation. Fortunately the sailors grew alarmed themselves and hastened to return to their allegiance ; a few of the ringleaders were hanged, but the great body of the revolters was conciliated by an act of amnesty. The war in Italy was not discontinued during the winter ; Alvinzi made a desperate effort to retrieve the fortunes of Austria, but he was again defeated, and Mantua soon capitulated. Having very severely punished the pope for his attachment to the imperial interests. Napoleon resolved to carry the war into the hereditary states of Austria." The territory of Friuli was quickly subdued, and a great part of the Tyrol occupied by the French ; the archduke Charles made a bold defence, but the emperor Francis, terrified by the advance of Hoche and Moreau in Germany, sued for peace, in spite of the remonstrances of his English allies. While the terms of pacification were under discussion, Napo- leon subverted the ancient constitution of Genoa and Venice, and made toth republics virtually dependant on France. Spain suffered severely in the war she had so rashly commenced. Admiral Jervis encountered a Spanish fleet of very superior force off Gape St. Vincent, and by a dexterous manoeuvre cut off nine of their -ships from the line, so that he could engage the rest on more equal terms. Four ships-of-the-line were taken in this brilliant engagement, to the success of which Nelson, who was now commencing his brilliant career, mainly contributed. The Spaniards lost also the valuable island of Trinidad, but an attack made by the British on Teneriffe was unsuc- cessful. The Dutch, too, were punished for their alliance with France. Three ships-of-the-line and four frigates were taken by the British, after an unsuccessful attempt to recover the cape. But they suffered a more severe loss on their own coast ; an English squadron, commanded by Admiral Duncan, got between their ships and the shore, and took eleven out of fifteen sail-of-the-line. Two of the prizes, however, in con- sequence of the difficulties of the navigation, were abandoned. A new revolution in France invested the directory with supreme power, and their opponents were banished to the unhealthy swamps of Guiana, where they were treated with great rigor. Negotiations for peace were commenced, but those with England were broken ofl^ abruptly by the extravagent demands of the French plenipotentiaries. This did not prevent the conclusion of a treaty between the republic and Austria, •when the emperor was renumerated for the loss of Mantua by the ces- sion of Venice, which he meanly accepted, and the frontiers of France were extended to the Rhine. THE AGE OP REVOLUTIONS. 65l . Great Britain was now the only power at war with France, and the directory prepared a large army for its invasion. This threat pro- duced a noble display of patriotism throughout the country, volunteer associations for defence were formed, and every man was ready to act as a soldier. But while the British navy rode triumphant in the chan- ■nel, the menace of invasion was an idle boast, and Bonaparte only used it as a pretext to cover his ulterior designs. While the French were modelling, at their pleasure, the governments of Italy, Switzerland, and Holland, Napoleon planned an expedition to Egypt, with the hope ■of rendering the French influence as predominant in the east as it was in western Europe (a. d. 1798). Convoyed by a fleet, under Admiral Brueys, he sailed first to Malta, which was betrayed by the French itnights. A garrison was left to secure the forts of this important island ; the rest of the expedition escaping the vigilance of the English £eet, safety reached Egypt, and having effected a landing, took Alexandria by storm. The Mameluke beys, who were then masters of the country, •led their brilliant cavahy to check the progress of the invaders ; but ■these undisciplied warriors were unable to break the firm squares of the French infantry, and they were almost annihilated in the battle of Embaba. But the hopes inspired by such success were soon dashed by the ruin of the French fleet. After a long search. Admiral Nelson dis- 'covered Brueys, in the bay of Aboukir, and immediately formed a bold plan of action. He led a part of his fleet between the French and the :shore, so as to place his enemies between two fires. The victory was complete, nine sail-of-ihe-line were captured, L'Orient, a ship of uncom- mon size, blew up with the greater part of her crew ; another ship-of- the-line and a frigate were burned by their respective captains. But Great Britain was not equally fortunate in other quarters ; an armament sent against the Belgic coast si^ally failed, and the island of St. Domingo was evacuated by the British troops. Ireland was dis- tracted by an insurrection, planned by some enthusiastic admirers of French principles, but put into execution by an ignorant peasantry, whose excesses their leaders were unable to control. Many acts of atrocity were committed by the insurgents, and the conduct of the royal army was frequently very disgraceful. The insurrection was finally quelled ; but scarcely was tranquillity restored, when a small party of French landed in Connaught, and through the cowardice of the troops first sent to oppose them, penetrated into the heart of the country. Lord Com- wallis, who had just been appointed lord lieutenant, soon overtook the French, and forced them to surrender. Judiciously tempering severity with clemency, he conciliated the discontented ; and Sir John Warren, by capturing the greater part of a French fleet, averted the dangers of a future invasion. The victory of Nelson at the Nile produced a powerful effect through- out Europe. The sultan made preparations for a vigorous defence of his dominions ; the Russians sent an armament into the Mediterranean, and captured the Ionian islands, which the French had wrested from the Venetians ; the king of Naples took arms to recover the Roman teri:itories for the pope ; and the emperor of Austria yielded to the suggestions of Mr. Pitt, and commenced hostilities. 652 MODERN HIBTORY. The French were not daunted by this powerful coalition ; they easily repelled the Neapolitans, but ihey found a more formidable foe in the Russians, who entered Italy under the command of Suwaroff, and being there joined by the Austrians, gained several important advantages in spite of Marshals Moreau and Macdonald. But these successes were so dearly purchased, that the allies resolved to try a new plan of opera- tions. Suwaroff undertook to drive the French from Switzerland ; Kray and Melas were to direct the Piedmontese and Austrian troops in Italy ; while the archduke Charles protected Germany with all the forces of the empire. Victory in general favored, the allied powers : the French lost all their posts in Italy except Genoa, and that was closely besieged ; Suwaroff made rapid progress in Switzerland ; and in Germany the French arms suffered several but not very important reverses. In the meantime Napoleon invaded Syria ; but being foiled at Acre, chiefly through the heroic exertions of Sir Sydney Smith, he returned to Egypt, and having provided for the security of that country, secretly embarked for France. He escaped the vigilance of the English cruisers, and ar- rived at Paris just as the directory were indulging in extravagant joy for the defeat of the joint invasion of Holland by the English and Rus- sians. It had been confidently asserted that the Dutch were anxious to throw off the yoke of France, but these representations were proved to be fallacious ; and the duke of York, who commanded the English forces, was compelled to purchase a safe retreat by restoring eight thousand French prisoners without ransom or exchange. Bonaparte soon perceived that the French people had grown weary of the directory. Trusting to his popularity with the army, he drove the legislative council from their chamber at the point of the bayonet, and formed a new constitution, by which the executive power was in- trusted to three consuls, of whom he was the chief. The first consul, in everything but name a monarch, attempted to commence negotiations ; the English ministers repulsed him rather harshly, and preparations ■were made for a decisive campaign. An important and necessary change was made in the constitution of the British empire (a. d. 1800). Some difiiculties had arisen from the existence of independent legislatures in England and Ireland ; the two parliaments had already divided differently on the important question of the regency, and there was reason to fear that some future discrepancy might lead to the dismemberment of the empire. To prevent such an evil, it was resolved that the two legislatures should form one imperial parliament, and the terms of the union were warmly canvassed in both countries. The measure was very unpopular in Ireland, and when first proposed, was rejected by the parliament ; but, during the recess, the minister found means to increase the number of his supporters, and in the following session the Act of Union was passed by considerable majorities. It was expected that the first consul would attempt the invasion of England or Ireland ; but Napoleon was too well aware of his naval weakness to undertake such a hazardous enterprise. He formed a daring plan of a campaign in Italy, and led his army like Hannibal over the Alps. The Austrians could scarcely have been more surprised if an army had fallen from the clouds, than they were by the appearance THE AGE OF EEVOLUTIONS. 653 of the French columns descending from Mount St. Bernard ; but, en- couraged by their recent acquisition of Genoa, they prepared, to make a vigorous resistance. The battle of Montebello, in which the French had the advantage, was the prelude to the decisive battle of Marengo. The Austrians commenced the fight with unusual spirit ; both wings of their opponents were beaten, and the centre shaken ; but some fresh divisions arriving to the support of the French at the last moment of the crisis, Napoleon pierced the lines of the imperialists, which were too much extended, and Murat's furious charge completed the rout of the Austrians. So disheartened was the imperial general, Melas, that he purchased a truce by resigning Genoa, and the principal fortresses in Piedmont and the Milanese, to the conquerors. The influence of the British cabinet, and some slight successes in Germany, induced the emperor Francis to continue the war ; but his rising hopes were crushed by the battle of Hohenlinden, in which the French and Bavarians under Moreau completely defeated the imperial- ists, and opened a passage into Upper Austria. The emperor, alarmed for his hereditary dominions, consented to a truce, and this was soon followed by the treaty of Luneville, which annihilated for a season the Austrian influence in Italy. Scarcely had Great Britain lost one ally, when she was threatened with the active hostility of another. The Russian emperor, Paul, had been chosen patron of the order of St. John of Jerusalem ; and when the English, after having reduced Malta by blockade, refused to restore the island to the degenerate knights, the chivalrous potentate ordered the British ships in the Russian ports to be detained, and prevailed upon Sweden and Denmark to unite with him in an armed neutrality (a. d. 1801). In the meantime Mr. Pitt, who had so long presided over the councils of Great Britain, resigned his oflSce as premier. When he was urging forward the great measure of the union with Ireland, he had endeavored to conciliate the catholics of that country by a promise of his aid in procuring a repeal of the laws which excluded them from parliament and office ; but the king's repug- nance to catholic emancipation was invincible, and Mr. Pitt retired from the cabinet. Mr. Addington, his successor, had scarcely been installed, when the gratifying intelligence was received of a great triumph ob- tained by the British navy in the Baltic. When Mr. Pitt received in- telligence of the armed neutrality, he sent a large fleet into the northern seas, under the command of Sir Hyde Parker and Lord Nelson. The latter, with twelve sail-of-the-line and some small vessels, attacked the Danish fleet, moored in a formidable position before their capital, and, after a desperate contest, took or destroyed every Danish ship that had a share in the engagement. The Danes were humbled by this loss, but they were still more disheartened by the death of the Russian em- peror, Paul, who, was the founder and head of the northern confederacy. This potenate's incapacity provoked the indignation of the nobles and the people, and he was murdered by a party of conspirators, who placed his son Alexander upon the throne. The young prince concluded a treaty with the British on equitable terms, and the other northern pow- ers imitated his example. A British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had been sent to drive the French from Egypt, and it succeeded in this object, but with the f §^ MODERN HISTO,BY. Iqss of -its, gallant commander. Sonie naval enterprises were less suc- cessful,: and as there was now a stable, government in franco, the Eng- lish minister consented to commence negotiations for peace. The terms were soon arranged : France retained her acquisitions in Germany and the Netherlands, and her supremacy in Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. England consented to resign Malta to the knights, to make the Ionian islands an independent republic, and to restore all her colonial con- quests except Ceylon and Trinidad. The treaty was signed at Amiens, and for a short time Europe was deceived with a hope of continued tranquillity. During this war the maritime and commercial supremacy of England had been completely established, and her colonial empire in India ex- tended and secured. When the French invaded Egypt, Tippoo, the sultan of Mysore, inheriting his father's hostility to the English, medi- tated an attack on the company's territories, but he was anticipated by the vigor of the earl of Momington, the governor-general, who, instead of waiting for an attack, invaded Mysore. Seringapatam, Tippoo's cap- ital, was taken by storm, and that unfortunate prince fell in die assault. This conquest made the British power supreme in southern India, and led to the establishment of the company's paramount authority over the whole peninsula of Hindustan. France had gained a vast accession of territory, but the freedom which the French had taken arms to defend was no more. The revo- lution, whose progress had been so strangely marked by savage crime and cruel suffering, was now fast finding its consummation in a military dospotism, more arbitrary and crushing than the iron rule even of the feudal monarchs ; but the French, weary of the many vicissitudes that their government had undergone, submitted to a change that promised future stability, and consoled themselves with dreams of glory for the loss of freedom. THE FRENCH EMJIRE. 655? CHA.PTER X. THE FRENCH EMPIRE. Section I. — Renewal of the War heiween England and France. When peace was restored, Napoleon directed all his energies to con- solidate the power he had acquired. Permission was granted to those whom the violence of the revolution had driven from their country, to return, on certain conditions. Christianity, abolished in the madness of the preceding convulsions, was restored, and arrangements were made with the pope for the future government of the Gallican church; and finally, the consular power was conferred upon Napoleon for life, while a representative constitution preserved for the nation a mere shadow of freedom. His interference in foreign states was less honorable : he moulded the Italian and Ligurian republics at his pleasure ; but the Swiss proving more refractory. Marshal Ney entered their territory with a large army, to enforce submission to the imperious dictates of the first consu}; The British ministers remonstrated against this inter- ference, but they could not prevent the French from extending their in- fluence in Germany and Italy, as well as the Swiss cantons. Napoleon was less successful in his efforts to recover the island of Hispaniola or St. Domingo. A large French army was sent to the island, and the proceedings of its commanders were marked by gross cruelty and treach- ery ; but these abominable means failed to crush the spirit of the insur- gent negroes, and the unfortunate colony was exposed to all the horrors of a servile war. Great Britain did not interfere in this contest ; the example of a successful revolt of slaves was deemed of dangerous con- sequence to our West Indian islands, and the reduction of St. DoraingQ was desired rather than deprecated. But the encroachments of France on the independence of the neigh- boring states, and the determination of England to retain the island of Malta, gave rise to angry discussions, which, it was soon obvious, would only terminate in a renewal of hostilities (a. d. 1803). The English commenced the war by issuing letters of marque, author- izing the seizure of French vessels ; Napoleon retaliated, by seizing the persons of all the British whom pleasure or business had induced to visit France during the brief interval of peace. The threats of invasion were renewed, but the English people evinced a spirit of loyalty which quelled all fear of danger. In Ireland an unmeaning insurrection was raised by two enthusiasts, Russell and Emmett, but it was suppressed almost the instant it exploded, and a few of the leaders were capitally 656 MODERN HISTOEY. punished. Hanover, however, was occupied by a French army, and the Dutch republic joined in the war against Britain. On the other hand, the English conquered the French islands of St. Lucie and Tobago, and the Dutch settlements of Demerara and Essequebo. In Asia, the Eng- lish broke the dangerous power of the Mahrattas, who were supposed, at the instigation of the French, to have formed plans for the subversion of the company's power. The earl of Mornington, who had recently been created marquis of Weliesley, disconcerted their schemes by his vigor and promptitude ; and the formidable Scindiah was forced to pur- chase peace by the cession of a large portion of his dominions. The king of Kandi, who had assailed the British power in Ceylon, was also subdued, and the English colonial empire in Asia was at once enlarged and secured. The French colonial power was at the same time nearly annihilated : the island of St. Domingo was wrested from them by the insurgent blacks, and erected into an independent state, under its an- cient Indian name of Hayti. These results might have been reasonably anticipated, for without a navy it was impossible for France to retain its colonies. Mr. Pitt had retired from office just before the conclusion of the peace, his friends became anxious that he should return to the admin- istration on the renewal of war, and Mr. Addington was forced to yield to their superior influence (a. d. 1804). The premier encountered many difficulties in constructing a cabinet, and had to resist a more formidable opposition in parliament than he had been accustomed to meet. While Mr! Pitt was laboring to strengtlien his ministry. Napo- leon was more successfully engaged in securing the supreme power in France. He accused his rivals, Moreau and Pichegru, of having plot- ted his destruction, in conjunction with Georges, a royaliSt leader, and charged the English ministers with having hired assassins to destroy him. A more atrocious crime was the murder of the most amiable of the Bourbon princes. The young duke D'Enghien was unjustifiably seized in the neutral territory of Baden, hurried to the castle of Vin- cennes, and shot by the sentence of a court-martial, contrary to all forms of law, as well as principles of justice. Immediately after the perpetration of this ruthless deed, Napoleon , obtained the title of em- peror from his servile senate ; the dignity was declared hereditary in' his family, and the principal ppwers of Europe, with the exception of Great Britain, recognised the new sovereign. The empejor of Russia was anxious to avenge the fate of the duke D'Enghien, his remonstrances against the usurpations of Napoleon were very warm, but none of the other continental sovereigns seconded his zeal, and the storm, which 'threatened to burst forth, soon subsided. Having no ally on the continent, England had no means of employing her mihtary strength, and the operations of the war were confined to a few, naval enterprises. Napoleon offered terms of peace ; but the British minister, relying on the probable co-operation of Russia, refused to negotiate (a. d. 1805). At the same time war was commenced against Spain, by sending out a squadron to intercept the Plate fleet, laden with the treasures of Spanish America. This attetnpt was made before hostilities were formally declared ; but the British minister jus- tified it by referring to the intimate connexion that had been'formed be- THE FKENCH EMPIRE. 657 tween the courts -df Paris and Madrid; Mr. Pitt's conduct was ap- proved by large pariiamentary majorities; but he received a harsh proof of' the decline of his inflaencci in th« impeachment of his friend Lord MeMUfij for official delinquency. When the charge was made in the 'house of commons, Mr. Pitt vindicated the conduct of Lord Melville ; but, notwithstanding the minister's exertions, the impeach- ment was carried by the casting vote of the speaker. The premier was more successful in his foreign policy ; the emperor of Russia con- cluded a treaty with England for restraining the ambition of France, and Napoleon'Sr encroachments in- Italy induced Austria to accede to the league. Napoleon, at the request of the constituted authorities of the Italian republic, assumed the title of king of Italy ; and in the cathedral of Milan placed upon his head the ancient iron crown of the Lombard monasehsj and with less ceremony, annexed the territories of the Ligu- rian republic to the French empire. The Austrian emperor vainly re- monstrated ; and at length, relying on the aid of the Russians, publish- ed a declaration of war. Unfortunately, Francis commenced hostilities by an action as unjustifiable as any of which he accused Napoleon. The elector: of Bavaria, whose son was in the French capital, declared himself neutral, upon which the Austrian troops entered his dominions, treated them as a conquered country, and compelled him to seek refuge in Franconia. Napoleon eagerly seized the opportunity of branding his enemies' as the aggressors in the contest, and declaring hiinself the protector of the liberties of Europe. The naval war was rftaintained by Great Britain with equal vigor and success. The French and Spanish fleets having formed a junction, sailed for the West Indies, but they were soon pursued by Lord Nel- son, the terror of whose name induced them to return to Europe. Off Ferrol they encountered an inferior squadron, under Sir Rpbert Calder, and4ost two of their ships, but the rest reached the bay of Cadiz, where they were strongly reinforced. Lord Nelson, with tweaty-seven sail- of-the-line, appeared, off the coast, and the French admiral Villeneuve, relying on hip vast superiority of force, resolved to hazard an engage- ment. The allied fleets of France and Spain, amounting to thirty-three ships-of-the-line, besides frigates and corvettes, appeared near Cape Trafalgar, ranged in order of battle ; Nelson gave immediate orders for an attack,, and the English fleet, advancing in two divisions, soon broke througJi.the adverse line. In the heat of the engagement^ the heroic British, commander fell mortally wounded ; but he lived to know that his plans had been crowned with success, twehe of the enemies' ships having struek before he expired'. ■ A dreadful storm, which arose just after the battle closed, prevented the English from retaining all the fruits of their -victory; but four prizes reached Gibraltar, fifteen French and Spanish vessels were destroyed or sunk; out of the fourteen which fled,, six ^ere wrecked, and four taken at a later period by Sir Robert Strachan. The joy which: so briUiant a victory diffused throughout England was chastened by grief for the loss of the gallant Nelson; he was honorably interred at- the public ' expense, land monuments were erected to his mempry by, a. grateful nationi, Napoleon consoled himseLT for his losses at sea by the prospect of 42 658 MODEEN HISTORY. gaining some decisive advantage over the Austrians before they could be joined by their Russian auxiliaries. He treated with contempt the threats of Gustavus, king of Sweden ; and it must be confessed that the pompous boasts of that eccentric monarch, combined with his vacilla- ting conduct, did not entitle him to much respect. The French army crossed the Rhine, and disregarding the neutrality of the king of Prus- sia, passed through the Franconian territories of that monarch, and having passed the Danube, began to menace the rear of the Austrians. In spite of the remonstrances of the archduke Charles, the cabinet of Vienna had intrusted the chief command of their armies to General Mack, whose talents and fidelity were both suspicious. Mack in a short time permitted himself to be surrounded by the French at Ulm ; he had ample means for a protracted defence, having twenty thousand men under his command, but through cowardice or incapacity, he con- sented to a capitulation, by which he and his soldiers became prisoners- of-war. Intelligence of the battle of Trafalgar came to abate Napoleon's triumph, while the courage of Francis was revived by the arrival of the Russian auxiliaries. The French, pushing forward, made themselves masters of Vienna ; but the Russians, encouraged by the presence of their eihperor, though they had been severely harassed in Moravia, showed so much spirit, that the allies resolved to hazard an engage- ment. In the beginning of December, the hostile armies met near the village of Austerlitz ; Kutuzoff, who directed the movements of the allies, injudiciously extended his lines, with the intention of outflanking the French ; Napoleon at once saw and took advantage of the error, he separated the enemies' central divisions from those of both witigs, and pouring his columns through the gaps, overwhelmed his foes in detail. After a desperate resistance, the Russians were forced to retreat ; a large body attempted to escape over a frozen lake,'but the French artil- lery poured a storm of shot from a neighboring eminence, which broke the ice arouad the fugitives, and the greater part of them perishefl in the waters. This severe defeat humbled the emperor Francis ; he ac- cepted peace on the terms dictated by the conqueror, but the emperor Alexander refused to be a party to the treaty, and returned to his own country. During these transactions, the selfish conduct of the king of Prussia was as injurious to »he allies as it was ultimately ruinous to himself. On the violation of ha Franconian territories, he had taken arms, and entered into treaties vith Grea* Britain and Russia; but Napoleon, aware that the prompt Movement of a third power might disconcert all his plans, contrived to keep awake the ancient jealousy between the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, and he finally won the tacit appro- bation of the latter power by offering Hanover as a bribe. Thus the Prussian sovereign was induced to favor the alarming extension of French power by a share of the plunder of his own allies. The battle of Austerlitz was a fatal blow to Mr. Pitt ; he had been the chief agent in forming the coalition— he had loudly and boldly prognosticated its success, and had despised the warnings of his politi- cal adversaries ; the failure of all his hopes proved too much for his shattered constitution, and he died at the commencement of the parlia- mentary session (a. d. 1806). His parliamentary friends procured him THE FRENCH EMPlIlE. 659 a splendid funeral, and the pajTnent of his debts at the national cost, and a monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. Section II. — Progress of Napoleon's Power. While Napoleon was establishing his supremacy over the continent of Europe, the marquis of Wellesley was further extending and securing the British empire in India, by humbling the Mahratta powers. Jess- ■wunt Holkar, a formidable .chief, made a vigorous resistance, but he soon found that his soldiers could not cope with the disciplined troops of the company, and was forced to beg a peace. He obtained better terms than he could have expected, from the marquis Comwallis, who succeeded the marquis of Wellesley, for the court of directors had found that conquests were very expensive, and that every new ac- quisition of territory became an additional source of expense. At this time the English nation generally took little interest in the affairs of India ; men's minds were more occupied by the change of ministry consequent on the death of Mr. Pitt. It was generally desired that as large a share of the talent of the country as possible, without reference to party, should be included in the new administration ; and Lord Grenville, to whom the arrangements were confided; overcame the king's reluctance to Mr. Fox, and made that gentleman one of the sec- retaries of state. The first measures of the ministers won them a con- siderable shaTe of public favor ; Lord Henry Petty introduced order into the financial accounts, which were in such a state of confusion as to afford protection to fraud and peculation; Mr. Fox proposed and carried the aboUtion of the infamous slave-trade, which had; been so long a disgrace to England and to Christianity. The acquittal of Lord Melville by the house of peers was received with some surprise ; but the ministers appear to have acted impartially in avoiding any inter-- ference that, might influence the result of an official investigation. The war was still prosecuted with great vigor ; the Dutch colony of the Cape vs^as subdued, and a small force under Sir Home Popham and General Beresford, captured the important city of Buenos Ayres in South America. "The provincials, however, disappointed in the hope of obtaining freedom and independence by British aid, took up arms, ajid the conquerors of Buenos Ayres were forced to capitulate, while a British armament was on its way to maintain the supposed conquest. Hastening lo secure the reward of his perfidy, the king of Prussia occupied Hanover, ceding to the French the dutchy of Cleves, and some other districts, as a reward for jdelding him the electorate. Gus- tayus of Sweden joined the British court in remonstrating against this proceeding ; but as that monarch's actions were not very consistent ■with his menaces, the Prussians treated him with contempt. An ally of Britain was about the same time driven from his dominions. During the Austrian war, the king of Naples, encoura^ged by the withdrawal of the French troops from his territories, and instigated by his queen, an Austrian princess, received an army of Russians and English into his capital. Napoleon, provoked by this unexpected war, declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign in Naples, and assembled an army to execute his threats just as the Russian and English' forces 660 MODERN HISTORY. were witkdrawn. The inyaders scarcely encountered any resistance, except in Calabria, where the peasants made a^brief stand. The king, of Naples fled to Sicily, and Napoleon conferred the vacant throne on- his brother, Jpseph Bonaparte, Thes peasants in Calabria and the Abruzzi, harassed the French by desultory attacks, and they were supported by Sir Sydney Smith, who commanded the British naval force on the Sicilian station. The queen of Naples and Sir Sydney Smith prevailed on Sir John Stuart, the commander of the British force in Sicily, to transport his troops into Calabria ; the natives did not join the invaders in such force as had been expected, and they would have immediately returned, had not an opportunity offered of engaging the French general Regnier. The armies met at Maida, and the French, though: greatly superior in number, were completely defeated. But the victory had no result except to raise the character of the British army, which had been for some time depressed. The French poured large bodies of soldiers into Calabria, and in a short time established their authority over the whole of the south of Italy. Having procured the throne of Naples for his brother Joseph, Napo- leon resolved to place his brother Louis on that of Holland. The Dutch submitted to the change without remonstrance, though their country thus became a mere province of France ; but they consoled themselves by reflecting on the mild character of their new sovereign, who was sincerely anxious to promote the prosperity of his subjects. His efforts, were, however, controlled by his imperial brother, who was anxious of becoming the arbiter of Europe, and rendering everything subservient to the military sway of France. Still Napoleon professed an anxious desire for peace, and made overtures to Mr. Fox, for whose character he professed and probably felt the highest veneration. The negotiations were broken off by the refusal of the French to admit the Russians to a share of. the treaty, and by Napoleon's perseverance in retaining power inconsistent with The independence of the! other Eu- ropean states. While, the subject was under discussion, Mr. Fox died, and was succeeded in office by Mr. (afterward Earl) Grey : the con- ferences were continued, but M. Talleyrand, who was the representa- tive of France, insinuated that the change in the British cabinet blighted the hope of restoring tranquillity to Europe. The frustration of this negotiation led to a new war; during the conferences. Napoleon's agents averred that the restoration of Hanover would not be refused ; the king of Prussia was indignant at the readi- ness with which this pretended'friend sacrificed his interests ; Hanover had been the reward of subserviency, if not treachery, and he now found that he retained the bribe by a very insecure" tenure. A more justifiable, ground of indignation was the opposition which Napoleon gave to the efforts of the Prussians, in forming an association which might counterbalance the Confederation of the Rhine, an alliance that transferred, to France the supremacy over Germany, that had formerly betonged, to the house of Austria; finally, it was more than suspected that Naf oleon had offered to win the favor of the Russian emperor at the expense of,- his Prussian ally. Frederic William was further stimulated by his queen and his subjects ; the Germans generally were eniagedi Iqr the Mlitary tyranny of the French, especially by the ju- THE FRENCH BM?mE. €61 dicial murder of two booksellers, wHo were shot pursuant to the sen- tence of a court-martial for circulating libels against Napoleon. Anger is an evil counsellor to nations as well as individuals ; yield- ing to the suggestions of indignation rwher than prudence, the king of Prussia commenced hostilities before his own arrangements were com- plete, or his allies ready to give him effective assistance; arid he in- trusted the command of his array to the duke of Brunswick, who pos- sessed the personal bravery of a soldier, but not the prudence and abil- ities requisite for a general. Louis, the king's cousin, impe'tuously advancing to seek the French, encountered a vastly Superior force ; he was defeated and Slain, a ca;lamity that greatly dispirited the Prussian army. This Was only the preliminary to the fatal battle of Jena ; the Prussians injudiciously posted, and badly commanded, were routed with ■great slaughter, and what was even worse than defeat, a dispute arose between them and their Saxon allies, which induced the latter to con- clude a separate peace with Napoleon. The success of the French was uninterrupted, Berlin opened its gates to the conquerors, and the division of the Prussian army, which had been long preserved unbroken by the heroic exertions of Marshal Blucher, was forced to capitulate. The fugitive king still preserved his courage, relpng on the approach- ing aid of his Russian ally. Napoleon's forces advanced into Poland, where they were joined by many of the inhabitants, who were taught to hope that the Firench emperor would restore the independence of their native country ; but he was incapable of such generous policy, and in after-life, he lamented too late that he sacrificed the hopes of a br^ve and grateful people to the temporary gain of selfish ambition. The Russians successfully engaged the French at Pultusk, but they were unable to retain theit advantages, and welre forced gradually to retreat. Encouraged by his rapid success, Napoleon resolved to crush, if possible, the commercial prosperity of Great Britain ; he issued a series of edicts from Berlin, declaring the British islands in a state of block- ade, and excluding British manufactures from all the continental ports. Every country that refused obedience to these decrees was threatened with immediate vengeance, and Portugal, so long the faithful ally of England, was marked out as the first victim (a. b. 1807). Great in- dignation was excited throughout Britain by the French emperor's adoption of this unparalleled system ; but it proved eventually more in- jurious to himself than to his enemies ; British manufactures and colonial produce were smuggled to the continent in various ways, and Napoleon was finally compelled to connive at the illicit traffic. But thte menaces of the French had roused the spirit of the English people, and complaints were made of the want of vigor and success with which the war was Supported. A second expedition against Buenos Ayres, under General Whitelock, disgracefully 'failed, though it must be con- fessed that the hatred Of the Spanish provincials to the English, as strangers and heretics, would probably have prevented any permanent success in South America. An armament sent against Constantinople, to gratify our Russian ally by enforcing his demands on Turkey, wks equally unsuccessful ; and an attempt to occupy Egypt, badly contrived, and worse executed, terminated in loss and disgrace. But the ministers might have overcome the unpopularity occasioned by these failures, had 662 MODERN HISTOEY, ihey not displeased the king by introducing a bill for opening the high- est dignities of the army and navy to Roman catholics. His majesty entertained religious objections to the measures ; he demanded that the cabinet should not only abandon it for the present, but give a promise that it should not be proposed at any future period. The ministers re- fused to give a pledge which they regarded as unconstitutional, and re- signed their offices, A nevif administration was formed under the auspices of the duke of Portland and Mr. Perceval ; an appeal was made to the country by a dissolution of parliament, and the tide of popular prejudice ran so strong against the preceding cabinet, that many, if not most of its supporters, were rejected by the electors. Russia vigorously maintained the war against Turkey, and gained some important advantages. The Turks, enraged by their losses, directed their vengeance against Sultan Selim, whose attempts to in- troduce European reforms had offended their inveterate prejudices. The Janissaries deposed their unfortunate sovereign, and raised his cousin Mustapha to the throne ; but this revolution did not change the fortune of the war, for the Russians soon after gained a signal naval victory off the island of Tenedos. But the Turkish war, did not divert the attention of Alexander from the more important object of checking French ambition. Military operations were renewed during the winter, and a sanguinary battle at Eylau, in which each army lost more than twenty thousand men, led to no decisive result. In some minor engagements the allies had the advantage, but their gains were more than outbalanced by the loss of Dantzic, which, after an obstinate resistance, surrendered to the French. Napoleon, on the fall of Dantzic, hastened to terminate the war by the decisive battle of Friedland ; the Russians fought with great bravery, but their generals were inferior in ability and experience to those of the enemy, and they were completely defeated. Koningsberg was surrendered immediately after this battle, and the existence of the Prussian monarchy now depended on the discretion or moderation of the conquerors. An armistice having been concluded. Napoleon sought a personal interview with the Russian emperor, and arrangements were soon made for a conference of the two potentates on a raft in the river Niemen. In this and some subsequent interviews, Bonaparte won over the emperor Alexander to his interests, by stimulating that mon- arch's ambition for eastern conquest, and promises of support. Peace was restored by the treaty of Tilsit, all sacrifices were made at the expense of the Prussian monarch, by whose distress even his Russian ally did not refuse to profit ; and when Frederic ventured to remonstrate, he was contemptuously informed that he owed the preservation of the miserable remnant of his kingdom to Napoleon's personal friendship for Alexander. The eccentric king of Sweden refused to be included in this pacifica- tion, but he was unable to prevent the French from occupying Stral- sund and the island of Rugen. Terms were arranged for a peace be- tween Russia and Turkey, but so many points remained open for dis- pute, that it was manifest war would be renewed at no distant period. The king of Prussia was forced, not only to accede to the Berlin de- crees, and exclude British manufactures and colonial produce from his THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 663 dtnninions, but had also to receive Frencli garrisons into his principal fortresses, and these troops treated the unfortunate Germans with such arrogance and cruelty, that they were almost reduced to despair. Na- poleon's power had now nearly touched the summit of its greatness, and had he been contented with what he had already acquired, it might have been permanent ; but his restless ambition hurried him soon into an unprincipled contest, which terminated in his overthrow. Section III. — The French Invasion of Spain. After the treaty of Tilsit, it was generally believed that Napoleon would endeavor to enforce the Berlin decrees by excluding the British from the navigation of the Sound, and that he would probably avail him- self of the Danish navy to execute his old project of an invasion. To prevent such an enterprise, a powerful armament was sent against Den- mark, which had hitherto remained neutral in the contest. An imperi- ous demand for the instant surrender of the Danish fleet and naval stores, to be retained as a deposite by the English until the conclusion of the war, being peremptorily rejected, the Dan'es were briskly attacked by land and sea. After Copenhagen had been furiously bombarded for four days, the Danish court was constrained to submit to the demands of the British, and the flqet was removed, while the indignant people could scarcely be prevented from avenging the national insult even by the presence of a superior force. The attack on Denmark furnished the Russian emperor with a pre- text for fulfilling the promises he made to Napoleon at Tilsit, and break- ing oflf his connexion with Great Britain. He complained in strong language of the disregard which England had ever shown for the rights of neutral powers, and the unscrupulous use that had been made of her naval supremacy, and many of the maritime states second^ his remon- strances. A second fleet was saved from the grasp of the French by a less unjustifiable proceeding than the attack on Denmark. Napoleon issued one of his imperious edicts, that " the house of Braganza had ceased to reign," and to enforce it, sent an army to occupy Portugal. The prince-regent of that country, at the instigation of the British, sailed with the Portuguese fleet for Rio Janeiro, where he resolved to hold Ms court until peace was restored. As a retaliation for the Berlin de- crees, the British government issued ^ders in council, restraining the trade of neutrals with France, and all countries subservient to its power. Against these regulations the government of the United States of Amer- ica protested loudly, and . their remonstrances assumed a very angry character, which threatened speedy hostilities. An attack made on an American frigate, whose captain refused to submit to having his ship searched by an English vessel of inferior force, was resented as a na- tional insult ; a proclamation was issued, excluding all armed British ships from the harbors and waters of the United States ; and an embargo was laid on British commerce. While the policy of the orders in council, and the proffered mediation of Austria to effect the restoration of tranquillity, were warmly discussed in the British parliament, events were occurring in Spain which gavei the war an entirely new character and direction. 664 MODERN HISTORY. The annals of the world could scarcely supply a parallel .to the .picr ture of degradation which the Spanish court presented at this period. Oharlesi the imbecile king, was the dupe of a faithless wife and an un- principled minister ; this unworthy favorite had been raised, by the queen's partiality, from an humble station to the highest rank ; Godoy, Prince of the Peace, as he was called, had neither abilities for the high office with which he was invested, nor strength of mind to support his elevation ; he excluded Ferdinand, the heir apparent, from all share in the government, and thus provoked the resentment pf a prince who was as ambitious of power as he was unfit to possess it. But Ferdinand's evil dispositions were as yet unknown to the Spaniards, and when Go- doy attempted to ruin him by an accusation of treason, the p$(^ie showed such discontent that Charles was forced to consent to his son's lihera- tion. Napoleon won Godoy 's support by (proposing a partition of jjie peninsula, part of which should be assigned. to .the royal minion, as an independent sovereignty, and he thus obtained the means of ..pawring a large body of troops into Spain, and occupying the principal fortresses. Charles, intimidated by these proceedings, meditated flight to Spanish America, b^it finally resolved to resign Ms crown to Ferdjinaiid (a. d, 1808). By the intrigues of the French, Charles was induced to disa- vow his abdication, while Ferdinand was led to expect a recognition of his royal title from the emperor Napoleon. Deluded by such represen- tations, he proceeded to Bayonne, where he was cont^ijaptuowsly in-i formed that " the Bourbons had ceased to r«ign j" and on. his refijsal to resign his claims for the patty kingdom of Etruria, ke was yarded as a prisoner. A fierce riot in Madrid, occasioned I^ preparations for the removal of the Spanish jprinoes to France, was cruelly pujiished by Murat, who massacred miQtitudes of the unarmed populace. Soon ^fter, Charles, accompanied by his queen, proceeded to Bayonne.i aa:)d fonnajly abdicated hi* crown in favor of Napoleon. Ferdinand, d^i^t^d by in- telligence of the massacre at Madrid, pursued the same course ; and the French emperor summoned his brother Joseph from the thfcme of Na? pies, to occupy that of Spain. The Neapolitan kingdom was given to Murat, whose eminent services to the French emperor wer« not over- paid, even by the splendid donation of a crown. Many of the Spanish nobles tamely acquiesced in this arrangement, but the great bulk of the nation rejected the intruding sovereign, and preparations to maintain Spanish independence were made in the principal provinces. Andalusia took the lead : Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed in Seville, war dsclared against Napoleon, and a junta, or council, chosen to direct the affairs of the government. A French squadron, which had been staUooed in the bay of Cadiz, was forced to surrender to a .Spanish flotilla ; but this would not have happened if the port had not been at the same time blockaded by the British fleet. In every province not occupied by French troops, the adult popular tion offered military service to the different juntas ; the English sent large supplies of arms and ammunition, and released all their Spanish prisoners-of-war, a seasonable reinforcement to the patriotic armies. In their first contests with the invaders, the Spaniards obuined considera- ble success ; Marshal Moncey was repulsed from Valencia with great loss, and Marshal Dupont, with eight thousand men, was forced to sur-f THE FEENCH EMPIRE. 665 render to the .patriot general, Castanos (July 20). On the Very day that this unfavorable event occurred, the intrusive monarch made his triumphal entry into Madrid. Joseph Bonaparte, however, had neither the firnmess nor courage of his brother Napoleon ; the moment he heard of Dupont's surrender, he plundered the treasury and royal palaces of their most valuable contents, and fled to Burgos. A bold example of Spanish heroism directed the attention of all Eu- rope to the struggle in the peninsula. The citizens of Saragossa, dis- trusting the fidelity of the captain-general of Aragon, deposed him, and chose for their leader 'Don Joseph Palafox, a nobleman of dauntless eouraige, though desti-tute of military experience. Their city was al- most destitute ^of defences, they had only a mere handful of Tegular sol- diers in the garrison, and they had a very limited supply of arms and ammuaition. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, they sternly refused to admit the French, and prepared for a desperate resistance. All classes were animated 'with the same spirit; the monks manufactured gunpow- A&i and prepared cartridges, the women shared the toil of raising forti- fications — even the children lent their feeble aid in such labor as was not beyond their strength. It is not wonderfulthat the French soldiers were daunted by such an heroic population. After a long and sangui- nary contest they abandoned the siege, leaving Saragossa in ruins, but immortalized by the patriotic courage that had enabled its undisciplined citizens to triumph over a regular army. The spirit of resistance soon extended to Portugal : the people of Oporto rose in a body, seized and imprisoned all the French they could find, and formed a junta under the superintendence of she bishop. A British- force commanded by. Sir Arthur Wellesley, stimulated and pro- tected these patriotic exertions. A French division, posted at Roleia to terrify the insurgents, was driven from its position by the allied forces, and the north of Portugal delivered from the invaders. Marshal Junot collected all the forces at his disposal to drive back the English ; he Icagnd Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, and immediately attacked his lifl«s (August 21). After a brief but vigorous struggle, the French were defeated and driven in confusion toward Lisbon. Scarcely had the victory been won, when Sir Arthur Wellesley was superseded by Sir Hugh Balrymple, who concluded a convention with Junot for the evaciBtion of Portugal, on terms that were generally regarded as too favorable to the French after their recent defeat. While Napoleon was pursuing his ambitious designs against Spain, Alexander xrf Russia was engaged in a war with Sweden, undertaken in an equally unjust and aggressive spirit. The English sent an army un- der Sir John Moore to assist their ally, but that general refusing to submit to the dictates of the eccentric;, or perhaps the insane Gustavus, soon returned home. Though the Swedes fought with great courage, they were unable to resist the overwhelming force of the Russians, es- pecially as the limited resources of Sweden were wasted by Gustavus m senseless and impracticable enterprises. At length the Swedes grew weary of a sovereign whose conduct threatened the ruin of their country: He was arrested by some of his officers, deposed, and the crown trans- ferred to the duke of Suderraania, who took the title of Charles XIII. (a. d. 1809). The new monarch was forced to purchase peace from 666 MODERN HISTOEY. Russia by the cession of Finland, and the exclusion of British vessels from the ports of Sweden. The Spaniards soon found that a central government was necessary to the success of their operations ; the different juntas, therefore, chose deputies who formed a supreme junta for the general conduct of the war. The marquis de la Romana, who had commanded a large body of Span- iards employed by the French in Holstein, was enabled to return home with his troops, by British aid, and take a share in the defence of his country. But the want of concert among the Spanish leaders, and of discipline among the soldiers, rendered them unable to cope with the French ; they were severely defeated at Durango, Reynosa, and Tude- la, and Napoleon soon appeared in Spain at the head of one hundred and fifty thousand men (a. d. 1808). A very exaggerated notion of the capabilities of the Spaniards appears to have been, formed by the English ministers. They ordered Sir John Moore to advance with the British forces in Portugal to the aid of the patriot armies, but do not seem to have sufficiently investigated the ob- stacles by which his march was impeded. When Sir John Moore en- tered Spain, he found that the French were everywhere victorious, and that it was hopeless to expect such active co-operation from the Span- iards as would enable him to turn the scale. After some hesitation, finding himself in danger of being surrounded, he retired rather precipi- tately into Gallicia. The English soldiers, in their retreat, displayed great courage whenever they were attacked by the French ; but in other respects, their conduct was so disorderly that it was stigmatized by the general himself as disgraceful. At length a halt was made at Corunna, where the troops remained until the transports prepared for their em- barkation could arrive from Vigo. In this position they were attacked by the French ; but the English soldiers, though dispirited by their late retreat, and worn down by fatigue, compelled the enemy to retire. Sir John Moore was mortally wounded in this battle, and was buried on the field. The embarkation of the army was very feebly resisted, and though the British gained no honor by the campaign, its conclusion im- pressed the enemy with greater respect for English patience and valor than they had previously been accustomed to entertain. At the beginning of the year 1809, the possession of Spain seemed assured to Napoleon, but neither the Spaniards nor the British despaired of final success. The English parliament readily voted the necessary supplies for the defence of Spain and Portugal, and reinforcements were sent to the peninsula. About the same time, his royal highness the duke of York was accused of having connived at' some abuses in the command of the army ; he was acquitted by a great majority of the house of commons, but he deemed it prudent to resign his situation, and Sir David Dundas was appointed commander-in-chief. Austria once more resolved to try the hazards of war. The emperor Francis was induced to take this precipitate step by the harsh remon- strances and menaces of Napoleon. Taking advantage of the absence of the large body of French troops employed in Spain, the archduke Charles entered Bavaria and took possession of Munich. But the rapid measures of Bonaparte baffled the Austrian calculations ; he speeily collected a large army and defeated the archduke at Eckmuhl, so sa- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 667 verely, that he was compelled to cross the Danube. Vienna was thus opened to the conqueror, and Napoleon took possession of that capital. The archduke was still undismayed ; he attacked the French in their positions at Asperne and Essling. The battle was very sanguinary and obstinate ; it terminated to the advantage of the Austrians, but they had suffered such severe loss that they were unable to profit by their victory. The failure of the archduke John, in Italy, more than counterbalanced the success of the Ausfrians at Asperne, and was the chief cause of their final overthrow at Wagram (July 5). It would be impossible to describe within reasonable limits the various conflicts that terminated in this result ; suffice it to say, that the Austrians were driven from all their positions, forced to retreat in confusion, and only saved from total ruin by an armistice. The Tyrolese and Voralbergers had been transferred to the king of Bavaria by the treaty of Presburg, but their national privileges and im- munities had been guarantied by the articles of pacification. But Maxi- milian Joseph was as regardless of a compact as his master Napoleon ; he violated the Tyrolese constitution without scruple, crushed the peas- ants with severe taxes, and punished remonstrances as seditious. The Tyrolese seized the opportunity of the Austrian war to raise the standard of revolt ; success attended their early operations, and the Bavarians were expelled from the principal towns. A French army entered the country and laid it waste with fire and sword ; but the Tyrolese, ani- mated by an heroic peasant named HofFer, expelled the invaders once more, and secured a brief interval of tranquillity. When the total de- feat of the Austrians at Wagram compelled the emperor Francis to ac- cept peace on any terms, the Tyrolese were assailed by overwhelming forces ; they made a desperate resistance, but the French and Bavarian columns penetrated their fastnesses, desolated the land vpith fire and sword, and pupished the leading patriots as rebels. Hoffer was taken prisoner and put to death by the sentence of a court-martial ; Mayer, another gallant chieftain, shared the same fate, and the green hills of Tyrol were again subjected to Bavarian tyranny. Several efforts were made in Germany to shake off the French yoke. Schill, who commanded a regiment in the Prussian service, collected a cottsiderable force and harassed the French detachments in Saxony and Westphalia, but he was defeated and slain by some Dutch and Danish troops, near Stralsund. The duke of Brunswick made a bold effort to recover his hereditary dominions, but after the overthrow of the Aus- trians he despaired of success, and sought refuge in England. The archduke Ferdinand invaded Saxony, while Napoleon's brother Jerome trembled for the security of his Westphalian throne, in consequence of the progress of General Kienmayer. But the success of Napoleon in Austria frustrated the exertions of the patriots in the north of Germany, especially as no effort was made to send them support from England. The attention of the British ministry was occupied by an expedition of a very different nature, for which the most ample preparations were made. A fleet of thirty-seven sail-of-the-line, twenty-nine ships of inferior rate, besides small craft, and an army of forty thousand men, were sent to the island of Welcheren, on the coast of Holland. After many delays, the fort of Flushing was besieged and taken ; but Antwerp, ?68 MODERN StSTOBY- ■whicli was the great object of attack, had, in the meantime, been se- cured, and the commanders despaired of success. Soon afterward the pestilential climate of Walcheren spread disease through the British army and navy ; the greater part of the forces returned to England ; the progress of the disease soon rendered the removal of the remainder ne- cessary, and the only result of this costly armament was the destruction of the fortifications of Flushing. Their naval successes in some de- gree consoled the English for this disappointment. Lord Cochrane de- stroyed four vessels, forming part of a French squadron, in Basque- roadg, and irreparably injured several others ; Lord CoUingwood was similarly successful in the Mediterranean, and the French were deprived of their remaining colonies in the West Indies. Some European islands, especially those called the Ionian, were added to the British dominions, a proceeding which gave some offence to the new sultan of Turkey, Mahmoud II., who had been elevated to the throne on the deposition of his cousin Selim and his half-brother Mustapha. But the progress of the Russian arms induced Mahmoud to court an alliance with Great Britain, and jealousy of the same power inclined the Persian shah to renew his former friendly connexions with England. Though the Russian emperor did not join Napoleon in the war against Austria, he received a share of the provinces which Francis was forced to resign, in order to purchase peace. But though the Aus- trian emperor was compelled to make many great and painful sacrifices, he obtained more favorable conditions than had been anticipatefd ; and Napoleon received general praise for the moderation with which he used his victory. The secret cause of this affected generosity was subsequently revealed, and proved that it resulted from, a plan for more effectually securing his despotism over Europe. After the retreat of the British from Corunna, the French seemed to have permanently secured possession of Spain. Though the marquis de la Romana and the duke del Infantado held out against the invaders, yet Saragossa was taken, in spite of the heroic resistance of its inhab- itants ; and Soult having invaded Portugal, made himself master of Oporto. Victor also advanced toward the same country, andj on his march, overthrew the Spanish army of Estremadiu-a. But Oporto waS soon recovered by a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley, and the removal of a large body of the French to take part in the Austrian war revived the courage of the Spaniards. Sir Arthur Wellesley, believing it possible to strike an important blow before the French grand army could be reinforced, boldly, and perhaps rashly, advanced into Spain. He was attacked at Talavera (July 28), by the united forces of Jour- dan, Victor, and Sebastiani, who were rather the masters than the ser- vants of the nominal king, Joseph Bonaparte. British valor has rarefy been more nobly displayed than in this engagement ; the French were beaten back at every point, and had the Spaniards displayed the same courage and zeal as their allies, the retreat might have been ehknged into a total rout. The misconduct of the Spaniards, indeed, deprived the English of the chief fruits of their victory ; they were soon com- pelled to act only on the defensive, and to retreat slowly toward the frontiers of Portugal. Nor were the patriots more successful in other THE FltBNCH: EMPIEE. 669 quarters ; th^ did! not, However, despair, and the supreme junta pub- lished a spirited proclamation, animating the national courage, and con- voking an assembly of the cortes or estates of the realm, to form a fixed constitutional government. The celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the king's accession djifased joy through England. About the same time the death of the duke of Portland, and some dissensions in the cabinet, led to a partial change in the ministry. Mr. Perceval was appointed premier, and sev- eral angry debates ensued in both houses of parliament. The oppo- nents of the ministry failed in procuring a condemnation of the Wal- cheren expedition ; but, during the discussion, party spirit raged with great violence, and Sir Francis Durdett, having assailed the privileges of the house of commons in very unmeasured terms, was ordered to be committed to the Tower. He declared his intention to resist the war- rant, but was arrested andcommitted to the Tower by a military force. The soldiers, on their return, were assaulted by the mob, and a riot ensued, in which several lives were lost. At the close of the session, the popular baronet was liberated, as a matter of course ; he brought actions for what he regarded as an illegal arrest, against the speaker and the serjeant-at-arms, but the court of King's Bench disallowed his claims, and supported the privileges of the house of commons. These ebullitions of party violence did not weaken the British cabi- net,- though they induced- the enemies of England to believe the coun- try on the verge of a convulsion. France was apparently tranquil, and Napoleon revealed the secret of his moderation at Vienna, by procuring a divorce from the emperess Josephine, the faithful companion of his former fortunes, and offering his hand to the archdutchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor Francis (a. d. 1810). This marriage, which seemed permapeatly to establish Bonaparte's power, became eventually the principal cause of his ruin, for it alarmed all the northern powers, and especially the Russians, who justly feared that Napoleon, secured hy the Austrian alliance, ■^vould strive to make himself' absolute master of Europe. His arbitrary conduct to Holland justified these suspi- cions ; he removed his brother from the throne of that country, and an- nexed it as a province to France. The, disputes respecting the trade of neutrals, between England and America, began to assume a very hostile aspect, and it was feared'that war could not long be delayed. But public attention was diverted from this subject to the struggle in Portugal, where Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had recently been created Lord Wellington, nobly sustained the honor, of s the English arms. The French army, strongly reinforced, was placed under the command of : Massena, prince of Essling; the fortresses of Astorga, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Almeida, were captured ; Lord Wellington retired . slowly, before a superior force, and Massena flattered himself that he would soon obtain possession of Lisbon. His presumption was first cheeke* at Busaco, where the British made a stand and . inflicted a severe, check on their assailants ; but the hopes of the French were completely destroyed when they saw Lord Wel- lington take up his position in the formidable lines of Torres Vedras. Not daring to advance, and ashamed to retreat, Massena remained for more th'aa a month watching his cautious adversary, and ' losiiig' thou- 670 MODERN HISTOUY. sands of his men by disease or desertion. He at length retreated to Santarem, but though he received a large reinforcement, he did not venture to resume offensive operations. A desultory war was maintained in Spain ; the patriot armies were usually defeated in regular engagements, but the invaders were severely harassed by the incessant attacks of the guerilla parties ; convoys were intercepted, stragglers cut off, and outposts exposed to constant danger. Cadiz, the residence of the supreme junta and the seat of government, was besieged, but the strength of its works and the ease with which relief was obtained by sea, prevented the French from making any progress in its reduction. The cortes assembled in this city and framed a form of constitutional government, whichj however, had many violent opponents among the higher orders of the nobility and clergy. Most of the French and Dutch colonies in the Indian seas were subdued, under the direction of Lord Minto, the govemer-general of India, a nobleman whose judicious administration of affairs in the eastj not only extended the British dominions in the east, but suppressed a dangerous mutiny in the presidency of Madras, occasioned by the adop- tion of economical regulations, which curtailed the allowances made to officers in the company's service. In the north of Europe, little of moment, in war, occurred; the Danes and Russians had some trivial naval engagements with English vessels ; but Sweden was the theatre of a most extraordinary revolu- tion, which, for a time, added her to the enemies of England. The crown prince died suddenly, not without some suspicion of poison, and the Swedish senate tendered the succession to Charles .Tohn Ber- nadotte, one of Napoleon's most celebrated marshals, who had won their favor by the leniency and prudence he displayed some years before in the north of Germany. Bemadotte accepted the offer, to the secret annoyance of Napoleon, who had long been jealous of his military fame and independent spirit. Civilized Europe might now be said to be arrayed against Great Britain, but the spirit of its inhabitants did not sink. Its sovereign, afflicted by grief for the loss of his favorite daughter, was seized by the disease under which he had formerly suffered, and fell into a state of mental derangement, from which he never afterward recovered (a. d. 1811). The prince of Wales was appointed regent, under restrictions similar to those proposed by Mr. Pitt in 1789, but these were subse- quently removed when it was found that he intended steadily to pursue his father's system of policy. It was not long before Lord Wellington reaped the fruits of his prudent arrangements for the defence of Portugal; Massena was forced to retreat from Santarem, but before he evacuated the country, he ravaged it in the most frightful manner, destroying many noble monuments of architecture in mere wantonness. The British parlia- ment voted the sum of one hundred thousand pounds for the relief of. the Portuguese, and a liberal subscription for the same purpose was formed by private liberality. Almeida was the only town in Portugal retained by the French ; it was blockaded by the allies, and Massena's efforts to relieve it led to the battle of Fuentes d'Onor. The engage- ment was severe, but British valor triumphed ; the garrison of Almeida, THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 671 disheartened by the defeat of their countrymen, evacuated the place, and Portugal was delivered from the presence of an enemy. The liberation of Spain was a more difficult task, and it was ren- dered still more so by the surrender of Badajoz to Marshal Soult, after a very brief and ineffective defence. Lord Wellington sent Sir William Beresford to recover this important place, but the advance of the French from Seville, compelled that general to raise the siege. The united forces of the British and Spanish encountered the French at Albuera, and gained an important victory ; Badajoz was once more invested, but the approach of Soult on one side and Marmont on the other, induced Lord Wellington to retire beyond the Tagus. But in his anxiety to save Badajoz, Soult had so much weakened the force which blockaded Cadiz, that the Spaniards resolved to hazard an expedition against the invading armies in Andalusia. General La Pena, aided by the British lieutenant-general, Graham, undertook to direct these operations, and great hopes were entertained of success. But though Graham obtained a brilliant victory at Barossa, over Marshal Victor, no efforts were made to follow up his success. In the other Spanish provinces, the patriotic armies were still more unfortunate ; Mina, indeed, from his mountains, threatened and harassed the invaders, but the other Spanish leaders showed themselves equally deficient in courage and conduct. Neither did all the expected advantages result from the assembling of the cortes ; they prepared, indeed, a constitutional code, which, however, was scarcely suited to the Spanish people ; but they maintained the onerous restrictions on the colonial trade, and thus gave deep offence to the South American provinces, and drove them to organise plans for self- government. In other quarters the war was more favorable to British interests ; the island of Java was wrested from the Dutch ; several flotillas were destroyed by English frigates in the Italian seas, and an attempt made by the Danes to recover the island of Anholt, in the Baltic, was defeated by the gallant garrison. Sweden could scarcely be said to be at war with Great Britain ; Bernadotte soon discovered that sub- serviency to France was inconsistent with the interests of his adopted country, and he secretly entered into negotiations with the Russian emperor for restoring their mutual independence. But Alexander was still too deeply engaged in pursuing the favorite policy of the czars, and establishing the supremacy of Russia on both sides of the Black sea, at the expense of Turkey and Persia. His success was far from an- swering his expectations ; the wild tribes of the Caucacus severely harassed the invaders of Asiatic Turkey ; and though KutusofT was more successful on the European side, his acquisitions were obtained by a very disproportionate expenditure of blood and treasure. The dis- organized state of the Turkish provinces prevented the sultan from effec- tively defending his dominions ; in most of them a military aristocracy had usurped the chief power of the state, and in Egypt especially, the Mameluke beys acted as independent princes. Mohammed Ali, pacha of Egypt, finding that the beys would hot submit to his power, and fear- ing the hazards of civil war, invited them to a banquet, where they were all ruthlessly massacred. The sultan applauded this perfidy, but 67a MODEEN HISTOEY. ere long he found. Mohammed Ali a more dangerous subject than th© turbulent lords whom he had removed; . The mental disease of George III. showed no symptoms of improve- ment, and as the time approached when the restrictions imposed on the authority of the prince regent would expire, some anxiety was felt about the probable fate of the ministry. But the prince regent had become reconciled to the cabinet, and after a faint effort to gain the support of Lords Grey and Grenvdlle, it was resolved that no change should be made in the government (a. d. 1812). At a later period in the year, negotiations were resumed, in consequence of the murder of Mr. Perceval ; the premier was shot in the lobby of the house of commons, by Bellingham, a merchant, who believed that the ministers had shown indifference to his fancied' claims on the Russian government. After some delay, the old cabinet was reconstructed, under the auspices of the earl of Liverpool, and the plans for forming a united administration were abandoned. Lord William Bentinck, the British minister in Sicily, strenuously exerted himself to remedy the evils which the imbecility of the king and the tyranny of the queen had introduced into the government of that island. He succeeded in procuring the establishment of a consti- tution similar to that of Britain j and the islamd began to enjoy peace and prosperity in a greater degree than had been experienced for several centuries. A change in the Spanish, constitution revived the. Courage' of the nation ; a new regency, the promulgation of the constitutional code, and various ; reforms in. the different branches of the administration, gave fresh spirif to the Spaniards, and inspired hopes of final. success. Lord Wellington opened the campaign with the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo ; the capture of this important fortress was followed by that of Badajoz, but the victors suffered severe loss of both places.- Wel- lington, who had been created an earl for these exploits, next marched against Marmont, and took the important city of Salamanca. Mar- mont, strengtheneid by large reinforcements, hoped not only to defeat the British, but to intercept, their retreat. As he extended his lines for this purpose,, Wellington seized the favorable opportunity, and, pouring , his whole force on the weakened divisions, gained the mosi' complete viptory that the allies had yet won in the peninsula. Indeed if the Spaniards had displayed the same energy as the British and the Portuguese, Marmont's entire army would have been ruined. Still the immediate .results' of the battle of Salamanca were very great ; Madrid was evacuated by the. intrusive king Joseph ; the blockade of Cadiz was raispd ; and the city of Seville was taken by Colonel Skerret and the Spanish general La Cruz". The failure of the British at the siege of Burgos, the want of con- cert in the Spanish councils,, and the great reinforcements received by the French,, compelled Wellington to resign the.-fruits of his victory; he retired leisurely to the frontiers of Portugal, and firmly waited an oppor- tunity for renewing his ^efforts. But events in Other parts of the globe were producing the most important results in favor of Spanish independ- ence ; , the, South American colonies, alarmed by an earthquak* which was superstitiously believed to be a visitation of Providence, returned to THE FRENCH EMPIRE. BtS 'flipir allegiance, and the Russian emperor prepared to measure his strength with the colossal power of Napoleon. Section IV. — The Russian War. No long time after the conclusion of the peace of Tilsit, Alexander began to doubt the prudence of the compact he had made with the French emperor, and the subsequent marriage of Napoleon to an Austrian princess gave him fresh grounds of alarm. The Austrian emperor, however, was not very sincerely attached to his son-in-law ; Napoleon had given his infant son the title of king of Rome, a very plain intimation of his design to retain his hold on Italy. The interests of his subjects, many of whom were almost ruined by the suspension of the trade with Great Britain, compelled Alexander to seek for some relaxation of the restrictive system established by the Berlin decrees ; but Napoleon would not abandon his favorite policy, and the discus- sions between the courts of St. Peterburgh and Paris began to assume an angry and even hostile tone. Both parties, however, professed an anxious desire for peace, and Napoleon even made overtures to the British government, but as he refused to restore Spain to its legitimate sovereign, or to withdraw his troops from Prussia, negotiations were fruitless, and both sides prepared for war. Alexander entered into alliance with Sweden and England : Napo- leon arrayed under his banners the military strength of western and southern Europe. But the selfishness of the French emperor in the very outset deprived him of the best security for success ; to secure the aid of Austria, he refused to restore the independence of Poland, and thus lost the hearts of a brave and enthusiastic race of warriors, who would have powerfully aided his advance, or effectually covered his retreat. Trusting to the vast number of his victorious legions, Napoleon crossed the Niemen, routed a division of Cossacks at Kowno, and directed his march to the capital of Lithuania. The Russians retired • before the French deliberately, wasting the country as they retreated. Several sharp battles were fought without any important result ; but the hopes of the Russians were raised by the conclusion of a treaty with the Turks, which enabled them to direct all their energies to repel the invaders. Napoleon with his main body directed his march toward Moscow, while a large division of his forces menaced the road to St. Petersburgh. The Russians repelled the latter, but the main force of the invaders advanced to Smolensko, which was justly regarded as the bulwark of Moscow. A*dreadful battle was fought under the walls of Smolensko ; it terminated in favor of the French, but they purchased their victory very dearly, and the Russians made an orderly retreat. Kutusoff now assumed the command of the Russians, and resolved to hazard another battle for the protection of Moscow ; he fixed upon -a position near the village of Borodino, and there firmly awaited the enemy. The battle was furious and sanguinary, nearly seventy thou- sand of the combatants fell without giving to either side a decisive victory. The Russians indeed maintained their ground ; but the French having been joined by new reinforcements, Kutusoff was forced to re- treat and abandon Moscow to its fate. This ancient capital of the czars is revered by the Russians, as Jerusalem was by the Jews ; they 43 674 MODERN HISTORY. give it the, fond name of Mother Moscow, and regard it as the sanctuary^ of their nation. But when the invaders approached, the citizens re- solved not only to abandon their beloved metropolis, but to consign it to the flames. Napoleon entered Moscow, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars ; but while he was holding a council, fires broke out in various parts of the city, and though many of the incendiaries were shot, it was found impossible to check the conflagration. When the greater part of the city was destroyed, its stores con- sumed, and all supplies cut ofl^. Napoleon found himself in a very embarrassing position. With great reluctance he gave orders for a retreat, and the French obeyed with so much precipitation, that they ■were unable to complete the demolition of Moscow. Before the fugi- tives had proceeded far on their route, they began to experience the horrors of a Russian winter ; thousands became the victims of cold and hunger, while their pursuers, taking courage from their calamities, harassed them severely at every step. It had been Napoleon's inten- tion to make a stand at Smolensko, but the magnitude of his losses,- the disorganized state of his army, and the increasing want of provisions, rendered such a course impossible. Once more the French had to undertake a perilous march, amid the rigors of the severest winter ever known, pursued by enraged enemies, deprived of food, of clothing, and of shelter. Language fails to describe the horrors of such a retreat ;• every hour added to the miseries of the sufierBrs ; they lost the disci- pline of soldiers, and almost the semblance of men. The passage of the Borodino was one of the most terrific scenes recorded in history ; in their eagerness to place the river between themselves and their pur- suers, the French rushed in a disorderly crowd over the bridges, under a heavy fire of artillery from the heights behind them. Eight thousand were killed or drowned in this calamitous passage, and long before all had crossed over. Napoleon ordered the bridges to be set on fire, aban- doning twelve thousand of his followers to the mercy of the irritated Russians. Napoleon at length resolved to provide for his personal security, and fled to Paris, where indeed some revolutionary attempts rendered his presence necessary; the miserable remnant' of his once mighty host found a precarious shelter in Poland. In the raeantiaie Great Britain was engaged in active hostilities with the United States. The Americans twice , invaded Canada^ but were, defeated ; they were more successful at sea, where the superiority of their frigates in size and weight of metal to the British vessels of the same denomination, secured their victory in some engagements between single ships. But this war attracted comparatively but little attention ;. every mind was too deeply occupied with the great struggle on the continent of Europe. The domestic afi"airs of England, though of importance, did not di- vert attention from the contest with Napoleon. An unfortunate pub- licity was given to the discords between the prince regent and his con- sort ; a bill for emancipating the catholics/ was rejected, after having passed several stages, in the house of commons, and the charter of the East India company was renewed for twenty years. Notwithstanding his recent reverses, Napoleon found that he still possessed the confi-. THE FRENCH EMPiaE. Wf% " dence of the French nation, a large conscription was ordered to supply the losses of the late campaign ; and the emperor having provided for the internal security of his dominions, hasted to the north of Europe, where he had to encounter the hostility of a new enemy. It was with great reluctance that the king of Prussia sent an army to serve under Napoleon, and the officers and soldiers of the contingent " were far from being anxious for the success of the cause in which they were engaged. During the retreat, one Prussian corps separated itself from the division to which it was attached, and concluded a convention of neutrality ; as the Russians advanced, the Prussian monarch took courage to assert his independence, and he entered into alliance with Alexander. But notwithstanding his recent losses, Napoleon had as- sembled an army numerically superior to those of his adversaries ; in three sanguinary battles the French gained the advantage, but they were unable to obtain a decided victory ; and Napoleon, alarmed by the magnitude of his losses, and the obstinacy of his enemies, consent- ed to an armistice. During the truce the British government encour- aged the allies by large subsidies, and the aid of Sweden was pu»-- chased not only by money, but by a promise to aid that power in the acquisition of Norway. But what was of far greater importance, the emperor of Austria was induced to abandon the cause of his son-in-law, and take an active part in the confederation for restraining the power of France. Napoleon, establishing his headquarters at Dresden, commenced a. series of vigorous operations against his several foes. They were at first successful ; but the tide of fortune turned ; several of his divisions- were defeated, the Bavarians joined the allies, and at length the baffled emperor retired to Leipsic. Under the walls of this ancient city the battle was fought which decided the fate of Europe (Oct. 18). While the result of the engagement was yet undecided, the Saxon troops in the French service deserted in a body to the allies, and the position thus abandoned was immediately occupied by the Swedish forces. Napoleon's soldiers, driven from their lines in every direction, were compelled to seek shelter in Leipsic, but, as the city was incapable of defence, a further retreat became necessary. The French emperor gave the requisite orders, but did not wait to see them executed ; the evacuation of the city was not completed when the allies forced an en- trance ; the French, entangled in the streets, suffered very severely, and many were drowned as they crowded over the narrow bridge,, which was their only path of safety. The bridge was blown up before the whole of the fugitives could pass, and, this obstruptiori of the retreat swelled the number of the slain and the captives. The battle of Leipsic liberated Germany; Napoleon fled to France, his followers were severely harassed in their retreat, especially as the Bavarians made a vigorous effort to intercept them at Hanau ; their sufferings were very great, and multitudes were made prisoners by the allied armies, as they advanced to the Rhine. Bernadotte was natu- rally reluctant to join in the meditated invasion of France, but he under- took the task of expelling the enemy from the circle of Lower Saxony. , At his approach, the Hanoverians eagerly seized the opportunity of de- .livering themselves from a foreign yok.e, and returning once more vsukx 676 MODEaN HISTORY. •the paternal government of the Guelphs. The ilame of independence spread to Holland, and kindled even the cold bosoms of the Dutch. Insurrections broke out in the principal towns, the hereditary claims of 4he house of Orange were rapturously acknowledged, and when the stadtholder arrived from England, he found the Hollanders eager, not only to acknowledge his former power, but to extend it by conferring on him the title of royalty. While the allies were thus triumphant in Germany, Wellington was now gloriously occupied in the liberation of Spain. Early in the spring, he concentrated his forces near Ciudad Rodrigo, and by a series of able movements, compelled the French not only to abandon their positions on the Douro, but to retire beyond the Ebro. Marshal Jour- >dan, who exercised the real authority, for Joseph was king only in jiame, resolved to make one vigorous effort for the maintenance of the French power, and chose a strong position near Vittoria, as the theatre •of a decisive engagement. The allied army advanced with an eager- ness that insured success ; the heights that protected the hostile lines were successively stormed, and at length the French were forced to retreat in such disorder, that they abandoned their artillery, baggage, and military chest. In the east of Spain the allies were less success- ful ; Sir John Murray, on the approach of Marshal Suchet, abandoned the siege of Tarragona with unnecessary precipitation ; but the arrival of Lord William Bentinck prevented the enemy from profiting by this partial success. When the news of the battle of Vittoria reached Napoleon, he sent Marshal Soult from Germany to take the command of the army in Spain, where Pampeluna and St. Sebastian had been invested by Wellington, now raised to the dignity of marquis. Soult's operations were vigbrous, but unsuccessful ; his forces were unable to make any impression on the British lines, and so severe was their repulse, that they fled to their own frontiers. St. Sebastian was soon after ta,ken by storm, but not without a very severe loss to the conquerors, and the British now prepared to invade France. The allies crossed the Bidassoa, and advanced slowly but steadily toward Bayonne : Soiilt showed great courage and talent in his arrange- ments, but his efforts were foiled by the superior valor of the British soldiers, and two regiments of Dutch and Germans qiutting his lines, went over to the camp of his allies. Spain was now free, but the efforts of the enlightened portion of the cortes to secure its future happiness, by the establishment- pf a constitutional government, were frustrated by the interested opposition of the clergy, and the ignorant bigotry of the people. . The war between Great Britain and the United States continued to be maintained with the obstinacy that characterizes the quarrels be- tween " foes who once were friends ;" but it was not productive of any important event. The Americans were unsuccessful in their repeated invasions of Canada, but they established their naval superiority on the lakes, while the honor of the British flag was nobly maintained in the engagement between the frigates Chesapeake and Shannon. The memorable year 1814 opened with the invasion of France ; the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies forced an entrance through the THE PRBNCH EMPIRE. 677 eastern, frontiers, while Wellington was making an alarming progress on the western side. Never, in the hours of his greatest success, did Napoleon display more promptitude and ability ; but he had beaten his enemies into the art of conquering, and even partial success was inju- rious, because it inspired hopes which prevented him from embracing the proffered opportunities of negotiation. Several furious but indeci- sive battles were.fought ; the allied armies had moved at too great a distance from each other, and it was not until they had suffered severely for their error, that they learned the necessity of a combined plan of operations. But in other quarters the success of the allies was more decided ; Bernadotte completed the liberation of the north of Germany, and not only intimidated the Danish court into an abandonment of the French alliance, but enforced its consent to the transfer of Norway ; thence he marched to the Netherlands, where the allies had made con- siderable progress, though General Graham had been baffled, with much loss, in an attempt to surprise Bergen-op-Zoom. But Napoleon was much more alarmed by the progress of Welling- ton in the southwest of France. The English general having driven the French from their posts, crossed the Adour, and invested the cita- del of Bayonne. As he advanced, the old partisans of the Bourbons began to revive, the exiled family was proclaimed, and the white flag hoisted at Bordeaux. More mortifying was the defection of Murat ; eager to secure his crown, the king of Naples entered into a secret treaty w^ith Austria, and lent his aid in the expulsion of the French from Italy. But in the meantime the fate of France was decided ; Napoleon moved his main army eastward, hoping to intimidate the allies into a retreat, by threatening their communications. Blucher an^ Prince Schwartzenberg immediately decided on marching to Paris, and having defeated the forces of Marmont and Mortier, who guarded the road, soon came in sight of that metropolis. The outworks that defended Paris were stormed, and the intimidated citizens hastened to secure their persons and property by a capitulation. The allied sovereigns, Frederic and Alexander, made a triumphant entry into the city (March 31), and were hailed as liberators by the fickle populace. When Napoleon heard that the Austrians had effected a junction with the Prussians, he hasted back to defend his capital, but before he reached Fontainebleau the capitulation had been signed, and a pro- visional government installed, without any regard to his authority. On the 2d of April he was formally deposed ; and on the 6th of the same month, Louis XVIII. was invited to ascend the throne of his ancestors. A constitutional charter was framed for the protection of the French people, and Napoleon was promised the sovereignty of the island of Elba, and a pension. Before intelligence of these events was received in the south, a sanguinary battle had been fought between the armies of Soult and Wellington at Toulouse, which ended in the complete dis- comfiture of the former ; but the British general sincerely lamented a triumph which had been purchased by a useless expenditure of human life. On the 3d of May, Louis XVIII. returned from his tedious exile, and landed at Calais. The preliminaries of a general peace were sign- 678 MODEEN HISTORY. ed at Paris ; and it was arranged- that the details and the adjustment of the claims of the different European princes should be referred to a future convocation at Vienna. Section V. — History of Europe fiorn the dethronement of Napoleon to Oie Conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna. * Before his final overthrow, Napoleon liberated the captive Ferdi- nand, well aware that Spain would have little reason to rejoice in the restoration of such a sovereign. No sooner had he obtained his free- dom than he annulled all the proceedings of the cortes, re-established the old despotism with all its abuses, and even revived the horrors of the inquisition. Several of those who had most strenuously resisted the French invasion were punished by imprisonment or exile, their attachment to constitutional freedom being deemed to outweigh their former services. The allies could not be blamed for the perfidy and tyranny of Ferdinand, but they incurred just censure by aiding in the forcible annexation of Norway to Sweden, against the earnest remon- strances of the inhabitants, and they displayed little policy in uniting Belgium to Holland, for the countries were opposed to each other in ■their religious creeds and commercial interests. The American war was protracted more in a spirit of revenge than :80und policy ; a sanguinary but indecisive struggle took place in Cana- da ; an English armament captured Washington, the capital of the United States, and destroyed the public buildings ; but similar attacks on Baltimore and New Orleans were repulsed with great loss. Peace was at length concluded at Ghent, and we may confidently hope that hostilities will never again be renewed between two nations so closely united by the ties of language, religion, and blood. Before this war was terminated, the emperor Alexander, and Frederic, king of Prussia, :accompanied by their most distinguished marshals and statesmen, per- ;Sonally visited England, and were received with great enthusiasm. But the convulsion produced in the commercial world by the sudden transition from war to peace, was necessarily followed by numerous bankruptcies and great distress, which threw a shade of gloom over the general joy. The conduct of Louis XVIII. immediately after his accession to the- throne, was calculated to win popularity; but the establishment of a censorship over the press, his anxiety to restore the power and influence of the clergy, and to remunerate • the loyal emigrants who had shared the calamities of his exile, gave general offence, and revived the courage of the friends of Napoleon. A secret conspiracy was formed for re- storing the emperor, and he, dreading that the allied powers, whose plenipotentiaries were assembled at Vienna, would remove him from Elba to a place of greater security, resolved to make a bold effort for the recovery of his throne. Accompanied only by eleven hundred men, he landed at Frejus (March 1, 1815), and advanced into the interior of, the country. At first he received little encouragement ; but being- joined by the garrison of Grenoble, and supported by sectet promises of aid from other divisions of the army, he proceeded to Lyons, where he held his court. Louis made a spirited appeal to the loyalty of the THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 679 Treitch nation ; but Marshal Ney having set the example of defection, -till the soldiery declared in favor of the emperor ; and Louis, compelled to abandon his kingdom, sought safety in Ghent. Though the allied powers had shown a great vyant of vigilance and -caution in not preventing, as they easily might have done, the escape of Napoleon, they -were not for a moment undetermined in resolving on ■ the course of action rendered necessary by that event. A proclamation "was issued by the congress of Vienna, denouncing him as the common «nemy of Europe, and excluding him from the pale of civil and social relations. A treaty was concluded, by which each of the four powers, ■Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, engaged to maintain an army of 150,000 men until they had rendered Napoleon incapable of disturb- 'ing the tranquillity of Europe ; and the Prussians and the English at once began to assemble their forces on the northern frontiers of France. Napoleon, disappointed in his hope of procuring the acquiescence of 'the allied powers in his usurpation, prepared boldly to meet the danger by which he was menaced. He gratified the vanity of the Parisians by the splendid ceremonial of proclaiming a new constitution in the "Champ de Mars, and at the same time he made the most vigorous ex- ertions to recruit his armies and supply his military stores. In a short ■ -time, far shorter than had been anticipated, his troops were ready for ■^action, and instead of waiting for the attack of his enemies, ho resolved to become the aggressor. The first brunt of the war fell on the Prus- sians, who were driven from their advanced posts . Blucher immediately -concentrated his forces at Ligny ; while the duke of Wellington, with the British and subsidiary troops, occupied a parallel position at Quatre Bras. The main body of the French attacked the Prussian lines, and, after a sanguinary battle, compelled Blucher to abandon Ligny (June 16) ; but his retreat was efl^ected in good order, and in a very few hours his troops were ready to renew the fight. In the meantime the •British had defeated the enemy at Quatre Bras, but the retreat of the Pnissians rendered a corresponding movement necessary on their part; •and Wellington led his army to the memorable position of Waterloo. Flushed by his recent victory over the Prussians, Napoleon, on the morning of the 18th of June, appeared in front of the English position, ■and commenced an attack, in full assurance of success. His first effort ■ -was directed against Hougoumont, a post which protected the English Tight ; but after a murderous conflict, the French were baffled, and the place maintained. The emperor's next effort was to turn the left wing -so as to intercept the communication with the Prussians, but this still more signally failed ; Sir Thomas Picton's division, though with the •loss of their brave commander, repulsed the French infantry, while the Scotch Greys, aided by a corps of dragoons, routed the French cavalry, particularly the cuirassiers, who fondly deemed themselves invincible. A third great effort was made against the centre, and at first some •advantages were gained. The French seized the farm of La Haye "Sainte, which covered the position, and poured masses of cavfflry and infantry on the British lines. But Wellington, forming his troops in ■hollow squares, maintained a steady resistance, and the efforts of the 'liaffled assailants gradually relaxed. At this moment the Prussian troops began to appear on the right flank of the French, and to take a ©80 MODERN HISTORY. share in the engagement. Napoleon now mustered his guard for one decisive engagement, but did not, as was expected, place himself at their head. The imperial guard advanced under a perfect storm of ar- tillery and musketry from the British lines, which had been gradually advanced after the defeat of the former attacks. They attempted to deploy, under this formidable fire, but their lines were shaken, and they began to fall into confusion. Wellington seized the decisive moment to charge ; the effect was instantaneous, not a single French soldier ' remained to cross a bayonet ; and as the British pressed forward, the retreat was soon a perfect rout. As the English were too much fa- tigued to pursue the fugitives, that duty devolved upon the Prussians, and they executed it with the vigor of men who felt that they had the wrongs of their country to avenge. Out of the entire French army not more than forty thousand men could again be imbodied. Napoleon continued his melancholy flight to Paris, where he soon found that his reign was at an end. He abdicated the crown in favor of his son, but while his resignation was received, the acknowledgment of Napoleon II. was evaded. He lingered so long in the hope of some favorable change, that his opportunities of escape were cut off, and he was forced to seek refuge on board a British man-of-war. After some discussion respecting his destination, it was resolved that he should be imprisoned for life, in the island of St. Helena ; and to this rock, in the Atlantic ocean, he was sent, with a small train of attendants. Murat's fate was still more calamitous ; no sooner had he heard of Na,poleoii's landing in France, than he renounced his alliance with Austria, and endeavored to unite all the Italians in a league against - that power. His eflbrts completely failed ; his forces were routed at Ferrara, the cowardly Neapolitans could not be induced to make any effective resistance, and finally he fled disguised from his kingdpm.. His restless ambition induced him, with only thirty followers, to make an effort to recover his dominions ; he landed on the Calabrian coast, but he was made a prisoner, and shot by sentence of a court-martial. After the victory at Waterloo, the Prussians and the British advanced toward Paris, without encountering any serious opposition. The two legislative chambers were reluctant to restore the king, at least un- conditionally, but their appeal to the nation was disregarded, and on the nearer approach of the allies, a convention was concluded by which Louis was restored. A few of Napoleon's most strenuous supporters . were excluded from the act of amnesty ; Ney and Labedoy^re were shot, but Lavalette escaped by the aid of his wife and some British ofiicers. The future peace of Europe now depended on the congress of Vienna,, but the decrees of this body were guided more by the convenience of sovereigns, than the wishes of nations. The ancient republics of Venice and Genoa were abolished ; the territories of the former were given to Austria, while the latter were assigned to the king of Sardinia ; Polandlwas annexed to the territories of Russia, and the Prussian do- minions enlarged at the expense of Saxony. When these arrange- ments were completed, the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, entered into a solemn compact called the Holy Alliance ; the professed object of the treaty was to preserve the peace of Europe, on the prin-- THB FaSNCR EMFIB.S. 681 ciples which God, in his revelation, has pointed out as the source of tranquillity and prosperity. But the contracting parties understood by these principles the maintenance of despotic power, and made their en- gagement a pretext for resisting the efforts made subsequently, by several nations, to establish constitutional freedom. MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER XI. HISTORY OF THE PEACE. Section I. — Stale of Europe at the dose of the War. When the sanguinary and expensive wars arising out of the French Tevolution terminated, the different nations of Europe that shared in the contest were so enfeebled and harassed, that they sank at once into inactive repose. But the transition from war to peace made such a complete change in all commercial transactions, that credit was shaken^ trade injured, manufactures checked, and thousands suddenly deprived of employment. These evils were more sensibly felt in England than in any other country ; for while the tide of war swept over every other European state, England, protected by her insular situation, en- joyed internal tranquillity, and was enabled to sell with profit, not only her manufactures, but her agricultural produce to less favored countries. Peace permitted the people of the continent to supply themselves with many of the articles which they had previously been forced to import ; and the jealousy with which the continental sovereigns began to regard the commercial prosperity of England, induced them to encourage na- tive manufactures ; hence the demand for British goods and produce suddenly slackened, and distress was felt by every portion of the com- munity. Several serious riots occurred in the agricultural distress ; but still more alarming symptoms of dissatisfaction were displayed in the metropolis, where meetings were held under pretence of procuring a reform in the constitution, but which threatened to end in revolution. Several strong restrictive statutes were passed by parliament, and energetic, if not severe measures adopted by the government ; it was not, however, until the commercial crisis had passed over, and the -embarrassments of transition disappeared that the public tranquillity was restored. There were not, however, wanting more cheering occurrences which relieved the gloom ; the piratical states of Algiers were humbled ; Lord Exmouth, with a united squadron of English and Dutch, attacked the city of Algiers, destroyed its fortifications, and compelled the dey to abolish Christian slavery (a. d. 1816). Great joy was also diffused by the marriage of the princess Charlotte, the pride and the hope of Eng- land, to Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg. But the expectations of the nation were fatally disappointed; the princess died on the 6th of November, 1817, after having been delivered of a dead child. The national sorrow was general and profound, and there never was an •occasion in which the British nation showed greater regret for the loss of an individual. But this was only the beginning of a series of deaths HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 683 in the royal family ; Queen Charlotte died during the ensuing year, she was soon followed to the grave by the duke of Kent, and finally, the aged monarch George III., without having enjoyed one lucid interval during his long illness; sank quietly into the tomb. France, much to the surprise of the neighboring states, enjoyed the blessings of tranquillity under the mild and conciliatory government of Louis XVIII. The revolution, and its consequent wars, had given the chief property of the country, and consequently the elements of politi- cal power, to the middle classes of society ; their interests could only be secured by the preservation of peace, and they became zealous roy-. alists, because they regarded the monarchy as the surest pledge for the maintenance of public order. ^ Some of them carried their zeal to such extravagant lengths that they provoked resistance, and the king was forced to interfere, to prevent the ill consequences that were likely to result from the indiscretion of those who claimed to be his best friends. The united kingdom of the Netherlands, though apparently tranquil, was secretly shaken by the national antipathy between the Belgians and the Dutch. Gratitude induced the sovereign to accede to the holy alli- ance, a circumstance which gave great offence to many of his subjects, especially in Flanders, where a republican spirit, fostered by municipal institutions, had prevailed from the time of the Middle Ages. Great disappointment was felt in Germany, by the delay or refusal of the constitutions, which the several states had been taught to expect during the war of independence. But the principal sovereigns, es- pecially the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, alarmed by the remembrance of the calamities that political innovations had produced in France, steadily opposed every change in the forms of government, but, at the same time, zealously labored to secure to their subjects the benefit of a just and enlightened administration. Spain was far more unfortunate ; the imbecile Ferdinand was the tool of the courtiers and the priests ; at their instigation he revived the ancient principles of despotism and bigotry, punishing with remorseless severity every expression of liberal sentiments in politics or religion. The arbitrary conduct of the court was not the only cause of the mis- ery that prevailed in the Peninsula ; the South American colonies, which had long been regarded as the chief and almost the only source of the small share of commercial prosperity which the Spaniards re- tained, openly revolted, and raised the standard of independence. Fer- dinand made some faint efforts to subdue the insurgents, but he was badly supported by his subjects, and the troops he had assembled refu- sed to embark. Finally, the liberals having gained over a great portion of the army, compelled the king to establish a democratic constitution, hy which the royal power was almost annihilated (a. d. 1830). Simi- lar revolutions took place in Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont ; alarm seized the miiids of the European sovereigns, and they secretly com- bined to check popular movements. But experience soon proved that those who had framed the Spanish constitution were ignorant of the wants and wishes of the Spanish people. Louis XVIII. alarmed for the safety of France by the revolutionary movements in Spain, sent an army, under the command of the duke of Angouleme, to restore the toyal authority ; the invaders encountered no efiective opposition ; the 684 MODERN HISTOEY. eortes fled before them to Cadiz, and when the French approached tiiat city, they permitted the king to resume his former despotic authority (a. d. 1823). The revolutions of Naples and Piedmont ended similgrly j the liberals laid down their arms on the approach of the Austrian ar- mies, and the new constitutions were abolished. The accession of Charles John Bernadotte, to the crown of Sweden, made no change in the politics of the northern nations ; his right of in- heritance had been solemnly recognised by the allied sovereigns, at the congress of Vienna, and his conduct as a crown-prince Jiad taught the- Swedes to respect and love the monarch they had chosen. Even the Norwegians became reconciled to their fate, and learned to console themselves for the loss of national independence by the blessings that result from paternal government. No sooner was peace restored between Great Britain and the United States than the old feelings of friendship and kindred revived between the two countries, and the leading statesmen, in both, showed an earn- est desii:e to have former animosities buried in oblivion. But far dif- ferent were the feelings between Spain and her revolted colonies ; the South American states vigorously maintained their struggle for inde- pendence, and finally succeeded. The English government dela,yed acknowledging these republics imtil the duke of Angouleme had crossed the Pyrenees, when consuls were sent out to the chief states, and com- mercial treaties formed with their governments. From this rapid sketch, it will be seen that throughout the greater part of the civilized world there was a struggle between the principle* of monarchy and democracy, and that even England, though it had long enjoyed the blessings of a free constitution, was not wholly exempt from the agitation. Section II. — History of Europe during the reign of' George IV. George IV. had so long wielded the supreme executive power in England, under the title of regent, that no political change was made or expected when he assumed the royal dignity. A month had not elapsed after his accession, when a plot was discovered for the murder of all his majesty's ministers, and thus faciUtating a revolution, which had been planned by a few obscure enthusiasts. The conspirators used to assemble in Cato street, an obscure place near the Edgeware road ; they were arrested in their rendezvous, just as they were preparing to execute their project, all their plans having been betrayed to govern- ment by a spy who had pretended to join in the conspiracy. Such were the insanity and misery of these wretched men, who proposed to subvert a powerful government, that when they were searched, not even a shilling was found among the whole party. The government pitying their delusion, punished only the ringleaders, and this clemency had a beneficial effect in calming political agitation. • Preparations were now made for the king's coronation, when they were suspended by an event which excited more public interest, and stimulated more angry passions than any other which had occurred for several years. This was the return of Queen Caroline to England, and her subsequent trial before the house of lords. Her marriage had beea HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 6»5 unfortunate almost from the commencement ; slie was early separated from her husband ; after the lapse of some years, her conduct was made the subject of official inquiry ; at the commenqement of the re- gency she was excluded from court, and these indignities induced her to quit England. She visited the most celebrated spots along the coast of the Mediterranean, and then selected a permanent residence in that part of Italy subject to the Austrian government. Reports injurious to her character were circulated ; commissioners were sent to Milan to investigate them, and the ministers, in consequence of the evidence thus collected, excluded her name from the liturgy; on the king's acces- sion. Irritated at such an insult, she resolved to return to England, though a pension of fifty thousand pounds annually was offered to pur- chase her submission, and though she was informed that her landing would be the signalfor the commencement of a prosecution. No sooner had the queen landed, than messages were sent to both houses of parliament, recommending that her conduct should be inves- tigated. " A Bill of Pains and Penalties" was introduced, to deprive her of royal rights and dignities, and a trial commenced which lasted forty-five days', when the bill was read a second time by a majority of forty -five. On the third reading, however, the ministers could only command a majority of nine, and the bill was abandoned. During these proceedings, the agitation of the public mind knew no bounds ; ad- dresses to the queen poured in from all sides, and when the bill was abandoned, her friends celebrated her escape as an acquittal. The re- mainder of her melancholy history may be briefly told : her popularity sank as rapidly as it had risen ; she was refused a share in the ceremo- nial of the coronation ; her appeals to the nation were disregarded ; and the sense of disappointment and degradation produced a mortal dis- ease which terminated her unhappy life. Her funeral was marked by a disgraceful riot : the mob determined that her remains should pass through the city of London, and triumphed over the troops that tried to carry the hearse by a different route. Soon after his coronation the king visited Ireland, Scotland, and Hanover ; he was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm, but the permanent results expected from these visits were not realized. In Ireland, party spirit blazed more furiously than ever, and the depre>- elation of agricultural produce rendering it difficult for tenants to pay their rents, led to a series of agrarian outrages which could only be checked by severe coercive laws. The distress of the lower classes, which indeed almost ex^ieeded credibility, was relieved by a general and generous subscription in England, which arrested the progress of ■a, pestilential disease, produced by famine and distress. England suffered severely from the financial difficulties produced by the immense expenditure of the late war. While statesmen were en- gaged in devising means to alleviate the pressure of taxation. Napoleon Bonaparte, the cause of so many calamities, died almost unnoticed in his place of exile at St. Helena. During the king's visit to Scotland, Lord Londonderry, who had so long directed the foreign affairs of Eng- land, committed suicide ; his place was supplied by Mr. Canning, who was supposed to be favorable to what was called a more liberal line of policy:than that of his predecessor. ' 686 MODEKN HISTORY. • The distracted condition of Spain at this period engaged the atten* tion of Europe. Ferdinand had been compelled to grant his subjects a free and almost a republican constitution, but the ministers forced upon him by the cortes, showed little wisdom or moderation, and the proceedings of the cortes themselves were unworthy the dignity of a deliberative assembly. In consequence 'of these errors, a large party was formed in the Peninsula to restore absolute monarchy ; several bodies of insurgents were raised by the monks and friars, who feared that the estates of the monasteries and the church would be confiscated ; they called themselves the " Army of the Faith," and were zealously supported by the lower ranks of the populace. Under these circum- stances, a congress of the European powers was held at- Verona, and a resolution was adopted for subverting the Spanish constitution, and re- storing the absolute power of the king. The duke of Wellington, on the part of England, refused to sanction this design, and the execution of it was intrusted to the king of France, who was naturally anxious to check the progress of revolutionary principles, before his own throne was endangered by the contagion. Early in the year 1833, the due d'Angouleme entered Spain at the head pf a powerful army ; the constitutionalists made but a feeble re- sistance, and the king was restored to absolute authority with little trouble. Ferdinand made a bad use of his power ; he persecuted all whom he suspected of liberal principles with the utmost severity, and revived all the ancient abuses which had so long disgraced the govern- ment of Spain. Though the English ministers maintained a strict neutrality during this contest, they severely censured the conduct of the French government, and as a counterpoise, they recognised the in- dependence of the South American republics, which had withdrawn themselves from their allegiance to Spain. During the Spanish war, which excited little interest, the sympathies of civilized Europe were engaged in the Greek revolution, which, how- ever, was a barbarous and sanguinary struggle, that for many years seemed to promise no decisive result. The principal members of the Holy Alliance viewed the Greek insurrection with secret dislike, for they regarded it as a rebellion against legitimate authority ; but the young and enthusiastic spirits throughout Europe viewed it as a just revolt against Turkish tyranny, and hoped that its success would restore the classical ages of Greece. Among the many volunteers who went to aid the insurgents was the celebrated poet, Lord Byron ; before, however, they could profit by his services, he was attacked by fever, and died prematurely at Missolonghi. Commercial embarrassments and political disputes diverted the atten- tion of England from foreign affairs ; a sudden rage for speculatidn seized the people ; projects and joint-stock companies were multiplied without number, but suddenly the bubbles burst, and a terrible reaction ensued. The panic in the money-market was equal to the overween- ing confidence which had led to these extravagant speculations. But the evil was transitory, and it had perhaps some beneficial influence in limiting attention to those branches of trade best suited to the condition of the country. Political agitation was not so easily cured ; the lead- ers of the Irish catholics formed an association to procure the repeal of HlgTOaY OP THE PBJACB. 68f the restrictive laws by which members of their church were excluded from parliament and offices of state. This body assumed all the forms and some of the functions of a legislative assembly, and though an act of parliament was passed for its suppression, the statute was eluded by the legal skill of the popular leaders in the association. Soon after Mr. Canning's accession to power, the attention of all Europe was excited by an event which seemed to prove that England had not only deserted the principles of the Holy Alliance, but was about to take her position at the head of a more liberal political system. On the death of John VI., king of Portugal (March 10, 1826), the crown devolved to his eldest son, Don Pedro, who reigned, with the title of emperor, over the old Portuguese colonies in Brazil. Compelled to choose between his empire and his kingdom, Pedro selected the former ; but he sent to Portugal a constitutional charter, and a formal resignation of the crown in favor of his daughter Donna Maria. Pedro's brother, Don Miguel, the queen dowager, and the most bigoted portion of the clergy, labored hard to frustrate this arrangement, and their machinations were encouraged by the French and Spanish cabinets. Several Portu- guese regiments were induced to desert across the frontier and proclaim Don Miguel absolute king. As the Spanish government notoriously supplied the rebels with military stores and arms, the Portuguese min- ister applied to the British government for aid, and a message was sent to both houses of parliament, calling on them to aid in maintaining the independence of Portugal. Mr. Canning introduced the subject in the house of commons, deiscribing the situation and policy of Great Britain, placed as a mediator between the conflicting opinions that conviil^ed Europe ; and such was the effect of his eloquence, that only four per- sons in a full house could be got to oppose the address. A British ar- mament was sent to the Tagus : its effect was instantaneous and deci- sive. The French diplomatic agent was recalled, the Spanish cabinet forced to desist from its intrigues, and Portugal restored to temporary tranquillity. Death and disease among the great and noble of the land produced some important changes in the councils of Great Britain. In the ber ginning of the year 1 827, the duke of York, who had solemnly pledged himself to oppose the claims of the catholics to the utmost, sank under disease. He was sincerely lamented even by his political opponents ; for his conduct in the management of the army, ever since he had been restored to the office of commander-in-chief, had deservedly won for him the honorable appellation of " the soldier's friend." Soon afterward the earl of Liverpool, who by his conciliating conduct as premier, had held together the friends and the opponents of catholic emancipation in the cabinet, was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which terminated his po- litical existence, though his natural life was protracted for several months. Mr. Canning, who had long been a distinguished advocate of the catholic claims, was appointed his successor, upon which all the members of the cabinet, opposed to concession, resigned in a body. The fatigues and anxieties imposed upon him proved too much for the new premier : he sank under them, and was succeeded by Mr. F. Rob- inson, who was at the same time raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Goderich. Before relating the overthrow of this feeble minis- €88 MODBEN HISTOEY. try^ we must turn our attention to the events in another part of the globe, which accelerated its downfall. Notwithstanding the horrid atrocities committed on both sides during the Greek war, the sympathies of Christendom in favor of the insurgents continually increased ; it was expected that Alexander, emperor of Rus- sia, would have taken some measures in their favor, but he died rather suddenly while engaged in a survey of his southern provinces. At this crisis, the sultan, unable to crush the revolt by his own strength, sought the aid of his powerful vassal, Mohammed Ali, the pacha of Egypt. This provincial governor, who had acted for some time more like an in- dependent monarch than a tributary, readily sent his adopted son, Ibra- him Pacha, with a powerful army, into the Morea. The excesses of the Turks and Egyptians were so shocking to humanity, that the Euro- pean powers felt bound to interfere, especially as the protracted contest was very pernicious to the commerce of the Levant. A treaty for the pacification of Greece was concluded in London between Russia, France, and England, by which it was stipulated that Greece should enjoy a qualified independence under the sovereignty of Turkey, and that measures should be taken to coerce the sultan if he refused his consent to these arrangements. The Austrian cabinet refused to share in this treaty. Dread of a similar insurrection in Italy, which was scarcely less oppressed, and which could equally appeal to classical sympathies and reminiscences, induced the court of Vienna to oppose anything that seemed like sanc- tioning a revolt. But not content with refusing to join the allies, the Auetrians secretly urged the sultan to reject the proffered compromise, and the court of Constantinople, already bent on the extermination of the Greeks, made more vigorous exertions than ever. The fleets of England, Russia, and France, which had been sent to support the ne- gotiations, when it was known that the sultan's answer was unfavora- ble, blockaded the Turco-Egyptian fleet in the harbor of Navarino, and Sir Edward Codrington, who commanded the allied squadrons, con- cluded an armistice with Ibrahim Pacha, in order to alleviate the hor- rors of war. This armistice was flagrantly violated by the Turks and Egyptians in every particular, and the allied squadrons entered the harbor of Navarino, in order to enforce compliance with its stipulations. A shot fired from a Turkish ship at an English boat, was the signal or the pretext for a general engagement, which ended in the utter annihi- lation of the Turco-Egyptian armament. The independence of Greece was thus virtually secured, and its completion was secured soon after by the arrival of a small military force from France, which compelled the Turks to evacuate the Morea. In Russia and jn France the victory of Navarino was regarded as a national triumph ; in England it only increased the embarrassments of Lord Goderich's distracted cabinet, the members of which were at va- riance on almost every point of policy, foreign and domestic. Finding themselves unable to determine in what manner the event should be no- ticed in the king's speech, the ministers resigned their situations before the meeting of parliament, and the task of forming a new administration was intrusted to the duke of Wellington. The sultan was not daunted by the intelligence of the destruction of HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 689. his fleet ; it seemed, indeed, rather to confirm him in his obstinacy. After many ineffectual efforts to change his resolution, the ambassadors of France, England, and Russia, demanded their passports, and quitted Constantinople, a proceeding which was of course equivalent to a dec- laration of war. But the allies were no longer united in their policy : France and England were not unreasonably jealous of Russian ambition ; France limited her exertions to protecting the Morea, the new ministers of England declared the victory of Navarino " an untoward event" — a phrase which led to the belief that they were disposed to look favorably on the pretensions of Turkey. This error precipitated what all wished to avoid, a war between Russia and Turkey. Still more unfortunate, the events of the first European campaign led many European states- men to believe that Turkey could defend herself from her own re- sources ; though the Russians had taken Varna by the treachery of its governor, they were forced to raise the siege of Shumlah, and retire with some precipitation. It was unnoticed or forgotten that this failure was more than compensated by the decisive success of the Russians in the Asiatic provinces, where the real strength of the Turkish empire lies ; they conquered the greater part of ancient Armenia, occupied the fortresses which command the principal lines of march, and thus laid the foundation of decisive success in the next campaign. In consequence of the general misapprehension respecting the posi- tion and resources of the belligerant parties, Turkey narrowly escaped being blotted from the map of Europe. The Russians opened the cam- paign by surprising Sizopoli, and laying siege to Silistria. The grand vizier advanced to the relief of the fortress, but he was surprised on his march by Marshal Diebitsch, and defeated. In this battle the Turks behaved so courageously that the Russians almost despaired of success, and made an attempt to open negotiations. Their offers were rejected ; the vizier, trusting to his impregnable position at Shumlah, remained quietly in his intrenchments, while the Russians pressed forward the siege of Silistria. That city surrendered on the last day of June, but it was the middle of July before Diebitsch could concentrate his forces for the bold enterprise which decided the fortune of the war. Having masked Shumlah with one division of his forces, he forced a passage through the defiles of the Balkan, and took Aidos by storm. The viz- ier, alarmed by this unexpected movement, determined to remove his quarters to Salamno. He was encountered by Diebitsch on his march, and irretrievably defeated. The very soldiers who had so recently fought the Russians for seventeen hours, now scarcely withstood them for as many minutes ; they fled at the first onset, abandoning arms, am- munition, artillery, and baggage. Adrianople, the second city in the Turkish empire, was captured without firing a shot ; Stamboul itself must have fallen, had not the sultan consented to the terms of peace dictated by the conquerors. He signed a treaty on the 14th of Septem- ber, by which he recognised the independence of Greece, and granted to Russia very considerable advantages, and a guarantee for the pay- ment of the expenses of the war. Greece indeed was already virtually free ; the French expedition had recovered the fortresses of the Morea from the Turks and Egyptians, while the Greeks themselves had gained considerable advantages in the north. It was resolved that the final 44 690 MODERN HISTORY. destinies of the country should be arranged by a congress of the greate" powers in London. The crown of Greece was first offered to Prince Leopold, the relict of the late princess Charlotte, but after a long nego- tiation he rejected it, and it was finally bestowed on Prince Otho, the-- son of the king of Bavaria. A revolution of a very different character took place in Portugal. When Don Pedro resigned the throne of that kingdom in favor of his daughter. Donna Maria de Gloria, he appointed his brother, Don, Miguel regent, reasonably hoping that he might thus secure his daugh- ter's rights, and the constitutional privileges which he had given to the- Portuguese. Before quitting Vienna to assume the reins of power^ Don Miguel took an oath of fidelity to the charter ; when he visited- England, on his way to Portugal, he repeated his protestations of at- tachment to the constitution and the rights of his niece so warmly, that the British statesmen, assured of his fidelity, consented to withdraw their troops from Lisbon. Unfortunately, after his return, he resigned- himself to the guidance of the queen-mother, an unprincipled woman, who seemed to think that a bigoted zeal for what she believed to be the^ cause of religion would atone for every other crime. At her instigation^ he induced the fanatic rabble, by means of an artful priesthood, to pro- claim him absolute king, and to denounce the charter as inconsistent- with the purity of the Roman faith. The friends of the constitution or- ganized a resistance at Oporto and in the island of Madeira ; but theiE efforts were badly directed, and worse supported. They were finally, defeated and driven into exile, while Don Miguel commenced a bitter persecution against all who had been conspicuous for their advocacy of liberal opinions. The principal powers of Europe manifested their de- testation of such treachery, by withdrawing their ambassadors from the- court of Lisbon. France during this period was greatly agitated by political strife- Charles X. was more bitterly opposed to revolutionary principles thaa. his brother, and he yielded to the counsels of the bigoted priests, who- persuaded him that it was his duty to restore to the church all the power which it had possessed in the dark ages. On the other hand, th&. French people became persuaded that a plot was formed to deprive themv of the constitutional privileges which they had gained after so long a struggle; thus the nation became gradually alienated from the court,, and the court from the nation ; while some turbulent spirits endeavored, to aggravate this hostility, in the hope of profiting by a future convul- sion. A new ministry was forced upon the king by the popular party j. the members of it professed moderate principles, but they wanted the abilities and the influence necessary for steering a safe course betweeii the extremes of royal prerogative on one eide, and popular encrofich- ment on the other. They were driven, by the majority of the chambers,, to make larger concessions to the demands of the people than they had originally intended, and the reluctance with which they yielded, de- prived them of popular gratitude. Even their sending an armament to ■ aid the Greeks in the Morea, their recalling the French army of occu- pation from Spain, and their acknowledging the independence of the South American republics, failed to conciliate the support of the demo- cratic party, while these measures rendered them perfectly odious to- HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 691 the royalists. They were suddenly dismissed, and the formation of a cabinet was intrusted to Prince Polignac, whose appointment was studiously represented as a declaration of war by Charles X. against his subjects. Interesting as these events were, they excited little attention in Eng^ land, where the public mind Was intently fixed on the struggle in par- liament, between those who sought to effect important constitutional changes, and those who were resolved to resist all innovation. The duke of Wellington's cabinet had been placed in office mainly by the influence of that portion of the aristocracy which was anxious to checlc the progress of change, and resist certain proposed measures, which they deemed inconsistent with the supremacy, if not the safety, of the estab-- lished church. One of these measures was the repeal of the Test antf Corporation acts, by which dissenters were excluded from office ; it was^ proposed in the house of commons, and on a division the ministers werer left in such a minority, that they not only withdrew further opposition, but adopted the measure as their own, and carried it successfully through both houses of parliament. This event gave fresh vigor to the efforts made by the Irish catholics to procure the concessions which they usually called emancipation. The rejection of a bill for the purpose by the house of lords in 1828, only roused them to greater exertion ; and on the other hand, the par- tisans of protestant ascendency in Ireland began to form clubs for the protection of their peculiar privileges. An unexpected event exaspera- ted the strife of parties, and threatened to bring matters to a dangerous crisis. Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, having accepted office under the duke of Wellington, vacated his seat for the county of Clare, reasonably ex- pecting that there would be no obstacle to his re-election. Mr. O'Con- nell, an Irish catholic, who had been long recognised as the popular leader, offered himself as a candidate for the vacant seat, and in spite of the disqualifying laws, was elected by an overwhelming majority. It was considered disputable whether he might not take his seat, but on all hands it was allowed that he was the legal representative of the county. This was a state of things which could not with safety be permitted to continue ; the ministers felt that they should either increase the se- verity of the exclusive laws, which the temper of the times would hardly have permitted, or that they should remove the few restrictions which prevented catholics from enjoying the full benefits of the consti- tution. They chose the latter alternative, and after some difficulty in overcoming the king's reluctance, they had the concession of the catholic claims recommended in the royal speech, at the opening of the session of parliament. The bill for giving effect to this recommenda- tion was strenuously opposed in both houses, but as it was supported by the united strength of the rauiisters and the party by which they were most commonly resisted, it passed steadily through both houses, and received the royal assent on the 13th of April, 1829. From the time that this important measure was carried, the domestic condition of England presented an aspect of more tranquillity than had been witnessed for many years. Party strife seemed hushed within and without the walls of parliament, as if both parties had been wearied ^698 MODERN HISTORY. out by the protracted discussion of the question they had just settled. This calm was increased by the gloom which the illness of the king -^diffused over the nation. Early in 1830 the symptoms of the disease became alarming, and for many weeks before its termination, all hopes of a favorable result were abandoned- On the 26th of June, George IV. died at Windsor castle, after having borne the agonies of protracted sickness with great firmness, patience, and resignation. Section III. — History of Europe during the Reign of William IV. Few monarchs ever obtained such immediate popularity on their ac- cession as William lY. He had been educated in the navy, always a favorite branch of service with the British people ; he was eminent for the domestic virtues, which are the more readily comprehended by a nation, as their value is felt in every walk of life ; his habits were economical, and his manners familiar ; he exhibited himself to his people, conversed with them, and shared in their tastes and amuse- ments. As he had been intimately connected with some of the leading whigs before his accession to the throne, it was generally believed that the policy by which that party had been jealously excluded from power during the two preceding reigns would be abandoned, and it was hoped that a new cabinet would be formed by the coalition of ministers with their opponents. The parliamentary debates soon put an end to these expectations ; the opposition to the ministry, which had been almost nominal since the settlement of the catholic question, was more than usually violent in the debate on the address ; the formal business of the house was indeed despatched with all possible expedition, prepar- atory to a new election ; but before parliament could be prorogued, the whigs were virtually pledged to irreconcilable war with the ad- ministration. It is now time to turn to the affairs of France, which had for two years been fast hastening to a crisis. Never had a ministry in any country to encounter such a storm of virulence and invective, as that which assailed the cabinet of Prince Polignac ; though he was per- haps justly suspected of arbitrary designs, yet his first measures were dignified and moderate ; some of them even seem to have been framed in a spirit of conciliation. But nothing could purchase the forbearance of his opponents ; they scrupled not to have recourse to downright falsehood, and in some cases accused him of designs so exquisitely ab- surd, that they appeared to have been invented for the express purpose of measuring the extent of popular credulity. Charles X. more than shared the odium thrown on his obnoxious favorite ; his patronage of the Jesuits and monastic orders, his revival of austere and rigid etiquette in his court, and his marked dislike of those who had acquired eminence in the revolution, or under Napoleon, were circumstances which ren- dered him unpopular with the great bulk of the nation so long estranged from the Bourbons and their policy. Polignac defied the storm; but unfortunately, as the contest con- tinued, he departed from the course of caution and prudence, probably because injustice had driven him into anger, and he soon furnished his adrersaries with just grounds for continued hostility. When the cham- HISTOBY OF THE PEACE. 693 bers assembled, the royal speech was a direct attack on the first prin- ciples of the constitution, concluding with a threat of resuming the con- cessions made by the charter, which was notoriously impotent, and therefore supremely ridiculous. A very uncourtly reply was voted by the chamber of deputies, after a very anirn^ted debate, by a majority of forty. The only alternative now left was a dissolution of the chambers, or a change of the ministry ; Charles X. chose the former, trusting that events might turn the popular current, and give him a more manageable chamber at a new election. Charles and his ministers appear to have hoped that their unpopu- larity would be overcome, and their future projects facilitated, by grat- ifying the taste of the French people for military glory. An armament was therefore prepared with extraordinary care, and sent against Al- giers, under the pretext that the dey had insulted the honor of France. The success of the expedition corresponded with the exertions made to ensure it ; the city of Algiers was taken after a very slight resistance, the dey was sent prisoner to Italy, and his vast treasures remained at the disposal of the conquerors. It was reasonable that the maritime powers should feel jealous at the establishment of French garrisons and colonies in northern Africa ; to allay their suspicions, a promise was made that the occupation of Algiers should be merely temporary ; but the French nation formed such an infatuated attachment to their conquest, that they have kept it ever since, though it causes an annual waste of life and treasure, without conferring any appreciable advan- tage either on Africa or on France. Polignac, relying on the moral effect which the conquest of Algiers would produce, dissolved the chambers, but, with the same infatuation which seems to have directed all his movements, he at the same time dismissed the only two moderate members of his cabinet, and supplied their places by the most unpopular men in France. Such a course, as ought to have been foreseen, more than counterbalanced any benefit which the ministers might have gained from the conquest of Algiers j the elections left them in a miserable minority, and matters were consequently brought to a crisis. The majority of the commercial classes and landed proprietors in France dreaded the renewal of civil commotions ; they knew tha,t there was an active republican party in the country, which though not very numerous, was very unscrupulous and energetic ; they feared, and not without reason, that the triumph of this party, which was no unlikely termination of a revolutionary struggle, would lead to the renewal of the horrors perpetrated during the reign of terror, when the Jacobins were in power. But at the same time, these classes were equally hostile to the restoration of the ancient despotism, which they believed to be the object of the king and his ministers. Had Charles X. declared that he would be contented with the prerogatives of a consti- tutional monarch, dismissed his obnoxious ministers, and formed a cabinet of moderate men, the crisis would have passed over without danger ; unfortunately, more arbitrary counsels prevailed ; Polignac and his colleagues resolved to terminate the struggle by subverting the constitution. On the morning of the 26th of July, three ordinances were pubr- 694 MODERN HISTORY. lished, which virtually subverted the constitutional privileges granted by the charter. The first dissolved the newly elected chamber of deputies before it assembled : the second changed the law of elections, and disfranchised the great body of electors ; and the third subjected the press to new and severe restriciions which would completely have annihilated its liberties. It was late in the day before intelligence of these events was gene- rally circulated through Paris, and the news, at first, seemed to excite astonishment rather than indignation ; the ministers passed the day in quiet at their hotels, receiving the visits of their friends and congratu- lating themselves upon the delusive tranquillity. But their opponents were not inactive ; expresses were sent to summon all the deputies of their party within reach, and those who had already arrived in Paris held a private meeting to concert measures of resistance. The prin- cipal journalists acted with still greater promptitude ; they prepared and published a protest against the restrictions on the press, whose daring language would probably have exposed them to the penalties of treason had the contest terminated differently. On the morning of the 27th, few of the journals appeared, for the publication of those which were not sanctioned by the minister of the interior was prohibited by the police. The printers, thus suddenly deprived of employment, formed a body of vindictive rioters, and their numbers were increased by the closing of several large factories in the suburbs of Paris. The proprietors of two journals printed their papers in defiance of the ordinance, and the first disturbance was occasioned by the police forcing an entrance into their establishments, breaking the presses, scattering thd types, and rendering the machinery unserviceable. So little was an insurrection anticipated, that Charles, accompanied by the dauphin, went on a hunting match to Rambouillet ; and his ministers neglected the ordinary precaution of strengthening the garrison of the capital. It was only on the morning of the 27th that Marmont received his appointment as military governor of Paris, and it was not till after four in the afternoon that orders were given to put the troops under arms. Between six and seven o'clock in the evening some detachments of troops were sent to the aid of the police ; this was the signal for com- mencing the contest ; several smart skirmishes took place between the citizens and the soldiers, in which the latter were generally successful, so that Marmont wrote a letter to the king, congratulating him on the suppression of the riot, while the ministers issued their last ordinance, declaring Paris in a state of siege. When night closed in, the citizens destroyed every lamp in the city, thus securing the protection of darkness for their preparations to renew the struggle. On the morning of the 28lh. Marmont was astonished to find that the riots which he had deemed suppressed, had assumed the formidable aspect of a revolution. The citizens were ready and organized for a decisive contest ; they were in possession of the arsenal and the powder magazine ; they had procured arms from the shops of the gunsmiths and the police stations ; they had erected barricades across the principal streets, and had selected leaders competent to direct their exertions. Under these circumstances, the marshal hesitated before taking any HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 695 ^decisive step ; it was noon before he had resolved how to act, and he then determined to clear the streets by military force. He divided -his troops into four columns, which he directed to move in different •directions, thus unwisely separating his forces, so that they could not act in concert. Every step taken by the columns was marked by a •series of murderous conflicts ; they were assailed with musketry from ■the barricades, from the windows and tops of houses, from the corners ■of streets, and from the narrow alleys and passages which abound in ■iParis. When the cavalry attempted to charge, they were overwhelmed 'With stones and articles of furniture flung from the houses ; their horses stumbled in the impaved streets, or were checked by the bar- 'licades, while the citizens, protected by their dwellings, kept up a ■heavy fire, which the disheartened horsemen were unable to return. Though the royal guards performed their duty, the troops of the line showed great reluctance to fire on the citizens, and hence the insur- gents were enabled to seize many important posts with little or no .opposition. When evening closed the troops had been defeated in -every direction ; they returned to their barracks, weary, hungry, and dispirited ; by some inexplicable blunder, no provision was made for "their refreshment, while every family in . Paris vied in supplying the insurgents with everything they wanted. Marmont was now fully sensible of the perils of his situation ; he -wrote to the infatuated king, representing the dangerous condition of Paris, and soliciting fresh instnictions ; the orders he received in reply, '■urged him to persevere, and indirectly censured his former conduct, by directing him " to act with masses." The contest was renewed on the morning of the third day, the -soldiers evincing great feebleness, while the populace seemed animated "by a certainty of success. While the issue was yet doubtful, two regiments of the line went over to the insurgents in a body ; the citizens thus strengthened, rushed through the gap which this defection left in the royal line, took the Louvre by assault, and soon compelled the troops that remained faithful to the royal cause, either to lay down their arms or evacuate Paris. The revolution was speedily completed ■by the installation of a provisional government ; measures were adopted for the speedy convocation of the chambers, and in a few hours the ■capital had nearly assumed its ordinary aspect of tranquillity. Charles and his ministers appear to have believed that the country would not follow the example of Paris. They were speedily convinced of their error ; the king was abandoned, not only by his courtiers, but •«ven by his household servants ; he was forced to wait helplessly in his country-seat, until he was dismissed to contemptuous exile by the ■national commissioners. His ministers attempted to escape in disguise, but were most of them arrested, a circumstance which occasioned great perplexity to the new government. In the meantime, the duke of Orleans, far the most popular of the royal family, was chosen lieu- tenant-general of the kingdom, and when the chambers met, he was -elected to the throne, with the title of Louis Philippe I., king of the French. This revolution produced an extraordinary degree of political •excitement throughout Europe ; even in England the rick-bumings 696 MODERN HISTORY. . an his brother ; the king of Saxony was forced to resign in favor of his nephew ; and the elector of Hesse was compelled to grant a constitu- tional charter. , Spain continued to languish under the iron sway of Ferdinand VII. ;. 698 MODERN HISTORY. the people generally seemed to have no wish for liberty, and the abor- tive efforts to establish the constitution again were easily quelled, and cruelly punished. The condition of Portugal appeared to be similar ; Don Miguel, who had usurped the throne, was so strenuously supported by the priests and monks, that every attempt to effect a change seemed hopeless. Italy shared in the excitement of the time, but the jealous Watchfulness of Austria, and the formidable garrisons which that power had established in northern Italy, effectually prevented any outbreak. Insurrectionary movements took place in several of the Swiss cantons, but the disputes were arranged with promptness and equity, so speed- ily as to avert the horrors of civil war. Poland was one of the last countries to catch the flame of insurrec- tion, but there it raged most furiously. Provoked by the cruelties of the archduke Constantine, who governed the country for his brother, ■the emperor of Russia, the Poles took up arms, at a time when all the statesmen of Europe were intent on maintaining peace, and were there- fore compelled to withhold their sympathies from the gallant struggle. Unaided and unsupported, the Poles for nearly two years maintained an unequal struggle against the gigantic power of Russia ; they were •finally crushed, and have ever since been subjected to the yoke of the most cruel despotism. France, which had scattered these elements of discord, was far from enjoying tranquillity itself. The republican party deemed itself be- trayed by the election of a king, and several who had consented to that arrangement were dissatisfied with the limited extension of popular privileges gained by the revolution. A great number of idle and dis- contented young men were anxious to involve Europe in a war of opin- ion, and they denounced the king as a traitor to the principles which -had placed him on the throne, because he refused to gratify their insane ■wishes. The total separation of the church from the state alienated the French clergy ; while the royalists recovered from their first terror, began to entertain hopes of a restoration. Thus surrounded by diffi- culties and dangers, Louis Philippe was far from finding his throne a bed of roses ; but he evinced firmness and talent adequate to the occa- .sion, and he was zealously supported by the middle classes, who looked upon him as their guarantee for constitutional freedom and assured tran- quillity. His success, however, would have been doubtful but for the efficient support he received from the national guard, whose organization was rapidly completed in Paris and the provinces. This civic body re- pressed the riots of the workmen and artisans, broke up the meetings of revolutionary clubs, and frustrated the attempts of republican fanatics, without incurring the odium which would have been attached to the ex- ertions of the police and military. The severest test to which the stability of the new government in Paris was exposed, arose from the trials of the ministers who had signed the fatal ordinances. Louis Philippe made no effort to seize these delinquents, and would probably have been rejoiced at their escape ; four of them were, as we have said, arrested by some zealous patriots, at a distance from Paris, as they were endeavoring to escape under the protection of false pass- ;{)orts ; the government had no option, but was forced to send them for HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 699 trial before the chamber of peers. The partisans of anarchy took ad- vantage of the popular exciten^nt to raise formidable riots, which might have terminated in a new and sanguinary revolution, but for the zeal and firmness of the national guard. After an impartial trial, Polignac and his companions were condemned to perpetual imprisonment and civil death, and were quickly removed from the capital to a distant pris- on. Tranquillity was re-established on the morning of the third day after the trial, and the citizens of Paris demonstrated the extent of their late alarms by the brilliant illuminations with which they celebrated the restoration of order. England was deeply engaged in an attempt to remodel her constitu- tion. Early in 1831, the new premier declared that " ministers had succeeded in framing a measure of reform, which they were persuaded would prove efficient without exceeding the bounds of that wise moder- ation with which such a measure should be accompanied." On the 1st of March the measure was introduced to the house of commons by Lord John Russell, andfrom that moment to its final success it almost wholly engrossed the attention of the country. The debate on the first reading of the bill lasted the unprecedented number of seven nights ; t!he discussion on the second reading was shorter, but more animated ; it was carried only by a majority of one. Ministers were subsequently defeated on two divisions, and at their instigation the king hastily dis- solved the parliament. The elections took place amid such popular ex- citement, that ardent supporters of the ministerial measure were re- turned by nearly all the large constituencies, and the success of the reform bill, at least so far as the house of commons was concerned, was secured. The reform bill passed slowly but securely through the house of ■commons, it was then sent up to the lords, and after a debate of five nights, rejected by a majority of 41. Great was the popular disappoint- ment, but the promptitude with which the house of commons, on the motion of Lord Ebrington, passed a vote of confidence in ministers, and pledged itself to persevere with the measure of reform, calmed the •agitation in the metropolis and the greater part of the country. Some serious riots, however, occurred at Derby and Nottingham, which were not suppressed until considerable mischief was done ; Bristol suf- fered still more severely from the excesses of a licentious mob, whose fury was not checked until many lives were lost, and a great amount of valuable property wantonly destroyed. While the excitement respecting the reform bill was at the highest, a new pestilential disease was imported into the country. It was called tSie Asiatic cholera, because it first appeared in India, whence it grad- ually extended in a northwestern direction to Europe. Its ravages in Great Britain were not, by any means, so great as they had been in some parts of the continent, yet they were very destructive ; they were met by a bold and generous offer of service from the physicians throughout the empire, and their conduct, while the pestilence pre- vailed, reflected the highest honor on the character of the medical pro- fession in Great Britain. A new reform bill was introduced into the house of commons im- mediately after the assembling of parliament ; it passed there with lit- 700 MODERN HISTORY. tie opposition, and was sent up to the house of lords. As no change' had been made in the constitution of that body, great anxiety was felt respecting the fate of the measure ; but some peers, who had formerly opposed it, became anxious for a compromise, and the second reading was carried by a majority of nine. But these new allies of the ciinis- try were resolved to make important alterations in the character of the measure, and when the bill went into committee the ministers found themselves in a minority. Earl Grey proposed to the king the creation of a sufficient number of peers* to turn the scale, but his majesty refused to proceed to such extremities, and all the members of the cabinet re- signed. The duke of Wellington received, through Lord Lynadhurst,. his majesty's commands to form a new administration, and he under- took the task in the face of the greatest difficulties that it had ever been the fate of a British statesman to encounter. The nation was^ plunged into an extraordinary and dangerous state of excitement ; the house of commons by a majority of eighty, virtually pledged itself to the support of the late ministry ; addresses to the crown were sent from various popular bodies, which were by no means distinguished by moderation of tone or language ; associations were formed to secure the success of the reform measure, and the country seemed brought tO' the verge of a revolution. Under such circumstances, the duke of Wellington saw that success was hopeless, he resigned the commission with which he had been intrusted, and advised his majesty to renew his- communications with his former advisers. Earl Grey returned to office ;. a secret compact was made that no new peers should be created if the reform bill were suffered to pass ; and the measure having been rap- idly hurried through the remaining stages, reeeived the royal assent on the 7th of June. The Irish and Scotch reform bills attracted com- paratively but little notice ; a law for enforcing the collection of tithes. in Ireland was more vigorously opposed, and the ignorant peasants of Ireland were encouraged by their advocates to resist the payment of the impost. While England was engrossed by the discussions on the reform bill,, the new monarchy established in France was exposed to the most im- minent dangers from the republicans on the one hand, and the partisans. of the exiled family on the other. The republican party was the more •violent and infinitely the more dangerous, because, in the capital at least, there was a much greater mass, to whom its opinions and incen- tives were likely to be agreeable. There was also a spirit of fanaticism in its members, which almost amounted to insanity ; several attempts were made to assassinate the king, and his frequent escapes may be justly regarded as providential. When any of the apostles of seditioa. were brought to trial, they openly maintained their revolutionary doc- trines ; treated the king with scorn and derision ; inveighed against the existing institutions of the country ; entered into brutal and violent al- tercations with the public prosecutor ; menaced the juries and insulted the judges. The very extravagance of this evil at length worked out a remedy : the bombast of the repubUcans was carried to such an excess of absurdity, that it became ridiculous ; the republicans were disarmed when they found that the nonsense of their inflated speeches produced, not intimidation, but shouts of laughter. Moderate men took courage •„ HISTORY 01" THE PEACE. 701 the middle classes, to whose prosperity, peace abroad and tranquillity at home were essentially necessary, rallied round the monarchy, and the republicans were forced to remain silent, until some new excitement of ■ the public mind would afford an opportunity for disseminating mischiev- ous falsehoods. An insurrection of the Carlists, as the partisans of the exiled family were called, in the south of France, injured the cause it was designed to serve. It was easily suppressed, but the government learned that the dutchess de Bern, whose son, the duke of Bourdeaux, was the legit- imate heir to the crown, had made arrangements for landing in La Vendee, and heading the royalists in the province. Such preparations were made, that when the dutchess landed, she found her partisans dis- heartened, and their movements so closely watched, that it was scarce- ly possible for them to assemble in any force. Still she resolved to persevere, but the enterprise degenerated into a series of isolated and insignificant attacks, made by small bodies in a strong country, and the proceedings of the royalists, consequently, resembled those of brigands. The dutchess continued five months in the country, though actively pur- sued by the military and police ; she was at length betrayed by one of her associates, and made prisoner. The government of Louis Philippe treated the royal captive with great clemency ; she had not been long in prison when it was discovered that she was pregnant, having been privately married some time before her arrest. This unfortunate cir- cumstance threw such an air of ridicule over the entire' enterprise, that the royalists abandoned all further efforts against the government. While the south of France was thus agitated by the royalists, Paris narrowly escaped the perils of a republican revolution. The funeral of General Lamarque afforded the opportunity for this outbreak, which lasted about five hours, and was attended with great loss of life. The entire body of the military and all the respectable citizens supported the cause of monarchy and good order, or else the consequence would have been a new revolution. The revolt had the effect of strengthening the ministerial influence in the chambers ; when they met, the opposi- tion could not muster more than half the number of votes that supported the cabinet. A treaty had been concluded by the representative of the five great powers, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, arranging the conditions on which Belgium should be separated from Holland ; to these terms the Belgians had acceded, but they were declined by the Dutch, who still retained the citadel of Antwerp. A French army entered Belgium, and proceeded to besiege this fortress ; it was taken after a sharp siege, and was immediately given up to a Belgian garrison, the French re- tiring within their own frontiers in order to avert the jea;lousies and suspicions of the European powers. Turkey was exposed to the greatest danger, by the rebellion of its powerful vassal, the pacha of Egypt. Mohammed Ali was anxious to annex Syria to his territories, . a dispute with the governor of Acre furnished him a pretext for invading the country; the sultan command- ed him to desist, and on his refusal treated him as a rebel ; Mohammed Ali was so indignant, that he extended his designs to the whole empire ; his forces routed the Turkish armies in every battle ; Syria and a great 702 MODERN HISTORY. part of Asia Minor were subdued with little difficulty, and Constantino pie itself would have fallen but for the prompt interference of Russia. The sultan was thus saved from his rebellious vassal, but the independ- ence of his empire was fearfully compromised. The declining health in King Ferdinand directed attention to the law of succession in Spain : his only child was an infant daughter, and the Salic law, introduced by the Bourbon dynasty, excluded females from the throne. Ferdinand had repealed this law, but when he was supposed to be in his mortal agonies, the partisans of his brother, Don Carlos, who was looked upon as the surest support of the priesthood and of arbitrary power, induced him to disinherit his daughter, and recognise Don Carlos as heir to the crown. The very next day Ferdi- nand was restored to consciousness and understanding ; the queen in- stantly brought before him the injustice he had been induced to com- mit, and the king was so indignant that he not only dismissed his min- isters but threw himself into the arms of the liberal party. A general amnesty was published ; those who had been exiled for supporting the constitution were invited home, and the Carlist party was so discouraged that it sank without resistance. Don Carlos himself, his wife, and his wife's sister, the princess of Beira, were compelled to quit Madrid ; they sought and found shelter with Don Miguel, the usurper of Portugal. On the 20th of September, 1833, Ferdinand died : his daughter was proclaimed at Madrid, but Carlist insurrections broke out in several parts of Spain, and have continued, with little interruption, almost ever since. The excitement produced by the French revolution extended beyond the Atlantic. Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, was compelled by his subjects to abdicate the throne in favor of his infant son ; an event the more singular, as he had some time before resigned the crown of Por- tugal in favor of his daughter, Donna Maria de Gloria. When Pedro returned to Europe, he resolved to assert his daughter's rights, which had been usurped by Don Miguel ; soldiers were secretly enlisted in France and England, the refugees from Portugal and Brazil were form- ed into regiments, and, after some delay, a respectable armament was collected in the Azores, which had remained faithful to Donna Maria. Pedro resolved to invade the north of Portugal ; he landed near Oporto, and made himself master of that city ; but his further operations were cramped by the want of money, and of the munitions of war; Oporto was invested by Don Miguel, and for several months the contest between the two brothers was confined to the desultory operations of a siege. At length, in the summer of 1833, Don Pedro intrusted the command of his naval force to Admiral Napier ; this gallant officer, after having landed a division of the army in the province, sought Don Miguel's fleet ; though superior in number of ships, men, and weight of metal, he attacked it with such energy, that in a short time all the large vessels be- longing to the usurper struck their colors. This brilliant success, fol- lowed by the capture of Lisbon, which yielded to Pedro's forces with little difficulty, and the recognition of the young queen by the principal powers of Europe, proved fatal to Miguel's cause. After some faint attempts at protracted resistance, he abandoned the struggle, and sought shelter in Italy. HISTORY OV THE PEACE. 703 Don Pedro's death, which soon followed his triumph, did little injury to the constitutional cause. His daughter retains the crown ; she was married first to the prince at Leuchtenberg, who did not long survive his nuptials ; her second husband is Prince Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, nearly allied to the queen of Great Britain. Several disturbances in the papal states gave the French a pretext for seizing the citadel of Ancona, which gave just grounds of offence to Austria. But neither party wished to hazard the perils of war. The pope excommunicated all the liberals in his dominions, but was mortified to find that ecclesiastical censures, once so formidable, were now ridic- ulous. When the French evacuated Ancona, he was obliged to hire a body of Swiss troops for his personal protection, and the pay of these mercenaries almost ruined his treasury. To such a low estate is the papal power now reduced, which was once supreme in Europe, and exercised unlimited sway over the consciences and conduct of potentates and nations. The attention of the first reformed parliament of Great Britain was chiefly engrossed by domestic affairs. In consequence of the con- tinued agrarian disturbances in Ireland, a coercive statute was passed, containing many severe enactments ; but at the same time, the Irish church was forced to make some sacrifices, a tax for ecclesiastical purposes was levied on its revenues, and the number of bishoprics was diminished. But measures of still greater importance soon occupied the attention of parliament ; the charter of the bank of England was renewed, on terms advantageous to the country ; the East India company was deprived of its exclusive commercial privileges, and the trade to Hin- dustan and China thrown open ; but the company was permitted to re- tain its territorial sovereignty. Finally, a plan was adopted for the abolition of West India slavery ; the service of the negro was changed into apprenticeship for a limited period, and a compensation of twenty millions was voted to the planters. There was a very active though not a very large section of the house of commons dissatisfied with the limited extent of change produced by the reform bill ; they demanded much greater innovations, and they succeeded in exciting" feelings of dis- content in the lower classes of the community. Popular discontent was not confined to England, it was general throughout Europe, but fortunately no serious efforts were made to disturb the public tran- quillity. The second session of the reformed parliament was rendered memor- able by the passing of an act for altering the administration of the poor laws, which was very fiercely attacked outside the walls of parliament. It was, howQver, generally supported by the leading men of all parties ; though its enactment greatly weakened the popularity of the ministers. The cabinet was itself divided respecting the policy to be pursued toward Ireland, and the dissensions respecting the regulation of the church, and the renewal of the Coercion bill, in that country, arose to such a height, that several of the ministry resigned. Lord Melbourne succeeded Earl Grey as premier, but it was generally believed that the king was by no means pleased with the change ; and that on the Irish church question, he was far from being satisfied with the line of con- 704 MODBEN HISTORY. duct pursued by his ministers. In the month of November, the death of Earl Spencer removed Lord Althorp, the chancellor of the exchequer, to the house of lords, and rendered some new modifications necessary. The king took advantage of the opportunity to dismiss the ministers, an express was sent to summon Sir Robert Peel from the continent, to assume the office of premier; and the duke of Wellington, who had administered the government in the interim, was appointed foreign secretary. Parliament was immediately dissolved, and the three king- doms were agitated by a violent explosion of party spirit. A tithe- aiTray in Ireland, which ended with the loss of life, supplied the oppo- nents of the ministry with a pretext for rousing the passions of the peasantry in that country, and of this they availed themselves so effec- tually, that the ministerial candidates were defeated in almost every election. While the country was anxiously waiting the residt of the struggle between the rival political parties, both houses of parliament were burned to the ground. This event at first excited some alarm, but it "was soon allayed, for the cause of the fire was clearly proved to be ac- cidental, when parliament met. Sir Robert Peel's cabinet was found to be in a minority in the house of commons. The- premier, however, persevered in spite of hostile majorities, until he was defeated on the question of the Irish church, when he and his colleagues resigned. The Melbourne cabinet was restored, with the remarkable exception of Lord Brougham, whose place as chancellor was supplied by Lord Cot- tenham. On the death of his brother, Don Carlos, after a vain attempt to assert liis claims, was driven from Spain into Portugal, and so closely pur- sued that he was forced to take refuge on board an English ship-of-war. He came to London, where several abortive efforts were made to in- duce him to abandon his pretensions. But in the meantime his parti- sans in the Biscayan provinces had organized a formidable revolt, under a brave leader, Zumalacarregui, and a priest named Merino. Don Carlos secretly quitted London, passed through France in disguise, and appeared at the head of the insurgents. A quadrupartite treaty was concluded between Spain, Portugal, France, and England, for support- ing the rights of the infant queen. It was agreed that France should guard the frontiers, to prevent the Carlists from receiving any aid by land ; that England should watch the northern coasts ; and that Portu- gal should aid the queen of Spain with a body of auxiUary troops if necessary. Notwithstanding these arrangements, the Carlists were generally successful, and, at length, the court of Madrid applied to England for direct assistance. This was refused ; but permission was given to raise an auxiUary legion of ten thousand men in the United Kingdom, the command of which was intrusted to Colonel Evans. But the effect produced by this force was far inferior to what had been expected ; in the dilapidated state of the Spanish finances, it was found difficult to supply the legion with pay, provisions, and the munitions of war. A revolution at Madrid, which rendered the form of government very democratic, alienated the king of the French from the cause of the Spanish queen, and the war lingered, without any prospect of restored HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 705 tranquillity. At the end of its second year of service, the British legion was disbanded, and the Spanish government and its auxiliary force parted with feelings of mutual dissatisfaction. After the departure of the legion, the Carlists, weary of the war, en- tered into negotiations with the queen regent, and returned to their alle- giance. Carlos was again compelled to become an exile ; but defeat could not break his spirit, and he continued to declare himself the right- ful heir to the Spanish crown, though rejected by the people, and dis- avowed by the other sovereigns of Europe. Spain, however, was too disorganized for tranquillity to be easily restored ; the queen regent en- deavored, with more good will than ability, to reconcile contending fac- tions ; but herefforts proved unavailing, and, wearied of her situation, she resigned the regency in the summer of 1840. The people of England generally felt little interest in the affairs of Spain ; public attention was principally directed to the state of Ireland and Canada. The great Irish questions discussed in parliament were, the reform of the corporations on the same plan that had been adopted in the reform of the English and Scotch corporations ; the regulation of tithes, and the estabhshment of a provision for the poor ; but the dif- ferent views taken by the majorities in the houses of commons and lords, prevented the conclusion of any final arrangements. In Canada, the descendants of the old French settlers, for the most part bigoted and ignorant, viewed with great dissatisfaction the superiority to which the English settlers had attained, in consequence of their knowledge, spirit, and enterprise ; they attributed this pre-eminence to the partiality of the government, and, instigated by designing demagogues, clamored for constitutional changes, little short of a recognition of their independence. Their demands were refused, and the deluded Canadians were persua- ded to hazard a revolt. After a brief struggle, the insurgents were re- duced, and since the termination of the revolt. Upper and Lower Cana- da have been united into one province by an act of the British legisla- ture. Great embarrassment was produced in the commercial world by the failure of the American banks, which rendered many leading merchantts and traders unable to fulfil their engagements. The crisis was sensi- bly felt in England, where it greatly checked the speculations in rail- roads, which perhaps were beginning to be carried to a perilous ex- tent ; the manufaicturing districts suffered most severely, but the pres- sure gradually abated, and trade began to flow in its accustorned chan- nels. Parties were so nicely balanced in the British parliament, that no measure of importance could be arranged ; a further gloom was thrown over the discussions by the increasing illness of the king, and the certainty that its termination must be fatal. William IV. died on the morning of the 20th of June, 1837, sincerely regretted by every class of his subjects. During the seven years that he swayed the sceptre, England enjoyed tranquillity both at home and abroad ; it was the only reign in British history in which there was no execution for high treason, and no foreign war. 45 706 MODERN HISTOEy. CHAPTER XII. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. In order to avoid frequent interruptions in the course of the narrative, it has been deemed advisable to reserve the account of the principal European colonies for the close of the volume, and thus to bring before the reader one of the most remarkable features in ipodem history. The discovery of a new world gave an extraor^nary impulse to emigration, and produced one of the most striking series of events in the annals of mankind. The subject naturally divides itself into two great parts — the European colonies in the western, and those in the eastern world ; and to the former we shall first direct our attention. Section I. — The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico. Immediately after the discovery of America, the first Spanish colo- ny was established in Hispaniola, better known by the more modem name of St. Domingo. The queen Isabella had given strict orders to protect the Indians, and had issued a proclamation prohibiting the Spaniards from compelling them to work. The natives, who consid- ered exemption from toil as supreme felicity, resisted every attempt to induce them to labor for hire, and so many Spaniards fell victims to the diseases peculiar to the climate, that hands were wanting to work the mines or tiU the soil. A system of compulsory labor was therefore adopted almost by necessity, and it was soon extended, until the Indians were reduced to hopeless slavery. The mines of Hispaniola, when first discovered, were exceedingly productive, and the riches acquired by the early adventurers attracted fresh crowds of greedy but enterpri- sing settlers to its shores. The hardships to which the Indians were subjected, rapidly decreased their numbers, and in the same proportion di^niniahed the profits of the adventurers. It was therefore resolved to seek new settlements ; the island of Puerto Rico was annexed to the Spanish dominions, and its unfortunate inhabitants were subjected to the same cruel tyranny as the natives of Hispaniola. The island of Cuba was next conquered ; though it is seven hundred miles in length, and was then densely populated, such was the unwarlike character of the inhabitants, that three hundred Spaniards were sufficient for its total subjugation. More important conquests were opened by the intrepidity of Balboa, who had founded a small settlement on the isthmus of Darien. At length the Spaniards began to prepare an expedition for establish- ing their empire on the American continent. An armament was organ- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 707 ized in Cuba, and the command intrusted to Fernando Cortez, a com- mander possessing great skill and bravery, but avaricious and cruel even beyond the general average of his countrynlen at that period. On th6 2d of April, 1519, this bold adventurer entered the harbor of St. Juan de Uloa, on the coast of Yucatan. By means of a female captive, he ■was enabled to open communications with the natives ; and they, in- stead of opposing the entrance of these fatal guests into their country, assisted them in all their operations with an alacrity of which they too soon had reason to repent. The Mexicans had attained a pretty high ^degree of civilization ; they had a regular government, a system of law, and an established priesthood ; they recorded events by a species of picture-writing, not so perfect as the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics, but which, nevertheless, admitted more minuteness and particularity than is generally imagined ; their architectural structures were remark- able for their strength and beauty ; they had advanced so far in science as to construct a pretty accurate calendar ; and they possessed consid- erable skill, not only in the useful, but also in the ornamental arts of life. Cortez saw that such a nation must be treated differently from the rude savages in the islands ; he therefore concealed his real inten- tions, and merely demanded to be introduced to the sovereign of the country,' the emperor Montezuma. The Indian caziques were unwilling to admit strangers possessed of such formidable weapons as muskets and artillery into the interior of their country ; and Montezuma, who was of a weak and cowardly dispositipn, was still more reluctant to receive a visit from strangers, of whose prowess he had received an exaggerated description. He therefore re- solved to temporize, and sent ambassadors to Cortez with rich presents, declining the proposed interview. But these magnificent gifts served only to increase the rapacity of the Spaniards. Cortez resolved to tem- porize ; he changed his camp into a permanent settlement, which sub- sequently grew into the city of Vera Cruz, and patiently watched from his intrenchments the course of events. He had not long continued ih this position, when he received an embassy from the Zempoallans, a tribe which had been long discontented with the government of Monte- zuma. He immediately entered into a close alliance with these disaf- fected subjects, and sent an embassy to Spain to procure a ratification of his powers, and set fire to his fleet, in order that his companions, de- prived of all hope of escape, should look for safety only in victory. Hav- ing completed his preparations, he marched through an unknown coun- try to subdue a mighty empire, with a force amounting to five hundred foot, fifteen horsemen, and six pieces of artillery. His first hostile eur counter was with the Tlascalans, the most warlike race in Mexico ; their country was a republic, under the protection of the empire, and they fought with the fury of men animated by a love of freedom. But nothing could resist the superiority which their firearms gave the Spaniards ; the Tlascalans, after several defeats, yielded themselves as vassals to the crown of Spain, and engaged to assist Cortez in aU his future operations. Aided by six thousand of these new allies, he advanced to Cholula, a town of great importance, where, by Montezu- ma's order, he was received with open professions of friendship, while plans were secretly devised for his destruction. Cortez discovered the 708 MODERN HISTOEY. plot, and punished it by the massacre of six thousand of the citizens ; the rest were, so terrified, that, at the command of the Spaniard, they returned to their usual occupations, and treated with the utmost respect the men whose hands were stained with the blood of their countrymen. As a picture of national prosperity long since extinct, we shall here insert the description given by Cortez in his despatches to the Spanish monarch of the ancient city of Tlascala, which still exists, though much decayed : " This city is so extensive, so well worthy of admiration, that although I omit much that I could say of it, I feel assured that the little I shall say will be scarcely credited, since it is larger than Gra- nada, and much stronger, and contains as many fine houses and a much larger population than that city did at the time of its capture ; and it is much better supplied with the products of the earth, such as com, and with fowls and game, fish from the rivers, various kinds of vegetables, and other excellent articles of food. There is in this city a market, in which every day thirty thousand people are engaged in bu3dng and selling, besides many other merchants who are scattered about the city. The market contains a great variety of articles both of food and clothing, and all kinds of shoes for the feet ; jewels of gold and silver, and pre- cious stones, and ornaments of feathers, all as well arranged as they can possibly be found in any public squares or markets in the world. There is much earthenware of every style and a good quality, equal to the best of Spanish manufacture. Wood, coal, edible and medicinal plants, are sold in great quantities. There are houses, where they wash and shave the heads as barbers, and also for baths. Finally, there is found among them a well-regulated police ; the people are rational and well disposed, and altogether greatly superior to the most civilized Af- rican nation." From Cholula, Cortez advanced toward the city of Mexico, suid had almost reached its gates before the feeble Montezuma had determined whether he should receive him as a friend or as an enemy. After some hesitation, Montezuma went forth to meet Cortez, with all the magnifi- cence of barbarous parade, and granted the Spaniards a lodging in the capital. But notwithstanding his apparent triumph, the situation of Cortez was one of extraordinary danger and perplexity. He was in a city sur-' rounded by a lake, the bridges and causeways of which might easily be broken ; and his little band, thus cut off from all communication with its allies, must then have fallen victims to superior numbers. To avert this danger, he adopted the bold resolution of seizing Montezuma as a hostage for his safety, and he actually brought him a prisoner to the Spanish quarters. Under pretence of gratifying the monarch's curiosity to see the structure of European vessels, the Spaniards built two brig- antines, and launched them on the lake, thus securing to themselves the means of retreat in case of any reverse of fortune. The ostensible pretext for this act of violence was that a cazique, named Qualpopoca, had slain several Spaniards in the city of Nautecal or Almeira. The account which Cortez gives of the transaction is too singular to be omitted, especially as his despatches are utterly unknown in this country. It will be seen that he never gives Montezuma, or as he writes his name, Muteczuma the title of king or emperor, but speaks HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 709 of him as if his right to royalty had been sacrificed frota the moment that the Spaniards had landed in his country. The offending cazique, Qualpopoca, was brought to the capital, as our readers are probably aware, and, with his followers, was burnt alive. Cortez tells this part of the story with much naivete : " So they were publicly burnt in a square of the city, without creating any disturbance ; and on the day of their execution, as they confessed that Muteczuma had directed them to kill the Spaniards, I caused him to be put in irons, which threw him into great consternation." All this was manifestly done merely from the motives above intimated, namely, " to subserve the interests of your majesty and our own security ;" yet Cortez had some apprehension lest he might offend royal sympathies, and so, in re- spect of his demeanor toward Montezuma, he writes to the emperor : — " Such was the kindness of my treatment toward him, and his own contentment with his situation, that when at different times I tempted him with the offer of his liberty, begging that he would return to his palace, he as often replied that he was well pleased with his present quarters, and did not wish to leave them, as he wanted nothing that he was accustomed to enjoy in his own palace ; and that in case he went away, there would be reason to fear the importunities of the local gov- ernors, his vassals, might lead him to act against his own wishes, and in opposition to your majesty, while he desired in every possible man- ner to promote your majesty's service ; that so far he had informed them what he desired to have done, and was well content to remain where he was ; and should they wish to suggest anything to him, he could answer that he was not at liberty, and thus excuse himself from attending to them." Cortez thus describes the original city of Mexico, which he soon af- terward totally destroyed : " This great city of Temixtitan [Mexico] is situated in this salt lake, and from the main land to the denser parts of it, by whichever route one chooses to enter, the distance is two leagues. There are four avenues or entrances to the city, all of which are formed by artificial causeways, two spears' length in width. The city is as large as Seville or Cordova ; its streets (I speak of the principal ones) are very wide and straight ; some of them, and all the inferior ones, are half land and half water, and are navigated by canoes. * * * This city has many public squares, in which are situated the markets and other places for buying and selling. There is one square twice as large as that of the city of Salamanca, surrounded by porticoes, where are daily assembled more than sixty thousand souls, engaged in buying and selling ; and where are found all kinds of merchandise that the world affords, embracing the necessaries of life, as, for instance, articles of food, as well as jewels of gold and silver, lead, brass, copper, tin, pre- cious stones, bones, shells, snails, and feathers. There are also ex- posed for sale wrought and unwrought stone, bricks burnt and unbumt, timber hewn and unhewn, of different sorts. * * * Every kind of merchandise is sold in a particular street or quarter assigned to it exclu- sively, and thus the best order is preserved. They sell everything by number or measure ; at least so far we have not observed them to sell anything by weight. There is a building in the great square that is used as an audience-house, where ten or twelve persons, who are ma- 710 MODBRN HISTORY. gistrates, sit and decide all controversies that arise in the market, and order delinquents to be punished. In the same square there are other persons who go constantly about among the people, observing what is sold, and the measures used in selling ; and they have been seen to break measures that were not true. This great city contains a large number of temples, or houses for their idols, very handsome edifices, which are situated in the different districts and the suburbs : in the prin- cipal ones religious persons of each particular sect are constantly resi- ding, for whose use beside the houses containing the idols there are other convenient habitations. All these persons dress in black, and never cut or comb their hair from the time they enter the priesthood until they leave it ; and all the sons of the principal inhabitants, both nobles and respectable citizens, are placed in the temples, and wear the same dress from the age of seven or eight years until they are taken out to be married ; which occurs more frequently vpith the first-bom who inherit estates than with the others. The priests are debarred from fe- male society, nor is any woman permitted to enter the religious houses. They also abstain from eating certain kinds of food, more at some sea- sons of the year than others. Among these temples there is one which far surpasses all the rest, w^hose grandeur of architectural details no human tongue is able to describe ; for within its precincts, surrounded by a lofty wall, there is room enough for a town of five hundred fami- lies. Around the interior of this enclosure there are handsome edifices, containing large halls and corridors, in which the religious persons at- tached to the temple reside. There are full forty towers, which are lofty and well built, the largest of which has fifty steps leading to its main body, and fs higher than the tower of the principal church at Seville. The stone and wood of which they are constructed are so well wrought in every part, that nothing could be better done, for the interior of the chapels containing the idols consists of curious imagery, wrought in stone, with plaster ceilings, and woodwork carved in relief, and painted with figures of monsters and other objects. All these tow- ers are the burial-places of the nobles, and every chapel in them is dedicated to a particular idol, to which they pay their devotions." But danger impended over Cortez from an unexpected quarter. The governor of Cuba, anxious to share in the plunder of Mexico, of whose wealth, great as it really was, he had received very exaggerated state- ments, sent a new armament, under the command of Narvaez, to deprive the conqueror of the fruits of his victory. Cortez, leaving a small gar- rison in Mexico, marched against Narvaez, and by a series of prudent operations, not only overcame him, but induced his followers to enlist under his own banners. This reinforcement was particularly valuable at a time when the Mexicans, weary of Spanish cruelty and tyranny, had resolved to make the most desperate efforts for expelling the inva- ders. Scarcely had Cortez returned to Mexico, when his quarters were attacked with desperate fury ; and though thousands of the assailants were slain, fresh thousands eagerly hurried forward to take their place. At length Cortez brought out Montezuma in his royal robes on the ram- parts, trusting that his influence over his subjects would induce them to suspend hostilities. But the unfortunate emperor was mortally wounded by a missile flung by one of his own subjects ; and Cortez, having done HISTORY OP COLONIZATION. 711 everytliing which prudence and valor could dictate, was forced to ahan- don the capital. The Spaniards suffered severely in this calamitous retreat ; they lost their artillery, ammunition, and baggage, together with the greater part of the treasure for which they had encountered so many peri&. A splendid victory at Otumba, over the Mexicans, who attempt- ed to intercept them, restored the confidence of the Spaniards, and they reached the friendly territories of the Tlascalans in safety. Having col- lected some reinforcements, and by judicious arts revived the courage of his men, Cortez once more advanced toward Mexico, and, halting on the borders of the lake, he began to build some brigantines, in order to attack the city by water. While thus engaged, he succeeded in de- taching many of the neighboring cities from their allegiance to the new emperor, Guatimozin ; and having obtained some fresh troops from His- paniola, he prepared for a vigorous siege by launching his brigantines on the lake. Guatimozin made a gallant resistance, and repulsed the Spaniards in an aUempt to take the city by storm ; but being unable to resist the slower operations of European tactics, he attempted to escape over the lake, when his canoe was intercepted by a brigantine, and the unfortunate emperor remained a prisoner. As soon as the fate of their sovereign was known, the resistance of the Mexicans ceased, and all the provinces of the empire imitated the example of the capital. Gua- timozin was cruelly tortured to extort a confession of concealed treas- ure, and his unfortunate subjects became the slaves of their rapacious conquerors. Cortez himself was treated with gross ingratitude by his sovereign, whose dominions he had enlarged by the conquest of an empire, and he died in comparative obscurity. The first thought of the conquerors was to propagate the Christian faith in their new dominions, not only from motives of bigotry, but in obedience to the soundest dictates of prudence. Missionaries were in- vited from Europe to aid in the great work of civilization ; between the years 1522 and 1345, numbers of monastics came from various parts of the world to aid in the conversion of Mexico. Many practices unknown to the Roman ritual were admitted and consecrated. It must not be omitted that the missionaries honorably exerted' them- selves to protect the Mexicans from the sanguinary cruelty of the Span- iards ; Sahagun and Las Casas were particularly famous for their ex- ertions in behalf of the vanquished ; they obtained bulls from the pope, and edicts from the Spanish government, fully recognising the claims of the Indians to the rights of humanity, and though they failed to ob- tain a full measure of justice for the native Mexicans, they saved them from the wretched; fate which swept away the native population in almost every other colony of Spain. In consequence of the protection thus accorded, them, both by the secular and regular; clergy, the attach- ment of the native Mexicans to the Romish religion became more ardent and passionate than that of the Spaniards themselves, and it still continues to be felt,, though the country has been restored to in- dependence. The edicts of the Spanish raonarchs in favor of the Indians were disregarded ; the population began to decrease rapidly, and a new sys- tem was adopted by which oppression was reduced to an organized ieim, and ameliorated by b^ng placed under the control of the govern- 712 MODERN HISTOEY. ment. It was determined that the native Americans should be regarded as serfs attached to the soil, and distributed into encomiendas, a kind of fiefs or estates established in favor of the Spanish settlers, who took the name of Conquistadores. Slavery, which had previously been ar- bitrary, was thus invested with legal forms ; the Indian tribes divided into sections, some of which contained more than a hundred families, were assigned either to the soldiers who had distinguished themselves in the war of invasion, or to the civilians sent from Madrid to adminis- ter the government of the provinces. It was fortunate for the Meidcians that their masters did not erect fortified castles, like the feudal barons of the. middle ages ; instead of these they established haciendas, or large farms, which they had the wisdom to govern according to the old forms of the Mexican proprietary. There was no change or interrup- tion in the cultivation of plants indigenous to the soil ; the serf cnltiva-r ted the soil according to hereditary routine, and so identified himself with his master, that he frequently took his name. ^ There are many Indian families of the present day bearing Spanish names, whose blood has never been mingled with that of Europeans. Another fortunate circumstance contributed to the preservation of the native Mexicans ; the Spanish settlers in that country did not enter into any of those mining speculations which led their brethren in Hispaniola and other islands of the Antilles to sacrifice the natives by myriads to their grasp- ing cupidity. The Conquistadores had neither the capital nor the in- telligence necessary for such enterprises ; they contented themselves, in imitation of the nativiss, with washing the earth, silt, and sands, brought down from the mountains by rivers and winter torrents, to ex- tract the grains of gold which they contained. The mines of Mexico, which have spread so much of the precious metals over the surface of the globe, were not discovered until after the conquest, and brought very trifling profits to those who first attempted their exploration. The loss of these speculators was a positive gain to humanity. Up to the eighteenth century the condition of the Mexican peasants was very little difiierent from that of the serfs in Poland or Russia. About that period their condition began to be sensibly ameliorated. Many families of Conquistadores became iextinct, and the encomiendas were not again distributed by the government. The viceroys and the provincial councils, called Audiencias, paid particular attention to the interests of those Indians who were liberated by the breaking up of the encomiendas ; they abolished every vestige of compulsory labor in the mines, requiring that this employment should be voluntary, and fairly remunerated. Several abuses, however, prevailed in the colonial ad- ministration, from the monopolies established by the agents of the Span- ish governments ; they conferred upon themselves the exclusive priv- ilege of selling those articles most likely to be used by an agricultural population, and fixed whatever price they pleased upon these Commodi- ties. Having thus, by a system of force and fraud, got the Indians deeply into their debt, they established a law by which insolvent debt- ors became the absolute slaves of their creditors. Many edicts were issued to check these abuses, but they were not effectually remedied until after the revolution which gave independence to Mexico. We shall now briefly state the circumstances which led to the as- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 71 sertion of Mexican independence. On the 8th of July, ,1808, a corvette from Cadiz brought intelligence of the dethronement of the Spanish Bourbons, by Napoleon, and the transfer of the monarchy to Joseph Bonaparte. The viceroy at first published the news without a word of comment, but soon recovering from his first surprise, he issued a proclamation declaring his intention to preserve his fidelity to King Ferdinand, and exhorting the Mexican people to maintain the rights of their legitimate sovereign. It was the first time that " the people" had been named in any act of state, emanating from the colonial govern- ment, and this was among the chief causes of the extraordinary enthu- siasm with which the viceroy's appeal was received. It was proposed to establish a provisional government on the model of the juntas, which had been formed by the patriots in Spain. This proposition, favorably received by the viceroy, was rejected by his council as inconsistent with the ascendency which had hitherto been enjoyed by all pure Span- iards ; three months were spent in controversy, until at length the council or audiencia took the bold measure of arresting the viceroy, and throwing him into the prisons of the inquisition on a charge of heresy. As, however, there was some danger that the populace might rise in his favor, the audiencia, having first invested itself with the functions of regency, sent the governor a prisoner to Cadiz, where he was long confined in a dungeon. The Creoles and Indians were indignant at this usurpation, and they were still more enraged \fy the undisguised contempt with which their claims were treated by the Spanish oligarchy. Bataller, one of the leading members of the council, was accustomed to say that " no na- tive American should participate in the government, so long as there was a mule-driver in La Mancha, or a cobbler in Castillo to represent Spanish ascendency." The juntas of Spain, though engaged in a des- perate struggle for their own freedom, were obstinate in their resolu- tion to keep the colonies in dependance, and they sent out Venegas as viceroy, with positive orders to maintain the ascendency of the Span- iards, and keep the Creoles and Indians in their own condition of degradation. A priest of Indian descent, Hidalgo, the curate of Dolores, raised the standard of revolt ; he declared to his congregation that the Eu.- ropeans had formed a plot to deliver up the country to the French Ja- cobins ; he exhorted them to take up arms to defend their liberties and their religion, and to march boldly to battle in the name of King Fer- dinand and the blessed Virgin. On the 18th of September, 1810, he made himself master of San Felipe, and San Miguel el-Grande ; he confiscated the property of all the Europeans, declaring that the soil of Mexico belonged of right to the Mexicans themselves. Several other cities were conquered, and in all of them the Indians and Creoles sac- rificed every European without mercy, their commander seeming to wink at their excesses, which he trusted would prevent terras of peace from being offered or accepted. Venegas, the viceroy, made the most vigorous efforts to check the progress of this rebellion ; he conciliated the Creoles by investing one of their body with high military rank ; he caused Hidalgo to be excom- municated by the ecclesiastical authorities, and he paraded an image 7H MODERN HISTORY. <^ the Virgin, to which superstition attached miraculous powers, through the streets of Mexico. This last expedient caused Hidalgo to stop short in the midst of his victorious career, and at a time when he was joined by several regiments of provincial militia, and by the curate Morelos, whose abilities were equivalent to a host. Hidalgo retired from before the walls of Mexico, which could not have resisted a vigor- ous assault. He was overtaken and defeated by an army of Spaniards and Creoles; several of the towns which had submitted to him were recaptured, and the victors more than retaliated the sanguinary excesses of the insurgents. The royal army continued to pursue Hidalgo and his half-armed associates ; a second victory completed their ruin ; Hidalgo and two of his principal officers endeavoring to escape to the United States were betrayed to the Spaniards, March 81, 1811, and after a long confinement, in which they were vainly tortured to obtain a confession of the extent of the conspiracy, diey were publicly executed. The dispersed army of Hidalgo divided itself into separate bands, and maintained a ruinous guerilla warfare against their oppressors. Rayon and Morelos resolved to unite them once more in a grand scheme of patriotic warfare. B.ayon caused a national junta to be es- tablished in the district where the Spaniards had least power ; and in its name an address was sent to the viceroy requiring him to convoke a national cortes, similar to that which had been assembled in Spain, and insisting on the equality of the American" and the European Spaur iards in all political rights, The tone of this manifesto was equally firm and respectful, but it gave such offence to the viceroy Venegas, that he ordered it to be burned by the common hangman in the market- place of Mexico. Morelos, who had succeeded to the influence of Hidalgo, prudently initiated his troops to habits of discipline in skirmishes and petty enter- prises before venturing on any decisive engagement with the regular armies of Spain. His defence of Cuantha, where he was besieged by the royalists for several weeks, gave lustre to his very defeat. Yield- ing to famine, he evacuated the town, and led his army to Izucar, with the loss of only seventeen men. The barbarous cruelties perpetrated by the, Spanish Greneral Calleja in the town after the garrison had with- drawn, rendered the royalist cause so odious,, that many who had hith- erto supported the viceroy passed over to the ranks of the insurgents. It would be tedious to enumerate the battles, skirmishes, and sieges which fiiled the next two years ; we must limit ourselves to saying that Morelos was continuously successful until the close of the year 1813, when he was decisively defeated by Iturbide. Thenceforward hia career was one continued series of misfortunes, until, on the 5th of November, 1815, he was surprised by an overwhelming force, and made prisoner after a desperate resistance. He was carried in chains to Mexico, degraded from his clerical rank, and executed. The Mexi- can junta, or congress, was soon after dissolved, and the revolt became once more a confused series of partial and desultory insiurrections which the Spaniards hoped to quell in detail. In 1817 the younger Mina at- tempted to rekindle the flames of insurrection in Mexico ; but, as he refused to assert the absolute independence of the country^ he did not HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 715 « receive such enthusiastic support as Hidalgo or Morelos. After a bril- liant career, in which he displayed the most extraordinary bravery and resources of genius, he was overthrown, made prisoner, and shot as a traitor. The insurrection in Mexico was virtually at an end, when news ar- rived that the army which had been assembled in Spain to restore the absolute authority of the sovereign in America, had revolted at Cadiz, proclaimed the constitution, and demanded the convocation of the cortes. The viceroy, Apodaca, was a devoted partisan of absolute power ; he formed a plan for inviting Ferdinand to Mexico, and there restoring him to his despotic authority, and he employed as his chief agent" Don Augustin Iturbide, who had shown himself a bitter enemy of Mexican liberty during the entire course of the preceding insurrection. Iturbide drew up a very different plan from that which Apodaca had contem- plated ; it asserted the civic equality of all the inhabitants of Mexico, established a constitution, proclaimed the country independent, invited Ferdinand to become its sovereign with the title of emperor, and in case of his refusal declared that the crown should be proffered to some other prince of the blood. The old Spaniards of Mexico, in a storm of mingled rage and fear, deposed Apodaca, and chose Francisco Novello viceroy in his place. This false step rendered Iturbide irresistible ; the Creoles and Indians flocked to his standard ; several Spanish ofB- cers, disliking the new viceroy, joined him with their regiments ; and on the 27th of November, 1821, the royalist army surrendered the cap- ital, and consented to evacuate Mexico. The treaty which the viceroy had concluded with the insurgents was annulled by the cortes of Mad- rid, and the effect of this imprudence was the utter ruin of the party which clung to the hope of seeing a Bourbon prince placed at the head of the new state. The congress which assembled in Mexico seemed disposed to form a federative republic ; but the partisans of Iturbide suddenly proclaimed their favorite emperor, and the deputies were constrained to ratify their choice. He did not retain the sovereignty for an entire year ; he was dethroned, as he had been elevated, by the army ; the congress pro- nounced upon him sentence of perpetual exile, but with laudable gen- erosity granted a considerable pension for his support. Iturbide, after the lapse of rather more than a year, returned to Mexico, July 16th, 1824, in the hopes of reviving his party. He fell into the hands of the republicans, and was immediately put to death. A republic was then established ; soon after the fortress of St. Juan d'Ulloa, the last posses- sion of the government, was surrendered by capitulation, and the stand- ard of Castile, after an ascendency of more than three hundred years, disappeared for ever from the coasts of Mexico. The progress of the Mexican republic since the establishment of its independence has not been prosperous. Conspiracies, insurrections, and civil wars, have kept every part of the territory in misery and con- fusion. Texas, one of the richest provinces, has separated from the Mexican union, and established its independence. All European Span- iards have been compelled to quit the territories of the republic, which thus drove away some of the most wealthy, intelligent, and industrious 716 MODBEN HISTOEY. of its citizens. The Mexican finances have fallen into confusion, and the army seems to be the sole ruling power in the state. Section II. — The Establishment of the Spamards in Peru. The discovery of a passage round the South American continent into the Pacific ocean, by Magellan, and the establishment of a colony at Panama, soon after Balboa had ascertained the nature of the isthmus, incited the Spanish adventurers to undertake new conquests. Pizarro, one of the most enterprising men that ever visited the New World, having with great difficulty prepared a small armament, landed in Peru (a. d. 1531), and though at first disappointed by the barren appearance of the coast, he found so much treasure at Coague as to convince him that the accounts which Balboa had received of the riches of the coun- try were not exaggerated. When the Spaniards first appeared in Peru, the nation was divided by a civil war between the sons of the late inca, or sovereign ; Huascar, the elder, was dethroned by his brother Atahualpa, and detained in captivity, while his partisans were secretly maturing plans for his restoration. Pizarro advanced into the country with the professed design of acting as mediator, but with the perfidious purpose of seizing Atahualpa, as Cortes had the unfortunate Montezu- ma. He prepared for the execution of his scheme with the same de- liberation, and with as little compunction, as if he had been engaged in the most honorable transaction. When the Spaniards approached the capital, the inca was easily persuaded to consent to an interview ; and he visited the iiivaders with a barbarous magnificence, and osten- tatious display of wealth, which inflamed the cupidity of the Spaniards, almost beyond the power of restraint. When Atahualpa reached the Spanish camp, he was addressed by Valverde, the chaplain to the ex- pedition, in a long, and what must to the inca have appeared an incom- prehensible discourse. The priest, after a brief notice of the mysteries of creation and redemption, proceeded to explain the doctrine of the pope's supremacy. He then dwelt upon the grant which Pope Alex- ander had made to the crown of Spain, and by virtue of it called upon Atahualpa at once to embrace Christianity, and acknowledge himself a vassal of the Spanish monarch. The inca, completely puzzled, de- manded where Vailverde had learned such wonderful things. " In this book," replied the priest, presenting the monarch with his breviary. The inca took the book, turned over the leaves, and then put it to his ear. " This tells me nothing !" he exclaimed, flinging the breviary on the ground. " Blasphemy ! blasphemy !" exclaimed Valverde -, " to arms, to arms, my Christian brethren ! avenge the profanation of God's word by the polluted hands of infidels." This solemn farce appears to have been preconcerted. Ere Val- verde had concluded, the trumpets sounded a charge ; a dreadful fire of artillery and musketry was opened on the defenceless Peruvians ; and, in the midst of their surprise and consternation, they were charged by the cavalry, whose appearance to men who had never before beheld a horse, seemed something supernatural. Atahualpa was taken pris- oner and conveyed to the Spanish camp, while the invaders satiated themselves with the rich spoils of the field. The unfortunate inca at- HISTOEY OF COLONIZATION. 717 tempted to procure his liberation by the payment of an enormous ran- som, but Pizarro, after receiving the gold, resolved to deprive the credu- lous monarch of life. He was brought to trial under the most iniqui- tous pretences, and sentenced to be burned alive ; but on his consent- ing to receive baptism from Valverde, his sentence was so far mitigated that he was first strangled at the stake. The Spaniards quarrelled among themselves about the division of the spoils ; the Peruvians took advantage of their discord to raise formidable insurrections, and the new kingdom seemed likely to be lost almost as soon as it was gained. Pizarro himself was murdered by Almagro, the son of one of his old companions, whom he had put to death for treason, and but for the arri- val of Vara de Castro, who had been sent as governor from Spain, the confusion produced by this crime would probably have been without a remedy. De Castro conquered Almagro, and by his judicious meas- ures restored tranquillity to the distracted province. Fresh disturban- ces were excited bj» the ambition of Gonzalo Pizarro, and it was not until more than a quarter of a century after its conquest, that the royal authority was firmly established in Peru. The government established by the Spaniards in Peru was far more iniquitous and oppressive than that of Mexico, because the Peruvian mines were, from the first moment of the conquest, almost the only ob- jects which engaged the attention of the Spanish and the provincial governments. A horrible system of conscription was devised for work- ing these mines ; all the Indians between the ages of eighteen and fifty were enrolled in seven lists, the individuals dn each list being obliged to work for six months in the mines, so that this forced labor came on the unfortunate Indians at intervals of three years and a half ; four out of every five were supposed to perish annually in these deadly labors, and to add to the misery of the natives, they were not allowed to purchase the necessaries of life except from privileged dealers, who robbed them of their earnings without remorse or scruple. Toward the close of the last century two serious insurrections of the native Peruvians filled the Spaniards with terror ; they were not suppressed until the rebellion had taxed the resources and power of the provincial government to the utmost, and the sanguinary massacres of all who were suspected of having joined in the revolt, left the country in a state of helplessness and exhaustion from which it had not recovered at the commencement of the revolution. As it was impossible to gratify the rapacious cupidity of all the Spaniards who sought to share in the produce' of the Peruvian mines, it became a principle of colonial policy to keep alive the spirit of ad- venture, by sending divisions to wrest new tracts of land from the na- tives, without organizing any new system of conquest. It was thus that Chili became finally annexed to the Spanish dominions ; but the efforts made for its conquest were desultory and separated by long intervals, so that over a great part of the country the sovereignty of Spain was merely nominal. The colonists and natives, however, seem never to have wished for independence, until the desire of nationality was pressed upon them by the irresistible force of circumstances, and in fact their first revolutionary movements were made in the name of loyalty and obedience. 718 MODERN HISTORY. When Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed king of Spain by Napoleon, all the Spanish colonies of South America resolved to remain faithful to the ancient dynasty. It was suspected that the European Spaniards were disposed to make terms with the French emperor, and therefore native juntas were elected to maintain the rights of Ferdinand. In September, 1810, the Chilians formed a junta in Santiago ; the Spanish general of the district attempted to disperse this body ; a smart skir- mish ensued, and the Chilians, having obtained the victory, became de- sirous to establish a perpetual system of self-government. The strug- gle for independence in Chili and Peru resembled the Mexican war in its general outlines ; at first the patriots, after gaining advantages of which they did not know how to make use, were reduced to temporary submission. But the Spanish yoke, always heavy, proved intolerable to men who had obtained a brief experience of freedom ; new insurrec- tions were raised in every quarter, the superior discipline which had previously given victory to the royalists was acquited by the revolters ; several European officers joined them, the Spanish government feebly supported its defenders, and the viceroys showed themselves destitute of talent either as generals or statesmen. The independence of the Spanish colonies in South America was nearly completed in the year -1823, but the last Spanish garrison Was not surrendered until the 26th of February, 1826, when Rodil, the only royalist leader who had ex- hibited courage, fidelity, and talent, surrendered the citadel of Callao to the patriots. Before 'the revolution the provinces of upper Peru formed part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres ; but as the manners, habits, and even the language of the Peruvians, differed materially from those of the people on the Rio de la Plata, the latter, after forming themselves into the Argentine republic, left their neighbors free to pursue any course they pleased. A general assembly of the Peruvian provinces solemnly pro'- claimed that upper Peru should henceforth form an independent nation, that it should be named Bolivia in honor of Bolivar, the chief agent in its liberation, and that the rights of person and property should form the basis of its republican constitution. A million of dollars was voted to Bolivar as a tribute of national gratitude, but that chivalrous general refused to receive the money, and requested that it should be expended in purchasing the freedom of the few negroes who still remained slaves in Bolivia. In lower Peru the Bolivian constitution was far from being so popu- lar as it had been in the upper provinces. It was indeed at first ac- cepted, and Bolivar chosen president, but when he went to suppress an insurrection in Columbia, advantage was taken of his absence to set aside the system he had established. Since that period Columbia, Bolivia, and Peru, have suffered severely from intestine wars and civil commotions, which have greatly deteriorated the vast natural resources of these states. Bolivia has indeed regained tranquillity, and its rulers appear desirous to extend its commerce and encourage those branches of industry most likely to benefit the community. It is the only one of the new republics in which the finances are in a wholesome con- dition ; its revenues are not only sufficient for the necessary expenses of the state, but there is a considerable surplus,^ which is wiseljr ex- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 719 pended on the maintenance and construction of roads, and on facilita- ting the means of communication internally among the inhabitants them- selves and externally with strangers. Previous to the expeditions of Cortez and Pizarro, Florida had been discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon. Its verdant forests and mag- nificent flowering aloes seemed so inviting, that a colony was formed with little difficulty. But the Indians of Florida were the most warlike of the native races in America, and they severely harassed the settlers. Soto, a companion of Pizarro, led an expedition into the interior, where he discovered the Mississippi. He died on the banks of the river, and his followers, anxious to conceal his death from the Indians, sank hi? body in the stream. A plan was formed by the leaders of the French Huguenots for emigrating to Florida, and an exploring party was sent out, but the jealousy of Spain was roused ; the adventurers were closely pursued, made prisoners, and put to death. Florida re- mained subject to Spain until the year 1818, when, in consequence of the depredations of the Indians, which the governors pleaded their in- ability to restrain, the Americans, under General Jackson, entered the province and annexed it to the United Stales. The Spanish govern- ment remonstrated, but had not the means of obtaining redress ; and it finally acceded to the cession (a. d. 1821). Section lll.^-Porluguese Colonies in South America. Brazil was accidentally discovered by a Portuguese admiral bound to the East Indies, in the year 1501, but he did not ascertain whether it was an island or part of the continent, a subject which long remained a matter of doubt. No effort was made to colonize the country for nearly half a century ; this apparent neglect arose from the reluctance of the Portuguese to interfere with the pretensions of the court of Spain, for the papal grant of newly-discovered countries to the Spanish mon- arch was held by the court of Madrid to include the whole American continent. At length the king of Portugal, envious of the Wealth acquired by the Spaniards, sent out a small body of colonists, who founded St. Salvador (a. d. 1549). These settlers reported that the native Brazilians were far lower in the scale of civilization than the ■Mexicans or Peruvians ; they were divided into a number of petty tribes or states, constantly at war with each other, and the invaders, though few in number, were easily able to subdue the Indikn tribes. in detail, by fomenting their animosities and cautiously holding the bal- ance between their contending interests. This course of policy was rendered necessary by the personal bravery of the native Brazilians ; though ignorant of discipline and unable to act in, masses, they dis- played great individual courage in battle ; they were skilful in the use of bows, darts, wooden clubs, and shields, and frequently were victori- ous in petty skirmishes. But they were unable to resist European tactics and European policy, and hence they were finally reduced under the yoke, with which they soon appeared to be contented. The facility with which the Portugtiese made themselves masters of this rich tet- ritory excited the cupidity of other powers, and they were successively attacked by the Spaniards, the Freneh, and l3ie Dutch. The laltter 720 MODERN HISTORY. were the most dangerous enemies, they had just effected their deliver- ance from the iron despotism of Spain, under which the Portuguese themselves groaned at the period, and hence they had such a party in the country that their conquest would have been certain had they not .alienated their supporters by attempting to establish odious monopolies. From the time iof the expulsion of the Dutch, the Portuguese made it their object to keep everything connected with Brazil a profound secret, and little was known of the country until it asserted its inde^' pendence. For more than three centuries one of the most beautiful and fertile regions of the globe was thus, by the policy of Portugal, restricted from all intercourse and commerce with the other nations of Europe, and even the residence or admission of foreigners was equally pro- hibited. The vessels of the allies of the mother-country were occasion- ally permitted to anchor in its ports, but neither passengers nor crew were allowed to land excepting under the superintendence of a guard of soldiers. Previously to the year 1808, though the viceroy resident in Rio de Janeiro was nominally the highest functionary of, the government, yet this personage was, in reality, invested with but little political power except in the province of Rio, where alone he acted as captain-general, the virtual administration of the colony being intrusted chiefly to similar officers, one of whom was appointed to each province. They were nominated for three years only, and received their instructions from the court of Lisbon, to which they were compelled to render an account of their proceedings. They were not only prohibited from marrying within the sphere of their jurisdiction, but also from the transaction of any commercial pursuits, as well as from accepting any present or emolu- ment, in addition to the stipend allotted them by the government. For the management and application of the public finances bodies were ap- pointed denominated " Juntas de Fazenda," Juntas of Finance ; of which the captains-general of the respective provinces were the presi- dents. The highest functions of the judicial power were confided to a court of appeal composed of disembargadores, or chief judges, to whom suc- ceeded the onvidores, or itinerant judges, who were under the obliga- tion of making an annual circuit to the districts committed to their charge, for the purpose of passing judgment in criminal cases. For the adju- dication of certain cases, judges termed " Juizes de Fora," who were selected from among such as had taken their degree in Coimbra as bachelors of law, were appointed, who; as well as the officers of the higher tribunals, were all nominated by the court of Portugal. In the less populous and inferior districts, " Juizes ordinaries," with the same attributes as the " Juizes de fora," were also occasionally selected by the votes of individuals denominated " Bous de pivo," the qualification for which title was to have held office in the municipalities. From the sentence of these '' Juizes" appeal could be made to the court of disem- bargadores in Rio, and from this again, ultimately, to the " Disembargo do Baco" in Lisbon. Unless, howev'er, the appellant were possessed either of great interest at court, or, in default of it, could bribe higher than his antagonist, these final appeals were seldom of any real utility. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 721, The statutes on which the decisions of the judicial power were fourid- ei, was the Portuguese code framed during the reigns of the two Philips, and entitled " Ordnacoens do Reino," to which were appended all the *' Cartas de Lei" and decrees issued since the accession of the house ■of Braganza, forming altogether about nine volumes. Though in ordinary cases the decision of both civil and criminal causes was left exclusively to the judicial authorities, the mandate of the captains general was at any time sufficient either to suspend or set aside the ordinary operation of the law. The municipalities were close corporations, formed on the model of those of Portugal ; where those bodies had formerly been intrusted with the nomination of deputies to the supreme cortes : though this as well as many other important privileges, had latterly fallen into desuetude. On occasions of public ceremony the national banner was still car- ried in their processions, and they were still recognised, in appearance, at least, as the representatives of the people. In Brazil also their power was once considerable, and instances have occurred of the deposition of the captains general by the municipalities, and of this exercise of authority having been sanctioned by the entire approbation of the government of Lisbon, though toward the end of the last century their powers had been restricted almost exclusively to the improvement of roads, the construction of bridges, the control of the markets, and other objects of minor importance. Their executive officers, who were en- titled " Juizes Almotaceis" were nominated by the municipalities them- selves every three months, and were charged with the power of exacting fines and enforcing imprisonment according to certain established regulations. The regular troops were recruited according to the direction, and placed eiitirely at the disposition of the captains-general, but the officers were nominated by the court of Lisbon. The militia, or troops of the second line, were enlisted by the officers of each respective corps, and the officers themselves were also appointed in Lisbon, at the proposition of the captains-general. Though serving gratuitously, this latter force was often employed in very laborious and odious services, and its mem- bers as well as the regular troops were amenable to martial law in all matters relative to their military duty. In addition to the preceding were the Ordenan9as, or troops of the third line, who by the regulations of their institution ought to have been composed exclusively of such individuals as were incapacitated by physical defects or otherwise from serving in the militia.. Their duty was to defend the country in cases of emergency, but this service was merely nominal, and, by a perversion of the real objects of the institu- tion, it became customary for all' possessed of sufficient patronage to obtain a post in the Ordenan9as for the express object of avoiding enrol- ment in the militia. The fidalgos, or Portuguese noblemen of the first rank, were exempt from personal service altogether. The orders of knighthood were those of Santo lago, San Bento de Aviz, and the order of Christ, of all of which the sovereigns of Portujgal were the grand masters and perpetual administrators. Among the privileges appertaining to the office of grand master of the order of : Christ, a pontifical bull had conferred that of an entire ecclesiastical 46 722 MODERN HISTORY. jurisdiction over ultra-marine conquests, and by virtue of this title, tTie^ crown of Portugal shortly after the discovery of Brazil appropriated to^ its own use all the tithes levied in the country ; with however a proviso, binding the monarch to provide for the celebration of public worship, and to pay a stipulated sum for the adequate maintenance of the various- clergy. By the same authority the presentation of ecclesiastial bene- fices was also constituted one of the exclusive privileges of royalty, though, at the proposition of the bishops, with an injunction that the- natives of the respective captaincies, and more especially the descend- ants of the ancient'nobility who were among the first emigrants to Brazil, should on all occasions be preferred, the right of presentation still being- restricted to the sovereign. The stipulations made for the maintenance of the established religion,' and the due support of the clergy, were nevertheless but very imper- fectly complied with. Many priests came to be dependant on the mere fees of their office- for subsistence, and the stipend paid to the highest dignitaries of the- church was but trifling when compared with what would have accrued- to them, had they been allowed to retain possession of their tithes. The revenue of the archbishop of Bahia, the head functionary of the* Brazilian church, never amounted to more than ten contos of rees per annum, at par, 2,812/. lO.v. sterling ; nor was the bishopric of Rio de Janeiro, embracing within its limits, the provinces of Rio Grande, Espirito Santo, and Santa Catherine, ever worth to its incumbent more- than six contos of rees, or, 1,687/. 10s. per annum. These peculiarities in the condition of the clergy are perhaps worthy of more particular- note than the circumstances of any other class, since they will be found* to have exercised a most important influence during the period of the subsequent revolution. The jealousy of the Portuguese government constantly led them ta dread the growth of every power or corporation which might hereafter militate against the exercise of its authority ; and on this account not only were the civil and ecclesiastical functionaries brought more imme- diately under control than in the mother-country, but even the increase of capitalists and large proprietors was systematically prevented. The entailment of landed property could be effected only by virtue of an ex- press permission from the sovereign ; and all manufactures, excepting the preparation of sugar, were most rigidly prohibited. During the year 1769 a conspiracy was fortaed by a few influential- individuals in Villa Rica, not so much, however, with the design of proclaiming an independent republic, as from a desire to ascertain what co-operation they were likely to meet with in case that step should'' subsequently be adopted. From a diminution in the product of the coal-mines in this district, several of the individuals working them were- in considerable arrear for taxes. These arrears the government in Lisbon had ordered to be paid up, with but little regard to the practica- bility of the demand. Much irritation had in consequence been excited, and a military officer of the name of Joaquim Joze da Silva Xavier, commonly termed " Tiradentes," or the Tooth-drawer, was sent off for the purpose of ascertaining the disposition of the inhabitants of Rio. Janeiro. Here the imprudence of Tiradentes led to an immediate dis- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 723 covery of the association, tne members of which were forthwith arrested. Altogether, however, their numbers did not amount to forty, yet, though little could be urged in evidence against them, they were all sentenced to death, banishment, or the galleys, according to the different degrees of their supposed guilt. These sentences were nevertheless mitigated in favor of all, except the unfortunate Tiradentes, who, though but an instrument in the hands of others, was, after the lapse of two years, condemned to be hanged, decapitated, and quartered ; by the same sentence it was, among other ignominious provisions, enacted that his head should be exposed in the public square in Villa Rica, his house razed to the ground, and his children and grandchildren declared infamous. A conspiracy, origi- nating exclusively among the people of color, was also organized in Bahia during the year 1801, but like the former, it was discovered before any attempt had been made to put it into execution. The com- munication between the different provinces was neither sufficient to facilitate a general revolt, nor indeed were the free population disposed to it. Their condition, as contrasted with that which is the result of European civilization, was wretched ; yet the tyranny exercised over them was of a negative rather than of a positive character. Their "wants were few, and from the almost total absence of nobility, "large proprietors, or powerful ecclesiastical dignitaries, there was an equality throughout their entire association which prevented their being sensible of any undue privations. Could they have been exempted from all ex- traneous impulse, ages might have rolled away, and Brazil have been known to Europe, only as the colossal, yet submissive, and unaspiring dependancy of Portugal. But events were occurring elsewhere, about the close of the eighteenth century, the effects of which were fated to extend their influence to the very ends of the earth. The young re- public of France emerged from amid the storms of the revolution, and the crowned heads of all the surrounding states entered into one mighty coalition to crush the intruder. In this attempt their efforts were par- tially successful, yet their aggressive policy was, ere long, followed up by a fearful and overwhelming counteraction. They raised up a spirit •which they afterward in vain attempted to exorcise. They called forth a conqueror who for a while scattered all their armaments before him, • and who burst and riveted at will the manacles of many nations. The results of his victories were not bounded by the hemisphere wherein they were achieved. They gave birth to the immediate independence of all the Spanish colonies in South America, and by compelling the royal family of Portugal to seek refuge in Brazil, they created as it were a new era in her history. The royal family of Portugal sailed from Lisbon under the escort of a British squadron, and reached Rio Janeiro on the 7th of March, 1808. As Portugal was occupied by a French army, it would have been absurd to maintain the ancient monopoly of trade, and the ports of Brazil were thrown open to foreigners of every nation by a royal decree. As the dowager-queen of Portugal was in a state of mental imbecility, the government was administered by her son, Don John, with the title of regent ; he introduced several great improvements into the government; Brazil was no longer treated as a colony; it was '724 MODERN HISTORY, raised to the dignity of a nation, and the progress of amelioration in its financial and commercial condition was unusually rapid. The first cause of discontent was the preference which the court naturally showed for officers of Portuguese birth ; and this jealousy was increased, by the contempt with which the Europeans treated every one of Brazilian birth. Indeedj a Portuguese general formally pro- posed that all Brazilians should be declared incompetent to hold a high- er rank than that of captain, and though no such law was formally enacted, its spirit was acted upon in every department of the adminis- tration. Dissatisfaction was silent, but it was deeply felt and rapidly extending, when in October, 1820, intelligence arrived of the revolt in Portugal in favor of a constitutional government. On the 26th of Feb- ruary, 1821, the king was compelled to proclaim the constitution in Rio de Janeiro, and to promise that he would convoke a Brazilian cortes. In the meantime the cortes at Lisbon began to form projects for se- curing to Portugal its ancient monopoly of Brazilian commerce, and to render its provinces once more colonies dependant on the mother- country. These projects were eagerly supported by the Portuguese in Brazil, who trusted to revive their ancient ascendency .over the colo- nists and natives. Violent disputes, frequently ending in bloodshed, arose between the Portuguese and the Brazilians ; Don John, who had assumed the title of king on his mother's death, returned to Lisbon, leaving his son, Don Pedro, at the head of the Brazilian government, •which he clearly saw would not long remain dependant on Portugal. The cortes of I^isbon assumed the right of legislating for the colonies without consulting their inclinations ; they abolished the tribunals which had been created in Rio Janeiro, and passed a decree recalling Don Pedro to Europe. These decrees were resisted by the Brazilians, and after some delay they took the decisive step of declaring their in- dependence, and establishing a constitutional monarchy under Don Pe- dro as emperor. We have elsewhere noticed the revolution in which Pedro was de- throned and a regency established in the name of his son. Since that period Brazil has enjoyed more tranquillity than any of the other South American states, and but for the difficulties which arise from the con- tinuance of negro slavery in the country, it would seem to have every fair prospect of advancing rapidly in social prosperity and political im- portance. Paraguay can not with propriety be reckoned among the colonies either of Spain or Portugal, though both governments have claimed it ■as their own. It was first brought under European control by the Jes- uit missionaries, who professed a nominal obedience to the crown of Spain. Their success in making converts was greater than that of their brethren in any other quarter of the globe ; they instructed the Indians who embraced Christianity in agriculture and the arts of social life ; the surrounding tribes were not slow in perceiving the advantages which their countrymen had derived from the change, and they came voluntarily to seek instruction. In a very short time the Jesuits-became complete masters of the country ; in order to perpetuate their dominion, they carefiilly excluded all foreigners from Paraguay, and infused into HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 725 the minds of the natives a suspicious jealousy, or rather hatred of for- eigners, which has never since been eradicated. When the order of the Jesuits was abolished, Paraguay was all but left to itself, and its name was scarcely mentioned in Europe, until it took a share in the revolutionary movement which established so many new states in South America. Doctor Francia headed the revolution of Paraguay, and obtained absolute power for himself, with the title of dictator. He established as rigid a system for excluding foreigners as the Jesuits themselves, and his successors appear to continue the same course of policy. Section IV. — The English in America. England had shared in the ardor for discovery which the successful^ enterprise of Columbus diffused throughout Europe. Newfoundland, was visited by Sebastian Cabot, in the reign of Henry VII. ; and two, unsuccessful voyages were made to the southern seas, by the same navigator, in the reign of Henry VIII. But the object which long continued to be the favorite one of the English adventurers, was the, discovery of a passage through the northern seas to India and China. Sir Hugh Willoughby, and Richard Chancellor, hoped that this might be attained by sailing to the northeast ; the latter reached Archangel,, a port then unknown in western Europe, and though he failed in his principal object, he laid the foundation of an active commerce between Great Britain and Russia. The company of Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Edward VI., were indefatigable in their efforts to opea new courses of trade, by encouraging maritime and inland discovery j while their navigators penetrated to Nova Zembla and the river Oby, several of their factors accompanied some Russian caravans into Per- sia, by the route of Astrachan and the Caspian sea ; and the accounts which they published on their return, first gave British merchants ac- curate intelligence concerning the state of the remote regions of the east. These enterprises were renewed under the reign of Elizabeth ; a commercial treaty was concluded with the shah of Persia, and such information obtained respecting India, as greatly increased the national ardor for opening a communication with that country by sea. But- every effort to discover a northwest or northeast passage failed ; Mar- tin Frobisher, like every navigator from his days to those of Sir John Ross, found the seas blockaded with fields of ice, through which no opening could be made. This disappointment might have damped the spirit of the English, but for the successful enterprise of Sir Fran- cis Drake, who circumnavigated the globe with a small squadron, and returned home with an account of many important discoveries in the Pacific ocean. War with Spain rendered this information peculiarly important ; and the English resolved to attack their enemies through their colonies, and thus cut off the sources of the wealth which ren- dered Philip II. formidable to Europe. In the sketch of the history of the United States will be found an account of the colonies planted by the English within the limits of that country. Canada was the first colony established by the French in Canada j. 736 MODERN HISTOEY. but the early settlers suffered so many misfortunes, that the country ■was several times on the point of being abandoned. It began, however, to prosper after the foundation of Quebec, by Champlain (a. d. 1608), and the formation of a new colony at Montreal. The contests of the French with the Iroquois and the Hurons were less perilous than those of the New Englanders vsfith the Pequods and Narragansets, but they vrere less ably conducted, and more injurious to the prosperity of the colony. At a much later period, the French colonized Louisiana (a. d. 1686), ■with the hope of securing the fertile countries watered by the Misissip- pi. The settlement was more valued by the government than Canada, because it was supposed to contain mines of gold, and for the same reason possession of it was equally coveted by the English and the Spaniards. Having two colonies, one at the northern and one at the southern extremity of the British settlements, the French government prepared to connect them by a chain of forts which would have com- pletely hemmed in the English. A furious war ensued between the two iaations in the back woods, which ended in the complete overthrow of the French. Canada and Louisiana were ceded to England by the peace of 1 763 ; but the latter is now joined to the United States, while the former still continues under British government. In the history of the other British American colonies there is nothing of sufficient im- portance to deserve a place in this summary. The most important of them now form a great republic, which must for the future occupy a conspicuous position in Modem History ; and among the best guides to a correct estimate of their future career, is a knowledge of the cir- cumstances attending their foundation. Section V. — Colonization of the West Indies. We have already mentioned the settlements of the Spaniards in His- paniola, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, and shall now briefly give a sketch of ■ the colonization of the other principal islands. Barbadoes, one of the earliest English settlements, was totally uninhabited when the English took possession of it (a. d. 1633). Its prosperity first began to attract notice when some of the Dutch, who were expelled from Brazil by the Portuguese, introduced the manufacture of sugar, and the cultivation of ■ the cane, from which that useful article is extracted. Negroes were not imported as slaves until about the year 1630 ; previously to which time the planters are said to have been frequently guilty of kidnapping the Caribs. The negroes multiplied so fast, that they frequently con- spired to massacre all the white inhabitants, and take possession of the island, but their plots were discovered and punished with remorseless severity. St. Lucia was first settled by the English (a. d. 1637), but the colo- nists were soon massacred by the Caribs, after which it was seized by the French, who are said to have instigated the revolt of the native tribes. The island frequently changed masters in the wars between France and England, but it now belongs to the latter power. St. Vin- cent and the Grenadine islands were similarly contested, and now belong to England. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 727 : Martinico and Guadaloupe were colonized by the French, in the be- ginning of the seventeenth century. Their prosperity received very .severe checks in the frequent wars between France and England. At ithe late treaty of peace they were restored to France. The other Car- ibbee islands are possessed by the Dutch, the Danes, the Swedes, and 4he English, but the largest share belongs to the English. Antigua is, perhaps, the most flourishing of these islands, but there is nothing re- markable in its history. Tobago was colonized by the Dutch, conjointly with the Courlanders (a. d. 1632). It was wrested from them by the French, who subse- moralityca,n prevail in exdlu- sion of risUgious principle." This was said,, let it be considered, at a time when the infidel spirit, the sneering spirit, of French atheism, was fash- ionable, almost the prevailing spirit, atnong the higher classes .through- out the land. .< The personal influence of Washington, due alike to his wisdom, his virtues, and his eminent services, was of the utmost importance in the first working of the new government. During the eight years of his administration, all differences with foreign nations had been peaceably settled, except those with France ; and at home the Indian isribes had been pncified. " Public and private credit was restored ; ample provis- ion made for the security and ultimate payment of the public debt ; American tonnage had nearly doubled ; the exports had increased from nineteen to more than fifty-six millions of dollars ; the imports in about the same proportion ; and the amount of revenue from imposts had ex- ceeded the most sanguine calculations."* The population had increased from three and a half to five millions ; and agriculture and all the indus- trial interests of the country were in a flourishing state. The only drawback to this picture of prosperity were the difiiculties with France. Discontented at the neutral policy of America, the French republic continued to make demands upon the gratitude of the United States, which could be yielded to only iby surrendering the right of self- government. Finding all attempts to involve America in its wars with Europe ineffectual, atid: feeling aggrieved at the treaty with its enemy, the ^French government proceeded' to retaliate,, by ;adopting certain reso- lutions injurious to American commerce, under the operation of which, moreover, several hundred Americain vessels were seized and confis- * Pitkin. 772 MODERN HISTOaY. cated. Just before his retirement from office, Washington had recalled Mr. Monroe, and despatched Mr. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to France, as minister plenipotentiary, to settle the difficulties between the two nations. Such was the state of the country at the close of Washingtcm's ad- ministration. On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams became president. The French republic refusing to receive Mr. Pinckney ; a subsequent mis- sion extraordinary to that government having also totally failed ; and spoliations upon American commerce continually increasing ; congress began to adopt vigorous measures for defence and retaliation. The treaties with France were declared no longer obligatory on the United States ; an array was raised ; and Washington was appointed comman- der-in-chief. Several engagements at sea took place between French and American vessels. The French government now signified indi- rectly a willingness to treat, and envoys were again sent from the Uni- ted States. Before their arrival, the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (November 10, 1799) had taken place ; the directorial government was overthrown, and Bonaparte was at the head of affiiirs as first consul. This event changed the policy of the French government ; negotiations were commenced, and a treaty was concluded September 30, 1800. On the 14th of December, 1799, died George Washington, mourned by the nation as no other man was ever mourned by any people. There have been great men superior perhaps to him in particular qualities and endowments ; but in the perfect proportion and harmony of all the quali- ties of his nature, intellectual and moral, in the entiremess and unity of his character, he is distinguished above all the great men whom history presents to our contemplation. In this consisted the secret of the re- pose, dignity, and grandeur, that through his whole life made so strong an impression upon all who approached him, and gave him such power over them. Party spirit ran high during Mr. Adams's administration. Its meas- ures were violently assailed by the opposition, particularly the " alien" and " sedition" laws : by the former of which, any alien considered dan- gerous might be ordered to depart from the country ; and by the latter, combinations to oppose the government, libellous publications, &c., were made penal. The unpopularity of these and some other measures gave great strength to the democratic party, and defeated the re-election of Mr. Adams. On the 4th of March, 1801, Thomas Jefferson succeeded Mr. Ad- ams as president of the United States. At the next session of congress, several of the most important acts of the preceding period were repealed, particularly those imposing inter- nal taxes, aiid reorganizing the United States courts. Among the most important events of this period was the purchase of Louisiana from the French for fifteen millions of dollars. Mr. Jefferson's term of office expiring, he was re-elected, and com- menced a second term, March 4, 1805. The same year a war, which had been carried on for several years with Tripoli, was brought to a close by a treaty of peace. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 773 The close of the year 1806 is marked by the explosion of Aaron Burr's plot for revolutionizing the western and southwestern territory. This ambitious and unprincipled man was engaged in the western coun- try ostensibly with the purpose of settling a tract of country on the Washita, in Louisiana ; but the nature of his preparations, the character of the men he was collecting, &c., excited suspicions — which the in- discreet disclosures of some of his associates confirmed — that his real object was to seize New Orleans, and establish himself at the head of a new empire in the southwestern territory of the United States ; or, failing that, in Mexico. He was seized and brought to trial the next year, but no overt act being in proof against him, he was discharged. He was, however, generaljy believed to be guilty ; and under the odium thus incurred, joined with that which attached to him for his murderous duel with General Hamilton in 1804, he sunk to abject contempt and wretchedness. The interests of the United States were now becoming complicated with policy of the belligerant powers of Europe. The peace of Amiens (a. d. 1802) gave but a short repose from war; hostilities were soon renewed between France and England, and all the powers of Europe became involved in them. The United States maintained a strict neu- trality, and engaged in an extensive and profitable carrying-trade. But in 1806, the English government, by an ordur of council, deciaxei the blockade of all the ports and rivers from the Elbe to Brest. Napo- leon retaliated by the famous " Berlin decree," declaring all the British islands in a state of blockade. This was met by another British order of council, prohibiting all coasting-trade with France. While these measures, which were partly in contravention of the law of nations, operated very injuriously upon the commerce of America, and tended to embroil her with both the belligerant powers, an old difli- culty with England was aggravated by a special outrage. Great Britain had always claimed the right of searching American vessels, and of impressing from them native-bom British subjects. They had also im- pressed some thousands of American seamen, under the pretext that they were British born. In this course the English government per- sisted in spite of the remonstrances of the United, States. In June, 1807, Commodore Barron, commanding the American frigate Chesapeake, re- fusing to deliver three men claimed by the British, the Chesapeake was -attacked by the British frigate Leopard off the capes of Virginia, very much injured and crippled, and the men in question forcibly taken away. The public mind was greatly exasperated by this outrage. The pres- ident, by proclamation, ordered all British armed vessels off the waters of the United States, until satisfaction should be made, which the Amer- ican minister, Mr. Monroe, was instructed to demand forthwith, as well as security against future impressments from American vessels. The British government declined to treat concerning the general question of search and impressment, but sent a special envoy to the United States, to settle the particular injury in the case of the Chesapeake. Mr. Rose was instructed, however, not to treat until the president's proclamation was revoked. This being refused, the matter rested ; and was noit finally adjusted until four years later, when satisfactory reparation was made by the British government. 774 MODERN HISTOEY. Meantime, on the 17th &f December, 1807, Bonaparte, in retaliation ^r, the, British, order in council, issued "the Milan decree," declaring every vessel denationalized that should submit to search by the British, a^d, every vessel a good prize; taken sailing to or from Great Britain or its colonies, or any place occupied by. British troops. ; The embargo failing to compel the belligerant powers to revoke meas- ures so injurious to American commerce, and so subversive of the rights of neutrals, it was repealed on the 1st of March, 1809, and a law passed prohibiting all trade and intercourse with France and England. Mr. Jeffjerson declining a re-election, was succeeded, March 4, 1 809, by James Madison. The, ,st3.te. of the country was gloomy. Her commerce was suffering both from foreign, and domestic restrictions ; and it seemed that she must indefinitely submit to this condition of things, or make war with the belUgerants. , In passing i^e non-intercourse act of March 1, congress had empow- ejfe^ the president to repealit, by proclamation in regard to eitheir of the hostile parties revoking their edipt3. The British minister at Washing- tpix engagedifoT his government the repeal of the orders 6f council, so far as the United S,tates were concerned. The president accordingly potified the renewal of commercial intercourse with Great Britain. But the English, .government disavowed the engagement of its minister^ and nop-intercourse was again procla,imed. On,;the 23d of March, 1810, Napoleon retaliated the non-intercourse act of congress by issuing the ," Rambouillet ducree" — ordering all ves- sels a,rriving in French , ports, or the ports of countries occupied' by French troops, to be seized and condemned. On the 1st of May, con- gress passed an act excluding British and French armed vessels from the waters of the United States — ^with a provision for renewing inter- course with whichever nation should vyithin a given time cease to violate the commercial rights of neutral nations. In consequence of this act, the French decrees were revoked, and intercourse with France was renewed. It "had been made a condition on the pajt of the French government, in revoking its decrees,, that the English orders of council should be also revofked. But England, affecting to question the fact of the actual revocatioh of the French decrees, continued to enforce its Orders,, sta- tioning vessels-of-war just out the harbors of the United States, searching, and in niany instances capturing and condemning American merchant- vessels. In the period between 1803 and the close of 1811, nine hun- dred American vessels had been thus captured. On the 3d of April, 1812, an act was passed by congress laying an erniargo for ninety days on aU vessels within the jurisdiction of the United States. And pn.the 4th of June folio wijig, war was declared against Great Britain. The grounds of war alleged were the impress- ment of American seamen, an,d the violation Of neutral rights. The feeling of the nation was by no means unanimous in favor of the war. \i was protested agajnst. by a, strong minority in congress^ as un- necessary,, impolitic, and inimoral ; and was generally condemned by the federal party throughout the country. HISTORY OF THE UNITED 6TATBS OF AMERICA. 775 Thus the United States were again at war with England. The con- test lasted for nearly. three years. The limits of this history forbid any- thing but a slight sketch of its, events. In the campaign of 1812, nothing of any importance was achieved by land. The invasion of Canada was planned : forces were drawn to the northern frontier of the Union, and naval preparations made upon the lakes. No footing was, however, gained in the British territory ; on the contrary,, Detroit and all the forts and garrisons in Michigan fell into the hands of the British, together with a considerable force under the command of . General Hull, who surrendered without a . battle, August 19 ; and the Americans were repulsed in an attack on Queenstowrij and obliged to soirender, October 13. i But on the ocean the American arms were more successful. The series of brilliant naval victories which distinguished the war was com- menced by the capture of the British frigate Guerriere by the Constitu- tion, Captain Isaac Hull, August 10. This was followed (August 13) by the capture of the Alert by the Essex, Captain Porter ; of the Frolic by the Wasp (October 17) ; of the Macedonian by the United States, Commodore ,Pecg,tur (October 25) ; and of the Java by the Constitution, then commanded by Commodore Bainbridge. , Oa the 4th of March, 1813, Mr. Madison was re-elected presi- dent. The military operations of this year extended along the whole line of the northern, frontier. The Americans were signally defeated at FrencMown by a body of British and Indians, and five hundred men made prisoners, who were nearly all massacred by the Indians after their surrender. York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, was taken by the Americans, with a large quantity of military stores. On the 1st of June^ this year, the American navy suffered a severe loss in thft eapture of the frigate CAesopeaie,, Captain Lawrence, by the British' frigate Shannon. In the engagement. Captain Lawrence and several brave officers were killed. This was followed (August 14) by the loss of the Argus. These losses were counterbalanced by the' capture of the British brig Boxer by t\i&, Enterprise, oa the 5th of September, and by, a brilliant victory gained (September 10) by the fleet on Lake ,Erie, under the command of Commodore Perry. This made the Americans masters of the lake, and opened the way to Detroit, which was soon after taken ; its' fall being preced'ed by the battle of the Thames, in which the British and Indian forces, under the' command of General' Proctor, were totally defeated by General Harrison. This victory had the effect of putting an end to the Indiaawar in the northwest, and of giving security to that frontier. The invasion of Canada was again attempted; but unexpected cir- cumstances concurred to disarrange the plan of operations, and at length the northern army went into winter-quarters, without having effected anything toward the accomplishment of the object. High expectations had been f&fmed of the success of tMs campaign, and the public disap- pointment was pioportionably greats At the souths the Creek Indians; instigated by the British, had taken up arms against the United Statfes, and a sanguinary war was carried on 776 MODERN mSTOEY. in that quarter during the year 1813, and until in the summer of 1814, when General Jackson, having reduced the enemy in several engage- ments, at length inflicted upon them an almost exterminating defeat at' Horskshoe Bend. The remnant of the tribe submitted, and the •wa.t was at an end. General Jackson was soon after appointed to the command of the forces at New Orleans. In the spring of 1814, the American frigate Esseic was captured by a superior British force in the bay of Valparaiso. But about the same l^me, the British brigs Epervier and Reindeer were cajpttred, the former by the United States sloop-of-war Peacock, the latter by the sloop Wasp. After some ineffectual movements at the north by General Wilkinson, little was attempted by either nation until midsummer, when the British government, freed from the burden of the European war by the abdica- tion of Napoleon, augmented their armies in America by the addition of fourteen thousand of the veteran troops of Wellington, and at the same time sent a strong naval force to blockade the harbors, and ravage the towns upon the coast. On the 3d of July, General Brown crossed the Niagara river from Buffalo, and took the British fort Erie ; and on the 4th, after an obsti- nate and bloody engagement, ^ined a victory over the British at Chippe- wa. On the 25th, was fought the battle of Bridgewater, near the falls of Niagara, one of the most bloody battles of modem times. The Brit- ish force amounted to nearly five thousand men ; the American was one third less. The loss of the English was eight hundred and seventy- eight ; of the Americans, eight hundred and sixty. The Americans were left in possession of the field. About the middle of August, a large British fleet arrived in the Ches- apeake bay. Six thousand men, under the command of General RosS, landed and proceeded to Washington, burnt the capito), the president's house, and the buildings of the executive departments ; and then by rapid marches retired to the ships, having lost about one thousand men in the expedition. On the 12th of September, an attack was made on Baltimore ; but the place was so gallantly defended by militia and the inhabitants, that the enemy abandoned the attempt. General Ross, the commander-in- chief of the British forces, was among the killed. While the English were thus repulsed from Baltimore, signal success attended the American arms at the north. The naval force of the ene- my on Lake Champlain was annihilated by Commodore M'Donough. The engagement took place off Plattsburgh ; and while it was raging. Sir George Provost, with a force of fourteen thousand men, commenced an assault on the American works at Plattsburgh : but he met with such a destructive fire from the Americans under General Macomb, that he was compelled to retire, with the loss of twenty-five hundred men, aban-^ doning his military stores, his sick and wounded. The close of the year 1814 is memorable in the annals of the coun- try on account of the celebrated Hartford convention. The federal party, as has been said, was from the first opposed to the war, as unjust and impolitic. The opposition was particularly strong in the New England states. As the war advanced, the opposition hecame HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 777 Still more decided, and serious apprehensions were expressed that the measures of the general government would involve the country in ruin. The opposition was aggravated by a misunderstanding between the gov- ernors of those states and the president in relation to the requisitions made by the latter for the militia to be placed under the command of officers of his appointment. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut, were at this time unprotected by any national troops against the enemy's forces hovering on the coast. In this state of things, a convention of delegates from the New Eng- land states met at Hartford on the 15th of December, 1814 ; and after a session of three weeks, published a statement of grievances, and recom- mendations for redress. " The convention recommended — 1. That the states they represent take measures to protect their citizens from ' forcible drafts, conscriptions, or impressments, not authorized by the constitu- tion of the United States ;' 2. That an earnest application be made to the government of the United States, requesting their consent to some arrangement, whereby the states separately, or in concert, may assume upon themselves the defence of their territory against the enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the taxes collected within the states be ap- propriated to this object ; 3. That the several governors be authorized by, law to employ the military force under their command in assisting any state requesting it to repel the invasions of the public enemy ; 4 That several amendments of the constitution of the United States, cal- culated in their view to prevent a recurrence of the evils of which they complain, be proposed by the states they represent for adoption ; 5. Lastly, that if the application of these states to the government of the United States should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be con- cluded, and the defence of these states be still neglected, it would, in their opinion, be expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston, in June, with such powers as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may re- quire. • " The effect upon the public mind in the aggrieved states was alike seasonable and salutary served greatly to allay the passions, and to inspire confidence and hope. Nor was the influence of this body upon the national councils less perceptible. Within three weeks after the adjournment of the convention, and the publication of their report, an act passed both houses of the national legislature, and received the signature of the president, authorizing and requiring him to ' receive into the service of the United States any corps of troops which may have been or may be raised, organized, and officered, under the author- ity of any of the states,' to be ' employed in the state raising the same, or an adjoining state, and not elsewhere, except with the consent of the executive of the state raising the same.' Before the commissioners who were sent to confer with the government could reach Washington, a bill passed the senate, providing for the payment of the troops and militia already called into service under the authority of the states. The arri- val of the treaty of peace, at this juncture, arrested all further proceed- ings."* While the Hartford convention was in session, on the 24th of De- * Holmes's Annals. 7"^? MODERN HISTOB.Y. cembei, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent. But before its arrival, the last and most memorable battle of the war was fought at New Or- leans. On the 8th of January, 1815, the American forces, amounting to about six tJiousand, chiefly militia, under the command of General Jack- son, intrenched before the city, were attacked \>y fifteen thousand British _troops, commanded by Sir Edward Packenham. After three charges, in which they were swept down with incredible slaughter, the British fled in confusion, leaving their dead and wgunded on the field of battle. General Packenham was killed while rallying his troops to the second charge' ; General Gibbs, who succeeded in command, fell mortally wounded, in the third charge. The loss of the British in killed was seven hundred'; in wounded, _/5jar one of whom, Baber, founds the empire of Delhi, or of the Great Mog^^ In India. Maritime enterprises encoura.ged. Air-gun and musket in- vented. The art of printing. Vatican library founds ed. Greek philosophers seek refuge in Italy. Algebra borrowed froni the Arabs. . Discovery of America. Passage round the the pape of Gtfod Hop6 discovered^ ' .^94 TA^jL^S.OF SIXTEENTO Denmark and S WE fa EN. Denmark. 13 C:hristian II. 23 Frederic I 34 Christian III. 59 Erederic II. 88 t;hristian IV. Sweden. 23 Gustavus Vasa establishes the in- dependence of Sweden. 60 Eric XVI. 68 John III. 412 Sigismundjking of Poland. 99 Charles IX, Russia. AND Poland. , GEBMANy, ^c. Russia. 5 Vasili Ivanovitch. 33 IvanVasiliovitchil 84 Feodor. 96 Boris Gudonof. Poland. 1 Alexander. 6 Sigismund I. 48 Sigismund II. Au- gustus. 73 Henry of Valois. ' 75 Stephen. 67 Sigismund lU. who also became king of Sweden. Empire. 19 Charles V. king- ,,of Spain, - 52; "111 n ■3 , o -1-5 4: s ■s Ifltl' .go el' '5 2 o I-] ROYAL FAMILY OF ENGLAND. 797 13 Amelia, 1 1809. 12 Sophia, unmanifid. 11 Mary, dutdiess of Gloucester. 10 Adolphns, duke ofCam- bridge. ■9 Augustus, duke of Sussex. — o o a I ■8 Ernest, duke of Cumber- land, and king of Hanover. ke^ er-L ■. J 7 Elizabeth, princess of Hesse Homburg, t 1840. -6 Augusta, t 1840. -5 Edward, duke of Kent t 1820. ■■I- b'Cf I Charlotte, queen of Wir- temberg, 1 1828. -3 WltUAM IV., j tl837. i -2 Frederick, duke of York, 1 1827. P4 S'S |.9 -1 Gboboe IV., I 1 1830. i VALUABLE HISTORICAL WORKS Published by D. APPLETON S^ CO. GUIZOT.— GENERAL HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE, From the fall of the Roman Empire to the' French Revolutioh. "franslatett from the French of M. Guizot, Professor of History to la Faculty des Let- tres of Paris, and Minister of Public Instruction. Third American Edition, with Notes, by C. S. Henry, D. D. One handsome volume, 12mo. $1. M. Guizot in his instructive Lectures has given us an epitome of modern histoi-y, distinguished by all the merit which, in another department, renders Blackstone a subject: of such peculiar and unbounded praise— a work closely condensed, including nothing-' useless, omitting nothing essential ; written with grace, ana conceived and arranged with consummate ability.^5os "M. Michelet, whose Historical labors both on Ancieift and Modern .topics haye longTen- dered hi;m a gre^t favorite vvith the Fj-ench public, is placed in one of the most enviable situa- tions that an historian can hold, as chief of the Historical Section in the Archives du Royaume — all the riches of this immense establishment are in his own keeping; and this circumstance, added to his honorable position of Professor of History for France, puts him at once at tho headof the ^historical portion of .his own countrymen. To the accumulated stores of^ life of., continual research he adds the precious acquirements of a most accomplished modern linguistj and a well read scholar in the tongues of classical antiquity ; he possesses unwearied powers of application, and is one of the most conscientious searchers of original documents that is aiiy •where to be met with. . . The highly poetical andi religious turn of mind of this author leads himto place every thing in new and original points of view ;, his descriptions are accurate, i full of details, and eminently graphic. After quoting passages from the author's work;, ttie re viewer say§|r These passages, which we have cited at considerable length in order to niake the reader ttiore fully acquainted with M. Michelet's style, are 'too beautiful^ too dramatic, to need much comment of our own. We need only say that the same strain of poesy pervades almqst every page of h^s book; that as the reader turns oyer , leaf after, lepf he find.s new views opening to his sight, nfetv methods of treating matters of previously well known historical ce- lerity, and every where th,e most cheering and amiable display. of capdor, moderation, and conscientious judgtuent., It is impossible "to peruse these volumes witjliout, feeling a regard for the author that increases' the farther we advance in them." '■ . ' ' s " Michelet's' Histo4-y has only to be translated to become one. of the most popular books €ver published. The author is a man of the highest genius ; his erudition is wonderfiil, apd hais, at ojpe philosophic and drafliatip, uniting the severest judgment to the most facile and delicate imagination. His history is thus nof only a succession' of faithful pictures but a series of the profoundest deductions.. The modern French school ofhistory, comprising as it does, among many illustrious names,' those of Thiers, Quizot, and Thierry, is deservedly acknow- ledged ai the first in Europe; and at the heald of it we should certainly place Mons.. Michelet." — Monthly Magazine. From the Edinburgh Review^ " What (easp'o indices the educated part of our countrymen to i^ore, in so determined a manner, the more solid productions^uftne most active national mind in Europe, and to limit their French readings to M. De Balzac And Eugene Sue, .tl^we vfO\i}d |>e some difficulty in precisely determining. Perhaps it is the ancient dread of French frivolity apii^ superficiality. If it be the former, we can a'saure'them that there is no longer ground for siich a feelingj'if the Iftiter, ' ■^tem^9t be permitted tp doubt that there ever was. It is unnecessary to. discuss, whpther, as some affirm,' a strong religious "revival" is'takitig place in France, and whether such a phenomenon, if real, is liitely to be permanent. Ttl»er.e'is at le^a^^aidecidgd reaction' against theinliclelity of the last age. The Vojtariftn philosophy is )opkedupoh as a thing of the past i one of it? most celebrated assaili^nts has been heard to lame^lt that it has no Jiving representation sufficiently consiiletablB to paeform the functions gf a ' constitutional' opposiiioii against the reigning pbilqcopblc doc- trines. The present Firench thinkers, whether receiving Christianity or not as a divine revelation, in noway feel tb^- selves called upon to be unjust to it aaa fact in history. There are men who^ not disguising their; own unbelief, have written deeper and finer things in vindication of what religion has done for.mankind, than have sufficed to found the reputation of its moat admired defenders. If they have any historical prejudice on the subject, it is in favor of the priesthood. Tlioy leaye the opijiions of David Hume on ecclesiastical history, to the exclusive patronage f «ve are sorry to say) of Protestant writers in Great Britain. ' ■ . . . i "* » * .f/i. (ilioh'oIet's> ate not books.jto save a reader: the trouble of thinking, but to make him boil, over with tI)ought. Thei; effect on the mind is not acquiescence, but stir and ferment, For his book, at least in the earlier volumes, is a history of the middle age?, quite as mi^iili as of France J' and he.has aimed at giving us,, not the. dry hu.skl . tut the spirit of those ages. This hud never been done before in the same degree, not even by his eminent precursor, Thierry, Sxc'opt for the pori.jdof [the Germanid iiwasionsj Tho ^roat valije of the book, is, that it does, to some extent, make us understand what was really passing in tlie collective miu4 of each generation. For, in assuming dislinotnoss; the Ufa of'the pist aasartes also variety under M, Michelet's hands. With liiin, each period has a p1(y- fifognomy ojld a ch^iracter of^ its owp,' It is in reading him that we are^made to ftiel distinctly, how many successive cdnditiona of humanity, and atatea bf the human mina, are habitually confounded under th6 nppollation.of the middle aj;es.' To common porcejition, those times are like a distant range of mountains, all m.elted together iiito one plAGid- like barrier. « * * * M. Michelet is a man of deep erudition and extenaive reaearch. He has, a high reputation amoiig the Fren.ch r learned for his industry j while his official position, which connects him with tho archives of'tbe kingdom, hail given him^'access^to a rich adurc^ of unexplored authorities, oF'whleh he has made abuiidant use in his'early volnmes, and which promise tp be of^tiU greater importance in-tlfo^e yet to o6me. £von in its merfitfoctf, therefore, this history ii considerably in adran,ce,of ^aUp.revioualy written." , A D. APPLETQN & COMPANY, Have justptthlisTied, LE^ AND CORRESPONDENCE OP THOMAS ARNOLD, D. D., AutJior of the " History of RomCf* etc., etc. BY REV, A. P. STANLEYj A. M. Two volumes of English edition in one vol., 12mo. The Life of Dr. Arnold, which ig now firat offered to the American public, has been received witfc wonderful success in England — no Biography has been published for many years which hks called forth BO unanimous expression of satisfaction from all parties. No considerable review in England, whether representing the high or low parties in Church or State — no weekly or daily publication but that has been forced to express the wonderful power aud beauty of this volume of Biography. If more were wanted to call attention to the work, we may mention the fact that the third edition of 1500 copies, at $7 50, which has just appeared, was subscribed for by the London trade in six hours — one firm ordering 500 copies, only 300 of which the publisher was able to deliver. The Life of Dr. Arnold is higbly valuable to heads of collegeB and seminaries of learning^-^ ' students and teachers in our public and private echooltj^and if the succesaful example which Dr. Arnold has exemplified in his life as " Head Master in Rugby School," is followed in our own countiy, a striking change will come over our public schools. Dr. Arnold's sound'and sensible mode of action as head master over /our hundred pupils, inspired boys and masters alike with love, roverence, and confidence — to make them rest with implicit trust on his decisions. He looked to the promise, not to the performance ; to sowing the seeds, not reaping the fruits of his labor. ^ Dr. Arnold's correspondence will prove highly important in reference to the ** Oxford movemeAt^** AS indeed his benevolent and active mind embraced every important topic of the day. From the Edinburgh Review. ** When I look round, there seems to me some one point or quality which distinguishes really nobto persoQS from ordinary ones ; it is not honesty or kindness j but it seems to me to be morbl thought- fulness, which makes a man love Christ instead of being a fanatic, and love truth without being cold or hard." This sentence of his own, would.give, indeed, a very imperfect idea of Dr. Arnold's charr aeter, but it may express the first general view that serious and good mbn of every party will take df it, and the leason why a faithful life of him would be extensively popular. Mr. Stanley has produced the loving and honest picture of a most amiable and most efiicient man who, in the unconscious aut(^ biography of a- large correspondence, gives' us Without reserve his feelings on those four or five pointi of social and theological interest of which every one now is wondering what the end will be. TntedA energy in a profession which, iiAportant as it ever was, he was the first to raise to its true dignity — an enthusiasm which, if sometimes restless, was never sentimental, but always practical in behalf oi his church and country — the gentlest and warmest affections tp his friends and family — and withal an almost boyish playfulness and freshness lighting up and relieving the naturally stern earoestness of an enthusiastic temperament — these are qualities which strike us at first sight, and which (whatever w« may think of his opinions) ought to spur ua to imitate his actions. F^om the Weatmi-nster Revi^io. More interesting— more thnely volumes hare seldom issued from the press. They contain the Tecdrda of a life and mind of no ordinary cast ; a life distinguished, indeed, by feW remarkable eveUtli, but speni in the service of God and man ; and a mind singularly energetic, earnest, and sincere— giftftd with rare endowments, and sound to itv very core. Mr. Stanley's task has been admirably executed. We never remember to have met with any memoirs', in which the biographer's part presents so little miltter of criticism, and so much for aineeri Iffaise and admiration — sound judgment, delicate tact, and a thorough compieheniion of, and sympathy witbj fail lubject, are conspicuous in every line. D. APPLETON & COMPANY ARE PREPARING FOR fUBLICATION, A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: CONTAINING THE PRONUNCIATION, ETYMOLOGY AND EXPLANATION Of all Words anthorized b]r eminent Wiiten; TO WHICH ARE ADDED, A VOOABULAET OF THE HOOTS OF EWOLISH WORDS AND AH ACCENTED LIST OF GREEK, LATIN, AND SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES. By ALEXANDER REID, A.M., Kector of the Circus School, Edinburgh. One volume, ISino.j of 564 pag-es. Iw this work, to which the author has devoted the labour of many years, an attempt has been made to compile a Dictionary for schools and general reference, adapted to the present state of the English language, and to the improved method of teaching ; it contains every word which. has been sanctioned by the use of eminent authors, except such as have become obsolete, or are merely technical. While the usual alphabetical arrangement is preserved, the words are at the same time grouped in. such a manner as to show their etymological athnity, and after the first word of each group, is given the root from which Uiey are derived. These roots are afterwards arranged into a vocabulary ; so that the ' Dictionary may be either used for reference or for teaching derivations. The pronunciation, which is indicated by simple notation, is that of Walker; unless where the latter deviates from prevailing usage or from the mnjority of competent authorities. The classical or scriptural proper names, are .printed in one list, and divided into syllables, and accented as they ought to be pronounced. D. A. & Co., having purchased of the Glasgow publishers a duplicate cast of the stereotype plates - oC this.work, will publish the same early in the coming season. ; As the value of a work of this class, rests so much upon the proper placing of the accents^ it would have been almost impossible for any one but the author to read Ach composition and correct it properly. The American edition will thus JuLve fill the advantages of the corrected text of the author. J TTSTJ^'PTT BLiTSIffE D HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION^ ITS CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES. By F. MACLEAN EOWAW. Two Tolumee, 18mo., price 75 cents ; or two volumes in one, price 63 centa. > An investigation of the causes of the French Revolution, with a survey of its progressive mutations; ^aml, of its most, eventful consequences, is essential to all persons who would accurately comprehend the almost incredible changes which within the last half century have passed over the principal. States of Europe. The extent, however, of the narrative, has almost precluded many persons fhim' (exploring that mine of healthful instruction. Mr. Rowan, however, in this neat volume, has combined all the grand points in the exciting subject, so that youth, and persons of comparatively little leisure, juay understand the prliicipul events and actors in that wonderful European strife. We recommend the work as exactly adapted for its design, replete with information and interest, and it should form one *of the volumes of all domestic and juvenile libraries. It has also been issued in two volumes, as one of the aeries uf works under the general title of " Library for my Young Countrymen." — Courier ^ JEng. THE LIFEOF OLIVER CROMWELL. By ROBERT SOUTHEY, LL.D. Author of the Life of " Nelson," "Bunyan," &c. One neat volume, l8mo., cloth, 37| cents. 'Mr. Southey*s narrative is replete with graphic sketches and exciting incidents. ' It exhibits a com- ^rehenslve summary of the most important events and principal actors of his time. Few characters oC igmat ages present stronger claims upon the attention of American readers than the Life of Oliver Crom- ^well> JNCIDENTS OF SOCIAL LIFE AMID THE EUROPEAN ALPS. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF I. HEINRICH ZSCHOKKE, By LOUIS STRACE. One handsome volume, 13mo., $1 00. This volume includei four nnrrstivea, thus entitled :— I. Florian, the Fugitive of the Jura.— 11. Morble •»ni Conrad : Mend the hole in youi Sleeve. III. Oliver f^lyeln : a Fool of the Nuietecnth Century.^ 'IV. Hortenaia, tile Double-sighted: Aeleep and Awaice. The titles of the four Tales of which this volume is composed, nt once nttracted our attentfoh; and we concluded that it was not an ordinaiy ephemeral worlt of insipid and trifliog fiction. Doubtless they ■ue sketches from life, having all the verisimilitude of actual portraitures, the truthfulness of well known «cenA-y, the tones of a lofty morality, and tlie attraction of the best sensibilities of the heart. We re> commend nil petBons who are conscious'of a hole in their sleeves, to read Zschokke's book, and they will lenm the way to mend it; and if they wish to become wise,. they will take some lessons .of trutb «nd knowledge from the " Fool of the Muieteeiith Century."— Cgun'er ^ Enquirtr. Appleton's Catalogue of Valuahie Publications BURNET-— THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION Of the Church of England, by Gilbert Burnet, D. 1>., late Lord Bishop of Salisbury — with the Collection of Records and a copious Index, revised and corrected, with additional Notes and a. Preface, by the Rev. E, Nares, D. D., late Professor of Modern Historyinthe University ofOxford. Illustrated with a Frontispiece and twenty-three engraved Portraits, form- ing four elegant 8vo. volumes. ^8 00. A cheap editioif is printed, containing the History in three vols, without the Records — which form the fourth vol. of the above. Price, in boards, $2 50. To the student either of civil or religious history, tie epoch can he of more importance than 4hat of tlie Reformation in England. The History of Bishop Burnet ia one of the most celebrated and bvfar the most frequently quoted of any that has been written of this great event. Upon tha original publication of the first volume, it was received in Great Britain with the loudest and most extravagant encomiums. The author received the thanks of both Hoosea of Parliament, and was requested by them to continue the work. In continuing it, he had the assistance of the most learned and eminent divines of his time; and he confesses his indebtedness for important oid to Lloyd, Tillotson,and Stillingfleet, three of the greatest of England's Bishops. The present edition of this great work has been edited with laborious care by Dr. Narea, who professes to have corrected impgrtant errors into which the author fell, and to have made such improvements in the order of the work as will render it far more useful to the reader or historical student. Preliminary explanations, full and sufficient to the clear understanding of the author, are given, and marginal references are made throughout the bookj^so as greatly to facilitate and Tender accurate its consultation. It will of course find a prlace in every theologian's libraiy — and ■will, by no means, we trust, be confined to tbat comparatively limited sphere.— JV. Y. Tribune. BURNET.— AN EXPOSITION OF THE XXXIX ARTICLES Of the Church of England. By Gilbert Burnet, D.D., late Bishop of Salisbury. With an Appendix, containing the Augsburg Confession, Creed of Pope Pius IV., &c. Revised and corrected, with copious Notes and Additional References, by the Rev. James R. Page, A. M. One handsome 8vo. vol- ume. $2 00. The editor has giren to our clergy and our students in theology an edition of this work, which must necesaarily supersede every other, and we feel he deserves well at the hands of the Church, which he has so materially served. — Church qf England Quarterly Review. BURNS— THE COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS Of Robert Burns, with Explanatory and Glossarial Notes, and a Life of the Author, by James Currie, M. D., illustrated with six steel engravings, one volume, 16mo. $1 25. Forming one oftheserieB of "Cabinet Edition of Standard British Poets." This is the most complete American edition of Bums. It contains the whole of the poetry com- prised in the edition lately edited by Cunningham, as well as some additional pieces ; and such notes have been added as are calculated to illustrate the manners and customs of Scotland, so as to render the whole more intelligible to the English reader. He owes nothing to the poetry of oiher lands — he is the offspring of the soil : he is as natural to Scotland as the heath is to her hills— his variety is equal to his originality; his humour, hiB gayety, his tenderness and his pathos, come all, in a, breath; they come freely, for they come of their own accord ; the contrast is never diffensive ; tlie comic slides easily into the serious, the serious into the tender, and the tender into the pathetic— ^Z/an Cunmngham, CAMERON— THE FARMER'S DAUGHTER: ATale ofHumble Life, by Mrs. Cameron, author of "Emma and Her Nurse," " the Two Mothers," etc., etc., one volume, l8mo., frontispiece. 37 1-2 eta. We welcome, in this little volume, a valuable addition to the excellent series of " Tales for the I'eople and their Children.'' The story conveys high moral truths, in a most attractive form. — MunVs MerchanVa Mag. CARLYLE— ON HEROES, HERO WORSHIP, And the Heroic in History. Six Lectures, reported with Emendations and Ad- ditions, by Thomas Carlyle, author of the " French Revolution," " Sartor Resartus," &c. Elegantly printed in one vol. 12mo. Second edition. $1. CHILU'S DELIGHT; A ,Gift for the YSuhg. Edited by a. lady. One volume small 4to. Embelj lished with six steel Engravings coloured in the most attractive style. This is the gem of the season. In style of embellishment and originality of matter, it stands «loQ& We cordially recommend the volume to our juvenile friendjv. — C. & Gazette. 6 Applefon's Catabgue of Vabiabh Puhlitations. CHURTON.— THE EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH; Or, Christian History of England in early Bj-itish, Saxon, and Norman Times. By. the Rev. Edward Churton, M. A With a Preface by the Right Rev. Bishop Ives. One vol. 16mo. $1 00. The following delightful pa^es place before us some of the choicest examples^— botJi clerical and la;— of the true Christian spirit in the £ARLY ENGLISH GHUKCH. In truth, those pagel are crowded with weighty lessons. * * * Extract frmn Editor's Preface, CLARKE.— SCRIPTURE PROMISES Under their proper heads, representing the Blessings Promised, the Duties to which Promises are made. By Samuel Clarke, D. D. Miniature size, 37 1-2 cents. In this edition every passage nf Scripture hag heen compared and verified. The volumo ii like, an arranged museurn of gems, and precious stones, and pearls of inestimable value. Tba divine promises comprr^hend a rich and endless vaiiety. — Dr Wwrdlaw, GOOLEY— THE AMERICAN IN EGYPT- With Rambles through Arabia-Petreea and the Holy Land, during the years 1839-40. By James Ewing Cooley. Illustrated with numerous steel En gravings, also Etchings and Designs by Johnston. One handsome volume, octavo, of 610 pages. $2 00. No other volume extant gives the reader so true a picture of wjiat he wouldbe likely to see and meet in Bg'ypt. No other book is more practical and plain in its pictiire^of precisely what the traveller himself will meet. Other writers have one account lo giye of tlieir journey on paper, and another to relate in conversation. Mr. Cooley has but one story for the nreBide (uicle and the pisinted page. — Brother Jonatliaii. ' ' CHAVASSE.^ADVICE TO MOTHERS On the Management of their Offspring, during the periods of Infancy, Child- hood, and Youth, by Dr. Pye Henry Chavasse, Member of the Royal Col- lege of Surgebns, London, from the third English edition, one volume, 18mo. of 180 pages. Paper 25 cents, cloth 37 1-2. All that I have attempted' is, to have written useful advice, in a clear style, stripped of all technicalities, which mothers of every station may understand. * * * 1 have ^adopted a-cQn- versatlonal form, as being more familial, and as an easier method of makings myself imderatood.^ — Extract from Author^s Preface. COPLEY.— EARLY FRIENDSHIPS- By Mrs. Copley. With a frontispiece. One volume, 18mo. 37-12 cents. A continuation of the little library of popular works for "the People and their Children." Ilj design is, by giving the board ing-achool history of a young girl, whose early education had been conducted on Christian principles, to show the pre-eminent value of those principles in moulding and adorning the character, and enabling their possessor succeSBfuliy to moel the temptatioiu and trials of life. It is attractively written, and full of inteTedt.— Com. Adv. COPLEY-THE POPLAR GROVE: Or, little Harry and his Uncle Benjamin. By Mrs. Copley, author of "Early Friendships," tlio youthful reader we heartily recommend this volume, — Albany ^dvertiaoi a A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS, IN VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE, r ~:-^^r&?'?i 'i IP " SB^Vj*. •*■« ***< FUBLISBED BY D. APPLETON & Co., New-Yokk, AND GEO. S, APPLETON, Philadelphia. For sale hy the several Booksellers throvghout the United States, (Ulassificlr '3ixiitx. A&RtOUIiTaRE. Falkner on Manures. Smith's Productive Farming'. Farmer's Treasure, by Falkncrand Smitlu AHTS, MAlTUTACTimES, &c. Kwbank's Mechanics and Hydraulics. Hodge on the Steam-Engine. Lafever's Modem Architecture. '* Stair-cose Construction. lire's Dictionary of Arts, Manuf., and Mines. BIO&RAPHT. Hamilton ^Alex.), Life of. Philip's Life of Milne. CHEMISTRY. Fresentus's Chemical Analysis. Liebig's Chemical Letters. FamelPa Applied Chemistry. EDUCATION. Hazen's Symbolical Speller. Keightley's Mythology of Greece and Italy, Taylor's Homo Education. HIS,TOEY. Frost's History of United States Navy. ** ** Army. Guizot'a History of Civilization. L'Ardeclic's History of Napoleon. Taylor's Natural History of Society. JUVENILB, Boone, Dafiiel, Adventures ofl Boy's Manual. ' ' Cameron's Farmer's Daughters Child's Delight. Copley's Eurly Frie.Adship8. Copley's Poplar Grove. Cortes, Adventures of. De Foe's Robinson Crusoe. Evans's Joan of Arc. *' Evenings with the Cfaionicleri. Guizot's Young Student. Girl's Manual. Holyday Tales. Howitt's Love and Money. " Work and Wages. " Little Coin, much Care. " Which isthe Wi9or? ** Who shall be Greatest " Hope on, Hope ever. " Strive and Thrive. " Sowing and Reaping. " No Sense like Common SeosQ. ** Alice Franklin. Jerram's Child's Btory-^fiook. AppUton's Catalogue of Valuable Publications, ItOoking-GlasB for the Mind. Lucy and Arthur Ijog Cabin, or World before You. Martineau's Groflon Boys. *\ Feasant and Prince. Marryat's Mastermaa Ready. Old Oak free. Prize Story- Book. Pratt's Dawiiings of Genius. Sandhum's Twin Sisters. Smitb, Capt.. Adventures oC Sherwood's Duty is Safety. " Jack the Sailor. " Think before you Act. Taylor's Young Tslandeia. Very Little Tales. Youth's Book of Nature. IVIEDICAL. Chavasse's Advice to Mothers. Hall's Principles of Diagnosis. Smith on Nervous System. MISCELLANEOUS.' Arthur's Tired of Housekeeping. Austin's German Writers. Carlyle's Heroes, Hero Worship. Cotton's Exiles of Siberia. D'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. Seleuze on Animal Magnetism. Ellis's Mothers of England. « Wives of Efijgland. " Daughters of England. ** Women of England. '* First Imppessibna. " Danger of Dining Out " Somervllle Hull. Embury's Nature's Gems. Foster's Miscellanies. ** Christian Morals. Goldsmith's yicar of Wakefield. " Essays. Johnson's Rasselas. Lover's Handy Andy. » £. g. d.— Treasure Trove. Maxwell's Hector O'Halloran. More's Domestic Tales. " Rural Talcs. Pure Gold. . Sinclair's Scotland and Scotch. " Shetland and Shetlaaderi. St. Pierre's Paul and Virginia. Taylor's FhysicalTheory of Another Life. Useful Letter-Writer^ ; Woman's Worth. , POETRY. Bums's Poetical Works. Cowper's " Gems from American Poets. Hemans's Poetical Works. " Songs of the AfTections. Lewis's Records of the Heart, Milton's Poetical Works. " Paradise Lost " " Rqgaiaed Moore's LallahHoDkb. Pollok's Course of Time. Scott's Poetical Works. " Lady of the Lake. *' Marmion. " Lay of the Last Minstrel. Southey's Poetical Works. Thomson's Snasona. Token of Affection, by varloufl writeri " Friendship. Token of LoTOf " , ^e Heart. " Remembrance. Young's Night Thoughts. RELIGIOUS. A Kempis's Imitation of Christ Authon's Catechism on Homilies. Beaven's Help to Catechising. Bible Expositor. Book of Common Prayer. Burnet's Hist, of Reformation. " Exposition of XXXIX. Articles. Bradley's Practical Sermons. " Sermons at Clapham and Glasboiy. Churton's Early English Church. Christmas Bells. Cruden's Concordance, N. T. Clarke's Scripture Promises. Evans's Rectory of Valehead. Faber on Election. Gresloy on Preaching. " English Churchman. Hare's Sermons. Hooker's Works. James's True Christian. '* Widow Directed, " Young Man from Home. " Christian Professor. " Anxious Inquirer after Salvation. " Happiness, its Nature and Sourcei* Kip's Double Witness. Kingsley's Sacred Choir- Lyra Apostolica. Magee on Atonement. Manning on Unity of the Church. Marshall's Notes on Episcopacy. More's Private Devotion. " Practical Piety. Maurice's Kingdom of Christ. Newman's Parochial Setmons. " Sermons on Subjects of the Dftj. Ogilby on Lay-Baptism, " Lectures on the Church. Palmer onXhe Church. Paget's Tales of the Village. Pearson on the Creed. Philip's Devotional Guides. " The Hannahs. " The Marys. « The Marthas. " ThH Lydias. " Love of the Spirit Sherlock's Practical Christian- Smith on Scripture and Geology. Spencer's Christian Instructed. Spiocke's Manual of Devotion. Spraguo's Lectures to Young People. " True and False Religiou. Sutton's Learn to Live. ** Learn to Die. '* On Sacrament. Stup.rt's Letters to Godchild, Taylor on Episcopacy. " Golden Grove. " Spiritual Christianity Wayland's Human Responsibility Wilson's Sacra Privata. Wilborforce's Communicant's Manual. VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, Couloy's American in Egypt Olmsted's Whaling Voyage. Silliman's Ameiican Scenery Southgate's Turkey and Persia. Appleton's Catalogue of Valuable Publications, A KEMPIS— OF THE IMITATION OF CHRIST: Four books by Thomas k Kempis. One elegant volume, 16mo. $1 00. "The E^uthor of this invaluable work was born about the year 1380, and has always been honoured by the Church for hia eminent sanctity. Of the many pioua works composed b^ him, liis ' Imilation of Christ ' (being collections of his devotional thoughts and meditations on impor- tant practical subjects, toi;ether with a separate treatise on the Holy Communion) is the moat celebrated, and has ever been admired and valued by devout Christians of every name. It hai nassed through numerous editions and translations, the first of which into Engliah is said to have been made by the illustrious Lady Margaret, mother of King Henry VII. MesHrs. Appleton's Tery beautiful edition is a reprint from the last English, the translation of which was chiefly copied from one printed at London in 1677. It deserves to be a companion of the good Biahop Wilson's Sacra Privata. — JBanner (\f the Cross. AMERICAN POETS.-GEMS FROM AMERICAN POETS. One volume, 32mo., frontispiece, gilt leaves, 37 1-2 cents. Forming one of the series of " Miniature Classical Library.'' Contains selections from nearly one hundred writers, among which are^ Bryant, Halleck, Longfellow, Percival, Whittier, Sprague, Brainerd, Dana, Willis, Pinkney, AUston, Hillhouse, Mrs. Sigourney, L. M. David- son, Lucy Hooper, Mrs. Embury, Mrs. Hale, etc. etc, ANTHON.— CATECHISMS ON THE HOMILIES OF THE CHURCH, 18mo. paper cover, 6 1-4 cents, $4 per hundred. COKTENTS. I. Of the Misery of Mankind. I IH. Of the Passion of Christ. n. Of the Nativity of Christ. | IV. Of the Resurrection of Christ. B7 HEHBT ANTHON, D. D., Hector of St. Mark's Ohnroh, New York. This little volume forms No. 2, of a series of " Tracts on Christian Doctrine and Fractieo," now in course of publication under the supervision of Rer. Dr. Anthon. AUSTIN.— FRAGMENTS FROM GERMAN PROSE WRITERS. Translated by Sarah Austin, with Biographical Sketches of the Authors. One handsomely printed volume, 12mo. $1 25. ARTHUR.— TIRED OF HOUSE-KEEPING By T. S. Arthur, author of " Insubordination," etc. etc. One volume, ISmo, frontispiece, 37 1-2 cents. Forming one of the series of "Tales for the People and their Children." Contents. — I. Goiiig to House-keeping. — II. First Experiments. — IIL Morning Calls. — IV. First Demonstrations. — V. Trouble with Servants — VI. A New One.— VII. More Trouble.— VIII. A True Friend.— IX. Another Powerful Demonstration. — X. Breaking up. — XI. Experiments in Boarding and Taking Boarder. — XII. More Sacrifices. — XIII. Extracting Good from Evil.— XIV. Failure of the First Experiments.- XV. The New Boarding- house.— XVI. Trouble in Earnest.— XVII. Sickness.— XVIII. Another Change. — XIX. Conclusion. BEAVEN.— A HELP TO CATECHISING. For the use of Clergymen, Schools, and Private Families. By James Bea- ven, D. D., Professor^ of Theology at King's College, Toronto. Revised and adapted to the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. By Henry Anthon, D. D., Rector of St. Mark's Church, N. Y. 18mo., paper cover, 6 1-4 cents, $4 per hundred. Forming No. 1 of a series of "Tracts on Christian Doctrine andFractice,". nowin ooiirse pf publication under the superintendence of Rev. Dr. Anthon. 3 Appleton's Catalogue of Valuable Publieaiions, BIBLE EXPOSITOR. Confirmation of the Truth of the Holy Scriptures, from the Observations of recent Travellers, illustrating the Manners, Customs, and Places referred to in the Bible. Published under the direction of the Society for the Promo- tion of Cliristian Knowledge, London. Illustrated with 90 cuts. One volume, 12mo., 75 cents. EXTRACT FROM PREFACE. •' The Holy Scriptures contain manj passages full of importance and beauty, tut not generatlj understood, because they contain allusions to manners and customs, familiar indeed to those to whom they were originally addressed, but imperfectly known to us. In order to obviate this difficulty, this volume is now presented to the public, consisting of extracts from the narratives of travel- lers who have recorded the customs of the oriental nations, from whom we learn that some usages were retained among them to this day, such as existed at the times when the Scriptures were w;rtj;en, and that their ir\anners are In many instances little changed since the patrjar^ha^l tiip^Et The compiler of this volume trusts that it may be the means, under God's providence, of leading unlearned readers to a more general acquaintance with Eagtern customs, and assist them to a clearer perception of the propriety and beauty of Uie illustrations so often drawn from them in the Bible.'* BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER; And Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, together with the Psalter or Psalms of David. Illustrated with six steel engravings, rubricated, l8mo. size, in various bindings. Morocco, extra ^ilt leaves, $2 95. With clasp, do., $3 00. Imitation of Morocco, gilt leaves, $1 50. Flam do., $1 00. Without rubrics, in Morocco, extra, ^ 00. Imitation do., $1 S5, Sheep, plain, 37 1-2 cents. It may also be ha4 in rich silk velvet binding, mounted with gold, gilt borders, clasp, &c., price $8 00. A very superior edition, printed in large type, from the new authorized edition, is nearly ready. It will be embellished with choice steel engravings from designs by Overbook. BPQNE.-ADVENTURES OF DANIEL BOONE, The Kentucky Rifleman. By the author of " Uncle' Philip's Conversations." One volume, 18mo. 37 1-2 cents. Forming one of the series of " A Library for my Young Countrymen." " It is an excellent narrative, written in a plain, familiar style, and aets forth the character and ivild adventures of the hero of the Kentucky wilderness in a very attractive light. The boya will all be in an agony to read it.'^ — Com. JMrn. BOYS' MANUAL- Comprising a Summary View of the Studies, Accomplishments, and Princi- ples of Conduct, best suited for promoting Respectability and Success id Life. 1 vol. 18mo. 50 cents. BRADLEY--FAMILY AND PARISH SERMONS, Preached at Clapham and Glasbury. By the Rev. Charles Bradley. Froz9 the seventh London edition, two volumes in one,8vo. $1 25. PRACTICAL SERMONS For every Sunday throughout the year and principal holydays. Two volumoi of English edition in one 8vo $1 50. J):^ The above two volumes may be bound together in one. Price $3 50. The Sermons of this Divine are much admired for their plain, yet chaste and elegant style ; they will be found admirably adapted for family reading and preaching, where no pastor is located. Recommendations might bo given, if space would admit, from several of our Bishopa and Clergy— alBofi^om MinisterB of various denominations. The following are a few of the English and American critical opinions of their merit; — " Bradley'^ atylo is sententious, plth^, and colloquial. He ia simple without boin^ quaint, and he almost hplda conversation with his hearers, without descending from the dignity of tho ucred chair.'* — Nettie iiemeio. '* We earnestly desire that every pulpit may ever be the vehicle of diacourses as judicions and practical, as scriptural and devout, as tliese." — Christian Observer. " The style is so simple that tho most unlearned can understand them ; the matter so instnie- tive that the best informed can learn something; the aplrit so fervent that the most engagftA Christian can be animated and warmed by tbtu mzuial." — CArutum Wit»t«m» AppletorCs Catalogue of Valuable Publications* EVANS,-THE RECTORY OF VALEHEAD ; Or, the Records of a Holy Home. By the Rev. R. W. Evans. From the twelfth English edition. One volume, 16mo. 75 cents. Universally and cordially do we recommend this delightful volume We believe nopersott could read this work, and not be the better for its pioua and tonching lesaons. It ia a page taken from the book of life, and eloquent with all the instruction of an excellent pattern ; it is a com- Rientary on the affectionate warning, "Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth." We have not for some time seen a work we could ao deservedly praise, or bo conscientiously recom- lueDd — Literary Oazettc, EMBURY.-NATURE'S GEMS; OR, AMERICAN FLOWERS In their Native Haunts. By Emma C. Embury. With twenty plates of Plants carefully colored after Nature, and landscape views of their localities, from drawings taken on the spot, by E. W. Whiteiield. One imperial oc- tavo volume, printed on the finest paper, and elegantly bound. This beautiful work will undoubtedly form a "Gift-Book " for all seasons of the year. It is illustrated with twenty colored engravings of indigenous flowers, taken from drawings made on the spot where they were found ; while each flower is accompanied by a view of some striking feature of American scenery. The literary plan of the book diners entirely from that of any other work on a similar subject which has yet appeared. Each plate has its botanical and local de- scription, though the chief part of the volume is composed of original tales and poetry, illustrative of the sentiments of the flowers, or associated with the landscape. No pains or expense has been spared in the mechanical execution of the volume, and the fact that it is purely American both in its graphic and literary departments, should recommend it to general notice. EWBANK— HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS. A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and other Machines for raising Water, including the Steam and Fire Engines, ancient and modern ; with Observations on various subjects connected nrith the Mechanic Arts ; including the Progressive Development of the Steam Engine. In five books. Illustrated by nearly three hundred Engravings. By Thomaa Ewbank. One handsome volume of six hundred pages. $3 50. This ia a highly valuable production, repleto with novelty and intereat, and adapted to gratify equally the hiaiorian, the philosopher, and the mechanician, being the result of a protracted ana extensive research among the arcana of historical and scientific literature. — JVat. Intelligeneer. FABER.— THE PRIMITIVE DOCTRINE OF ELECTION; Or, an Historical Inquiry into the Ideality and Causation of Scriptural Elec- tion, as received and maintained in the primitive Church of Christ.' By George Stanley Faber, B. D., author of "Difficulties of Romanism,' "Difficulties of Infidelity," &c. Complete in one volume, octavo. $1 75. Mr. Faber verifies his opinion by demonstration. We cannot pay a higher respect to his work than by recommending it to all. — Church of England, Q,uarterhf Review. FALKNER.-THE FARMER'S MANUAL. A Practical Treatise on the Nature and Value of Manures, founded from Experiments on various Crops, with a brief Account of the most Recent Discoveries in Agricultural Chemistry. By F. Falkner and the Author of " British Husbandry." 12mo., paper cover 31 cents, cloth 50 cents. It is the object of the present treatise to explain the nature and constitution of manures gene- jally — to point out the means of augmenting the quantity and preserving the fertilizing power of farm-yard manure, tho various sources of mineral and other artificial manures, and the cause of their frequent failuiea. — Jivtkor^a Frtfaca. FARMER'S TREASURE, THE ; Containing "Falkner's Farmer's Manual," and " Smith's Productive Farm- ing," bound together. 12mo., 75 cents. FOSTER.— ESSAYS ON CHRISTIAN MORALS, Experimental and Practical. Originally delivered as Lectures at Broadmead Chapel, Bristol. By John Foster, author of " Essays on Decision of Char- acter," etc. One volume, ISmo., 50 cents. This Tolame ooDtaim twenty-tix Eineys, some of which are of the highe>t.ordei of tabliiiiitir and excelleuc*. 9 Appkton^s Catalogue of Valuable Publications, FOSTER-BIOG., LIT., AND PHIL. ESSAYS, Contributed to the Eclectic Review, by John Foster, author of " Essays on De- cision of Human Character," etc. One volume, 12mo., $1 25. These contributions well deserve to class with those of Macauley, Jeffrey, and Sidney Smith, dn the Edinburgh Review. They contain the productions of a more original and profound thinker -fthan either, whose master-mind has exerted a stronger influence upon his readers, and has left a xdaeper impression upon our literature ; and whose peculiar merit it was to present the doctrines -and moralities of the Christian faith, under a form and aspect which redeemed the familiar from triteness, and threw a charm and freshness about the severest truths. — London PatrioU rROST— THE BOOK OF THE NAVY: Xiomprising a General History of the American Marine, and particular accounts of all the most celebrated Naval Battles, from the Declaration of Independ- ence to the present time, compiled from the best authorities. By John Frost, LL. D. With an Appendix, containing Naval Songs, Anecdotes, &c. Embellished with numerous original Engravings, and Portraits of 'distinguished Naval Commanders. One volume, 12mo., $1 00. Thia is the only popular and yet authentic single view which wo have of the naval exploits of ';onr country, arranged with good taateand set forth in good language. — U. S. Oaiette. This volume is dedicated to the Secretary of the Navy, and is altogcrher a very faithful and ^attractive historical record. It deserves, and will doubtless have, a very extended circulation — JV*ae. iTitelligencer. FROST— THE BOOK OF THE ARMY: ^Comprising a General Military History of the United States, from the period of the Revolution to the present time, with particular accounts of all the ■most celebrated Battles, compiled from the best authorities. By John ' Frodt, LL. D. Illustrated with numerous Engravings, and portraits ot distinguished Commanders. ' One volume, 12mo., $1 00. This work gives a complete history of military operations, and their causes and eflects, from ^lie opening of the Revolution to the close of the last war, with graphic descriptions of the cele- Ebratod battles aad characters of the leading general^. It is illustrated with numerous portraits on ^teet, and views of battles, from original drawings by Darley and others. The importance of pop- ;>ular works of the class to which this and the ^' Book of the Navy " belong, must bo obvious to all 'who recognize the value of national recollections in preserving a true national spirit. rRESENlUS— CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Elementary Instruction in Chemical Analysis. By Dr. C. Khemigius Frese- nius. With a Preface by Prof. Liebig. Edited by I. Lloyd Bullock. One neat volume, 12mo. Paper, 75 cents ; cloth, $1 00. This Introduction to Practical Chemistry is admitted to ho the' most valuable Elementary In- "jitructor in Chemical Analysis fo scientific operatives, and for pharmaceutical chemists, which has i^rer been presented to the public. <3UIZOT.-THE YOUNG STUDENT; 40r, Ralph and Victor. By Madame Guizot. From the French, by Samuel -Jackson. One volume of 500 pages, with illustrations. Price 75 cents, or in three volumes, $1 12. This volume of biographical incidents is a striking picture of juvenile life. To all that num- SierlesB class of youth who arp passing through their literary education, -^hether in boarding- schools or academies, in the collegiate course, or the preparatory studies connocled with them wo ,;&now nothing more precisely fitted to meliorate their character, and direct their course, subordi- mate to the higher authority of Christian ethics, than this excellent delineation of " The Yoanff 'Student," by Madame Guizot. * * * The French Academy were correct in their indgmeniL when they pronounced Madame Guizot's Student the best book of the yem.— Courier ^ Enquirer^ GUIZOT.-GENERAU HISTORY OF CrVILIZATION Iti Europe, from the fall of the Roman Empire to the French Revolution. Translated from the French of M. Guizot, Professor of History to la Facul- ty des Lettres of Paris, and Minister of Public Instruction. Third Ameri- can edition, with Notes, by C. S. Henry, D. D. One handsome volume 12mo., $100. M. Guizot in hla instructive Lectures has given Us an epitome of modem history, distinpiisheil bj all the merit which, in another department, renders Blackstone a subject of such pecufiar and ^abounded praise-^4l work closely condensed, including nothing useless, omitting nothing essen ftial ; written with grace, and conceived and arranged with consummate abilitj.— :£(u(. 7Vav«U«r Appleton's Catalogue of Valuable Publications. tSRISWOLD.-CURIOSITIES OF AMER. LITERATURE.- 'Compiled, edited, and arranged by Rev. Rufus W. Griswold. See D'Israeli. GIRL'S MANUAL: Comprising a summary View of Female Studies, Accomplishments, and Prin ciples of Conduct. Frontispiece. One volume, 18mo., 50 cents. GOLDSMITH.— PICTORIAL VICAR OF WAKEFIELD. The Vicar of Wakefield. By Oliver Goldsmith. Illustrated with upwards of 100 engravings on wood, making a beautiful volume, octavo, of 300 pages. $1 25. The same, miniature size, 37 1-2 cents. We love to turn back over these rich old classicB of our own language, and re-juvenate our- selves by the never-failing associations which a re-perusal always calls up. Let any one who has ■not read this immortal tale for fifteen or twenty years, try the experiment, and wo will warrant that he rises up from the task — the pleasure, we should have said — a happier and a better man. In the good old Vicar of Wakefield, all is pure gold, without dross or alloy of any kind. This tnuch we have said to our last generation readers. This edition of the work, however, we take it, was got up for the benefit of the rising generation, and we really envy our young friends the plea- sure which is before such of them as will read it for the first time Savanndk Republican. GOLDSMITH.— ESSAYS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS, By Oliver Goldsmith. Miniatiire size, 37 1-2 cents. Forming one of the seiies of" Miniature Classical Library." GRESLEY— PORTRAIT OP A CHURCHMAN, ■By the Rev. W. Gresley, A. M. From the Seventh English edition. One elegant volume, 16mo., 75 cents. "The main part of this admirable volume is occupied upon the illustration of the practical working of Church principles when sincerely received, getting forth their value, in the commerce of daily lire, and how surely they conduct those who embrace them in the safe and quiet path of holy life," GRESLEY— A TREATISE ON PREACHING, In a Series of Letters by the Rev. W. Gresley, M. A. Revised, with Supple- mentary Notes', by the Rev. Benjamin I. Haight, M. A., Rector of All Saints' Church, New York. One volume, 12mo. $1 25. Advertisement. — Tn preparing the American edition of Mr. Gresley's valuable Treatiao, a few foot-notes have been added by the Editor, which are distinguished by brackets. 1'he more extend- ed notes at the end have been selected from the best works on the subject — and which, with ono or two exceptions, are not easily accessible to the American student. HAMILTON— THE LIFE OF ALEXANDER HAMILTON, Edited by his son, John C. Hamilton. Two volumes, 8vo., $5 00. We cordially recommend the perufaj and diligent study of these volumes, exhibiting, as they do, much valuable matter relative to the Revolution, the establishment of the Federal Constitu- tion, and other important events in the annala of our country. — W. Y. Review. HEMANS— THE COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS Of Felicia Hemans, printed from the last English edition, edited by her Sister. Illustrated with 6 steel Engravings. One beautifully printed and portable volume, 16mo., $ , or in two volumes, $ Of thia highly accomplished poetess it has been truly said, that of all her sex " few have writ- ten so much and so well." , Although her writingH possess an energy equal to th^lr high-toned l)eaaty, yet are they so pure arid so- refined, that not a line of them could feeling spare or delicacy blut fiom her pages. Her imagination was rich, chaste, and glowing. Her chosen themes are the cradle, the heaith-^tone, and the death-bed, Tn her poems of Coeur de Lion, Ferdinand of Aia- gon, and Bernard del Carpio, we see beneath the glowing colors with which she clothe^ her ideas, the feelings of a ibotooji^s heart. Her earlier poems, Records of Woman and Forest Sanctuary, fptand unrivalled. In short, het works will ever be read by a pious and enlightened community. HEMANS.-SONGS OF THE AFFECTIONS, By Felicia Hemans. One volume, 32mo., gilt. 31 cents. Forming one of the aeries of" Miniature Classical Library." HARE.-SERMONS TO A COUNTRY CONGREGATION, By Augustus William Hare, A. M., late Fellow of New College, and Rectoi of Alton Barnes. One volume, royal 8vo., *2 25. 11 Appleton's Catalogue of Valuable Publications. HALL— THE PRINCIPLES OF DfAGNCSIS, Uy Marshall Hall, M. D., F. R. S , &o. Second edition, vvitli many improve^ menls. By Dr. Joijn A. Sweet. One volume, 8vp., $2 00. This work -f/an published in accordance witl) tlic (lesire of some of the most t^rletiraled physi— cianfa of this country, who were anxious that it stiould be brought within the reacli of ail claascB of medical men, to whose attention it olfers slrong claiins as tlie be.^l worit on tlie subject. HAZEN— SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK. The Symbolical Spelling-Book, in two parts. By Edward Hazen. Contain- ing 288 engravings. 18 3-4 cents. This work is used in upwards of one thousand different schools, and pronounced to he one of the best works publislied. HODGE— THE STEAM-ENGINE: Its Origin and gradual Improvement, from the time of Hero to the present day, as adapted to Manufactures, Locomotion, and Navigation. IlhiPtnited with 48 Plates in full detail, numerous wood cuts, &>c. By Paul R. Hodge,. C. £. One volume folio of plates, and letter-press in 8vo. $10 00. This work should be placed in the " Captain's Office " of every sieamer in our country, and' also with every engineer to whom is confided the control of the engine. From it they would de- rive all the information which would enable them to comprehend the cau"'' and effects of every ordinary accident, and also the method promptly and successfully to repair any injury, and to rem- edy any defect. HOLYDAY TALES; Consisting of pleasing Moral Stories for the Young. One volume, square 16mo., with numerous illustrations. 37 1-2 cents. This is a most capital little book. The stories are evidently written b; an able hand; and that too in an exceedingly attractive style. — Spectator. HOOKER— THE COMPLETE WORKS Of that learned and judicious divine, Mr. Richard Hooker, with an account of his Life and Death. By Isaac Walton. Arranged by the Rev. John Keble,. M. A. First American from the last Oxford edition. With a complete general Index, and Index of the texts of Scripture, prepared expressly for this edition. Two elegant volumes, 8vo., $4 00. Contents. — The Editor's Preface comprises agencralsurveyof the former edition of Hooker's - Works, with Historical Illustrations of the period. After which follows the Life of Hooker, by Isaac Walton. His chief work succeeds, on the " Laws of Ecclesiiistici.l Polity." It commences with a lengthened Preface designed as an address " to them who seek the refor- mation of the Laws and Orders EeclHsiastieal of the Church of England." The discu^^sion is divi- ded into eight books, which include an investigation of the topics. After those eight books of ihe " Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity," follow two Sermons, " The certainty and perpetuity of Faith in ' the elect ; especially of the Prophet Habakkuk's faith ;" and " Justification, Works*, and how the foundation of faith is overthrown." Next are introduced " A supplication made to the Council by Master Walter Travers," and "Mr. Hooker's answer to the supplication that Mr Tra\er» made to the Council." Then follow two Sermons—" On the nature of Pride," and a " Kemcdy against Sorrow and Pear." Two Sermons on part of the epistle of the Ap08tle Jude are next in- serted, with a prefatory dedication by Henry Jackson. The last article in the works of Mr. Hooker ia a Sermon on Prayer. The English edition in three volumes sells at $10 00. The American Is an exact reprint, at less than half the price. HUDSON.— THE ADVENTURES OF HENRY HUDSON, By the author of "Uncle Philips Conversations." Frontispiece. 18mo., cloth. 37 cents. Forming ono of the series of" A Library for my Young Countrymen." This little volume furnislioa us, from authentic sources, the most important facts in this ct'e- Dfated adventurer's life, and in a style that possesses more than ordinary interest. — Eoenmir Post. HOWITT.-THE CHILD'S PICTURE AND VERSE-BOOK; Commonly called " Otto Speckter's Fable-Book." Translated from the Ger- man by Mary Howitt. Illustrated with 100 engravings on virood. Square 12mo., in ornamental binding, $ A celebrated German review says, " Of this production, which makes itself an epoch in the world of children, it is superfluous to speak. The Fable-Book is throughout all Germany in the kands of paienU and children, and will always be now, because ereiy year fresh children are born " Applefon's Catalogue as it formerly was to statesmen. '.Que own Miss Sedgwick has produced some of the most beautiful moral stories, for the edifications and delight of children, which have over been written. The Hon. Horace Mann, in addresses' t« adults,' has presented the claims of children for good education, with a power and eloquence of style, and an elevation of thought, which shows his heart is in his work. The stories of Mary Howitt Harriet Martineau, Mrs. Copley, and Mrs. Ellis, which form a part of " Tales for the Peo- pleand their Children," will be found valuable additions to juvenile literature ; at the same time they may be read with profit by parents for the good lessons theyinculcate, and by all other read* ers for the literary excellence they ilisplay. We wish they could be placed in the hands andengtaven on the minds of all the-you^n-in th« eountry. They manifest a nice and accurate observation of human nature, and especially 'the., na- tuio of children, a fine sympathy with every thing good and pure, and a capability of infusing it in the minds of others — great beauty and dmplicity of style, anda keen eye to praetical life,v^Uh all its fkults, united with a deep love for ideal excellence. Messrs' Appleton & Co deserve the highest praise for the excellent. manner in which they have " gpt up " their juvenile library, and we sincerely hope that its success will be so great as to induce them to make continual contributions to its treasures. The collection is one which should be owned' by every parent who wishes that the moral and intellectual improvement of his childreM should keep pace with their growth in years, and tho development of their physical powers Jimerican Traveller JERRAM— THE CHILD'S OWN STORY-BOOK; Or, Tales and Dialogues for the Nursery. By Mrs. Jerram (late Jane F.liz^ beth Holmes). Illustrated with numerous Engravings. 50 cents. There are seventy stories iu this volume. They are admirably ailapted for the countleas youth for whose edification they are narrated — Boston Gazette. JOHNSON.— THE HISTORY OF RASSELAS, Prince of Abyssinia — a Tale. By Samuel Johnsen, LL. D. 3Smo., gilt leaves, 38 cents. *t* Forming one of the series of" Miniature Olassieal Library." 13 AppUtm's Catalogue of Valuable Puhlications. JAMES.-THE TRUE CHRISTIAN, Exemplified in a Series of Addresses, by Rev. John Angell James. One roVi Idmo, 38 cents. These addreaiei are amongst the choiceit effiuioni of the admirable author. — Chr, /n(«2I. THE ANXIOUS INQUIRER Afler Salvation Directed and Encouraged. By Rev. John Angell Jame«> . One volume, 18mo., 38 cents. Upwards of twenty thousand copies of this excellent little volume have been sold, which fullj-. attests the high estimation the work has attained with the religious community. HAPPINESS, ITS NATURE AND SOURCES. By Rev. John Angell James. One vpliime, 32mo., 25 cents. This is written in the excellent authbr'B best vein, A better book wo have not in a long tima - •een.-^jBvan^fi2u£, THE CHRISTIAN PROFESSOR: Addressed in a Series of Counsels and Cautions to'th6 Members of Christian Churches. By Rev. John Angell James. Second edition. One volume, . 18mo., 63 cents.. A most excellent work from the* able and prolific pen of Mr. James. — Chr, InteUigeneer, THE YOUNG MAN FROM HOME. In a Series of Letters, especially directed for the Moral Advancement of Youth. By Rev. John Angell James. Fifth edition. One volum«-, 18mo., 38 cents. , The work is a rich treasury of Christian counsel and instruction^^^2&an^ Advertiser, THE WIDOW DIRECTED To the Widow's God. By Rev. John Angell James. One volume, 18mo.» 38 cents. The book is worthy to be read by others besides the class for which it is especially designed; and we doubt not that it is destined to come as a friendly visitor to many a house of mourDinr, and as a healing balm to many a wounded heart. — JV*. K. Observer KEIGHTLEY-— THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE And Italy, designed for the use of Schools. By Thomas Keightley. Nume- rous wood-cut illustrations. One volume, 18mo., half bound, 44 cents. This is a neat little volume, and well adapted to the purpose for which it was prepared. It ' presents, in a very compendious and convenient form, every thing relating to the subject, of impor- tance to the young student. — L. I. Star, KINGSLEY.— THE SACRED CHOIR: A Collection of Church Music, consisting of Selections from the most distin- guished Authors, among whom are the names of Haydn, Mozart, Beetho- ven, Pergolessi, &c. &o., with several pieces of Music by the Author ; also- a Progressive Elementary System of Instruction for Pupils. By George Kingsley, author of the Social Choir, &c. &c. Fourth edition. 75 cents. Mr. George Kingsley : Sir, — We have examinedthe " Sacred Choir " enough to lead us to ap- preciatethe work as the best publication of Sacred Music extant. Tt is beautifully printed and ' nbstantially bound, conferring credit on the publishers. We bespeak for the " Sacred Choir " aa extensive circulation O. S. BovrDom, Binceioly yours, E. O. GooDwiif T>. IlTOHAHAM, KIP.-THE DOUBLE WITNESS OF THE CHURCH, By Rev. Wm. Ingraham Kip, author of" Lenten Fast." One volume, 12mo. Second edition. Boards 75 cents, cloth $1 00. This is a sound, clear, and able production— a book much wanted for these times, and one that we feel persuaded will prove eminently useful. It is a happy delineation of that dodbm withess which the Church bears aeainst Romanism and ullra-Protestontisra, and points out her middla- path Bi the only one of truth and safety. — Banner of the Cross* 14 Appleton's Catalogue of Valuable Publications. LAFEVER— BEAUTIES OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE! Consisting of forty-eight Plates of Original Designs, with Plans, Elevations, and Sections, also a Dictionary of Technical Terms ; the whole forming s complete Manual for the Practical Builder. By M. Lafever, Architect. One volume, large 8vo., half bound, $6 00. STAIR-CASE AND HAND-RAIL Construction. The Modern Practice of Stair-case and Hand-rail Construction,, practically explained, in a Series of Designs. By M. Lafever, Architect With Plans and Elevations for Ornamental Villas. Fifteen Plates. Ones- volume, large 8vo., $3 00. Mr. Laferer's J' Beauties of Architecture," and lis " Practice of Stair-case and Hand-rail con- struction," constitute two volumes rich in instruction in tliose departments of business. Thejt are a necessary acquisition not only to the operative workman, but to all landlords and proprietors of bouses, who would combine both the ornamental and useful in their familydwellings, and alto understand the most economical and profitable modes by which their edifices can be erected aodS repaired. LEWIS-RECORDS OF THE HEART, By Sarah Anna Lewis. One volume, 12nio., $1 00. We have read some of the pieces with much pleasure. They, indicate poetic genius of no or*- dinary kind, and are imbued with much feeling- and, pathos. We welcome the volupie as a credit, able accession to the poetic literature of the country. — Boston Traveller, LIEBIG.— FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY, And its relation to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. By Justus Lie- big, M. D. Edited by John Gardner, M. D. One volume. 13 cent*, in paper, 35 cents bound. The Letters contained in this little volume embrace some of the most important points of ib^" Bcience of Chemistry, iu their application to Natural Philosophy, Physiology, Agriculture, andC Commerce. LETTER-WRITER, The Useful Letter- Writer, confprising a succinct Treatise on the Epistblary Art, atid Forms of Letters for all ordinary Occasions of Life. Compiled ironi the best authorities. Frontispiece. 32mo., gilt leaves, 38 cents. r Forming one of the series of "Miniature Classical Library." LOOKING-GLASS FOR THE MIND; Or, Intellectual Mirror. Being an elegant Collection of the most deligfatfuf little Stories and interesting Tales ; chiefly translated from that much ad^ inired work, L'ami des Enfans. Illustrated with numerous wood-cntSi. From the twentieth London edition. One volume, 18mo., 50 cents. Forming one of the series of" Tales fof the People and their Children." LOG CABIN: Or, The World before You. By the author of " Three Experiments of Lir- ing," " The Huguenots in France and America," etc. One volume, ISmo., ■50 cents. Every person who takes up^ this volume will road it with interest. It is truly what the writer intended it should be — *' A Guide to Usefulness and Happiness," LOVER.-HANDY ANDY: A Tale of Irish Life, by Samuel Lover. Illustrated with twenty-three chap- acteristic steel Engravings. One volume, 8vo., cloth $1 35, boards $1 0rchant9, tradea- incn,.s.tu<^6"t5 pf natural and experimental philosophy, inventive mechanics, men of opulence, members of legislatures, anJ all who desire to comprehend something of the rapidly accelerating progress of those discoveries which fsicilitate the supply of humnn wants, and the augmentation of social comforts with the national weal, will find this invaluable Dictionary a perennial source of salutary instruction and edifying enjoyment. — JVational Intelligencer. VERY LITTLE TALES, For Very, Little Children, in single Syllables of three and four Letters — first series. One volume, square 18mo., numerous illustrations, cloth, 38 cents Second Series, in single Syllables of four and five Letters. One volume, square 18mo., numerous illustrations — to match first series-^38 cents. VS^AYLAND.-LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN Responsibility. By Francis Wayland, D. D. One volume, 18mo., 38 cents. Contents — I. The Nature of the Subject. II. Individual Responsibility. III. Individual Ilcsponsibility ^continued). IV. Peisecution on account ofReligioua Opinions. V. Propagatioa of Truth. Vl. voluntary Associations. VXI. Ecclesiastical Associations. YIII. OfiicialKespon sibility. IX. The Slavery Cluestion. WILBERFORCE— MANUAL FOR COMMUNICANTS; Or, The Order for administering the Holy Communion ; conveniently arrang- ed with Meditations and Prayers from old English divines : being the Eu- charistica of Samuel Wilberforee, M. A., Archdeacon of Surrey, (adapted to the American service.) 38 cents, gilt leaves 50 cents. We most earnestly commend the work. — CAurcAman. WILSON— SACRA PRIVATA. The Private Meditations, Devotions, and Prayers of the Right Rev. T. Wil- son, D. D., Lord Bishop of Soder and Man. First complete edition. One volume, 16mo., elegantly ornamented, $1 00. The reprint is an honor to the American press. The work itself is, perhaps, on the whole, the best devotional treatise in the language. It has never before in this country been printed entire. -—Churchman. A neat miniature edition, abridged for popular use, is also published. Price 31 cents. WOMAN'S WORTH ; Or, Hints to Raise the Female Character. First American from the last Eng lish edition, with a Recommendatory Notice, by Emily Marshall. 0n» neat volume, 18mo., cloth gilt 38 cents, paper cover 25 cents. Tho sentiments and principles enforced in (his book may be safely commended to the atten- tion of women of all ranks. — Londtm AUas, YOUTH'S BOOK OF NATURE ; Or, The Four Seasons Illustrated, being Familiar Descriptions of Natural His- tory, made during Walks in the Country, by Rev. H. B. Draper. Illustra- ted with upwards of 50 wood Engravings. One vol., square 16mo., 75 centi. Oii« of the most faultless volumes for the young that has ever b«en issu.d Chr. Ji^fhuor. jiipii:.