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Cornell University Library 
 QE 262.H7R35 1885 
 
 The geology of Holderness, and the adjoi 
 
 3 1924 004 541 631 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004541631 
 
MEIOmS OP THE GEOLOGICAL SFllYEY. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE GEOLOGY OF 
 HOLDERNESS, 
 
 AND THE ADJOINING PARTS OF YORKSHIRE 
 AND LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 CLEMENT EEID, F.G.S. 
 
 PXIBLISHEP ET OEDEB 03 THE LOEDS COMMISSIOITEKS 0¥ HEE MAJESTY'S IKEAStfET. 
 
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MEMOm OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE GEOLOGY OF 
 
 HOLDERNESS, 
 
 AND THE ADJOINING PARTS OF YORKSHIRE 
 AND LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 BY 
 
 CLEMENT REID, P.G.S. 
 
 PUBLISHED Br OEDEK OP THE LOEDB COMMI3SIONEK3 OP HEE MAJESTY'S TBEA3UKX. 
 
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NOTICE. 
 
 The present Memoir is essentially a contribution to 
 our knowledge of the Grlacial geology of Britain. It 
 deals with a remarkable area comprised in the old 
 district of Holderness and in adjoining parts of the 
 Yorkshire and Lincolnshire coasts. Flamborough Head 
 limits this area on the north, and 'the chalk downs 
 stretch thence for some way southwards as its western 
 boundary. Against these uplands and in the depression 
 to the east and south of them a series of glacial, inter- 
 glacial and post-glacial deposits has been accumulated 
 to ai depth of about 100 feet. The almost continuous 
 range of coast-cliffs from Flamborough Head to the 
 Mouth of the Humber exposes interesting sections of 
 the boulder-clays with transported stones from remote 
 and widely separated sources, among which are 
 Cumberland, the Cheviot Hills, and the mountains of 
 Scandin^/via. Besides these erratic blocks the same 
 deposits furnish also pieces of sand and clay (Bridlington 
 Crag) which, containing an intensely arctic fauna, have 
 evidently been torn away and transported from some 
 submarine accumulation of the same period. The inter- 
 glacial beds, which cover considerable spaces, have 
 yielded mammalian bones and a marine fauna 
 indicating a climate that seems to have been little 
 if at all colder than that of the same region at present. 
 
 Another interesting feature of the ground, described 
 in the following pages, is the rapid encroachment of the 
 sea and the serious loss of land along this coast-line 
 within historic times. The average rate of advance of 
 the sea has been about 2^ yards a year for the last 
 200 years. The map, Sheet 85, affords melancholy 
 evidence of this change; it was originally published 
 in 1824, and on the Geological Survey edition of it 
 the difference is shown between the coast-line in that 
 year and in 1881 when the Geological Survey of the 
 ground was made. While these shores are being wasted, 
 considerable tracts of land have been gained in the 
 Humber estuary. The account here given of the changes 
 in that district is taken mainly from published sources. 
 
 Arch. Geikie, 
 
 Geological Survey Office, Director General. 
 
 28 Jermyn Street, London, 
 10th June, 1885. 
 
NOTICE. 
 
 This Memoir describes the Glacial and Post-glacial 
 Deposits of Holderness and the adjoining parts of 
 Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. It refers to Sheets 85, 
 94 S.'B. and N.E., and also to considerable areas in 
 85, 94 S.W. and N.W. Of this area the northern and 
 north-western portions were mapped by Mr. Dakyns, who 
 in conjunction with Mr. Fox-Strangways has written an 
 explanation of Sheet 94 iN'.B. A portion of Sheet 86, 
 near Hull and Hessle, was mapped by Mr. Cameron. 
 The rest of the area was surveyed by Mr. Clement Reid, 
 who also has personal knowledge of the whole. In 
 the description of the Bridlington Crag and the Glacial 
 Beds near Bridlington much use has been made of 
 Mr. Lamplugh's published papers. The thanks of the 
 Geological Survi^y are also due to him, as well as to 
 the Council of ,tl?.e Yorkshire Geological Society, for 
 permission to use several illustrations which have 
 appeared in the Proceedings of that Society. To 
 Mr. Mortimer of Driffield and to Mr. Oordeaux the Survey 
 is also indebted for their contributions of valuable 
 notes. 
 
 H. "W. Bristow, 
 Geological Survey Office, Senior Director. 
 
 28 Jermyn Street, S.W., 
 10 June 1885. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Chapter I. — Origin and Physical Peatdees of Holdekness. — 
 Erosion of the Bay. Filling up of the Bay. The 
 Humber. Scenery - - - - 5 
 
 „ II. — BoDLDEE Clat. — Succession of tfie Boulder Clays. 
 Basement Clay (with " Bridlington Crag.") Ac- 
 counts of previous observers. Character of the 
 fauna. List of Fossils - - - 8 
 
 „ III. — BoTJi.DEK Clay — conlinued. — Description of the 
 newer Boulder Clays. Coast section. Inland 
 sections. Transported boulders. Summary - 26 
 
 ,, IV Steatified Glacial Beds. — Unfossiliferous Gravels 
 
 and laminated Clays - - - - 44 
 
 „ V. — Inter-glacial Beds. — Mammaliferoua Gravels of 
 Bridlington and Hessle. Marine Gravels 
 
 „ VI. — Intee-glacial Beds — continued. — Physical Geo- 
 graphy, Natural History. List of Fossils - 47 
 
 „ VII. — Post-glacial Deposits. — Beds probably contempo- 
 raneous with the raised beaches. Origin of contor- 
 tions in Post-glacial deposits - 72 
 
 „ VIII. — Post-glacial Deposits. — Evidence- for a period of 
 elevation. Structure of the Humber Valley. 
 Submerged Forests. Shell-marl. Old Alluvium. 
 Ancient Meres. Warp. Post-glacial Natural 
 History ... . - 77 
 
 „ IX. — Changes now in Peogeess. — Loss of land. 
 Travelling of the beach. Spurn Head. Warp ■ 
 and Silt. Balance of loss or gain. Apparent 
 changes of sea-level - - - 94 
 
 „ X. — Economic Geology. — Soils. Brick-making. Eoad 
 Metal. Gravel and Sand. Humber Tunnel. 
 "Water supply - - - - - 1 15 
 
 Appendix I. — Well Sections and Boeings - 132 
 
 ,. 11. — List of Works on Holdeeness - 163 
 
 A .16165, Wt. 21461. A 2 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 Fig. 1.— Cliff opposite the Alexandra Hotel Gardens, Bridling- 
 ton Quay (G. W. Iiamplugh) - - - 12 
 „ 2. — Section on the west side of the Danes Dike Valley - 29 
 „ 3. — Cliff north' of Bridlington Quay, from end of Wooden 
 Sea Defences, 100 yards north of Carr Lane, to 
 Sands Lane (Gr. W. Lamplugh) - - - 30 
 „ 4. — Buried cliff near Bridlington, and Fossiliferous Beds 
 
 banked against it - - - 48 
 
 „ o. — Chalk-pit at Hessle - - - - - - 50 
 
 „ 6. — Barf Hill. — Inter-glacial Gravels overlain by Boulder 
 
 Clay 52 
 
 ,, 7. — Sketch-map of Inter-glacial Holderness - - - 65 
 „ 8. — New Pit at Kelsey Hill. — Cross Section - - 75 
 
 „ 9. — Contorted Boulder Clay and Gravel near Bridlington 
 
 (G. W. Lamplugh) - - - - - 76 
 
 „ 10. — Alluvium in the Cliff north of Holmpton (seen in a 
 
 projecting point). Scale 15 feet to 1 inch - - 85 
 
 „ 11. — Position of borings on the Humber foreshore - - 147 
 
 Folding Plate. — Charts illustrating the changes in the Humber 
 since 1684. — Section across the Humber from Hessle 
 to Barton - - - « - At end 
 
THE GEOLOGY OP 
 
 HOLDERNESS, 
 
 AND THE ADJOINING PARTS OF YORKSHIRE 
 AND LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF 
 HOLDERNESS. 
 
 The great hardness of "the Lower Chalk of Yorkshire causes it 
 to wear less rapidly than the softer beds on either side. Thus by 
 the denudation of Filey and Bridlington Bays the bold headland 
 has been left which now projects into the sea at Flamborough. 
 This head forms the northern boundary both of Bridlington Bay 
 and of the low-lying district of Holderness. 
 
 Inland a continuation of the same high Chalk Wolds, trending 
 southward, defines the Holderness plain, and marks by its abrupt 
 eastern margin the position of an ancient buried and degraded sea 
 cliff. This cliflf passes through Bridlington, Driffield, Beverley, 
 and Cottingham, to Hessle, where it is broken through by the 
 Humber. South of the Humber it turns to the south-east, 
 through Thornton, Ulceby, Keelby, Laceby, Hawerby, and Liid- 
 borough ; its position being still marked by a more or less sharp 
 rise of the Chalk from beneath the Boulder Clay. South of Lud- 
 borough it stretches south-eastward beyond the district described 
 in this Memoir, 
 
 Though the southern boundary of this old bay is somewhat 
 indefinite, yet practically Donna Nook and Ludborough form a 
 very convenient limit ; for the Boulder Clay flat has there 
 dwindled to a narrow strip, in which sections are extremely rare. 
 
 Geologically, Holderness is the district between the ancient clifl' 
 and the sea, though the legal division (the " Seigniory of Holder- 
 ness "), comprising merely the portion of Yorkshire east of the 
 River Hull, is considerably smaller. 
 
 Besides the old Bay of Holderness this Memoir describes the 
 outlying patches of Drift which, though properly belonging to 
 Holderness, occur at various heights on the Chalk Wolds. Few 
 of these are found at a greater height than 200 feet, except near 
 Flamborough. Above that level there is usually a high-lying 
 tract of bare Chalk, extending to the edge of the escarpment. 
 
6 ORIGIN OF HOLDEENESS, 
 
 This ridge of Chalk separates the Pleistocene deposits of Holder- 
 ness from those west of the Wold, Thus there is a well defined 
 district, bounded on the north, west, and south-east by the Chalk 
 Wolds, and on the east by the North Sea, over which the Drifts 
 possess a uniform character, and evidently have had a common 
 origin. Holderness is only coT^neijte<J w;iih,. other districts by a 
 strip of Drift near Ludtoiough, and by another passing through 
 the Humber Valley. 
 
 The origin of the Holde^ness Bay is very simple. The Lower 
 Chalk of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire is hard, and the Middle 
 Ohall^ , both hard and flinty; the Upper Chalk, however, ja spftesr, 
 and free from flints. A synclinal causes the Upper Chalk to 
 underlie great part of tile low-lands of Holderness, this division 
 alone reaching a thickness of upwards of 800 feet near the centre 
 of the basin, at Hornsea. Ordinary marine denudation at some 
 former period has cut back the softer Chalk, and left the harder 
 portion projecting in a bold headland. 
 
 I'his denudation must have been greatly facilitated by the 
 absence of flints in the Upper Chalk, and by the non-occurrence 
 at that period of the Drift beds, which now yield such an abun- 
 dant supply of boulders. A Chalk cliff, unprotected by a shingle 
 beach would be wasted at a much more rapid rate than a cliff of 
 flinty Chalk, even if the Chalk itself were of the same hardness. 
 This erosion of the softer beds lias caused a bay to be cut out, the 
 outline of which follows very nearly the curved strike of the beds. 
 
 OF the date of formation of this bay there is no direct 
 evidence, except that it is clearly more ancient than the oldest 
 remaining Pleistocene deposits of East Yorkshire. There can be 
 little doubt that it existed in Pliocene times, though as yet no beds 
 of that age have been discovered in it. Probably further search 
 may prove their occurrence in patches beneath the Eoulder Clay. 
 
 Subsequent changes have been essentially conservative. Ice 
 lias filled the bay with enormous masses of far- transported Drift, 
 which have been banked against, and have preserved, the old line 
 of cliff, and by their accumulation have almost obliterated this 
 ancient " Bay of Holderness." Since the Glacial Period a small 
 portion of this great bay has been re-excavated, and year by year 
 what is now only " Bridlington " Bay is enlarged, and approaches 
 more nearly to its old limits. 
 
 About the centre of the bay, the Chalk Wold is broken through 
 by the valley of the Humber. From the fact of its cutting through 
 the escarpment of the Chalk, instead of turning southward along 
 the flat lands of the Ancholme, it is- evident that the Humber 
 must have existed when the bottom of the Ancholme Valley stood 
 at least 200 feet above its present level. Thus it is clear that the 
 Humber must be of very ancient date, for there is no mode of 
 escape of the drainage water of a large portion of England except 
 through this gap. Probably the present course of the Humber, 
 like that of most of the rivers which breach the escarpments in 
 England, dates back to Miocene times. 
 
SCENERY. 7 
 
 The deposits which fill (he old bay are, in the main, of Glacial 
 age and origin. Inter-glacial Gravels also occur sparingly, and 
 superficial Alluvium covers large areas, especially near the Humber. 
 The bulk of the Drift, however, consists of Boulder Clay. 
 
 This larnje a,rea of clay land forms a flat or very gently un- 
 dulating country, only at one point reaching a height of over 100 
 feet. More elevated land probably at one time existed near llie 
 present coast; for the general drainage is inland, towards the 
 River Hull, instead of direct to the sea. Dimlington High Land, 
 ]39 ft. when the Ordnance map was made (1852-3), but now 
 lower and rapidly decrensing, is apparently the sole relic of a belt or 
 long mound of Drift skirling the coast, and throwing the drainage 
 inland in much the same way as it does in Filey Bay, or in Nor- 
 folk. Probably it is this mound which has also caused the post- 
 glacial Humber to turn south-eastward in such a marked manner 
 after leaving the Ohalk. Further on it will bs shown that this 
 mound is not improbably part of the original structure of the 
 country, representing roughly the contour as left by the ice, and 
 is not a denudation feature. {See p. 35). 
 
 The scenery produced by the Boulder Clay is naturally very 
 tame, and the land is so thoroughly cultivated that, except at a 
 few spots, there is now no trace of its original charactei*. The 
 meres which were once so characteristic of Holderness have all 
 been drained, with the single exception of that of Hornsea ; and 
 even there the woods are planted, and are not the original growth. 
 But the constant occurrence of the name " mere " in places where 
 there are now only ploughed fields, shows well the original state 
 of the country. Looking at the fertile fields of Holderness it is 
 difficult to realize the appearance of the country before it was 
 drained. Then much of it must have been almost inpenetrable, 
 the isolated hills of Boulder Clay being separated from each other 
 by swamps impassable either on foot or in boats. In winter these: 
 hills must have been transformed into true island.s, as is sometimes 
 the case even at the present day. 
 
 The sand dunes of Spurn Head and Donna Nook exhibit 
 scenery of a totally difierent character. To any one but a 
 naturalist or geologist these sand dunes will probably seem very 
 uninteresting; but they are well worth visiting, for they show 
 clearly how the sea throws up a barrier against its own advance, 
 and may protect a low -lying coast or harbour from any sudden 
 storm. The protecting bank, being the result of the average force 
 of the winds and seas acting during a longtime, is not easily moved 
 by a single storm. 
 
 The foreshores of the Humber, when the tide is our, are 
 generally wide flats of bare mud or sand, cut up by multitudes of 
 channels and creeks, and passing upwards into salt marshes. 
 Large numbers of wild-fowl and sea-birds feed on these flats, 
 but they cannot usually be called either picturesque or pleasant to 
 walk upon. Altogether the scenery near the mouth of the Humber 
 reminds one very much of that of Holland. 
 
BASEMENT CLAY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 Basement Clay, 
 
 There being considerable doubt as to the exaut correlation and 
 succession of the different Pleistocene deposits in Holderness, as a 
 matter of convenience the Boulder Clays- will be described first, 
 the stratified Glacial and Inter-glacial Beds being taken in separate 
 chapters. 
 
 In the cliffs of Holderness, where the succession is most complete, 
 the Boulder Clay is in four divisions, known respectively as the 
 Basement Clay, the Lower and Upper Purple Clay, and the 
 Hessle Clay {of the coast section). These are separated from each 
 other by partings, which in places take the form of beds of strati- 
 fied gravel, sand, or clay. Even where the partings are merely 
 lines in an otherwise homogeneous Boulder Clay, they can be 
 traced for such long distances as to form useful horizons. What 
 may be the real value of these lines of division we do not at 
 present know; but as they have an existence and can be traced, 
 it will be desirable to describe separately each of the Boulder 
 Clays. Some of the intercalated stratified beds may turn-out 
 to represent true inter-rglacial periods : one has already done so. 
 
 The oldest Boulder Clay seen in the cliff has been named by 
 Mr. S.V.Wood, junior, the " Basement Clay." This name was given 
 because the foot of the cliflT sometimes consists of a Clay of marked 
 lithological character, and it was apparently concluded that this 
 deposit was the lowest bed in Holderness. The name is generally 
 used, and is a convenient one to adopt, remembering that it refers 
 to the base of the cliff, and not to the bed resting directly on the 
 Chalk. It should not be forgotten that the Chalk is generally 
 about 60 feet beneath the sea-level, and that there arc still these 
 60 feet of deposits only imperfectly known through borings. The 
 60 feet may include not only Boulder Clays older than the so-called 
 Basement Clay, but even representatives of the Newer Pliocene 
 Beds so well seen in Norfolk. 
 
 The Basement Clay is a dark green or bluish Boulder Clay, 
 containing numerous boulders of far transported rock, and a 
 moderate amount of the local Chalk. Its most marked charac- 
 teristic, and one that distinguishes it from every other Boulder 
 Clay in the East of England, is the common occurrence in it of 
 transported masses of sand and clay full of mollusca, often quite 
 
BRIDLINGTON CRAG. 9 
 
 uninjured and with the valves united. These masses of fossiliferous 
 sand and clay have commonly been considered to be beds in place, 
 and under the name " Bridlington Orag " are constantly mentioned 
 in manuals and by writers on Holderness geology. The shells 
 were first discovered by Prof. Sedgwick during an excm-sion made 
 in the year 1821, but he appears to have considered that they 
 might be of Eocene age. There has been so much discussion 
 as to the real nature and age of the deport, and it is so commonly 
 accepted as an undisturbed stratified bed, that it will be advisable 
 to quote verbatim the accounts of those geologists who actually 
 examined it. 
 
 Prof. Sedgwick, writing in 1826,'state8 that in 1821, " By the 
 degradation of the coast immediately on the north side of 
 Bridlington Quay, a bed of green-sand, extending through a 
 distance of eight or ten yards, was laid biire at the base of the 
 cliff. It contained many incoherent bivalve shells, and very 
 much resembled some of the beds which are found in the higher 
 part of the sand-pits at Woolwich. I considered it an undoubted 
 proof of, at least, a partial existence of tertiary beds in that part 
 of England. With the cra<? of Suffolk, it ought not, I think, to 
 be confounded." Later in the same year it was liidden by the 
 sea-defences.* 
 
 What appears to have been the same deposit was re-discovered 
 in 1835 by Mr. W. Bean, who mentions a section exposed on the 
 north side of the harbour, near the Esplanade. He describes 
 " a heterogeneous mass, only a few yards long and as many high 
 
 composed of sand, clay, marine shell?, and pebbles of 
 
 every description ; chalk and flint pebbles were, as might be 
 expected, most abundant .... The colour and appearance of 
 this' shelly mass resemble the London Clay, but the fossils have 
 the character of those found in the crag formation : [the shelly 
 bed contains] a greater number ol' species than have been at 
 present obtained, and mucli caution will be requisite ere its 
 geological position can be truly determined. Thus much, however, 
 is certain, that these shells are coeval with, if not of higher 
 antiquity than the crag."t 
 
 Immediately after Mr. Bean's discovery Prof. Phillips examined 
 the section. Writing in 1835 he alludes to the bed.f but most 
 of his notes made at the time appear not to have been published 
 till 1875.§ 
 
 His description is very clear and exact. He states that " When 
 I examined the spot after this discovery, I found the shelly l)ed 
 largely exposed, very irregular in its upper surface, covered by 
 
 * Prof. A. Sedgwick : " On the Classification of the Strata which appear on the 
 Yorkshire Coast." — Ann. of Phil., ser. 2., vol. xi. p. 339. 
 
 •f W. Bean : " A short Account of an interesting Deposit of Fossil Shells at 
 Burlington Quay." — Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. viii. p. 355. 
 
 X Prof. J. Phillips : " Notice of a newly discovered Tertiary Deposit on the coast 
 of Yorkshire (Bridlington)." — Uep. Brit. Assoc, for 1835, Trans, of Sections, p. 62. 
 
 5 Illustrati6ns of the Geology of Yorkshire. Pt. I. — The Yorkshire Coast. 3rd 
 edit. p. 87. 
 
10 BASEMENT CLAY. 
 
 boulder-drift, and composed of dark sandy clay with small black 
 pebbles, and chalk and flint fragments, mixed with a multitude of 
 shells, many broken, and, except Pholades and Cyprinw, few 
 bivalves having their valves together. I saw no Boulder Clay 
 beneath ; upwards it seemed not sharply defined from the ordinary 
 drift without shells, but yet distinct, so as not to pass gradually 
 into that heterogeneous mass." After alluding to the opinions of 
 Mr. Bean, Mr. S. V. Wood, and Dr. S. P. Woodward as to the 
 age of the deposit, he states thnt his " own investigations led liim 
 to adopt the view that it w.is a shell-bed 'as early as the beginning " 
 of the Glacial period (possibly pre-glacial), which had been 
 disturbed and displaced bodily by the pressure which attended 
 the boulder-depositSj and not stratified by dispersion under ordinary 
 watery action. This may be expressed by the term couche 
 remani4e'' 
 
 The next writer who speaks from personal knowledge is 
 Dr. Sorby. Describing a section seen about 1852, examined 
 more particularly with a view to obtaining foraminifera, he men- 
 tions that " The place where the crag was then best exposed was 
 at the bottom of the cliff, somewhat north of the town. It 
 appeared to me to be a number of small beds of sand and sandy 
 clay amongst the boulder clay of the drift, which occurs both 
 below and above the part with shells, also itself containing 
 many eiTatic pebbles, like those in the drift. Though some 
 few of the shells are found elsewhere, yet they are most 
 numerous about a quarter of a mile north of the pier. The 
 section there exhibited, at the bottom, bluish grey clay with 
 pebbles of chalk and flint, as well as of other rocks transported 
 from a distance, passing upwards into similar clay without pebbles. 
 Above this was a very variable deposit of sandy beds and clay, 
 similar to that below, as well as some that is brown and quite 
 like the ordinary boulder clay of the district, except in con- 
 taining shells. Over this were sand and clay, and occasionally 
 pure decomposed chalk, and then a mass of boulder clay of the 
 usual description." 
 
 '■' The lower part of the section is much contorted, in the manner 
 
 so common in the drift strata It is also well 
 
 worthy of remark that the same force which produced these 
 contortions appears to have fractured some of the shells imbedded 
 in the clay and displaced the fragments, which, nevertheless, may 
 
 often be found within a short distance of each other 
 
 It seemed as though the exposed crag was only the upper portions 
 ot the contortions, and that the main bed was below the level 
 of the beach, and might not have been exposed in the cliff" if it 
 had not been thus bent and raised up by lateral pressure."* 
 
 In 1864 Mr. Edward Tindall writes that "in January last the 
 tide laid bare about 150 yards of the crag for nearly a fortnitrht 
 
 * " On the Crag Deposit at Bridlington, and the Microscopic Fossils occurring in 
 it." — Proc. Geol. Soc. YorJishire, vol. iii. p. 559. 
 
BEIDLINGTON CEAG. 11 
 
 and I collected a good series of fossil sIicILj, &c."* This w,\s in 
 answer to the observation of Dr. S. P. Woodward, made upon the 
 authority of Mr. Bean, that " the whole mass has been entirely 
 removed or built over." Mr, Tindall gives no description of 
 the deposit, but Mr. Lamplugh informs me that the section was 
 under Fort Hall, just north o£ the Parade, and only 50 yards or 
 so from the exposure lately laid bare. 
 
 Mr. S. V. Wood, jun., was at Bridlington during the same 
 year, but it would appear from his letter that he confined his atten- 
 tion to the clifEs north of the harbour.f He does not mention having 
 observed any fossils ; and it is probable that the Crag noticed by 
 Mr. Tindall was hidden by the sea defences. After looking 
 through all Mr. Wood's later papers I cannot find that any of 
 them contain an account of the Bridlington Crag from personal 
 observations, nor do any other geologists appear to have examined 
 it between the years 1864 and 1§78. 
 
 After the lapse of 17 years, during which the Crag does not 
 appear to have been observed, Mr. Lamjplugh, who had already, 
 in 1874, noticed shell-fragments in the Basement and Purple 
 Clays, t rediscovered the deposit close to the original locality. 
 His account thoroughly agrees with that of previous eye-witnesses, 
 but he adds a number of particulars before unrecorded. Among 
 other things he proves that the shelly masses are included in 
 the Basement or lowest Boulder Clay of the coast, and not in 
 any higher bed. 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh, from his long residence at Bridlington, has had 
 unequalled opportunities of studying the deposit, and has made 
 excellent use of them. His original descriptions are therefore here 
 quoted ; for the observations of the Geological Survey in his par- 
 ticular branch have simply corroborated his results, without adding 
 anytliing of importance. Many details seen by him were also only 
 visible for a short time before being obscured by talus or the 
 • rebuilt sea-wall. The fullest account of the Basement Clay is 
 contained in a paper read by Mr. Lamplugh, before the British 
 Association at York in 1881.§ 
 
 The wooden defences which protected the cliff opposite the 
 Alexandra Hotel having been removed the autumn before, the 
 section which is described and illustrated was exposed. As 
 this and the other sections will probably before long be entirely 
 hidden behind more substantial walls, the accounts are quoted at 
 considerable length. ''In the section opposite the Alexandra 
 Hotel at Bridlington Quay, the Basement Boulder-clay was seen 
 to include several masses of different materials. These masses 
 consisted for the greatest part of a very fine clay, generally either 
 light-blue or dark bluish-black in colour ; but in one place brown. 
 
 * [Letter on] " The Present State of the Bridlington Crag." — Geol. Mag., vol. i. 
 p. 142. 
 
 t [Letter on] "The Bridlington Crag."— Geo/. Mag., vol. i. p. 216. 
 t Geol. Mag., dec. II. vol. v. p. 509. 
 § Ibid., dec. II. vol. viii. p. 537. 
 
12 
 
 BASEMENT CLAY 
 
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BRIDLINGTON CRAG. 13 
 
 This clay seemed to have been a stratified deposit ; but the 
 stratification was so nearly destroyed that it was shown merely 
 by irregular stripes. Coarse yellowish-green sand was incorpo- 
 rated with this clay in most of the patches, spreading curiously 
 through their mass in irregular little dabs and threads forming 
 doubtful lines, as though it had been partially kneaded in. This 
 sand always contained many shells, which were generally crushed 
 into fine fragments. Shells also occurred in the clays, but much 
 less plentifully, and often with sand under the valves. The 
 beds contained a few erratic pebbles, chiefly little black phosphatic- 
 looking lumps (which remind me of those in one of the Lower 
 Neocomian beds at Speeton) and a dark green quartzite. I did 
 not notice either chalk or flint in them ; in which they differ 
 markedly from those previously described. The largest of these 
 masses was of irregular shape, about 14 feet in its greatest length 
 and four feet in height, and seemed to be crushed vertically 
 between walls of Boulder Clay. From it I obtained the most 
 perfect specimens. Tlie others were much smaller, and were 
 squeezed out so as to form wavy lenticular streaks. The junction 
 between these and the Boulder Clay was sometimes well-marked, 
 and sometimes insensible. After finding a few of the larger shells, 
 I washed lumps of the sand and clay, and obtained thus many 
 small specimens, which were far less broken than the larger, 
 and also many foraminifera and entomostraca, and two or three 
 small echinoid spines. A few, even of the larger shells, were in 
 an absolutely perfect state of preservation ; whilst those which 
 were broken were probably broken either during the life of the 
 animal or very shortly after, as in one or two cases the umbos of 
 fragmentary bivalves remained together, though much of the shell 
 was missing ; showing, I think, that the ligament existed at the 
 time ; and some fragments of Astarte and Cyprina fi-om Dimlington 
 showed the epidermis " 
 
 " I have seen several other patches of this kind in the Basement 
 Boulder-clay, at various times, in exposures on the beach, to the 
 southward of this section,* and nearer the place where the shells 
 were first found, but have not before seen them in section." 
 
 " It will be seen ...... that these shelly patches are essen- 
 tially the same as the so-called 'Bridlington Crag,' which was 
 not really a bed at all in the stricter sense of the word, but a 
 similar though more extensive set of strenks and masses of sand 
 and clay m Boulder Clay." 
 
 In a postscript Mr. Lamplugh mentions that "the storms of 
 this autumn" (1881) "cleared the shingle from a small extent 
 of beach near the town and close to where the ' crag ' was first 
 found. This exposure showed ' Basement Clay ' of the usual 
 character, including in it one large mass of clay and sand with 
 shells, and closely adjoining another similar mass of fine dark 
 mud, without shells or stones ; and through this there ran a short 
 seam of peaty matter, apparently of vegetable origin. It is not 
 
 * Geol. Mag., dec. II. vol. vi. p. 399. 
 
14 BASEMENT CLAY. 
 
 improbable, therefore, that some of these shell-less patches may 
 be of fresh-water origin."* 
 
 More recently Mr. Lamplugh has observed a section still closer 
 to the spot where the crag was originally discovered. He mentions 
 that "During the early part of the winter o£ 1882-3 long con- 
 tinued on-shore gales so far lowered the level of the beach opposite 
 the town of Bridlington Quay, that the sand and shingle was in 
 many places removed, and the Boulder Clay below it well exposed 
 
 on the foreshore The largest of these exposures was 
 
 nearly opposite the place where the shells were first found in the 
 
 cliff. The Boulder Clay included in it many crushed 
 
 masses of sand, and sandy gravel, aud clay, these forming, 
 indeed, a large proportion, nearly one third, of its bulk " 
 
 " The fauna of the masses also varied greatly. Some contained 
 many shells throughout ; others very few, — occasionally none ; 
 others had shells in one part, but not in another ; and one mass 
 .... seemed to be of freshwater origin, as it consisted of very 
 fine unctuous slaty-blue clay without stones or shells, through 
 which ran a thin seam of peaty matter, in which traces of moss, 
 wood, and the seeds of Potamogeton were detected." f 
 
 " Shells in Boulder Clay. — The surrounding Boulder-clay also 
 contains many shell-fragments, with now and then a perfect valve, 
 which have undoubtedly been derived from similar beds, having 
 been thoroughly kneaded up and mixed with glacial debris. This 
 is shown by the extremely patchy nature of the clay, even where 
 the shell-beds have been wholly destroyed, as on the south beach 
 at Bridlington, the clay varying in character from step to step." 
 
 " Then, too, under many of the unbroken valves, there still 
 remains a little coarse sand, showing the original matrix of the 
 shells ;J and many of its boulders show Pholas and Gliona borings ; 
 and these borings contain in many instances the same coarse green 
 sand. As not one, but several kinds of rock are bored, the bottom 
 on which the shells lived would seem to have been strewn with 
 boulders." 
 
 " As a curious illustration of glacial erosion, I may mention the 
 finding in this Boulder Clay, on the south beach, of a Tellina 
 halthica with valves united and perfectly unbroken. Sand filled 
 the interior, but all around was Boulder Clay, — the shell, in fact 
 occurred as an erratic pebble ; — which, I think, shows well how 
 misleading may be the evidence of a few selected specimens as 
 to the general conditions of the bed from which they came; 
 certainly no one would have judged this shell to be from the 
 Boulder-clay." 
 
 Near Sands Lane, about a mile north of Bridlington Quay, and 
 not far from the old buried cliff", the Basement Clay first appears 
 on the foreshore ; but curiously it is only at the point where the 
 
 * Geol. Mag., dec. II. vol. vi. p. 399. 
 
 t Lamplugh : " On a Eecent Exposure of the Shelly Patches in the Boulder-clav 
 at Bridlington Quay." — Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., vol. xl. p. 312. •' 
 
 X This also occurs in the Till near Cromer. — See M«n. Geol. Survey, Geolosv 
 of the Country around Cromer, p. 86. ' *• 
 
BRIDLINUTON CRAG. 15 
 
 sea defences commence that it rises into the cliff, and it again 
 •sinks beneath' high-water mark south of tlie town. On the fore- 
 shore Mr. Lamplugh has traced it, with slight intervals, nearly 
 continuously from its first appearance to a point over half a mile 
 south of Bridlington South Pier.* Here it sinks beneath the sea- 
 level, and is not known to reappear till Out Newton, 30 miles further 
 south, is rea,ched. Mpssrs. Wood and Kome, however, have 
 included in the Basement Clay a bed of very chalky Boulder 
 Clay, seen at several other points, wiiirh both Mr Lamplugh and 
 I consider to belong to the next division. This chalky Boulder 
 Clay appears to pass up into the Lower Purple Clay, but is 
 separated from the Basement Clay by a more or less strongly 
 marked line, or even by stratified beds. From Out Newton and 
 Dimlington the Basement Clay extends continuously, or nenrly so, 
 to Kilnsea, where the cliff ends ; but no trace of a similar shelly 
 Boulder Clay has yet been found inland, or south of the Humber. 
 
 Shells were first noticed at Dimlington by Sir Charles Lyell 
 and Professor Hughes, who, however, do not appear to have 
 attempted to fix their stratigrapliical position, though they 
 considered the streak of sand to represent a bed in place. Messrs. 
 Wood and Rome apparently did not observe the shelly clay ; 
 they do not mention it, though the overlying chalky clay was 
 traced correctly from Kilnsea to Out Newton. The first to 
 observe and note in detail the shelly Boulder Clay of Dimlington 
 was Mr. Lamplugh, who in the above-quoted paper describes it 
 fully. The subsequent observations of the Geological Survey 
 having only added a few minor particulars, and some additional 
 species to the list of fossils, Mr. Laroplugh's account will be again 
 followed. 
 
 " The Dimlington Shell-beds. — I have not yet been able to find at 
 Dimlington the bed from which Sir Charles Lyell's party obtained 
 their shells ;t but last spring I found streaks, identical in appearance 
 with those at Bridlington, In an exposure of the Basement CJay 
 on the beach a little to the north of the high land. I examined 
 them for shells, and found many, but all crushed. I also got three 
 large hardened casts in gritty sand of Pholas borings, with the 
 Pholas (P. crispata) embedded in the midst. Similar hardened 
 casts are common at Bridlington, About two months ago I again 
 saw an exposure of the Basement Clay at Dimlington, — this time 
 of very unusual extent, — stretching for nearly a mile along the 
 beach near low-water mark. The clay was throughout extra- 
 ordinarily patchy, and was, in fact, in good part made up of masses 
 of included material, of all sizes, and of diverse composition. 
 Many consisted of fine blue clays mixed with sand, like those of 
 Bridlington ; and from these I obtained some very tine and perfect 
 
 * " Glacial Sections near Bridlington." Pts. 1 and a, Proc. Geol. Soc. Yorltshire, 
 n.s., vol. vii. p. 383, and vol. viii. p. 27. 
 
 f"In the discussion which followed this paper, Professor Hughes, one of the 
 discoverers, satisfaolorily accounted for, this, as he said they took the bed away with 
 them, it being merely a curved streak of sand in Boulder Clay like those I have 
 
16 BASEMENT CLAY. 
 
 shells. Others, however, contained no shells, were almost black in 
 colour, and seemed as if made up of the waste of some of the 
 pyritous secondary clays ; for when the sun shone hot upon them 
 they smelt very strongly, and weathered in the cliff with a dirty 
 yellow efflorescence and bad odour, like the lowest beds of the 
 Lower Neocomian at Speeton. They are, indeed, quite possibly 
 made up in part of these beds, as I noticed a few Neocomian fossils 
 in Boulder Clay. Some of the patches, again, were of a rusty 
 brown; and one of these contained a few broken shells, which 
 were possibly derivative." 
 
 " I also found in the bottom of the cliff a streak of crushed 
 shells, much in the same position as the one already known. It 
 ran irreguliirly throuijli a mass of dark-blue clay, without stones, 
 bounded on all sides by Boulder Clay in the same way as those on 
 the beach ; the shells, chiefly Saxicava, rugosa, were crushed into- 
 small fragments, and the whole mass showed slickensides. In one 
 or two cases the valves seem to have been united. I found, some 
 time ago, a single specimen of Tellina balthica, uncrushed and 
 with valves united, in a little pocket of sand near the same place." 
 
 "The Boulder Clay itself was crammed in places with detached 
 and fragmentary valves. It also contained a few huge boulders 
 of far-travelled rocks. One mass of gneiss was about 5 feet by 
 H by 3." 
 
 During the months when the neighbourhood of Dimlington was 
 being examined for the Geological Survey, exceptionally good 
 exposures of the Basement Clay were to be seen on the foreshore. 
 One very striking fact, which, though observed before, merits 
 much closer attention, is the common occurrence in the Boulder 
 Clay of boulders of rock crushed, and often rolled out flat. 
 These, seen in vertical section, appear as seams or lenticular masses ; 
 sometimes they occur so abundantly and near together as to give 
 a deceptive appearance of bedding to the Boulder Clay. A 
 similar effect is also produced by the crushed seams of shelly ciny 
 and sand ; but if the Boulder Clay be examined more closely, and 
 on the foreshore, it is seen to be a true unstratified Till. 
 
 Among these crushed bouldera Oolitic sandstone and Basalts are 
 very common, and several of decomposed Granite were observed. 
 One boulder of sandstone, which must originally have been a yard 
 or more in diameter, had split up into cuboidal masses, the pieces 
 being dispersed o\er a surface of about twenty square yards. 
 Their appearance reminded one of the fragments of a large flint 
 over which a steam roller has passed, or rather, from the extent of 
 their dispersal, of the crushing of a similar stone under a skidded 
 wheel. The whole character of the Boulder Clay was forcibly- 
 suggestive of the action of some heavy sliding weight. Probably 
 the direction from which the force came might have been dis- 
 covered by taking the direction of the longer axes of these 
 crushed masses : unfortunately this was not thought of when the 
 section was exposed. 
 
 Shells are also found in the Boulder Clay, crushed, but with 
 the fragments only separated by a small interval, as already noticed 
 
BRIDLINGTON CRAG. 17 
 
 by Mr. Lamplugh at Bridlington. A .perfect specimen of Tellina 
 ohliqua was discovered, broken in half, and with the angular 
 fragments two inches apart ; this has been joined, and is now in the 
 Museum of Practical Greology. Shells with pieces cut out are com- 
 mon both here and at Bridlington. In one case an Astarte with the 
 valves united had a notch cut through both valves. Here the 
 ligament would scarcely have been sufficient to prevent the valves 
 separating ; and it seems probable that the shell was firmly bedded 
 in ice or frozen mud while the notch was being cut. 
 
 Towards Kilnsea, where the cliff becomes very low, the Base- 
 ment Clay by weathering loses its characteristic colour. If it 
 were not for the perfect continuity of the exposures between 
 Kilnsea and Dimlington, the abundance of sheila might be over- 
 looked, and there is no other test by which it could be distinguished 
 from the more recent Boulder Clays. 
 
 Except near Dimlington and Bridlington, no exposures of Base- 
 ment Clay are known in Holderness, but at Sel wicks, and in 
 Filrey Bay, Mr. Lamplugh has discovered a shelly Boulder Clay of 
 similar character, presumably of the same age.* The correlation of 
 Boulder Clays is, however, always uncertain, and we cannot feel 
 sure that the reference even of the Bridlington and Dimlington 
 beds to the same horizon is proved. 
 
 The above description shows, that the so-called " Bridlington 
 Crag " consists of masses of shelly sand and clay included in a 
 Boulder Clay. These are evidently as much transported boulders 
 as the adjoining masses of Neocomian Clay or Granite. It is 
 therefore evident that the character of the included fauna cannot 
 beaccepted as a test of the age of the bed, or of the conditions 
 under which it was deposited, except so far that the Boulder Clay 
 must be newer than its included boulders. Ice working up the 
 same materials at different periods would produce a Boulder Clay 
 of similar character ; and the apparent absence of the Basement 
 Clay inland may only be the result of the deposition of all the 
 shelly masses within a short distance of their place of origin. 
 The only safe test for the correlation of glacial deposits, where the 
 sections are not continuous, is apparently the character of the 
 fauna and flora found in the associated stratified beds. 
 
 Where the shelly masses in the Basement Clay come from is 
 still uncertain ; probably they have not travelled ftir, and were 
 ploughed up by the ice from the bed of the North Sea, within a 
 short distance of the present shore. Amongst other boulders we 
 have abundance of Speeton Clay, occasional pudding-stone, and 
 green-coated flints, probably derived from Eocene beds, black 
 flints of a character unknown in the Yorkshire Chalk, Oolitic 
 Sandstone,. Carboniferous Limestone, Basalt, Granite, Gneiss, and 
 numerous far-transported rocks of undetermined origin. The 
 local chalk and flint are not nearly so abundant as one would 
 expect, or as they are in newer Boulder Clays. Shap Granite ' 
 
 * " On the Divisions of the Glacial Beds in Kley Bay." — Proc. Geol. Soc. 
 Yorkshire, u. s., vol. vii. p. 167. 
 
 A. 16165. B 
 
18 ■ BASEMENT CLAT. 
 
 has not yet been found in place in the Basement Clay, though it 
 occurs not uncommonly scattered over the northern half of Hol- 
 derness. A large boulder, measuring 3 x 2^ x 2 feet, lies on the 
 foreshore at extreme low-water mark at Out JSTewtcn, near Dim- 
 lington, resting on the Basement Clay, but there is nothing to 
 show from which of the Boulder Clays it was derived. This 
 appears to be the furthest point to which Shap Granite has been 
 traced in a south-easterly direction. 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh has lately presented to the Geological Survey a 
 collection of stones obtained from the Basement Clay at Bridling- 
 ton. Except the Secondary Rocks, which certainly belong to the 
 North Yorkshire type, probably continued under the North Sea, 
 few of these can yet be recognized as coming from any particular 
 district. The Director General, who has examined the specimens, 
 thinks that the granites, gneisses, mica^ and other schists and 
 quartzites almost certainly come from Scandinavia. The eruptive 
 rocks may have travelled from the same source, or from some area 
 now submerged under the North Sea. Among them, however, 
 are various diabases and amygdaloidal porpbyrites which greatly 
 resemble the rocks of the Old Red Sandstone and Oarboniferou& 
 volcanic series in the Cheviot Hills and eastern Berwickshire. 
 
 Mr. Lamplugh's collection includes : — 
 Fragments of Arctic moUusca (" Bridlington Crag "). 
 Green-coated flints (Eocene P). 
 Soft Chalk and black flint (not local). 
 Hard Chalk (often boi-ed by annelids), and grey flints with Inoceramus 
 
 (pi;obably local). 
 Bed flints (Danish?). 
 Fossiliferons shale (Speeton Clay). 
 Septaria. "1 
 
 Oolitic Limestone. I n\T-jji n i-j. j>-t^ i i ■ ^ 
 Earthy Limestone. ^(Middle Oolite of Yorkshire). 
 
 Calcareous Grit. J 
 
 Bstuarine Sandstone (Lower Oolite of Yorkshire?). 
 
 Jet Bock, some fragments with Inoceramus duhius. \ Upper Lias of 
 
 Ammonites communis. } Yorksbire. 
 
 Hard Shale with Avioula. 1 
 
 Sandy Shale. i- (Middle Lias of Yorkshire). 
 
 Cleveland Ironstone. 
 
 Belemnites , 3T^. "j 
 Lima. , > (Lias). 
 
 Pentaoriniis. J 
 
 Amonites Jamesoni ? 
 
 hifrons, 
 
 Broohii. , _ 
 
 semicostatus. |;>(Lower Lias;. 
 
 Qryplusa arcuata. j 
 
 Ca/rdinia Listeri. J 
 
 Carboniferous Limestone and Chert. 1 ,,, , .~ 
 
 Sandstone. | (Carboniferous). 
 
 Grits, Conglomerates, and Breccias. 
 
 Vein Quai'tz. 
 
 Jasper (pebbles). '-'.'fiSsriW 
 
 Quartzite of various colours (usually well rounded, and probably 
 
 dei'ived from old Conglomerates). 
 Axkose. 
 
 Mica Schist (some garnetiferous). 
 Gneiss. 
 
BBIDLINGTON CRAG. 19 
 
 Hornblende Schist. 
 
 Diorite. 
 
 Syenite. 
 
 Homblendic Granite. 
 
 Granite and Granitoid Rocks of many varieties. 
 
 Quartz Felsite. 
 
 Various Porphyrites, often amygdaloidal (of the Cheviot type). 
 
 Basalt (fine grained and amygdaloidal). 
 
 Diabase with large Olivine. 
 
 Diabase, fine grained porphyritic (like some of the Old Red Lavas). 
 
 VolcaiKc Tuff. 
 
 The fauna of the shelly masses included in the Basement Clay 
 is of great interest, and has attracted attention ever since the 
 deposit was first discovered. As the age of this so-called " Crag " 
 has been much disputed, an outline vrill be given of the different 
 opinions which have finally led to- the conclusion that the fauna 
 presents a thoroughly Arctic facies, and belongs to the Pleistocene 
 period. Though each mass shows some slight peculiarity in the 
 distribution of the included moUusca, or perhaps may contain a 
 form unknown in the others, yet the general facies of the fauna 
 is so uniform that the different masses may safely be accepted as 
 representing the broken-up remains of one bed, or of a series of 
 beds, deposited under similar conditions and during one period. 
 
 Professor Sedgwick's original reference of the fossils to an 
 Eocene bed is accounted for by the unfortunate destruction of 
 his specimens before they could be determined. The matrix is 
 remarkably like some of the Lower Eocene beds of the London 
 basin, and the green-coated flints perhaps show that it is partly 
 formed from the destruction, of an underlying bed of Eocene age. 
 
 On the re-discovery of the bed in 1835, Mr. Beau obtained 
 fresh specimens, from which, believing that more than half of 
 them could not be referred to any existing species, he spoke of 
 the shells as coeval with, if not of higher antiquity than, the Crag. 
 Shortly after. Sir Charles Lyell received from Mr. Bean a series 
 of the shells, and concluded that 20 out of the 35 were recent 
 species. The general similarity of the fauna, and the occurrence 
 of Nucula Cobboldice, led him to correlate the Bridlington bed with 
 the Norwich Crag.* 
 
 This determination was also accepted by Mr. S. V. Wood, in, 
 the Crag Mollusca ; and by Edward Forbee, who writes, " The 
 examination of the Bridlington, fossils has convinced me that they 
 are truly of the age of the mammaliferous crag, and that Ijoth 
 those formations may be referred to the epoch of the Northern 
 Drift, and probably — especially the last-mentioned — to the com- 
 mencement of that epoch before the severer conditions had 
 set in."t It is evident that Edward Forbes suspected that the 
 Bridlington Crag might turn out to be newer than the Norwich 
 Crag. 
 
 Here the question remained till 1864, when Dr. S. P. Wood- 
 ward, working with much larger collections from Bridlington, and 
 
 * Lyell : " On the relative Ages of the Tertiary Deposits commonly called ' Crag,' 
 in the Counties of Norfolk and Suffolk."— Jifaj. Nat. Hist., vol. xii. p. 324, 1R39. 
 t Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 392, 1846. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 BASEMENT CLAY 
 
 with fuller information as to the living Arctic molluscaj was able to 
 state that " This investigation has led to the somewhat unexpected 
 result that the Bridlington deposit can no longer be considered 
 the exact equivalent of the Norwich Crag in age, or in climatical 
 conditions. Of the 63 shells found by Mr. Leckenby and Mr. 
 Bean at Bridlington, only 35 are common to the Norwich Crag. 
 And v?hile 29 species, or one-half of those from Bridlington 
 which are still living, are limited to the seas north of Britain, 
 only one-sixth part of those found in the Norwich Crag have an 
 Arctic character."* Subsequent discoveries have only tended to 
 confirm and strengthen this conclusion. 
 
 Mr. S. V. Wood, and Mr. S. V. Wood, junior, afterwards tried 
 to fix the exact position of the Bridlington Crag in the Glacial 
 Deposits, principally by the proportion of extinct mollusca. They 
 considered the fauna to be newer than that of the Middle Glacial 
 Sands of Norfolk, and to belong to the upper portion of the over- 
 lying Great Chalky Boulder Ciay.f This correlation will be 
 again referred to. 
 
 Quite recently the researches of Messrs. Lamplugh and Headley 
 have resulted in the collection of a very large amount of fresh 
 material. This enabled Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, who bad already 
 examined the old collections, and revised the lists for Professor 
 Phillips' Geology of Yorkshire, to add upwards of 30 species of 
 mollusca, raising the total number to over 100, excluding varieties. 
 Of these Dr. Jeffreys describes five as new ; and, besides those 
 recognised by him as extinct, five others are also so treated in 
 Mr. S. V. Wood's lists. One of them, Trophon Lechenhyi, has 
 since been found living in deep water between Shetland and the 
 Faroe Islands ; Nucula Cobloldia is considered by Dr. Jeffrevs 
 to be a variety of a Hving species, N. insignis of Japan ; Tellina 
 obliqua is referred to an extinct variety of T. calcaria ; and two 
 forms of Pleurotoma, P. Dowsoni, and P. rohusta are referred 
 respectively to the living species P. turricula and P. harpularia. 
 
 Of the 99 living species, 47 are exclusively Arctic ; and, besides 
 these particularly Arctic species, 41 of the littoral forms are also 
 Arctic, making the total number of the latter 88 or about 87 per cent, 
 of the whole. Thus the molluscan fauna of the Bridlington Crao- 
 js of an intensely Arctic character; in fact, is more markedly boreal 
 than that of any other British deposit. The species recently 
 added to the list by Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys being mostly Arctic forms 
 and many of them exclusively Arctic, this result has been brought 
 out even more clearly than before. A few of the livino- forms 
 mcludmg Fusus curtus, Pleurotoma licarinata, P. decusTata and' 
 Turritella crosa, are at the present day confined to American'sea« 
 but the fauna does not include a single species which has an 
 exclusively southern range. 
 
 
BRIDLINGTON^ CRAG. 21 
 
 The depth at which the Bridlington Crag fauna flourished 
 does not seem quite clear, for Dr. Jeffreys considers the shells 
 found at Dimlington comparatively shallow water species, from 2 to 
 10 fathoms ; while Mr. H. B., Brady remarks on 17 species of 
 Foraminifera from the same locality that " the fauna appears to 
 represent a somewhat colder area than the Bridlington Crag, as 
 far as I have information of the latter. This collection appears 
 to indicate a cold bottom of not less than 40 nor above 
 80 fathoms." 
 
 This apparent discrepancy may be partly due to the well-known 
 fact that the vertical range of many species is largely determined 
 by temperature. A fauna which lives in shallow water in the 
 Arctic regions may thus be confined to greater depths furtlier 
 south. Another disturbing cause is the action of shore ice, of 
 which we seem to have good evidence in the far-transported 
 stones in the shelly clay. This ice would continually carry away 
 littoral shells, and drop them into deeper water, while it could 
 never bring deep-water forms to mix with the littorah Thus a 
 deceptive littoral facies might be given to the fauna, though the 
 species which actually lived together were all of them forms 
 needing a depth of several fathoms. The general impression 
 which an examination of the whole of the evidence leaves is that 
 the Bridlington Crag was originally deposited in somewhat deeper 
 water than the list of shells alone would appear to show. The 
 depth may have been 20 to 40 fathoms, or perhaps even more. 
 
 In the subjoined lists the Bridlington Foraminifera are taken 
 from the Palseontographical Society's Monograph, by Messrs. 
 Jones, Parker, and Brady, with the addition of other species 
 lately obtained by Mr. Lamplugh, and determined by Dr. W. 
 H. Crosskey, and Mr. H. B. Brady, F.R.S. The Dimlington 
 species were collected in the course of the Geological Survey, 
 and determined by Mr. II. B. Brady, F.R.S. The Bridlington 
 Entomostraca are from the same sources, and have been deter- 
 mined by Messrs. G. S. Brady, Crosskey, and Robertson ; those 
 from Dimlington were obtained by the Geological Survey, and 
 determined by Dr. G. S. Brady, F.R.S. The revised lists of 
 Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys contained in the last edition of Prof. Phillips' 
 Geology of Yorkshire, and in Mr. Lamplugh's papers, have been 
 used for the Bridlington MoUusca ; the smaller list from Dim- 
 lington contains the species found by Mr. Lamplugh and the 
 Geological Survey. The vertebrates are taken from Mr. 
 Lamplugh's last paper, and were named by Mr. E. T. Newton. 
 Most of them are probably derivative. 
 
 The comparatively small list from Dimlington is entirely due 
 to the imperfect search made at that place ; when properly 
 examined it will probably yield as many species as Bridlington. 
 To obtain the smaller species of moUusca it is necessary to wash a 
 considerable amount of the clay or sand from different masses. 
 The assemblage is not quite the same in all of them, and if 
 attention is confined to one mass many of the species will be 
 overlooked. 
 
22 
 
 FOSSILS OF THE BJUDLINGTON CEAG. 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 Kemarks. 
 
 Plants. 
 Potamogeton, sp. 
 
 FOEAMINIFEKA. 
 
 Bilooulina elongata, D'Orb. 
 
 ringens, Lam, 
 
 Balimina marginata, D'Orh. 
 Cassidalina crassa, I)' Orb. 
 
 laevigata, D'Orb. 
 
 Cornuspira foliacea, Ph. 
 Cristellaria cultrata, Mont, - 
 
 acutauricularis, F. Sf M. 
 
 Dentalina brevis, D'Orb. 
 
 commrmis, D'Orb. 
 
 pauperata, D'Orb. 
 
 Gaudrynia pupoides, D'Orb. 
 Glandulina tevigata, D' Orb. ■ 
 var. rotundata - 
 
 Globigerina bulloides, D'Orb. 
 Lagena glotosa, Mont. 
 
 laevigata, Reuss. 
 
 ■ — Isevis, Mont. 
 
 squamosa, Mont. 
 
 sulcata, W'. Sf J. 
 
 Miliolina seminulum, i. 
 
 oblonga, Mont. 
 
 Nonionina depressula, W. Sf J. 
 
 orbicularis ? Brady 
 
 scapha, F. §• M. - 
 
 Polymorpbina compressa, D'Orb. 
 
 lactea, W. §• ,/.. 
 
 lanceolata, Reuss. 
 
 Thouini, D'Orb. 
 
 Polystomella ciispa, L. 
 
 striato-punetata,jF.^M. 
 
 Pulvinulina Karsteni, Reuss. 
 QninqUeloculina seminulum, Z. 
 
 triangularis, i^'OyJ. 
 
 Botalia Beocarii, L. 
 Trilocvilina oblonga, Mont. 
 Truncatulina lobatula, W. Sf J. 
 Uvigerina-angulosa, Williamson 
 Vaginulina laevigata, Roemer 
 legumen, L. 
 
 ECHINODERMATA. 
 
 Undetermined spines^ Sfc. 
 
 ClKEIPEDIA. 
 
 Balauus crenatus, Brug. 
 
 Hameii, Asc. 
 
 porcatas, Da C. 
 
 Ven'uca Stromia, Miill. 
 
 See p. 14. 
 
 Much brokeu. 
 
 Northern. 
 
FOSSILS OF THE BEIDLINGTON CRAG. 
 
 23 
 
 g- 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ■& 
 
 tn 
 
 .g 
 •a 
 
 .a 
 
 .1 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Bntomostbaca. 
 
 Cythere angulata, G. O. Sars. 
 conoinna, Jones 
 
 - costata. Brady - - 
 
 cribrosa, B., C. Sf R. 
 
 dunelmensis, Norman 
 
 emarginata, G. O. Sars. 
 
 fimbriata, Norman 
 
 globulifera, Brady - 
 
 J Jonesii, Baird, var. cera- 
 
 toptera. 
 
 leioderma, Norman - 
 
 McChesneyi, B. §■ C. 
 
 - mirabilis, Brady 
 
 tnberoulata, G. O. Sars. - 
 
 viUosa, G. O. Sars. 
 
 Cytheridea elongata, Brady - 
 
 papulosa, Bosquet 
 
 punotillata, Brady 
 
 sorbyana, Jones - 
 
 Cyfheropteron angulatam, B. Sf M. 
 
 latissimum, Norman 
 
 nodosam, Brady 
 
 Cythenira clathrata, G. O. Sars. - 
 Euoythere argas, G. O. Sars. 
 Krithe glacialis, B., C. ^ B. - 
 Paradoxostoma ensiforme, Brady - 
 
 ; pyriforme, B.,C.SfR. 
 
 Sclerochilus nontortus, Norman 
 
 POLTZOA. 
 
 Undetermined 
 
 BSACHIOPODA. 
 
 Rhynchonella paittacea, Chemn. 
 
 CONCHIPERA. 
 
 Anomla ephipplum, i. 
 
 var. aculeata ■ 
 
 squamnla • 
 
 Astarte borealis, Chemn, 
 
 —^— var. mutabile 
 
 ' Withami 
 
 compressa, Mont. - 
 
 • var. striata 
 
 ^— ^— depressa, Brown - 
 
 sulcata, Da C. 
 
 — — ^ var. elliptioa 
 
 Axinopsis orbioulata, G. O. Sars. 
 Cardita borealis, Conrad - 
 Cardium eehinatum, L. 
 
 edule, Z. - 
 
 — grcBnlandicum, Chemn. 
 
 ■ — islandicum, L. 
 
 Corbula gibba, Olivi. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. 
 L. 
 L. 
 A. 
 A. 
 A. 
 L. 
 L. 
 A. 
 L. 
 L. 
 A. 
 A. 
 L. 
 
 Ir. 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 L. 
 
 and A. 
 and A. 
 and A. 
 
 and A. 
 and A. 
 
 A. erebricostata, Forbes, 
 and A. 
 aod A. 
 
 and A. 
 
 and A. C. striata, W. andB. 
 
24 
 
 FOSSILS OF THE BRIDLINGTON CRAG. 
 
 Corbula pusilla, Philippi. - 
 Crenella deoussata, Alont. 
 Cjprina islandica, L. 
 Donax vittatus. Da C. 
 Leda intermedia, M. Sars. 
 
 lenticulk, Moll. 
 
 limatula, Satj. 
 
 minuta, Miill. 
 
 var. 'buccata - 
 
 pernula, Miill. 
 
 tenuis - - - 
 
 Lutraria elliptica, JLam. - 
 Mactra solida, i., var. elliptica 
 Montaeuta Dawsoni, Jeffreys, 
 Mya arenaria, L. - 
 •^^trancata, i. 
 
 var. udderallensis 
 
 Mytilus edulis, L. - 
 
 modiolus, i. 
 
 Nucula Cobboldias, Leaihes 
 
 - tenuis, Mont. 
 var. inflata 
 
 - nucleus, L, 
 
 Pecten islandious, Miiller 
 
 opereularis, X. 
 
 pes-lutrse, L. 
 
 Pectunculus glycymeris, L. 
 Pholai crispata, L.- 
 Saxicava norvegica, Spengler 
 
 Tugosa, i. 
 
 Solen ensis, X. 
 Tellina balthica, X. 
 
 ^^^^ calcaria, Chemn. - 
 
 obliqua, J. Sow. 
 
 . pusilla, Philippi. 
 
 Tbraoia prsetenuis, Pult. 
 
 pubescens, Pult. 
 
 Venus fluctuosa, Gould 
 ovata, Pennant 
 
 SOLENOCONCHIA. 
 
 Dentalium entails, X. 
 '■ strlolatum, Stimpson 
 
 Gastropoda. 
 
 Admete viridula, Fabr. 
 Amaura sulcosa, JLecke - 
 Buccinum groenlandicum, Chemn. 
 
 undatum, X. - 
 
 Bulla crebristriata, Jeffr. 
 Columbella rosacea, Gould 
 Cyliclma alba. Brown 
 — — — sculpta, Leche 
 
 W 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 .g 
 
 .1 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 L. and A. 
 L. and A. 
 L. and A. 
 L. 
 A. 
 A. 
 
 A. L. oblongoides, S. V. Wood. 
 L. and A. £. caudata, Dono- 
 van. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 Basement clay at Filey. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. 
 
 Xi. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. 
 
 L, and A. 
 
 L. 
 
 N. insignis ?^ Gould, or ex- 
 tinct? 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. andA. S. arctica, X. tiar. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. T. solidnla, Pul- 
 teney. ; 
 
 A. T. lata, Gmel.\ [T. proxi- 
 ma, Brown. 
 
 Extinct? 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. &A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. & A.Jl^D. abyssorum, San 
 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 
 L? and A. 
 
 Extinct. 
 
 A. C. HolboUii, Beck. 
 
 A. - 
 
 A. 
 
FOSSILS OP THE BEIDLTNGTON CRAG. 
 
 25 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 g' 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 ^3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 p 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 FuBus curtus, Jeffr. 
 
 — var. expansa 
 
 • despectus, L. 
 
 ■ Kroyeri, Moll. 
 
 ■ Leckenbyi, S. V. Wood 
 
 ■ propinquus, Alder 
 
 ■ Sarsi, Jeffr. 
 
 ■ spitzbergensis, Reeve 
 
 Lacuna divaricata, Fdbr. 
 Lepeta caeca, Mull. 
 Littorina globosa, Jeffr. 
 
 littorea, Z. 
 
 obtusata, L. 
 
 ^— var. - 
 
 -rudis, Maton. 
 
 Menestho albula. Fab. 
 Natiea affinis, Gmel. 
 
 — — var. occlnsa 
 
 ■ groenlandica, Beck - 
 
 islandica, Ornel. - 
 
 Montacuti, Forbes - 
 
 Odostomia conspicua. Alder 
 Pleurotoma bicarinata, Couth. 
 
 — ' var. riolacea 
 
 ■ decussata, Couth, 
 var. 
 
 - elegans, Moll. 
 
 - exarata, Moll. 
 
 ■ harpularia, Couth, 
 
 - multistriata, Jeffr. 
 
 ■ pyramidalis, Str. 
 
 ■ simplex, Midd. 
 
 ■ trevelyana, Turt. » 
 
 ■ turricula, Mont. 
 ■ var. Dowsoni 
 
 Puncturellaf Noachina, Z. - 
 Purpura lapillus, i. 
 RisBoa subperforata, Jeffr.* 
 
 parva. Da Costa 
 
 WyTille-Thomsoni, Jeffr. - 
 
 —^^——^—^ var. 
 
 Scalaria groenlandica, Chemn. 
 Tricbotropis borealis, B. Sf S. 
 Trochus cinereuB, Couth 
 
 cinerarius, Z. - 
 
 groenlandlcus, Chemn. 
 
 Tarlcosus, M. ^ A. 
 
 zizyphiifbs, Z. 
 
 Tropbon clathratus, Z. ■ 
 
 var. Gunneri - 
 
 truncata - 
 
 Fabricii, Beck 
 ■ latericeus, Mnll. 
 
 — — ^^^ ia.\,\jt i\i\j "w, ^.-^ w— 
 
 Turritella erosa. Couth. 
 
 L. vincta, Mons. 
 
 American. 
 
 American. 
 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 
 Deep water between Shetland 
 
 and the Faroe I. 
 A. 
 A. 
 A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 A. 
 Extinct. 
 L.and A. 
 L. and A. 
 L. and A, 
 L. and A. 
 A. 
 
 A. N. clausa, B. and S, 
 A. 
 A. 
 
 A. N. belicoides, Johnston, 
 L. and A. 
 L. 
 
 A. American. 
 A. American. 
 A. American. 
 A. 
 A. 
 A. 
 
 A. P. robusta, 5. V. Wood. 
 Extinct. 
 A. 
 A. 
 A. 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 L. and A. 
 Extinct. 
 L. and A. 
 
 > Deep water. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. Margarita elegantisgima. 
 
 Bean. 
 L. and A. 
 
 A. T. scalariformis, Gould. 
 A. 
 
 A. T. Bamffius, Don. 
 A. 
 A. 
 A. American. 
 
 * Xissoa costata and R. aemistriaia were also found by Mr. Headley, but Dr. Jeffreys thinks 
 tbey may be recent specimens ; tUey look extremely recent, and the clay was obtained between 
 tide marks. 
 
26 
 
 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 •3 
 
 1 
 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 
 'JCurritella terebra, L. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Utriculus constriotus, Jeffr. 
 
 X 
 
 . 
 
 Extinct. 
 
 obtusus, Mont., var. per- 
 
 
 
 
 tenuis 
 
 X 
 
 • 
 
 A. 
 
 Veetebkata (probably all deriv- 
 
 
 
 
 ative from Crag, Eocene, or 
 
 
 
 
 older rocks). 
 
 
 
 
 Carcharodon (teeth), and other 
 
 
 
 
 sharks ... 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Chrysophrys (teeth) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lamna subulata, Ag. (teeth) - 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Myliobatis (teeth) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Notidamus microdon, Ag. (teeth) - 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Oxyrhina (teeth) - . . 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Platax Woodwardi ? Ag. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Raia batis, Mont, (teeth) 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Otoliths of Gadoid fish 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Fish vertebrae 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Plesiosaurus 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Rumiuant, fragment of tooth 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Ursns, sp. 
 
 X 
 
 
 In Mr. Bedwell's collection. 
 
 A = Arctic. 
 
 L = Littoral or shallow water, i.e. less than 100 fathoms. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BOULDER GIuKY— continued. 
 
 The next division, the Lower Purple, is of less interest than the 
 Basement Clay, and its diflFerences from that Boulder Clay are 
 principally negative. It does not contain the broken-up masses of 
 shelly beds, so characteristic of the Basement Clay ; and the shell 
 fragments among its boulders are also much less abundant and 
 perfect. It is a tough, occasionally streaky, lead-coloured or 
 bluish-purple Boulder Clay, generally very chalky near the base 
 but Vidth less Chalk in the upper part. Hard striated boulders are 
 more abundant in it than in .the Basement Clay, and 'perhaps more 
 varied ; but if the «o/lt boidders of the Basement Clay are taken into 
 account, the proportion of recognizable far-transported rocks will 
 probably be about the same in each. 
 
 The bulk of the material- in all the Holdemess Boulder Clays 
 has evidently been brought from a distance, though the character 
 of the upper ones suggests that they may have been formed in"two 
 ways ;— either by a more complete grinding-up, weatherino- 'and 
 
.PUKPLE CLAY. 27 
 
 mixture of tlie same materials that produced the Basement Clay, 
 or more simply by the destruction and ploughing-up of that 
 Boulder Clay, and the mixture with it of a considerable proportion 
 of the local chalk and flint. Either view would account for the 
 occurrence, in a more fragmentary state, of the same species of 
 moUusca and the same boulders as are found in the Basement 
 Clay. At present we cannot say that any of the far-transported 
 rocks are confined to the higher divisions, though Sbap Granite 
 is at any rate more abundant in the Purple Clay, and may be 
 entirely wanting in the Basement Clay. 
 
 The Upper Purple Clay is very similar to the lower, but contains 
 few shell fragments. It is generally divided from the Lower by 
 a red band about a foot thick, consisting of obscurely stratified 
 Boulder Clay material. Sometimes, however, this red band is 
 replaced by a few feet of gravel, the stones of which appear to 
 have been derived from the underlying Lower Purple Clay. 
 
 Above the Upper Purple Clay there is another line of division, 
 more commonly marked by stratified gravels ; and upon this rests 
 a fourth Boulder Clay, correlated by Mr. S. V. Wood, jun., with 
 the Boulder Clay of Hessle. This clay, when unweathered, is 
 quite undistinguishable in lithological character or colour from 
 the lower ones, though boulders seem generally smaller and less 
 abundant, and shell fragments, already very rare in the upper 
 part of the Purple Boulder Clay, have not yet been found in it. 
 
 These three Boulder Clays are so much alike, that without con- 
 tinuous sections it is impossible to say to which division an isolated 
 exposure belongs. All the Boulder Clays seen in the cliff above 
 the Basement Clay will therefore be described together, com- 
 mencing at Flamborough ; and where the tracing of the difierent 
 horizons seems safe, the probable equivalents will be indicated. 
 The inland sections will afterwards he mentioned; but in this case 
 there is nothing whatever to go upon in the correlation of the 
 Boulder Clays, exaept the fact of their lying over or under a 
 fossiliferous horizon, which horizon unfortunately cannot yet be 
 recognized on the coast. 
 
 In the narrow valleys which cut deep into the Chalk near Flam- 
 borough, the Boulder Clay, as is usual in hilly districts, splits up 
 into a large number of beds separated by gravels. Similar divi- 
 sions in valley Boulder Clays are often taken to prove inter-glacial 
 periods, but it seems more probable that most of them only mark 
 the position of sub-glacial _^ watercourses. Sub-glacial rivers are 
 always to be found under the glaciers of the Alps, and they form 
 one of the most curious features in the glaciation of Greenland. 
 In a hill country we should naturally expect to find these gravels 
 abundant in the valleys, while in flat districts like the plain of 
 Holderness the Boulder Clay seems to have been deposited more 
 continuously, and there are fewer divisions. 
 
 Another common distinction between the glacial deposits of a 
 hill country and of a plain is the curious way in which Boulder 
 Clays deposited on uneven ground seem to pass laterally into clayey 
 gravels, or even into clean eskar-like gravels. This is very clearly 
 
2,8 BOULDER CLAY, 
 
 brought out by Mr. Dakyns' description of the Drifts lying on the 
 Chalk near Flamborough, from which the following account is 
 principally taken. But the phenomenon is not confined to this 
 area ; it is very common along the whole of the hilly part of the 
 Yorkshire coast north of Flamborough, and also in other hilly 
 districts in England. In the North Yorkshire Moors it was one 
 of the greatest hindrances to the accurate mapping of the deposits ; 
 for, even with a perfectly clear section, it was often impossible to 
 say whether a certain bed ought to be called a gravelly Boulder 
 Clay, or a clayey Gravel. This is also probably connected with 
 the sub-glacial flow of water. 
 
 Boulder Clay stretches continuously over the sea-ward end of 
 the Wolds, from Bridlington to the Chalk escarpment ; but over 
 the very highest cliffs the topmost Boulder Clay seems often to be 
 alone present. It often becomes so stony that it is hard to say 
 whether it should be called Gravel or Boulder Clay. And, quite in 
 keeping with this, we find that mounds of gravel when traced to 
 the cliff edge seem to end in this earthy Boulder Clay. Thus the 
 gravel mounds stretching from Speeton along the top of the Chalk 
 escarpment pass into Boulder Clay, as far as one can judge in the 
 absence of perfectly clear sections.* 
 
 It may be advisable to point out at once that the shells in these 
 gravelly Boulder Clays and Gravels of Flamborough are all, as 
 far as yet known. Basement Clay species : no trace has yet been 
 found of a contemporaneous fauna such as might have lived among 
 the stones. The shelly sand at Speeton, which will be referred 
 to again in Chapter V., is at a much lower level, and contains a 
 quite different fauna. 
 
 At the extreme easterly point of Flamborough Head, at High 
 Stacks, the Boulder Clay is in four divisions. The section given 
 by Mr. Dakyns is as follows : — 
 
 Eed Boulder Clay. 
 
 Ohalky G-ravel. 
 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Ohalky Gravel. 
 
 Boulder Olay. 
 
 Gravel. 
 
 Purple Boulder Olay. 
 
 In Danes Dike Valley the sections are still more complicated 
 and very variable. Mr. Dakyns describes the beds Seen on the 
 west side, when fully developed, as consisting of the following 
 members : — 
 
 Bedded Gravel of Drift Pebbles, 
 
 Boulder Olay, 6 feet. 
 
 Obalky Gravel, 7 feet. 
 
 Boulder Olay. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Boulder Olay. 
 
 Sand and Gravel. 
 
 Chalky Gravel, well-bedded, thining out rapidly eastwards. 
 
 * See J. K. Dakyns' " Glacial Deposits North of Bridlington." — Proc. Geol. Soc. 
 Ybr/esAtVe, n.s., vol. vi). p. 251. 
 
BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 29 
 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Angular Chalk debris and Gravel, wMcli dies out east of the valley. 
 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Sand, about 6 feet. 
 
 Fine Chalk-wash, in twisted laminae, about 6 feet. 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 The lovrest bed is, like the chalky raia-wash, probably due to 
 sub-aerial denudation or weathering, which is apt to clothe with 
 angular debris the bottoms and sides of valleys in the Chalk. The 
 higher sand-bed ends abruptly under Boulder Clay on the west; 
 it is not a well-bedded sand, but its layers seem to be twisted 
 back under the Boulder Clay, from west to east. A diagram by 
 Mr. Dakyns is given of the mode of occurrence of the beds, most 
 of which appear to be very impersistent even in a short section. 
 
 Fig-. 2 — Section on the west side of the Danes Dihe Valley. 
 
 iScale, 
 
 Owing to the thinning out of the other beds, the section on the 
 east side of the valley consists of the following members alone : — 
 
 Gravel. 
 Boulder Clay. 
 Chalky Gravel. 
 Boulder Clay. 
 Sand. 
 
 Chalk-wash. 
 Chalk. 
 
 About 200 yards up the valley, the details of the section are 
 quite different : — 
 
 Feei. 
 Fine Chalk Gravel. - - - - - 4 
 
 Boulder Clay ... - - 25 
 
 Coarse irregular Chalk Gravel - 7 
 
 Chalk. wash or fine stratified Chalk Gravel - . - — 
 
 Boulder Clay, containing chiefly small Chalk fragments, a few 
 foreigners, and a little sand - - - - 20 
 
 The coarse Chalk Gravel cuts off one end of the Chalk- 
 wash. A httle lower down the stream there is fine laminated 
 Clay and Chalk-wash below the chalky Boulder Clay. In the 
 cliff opposite Danes Dike Farm, the section has again varied : — 
 
 Sand and Gravel. 
 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Sand and Clay, Warp. 
 
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STRATIFIED BED IN BOULDER CLAY. 31 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Boulder Clay. 
 Chalky Gravel. 
 Chalk. 
 
 The general section of the cliffs, a short distance to the south- 
 west, near Sewerby Hall, Mr. Dakyns gives as : — 
 
 Clean red Clay, alluvial. 
 
 Gravel, the Sewerby Gravel. 
 
 Boulder Clay, part of the Purple Boulder Clay. 
 
 Sand, probably the same bed as that which divides the Purple Boulder 
 
 Clay at Bridlington. 
 Boulder Clay, the lower part of the Purple Boulder Clay. 
 Chalky Gravel, not continuous, but very general. 
 Chalk. 
 
 From this point the cliff steadily falls towards Bridlington 
 Quay, and when the old buried Chalk cliff is passed, the beds are 
 more contLauous. 
 
 At Sands Lane the Boulder Clay above the Basement Clay 
 is divided into two by a thin bed of sand and gravel. This Gravel, 
 according to Mr. Lamplugh, can be traced northward for about 
 a mile, increasing in thickness locally to 12 feet. Beyond the 
 beginning of the Chalk, though the division in the Boulder Clay 
 seems to be continuous, the gravels are intermittent. Between 
 Sands Lane and a point 900 yards south of Bridlington Harbour, 
 Mr. Lamplugh has published detailed sections of the cliff drawn 
 to a natural scale ;* and as great part of these sections were only 
 visible for a short time before the sea-walls were rebuilt, his 
 account will be followed, as was done in the case of the Bridling- 
 ton Crag. South of Sands Lane the bed of gravel thins out 
 within 300 yards, and the two divisions of the Boulder Clay come 
 together. From this point to the spot where the Basement Clay 
 first rises into the cliff, there is a post-glacial freshwater deposit, 
 which cuts into and is mixed with the Boulder Clay in a way that 
 quite prevents any line of division being traced. The clearer 
 section near the Alexandra Hotel shows numerous contorted 
 streaks and masses of sand and clay, which, unlike those in the 
 Basement Clay, do not contain shells, but there are no definite 
 beds of sand. These contortions give the Purple Boulder Clay 
 at this spot much the appearance of the Contorted Drift of 
 Norfolk. 
 
 The cliff opposite Bridlington Quay being obscured by the sea- 
 wall and buildings, Mr. Lamplugh has attempted to connect the 
 beds in the north and south cliffs by means of the sections recently 
 exposed in the Bridlington drainage works. These sections, 
 like those seen in the cliff, show two divisions of Purple Boulder 
 Clay overlying the Basement Clay ; but nowhere in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Bridlington is there anything to show whether the 
 two divisions' are the Upper and Lower Purple Clay, or whether 
 the so-called Hessle Clay is also represented. 
 
 * " Glacial Sections near Bridlington." — Proc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. vii. 
 p. 3S3 ; vol. viii. pp. 27 & 240. 
 
32 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 Immediately south of the Harbour the clife are again visible, 
 and for 900 yards from the South Pier we have Mr. Lamplugh's 
 detailed sections. The Boulder Clay answers closely to his de- 
 scription of that in the North Cliff, being " a dark brownisli-purple 
 clay, containing a great variety of boulders, and a few shell 
 fragments. The chief point of interest in this section lies in 
 the existence of a, well-stratified portion, which occurs along 
 one horizon, and thus forms a band running thread-like through- 
 out the section. This stratified band varies in thickness from 
 a few inches to three feet. It does not differ much from the rest 
 of the clay, except in being bedded, but is rather more earthy 
 (which causes it to weather faster), and al-:o contains a sprinkling 
 of small chalk pebbles, and these are rare in the clay below it, 
 and not plentiful above. It contains scratched blocks like 
 the rest of the Boulder Clay, but flat pebbles are nearlj' always 
 laid horizontally. The bedding is sometimes very distinct, and 
 almost fine enough to be called lamination ; at others it is 
 almost or quite lost, though the state of the cliff has something 
 to do with this, as it is after the washing of a heavy sea that 
 the bedding is best brought out. There are often reddish, 
 whitish, or greenish streaks at its base, which seem to be the 
 remains of crushed masses of soft rocks." 
 
 "Its junction with the Boulder Clay below is sharply defined, 
 
 but upwards it is somewhat vague it res's on, and 
 
 follows the inequalities of, an extremely uneven surface, lisino- 
 and sinking in the cliff continually, varying from about 20 feet 
 above the beach to beach-line, and evidently lapping round and 
 over lumpy and projecting bosses of the lower part of the clay, — 
 passing over them sometimes at a high angle ; — so that the line 
 traced by this band in the cliff, if called a ' horizon,' is decidedly 
 hilly in aspect." At several points in this section, " the band 
 passes into, or admits, seams of fine clean sand, which appear to 
 have been sheltered under the lea of a boss of the clay-bed, as 
 they are usually sharply cut into, and cut off, by the overlying 
 clay. I have not yet been able to ascertain whether the direction 
 of the leaside is always the same, but in two cases the sand rested 
 on the western slope of a knoll."* 
 
 The above description of the stratified band is quoted in full, for 
 it will apply not only to the neighbourhood of Bridlington, but 
 to the whole of the Holderness cliffs ; and a band, probably of the 
 same age, re-appears south of the Humber, at Cleethorpes. 
 
 South of Wilsthorpe the land falls, and the low cliff, where not 
 occupied by alluvial deposits, shows only the Purple Clay with 
 the parting just described, and occasional small contortions. At 
 Skipsea the cliff rises again, and south of that place there seem 
 to be indications of the addition of another division of the Purple 
 Clay, or else of the Hessle Clay. A section at Skirlington cliffs, 
 noted by Mr. Dakyns, shows : — 
 
 * Lamplugh, op. cit., vol. viii. p. 33. 
 
BOULDEE CLAT. 33 
 
 Teet. 
 Boulder Clay .-.-..- 15 
 Sand (dies out sOon) - - - - - - 5 
 
 Purple Boulder Clay - - - - - 5 
 
 Gravel and Warp (changes to chalky gravel, 2 feet thick, a 
 
 little to the south, and to a red band) - - - 3 or 4 
 
 Purple Boulder Clay - - - - - - 15 
 
 The intermittent bed of chalky sand and gravel in Purple 
 Boulder Clay is probably the same as the red band further north. 
 The three Boulder Clays, and generally the intervening stratified 
 bands, seem very persistent for several miles, and a few detailed 
 sections will be sufficient to show the character of the deposits. 
 One, half a mile south of the last-mentioned, and close to Moor 
 Hill Beacon, shows : — 
 
 Feet> 
 Purple Boulder Clay, red and Hessle-like at the top - 
 Sand and "Warp - - - - • • -1 
 
 Purple Boulder Clay, with few stones - - - - 8 
 
 Clean clay (red band ?)---- - 1 
 
 Purple Boulder Clay - - - - - • 4t 
 
 Another opposite Atwick is very similar : — 
 
 Feet. 
 7 or 8: 
 5 or 3 
 3 or 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Sand (alluvial) - - - - 
 Gravel < - 
 
 Boulder Clay . - - . 
 
 Gravel - - - - - 
 
 Boulder Clay - - . - 
 
 Red band .... 
 
 Chalk rubble - . . . 
 
 Boulder Clay . - . - 
 
 Near this spot the very chalky base of the Purple Clay is 
 seen at the foot of the cliff. It is probably the bed called by 
 Mr. S. V. Wood, jun., in this neighbourhood, the Basement 
 Clay,* though it is evidently not the same as the shelly Boulder 
 Clays of Bridlington and Dimlington. 
 
 Between Atwick and Hornsea, at one or two spots, no line of 
 division could be traced in a clean section of Boulder Clay nearly 
 forty feet high ; but close to the edge of the Hornsea Valley one 
 at least of the divisions reappears. The section is : — 
 
 Feei. 
 Soil -------- 2^ 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay ------ 8 
 
 Clayey Gravel . - - - - - 2 
 
 Dark Purple Boulder Clay, with Chalk - - - 23 
 
 On the south side of the Valley, where the cliff is over 50 feet 
 high, there is only one line of division, and that is obscure ; but 
 slio-ht variations in the character of the Boulder Clay seem to 
 divide it into three : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Purple chalky Boulder Clay - - - - - 13 
 
 Loamy sand (a contorted lenticular mass ?) - - - 2 
 
 Dark blue-purple Boulder Clay - - - - 20 
 
 Eed-purple Boulder Clay, with a little Chalk, and shell 
 fragments ■ - - - - - -12 + 
 
 * Geol. Mag., dec. II. vol. v. p. 13. 
 A 16165. c 
 
34 BOULDER OLAY. 
 
 . At the brick-yard a short distance further south the uppermost 
 Boulder Clay is nearly black, and perhaps belongs to the middle 
 division of the three, and not to the Hessle Clay. 
 
 In Eowlston cliflF we again find three definite divisions : 
 
 Feet. 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 30 
 
 2 
 15+ 
 
 Purple Boulder Clay, with, blue streaks 
 
 Loamy sand .-..-- 
 
 Black Boulder Clay, witt chalk 
 
 Bedded sand, gravel and loam - - . - 
 
 Black very chalky Boulder Olay, with shell fragments 
 
 Not far away a boulder of Shap Granite, two feet long, was dug 
 out of the Boulder Ghj at the foot of the cliff. 
 
 A short distance south, :)t a spot where the cliff is 70 feet high, 
 there are no lines of division visible. Opposite Mappleton two 
 divisions are seen, which appear to be the Hessle, and Upper 
 Purple Clay, the Lower Purple being below the beach line. 
 
 At Easthorpe Hill the " red band " is again • seen in the cliff, 
 rising about ten feet above the beach ; and opposite Great Golden 
 all the divisions are recognizable: — 
 
 Gravel (Glacial ?) 8 ' 
 
 Purple Boulder Olay - - - - - 20 
 
 Bedded loam - - - - . - 1 
 
 Black Boulder Olay - - - - - 20 
 
 Eed band ...... i 
 
 Lower Purple Boulder Clay ... - 4 
 
 Between Golden and Hilston the sections vary so little that it 
 -v/ill be unnecessary to give details. The bedded loam of the last 
 section occasionally changes into a thin bed of gravel, and both it 
 knd the red band may disappear altogether for short distances ; 
 but the Boulder Clay seems nearly always to fall naturally into 
 three divisions. At Hilston an unusually persistent bed of gravel 
 is found between the Hessle and Upper Purple Clays. In the cliff 
 it only extends about 300 yards, but inland it seems perfectly 
 continuous past Hilston church to the Roos Road ; and two 
 apparently detached masses of it are found between Hilston and 
 Owstwick. The measured thickness in the cliff is only 13 feet, 
 but inland it appears greater. 
 
 The cliffs at Waxham, Withernsea, and HoUym show similar 
 slight variations. The red band is generally found a few feet 
 above the beach line, and is rarely missing when clear exposures 
 can be examined. In this neighbourhood it seldom passes into 
 sand. The higher line of division is here and there marked by 
 the occurrence of lenticular masses of gravel, never exceeding 
 6 feet in thickness ; but usually the cliff' from top to bottom is a 
 mass of Boulder Olay, with only subordinate lines in it. One 
 section at HoUym, near Nevill's Farm, may be taken as typical of 
 this district : — 
 
 Boulder Olay, with few stones - - - . . g ' 
 
 Gravel -- -~- . - . .g 
 
 Boulder Olay, with Ohalk - - . . - 12 
 
 Loam, obscurely bedded (red band) - - . . q 
 
 Stony Purple Boulder Olay - - - . - qj. 
 
BOULDEIl CLAY. 35 
 
 At Down Gate tire red band has risen as hio;h as the middle 
 of the cliflF, and immediiitely north of Holmpton the very chalky 
 base of the Lower Purple Olay reappears on the foreshore. About 
 300 yards further south the Basement Clay also rises above the 
 sea level, and south of this point all the beds seem to rise with 
 the rise of the surface of the ground towards Dimlington Height. 
 At Dimlington High Land itself, which reaches an elevation of 
 135 feet, the Basement Olay occupies about 20 feet of the 
 lower part of the cliff, but there' is so much talus that it is 
 not easy to trace its junction with the overlying Purple Clays. 
 Where the higher part of the cliif is clear, no continuous lines 
 of division are traceable, and the Boulder Clays seem unusually 
 distuibed and contorted. 
 
 Due north of Out Newton, and not far from Dimlington, a 
 boulder of Shnp Granite, measuring 3 x 2^ x 2 feet, was found 
 on the foreshore at extreme low water. Being only exposed at 
 very low spring tides I was unable to ascertain whether it was 
 embedded in the Boulder Clay, or had slipped down from the 
 cliflF. This is the furthest point to the south-east to which Shap 
 Crranite has yet been traced. 
 
 The way the different Boulder Clays successively rise above 
 the sea level, to fall again when the High Land is passed, and 
 the way they are contorted and disturbed, strongly suggests 
 that the present is not their normal position, but that Dimlington 
 Height is a mound composed of Drift Deposits of different ages, 
 forceil up during the latest glaciatlon. 
 
 Towards Easington the clifif sinks, and opposite that place 
 only the base of the Lower Purple Clay and the Basement 
 Clay are found. Near Kilnsea the foreshore shows a very chalky 
 Boulder Clay, which is apparently the base of the Lower Purple 
 Clay, the true Basement Clay having sunk beneath the sea-level 
 a short distance south of Kilnsea Beacon. This chalky division 
 is traceable as far as Great Pit Marsh, where the Boulder Clays 
 finally disappear, and recent marine deposits take their place. 
 
 A distance of nearly eight miles, occupied by the Humber, 
 separates Kilnsea cliflF from the next section ; but- at Oleethorpes, 
 on the Lincolnshire side, Boulder Clay reappears. The short 
 section at Cleethorpes, half a mile in length, is the only cliflF 
 between the Humber and Hunstanton in Norfolk. The Boulder 
 Clay is purple and stony, especially in the lower part, in 
 general character and included -boulders it seems to correspond • 
 closely with the higher divisions on the Yorkshire coast. 
 
 The section usually shows a line of division, along which 
 lenticular masses of sand often appear; but this line is difficult 
 to trace, unless the face of the cliflF has been washed perfectly 
 clean by storms. On one occasion, when the tides had cleared 
 away the beach to an exceptional extent, another Jine of division 
 was seen, apparently corresponding to the "red line " of the 
 Holderness coast ; but the section was not low enough to show 
 what came beneath. There is apparently a considerable thickness 
 of Boulder Clay beneath the sea-level, for a boring between 
 
 c 2 
 
36 BOULDER CLAY, 
 
 tide marks at Oleethorpes Pier is described as passing through 
 60 feet of " marl clay " before reaching the Chalk. The cliff 
 is nearly 40 feet high, so the total thickness of Boulder Clay 
 must here reach about 100 feet. A few shell fragments were 
 observed in the lower part of the cliff, but they were rare and 
 very small. 
 
 Inland Sections of the Boulder Clay. 
 
 The differences between the upper divisions of the Boulder 
 Clay are so slight, and there is so much difficulty and uncertainty 
 in tracing the beds, even with a nearly continuous cliff section, 
 that it is evidently quite hopeless to attempt to correlate 
 isolated inland sections by their lithological character. The 
 diflferences that are found so often disappear when the beds are 
 traced laterally, and are so largely due to chemical changes and 
 weathering, that the cliff section probably might be locally 
 inverted without any one finding it out. Of course this only 
 refers to the upper three divisions; the Basement Clay is 
 sufficiently distinct, though, as already observed, we have no 
 right to expect its shelly character to continue for an indefinite 
 distance. 
 
 Although the greater part of Holderness is covered with Boulder 
 Clay, there are very few good sections in the interior ; and the 
 following notes include all which can be clearly seen, and show 
 anything but a few feet of Boulder Clay of the common type. For 
 the mapping of the country there was abundance of evidence in 
 the deep ditches, except where it is low and marshy. 
 
 Commencing at the north, the sections shown in the valleys or 
 gills cutting into the Chalk near Flamborough have already been 
 described. The next were those exposed during the progress of 
 the drainage works recently completed at Bridlington Quay ; but 
 as these are so near the sea, correspond so closely with those seen 
 in the cliff, and are now entirely bidden, it will be sufficient to 
 refer to Mr. Lamplugh'a paper, where full details are given.* 
 
 Further west and soutVi-west thin Boulder Clay is occasionally 
 seen overlying the Chalk, but, as is generally the case on the 
 Wolds, it appears to be much weathered. On the low grounds 
 instructive examples of this weathering are also found, and the 
 sections being deeper, the whole process can be more readily 
 traced. Mr. Dakyns points out that the extent of the change is 
 sometimes curiously governed by the nature of the overlying bed, 
 and notes a good instance of this, seen at a brick-pit near Nafferton. 
 The Boulder Clay was in part covered by sand, and the clay below 
 the sand was blue ; but where there was little or no sand over it, 
 the Boulder Clay was weathered red. The line between the two 
 colours was, in a proper light, very distinct, and ran down nearly 
 
 ♦ G. W. Lamplugh : " Glacial Sections near Bridlington." Part III. — The 
 Drainage Sections. — Prcc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. viil. p. 240. 
 
' BOULDBE OLAY. — INLAND SECTIONS. 37 
 
 vertically from the feather edge of the sand across a homogeneous 
 mass of clay, which was of precisely the same character on either 
 side of the colour line. Besides the red topping to the purple 
 Boulder Olay due to weathering, there were also bands or beds of 
 Red Olay in the midstof the Purple Clay, that is, beds of red Boulder 
 Olay, which are both over- and under- laid by Boulder Olay of the 
 ordinary purple type. 
 
 In the valley of the Hull the ground is so low that pits cannot 
 be kept free from water, so the only sections are occasional 
 -exposures in the ditches. West of the Hull the drainage sections 
 at Driffield showed well the intricate way in which Boulder Clays 
 and Gravels are mixed and interbedded on the edge of the Wolds. 
 
 These sections throw no light on the general question of the age 
 of the Boulder Clay, though apparently two divisions are repre- 
 sented. They were described by Mr. Mortimer in 1881,* but of 
 course cannot now be seen. In the same paper Mr. Mortimer 
 alludes also to the crushed and glaciated surface of the Chalk seen 
 near Driffield. This is a common featnre in the Wolds, especially 
 near the edge, and is also found throughout Lincolnshire, West 
 Norfolk, and Suffolk. In places where the Boulder Clay has 
 either not lodged, or been entirely denuded, it is often the only 
 evidence of glaciation. 
 
 In several pits near Hutton there is reddish Boulder Clay 
 overlying the Chalk. The north edge of Beledmond Chalk-pit 
 shows — 
 
 Feet. 
 Red Boulder Clay - - - • - - 4 
 
 Weathered (Glaciated P) Chalk - - - - - 15 
 
 Chalk without flints - - - - - - — 
 
 The west edge of the same pit shows six or seven feet of 
 Boulder Olay, and the south-east corner — 
 
 Feet. 
 Red Boulder Clay ...... 2 
 
 Light-coloured chalky Boulder Clay - - - - 4 or 5 
 
 Chalk — 
 
 The Hutton Chalk Pit is equally variable, the northern margin 
 showing — 
 
 Feet, 
 Clay with a few stones - - - • ■ -1 
 
 Gravelly sand - - - - ■ - -3 or 4 
 
 Chalk . - - - - . . _ 
 
 while at the south-east corner there is — 
 
 Feet. 
 Eeddish Boulder Clay - - - - - - 8 
 
 Chalk without flints - - • ' - - — 
 
 At Cawkeld Chalk-pit, about a mile south-west of Oranswick, 
 the irregularity of the Chalk surface under the Drift is very 
 marked. The red Boulder Olay is generally free from Chalk-,-but 
 
 ♦ J. B. Mortimer : " On the Sections of the Drift obtained by the New Drainage 
 Works at Driffield."— Proe. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. yii. p. 373. 
 
38 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 where it lies on a deeply eroded surface of Chalk it contains 
 abundance of Chalk fragments. The Drift layers dip both east 
 and west. A very similar section is seen in the Chalk Pit imme- 
 diately east of Holme on the Wolds. 
 
 On the east side of the Eiver Hull wells at Oatfoss, Hornsea, 
 and Mappleton show numerous alternations of Boulder Clay and 
 Gravel ; but as all of them are only borings, except the upper 
 73 feet of the Hornsea Water-works well, it is impossible to give 
 any exact description of the beds. There is also no means of 
 distinguishing between true beds of sand and mere sand galls, and 
 it is very probable that some of the divisions in the Hornsea wells 
 may be only lenticular masses in the Basement Clay, corresponding 
 with those seen in the cliff at Bridlington and Dimlington. Full 
 details of these well sections will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 The sections near Beverley call for no remark, except that one 
 on the Hessle road, close to Bramble Hill, shows well the effect of 
 weathering. Overlying Chalk without flints is 10 or 15 feet of 
 Purple Boulder Clay with scratched stones, weathering reddish 
 with ashy joints. 
 
 The greater part of the southern half of Holderness being very 
 low shows few good exposures, except in the cliff, and at Hessle 
 and Kelsey Hill. Boulder Clay, weathering like that just 
 described, is mentioned as occurring at the bottom of the excava- 
 tions for the Albert Docks, Hull, separated from a lower bed of 
 Purple Boulder Clay by a seam pf sand.* Numerous well-borings 
 penetrate to the Chalk, but the details are generally of little real 
 value. Some good exposures were laid bare in the cuttings for 
 the Hull and Barnsley Railway, where it entered the Wolds, though 
 nothing was seen but weathered reddish Boulder Clay resting on 
 Chalk, or only separated from it by a foot or two of rubble or 
 chalky gravel. In places the Chalk was glaciated and broken up 
 to a depth of several feet. 
 
 The only otber sections of interest north of the Humber are 
 those at Hessle. and Kelsey Hill. Having been taken by Mr. S. V. 
 Wood as the type of his " Hessle Clay," these will be described fully ; 
 but it may be at once observed that neither of the sections can be 
 accepted as showing the original character of the Boulder Clay, 
 In each case it has undergone great alteration and weathering. 
 
 The Hessle sections show Boulder Clay overlying mammaliferous 
 gravel, but overlapping it and resting directly on the Chalk where 
 the cliff becomes higher. At present the exposures are bad, but 
 Prof. Phillips has published an account of them, as seen in 1826, 
 in which he gives several sections, and describes the Boulder 
 Clay as a thick bed of brown and blue clay, with chalk, flints, 
 granites, gneiss, syenite, limestone, porphyry, hornstone and coal. 
 He also found what seemed an elephant's tusk.f Similar clay 
 can still be seen both here and at several spots in the neighbour- 
 
 * J. C. Hawksha-vr : " The Construction of the Albert Dock," &c.—Froc. Inst. 
 C.E., vol. xli. p. 492. 
 
 f Phillips : " Notice of the Hessle Drift as it appeared in sections above Forty 
 Years since." — Quart: Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 250. 
 
BOULOEE CLAY OF HESSLE AND KELSEi' HILL. 39 
 
 hood. Mr. Cameron observes that in the low cliff of North Ferriby 
 there is a purple chalky Boulder Clay, the upper portion of which 
 weathers red. 
 
 The Boulder Clay overlying the gravel at Kelsey Hill ballast 
 pit, near Keyingham Station, on the Hull and Withernsea line, 
 is 80 much weathered, though nearly 13 feet thick, that for a long 
 time 1 felt uncertain whether it was anything but rainwash. The 
 common occurrence of flints in it seems, however, to show that 
 originally the deposit was a chalky Boulder Clay ; but all, or 
 nearly all, calcareous matter having been dissolved out, it is now 
 simply a stony loam or brick-earth. South' of the Farm the 
 Boulder Clay sinks almost to the marsh level, and in the railway 
 cutting it has become purple and chalky. A short distance north 
 there is no Boulder Clay on gravel hills over 50 feet in height, but 
 no definite system can be traced in these irregularities. Another 
 Boulder Clay, in this neighbourhood only known from borings, 
 underlies the Gravel, and seems to rise to the surface around 
 Keyingham. These sections will be again referred to in the 
 Chapter on the Marine Grravels. 
 
 Under the Humber 'there is evidently a considerable thickness 
 of Boulder Clay, though none of the borings yet made have shown 
 the full depth of the old, probably pre-glacial, Humber Valley. 
 Mr. Kelsey, the engineer to the North-eastern Railway Com- 
 pany, has kindly communicated to me a series of borings across the 
 Humber. {See Appendix I. p. 151.) They prove that Boulder Clay, 
 interstratified with sand and gi'avel, reaches a depth of at least 
 83 feet below the present level of high-water ; and, judging from 
 the dip, there will be a still greater thickness in the old channel, 
 but borings Nos. 5 and 6 were not continued sufficiently far to 
 settle the depth of the Chalk. This question of the depth of the 
 old channel will be more fully discussed in Chap. X. 
 
 On the south shore of the Humber, a well made some years ago 
 at Killingholme Coast Guard Station penetrated through Warp 
 and Boulder Clay to a depth of 107 feet, without reaching the 
 Chalk. Here again the old channel seems to have been found. 
 
 A section seen in the low cliff of South Ferriby is the only 
 exposure of Boulder Clay on the south shore of the Humber. It 
 corresponds closely with that seen at North Ferriby, and exhibits 
 Boulder Clay separated from the Chalk by thin ripple-marked 
 flaggy sandstone. From this point eastward, Boulder Clay forms 
 a belt separating the Chalk Wold from the Humber flat, clearly 
 showing that the ancient Humber Valley was not only deeper 
 but wider than the present one, and was subsequently partially 
 filled with Drift, through which the present river is excavating its 
 channel. 
 
 At Barton-on-Humber, drainage works and wells showed good 
 sections of purple chalky Boulder" Clay of the ordinary character ; 
 and similar though less chalky clay irregularly overlies the Chalk 
 in the large pits west of the town. The lower part of the little 
 Dale which runs west-souih-west into the Wolds is also filled with 
 Boulder Clay ; a well about a quarter of a mile from Mount Close 
 
40 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 has been sunk through 15 feet of clay before reaching the Chalk. 
 This old channel filled with Drift seems to be continued under the 
 town, towards the Humber, though there is now no trace of it at 
 the surface. From the descriptions of the well-sinkers and 
 builders, the old Dale is very well defined under the Drift, and 
 must have steep sides like the Wold Dales of the present day. 
 At tl^ie junction of King Street and High Street there is, according 
 to Mr. Westaby, — 
 
 Clay and Chalk (Boulder Clay) - - - - 30 ' 
 
 Gravel -..-.--. 33 
 Chalk - — 
 
 Probably this is about the centre of the channel, for other wells 
 in the town show the Chalk much nearer ihe surface. 
 
 South of Barton, Boulder Clay stones are scattered over the 
 Wolds to a height of about 150 feet, but there is nothing to show 
 positively whether the Boulder Clay has been denuded, or whether 
 no more Drift ever lodged there. The Chalk is often glaciated to a 
 depth of several feet, and foreign stones have been forced iuto it. 
 
 The ditches around Barrow and GoxhiU show numerous ex- 
 posures of a purple Boulder Clay, but the only good section is in 
 a sand-pit about a mile north of Barrow church. Here a very 
 chalky Boulder Clay overlies the sand, appearing to follow the 
 slope of the hill ; the greatest thickness seen is only three feet, 
 though wells in the neighbourhood show that in places it becomes 
 much thicker. The Boulder Clay at the surface in the low lands 
 seems usually to overlie the fossiliferous gravel ; but at the 
 edge of the Wolds, near Thornton and Ulceby stations, Boulder 
 Clay rests directly on the Chalk, perhaps rising from beneath the 
 gravels. Nearer the Humber the intervening gravels are often 
 missing, the two Boulder Clays coming together, as they apparently 
 do ou the coast. ' Many of the borings show nothing but clay 
 .above the Chalk, though others show two beds of Boulder Clay 
 .separated by gravel. 
 
 Boulder Clay of the same character is found all through the 
 low lands between Halton and Grimsby, but there being only 
 ditch sections, with the exception of a small pit at Great Coates, 
 it is unnecessary to give further details. Along the edge of the 
 Wolds, however, the relations of the beds can be well observed, 
 and Boulder Clay can be seen both over- and under- lying the 
 fossiliferous gravel. The surface Boulder Clay of the low lands 
 overlying the gravel thins out about a mile from the Wold edge ; 
 and as the gravels rise, patches of an older Boulder Clay are found 
 to be preserved between therp and the Chalk. The outliers at 
 Ulceby may be one of these, though in this instance the absence 
 of the gravels prevents the true age being definitely determined. 
 However, in the large valley of Croxton, through which the rail- 
 way passes, the evidence is perfectly clear ; for not only is Boulder 
 Clay seen in ditches at the bottom of the Dale, but on digging in 
 the centre of two pits in stratified fossiliferous gravel very 
 characteristic chalky purple Boulder Clay was found. It is also 
 
BOULDEK CLAY OF NORTH LINCOLNSHIRE. 41 
 
 interesting to find that this Boulder Clay is, in its lithological 
 character, quite indistinguishable from the newer chalky and purple 
 Boulder Clay which overlies the Gravel a short distance ftirther 
 east. The sections being near the bottom of the valley, show 
 conclusively that the Dale existed before the deposition of this 
 lower Boulder Clay, and that its deepest erosion is unconnected 
 with the Gravel Period. 
 
 Near Brocklesby, Limber, and Irby there are apparently 
 other outlieiis of the same Boulder Clay, though the want of open 
 sections prevents their relation to the Gravel being definitely 
 proved. South of Laceby the G ravels suddenly thin out, the two 
 Boulder Clays come together, and there is nothing to show whether 
 i t is the upper or lower one which rests directly on the Chalk. 
 
 Returning to Grimsby, some of the most interesting sections 
 were exposed during the main drainage works, which were going 
 on during my stay there. These showed two Boulder Clays, 
 purple, chalky, and exactly alike, separated sometimes by a mere 
 line of division, sometimes by gravelly sand in which fragments of 
 the inter-glacial shells were found. Though the sections were 
 examined almost daily, not the slightest difierence could be 
 detected between the tv/o Boulder Clays, either in their matrix, or 
 in the included boulders. There is a seaward dip in the beds, so 
 that the line of junction between the two clays on the north is a 
 good deal below the level of high water ; but to the south, as the 
 upper Boulder Clay rose above high-water level, its character 
 gradually changed ; it lost much of its calcareous matter, and joints 
 with- a blue and green mottling on their faces appeared in it. 
 This weathered Boulder Clay is still visible in a sand-pit close to 
 the Roman Catholic Church, where it wraps round a mound of the 
 fossiliferous inter-glacial sand. Being fully exposed to the weather, 
 the Boulder Clay has changed into a stony brick-earth. 
 
 Brick-yards near Grimsby and Cleethorpes show deep sections 
 of the Boulder Clay, sometimes with a line of division in it. One 
 of these pits, near Cleethorpes, has been dug to a depth of nearly 
 20 feet below high-water, but shows only a chalky purple Boulder 
 Clay, like that of the cliff, but showing no divisions. At another, 
 about half a mile south-east of Grimsby station, a large collection 
 was made of stones from the Boulder Clay. Among them was a 
 block of Rhomb-porphyry, a very marked and characteristic rock 
 from the neighbourhood of Ghristiania, and also numerous boulders 
 of the Halleflinte and Porphyrite. Many of the other rocks are 
 also probably Scandinavian, though they have not at present been 
 definitely traced. They included red Flint (Danish), Gneiss, 
 Mica Schist, Garnetiferous Hornblende Schist, hard Sandstone or 
 Grit, Carboniferous Limestone, Diabase, and several varieties of 
 Quartz or Felspar Porphyry. 
 
 Great caution is necessary in this district in the collection of 
 Boulder Clay stones ; for enormous quantities of Scandinavian and 
 Russian rocks are brought annually in ballast from the Baltic 
 ports, are used for road metal, and find their way on to the fields 
 in manure. They are usually, however. Basalts and garnetiferous 
 
42 BOULDER CLAY. 
 
 Gneiss of a quite different character from any yet found in the 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Between the Wold and the salt marshes near Tetney and 
 Fulstow the belt of Boulder Clay becomes narrower; the Gravels 
 have died out ; and, there being no sections, it is impossible to say 
 whether only one or all of the Boulder Clays are represented. 
 Well sections seem to show that the Drift is banked against a 
 very steep slope, if not an actual cliff of Chalk. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The details given above, and in the Appendix, show clearly to 
 what a large extent the original features of the country have 
 been obliterated or rendered less marked by the partial filling 
 up of the valleys with Boulder Clay. In their pre-glacial state 
 the Wold valleys were much deeper, and more like ravines, though 
 now the Boulder Clay has partially filled their lower extremities, 
 and glaciation has widened them and rounded ofi^ their margins. 
 Of destruction by the ice there is very littje evidence, and 
 probably it was not extensive. The principal sign is the curious 
 shallowness of tlie soil, and the nearness of bare Chalk to the surface; 
 This apparently points to the removal of a large mass of flints 
 and weathered Chalk ; for usually the Chalk is very flinty, and 
 Pliocene weathering would produce a mass of loose flints like 
 that often found in the South of England and France. At the 
 present day there is nothing of the sort preserved in the Wolds, 
 and bare Chalk is constantly reached by deep ploughing. 
 
 Another point brought out is that some at least, even of the 
 minor Dales, existed not only before the dep«sition of the Marine 
 Gravels, but before the deposition of the immediately underlying 
 Boulder Clay. The large extent to which the Marine Gravels 
 have been preserved beneath the Boulder Clay also shows that 
 this latest ice-sheet deposited, but did not here erode mucli. And, 
 reasoning by analogy, we may consider that the older ice-sheet 
 also eroded but little ; the main features as we now see them 
 being the result of ordinary sub-aerial and marine denudation, and 
 dating back to a still older period. Of the exact period durino- 
 which this erosion occurred we can say little, for the changes 
 which took place during the early part of the Glacial Epoch are 
 still little known, and we have reason to believe that they may 
 have been considerable. 
 
 The general direction of the flow of the ice-sheets seems to 
 have been from the east and north-east, for it appears that a 
 considerable proportion of the boulders must have come from 
 Scandinavia. The question, however, is much complicated by 
 the common occurrence of rocks derived from portions of the 
 English coast lying to the north of Holderness, and also of Shap 
 Granite from Cumberland. From the state of preservation of 
 many of the boulders it would appear that the transport has been 
 
WEATHERING OF THE BOULDER CLAY. 43 
 
 by no means a simple process. Chalk and limestone boulders 
 bored by annelids or Pholas, and subsequently striated, are 
 very abundant in the Boulder Clay, and appear to show that 
 the ice-sheet .has ploughed up an old sea-bottom, over which 
 abundance of far-transported rocks had been scattered by shore- 
 ice. The fragments of marine shells were probably derived 
 from a similar source. Of local glaciers there is no trace in the 
 Wolds. 
 
 One point often incidentally alluded to in the foregoing 
 detailed description of the Boulder Clays is so important, and so 
 constantly overlooked, that special attention must be drawn to it ; 
 this is the continual chemical change going on in the Boulder 
 Clay, even at considerable depths beneath the surface. 
 
 It may be taken as a rule of general application that if a 
 Boulder Clay contains flints and no Chalk it is a weathered 
 Boulder Clay, and will be reddish in colour and generally have 
 green-faced joints. Fortunately there is abundance of evidence 
 of this entire solution of the calcareous matter in the Holderness 
 Boulder Clays. Numerous continuous sections show the passage 
 of red stony loams into bluish chalky Boulder Clay. 
 
 But this alteration is not confined to Holderness ; it is the 
 general rule in the Norfolk cliffs, and wherever in the Eastern 
 Counties the Boulder Clay is slightly pervious or thin. Where 
 the Boulder Clay is impervious and clayey It is only superficially 
 affected. The correlation of red colour, greenish joints, and 
 absence of chalk, is therefore of no value as marking a definite 
 horizon, for all these characters are only the residt of the percolation 
 of water with carbonic acid in solution. The same agency that 
 dissolves out the Chalk alters the oxidation of the iron in the 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Thus, though we find reddish stony loams of similar character 
 over large tracts both in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Norfolk, 
 there is good evidence that the resemblance is only accidental. 
 On going to West Norfolk after finishing Holderness I found 
 this weathering still more marked. At Hunstanton there is a low 
 cliff (the first south of Cleethorpes) showing stony Boulder Clay 
 without Chalk, quite of the "Hessle Clay" type. But by tracing 
 it on the foreshore till it passed beneath the sea-level it was found 
 to change both lateraUy and vertically into a lead-coloured very 
 chalky Boulder Clay of the ordinary Norfolk type. A curious 
 result of the dissolving out of so large a quantity of calcareous 
 matter is that the residual mass must subside and pack more 
 closely. In the subsidence the component parts generally become 
 to some extent rearranged and flattened out, so as to give a 
 deceptive appearance of bedding. 
 
44 STKATIFJED GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STRATIFIED GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 The stratified deposits associated with the Drift appear to fall 
 naturally under two heads : the ' true Inter-glacial beds, and the 
 Gravels and Laminated Clays which probably may have been formed 
 contemporaneously with the Boulder Clay. The latter, as being 
 the most intimately connected with the Boulder Clay, will be 
 described first ; but with them must be included various isolated 
 deposits, which, from the absence of fossils, cannot definitely be 
 referred to 'the marine Inter-glacial Gravels. Some of these may 
 ultimately have to be placed in that division, but the majority are 
 probably of fresh-water origin. 
 
 The clayey Gravels which overlie the Chalk at Flamborough 
 have already been alluded to ; they contain only derivative fossils 
 of the same species as are found in the Basement Clay, and 
 probably represent merely an upland modification of the tough 
 unstratified Till of Holderness. Such apparent passages of 
 Boulder Clay into clayey Gravels are not uncommon in hiU 
 districts, and can be still better seen in North Yorkshire, especially 
 near Whitby and in Eskdale. Some of the chalky Gravels inter- 
 stratified with the Boulder Clay, filling Danes Dike and other 
 valleys near Flamborough, probably may have been deposited in 
 sub-glacial watercourses, for they vary continually, and have 
 yielded no fossils. Their general character is shown in Fig 2, p. 29, 
 reduced from a sketch by Mr. Dakyns. Similar chalky Gravels very 
 often separate the Purple Boulder Clay from the Chalk, between 
 Flamborough and Bridlington ; and judging from borings, this 
 bed may pass under the Basement Clay also. 
 
 Southward the succession of the Drifts becomes more definite, 
 the different Boulder Clays being often separated from each other 
 by beds of sand or clay. Commencing with the lowest seen in 
 the cliff section : — south of the spot where Chalk first rises above 
 the sea, lying on the Basement Clay there is a bed of brown 
 laminated clay, becoming more persistent south of Bridlington. 
 This, according to Mr. Lamplugh, in the clifiF never rises above 
 the level of the highest tides, and is best seen on the foreshore. 
 He observes that " the clay is chocolate-coloured, and very fine 
 and tough. It is beautifully laminated, and in places ripple- 
 marked, and contains no pebbles nor other foreign admixture, 
 save in its lowest layers. It rests on an eroded surface of the 
 'Basement Clay,' which has been worn into deep hollows. 
 Upwards, it is cut off abruptly by the Purple Clay wherever it 
 rises much above beach level.'' .... 
 
 At one spot he mentions that the laminated clay " passes upward 
 into sand with clay partings, which is in one place seven feet thick. 
 This is only seen for a short distance ; the base of the Purple 
 Clay above is forced down irregularly over it, and shows slicken- 
 sides." . . , Immediately south of the South Pier at Bridlington 
 
LAMINATED CLAY8. 4<5 
 
 Quay "the laminated clay completely fiUs the deep and wide 
 hollow in the Basement Clay on the beach, .... so that it has 
 here a thickness of about 16 feet; elsewhere it rarely exceeds 
 four or five feet." The foundations of the sea-wall were laid in 
 this hollow, with the result that it slipped along the greater part 
 of its length, and the work is now left in an unfinished state. 
 
 " There is a thin seam of chalky gravel between the laminated 
 clay and the underlying Boulder Clay in the bottom of the hollow ; 
 and this, whenever tapped, yields copious supplies of very pure 
 water, which wells out at high tide, but ceases to flow at ebb. . . 
 The well known ebbing and flowing spring in the harboiu: is 
 probably supplied from the same source."* Mr. Lamplugh's 
 account is here quoted, for his long residence on the coast has 
 given him unequalled opportunities of thoroughly examining 
 portions of the bed only rarely exposed. 
 
 Near Dimlington this bed reappears, though very commonly 
 the Lower Purple Clay rests immediately on the Basement Clay. 
 In this neighbourhood, however, the laminated clay of Bridlington 
 is largely replaced by sand and gravel in irregular lenticular masses. 
 At one spot, directly under Dimlington Height, there is no less 
 than 20 feet of sand and bedded loam between the Basement Clay 
 and the chalky base of the Lower Purple Clay, but this thickness 
 is quite exceptional. 
 
 Though the horizon has been carefully searched, both by the 
 Geological Survey and by Mr. Lamplugh, no trace of contempo- 
 raneous fossils has yet been found. That this is not due to the 
 dissolution of all calcareous matter, is proved by the occasional 
 occurrence of a fragment of a shell washed out of the underlying 
 Basement Clay. Even if shells do not' occur, marine clays, when 
 unaltered, almost invariably contain foraminifera and other 
 microscopic fossils. None can be found; and it is not only on the 
 Holderness coast that laminated clays of this character are 
 perfectly barren, but wherever similar clays occur they seem to 
 have been equally devoid of life. In Eskdale, and on the Norfolk 
 coast, laminated ripple-marked clays are of common occurrence 
 associated with the Boulder Clay, and in neither case could any- 
 thing but derivative fossils be found. 
 
 At the present day no sea is thus devoid of life, and clays 
 obtained from moderate depths invariably contain organic remains. 
 Ordinary fre=h-water clays, if unaltered, also contain fossils, 
 though commonly in smaller number ; and it is apparently only 
 in ice-dammed lakes and similar situations that animals and plants 
 cannot thrive. 
 
 From this it would appear that the laminated clays may not 
 belong to a true inter-glacial period, but may only point to a 
 partial retreat of the ice, as has already been suggested in the case 
 of the similar beds near Cromer.f Another explanation, which 
 
 * " Glacial sections near Bridlington." Part 11. — Ptoc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.e., 
 vol. viii. p. 27. 
 
 t Memoirs of the Geological Survey, — Geology of the Country around Cromer, 
 p. 19. 
 
46 STKATiriED GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 necessitates less change, and perhaps accounts even more satis- 
 factorily for the utter absence of life, is that many of the stratified 
 beds intercalated in the Boulder Clay were deposited in water 
 under the ice. Water must often have accumulated to a large 
 extent in hoUows under the ice-sheet, where the ground was nearly 
 level ; thus portion of the sheet would float, though perhaps only 
 a few inches from the bottom, and the material falling; through the 
 water would be stratified. 
 
 This sub-gaoial origin of the stratifi.ed beds would account for 
 the absence of life ; but there is the difficulty, that if the bottom of 
 the ice contained any boulders, they ought to be found in the 
 stratified clay ; while, as a matter of fact, the entire absence of 
 stones is one of the most marked characteristics of these beds. 
 Perhaps the most probfible explnnation is that the laminated clays 
 represent glacier mud, deposited in shallow lakes within a short 
 distance of the ice-foot. 
 
 The next horizon on which stratified beds are found is that 
 lying between the Upper and Lower Purple Clays. This is com- 
 monly represented by the "red band," consisting of from 1 to 3 
 feet of reconstructed or stratified Boulder Clay, probably also 
 rather weathered. The gravels that occur on this horizon on the 
 coast are usually very thin, impersistent, and either from their 
 coarseness unlikely to yield many fossils, or else the decayed state 
 of the Chalk and derivative shells shows that any fossils may have 
 been entirely obliterated. At one spot only were shells found. 
 This was at Easington, where the bed has reached the exceptional 
 thickness of 8 feet; but the shells were so decayed that they 
 could not be extracted, nor the species determined. As the 
 fossiliferous gravels of Kelsey Hill may come in on this horizon, 
 the section wiU be again referred to when the better inland 
 exposures have been described. 
 
 A tliird horizon of stratified beds is seen on the coast lying 
 between the Upper Purple Clay and the so-called " Hessle Clay." 
 This consists of sub-angular gravel, apparently derived from the 
 Boulder Clay, or at any rate from the same source as the Boulder 
 Clay. It rests on an irregular surface of the underlying clay, 
 though there is no evidence of any great erosion, and no trace of 
 deep channels cut in the Boulder Clay. 
 
 This Gravel is more persistent, thicker, and cnn oftener be 
 examined than either of the lower horizons ; but as far as yet 
 searched, — and it has been carefully searched in many places, — it 
 has proved quite unf ossilif erous. It is to this bed that Messrs. VVood 
 and Eome give the name " Hessle Gravel, " correlating it with the 
 mammaliferous gravel lying directly on the Chalk in the pits and 
 cliff of Hessle, and also with the marine gravel of Kelsey Hill. 
 A detailed survey of the country has scarcely supported this view, 
 for it seems more probable that the unfossiliferous gravels of the 
 coast are ordinary glacial gravels, unconnected with any true Inter- 
 glacial period. The equivalents in the coast-section of the fos- 
 siliferous gravels so well represented inland will be discussed in 
 the next Chapter. 
 
GRAVEL. 47 
 
 Inland, with the exception of the Marine Gravels, very little 
 gravel and sand is seen at the surface, though nearly all well- 
 borings pass through one or two beds before reaching the Chalk. 
 The gravels capping the clifE at Bridlington, if glacial, are so 
 mixed with post-glacial beds that they will be described in a 
 future Chapter. Near Hornsea the hill on which the water-works 
 stands is capped by 12 feet of sand, which appears to overlie the 
 " Hessle Clay ; " but this sand does not extend so far as the 
 cliff, and there is no trace of it elsewhere in the neighbour- 
 hood. 
 
 Most of the other patches mapped are very indefinite in their 
 boundaries, and apparently only thin. One near Aldbrough seems 
 to be the outcrop of a large and unusually thick lenticular mass of 
 the gravel beneath the Hessle Clay, and is probably nearly con- 
 tinuous with the bed exposed in the cliff opposite. There is 
 another similar inland extension of this bed at Hilston. The 
 other outliers north of the Humber call for no further notice ; few 
 of them show any section, and the stratigraphical relations of none 
 of them are clear, though all would appear to lie above the Marine 
 Gravel. 
 
 South of the Humber there is a marked absence of gravel, 
 except on the horizon of the shelly marine beds. Patches, 
 however, occur at Scartho, Barnoldby, Waltham, and Holton, but 
 none of them are now worked ; and as gravel is fetched long 
 distances from Laceby, they would appear to be of little economic 
 value. Borings prove the occasional occurrence of another bed of 
 gravel, lying on the Chalk, as in other parts of Holderness, but 
 this bed is not seen at the surface. 
 
 Clean laminated clay has been worked at the Brick-kiln between 
 Barnoldby and Waltham. At the time of my visit this section 
 was very obscure, though the laminated clay appeared to be a bed 
 in the Boulder Clay. There is nothing to show on what horizon 
 it occurs. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 Mammaliferous Gravels of Bridlington anb Hessle. 
 
 . The Inter-glacial Beds of Holderness belong to two types, 
 — Marine Gravel, and Gravel containing only mammalian bones. 
 These can scarcely be contemporaneous, for while the former shows a 
 submergence of 100 feet, the latter, as far as the evidence of one of 
 the sections goes, must have been deposited when the sea stood at 
 about its present level. The two types may belong merely to 
 different stages of the same Inter-glacial Period ; but, on the other 
 hand, one may be considerably older than the other, and separated 
 from it by Boulder Clay. The Hessle Gravels Prof Phillips 
 considered to be Pre-glacial, and much older than the Marine Beds. 
 
48 
 
 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 But, without following him so far, — and the evidence of the fossils is 
 against this view, — as a matter of convenience the Mammaliferous 
 Gravels resting directly on the Chalk will be described first. 
 
 During the spring of 1884 Mr. Mortimer informed me that at 
 last the sea had cleared away the talus, and exposed a good section 
 of the buried cliff near Bridlington. In the early part of May 
 I had the advantage of his guidance to the exact spot where, not 
 far from this cliff, he had obtained mammalian bones, Next day, 
 by employing a labourer for a few hours, the very important sec- 
 tion here figured was laid bare. 
 
 Pis. 4. — Bwied, Cliff nea/r Bridlington, andFossiliferous BedsbcmJced agcnnstit. 
 
 The old cliff proved to be perfectly vertical for over 30 feet 
 and^ cuts the present coast line at an obtuse angle. Banked 
 against it is a series of deposits unlike any thing else in Holderness. 
 Kising about 5 feet above the level of the present beach is shingle, 
 composed almost entirely of Chalk, often bored by Pholas, mixed 
 with a few of the local grey flints. 
 
 Though Boulder Clay lies on the cliff almost vertically above 
 this beach, yet, with the exception of a single fragment of silicious 
 ironstone of doubtful origin, no foreign boulders could be found 
 in it. This at once distinguishes the old beach from the recent 
 shingle, for at the present day there is a very large number of 
 Boulder Clay stones on the shore. 
 
MAMMALIFEROUS GRAVELS OF BRIDLINGTON AND HESSLE. 49 
 
 Above this beach there is a roughly stratified mixture of marly 
 sand, chalky wash, and fallen angular blocks of Chalk, — ia fact 
 just such a talus as forms at the foot of a Chalk cliff out of reach 
 of the sea. In the middle of this, fragments of an antler of 
 Cervus megaceros were found, and the matrix of Mr. Mortimer's 
 specimens {Bos or Bison) seems to show that they also come from 
 the same bed.. This talus is about 5 feet thick, and above it is 
 fine dust-like sand, with rounded equal-sized grains — apparently 
 Blown Sand. 
 
 The Blown Sand was banked against the cliff to a height of 22 
 feet above the present beach, but the amount of recent talus in the 
 way prevented the section being cut back till undisturbed Boulder 
 Clay could be actually seen to overlap it. Before long, however, the 
 sea will probably clear away the slipped Boulder Clay, and expose 
 a still better section. The rounded hummocky face of the old cliff is 
 very suggestive of the continued action of wind-drifted sand ; it 
 is markedly different from the angular or quadrate forms taken by 
 the hard Yorkshire Chalk under the ordinary action of weathering, 
 and is also quite unlike a glaciated surface. 
 
 The stratigraphical relations of this old beach to the Glacial 
 Beds cannot satisfactorily be made out. If Mr. Lamplugh is 
 correct in tracing the Lower Purple Clay over the top of the cliff, 
 it is evident that the beach must be older than that division. But 
 the Basement Clay apparently does not rise in the same way ; and 
 though it can be traced to within a few hundred yards of the cliff, 
 there is no direct evidence to show whether it is older or newer 
 than the Inter-glacial Beds. If newer, it might be expected to 
 extend as far as the cliff, — and it may prove to do so when the 
 talus is cleared away. If older, it is difficult to understand the 
 absence of Boulder Clay stones in the beach, when a very stony 
 Boulder Clay occurs within such a short distance. 
 
 It is also curious that near Bridlington Quay, that is to say, some 
 distance from the old shore, the top of the Basement Clay rises 
 well above the sea. I'his could scarcely have been the case while 
 the beach was forming at the same level, for it would necessitate 
 the almost impossible feature of an undestroyed bank of soft clay 
 rising a short distance off shore just to high-water mark, — that is 
 to say, to the exact height at which marine denudation is most 
 active. Such a bank would not last a single season, much less 
 while the clifi of hard Chalk was being cut back to a perfectly 
 vertical face. 
 
 Another fact which appears to tell in favour of the extension 
 of the old shore deposit beneath the Basement Clay, is the occur- 
 rence of a similar mass of Chalk Gravel in borings at Bridlington 
 Harbour, resting on the Chalk, and clearly beneath that clay. 
 This Gravel lies at about the depth one would expect to find the 
 sea-bottom half a mile from a rocky shore. 
 
 Leavinof Bridlington, the deposits banked against the old cliff 
 are entirely unknown imtil we reach the Humber. Here, at 
 Hessle, is the well-known Gravel originally described by Prof. 
 Phillips, and considered by him to be Pre-glacial. The most 
 
 A 16165. D 
 
50 
 
 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 Striking feature of this neighbourhood is the steep slope of the 
 Chalk towards the Humber, forming what is commonly called 
 Hessle Cliff, though it is by no means vertical. On this lies 
 irregularly the mammaliferous Gravel, covered and overlapped by 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 The first section is an overgrown pit by the side of the line, 
 just west of Hessle Station, which shows at its soulh-west 
 corner, — 
 
 Feet. 
 10 
 
 Purple Boulder Olay, weathering with greeniph joints. 
 
 Many small fragments of Chalk, but few large boulders 
 Bedded sand with Chalk, looking very like an old " run of the 
 
 hill" 
 
 Chalk -..----- — 
 
 About 100 yards north, and close to the line, the section is, — 
 
 Fbkt. 
 Boulder Clay as before - - - ■ " - 8 
 
 Bedded sand ...--- ^ 
 
 Chalk rubble - - . . - - 4 
 
 Chalk - - - - - - - — 
 
 Here the surface of the Chalk has risen considerably. The cut- 
 tings further west are now much overgrown, but the sections are 
 similar to the above, the Chalk having a steep south slope. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Ohalk-pit at Hessle. 
 
 1 Boulder Olay. 
 
 2 Sand and gravel. 
 
 3 Chalk. 
 
 The diagram, Fig. 5, represents the north side of the large pit 
 still further west. It shows Boulder Clay overlapping the Gravel, 
 and resting directly on the Chalk ; and also that there is not only 
 a north and south slope of the Chalk, but also an east and west 
 irregularity, probably an old channel connected with the Humber. 
 In this or the adjoining pit bones of Ekphas primigenius. Rhino- 
 ceros, Equus caballus, Cervus, and Bos ? have been found ; but no 
 marine fossils are yet known, though the deposit is a long way 
 below the level of the old shelly gravels with which it is often 
 correlated. 
 
 From these details it wiU be seen that we have really nothing 
 by which to fix the age of the Hessle Gravel. It lies on the 
 Chalk, and is covered by a Boulder Clay ; whether another under- 
 
MARINE GRAVELS. 51 
 
 lying Boulder Clay has been denuded there is no positive evidence. 
 What is the age of the overlying Boulder Clay we cannot say ; 
 it may correspond with any of the divisions on the coast, or with 
 a division unrepresented there. For convenience the Hessle and 
 Bridlington sections have been taken together, but at present it 
 is unsafe to correlate them, though the general structure of 
 Holderness renders it extremely probable that they may be 
 contemporaneous. Prof Phillips' reference of the Hessle Gravel 
 to a Pre-glacial period may turn out, with fuller evidence, to be 
 well founded, though, as far as they are yet known, the fossils do 
 not appear to support this view. 
 
 South of the Humber the only deposit which can with any 
 likelihood be correlated with the Hessle Gravel is a thin bed of 
 xipple-marked sand or sandstone, in South Ferribj"^ ClifE, resting 
 on Chalk and overlaid by Boulder Clay. At present no fossils 
 are known from this locality. Further south there are no sections 
 whatever at the foot of the Cliff, and the feature dies away under 
 the alluvial -flats of South Lincolnshire, without a single important 
 valley cutting through it between the Humber and Wash. 
 
 Marine Gravels. 
 
 As far back as 1821 William Smith noted on his map the 
 occurrence in the interior of Holderness of what he considered 
 were Crag shells. The beds containing them, now known to be 
 of much later date than the Crag, have since been more fully 
 examined and described, and prove to lie between two masses of 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
 Prof. Phillips, who examined the sections at Brandsburton and 
 Kelsey Hill in the year 1826, gave no account of the strati- 
 graphical relations of the Gravel, though he seems to infer that 
 it is closely connected with the Boulder Clay.* The first full 
 description of the bed and its stratigraphical position was published 
 in 1861, when Prof. Prestwich pointed out that the Gravel was 
 underlaid by Boulder Clay, and probably, though not certainly, 
 overlaid also by Boulder Clay.f Subsequently, in 1868, Messrs. 
 Wood and Rome showed that better sections at Kelsey Hill had 
 distinctly proved that Boulder Clay overlies the Gravel. They 
 also state that they "strongly incline to think that the Kelsey 
 Hill Gravel is only an unusually thick and fossiliferous develop- 
 ment of the Hessle Gravel." J Since that date nothing has 
 been added to our knowledge of the bed. 
 
 As this fossiliferous horizon is a very important one in the 
 Glacial Deposits of Holderness, and seems to be the only one 
 holding out much prospect of allowing correlation with other parts 
 
 * Geology of Yorkshire, 1st edition 1829, and 2nd edition 1835. 
 
 •f " On the Occurrence of the Cyrena fluminalis, together with Marine Shells of 
 Eecent Species, in beds of Sand and Gravel over heds of Boulder Clay near Hull." 
 — Qtiart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 446. 
 
 J Wood and Eome : " On th<^ Glacial and Post-glacial Structure of Lincolnshire 
 and South-east Yorkshire." — Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 145. 
 
 D 2 
 
52 
 
 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 of England, the sections will be described fully, all general remarks- 
 being left till afterwards. 
 
 The most northerly sections of the true Marine Gravels oP 
 Holderness are found at Kilham, lying in a "Wold valley which, 
 opens into the old bay at its north-east bend. They appear to 
 reach a height of nearly 100 feet above the sea, and contain 
 fragments of TelUna balthica, Cardium edule, Cyprina islandica, 
 and Mya. 
 
 Continuing southward along the margin of the old bay, or, 
 what is practically nearly the same thing, following the 100-foot 
 contour line, the next exposure is at Nafferton. Here, imme- 
 diately below the 100-foot line, there is Marine Gravel, with 
 fragments of Cardium edule, Mya, sp., Mytilus edulis, and Tellina 
 balthica, overlying thin Boiilder Clay, and containing abundance 
 of derived Boulder Clay stones. This rests on the shelving 
 surface of the Chalk. South of Naiferton no Marine Gravels 
 have yet been observed west of the river Hull, and the store 
 deposits of the old bay would appear to have been entirely 
 denuded from the slope of the Wolds. . 
 
 North-east of the Hull, commencing near Little Kelk, the 
 Gravel forms a series of ridges 20 or 30 feet iiigh, resting on and 
 partly overlaid by purple. Boulder Clay. The best exposures are 
 seen between Brunton Hill Wood and Barf Hill, a pit at the 
 latter place exhibiting the section sketched by Mr. Dakyns 
 (Fig. 6). This exposure is important, as showing that the Marine 
 
 Pig. 6. — Barf Hill. — Inter-glacial Gravels overlaid hy Boulder Clay. 
 
 ^mrn^ 
 
 Gravel is beneath a bed of Boulder Clay. Boulder Clay is seen 
 in the upper part of the pit, and the structure and shape of the 
 ground appear to show that another Boulder Clay also passes 
 beneath the ridge. In this pit, and in another about half a mile 
 further north, the following species of Mollusca were found, all of 
 thera being forms already known from Kelsey Hill : — 
 
 Ostrea edulis Pholas crispata. 
 
 Astarte borealis. Tellina balthica. 
 
 Cardium edule. Venus ? gallina ? 
 
 Cyprina islandica. Dentalium entalis ? 
 
 Mactra ovalis. Buccinum undatum. 
 
 Mya trvncata ? Purpura lapillus. 
 
 Ostrea edulis. Balanus, sp. 
 
 These Gravels continue in the same line for some distance to 
 the south, but the ground being lower there are no open sections. 
 At Brigham, and Church End, Nortlf Frodingham, two more 
 
MARINE GRAVELS. 53 
 
 mounds of gravel, about the same height as those just described, 
 are seen. These have yielded a few fragments of marine shells. 
 
 The next sections *are three miles further south, near Brands- 
 burton. Here, at Brandsburton Barf, are the pits already noticed 
 by Phillips. The Gravel forms long mounds about 20 feet high, 
 known in different parts as Barf Hill, Coneygarth Hill, Fosse 
 Hill, &c. Pits have been opened at various places, and fossils 
 obtained at Burshill, Barf Hill, Coneygarth Hill, Goose Hill 
 (close to Starcarr Bridge), Gildholm Hill, Fosse Hill, and 
 Gravel Field (near Catwick) ; in fact, wherever search has been 
 made, the beds have proved fossiliferous, though the shells as a 
 rule are very fragmentary. The pit near Burshill has yielded 
 Astarte borealU, Cardium edule, Cyprina islandica, Mya, sp.. 
 Purpura lapillus, Tellina halthica, and Balanus, sp. The gravel 
 at Brandsburton village rests on Boulder Clay, and seems also to 
 pass under Boulder Clay towards the north and east. 
 
 Similar gravel extends continuously as far east as Seaton, keeping 
 the same fossiliferous character, and in places rising, like the 
 mounds already described, 50 feet above the sea. The eastern 
 termination is rather obscure, owing to the Marine Gravel being 
 overlaid by the old Terrace Gravel surrounding Hornsea Mere. 
 Apparently the marine bed sinks rapidly near Seaton, and is over- 
 lapped by Boulder Clay. 
 
 About four miles further south, Lambwath Beck cuts into 
 gravel, probably the same bed, and North Skirlaugh is built upon 
 it. But though gravel is exposed for about a mile and a half, 
 there is no section, and it is impossible to speak with certainty as 
 to its age. The large outlier at Rise seems distinctly on a newer 
 ^orizon, for its base is about 60 feet above the sea, while the top 
 of the older sand, only a short distance away, scarcely reaches 
 50 feet, and its base is below the stream level. At Rise there is 
 also a well passing through two beds of sand separated by Boulder 
 Clay, the lower sand corresponding in position with that of 
 Lambwath Beck. 
 
 The low lands of the Hull Valley show no sections of Marine 
 Beds, though some of the patches of sand coloured on the map 
 may belong to this horizon. East of the Hull there is an expo- 
 sure, south of Sproatley, in which are two pits in coarse chalky 
 gravel, both of which yield fossils ; but the only shells obtained 
 were fragments of Cardium edule; Cyprina islandica, and Tellina 
 balthica. The relation of this gravel to the Boulder Clay is 
 obscure, though, from the character of its boundary, it may well 
 be a lenticular mass. As is the case with all the patches of 
 Marine Gravel in the low lands of Holderness, the greatest height 
 to which it rises is 50 feet. 
 
 The next .exposures border on the flats a few miles east of Hull. 
 Going eastward the first to be reached are a number of sand-hills 
 lying between Hedon Haven and the Humber. Into one of these 
 the stream has cut, forming a low cliff facing the Humber for 
 nearly a mile, but never rising over 30 feet above high water. 
 ■ This is the well-known section a High PauU mentioned by 
 
54 INTEK-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 Phillips and Prof. Prestwich ; but since they wrote it has been 
 sloped and built over for the Battery, and cannot now be 
 examined. 
 
 The fullest account of the appearance of the cliff before it was 
 hidden is that given by Prof. Prestwich,* who describes the 
 section as showing sand with but little gravel, containing the same 
 shells as Kelsey Hill, but in fewer numbers and more broken. 
 This sand reposed on an irregular surface of grey clay ; but, the 
 clay containing no boulders or fossils, he could not feel certain 
 about its being Boulder Clay. Subsequently, in digging below 
 the base of Paull Cliff, Mr. Smith soon found the clay to become 
 stony, and the specimens he sent to Prof. Prestwich had the 
 ordinary aspect of Boulder Clay. The section measured by Prof. 
 Prestwich was : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 C Soil and silty gravel - - - 8 
 
 Cliff section - ■! Sand and gravel Tvitli shells - - 12 
 
 L Sandy dark-colonred clay withont stones 6 
 Section obtained"] 
 
 by digging at the >Clay with stones (Bonlder Clay) - - — 
 
 foot of the cliff. J 
 
 Further east Mr. Cameron notes a pit-section near Newton 
 Garth showing, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Small gravel, with marine shells, much coal, and various 
 foreign pebbles - - - - - - 7 
 
 and also another pit on the south side of Boreas Hill in similar 
 
 beds. Numerous other hills south of Hedon rise through the 
 
 Alluvium to a height of about 25 feet, but none of them show 
 
 sections. About Eyhill the Gravel forms a considerable spread 
 
 not exceeding 25 feet above mean tide. A pit bordering on the 
 
 Marsh showed, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Sand and gravel with numerous shells - - 9 
 
 On the north side of the railway the land becomes much higher, 
 at Kelsey House exceeding 50 feet, and Gravel forms an exten- 
 sive spread bordering on the marsh, and overlapped irregularly by 
 Boulder Clay. Many years ago a ballast pit was opened in this 
 hill, and worked so extensively that it is now a quarter of a mile 
 long. This is the typical section of Kelsey Hill, so fully described 
 by Prof. Prestwich and Messrs. Wood and Rome; but not 
 having been worked for some years, great part of the pit is now 
 overgrown. However, at one spot a clear face of about 12 feet of 
 much weathered Boulder Clay with small stones can be seen 
 overlying the Gravel. The Gravel rises about 35 feet above the 
 marsh level; and to test its thickness Prof. Prestwich and 
 Mr. Smith had a boring made from the bottom of the pit, 
 expecting " to find the base of the gravel at a depth of 10 or 12 
 feet ; whereas, after penetrating with difficulty to a depth of 36 
 
 Op. cit., pp. 452, 453. 
 
MARINE GRAVELS. 55 
 
 feet, always in the gravel, but the lower bed more argillaceous, 
 the work had to be abandoned. These borings at Kelsey Hill 
 gave,"— 
 
 Feex. 
 Sand and gravel with shells - - . - -4 
 
 Larger gravel - - - - - . - 16 
 
 Smaller gravel - - . . - - 8 
 
 Larger gravel in grey loam (Boulder Clay ?) - - - 8 
 
 36 
 
 From this it would appear that the Gravel must be upwards of 
 60 feet thick at Kelsey Hill, probably as much as 80 feet. 
 
 The Gravel is false-bedded and shingly, with beds of sand ; and 
 Prof. Prestwich noticed in it pebbles of limestone with scratches 
 more or less obliterated, proving that in part it was derived from 
 an underlying Boulder Clay, though in this place the lower 
 Boulder Clay must be much below the sea-level. Fossils are 
 common, and one of the most noticeable peculiarities of this 
 locality is the extraordinary abundance of the fresh-water 
 Corbicula fluminalis mixed with the marine species. Even now 
 this shell may be picked up in hundreds scattered over the floor 
 of the pit and in the ballast of the line, 
 
 Quite recently another closely adjoining pit has been opened, to 
 provide ballast for the concrete at the Alexandra Docks^ and for 
 the new railway. This pit . is being worked so fast that the 
 sections vary from day to day, and before long the excavation 
 will be as large as the old one. As seen in May 1884 it showed 
 at the north end a perfectly clear face of boldly current-bedded 
 shingle and sand of about 40 feet, without any trace of Boulder 
 Clay. On the west side, also about 40. feet high, and close to 
 Kelsey House, a purple chalky Boulder Clay overlies the Gravel, 
 resting most irregularly on it (see Fig. 8 p. 75). This disturbance 
 is probably, in part at least, subsequent to the deposition of the 
 Boulder Clay ; for a fresh-water alluvial deposit in one place fills 
 a basin in the Gravel lined with Boulder Clay, and is apparently 
 contorted with it.* This Boulder Clay sweeps down towards the 
 marsh both south and east of Kelsey Hill farm, its base descend- 
 ing from 50 feet above the sea to about 20 feet in a quarter of a 
 mile. 
 
 In both pits the Gravel has been worked till water is reached, 
 but the same shingly current-bedded character is found through- 
 out. The stones are principally flint and chalk, with many foreign 
 rocks derived from the Boulder Clay, but no large boulders. 
 Derivative Jurassic Ammonites and Gryphcea incurva also occur 
 Among the stones are many blocks and pebbles of Chalk bored 
 by Pholas, showing that in places the sea must have cut into bare 
 Chalk and not Boulder Clay. 
 
 The fossils are like those of the abandoned pit, but there are 
 naturally slight difi'erences between different parts of the same 
 
 * See also p. TO. 
 
56 INTEE-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 hill. It is interesting to note that Dr. Jeffreys' list from the old pit 
 contains several species not found by the Survey; and the Survey 
 list, principal!}' from the new pit, contains several not found by 
 Dr. Jeffreys. The slight differences in these adjoining pits are 
 quite as great as are found on opposite sides of the Humbei*, or 
 even between the Gravels of one extremity of Holderness and the 
 other. 
 
 From both pits mammalian remains have been obtained ; but, 
 unfortunately, many of those found in the earlier workings were 
 not preserved, and the new pit yields fewer than the old. The 
 bones in the collections of Mr. Freeman fpresented to the Geo- 
 logical Survey), Mr. Mortimer, Messrs Lucas and Aird, and the 
 Hull Museum, belong to Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros lep- 
 torhinus, Bison prisons (very abundant), Cervus tarandus, and Tri- 
 chechus rosmarus, but no small mammals are yet known. Only 
 one or two indeterminable fragments and some fish vertebra 
 were found in the course of the Survey. This, however, is no 
 test of their abundance, as the whole of the collection from the 
 new pit was made during a few hours, and the sand was not 
 sifted for teeth of voles or fish. A full list of the fossils from 
 Kelsey Hill will be found at p. 70. 
 
 About half a mile from Kelsey Hill, in the north-east contin,ua- 
 tion of the same Gravel, there are two small pits ; one, not far from 
 Gospel Hill, showing a patch cf Boulder Clay overlying the 
 Gravel. These yielded several species of mollusca corresponding 
 with those of Kelsey Hill. Still further north-east, at Eea Hill, 
 near Ridgemont, the Gravel sinks, and is apparently overlapped 
 by Boulder Clay. 
 
 Southward, Keyingham is built on the Gravel, which here rises to 
 a height of 65 feet, though overlapped within a short distance by 
 Boulder Clay. South-west of Keyingham the Gravel reappears, 
 skirting the marsh, and only reaching an elevation of 25 feet. 
 A pit due south of St. Phillip's Cross has yielded Buccinum 
 undatum, Ostrea edulis, Cardium edale, Mactra, sp., Tellina bal- 
 thica, and Corbiculafluminalis, the last shell being much scarcer 
 than at Kelsey Hill, only a mile distant. 
 
 Crossing the Humbcr at Hull, Marine Gravels reappear on the 
 south side near Barrow and Goxhill, forming a belt which 
 stretches for ten miles along the foot of the Wolds. The first 
 section reached is a small pit half a mile north-north-east of Barrow 
 Monastery. Here there is, — 
 
 . Feet. 
 
 Soil ----.... 2 
 Boulder Clay, very chalky, apparently following tlie slope of 
 
 the hill - - - - - . - to 3 
 
 False-bedded chalky sand, with a few small stones ; no shells 
 
 observed - • . . - . . 7 i 
 
 A pit a few yards higher up the hill shows only sand, without 
 Boulder Clay. The absence of shells in the above section is 
 unusual, but is probably due to the constant shiftbg of the sand. 
 
MARINE GEAVELS. Ot 
 
 111 other pits seams of fine unfossiliferous chalky sand sometimes 
 alternate with shelly gravel. 
 
 From this point to Littleworth the Gravel is overlapped or cut 
 out by Boulder Clay ; the upper Boulder Clay sometimes resting 
 directly on the lower one. That the Gravel is not so disconnected 
 as would appear from the map, is, however, shown by numerous 
 wells on the Barrow and Goxhill road. For nearly a mile these 
 pierce the upper Boulder Clay, and derive their supply of water 
 from the Gravel, which yet makes little show at the surface. 
 
 South and east of Littleworth the Gravel is exposed along the 
 course of the Beck, and overgrown pits show that it must be of 
 some thickness. The first open section is a small pit close to 
 the rail, a quarter of a mile north of Thornton Station. Here 
 false-bedded gravelly sand is dug to a depth of about eight feet, 
 and broken shells can be found throughout. The species obtained 
 were Gardium edule, Cyprina islandica, Mactra subtruncata ? 
 Pecten islandicus ? Tellina balihica, and Balanus, sp. Another 
 pit close to the Station shows 12 feet of fine sand, with a patch of 
 small gravel at the top, but it is much overgrown. A pit close 
 to the stream west of Long Looks shows sand and false-bedded 
 chalky gravel of Boalder Clay stones, with rolled pebbles of loam 
 and marl. All the Gravels in this neighbourhood show the influence 
 of strong currents, and appear to have been constantly shifting 
 banks. 
 
 In a pit near Ulceby Station there is about nine feet of gravelly 
 sand and loam, the lower part passing into false-bedded chalky and 
 carbonaceous sand. North-west of the station a deep and long 
 ditch exposes chalky Boulder Clay, rising from beneath Gravel, 
 and resting immediately on the Chalk. On the east side of the 
 stream the Gravel appears to pass under an upper Boulder 
 Clay. 
 
 South ol Ulceby the 100-foot line (there are, however, no 
 levelled contour lines yet in Lincolnshire) sweeps into an old 
 submerged valley ; and in this sheltered arm of the sea, as we 
 should expect, there is a marked improvement in the state of 
 preservation of the fossils, and at last we obtain evidence of com- 
 paratively still "water. A section in Brocklesby Park, just outside 
 the shelter, shows only gravelly sand, with much-broken shells, 
 including Cardium edule, Cyprina islandica, Mactra subtruncata, 
 Tellina balthica, and Dentalium entalis. But a small pit, a nule 
 further west, near the rail, and not far from Croxton, shows a 
 decided change, whole shells being abundant, and dehcate species 
 preserved. With the assistance of Mr. A. W. Eaven I dug through 
 the sand, and reached Boulder Clay in two adjoining pits, the 
 section in the upper one being as given below : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Soil - - - . - - - ' - - 1 
 
 Well-worn sandy Gravel with shells - - - - 3 
 
 Sand with fewer shells - - - - • - 7 
 
 Chalky purple Bonlder Clay - - - - - 1 
 
 12 
 
58 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 It is interesting to find Boulder Clay beneath the Marine 
 Gravels, not only in the open districts, but even in a deep valley 
 like that of Oroxton. 
 
 A full list of the shells obtained at Croxton is given at page 70. 
 The fauna is essentially the same as that of the Kelsey Hill and 
 Laceby, with the addition of a single specimen of a very thin 
 Tellina, apparently T. tenuis, and a portion of Cytherea chione. 
 Both are species unknown elsewhere from this horizon. The 
 Corbicula fluminalis, of which three specimens were found, is at 
 present unknown from any other locality in North Lincolnshire, 
 though abundant at Kelsey Hill. The abundance of Scrobicularia 
 piperata and Rissoa (Hydrohid) ulvcB shows the proximity of areas 
 of tidal mud, though the bed in which they are now preserved is 
 clean sand. 
 
 At Kirmington, a mile south of the last section, a still more 
 marked change takes place. On a high-lying gently inclined 
 surface of the Chalk and Boulder Clay an outlier of the shore 
 deposits of the old sea has been preserved. These consist of 
 Scrobicularia warp, very like that now forming between tide- 
 marks in the Humber, marsh peat, and well-worn flint shingle. 
 The elevation above the sea is apparently about 80 feet, but there 
 are no levelled heights in the neighbourhood to guide one. Pits 
 on the north side of the village show the best sections, that at 
 the brick-yard giving, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Well-worn beach shingle, principally flint, but a few large 
 
 white quartzites - - - - - - 10 
 
 Laminated warp witb Bardbioularia piperata, Sissoa uT/vcb,~\ 
 
 Tellina haltliioa, Cardium edule, Mactra suhtruncata, }• 10 
 
 Mytilus edulis, and abundance of Fora/minifera -J 
 
 Peat, consisting almost entirely of reeds - - - OJ 
 
 Warp with Rissoa ulvce - - . - - -Otol 
 
 Sand - - - - - - . - . . 6 
 
 Chalky gravel, not pierced (from the information of the 
 
 brick-makers) - - - - - - — 
 
 27 
 
 The shingle is systematically worked off the Warp,, and is also 
 extensively dug in a pit on the other side .of the road. As is 
 necessarily the case where coarse gravel has been rolled about 
 and deposited on soft clay, the shingle rests on an eroded surface 
 of the Warp. The Warp is similar to that of the Humber, and 
 contains, like it, in certain seams, abundance of Scrobicularia, 
 Rissoa, and Tellina balthica. Of the other species we have only 
 the young. Tellina balthica is always the thin-fehelled estuarine 
 form. This thoroughly agrees with Mr. H. B. Brady's remark 
 about the Foraminifera collected at the same time, that " the 
 species and the appearance of the specimens alike indicate a 
 starved shallow water fauna." 
 
 The Peat Bed is a most unsatisfactory deposit to examine. It 
 is composed entirely of reeds ; at least nothing else determinable 
 could be found in it ; no seeds, no wood, no moss, and no elytra 
 
MARINE GRAVELS. 59 
 
 of beetles, such as peat ordinarily contains. It does not appear to 
 be a drifted deposit, as the underlying bed is full of small roots ; 
 neither does it necessarily show any great change of level, for 
 fresh-water lagoons full of reeds often form behind shingle beaches, 
 and their surface may be several feet below high-water of the sea 
 outside, though it cannot be below the level of mean tide. Keeds 
 may also grow out of water a foot or two in depth. 
 
 Beneath the Peat there is another impersistenii bed of Warp 
 full of Risspa ulvcB, showing alternations of estuarine and fresh- 
 water conditions. The sand beneath, owing to water being 
 reached, could only be examined to a depth of 5 feet ; but the 
 brick-makers state that it is 6 feet thick, and rests on gravel, the 
 lower part occasionally containing shells. There is, however, 
 nothing to show whether these are fresh-water or marine, or 
 whether the statement is correct. The part exposed was ferru- 
 ginous, and contained no trace of either Chalk or fossils ; it had 
 . evidently lost its calcareous matter by solution. Probably the 
 Ghalky Gravel is but thin, and rests directly on the Chalk. 
 
 The brick-makers stated, and Mr. S. V. Wood, jun., alludes to 
 the same fact, that at one part of the pit the brick-earth fills a 
 basin-shaped hollow, in which, several years ago, large bones 
 (apparently antlers of deer) were found, but soid for grinding up 
 into bone dust. 
 
 On the other side of the little valley that runs through the 
 middle of the village of Kirmington, there is also clean laminated 
 clay^ which in the cellars at Mr. Frankish's house is 10 feet 
 thick, and rests on sand from which water is obtained. 
 
 Around Kirmington Vale there is also sand and sandy loam, 
 which may be either a modification of the Warp, or of the 
 accompanying Sand. There is no clear section. 
 
 Still higher up the Dale there is an outlier of Gravel, 
 consisting of rolled Chalk, slightly worn flint, and a few foreign 
 pebbles. This is probably a valley deposit, of the same age as 
 the Inter-glacial Beds, and it is worth careful searching for 
 mammalian remains. Unfortunately I could never find the men 
 at work to inquire whether any have been found. 
 
 Leaving the Croxton and Kirmington fiord, we pass the open 
 sea deposits of Brocklesby, and soon reacli another inlet. This 
 is much less interesting, for it appears to have been more open 
 and exposed to the run of the sea. It has two entrances 
 separated by an island of Chalk. At the mouth of the southern 
 one, near Keelby Grange, there is an overgrown pit showing 
 15 feet of small Gravel and Sand, with abundance of shell 
 fragments. A list of the species obtained, 17 in number, will 
 be found at p. 70 ; they all occur at Kelsey Hill and Laceby. 
 
 Near Limber Nursery Boulder Clay appears from beneath the 
 Gravel, but everywhere else in the neighbourhood the Marine 
 Beds overlap the Boulder Clay, and rest directly on the Chalk. 
 Great Limber is partly on Gravel and_ partly on Chalk, the 
 Gravel lying in a valley, and with its limit generally well-defined 
 
€0 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 by a sharp rise of Chalk. The town Gravel Pit yielded a few 
 shell-fragments. 
 
 South-east of the Yillage there is a brick-yard showing the 
 following section : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Soil and loam --.---.6 
 
 Blue Warp - - - - - - - 15 
 
 Pan - - ..... 1 
 
 -Sandy loam - - - - - - -1 
 
 Buff sand - - - . - - 5 
 
 Sand (bored) - - - - - - 9 or 10 
 
 37 or 38 
 
 Similar laminated Warp, 4 yards thick, i^ said also to occur at 
 the cross roads near Limber Schools, though it is apparently 
 hidden by Gravel. The abrupt rise of the Chalk at Limber 
 brick -yard is very curious ; for one of the cottages belonging to , 
 the pit is on Chalk, while not 80 yards away, on the same lev«l, 
 ■there is at least 37 feet of Sand and Warp. 
 
 The Warp was searched for shells and microscopic fossils, 
 'but nothing whatever could be found. Probably it is the same 
 Warp as that at Kirmington, and the absence of Foraminifera is 
 due to dissolution of the calcareous matter. On close examination 
 it is seen to be full of race, concentric iron stains, and incipient 
 ferruginous concretions. It seems to be a general rule in all 
 formations, that where this structure is found, any calcareous 
 fossils will be dissolved away ; the two changes, solution of the 
 carbonate of lime and oxidisation of the carbonate of iron, 
 generally going together. 
 
 South of Limber a long strip of the Gravel has been mapped 
 as running up Fox Dale, but it is very doubtful whether this 
 is entirely correct. For half a mile south of the Irby road there 
 is certainly worn gravel, but the higher part of it may be merely 
 blown sand and rain-wash lodged in the bottom of the valley. 
 
 About half a mile north-east of Great Limber Cover there is a 
 curious section showing, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Soil and sandy gravel - - - - - -0to4| 
 
 Bonlder Clay, witt Chalk and foreign stones, mostly small - 5 to 
 Pockets of pebble gravel - - - - . — 
 
 Chalk with flints - - - - - - — 
 
 The upper gravel is apparently part of the outlier mapped, but 
 -what the nests of pebble gravel belong to is not clear. Near the 
 southern end of the same outlier, an old pit and some rabbit 
 burrows show gravel containing shell fragments. 
 
 Half a mile south-south-east of Keelby a large Chalk-pit 
 ^hows, near the middle of the north-east side, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Stony soil -_- - - - - -1 
 
 Loamy bedded Sand, with a few scattered stones - - 5 
 
 Rolled Gravel of Boulder Clay stones - - - - 5 
 
 •Chalk with flints, dip to the north-east, very slight - - 20+ 
 
MARINE GEAVELS, 61 
 
 At one spot in this pit, near the wood, about 2^ feet of Boulder 
 Clay is preserved beneath the Gravel, which is here a well-woriv 
 very coarse shingle, principally of Ohalk and flint. 
 
 In Eiby Grove several sand-pits have been opened, but the- 
 oniy section now to be seen (1883) is just west o£ the house : — 
 
 Feet. 
 G-ravelly Sand, with shell fragments and a few perfect shells - 4 
 
 Unfortunately this is a very small and bad exposure, but it 
 is evidently highly fossiliferous, and with a clear section mora 
 than the 18 species found ought to be obtained. The list is given 
 in the table. 
 
 Irby Dale appears to have been another old fiord, the Gravel 
 running up it in much the same way as at Croxton ; but now 
 the Marine Beds are only represented by patches separated by 
 denudation. One. of these caps an isolated Chalk hill rising' 
 in the middle of the Dale due north of Irby. Another a little 
 higher up clings to the west side, at Irby Dale woods. A pit in 
 this outlier shows, — 
 
 'Wv.v.v. 
 Fine false-bedded sand and gravel, with carbonaceousl 
 matter, and fragments of Oa/rdium edule, Tellina halthica, > 4 
 Maatra svMruneata, Asta/rte horealis, and Mya, sp. J 
 
 Still higher up the valley a pit in the outlier above the Folly 
 gives,^ 
 
 Feet. 
 Eubbly and worn Chalk Gravel, with a few foreign pebbles - 20+ 
 
 This is capped at the lower end by a foot of chalky Boulder 
 Clay ; and from the clayey wet nature of the ground to the south, 
 there may be a small outlier of Boulder Clay extending a few 
 chains in that direction. The Gravel would seem to be a high- 
 lying estuarine or fresh-water equivalent of the Marine Beds. 
 
 The isolated Chalk hill immediately north of Swallow villagev. 
 is also capped by similar gravel. In a pit close to the last house 
 there is : — 
 
 Feet, 
 Gravel of rolled Chalk, with a few Boulder Clay stones - 5 
 
 Chalk with flint nodules - - - 10 
 
 The higher parts of this large Dale apparently contain no Gravel- 
 North of Irby Holmes Wood there is an old pit in similar 
 rolled Chalk Gravel, resting partly on Chalk. Its relation to the 
 Boulder Clay is not clear, though it probably passes under it. 
 
 Returning to the open country, the only pit between Eiby and 
 Laceby is a large one in Laceby Hill. This Hill rises as a coni- 
 spicuous mound, like those north of the Humber, to a height of 
 about 50 or 60 feet. The section is, — 
 
 Feet. 
 False-bedded gravelly. Sand, with masses, of Shingle in the 
 lower part (worked till water is reached) - - - 40 
 
 Abundance of Boulder Clay stones are found, though Boulder 
 Clay cannot here be seen either above or below the GraveL 
 BoTilders of Chalk bored by Pholas and annelids are common. 
 Fossils are plentiful and well-preserved, but the only important 
 difference between the list and that from Kelsey Hill is the 
 
62 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 entire absence of the fresh-water Gorhicula jluminalis from Laceby. 
 No fresh-water shells, and no mammalian bones have yet been 
 found there. 
 
 South of Laceby the Gravels are abruptly overlapped by Boulder 
 Clay, and for a long distance cannot be found. North-east of 
 Laceby, after disappearing for about a mile they re-appear in the 
 shallow valley of Laceby Beck, and are probably close to the 
 surface, though never rising to any height, all the way from Laceby 
 to the Humber Marshes. 
 
 At Great Coates there is an interesting inlier, cut into by the 
 Beck. A pit a short distance from the north-east side shows, — 
 
 Feet. . 
 Chalky Purple Boulder Olay (on the higher ground) - - 1 to 5 
 
 G-ravelly Sand, with shell fragments principally near the top 12 
 
 This pit was deepened till water was reached, and shows that the 
 base of the Sand must be below the level of the Marsh, which is 
 about the level of ordinary high tides. Mr. Cordeaux and myself 
 obtained here the 17 species of mollusca given in the table. They 
 are very fragmentary, though small light shells are sometimes 
 little injured. Special attention was paid to this pit, as it is one 
 of the few places where Boulder Olay can be clearly seen in section 
 vertically over the shelly Gravels. 
 
 The same Sand Bed passes under the Boulder Clay on which 
 Great Coates is built, and supplies the wells, Mr. Cordeaux also 
 informs me that in lowering the cellar at his house this bed was 
 cut into, and yielded such a constant supply of water that a special 
 drain had to be constructed to carry it away. From the amount 
 of water it would appear that sand must extend for some distance 
 under the Boidder Clay ; and it is probable that the bed is con- 
 tinuous with that outcropping in Laceby Beck, and bordering on 
 the Marsh between Little Coates and Grimsby. 
 
 In Grimsby itself, close to the Roman Catholic Church, a small 
 sand-hill rose above the level of the Marsh, but has lately been 
 almost entirely dug away. It showed sandy Gravel with rare shell 
 fragments, including portion of Yetius gallina, overlaid by a much- 
 weathered mottled stony Boulder Clay, with little or no Chalk. 
 In the recently completed drainage works, which lie considerably 
 beneath high-water level, the upper Boulder Clay was seen gra- 
 dually to cut through this Sand towards the Humber, and in places 
 to rest directly on the lower Boulder Clay, with only a reddish 
 line of division. The base of the Sand also sinks in the same 
 direction, though more slowly. At the corner of Wellington 
 Street and Heneage Street the section is, — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Soil and made ground - - - - . - 2 
 
 Peaty clay ' - - - - - . - 5 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay - - - . . 3 
 
 Sand with stones and shell fragments (rising to the south) \ c\ 
 
 Oardvtim edule, Tellina balthica, Mactra svhtruncata ? My a, sp. J '^^ 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay - - - • - - 0-^ 
 
 13 
 The surface of the ground is about the sea level. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 63 
 
 Eastward this is the last section of the Marine Gravels, which 
 apparently sink beneath the sea level, or are cut out by the newer 
 Boulder Clay. Southward there are no more exposures in the 
 district under consideration, but, as pointed out to me by Mr. 
 Jukes-Browne, the bed reappears 20 miles away, beyond Louth. 
 A pit three-quarters of a mile south of Claythorpe Sration shows, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Shingle and sand, with a large number of Boulder Clay 
 stones, and abundance of fossils . - - - about 8 
 
 From this pit, during a single short visit, the 21 species of mol- 
 lusca in the list were obtained. Probably with fuller search this 
 would prove a very prolific locality, especially as the section is 
 clear and easy to examine. . 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INTEK-GLACIAL BEBS—contiTiued. 
 
 Physical Geogkaphy'. 
 
 In the last Chapter it was shown that Marine Gravels can be 
 traced round the greater part of old bay of Holderness. But they 
 are not strictly limited by the Chalk cliff, for where that cKff is 
 low they overlap it, and extend some distance beyond. During 
 the earlier part of this Inter-glacial period the land was apparently 
 bounded by the now hidden Chalk cliff, though that feature is 
 probably in the main of still older date, and the submergence was 
 only to about its present extent. Subsequently the sea rose, or 
 the land sank, and the 100-foot contour became approximately 
 the shore-line. Of greater submergence there is little evidence. 
 Near Limber shelly Gravels extend to a height of considerably 
 over 100 feet, perhaps nearly 200, though the absence of levelled 
 heights prevents us fixing the limit accurately. Nowhere else in 
 the district has any trace of the Marine Gravels been yet found 
 above 100 feet.* 
 
 A gradually increasing submergence seems the most satisfactory 
 way of accounting for the apparently contradictory evidence of the 
 sections at the foot of Bridlingtbn Chalk cliflP, and of Kilham and 
 Kirmington. It is clear that beds in such close proximity, showing 
 a sea-level differing by 100 feet, cannot be exactly contempo- 
 raneous ; yet there is no satisfactory evidence in this district of 
 two successive Inter-glacial Periods. The simplest explanation is, 
 perhaps, that these different deposits merely mark successive stages 
 in one Period. 
 
 One fact, which without this explanation is diflBcult to under- 
 stand, is the non-occurrence of any marked feature in the Chalk 
 
 * The shells in the high-lying gravels at Elamhorongh Head are derived from the 
 Boulder Clay. 
 
64 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 immediately above the ordiaary limit of the Marine Beds. This 
 was a constant difficulty during the mapping of the country ; for, 
 taking the sea-level to have been unchanged during the whole of 
 the time, it is evident that the Period must have been very short, 
 or we should find a Chalk cliiF above the 100-foot line, very 
 similar to the older one. Such a feature does occasionally limit 
 the Marine Beds in North Lincolnshire, but it is so insignificant 
 that, if not especially searched for, it would have passed unnoticed. 
 If the land were slowly sinking, the absence of any limiting feature 
 is readily accounted for. Even the lower cliff is probably only in 
 part due to Inter-glacial erosion, the sea having in places cut back 
 the soft Boulder Clay till it was stopped by the bold Pre-glacial 
 cliff of hard Chalk. 
 
 Of this Inter glacial Period we know but little ; in fact, of its 
 earlier and later stages, nothing at all. The conditions can scarcely 
 have changed abruptly from glaciation to a temperate sea, and 
 back again. There must have been intervening stages when an 
 arctic fauna and flora flourished, though the ice had partly melted 
 back; but of these we have no direct evidence, and there is now 
 a distinct line of erosion, at the base of the gravel, and another 
 above. The missing passage beds seem thus to be only represented 
 by erosion. There is but one part of the Inter-glacial Period 
 which we know at all well ; represented by beds formed when 
 the submergence was about 100 feet. Of this stage the deposits 
 are so well preserved that without much uncertainty we can 
 venture to give a map of the old bay. 
 
 In this map one of the most noticeable peculiarities is the way 
 the sea runs up the submerged Wold valleys, turning them into 
 fiords, and here and there depositing in them banks of shelly sand. 
 These valleys cannot have been formed during an earlier stage 
 of the same Period, for in the bottom of several of them, under- 
 lying the Gravels, are occasionally preserved patches of an older 
 Boulder Clay. They must, therefore, belong to a still earlier 
 Inter-glacial or Pre-glacial Period of valley erosion ; and this 
 Period, from the extent of the erosion, must have been of 
 considerable length. 
 
 Tracing the deposits round the margin of the old bay, one is 
 struck very forcibly by the resemblance of the Gravels to the 
 constantly shifting banks which are so common in the North Sea 
 at the present day. It is only here and there in sheltered fiords' 
 that we find anything but current-bedded gravel and sand, and only 
 in the large fiord of Croxton and Kirmington that comparatively 
 still-water deposits are now preserved. There we have tidal warp, 
 corresponding with that now forming in the Humber ; but, with 
 the doubtful exception of the Limber brick-yard, there is only one 
 small outlier of it. Shingle beaches are also represented in the 
 same place, and sandy beaches not far off. Lower down, and 
 formed in a depth of from 1 to 15 fathoms, are shifting banks; 
 but nowhere can we get sufficiently low to find deeper-water 
 deposits, or still- water clays, like those which contain the " Brid- 
 lington Crag " shells. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGEArHT. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Sketch Map of Inter-glaaial Holderness. 
 
 In this map, on a scale of about 10 miles to the inch, the approximate- 
 limit of the old bay is defined by a continuous black line. The broken 
 line is carried on at the same level round the -west side of the "Wolds ; but 
 no trace of old beaches having there been found, it is doubtful whether 
 Inter-glacial Marine Gravels ever extended over the Oolitic plain. Flam- 
 borough Head has been drawn projecting 2 miles beyond its present limit, 
 to allow for the denudation which has taken place in Post-glacial or Late- 
 glacial times. The dotted line shows the limit of the present land and 
 its relation to the ancient coast line. The map extends from Speeton Bay 
 and Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire, to Donna Nook, in Lincolnshire. 
 
 16165. 
 
fj6 INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 The Gravels appear to dip seaward with as much regularity as 
 can be expected in deposits of this character. The dip must, 
 however, be measured by the slope of the denuded surface of the 
 underlying Boulder Clay, not by the irregular level of the top of 
 the Gravel, which was either deposited in banks or has been 
 subsequently most unevenly denuded. 
 
 Making traverses of the hay at different points, we find the base 
 of the Inter-glacial Beds falling seaward from 80 feet at Kilham 
 and Xaffertou, to 25 feet near Kelk, and further east it descends 
 still lower. At Brigham its height is 25 feet, but a mile east it 
 has sunk beneath the marsh. At Brandsburton it is also about 
 25 feet, but a well at Catfoss proves the base of the Gravel to be 
 there only about high-water level, and consequently considerably 
 beneath the marsh. Still further east, at Seaton, the Gravel 
 disappears altogether, — partly from erosion, but probably largely 
 from a still further dip. At Hornsea a thick bed of sand and 
 gravel occurs below the sea-level, between two Boulder Clays, but 
 this only having been proved by boring it is unsafe to correlate it 
 with the Marine Bed. The borings made by Prof. Prestwich and 
 Mr. Smith at Kelsey Hill prove that there the base of the Gravel 
 is at least 30 feet below the sea-leveL South of the Humber the 
 seaward dip is also very marked, but from the absence of levels it 
 is impossible to give accurate heights. In Grimsby the base is just 
 above mean tide level. 
 
 The Inter-glacial submarine contours of the district may, there- 
 fore, point to a sea gradually deepening eastward and away from 
 the shore. But Messrs. Wood and Rome correlate the Marine 
 Gravels v.'ith a bed seen near the top of the cliff along great part 
 of the coast.* This would necessitate an abrupt rise of the sea- 
 bottom a few miles from the old shore, and the existence of a long 
 bank of undenuded Boulder Clay. A structure of this sort seems 
 quite contrary to the general bearing of the evidence, and scarcely 
 possible. It appears much safer to consider that the known 
 easterly dip continues, and carries the fossiliferous beds out of 
 sight beneath the sea-level. In this way also we can account for 
 what; on the other theory, seems so inexplicable, — the sudden 
 change of Gravels very fossiliferous inland to Gravels in the cliff 
 utterly devoid of fossils. They are not contemporaneous, but of 
 quite different ages. 
 
 Whether in the coast section the horizon of the Marine Gravels 
 ever appears above the sea, except at Bridlington, is very doubt- 
 ful. It is possible that the " red band " may represent it, or the 
 laminated clay above the " Basement Clay," but the balance of the 
 evidence seems in favour of its being older than either. This, 
 however, is a point which must be left for future workers, for the 
 wells which ought to settle the question have none of them been 
 sufficiently carefully examined to allow of correlation of the beds, 
 and in none has the fauna of the Marine Gravels been recog- 
 
 * " On the Glacial and Post-glacial Structure of Lincolnshire and South-east 
 Yorkshire." — Quart. Journ. Oeol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 146.. 
 
NATURAL HISTOKY. 67 
 
 nized, or, in fact, has any fauna been recorded, except the vague 
 note of "marine shells." 
 
 The old upland valleys are still very imperfectly known, and 
 the Inter-glacial deposits in them are sometimes difficult to 
 distinguish from later beds. The Dale which runs from Brock- 
 lesby Station, through Oroxton and Kirmington, to Somerby 
 Dolter, and thence to the watershed near Owmbj' Mill, may be 
 taken as a good example of these valleys. At first sight the present 
 physical geography of the Croxton Dale made it appear to be an 
 old strait connecting Holderness with the Ancholme Valley ; but 
 closer examination showed that the watershed must have been 
 considerably higher when the Marine Gravels were deposited, and 
 that the Barnetby Beck has cut back till it has breached the side 
 of Kirmington Vale, and made a pass through the Wolds. The old 
 fiord, instead of passing from Oroxton to Melton Ross, turned 
 southward to F\irniington Vale, from which point it is continued 
 for several miles into the Wolds as a dry upland valley. With a 
 submergence of nearly 100 feet, however, the line of saturation in 
 the Chalk would rise ; and this valley, and other similar Chalk 
 Dales now quite dry, would contain running streams. 
 
 The physical geography of this Inter-glacial Period must have 
 been very different from what at present obtains. With a sub- 
 mergence of 100 feet, if the valleys of the Ancholme and Derwent 
 were cut to anything approaching their present depth, the 
 Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Wolds must have formed two large 
 islands separated by a narrow strait, and the Oolitic hills would 
 form other islands. In fact, a map of the East of England at that 
 Period, divided into several islands cut up by fiords, would look 
 more like the Danish archipelago than anything now existing in 
 Britain. 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Turning now to the Natural History of the Period, the first thing 
 that strikes one is that the marine fauna, contrary to what has 
 sometimes been stated, is by no means a poor one, especially when 
 the very imperfect search is borne in mind. Unfortunately, the 
 faunas of only two classes of sea-bottom are represented, — tidal 
 warp, and shifting banks of sand and shingle, formed, as already 
 mentioned, in a depth of from 1 to 15 fathoms. No still- water 
 deposits of any sort are yet known. Taking this into account, and 
 comparing the list of shells with lists of recent species dredged in 
 similar localities, the Inter-glacial fauna is fairly prolific, and 
 a few days search in a large pit like the new one at Kelsey Hill 
 would undoubtedly yield many additions to the list. 
 
 Looking at the species already known from the Marine Beds, 
 it is clear that such a fauna must have needed time to migrate 
 into the district. In the early stages, after the retreat of the ice, 
 we should expect to find only a few readily dispersed forms, 
 which would occupy the seas in vast numbers, — just as after a 
 forest fire in America the growth belongs almost entirely to a few 
 
 E 2 
 
68 INTEK-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 species of trees, and many years must elapse before we again find 
 the varied flora of the ancient forests. 
 
 Ofmollusca 21 species were added to the list in the course of 
 the Geological Survey, raising the total number known to 61.. 
 The general cliaracter of these may be described as slightly 
 northern, but not arctic. No exclusively southern forms are 
 included in the list, but 10 or 12 of the species do not now range 
 so far south as the southern half of the North Sea. The rest, 
 with two exceptions, are living British forms, many of which do 
 not extend far north. Of the two exceptions one, Tellina obliqua,. 
 is an extinct Orag shell, of which a single valve was found at 
 Laceby. It is interesting as being the only extinct species of 
 mollusc yet known from this horizon. 
 
 The other exception is the fresh-water Corbicula ( Cyrena) fiu- 
 minalis, so abundant at Kelsey Hill, but now extinct in Europe, 
 though living in the Nile and various rivers of Asia. The dis- 
 tribution of this shell is curiously partial ; for, though occurring in 
 thousands at Kelsey Hill and the neighbourhood, it is only found 
 at one other locality in the district, — in the sand-pit at Croxton, 
 A glance at the map will at once show the reason of this. Kelsey 
 Hill is exactly opposite the old mouth of the Humber, and would 
 be fully exposed to the strong tides which sweep in and out of an 
 estuary. Croxton is near the head of a fiord which is continued for 
 several miles into the Wolds as an upland valley. The abundance 
 of Corbicula fiuminalis in marine beds, both in Holderness and in 
 the Fenland, must not be taken as indicating an estuarine habitats 
 The shell is exceptionally hard and tough, and will stand a 
 great deal of knocking about ; in fact, the texture is so compact 
 that allied species are commonly used as knives in certain parts of 
 India. No other fresh-water shells have yet been found at any of 
 the fossiliferous localities in Holderness, except a single specimen 
 of Bythinia from Kelsey Hill, which, not being found actually 
 embedded in the sand, has been omitted from the list as possibly 
 recent. 
 
 For comparison with the Holderness fauna, a column has been 
 added to the table showing the marine moUusca found at March, 
 in the Fenland. The lists are so similar, that it is probable that 
 Mr. S. V. Wood is correct in con-elating the deposits ; for it is 
 difficult to understand how, if two distinct Periods are repre- 
 sented, they could yield faimas so nearly identical. At present 
 the marine mollusca of March are too imperfectly known to allow 
 us to speak with certainty, but the slight differences seem only 
 such as would be found in two distinct bays in the same sea. 
 
 The Post-glacial date of the March Gravels is sometimes in- 
 ferred from the absence of any Boulder Clay over them. But 
 negative evidence is of little value, for the majority of the Holder- 
 ness sections show no overlying Boulder Clay ; and at Little 
 Bytham, not far from the Fenland, Mr. Skertchly records Cor- 
 bicula fiumin 'lis and Tellina balthica from beneath Boulder Clay. 
 The Gravels near March cap isolated hills of Kimeridge Clay or 
 Boulder Clay, rising through the fens, and seem to be outlying 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 69 
 
 portions of a much-denuded, sheet, which covered the old floor 
 of the Fenland before it had been lowered beneath the present 
 sea-level. In fact, with the exception of the local absence of the 
 overlying Boulder Clay in the southern area, the structure of the 
 Fenland seems identical with that of the country near the 
 Humber. 
 
 With the Bridlington Crag, notwithstanding the close proximity 
 of the deposits, the Marine Gravels show little connection, only 
 about half the species in the latter being found at Bridlington, 
 though the Bridlington shells are now well known. The so-called 
 "" Middle Glacial Sand " of Yarmouth seems also very different, 
 and the fauna of an older type than that of the Marine Gravels 
 of Holderness. 
 
 Thus southward the only deposit containing a similar assemblage 
 of mollusca is the Marine Gravel of the Fenland. Northward 
 there is an ancient littoral deposit in Speeton Bay which agrees 
 so well in position, and in fauna as far as yet known, that there 
 is every probability of its turning out to be a continuation of the 
 same bed.* It consists of silty sand and mud, very similar to that 
 o£ Kirmington, at a height of 105 feet above the sea. The few 
 shells known are all, with the exception of Utiiculus obtusus, Holder- 
 ness species; and the f/ifncMZw* is a thin-shelled mud-loving species, 
 which in Holderness we could only expect to find at Kirmington. 
 , Further north the fauna of the Inter-glacial Beds is too imperfectly 
 known to allow of any correlation. 
 
 Of the other classes of fossils little can be said, they are so 
 imperfectly known. The Foraminifera have only been collected 
 at Kirmington, as few were seen in the Gravels, and those were 
 too much worn to be worth preserving. Mr. H. B. Brady, who 
 has kindly examined them, determines 15 species from Kirmington, 
 and writes that " certainly more than 90 per cent, of the specimens 
 are Nonionina depressula — an essentially shallow-water species. 
 The species and the appearance of the specimens alike indicate 
 a starved shallow-water fauna." 
 
 The mammals, which have been determined by Mr. E. T. 
 Newton, like the mollusca, are northern, but not decidedly Arctic. 
 The occurrence of the reindeer and walrus points, at any rate, to 
 cold winters, but the bison and leptorhine rhinoceros seem to 
 indicate that the climate cannot have been very severe. The 
 horse has only yet been found at Hessle, and the Irish elk at 
 Bridlington. 
 
 Fossils of the Marine Inter-glacial Beds. 
 
 PLANTJi;. Locality. 
 
 Phragmites commuuis, Trhi. | Kirmington. 
 
 Sclrpus fluitans 1 L. - - - I » 
 
 * See also Phillips, " Geology of Yorkshire," Part I., 3rd edit. p. 100 ; and G. W. 
 Lamplngh, Geol. Mag., dec. ii. vol. viii. p. 174. 
 
70 
 
 FOSSILS OF THE INTER-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 roKAMiNiPERA*. (Determmcd by Mr. H. B. Brady, F.E.S.) 
 
 Lagena laevis, Mont. 
 clavata, D'Orb. 
 
 ■I globosa, W. S^ J. ■ 
 
 distoma, P. S^ J. 
 
 semistriata, Will. 
 
 striata, W. §• J. 
 
 squamosa, Mont. 
 
 ■ laevigata, Reuss. 
 
 Nodosaria (D.) brevis, D'Orb. 
 Polymorphina laotea, W. Sf J. 
 
 oblODga, D'Orb. 
 
 Nonionina depressula, W. If J. 
 Polystomella striatoponctata, F. Sf M. 
 crispa, Linn. - 
 
 EcniNODEEMATA, 
 
 AmpLidetus, spines 
 
 ClKBIPEDIA. 
 
 Balanus crenatus, Brug. 
 
 — Hameri, Asc. 
 
 ■ porcatus, Da C. 
 
 Locality. 
 Kirmington. 
 
 Kirmington. 
 
 Kelsey Hill, Claythorpe. 
 
 Kelney Hill. 
 
 Kelsey Hill, Laceby, Claythorpe. 
 
 Entomosteaca. (Determined by Dr. G. S. Brady, F.R.S.) 
 
 Kirmington. 
 
 Cythere pellucida, Baird 
 castanea, G. O. Sars. 
 
 Deoapoda. 
 
 Crab claw 
 
 Croxton, 
 
 Authorities: C.=Mr.Cordeaux. H.=Mr. Harmer. J.=Dr. Jeffreys. Il.=Beid. 
 W.=Mr. S.V.Wood. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1l 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 Beachiopoda. 
 Ehynchonellapsittacea, Chemn. 
 
 COKCHIPEEA. 
 
 Anomia ephippium, L. - 
 Astarte boreaus, Chemn. 
 
 compressa, Mont. 
 
 - sulcata. Da C. 
 
 CaTdimn echinatum, i. 
 
 edule, L. 
 
 exiguura, Gmel, 
 
 Corbicula fluminalis, Muller - 
 Corbula gibba, Olivi. - 
 
 Leek, 
 
 J.,E. 
 
 E. 
 J.,Il 
 J.,E. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. 
 
 H.,E, 
 
 E. 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 H. 
 
 H. 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 h.,'e. 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 Very rare. 
 Plentiful locally. 
 = C. striata = C.' nu- 
 cleus. 
 
 * A few large !Poraminifera occur in the sand at Laceby, but they are too much worn to be 
 worth collecting. 
 
FOSSILS OF THE INTEK-GLACIAL BEDS. 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 :< 
 
 f 
 
 ci 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ? 
 
 6* 
 
 
 tA 
 
 >, 
 
 o 
 
 rX 
 
 
 M*® 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 ■ ;ja 
 
 Cyprina islandicat Lam, 
 Cytherea Chione, i. 
 Bonax vittatus, l)a 0. „- 
 Loripea divaricata, L. • 
 Mactra soUda, L. 
 
 subtruncata, Ba O. 
 
 Mya arenaria, i. 
 
 truncata, i. 
 
 Mytilus ednlis, L. 
 
 modiolus, L, - 
 
 Nucula nucleus, L. 
 Ostrea edulis, L. 
 Pecten islandicus, Miiller 
 Pholas crispata, L. 
 ' dactylus ? £. 
 
 J. 
 
 it. 
 j.,'r. 
 
 J., B. 
 
 j.,'r. 
 
 J., B. 
 
 J., E. 
 J.,E. 
 
 B. 
 J., E. 
 
 Psammobia ferroensis, CJiemn, 
 Saxicava arctica, L. 
 Scrobicularia plana. Da C. 
 Solen siliqua Pi. 
 Tapes decussata, Z. 
 Tellina balthioa, Z. 
 
 calcaria, Chemn. 
 
 oblic^ua, J. Sow. 
 
 — — — tenuis ? Da C. - 
 Venus gallina^ Z. 
 
 SoLENOOOlfCHIA. 
 
 Dentallum entails, Z. 
 
 Gasteropoda, 
 
 Aporrhais pespelicani, Z. 
 Buccinum undatum, L. 
 Emarginula flssura, Z. - 
 Hydrobia ulvse. Pen, - 
 Lacuna crassior, Mont. 
 
 vincta, Mont. - 
 
 Littorina littorea, Idnn. 
 
 rudis, Maton. 
 
 squalida, B. & S. 
 
 Murex erinaceua, L, 
 Nassa reticulata, Z. 
 Natica Alderi, Vorb. 
 
 catena. Da C. 
 
 clausa, jB. & 8. - 
 
 groenlandica, Beplc. 
 
 islandica, Gmel. 
 
 Odostomia rufa, PhU. 
 Pleurotoma nebula, Mont. 
 
 pyramidalis, Strom. 
 
 ■ rufa, Mont. 
 
 ■ turricula, Mont. 
 
 Purpura lapillus, Z. 
 Bissoa labiosa, Mont. - 
 Scalaria communis, Zmn. 
 Trochus cinerarius, L. - 
 Trophon antiguus, Z. - 
 
 ~ Eammus, Mont. 
 
 ~ gracilis. Da O. - 
 
 ■ scaJariformis, Gould 
 
 Turritella terebra, Z. - 
 Velutlna undata, J. Smith 
 
 E. 
 E. 
 E. 
 E. 
 J., E. 
 
 J.,E. 
 
 J.,E. 
 
 j.,'b. 
 
 J.,E. 
 J., E. 
 J.,E. 
 
 J. 
 
 J. 
 J., E. 
 J.,E. 
 J.,B. 
 
 E. 
 
 J. 
 J.,E. 
 
 J. 
 
 J. 
 J., E, 
 
 j.,'e. 
 
 J.,E, 
 
 J. 
 
 B. 
 
 B. 
 J., E. 
 J., E. 
 
 J. 
 J., E. 
 J., R. 
 
 B. B. C, 
 
 B. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. 
 
 B. 
 
 B. 
 
 B. 
 
 E. 
 
 C. 
 
 E. 
 
 R. 
 
 B. 
 
 H.,B. 
 
 H, 
 H.,E. 
 HyE. 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 H.,B. 
 E. 
 
 H.,B. 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 Wood 
 
 E. 
 
 H..B 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 E, 
 
 h.,"e, 
 
 H.,E, 
 
 H.,E. 
 
 H. 
 
 H.,E. 
 H 
 
 H... B. 
 
 H.,B. 
 
 H. 
 H.,E. 
 H.,B. 
 
 h.,'e. 
 
 H.,B. 
 
 H.,R. 
 
 H. 
 
 H.,B. 
 
 E. 
 
 One broken valve. 
 
 Bare but perfect. 
 Including var. ovaUs. 
 
 Pra^ments, 
 
 Sinall fragments. 
 Only fragments, 
 =8.rugo»a. 
 
 Toung and broken. 
 Fragments. 
 
 = T.lata. 
 
 One valve. 
 
 One broken valve. 
 
 -Uissoasubunibilicata. 
 =Z. divaricata. 
 
 =N. nitida. 
 
 =N. helicoides. 
 or P. mitrula ? 
 
 = T. truncatus. 
 
 = T. clathratus. 
 -T. communis. 
 = V. gonata. 
 
 Pisces. 
 VertebrsE, undetermined - 
 
 I Locality. 
 
 - I Kelsey Hill. 
 
 Mammalia. 
 
 Elephas primigenius, Blumb. 
 Cervus tarandus, L. 
 Bison prisons, Boj. - 
 Khinoceros leptorhinus, Cuv. 
 Trichechus rosmarus, L. 
 
 (Determined by Mr. E. T. Newton. 
 
 Kelsey Hill, Brandsburton. 
 
Hi POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 The beds immediately succeeding the Boulder Clay are, perhaps, 
 less understood than any other Pleistocene Deposits, and the 
 classification here adopted must be regarded as merely provisional. 
 Unfortunately in this district there is little evidence of the actual 
 .■superposition of one Post-glacial bed upon another, and one is 
 forced to rely largely upon the general structure of the country, 
 to show which is of the earlier date. Two distinct episodes in 
 the Post-glacial Period are apparently represented ; and these 
 correspond closely with changes which we know occurred in other 
 •parts of the East and South of England. 
 
 After the retreat of the ice, the level of the sea, for a time afc 
 least, was about 40 feet higher than at present, and the well- 
 known raised " beaches " were formed. Of these marine beaches 
 there is now no relic in the district described in this Memoir; 
 ■denudation proceeds so rapidly that every trace of them has long 
 ago been swept away. Often in the sheltered bays of a rocky 
 ■coast they are still to be found, but the only portions preserved in 
 the East'of England appear to be at Saltburn, and perhaps at 
 Hunstanton. At both these places the maximum height of the 
 beach above the present high-water level is about 40 feet. Not- 
 withstanding the absence of raised beaches in Holderness, of 
 
 Jndiiect evidence of the submergence there appears to be no want ; 
 
 . and to this period should probably be referred various deposits 
 which, differing entirely in lithological character, appear to a.qree 
 in requiring for their formation a lower level of the land. 
 
 Mr Dakyns thus describes the sections in the northern part of 
 the district: — 
 
 " At Bridlington Quay the purple Boulder Clay is directly 
 ■overlaid by a set of beds consisting of sand and gravel and 
 laminated clay. Immediately north of the town, for the distance 
 of about half a mile, the cliff is low, being perhaps thirty feet 
 above mean tide level. Along this portion of the cliff, the GraA'el, 
 which immediately overlies the Boulder Clay and consists 
 principally of Chalk pebbles, is crushed and contorted in the 
 strangest fashion. It contains included masses of Boulder Clay, 
 and has tongues of Boulder Clay intruded into its midst. The 
 surf ice of the Boulder Clay is very irregular, and in a manner that 
 
 .cannot be due to mere aqueous erosion. Thus, wherever there 
 
 "iis a vertical wall of Boulder Clay, the Gravel beds are vertical too ; 
 and where there is an intruded tongue of Boulder Clay, the beds 
 
 -of gravel are bent round conformably to the shape of the intruded 
 mass, while at other places all traces of bedding are lost in the 
 general confusion. It is obvious that after or during the 
 deposition of the Gravel in regular layers, some force, doubtless 
 that due to masses of ice in motion, has crushed the Clay and 
 
 ^rav«l together. These Gravels, therefore, though posterior to the 
 
■'a 
 
 POST-&LACIAL DEPOSITF. (3 
 
 great mass of Boulder Clay, must be of Glacial age.* In these 
 Gravelci Mr. Lamplugh has found LimtKBa peregra in layers of 
 sandy clay, so that they are, probably, as their chalky character 
 would itself suggest, old river Gravels. f In Gravels at Pocklington, 
 of a like character and occupying a similar position as regards the 
 surrounding country, we also found fresh-water shells in marly 
 seams. Sitnilar Gravels at Driffield, which cannot be well 
 separated from the valley Gravels, are equally mixed up with 
 Boulder Clay. In fact, the general appearance at Bridlington 
 lends confirmation to the idea that there is a general passage back 
 by way of old river Gravels into Glacial Beds." 
 
 " At Potter Hill the cliff rises to over fifty feet above mean^ tide 
 level, and continues to rise by steps to Sewerby Park. Along 
 this part of the cliff the Gravels overlying the Boulder Clay are 
 similar in lithological character to those last described ; but 
 exhibit a striking contrast in this, that they are as a rule evenly 
 bedded and free from contortions or intrusion of Boulder Clay, 
 although there are in one or two places such contortions and 
 dovetailing of Gravel and Boulder Clay in the lower part of the 
 Grave], so that we cannot separate the one from the other." 
 
 "As we go eastward a band of Gravel, consisting mainly of 
 drift pebbles, and lying in undulating layers, comes in betweer? 
 the Boulder Clay and the evenly bedded chalky Gravel. This is 
 probably the tail end of the Drilt Gravel that overlies the Boulder 
 Clay at Danes Dike. On the south side of the town the cliff 
 corresponds to that on the north side ; nnd the shape of the ground 
 suggests that the two were once continuous. The section here is 
 as follows : at the bottom Boulder Clay overlain by Gravel, not 
 continuous but lying in hollows in the Boulder Clay ; over this 
 Gravel and Boulder Clay we have beds of finely lamin.ated sandy 
 Clay (Warp of Prof. Phillips) beautifully ripple-marked, passing 
 into Simd northwards ; then Sand ; and at the top very fine 
 chalky Gravel. The bottom Gravel has a Glacial look; and, near 
 Applepie Cottage, where the greater part of the beds forming the 
 cliff have been denuded and replaced by recent fluviatile and 
 lacustrine deposits, the small portion left of the older beds, 
 consisting of Gravel and Sand, partly abuts against a wall of 
 Boulder Clay, and partly is overlaid by Boulder Clay." 
 
 " Among the beds of Warp and Sand there are no signs of 
 o-lacial action, unless the crumpling of the laminae of Warp at one 
 si)Ot, and at another the presence of a large erratic apparently 
 embedded in fine Sand and Warp, be taken as such." 
 
 " In the Sand over the Warp there is a band of queer convolu- 
 tions lying along a definite horizon. They are generally exactly 
 like concretions in sandstone, or rather incipient concretions, and 
 such they probably are." J 
 
 » See, however, p. 76. 
 
 f Proc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. vii. p. 389. 
 
 J Proc. Geol. Soc., Yorkshire, n.s., vol. viii. p. 32 and Plate. 
 
74 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 Southward no other sections of beds which can with any pro- 
 bability be referred to this horizon are seen till Eaeington is 
 reached. Here, Hue east of the town, the cliff is about 30 feet 
 high, and is capped by eight feet of Laminated Clay, with a gra- 
 velly base containing derivative fragments of shell. In the highest 
 part of Kilnsea Oliff there is an outlier of similar beds, but here 
 the cliff is less than 20 feet high. Both these patches are small ; 
 and the Clay is so like the matrix of the Boulder Clay, and there 
 is so much stony soil derived from the Boulder Clay over them, 
 that it was found quite impracticable to follow the boundaries 
 inland, especially as there is no feature. In both cases the expo- 
 sures agree in showingLaminated Clays of similar character. They 
 look very like estuarine or lacustrine beds; but the absence of 
 fossils in this matrix is difficult to understand, and reminds one of 
 the unfossiliferous ripple-marked Laminated Clays so commonly 
 intercalated in the Boulder Clay. Possibly they were formed 
 immediately on the retreat of the ice ; or they may really belong 
 to the Glacial Beds, an overlying Boulder Clay having, in these 
 cliffs, been entirely denuded. 
 
 South of the Humber there is shingle near Barton, which, though 
 coloured on the map as Grlacial, has very much the look of a 
 raised estuarine beach. The same beach can be followed, though 
 perhaps not continuously, round the escarpment of the Chalk to 
 beyond Horkstow. Not rising more than 50 feet above the sea, 
 it forms for several miles a terrace at the foot of the Wolds. 
 
 These Gravels and Laminated Clays all appear to have been 
 deposited when the present valleys in the Boulder Clay had no 
 existence, or rather had only been outlined. They seem also to 
 have been formed with the sea at a higher level than at present, 
 for the Clays were clearly deposited in nearly still water, and 
 lakes could scarcely exist so much above the sea level within a 
 short distance of the coast. It is, however, not necessary to con- 
 sider all the deposits to be exactly contemporaneous, or formed 
 with the same amount of submergence ; there was probably a 
 gradual change of level. 
 
 Crossing the Humber again, there is one deposit, which from 
 its peculiar position can only be referred to this period of sub- 
 mergence. This is a peaty fresh-water bed, occurring in what at 
 first seems a most unlikely place, — the top of an isolated sand-hill 
 rising boldly 40 feet out of the marsh. The cross section shown 
 in Fig. 8 is constructed from faces exposed in the new pit at 
 Kelsey Hill during May 1884. At the time of my first visit the 
 peaty clay had been cut back just beyond the deepest part of the 
 hollow; on the second visit the faces were in the position noted. 
 A few days later, and the evidence would probably be entirely 
 destroyed, though fresh deposits might be cut into. 
 
 Over the Inter-glacial Sands and Gravels there is a very irregular 
 capping of Boulder Clay, which has subsided into hollows, perhaps 
 through the slipping of the sand when saturated with water. In 
 one of these there is a fresh-water deposit, apparently formed in a 
 pond about 50 feet wide in each direction.' The peaty clay is full of 
 
FRESH-WATER BED AT KELSEY ITII.L. 
 Pig. 8. — New Pit at Kelsey Hill. — Gross section. 
 
 1 Stony briok-eartli. 
 
 2 Blue clay. 
 
 3 Peaty bed. 
 
 4 Blue clay. 
 
 5 Earthy gravel. 
 
 6 Boulder Clay. 
 
 7 Marine gravel. 
 
 plant remains and elytra of beetles, including a Donacia, \\ liicli does 
 not quite agree with any species known to Mr. C. O. Waierliouse, 
 and a Gyrinus only determinable generically. It also yielded the 
 much decayed wing-bone of a large bird. But all other calcareous 
 fossils have disappeared, though the occasional occurrence of the 
 insoluble portion of the fruit of Chara shows that both it and 
 shells may once have been abundant. The few plants determined 
 throw no light on the climatic conditions. They were the pond- 
 weed, reed, and water-crowfoot, all species having a wide range. 
 Overlying the clay there is coarse unstratified gravel, which at 
 one point appears to be banked against a vertical wall of Boulder 
 Clay. When the gravel rests directly on the disturbed Marine 
 Beds it is not easy to distinguish them ; and this may account for 
 the curious appearance of the southern end of the section, where 
 the unstratified gravel looks almost as if it passed under Boulder 
 Clay, though everywhere else it distinctly overlies it. Capping 
 the hill, and resting indiscriminately on any of tlie beds, is a stony 
 loam, with joints weathering green and mottled. At first this was 
 taken to be a Boulder Clay, but closer examination showed that 
 it was only a reconstructed bed, being full of smaU roots from top 
 to bottom. 
 
 This Fresh-water Bed must have been formed when the sub- 
 mergence was about 40 feet, for it rests partly on porous gravel, 
 and water could not remain in the pond unless the line df satura- 
 tion were 40 feet higher than now. The coarse gravels also shov/ • 
 the agency of running water ; yet Kelsey Hill is now considerably 
 the highest point in the neighbourhood, and the lower area with 
 which it is connected is almost an island. On three sides it is 
 surrounded by marshes at the sea level, and on the fourtii by a 
 low tract of land, not more than ten feet above the sea, through 
 which the Junction Drain has been carried. It seems, therefore. 
 
76 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 that not only has the Hea-level altered, but many of the valleys in 
 the Boulder Clay have been cut since the period of the Raised 
 Beaches. 
 
 In certain of the dry Ohalk valleys there occur gravels which 
 are so considerably above the level of any springs now flowing, 
 even during the wettest season, that they are sometimes referred 
 to a special " Pluvial Period." Instead of bringing into play a 
 cause of which, in this district at least, there is no other evidence, 
 it seems much simpler to refer most of these gravels to the date 
 of the raised beaches. This will account without difficulty for 
 their position ; for the line of saturation in the Ohalk would be 
 raised nearly 40 feet, and consequently the springs would break 
 out much higher up the Dales. 
 
 The curious way in which Fresh-water Gravels and Alluvium 
 are often contorted together, and into the underlying Boulder 
 Olay, is very puzzling ; and, like Messrs. Dakyns and Lamplugh, 
 I have generally referred the contortion to glacial action. But a. 
 closer study of the origin of soils and of the weathering of rocks 
 suggests a much simpler explanation, and one more in accord with 
 the appearance of the fossilg contained in the contorted beds, 
 which are not usually markedly northern. 
 
 Boulder Clays underlying old raised Alluvium are nearly 
 always much weathered, and often have the Chalk dissolved out 
 to a depth of several feet. If this abstraction of the calcareous 
 matter proceeded quite uniformly over the whole surface, there 
 would be merely a regular subsidence of the overling bed. But 
 we find that in all calcareous rocks the percolating rain-water 
 tends to make its vs^ay downwards along definite lines, and form 
 channels or "pipes," into which the overlying soilor Alluvium 
 gradually subsides. To tliis rule Boulder Clays are no exception; 
 and through the phenomenon is much more marked and unmis- 
 takable in the very marly Boulder Clays of Norfolk and Suffolk, 
 yet it seems almost equally common, though on a smaller scale, in 
 Holderness. To this cause may perhaps be referred some of the 
 contortions shown in Figs. 3, 8, and 9, and not necessarily to any 
 glacial action. 
 
 Pig. 9. — Gontorted Boulder Glay cmd Omvel near Bridlington. 
 (G. W. Lanmlugh, Proa. Oeol. Soc, Yorkshire, n.s., vol. viii. p. 27). 
 
 While on the subject of solution of calcareous matter- by rain- 
 watei', it may be well to draw attention to another obscure 
 phenomenon easily accounted for through this agency. This is 
 the upright position — with the longer axes vertical — often taken 
 by the flints in unstratisfied and contorted Post-glacial Gravels. 
 
SUBMERGED FORESTS. 77 
 
 In Holderaess this is not very often seen, but in Norfolk and 
 most Chalk districts it occurs so commonly as to appear the 
 normal arrangement of the stones. For example, a large pit near 
 Burnham Market, in Norfolk, shows a deep section of false-bedded 
 very chalky Gravel ; but this Gravel has suffered from weathering 
 to such an extent that all the chalk has disappeared from large 
 irregular pipes. This slow and irregular removal of half the bulk 
 has obliterated all the bedding in the upper part, and allowed the 
 flints to subside. In subsiding each stone has descended with its 
 longer axis vertical. Unfortunately, in Holderiiess no section was 
 noticed in which the line between the weathered and unweathered 
 Gravel was conspicuous, and the process could be traced step by 
 step as at Burnham. The lesser quantity of chalk contained in 
 the Holderness Gravels also makes the upright position of the 
 stones less marked and common than in many other districts. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 POST-GLACIAL BEDS— continued. 
 
 The downward movement described in the last Chapter appears 
 to have given place to upheaval : the land rose till its level was at 
 least 50 feet higher than now, and deep valleys were cut in every 
 direction through the Boulder Clay. The " Submerged " or rather 
 " Buried Forests " so often found in wells, or at the bottom of docks 
 in the Humber, at a depth of nearly 50 feet below high- water, prove 
 that, even allowing for compression and consolidation of the peat 
 and underlying beds, there must have been an elevation to fully 
 that extent. But of any greater elevation there is no evidence in 
 the district under consideration. 
 
 Of deposits formed when the land was rising we know nothing. 
 In this district the period is apparently only represented by 
 denudation — unless some of the Gravels in the dry Chalk valleys 
 partially fill the gap. While the elevation was about 50 feet the 
 lowest of the Buried Forests grew on a wide alluvial flat which 
 fringed the Humber and Lincolnshire coast, and probably also 
 the coast of Yorkshire, though there it has since been entirely 
 destroyed. Subsidence of the land, or rise of the sea-level, sub- 
 merged the Forest, and allowed a considerable thickness of 
 estuarine warp to be deposited on it. But this subsidence was 
 apparently not quite continuous, for there is a second Buried 
 Forest at about the present low-water level. This latter is the 
 ordinary " Submerged Forest " seen on the foreshore. More than 
 two of these old land surfaces can seldom, if ever, be found in one 
 section ; and though it is unsafe yet to speak with any confidence 
 on the point, the thick bed of marine warp between them is very 
 suggestive of a subsidence too rapid to allow deposition to keep 
 pace with it, and raise the surface above the ordinary water level. 
 
78 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 Another result of this subsidence was to turn the smaller 
 valleyd first into salt-water creeks, and then, by the irregular 
 deposition of banks of mud and sand in their channels, to divide 
 them into chains of fresh-water meres connected by streams, like 
 the " broads " of Norfolk. These meres and broads are rapidly 
 silting up, the one at Hornsea being the last remaining in 
 Holderness, though there is abundance of evidence of the former 
 existence of a much krger number. No doubt in part the dis- 
 appearance of the meres is due to artificical drainage, but an 
 examination of the deposits shows that the filling up is almost 
 entirely natural ; drainage has only put the finishing touch, and 
 converted into pasture land a mere already shallowed to a reedy 
 swamp. 
 
 The Valley Gravels, Lacustrine Marls, Old Warp, and Buried 
 Forests, though so different in lithological character, probably 
 nearly all belong to this period of gradual subsidence. Close 
 examination shows no hard and fast line between them, but often 
 a clear alternation. Unfortunately the exact succession of the 
 minor divisions is still too doubtful to allow of any but a 
 geograpliical classification. Though we can be quite sure that 
 forests of oak did not flourish' in the district at the same time 
 that beds full of leaves of the arctic birch were being deposited, 
 yet it is at present often impossible to say which was of 
 earlier date. 
 
 Commencing, as a matter of convenience, with the lacustrine 
 beds on the coast, we find on both sides of Bridlington Quay that 
 channels or hollows have been cut through the Gravels mentioned 
 in the last Chapter, and in these hollows have been deposited 
 bedded fresh-water Mails. So full a description of these beds at 
 Bridlington will be found in Mr. Xiamplugh's papers,* that it is 
 unnecessary here to give the details, especially as very few fossils 
 are yet recorded. These Marls rest on Jow level sand, gravel, 
 and silt, which Mr. Lamplugh considers to be closely connected 
 with them, and perhaps to be formed contemporaneously. But 
 the whole of the deposits are newer than the high-level Gravels 
 of Sewerby and Bridlington already described, and are separated 
 from them by a line of erosion which often cuts deeply into the 
 Boulder Clay. At the south end of the town, in one of these 
 hollows in Boulder Clay filled with peaty marl, Dr. Nathorst 
 iiscovered leaves of the arctic birch (Betula nana, L.), but no 
 further progress has yet been made in collecting the plants of 
 this interesting deposit. | 
 
 Another of these lacustrine deposits, seen at Skipsea, is thus 
 described by Prof. Phillips: — f 
 
 "Its length is about a quarter of a mile ; its extreme elevation 
 above high water, at the south extremity, is 12 feet, but in the 
 
 <i 
 
 "■ Op. cit., Parts. I. II. and III. 
 
 t " Uber neue Punde von fossilen Glacialpflanzen." — Engler's botanischer 
 Jahrbuch, 1881, p. 431." 
 
 J Geology of Yorkshire, Part I. pp. 80, 81. 
 
OLD LACUSTRINE BEDS. 79 
 
 middle only 4 or 5 feet.. The series of depositions from fresh water 
 is as follows : — 
 
 " Peat, with roots, branches, and hazel-nuts : its utmost thick- 
 ness is 7 feet ; where this happens the lower 4 feet inches are 
 solid, and break* like clay; the upper part is then fibrous. 
 Yellowish clay, full of Biihynia tentaculata, Cyclas cornea, 
 C lacustris, and a few specimens of Limnea stagnalis : this is seen 
 only on the southern side of the hollow. Blue clay, full of 
 Cyclades ; here is some phosphate of iron ; this rests upon gravel , 
 under which is blue or brown Boulder Clay." 
 
 "In this deposit an old man, who was employed in collecting 
 gravel, accidentally discovered the head and antlers of Cervus 
 megaceros. . . . Subsequently the lower jaw was discovered by 
 the researches of Mr. Arthur Strickland." 
 
 Opposite Atwick there is another old mere, in the centre of 
 which measurements by Mr. Dakyns give : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Cubical grey Clay - - - - 6 
 
 Peaty layer - - - - . — 
 
 White Marl ... .1 
 
 Sand and G-ravel - - - - - .10 
 
 Red Bonlder Clay - . - - - — 
 
 Prof. Phillips states that an elephant's tusk of extraordinary 
 dimensions was found at this place. 
 
 At Hornsea we find the most extensive lacustrine deposit in 
 Holderness ; and as it is very well shown, and is clearly connected 
 with the still existing mere, it will.be described fully. Hornsea 
 Mere is a sheet of water, now a mile and a half long by half a 
 mile wide, and with its bottom in places below high water. Even 
 while at its present level, it was formerly more extensive, the 
 marshy ground of Wassand Mere forming part of it. South of 
 the village of Hornsea there is also a low alluvial flat which has 
 evidently been the floor of another old mere, though the encroach- 
 ments of the sea, and an artificial channel through the sand 
 dunes, have now drained it. This mere was only separated from 
 the present one by a narrow ridge of gravel. 
 
 But, besides these low alluvial flats, all roimd the Mere there is 
 a distinct terrace at about 10 feet above the present water level, 
 bounded by a steeper slope of Boulder Olay. This terrace is 
 sometimes merely a feature in the Boulder Clay, though usually 
 there is a considerable nmount of gravel on ir. That it marks a 
 former level of the lake, and that the gravel is an old lacustrine 
 deposit, is proved by the occasional occurrence in it, not far from 
 its highest limit, of fresh-water clay and marl. The village of 
 Hornsea is built on -a continuation of the same sheet of gravel < 
 which, north of the town, reaches a height of 30 feet above high 
 water. From the large spread these lacustrine beds still make, 
 and the fact that they extend to the coast without any sign of 
 narrowing, the Mere must once have been several times its present 
 size, and from 10 to 20 feet deeper. Even without allowing for the 
 part lost by marine denudation, the old lake would measure two' 
 thirds of a mile wide by at least 3 miles long. 
 
80 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 Where all this mass of gravel came from is not clear, for the 
 streams running eastward are not large, and the watershed is now 
 close to the head of the old lake. The drainage area of Hornsea 
 Mere is now only about 8 square miles, but the Carr Dike appears 
 to be cutting eastward, and perhaps the stream in the valley 
 between Hornsea Mere and Catfoss originally flowed in the 
 opposite direction. 
 
 Commencing at the bead of the Mere there is a considerable 
 spread of gravel near Wassand, rising in places fully 20 feet 
 above the water. A pit near the keeper's house shows coarse 
 false-bedded gravel of Chalk and other Boulder Clay stones ; and 
 south of the house there is another shallow pit in sand. Along 
 the northern margin of the Mere a gravel terrace extends nearly 
 continuously as far as the Hermitage, but the only section is a 
 small pit opposite Lady Island. From this point there is a 
 distinct feature connecting the terrace with the spread of gravel 
 at Hornsea Village, though the gravel itself has either never 
 been deposited, or has been entirely denuded. Along the 
 southern margin of the lake Shell Marl was seen in a new ditch 
 south of the Snipe Ground at a height of about 10 feet above 
 the Mere. The old terrace is considerably wider than the strip 
 of gravel mapped, the feature passing through Great Wassand 
 and keeping above the 25-foat contour line all the way to the 
 coast. 
 
 At the Hornsea Bridge Station a section was exposed showing 
 the alternation of the lacustrine Marl with Sand and Gravel. It 
 is now entirely hidden, but Messrs. Wood and Rome, who 
 originally examined it, state that " the intercalated loam with 
 mollusca is seen to be oblique-bedded, with the gravel at a high 
 angle. The mollusca which we have obtained from this deposit are 
 all purely fresh-water forms, existing and common in this country, 
 belonging to the Genera Limnea, Planorbis, Bithynia, Anodonta, 
 Cyclas, and Pisidium ; but we were not able to find any traces 
 either of Cyrena fiuminalis or Hydrobia marginatar* 
 
 In Hornsea itself there are no open sections of the Gravel, but 
 an old well bored at the New Inn is said to have passed through 
 161 feet of gravel and sand before reaching the Chalk. It is, 
 however, difficult to say what age this mass of gravel and sand 
 can belong to, and both the details and depth to the Chalk are so 
 unlike any other wells in Holderness as to throw doubt on their 
 accuracy. The section, communicated by the late Mr. Smalley to 
 Mr. S. "V. Wood, shows : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Sand - - - - - - 9 
 
 Sand and Gravel, with small shells - - - - 52 
 
 Warp .--.... I 
 
 Sand and G-ravel, Tritliout shells - - 100 
 
 To Chalk - - - - - -161 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 154. 
 
OLD LACUSTEINE BEDS. 81 
 
 As several borings at Hornsea reached Chalk at 60 or 70 feet 
 ■below the sea-level, it is possible that a mistake has been made 
 in recording these details. 
 
 In the cliff north of the town the Gravel begins as a thin bed 
 close to the 50-foot contour line. Between this point and the 
 Marine Hotel, wherever the sections are clear, Boulder Clay is 
 seen at the base of the cliff; but a good deal of this portion 
 is hidden, and, judging from published accounts, there is a deep 
 channel near the Marine Hotel. The Kev. J. L. Rome observed 
 at the base of the clifE immediately north of the Marine Hotel, 
 in addition to beds of loam intercalated in, and false-bedded 
 with, the gravel, a loam-bed 6 feet thick, occurring beneath the 
 Gravel, containing fresh-water mollusca in great abundance. 
 These beds were observed at two points, dipping in opposite 
 directions, so as to indicate a limited basin of date earlier than the 
 gravel-beds of that locality.* This is apparently the same section 
 that Prof. Phillips again observed in 1872, and of which he 
 gives tvfo sketches showing Gravel and Sand alternating with 
 Warp and fresh-water Marl with Chara ; but he was unable to 
 find shells. The continuous exposure of peat on the foreshore 
 opposite and north of the Marine Hotel may be connected with 
 this channel, as well as with the main mass at Hornsea Gap, the 
 Boulder Clay hill on which the Hotel is built being only an 
 island in the old Mere. South of Marine Terrace the cliff is low 
 and hidden by Blown Sand, but the foreshore opposite shows 
 excellent sections of lacustrine Clay, Marl, and Peat. 
 
 The beds on the foreshore extend for over half a mile, and can 
 nearly always be examined somewhere, though the constant 
 shifting of the beach seldom allows the whole to be seen at once. 
 This deposit may be accepted as a good example of what is 
 ordinarily termed a '* submerged forest," for in places roots occur 
 in the clay at the level of extreme low-water. In itself this is 
 scarcely sufKcient evidence of submergence, for roots may 
 penetrate much below the sea level, as long as sea-water cannot 
 reach them. At Hornsea no trunks were observed attached to 
 the roots, though they certainly occur at other places on the coast 
 at the same level. The following section was recorded by Prof. 
 Phillips ;t it is probably a generalized one, as no exact locality is 
 mentioned : — 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 6. Blue olay-bed ; at its base a layer of plants with~l 
 small pebbles. In it roots and stems, and a I 
 remarkable straight piece of fir wood, smootlied >• 2 or 3 — 
 to a lapering elliptical section, 5 feet long, were I 
 
 lto3 — 
 
 found in the clay. 
 5. Brown clay-bed, unequal. In it shells of Anodon \ 
 
 are common, with the epidermis preserved. J 
 
 4. Laminated plant-bed, occasionally peaty - - — to 3 
 
 3. Oj/ctes marls of pale brown tint, mixed with 4. "1 __^ 4,+ 19 
 
 Small PaZiwiiMee [£i<%»ii(»] occur in abundance. / "^ * 'O I'S 
 
 * Wood and Kome, op. eit. ; and Phillips, op. cit., p. 79. 
 f Op. cit., pp. 76, 77. 
 
 A 16165. n, 
 
82 POST-GLACIAli DEPOSITS. 
 
 •Feet. Inches. 
 
 2. Peat and black root-bed of irregular thickness "I to 6 
 
 and interrupted extent. j 
 
 1. Eed-brown clay and pebbles (Boulder Clay) — — 
 
 the beds dipping gently seaward. The continuous exposures 
 examined in the course o£ the Geological Survey seemed too 
 variable to give any definite succession of the minor divisions, 
 though the general order is very similar to that given by Prof. 
 Phillips. In the peaty clays leaves are common, though not well 
 preserved. All those noticed belonged to Oak, Alder, and Willow, 
 Only a few of the larger seeds were collected, as the plant-bearing 
 beds consist of a tenacious black mad veiy difficult to wash. 
 Concretions of race are abundant on certain horizons, and on 
 others there are small lumps and stains of phosphate of iron, or 
 nodules of iron pyrites. 
 
 The following list includes all the fossils yet known from this 
 lacustrine deposit at Hornsea. It is taken from the specimens 
 collected in the course of the Geological Survey, the mammals in 
 the Hull and York Museums, and the entomostraca from the 
 Palaeontographical Society's Monograph by Messrs. G. S. Brady, 
 Crosskey, and Robertson. 
 
 Chara, sp. Cyclas cornea. 
 
 Pinus &ylvestris f Pisidium pusillum. 
 
 Potamogeton, sp. LimncBa peregra. 
 Alnus glutinosa, cones and Planorlis contortus. 
 
 leaves. nautileus. 
 
 Quercus robur, leaves and cups. Bithynia tentaculata. 
 
 Salix, sp., leaves. Valvata piscinalis. 
 
 Prunuspadus, stones. Percajlvviatilis. 
 
 Cypris compressa. Fish scales. 
 
 gibha. j^^g primigenius? CHuU 
 ——^reptans. Museum.) 
 
 Cypridopszs obesa. (j^^^^^ ^j^j^^^ 
 Candona detecta. Museum.) 
 
 albicans. ^ " ,t-x i, 
 
 7 . megaceros. (Hu 1 
 
 ! w Museum.) 
 
 Candida. Elep has primigenius ? (York 
 
 Limmcythere inopinata. Mu=eu \ . \ ^ ^^ 
 
 Cvtheridea lacustris. tp ^ 
 
 ^ JLquus, sp. 
 
 Anodonta anatina! Felis spekea. (Hull Museum.) 
 
 Two curious points are brought out by this list. Firstly, it 
 shows that some of the extinct Pleistocene mammals, includino- 
 Felis spelma and perhaps Elephas primigenius, are true Post-gla- 
 cial species, not confined in the North of England, as has been 
 stated, to Inter-glacial beds. Unfortunately, though several teeth 
 of the Mammoth have been found at Hornsea, it is not quite 
 certain whether any of them really belong to this deposit, so it 
 naust still be left doubtful whether the snecies really lived in 
 Holderness in Post-glacial times. 
 
OLD LACUSTIilNE BEDS. 83 
 
 The second point is, that, notwithstanding careful search, the list 
 of fresh-water Mollusca is extremely small, forming in this respect 
 a marked contrast to the reoent fauna of Hornsea Mere. That 
 this is a real deficiency, and not due merely to imperfect search, 
 I feel confident ; for, for purposes of comparison, the recent Mol- 
 lusca in the Mere were also collected, and in a short time more 
 than thrice the number of species were obtained. No doubt 
 several others, besides those recorded, may have lived in the old 
 Mere, but the absence of all but these few species, and perhaps 
 one or two others, at every locality where the lacustrine beds are 
 seen in Holderness, tends strongly to show that they were not 
 able to live in the district, or, more probably, had not yet had time 
 to migrate into it. The recent Mollusca found in Hornsea Mer£ 
 were the following, those also occurring fossil being marked with 
 an asterisk. The list of living forms has purposely been confined 
 to those found during a short search, but one or two others have 
 been recorded. 
 
 *Anodonta anatina. LimncBa auricularia. 
 
 *Cyclas cornea. Physa fontinalis. 
 
 rivicola. ^Planorbis albus. 
 
 Pisidium casertanum. carinatus. 
 
 henslowianum. complanatus 
 
 * pusillum. * contortus 
 
 Bithynia Leachii. corneus. 
 
 * tentaculata. * nautileus. 
 
 Lim7icea fflab7'a (one dead shell). nitidus. 
 
 palustris. spirorMs. 
 
 * preregra. vortex. 
 
 j- stagnalis. fValvata cristata. 
 
 truncatula. * piscinalis. 
 
 The three species marked (t), though not yet found fosssil at 
 Hornsea, occur in similar beds at other localities in Holderness, 
 and Prof. Phillips also adds Cyclas lacustris from Skipsea, as well 
 as Limnma stagnalis. This, however, only raises the total number 
 found fossil at all localities in Holderness to 12, while one locality, 
 the modern Hornsea Mere, yields at least 26 living. 
 
 The cliff at Mappleton, over 40 feet high, is capped by another 
 lacustrine deposit, which extends for half a mile north of the town. 
 Where thickest the section is, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Silt ... - - .3 
 
 Sand and Grravel - ... 3 
 
 Laminated Peat, witt small roots - - 3 
 
 L6amy Gravel - . . - - - 3 
 
 Boulder Clay - - - - - . - 33 
 
 But the peat is very impersistent, and the whole of the beds are 
 commonly replaced by gravel. No fossils were observed here, 
 and the mammoth teeth picked up on the beach are probably 
 derived from the glacial beds. Immediately south of this exposure 
 is another smaller one, which, from the shape of the ground, 
 probably belonged originally to the same mere. 
 
 p 2 
 
84 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 The next Post-glacial deposit seen in the cliff is the valley 
 Alluvium of the Lambwath Stream. The Old Dale evidently 
 once extended much further east, over what is now sea, and the 
 cutting back of the cliff has exposed a section which belongs to a 
 valley draining westward. In the deepest part there is one foot of 
 laminated shaly peat, whfch, according to Professor Phillips, has 
 produced abundance of hazel-nuts=, covered by eight feet of 
 alluvial loam. 
 
 Three miles further south there is a similar bed in the dale 
 east of Grrimston Park, but it has been so much disturbed in 
 making the old fishponds (the present clifF happens to cut through 
 the middle of them) that the exact character of the deposits is 
 not recognisable. 
 
 At Sand le Meer the coast line cuts across a valley draining 
 inland, but the bottom of the valley is so low that, were it not 
 for the sea bank, high spring tides might break through and reach 
 the Humber. On the foreshore opposite this valley there is good 
 evidence of a subsidence of the land, for the bottom of the old 
 valley cuts to low-water mark ; proving that the land must once 
 have been considerably higher, or there would not be sufficient 
 scour to erode the channel or to keep it clear. A small stream 
 like this would need a fall of several feet in the mile to prevent 
 its channel being blocked up. The deposits seen on the foreshore 
 ■consist of peat and peaty loam full of tree stumps and roots, the 
 stumps being seen in place below half -tide level. The fossils 
 observed were, — 
 
 Carex, sp. Prunus padus. 
 
 Juncus, sp. Anodonta anatina. 
 
 Potamogeton, sp. (jy^ias cornea. 
 
 Alnus glutinosa. Pisidium pusillum. 
 
 Corylus avellana. Vidvata cristata. 
 
 Quercus robur. piscinalis. 
 
 Salix, sp. 
 
 To this list Professor Phillips adds bones of oxen and antlers of 
 stag. 
 
 Half a mile south of Sand le Meer two small patches of Cyclas 
 Clay are seen in the cliff, but they are of no special interest. 
 
 Withernsea Mere is now only represented by a patch of 
 swampy ground and a small pond; Ovrthorn Mere has entirely 
 disappeared. But the small alluvial flats still left seem to be the 
 last relics of a mere of considerable size. The peaty lacustrine 
 clay on the foreshore rapidly widens seaward, forming what 
 is locally known as " Noah's Wood," which has yielded hazel.nuts, 
 fresh-water mussels, and antlers of stag. 
 
 Two miles south of Withernsea, and not far from Holmplon, 
 Nevill's Drain flows into the sea, and for about 300 or 400 yards 
 the cliff' is very low, seldom more than 10 feet above high water. 
 This low portion is covered by alluvial deposits in some respects 
 unlike most of those already described. The section (Fig. 10) was 
 ■seen in a projecting point near the northern end of the basin. 
 
OLD LACUSTEINE BEDS. 85 
 
 Fig. 10. — Allmmm in the OUff north of HoVnvpton (seeif, in a projecting' 
 point). Scale 15 feet to 1 inch. 
 
 Beaoli. 
 
 1. Soil ..--.-.. 2 
 
 2. Loamy Alluvium - - - - - - 3 
 
 3. Laminated peaty bed with Betula nana - - • Oi 
 
 4. Frest-water loam, with Perca flwviatilis, Planorhis, Limnona 
 
 peregra, Oyclas cornea, Pisidmm - - - "3 
 
 5. Gravelly soil, very irregular - - - ■ OJ 
 
 6. Boulder Clay - - - - - — 
 
 The first thing that .strikes one in this section is, that we have 
 here a bed with fresh-vcater shells, just like that described at so- 
 many localities, and above this is a peaty bed with the arctic birch, 
 Betula nana. Unfortunately no plants are yet known in the 
 lowest bed at Holmpton, and the shells belong to species too 
 widely distributed to throw any light on the question of climate. 
 The relative age of this bed, with arctic plants and the submerged 
 forests, will be discussed after the rest of the sections have been 
 described. Professor Phillips examined the same deposit in 1826, 
 but the section he saw was so different from the one now visible, 
 that his account may be worth quoting, especially as the coast 
 must then have been many yards further east.* 
 
 Brown soil, ' 
 
 Bluish bed of argillaceous marl. 
 
 Shaly clay, changing up^vards to white clay-marJ. 
 
 Shaly bed of clay. 
 
 Blue and brown clay marl. 
 
 Black marl, with plant roots. 
 
 Grey marl, with Gyclades and Paludince l_Bithynia>]. 
 
 Diluvial clay. 
 Unfortunately one cannot be certain whether his bed of " black 
 marl" is the .same as the one. from which the arctic birch has 
 recently been obtained ; no measurements being given, it is impos- 
 sible to say whfether the lacustrine deposits thickened seaward. 
 
 A mile further south the Alluvium of Out Newton Dyke shows 
 a somewhat similar section. The old channel must be silted up 
 nearly 20 feet, and the lower part of the hollow is hidden by the 
 beach. Gravel lines the channel and rises to the surface on each 
 side, but in the centre we also find, — 
 
 Feet. 
 Loam with peaty base - - - • - - 4 
 
 Oyclas Marl ... ... 5 
 
 Gravel, to beach - - - " ■ - — 
 
 ♦ Op. cit., p. 71. 
 
86 POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS. 
 
 The base of the Loam was carefully searched for leaves ; but though 
 80 hke, both in lithological character and position, to the bed 
 yielding Betula nana at Holmpton, nothing could be found in it ; 
 however, it is worth further examination, as the section changes 
 very rapidly. 
 
 Towards Easington, east of the Mill, there is another alluvial 
 flat showing three feet of Loam with a peaty base, but no fossils are 
 
 preserved. 
 
 South of Easington there are no old lacustrine beds, but only 
 Scrobicularia Clays at the present sea-level. Tliese, ihough now 
 cut into by the denudation of the coast, really belong to the 
 Humber War;;, and will be again mentioned when that deposit is 
 describeJ. 
 
 CrossiniT the Humber we find one more of these old shell marls 
 in Cleethorpes Chff. Mr. Penning describes the section thtia : — 
 " The deposit in the centre of the cliff coincides nearly with an 
 old channel running from the land to the sea, in which occurs the 
 following succession of beds, varying in thickness, but fairly con- 
 stant throughout : — 
 
 Keet. 
 Sandy wash - - - - - - 3 or 4 
 
 Sand, yellow at top, grey below, with lines of carbonaceons 
 matter - - - -,- -2 or 3 
 
 Brown stratified Loam, with an occasional bivalve shell 
 
 having both valves united - - - np to 3 
 
 Blnish loamy clay - - - - 1 
 
 Grey sandy Loam or Marl, fnll of shells and plant remains, 
 
 also beds of peat or lignite - - ■ - np to 2 
 
 Sand (in places only) - - - - - 1 
 
 Boulder Clay - - - - - — 
 
 " The channel is about .300 ftet in width, and its depth perhaps 
 15 feet at the deepest part." 
 
 The shelly marl contains Limnaa peregra, Planorhis albus, P. 
 nautileus, Valrata piscinalis, Cyclas cornea, and Pisidium pusiUum ; 
 but no determinable plants and no bones were observed. 
 
 South of Cleethorpes, Warp and Buried Forests, like those of the 
 Humber, are occasionally seen on the foreshore, but the old cliff 
 of Boulder Clay having trended inland no lacustrine deposits are 
 exposed. 
 
 Of the old meres for which Holderness was once so famous the 
 only relic is often the name Mere attached to some farm or field, 
 or even to a hill. Most of the irregular patches of Alluvium, of 
 which so many are scattered over the country, are the beds of 
 ancient meres ; but in many cases they may have been either 
 silted up in prehistoric times, or the name has since been lost 
 Of these dried up and now nameless meres numbers have been 
 mapped, but a glance at the cliff section shows that many of the 
 smaller ones may have been entirely overlooked inland ; the want 
 of sections, the perfect drainage, and the irregularity of their beds 
 
ANCIEXr MERES. ' 87 
 
 rendering it difficult to distinguish them. A list of the old meres 
 ■of which the names are recorded on the Ordnance Map is given 
 below, but probably a local historian could trace back in ancient 
 records the names of many now forgotten. For others traditional 
 names might still be found, or their former existence may be 
 recorded in the curiously slow changing names of separate 
 fields. 
 
 Commencing at Bridlington, the deposit seen in the cliff is 
 apparently only portion of the bed of a large irregular mere 
 extending for a mile up the Gipsey Race and southward to 
 Bessingby, but the name of this mere seems now lost. At Burton 
 Agnes there is a wide spread of alluvial clay extending to 
 Harpham : different parts of this are called " Moor " and " Carr," 
 but the name " Mere " seems confined to the miU-pond known as 
 Burton Mere. Near Little Kelk the Burnt Mill Beck flows 
 through a fiat called Duck Muttons : whether this name is con- 
 nected with the old Mere is uncertain, but it is very suggestive. 
 Along the com-se of the River Hull the alluvial flats do not seem 
 often to have been occupied, within the historic period, by actual 
 lakes; the names Carr and Moor are often met with, but 
 not Mere. That meres did exist at one time is, however, 
 shown by the occurrence of a sheet of shell-marl at Driffield. 
 
 Around Barmston and Ulrome meres were very numerous, but 
 often the flats are too small to be engraved on the one-inch map. 
 Though Soumers seems the only name connecting these flats with 
 old meres, the discovery of pile dwellings at Ulrome shows that 
 others certainly existed in the Celtic period, though their names 
 have since been lost.* Between Hutton and Cranswick, Heddle- 
 mere Closes seems to preserve the name of an old mere ; in this 
 instance, however, the position of the mere itself cannot be fixed. 
 Between Beeford and Catwick the former existence of two meres 
 is recorded in Stephenson's Mere Drain and Clubley's Mere. At 
 Skipsea there is White Marr. Near Brandsburton we find Swan- 
 mere End ; and at Walton, Swan Mere. Eelmere Hill near 
 Mappleton is directly above an old mere, but a mile and a half 
 a,way there is also Eelmere Well. Near Great Colden there is 
 Breamers, near Flinton, Braemere, and at Beeford Braeiuar Drain. 
 Cross Mere Hill near Aldbrough, Midmeredales near Cottingham, 
 Bowmere Hill, Turmar Farm, Gills Mere, and Bowmer Hill, all 
 mark the sites of varnished lakes, but at Row Mere there is still 
 a small reedy swamp. South of the Humber the names of others 
 are recorded in Langmeer Furze, Micklemeer Hiil, and Riby 
 Slings Meer. 
 
 Besides the places where the word mere is still preserved, inire 
 and moor are so often used for silted-up lakes, that it is probable 
 that since the di'ainage there has been a slight change in the 
 vowels, and many of these names were originally also mere. The 
 local name for a swampy alluvial flat bordering a stream is com- 
 monly carr. Other ancient inland meres may also be recorded in 
 
 * See also p. 1 12. 
 
88 HUMBEE WAKP. 
 
 the termination ea or ey, often met with where there is now no- 
 water except perhaps a small ditch. 
 
 Turning next to the estuarine Warp and the accompanying 
 " Submerged Forests " of the Humber and Lincolnshire shores, 
 we find that the only sections of the older portion have been seen 
 during the excavation of the docks at Hull and Grimsby. For- 
 tunately most of the works have been very carefully watched by 
 the engineers and other observers, whose accounts have been 
 published. These notes are among the most valuable material for 
 the geology of Holderness, recording, as they do, extensive sections 
 which, from the nature of the case, will probably never again be 
 laid bare. The occurrence of true land surfaces at so great a depth 
 beneath the sea-level has so often been denied, that it will be 
 necessary to give full details, in the observer's own words, of what 
 has been seen at Hull. The notes are taken according to the 
 date of publication, thus reserving for the last the still unfinished 
 Alexandra Docks, which have been examined many times in the 
 course of the Survey with special reference to this point. The 
 evidence from borings is so unsatisfactory that it can only be 
 accepted when it corroborates what is seen in a clear section, 
 but a glance at the Appendix will show that borings made at 
 many places and by many different well- sinkers prove a suc- 
 cession of peat and warp beds curiously like that seen in the 
 docks. 
 
 Writing in 1866, Dr. Foster thus describes the beds exposed in 
 the Albert Docks at Hull :* — " In the cuttings at the east end, the 
 upper stratum is silt, .... and immediately under the silt the 
 trunks, roots, and branches of oak trees, together with a peat soil 
 of two feet in thickness, beneath that a strong clay soil, and under 
 this (so far as is uncovered) an extensive bed of blue sand, 
 containing the fresh-water Lymnaa. Planorbis, <&c." 
 
 '• At a depth of 40 feet below the level of the adjoining land, 
 trees (chiefly oak) are found in all positions; those which are 
 upright and still in situ having been broken off within three feet 
 of the roots. One oak-tree, of noble dimensions, is perfectly 
 straight, its trunk being 45 feet long, and in the thickest part 
 measuring 12^ feet in circumference ; it is tolerably sound, but 
 blackened in colour. This tree lies nearly north and south, but 
 others, which have also fallen, are to be met with in every direc- 
 tion." 
 
 "In a hole caused by the decay of a branch, was found a quan- 
 tity of hazel-nuts, possibly the winter store of some provident 
 squirrel ; the shells, though black, were quite perfect." 
 
 " Xhe undulating state of the original surface may be seen by 
 the silt above being of a lighter colour than the lower stratum. 
 It is evident, from the position of the roots, that the ground on 
 the north or land side, on which the trees grew, has been higher 
 
 * " On the Discovery of Ancient Trees below the surface of the Land at the Western 
 Docl£ now being construetecJ at Hull." -Rep. Brit. Assoc, for 1866, Trans, of Sec- 
 tions, p. 52. 
 
ALBERT DOCKS. 89 
 
 than the south or river side The trees . . . would require 
 
 at least 300 years to attain the dimensions given." 
 
 According to Messrs. Wood and Rome* these docks " showed , 
 
 the Hessle Clay irregularly denuded and overlain by a 
 
 bed of ^ilt upwards of 20 feet thick, at the bottom of which 
 were the remains of a forest growing upon, and with the stools 
 in places rooted into, the Hessle Clay. This deep accumulation 
 of silt abounded to the very bottom (where the shells rested on 
 the forest) with the ordinary estuarine mollusca of the Humber, — 
 Scrobicularia piperata, Tellina solidula, Cardium edule, Littorina 
 littorea, &c. In part this forest-bed was also underlain by the 
 silt, showing an oscillation of level during its growth .... At 
 Hull the dock-borings showed this forest to be now from 20 to 
 37 feet below high-water mark of ordinary spring tides." 
 
 After the completion of the works Mr. J. C. Hawkshr.w read a 
 paper, unfortunately only published in abstract, giving fuller 
 particulars of the sections exposed.t From this abstract the fol- 
 lowing account of the peat bed is taken :-— " The Albert Dock 
 extends for 4,000 feet along the Humber foreshore, and all the 
 excavations were carried to a depth of at least eight feet, and 
 in some instances of 27 feet, below the level of low water." 
 
 " Before the commencement of the excavations the Hessle Clay>, 
 peat, and overlying silt were met with in succession on the fore- 
 shore, the level of the top of the peat bed at the west end of the 
 area being about three feet above the level of low water, and its 
 thickness from three to four feet. Eastward the bed followed the 
 undulations of the clay without much variation in general level 
 for half a mile, when it began to dip, attaining a depth of 12 feet 
 below low-water level at the lock entrance, and then rising again. 
 From this depression of the peat-bed, and the appearance of the 
 overlying silts, the author thought it probable that this had been 
 an old channel of the river Hull 
 
 " The peat rested directly on the Hessle Clay, into which roots 
 penetrated to a distance of five or six feet, generally following the 
 direction of vertical joints. . . ." 
 
 " At its highest level, at the west end of the dock, the peat 
 consisted almo-^t entirel}' of vegetable matters, including large 
 accumulations of moss, leaves, and masses of brushwood, layers of 
 oak-leaves with acorns, hazel-nuts, and fir-cones. Numerous 
 remains of Ooleoptera, chiefly wing-cases, were found. Trunks of 
 oak trees, some of them 60 feet long, were scattered through the 
 peat, and had evidently fallen where they grew ; and, from the 
 characters presented by most of them, it would appear that they 
 had grown close together. In this part of the bed, at the level of 
 low- water, and beneath a thick layer of moss, the remains of a 
 fire were found. The aiithor suggested that, from the small 
 extent occupied by the remains of this fire, it was probably the 
 
 * Pp. cit., p. 157. 
 
 t " Notes on the Peat and Underlying Beds observed in the Construction of the 
 Albert Dock, Hull."— Qwort. Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xxvii. p. 237. 
 
90 HUMBER "NVAKP. 
 
 result of human agency, a?, if it I:a(J originated by lightning or by 
 the friction of dry branches, it could hardly have been confined to 
 so small an area." 
 
 "With regard to changes of level, whilst in other places an 
 upward movement has been indicated,* the area examined seems 
 to furnish evidence only of depression. Thus the surface of the 
 peat in the supposed old channel of the river Hull is 12 feet 
 below the level of low water, whilst the. bed of the present river 
 at South Bridge is only 6 feet below that level. The depression 
 of the I'orest converted the land on which it grew into a marsh, 
 where soft vegetable matter accumulated rapidly and soon 
 covered up the fallen trees, the soundness of the timber indicating 
 no lorn; exposure to the weather. As the land continued to 
 subside, the marsh was invaded by the waters of a tidal estuary, 
 in which the MoUusca lived whose shells occur in the grey clay 
 overlying the peat, and even in the peat itself. Of these the 
 following forms occur: — Scrobicularia piper ata, Cardium edule, 
 Tellina soUdula, Hydrobia, sp., and Bullma obtusa ; — all, except 
 the last, in great abimdance." 
 
 Turning now to the new Alexandra Docks, which are about 
 two miles. lower down the Humber, we find very similar sections, 
 showing an old land surface at the same level, or perhaps slightly 
 lower. In May 1884 the following section was measured, but 
 since the water was shut out and the Dock drained, the warp has 
 subsided considerably. The top of the section is now probably 
 below the level of mean tide, though originally slightly higher. 
 The lowest point reached at this spot is 52 feet below the 
 coping : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Clayey Warp - - - about 15 
 
 Warp sand, increasing towards the shore - 5 to 
 
 Clayey Gravel with. Littorina - - - - 1 
 
 Traces of the " Submerged Forest," consisting of a peaty") 
 " seam with occasional tree stumps. This bed is here much ( 
 eroded by the overlying Gravel, but the underlying \ 
 Boulder Clay is often full of small roots - -J 
 
 Eeddish-purple chalky and stony Boulder Clay, much | 
 weathered in the upper part, but where the bed is thick | 
 the base is very like the older Boulder Clay. Blue joints 
 occur throughout, though principally in the higher > about 6 
 portion. Much Chalk and flint. Carboniferous Limestone, 
 Coal Measure ? Sandstone, Grreenstone, Quartz Porphyry, 
 &c. &c. - - 
 
 Pine chalky bedded Sand, without fossils - ""- about 6 
 
 Dark purple very chalky Boulder Clay, unweathered - 4 + 
 
 32 
 
 Another part of the Docks gaye : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp (silty sand} - - - 18 
 
 Lignite and peat - - - - 2 
 
 Gravel - - - - - — 
 
 Probably Boulder Clay would be found immediately beneath. 
 
 * See above, p. 73. 
 
DOCKS AT GRIMS13V. 91 
 
 A year previously many tree stumps had been seen on d,bout 
 the same level at another point ; but so much water was coming 
 in, that they could not be properly examined to ascertain whether 
 they were actually rooterl in the clay. The stumps subsequently 
 seen were fewer in number, but had certainly grown where they 
 are now found ; most of them were small, but the navvies stated 
 that now and then large trees occur. 'All the stumps observed 
 appeared to be oak. 
 
 The overlying warp contains abundance of shells, the common 
 Humber species, Scrobicularia plana, Tellina halthica (thin- 
 shelled and small), Cardium edule (stunted), Hydrobia ulva, and 
 Bulla obtusa being scattered throughout, though other forms are 
 rare. A boat was also found in the warp, and a bronze dagger. 
 Warp, however, is so rapidly deposited that the depth at which such 
 articles occur is no evidence of their antiquity. In the buried 
 Forest itself no trape of the contemporaneous existence of man 
 appears to have been noticed in these excavations ; and the 
 remains of a fire, probably caused by human agency, is still the 
 only fact pointing in that direction. 
 
 Siniilar beds were seen in Grimsby Docks, bat the notes available 
 are less full. Mr. E. H. Clark observes* that " The subsoil 
 consists, generally, of a top layer of soft, blue silty clay or 
 deposit, averaging 24 feet in thickness. Under this is a layer of 
 peat and leaves, averaging 2 feet 6 inches ; then a stratum of sand 
 and gravel; below which is stiff brown clay, 'averaging 30 feet. 
 Underneath is a layer of green sand, mixed with water, averaging 
 2 feet ; and below this is chalk rock, which is generally reached, 
 in the neighbourhood of Great Grimsby, at depths varying from 
 80 to 100 feet below Trinity h. w. mark." 
 
 Messrs. Wood ' and Rome state thatt " the borings at Grimsby 
 Docks disclosed the forest-bed at still greater depths than at Hull, 
 varying from 35 to 52 feet below high w'ater of' ordinary spring 
 
 tides In some parts there were two forest surfaces, divided 
 
 by a bed of leafy clay from 5 to 15 feet thick." Borings are 
 always unsatisfactory in such cases, and it s'eems very doubtful 
 whether the bed at 52 feet was really a land surface. 
 
 In the excavations an old channel was found, cutting deep into 
 the Boulder Olay, and causing great difficulty with the founda- 
 tions. Like the similar channel in the Albert Dock at Hull it 
 was filled, not with peat, but with mix6d Avarp and drift wood, 
 which in a boring could scarcely be distinguished from a true 
 forest-bed. Only one land-surface appears to have been observed 
 in the actual excavations. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extent of the Docks and the number of 
 borinn's made on the Humber and Lincolnshire Carrs, only one 
 old submerged land surface has been found. This may vary in 
 level, but is nearly always at or close to the base of the Warp. 
 Occasionally on the Humber foreshore a land surface is seen 
 
 ' Prnc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxiv. p. 38. f (^P- ''it; P- 157. 
 
92 HUMBER WAEP. 
 
 near low-water mark ; but, allowing for settling of the clay, and for 
 the small roots having penetrated beneath the water level, there 
 is no reason to think that this would show a greater submergence 
 than 4 or 5 feet. A submergence to this extent may have been 
 caused by a local alteration in the tides, and there seems to be 
 evidence that such a change has taken place within the Historic, 
 or at least Neolithic Period ; but this will be again alluded to 
 in Chap. IX. The thick bed of Warp above the old land surface 
 appears to point, as already observed, to a continuous and fairly 
 rapid subsidence of. the old forest ; a subsidence so rapid as to 
 allow no time for peat again to form until the surface had sunk 
 nearly to its present level, and till the "accumulation of W^arp had 
 again raised the bottom above mean tides. 
 
 Post-glacial Natural History of Holderness. 
 
 At present very little is known about the natural history and 
 climate of this district between the deposition of the last Boulder 
 Clay and the Historic Period. It is evident, however, that there 
 must have been a great deal of migration to adapt the animals and 
 plants to constantly varying conditions. Though there is not yet 
 such unmistakable evidence as we could wish, various indications 
 point to the conclusion that the passing away of the Glacial Epoch 
 was by no means accompanied by a steady amelioration of climate ; 
 there appear to have been minor oscillations of temperature which 
 did not produce actual glaciation in these lowlands. 
 
 Of such oscillations the proof will be found in the decidedly 
 mild climate shown by the fauna and flora of the period of elevation 
 described in the early part of this Chapter. We find the oak 
 flourishing abundantly as the common tree, associated with other 
 trees of wider range, such as the hazel, alder, bird-cherry, and 
 willow. Among the higher animals the presence of man is 
 perhaps indicated by the traces of a fire discovered in the lower 
 buried forest at Hull Docks. The mammoth has also been 
 recorded from several localities, though the evidence of the exact 
 horizon from which the teeth and tusks were obtained is perhaps 
 not so clear as it might be. The lion has been found at Hornsea, 
 associated with the Irish elk, horse, and red-deer. From a con- 
 siderable depth in the warp at Grimsby timber-ponds ^Ir. Cordeaux 
 obtained a horn-core of the gigantic ox (^Bos primigenius). 
 
 Altogether this is an assemblage not only showing a mild climate, 
 but corresponding closely with that found in the Valley Deposits 
 of the South of England. 
 
 The bed which has yielded the Arctic birch at Bridlington and 
 Holmpton would naturally be considered of earlier date, and nearer 
 to the Glacial Period, were it not that the whole of the strati- 
 graphical evidence seems to show that it is much more modern. 
 Though at present only this one Arctic species is known, yet it is so 
 characteristic a northern form, that it seems sufficient evidence of 
 a colder climate. Fossil, Betula nana is only found associated 
 
POST-GLACIAL NATURAL HISTOaV OF HOLDEENESS. 93 
 
 with high northern plants ; receut, it only occurs in northern 
 Britain as a high alpine form. 
 
 In Holderness the evidence of superposition of the bed with 
 Betula nana, unfortunately, is not clear. The structure of the 
 country, however, is such that we can only account for its mode of 
 occurrence if it forms the base of the recent alluvial and lacustrine 
 deposits which fill hollows in the older beds. 
 
 Evidence of this reversion to a colder climate after the com- 
 parative mildness which seems to indicate that glacial conditions 
 have passed away, is not confined to Holderness. In the Fenland 
 the arctic birch is also found immediately beneath the recent peat, 
 and in Denmark a large and characteristic Arctic flora has been 
 discovered in a similar position. As this peat could not well grow 
 till the land had sunk to about its present level, it seems that the 
 period of elevation must here also have been of earlier date. 
 
 Little is yet known of the changes which occurred in Britain 
 while the Glacial Epoch was passing away. Special attention is 
 therefore drawn to deposits of that date in Holderness, for it may 
 turn out that this latest oscillation of climate was connected with 
 the final disappearance of many of the Pleistocene mammals, and 
 perhaps also of PalEeolithic man. Unfortunately there are very few 
 workers in this field, for English geologists as a rule consider that 
 such recent deposits scarcely belong to their province, and it is 
 almost entirely to the hasty visits of foreign botanists and 
 geologists that we owe our knowledge of the presence of Arctic 
 plants in Britain. 
 
 The fauna of the Neolithic and Bronze Periods in Holderness 
 cannot yet be separated from the Recent, except at Ulrome. There 
 have been found the Celtic short-horn, red-deer, sheep, horse, wild 
 boar, wolf, and perhaps otter. In the old silted-up channels cut 
 through in the recent drainage works at Grimsby, similar remains 
 occurred, including the horse, Celtic short-horn, deer, and goat. 
 
94 CHANGES NOW IN PROGRESS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CHANGES NOW IN PEOGEESS. 
 Loss of Land. 
 
 From Bridlington southward, there being nothing harder than 
 Botilder Clay to oppose thfe advance of the sea, the cliffs waste 
 more rapidy than those of almost any other part of England. 
 Much has been written on this loss of land in Holderness, but it 
 is not at all easy to obtain measurements extending over a suffi- 
 cient length of time to yield a trustworthy average of the annual 
 amount. Old maps are seldom very accurate; in fact, none 
 earlier than the Ordnance Maps are of much use for our purpose. 
 The Doomsday Book, which at first sight oiight to be a valuable 
 aid, is rendered less useful by the impossibility of fixing the exact 
 sites, and distances from the cliffj of places since destroyed, and 
 also by the omission in the record of any note of the waste lands 
 which were included in the area now lost. 
 
 Under these circumstances it has not been found possible td add 
 much to the measurements and estimates given by previous 
 writers, and the following details are largely taken from the papers 
 of Smeaton,* Dr. J. P. BeH,t Mr. G. G. Kemp,l Mr. W. Shelford,§ 
 the Eev. F. O. Morris,! and Mr. E. Pickwell.f The loss of land 
 since t'le earliest Ordnance Map was made is also given, but the time 
 that has elapsed is too short for the measurement to be accepted 
 as a fair test of the average rate of denudation. Take's map of 
 Holderness gives measurements fiom certain fixed points taken 
 in 1786. It is the earliest trustworthy authority. 
 
 Between Flamborough Head and Sewer by the rate of denuda- 
 tion is comparatively slow, for the foreshore and base of the cliff 
 is composed of hard Chalk, and the sea is evidently laying bare 
 the old buried Chalk cliff, but is not cutting much into the soUd 
 rock. Apparently the loss is considerably under a foot annually ; 
 probably not over half a foot. The piers and defensive works at 
 Bridlington Quay, by retaining the beach, affect the coast as far 
 north as Sewerby, and the rate of loss since 1871 has only averaged 
 about half a yard annually between those points. The coast b'ne at 
 Bridlington projects fully 280 yards beyond that south of the town, 
 and if no groynes had been made great part of this 280 yards would 
 now be sea. 
 
 Immediately south- of Bridlington Harbour the rate of loss 
 during recent times suddenly increases, and Mr. Pickwell gives it 
 
 * " Narrative of the Building of the Eddystone Lighthouse," &c. Fol. London. 
 1st. edit. 1791, 2nd edit. 1813. 
 
 f Report Brit. Assoc, for 1853, p. 81. 
 
 j liepori Brit. Assoc, for 1853, Trans, of Sections, p. 53. 
 
 '§ Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxviii. p. 472. 
 
 II "Sea versus Land on the Bast* Coast of Yorkshire." — Leisure Hour, 1877, 
 pp. 620-623. 
 
 ^ " The Encroachments of the Sea from Spurn Point to Flamhro' Head," &c. 
 
 Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 1878, vol. li. pp. 191-212. 
 
LOSS or LAND. 95 
 
 as 2 yards per annum from 1805 to 1852, increasing to 3'5 yards 
 per annum from 1852 to 1872. Since 1872 it has averaged, 
 according to Mr. Lamplugh, 5 yards per annum. This shows that 
 measurements of the loss during a short period may give an 
 average very different from the true one, — which for this portion of 
 the coast is very difficult to determine. The erection of groynes, 
 though preserving the cliff to the north of the town, has evidently 
 increased the rate of denudation to the south. 
 
 At Hilderthorpe Mr. Pickwell gives the rate of loss between 
 1805 and 1852 at 2"1 yards per annum, but near the site of the 
 old village of Hartburn it is given as only 80 yards in 120 years. At 
 the south end of the parish of -Barmston from 1756 to 1876 the 
 average appears to have been I'l yards per annum. Near 
 Barmston DrAin the loss in 120 years was 126 yards. At Ulrome 
 the average is about* 1 "2 yards annually; at Skipsea, just under 2 
 yards annually during 111 years; at Skirlington, 1-9 yards during 
 107 years. Near Atwick the loss during 107 years has averaged 
 2 vards annually. 
 
 Southward it increases, Mr. Pickwell giving an average of 2* 5 
 yards for 67 years at the northern end of Cliff Lane, Hornsea, and 
 1-9 yards near the Marine Hotel, where the cuast is partly pro- 
 tected by groynes. At Hornsea the rate appears to have been 
 extremely irregular ; for, if the old inquisition held at Hornsea and 
 quoted by Mr. Pickwell can be believed, the loss for the previous 
 63 years was 4 yards annually ; but the expression " twelve score 
 yards " does not look like exact measurement ; and the statement 
 made by one of the witnesses that " there doth usually every year 
 waste the breadth of 40 feet, which is more than heretofore," 
 seems scarcely trustworthy. No doubt the destruction of the pier 
 would cause a great increase in the rate of denudatiou for a short 
 time, and it might reach the large annual amounts here mentioned. 
 The increase, however, could only make up for the former protec- 
 tion of that part of the coast, the projecting portion being merely 
 cut back till it attained the general line of the cliffs on each side. 
 The average rate of denudation for a longer period would remain 
 almost unaffected. As far as can be made out, the loss at Hornsea 
 has averaged a little more than 2 yards annually, but jMr. Bell 
 places it nearly as high as 3 yards between 1786 and 1853. 
 
 At Hornsea Burton farmhouse the loss of land between 1845 
 and 1876 was I'S yards per annum, but between 1876 and 1882 
 it had increased to 5 yards annually. Probably the alteration was 
 due to the more effective stoppage of the travelling of the beach 
 at Hornsea since new groynes were made. Opposite the Brick- 
 yard at Hornsea Burton the average rate of loss since 1845 has 
 been 1'6 yards, and in 1882 the sea was only 10 yards from the 
 cottage. 
 
 Southward the rate of denudation increases, Mr. Pickwell 
 stating that the loss at Mappleton between 1786 and 1874 was 
 206 yards, or 2'3 yards per annum. Between 1852 (the date of 
 the Ordnance Map) and 1882 it varied from 40 to 50 yards in 
 different parts of the parish. 
 
96 CHANGES NOW IN PEOGKESS. 
 
 Great Golden is rapidly being debtroyed, though between 1764 
 and 1833 the annual loss, according to Mr. Pickwell, was only 
 1'3 yards. Since 1852 it has averaged 1'7 yards, and the eastern 
 corner of the old house in the raoat now overhangs the edge 
 of the cliff. Immediately north of Frank Hill, in a detached 
 portion of Golden Parva parish, there has lately been a very great 
 loss of land, no less than 115 yards having gone since the Ordnance 
 Map was made : this gives an annual rate of 3*8 yards. South- 
 ward as far as Aldborough the loss during the same period has 
 averaged about two yards. 
 
 In 1786 Aldborough Ghurch was 2,044 yards from the cliff, in 
 1882 the distance was reduced to 1880 yards, yielding an average 
 loss of about 1"7 yards per annum. The highest land being near 
 the cliff, the rate of denudation south of Golden is likely to 
 increase, for as time passes there will be a smaller mass of material 
 for the sea to remove. 
 
 The loss of land at Ringbrough has been about 1'6 yards 
 annually since 1833, but the rate varies mucb during different 
 periods ; it is apparently now increasing. Near Grimston Garth 
 the loss has averaged only about 1-4 yards since 1833, but the 
 cliff is over 70 feet high. According to Mi: Pickwell the loss 
 opposite HUston Church between 1777 and 1852 was at a still 
 lower rate, being only 1"1 yards per annum. Since the Ordnance 
 Map was made the rate has not altered. 
 
 From Tunstall southward the old Ordnance Survey dates from 
 1822, and the loss of land since that time has been so great that 
 the new coast of 1881 has been engraved on the Map of the 
 Geological Survey. Tunstall Church was 924 yards from the 
 cliff in 1786, in 1881 the distance was reduced to 733 yards, 
 giving an average annual loss since 1786 of 2 yards. 
 
 At the Coast Guard Station at Waxholme the loss between 
 1844 and 1852 was at the rate of 1-2 yards per annum : between 
 1852 and 1881 it increased to 1'4 yards, and the cliff was cut 
 back till it reached the comer of the gardens at the station. The 
 loss at the most northern farm in Waxholme between 1844 and 
 1852 is stated to have been 2-6 yards per annum; since 1852 it 
 has only been at the rate of 1 yard. A short distance further 
 south it has averaged 1*3 yards during the last 30 years. 
 
 Since 1852 (when the 6-inch Ordnance Map was made) the bend 
 in the high road leading from Waxholme to Owthorne has been 
 cut away by the sea, stopping the communication, except through 
 the farmyard adjoining. The rate of loss at this point has been 
 2 yards per annum since 1812. 
 
 Near Owthorne and Withernsea the groynes put up in 1870 
 have stopped denudation for a time, but between that date and 
 1 786 the average rate appears to have been almost exactly 2 yards 
 per annum. In this neighbourhood the rates seem to vary within 
 very wide limits, and a longer period is needed to yield a satis- 
 factory average. Even since 1822, the' date of the old Ordnance 
 Survey, the village of Owthorne with a church and twelve houses 
 
LOSS OF LAND. 97 
 
 has been entirely swept away, and Owthorae and Withernsea 
 Meres have both disappeared. 
 
 South of the village of Withernsea there is a sudden and great 
 increase in the breadth of the strip of land lost since 1852. For 
 a mile and a half it is 1 00 yards wide, giving an annual rate of 
 3'3 yards. This is far above the rate for a longer period, and 
 probably much of the extra, loss is due to the erection of groynes 
 at Withernsea in 1870-71. Further south, at Nevilles, the waste 
 from 1794 to 1852 is given by Mr. Pickwell as 0-7 yard per 
 annum ; since 1852 it has been much greater, being 2"3 yards 
 annually for a period of 30 years. 
 
 Holmpton Church is stated to have been 1,200 yards from the 
 sea in 1786 ; in 1881 the distance was reduced to 1,042 yards, 
 giving an annual loss of 1:6 yards. Much of this loss, however, 
 appears to have happened in late years, the average since 1851 
 being 2'5 yards. 
 
 At Old Hive, between Holmpton and Out Newton, Mr. Pickwell 
 gives the loss from 1802 .n,nd 1852 as 0*9 yard per annum, and 
 from 1852 to 1876 as 3'5 yards, yielding a general average of 
 1*7 yards. Measured on the old Ordnance Map the loss is very 
 much greater, having been 5"5 yards annually since 1822. It is 
 difficult to reconcile these calculations ; and as the Ordnance Map is 
 not very accurate, the real rate is probably nearest that given by 
 Mr. Pickwell, though probably rather greater. 
 
 The old ruined chapel at Out Newton in 1882 was about 40 
 yards from the edge of the cliff. Here also the rate of denu- 
 dation has lately become, much more rapid. Between 1771 and 
 1852 the loss was only 0"8 yard per annum, but since 1852 it 
 has increased to 3 yards. 
 
 Owing to the exceptional height of the cliffs at Dimlington 
 High Land, there is so large a mass of material to be removed 
 that the loss is not very rapid, being at present under 2 yards per 
 annum. Opposite Dimlington Farm there has been a marker 
 increase in the rate of denudation during recent years. From 
 1771 to 1852 it was 1'8 yards per annum, since that time it has 
 been 2 '3 yards. 
 
 Easington Church in 1771 was 1,056 yards from the cliff; in 
 1882 the distance was reduced to 850 yards, giving an annual 
 encroachment of the sea of 1*9 yards during 111 years. 
 
 The parish of Kilnsea is wasting more rapidly than any other 
 part of Ploldemess, and the last house of the village has now been 
 washed away. As lately as 1822 it contained a church and thirty 
 houses; on the Ordnance Map of 1852 it has still six or seven 
 houses and the foundations of a church seen at half tide ; since 
 that time the last house has been washed away. Between 1766 
 and 1833 Mr. Pickwell estimates the loss at 1"8 yards per annum, 
 and between 1833 and 1876 at 5 yards; since 1876 the rate has 
 decreased again to 3*3 yards. At Kilnsea, as in most of the 
 rest of Holderness, there seems to be a tendency for the rate oF 
 denudation to increase, much less being lost annually in the first 
 
 A 16165. G 
 
98 CHANGES NOW IN PROGRESS. 
 
 half of the century than during the second. Perhaps a series 
 o£ measurements taken during a longer time might prove this to be 
 an accidental variation, not affecting the general average ; but at 
 many places it appears to be connected with the abstraction of 
 shingle for road-making, &c. {See p. 105). 
 
 Inside the Humber the parish of Kilnsea is also suffering 
 slightly, and for half a mile there is a low cliff of Boulder Clay 
 facing westward. The lost town of Kavenspur was somewhere in 
 this neighbourhood, probably rather further south. 
 
 Leaving for the present the changes which have taken place in 
 the shifting bank of sand and shingle which forms Spurn Head, 
 we again find a cliff of Boulder Clay at Cleethorpes, in Lincoln- 
 shire. This cliff only extends for half a mile, and is apparently 
 wasting at nearly the same rate as the similar cliffs of Holderness. 
 Judging from the present contour of the ground, the cliff has 
 probably only come into existence within the last 200 or 300 
 years; this portion of the Lincolnshire coast before that time 
 having been flanked, like all the rest, by a belt of salt marshes 
 and sand dunes. 
 
 As already observed, the roll of the lost towns and parishes of 
 Holderness, though interesting from an historical and archaeo- 
 logical point of view, helps us little to fix the rate of denudation. 
 The former site of even so important a place as Eavenspur (or 
 Eavenser as it is often spelt) is very uncertain, and after much 
 discussion the locality can only be fixed to the extent that the 
 town lay on the Humber side of the point, not far from Kilnsea. 
 Attempts have been made to measure thd rate of denudation since 
 1080 by deducting from the areas of the parishes mentioned in 
 Doomsday the portion now remaining. Then estimating the 
 breadth of the lost portion as equal to the present cliff frontage, a 
 calculation can be made of the width of the strip lost. Of course 
 the result will not be correct for any particular instance, but 
 from a number of examples a trustworthy general average might 
 be obtained, as the errors in a large series would tend to counter- 
 balance each other. Unfortunately, the series is much too small 
 to be of any avail, and the results are vitiated by the impossibility 
 of taking into account the parishes entirely destroyed, or the 
 alterations of boundaries, since the Doomsday Book was made. 
 
 Of ordinary subaerial denudation there is very little now going 
 on in the low lands of Holderness, for what is washed off the 
 Boulder Clay is almost entirely deposited on the Alluvial flats, 
 scarcely any of it reaching the sea. Probably if it were not for 
 the extent of ploughed lands and roads, and of deep artificially 
 cleared ditches which allow a more rapid flow of water, the 
 subaerial denudation of Holderness might be entirely left out of 
 aiccount. 
 
 The removal of lime in solution must, however, be a considerable 
 item, and one little affected by cultivation of the land. No 
 analyses have been made of the water flowing over the Boulder 
 Clay, or given out by tlie Glacial Sands ; but the enormous extent 
 
TRAVELLING OF THE BEACH. 99 
 
 to which calcareous sliells and Chalk have been dissolved shows 
 that the bulk removed must be very considerable. Springs from 
 the Glacial Gravels always contain much inineral matter in 
 solution, principally lime and iron, and it is a curious fact that the 
 water from a Gravel is usually much harder than that from the 
 Chalk. 
 
 To sum up, denudation in Holdemess is at present mainly con- 
 fined to the coast line, and, as far as can be judged, the annual loss 
 averages about 2^ yards. This, along a coast of about 40 miles, 
 equals 34 acres vmnually. The rate during the last 30 years, 
 however, is considerably greater, probably nearly 3 yards, or 
 45 acres annually ; but this increase appears to be principally due 
 to the abstraction of shingle and to the erection of groynes. If 
 marine denudation usually proceeds at this rate, the loss since the 
 occupation of the country by the Romans must amount to a strip 
 between two and three miles broad: 4000 years since Bridlington 
 Bay had no existence. 
 
 Travelling of the Beach. 
 
 From an inquiry into the rate of denudation the transition is 
 natural to an inquiry into the subsequent dispersal and distribution 
 of the material. Taking the average height of the cliffs at about 
 53 feet, measured from the level of low water, and adding to this 
 30 feet, or 5 fathoms, as the approximate depth of scour, there is 
 removed annually from the coast of Holdemess a mass of material 
 amounting to about 118,300,000 cubic feet and weighing 
 5,900,000 tons. 
 
 Of this mass the greater part consists of Boulder Clay full of 
 scattered boulders of varying size and hardness. The larger 
 boulders, that is, those over a foot in diameter, usually consist of 
 hard tough rocks, such as Gneiss and Basalt. These are too large 
 to be rolled and broken up on a shelving sandy beach like that of 
 Holdemess, but they gradually find their way, by the under- 
 cutting of the Boulder Clay on which they rest, "to lower and 
 lower levels, till they have sunk to a depth of several fathoms 
 without moving far horizontally. In this mode are formed the 
 " Stone Banks," which are so common at short distances from the 
 present shore, and probably also many of the banks of boulders 
 and large bones which occm- at various points in the North Sea. 
 Of late years a large number of these boulders have been 
 immediately removed for building and road-making, but many 
 still work their way below the water-level, and prevent the sea 
 from scouring to so great a depth as it would otherwise do. 
 
 Stones under a foot in diameter, and sand, go to make the 
 beach of Holdemess, which is continually moving southward. 
 Probably there is a rapid change of material, for few of the stones 
 are perfectly rounded, and there seems to be a great tehdency for 
 them to follow the larger boulders and work their way below 
 
 G 2 
 
100 CHANGES NOW IN PEOGEESS. 
 
 tide-marks. There is thus a strange deficiency of beach at many 
 points where no artifical abstraction, and no exceptional southward 
 travelling, can interfere. 
 
 Altogether there is much less beach in Holderness than one 
 would expect, taking into account the lai'ge number of stones 
 annually washed out of the Boulder Clay. What beach there is 
 consists principally of shifting banks of sand, which, unless fixed 
 by groynes, are of little use in protecting the coast during storms. 
 
 The deficiency of beach is generally ascribed to the abstraction 
 of shingle for building and other purposes, and the amount thus 
 removed from the southern half of Holderness has been placed as 
 high as 60,000 tons per annum during the years immediately 
 preceding the Board of Trade restriction. But, accepting this 
 high figure, it can scarcely represent more than a tenth of the 
 amount annually produced, and the rest of the deficiency must 
 be due to natural causes. No doubt the removal of so large a 
 mass from just the points where it was most needed caused an 
 enormous amount of mischief, but the mere stoppage of the 
 abstraction is not likely to make much difference in the ordinary 
 width of the beach, except opposite the larger villages and at 
 Spurn Head. 
 
 Commencing at the northern end of the district, the southward 
 travelling of the beach is very marked near Bridlington, where 
 the defensive works have not only protected the town and caused 
 a slight accumulation of beach to the north, but have also led to 
 a much more rapid scour south of the town, where the beach is 
 deficient. About a mile and a half south of the Quay the beach 
 again widens and is more stony, the influence of the groynes 
 having probably died away. From Wilsthorpe to Skipsea there 
 is generally a slope of sandy beach about 40 yards wide, and a 
 wet tidal flat of sand varying from 200 to 300 yards. . Between 
 Skipsea and Hornsea there is usually a marked deficiency of beach, 
 the Boulder Clay being commonly exposed in large patches 
 between tide marks. 
 
 At Hornsea the protection of groynes is again felt ; the beach 
 is in places over 100 yards wide, and is backed by a line of Sand 
 Dunes. Owing, however, to the former removal of a large number 
 of stones for building purposes and road metal, the beach has been 
 left very sandy, and liable to be rapidly washed away should the 
 groynes be destroyed. South of Hornsea the effect of the groynes 
 is now being felt in the deficiency of beach, and consequent more 
 rapid wasting of the cliff ; but the present groynes being very 
 modern, the cutting back is not yet sufficient to endanger the 
 defences, as it does at Bridlington. 
 
 From Hornsea to Withernsea there is a marked deficiency of 
 beach, and as none is now taken from this part of the coast the 
 absence is probably due to the set of the waves and currents, 
 which draw the beach outwards instead of driving it along the 
 coast. Much of the foreshore between tide marks is bare Boulder 
 Clay. 
 
SPURN HEAD. 101 
 
 Judging by the rate of denudation since the 6-inch Ordnance 
 Map was made (1852-3), the protective influence of the groynes 
 at Withernsea is felt for about two miles northward, but the extra 
 deficiency of beach seems also to extend fully two miles soutli of 
 the town. The defences were put up in 1870, and have been 
 effective till now, though the want of beach on the lower side of 
 the southernmost groyne allows the sea to get behind it, and needs 
 constant attention. 
 
 From Withernsea southward the jjeach becomes more and more 
 deficient, much of the cliff being washed by nearly every high 
 tide. At Easington and Kilnsea this absence of beach is parti- 
 cularly conspicuous, for there are. certainly in most places fewer 
 stones in the beach than the Boulder Clay would yield in a single 
 year. Not only is the upper part of the beach wanting, but there 
 is also scarcely any sand, the whole foreshore being a gentle slope 
 of bare Boulder Clay, over which a few boulders roll and help to 
 cut up the clay. The absence of beach may be partly accounted 
 for by artificial abstraction ; but as the abstraction has been stopped 
 by the Board of Trade for the whole district from Spurn Head to 
 Hornsea since 1869, it must be largely due to natural causes. 
 The outward movement of the beach, which the undertow during 
 on-shore gales tends greatly to assist, is probably the principal 
 reason of the deficiency. 
 
 At Kilnsea Warren the Boulder Clay finally disappears, and 
 for three miles a narrow bank of sand and shingle divides the 
 Humber from the North Sea. This bank, the southern end of 
 which is Spurn Head, is a continuation of the beach which has 
 been gradually travelling southward along the coast of Holdemess. 
 So rapid and so important are its changes, both from a geo- 
 logical and economical point of view, that their history must be 
 given as fully as possible, especially as the probable future changes 
 are a constant source of anxiety, and may cause great loss if not 
 properly directed. 
 
 Spurn Head. 
 
 Previous to the 17th Century an allusion in Camden's Britannia 
 (published in 1586) is the only clue we have to the ancient form 
 of Spurn Plead. But possibly his statement - that Kilnsea was 
 then at the extreme point of Spurn Head is not to be taken 
 literally ; it niay only mean that the village was at the end of 
 the solid land, the shifting bank of sand beyond being left out of 
 account. 
 
 Less than 40 years after Camden wrote, Callis incidentally 
 mentions that '"'of Jate years parcel of the Spurnhead in Yorkshire, 
 which before did adhere to the continent, was torn therefrom 
 by the sea, and is now in the nature of an island."* It is, how- 
 ever, impossible to say whether this refers to the shifting sand- 
 banks, or to an overflow of the sea through the alluvial flats which 
 
 * Lectures on Sewers in 1622, 2nd edit., 4to, 1685, p. 44. 
 
102 CHANGES NOW IN PROGRESS. 
 
 cross from sea to sea near Kilnsea. Callis is merely treating the 
 question from a legal point of view, and discussing the rights of 
 the Crown and private owners in new islands. Mr. Shelford 
 suggests that on a former occasion also Spurn had been an island, 
 and it was on this ground that the inhabitants of Grimsby in 1289 
 claimed certain privileges there. This seems probable, for since 
 records have been kept the Head has been alternately an island 
 and a peninsula several times. 
 
 During the 17th. century changes must have taken place very 
 fast, for "in the year 1676 a patent was granted by King Charles 
 II. to Justinian Angell, of London, merchant, enabling him to 
 continue, renew, and maintain certain lights that he had erected 
 upon the Spurn Point. Which lights were erected at the request 
 of the masters of ships using the Northern Trade ; who, in their 
 petition to his Majesty, represented that a very broad long sand, 
 about six or seven months (before, had be^n discovered to have 
 been thrown up near the mouth of the river Humber."* 
 
 The first survey of Spurn Head was that made by Captain 
 Greenville Collins, Hydrographer to the King, in 1684. In this 
 map the Head is shown with a broad oval portion, on which are 
 Angell's Lights, connected with the main land by a narrow belt, — 
 much as it is at the present day, though shorter. No trace of the 
 island Callis mentioned is shown, unless it be represented by the 
 Den, which then lay S.W. of the Point, and not behind it, as it 
 does now, or by the broad head which had subsequently become 
 attached to the main land. 
 
 By 1766 the Point had increased so much in length that appli- 
 cation had to be made to Parliament for power to erect new lights, 
 those established by Mr. Angell having been rendered useless 
 through the southward extension of the Point. The " Broad Long 
 Sand" complained of in the above quoted petition had become dry 
 land at high water, and continued to increase. 
 
 Smeaton w.^s therefore consulted, and advised the erection of 
 two lighthouses, "to be in a N.W. and S.E. direction; and to be 
 300 yards asunder. The great Lighthouse to be placed on Spurn 
 Point, at a distance from high-water mark (at common sprino- 
 tides) of 90 yards, in a KE. and S.W. line; and 150 yards 
 in a N.W. line, within the Spurn. The small lighthouse to 
 be 116 yards distant from high-water mark in a S.E. line 
 without the Spum."t The breadth of the land from sea to sea 
 in a N.W. and S.E. line was then 566 yards. As the erection of 
 these Lighthouses would take a considerable time, two temporary 
 lights were erected 250 yards asunder, and 23 yards S.W. of the 
 ground marked out for the permanent Lighthouses, and were 
 lighted m 1767. 
 
 "Between 1766 antl 1771 the sea encroached so much that the 
 place fixed for the Low Light, at 116 yards within high-water 
 
 * Quoted by Smeaton, " Narrative of the building of the Eddystone Lighthouse." 
 Appendix on Lighthouses at Spurn, fol. 1791. 
 t Op. (lit., and " Reports," vol. i. pp. 152-278. 
 
SrUEN HEAP. 103 
 
 mark, according to the line of direction, was now on the very 
 higli-water mark itself." The position had, therefore, to be altered 
 80 yards more inland, or to the N.W. In 1772 the High Light 
 was begun 60 yards more to the N.W. than originally intended, 
 the distance between the houses being thus 280 yards. 
 
 Unfortunately, until the buildings had been actually commenced 
 Smeaton had never been to Spurn otherwise than by water, and 
 was unaware that the movement of Spurn Head westward was 
 not merely temporary, but must keep pace with the denudation 
 of the coast to the northward. In 1776 a great storm washed 
 away the cii'cular wall round the how Light, and laid bare the 
 piles on which the main building was founded. Seeing that 
 nothing could be a permanent defence to this building, except 
 what would defend it as an island, Smeaton advised that it should 
 be repaired at a moderate expense, and a temporary light placed 
 30 yards more inland, ready for immediate use should the Light- 
 house be destroyed. 
 
 In 1786 Smeaton's survey of the Spurn showed that the 
 High Light was 1,840 yards south of Angell's Light, and 
 was 480 yards from high-water mark at the end of the 
 point. 
 
 The earliest Admiralty Chart after 1684 is from the Survey of 
 Captain Hewett, and is dated 1823. It shows numerous changes 
 in the submerged and half tide banks, a further southward 
 extension of the point, and there is a note that the southern part 
 of the ]^eck overflows at high spring tides. Thus the point is 
 again an island. 
 
 " In 1 849 a large breach occurred in the Spurn Neck, north of 
 the Lighthouses, and in 1850 Captain Vetch held an Admiralty 
 inquiry on the spot. He reported in favour of strengthening the 
 point on its seaward face, by means of groynes placed at right 
 angles to iis length, for the purpose of intercepting the shingle 
 in its passage southward, and on the Humber side by the 
 further reclamation of the accretions east of Sunk Island."* 
 
 By 1863 the sea had reached the High Light itself ; and the Low 
 Light, after being rebuilt further westward three times, had been 
 removed to the Humber side of the Head. In the same year 
 some of the groynes recommended by Captain Vetch were erected ; 
 till now these have been sufficient to protect Smeaton's High 
 Lighthouse from further damage. 
 
 The Admiralty Chart now in use is dated 1875-7. It shows 
 the Head much narrower and longer, and the Neck broader, than 
 formerly ; the gap through which the sea broke has been again 
 filled up. Since 1864 there has been a gain of land to the east- 
 ward, due to the prohibition by the Board of Trade of the removal 
 of shingle, and to the erection of groynes. Mr Pickwell states 
 that the eastward gain of land along the entire length of the 
 neck between 1869-70 and 187.5 varied from 30 to 80 yards, or 
 
 * Shelford : " On the Outfall gf the River Humber."— Proe. Inst. Civ. Eng., 
 vol. xxviii. p. 479. 
 
104 CHANGES NOW IN PBOGKESS. 
 
 an average of 6 yards per annum. The westward movement- had 
 also been arrested, and between 1864 and September 1875 there 
 had been a further soutliward extension of the point of 60 yards, 
 or 5'4 yards per annum* 
 
 From Mr. Shelford's and Mr. Pickwell's calculations we there- 
 fore obtain the following table of the known southward extensions 
 of Spurn Point : — 
 
 1676 to 1766 
 
 - l,800ty 
 
 ards, or 20 yi 
 
 1766 to 1771 
 
 - 280 
 
 „ 56 
 
 1771 to 1786 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 1786 to 1851 
 
 - 300 
 
 4-6 
 
 1851 to 1864 
 
 - 113 
 
 8-7 
 
 1864 to 1875 
 
 60 
 
 5-4 
 
 This gives an average rate for 200 years of 13'5 yards per annum, 
 and at that rate the whole spit would be formed in 400 years. 
 If. however, we accept the more rapid increase during the 17th 
 century, and carry it back for about 100 years, till the date when 
 Camden wrote, the result is that the long spit of sand wliich 
 now forms Spurn Point had then no existence, but commenced 
 to form a few years later, and has gone on increasing ever 
 since. 
 
 Thus we can trace the growth of this long bank of sand and 
 shingle from its commencement till it has reached its present 
 length of about 3 miles. But this naturally leads to the inquiry, 
 if the bank only commenced forming about 300 years ago, 
 what became of the southward travelling beach before that 
 date? 
 
 This difficulty has apparently been overlooked, though it is a 
 real one, and led to a close search for the missing shingle while 
 the Geological Survey was in progress. On examining the 
 Lincolnshire coast opposite Spurn Head the mode of disposal of 
 the shingle produced by the denudation of Holderness is discovered. 
 Though there is only one small cliff south of the Humber, at 
 Cleethorpes, and that has probably existed less than 300 years, yet 
 there is a very large mass of shingle beach near Donna Nook, 
 separated from the Boulder Clay by an Alluvial flat gix miles wide. 
 This shingle cannot have been produced by the erosion of the 
 Lincolnshire coast, which is mostly clean Warp and Clay without 
 stones, but apparently must have crossed the Humber from 
 Spurn. 
 
 At present there is no evidence, and little probability, that 
 anything coarser than Sand can cross the Humber mouth. But 
 the process seems to be an intermittent one. A beach begins to 
 form at Spurn, as it did in Camden's time, the point lengthens 
 more and more, the neck becomes thin, the sea breaks through, 
 arid a bank of sliingle becomes detached. Then the north chan- 
 nel becomes wider and wider, as the sea and wind drive the island 
 
 * Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxviii. p. 192. 
 
 t This is only an approximate measurement, as the exact distance from AngeU's 
 Lights to the end of he Point in Jt>76 is not; known. 
 
SPURN HEAD 105 
 
 southward, like any other part of the beach, till at last the bank 
 is transferred from Yorkshire to Lincolnshire, and the process 
 recommences. This seems the only way to account for the 
 disappearance of the shingle from Holderness, and for the 
 occurrence of an old wide shingle beach near Doniia Nook. 
 
 Within the last 300 years we have seen all the earlier staffes 
 of this movement, but the enormous mass of shingle artificially 
 removed during the present century has rendered the movement 
 slower, and now the erection of groynes prevents for a time the 
 re-formation and widening of the gap which the sea made in 1849. 
 Since 1869 the Board of Trade has prohibited the removal of 
 shingle between Spurn and Hornsea ; but it remains to be seen 
 exactly what effect this prohibition will have. Sir John Coode 
 estimated the amount removed from the south-east part of Holder- 
 ness at 60,000 tons per annum ; and if the greater part of this is 
 added to Spurn, it must overflow the groynes, and cause so great 
 an elongation of the Point as to seriously ioterfere with the 
 entrance to the Plumber. As it is. Spurn Point is drivintr the 
 stream southward, and causing it to cut more and more into 
 the Lincolnshire coast, — though this may not be an unmixed evil 
 if it should ultimately produce deeper water near Grimsby. 
 
 The stoppage of the natural westward movement of the whole 
 of Spurn Head by the works on its seaward face has been severely 
 criticised by Mr. Shelford, who thinks that it will lead to the Head 
 being outflanked. He contended that " the works on the seaward 
 face of Spurn Point were on wrong principles, and tlie longer 
 they were continued the more complete would be the ultimate 
 (lestruction of the present Spurn Point."* Without going so 
 far as this, it may be pointed out that before long it will be 
 absolutely necessary to erect groynes as far north as Kilnsea, or 
 the Point will become detached. The influence of the present 
 groynes is only felt for a very short distance northward, and they 
 do not seem to affect in the slightest degree the raie of the denuda- 
 tion of the narrow neck of Boulder Clay nortli of the Warren. 
 
 This question of the continuation of the groynes northward is a 
 very complicated one, for there are many different interests to bcs 
 considered. If it were only for the protection of the land from 
 the heavy yearly loss, Mr. Pickwell has clearly shown that the 
 interest on the outlay for works would much exceed the value of. 
 the land washed away, and works ought only to be undertaken if 
 they would also improve, the seaports of tlie Humber. Before 
 discussing this (luestton it will be well to trace the finer material 
 removed during the* denudation of the Holderness cliffs, and to 
 attempt to ascertain where il is deposited. 
 
 Warp and Silt. 
 
 The amount of material annually removed from the Holder- 
 ness coast by tiie sea may be cttiuiated at about 6,000,000 
 
 * " On the Outfall of the Kiver Humber."— Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng, vol. xxviii. 
 p. 516. 
 
106 HUMBEE WARP. 
 
 tons, of which the greater part, probably 5,000,000 tons, is sand 
 find mud. The coarser sand largely goes to form the sand-banks 
 which block the Humber and North Sea, or the sand-dunes which 
 cover Spurn Head and protect the Lincolnshire coast. But the 
 fine mud and silt is carried to much greater distances. Not only 
 are the Plumber and Lincolnshire flats raised by it, but the 
 enormous quantity of warp which is annually deposited in the 
 Wash can have no other source ; for there are no cliffs to yield 
 it in Lincolnshire, and the mud of the Norfolk cliffs appears to 
 travel principally to the southward. 
 
 In the Humber, as in the Wash, the warp brought down by the 
 rivers may be left out of account, for the bulk of it is probably 
 deposited on their alluvial flats long before it reaches the estuary. 
 More mud seems to be carried into the rivers by the tide than 
 comes down them. • 
 
 The amount of silt held in suspension in the Humber is very 
 great, but is not yet accurately known, for the few observations 
 made refer only to the surface water. Probably much more silt 
 and sand, especially coarse sand, is carried along near the bottom 
 than ever rises to the surface. Sea-water being heavier than 
 brackish water, there is also a tendency for the flood tide to run 
 for a time underneath the ebb. Thus the time during which silt 
 is carried upwards is longer than it appears ; and mud and sand 
 are stirred up and carried along the bottom while the less charged 
 surface water is flowing in the opposite direction. 
 
 Mr. SoJlit has published a series of observations on the con- 
 stituents of the silt.* But, unfortunately, he has omitted to state 
 whether the samples were taken near the shore, or well out in the 
 stream ; also what was the rate of the current when the sample 
 was taken, or whether the water was much agitated by wind. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, Mr. Sollit's account is very valuable, as 
 showing how highly the water of the Humber is charged with 
 silt, and how large a part of this silt is fine sand, and not clay. 
 He stated that " in a gallon of water taken from the Humber 
 when the water was agitated by the tide either running up or down, 
 there were from 315 to 320 grs. of this fine deposit, and that it 
 was so exceedingly fine as not all to have settled at the end of 
 ten hours from the taking of the water from the river." 
 
 The following samples we're obtained at different points : — 
 
 Bkottgh. 
 
 Sand, moderately fine - - - - 77 
 
 Alumina .... - 6. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - - - 6 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia - - .1 
 
 Soluble salts - - - - - 2 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - - - 2 
 
 Organic matter ■ - - - 6 
 
 100 
 
 * " On the Chemical Constituents of the Ilumhcr Deposits." — Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
 for 18.53, Tra7is. Sects., p. 49. 
 
DEPOSITION OF THE WARP, 
 
 107 
 
 Sand, very fine - 
 Alumina 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Soluble salts 
 Oxide of iron 
 Organic matter 
 
 Hessle. 
 
 75 
 7 
 C 
 
 Sand, Tery fine 
 Alumina 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Soluble salts - 
 Oxide of iron 
 Organic matter - 
 
 Hull. 
 
 100 
 
 71 
 7 
 tl 
 
 New Holland. 
 Sand, fine - - . 
 
 Alumina - . . 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Soluble salts 
 Oxide of iron - . 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 100 
 
 69 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Sand 
 Alumina 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Soluble salts 
 Oxide of iron 
 Organic matter 
 
 Patjll. 
 
 GrKIMSBy. 
 
 Sand, fine 
 Alumina 
 
 Cai'bonate of lime 
 Soluble salts 
 Oxide of iron 
 Oi'sanic matter 
 
 100 
 
 trace 
 - 6 
 
 100 
 
 76 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 " This sample contained no carbonate of magnesia. Mud taken 
 three or four miles below Grimsby is nearly all sand, and of a 
 much coarser kind. In some places it is a mrstureof the coarse 
 S5nd with a little of the finer deposit of the Humber, which is 
 found at all places higher up the river." 
 
 The silt is so fine that it is kept in constant motion by the tide= 
 and can only settle in sheltered places. It, therefore, does not 
 
108 HTJMBER WARP. 
 
 greatly affect the navigable channels of the Humber, though they 
 are much blocked by banks of coarser- sand, which travels along 
 the bottom. 
 
 Though the sand-banks and channels of the Humber are con- 
 stantly shifting, there are no suflBciently exact records to prove 
 any great diminution ia the capacity of the estuary. There has 
 certainly been a narrowing of its breadth a1 high-water, but 
 Mr. Shelford's diagrams apparently show that there has also been a 
 gain in depth of the channel, at any rate between 1828 and 1852. 
 This question of the changes in the depth of the navigable channels 
 will be found fully dealt with in Mr. Shelford's paper, and in the 
 discussion which followed the reading.* 
 
 The silt and mud, though perhaps not causing any diminution 
 of the water-way for ships, are largely deposited between tide 
 marks. Thus tract after tract gradually rises to near the level of 
 high-water, and is then protected by embankments and added 
 to the area of the cultivated land. The process takes place prin- 
 cipally in shoal water, where the tidal currents are never strong. 
 Till the level of half tide is passed the deposition of the sediment 
 is probably slow, and can only take, place at high-tide when the 
 water is still. Afterwards the growth of salt-marsh plants binds 
 the mud, and by straining out and entangling the particles of 
 sediment, lengthens the time during which mud can be deposited. 
 The marsh thus rapidly rises to within a foot or two of ordinary 
 high-water mark, and the growth gradually changes from samphire 
 to sea-lavender, seablite, and sea purslane, then to thin wiry grass, 
 and.afterwards to better grass, fit for pasture, though liable to be 
 flooded by the sea. 
 
 Mr. Oldham observes that when the surface is thus covered with 
 vegetation, the land may at once be embanked ; but if it is enclosed 
 from the tide before it obtains a green carpet, it may be twenty 
 years before it is of much value for agriculture, for scarely anything 
 will grow upon it. After it has reached the high-water level of 
 ordinary Spring tides, the growth and transformation of the salt 
 marsh into good land must be very slow, unless artificially assisted ; 
 and the land gained is always liable to be flooded by an excep- 
 tionally high tide, or to be washed away or cut up by channels 
 formed by the sea. 
 
 The rise and embankment of Sunk Island is so characteristic of 
 the process, and the history of its changes is so well known, that 
 it will be described fully. ■ The. other reclaimed areas in the 
 Humber show merely the repetition of the process on a smaller 
 scale, and will be alluded to afterwards. As Mr. Oldham, who, 
 as engineer to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, has had 
 special opportunities of studying the question, has published a full 
 history of the gradual growth and embankment of the island, the 
 following account will be mainly taken from his papers.t 
 
 ■* Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxviii. pp. 472-£16. 
 
 I Proc. InM. Civ. Eng., vol. xxi. pp. 454-492 ; and Report Brit. Assoc, for 
 1863, pp. 36-45. 
 
StTNlt ISLAND. , 109 
 
 The earliest account we have of Sunk Island ia probably in tlie 
 time of Charles 1., when it contained about 9 acres, was a mile and a 
 half from the Yorkshire coast, and had a navigable channel between 
 it and the mainland, through which ships of considerable burden 
 could pass. Immediately after this period the Island rapidly 
 increased, and in 1668 it was first granted on lease to Anthony 
 Gilby, Esq., for a term of 31 years, at a rent of 51. pei' annum, 
 v/hen it was described as containing 3,500 acres of drowned 
 ground, only seven acres of which was then embanked. A stipu- 
 lation was inserted in the lease for the enjbankment by the lessee 
 of 100 acres or more within the first 10 years of the term, but 
 by 1675 the lessee had only succeeded in embanking about 20 
 acres. 
 
 The earliest map showing Sunk Island is that made by Captain 
 Greenville Collins, hydrographer to the King, in 1684. It shows 
 a sand-bank about 8 miles long, dry at low tide, called Sunk Sand. 
 Towards the western end of this bank is Sunk Island, about three 
 miles long, with an embanked portion half-a-mile across. The 
 long channel separating Sunk Island from Holderness is about 
 half-a-mile across at low water, but over a mile when the tide is 
 high. 
 
 In 1712 it is stated that the Island produces " all sorts of grain, 
 but especially barley and oats, which come to much greater 
 perfection than in any other part of Yorkshire besides, or in the 
 neighbouring counties. Besides these there grows a good deal 
 of woad."* 
 
 A survey of Sunk Island made in the year 1744 showed that 
 1,500 acres had been embanked, and that the estate was divided 
 out into farms. Some time before the falling in of the lease in 
 1802 another survey was made by order of the Surveyor-General 
 of Crown Lands, and it appeared that the quantity of land then 
 embanked v/as only 1,561 acres, no addition having been made 
 since the year 1744. But the Surveyor reported that above 2,700 
 acres of new ground were fit for embankment. 
 
 In 1833 the land in actual cultivation contained no less than 
 5,929 acres of excellent quality, then divided into 15 farms, 
 besides some small holdings. Under Mr. Oldham's direction a 
 further embankment of 700 acres was made in 1850, and there is 
 now altogether of land within the banks, secured from the tides, 
 and also available grass beyond tlie banks, little less tlian 700 
 acres, and a prospect of still further increase. 
 
 Besides the formation of Sunk Island, there have been other 
 minor gains in the Humber, especially at Cherry Cobb Sand, 
 Patrington, Ottringham, and Welwick. The area of these cannot 
 be exactly ascertained, but Mr. Oldham considers that the total 
 increase, including Sunk Island, from Paull to the Spurn, was about 
 10,000 acres between the years 1684 and 1850. On the south side 
 
 * Leland's Itinerary, Heame's edit., vol. ix. p. 194. 
 
110 CHANGES NOW IN PEOGRESS. 
 
 of the Humber there have also been marked changes, but no very- 
 great permanent gain of land. Read's Island, which at one time 
 seemed about to form a valuable addition to the Crown property, 
 has since decreased considerably, and at South Ferriby a low cliff 
 is being cut. 
 
 Altogether the gain of land in the Humber during the last 
 200 years may be taken at about 15 square miles. But this 
 15 square miles includes only the areas which have been raised 
 to the embanking level (about 2 feet below high-water spring 
 tides) during this period. The old tidal flats taken in must have 
 been very large, but it is difficult to find any records of the dates 
 of their embankment. Mr. Shelford estimates that the total 
 area of the reclaimed lands belovir high-water spring tides in the 
 estuary of the Humber is about 290- square miles. All of this 
 has probably been embanked since the time of the Romans, 
 though much of it may have been raised above the embanking 
 level long before that period. 
 
 Unfortunately we have no means of estimating the exact depth 
 from which Sunk Island and other recent reclamations have been 
 raised during the last 200 years. It is therefore impossible to tell 
 what proportion of the 5,000,000 tons of silt and sand annually 
 removed from the coast of Holderness is deposited in the Humber. 
 But, disregarding for the moment the cubic contents, the 15 square 
 miles gained since 1684, when Captain Grenville Collins' chart 
 was made, may be accepted as a fair equivalent for the 11 square 
 miles lost. And if to this be added only half of the 45 square 
 miles gained in the Fenland during the same period, we have 
 37 miles gained to only 1 1 lost. 
 
 Taking into account the height of the cliffs in Holderness, a 
 gain more than three times the loss is not so absurd as it at first 
 appears. The total thickness of the deposits denuded is more than 
 four times, probably as much as seven times, the average height to 
 which the shallow beds of these two inlets have to be raised before 
 they can be embanked. If the depth of scour off Holderness 
 were' merely equal to the average depth of water to be tilled in 
 the Humber and Wash (it is really much greater), this alone ought 
 to yield an alluvial flat about the same size as the area denuded. 
 But the height of the cliff and depth of scour in Holderness are 
 together about 80 feet, while there is an enormous area in both 
 the Humber and Wash which less than 15 feet more silt would 
 raise to the embanking level. 
 
 Thus, in the future, as jn the past, each square yard washed 
 away in Holderness may be expected to yield at least 3 square 
 yards of silt lands in the Humber and Wash, and these lands will 
 be more than equal in value to those lost. 
 
 It may be objected to this calculation, that the silt of the Wash 
 really comes in the main from the Norfolk coast, though half of 
 it is credited to Yorkshire. As it is impossible to prove that it 
 comes from the North, though the set of the tides strongly points 
 to that conclusion, the whole of the loss and gain between Flambro' 
 and the end of the Norfolk Cliffs will be added together. 
 
PKOTEOTION OF THE COAST. Ill 
 
 Measured In this way, the loss in the past 200 years has been 
 about 16 square miles, 3 miles of which was poor sandy land. 
 The total gain in thd same period was 60 square miles, all of which 
 is exceptionally rich. 
 
 In these calculations round numbers have been purposely used, 
 as several of the data cannot be accurately estimated, and a seenir 
 ing exactness may mislead as to the real value of the figures. 
 They are only brought forward as a rough estimate showing the 
 general tendency of the changes now in progress. As such they 
 may probably be accepted as near enough for ordinary purposes. 
 
 If this estimate is even approximately correct, it entirely alters 
 our view of the serious loss to the country which is commonly 
 supposed to be inseparable from the wearing away of oiu: sea- 
 coasts. It shows that instead of a loss there is a large gain, which 
 would be entirely stopped if the coast were protected by groynes. 
 Not only this, but the eflScient protection of the coast would cost a 
 great deal more than the expense of embanking the new lands. 
 
 Therefore, for the advantage of the country at large, it seems 
 best to let well alone. Though individual landowners suffer, and are 
 anxious for Government to go to the expense of protecting the 
 coasts of Holderness and Norfolk, yet others gain at a larger rate. 
 It may be worth while also to point out that new islands being 
 Crown property, the public revenue is increased if the natural 
 changes are allowed to take their course, while groynes would 
 only protect private property. 
 
 Of course the protection of Spurn is quite a different question, 
 but I cannot help thinking that to embank the 10,000 acres 
 inside the Point, as Mr. Oldham advised, and to allow the Point 
 to retire westward, would be not only the cheapest but the best 
 way of preserving the Humber. The tidal water on these very 
 shoal flats cannot have much influence on the scour, and the em- 
 bankment would protect the Point on the west side.* 
 
 Apparent Changes of the Sea-level. 
 
 In the last Chapter mention was made of the occurrence of traces 
 of a fire in a Submerged Forest at Hull beneath the level of low 
 water, but this is the only indication in the district of either sub- 
 sidence or elevation of the land since the occupation of the country 
 by man. There is no evidence of any permanent change of the 
 sea-level within the Historic or Neslithic Periods in Holderness, 
 though a very small change may possibly have occurred. Dugdale 
 mentions that in 1357 the King was " informed that the tides in 
 the Rivers of Humbre and Hull did then flow higher by four foot 
 than they had wont to do ; by reason whereof the common Road- 
 way leading from the Town of Anlaby to Kingston-upon-HuU, as 
 also the lands and Pastures lying betwixt both those places, and the 
 
 * See also Shelford, oj9. cil., p. 515. 
 
112 LAKE-DWELLINGS AT ULEOME. 
 
 Town of Resell, were overflowed and consumed."* This increase in 
 the rise of the tide at Hull may have been connected with changes 
 at Spurn Head, though we have no records going back so far.f 
 Probably the removal of the bar which seems occasionally to form 
 across the mouth of the Humber would sufficiently account for 
 the increased range, for there is no reason to believe that the level 
 o£ mean tide has changed. The same increased range of the 
 tides would account for the occurrence of dead, trees in the Carrs 
 at a level 3 or 4 feet lower than they could now grow, — they need 
 not necessarily be very ancient, neither do they show any subsidence 
 of the ground. 
 
 On the Lincolnshire coast, near Tetney, Marsh Chapel, and 
 Grainthorpe, there is an extensive Alluvial flat^ from 6 to 9 feet 
 above the present Marsh, which at first sight appears to prove a 
 former higher level of the sea. However, the loam yields nothing 
 but land, and a few fresh-water shells, and seems to be an 
 ordinary fluviatile warp, not an estuarine silt like that of the 
 present Marshes, which cut into it in every direction. The 
 occurrence of fluviatile loam at this level is very difficult to ac- 
 count for, for it is separated from the Boulder Clay by two miles 
 of lower Alluvium, and there is nothing to keep the water at a 
 sufficiently high level to form it. 
 
 The origin of this high-level Alluvium is probably connected 
 with the former northward extension of the Somercotes Beach and 
 Sand Dunes till they touched the Boulder Clay near Cleethorpes. 
 This obstruction to Tetney Haven and the other outlets would 
 raise the water-level on the landward side of the Dunes, and 
 allow fresh-water Alluvium to be deposited considerably above 
 the sea-level. Afterwards the breaching of the Dunes by the sea 
 would lower the water-level, and allow the old Alluvium to be cut 
 up and destroyed, to be redeposited at a lower level. The whole 
 process is probably connected with the transfer of beach from 
 Spurn Point to the Lincolnshire coast. 
 
 That there has been no noticeable change of the level of the 
 open sea for over 1800 years seems proved by the recent dis- 
 covery by Mr. Boynton of a pile-dwelling at Ulrome, at about the 
 ordinary marsh level. There is still some doubt as to the exact ngc 
 of the dwelling, but the following account, taken from the Standard 
 of Oct. 20, 1883, shows that it is almost certainly pre-historic. 
 
 " Ulrome Grange stands on the higher ground of the Boulder 
 Clay, and the land juts out thence towards the ' stream dike ' in 
 a peninsula. Opposite this peninsula the Boulder Clay rises into 
 an island, the elevation of the flat top of which is twenty-five 
 feet above sea level. The distance between the Ulrome peninsula 
 and the formerly water-surrounded ground — still called ' Goose 
 Island ' — was the ancient waterway between two contiguous lakes, 
 and in this waterway the pre-historic lalce-dwelling was erected. 
 It was in the deepening of the artificial drainage to which wc 
 
 * Dugdale, " History of Imbanking and Drayning," 2nd edit., fol. 1772, p. 132. 
 t See above, p. 104. 
 
LAKE-DWELLINGS AT ULROME. 113 
 
 referred, that the turning out of bone tools and fragments of piles 
 suggested the search by which tlie discovery of the lake-dwelling 
 arose, and from which also the ancient lacustrine conditions of the 
 district have been subsequently in a considerable degree made 
 out. In this waterway a' platform was first commenced by 
 placing trees and brushwood on the natural ground of the lake 
 bottom. These trees consis'ted of oak, two kinds of willow, birch, 
 alder, ash,* and hazel. The trunks were some of large size, 
 fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, and as many feet in length, 
 and had all been cut down, but none were squared. These 
 timbers were roughly placed to form a nearly rectilinear platform. 
 They were placed on the north side, which was down the course 
 of the stream, between two straight rows of blunt-poiuted stakes, 
 and this timber dam was still further supported from being washed 
 away by several diagonal piles, placed to lean towards the mass as 
 buttresses. On the south side, facing the motion of the stream, 
 there is a single line of stakes to secure the timbers. The timbers 
 were not indiscriminately thrown in, but are placed alternately 
 longitudinally parallel with the length of the side, with shorter 
 timbers put transversely, forming a rough interlacing. The outer 
 sides of the platform are of timber, and the infilling of the 
 interior space was mainly done with brushwood and branches, the 
 surface having been levelled with bark and strewn with sand. 
 The size of the platform is about fifty feet by seventy-five feet, 
 the length being from east to west, or across the flow of the water 
 between the peninsula and the island. The platform would seem 
 to have been connected by plank bridges at the south-east and 
 south-west corners with the neighbouring land. One of the plat- 
 forms timbers at the surface, of the floor at the south-east corner 
 has had its upper surface axed flat, probably for this purpose. The 
 surface of the platform at the present time is three feet below the 
 surface level of the surrounding land ; but it is ten feet above the 
 bottom of the lake. 
 
 " The platform, as it is shown by the excavations, is of two ages. 
 In the lowest construction rude bone, flint, and stone implements 
 and articles are found, amongst them hammers and picks made 
 from the antlers of red deer, and also fragments of very coarse 
 dark pottery with white grains, such as constitutes the materials 
 of the oldest kinds of British pottery. This original work was at 
 a subsequent period raised and extended by the addition of further 
 timbers and more brushwood. In this upper and newer portion a 
 bronze spear-head has been found ; and the piles which have been 
 driven into the platform to support or form the superstructures 
 erected upon it are long-pointed, and show plainly right-handed 
 cuts by a metal axe used vertically. The original platform may 
 be thus clearly assigned to the earliest part of the Neolithic Stone 
 Age, and the later platform to the Bronze Age. The relics 
 found in the older construction would give to it a greater 
 antiquity than that of the crannoges, and it is as yet the first case 
 
 * The occurrence of the ash is very unusual, and needs verifyinfr. 
 A 16165. H 
 
114 LAKE-DWELLINGS AT ULEOME. 
 
 of a primitive lake-dwelling being explored in England, the only 
 other instance of any traces of even a single English lake-dwelling 
 being the relics obtained at Barton Mere near Bury St. Edmunds, 
 in Suffolk, where some bronze spear-heads and other weapons 
 were found in 186T in and around piles and stones, with bones of 
 animals. The implements found in the lower platform at Ulrome 
 are most interesting, and some are , of previously unknown type. 
 Of the latter are some ten or a dozen made of the upper joint- 
 ends of the fore-leg bones of large oxen, seemingly of Bos urus, 
 which are broken "off about the middle of their length and the 
 broken portion split aslant, forming large gouge-like implements, 
 which are each perforated by a hole about an inch in diameter 
 drilled through between the flat sides. It has been suggested 
 that these implements attached to long handles might have been 
 
 used as hoes for tilling the groynd Of the simple 
 
 relics of animals discovered in the older pile-dwelling are head 
 and horns of Bos longifrons, head of horse, bones and jaws of 
 red deer, teeth and jaw-bones of wolves or large dog, bones of 
 sheep, tusks of wild boar, a small skull, apparently of otter, and 
 two bones of a large bird, probably goose. There have been 
 found also some pieces of charred wood. Of the flint articles 
 there are some rectangular masses about an inch and a half thick, 
 roughly squared to about six inches by four inches, by innumer- 
 able small short chippings, many flake knives of variofus sizes, 
 flint spoons, and a core from which small flakes had been riven, 
 probably for pointing arrows. There have been also found a 
 large, rounded oval, coarse-grained stone with a flat surface for 
 grinding (about fifteen inches by eight inches in dimensions), and 
 a number of cup-stones and hammer-stones." 
 
 " It is very important to remark on the precision and care taken 
 by Mr. Boynton in the exploration, and which in regard to these 
 bone and flint relics leaves it quite clear that none of them have 
 been found nearer than six or seven feeet from the surface, and 
 that the bottom of the lake itself was covered by four to six feet 
 of peat formed before the second platform was raised upon the 
 previous structure.* The evidence of the extteme antiquity of 
 this older lake-dwelling is thus made clear ; and certainly there 
 is no doubtfulness or confusion by the commingling of relics, as 
 too often takes place in ordinary grubbings and mound diggings. 
 The whole course of the stream dike from Skipsea to a mile or 
 more northward of its junction with the ' Old Howe ' was un- 
 doubtedly in the pre-historic period a chain of lakes, and there 
 have now been found indications of five other lake-dwellings upon 
 their former sites."t 
 
 From this account of the pile-dwellings at Ulrome we may 
 gather that, though there has apparently been no subsidence since 
 
 * This does not necessarily show any subsidence of tlie land, but merely com- 
 pi'cssion of the peat and brush-wood as they decayed. 
 
 + Sec also J. W. Davis, " Geological Excursion to Holderness." — Prnn. Oeol. 
 Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol, viii. pp. 271-27S, 
 
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. — SOILS. 115 
 
 the Neolithic Period, there has been a considerable amount of 
 silting np, and all the meres and sluggish streams are rapidly 
 changing to Alluvial flats. Such Alluvial flats often entirely 
 surround islands or hills of Boulder Clay, which at first sight 
 seem to have been islands In the old estuary. This, however, 
 can scarcely have been the case with most of them, for the soft 
 clay and sand would not remain while an intricate tidal channel 
 was being cut all round. 
 
 The Alluvial flats merely mark the site of silted-up valleys, the 
 bottoms of which were gradually more and more raised and 
 widened as the land sank. At last the warp even passed over 
 some of the lower ridges which separated the different streams, 
 and turned what were merely the higher parts of an undulating 
 country into islands divided from the main land by swamps. 
 Borings or deep ditches on the warp often prove that some of the 
 lower elevations were entirely buried ; for, at long distances from 
 the main mass, we sometimes find bosses of Boulder Clay much 
 nearer the surface than we should expect. If a fresh subsidence 
 were now to take place, more of the islands would entirely dis- 
 appear ; but other hills would be sm-rounded by the tide, and 
 afterwards by warp, so that the general character of the country 
 would be unchanged. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 Soils. 
 
 Holderness being essentially an agricultural country, the 
 nature of the soils and their connection with the geology is of the 
 greatest importance. Agriculturally the district is usually 
 divided into Moor and Carr, Warp, Clay, or Wold lands ; Gravel 
 soils forming only subordinate patches. 
 
 The term Moor or Carr is applied to a fresh-water swampy 
 Alluvial flat, liable to be often flooded unless artificially drained. 
 Most of the Carrs are now well drained, but the available fall of 
 the streams is so slight, that in many places portions can still be 
 seen in very nearly their original state. These remnants of the 
 old Carr lands are sometimes merely reedy swamps, in which are 
 abundance of wild fowl. Generally, however, where not interfered 
 with, they are covered with clumps of alders and willows. Some 
 of the beds of the old Meres, being below the ordinary level of 
 the Alluvium, are very difficult to drain effectually. 
 
 The peaty places which mark the sites of many of the old 
 Meres of Holderness are commonly called Moors. They are 
 generally soft and wet, and full of fallen trees or rotting stumps. 
 As the soil is not good, and is not likely to repay any great 
 outlay for marling and efl"ective drainage, they are usually either 
 
 H 2 
 
IIQ ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 left as rough pasture or planted for cover. Along the course of 
 the Hull River and its tributaries, numerous patches^ of peaty 
 land may be seen, but elsewhere they are small and unimportant. 
 There is a good deal of Peat at the upper end of Hornsea Mere, 
 and on it is a thick growth of poplars, though the original wood 
 has nearly all disappeared. Along the course of Laceby Beck 
 the peaty Carrs are perhaps more nearly in their original state 
 than anywhere else in the district. 
 
 The area of the ancient Moor lands of Holderness cannot now 
 be estimated, for the Peat is usually very thin, and rapidly wastes 
 away and disappears under the plough. Large areas in the 
 neighbourhood of the IJumber have also been raised by artificial 
 warping, till their character is entirely altered. Probably when 
 first drained great part of the Carrs were covered with thin 
 
 Peat. 
 
 The ordinary Carrs, or drained Alluvial flats, nre very extensive, 
 averaging about two miles wide along the course of the River 
 HuU. Theyform an Alluvial soil, apparently of less value than 
 the tidal Warp, but much better than the Peat. Like the Moors 
 they are now generally used as pasture, thougii till lately great 
 part has been under the plough. The artificial drainage of these 
 CaiTS is generally of ancient date, and as complete as possible 
 without pumping. It has been almost entirely effected by deepen- 
 ino' and straightening the channels, clearing their outfalls, and keep- 
 ing out the tidal water. Still many of the Carrs are flooded 
 for a considerable time during the winter. 
 
 The tidal Warp of the Humber forms some of the richest land 
 in Holderness ; but, as with the Carrs, at present there is a 
 tendency to lay it down for pasture, where agreements do not 
 prevent this course. One great difficulty in using it for pasture 
 is the badness of the water-supply, which prevents cattle I'atten- 
 ing. The water is nearly everywhere brackish and very un- 
 palatable. North of the Humber, unless fresh water can be 
 brought from the higher lands, it is difficult to see how this can 
 be remedied, for the water from wells is also brackish, and in 
 Sunk Island filtered rain-water from the house-tops is used for 
 drinking purposes. South of the Humber an abundant supply 
 of good water is obtained from wells bored to the Chalk, and 
 usually there is one or more of these on every Marsh farm. 
 
 Large quantities of mustard are grown on the warp lands, 
 especially on the strong warp; on the light warp potatoes are 
 largely, grown. Tlie rotation on a farm at Hedon was : — 
 
 1, fallow ; 2, mustard for seed ; 3, wheat ; 4, seeds (one stone 
 of white dutch, half stone of red clover) ; 5, wheat ; 6, oats and 
 beans. 
 
 On a farm near Keyingham it was ; — 
 
 1 , fallow ; 2, half mustard, half wheat, all sown with seeds ; 
 3, seeds mown and fed (18 lbs. of seed, half white and half red 
 clover) ; 4, wheat ; 5, oats.* 
 
 * Coleman, Report to the Agricultural Interests Commission. 
 
SOILS. 117 
 
 The natural fertility of this soil must be very great, for Mr. 
 Oldham observes that soon after the land is embanked a sponta- 
 neous frrowth of white clover makes its appearance. The reason 
 for always mixing white Dutch with the red clover on the strong 
 lands of Holderness is that red alone is found by experience to 
 tend to produce " yellows " in sheep. 
 
 Boulder Clay covers more than half the area of the low lands 
 of .Holderness. It forms a stiff rich marly soil, very good for corn 
 and most other crops. Though wheat is the main crop, barley is 
 extensively grown, and seems to be gradually replacing wheat, 
 which no longer pays. Like the rest of Holderness the Boulder 
 Clay land is nearly always in large fields, cropped on the four- 
 course system. Anything beyond the ordinary corn, seed, or root 
 crops is now very seldom seen, and one of the first points to 
 strike a stranger passing through the country is the almost 
 entire absence of any of the unusual crops which vary the monotony 
 in other parts of England. Of course the sharp east winds of spring 
 prevent orchards or fi'uit from succeeding, and account largely 
 for this disinclination to try anything fresh. Only one or two 
 fields of flax were observed during the progress of the Survey, 
 and they did not look well. Formerly flax was more extensively 
 cultivated. 
 
 How valuable this land is, is well shown by the close-cut 
 hedges, roads commonly no wider than necessary, and the almost 
 entire absence of commons in Holderness. The soil has always 
 been celebrated for its fertility, for as long ago as 1 61 3 Drayton, in his 
 song on the East Eiding, speaks specially of the corn of Holderness.* 
 
 ....." then note upon my South, 
 How all along the Shore, to mighty Humber's mouth. 
 Rich Holdernesse I have, excelling for her graine. 
 By whose much plentie I not onely doe maintaine 
 My selfe in good estate, but Shires farre off that lye. 
 Up Humber that to Hull, come every day to buy. 
 To me beholding are " 
 
 Where anything edible is discussed Michael Drayton seems 
 to be a very trustworthy authority. 
 
 Though nominally most of the land of Holderness is cropped 
 on the four-course system, the Report of the Agricultural Com- 
 mission sho\\s that a five- or six-course system is not uncommon. 
 As examples of the rotation on strong Boulder Clay lauds, 
 Mr. Coleman mentions a farm at Hedon on the system of, 
 1, fallow or roots ; 2, wheat or barley; 3, seeds grazed ; 4, wheat; 
 
 5, oats or beans. 
 
 Another at Walton Abbey is, 1, fallow or rape eaten off by 
 sheep in autumn ; 2, wheat ; 3, seeds grazed ; 4, wheat ; 5, beans ; 
 
 6, oats. 
 
 A third at Skirlaugh gives, 1, fallow ; 2, wheat ; 3, seeds ; 
 4, wheat ; 5, oats ; 6, beans ; 7, wheat ; 8, fallow. 
 
 • " Poly-olbion," fol. 1613, p. 147. 
 
118 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 Nearly all the agreements specify a definite rotation to be 
 followed, though, as long as the land is not impoverished, some 
 variation is usually allowed. Laying down to grass would be 
 more undertaken were it not contrary to agreements. 
 
 On lighter land at Walton Abbey, worth 30s. per acre in 1880, 
 the rotation was, 1, turnips ; 2, oats or wheat ; 3, seeds ; 4, wheat ; 
 5, oats or barley. 
 
 At Shjrlaugh the system was, 1, turnips ; 2, barley ; 3, seeds ; 
 4, wheat ; 5, oats. 
 
 Mi:. Coleman considers that the proportion of grass to arable 
 land in the upper part of Holderness varies from one third to one 
 fourth. A larger proportion of grass might be laid down with 
 advantage, though at present the change is progressing slowly. 
 The insecurity of tenure, as well as the agreements, hold many 
 back from making improvements and laying out capital. But, 
 besides these difficulties, the dryness of the climate is unfavourable 
 to pasture. 
 
 The Gravel lands cover only small areas, forming isolated 
 patches dotted all over the country. Of true Gravel soil there is 
 very little, though there is some decidedly gravelly land at Rise, 
 Hornsea, and Laceby, and around Kelsey Hill. Most of the 
 area coloured as Gravel on the Map has a loamy soil a foot or two 
 deep over it ; thus, instead of being poor land,, it has a well-drained 
 rather light soil, very good for barley and oats. On the more 
 gravelly parts potatoes are much grown. 
 
 The occurrence of loamy soils over Gravel would not fstrike one 
 as anything peculiar, if it were confined to low-lying patches, 
 dominated by higher Olay lands from which the loam might wash. 
 But when isolated Sand and Gravel hills are covered with a loamy 
 soil, like the hill on which Hornsea Water- works stand, the mode 
 of origin of the soil is not nearly so clear, for it must either have 
 existed before the denudation of the valleys, or have travelled up- 
 hill. In these cases, as in the Wold soils mentioned below, the 
 transport of dust by dry winds has probably been the agency 
 which has improved the Gravel soil and rendered it fit for 
 cultivation. 
 
 While the Survey was in progress it was constantly found that 
 the soil was no test of what lay two feet underneath. Not only 
 did loamy soils overlie tracts which wells and open pits proved to 
 be sand, but nearly every isolated hill of Boulder Clay had a 
 patch of lighter soil on the top of it. Some of these Boulder 
 Olay hills were originally mapped as sand, but after the examina- 
 tion of several of them which had been cut through by the cliff, 
 or by deep ditches, it was found that nearly all were Boulder 
 Clay, with only a thin capping of lighter soil. 
 
 The origin of these loamy caps is probably in each case the 
 same. A dry wind has blown away many of the finer particles 
 from the exposed portion of the Boulder Clay hills. These have 
 been scattered far and wide, turning the soil in sheltered parts 
 into a stiff'er and more impervious Clay than a simple Boulder 
 Clay soil would be, and adding enough Clay to the Sand to turn 
 
SOILS. 119 
 
 it into a fertile loam. No doubt rain-wash has had something to 
 do with the formation of the mixed soils, but it cannot account 
 for the travelling of the Clay up-hill. 
 
 Though this mixture has greatly improved the agricultural 
 value of the land in Holderness, it has rendered it much more 
 difficult to make a Geological map, and causes such a map to be 
 less useful for agricultural purposes than it would otherwise be. 
 An accurate map of the soils would now be almost impossible to 
 make, for high farming also has so changed the character of much 
 of the land as to quite alter its agricultural value. 
 
 Much of the eastern slope of the Wolds is covered with patches 
 of Boulder Clay and Gravel. These form a well drained, light or 
 variable, loamy soil, which extends over the Chalk far beyond the 
 outliers of Drift. This soil is usually good and very easy to 
 work. 
 
 Above 200 feet, which is generally the extreme limit to which 
 any trace of Glacial Drift is found, the soil, instead of being 
 derived from the Chalk, is a very sandy loam, composed princi- 
 pally of rounded grains of quartz with scattered loose flints. 
 Naturally this soil is very poor, the large crops which it is made 
 to yield being only the result of long continued marling and 
 manuring. So poor is the original soil that at first it is difiHcult 
 to believe that the sandy gorse-clad strips sometimes found by 
 the edges of the Wold lanes are nothing but uncultivated portions 
 of the fertile jfields on either side. However, if a field is left 
 unmanured for two or three years the artificial character of the 
 soil is soon apparent. The succulent grasses die, or are driven 
 out and replaced by tufts of rough wiry grass, while between the 
 tufts grows a carpet of moss and lichen. 
 
 The natural Wold soil is so unlike that of the Downs of Sussex, 
 though the Chalk is almost identical in chemical composition, that 
 attention is soon drawn to the contrast. On the Wolds microscopic 
 examination shows that it is essentially a sandy soil, and the sand 
 is quartz, not flint. The soil of the Downs, on the contrary, is 
 usually much more loamy, but also contains quartz instead of 
 flint, This difference between the soils causes the Downs to be 
 clothed with short sweet turf, while onthe Wolds grow only gorse, 
 wiry grass, and moss. The Downs, therefore, being good natural 
 pasture, have in great part ahvays been left as such ; while the 
 Wolds must either be cultivated and manured, or be nearly 
 useless. 
 
 This is apparently the reason why so little of the Wolds, and so 
 much of the Downs, is left uncultivated. Unfortunately, the 
 necessity for giving up growing crops which no longer pay, may 
 soon lead to the abandonment of much of the higher Wolds, and 
 their reversion to the original state. It has often been pointed 
 out that the conversion of the Wolds into arable lands was unwise, 
 and that they would have been better as sheep farms. But the 
 warning was not heeded while good seasons and the high price of 
 corn rendered the breaking up of new land profitable. Now it is 
 too late to cliange without great expense, for in many places the 
 
120 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 thin soil has become so impoverished that it will not even produce 
 the grass it yielded in its original state without much manuring. 
 Ploughing has also tended to remove the soil from the slopes, 
 where formerly the best grass grew, and on the high lands has often 
 allowed the wind to remov,e much of the soil, leaving only the 
 flints. 
 
 The bareness of the Wold and want of shelter is another great 
 objection to its use as arable land. There is no natural wood, 
 though within the present century large areas around Brocklesby 
 and Limber have been planted. Beeches thrive well, and other 
 trees seem fairly successful, though here again the shallowness of 
 the soil is a great drawback, and trees are very easily uprooted. 
 Probably under present circumstances much of the exhausted 
 Wold would pay better if planted than in any other way. More 
 extensive planting would also break the force of the biting east 
 winds, which now do so much harm and lielp to render the yield 
 so uncertain. 
 
 The staple products of the Wolds are sheep and barley. The 
 yield of barley per acre is commonly not large, but the ex- 
 ceptionally fine quality makes up for the deficiency, and causes 
 it to fetch a high price even when the average for other sorts is 
 low. In 1880 the rent of Wold farms was about 26s. to 36s. per 
 acre, and the average about 30s. or 32*, per acre, but since then 
 it has fallen considerably, and will probably fail still further. 
 
 Mr. Druce gives the rotation on a farm on the Lincolnshire 
 Wolds as, 1, wheat ; 2, turnips ; 3, barley ; 4, seeds ; 5, turnips ; 
 6, barley ; 7, seeds or clover ; 8, wheat. 
 
 On the northern part of the Yorkshire Wolds Mr. Coleman 
 mentions that on Lord Londesborough's estates it has been found 
 impossible to continue the original four-course system without 
 interruption, as the land became " sick " of clover and turnips in 
 quick succession The rotation practised on the best farmed 
 districts is now, 1, seeds; 2, wheat; 3, turnips; 4, oats; 5, peas; 
 6, turnips ; 7, oats ; 8, seeds. The average rent of these farms 
 was from 20s to 25s. per acre. 
 
 The soil of the Wolds, though often less than 6 inches thick 
 and immediately overlying the Chalk, is very slightly calcareous. 
 It is, therefore, necessary periodically to marl the fields to pre- 
 vent turnips from running to " fingers and toes." This marling, 
 or rather chalking, is done by opening pits in the middle of the 
 fields, and spreading the Chalk over the surface. The pits are 
 very shallow, and when new ones are opened they are commonly 
 made to continue those previously worked. By digging the Chalk 
 in this way, only large shallow depressions are left, which can be 
 immediately ploughed over. 
 
 The marling is completed in the autumn, so that the winter 
 frosts may break up the lumps. But if no frost occur that season, 
 the lumps become hardened, and may remain for many years 
 unbroken. 
 
 The immediate effect of the chalking seems to be to impoverish 
 the land, but afterwards it is greatly improved. Mere deep 
 
SOILS. 121 
 
 ploughing, which would also commonly turn up Chalk, is worse 
 than useless, apparently because the Chalk near the surface has 
 already been hardened by the weather. Perhaps also the upper 
 layers have lost some component which would go to fertilize tho 
 soil, were it not already dissolved out. But without analysis of 
 both weathered and unweathered Chalk it is difficult to say 
 whether the change is chemical or mechanical, or both. 
 
 The origin of the far-transported soils of the Wolds I have 
 already attempted to explain.* In both the Wolds and Downs 
 they seem to be produced by the agency of dry winds, which, 
 sweeping across areas of clay and sand, have deposited a thin coat 
 of dust over hill and dale, or have slowly driven before them the 
 heavier grains of sand. Even at the present day, gales in the 
 spring and winter, when the vegetation has died down, sweep 
 clouds of sand up the Wold escarpment, so that there is now 
 tliree or four feet of Blown Sand capping the high hil! near 
 Pelham's Pillar, above Caistor. 
 
 This Blown Sand has drifted into many of the Dales, and also 
 goes to form the bulk of the six inches or foot of soil which covers 
 the bare Chalk. The finer dust, which might have improved the 
 soil, appears only to have lodged in the hollows, the winds being 
 too strong for it to remain on the open Wold. 
 
 In treating, from a geological point of view, of the origin of 
 soils, it may be well to draw attention to the necessity for entirel)' 
 separating the question of the chemical and mechanical con- 
 stituents of the soil from that of subsoil drainage. A Chalk subsoil, 
 from the facility with which it absorbs and retains water, causes the 
 thin overlying soil to be dry, but seldom parched. For instance, 
 Chalk being near the surface over the Downs and Wolds, both 
 districts have the same sort of dry subsoil. The similarity does 
 not extend, however, to the soils themselves, though high farming 
 now compels both districts to yield very similar crops. 
 
 As an instance of tlie converse of this, a sandy soil overlying 
 a bed of clay may be chemically identical with a similar soil 
 overlying sand. But the difference of the sub-soil drainage makes 
 the two soils, for agricultural- purposes, quite unlike, and no 
 artificial drainage will entirely remove the greater wetness of the 
 soil resting on clay. On low flat grounds, like those of Holderness, 
 sand and gravel also tends to' become waterlogged, and then 
 produces a marsh vegetation very like that found on swampy flats 
 of clay. Even Chalk occasionally becomes waterlogged and 
 produces a similar vegetation. 
 
 Beick-making. 
 
 Except for building material and road metal, no pits are opened 
 in Holderness, and nothing, save bricks and tile&, is sent beyond 
 
 * "Dust and Soils." — Geol. Mag., dec. iii., vol. 1. pp. 165-168. 
 
]22 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 the district. Next to agriculture, brick-making is the most 
 important industry of Holderness at all connected with the 
 Geology. 
 
 For local purposes brick-y&rds are opened almost anywhere in 
 the Boulder Clay, with much the same result. Unless well 
 washed, and most of the Chalk removed, this Clay makes very 
 indiiferent bricks. 
 
 Where the Boulder Clay contained originally little Chalk, or is 
 of the Hessle type, — that is to say, is decalcified,— it is a good deal 
 better, and is often used without washing. The whole of the 
 deposit in this case is passed between rollers to crush the stones, 
 only the larger ones being picked out. The bricks at these yards 
 being made by machinery, the result is fairly good, though it is 
 ' doubtful whether the crushing up of pyrites and pyritous shales 
 with the other materials will allow the bricks to last long. Large 
 yards on this system will be found at Hornsea, Grimsby, and 
 Cleethorpes. At all of them tiles and dr'ain pipes are made as 
 well as bricks. 
 
 Clean laminated Clays in the Glacial beds are worked at 
 Limber and Kirmington, and perhaps also between Waltham and 
 Barnoldby ; but they are too exceptional and thin to be of 
 economic importance anywhere else. In character they are very 
 similar to, the Humber Warp. 
 
 The Humber Warp makes an excellent tile and brick clay 
 This, and the convenience of being able to put the bricks directly 
 into the barges, which can take them to almost any part of the 
 Midland Counties, has caused a nearly continuous line of brick- 
 yards and tile-kilns to be opened between Barton and New 
 Holland. From New Holland to Cleethorpes, seven or eight other 
 yards are also now at work. The pits are just inside the sea- 
 bank, and are often sunk considerably below the water-level, and 
 kept dry by pumping. 
 
 North of the Humber brick-yards in the Warp are not so exten- 
 sive, and are apparently only used for the local supply of bricks, 
 tiles, and drain pipes. Similar yards are also scattered over the 
 Alluvial flats- of the river Hull and its tributaries. These Alluvial 
 Clays are usually stifFer and more carbonaceous than the Hmnber 
 Warp. 
 
 EoAD Metal. 
 
 The larger stones from the Boulder Clay have been a good deal 
 used for building, but they are now more commonly broken up 
 ibr road metal. Until stopped by the Board of Trade, enormous 
 quantities of shingle and boulders were gathered from the beach 
 between Hornsea and ISpurn, and shipped off or taken away by 
 rail to various parts of Yorkshire. It is stated that at one time 
 
GUAVEL AND SAND. 123 
 
 the amouiit removed reached 40,000 or 60,000 tons per annum ;* 
 but now little is taken, even north of Hornsea. 
 
 The loose stones ofi the fields are much used for road metal, and 
 a good deal is also obtained from brick-yards, and from small pits 
 in the Glacial Gravels. The stones from the beach were, how- 
 ever, much tougher, having undergone a process of "natural 
 selection " which destroyed all the softer ones and found out "any 
 flaws. 
 
 Flint and Chalk from the Wolds are commonly employed, but 
 though cheap are so splintery as to be of little use. They are 
 usually only carried short distances over the low lands, but, where 
 mixed with tougher material, the Chalk makes the roads bind well. 
 Around Grimsby large quantities of the ballast brougln by ships 
 from the Baltic is used, and must not be confounded with the 
 stones from the Boulder Clay. Great part of it is Basalt, Mica 
 Schist, Garnetiferous Schist, Gneiss, &c., of a character unlike 
 any yet seen in the Boulder Clay of Holderness. For many of the 
 main roads with heavy traffic Leicestershire Granite has lately 
 been introduced, . It . wears much better than any of the local 
 material, but is expensive. 
 
 Gravel and Sand. 
 
 Though a good many patches of Gravel and Sand have been 
 mapped, few of them would yield a sufficient supply for any large 
 engineering works. The only thick gravel at a convenient height 
 above the Marsh to be worked is the Marine Bed described in 
 Chap V. This forms isolated hills or.long ridges, near Kelk and 
 Brandsburton, and reappears over a considerable area around 
 Kelsey Hill and Keyingham. At Kelsey Hill it has been very 
 extensively dug for ballast, and another large pit, 40 feet deep, 
 has lately been opened in it to supply ballast for the concrete at 
 Hull Docks. 
 
 The same bed extends to Paull, but does not there rise so high 
 above the Marsh. South of the Humber it extends from Goxhill 
 to Grimsby, usually at a low level, though often worked in shallow 
 pits. At Laceby it rises into a hill, and is a good deal dug to 
 supply sand.for building at Grimsby. Though the bed is found 
 nearer, and even in the town itself, there is seldom more than four 
 or five feet of it above the water-level. 
 
 These Sands, being generally full of specks of coal, cannot be 
 used for plastering. 
 
 The later Gravels of Bridlington, Driffield, and Hornsea are 
 commonly rougher, very full of Chalk, and often mixed with Clay 
 or Marl. These, and the lenticular beds in the Boulder Clay, are 
 only used locally. 
 
 • Coode., Proc. Inst. Civ, Eng., vol. xxviii. p. 501 ; and Vetch, ibid., vol. li. 
 p. 205. 
 
124 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 Sand from the Dunes along the coast is a good deal used at 
 Hornsea, Grimsby, and Cleethorpes; but unless all the salt is 
 washed out, it is very objectionable, as the houses never dry pro- 
 perly. It is also much used to mix with the stiflFer Clays in brick- 
 making. 
 
 HuMBEK Tunnel. 
 
 The question of a tunnel under the Humber having several 
 times come up of late yenrs, it may be advisable to point out what 
 would be the probable character of the strata through which any 
 tunnel must pass. Even if the alternative scheme of a bridge be 
 adoj)ted, it will still be necessary to obtain some idea as to the 
 nature of the foundations. For this purpose all the borings likely 
 to throw any tight on the subject have been collected, and will be 
 found in the Appendix. Mr. Kelsey has also obligingly supplied 
 the details of a series of borings made by the North-eastern Rail- 
 way Company between Hessle and Barton. 
 
 Unfortunately all the evidence seems to show that the valley 
 of the Humber lies along a line of disturbance of some sort ; it 
 may be either a fault or a sharp anticlinal. The line for the base 
 of the Chalk does not continue in the same direction across the 
 Humber, as one would expect from the general direction and 
 amount of the dip. Instead of making only a small bend towards 
 the east, it sweeps round the foot of the Wolds for three miles 
 past South Ferriby, and only turns northward at Barton Ferry. 
 This singular course is proved by a number of wells bored on the 
 Alluvial flat near Barton. Those south of the Chalk boundary 
 engraved on the Map all touch Chalk ; those north of it (eight in 
 number) all miss the Chalk, but reach hard Secondary Clay, 
 probably Kimeridge Clay. 
 
 Though this sudden change of strike is unexpected, Chalk-pits 
 near Barton and Barrow confirm it. The dip, instead of beino- 
 north-easterly, as in most parts of the Lincolnshire Wolds, is 
 south-east, or directly away from the Humber. This seems to 
 point to a tolerably sharp anticlinal in the bed of the estuary, or 
 the line cannot join with the con-esponding one on the north side. 
 'North of the Humber there seems to be a similar change in the 
 dip and strike, the lines turning decidedly to the eastward, and 
 the Chalk dipping north-east or north. 
 
 This structure seems to show that, under the Glacial Beds and 
 Warp, we must expect, west of Barton Ferry, to find Kimeridge 
 Clay instead of Chalk. East of the Ferry there would probably 
 be Chalk, but along this line of disturbance it is likely to be broken 
 up, loose, and full of water. 
 
 The solid rock will, in places, lie at a considerable depth beneath 
 the present bed of the river, as the old Pre-glacial or Inter-glacial 
 channel cuts much deeper than the present one. Unfortunately 
 
HUMBEE TUJSNEL. 125 
 
 all the borings along the line of section do not go sufficiently 
 deep to touch the solid rock. But they prove that while near 
 Hesale there is Chalk witliin less than 50 feet of the bottom of 
 the river, yet there is an old deep channel, commencing about 25 
 chains from the Barton shore, with its bottom at least 84 feet 
 below the present level of high-water. 
 
 The width and depth of this channel are both at present un- 
 known. Though, from the fact that a boring at the farm a quarter 
 of a mile due east of Bore-liole No. 5 reached Chalk at 90 feet 
 below the Marsh, it seems probable that the channel is about 
 a quarter of a mile wide, and not much over 100 feet deep in 
 • its deepest part. 
 
 If any attempt be made to tunnel under the Humber, it will be 
 necessary to avoid the old Channel. A river bed like this must 
 be continuous, and near its centre will everywhere cut to about 
 the same depth, allowing for a slight fall towards the sea. Except 
 immediately west of Barton we do not yet know its exact position, 
 though it is apparently usually south of the deepest part of the 
 present estuary. 
 
 The line of borings started 300 yards east of Hessle Ferry, and 
 was carrieds traight across the Humber. East of the line, the old 
 channel bends a little to the north, at Barton Ferry ; for between 
 the Ferry and New Holland rock is found at 50 feet. From 
 Barrow Ferry it seems to correspond approximately with the 
 present channel, for no trace of it appears in the numerous borings 
 which have been made on the Barton iind Barrow Marshes, and 
 Chalk was reached within 30 feet of the Humber bottom at New 
 Holland Pier Head. 
 
 At Killingholme Coast Guard Station the old chaimel appears 
 again to touch the Lincolnshire shore, for no rock was found at 
 107 feet. Near Stallingborough Creek it has again turned north- 
 ward, towards Sunk Island, and seems to pass under part of the 
 Island, as a bore-hole did not reach rock at 114 feet. Unfor- 
 tunately, the exact position of this bore cannot be ascertained. 
 There may have been two ancient channels in this part of the 
 Humber, as was the case within the last 200 years. Beyond 
 Sunk Island the course of the buried channel is quite unknown. 
 
 The nature of the beds under the Humber can be best judged 
 from the various sections noted in the Appendix. They all show 
 constant alternations of soft Warp, Boulder Clay, Gravel, and 
 running Sand. These alternations would render tunnelling very 
 difficult, and make it impossible to obtain good foundations for 
 piers without reaching the solid Chalk or Kimeridge Clay. Even 
 in the deepest part of the buried channel there are no thick beds 
 of Boulder Clay or Gravel. 
 
 Though the greatest depth of the buried channel probably does 
 not exceed 120 feet below the level of high-water, it is still 
 possible that there may be a narrow steep-banked gorge in the 
 very centre. Tiie whole of tiie evidence tends to contradict this 
 idea; but before the real structure of the Humber Valley can 
 be considered as satisfactorily demonstrated, it will be necessary 
 
126 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 to obtain a series of borings closer together than those already 
 made. 
 
 Beneath the Drift Deposits between Barton and Hessle there is 
 generally shattered Chalk very full of water. This also ought to 
 be avoided, and the tunnel carried as far as possible through the 
 hard impervious Kimeridge Clay. In the Humber district there is 
 no marly Lower Chalk, like that which is met with in the Channel 
 Tunnel. The Chalk is hard and full of joints, which in a disturbed 
 area like this are likely to be open fissures, and frequently are 
 known to be so. The occurrence of ebbing and flowing wells on 
 the marshes — occasionally with brackish water — seems also to show 
 that the fissures are connected with the Humber through the 
 pervious sandy Warp which fills the deepest part of the Post- 
 glacial channeL 
 
 The best material for tunnelling would probably be the 
 Kimeridge Clay ; but to avoid tunnelling at a great depth the 
 works should be coustucted west of Barton and Hessle. Of 
 course here the tunnel would be longer than if taken near the line 
 of borings. 
 
 Water Supply. 
 
 The water supply of Holdemess is mainly obtained from three 
 sources ; — ^natural springs from the Chalk, blow wells on the low 
 lands, and artesian borings which tap the Chalk underlying the 
 Drift. The first of these sources, perhaps does not come within 
 the scope of the present Memoir, but as the streams frond the 
 Chalk flow across Holderness a short account will be given of 
 them. 
 
 Along the eastern slope of the Wolds many powerful springs 
 rise, but several of them being intermittent are quite untrust- 
 worthy for water supply. Commencing at the northern end of 
 the district, at low tide strong springs are given out from the 
 Chalk on the foreshore north of Bridlington. From their incon- 
 venient position these cannot be used, though they are well known 
 to the fishermen. 
 
 A stream of considerable size, called the Gipsey Race, flows 
 through Bridlington Quay, and helps to scour the Harbour. It 
 rises in the Wolds about ten miles .away, near Wold Newton, 
 and, though partially intermittent, seldom runs entirely dry. 
 
 At Bessingby, Burton Agnes, Kilham, and Kuston there 
 are small springs, and at Nafferton there is one of some im- 
 portance. 
 
 Near Great Drifiield the Eiver Hull takes its rise in Emswell 
 or Driffield Beck. The large amount of water given out in this 
 neighbourhood is apparently due to the change of strike of the 
 Chalk, which dips towards Driffield both on the north and west. 
 Several minor streams, known as the Gipsey Race, EastBurn Beck, 
 
WATEE SUPPLY. 127 
 
 Southbura Beck, and Wellsprmgs Drain, also flow into the Hull 
 at Driffield. 
 
 South of Driffield, Wear Bracken Beck, Bryan Mill Beck, 
 Scorbrough Beck, and other small streams, flow from the 
 Chalk, but Beverley and Cottingham are both almost entirely 
 supplied from wells. Hull obtains its water from large springs 
 and wells at the foot of the Wold at Spring Head, near 
 Anlaby. 
 
 On the south side of the Humber, springs from the Chalk are 
 rare, most of the water apparently passing through the Glacial 
 Gravels before it appears at the surface. A small beck flows 
 through Swallow, but is usually lost before it reaches the clay lands. 
 In winter it rises again at the foot of the Wold, and forms the 
 northern branch of Laceby Beck. 
 
 The main source of Laceby Beck is, however, at Wellbeck, near 
 Barnoldby. At this point there is a semi-circular hollow, about 
 100 yards across and 15 feet deep, resembling an old chalk-pit, 
 though probably natural. The Beck does not usually rise here in 
 summer, but towards winter it suddenly bursts out in full force. 
 At the time of my first visit, on October 3rd, 1882, there was no 
 water in the pit, but a small muddy hollow at the bottom was 
 covered with an abundance of thriving Forget-me-not, proving 
 that it is seldom quite dry. The dry stream bed leading from the 
 pit, judging from its width and gravelly bottom, must in raipy 
 seasons contain a considerable beck, but was then quite dry in its 
 upper part. About 8 chains from the source there was a little 
 standing water, but no stream ; below this point, at short distances 
 apart, there were small pools. At 26 chains from Wellbeck, in a 
 straight line, there was a very small but perceptible stream, and 
 from the abundance of stickleback it seems that the bed is here 
 seldom entirely dry. Evidently the water-level was everywhere 
 within a few inches of the surface, and the sligheat rise would cause 
 an abundant overflow. 
 
 On December 10th of the same year Wellbeck was revisited. 
 Strong springs were flowing from all parts of the hollow, and the 
 stream as it left the pit was as large as the lower part of Laceby 
 Beck is in summer. The exact date of the outbreak in that year 
 could not be ascertained. 
 
 Intermittent springs from the Chalk occasionally break out 
 much higher up the Dales after long-qontinued heavy rain. When 
 this happens they may cause much mischief from walls or farm- 
 buildings having been built across the bottom of the dry valleys. 
 An account of these exceptional floods will be found in the 
 Geological Survey Memoirs relating to the Wolds, where 
 also a fuller description of the Chalk springs will be given. 
 
 Few natural springs of importance are found in the low- 
 lands of Holderness, except south of the Humber. The small 
 springs that rise in the glacial beds are of little value, and usually 
 the water is strongly impregnated with lime or iron, sometimes so 
 much so as to be quite undrinkable. 
 
128 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 In one or two places north of the Humber, and more abundantly 
 in North Lincolnshire, the so-called " Blow Wells " occur. These 
 are springs which rise through Drift or Alluvium in the middle of 
 the flat lands. They generally bubble up from the bottom of small 
 pools of perfectly clear water, and are connected with some porous 
 bed considerably beneath thesurface. The name probably refers 
 to the constant play of the white sand at the bottom of the 
 pools ; for bubbles of gas are only disengaged in a few of them, and 
 not, as far as I have seen, in the larger ones. 
 
 South of the Humber there is a Blow Well about a mile west of 
 Barton, and another a mile east of the village, on the Warp. 
 Perhaps the southern branch of Barrow Beck also rises in one, but 
 there are also a number of artificial wells to supply the water-cress 
 beds. 
 
 Along the course of tlie Clceby Beck there are several Blow 
 Wells, which apparently rise out of the Inter-glacial Gravels, where 
 they pass under the Boulder Clay. Two of these are on the 
 Alluvium at Thornton Moor, and there is a group on the Alluvium 
 south of Ulceby ; these latter may rise either from the Gravels or 
 directly out of the OhtJk. 
 
 Keelby Springs also rise near the point where the Boulder Clay 
 overlaps the Gravels, and so does a Blow Well on the AUuvium 
 north of Laceby. Along Laceby Beck there are several Blow 
 Wells, all probably rising from this bed of Gravel, which must be 
 close to the surface, though not always actually bare. 
 
 Between Grimsby and Little Coates lie the group of Blow Wells 
 which now supply Grimsby with water. They form several pools 
 of clear water, which yield a supply sufficient for the town, though 
 a great deal runs to waste. These Wells are more thiin three 
 miles from the bare Chalk, but they occur at a point where the 
 Inter-glacial Gravels a^ain outcrop. 
 
 The origin of the Blow Wells just described is not satisfactorily 
 made out, for the bed of Gravel from which they ;ippear to 
 spring has a small outcrop, and is quite incapable of yielding so 
 large a supply of water ; there is also no evidence of direct con- 
 nection with the underlying Chalk. The most probable explnnation 
 is that the water is Chalk water, not obtained direct, but flowino- 
 for a mile or more through the Gravel, which abuts against the 
 buried Chalk cliff below the line of saturation. The thinnino-.out, 
 and over-lap of this Gravel as we go eastward will account for the 
 same springs not being tapped in the numerous borings which pass 
 through the Boulder Clay, and obtain their supply from the Chalk. 
 Occasionally the springs are tapped. Mr. Cordeaux, on deepening 
 the cellar o£ his house at Great Coates, broke into a bed of sand, 
 which yielded so copious a supply of water that it needed the 
 laying down of a special drain to carry it away. 
 
 Close to Tetney there is a group of seven or eight Blow Wells 
 on the Warp, the origin of which is much more difficult to 
 understand. A farmer stated that be had lowered a heavy weight 
 to a great depth in one of them, and found no bottom. There is 
 also no trace of the Gravel in the immediate neighbourhood ; and 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 12{^ 
 
 Mr. Jackling states that close to the Wells he bored 63 feet in 
 clay before reaching the Chalk, and at Tetney village there was 
 81 feet of clay. From this it would appear that at Tetney Blow 
 Wells the water must rise direct from the Chalk. How the water 
 has penetrated the 63 feet of clay is not clear, but probably these 
 Wells originated when the land was at a higher level, and instead 
 of an Alluvial flat at this 4)oint there was a steep-sided valley cut 
 40 or 60 feet lower, — perhaps sufficiently low to tap the Chalk or 
 an immediately overlying sand bed. 
 
 Though the natural water supply of Holderness is, as a rule, not 
 good, an artificial supply is so easily obtained, and the mode of 
 obtaining it is so well understood, that nearly every farm has a 
 well down to the Chalk. 
 
 These wells are usually bored through an average thickness of 
 70 or 80 feet of Drift or Warp, and water is generally found within 
 20 feet of the top of the Chalk. On the low grounds the water 
 often overflows at the surface directly the Chalk is reached. The 
 borings are made very cheaply, so much so that six or seven have 
 been made merely to supply the watercress beds at Barrow. 
 As the cost is much less l^han the usual price for boring 100 feet 
 in other parts of England, the Holderness system might with 
 advantage be introduced in other low-lying districts where there 
 is a similar geological structure, such as East Norfolk. 
 
 Very thin lining tubes are used, and are driven down as the 
 work advances, so as always to be within a short distance of the 
 bottom, the tubes being lengthened at the same time by sections 
 soldered on above. Very little force is used in driving down the 
 lining, and apparently only a dead weight is employed, as the 
 tubes would not stand any violence. The rapidity with which 
 these borings are made seems to allow no time for the clay to 
 close in and grasp tlie tube. Probably it is this rapidity and 
 fairly constant motion which allows such thin lining to be used 
 even for considerable depthg. 
 
 Details of a number of these borings wUl be found in the 
 Appendix. Few fail to obtain good water, except in Sunk Island, 
 where the water is brackish. 
 
 At Bridlington a boring in the harbour yields a good supply of 
 water. The quality is excellent, though the level rises and falls 
 with the tide. South of the harbour there is another well, 
 connected with a stand pipe. This yields no water at low-tide, 
 but at about half-tide it commences to flow, and continues till 
 the tide again falls to the same level. The spring in the harbour 
 is largely used for the supply of the town, and is preferred to the 
 natural springs. 
 
 Analyses of the water obtained on January 11th, 1873, were 
 made for the Rivers Pollution Commission, with the following 
 result :* — 
 
 * " Rivers Pollution Commission," Sixth Eeport, p. 123. 
 161C5. 
 
130 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 
 
 - Boring in the , „ . 
 
 Harbour. Natural Springs. 
 
 (Temperature (Temperature 
 
 9-7 C.) 8-6 0.) 
 
 Total Solid Impurity - ■ - 25-36 30-76 
 
 Organic Carbon - - - '032 'OSo 
 
 Organic Nitrogen - ■ - -006 -009 
 
 Ammonia .... -0 -0 
 
 Nitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites - 'ooS "ovd 
 
 Total Combined Nitrogen - - '364 •582 
 
 Previous Sewage or Animal Contamination 3-260 5-410 
 
 Chlorine - - - - 2-25 8-20 
 
 Hardness, temporary - . - 
 
 permanent - • " - 
 
 total - - - 19'9 23-9 
 
 14-5: 18-9 
 
 5-4 5-0 
 
 Both waters are clear and palatable. 
 
 Hornsea is still supplied from private wells, but the amount 
 obtained is insuflBcient. A few years ago a deep well was sunk 
 and bored at Leys Hill, to supply the village, but the water 
 obtained is strongly ferruginous and quite undrinkable. Fer- 
 ruginous water from the Chalk is so unusual that at first it seemed 
 that a spring from the Glacial beds must have got in, but portions 
 of the borings preserved show seams of ferruginous marl in the 
 Chalk. Another boring in Hornsea, at Mr. Wade's brick-yard, 
 was carried down to a depth of 976 feet without obtaining water 
 or piercing the upper Chalk. This well, notwithstanding its 
 great depth, was entirely bored by hand, and was only abandoned 
 when it was found that a steam engine must be employed. 
 
 Withernsea is supplied from private weUs, as are all the other 
 villages in Holderness which are not close to the Wolds. 
 
 At Sunk Island the water from the Chalk is brackish. But this 
 does not appear to be the case elsewhere on the borders of the 
 Humber, for there are numerous wells of good water on the 
 warp lands of Lincolnshire. No attempt appears to have been 
 made to reach the Chalk at Spurn Head, and water has to be 
 brought several miles. Notwithstanding the position of the head 
 it is quite possible that the Chalk may yield a good supply. Chalk 
 would probably be found at a depth of 100 or 120 feet. 
 
 Wells on the Humber Warp near Great Coates ai-e sometimes 
 affected by the tide, but none of them appear to be brackish. 
 
 Close to the pier at Cleethorpes there is a boring which supplies 
 a drinking fountain. Formerly this yielded 200 gallons in five 
 minutes, overflowing two feet above the surface ; but the supply is 
 now much less, the bore having apparently become clogged. 
 Another boring at Cleethorpes, in the bed of the Humber, 400 
 yards below high-water mark, yielded 100 gallons per minute, 
 forcing a jet 16 feet higher than the ground. There is another 
 similar w^ell on the warp near Huniberstone. 
 
 With the exception of the ferruginous water of Hornsea and 
 the brackish water of Sunk Island, all the deep wells or strong 
 springs in Holderness yield water of a very similar cbaracter. 
 The following analysis of the water from the Grimsby Blow Wells 
 shows that there is very little difference between wells at opposite 
 
WATEE SUPPLY. 
 
 131 
 
 ends of the district. Like the former analyses this is taken from 
 the Beport of the Eivers Pollution Commission. 
 
 Total Solid Impurities - - . 
 
 Organic Carbon • - • . 
 
 Organic Nitrogen - - - . 
 
 Amifionia - • • 
 
 Nitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites . 
 Total Combined Nitrogen - 
 Previous Sewage or Animal Contamination 
 Chlorine .... - 
 
 Hardness, temporary • - 
 
 — — — permanent' 
 
 -total .... 
 
 Grimsby, 
 
 10th Jan. 1873. 
 
 (Temperature, 
 
 7-2 C.) 
 
 27-26 
 •028 
 ■003 
 ■001 
 •267 
 ■271 
 
 2^360 
 
 1^80 
 
 14^3 
 
 6-3 
 
 20-6 
 
 I 2 
 
132 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 With one or two exceptions, the whole of the following are borings. The 
 exact character of the beds cannot always be acertained, as the material 
 brought up is a good deal mixed, and is seldom preserved. Notes in 
 square brackets are my own. The sections marked [S. V.W.] were collected 
 by the late S. V. Wood, who handed them to Mr. Dalton for the use of the 
 Geological Survey. 
 
 Ashby-cum-Fenby. i mile N.W. of the Church. 
 Communicated by Mk. Wbstaby. 
 
 Clay with Chalk stones [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 The surface is about 30 feet above the stream. 
 
 Water rises to within 30 feet of the surface. 
 
 Baerow. At Mr. Westaby's house. 
 Communicated by Mr. Westaby. 
 
 Clay and stones ..... 
 
 Gravel ... . . 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel ...... 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Bakbow Market Place. 
 Communicated by Mk. Westaby. 
 
 Clay . 
 Gravel 
 Clay . 
 Gravel - 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Baekow Beck (unfinished boring). 
 Communicated by Mr. Westaby. 
 
 Loam - 
 Gravel 
 Sand 
 Gravel . 
 Clean clay 
 Gravel 
 
 Barrow. 
 
 Clay 
 Sand 
 Clay 
 
 Fbbt. 
 120 
 
 Feet. 
 
 15 
 6 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 42 
 
 Feet. 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 67 
 
 Feet. 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 13 
 
 On the Goxhill Eoad, about J mile from Barrow, 
 Communicated by Mr. Westaby. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet.' 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 The bed of sand extends continuously for about a mile further east. 
 
WKLL SECTIONS A.ND BORINGS. 
 
 133 
 
 Baerow Ferry, E. side. 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Eock at (all Warp) .... 
 
 Babeow Ferry, W. side. 
 
 Bock at (all Warp) .... 
 
 Baeeow Ferry, Farm 1 mile W. of. 
 Communicated by Me. Wesiabt. 
 
 Warp, &c. ..... 
 
 Sand (rough) ..... 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Baeton. Newport. 
 Communicated by Me. Wesiabt, 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel ...... 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Baeton. Lower end of Fleetgate. 
 Communicated by Me. Wesiabt. 
 
 Clay and stones .... 
 Gravel about 3 feet .... 
 Clay - - ... 
 Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 70 
 
 Feet. 
 90 
 
 Feet. 
 78 
 12 
 
 90 
 
 Feet. 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 Feet. 
 40 
 
 Baeton Water Side, several wells at the Brick Yards E. of, and at the 
 
 Malt Kilns. 
 
 War 
 
 /(: 
 
 Sand (rough) 
 
 Commnnioated by Me. Wesiabt. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 about 78 
 
 - 12 
 
 - 90 
 
 Baeton Water Side, well 50 chains W. of. 
 Communicated by Me. Wesiabt. 
 
 Warp ...... 
 
 Sand (rough) ...... 
 
 Blackish or brown clay [Kimeridge ?], only touched 
 
 Feet. 
 about 70 
 - 20 
 
 90 
 
 Water was obtained from the sand. 
 
 Baeton Water Side, well f mile W. of. 
 
 Made by a Bull borer, but communicated by Me. Wesiabt. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp - - " • " " " -70 
 
 Sand 20 
 
 Clay, black and hard [Kimeridge] - - - - — 
 
 90 
 
134 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 Bakion. N. side of the Ings Lane. Eight borings, 
 Communicated by Mk. Wesiaby. 
 
 Warp, &c. to clay [Kimeridge] 
 
 Bakton Gas Works. 
 Communicated by Mk. Wesiaby. 
 
 Warp with one or two sand beds ... 
 Chalk - - - - , ■ 
 
 Babton. At the Eopery Engine House. 
 Communicated by Mk. Westabt. 
 
 Warp and fine sand 
 
 Chalk - 
 
 Clay [Kimeridge] 
 
 Feet. 
 . 90 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 45 
 . 15 
 
 60 
 
 Feet. 
 50 
 49 
 
 99 
 
 Bakton. High Street. 
 Communicated by Mk. Westaby. 
 
 Hard clay with Chalk 
 Chalk. 
 
 Feet. 
 from 9 to 30 
 
 Babton. At the junction of King Street and High Street, in a channel 
 in the Chalk. 
 
 Communicated by Mk. Westaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Clay and Chalk ...... 30 
 
 Gravel - 33 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 63 
 
 Bakton. At the junction of King Street, and Marsh Lane. 
 Communicated by Mb. Westaby. 
 
 Clay and Chalk 
 Gravel 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 51 
 
 Bakton. Whitecross Street. 
 
 Communicated by Mk. Westaby. 
 
 Kook at the surface : 18 feet to water. 
 
 Barton. Well at the house W. of Mount Close. 
 
 Clay [Boulder Clay?] 
 Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 15 
 
 Beefokd. Close to Moor Grange. 
 
 • Communicated (to Mk. Dakyns) by, Mk. Watson, of Moor Grange. 
 
 Feet. 
 Blue Clay with whitey [chalky Boulder Clay?] . 120 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 135 
 
 Bevbeiey Park. 
 Communicated (to Mr. Daktns) by Mr. Villiees. 
 
 Feet. 
 Jied clay - - - - - - 15 
 
 White gravel - - - . . . -15 
 
 ToGhalkl. - . .~30 
 
 Brandsbueton Village. 
 Prestwich, Qum-t. Jown. Geol. 8oe., vol. xvii. p. 446. 
 
 Gravel (marine) - 
 Boulder Clay 
 Flinty Gravel 
 
 - - - - 
 
 ToChflIk - 
 Beidlington Harbour. 
 
 of chalk and flint 
 
 Feet. 
 10orl2 
 
 60 
 8 or 10 
 
 
 about 80 
 
 Boulder Clay 
 Hard Conglomerate 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 28 
 
 - 16 
 
 , To Chalk - . 43 
 
 Beocklesby Hall. 
 
 Communicated by Mil. Wesiaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Sand ..... ....9 
 
 Clay 21 
 
 To Chalk - • . .~lo 
 
 Buestwick Station. 
 
 Prestwich, Qua/rt. Jov/rn. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 446. 
 
 Feet. 
 Brick clay [Warp] - - - . . - 7 
 Strong Marl with " ironstone " [Boulder Clay] - . 29 
 Strong Marl with stones [Boulder Clay] - - - 40 
 Bed Sand, giving suflacient water . - . . 
 
 76 
 Catfoss. '^~" 
 
 Communicated (to Me. Dakyns) by Me. Villiers, of Beverley. 
 
 ■ , Feet. 
 
 Clay 28 
 
 Sand with shells - - - - - •, - 3 
 
 Clay with layers of sand - - - . - 10 
 
 Boulder Clay with boulders as big as a thirty-gallon cask ■ •■ 45 
 Warp Clay - - - - - - - 20 
 
 White Marl [Chalk P] 12 
 
 Chalk - - _ 
 
 118 
 
 Cleethoepes. North end of the cliff, and close to the pier. 
 
 From Me. I'enning's notes. 
 
 Feet. 
 Boring into" the Chalk -.-... 204 
 
 Forperly yielded 200 gallons in 6 minutes. The water overflows 2 feet 
 abovethe surface. [The supply is now much smaller.] 
 
136 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 OiEETHOBPES Pier (from half tide). 
 
 Communicated by Me. John Smith. 
 
 Fbet. 
 
 Marl clay - - - - - - - 60 
 
 Soft white Chalk with flints - - - - - — 
 
 One boring at Cleethorpes sunk 45 feet in soft Chalk. 
 
 CiBETHOBPBS. At the Gas tank. 
 
 Communicated by Mk. Joseph Jackling. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp - ..... about 20 
 
 Clay [Bonldor Clay] with vein of sand li yards thick at ] 5 yards 72 
 Sand - - ..... 2 
 
 To Chalk - - about 94 
 Chalk (soft like putty) 39 
 
 133 
 
 Oleeihoepes. At first Brick -yard on the Humber Shore W. of the village. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Clay, to Chalk 120 
 
 ClEETHOEPES, in the bed of the Humber, 400 yards below high- water mark. 
 Communicated by T. W. Wallis, Esq. (to Ma. Jukes-Bkownb). 
 
 Feet. 
 Eockat .... - - 72 
 
 In Chalk - - - 21 
 
 Yielding 100 gallons per minute, forcing a jet 16 feet higher 
 than the ground. 
 
 OoTTiNGHAM. Mr. Witty's land. 
 
 From a letter from Me. B. Witty to Eev. J. L. Eome, communicated by 
 Me. S. V. Wood, jun. (to Me. Dalton). 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Soil 2 
 
 Sand and Gravel - - - - - 16 
 
 Marl or red Clay - - - - - 8 or 9 
 
 Quicksand - - -15 or 20 
 
 Yellow Clay - - - - 2 or 3 
 
 To Chalk - - - ~43~ 
 
 OoTTiNGHAM. Thwaite Sti-eet. Same source. 
 
 Feet. 
 Sand. and Gravel, to Chalk . 40 
 
 C0TTIN8HAM. De-la-pole Grange. Same source (bored by Agar). 
 
 T. n /-.n Feet. 
 
 EedOlay - - - . . .59 
 
 CorriNGHAM. Brick-yard one mile east of, on the Hull Eoad. 
 Bored and communicated by Me. Beumby (to Me. Dakyns). 
 
 Alluvium - - . . . . .4 
 
 Peat •■-..... 1 
 
 Gravel . 8 or 10 
 
 Soft Clay and Chalk [Boulder Clay] not through . . 
 
 18 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 137 
 
 CornuGHAM. 
 
 Well at the Brick-yard one mile east of. 
 Same source. 
 
 To Chalk 
 Chalk - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 56 
 
 - 14 
 
 70 
 
 CoTTiNGHAM Church. 
 From Mr. Daktns' notes. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Danes Dike. 
 Communicated by Mk. Villiees (to Me. Daktns.) 
 
 Strong clay 
 Running sand 
 Blue clay 
 Dark sand 
 Blue clay 
 Eed clay - 
 G-ravel - 
 Rubble Chalk 
 
 To hard Chalk - 
 
 Donna Nook.. 
 Communicated by Mb. W. Sargent. 
 
 Feet. 
 - 30 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 25 
 
 - 7 
 
 - 4 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 5 
 • 1 
 
 2 
 
 - 2 
 
 - 47 
 
 Silt ^blowing) - , 
 Black mud 
 Clay and Sand - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 Feet. 
 30 or 33 
 
 - 21 
 
 - 60 
 
 
 To Chalk . 
 
 - 
 
 about 112 
 
 
 FULSTOW. 
 
 
 
 Communicated by Me. W. Sargent. 
 
 Boulder Clay ..... 
 Chalk 
 
 - 
 
 Feet. 
 - 60 
 
 Strong red clay . 
 Sand and gravel 
 Blue clay 
 
 Gembling. 
 
 - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 10 
 . 6 
 
 - 56 
 
 
 To Chalk . 
 
 . 
 
 - 72 
 
 GoxHiLL Marshes, S. part of. Several wells 
 
 
 Communicated by Mk. Westaby. 
 Warp ...... 
 
 
 Feet. 
 about 5 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Warp 
 Chalk 
 
 GoxHiLL Marshes, S. part of. Several wells. 
 Communicated by Me. Westabt. 
 
 Feet. 
 about 60 
 
138 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 Warp 
 Chalk 
 
 GoxHiLL Marshes, 4 ra. N.E. of Ox Marsh Farm 
 Communicated by Me. Westabt. 
 
 GoxHiLL Marshes. At Ox Marsh Farm. 
 Communicated by Mr. Westaby. 
 
 Warp - - : 
 
 Strong red clay with Chalk 
 Chalk - 
 
 Clay 
 Chalk 
 
 GoxHiLL, near the Station. 
 Communicated by Mb. Westaby. 
 
 GoxHiLL Priory. 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Hard clay with stones 
 Chalk 
 
 Clay 
 
 GoxHiLL. Littleworth. 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Geainsby Hall. 
 Communicated by Mr. Joseph Jackiing. 
 
 Strong clay 
 Chalk - 
 
 Geeai Coates. Mr. Cordeaux's. 
 Commuiiicated by Me. CoKDEAnx. 
 
 Boulder Clay, 8 feet 
 Sand (thick bed) 
 Boulder Clay - 
 Chalk 
 
 :} 
 
 Feet. 
 about 50 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - ? 
 
 - 27 
 
 Feet. 
 - .48 
 
 Feet. 
 - '45 
 
 Feet. 
 - 39 
 
 Feet. 
 about 84 
 
 Feet. 
 - 66 
 
 The house is about 9 or 10 feet above the marsh level. Similar sections 
 occur all over Great Coates. On the marshes a boring, midway between 
 the railway and the Humber bank, made by Mr. Cordeaux in July 1885, 
 passed through : — 
 
 Feet. 
 12 
 2i 
 1 
 
 Clear warp with a cockle shell ... 
 
 Forest bed --.--.. 
 
 Whitish Clay and sand [old soil ?] - 
 
 Chalky Boulder Clay, reddish at top, darker lower down, 
 the lowest part not unlike the lower bed at Dimlington 
 in colour - - - - - - - 55 or 60 
 
 Sand and gravel - - - - - -2 or 3 
 
 Chalk ... - - - - _ 
 
 Many of the wells at Coates are affected by the tides, the flow decreasing 
 at neap tides, though the water is perfectly fresh. 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 139 
 
 Grimsby. Borings for the water-works. 
 
 Bored and communicated by Messrs. Maihbb & Platt (to Me. C. E. be 
 Range). First bore-hole west of Grrimsby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Very soft clay, full of vegetable matter - - - 21 
 
 Gravel and sand - - - - - - 3§ 
 
 Clay ........5 
 
 Rough gravel and small flints - - - - -2 
 
 Fine soft clay and small flints - - - - 2 
 
 Rough gravel ....... llj 
 
 Fine gravel ■ . - . . . - - 15 
 
 Chalk, very hard 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 60 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 Water rose from the chalk 4 feet above ground in any quantity. At 
 24 feet from the surface there is only a yield of from 7,500 to 8,000 gals, 
 per hour. 
 
 Second bore-hole east of Grimsby (Cleelhorpes). 
 
 Feet, 
 Stifi" bluish-brown clay with flakes of Chalk and a few fossils 84 
 Sand and gravel - - - ■ - - 15 
 
 Chalk and Flints, in beds 
 
 To Chalk - 
 
 . 99 
 - 125 
 
 224 
 
 The top of the Chalk is very rotten and seems to be all broken up ; it had 
 to be tubed out to 120 feet from the surface. 
 
 Wood at . 
 To rook . 
 
 Grimsby. On the Marshes. 
 Communicated by Mb. W. Sargent. 
 
 Feet. 
 - 27 
 . 78 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Grimsby. 
 Communicated by Mr, Sargent. 
 
 Feet. 
 about 66 
 
 Grimsby. On the Humber shore near the new timber ponds. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Maughan. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Blue clay 
 Black peat 
 Sand and gravel 
 Marsh clay (brown) 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 18 
 
 - U 
 
 : I* 
 
 29 
 
140 WBLL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Blue clay - - - - - - - 24 
 
 Peat ....... seam 
 
 Silt and water - - ... - 3 
 
 Blue clay - - - - - - - — 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 27 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Good blue clay - - - - - - - 30 
 
 Peat ........ 1 
 
 Brown clay - - - - - - - — 
 
 31 
 
 Hedon Station. 
 
 Pbestwich, Quart. Journ. Oeol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 Feet. 
 Brick clay [Warp] - - - - - - 6 
 
 Grey marl with stones [Boulder Clay] - - - 24 
 
 Sand, with water - - - - - - — 
 
 30 
 
 Hedon. At Old Pollard Farm. 
 
 Phestwich, Quart. Journ. Oeol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 455. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1. Soil "1 ("2 
 
 2. Bed brick-clay - - - >• [Eeoent Warp] < 4 
 
 3. Black warp - - - J L 34 
 
 4. Eed clay full of stones [Boulder Clay] - - - 20 
 
 5. Eough gravel with sand and spa-water ] f 26 
 
 6. Very fine clay, clear of stones - ', [Inter-glacial J 8 
 
 7. Bed of flint - - . - -f beds ?] "^ 2 
 
 8. Black moor, decayed wood - -J , L 2 
 
 9. Blue clay with white sand - - 1 r 1 
 
 10. Blue clay with white marl - - \ [Boulder Clay] < 8 
 
 11. White marl-claywith cobbles and flints J [ 9 
 
 13. Chalk with bed of sand - - - - - 6 
 
 14. Chalk clear of flint 69 
 
 190 
 Hedon. At Twyer's Farm. 
 
 Pkestwich, Qum-t. Journ. Oeol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 455. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 r 2 
 
 [Recent Warp] J. 5 
 13 
 
 1. Soil - - 
 
 2. Good brick-clay 
 
 3. Black warp . . - 
 
 4. Strong marly clay with stones [Boulder Clay ?]J - - 40 
 
 5. Eough gravel-stones and spa-water -1 rj^ter-glacial f ^4 
 
 6. Fine clay - - - f ^ -RpH^PI 1 ^ 
 
 7. Dark green sand - - -J -Beasrj |^ .^^ 
 
 9. Blue clay with white sand - - \ [Boulder f 2 
 
 10. Hard mixture of blue clay and white marl j Clay P] 1 12 
 
 11. Eed clay with white marl - - - - 10 
 
 12. Chalk - - - - - . - 7 
 
 13. White sand which blew up into the pipes 20 feet high - 1 
 
 14. Chalk clear of flints - - - ■ - - 50^ 
 
 ~178i 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 141 
 
 T wyer's Farm lies a quarter of a mil e from the edge of the Marsh. Pollard 
 Farm is half a mile west.gonth-west of Twyers, and close to Hedon Havens 
 
 Hessle. 
 
 Clay, to Chalk ■ 
 
 Feet. 
 - 18 
 
 Warp 
 Chalk 
 
 HoLTON Skitter. Tile kiln 1 mile S.B. of. 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Fbet. 
 about - 55 
 
 Warp 
 Chalk 
 
 HoLTON Skitteb. Kilns. 
 Communicated by Mb. Westaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 ^bout 60 
 
 ' HoENSEA. At Mr Bateson's, between the Waterworks and 
 Atwick Mill. 
 
 Communicated by Me. Evison. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel and sand 
 
 To Chalk ■ 
 
 Feeit. 
 
 - 115 
 
 - 20 
 
 - 135 
 
 HoENSEA. At Mr. AUer's. 
 Communicated by Me. Evison. 
 
 Sand and Gravel 
 Hard marl and Chalk 
 Running sand - 
 Marl clay 
 Sea gravel 
 
 To Chalk- 
 
 Febt. 
 
 - 20 
 about 16 
 
 - 20 
 
 - ? 
 
 - ? 
 
 - 110 
 
 HoENSEA. Mr. Wade's Brick-yard. 
 Communicated by Me. Evison. 
 
 To Chalk (all clay) .... 
 
 Feet. 
 110 or 120 
 
 HoENSEA. Mr. Wade's Brick-yard. 
 
 , Comjnunicaied by Me. J. Smalley. 
 
 Chalk without flints, base not reached. No water 
 
 Feet. 
 - 976 
 
142 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 HoENSEA. Mr. Wade's Brick-yard, 1864-65. 
 Information from G. Smalley, sinker. ' [S. V. W.] 
 
 Grey marl ...--- 
 Ked sand . . . . - 
 
 Marl ...... 
 
 Red sand ..... 
 
 To Chalk 
 Soft rock ..... 
 
 Hard Chalk with a band of Fuller's earth at 550 feet 
 Fuller's earth ..... 
 Chalk with occasional bands of " Fuller's earth " 
 
 No water at 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 15 
 
 - 5 
 . 80 
 
 - 8 
 
 . 108 
 
 - 382 
 
 - 105 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 305 
 
 . 905 
 
 HoKNSEA, Mr. Wade's Hall (i mile N. of Hornsea and 1 mile W. of 
 CliflD. I860. 
 
 j.niormaiiiuii irum « 
 
 jr. OJB 
 
 LAijiiJSI, 
 
 Feet 
 
 Clay 
 
 Bed sand 
 Marl 
 
 
 
 . 10 
 . 4 
 - 26 
 
 Grey marl 
 Sand and Gravel 
 Bed morl [Boulder Clay] 
 Gravel and Sand 
 Conglomerate - 
 Fine sand 
 
 
 
 - 4 
 . 29 
 . 29 
 . 8 
 .2 
 . 3 
 
 
 To 
 In 
 
 Chalk 
 Chalk 
 
 - 115 
 
 - 56 
 
 171 
 
 HOENSEA. 
 
 Messrs. Wood and Bome, Qwi/rt. Jowrn. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 146. 
 Several borings gave Chalk at 60 or 70 feet below the sea-level. 
 
 Hornsea. New Inn. 
 
 Messrs. Wood and Bome, Quart. Jov/rn. Qeol, Soc, vol, xxvi. p. 146. 
 
 Feet. 
 Gravel, the upper 60 feet yielding small shells - - 161 
 
 Chalk -- ■ - - - . . — 
 
 [P.If trustworthy.] 
 
 HoENSEA Station. 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smalley. 
 
 To rock • 
 Chalk - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 93 
 
 - 40 
 
 133 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 143 
 
 HoENSEA Beidbe. Mt. Wade's new houses. 1862, 
 Information from Gr. Smallev, sinker. [S. V. W.] 
 
 Sand 
 
 Grey Clay 
 
 Gravel - 
 
 Marl [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Gravel - 
 
 Clay [Boulder Clay] 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 4 
 
 - 9 
 -• 19 
 
 - 22 
 
 - 2 
 
 - 58 
 
 - 114 
 
 - 47 
 
 161 
 
 Hull. New Forge, near St. Paul's. 1860. 
 G. Smalley, sinker. [S.Y.W.] 
 
 [Alluvium 
 22 feet.] 
 
 ■I' 
 
 •Clay 
 
 I Black Warp 
 
 . Sand and Gravel 
 
 Marl [Boulder Clay] - 
 
 Sand and Gravel 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet, 
 10' 
 10 
 
 2 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 53 
 113 
 
 166 
 
 Hull. Holderness Eoad. 1863. 
 G. Smalley, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 [Alluvium, /Clay .... 
 56 feet.] I Sand and Clay - 
 [Drift, /Marl [Boulder Clay] - 
 29 feet.] 1 Sand and Gravel 
 
 To Chalk 
 • In Chalk 
 
 Feet, 
 
 35 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 85 
 44 
 
 129 
 
 Alluvium, 
 26 feet. 
 
 [Drift, 
 57 feet.] 
 
 Hull. West Rod. 1862. 
 G. Smalley, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 ■Clay 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Dark sand 
 
 
 
 - 17 
 
 .Peat 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■Clay 
 
 
 
 - 45 
 
 Red Clay 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 . Sand and Gravel 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 
 - 83 
 
 
 In Chalk 
 
 
 - 304 
 387 
 
144 
 
 aVelL sections and BOKINGS. 
 
 Htjii. Mr. Oxeby's, near Samuelson's Works, 
 G. Smailet. [S.V.W.] 
 
 1863. 
 
 [Alluvium, 
 30 feet.] 
 
 [Drift, 
 76 feet.] 
 
 rOlay 
 
 Black sand 
 LPeat - 
 r Grravelly Clay - 
 i Marl [Boulder Clay] - 
 L Sand and Grravel 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Hull. Stone Ferry. Waterworks. 
 G. Smailey. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Alluvium, relay 
 
 25 feet. I Warp - 
 Drift, 25 ft. Marl [Boulder Olay] 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 
 
 about 
 
 15 
 
 - 
 
 It 
 
 5 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 9 
 
 . 
 
 about 
 
 55 
 
 - 
 
 >» 
 
 20 
 
 , 
 
 tj 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 175 
 280 
 
 i5£ 
 
 i. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 
 
 about 
 
 15 
 
 . 
 
 „ 
 
 10 
 
 - 
 
 " 
 
 25 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 50 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 181 
 
 231 
 
 [Alluvium, 
 
 38 feet.] 
 
 • [Drift, 
 
 39 feet.] 
 
 Hull. North Bridge, Lime Street. 
 G. Smalley. [S.V.W.] 
 
 relay - - - - 
 < Warp and dark sand - 
 
 1 Gravel and sand 
 /Marl [Boulder Clay] - 
 '.Sand and Gravel 
 
 - about 12 
 
 ■ 16 
 
 - 10 
 
 - 27 
 
 - _ . ■ 12 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 - 77 
 
 - 54 
 
 131 
 
 Hull. Derringham Street, near Cemetery. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Stiff clay ...... 
 
 Warp, sand and mud - - - . 
 
 Peat, very solid - - - . - 
 
 Gravel and red sand ..... 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 7 
 35 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 Hun. Dairycoates. 
 Wood and Eome, Qucvrt Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 146. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Warp - ' - - - . - 20 
 
 Peat - - 2 
 
 Clay with small checkers (Hessle clay) - - 19 6 
 
 Sand with small shells (Hessle sand) '- . 12 6 
 
 Chalk 
 
 at 54 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 145 
 
 Hull. On the forealiore at Dairy Coates Grange. 
 
 Communicated by Mb. Hubstwitz, Resident Engineer, Hull and 
 Bamsley Railway (to Mk. Camekon). 
 
 Feet. 
 Alluvial deposits - • - - - - 45 
 
 Drift 45 
 
 Chalk 235 
 
 325 
 
 Hull. Blundell's Oil Mill, Wincplmlee. 1863-64. 
 Information from G. Smalley, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Clay (Hessle Clay ?) 
 
 Sand and Gravel .... - 
 
 Marl (Purple Clay) . . . - - 
 
 Gravel ..-..-- 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Rook [Chalk?] 
 
 Grey hard Chalk 
 
 Blue Bind [Kimeridge Clay ?] 
 
 No water at - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 390 
 146 
 
 20 
 
 616 
 
 Hull. Blundell's New Mill, Groves. 
 Information from G. Smallet, sirlker. 
 
 Clay - 
 
 Black Warp - 1 
 Sand and Gravel J 
 Marl (Purple Clay) 
 Sand and Gravel 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 1864-65. 
 
 
 [S.V.W.] 
 
 Feet 
 - 12 
 
 
 - 18 
 
 
 . 20 
 5 
 
 
 - 55 
 
 - 151 
 
 206 
 
 To rook 
 
 Hull. Darling's, High Street. 
 Communicated by Mb. J. Smalley. 
 
 Feet. 
 100 
 
 To rook 
 
 A 16165. 
 
 Hull. Wincolmlee. 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smalley. 
 
 Feet. 
 74 
 
 K 
 
146 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINQS. 
 
 Hull. Block House Mill. 
 Pbof. Phillips, Bl/mtrations of the Geology of Yorkshire, Pfc. I. ed, 3, p. 66. 
 
 rSoil 
 Alluvial J Clay 
 Deposit, "■" 
 
 Diluvial 
 Deposit. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Silt sand - - - - 23 
 
 ^Moor and peat,- with large trees &c. 2 
 
 Blue clay - - - - 1 6 
 
 Brown clay - - - 22 6 
 
 Loamy clay - • - 12 
 
 Quicksand - - - 26 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Fbbt. 
 
 Mixed with 
 chalk frag- 
 >nientB, car- 
 honized 
 wood, &o. 
 
 32 
 
 >62 
 
 16 
 110 
 
 Hull. No. 1. B. H. ^-mile east of Springhead Pumping Station 
 and on the waterway to Hull (obtained by Mk. A.'G. Cameeon). 
 
 Feet. 
 Well - Soft marly clay warp • ■ - • - 50 
 
 Bore /^*i*l^ 350 
 
 L-Clay, Kimeridge probably - - - - — 
 
 -Hull. Springhead new Waterworks. 
 Information from Me. Dale. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Well .... 
 
 Strong marl ... 
 Soft rubMy Chalk 
 Strong rubble Chalk (? if in place) 
 To Chalk (certain) 
 
 Hull. Springhead Waterworks. 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smallet. 
 
 Marl [Boulder Clay] 
 Chalk . . 
 
 Clay [Kimeridge ?] 
 
 400 
 
 Feet. 
 15 
 6 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 Feet. 
 about 14 
 - 411 
 
 Hull. Danson Lane. 
 Communicated by Mk. J. Smallet. 
 
 Warp Clay 
 Boulder Clay - 
 Gravel - 
 Boulder Clay - 
 Chalk . 
 
 Bull, Jamieson's, Cannon Street. 
 Communicated by Mk. J. Smaller. 
 
 Warp and Boulder Clay 
 Chalk (base not reached) 
 
 162 
 
 Feet. 
 
 62 
 
 355 
 
 417 
 
■WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 147 
 
 HuiiL. By the Hydraulic Station at end of the New Graving Dock. 
 Communicated by Mr. J. Smailey. 
 
 To rook 
 Chalk - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 92 
 
 235 
 
 327 
 
 Hull. The Groves. 
 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smalley, 
 
 Two borings ; — one 64 feet to rock, the other 70 feet to rook. 
 
 Hull. Thomas Street. 
 Communicated by Mk. J. Smalley. 
 
 To rock 
 
 Fbht. 
 • 76 
 
 Fio. 11. — Position ofhorvngs on the Humher foreshore. 
 
 'Hmi, Borings on the shore west of Humber Docks. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Datum line high-water mark. 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3, 
 
 Water - 
 
 Slake and Sand 
 
 Black peat 
 
 Strong stony Clay 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Strong stony- brown Clay 
 
 Clay with sand threads 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Chalk rubbish and Sand 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. Feet. Feet. 
 
 5 5j m 
 25 1% n 
 
 2 4 44 
 
 10 not stated 8-^ 
 
 1 — lOi 
 
 20 — not stated 
 
 8 
 16 
 16 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 10^ 
 
 Water - 
 Slake and Sand - . 
 Soft atony brown Clay - 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 Wet sand 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 To strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Feet. 
 125 
 8 
 3 
 
 ioj 
 
 .104 
 ■ .44*^ 
 
 K 2 
 
148 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 Water 
 
 Slake and Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Chalk rubble and Sand 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Water - 
 
 Silt - 
 
 Peat - 
 
 Soft stony brown Clay 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Water 
 
 Silt and Sand 
 
 Peat - - 
 
 Soft stony brown Clay - 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Water 
 
 Strong stony brown CIlay 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Chalk rubble and Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Peei. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 124 
 
 184 
 
 20J 
 
 8 wanting 
 
 wanting 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 164 
 
 114 
 
 20 
 
 184 
 
 22 
 
 114 
 
 7 not stated 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 
 794 
 
 694 
 
 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 . 
 
 20J 
 
 194 
 
 
 wanting 14 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 - 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 _ 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 
 65J 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 " 
 
 
 - 184 
 
 - 64 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 3 
 
 " 
 
 
 - 6 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 23 
 
 " 
 
 
 - 94 
 
 - 7 
 
 
 
 - 8 
 804 
 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 No. 12. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet, 
 
 
 22 
 
 24i 
 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 
 154 
 
 10 
 
 
 wanting 14 
 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 78 
 
 Water 
 
 Soft stony brown Clay - 
 
 Loamy Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 Soft brown Clay 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 J70J 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 28i 
 
 - 4, 
 ■ 1 
 
 - 7 
 
 - 14 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 15 
 not stated 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 No. 21. 
 
 149 
 
 Water 
 
 Sand and Silt 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Wet Qnicksand 
 
 Strong atony brown Clay 
 
 Soft loamy Clay with Sand threads 
 
 No. 23. 
 
 Water 
 
 GrraTel [Shingle?] 
 
 Peat 
 
 Soft stony brown. Clay 
 
 Strong' „ „ 
 
 Wet loamy Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Strong loamy Clay with Sand threads 
 
 No. 24. 
 
 Feet, 
 16 
 7 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 114 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 Fket. 
 
 - m 
 
 - 1 
 
 . 4 
 
 - 2 
 
 - 114 
 
 - 64 
 
 - 9 
 
 - 3 
 
 521 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Water - _ - 
 
 
 - 124 
 
 Sand and Silt 
 
 
 6 
 
 Peat 
 
 
 - 3 
 
 Wet Sand 
 
 
 - 2 
 
 Soft stony brown Clay - 
 
 
 - 2 
 
 Strong „ „ - 
 
 
 - 10 
 
 Damp Sand 
 
 
 - 8 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 
 - 54 
 
 Clay with Sand threads - 
 
 
 - 34 
 
 524 
 
 Water - 
 
 Sand and Silt - 
 
 Damp Sand 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Water - 
 
 Sand and Silt - 
 
 Strong stony brown Clay 
 
 Soft ,, ,, 
 
 Strong „ >> 
 
 Clay with Sand threads 
 
 Chalk rubble - 
 
 No. 26. 
 
 No. 27 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 174 
 
 16J 
 
 - 10 
 
 18 
 
 - 15 
 
 94 
 
 - 8 
 
 7 
 
 - 4 
 
 34 
 
 544 
 
 63f 
 
 No. 28. 
 
 No. 29 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 15 
 
 24 
 
 - 234 
 
 194 
 
 . — 
 
 44 
 
 . — 
 
 6 
 
 - 8 
 
 164 
 
 - 184 
 
 184 
 
 . — 
 
 5 
 
 65 
 
 714 
 
150 
 
 WELL SECTTONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 Hull. New Docks. 
 
 B. H. in No. 2. Graving Dock, 26 feet 8 inches below High-water Mark. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. HuKSTTniz, Eesident Engineer, (to Mb. Cameeon). 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1. Clay with Peat and Gravel - - • - - 2 
 
 2. Stiff brown Clay ...... 4i 
 
 3. Sandy Clay or Warp - - - - • - 8 
 
 4. Coarse and sharp sand and water - - - - 9 
 Stiff Clay at 50 
 
 B. H., No. 1. Trial Pit B. H. 
 
 1. Soil - 
 
 2. Clay. 
 
 3. Warp 
 '4. Silt - 
 
 5. Sand 
 
 6. Black Silt 
 
 7. Quicksand 
 
 8. Clay - 
 
 Feet. 
 1 
 9 
 
 6-9 
 
 12-9 
 
 10-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 8-5 
 
 at50-4belowH.W. 
 
 No. 2. B. H. in Graving Dock begins at No. 4. in No. 1. B. H. Trial Pit. 
 
 HuLj,. North Bridge. 
 G, Smalley, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 ^"tT'lSirSd^ : 
 
 ^^^^°^- LPeat 
 Drift, r Marl [Boulder Clay] 
 46 feet. I Sand and Gravel - 
 
 -To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 . 25 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 23 
 
 - 23 
 
 ■ S3 
 130 
 
 HpLi. Carman Street, near St. Stephen's Church. 
 G. Smaliet, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 OK <■„„(. ' \ Sand and Gravel ... 
 25 feet. [pe^tMoss. 
 
 Drift, r Marl [Boulder Clay] 
 27 feet. \ Sand and Gravel . 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 . 5 
 
 - 19 
 . 1 
 
 - 17 
 
 - 10 
 
 - 52 
 
 - 109 
 
 161 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 151 
 
 HuMBEE Bed, between Eessle and Barton. 
 
 Borings made for the North-Eastern Eailway. 
 
 Communicated by Mb. Kbisey. 
 
 Bore-hole No. 2, 300 yards east of Hessle Perry. (Commences at level 
 of high-water.) 
 
 Pbet. 
 Yellow clay - - • - - - - 6 
 
 ' " 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 74 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Light-coloured warp clay 
 Soft dark warp clay 
 A little stronger warped 
 Dark peat 
 Clay and G-rarel- 
 Pebbles and flinty Gravel 
 Light-coloured warp 
 Fine sand and loose Chalk 
 
 Eed-coloured loose Chalk 
 White Chalk and flint - 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 424 
 
 74 
 16 
 
 66 
 
 Bore-hole No. 3, 7 chains south of No. 2, and immediately within the 
 Humber bank. (Commences at level of high water.) 
 
 Yellow warped clay 
 
 Black sUty warp 
 
 Blue warp and turf 
 
 Yellow warp . - . 
 
 Warped Chalk, gravel, and flint 
 
 To Chalk 
 Ked coloured Chalk 
 Wfiite Chalk and flint, full of water - 
 
 Feet. 
 7 
 16 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 14 
 
 Bore-hole No 4, 10 chains south of No. 3 (in 26 feet of water). 
 
 Peat 
 
 Blue warp and peat 
 
 Yellow clay - - i 
 
 Fine gritty Chalk and sand 
 
 Yellow warp 
 
 Yellow sandy warp 
 
 Sand, pebbles, and loose Chalk 
 
 To Chalk 
 White Chalk and flint, fflU of water , 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 14 
 
 - 3 
 
 - 104 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 . 2 
 
 - 4 
 
 - 3 
 
 - 244 
 . 30 
 
 644 
 
152 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 Bore-hole No 8, 10 chains south of No. 4 (in 334 feet of water). 
 
 Black warped sand - - - - - ~ ^t 
 
 "Warped sand and gravel - - - - - o 
 
 To Chalk - - - 22 
 
 Loose yellow Chalk and flint - - - - ' q 
 
 White Chalk and flint - - - - - ' t 
 
 Yery soft Chalk --■■■" 2 
 
 White Chalk _«_ 
 
 51 
 
 Bore-hole No. 7, 8 chains south of No. 8 (in 33 feet of water.) 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fine Sand, to Chalk 23 
 
 Loose Yellow Chalk - - ... 9 
 
 White Chalk and flint, full of water - - - - 16 
 
 Bore-hole No. 11, 12 chains south of No. 7 (in 36i feet of water). 
 
 Feet. 
 Fine quick boiling Sand - - - - - 18 
 
 Dark loamy Sand - - - - - - 9 
 
 To Chalk - - - 27 
 
 White Chalk, full of water - - - - - 4 
 
 31 
 
 Bore-hole No. 9, 12 chains south of No. 11 (in 39 feet of water). 
 
 FisET. 
 Quick boiling sand - - - - - - 25 
 
 Dark loamy sand - - - - - - 10 
 
 To Chalk - - - 36 
 Chalk, full of water 4 
 
 39 
 
 Bore-hole No. 10, 17 chains south of No 9 (in 27i feet of water). 
 
 Feet. 
 Fine light sand .--..-- 25^ 
 Coarse dark sand .... . 224 
 
 To Chalk . - - ' 48 
 
 White Chalk ....... 3 
 
 51 
 
 Bore-hole No. 12, 26 chains south of No. 10 (in 24 feet of water). 
 
 Feet. 
 Loamy sand - - .... 26 
 
 Coarse sand and Gravel - ■ - - - - 11 
 
 Sand, coarse Gravel, and Chalk pebbles - - - 5 
 
 To Chalk - - - 41 
 White Chalk 5 
 
 46 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 153 
 
 Bore-hole No. 6, 10 chains south of No. 12 (in 265 feet of water). 
 
 Feet. 
 Sandy warp - - - - - - - 7 
 
 Strong marl 
 
 Fine Sand, full of water 
 
 Soft red clay 
 
 Sand and Gravel 
 
 Strong marl [Boulder Clay] 
 
 G-ravel - - 
 
 Chalk not reached at 
 
 10 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 4^ 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 - 584 
 
 Bore-hole No. 5, 22 chains south of No, 6 and immediately within the 
 Humber bank about | mile east of Barton Water Side (commences 
 on the warp about 3 feet below high- water level). 
 
 Feet. 
 Eed clay - - - - - - - 85 
 
 Peat 3 
 
 Coarse sand - - - - - - - 20 
 
 Strong clay, small chalk stones [Boulder Clay] - - 8 
 
 Soft warp - - - - - - - 28 
 
 ■Strong fine clay - - - - - - 5 
 
 Chalk not reached at 
 
 - 72* 
 
 Immingham. 
 Communicated by Mr. Smith. 
 
 Boulder Clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay 
 
 Gravel and sand 
 
 To Chalk - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 42 to 45 
 
 - 4 to 8 
 
 - about 1 
 
 - 4 to 10 
 
 -70 to 80 
 
 Immingham Marsh. 
 Communicated by Mr. Smith. 
 
 Blue warp -....- 
 
 Rotten wood ...... 
 
 Warp clay (bluer) ... 
 
 Near the Humber the Warp is more sandy. 
 
 Feet. 
 . 30 
 -lto3 
 30 
 
 Kele. 
 Communicated by Mr. J. Villiees. 
 
 Strong blue clay 
 White gravel 
 
 To €halk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 60 
 
 - 3 
 
 - 63 
 
 Keyingham Station. 
 Pbestwich, Qua/rt. Jowm. Soe. Geol., vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 Strong clay ...... 
 
 Marl with stones ..... 
 
 Sand bed with sufficient water 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 12 
 
 - 3 
 
154 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 South KiiiLiNGHOiME Haven, about i mile N.W. of. 
 
 Communicated by Mb. WeStaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp and silt sand - - ■ - - - .50 
 Chalk — 
 
 KiLLiNGHOiME Haven, Tile Kiln S. of. 
 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp ....... aboutSO 
 
 Chalk — 
 
 Kulingholme. Near the School House. 
 
 Communicated by Me. John Smith, Immingham. 
 
 Feet. 
 Well sunk in clay - - - - - - 24 
 
 Bored 60 
 
 To Chalk - - • - 84 
 
 KiiLiNGHOiME. Coast Gruard Station. 
 
 Communicated by Mb. Smith. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp, the lower part alternating Chalk and Clay [part 
 probably Boulder Clay], rook not touched - - 107 
 
 ' 150 yards inland water was obtained at 54 or 56 feet in shingly gravel. 
 
 LiMBEE. At Mr. Frankish's. 
 
 Communicated by Me. John Smith. 
 
 Feet. 
 Chalk with layers of flint ..... 168 
 
 LiMBEE. At Mr. lies' Farm. 
 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 
 Feet. 
 Clay with stones • - - . . - 12 
 
 Gravel ------.. 6 
 
 To Chalk . . -^8 
 
 Between Mappibton and Hornsea. 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Villiees, of Beverley. 
 
 Feet. 
 Stony blue clay - - - - - • -40 
 
 Sand - . - - - - . . - 10 
 
 Clay ........ 50 
 
 Sand and gravel with shells - - . . .32 
 
 To Chalk - . ."lii 
 
 Maefieet Station. 
 Prestwich, Qua/rt. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 Feet. 
 Warp 3Q 
 
 Salt water sprang from " rotten stuff." 
 
WEI,L SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 155 
 
 MiuRSH Chapel.. Several wells. 
 Communicated by Me. W. Saegent. 
 
 Soil and Cla,j 
 Black mnd 
 Layer of wood - 
 Clay and sand - 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Napfeeton Station, 
 Communicated by Ms. J. Villiees. 
 
 Very soft Warp clay 
 White gravel, full of water 
 Chalk, very small rotten stuff • 
 
 Solid Chalk 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 9 
 
 - 21 
 . 1 
 
 - 54 
 
 - 85 
 
 Feet. 
 about 13 
 
 - 10 
 
 - 25 
 
 - 48 
 
 - 162 
 
 New Holland. 
 Communicated by Mb. Sampson to Me. Penning. 
 
 Well, to Greensand [?] - . •• 
 
 New Holland. Pier Head. 
 Communicated by Me. Westabt. 
 
 Warp ....... 
 
 Hard clay with stones - - - . . 
 
 Chalk (falls 3 feet from New Holland) - 
 
 210 
 
 Feet. 
 320 
 
 Feet. 
 - P 
 . 30 
 
 To rock 
 
 New Holland. Jackson's Brick Yard. 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smalley. 
 
 ■ . . ■ * > . 
 
 New Holland. Near the Eailway Junction. 
 
 Communicated by Me. Westabt. 
 
 Brick clay (warp) 
 
 Warp 
 
 Peat with wood - 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clean brown clay 
 
 Feet. 
 - 46 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 7 
 
 - 20 
 
 - 2to4 
 
 - 3 
 about 17 
 
 - 50 
 
 New Holland to Baekow Feeey. 
 Communicated by Me. Westaby. 
 For a mile the depth to the rook is about 50 feet, the top of the Chalk 
 being very level. 
 
 NoETH Cotes Fitties. 
 Communicated by Me. Joseph Jackling. 
 
 To Chalk (rather soft) 
 
 Feet. 
 about 84 to 90 
 
156 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 NoETH Coxes. (Several wells.) 
 Oommunicated by Mb. Joseph Jackiing. 
 
 Warp ...---■ 
 Sand 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 60 
 
 - li 
 
 Dark stiflF clay with a few stones - - - 15 tol8 
 
 Sand with stones - - - - t to 3 
 
 To Hard Chalk - - - 85 
 
 North Cotes. Near Tetney. 
 
 Information from a well-sinker at Louth (to Mr. Jukes-Bkowne). 
 
 Feet. 
 Eeddish clay ------- 5 
 
 Silt and " moor " - . - - 40 
 
 Blue clay with stones - - - - - - 30 
 
 Sand - ""■"'" o 
 
 Chalk touched ------- 2 
 
 _83 
 
 North Cotes Parsonage. 
 Communicated by Me. Joseph Jackiing. 
 At H yards down leaves and wood were found. 
 
 North Fereibt. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 B d I ^^^ strong blue clay, no particulars - - 1 j^gg 
 
 170 
 
 Well deepened to 200 feet, when Chalk was reached and water. 
 
 NoETH Ferribt Landing. New red brick house. 
 
 Feet. 
 Sank in Silty clay - - - - - - 24 
 
 Bored in Strong clay - - - - - 10 
 
 34 
 
 North Thoeesby. Engine yard. ^^ 
 
 Communicated by Mr. Joseph Jackiing. 
 
 Feet. 
 Clay with stones . . - - - 81 
 Sand (thin bed) - - - - - . - — 
 Chalk — 
 
 North Thoresby. Near the Granby Inn. 
 
 Communicated by Me. Joseph .Tackiing. 
 
 Feet 
 Boulder Clay - - - - 48 
 
 Grravel -.---.-. 10 
 
 Otteingham Maesh. Prop. J. Phiiiips' lUustrations of the Geology of 
 Yorkshire, ed. 3, p. 66. 
 
 " The layer of peat, one yard thick, was found 41 yards beneath the 
 surface; 36 yards of various diluvial matter lay beneath ; and the- Chalk 
 was found at the depth of 78 yards." 
 
 [The above measurements evidently should be feet, not yards.] 
 
 Otteingham. Where the Ottringham Boad crosses the railway. 
 Peestwich, Qitart. Jown. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 Feet. 
 Strong marl with stones, no water - - - - - 30 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 157 
 
 Paieington Station. 
 
 Strong red marl 
 
 Grey marl with stones ■ 
 
 Sand with water 
 
 Feet. 
 30 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 Paull. Saltend. 1861. 
 
 Information from Gr. Smailby, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Feet. 
 Clay [Warp and perhaps Boulder Clay] . - - about 100 
 
 Sand, gravel and small cockles [probably Inter-glacial 
 Gravels] ...... about 14 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 114 
 46 
 
 160 
 
 Pauli. 650 ft. from the Clifl; 24 ft. above H.W.M. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Feet. 
 Coarse sand - - - - - - - 20 
 
 Fine sand - - - - - - " .^ . 
 
 The well is sunk on the edge of a bank of Clay, the lower 8 ft. being in 
 the Clay on one side. 
 
 Pkeston. South of Cold Harbour. 
 Messes. R. &.S. Brujuby. . 
 
 Warp 
 Peat - 
 Grave 
 Chalk - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 - 8-10 
 
 about 55 
 
 EiSE. Mr. Bethel's. 1864. 
 Information from G. Smallet, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Marl 
 
 Grey sand 
 
 Clayey sand 
 
 Clay [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay - n 
 
 Sand 5 inches 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sand 5 inches 
 
 Cobbles 
 
 Clay 4 ft. - 
 
 Sand 
 
 11. • f 
 ft. - J 
 
 Clay 4 ! 
 
 Sand - T 
 
 Small Gravel I 
 Sand - r 
 
 Gravel - J 
 Marl 
 Gravel - 
 Conglomerate 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 70 
 
 Feei. 
 10 
 2 
 
 18 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 128 
 
 254 
 
 382 
 
158 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 EOTJTH, 
 
 Communicated by Me. Villiees. 
 
 Fine sand (perhaps alternations of clay and sand) 
 Blue clay ..... 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 • 40 
 - 10 
 
 . 50 
 
 Boulder Clay 
 Sand 
 
 Boulder Clay 
 Grravel • 
 
 Skielaugh. 
 Communicated by Me. J. Smallet. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 60 . 
 
 - 6 
 . 28 
 
 - 2 
 
 - 96 
 
 South Someecotes. 
 Communicated by Me. Josefh Saczlisb. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Black Bofb clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Strong clay 
 
 Sand 
 
 Chalk (very soft, like putty) 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 27 
 
 - 45 
 
 - 4 
 12 to 15 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 90 
 
 - 39 
 
 129 
 
 Spuek High Lighthouse, boring made about 1860. [Mr. Pickwell.] 
 
 Feet. 
 Shingle - - - - - - 50 or 60 
 
 The water rose and fell with the tide, and corresponded nearly with the 
 sea, both in level and taste. 
 
 Spiten Head. Shallow well sunk about 1780. [Smeaton.] 
 
 Feet. 
 Sand - -,- - - - - 5 or 6 
 
 The water was only slightly brackish, and was unaffected by the 
 tide. 
 
 Stailingboeough and Killingholme. 
 
 Borings made in 1874 ; communicated by Me. Fishee. 
 
 No. 1. Outside the sea bank 50 feet S.E. of the Signal Post next 
 Stallingborough Creek. ' 
 
 Brick clay , - 
 Soft clay and warp 
 Wood, silt, and soft clay 
 
 
 
 ■ 7 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 Soft warp 
 
 Hard marl clay [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Small gravel 
 
 Hard marl clay [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Clean loose sand 
 
 
 
 • 16 
 
 5 
 
 • 3 
 
 ■ 10 
 
 ■ 4 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 - 68 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS. 
 
 159 
 
 No. 2. Inside the sea bank 133 yards N.W. of No. 1. 
 
 Brick clay- 
 Soft blue silt 
 Clay and old timber 
 Hard marl clay [Boulder Clay] 
 Small gravel and sand - 
 Hard clay, as above [Boulder Clay] 
 Loose sand - . . 
 
 i^ard clay 
 
 Ohalk 
 
 Fjsbt. 
 5 
 
 35 
 4, 
 3 
 3 
 
 12 
 5 
 4, 
 
 71 
 5 
 
 76 
 
 No. 7. i mile N.W. of the Battery Grounds. 
 
 Brick clay 
 Soft blue clay 
 Blue silt 
 Wood and clay 
 Loose red sand 
 Soft clay 
 Loose red sand 
 Smooth brovm brick clay 
 
 Feet. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 No. 10. i mile S. of S. Killingholme Haven. 
 
 Brick clay 
 
 Soft blue clay - 
 
 Blue silt 
 
 Wood and clay - 
 
 Strong blue clay 
 
 Silt^and loose sand 
 
 Good brown clay 
 
 Loose sand and gravel 
 
 Brown clay 
 
 Small gravel 
 
 Blue clay and sand, in thin beds 
 
 Hard marl clay . - - 
 
 Feet. 
 6 
 
 12 
 8 
 2 
 
 14 
 4 
 9 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 
 n 
 _!* 
 
 74 
 
 No. 11. i mile S.E. of Noeth Killingholme Haven. 
 
 Chalk at 
 
 No. 14. i mile N.W. of Halton Skittee Haven. 
 
 Brick clay ...... 
 
 Soft blue clay and silt ..... 
 
 Hard marl clay [Boulder Clay] 
 
 Soft Chalk ...... 
 
 Feet. 
 - 55 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 6 
 
 - 24 
 
 - 10 
 
 - 5 
 
 Hard Chalk at 
 
 - 45 
 
160 
 
 WELL SECTIONS AND BORINGS. 
 
 Sunk Islaud-. Tracing by Rev. J. L. Rome. [S.V.W.] 
 
 [AUavium,jS^^ 
 
 58 feet] [ silt, salt water 
 rn_-ft. r Chalky clay and stones 
 54 feet] [gj^^y . 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 35 
 9 
 14 
 19 
 30 
 5 
 
 112 
 
 218 
 
 330 
 
 Sunk Island [exact locality not stated]. Tracing by 
 
 Rev. J. L. Rome. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Ft. iNi 
 
 rSoil 16 
 
 .,, . 1 Brown marl - - - - - 4 3 
 
 ,-Tj™' <{ Black and brown sand - - - - 1 11 
 
 34i feet. ^ g^^^ ^^^^ 17 
 
 _Finesand - - - - - - 25 
 
 'Brown clay with chalk pebbles, &c. - - 19 4 
 
 Red clay and pebbles - - - - 6 
 
 Fine brown clay , - - - - - 1 
 
 Brown clay and chalk - - - - 26 4 
 
 Fine brown clay . - - - - - 2 6 
 
 Fine grit sand - - - - - 2 
 
 Gravel 6 2 
 
 Blue flint and sand - - - - 1 
 
 Fine brown clay - - - - - 1 4 
 
 Clay, chalk and pebbles - - - - 9 
 
 Lead-coloured clay - - - - 1 
 
 Drift, 
 79f feet. 
 
 [109 11 P] 113_11 
 
 Sunk Island. Church. [Perhaps the same as the last section.] 
 Oldham, Bep. Brit. Assoc, for 1853, p. 37. 
 
 Alluvial soil 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay 
 
 Silt and salt water 
 
 Chalk, clay and stones 
 
 Gravel and stones 
 
 Clay 
 
 Chalk - 
 
 329 
 
 Tbtney. Near the Blow Wells. 
 -Communicated by Mb. Joseph JacbJiINs. 
 
 Clay ....... 
 
 Chalk ....... 
 
 Water rises seven or eight feet above the surface. 
 
 Tetnet Village. 
 Communicated by Mr. Joseph Jackling. 
 
 Boulder Clay ...... 
 
 Rock [Chalk] - - . . . 
 
 Feet. 
 ^ 63 
 
 Feet. 
 - 81 
 
WELL SECTIONS AND BOEINGS, 
 
 161 
 
 Tetney. 
 Communicated by Ma. Joseph Jackiing. 
 To Iiard Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 - 81 
 
 Sand 
 Clay 
 
 Thoknton CoiiEGE. Immediately N. of. 
 Communicated by Mb. Westabt. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 6 
 
 - 30 
 
 - 36 
 
 Sand 
 Clay 
 
 Thoknton Mabsh. New Farm on.' 
 Communicated by Ms. Westabt. 
 
 To Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 6 
 
 - 42 
 
 48 
 
 WliLEBBY. Town pump. 
 G. Smailey, sinker. [S.V.W.] 
 
 Clay (Hessle) 
 
 Clay and Chalk debris 
 
 To Chalk 
 In Chalk 
 
 Feet. 
 about 15 
 
 - 10 
 
 about 25 
 
 - 65 
 
 90 
 
 Winestead Gate-house. 
 Peestwich, Qium-t. Journ. Geol. 8oc., vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 "Warp ...---. 
 
 Strong red marl .----. 
 
 Marl with stones ... 
 
 Dirty sand with water . - - . . 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 30 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 30 
 
 65 
 
 WiTHEENSEA Station. 
 Pkestwich, Qua/}-t. Journ. Oeol. 8oc., vol. xvii. p. 456. 
 
 Clay marl ...... 
 
 Gravel and sand ------ 
 
 Strong marl with stones .... 
 
 Gray sand and shells, with water ... 
 
 Feet. 
 
 - 15 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 60 
 ■ 2 
 
 82 
 
 A 16165. 
 
 ^/ 
 
162 WELI, SECTIONS AND BOKINGS. 
 
 WiTHEBNSEA. Simpson's Brick-yard, 
 
 Communicated by Mk. J. Smailey. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Depth of well - - - - - - - 6i 
 
 Bored from bottom of well to rock - - ■ - 89 
 
 To Chalk 150 
 
 Chalk 67 
 
 217 
 
 Bridge over the Ouse on the Hull and Doncaster Branch of the 
 North-eastern Eailway. 
 
 From a section of the river bed in possession of 
 
 S. V. Wood, Esq., jim. 
 
 [Inserted for comparison with the borings near Hull]. 
 
 Boring 1 . About 8 feet from spring tide highwater mark on the Hook side 
 ,, 2. In the river 200 feet from 1. 
 „ 3. „ 200 „ 2. 
 
 „ 4. „ 205 „ 3. 
 
 ,,5. „ 210 „ 4 near H.W.M. on the Skelton side. 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 
 Water at spring tides 
 Silt and sand 
 
 Black peat - - - 
 
 Wet sand and gravel 
 Soft brown clay 
 Wet sand and gravel 
 Soft brown shale or loamy clay 
 Soft blue shale 
 Strong blue shale (not pierced) 
 
 Depth from spring tide high water 76 69 74 74i 95 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 194 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 • 22 
 
 74 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 . 16 
 
 15 
 
 16i 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 ■ 3i 
 
 12 
 
 4i 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 . 3 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 5^ 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 . 15 
 
 154 
 
 18 
 
 154 
 
 10 
 
 • 10 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5' 
 
 30 
 
LIST OF W0KK8 ON HOLDEENESS 163 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 LIST OF WORKS ON HOLDEENESS. 
 
 1662. 
 DuGDALE, [Sir] William. The History of Inibanking and Drayning of 
 Divers Penns and Marshes, Both in Forein Parts, And in this Kingdom ; 
 And of the Improvements thereby. London. [2nd edit. Revised and 
 corrected by C. N. Oole. Pol. London, 1772.] 
 
 1685. 
 Callis, Robert. — Readings on the Statute of Sewers. 2nd edit. 4to. 
 
 1687 ? [Published 1760.] 
 CoiLiKS, Oapt. Gr.— Great Britain's Coasting Pilot. Pol. 
 
 1739. 
 
 Scott, J. — Draft of the River Humber. 4th edit. 3vU. Engraved 
 and printed by I. Hilbert. • 
 
 1784. 
 
 Pennant, Thos. — ^Arctic Zoology. 4to. London. Vol.1. Cpntainsan 
 account of the loss of land in Holderness.] 
 
 1786. 
 Tukb's Map of Holderness. See Potjlson, 1840. 
 
 1791. 
 
 Smeaton, John. — Narrative of the Building of the Eddystone Light- 
 house, &o. Pol. London, 1813. 2nd edit. 
 
 1799. 
 Young, Arthur. — Agricultural Survey of Lincolnshire. 8vo. 
 
 1800. 
 
 Stone, Thomas. — Review of the corrected Agricultural Survey of Lin- 
 colnshire by Arthur Young. 8vo. 
 
 1805. 
 Bligh, Cajt. — A Survey of the Humber, 1797. {Adrm/ralty Ohwrt.) 
 
 1812. 
 Strickland, H. E. — Agricultural Survey of Yorkshire, Bast Riding. 
 8vo. Yorh. 
 
 1815. 
 
 Stoker, Dr. J.— On an Ebbing and Plowing Stream discovered by boring 
 in the Harbour of Bridlington. Phil. Trans., vol. cv., part 1, p. 55; and 
 Phil. Mag., vol. xlv. p. 432. 
 
 1816. 
 
 BoGG, E. — A Sketch of the Geology of the Lincolnshire Wolds. Trans. 
 Geol Soe., vol. iii. p. 392. 
 
 Stevenson, Robert. — Observations on the Alveus or General Bed of the 
 German Ocean and British Channel. Mem. Wem. Soe., vol. ii. pp. 464 
 -490. 
 
 a 16165. M 
 
164 LIST OF WORKS ON HOLDBRNESS. 
 
 1817. 
 
 Anon.— The Ebbing and Plowing Stream in the Harbour of Bridlington, 
 Yorkshire. Phil. Mag., vol. xlix. p. 230. . 
 (W. S.)— On Ebbing and Plowing Springs. Phil. Mag., vol. i. 
 
 ^'Inglis, G.— On the Cause of Ebbing and Plowing Springs (Bridlington). 
 Phil. Mag., vol. i. p. 81. 
 
 1820. 
 Stevenson, Eobeet.— On the Bed of the German Ocean, or North Sea. 
 Mem. of the Wernerian, Soc, vol. iii. pp. 314-336. 
 
 1822. 
 
 Anon. — Possil Remains [Atwiok near Hornsea]. Phil. Mag., vol. be. 
 p. 154 , , . 
 
 Young, Ket. Geo. and J. Bikd.:— A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire 
 Coast. 4to. [2nd edit, in 1828.] * 
 
 1823. 
 BncKiAND, Eev. Prop. W.^Eeliquias Diluvianas. 4to. 
 
 1824. 
 Ordnance Survey Map, scale 1 inch to 1 mile. Sheets 85 and 86. 
 
 1825. 
 Sedgwick, Eev. Peoi. A.— On the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial 
 Formations. [Yorkshire, pp>. 243, 244.] Ann. of Phil, ser. 2, vol. is. 
 p. 241, and vol. x. p. 18. 
 
 1826. 
 
 Sedgwick, Eev. PRor. A. — On the Classification of the Strata which 
 appear on the Yorkshire Coast. Ann. of Phil., ser. 2, vol. xi., p. 339. 
 
 White, W. — The Directory, Guide, and Annals of Kingston-upon-Hull. 
 Leeds. 12mo. 
 
 1827. 
 
 Phillips, [Peof.] J. — On the Direction of the Diluvial Currents in York- 
 shire. Phil. Mag., ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 138. 
 
 1829. 
 
 Phillips, Psof. J. — Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire, or a 
 Description of the Strata and Organic Eemains of the Yorkshire Coast. 
 4to. York. Edit. 2nd, in 1835. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Alien, Thomas.— A New and Complete History of the County of York. 
 '4to. 
 
 1833. 
 
 Lyell, [Sm] Charles. — Principles of Geology. 8vo. vol. i. [Many 
 later editions.] 
 
 1834. 
 Phillips, Prop. J. — On the Ancient and partly buried Forests of 
 Holdemess. Phil. Mag., ser- 3, vol. iv., p. 282. 
 
 1835. 
 Bean, W — A short Acootmt of an interesting Deposit of Fossil Shells 
 at Burlington Quay. Mag. Nat. Si^t., vol. viii. p. 355. 
 
LIST OF WOEKS ON HOLDEKNESS. 165 
 
 1836. 
 Phillips, Pkop. J.— Notice of a newly discovered Tertiary Deposit on 
 the Coast of Yorkshire (Bridlington). Bep. Brit. Assoc, for 1835, Trans, 
 of Sections, p. 62. 
 
 1839. 
 Lyell, [Sie] C— On the Eelative Ages of the Tertiary Deposits com- 
 ™°iJ,?s°*^'^'^ " Crag,".in the Counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. (Yorkshire, 
 p. iiS.) Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 313. 
 
 1840. 
 
 PouLSON, Geoege.— History of Holderness. 4to. Hull. fContains 
 Tuke's Map of 1786.] 
 
 1843. 
 
 PusEY, P. — On the Agricultural Improvements of Lincolnshire. Journ. 
 Boyal Agrie. Soc, vol. iv. pp. 287-316. 
 
 1846. 
 Harbours of Eefuge Commission, Eeport. 
 Tidal Harbours Commission, 2nd Eeport. 
 
 1846. 
 Forbes, Pbof. E — On the Connexion between the Distribution of the 
 existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and the G-eologieal Changes 
 which have affected their area, especially during the epoch of the 
 Northern Drift. Mem. Geol. Smvey, vol. i. pp. 336-432. 
 
 1848. 
 Le&abd, G. — Farming of the East Eiding of Yorkshire. Jowrn. Boyal 
 Agric. Soc, vol. ix. p. 85 ; and Trans. York. Agric. Soc, no. xi. p. 69. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Clarke, J. A. — Farming of Lincolnshire. Journ. Boyal Agric. Soc, 
 vol. xii. pp. 259-414. 
 
 1862. 
 
 SoBBY, H. C. — On the Contorted Stratification of the Drift of the Coast 
 of Yorkshire. Proc. Oeol. Soc. Yorkshire, vol. iii. p. 220. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Phillips, Prop. J. — The Eivers, Mountains, and Seacoast of Yorkshire. 
 8vo. Land. [Edit. 2 in 1855.] 
 
 . — A Map of the Principal Features of the Geology of Yorkshire. 
 
 (Scale 5 miles to an inch.) York. [Edit. 2 in 1862.] 
 
 SoRBY, H. C. — On the Microscopical Structure of some British Tertiary 
 and Post-tertiary Freshwater Marls and Limestones. [Holderness, p. 345.] 
 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. ix. p. 344. 
 
 Wood, S. V. — A Monograph of the Crag Mollusca. pt. 2. [Yorkshire, 
 pp. 168, 179, 182-184, 187, 196.] Pal. Soc 
 
 1864. 
 
 Bell, Dr. J. P. — Observations on the Character and Measurements of 
 Degradation of the Yorkshire Coast. Sep. Brit. Assoc for 1853, p. 81. 
 
 Kemp, G. G. — On the Waste of the Holderness Coast. Bep. Brit. Assoc 
 for 1853, Trans, of Sections, p. 53. 
 
 Oldham, Jas. — On the Physical Features of the Humber. Bep. Brit. 
 Assoc for 1853, p. 36. 
 
 SoiLiTT, J. D. — On the Chemical Constitution of the Humber Deposits. 
 Bep. Brit. Assoc, for 1853, Trans, of Sections, p. 49. 
 
 M 2 
 
166 LIST or WORKS ON HOLDEENESS. 
 
 1854-1855. 
 
 Ordnance Survey Map, Yorkshire, scale 6 inches to 1 mile. Sheets 
 128, 129, 146, 163, 180, 197, 212, 213, 228, 242, 243, 257, 269, 269a. [Sur- 
 veyed in 1852-3.] 
 
 1855. 
 
 I&fox, R. — Descriptions, Geological, Topographical, and Antiquarian, in 
 Eastern Yorkshire, between the Rivers Humber and Tees. [Geology, 
 pp. 1-50.] 8vo. Land. 
 
 Phihips, Pfior. J. — Lecture on " Some Peculiar Phenomena in the 
 Geology and Physical Geography of Yorkshire," pp. 20-27 of vol. i. of 
 Sheahan and Weelan's " History and Topography of the City of York." 
 8vo. Beverley. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Jones, [Peop.] T. R. — A Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostraca of 
 England. [Yorkshire, pp. 29, 44.] Fal. Soc.', 
 
 1858. 
 TiNDALL, Bdwabd. [Letter.] Geologist, vol. i. p. 493. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Anon. (W.) — The Deposition of Warp. Geologist, vol. ii.p. 490. 
 
 Simpson, M. — Guide to the Geology of the Yorkshire Coast. [4th 
 edit. 1868.] 
 
 SoEBY, H. C. — On the Crag Deposit at Bridlington, and the Microscopic 
 I'ossils occurring in it. Proc. Oeol. Soc. YorhsMre, vol. iii. p. 559. 
 
 Trollope, Rev. E. — On the Alluvial Lands, and Submarine Forests of 
 Lincolnshire. Proc. Geol. Soc. Tm'hshire, vol. iii. p. 637. 
 
 1860. 
 TiNDALL, Edwasd. — [Letter on] Mammalian Remains at Bridlington, 
 Geologist, vol. iii. p. 119. 
 
 1861. 
 
 MuERAY, John. — On the North Sea ; with Remarks on some of its 
 Friths and Estuaries. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xx. p. 314. 
 
 Peestwich, J. — On the Occurrence of the Cyrena fluminalis, together 
 with Marine Shells of Recent Species, in Beds of Sand and Gravel over 
 Beds of Boulder Clay near Hull. Qucurt. Jov/rn. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 446. 
 
 Walcoit, M. E. C.— Guide to the Coasts of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire. 
 12mo. London. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Oldham, J. — On Reclaiming Land from Seas and Estuaries [Waste of 
 Land along the Humber, &c.]. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxi. p. 454. 
 
 1863. 
 Lyeil, Sik C— Antiquity of Man. 8vo. [4th edit. 1873.] 
 
 1864. 
 
 TiNDAiL, E. — [Letter on] the Present State nf the Bridlington Crag. 
 Oeol. Mag., vol. i. p. 142. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun. — The Bridlington Crag. Geol. Mag., vol. i. p. 246. 
 
 Woodward, S. P. — Remarks on the Bridlington Crag, with a List of its 
 Fossil Shells. Geol. Mag., vol. i. pp. 49, 142. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Claek, Ed. H.— Description of Great Grimsby (Royal) Docks. Proe. 
 Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. xxiv. p. 38. 
 
 Pechell, a. H.— [Letter] on Magnetic Pyrites from Barton. Oeol. Man., 
 vol. ii. p. 234. 
 
 ■ Simpson, M— The Drift of the East of England. Geol. and Nat. Hist. 
 Repertory, vol. i. p. 57. 
 
LIST OF WORKS ON HOLDEBNESS. 167 
 
 .1866. 
 
 Jones, Pkof. T. B,., W. K. Parker, and H. B. Bbadt.— A Monograph of 
 the Poraminifera of the Crag. Part I. [Bridlington, Plate 4.] Pal. Soc, 
 
 Oldham, Jas. — Evidence before the Select Committee of the Lords on 
 the Holderness Embankment and Reclamation Bill, April 1866. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Foster, Dr. — On the Discovery of Ancient Trees below the Surface of 
 the Land, at the Western Dock, now being constructed at Hull. Bep. 
 Brit. Assoc, for 1866, Tram, of Sections, p. 52. 
 
 Hah, H. F. — Drift Sections of the Holderness Coast. Proc. Liverpool, 
 Geol. Soc, Session 8, p. 12. 
 
 . — Lacustrine Deposits of Holderness. Ibid., p. 38. 
 
 1868. 
 
 Phim-ips, Prop. J. — Notice of the Hessle Drift, as it appeared in Sec- 
 tions above Forty Tears since. Qua/rt. Jowrn. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 250. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun., and Rev. J. L. Rome. On the Glacial and Post- 
 glacial Structure of Lincolnshire and South-east Yorkshire. Qiw/rt. Jov/rn. 
 Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 146. 
 
 1869. 
 
 Jenkins, H. M. — Bastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. Jowrn. 
 Boyal Agric. Soe., ser. 2., vol. v.. pp. 399-414. [Geological Map by J. R. 
 Mortimer.] 
 
 . — Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms, near Grimsby, &c. 
 
 Jown. Boyal Agric. Soc., ser. 2., vol. v., pp. 416-442. 
 
 Shelford, W. — On the Outfall of the River Humber. Proc. Iriet. Ciii. 
 Eng., vol. xxviii., p. 472. [With long discussion by Messrs. Bateman, 
 Belcher, Coode, Harrison, and Redman.] 
 
 Tylor, a. — On Quaternary Gravels. [Yorkshire, p. 61]. Quart. Jov/rn. 
 Geol. Soc, vol. XXV. p. 67. 
 
 1870. 
 
 De la Pryme, Abraham. — The Diary of Swrtees Society. 
 
 8vo. Durham. 
 
 Report of the case of Williams v. Nicholson, for removing Shingle from 
 the Foreshore at Withernsea, &o. 8vo. London, pp. 1-62. 
 
 TiNDALt, E. — Remarks on the Extinct Fauna of the Bast Riding of York- 
 shire. Proc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, vol. v. p. 7. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun. — On the Relation of the Boulder Clay, without Chalk, 
 of the North of England to the Great Chalky Boulder Clay of the south. 
 Qua/rt. Jowrn. Oeol. Soc, vol. xxvi. p. 90. 
 
 .: — Observations on the Sequence of the Glacial Beds. Geol. 
 Mag., vol. vii. pp. 17, 61. 
 
 1871. 
 
 Hawkshaw, J. C. — Notes on the Peat and Underlying Beds observed 
 in the construction of the Albert Dock, Hull. QvMrt. Journ. Geol. Soc, 
 vol. xxvii. p. 237. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun.— Mr. Croll's Hypothesis of the Formation of the 
 Yorkshire Boulder Clay^ Geol. Mag., vol. viii. p. 92. 
 
 1872. 
 
 Ramsay, Prof. A. C. — On the River-courses of England and Wales. 
 Q^^art. Journ. Oeol. Soc, vol. xxviii. p. 148. 
 
 Wood, S. V. — Supplement to the Crag MoUussa, comprising Testacea 
 from the Upper Tertiaries of the East of England, Part L : Univalves. 
 With an Introductory Outline of the Geology of the same District, and 
 Map, by S. V. Wood, jun., and F. W. Harmeu. Palosontographical Soc 
 
 Wood, S. V. jun. — On the Climate of the Post-Glacial Period. Geol. 
 Mag., vol. ix. p. 153. 
 
168 LIST OF WOKKS ON IIOLDEKNESS. 
 
 Wood, S. V., Jan.— Eeply to Mr. James Geikie's Correlation of tlie Scotcli 
 and English Glacial Beds. Oeol. Mag., rol. ix. p. 171. fm.-ni 
 
 ^.—Further Bemarkson Mr. James Geikie's Correlation of Glacial 
 
 Deposits. Geol. Mag., vol. ix. p. 352. 
 
 1874. 
 
 Bkadt, G. S., Eev. H. W. Ceosskey and D. Eobeeison.— A Monograph 
 of the Post-Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland, including Species Irom 
 England and Ireland. 4to. Fal. Soc. 
 
 Dawkins, W. B.— Cave Hunting. 8vo. London. , i- -. , 
 
 Geikie, J.— The Great Ice Age, and its Relation to the Antiquity ot 
 Man. Bvo. London. 2nd edit., 1876. ' . , , ,, 
 
 North Sea Pilot. Part III.— East Coast of England, from Berwick to the 
 North Foreland; &c. 3rd edit. 
 
 Sixth Eeport of the Eivers Pollution Commission, fol. 
 
 1876. 
 
 Ckoli,, De. J.— Climate and Time in their Geological Eelations. 8vo. 
 London. 
 
 Hawkshaw, J. C— The Construction of the Albert Dock at Kingston- 
 upon-HuU. Proc. Inst. Giv. Eng., vol. xli. p. 92. 
 
 Phillips, Peop. J.— Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire. Part I. — 
 The Yorkshire Coast. 3rd edit. 
 
 1877. 
 
 MoEEis, Rev. F. C— Sea vwsus Land on the East Coast of Yorkshire. 
 Leisure Sow, No. 1340, pp. 620-623. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun. — American " Surface Geology," and its Relation to 
 British. Geol. Mag., dec. ii,, vol. iv., pp. 481-496, 536-551. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Bedwell, F. a.— Notes on the Bridlington Crag and Boulder Clay 
 Geol. Mag., dec. ii., vol. v., pp. 517-521. 
 
 Claeke, J. A. — Practical Agriculture. Journ. Royal Agrio. Soc, 2nd ser., 
 vol. xiv., pp. 611-616. 
 
 Lampltigh, G. W. — On the Occurrence of Marine Shells in the Boulder 
 Clay of Bridlington and elsewhere on the Yorkshire Coast. Geol. Mag., 
 dec. ii., vol v., pp. 609-517, 573. 
 
 PiCKWELL, E. — The Encroachments of the Sea from Spurn Point to 
 Flamboro' Head, and the Works executed to prevent the Loss of Land. 
 FroB. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. Ii. p. 191-212. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun. — American " Surface Geology," and its relation to 
 British. Part III. Geol. Mag., dec. ii., vol. v., pp. 13-29. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Adams, Peoe. A. L. — Monograph on the British Fossil Elephants. Part I. 
 Eleplias primigenius. Pal. Soc. 
 
 DAK.YNS, J. E.^The Bridlington and Sewerby Gravels. Geol. Mag., 
 dec. ii., vol. vi,, pp. 238, 239. 
 
 . — The Purple Boulder Clay at Holdernoss. Geol. Mag., dec. ii., 
 
 vol. vi., p. 528. 
 
 . — Glacial Beds at Bridlington. Froc. Geol. Soc. Yorksliire, n.s., 
 
 vol. vii., pt. 2., pp. 123-128. PI. vii., viii., ix. 
 
 Jukes-Beowne, a. J. — On the Southerly Extension of the Hessle 
 Boulder Clay in Lincolnshire. Qxiart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxv., pp. 
 397-420. 
 
 Lamplugh, G. W. — On the Occurrence of Freshwater Remains in the 
 Boulder Clay at Bridlington. Geol. Mag., dec. ii., vol. vi., pp. 393-399. 
 
 MoEiiMEE, J. R. — The Chalk Water Supply of Yorkshire. Froc. Inst. 
 Civ. Eng., vol. Iv., p. 252. 
 
 Wood, S. V. — Second Supplement to the Monograph of the Crag Mol- 
 luBca. — Vol. iv. Univalves and Bivalves. Fal. Soc. 4to. 
 
LIST OF -WORKS ON HOLDEENESS. 169 
 
 1880. 
 
 Dawkins, Prof. W. B.— Early Man in Britain, and his Place in the 
 Tertiary Period. 8vo. Jjondon. 
 
 Lampittgh, Gr. W.— On the Divisions of the Griacial Beds in Filey Bay, 
 Froc. Geol. Soe. Torkshi/re, vol. vii., pt. II., pp. 167-177. 
 
 Nathoest, a. G-. — Om en med understod af allmanna model utford 
 vetenskaplig resa till England. Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps Akadevniens 
 Forlidndlingar. Stockholm, 1880, No. 5. 
 
 "Wood, S. V., jun. — The Newer Pliocene Period in England. Quart. 
 Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxvi., pp. 457-527. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Adams, Peop. A. L. — Monograph on the British Fossil Elephants. Part 
 III. Ele^has prim/igenms, and Mephas meridionaUs. Pal. Soc. 
 
 BlED, 0. — A short Sketch of the Geology of Yorkshire. 8vo. London. 
 
 Daktns, J. E. — Glacial Deposits North of Bridlington. Proc. Geol. Soc. 
 Yorkshire, n.s., vol. vii., pt. III., pp. 246-252. PI. xiii. 
 
 Pox-Steanotvays, C. — Sheet 95 SE of the One-inch Map of the Geological 
 Survey. 
 
 Geikie, De. J. — Pleistocene Europe. 8vo. London. 
 
 Ejbeping, W. — Handbook to the Natural History Collection in the Museum 
 of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 8vo. York. 
 
 Lamplugh, G. W. — On a Shell-bed at the Base of the Drift at Speeton 
 near Piley. Geol. Mag., dec. ii., vol. viii., pp. 174-180. 
 
 . — On the Bridlington and Dimlington Glacial Shell-beds. Geol. 
 
 Mag., dec. ii., vol. viii., pp. 535-S46. Out. 
 
 Natiioest, a. G. — Ueber neue Punde von fossilen Glacialpflanzen. [On 
 new discoveries of Fossil Glacial plants.] Engler's Bot.'Jalwb. Bd. 1, 
 Heft. 5. 
 
 Shelioed, W. — Discussion on Mr. Browne's paper on Tidal and Upland 
 Waters. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., vol. Ixvi. p. 31. 
 
 1881-1882, 
 
 Koport of the Agricultural Interests Commissions : — Eeport of the Assist- 
 ant Commissioners on Lincolnshire [S. B. L. DetjceJ and Yorkshire 
 [J. Coleman], fol. London. (Pari. Bep.) 
 
 1882. 
 
 Butteeell, J. D. — A list of the Land and Freshwater MoUusca observed 
 in the neighbourhood of Beverley. Jowrn. Conch., vol. iii. (No. 10) 
 pp. 289-296. 
 
 Ceosskey, Kev. H. W. — Note on some additions to the Fauna of the Post- 
 Tertiary Beds at Bridlington. Proc. Birm. Phil. Soc, vol ii., pt. ii., p. 373. 
 
 Dakyns, J. E., & C. Fox-Stbangways.— Sheet 94 N.E. of the One-inch 
 Map of the Geological Survey. 
 
 Lami'ltjgh, G. W. — [Letter on] The Bridlington Crag. Geol. Mag., 
 dec. ii., vol. ix., pp. 383, 384. 
 
 . — Glacial Sections near Bridlington. Proc. Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, 
 
 n.s., vol. vii. p. 383. 
 
 Moetimee, J. K. — On Sections of the Drift obtained from the new 
 Drainage Works of Driffield. Bep. Brit. Assoc, for 1881, p. 617, and Proc. 
 Geol. Soc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. vii. p. 373. 
 
 Wood, S. V., jun. — The Newer Pliocene Period in Britain. Qua/rt. 
 Jowrn. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxviii. pp. 667-745. 
 
 .—[Letter on] The Bridlington Crag. Geol. Mag., doc. ii., vol. ix., 
 
 p. 192. 
 
170 .LIST OF WORKS ON H0LDERNB8S. 
 
 1883. 
 
 Anon. — Lake-Dwellings in TorksMre. Standard, Oct. 20. 
 
 Cole, Bet. E. M. — Geological Rambles in Yorkshire. 8vo. London, 
 pp. 112. 
 
 .—On the Origin and Formation of the Wold Dales. Proc. Geol. 
 
 8oc. Yorkshire, n. s., vol. vii. pp. 128-140, pi. x. 
 
 Dakyns, J. R. ^Letter on the Bridlington Crag. Geol. Mag., dec. ii.. 
 vol. X. p. 93. 
 
 Davis, J. W. — Geological Excursion to HolderneBs, the Kilnsea Shell 
 Mounds, Spurn Point, and the Pile Dwellings at Ulrome. Froc. Geol. 
 8oc. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. viii., p. 269. 
 
 Lampltjgh, Gr. W.— rGlacial Sections near Bridlington. Pts. II. and III. 
 Proc. Geol. 8oe. Yorkshire, n.s., vol. viii. pp. 27 and 240. 
 
 B.EADE, T. M. — A Traverse of the Yorkshire Drift. Proc. Liverpool Geol. 
 8oc., vol. V. p. 364. 
 
 Eeid, Clement. — Sheets 85 and 94S.E. of the One-inch Map of the Geo- 
 logical Survey. 
 
 1884. 
 
 Dakyns, J. R., and 0. Fox-Stbangways. — Sheets 94 N.W. and S.W. of 
 the One-inch Map of the Geological Survey. 
 
 Lamplugh, G. W. — On a Recent Exposure of the Shelly Patches in the 
 Boulder Clay at Bridlington Quay. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xl. 
 pp. 312-328. 
 
 Reid, Clement. — Dust and Soils. Geol. Mag., dec. iii., vol. i. pp. 165-168. 
 
 1885. 
 
 Dakyns, J. R., and C. Pox-Stbangways. — The Geology of Bridlington 
 Bay (Explanation of Quarter-Sheet 94 N.E.) Mem. Geol. Survey. 
 
 Jttkes-Bbowne, a. J. — The Boulder-Clays of Linoolnshiro. Their Geo- 
 graphical Range and Relative Age. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xli. p. 114, 
 
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 Charts illustrating the chanoes in the 
 
 humber since 1684. 
 
 All these Charts are from Official Surveys, except the one dated 1778 
 
 {Mitchell's Chart). 
 
 SCAt.£. 
 
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 BARTON 
 
 vra-np 
 
 -Botcteier* Clay 
 
 v^T;i!^/g'T:-:^^:l<fl■^fw 'l!r-^^"^>„^;•rJ?j^a,^J^-;;,^fe i l'^^ 
 
 ii/ijiiiiiri'iiiLini,i, ■^. 
 
 
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171 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Adams, Prof. A. L., 168, 169. 
 Admiralty charts, 102, 103, 163. 
 Agricultural Interests Commission, 116, 
 
 .117, 118, 120, 169. 
 Albert Docks, Hull, 38, 88-92, 147-149, 
 
 167, 168. 
 Aldbrough, 47, 87, 96. 
 Alexandra Docks, 55, 88, 90, 91, 123, 
 
 150. 
 Allen, Thos., 165. 
 Analyses of water, 130, 131. 
 Ancholme, 6, 67. 
 Angell, Justinian, 102, 103. 
 Anlaby, 111, 127. 
 Applepie Cottage, 73. 
 Arctic Birch, 78, 85, 92, 93, 169*. 
 Arctic moUusca in the Bridlington 
 
 Crag, 19-21. 
 Arctic mollusca in the Inter-glacial 
 
 Beds, 68. 
 Ashby-cum-renby, 132. 
 Atwick, 33, 79, 95, 164. 
 Aylesby, 167. 
 
 • Balanus, 22, 70. 
 Ballast, 123, 124. 
 Barf Hill, 52, 53. 
 Barley, 120. 
 Barmston, 87, 95. 
 Bametby, 67. 
 Barnoldby, 47, 122, 127. 
 Barrow, 40, .56, 57, 124, 126, 132, 133, 
 
 155. 
 Barrow Beck, 128. 
 Barton-on-Humber, 39, 40, 74, 122, 124, 
 
 125, 126, 128, 133, 134, 151-153, 
 .166. 
 Basement Clay . (see also Bridlington 
 
 Crag), 8-26, 30, 33, 35, 38, 44, 49. 
 Bateman, Mr., 167. 
 Beach, travelling of the, 99-105. 
 Bean, "W., 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 164. 
 Bedding in Boulder Clay, 8, 16, 32, 35, 
 
 43. 
 Bedwell, Mr., 26, 168. 
 Beeford, 87, 134. 
 Beetles, fossil, 75, 89. 
 Beledmond, 37. 
 Bell, Dr. J. P., 94, 95, 165. 
 Berwickshire, boulders from, 18. 
 Bessingby, 87, 126. 
 Betula nana, 78, 85, 92, 93, 169. 
 Beverley, 5, 38, 127, 135, 169. 
 Birch, Arctic, 78, 85, 92, 93, 169. 
 Bird, C, 169. 
 Bird, J., 164 
 
 Bison, bones of the, 49, 50 56, 69, 71. 
 Block House Mill, 146. 
 
 Blown Sand, 7, 98, 100, 106, 112, 121, 
 
 124. 
 Blow wells, 126-131. 
 Boar, bones of, 93, 114. 
 Boat found in the Warp at Hull, 91. 
 Bogg, E., 163. 
 Boreas Hill, 54. 
 J3os longifrons, 93, 114. 
 Bos primigenius, 82, 92, 114. 
 Boulder Clays, bedding in, 8, 16, 32, 35, 
 
 43. 
 Boulder Clays, far-transported boulders 
 
 in, 16, 17, 18, 19, 26, 27, 34, 35, 38, 
 
 41-43. 
 Boulder Clays, composition of, 8, 9, 14, 
 
 16, 17, 18, 19, 26, 27, 32, 41. 
 Boulder Clays, contortion in, 10, 12, 13, 
 
 14, 31, 32, 35, 72. 
 Boulder Clays, correlation of, 8, 17, 20, 
 
 27, 36, 43. 
 
 Boulder Clays, crushed boulders in, 16, 
 
 17, 32, 35. 
 
 Boulder Clays, origin of, 16, 17, 26, 27, 
 
 28, 42, 43, 45, 46. 
 
 Boulder Clays, passage into gravel of, 
 27, 28, 37, 44. 
 
 Boulder Clays, shells in {and see Brid- 
 lington Crag), 10, 14, 16, 17, 27, 28, 
 36, 43. 
 
 Boulder Clays, weathering of, 17, 36- 
 39, 41, 43, 76, 79, 90, 122. 
 
 Bowmere Hill, 87. 
 
 Bowmer Hill, 87. 
 
 Boynton, Mr., 112-114. 
 
 Brady, G. S., 21, 23, 70, 82, 168. 
 
 Brady, H. B., 20-22, 58, 69, 70, 167. 
 
 Braemar Drain, 87. 
 
 Braemere, 87. 
 
 Bramble Hill, 38. 
 
 Brandsbnrton, 51, 53, 66, 87, 123, 135. 
 
 Breamers, 87. 
 
 Brick-making, 121, 122. 
 
 Bridlington, 5, 28, 31, 87, 123. 
 „ Bay, 5, 6, 99. 
 
 „ Crag, 8-26, 30, 69, 164- 
 
 170. 
 
 Bridlington Quay, 9-15, 18-26, 80-32, 
 36, 44, 45, 47-49, 72, 73, 76, 78, 87, 
 94, 100, 123, 126, 129, 130, 135, 163 
 -170. 
 
 Brigham, 52, 66. 
 
 Brocklesby, 41, 57, 67, 135. 
 
 Bronze Period, 91, 93, 112-115. 
 
 Brough, 106. 
 
 Brumby, Mr., 136, 137, 157. 
 
 Brunton Hill Wood, 52. 
 
 Bryan Mill Beck, 127. 
 
 Buckland, Rev. Prof. W., 164. 
 
 Buried Forests, 77-92, 164. 
 
172 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Burnham Market, 77. 
 [ Burnt Mill Beck, 87. 
 Burshill, 53. 
 Burstwick, 135. 
 Burton Agues, 87, 126. 
 Butterall, J. D., 169. 
 
 Caistor, 121. 
 
 Callis, E„ 101, 102, 163. 
 
 Camden, W., 101, 104. 
 
 Cameron, A. G., 39, 54, 145, 146, 150. 
 
 Capra, 93. 
 
 Carboniferous, boulders from the, 18. 
 
 Carr Dike, 80. 
 
 Carrs, 87, 112, 115, 116. 
 
 Catfoss, 38, 66, 80, 135. 
 
 Catwick, 58, 87. 
 
 Cawkeld, 37. 
 
 Celtic short-horn, 93, 114. 
 
 Cervus elaphus, 82, 84, 92, 93, 114. 
 
 „ megaceros, 49, 79, 82, 93. 
 
 „ tarandus, 56, 71. 
 Chalk, disturbances affecting the, 6, 124. 
 
 „ glaciation of the, 37, 38, 40, 42. 
 
 „ thickness of the, 6. 
 
 „ waterfromthe, 76, 126-131, 168. 
 Charles II., King, 102. 
 Cherry Cobb Sand, 109. 
 Cheviots, boulders from the, 18, 19. 
 Christiania, boulders from near, 41. 
 Church End, 52, 53. 
 Cirripedia of the Bridlington Crag, 22. 
 „ „ Inter-glacial Beds, 70. 
 
 Clark, E. H., 91, 166. 
 Clarke, J. A., 165, 168. 
 Claythorpe, 63, 70, 71. 
 Cleethorpes, 32, 35, 36, 41, 86, 98, 104, 
 
 105, 112, 122, 130, 135, 136. 
 Cliff, ancient buried, 5, 6, 14, 42, 48-51, 
 
 63-66. 
 Cliff Lane, Hornsea, 95. 
 Cliffs, height of the, 7, 99. 
 Climate, Glacial, 19-21, 45, 46, 64, 67. 
 
 „ Inter-glacial, 64, 67-69. 
 
 „ Post-glacial, 75, 76, 78, 85, 
 
 92-93. 
 Clubley's Mere, 87. 
 Cold en Parva, 96. 
 Cold Harbour, 157. 
 Coleman, J., 116, 117, 118, 169. 
 Cole, C. N., 163. 
 Cole, Eev. E. M., 170. 
 Collins, Capt. Greenville, 102, 109, 110, 
 
 163. 
 Coneygarth Hill, 53. 
 Contortions in the Bridlington Crag, 
 
 10, 13, 14. 
 Contortions in the Purple Boulder Clay, 
 
 31,35,72. 
 Contortions in the Post-glacial Deposits, 
 
 55 72—77. 
 Cood'e, Sir John, 105, 123, 167. 
 Corbicula fluminalis, 55, 56, 58, 62, 68, 
 
 166. 
 Cordeaux, J., 62, 70, 71, 92, 128, 138. 
 Correlation of Glacial Deposits, 8, 17, 
 
 20, 27, 36, 43. 
 
 Cottingham, 5, 87, 127, 136, 137. 
 Crag, Bridlington, 8-26. 
 
 „ Norwich, 19, 20, 26. 
 Cranswick, 37, 87. 
 Croll, Dr. J., 168. 
 Cromer, 45. 
 
 Crosskey, Dr. W. H., 21, 22, 82, 168, 169. 
 Cross Mere Hill, 87. 
 Croxton, 40, 57, 58, 59, 64, 67, 68, 70, 
 
 71. 
 Crushed boulders in the Boulder Clay, 
 
 16, 17, 32, 35. 
 Cyrena fluminalis, 55, 56, 58, 62, 68, 
 
 166. 
 
 Dairyooates, 144, 145. 
 
 Dakyns, J. K., 28-33, 36, 44, 52, 72, 
 
 73, 76, 79, 134, 135, 136, 137, 
 
 168-170. 
 Dale, Mr., 146. 
 
 Dales, Wold, 40, 41, 42, 64, 67. 
 Dalton, W. H., 132, 136. 
 Danes Dike, 28, 29, 30, 44, 137. 
 Davis, J. W., 114, 170. 
 Dawkins, Prof. W. B., 168, 169. 
 Decalcification of Boulder Clays, 36, 
 
 39, 41, 43, 76, 77, 122. 
 Decalcification of Gravels, 46, 59, 60, 
 
 76, 77. 
 Deer, remains of, 49, 56, 59, 7S, 82, 84, 
 
 92, 93, 114. 
 De-la-pole Grange, 136. 
 De la Pryme, Abraham, 167. 
 Den, the, 102. 
 
 Denmark, Arctic flora fossil in, 93. 
 Denmark, red flints from, 18, 41. 
 Denudation, sub-aerial, 98, 99. 
 
 „ marine, 94-99. 
 
 Derwent, 67. 
 
 Diabases from the Cheviots, 18. 
 Dimllngton, 15-18, 21-26, 35, 45, 169. 
 Dimlington High Land, 7, 35, 45, 97. 
 Donna Nook, 5, 7, 65, 104, 105, 137. 
 Doomsday Book, 94, 98. 
 Down Gate, 35. 
 Downs of Sussex, 119, 121. 
 Drainage, Direction of the, 6, 7, 80. 
 Drainage of the Meres, 78. 
 Drayton, Michael, 117. 
 Driffield, 5, 37, 73, 87, 123, 126, 127, 
 
 167, 169. 
 Drift, mound of, skirting the coast, 7, 
 
 35. 
 Druce, S. B. L., 120, 169. 
 Duck Muttons, 87. 
 Dust, 118-121. 
 Dugdale, Sir W., Ill, 163. 
 
 Easington, 35, 46, 74, 86, 97, 101. 
 Eastburn Beck, 126. 
 „ Farm, 167. 
 Easthorpe Hill, 34. 
 Ebbing and flowing wells, 126, 129 
 
 130, 163, 164. ' 
 
 Echinodermata of the Bridlington Crag 
 
 22. 
 Echinodermata of the Intcr-alacial 
 
 Beds, 70. ^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ]73 
 
 Eelmere, 87. 
 
 Elephant, bones of the, 38, 50, 56, 79, 
 
 82, 83, 92, 168, 169. 
 Elk, Irish, 49, 79, '82, 93. 
 Eroswell, 126. 
 Entomostraoa of the Bridlington Crag, 
 
 21,23, 166,168. 
 Entomostraoa of the Inter-glacial Beds, 
 
 70. 
 Entomostraea of the Post-glacial 
 
 Deposits, 82, 166, 168. 
 Eocene, 9, 17, 18, 19, 26. 
 Eolian Deposits, 7, 98, 100, 106, 112, 
 
 118-121, 124. 
 Erosion of the Dales, 40-42. 
 Esk Dale, 44, 45. 
 Evison, Mr., 141. 
 
 Farming, 115-121. 
 
 Fauna of the Bridlington Crag, 19-26. 
 „ „ Inter-glacial Beds, 50, 
 
 67-71. 
 Fauna of the Post-glacial Deposits, 75, 
 
 79, 80-86, 93. 
 Felis spelcea, 82, 92. 
 Fenland, the, 68, 69, 93, 110. 
 Fisher, Mr., 158, 159. 
 Filey Bay, 5, 7, 17, 169. 
 Fir-cones, fossil, 89. 
 Fire, remains of a, in a Submerged 
 
 Forest, 89, 90, 92, 111. 
 Flamborough, 5, 27, 28, 29, 44, 65, 94, 
 
 110. 
 Flinton, 87. 
 Flints, green coated, 17, 18, 19. 
 
 „ red, 18, 41. 
 Flora of the Inter-glacial Beds, 58, 59, 
 
 69. 
 Flora of the Post-glacial Deposits, 75, 
 
 78, 79, 82, 84-87, 91-93, U.S. 
 Foraminifera of the Bridlington Crag, 
 
 21, 22, 167. 
 Foraminifera of the Inter-glacial Beds, 
 
 58, 60, 69, 70. 
 Forbes, E., 19, 165. 
 Port Hall, 11. 
 Fosse Hill, 53. 
 
 Fossils of the Bridlington Crag, 19-26. 
 Fossils, absence of, in laminated clays, 
 
 45, 46. 
 Foster, Dr., 88, 89, 167. 
 Fox Dale, 60. 
 
 Fox-Strangways, C, 169, 170. 
 Frank Hill, 96. 
 Frankish, Mr., 59. 
 Freeman, Mr., 56. 
 
 Fresh-water clay in Boulder Clay, 13, 14. 
 Fulstow, 42, 137. 
 
 Gain of land, 108-111. 
 
 Geikie, Arch., 18. 
 
 Geikie, Jas., 168, 169. 
 
 Gembling, 137. 
 
 Gilby, Anthony, 109. 
 
 Gildholm Hill, 53. 
 
 Gills Mere, 87. 
 
 Gipsey Race, 87, 126. 
 
 Glacial Deposits, correlation of, 17. 
 
 Glaciation of the Chalk, 37, 38, 40, 42 
 
 Goat, bones of the, 93. 
 
 Goose Hill, 53. 
 
 Goose Island, 112. 
 
 Gospel Hill, 56. 
 
 Goxhill, 40, 56, 57, 123, 137, 138. 
 
 Grainsby Hall, 138. 
 
 Grainthorpe, 112. 
 
 Gravel, decalcification of, 46, 59, 60, 76, 
 
 77. 
 Gravel Field, 53. 
 Gravel soils, 118, 119. 
 Great Chalky Boulder Clay, 20. 
 Great Coates, 40, 62, 70, 71, 128, 130, 
 
 138. 
 Great Golden, 34, 87, 96. 
 Great Pit Marsh, 35. 
 Great Wassand, 80. 
 Grimsby, 40, 41, 62, 66, 88, 91, 92, 105, 
 
 107, 122, 123, 128, 130, 131, 139, 140, 
 
 166. 
 Grimston, 84, 96. 
 Groynes, action of the, 94-97, 100, 101, 
 
 105, 111. 
 
 Hall, H. F., 167. 
 
 Halton, 40. 
 
 Harbours of Refuge Commission, 165. 
 
 Harmer, F. W., 70, 71, 1 67. 
 
 Harpham, 87. 
 
 Harrison, Mr., 167. 
 
 Hartburn, 95. 
 
 Hawerby, 5. 
 
 Ha-wkshaw, J. C, 38, 89, 90, 167, 168. 
 
 Hazel nuts, fossil, 79, 84, 88, 89. 
 
 Ileadley, Mr., 20, 25. 
 
 Heddlcmere Closes, 87. 
 
 Hedon, 54, 116, 117, 140. 
 
 Hedon Haven, 53, 141. 
 
 Height of the district, 7. 
 
 Hermitage, the, 80. 
 
 Hessle, 5, 38, 49-51, 69, 107, 112, 124, 
 
 125, 126, 141, 151, 167. 
 Hessle Clay, 8, 27, 31, 33, 34, 33, 39, 
 
 43, 46, 47, 50, 51, 89, 122, 167, 168, 
 
 170. 
 Hessle Gravel, 46-51, 167. 
 Hewett, Capt., 103. 
 High Paull, 53. 
 High Stacks, 28. 
 Hifderthorpe, 95. 
 Hilston, 34,47,96. 
 Historic Period, Changes within the, 
 
 92-115. 
 Holderness, ancient Character of, 7. 
 „ limits of, 5. 
 
 „ Bay, excavation of, 5, 6. 
 HoUym, 34. 
 
 Holme on the Wolds, 38. 
 Holmpton, 35, 84, 85, 97. 
 Holton, 47. 
 
 Holton Skitter, 141, 159. 
 Horkstow, 74. 
 Hornsea, 6, 33, 38, 47, 66, 79-83, 95, 
 
 100, 118, 122, 123, 130, 141, 142, 143, 
 
 1.54. 
 Hornsea Bridge, 80. 
 Hornsea Mere, 53, 78, 79-83, 116. 
 
174 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Horse, bones of the, 50, 69, 82, 92, 93. 
 
 Hughes, Prof. T. Mc. K., 15. 
 
 Hull, 38, .53, 55, 88-92, 107, 111,123, 
 
 127, 143-150, 165, 166, 167, 168. 
 Hull Museum, 56, 82. 
 Hull, River, 5, 7, 37, 38, 53, 87, 89, 90, 
 
 111, 112, 116, 122, 126, 127. 
 Hull and Barnsley Railway, 38. 
 Humber, 5, 6, 7, 38, 39, 50, 53, 68, 
 
 88-92, 97, 101-112, 116, 117, 122, 
 
 124-126, 136, 151-153, 163-168. 
 Humber Tunnel, 124-126. 
 Hunstanton, 43, 72. 
 Hurstwitz, Mr., 145, 150. 
 Hutton, 37, 87. 
 
 Ice, 6, 7, 17, 21, 42, 43, 45, 46, 72. 
 
 Immingham, 153. 
 
 Inglis, G., 164. 
 
 Inter-glacial Periods, 8, 45, 46, 63-69. 
 
 Intermittent springs, 126-130, 138, 163, 
 
 164. 
 Irby, 41, 61. 
 
 Jackling, Joseph, 129, 136, 138, 156, 
 
 158, 160, 161. 
 JeflFreys, Dr. J. Gwyn, 20, 21, 23-26, 
 
 56, 70, 71. 
 Jenkins, H. M., 167. 
 Jones, Prof. T. R., 21, 22, 166, 167. 
 Jukes-Browne, A. J., 63, 136, 156, 168, 
 
 170. 
 
 Keelby, 5, 59, 60, 61, 70, 71, 128. 
 Keeping, W., 169. 
 Kelk, 52, 66,J23, 153. 
 Kelsey, Mr., 39, 124, 151-153. 
 Kelsey Hill, 38, 39, 46, 51, 54-56, 58, 
 
 61, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 74-76, 118, 
 
 123, 166. 
 Kemp, G. G., 94, 165. 
 Keyingham, 39, 56, 116, 123, 153. 
 Kilham, 52, 63, 66, 126. 
 Killingholme, 39, 125, 154, 158, 159. 
 Kilnsea,15, 17, 35, 74, 97, 98, 101, 102, 
 
 105, 170. 
 Kimeridge Clay, 124-126, 133, 1-34. 
 Kingston-upon-HuU, see Hull. 
 Kirmington, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 67, 69, 
 
 70, 122. 
 Knox, R., 166. 
 
 Laceby, 5, 41, 58, 61, 62, 68, 70, 71, 
 
 118, 123, 128. 
 Laceby Beck, 116, 127, 128. 
 Lacustrine Marls, 12, 78-87, 165. 
 Lady Island, 80. 
 Lake-dwelling at Ulrome, 89, 93, 112- 
 
 115, 170. 
 Lambwath Beck, 53, 84. 
 Laminated clays in the Boulder Clay, 
 
 44-47, 74, 122. 
 Lamplugh, G. W., U-21, 30, 31, 32, 
 
 36, 44, 45, 49, 69, 73, 7C, 78, 9.'5, 
 
 168-170. 
 Langmeer Furze, 87. 
 Leckenby, Mr., 20. 
 Lcgard, G., 165. 
 Ltland's Itinerary, 109. 
 Leys Hill, 130. 
 
 Liassic boulders in the Boulder Clay, 
 
 18. 
 Limber, 41, 59, 60, 63, 64, 122, 154. 
 Lion, bones of the, 82, 92. 
 Little Bytham, 68. 
 Little Coates, 62, 128. 
 Little Kelk, 87. 
 Littleworth, 57. 
 Littoral shells in the Bridlington Crag, 
 
 21. 
 Long Looks, 57. 
 
 Loss of land, 94-99, 165, 167, 168. 
 Louth, 63, 
 
 Lucas and Aird, Messrs., 56. 
 Ludborough, 5, 6. 
 Lyell, Sir C, 15, 19, 164-166. 
 
 Mammaliferous Gravels of Hessle, 47- 
 
 51. 
 Mammals of the Bridlington Crag, 26. 
 Mammals of the Inter-glacial Beds, 56, 
 
 69, 71. 
 Mammals of the Post-glacial Beds, 79, 
 
 82, 83, 92, 93. 
 
 Mammoth, remains of the, 38, 50, 50, 
 
 79,82, 83,92, 168, 169. 
 Man, traces of Pre-historic, 89, 90-92, 
 
 111-115. 
 Mappleton, 34, 38, 83, 87, 95, 154. 
 March, mollusca of, 68, 69, 70, 71. 
 Marfleet, 154. 
 
 Marine Gravels, limits of the, 63. 
 Marine Hotel, Hornsea, 81, 95. 
 Marl, fresh-water, 12, 78-87, 165. 
 Marling, 120, 121. 
 Marsh Chapel, 112, 155. 
 Mather and Piatt, Messrs., 139. 
 Maughan, Mr., 139, 140. 
 Melton Boss, 67, 
 Meres, 7, 78-88, 115, 116. 
 Micklemeer Hill, 87. 
 Middle Glacial Sands of Norfolk, 20, 69. 
 Midmeredales, 87. 
 
 Migration of species, 64, 67-68, 83, 92. 
 Miocene date of the Humber Valley, 6. 
 Mollusca of the Bridlington Crag, 
 
 19-26. 
 Mollusca of the Inter-glacial Beds, 68- 
 
 71. 
 Mollusca of the Post-glacial Deposits, 82, 
 
 83, 90. 
 
 Moor Grange, 134. 
 
 Moor Hill Beacon, 33. 
 
 Moors, 87. 
 
 Morris, Rev. F. 0., 94, 168. 
 
 Mortimer, J. K., 37, 48, 49, 56, 168, 
 
 169. 
 Mount Close, 39. 
 Murray, John, 166. 
 
 NaflFerton, 36, 52, 66, 126, 155. 
 Nathorst, Dr., 78, 169. 
 Natural History, Inter-glacial, 67-69. 
 ,, ,, Post-glacial, 92, 93. 
 
 Neocomian, 13, 16, 17, 18. 
 Neolithic Period, 92, 93, 111-115. 
 NeviU's Farm, 34, 84, 97. 
 New Holland, 107, 122, 125, 155. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 175 
 
 New Inn, Hornsea, 80. 
 
 Newport, 133. 
 
 Newton, E. T., 21, 26, 69, 71. 
 
 Newton Garth, 54, 
 
 "Noah's Wood," 84. 
 
 Nonionina depressuta, 69. 
 
 Norfolk, 7, 8, 19, 20, 31, 37, 43, 45, 
 
 106, 110, 111. 
 North Cotes, 155, 156. 
 North Ferriby, 39, 156. 
 North Frodingham, 52, 53. 
 North Sea, 17, 18, 64, 68, 99, 106, 163, 
 
 164, 166, 168. 
 North Skirlaugh, 53. 
 North Thoreshy, 156. 
 Norwich Crag, 19, 20, 26. 
 Nucula Cobboldia, 19, 20, 24. 
 yucula insignis, 20, 24. 
 
 Oak-trees in HuU Docks, 88-91. 
 
 Old Dale, 84. 
 
 Oldham, J., 108-111,117,160, 165-167. 
 
 Old Hive, 97. 
 
 Old Howe, 114. 
 
 Old Pollard Farm, 140, 141. 
 
 Old Ked Sandstone, boulders from the, 
 
 18. 
 Oolitic boulders iu the Boulder Clay, 
 
 18. 
 Ordnance Survey, loss of land since the, 
 
 94-98, 101. 
 Ostracoda of the Bridlington Crag, 21, 
 
 23, 166, 168. 
 Ostracoda of the Inter-glacial Beds, 70. 
 „ „ Post-glacial Beds, 82, 
 
 166, 168. 
 Ottringham, 109, 1.56. 
 Out Newton, 15, 18, 35, 85, 97. 
 Otter, bones of the, 93, 314. 
 Ouse, 162. 
 Owmby, 67. 
 Owstwick, 34. 
 Owthorne, 84, 96, 97. 
 
 Parker, W. K., 21, 22, 167. 
 
 Patrington, 109, 157. 
 
 Paull, 54, 107, 109, 123, 157. 
 
 Peat, Inter-glacial, 58, 59. 
 
 Peohell, A. H., 166. 
 
 Pelham's Pillar, 121. 
 
 Pennant, Thos., 163. 
 
 Penning, W. H., 86, 135, 155. 
 
 Phillips, Prof. J., 9, 10, 38, 47, 48, 49, 
 
 50, 51, 53, 54, 69, 73, 78, 79, 81-85, 
 
 146, 156, 164-168. 
 Pholas, casts of borings, in the Bridling- 
 ton Crag, 15. 
 Pickwell, K., 94, 97, 103-105, 158, 168. 
 Pile-dwelling at Ulrome, 89, 93, 112- 
 
 115. 
 Plants from the Bridlington Crag, 14, 
 
 22. 
 Plants fi-om the Inter-glaeial Beds, 58, 
 
 59, 69. 
 Plants from the Post-glacial Deposits, 
 
 75, 82, 84, 85. ■ j 
 
 Plalax Woodwardi, 26. \ 
 
 Pliocene, 6, 8, 26. I 
 
 " Pluvial Period," 76. i 
 
 Pocklington, 73. 
 
 Polyzoa, 23. 
 
 Porphyrites from the Cheviots, 18. 
 
 Post-glacial Deposits, correlation of, 72. 
 
 Fotamogetm in the Boulder Clay, 14, 22. 
 
 Potter Hill, 73. 
 
 Pottery from Ulrome, 113. 
 
 Poulson, George, 163, 165. 
 
 Pre-glacial, 6, 10, 47, 48, 49, 51, 64, 
 
 124-126. 
 Preston, 157. 
 Prestwich, Prof., 51, 54, 55, €6, 135, 
 
 140, 153, 154, 161, 166. 
 Purple Boulder Clay, 8, 11, 12, 15, 26- 
 
 46, 49, 168. 
 Pusey, P., 165. 
 
 Raised Beaches, 72, 74. 
 
 Kamsay, Prof. A. C, 167. 
 
 Banoe, C. E. de, 139. 
 
 Raven, A. W., 57. 
 
 Ravenspur, 98. 
 
 Reade, T. M., 170. 
 
 Read's Island, 110. 
 
 Rea Hill, 56. 
 
 " Red band," 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 66. 
 
 Redman, Mr., 167. 
 
 Reindeer, 56, 71. 
 
 Rhinoceros, bones of the, 50, 56, 69. 
 
 Rhomb-porphyry, 41. 
 
 jRhynchonella psittacea, 23. 
 
 Riby, 61, 70, 71, 167. 
 
 Riby Slings Mere, 87. 
 
 Ridgemont, 56. 
 
 Ringbrough, 96. 
 
 Rise, 53, 118, 157. 
 
 Rissoa ulva, 58, 59. 
 
 Rivers Pollution Commission, 129-131, 
 
 168. 
 Road Metal, 122, 123. 
 Robertson, D., 21, 23, 82, 108. 
 Rome, Rev. J. L., 15, 51, 54,60, 80, 81, 
 
 136, 160. 
 Rotation of crops, 116-118. 
 Bothwell, 167. 
 Routh, 158. 
 Rowlston, 34. 
 Row Mere, 87. 
 Ruston, 126. 
 Ryhill, 54. 
 
 St. Philip's Cross, 56. 
 
 Saltburu, 72. 
 
 Sampson, Mr., 155. 
 
 Sand Danes, 7, 98, 100, 106, 112, 121 
 
 124. 
 Sand le Meer, 84. 
 Sands Cut, 12. 
 Sands Lane, 14, 30, 31. 
 Sargent, W., 137, 139, 155. 
 Scandinavia, boulders from, 18, 19, 41, 
 
 42. 
 Scartho, 47. 
 Scenery, 7, 8. 
 Scorbrough Beck, 127. 
 Scott, J., 163. 
 Scour, depth of, 99. 
 Scrobicnlaria piperata, 58, 86. 
 
176 
 
 lNt)EX. 
 
 Seaton, 53, 66. 
 
 SedgTriok, Prof., 9, 19, 164. 
 
 Selwioks, 17. 
 
 Sewerby, 31, 73, 78, 94, 168. 
 
 Shap Granite, 12, 17, 18,27, 34, 35, 42. 
 
 Sheep, bones of, at ijlrome, 93, 114. 
 
 Shelford,W., 94, 102-105, 108, 110, 167, 
 
 169. 
 Shells, broken, in Boulder Clay, 13, 14, 
 
 16, 17, 27, 36, 43, 168. 
 SheU Maris, 12, 78-87, 165. 
 Shingle, abstraction of, 99, 100. 
 Silt, 58, 77, 88-92, 105-111. 
 Simpson, M., 166. 
 Skertchly, S. B. J., 68. 
 Skipsea, 32, 33, 78, 79, 83, 87, 95, 100, 
 
 114. 
 Skirlaugh, 117, 118, 158. 
 Skirlington, 32, 33, 95. 
 Smalley, G., 80, 142-145,150, 157, 161. 
 SmaUey, J., 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 
 
 155, 158, 162. 
 Smeaton, J., 94, 102, 103, 158, 163. 
 Smith, J., 136, 153, 154. 
 Smith, William, 51. 
 Snipe Ground, the, 80. 
 Sollitt, J. D., 106, 107, 165. 
 Somerby Dolter, 67. 
 Somercotes, 112, 158. 
 Sorby, Dr., 10, 165, 166. 
 Soumers, 87. 
 Southburn Beck, 127. 
 South Ferriby, 39, 51, 110, 124. 
 Speeton, 16, 28, 65, 69, 169. 
 Speeton Clay, 13, 16, 17, 18. 
 Spring Head, 127, 146. 
 Springs, 126-131. 
 Sproatley, 53. 
 Spurn Head, 7, 98, 100, 106, 109, 111, 
 
 112, 122, 130, 158, 170. 
 Squirrel, traces of, in a Submerged 
 
 Forest, 88. 
 Stallingborough, 125, 158, 159. 
 Starcarr Bridge, 53. 
 Stephenson's Mere Drain, 87. 
 Stevenson, Robert, 163, 164. 
 " Stone Banks," origin of, 99. 
 Stone Ferry, 144. 
 Stone implements, 113, 114. 
 Stone, Thos., 163. 
 Storer, Dr. J., 163. 
 Strickland, Arthur, 79. 
 Strickland, H. E., 163. 
 Sub-glacial watercourses, 27, 28, 44. 
 Submerged Forests, 77-92, 164. 
 Sussex, Downs of, 119, 121. 
 Sunk Island, 103, 108-110, 116, 125, 
 
 129, 130, 160. 
 Swallow, 61, 127. 
 Swan Mere, 87. 
 
 Tellina calcaria, 20, 24. 
 
 Tellina obliqua, 17, 20, 24, 68. 
 
 Tellina tenuis, 58. 
 
 Terrace Gravel, 53, 74, 79, 80. 
 
 Tetney, 42, 112, 128, 129, 160, 161. 
 
 Thornton, 5, 40, 57, 161. 
 
 Thornton Moor, 1,28. 
 
 Tidal Harbours Commission, 165. 
 
 Tindall, E., 10, 11, 166, 167. 
 
 Travelling of the beach, 99-105. 
 
 Trichechus rosmarus, 56, 69. 
 
 TroUope, Eev. E., 166. 
 
 Take's map of Holderness, 94, 163, 165. 
 
 Tunstall, 96. 
 
 Turmar Farm, 87. 
 
 Turritella erosa, 20. 
 
 Twyer's Farm, 140, 141. 
 
 Tylor, A., 167. 
 
 Ulceby, 5, 40, 57, 128. 
 Ulceby Beck, 128. 
 Ukome, 87, 93, 95, 112-115, 170. 
 Upper Purple Clay, 8. 
 Utriculus obtusfus, 69. 
 
 Valley Gravels, 72-86. 
 
 Venus gallina, 62. 
 
 Verruca Stromia, 22. 
 
 Vertebrata of the Bridlington Crag, 21, 
 
 26. 
 Vertebrata of the Inter-glacial Beds, 56, 
 
 69, 71. 
 Vertebrata of the Post-glacial Deposits , 
 
 79, 82, 83, 92, 93. 
 Vetch, Capt., 103, 123. 
 Villiers, Mr., 135, 153, 154, 155, 158. 
 
 Wade, Mr., 130, 141, 142, 143. 
 
 Walcott, M. B. C, 166. 
 
 Wallis, T.W., 136. 
 
 Walrus, 56, 69. 
 
 Waltham, 47, 122. 
 
 Walton, 87. 
 
 Walton Abbey, 117, 118. 
 
 Warp, recent, 58, 77, 88-92, 105-111, 
 
 116, 117, 122, 125, 166-169. 
 Warp, Inter-glacial, 58, 59, 60. 
 Wash, 106, 110. 
 Wassand Mere, 79, 80. 
 Waterhouse, C. O., 75. 
 Waterlogged soils, 121. 
 Watson, Mr., 134. 
 Waxham, 34. 
 Waxholme, 96. 
 Wear Bracken Beck, 127. 
 Weathering of Boulder Clay, 17, 36, 37, 
 
 38, 39, 41, 43, 76, 77, 90, 122. 
 WeUbeck, 127. 
 Wellsprings Drain, 127. 
 Welwick, 109. 
 Westaby, Mr., 40, 132-135, 137, 138, 
 
 141, 154, 155, 161. 
 Whitby, 44. 
 White Marr, 87. 
 White, W., 164. 
 Willerby, 161. 
 Williams v. Nicholson, 167. 
 Wilsthorpe, 32, 100. 
 Wincolmlee, 145. 
 Wind transported soils, 118-121. 
 Winestead, 161. 
 Withemsea, 34, 84, 9C, 97, 100, 101 
 
 130, 161, 162, 167. ' 
 
 Witty, E., 136. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 177 
 
 Wolds, 5, 6, 40, 42, 43, 119-121, 126, 
 
 127, 163. 
 Wold Dales, 40, 41, 42, 64, 67. 
 Wold Newton, 126. 
 Wolf, bones of the, 93, 114. 
 Wood, S, v., 10, 19, 20, 70, 71, 165, 
 
 168. 
 Wood, S. v., junr., 8, 11, 20, 27, 33, 
 
 38, 59, 68, 80, 132, 136, 142, 143, 
 
 146-150, 157, 160-162, 166-169. 
 
 Wood, S. v., junr., and J. L. Kome, 15, 
 51, 54, 66, 80, 81, 89, 91, 142, 144, 
 167. 
 
 Woodward, Dr. S. P., 10, 11, 19, 20 
 166. 
 
 York Museum, 82. 
 Young, Arthur, 163. 
 Young, Rev. G., 164, 
 
LONDON: Printed by Etbe and Spottiswoode, 
 
 Printers to the Queen's most Excellent Majesty. 
 
 For Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 
 
 [21461.— 500.— 11/85.] 
 
CENERAI, MEMOIRS OF THE CEOi:.OCXCAX. SVIfVETr— continued. 
 
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 SHEET xaSMOIRS O? TSE GEOXiOCXCAXi SVKVE'Z — continued. 
 
 ESKDALE. EOSBDALE, &o. Hy C. Pox-Stb«sowats, C. Keid, and Gf. Baheow. 1». ed. 
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 OTTEEBUEN and ELSDON. HnGH MiLLEB. (^otes by C. T. PioUQtH.) 
 
 THE MINERAL DISTRSCTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES ARE ILLUSTRATED 
 BY THE FOLLOWING PUBLISHED MAPS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 GOAL-FIELDS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Scale, one incli to a, mile. 
 Anglesey, 78 (SW). 
 Bristol and Somerset, 19, ilS. 
 Goalbrook Dale,' 61 (NE & SE). 
 Olce Hill, 63 (NE, NW). 
 
 Elintslilreand Denbiglisliire.Tl (NE & SB1,70 (NE, SE). 
 Derby and Yorkshire, 71 (NW, NE, & SE), 82 (N W &S\V), 
 
 81 (NE).87 (NE, SB),88 (SE). 
 Eorest of Dean, 43 (SB & SW). 
 Porest of Wyre, 61 (SB), 65 (NE) . 
 Xanoashire,80 (NW),81 (NW), 89,88 (SW, NW). 
 Iieioesterahire,71(S\y),«3<NVr). , 
 
 Northumberland & Durham, lOS, 105, 106 (»E) , 109 (SW,SE) .. 
 N. Staffordshire, 72 (NW),72 (SW),7SlNE),aO (SB), SKSWl. 
 S. Statfo*dshire, 51 (NW), 63 (SW). . 
 Shrewsbury, 60 (NE), 61 (NW & SW). 
 SouHv Walis, 36, 87, 38, 40, 41, 42 (SE, SW). 
 Warwicksliire. 02 (NE SB),63(NW SW).54 (NE)..'i3 (NW). 
 Yorkshire, S8 <NE, SE), 87 (SAV), 93 (SE). 93 (SW). 
 
 GEOLOGIGAL MAPS. 
 
 Scale, six inches to a milei. 
 
 The Coal-fields and other mineral districts of the N. ol 
 England are published on a scale of six inches to a mile, 
 
 , at ts. to 6;. each. DfS. Coloured Copies of other six-inch 
 maps, not intended for publication, are deposited for refer- 
 ence in the Geological Surve.v Office, 28, Jermyn Street, 
 Loudon. 
 
 Sheet. 
 13. Ireletii. 
 16. TJlverstone. 
 17*. Oartmel. 
 22. Aldingham. 
 47. Ciitheroe. 
 43. Colne, Twiston Moor 
 49. Laneshaw Bnclge. 
 55. Whalley. 
 66. Haggate. 
 57. Winewall. 
 
 61. Preston. 
 
 62. Balderstone, &c. 
 OS. Accrington. 
 
 t4. Bujiiley. 
 
 65. Stiperdcn Moor. 
 
 69. Lnylan.d. 
 
 70. Blackburn, &c. 
 
 71. Haslingden. 
 
 '2. Cliviger, Baoup, &c. 
 73. Todmordenl 
 
 77. Chorley. 
 
 78. Bolton-le-Moors. 
 
 79. Ejitwigtle.. 
 
 80. Tottington. 
 
 81. Wardle. 
 
 Xianoastalre. 
 
 Sheet. 
 
 84, Ormskirk, St. Johns, &c. 
 89. Stiindish, Irn. 
 
 86. Adlington, Honvick, Ac, 
 
 87. Bolton-Ie-Moors. 
 
 88. Bury, Hey wood. 
 
 89. Eochdale, &c. 
 
 92. Bickerstaffe. 
 
 98. Wigan, Up Holland, &o. 
 94. WestHoughton.Hindley. 
 
 93. Eadcliffe, Pee! Swinton. 
 
 96. Middleton; Prestwich. 
 
 97. Oldham, &c. 
 
 100. Knowsley, Eainford, &e, 
 
 101. BiUinge, Ashton, &c. 
 
 102. Leigh, Lowton. 
 
 103. Ashley, Boeles. 
 
 104. Manchester, Sal ford, &c. 
 303. Asliton-under-Lyne. 
 
 106. Liverpool, &c, 
 
 107. Prescott, Huyton, Ac. 
 
 108. St.Helen's,Bni^tonWood. 
 
 109. Winwick, Ac. 
 
 111. Cheedale, Stockport. Ac. 
 
 112. Stockport, Ac. 
 
 113. Pai:t of Liverpool, Ac. 
 
 Surbam. 
 
 1. Byton. 
 
 2. Gateshead, 
 
 3. Jarrow. 
 
 4. S. Shields. 
 
 6. Greenside. 
 
 6. Winlaton. 
 
 7. Washington. 
 8..Sunderiand 
 
 Slieet. 
 
 10. Edmondbyers.. 
 
 11. Bbchester. 
 13. Tantoby. 
 
 13. Chester-le-Street. 
 
 16. Hiiiistaiiworth,. 
 
 17. Waskerley_. 
 IS. Muggleswink. 
 
 19. Lanchestei:. 
 
 20. HettOn-le-Hole. 
 23. Wear Head. 
 23. Bastgate. 
 
 21. Stanhope. 
 
 Surbam — continued. 
 Sheet. 
 
 25.. Wolsingbam. .^_ " 
 26. Brancepeth. 
 30. Benny Seat. 
 
 32. White Kirkley* 
 
 33. Hamsterley. 
 
 34. Whitworth. 
 38. Maize Beck. 
 
 41. Cockfield. 
 
 42. Bishop Auckland. ' 
 46. Haivksley Hill House. 
 
 52. Barnard Castle. 
 
 53. Winston. 
 
 41. Eothbury. 
 45 Longframling- 
 ton. 
 
 46. Broomhill. 
 
 47. Coquet Island, 
 54. Longhorsley. 
 53. UJghairi, 
 56. Druridge Bay. 
 
 63. Netherwitton. 
 
 64. Morpeth, 
 ffo. Newbiggin. 
 
 72. BedHngtou. 
 
 73. Blyth. 
 
 MlorUiainberlana. 
 
 80. Cramlington. 98. Walker. 
 
 81. Earsdon. 101. Whitfield. 
 
 82. NE.ofGiIsland.102. Allendale 
 8S. Coadley.Gate. Town. 
 
 87. Heddon; los. Slaley, 
 
 88. Long Benton. " 
 
 89. Tynemouth. 
 91. Greenhead. 
 
 Haltwhistle. 
 
 105. Kewlaii^s.' 
 
 106. Blackpool Br. 
 107.. Allendale. 
 
 IDS. Blanchlaiu 
 93. HaydonBridge.109. ShotteMM 
 
 Hexham. 
 95. Corbridge. 
 90. Horsley. 
 97. Newcastle. 
 
 no. Wellh®;; 
 111. Alie|ilieads. 
 
 55. Soarness. 
 
 56. Skiddaw. 
 
 63. Thackthwaite. 
 
 64. Keswick. 
 
 65. Dockrayo. 
 
 2. Tees Head. 
 6. Dufton Pell. 
 
 7. E«dcar. 
 9. 
 
 12. Bowes. 
 
 13. Wycliffe. 
 
 20. Lythe. „., 
 
 24. Kirkby Ravens- 200. Koighley, 
 
 worthi 201. Bingley. 
 
 23. Aldborongh; " ' 
 
 Cumberland. 
 
 69. Buttermere. 
 
 70. Grange. ' ." 
 IT I. Helvellyn. r 
 
 74. Wastwater. 
 
 75. Stonethwaite PeU. 
 
 VTestmorland. 
 
 12. Patterdale. 25. Grasmere. 
 
 IS. Near Grasmere. SS. Kcndti 
 
 Torksbire. 
 
 116. Conistone 
 
 Moor. 
 ISS. Kirkby 
 
 Malham. 
 .184. Pale End. 
 185. Kildwick. 
 
 52. Whitby. 
 
 33. 
 
 33. Mnrske. 
 39. Richmond, 
 
 - 4g^ 
 
 47!. Robin 
 Bay. 
 
 53. Downholme. 
 68. Leiyboilrne. 
 82. Kidstones. 
 81. B. Witton.l 
 
 97. Poxnp. 
 
 98. Kirk Gill. 
 
 99. Haden Carr. 
 100. Loftiiouse. 
 115. Arncliffe. 
 
 202. Calvcrley. 
 
 203. Seacroft. 
 
 204. Aberford. 
 
 215. Peeke Well. 
 
 216. Bradford. 
 
 217. Calverley. 
 Hood's 218. Leeds. 
 
 219. Kippax. 
 
 231. HallfiU. 
 
 Birstal. 
 
 260. Honley. 
 
 261. Kirkburton. 
 
 262. Darton. I 
 268. Hemsworth. ' 
 264. Campsall. 
 273. Holmftrth. . 
 
 273. Penist'one. ' 
 
 274. Barnsley. 
 
 275. DarBeld. 
 
 276. Brodsworth. , 
 
 281. Langsell. 1 
 
 282. AYortley. j 
 28S. W.ath . upon 
 
 De'amH. 
 284. CbnisboroughJ 
 287. L"o\v Bradlorifi 
 2S8. EcclesBeld. 
 289. Hotherham 
 
 2SS. EastArdsley. 290. BraitKwell." ' 
 231. Castleford. 293. Hallafc Moors 
 246. Hudderstteld. 295. Handsworth. ' 
 
 248. Wakefield. ' "leSfforlhen , 
 
 249. Pontefract. 299. - "'^."'^'"en-i 
 
 250. Darrington. 300. HarthlU. ' 
 
 ' , MINERAL STATISTICS. , 
 
 1868.2«.6d. 1864, 2». 1865, 2 Ad. 1866 to 1881, 2, ekch 1««»' 3»- e"*- 1S61, 2»., and Appendix. 1,.; 18tfS, a,,6d 
 
 (These Statistics are now published by the Some Offiie. as parts of the Xeports oftU iMpeotors ofSIinei.) 
 
 -r, X. .u .,« ^JHE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 ^ i?i ?'"..u w ?°''"'„^''"*"/'' Counties of England {Out of print) . Part 11. South St».ffn,,i=i,-^ 
 t m. South, Wales. Price l..'s<i. Part IV, ThI Slirop\bii-6C?al-fleld and North S?affo?ffir^U.'^ 
 
 Part I, 
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 Price I| 
 

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