433 mmm\^ aPEITR-fMNMLlPMIT mmtimMmKsm CORNELL UNIVERSHY LIBRARY 3 1924 084 832 314 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924084832314 THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE: % i0flft fax |0«;ng fsraifrs, WITH QUESTIONS PBEFABES FOB THE ITSE 07 SCHOOLS. BY GEO. E. WAKINa, Ja., OOKStrLTlN« AOBICirLTITRIBT. Tbe effort to extend the dominion of mm orei natuce is the mest betdtby and msBtBOblaafaUssaibitieBS. — ^Baooh, NEW YOSK: C. M. SAXTON, 2S PARK ROW. Kntercd according to Act "•' ' 'oiifcrees. in the year i854, by GEO. E. V/AKING, -Ib^ Ib tbe Glerk^s Office of tbe District 0*^^/ of the XJDited States for the Soutbora Dlstriui rgftnic luatter originate ? Inorga <./<<' Huw much of chemistry BhoulcT 'farmers inow * THE SJ-ANT. 13 fcnovr enough of chemistry to understand the nature ef the materials of which their crous are composed, and how those materials are to be used to the best advantage. This amount of knowledge may be easily acquir- ed, and should be possessed by every person, old or young, whether actually engaged in the cultivation of the soil or not. All are dependent on vegetable productions, not only for food, but for every comfort and convenience of life. It is the' object of this book to teach children the first principky of agriculture : and it contains all that is absolutely necessary to an understanding of the practical operations of cultiva^- tion, etc. We will first examine the organic part of plants, or that which is driven away during combustion or burning. This matter, though apparently lost, is only changed in form. . It consists of one solid substance, carbon (or charcoal), and three gases, omfgen, hydrogen and nitrogen. These, four kinds of- matter constitute nearly the whole of most plants, the ashes forming often less than one part in one hundred of their dry weight. When wood is: burned in a close vessel, or other- wise. protected from the air, its carbon becomes char- eoal. All plants contain this substance, it, fonning Is organic matter lost, after combustion? Of what does it consist !;--■"..', , •■ ■ " How large a part of plants is carbon 14 THE ttANt. usually about one half of their dry weight. The re* mainder of their ofganic part consists of the three gases named above. By the word gas, we mean air. Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, when pure, are al- ways in the form of air. Oxygen has the power of uniting with many substances, forming compounds which are different from either of their constituents alone. Thus : oxygen unites with iron and forms oxide of iron or iron-rust, which does not resemble the gray metallic iron nor the gas oxygen ; oxygen unites with carbon and forms carbonic acid, which ia an invisible gasj but not at all like pure oxygen ; oxygen combines with hydrogen and forms water. All water, ice, steam, etc., are composed of these two gases. We know this because we can artifi- cially decompose, or separate, all water, and obtain as a result simply oxygen and hydrogen, or we can combine these two gases and thus form pure water ; tsxygen combines with nitrogen and forms nitric acid. These chemical changes and combinations take place only under certain circumstances, which, BO far as they affect agriculture, will be considered in the following pages. As the organic elements of plants are obtained from matters existing in the atmosphere which sur- rounds our globe, we will examine its constitution. What do ■we mean by gas ? Does oxygen unite with other substances I Give Eome iustaaoes of its ccmbinatioiis THE PLANl. 15 CHAPTEE n. ATMOSPHERE. Atmospheric air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. Their proportions are, one part of oxygen to four parts of nitrogen. Oxygen is tlie active agent in the combustion, decay, and decomposition )f orga* nizied bodies (those which have possessed animal or vegetable life, that is, organic matter), and others also, in the breathing of animals. Experiments have proved that if the atmosphere consisted of pure oxy- gen every thing would be speedily destroyed, as the processes of combustion and decay would be greatly aqcelerated, and animals would be so stimulated that death would soon ensue. The use of the nitrogen in the air is to dilute the oxygen, and thus reduce the intensity of its effect. J , Besides these two great elements, the atmosphere contains certain impurities which are of great im- portance to vegetable growth ; these are, carbonic acid, water, ammonia, etc. What is atmospheric air composed of? In what proportions ? What is the me cf nitrogen in air! Does the atmosphere coataia other mattera useful to vegetationl What are tiieyl 16 THE PLANT. OABBONIC ACID. Carbonic acid is in all probability the only source of the carbon of plants, and consequently is of more importance to vegetation than any other single sort of food. It is a gas, and is not, under natural circum- stances, perceptible to our senses. It constitutes about 25V0 of the atmosphere, and is found in com- bination with many substances in nature. Marble, limestone and chalk, are carbonate of lime, or car- bonic acid and lime in combination ; and carbonate of magnesia is a compound of carbonic acid and magnesia. This gas exists in combination with many other mineral substances, and is contained in all water not recently boiled. Its supply, though "inall, is sufficient for the purposes of vegetation. It enters the plant in two ways — through the roots in the water which goes to form the sap, and at the leaves, which absorb it from the air in the form of gas. The leaf of the plant seems to have three offices : that of absorbing carbonic acid from the at- mosphere — that of assisting in the chemical, prepara- tion of the sap — and that of evaporating its water. If we examine leaves with a microscope we shall find that some have as many as 170,000 openings, or What ia the source of the carbon of plants ? What ia carbonic acid f What js its proportion in the atmosphere ? Where else is if found? Eo w does it eijter the plant J What arte the offices of leaves > THE PLANT. 17 mouths, in a squaie inch ; others have a much less number. Usually, the pores on the under side of the leaf absorb the carbonic acid. This absorptive power is illustrated when we apply the lower side of a cabbage leaf to a wound, as it draws strongly — the other side of the leaf has no such action. Young sprouts may have the power of absorbing and decom- posing carbonic acid. The roots of plants terminate at their eiids in minute spongioles, or mouths for the absorption of fluids containing nutriment. lu these fluids there exist greater or less quantities of carbonic acid, and a considerable amount of this gas enters into the circulation of the plant,, and is carried to those parts where it is required for decomposition. Plants, un- der favorable circumstances, may thus obtain about one-third of their carbon. Carbonic acid, it will be recollected, consists of carbon and oxygen, while it supplies only carbon to the plant. It is therefore necessary that it be divided, or decomposed, and that the carbon be re- tained while the oxygen is sent ofl" again into the atmosphere, to reperform its office of uniting with carbon. This decomposition takes place in the green What parts off oots absorb food ? How much of their carbon may plants receive through their roots I Wh-it change does carbonic acid undergo after entering the plant? In what parts of the plants and under vhat influence^ is cai>- bonic ncid decomposed ! 18 THJB PLANT. parts of plants and only under the influence of day- light. It is not necessary that the sun shine directly on the leaf or green shoot, but this causes a more rapid decomposition of carbonic acid, and conse- quently we find that plants which are well exposed to the sun's rays make the most rapid growth. The fact that light is essential to vegetation ex- plains the conditions of different latitudes, which, so far as the assimilation of carbon is concerned, are much the same. At the Equator the days are but about twelve hours long. Still, as the growth of plants is extended over eight or nine months of the year, the duration of daylight is sufficient for the requirements of a luxuriant vegetation. At the Poles, on the con- trary, the summer is but two or three months long ; here, however, it is daylight all summer, and plants from continual growth develop themselves in that short time. It will be recollected that carbonic acid consti-- tutes but about jjVir of the air, yet, although about one half of all the vegetable matter in the world is derived from this source, as well as all of the carbon required by the growth of plants, its propor- tion in the atmosphere is constantly about the same. In order that we may understand this, it becomes necessary for us to consider the means by which it is formed. Carbon, by the aid of fire, is made tor Explain the condition of different latitudes. Does the proportion of carbonic acid in the atmosphere remain about the sfime f THK PLANT. 19 unite with oxygen, and always when bodies contain- ing carbon are burnt mth the preseiice of atmospheric air, the oxygen of that air .unites with the carbon, and forms carbonic acid. The same occurs when bodies containing carbon decay, as this is simply a slower burning and produces the same results. The respiration (or breathing) of animals is simply the union of the ca.rbon of the blood with the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and their breath, when thrown out, always contains carbonic acid. From this we see that the reproduction of this gas is the direct effect of the destruction of all organized bodies, whether by fire, decay, or consum,ption by animals. Furnaces are its wholesale manufactories. Every cottage fire is continually producing a new supply, and the blue smoke issuing from the cottage-chimney, as described by so many poets, possesses a new beauty, when we reflect that besides indicating a cheerful fire on the hearth, it contains materials for making, food for the cottager's tables and new faggots for his fire. The wick of every burning lamp draws up the carbon of the oil to be made into carbonic acid at the flame. All matters in process of combustion, decay, fermentation, or putrefaction, are returning to the atmosphere those constituents, which they ob- tained from it. Every living animal, even to the smallest insect, by respiration, spends its life in the Explain Bome of the operations in which thia rcprod'dotion tatfiB place. Hov is it reproduced! 20 THE I'LANT. production of this material necessary to the growth of plants, and at death giyes up its body in part for such formation by decay. Thus we see that there is a continual change from the carbon of plants to air, and from air back, to plants, or through them to animals. As each dollar in gold that is received into a country permanently increases its amount of circulating medium, and each dollar sent out permanently decreases it until rg" turned, so the carbonic acid sent into the atmosphere by burning, decay, or respiration, becomes a permanent stock of constantly changeable, material, until.it shall be locked up for a time, as in a house which may. laft for centuries, or in an oak tree which may stand % thousands of years. ' Still, at the decay of either of these, the carbon which they contain must be agjain resolved into carbonic acid. The coal-beds of Pennsylvania are mines of carbon once abstracted from the atmosphere by plants. In these coal-beds are often found fern leaves, toads, whole trees, and in short all forms of organized matter. These all existed as Hving things before the great floods, and at the. breaking away of the barriers of the immense lakes, of ^hich our. pre- sent lakes were merely the deep holes in their bedg, they were washed away and deposited in masses so great as to take fire from their chemical changes TOat are the coal-beds of Pennsylvania r What are often found in them ? THE PLANT. 21 It is by many supposed tbat this fire acting through- out the entire mass (without the presence of air to supply oxygen- except on the surface) caused it to become melted carbon, and to flow around those bodies which stUl retained their shapes,' changing them to coal without destroying their structures. This coal, so long as it retains its present form, is lost to the vegetable kingdom, and each ton that is burned, by being changed into carbonic acid, adds to the ability of the atmosphere to support an increased amount of vegetation. Thus we see that, in the provisions of nature, carbon, the gi-and basis, on which all organized matter is founded, is never permanent in any of its forms. Oxygen is the carrier which enables it to change its condition. For instance, let us sup- pose that we have a certain quantity of char- coal ; this is nearly pure carbon. We ignite it, and it unites with the oxygen of the air, becomes carbonic acid, and floats away into the atmosphere. The wind carries it through a forest, and the leaves of the trees with their millions of mouths drink it in. By the assistance of light it is d«composed, the oxygen is sent off" to make more carbonic acid, and the carbon is retained to form a part of the tree. So long as that tree exists in the form of wood, the carbon will re- Explain the manner in which they become coaL How does the burning of coal benefit vegetation J Is carbon ever permanent in any of its forms I What enables it to change its condition ? 22 THE PLANT. mam unaltered, but when the wood decays, or is burned, it immediately takes the form of carbonic aoid, and 'mingles with the atmosphere ready to' be again taken up by plants, and have its carbon de- posited in the form of vegetable matter. Tlie blood of animals contains carbon derived from their food. This unites with the oxygen of the air drawn into- the lungs and forms carbonic acid. Without this process, animals coulfi not live. Thus, while by the natural operation of breathing, they make carbonic acid for the uses of the vegetable^ world, plants, in taking up carbon, throw off oxygen to keep up the life of animals. There is perhaps no way in which we can better illustrate the changes of form in carbon than by describing a simple experiment. Take a glass tube filled with oxygen gas, and put in it a lump of charcoal, cork the ends of the tube tightly, and pass through the corks the wires of an electrical battery. By passing a stream of electri- cal fluid over the charcoal it may be ignited, when it wiU burn with great brilliancy In burning it is dis- solved in the oxygen forming carbonic acid, and dis- appears. It is no more lost^ however, than is the carbon of wood which is burned in a stove ; although invisible, it is stiU in the tube, and may be detected by careful weighing. A more satisfacjtory propf of its presence may be obtained by decomposing the car- Give an instance of such change. How do plants andanimals benefit each other f Describe the experiment with the glass tube. THE PLANT. 23 bonic acid by drawing the wires a short distance apart, and giving a ^ark of electricity. This immediately separates the oxygen from the carbon, which forms a dense black smoke in the tube. By pushing the corks together we may obtain a wafer of charcoal of the same wei^t as the piece- introduced. In this experiment we have changed carbon from its solid form to an invisible gas and back again to a solid, thns fully representing the continual changes of this substance in the destruction of organic matter and the growth of plants. CHAPTEK III. HYDROGEN, OXYGEN AND NITROGEN. - HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. Let us now consider the three gases, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, which constitute the remainder of the organic part of plants. Hydrogen and oxygen compose water, which, if analyzed, yields simply these two gases. Plants per- form such analysis, and in this way are able to ob- tain a sufficient supply of these materials, as their What is water composed of? If analyzed, what does it yield I How do- plants obtain their hydrogen and oxygen? 24 THE PLANT. sap is composed chiefly of water. Whenever vege- table matter is destroyed by burning, decay, or otherwise, its hydrogen and oxygen unite and form water, which is parted with usually in the form of an invisible vapor. The atmosphere of course contains greater or less quantities of watery vapor arising from this cause and from the evaporation of liquid water This vapor condenses, forming rains, etc. Hydrogen and oxygen are never taken into con- sideration in manuring lands, as they are so readUy obtained from the water constituting the sap of the plant, and consequently should not occupy our atten- tion in this book. HITEOGEN. Nitrogen, the only remaining organic constituent of vegetable matter, is for many reasons worthy of close attention. 1. It is necessary to the growth and perfection of all cultivated plants. 2. It is necessary to the formation of animal muscle. 3. It is often deficient in the soil. 4. It is liable to be easily lost from manures. Although about four fifths of atmospheric air are pure nitrogen, it is almost certain that plants If vegetable matter be destroyed, what becomes of these eon- etituents! What is the remaining organic constituent t Why is it worthy of close atti-ntion! Do plants appropriate the nitrogen of the atmosphere t THE PLANT. 25 get no mitriment at all from this source. It is aU obtained from some of its compounds, chiefly from the one called ammonia. Nitric acid is also a source from which plants may obtain nitrogen, though, to the farmer,of less importance than ammonia. AMMONIA. Ammonia is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. It has a pungent smell and is familiarly known as iMTtshorn. The same odor is perceptible around itables and other places where animal matter is de- composing. All animal muscle, certain parts of plants, and other organized substances, consist of compounds containing nitrogen. When these com- pounds undergo combustion, or are in any manner decomposed, the nitrogen which they contain usually unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia. In con- sequence of this the atmosphere always contains more or less of this gas, arising from the decay, etc., which is continually going on all over the world. This ammonia in the atmosphere is the capital stock to which all plants, not artificially manured, must look for their supply of nitrogen. As they can take up ammonia only through their roots, we must What is the principal source fi-om which they obtain nitrogea I - What is ammonia ? How is it formed ? Where does it always exist ? How do plants take up ammonia % 2 26 THE PLANT. discover some means by whiqh it may be conveyed from the atmosphere to the soil. Water may be made to absorb many times its bulk of this gas, and water with which.it, comes in contact will immediately take it up. Spirits of hartshorn is merely water through which ammonia has been passed until it is saturated.* This power of water has a direct apphcation to agriculture, because the water constituting rains, -dews, &c., absorbs the ammonia which the decomposition of nitrogenous matter had sent into the atmosphere, and we find that all rain, snow and dew, contain ammonia. This fact may be chemically proved in various ways, and is perceptible in the common operations of nature. Every person must have , noticed that when a simimer's shower falls on the plants in a flower garden, they commence their growth with fresh vigor while the blossoms become larger and more richly colored. This effect cannot be produced by watering with spring water, unless it be previously mixed with ammonia, in which case the result will be the same. Although ammonia is a gas and pervades the atmosphere, few, if any, plants can take it up, as * By satiurated, we mean fliat it contains all that it is capable of holding. Does water absorb it ? What is spiritn of hartshorn I Why is this power of water important in agriculture I What instance may be cited to prove this! THE PLANT, 27 they do carbonic acid, through their leaves. It .must ■ all enter through the roots in solution in the water which goes to form the sap. Although the amount xeceived from the atmosphere is of great importance, there are few cases where artificial ap- plications are not beneficial. The value of farm-yard and other animal manures, depends chiefly on the ammonia which they yield on decomposition. This subject, also the means for retaining in the soil the ammoniacal parts of fertilizing matters, will be fuUy considered in the section on manures. After ammonia has entered the plant it may be decomposed, its hydrogen sent ofl', and its nitrogen retained to answer the purposes of growth. The changes which nitrogen undergoes, from plants to animals, or, by decomposition, to the form of ammonia in the atmosphere, are as varied as those of carbon and the constituents of water. The same little atom of nitrogen may one year form a part of a plant, and the next become a constituent of an animal, or, with the decomposed dead animal, may form a part of the soil. If the animal should fall into the sea he may become food for fishes, and our atom of nitrogen may form a part of a fish. That fish may be eaten by a larger one, or a,t death may become Can plants use more ammonia than ia received from the atmos- phere ! On what does the value of animal manure chiefly depend ? What changes take place after ammonia enters the plant J May the same atom of nitrogen perform many different offices! 28 THE PLANT. food for the whale, through the marine insect, on which it feeds. After the ahstraction of the oil from the whale, the nitrogen may, by the putrefaction of his remains, be united to hydrogen, form ammonia, and escape into the atmosphere. From here it may be brought to the soil by rains, and enter into the composition of a plant, from which, could its parts speak as it lies on our table, it could tell us a wonder- ful tale of travels, and assure us that, after wander- ing about in all sorts of places, it had returned to us the same little atom of nitrogen which 'we had owned twenty years before, and which for thousands of years had been continually going through its changes. The same is true of any of the organic or in- organic constituents of plants. They are performing their natural offices, or are lying in the earth, or floating in the atmosphere, ready to be lent to any of their legitimate uses, sure again to be returned to their starting point. Thus no atom of matter is ever lost. It may change its place, but it remains for ever as a part of the capital of nature. Is the same true of the other constituents of plantsl Is any atom of matter ever lost f THE PLANT. 29 CHAPTER IV. INOSGANIC MATTER. We win now examine the ashes left after burning vegetable substances. This we have called inorganic matter, and it is obtained from the soil. Organic matter, although forming so large a part of the plant, we have seen to consist of four different substances. The inorganic portion, on the contrary, although forming so small a part, consists of no less than nine or Un different kinds of matter.*- These we wiU consider in order. In their relations to agriculture they may be divided into three classes — alkalies, acids, and neutrals.f Alkalies and acids are of opposite properties, and when brought together they unite and neutralize each other, forming compounds which are neither al- kaline nor acid in their character. Thus, carbonic acid (a gas,) unites with lime — a burning, caustic eubstance— 7and forms marble, which is a hard,taste- * Bromine, iodine, etc, are sometimes detetted in particular plants, but need not occupy the attention of the farmer. + This classification is not strictly scientific, but it is one whieli the learner will find it ■well to adopt. • These bodies are called neutrals because they have no decided alkaline or acid character. What are ashes called ? Ho-w many kinds of matter are there in the ashes of plants ! Into what three classes may they be divided ? What takes place when alkalies and acids are brought together ! 30 THE PLANT. less stone. Alkalies and acids are characterized by their desire to unite with each other, and the com- pounds thus formed have many and various proper- ties, so that the characters of the constituents give no indication of the character of the compound. For instance, lime causes the gases of animal manure to escape, while sulphate of lime (a compound of sulphuric acid and lime) produces an opposite effect, and prevents their escape. The substances coming under the signification of neutrals, are less affected by the laws of combination, still they often combine feebly with other substances, and some of the resultant compounds are of great importance to agriculture. ALKALIES. The alkalies which are found in the ashes of plants are four in number ; they are potash, soda, lime and magnesia, POTASH. When we pour water over wood ashes it dissolves the -potash which they contain, and carries it through Is the character of a compound the same as that of its con- st nents? Give an instance of this. Do neutrals combine with other eubstanoes! Ifame the four alkalies found in the ashes of plants. THE PLANT. 31 in solutioii. This solution is called ley, and if it be boiled to dryness it leaves a solid substance from whicb pure potash may be made. Potash left ex- posed to the air absorbs carbonic acid and becomes carbonate of potash, or pearlash • if another atom of carbonic acid be added, it becomes super-carbonate of potash, or salariHus. Potash has many uses in agri- culture. 1. It forms a constituent of nearly aU plants. 2. It unites with silica (a neutral), and forms a compound which water can dissolve and carry into the roots of plants ; thus supplying them with an ingredient Tvhich gives them much of their strength.* 3. It is a strong agent in the decomposition of vegetable matter, and is thus of much imfportance in preparing manures. 4. It roughens the smooth round particles of sandy soils, and prevents their compacting, as they are often liable to do. 5. It is also of use in killing certain Mnds of insects, and, when artificially applied, in smoothing the bark of fruit trees. The source from which this and the other inor- * In some Boils the flvoridei undoubtedly supply plants with soluble silicates, as fiaorie acid has the power of dissolving silica. Thus, in Derbyshire (England), where the soil is supplied with fluorie acid, grain is said nerer to lodge. How may we obtain potash from ashes? What are some of its agricultural uses I 32 THE PLANT. ganic matters required are to be obtained, will be folly considered in the section on manures. SODA. Soda, one of the alkalies contained in the ashes of plantSj is very much the same as potash in its agricultural character. Its uses are the same as those of potash — ^before enumerated. Soda exists very largely in nature, as it forms an important part of common salt, whether in the ocean or in those in- land deposits known as rock salt. When' combined with sulphuric acid it forms sulphate of sodaor (xZat*-^ her's salts. Jn combination with carbonic acid, as carbonate of soda, it forms the common washing soda of the shops. It. is often necessary to render soils fertile.- LIMB. JLwne is in many ways important in agriculture : 1. It is a constituent of plants and animals. 2. It assists in the decomposition of vegetable' Blatter in the soil. 3. It corrects the -acidity* of sour soils. * Sourness. Where is soda found most largely ! What is Glauber's salts f What is washing soda ! What are sonifi of the uses of Ume % Tflfi PLANT, 33 4i As chloride or sulphate of Hme it is a good ttTbsprbent of fertilizing gases. In nature it usually exists in the form of car*- bonate of lime : that is, as marblej limestonej and chalk— ^hese aU being of the same composition. In manufacturing caustic (or quick) lime, it is customary to burn the carbonate of lime in a kUn ; by thia means the carbonic acid is thrown off into the atmo- sphere and the lime remains in a pure or caustic state. A French chemist states that every cubic yard of limestone that is burnedj throws off ten thousand cubic yards of carbonic acid, which may be used by plants. This reminds us of the story of Sinbad the sailor, where we read of the immense genie who came out of a very smaU box by the seashore, much to the surprise of Sinbad, who could not believe his eyesj until the genie changed himself into a cloud of smoke and went into the box again. Sinbad fastened the lid, and the geme must have remained there untU the bos was destroyed. Now man is very much like Sinbad, he lets the carbonic acid out from the Umestone (when it ex- pands and becomes a gas) ; and then he raises a crop, the leaves of which drink it in and pack the carbon away in a very small compass as vegetable tnatter. Hex's it must remain tiutit the plaht is de- How is cat^tic lime mdde ? How much carbonic acid is thtis liberatedl How does man Teseiable Sinbad the sailor I a* 34 THE PLANT. Btroyed, when it becomes carbpnio acid again, and occupies just as miich space as ever. The burniag of limestone ia a very prolific source of carbonic acid. MAGNESIA. Magnesia is the remaining alkali of vegetable ashes. It is well known as a medicine, both in the form of calcined magnesia, and, when mixed with sul- phuric acid, as epsom salts. Magnesia is necessary to nearly all plants, but too much of it is poisonous, and it should be used with much care, as many soils already contain a suf- ficient quantity. It is often found in limestone rocla (that class called dolomites), and the injurious efiects of some kinds of lime, as weU as the barrenness of soils made from dolomites, may be attributed entirely to the fact that they contain too much magnesia. A 1 D s. PHOSPHOKIC ACID. Phosphoric acid. — This subject is one of the greatest interest to the farmer. Phosphoric acid What do you know about magnesia ! What is phoaphwio acid composed of? With what substance does it foim its most important compound f tnt PLANT. 3'5 is composed of phosphorus and oxygen. The end of a loco-foco match contains phosphorus, and when it is lighted it unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere and forms phosphoric acid ; this consti- tutes the white smoke which is seen for a moment before the sulphur commences burning. Being an acid, this substance has the power of combining with any of the alkalies. Its most important compound is with lime. Phosphate of lime forms about 65 per cent. , of the dry weight of the bones of all animals, and it is all derived from the soil through the medium of plants. As plants are intended as food for animals, nature has provided that they shall not .attain their perfection without taking up a sup- ply of phosphate of lune as well as, of the other earthy matters ; consequently, there are many soils which will not produce good crops, simply because they are deficient in phosphate of lime. It is one of the most important ingredients of manures, and its value is dependent on certain conditions which will be hereafter explained. Another use of phosphoric acid in the plant is to supply it with a small amount of phosphorus, which seems to be required in the fomiation of the seed. Will soils, deficient in phosphate of lime, produde good crops? From whit source do plants obtain their phosphomsf 36 THE PLANT, SUliPHUKIO ACID. Sulphuric acid is important to vegetation and i9 often needed to render smls fertile. It is composed of sulphur and oxygen, and is made for manufactur- ing purposes, by burning sulphur. With lime it forms, sulphcae of lime, which is gypsum or ' plaster.' I;i this form it is often found in nature, and is generally used in agriculture. Other important methods for supplying sulphuric acid will be described hereafter. It gives to the plant a small portion of sulphw, which is necessary to the formajion of some of its* partSi • If E U T E A L 3. SILIGA. This is sand,, the base of flint. It is necessary for the growth of all plants,^ as it gives them much of their strength. In connection .with an alkali it. constitutes the hard shining surface of com stalks, straw, etc. Silica unites with the alkalies and forms compounds, such as silicate of potash, silicate of soda, etc., which are soluble in water, and therefore What is Bulpliurie acid composed of 8 What is plaster ? What is silica ? Why is it necessary to the growth of plants f What compounds does it form with alkalies? THE PLANT- 37 arailable to plants. If We roughen a corn stali with sand-paper we may sharpen a knife upon it. This is owing to the hard particles of silica which it contains. Window glass is silicate of potash, ren- dered insoluble by additions of arsenic and litharge, Liebig teUs us that some persons discovered^ between Manheim and Heidelberg in Germany, a mass of melted glass where a hay-stack h^d been atruck by lightning. ' They supposed it to be a meteor, but chemical analysis showed that it was only the compound of silica and potash which served to strengthen the grass. ' There is always eTiough silica m the soil, but it is often necessary to add an alkali to render it avail- able. When grain, etc., lodge or fall down from their own weight, it is altogether probable that they are unable to obtain from the soil a sufficient supply of the soluble sihcates, and some form of alkali should be added to the soil to unite with the sand and render it soluble. CHliOElNE, OMorine is an important ingredient of vegetable ashes, and is often required to restore the balance to Ho-w can yon prove ita existence in corn stalka ? What instance does Liebig give to show its existeACe in grass 1 Ho-w do we supply silicates ? Why does grain lodge | i " What is the most important compound of chlorine? 38 THE PLANT. the soil. It is not found alone in nature, but is always in combination with other substances. Its most important compound is with sodium, forming chloride of sodium (or common salt). Sodium is the base of soda, and common salt is usually the best source from which to obtain both soda and chlorine. Chlorine unites with lime and forms chloride oflime^ which is much used to absorb the unpleasant odors of decaying matters, and in this character it is of use in the treatment of manures. OXIDE OF lEON. Oxide, of iron, one of the constituents of ashes, is common iron rust. Iron itself is naturally of a grayish color, but when exposed to the, atmosphere, it readily absorbs oxygen and forms a reddish com- pound. It is in this form that it usually exists in nature, and many soils as well as the red sandstones are colored by it. It is seldom, if ever, necessary to apply this as a manure, there being usually enough of it in the soil. This red oxide of iron, of which we have been speaking, is called by chemists the jseroajtefe. There is another compound which contains less oxygen than Of -what use ia chloride of lime ? What ia oxide of iron ? What is the diffieriuce between the^roxide and the protoxide of iron? THE PLANT. 39 this, and is called the protoxide of iron, which is poisonous to plants. When it exists in the soil it is necessary to use such means of cultivation, as shall expose it to the atmosphere and allow it to take up more oxygen and hec^me the peroxide. The black scales which fly from hot iron when struck by the blacksmith's hammer are protoxide of iron. The peroxide of iron is a very good absorbent of ammonia, and consequently, as will be hereafter described, adds to the fertility of the soil. Oxide OF Mangankbb, though oftenfound in small quantities in the ashes of cultivated plants, cannot be considered indispensable. Having now examined all of the materials from which the ashes of plants are formed, we are enabled to classify them in a simple manner, so that they may be recollected. They are as follows :— &LEALI£S. AaBS. NKUTBALS. potash.' Sulphuric acid. Silica. Soda. Phosphoric " Chlorine. Lime. Oxide of Iron, Magnesia. " Manganese There is reason to suppose that alumina is an essential tbnstitnent of many plants. . What can you say of the oxide of manganese? How do you classify the inorganic constituents t 40 THE PtANTi CHAPTER V. GROWT H. Having examined the materials of wBich plant* are made, it becomes necessary to discover how they dre put together in the process of growth. Let tis therefore suppose a young wheat-^plant for instance to be in condition to commence independent growth. It consists of roots vfhich are located in the soil j leaves which are spread in the air, and a stem which connects the roots and leaves. This stem con- tains sap vessels (or tubes) which extend from the ends of the roots to the surfaces of the leaVes, thus affording a passage for the sap, and consequently allowing the matters taken up to be distributed throughout the plant. It is necessary that the materials of which plants are made should be suppHed in certain proper* tions, and at the same time. For instance, carbon could not be taken up in large quantities by the leaves, unless the roots, at the game time, were re- ceiving from the soil those mineral matters which are necessary to growth. On the other hand, no con- Of what does a perfect young plant consist ! How muBt the food of plants be supplied I Can carbon and earthy matte* be taken up at separate stage* of growth, or must they both be supplied at oneef THE PLANT. 41 siderable amount of earthy matter could be appro- priated by the roots unless the leaves were obtaining carbon from the air. This same rule holds trUewith regard to all of the constituents required ; Nature seeming to have made it a law that if one of the important ingredients of the .plant is absent, the others, though they may be pi-esent in sufficient quantities, cannot be used. Thus, if the soil is de- ficient in potash, and still has sufficient quantities of all of the other ingredients, the plant cannot take up these ingredients, because potash . is necessary to its hfe. K a farmer wishes to make a cart he prepares his wood and iron, gets them all in the proper condition, and then can very readily put them together. But ifTie has all of the wood necessary and no iron, he cannot make his cart, because bolts, nails and screws are required, and their place cannot be suppHed by boards. This serves to illustrate the fact that in raising plants we must give them every thing that they require, or they will not grow at aU. In the case of our young plant the following opera- tions are going on at about the same time. The leaves are absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and the roots are drinking in water from tfie soil. What seems to be nature's law with regard to this? What is the similarity between making a cart and raising a crop.' In the growth of a young plant, what operations take place about the same time I 42 THE PLANT. Under the influence of daylight, the carbonic acid is decomposed ; its oxygen returned to the atmos- phere, and its carbon retained in the plant. The water taken in by" the roots circulates: through the sap vessels of the plant, and, from various causes, is drawn up towards the leaves where it is evaporated. This water contains the nitrogen and the inorganic matter required by the plant and some carbonic acid, while the water itself Consists of hydrogen and oxygen. Thus we see that the plant obtains its food in the following manner ; — Caebon. — In the form of carbonic acid from the atmosphere^ and from that contained in the sap, the oxygen being returned to the air. I From the elements of the water con- V stituting the sap. Htdbogen. -' NiTKOGEN. — From the soil (chiefly in form of ani- monia). It is carried into the plant through the roots in solution in water. Inokganio ) From the soil, 'and only in solution Matter. ) in water. What becomes of the carbonic acid ? How is the sap disposed of? What does it contain ? How does the plant obtain its carbon ? Its oxygen and hydrogen ? Its nitrogen ? ; Its inorganic matter? THE PLANT. 43 Many of the chemical changes which take place in the interior of the plant are well understood, but they require too much Imowledge of chemistry to be easily comprehended by the young learner, and it is not absolutely essential that they should be imder- stood by the scholar who is merely learning the dements of the science. It is sufficient to say that the food taken up by the plant undergoes such changes as are required for its growth ; as in animals, where the food taken into the stomach, is digested, and formed into bone, muscle, fat, hair, etc., so in the plant the nutritive portions of the sap are resolved into wood, bark, grain, or some other necessary part. The results of these changes are of the greatest importance in agriculture, and no person can call Inrc^eH Si practical farmer who does not thoroughly understand them. - ; '^ ' CHAPTEE VI. PBOXI' I ATE "division OP PLANTS, ETC. We hav > hitherto examined what is called the ultimate division of plants. That is, we have looked at each one of the elements separately^ and con- sidered 'ts use in viegetable growth. VlinA t^ngea does the food taken up by the plant undergol. 44 THE PLAMT. We will now examine another division of plants, called their proximate division. We know that plants consist of various substances, such as wood, gum, starch, oil, etc., and on examination we shall, discover that these substances are composed of the various organic and inorganic ingredients described in the preceding chapters. They are made up almost entirely of organic matter, but .their ashy parts, though very small, are (as we shall soon see) some- times of great importance. These compounds are called proadmate prinei- ples,^ or vegetable proximates^ They may be di- ^ded into two classes. The first class are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The second class contain the same substanceSji and nitrogen. The first class (those compoimds not containing nitrogen) comprise the wood, starch, gum, sugar, and fatty matter which constitute the greater part of all plants, also the acids which are found in sour fruits, etc. Various as are all of these things in their charac- * ^y proximate principle^ we mean, that combination of vege- table elements -whicli is known as a vegetable product^ such as wood, etc. , Of what do wood, starch and the other vegetable compoundg chiefly consist ! Are their small ashy parts important ! What are these compounds called ? Into how many classes may proximate principles be dividedl Of what do the first class consist! The second! What vegetable compounds do the first class comprise ! THE PLANT. 45 ters, they are entirely composed of the same ingre- dients (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen), and usually combined in about the same proportion. There may be a slight difference in the composition of their ashes, but the organic part is much the same in every case, 80 much so, that they can often be artificially changed j&om one to the other. As an instance of this, it may be recollected by those who attended the Fair of the American Insti- tute, in 1834, that Prof. Mapes exhibited samples of excellent sugar made from the juice of the corn- stalk, starch, linen, and woody fibre. The ease with which these proximates may be changed from one to the other is their most impor- tant agricultural feature, and should be clearly understood before proceeding farther. It is one of the fundamental principles on which -the growth of both vegetables and animals depends. The proximates of the first class constitute usual- ly the greater part of all plants, and they are readily formed from the carbonic acid and water which in nature are so plentifully supplied. The secoTid cla§s of proximateS, though forming only a small part of the plant, are of the greatest importance to the farmer, being the ones from which Are these substances a£ about the same corapoaition ? Can they be artificially changed from one to another? Give an instance of this. __ Is the eaise with -which these changes take place important From what may the firat class of proximates be formed ? 46 THE PLANT. animal musde* is made. They consist, as will be re- collected, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, or of all of the organic elements of plants. They are all of much the same character, though each kind of plant has its peculiar form of this substance, which is known under the general name oi protein. The protein of wheat is called gluten — ^that of Indian corn is zein — that of beans and peas is legumin. In other plants the protein substances are vegetable albumen, casein, etc. Gluten absorbs large quantities of water, which causes it to swell to a great size, and become full of holes. Flour which contains much gluten, .make's light, porous bread, and is preferred by bakers, because it absorbs so large an amount of water. The protein substances are necessary to animal and vegetable- life, and none of our cultivated plants win attain maturity (complete their growth), unless allowed the materials required for forming this con- stituent. To furnish this condition is the object of nitrogen given to plants as manure. If no nitrogen * Muscle is lean meat, it gives to animals their strength and ability to perform labor. * Why are those of the second class particularly important to farmers! What is the general name under which they are known ? What is the protein of wheat called ? Why is flour containing much gluten preferred by bakers I Can protein be fojrmed without nitrogen ? Ji plants were allowed to complete their growth without a sup- ply of this ingredient^ what womd be the result f THE PLANT. 47 is supplied the protein substances cannot be formed, and the plant must cease to grow. When on the contrary ammonia is given to the sofl (by rains or otherwise), it furnishes nitrogen, while the carbonic acid and water yield the other constituents of protein, and a healthy growth con- tinues, provided that the soil contains thcf mineral matters required in the formation of the ash, in a condition to be useful. The wisdom of this provision is evident when we recollect that the protein substances are necessary to the formation of muscle in animals, for if plants were allowed to complete their growth without a supply of this ingredient, our grain and hay might not be suffi- ciently well supplied with it to keep our oxen and horses in working condition, while under the existing - law plants must ^e of nearly a uniform quality (in this respect), and if a field is §hort of nitrogen, its crop, will not be large, and of a very poor quality, but .the soil wiD. produce good plants as long as the ni- trogen lasts, and then the growth must cease.* ANIMALS. That this principle may be clearly understood, it may be well to explain more fully the application of * This, of course, supposes that the soil is fertile in other respects. ! ■ ^ What is the result if a fi^Id be deficient in nitrogen? 48 THE PLANT. the proximate constitutents of plants in feeding animals. Animals are composed (like plants) of organic and inorganic matter, and every thing necessary to build them up exists in plants. It seems to be the office of the vegetable world to prej)are the gases in the atmosphere, and the minerals in the earth for the uses of animal life, and, to effect this plants, put these gases and minerals together in the form of the various proximates (or compound substances) which we have just described. In animals the compounds containing no nitrogen comprise the fatty substances, parts of the blood, etc., while the protein compounds, or those which do con- tain nitrogen, form the muscle, apart of the bones, the hair, and other portions of the animal. Animals contain a larger proportion of inorganic matter than planta do. Bones contain a large quantity of phosphate of lime, and we find other inorganic materials performing important offices in the system. In order that animals may he perfectly developed, they must of course receive as food all of the materials required to form their bodies. They cannot live if fed entirely on one ingredient. Thus, if stdrch alone Of what are the bodies of animals composed? Vfliat is the office of vegetation ? What part of the animal is formed from the first class of prox- imates ? From the second ! Which contains the largest portions of inorganic matter, plants or animals ? Must animals have a variety of food, and why.? THE PLANT. 49 be eaten by the animal, he might hecome fat, but his strength would soon fail, bec'ause his food contains nothing to keep up the vigor of his- muscles. If on the contrary the food of an animal consisted entirely of gluten, he might be very strong from a superior de- velopment of muscle, but would not be fat. Hence we see -that inofder to keep up the proper proportion of both fat and muscle in our animals (or in ourselves), the food must be such as contains a proper, proportion of the two kinds of proximates. It is for this reason that grain, such as wheat for instance, is so good for food. It contains both classes of proximates, and furnishes material for the formation of both fat and muscle. Tbd value otjlour depends very much on the manner in which it is manufactured. This will be soon explained. Apart from the relations between the proodmate principles of plants, and those of animals, there exists an important relation between their ashy or inor garde parts ; and, food in order to satisfy the demands of animal life, must contain the mineral matter required for the purposes of that life. Take bones for instance. If phosphate of Kme is not always supphed in suffi- cient quantities by food, animals are prevented from the formation of healthy bones. This is particularly Why is grain good for food f On -what does the value of flour depend ? Is there any relation between the ashy part of plants and Aose of animals \ How may we account for unhealthy bones and teeth I S 50 THE PLANT. to be noticed in teeth. Where food, is defioieiitiijof phosphate of lime, we see poor teeth as a result. Some physicians have supposed that one of the causes of consumption is the defioiency of phosphate of lime in food. The first class of proximates (starch, sugar, gum, etc.), perform an important office in the animal economy aside from their use in making fat. They constitute the fud which supplies the animal's fire, and gives him his htat. The lunge of men and other animals may be called delicate, stoves, which supply the whole body with, heat. But let us explain this matter more fully. If wood, starch, gum, or sugar, be burned ii> a stove, they produce heat. These substances consist, as will be recollected, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and when they are destroyed in any way (provided they be exposed to the atmos- phere), the hydrogen and oxygen unite and form water, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the air and forms carbonic acid, as was explained in a pre- ceding chapter. This process is always accompanied by the liberation of heat, and the intensity of this heat depends on the time occupied in its prodtiction. In the case of decay, the chemical changes take place so slowly that the heat, being cqnducted away as soon "What is a probable cause of oonaumption ? What is an important use of the first class of proximates I What may lungs be called ? Explain the production of heat during decomposition. , ; ; Why is the heat produced by decay not perceptible I . , THE PLANT. 51 as fonned, is not perceptible to our senses. In com- bustion (or burning) tbe. same changes take place with much greater rapidity, and the same ' amount of heat being concentrated, or brought out in a far shorter time, it becomes intense, and therefore apparent. In the lungs of animals the same law holds true. The blood contains matters belonging to this carbonaceous class, and they undergo in the lungs the changes which have been described under the head of combustion and decay. Their hydrogen and oxygen unite, and form the moisture of the breath, while- their carbon is combined with the ox:ygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and is thrown out as carbonic acid. The same consequence — heat — results in this, as in the other cases, and this heat is produced with sufficient rapidity for the animal necessities. When an animal exercises violently, his blood circulates with increased rapidity, thus carrying carbon more rapidly to the liings. The breath also becomes quicker, thus supplying increased quantities of oxygen. In this way the decomposition becomes more rapid, and the animal is heated in proportion. Thus we see that food has another function besides that of forming animal matter, namely to supply heat. When the food does not contain a sufficient quantity of starch, sugar, etc., to answer Why is the heat produced by combuation apparent ? Explain the production of heat in the lung^ of animals? "Why does exercise augment the animal heat? Under what cireumstanoes is the animal's own fat used in the production of beat i 52 THE PLANT. the demands of the system the cmimai'e own fai is carried to the lungs, and there used in the produc- tion of heat. This important fact will be referred to again. CHAPTER VII. LOCATION OF THE PEOXIMATES AND VARIATIONS IN THE ASHES OF PLANTS. Let us now examine plants with a view to learn- ing the location of the various parts. The stem or trunk of. the plant or tree consists almost entirely of woody fibre ; this also forms a large •portion of the other parts except the seeds, and, in some instances, the roots. The roots of the potato contain large quanties of starch. Other roots such as the carrot and turnip, contain pectio acid,^ a nutricious substance resembling starch. It is in the. seed however that the more nutritive portions of most plants exist, and here they maintain * This peotio acid gelatinizes food in the stomach, and thus •euders it more digestible. Of what proximate are plants chiefly composed 1 What is the principal constituent of the potato root? Of the carrot and turnip f What part of the plant contains usually the most nutriment't THE PLANT. 53 certain relative positions whicli it is well to under- stand, and which can be best explained by reference to the following figures, as described by .Prof. Johnston : — " Thus a shows the position of the oil in the outer part of the seed — ^it exists in minute drops, inclosed in six-sided cells, which consists chiefly of gluten ; b, the position and comparative quantity of the starch, which in the heart of the seed is mixed with biily a small proportion of gluten ; c, the germ or chit which contains much gluten."* The location of the inorganic part of plants is one of much interest, and shows the adapta/tion of each part to its particular use. Take a wheat plant, for instance — the stalk, the leaf, and the grain, show in their ashes, important difference of composition. The stalk or straw contains three or four times as large a proportion of ash as the grain, and a no less remarkable difference of composition may be noticed See Johnston's Elements, page 41, . Is the composition of the'inorganic matter of different parts of the plant the same, or different I What is the difference between the ash of the straw and that of the grain of wheat ! 54 THE PLANT. in the ashes of the two parts. In that of the straw, we find a large proportion of silica and scarcely, any phosphoric acid, while in that of the grain there is scarcely a trace of silica, although phosphoric acid constitutes more than one half of the entire weight. The leaves contain a considerable quantity of lime. This may at first seem an unimportant matter, but on examination we shall see the use of it. The straw is intended to support the grain and leaves, and to convey the sap from the roots to the upper portions of the plant. To perform these offices, strength is required, and this is given by the siUcam and the woody fibre which forms so large' a propor- tion of, the stalk. The sihca is combined with an alkali, and constitutes the glassy coating of the straw. While the plant is young, this coating is hardly ap- parent, but as it grows older, as the grain becomes heavier, (verging . towards ripeness),, the silicious coating of the stalk assumes a more prominent cha^'; racter, and gives to the straw sufficient strength , to support the golden head. The straw is not the most important part of the plant as food, and therefor*'' requires but little phosphoric acid. "' The grain, on the contrary, is especially intended as food, and therefore must contain a large propor- tion of phosphoric acid — ^this being, as we have al- What'is the reason for this difference f It what part of the grain does phosphoric acid ezigt moat largely ? THE PLANT. 55 ready learned, necessary to the formation of bone^- while, as it has no necessity for strength, and as silica is not needed by animals, this ingredient exists in the grain only in a very small proportion. It may be weU to observe that the phosphoric acid of grain exists most largely in the hard portions near the shell, or bran. This is one of the reasons why Gra- ham flour is more wholesome than fine flour. It contains all of the nutritive materials which render the grain valuable as food, while flour which is very finely bolted* contains only a small part of the outer portions of the grain (where the phosphoric acid, protein and fatty matters exist most largely). The starchy matter in the interior of the grain, which is the least capable of giving strength to the animal, is fcfflcefully separated, and used as food for man, while the better portions, not being ground so finely, are rejected. This one thing alone" may be sufficient to accormt for the fact, that the lives of men have be- come shorter and less blessed with health and strength, than they were in the good old days when a stone mortar and a coarse sieve made a respectable flour mill. Another important fact concerning the ashes of plants is the difference of their composition in dififer- enfc plants. Thus, the most prominent ingredient in * Sifted through a fine cloth called a bolting cloth. Why is Graham flour more -wholesome than fine flour/ Are the ashes of all plants the same in their composition 56 THE PLANT. the ash of the potato is potash ; of wheat and other grains, ^Aos^jAon'c acid ; of meadow hay, silica ; of clover, lime ; of beans, potash, etc. In grain, pot- ash- (or soda), etc., are among the important ingre- dients. These differences are of great importance to the practical farmer, as by understanding what kind of plants use the most of one ingredient, and what kind requires another in large proportion, he can regulate his crops so as to prevent his soil from being exhaust- ed more in one ingredient than in the others, and can also manure his land with reference to the crop which he intends to grow. The tables of analyses;: in the fifth section will point out these differences accurately. CHAPTER VIII. EE CAPITFLATION. We have now learned as much about the plant as is required for our immediate uses, and we will care- fully reconsider the various points with a view to fix- ing them permanently in the mind. Plants are composed of organic and inorganic matter. Of what advantage are these differences to the farmer t Of what are plants composed i THE PLANT. 57 Organic matter is that which bums away in the fire. Inorganic matter is the ash left after bumingi ..The organic matter of plants consists of three gases, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and one solid substance ' carbon (or charcoal). The inorganic matter of plants consists of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, silica, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese. Plants obtain their organic food as foUows :— Oxygen and hydrogen from water, nitrogen from some compound containing nitrogen (chiefly from ammonia), and carbon from the atmosphere where it exists as carbonic acid— a gas. They obtain their inorganic food from the soU. The water which supplies o&ygen and hydrogen to plants is readily obtained without the assistance of manures. Ammonia is obtained from the atmosphere, by being absorbed by rain and carried into the soil, and it enters plants through their roots. It may be artifi- cially supplied ia the form of animal manure with profit. • Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by leaves, and decomposed in the green parts of plants under the influence of daylight ; the carbon is re- What is organic matter ! Inorganic? Of what does organic matter consist ? Inorganic I How do plants obtain their organic food ? How their inorganic ? How is anunouia supplied? Carbonic acid i S* 58 THE PLANT. tained, and the oxygen is returned to the ataos* phere. When plants are destroyed by decay, or burning, their organic constituents pass away as water, ammonia, carbonic acid, etc., ready again to be taken up by other plants. The inorganic matters in the soil can enter the plant only when dissolved in water. Potash, soda, lime, and magnesia; are soluble in their pure forms. Magnesia is injurious when present in too large quantities. Sulphwic acid is often necessary as a manure, and is usually most avaUablein the form of sulphate of lime or plaster. It is also valuable in its pure form to prevent the escape of ammonia from composts. Phosphoric acid is highly important, from its frequent deficiency in worn-out soils. It is available only under certain conditions which will be described in the section on manures. Silica is the base of common sand, and must be united to an alkali before it can be used by the plantj because it is insoluble except when so united. Ohloriiieis a constituent of common salt (chloride When plants are destroyed by combustion or decay, what be- comes of their constituents ? How does the -inorganic matter enter the plant f Are the alkalies soluble in their pure forms! Which one of them is iniurions when too largely present I , How may sulphuric acid be supplied f Is phosphoric acid important ? ' How must silica be treated ? From what source may we ottain chlorine! THE PXiANT, 59 of sodmm), and from this source may be obtained in sufficient quantities for manurial purposes. Oidde of iron is iron rust. There are two oxides of iron, the peroxide (red) and the protoxide (black). The former is a fertilizer, and the latter poisons plants. Oxide of manganese is often absent from the ashes of our cultivated plants. The food of plants, both organic and inorganic, must be supplied in certain proportions, and at the time when it is required. In the plant, this food undergoes such chemical changes as are necessary to growth. ' The compounds formed by these chemical com- binations are caRei proximates. '"■ Proximates are of two classes, those not con- taining nitrogen, and those which do contain it. The first class constitute nearly the whole plant. The second class, although small in quantity, are of the greatest importance to the farmer, as from them all animal muscle is made. Animals, like plants, are composed of both or- ganic and inorganic matter, and their bodies are obtained directly or indirectly frbm plants. , , What is.tfiie difference bet-ween peroxida and ^of oxide of ironf How mnst the food of plants be supplied! What ta^^s place after it enters the plant i What name is given to the componnds thus foraaedi Sow are proximates divided f Which class constitutes the largest part of the plant? Of what are animals composed, and how do. they obtain the materials from which to form their growths 60 THE PLANT. The first class of proximates in animals comprise the fat, and like tissues. The second class form the muscle, hair, gelatine of the hones, etc. In order that they may be perfectly developed, animals must eat both classes of proximates, and in the proportions required by their natures. They require the phosphate of lime and other in- organic food which exist in plants. Seeds are the best adapted to the uses of working animals, because they are rich in all kinds of food re- quired. Aside from their use in the formation of fat, proximates of the first class are employed in the lungs, as fuel to keep up animal heat, which is pro- duced (as in fire and decay) by the decomposition of these substances. When the food is insufficient for the purposes of heat, the animal's own fat is decomposed, and carried to the lungs as fuel. The stems, roots, branches, etc, of most plants consist principally of woody fihre. Their seeds, and sometimes their roots, contain considerable quantities oi starch. What parts of the animal belong to the first elaas of proximates f What to the second ? What is necessary to the perfect development of animals ! Why are seeds valuable for working animals f What other important use, in animal economy, have proximates of the first class ? ' Under what circumstances is animal fat decomposed ! THE PLANT. 61 The protein and the oils of most plants exist most largely in the seeds. The location of .the proximates, as well as of the inorganic parts of the plant, show a remarkable re- ference to the purposes of growth, and to the wants of the animal world, as is noticed in the difference between the construction of the straw and that of the kernel of wheat. The reason why the fine flour now made is not so healthftilly nutritious as that which contained more of the coarse portions, is that it is robbed of a large proportion of protein and phosphate of lime, while it contains "an undue amount of starch, which is avail- able only to form fat, and to supply fuel to the lungs. Different plants have ashes of different composi- tion. Thus-^ne may take from the soil large quan- tities of potash, another of phosphoric acid, and another of lime. By understanding these differences, we shall be able so to regulate our rotations, that the soil may not be called on to supply more of one in- gredient than of another, and thus it may be kept in balance. Ifame the parts of the .plant in which the different proximates exist. State what 70U know about flour. Do we kaow that different plants have ashea of different com- position ? How are farmers to be benefited by such knowledge ! 62 THE PLANT, The facts contained in this chapter are the alphabet of agriculture, and the learner should not only become perfectly familiar with them, but should also clearly understand the reasons why they are true, before proceeding farther. SECTION SECOND. THE SOIL SECTION SECOND. THE SOIL CHAPTER I. FOBMATION AND CHABACTEE OP THE SOIL. In the foregoing section, we have studied the cha- racter of plants and the laws which govern their growth. We learned that one necessary condition for - growth is a fertile soil, and therefore we will ex- amine the nature of different soils, in order that we may understand the relations between them and plants. The soil is not to be regarded as a mysterious mass of dirt, whereon crops are produced by a mysterious process. Well ascertained scientific What is a necessary condition of growth ! 66 THE SOIL. knowledge has proved beyond question that all soilS; whether in America or Asia, whether in Maine or California, have certain fixed properties, which render them fertile or barren, and the science of agriculture is able to point out these characteristics in all cases, so that we can ascertain from a scientific investigation what would be the chances for success in cultivating any soil which we examine. The soil is a great chemical compound, and its chemical character is ascertained (as in the case of plants) by analyzing it, or taking it apart. We first learn that fertile soils contain both or- ganic and inorganic matter ; but, unUke the plant, they usually possess much more of the latter than of the former. In the plant, the organic matter constitutes the., most considerable portion of the whole. In the soil,, on the contrary, it usually exists in very small quan- tities, while the inorganic portions constitute nearly the whole bulk. The organic part of soils consists of the same materials that constitute the organic part of the plants, and it is in reality decayed vegetable and animal matter. It is not necessary that this organic part of the soil should form any particular proportion What is a fixed character of soils ? How is the chemical character of the soil to be ascertained? What do we first learn in analyzing a soil ? How do the .proportions of organic or inorganic parts of soils eompare with those of plants i Of what does the organic part of soils consist t THE SOIL. 67 of the whole, and indeed we find it varying from one and a half to fifty, and sometimes, in peaty soils, to over seventy per cent. AU fertUe soils contain some oi^anic matter, although it seems to make but Httle difference in fertility, whether it be ten or fifty per cent. • - The inorganic part of soils is derived from the crumbling of rocks. Some rocks (such as the slates in Central New York) decompose, and crumble ra- pidly on being exposed' to the wefither ; while granite, marble, and other rocks will last for a long time without 'perceptible change. The causes of this crumbling are various, and are not unimportant to the 'a^citKurist ; as by the same processes by which his soil was formed, he can increase its depth, or otherwise iinprove it. ' This being the case, we will in a few word& explain some of the principal pul- verizing agents. 1. The action of frost. When water lodges in the crevices of rocks, and. freeze&, it expands, and bursts the rock, on the same principle as causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This power is vliy great, and by its assistance, large cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost is the same on a small scale as when applied to large Can the required proportion be definitely indicated ? From what source is the inorganic part of soils derived? Do all soils decompose with equal facility ! How does frost affect rocks ! Does it affect soils in the same way ( 68 THE SOIL. masses of matter, and, therefore, we find that when water freezes in the 'pores''^ of rocks or stones, it se- parates their particles and causes them to crumhle. The same rule holds true with regard to stiff clay soils. If they 2xq ridged in autumn, and left with a rough surface exposed to the frosts of winter,, they will become much lighter, and can afterwards be worked with less difficulty; 2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock become so soft on being soaked^with water, that they readily crumble. 3.. The chemical changes of the constituents of the rock. Many kinds of rock are affected by ex- posure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that changes take place in their chemical character, and cause them, to fall to pieces. The red kellis of New Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, when first quar- ried, a very hard stone, but. on exposure to the in- fluences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that it may be easily crushed between the thumb and finger. • Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an in- fluence on the stubbornness of rocks, and ftause them * The spaces between the particles. Wtat is the eflfeot of water on certain rocks % How are some rooks aflfeoted by exposure to the atmosphere? Give an instance of this. THE SOIL. 69 to be resolved into soils.* Of course, the composi- tion of the soil must he similar to that of the rock from which it was formed ; and, consequently, if we know the chemical character of the rock, we can tell whether the soil formed from it can be -brought under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being pulverized, yields potash ; talcose slate yields' mag- nesia ; marls yield lime, etc. • The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of course, no organic matter.f Still it is capable of bearing plants of a certain class, and when these die, they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting those plants which furnish food for animals. Thou- sands of years must have been occupied in preparing the earth for habitation by man. As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is usually the largest, we will consider it first. As we have stated that this portion is formed * In vsry many instances the crevices and seams ,of rocks are permeated by roots, which, by decaying and thus inducing the growth of other roots, cause these crevices to become filled with organic matter. This, by the absorption of moisture, may expand with sufficient power to burst the rock. f Some rocks contain sulphur, phosphorus, etc., and these may, perhaps, be considered as organic matter. What is the similarity between the composition of soils and tha vocks from which they were formed ? What does feldspar .rook yield! Taleose slate ? Marls? Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter i How is it affected by the growth of plants! 70 THE SOIL. from rocks, we will examine their character, with a view to showing the different qualities of soils. As a general rule, it may be stated that cdl rocks are either sandstones, limestones, or clays ; or a mix- ture of two or more of these ingredients, Hence we find that all mineral soils are either sandy, calcareous, (limey), or clayey ; or consist of a mixture of these, in which one or another usually predominates. Thus, we speak of a sandy soil, a clay soil, etc. These distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) are unpor- tant in considering the mechanical character of the soU, but have little reference to its fertility. By mechanical character, we mean those quali- ties which affect the ease of cultivation- — excess Or deficiency of water, ability to withstand drought, etc. For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to plow — retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during drought ; while alight sandy soil is plowed with ease, often allows water to pass through immediately after rains, and becomes dry and powdery during drought. Notwithstanding those differences in their mechani- cal character, both soils may be very fertile, or one more so than the other, without reference to the clay and sand which they contain, and which, to our ob- servation, form their leading characteristics. The What is the general rule eoneerning the composition of rocks ? Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from them? What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil ? Is its fertility indicated by its mechanioal character? THE SOIL. 71 same facts exist witL, regard to a loamj a calcareous (or limey) soil, or a vegetable mould. , Their me- chanical texture is not essentially an index to theii fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them to furnish food to plants. It is true, that each kind of soU appears to have some general quality of fer- tility or barrenness which is well known to practical men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay or the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more large- ly into the constitution of plants than they do when they are not present in so great quantities, but on cer- tain other facts which will be hereafter explained. As the following names are used to denote the ^eharaoter of soils, in ordinary agricultural description, we will briefly explain their application : A Sandy soil is, of course, one in which sand largely predominates. Clay soil, one where clay forms a large propor- tion of the soil. Loamy soil, where sand and clay are about equally mixed. Ma/rl contains from five' to twenty per cent, of carbonate of lime. , Calcareous soil more than twenty per cent. Peaty soils, of course, contain large quantities of ptganic matter.* •Theae distinotions are not essential to be learned, but are often convenient. What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil ? A marl I A calcareous soil ! A peaty soill 72 THE BOIL. We will now take under consideration that part of the soil on which depends its ahility to supply food to the plant. This portion rarely constitutes more than five or ten per cent, of the entire soil, some- times less — and it has no reference to the sand, clay, and vegetable matters which they contain. Prom analyses of many fertile soils, and of others which are barren or of poorer quality, it h|is been ascertained that the presence of certain ingredients is necessary to fertility. This may be better explained by the as- sistance of the following table : — Soil fertile Good wheat BoiL In one hundred pounds. ■without manure. EuToa Organic matter, . 9.7 7.0 4.0 Silica (sand), . 64.8 74.3 ■ 77.8 Alumina (clay), . 5.7 6.5 9.1 Tiime 6.9 • .1.4 .4 Magnesia, .... .9 .7 .1 Oxide of ircin, . 6.1 4.7 8.1 Oxide of manganese, . .1 ' .1 Potash, .2 1.7 Soda, .4 .7 Chlorine, .... .2 .1 Sulphuric acid, . .2 .1 Phoaphorio acid. .4 .IJ Carbonic acid. 4.0 Loss during the analysis . 1.4 %6i .4 100.0 100.0 100.0 How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants? What do we learn from the analyses of barren and fertile soils t THE SOIL. 73 The soil represented in the first cdlamn might still he fertile with less organic matter, or with a .larger proportion of clay (alumina), and less sand (silica). These affect Hb mechanical character; hut, if we look down the column, we notice that there are small quantities of lime, magnesia, and the other con- stituents of the" ashes of plants (except ox. of manganese). It is not necessary that they should he present in the soil in the exact quantity named above, hut not one must be entirely absent, or greatly re- duced in proportion. By referring to the third column, we see that these ingredients are not all present, and the soil is barren. Even if it were supplied with aU but one or two, potash and soda for instance, it could not support a crop without the assistance of manures containing these alkalies. The reason for this must be readily seen, as we have learned that no plant can arrive at maturity without the necessary supply of materials required in the forma- tion of the ash, and these materials can be obtained only from the soil ; consequently, when they do not exist there, it must be barren. The iuorganic part of soils has two distinct offices to perform. The ■ clay and sand form a What can you say of the soils represented in the table of ana- ies! What proportion of the fertilizing ingredients is required! If the soil represented in the third oommn ooutained all the in- gredients required except potash and soda, wojild it be fertile f What would be neceasaiy to ma]?e it so ? WTiat is the reason for this ? I . What are the offices performed by the iuorganic part of soils \ i 74 THE SOIL. mass of material into w^iicli roots can penetrate, and thus plants are supported in their position. These parts also absorb heat, air and moisture to serve the purposes of growth, as we shall see. in a future chapter. The minute portions of soil, which com- prise the acids, alkalies, and neutrals, furnish plants with their ashes, and are the most necessary to the fertility of the soil. GEOLOGY. The relation between the inorganic part of soils and the rocks from which it was formed, is the the foundation of Agricultural Geology. Geology may be briefly named the science of rocks. It would not be proper in an elementary work to introduce much of this study, and we will therefore simply state that the same kind of rock is of the same composition all over the world ; consequently, if we find a soil in New England formed from any particular rock, and a soil from the same rock in Asia, their natural fertility will be the same in both localities. Some rocks consist of a mixture of different kinds of minerals ; and some, consisting chiefly of one ingredient, are pf different degrees of hardness. Both of these changes must affect the character of the soil, but it may be laid down as rule that, when the rocks of two locct- What is geology f Is the same kind of rook always of the same composition ? How do rooks differ ? THE SOIL, 75 tions are escadly alike, the soils formed from them will be of the same natural fertiUty, and in propor- tion as the character of rofiks changes, in the same proportion wiU the soils differ. In most districts the soil is formed from the rock on which it lies ; hut this is not always the~"case. Soils are often formed hy deposits of matter brought by water from other localities. Thus the alluvial banks of rivers consist of matters brought from the country through which the rivers have passed. The river Nile, in Egypt, yearly overflows its banks, and deposits large quantities of mud brought from the uninhabited upper countries. The prairies of the West owe a portion of their soil to deposits by water. Swamps often receive the washings of ad^ jacent hills ; and, in these cases, their soil is derived i&om a foreign source. We might continue to enumerate instancea-of the relations between soils and the sources whence they Oijiginated, thus demonstrating more fully the impor- tance of geology to the farmer ; but it would be beyond the scope ' of this work, and should be in- vestigated by scholars more advanced than those who are studying merely the elements of agricultural science. The mind, in its early application to any branch What rule may be given in relation to soils formed from the game or different rocks! Are all soils formed from th^ rocks on 'which they lie ! What initonces can you give of this! 76 THE SOIL. of study, should not be charged with intricate subjects. It should master well the rudiments, before investigating those matters which should follow such understanding. By pursuing the proper course, it is easy to learn aU that is necessary to form a good foundation for a thorough acquaintance with the subject. If this foundation is laid thoroughly, the learner will regard plants and soils as old acquaintances, with whose formation and properties he is as familiar as with the construction of a building or simple machine. A simple , spear of grass will become an object of interest, forming itself into a perfect plant, with full development of roots, stem, leaves, and seeds, by processes with which he feels acquainted. The soil will cease to be mere dirt ; it will be viewed as a compound substance, whose composition is a matter of interest, and whose care is productive of intel-; lectual pleasure. The commencement of study in any^ science must necessarily be wearisome to the young mind, but its more advanced stages amply repay the trouble of early exertions. In what light will plants and soils be regarded by those who understand them} THE SOIL. 71 CHAPTEE II. USES. OF OBGANIC MATTER. It ■will be recollected that, in addition to its mineral portions, the soil contains organic matter in varied quantities. It may he fertile with hut one and a half per cent, of organic matter, and some peaty soils con- tain more than fifty per cent, or more than one half of the whole. The precise amount necessary cannot be fixed at any particular sum ; perhaps five parts in a hundred would be as good a quantity as could be reconunended. The soil obtains its organic matter in two ways. First, by the decay of roots and dead plants, also o.f leaves,, which have been brought to it by wind, etc. ^Second, by the application of organic manures. - When a crop of clover is raised, it obtains its carbon from tlje atmosphere ; and, if it be plowed imder, and allowed to decay, a portion of tliis carbon is deposited in the soil. Carbon constitutes nearly the whole of the dry weight of the clover, aside from the constituents of water ; and, when we calculate the immense quantity of hay, and roots -grown on "What proportion of organic matter is required for fertility } How does the soil obtain its organic matter ! How does the growth of clover, etc., affect the soil ! 78' THE SOIL. an acre of soil in a single season, we shall find that the amount of carbon thus deposited is immense. If the clover had been removed, and the roots only left to decay, the amount of carbon deposited would still have been very great. The same is true in all cases where the crop is removed, and the roots re- main to form the organic or vegetable part of the soil. While undergoing decomposition, a portion of this matter escapes in the form of gas, and the re- mainder chiefly assumes the form of carbon (or charcoal), in which form it will always remain, without loss, unless driven out by fire. If a bushel of charcoal be mixed with the soil now, it wiU be the same bushel of charcoal, neither more nor less, a thousand years hence, unless some influence is brought to bear on it aside from the growth of plants. It is true that, in the case of the decomposition of or-, ganic matter in the soil, certain compounds are. formed, known under the general names of humv^^ and Jiumic add, which may, in a slight degree, affect the growth of plants, but their practical importance is of too doubtful a character to justify us in con- sidering them. The application of manures, con- taining organic matter, such as peat, muck, animal manure, etc., supplies the soil with carbon on the same principle, and the "^decomposing matters also When drganic matter decays in the soil, what becomes of itt Is charcoal taken up by plants ? Are humus andhnmic acidof great practical importancef THE SOIL. 79 generate * carbonic acid gas while being decomposed. The agricultural value of carbon in the soil depends ' (as we have stated), not on the fact that it enters into the composition of plants, but on cert^ other important offices which it performs, as follows : — 1. It makes the soil more retentive of manures. 2. it causes it to appropriate larger quantities of the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere. 3. It ^ves it greater power to absorb moisture. 4. It renders it warmer. 1. Carbon (or charcoal) makes the soil retentive of manures, because it has in itself a strong power to absorb, and retain f fertiliang matters. There is a simple experiment by which this power can be shown. Ex. — Take two barrels of pure beach sand, and mix with the sand in one barrel a few handftda of charcoal dust, leaving that in the other pure. Pour the brown liquor of the barn-yard through the pure sand, and it wiU pass out at the bottom un- altered. Pour the same liquor through the barrel, containing the charcoal, and pure water wiU be ob- tained as a result. The reason for this is that the * Produce. f By absorbing and retaining, we mean taking up and holding. On -what does the agrieuUural value of the carbon in the soil depend! why does it make the soil more retentive of manure I Wba.t is the experiment with the barrels of sandi 80 THE BOIL. charcoal retains all of tlie impurities,pf the liquor and allowB only the water to pass through. Char* opal is often employed to purify water for drinking, or for manufacturing purposes. A rich garden-soil contains large quantities of carhonaceous matter ; and, if we bury in such a soil a'piece of tainted meat or a fishy duck, it will, in a short time, he deprived of its odor, because the charcoal in the soil wiU entirely absorb it. Carbon absorbs gases as well as the impurities of water ; and, if a little charcoal be sprinkled over manure, or any other substance, emitting offensive odors, the gases escaping will be taken up by the charcoal, and the odor will cease. It has also the power of absorbing mineral inatters, which are contained in water. If a quan- tity of salt water be filtered through charcoal, the salt wiU be retained, and the water will pass through pure. --.,'•.: , We are ;now able to see how carbon renders the soil retentive of manures. 1st. Manures, which resemble the brown liquor of barn-yards, have their fertilizing matters taken out, and retained by it. Will charcoal purify water ? If a piece of tainted meat, or a fishy duck be bu/ied in a Wch garden soil, what taltes place ? What is the reason of this ! How does charcoal overcome offensive odors ? How can you prove that charcoal absorbs the minerai impuri ties of water I THE SOIL. 81 2d. The gases arising from the decompositioa {rottiTig) of manure are absorbed by it. 3d. The soluble mineral portions of manure, ■which might in some soils leach down with water, are arrested and retained at a point at which they can be made use of by the roots of plants. 2. Charcoal in the soil causes it to appropriate laiger quantities of the fertilizing gases of the atmos- phere, on account of its power, as just named, to ab- sorb gases. The atmosphere contains results, which have been produced by the breathing of animals and by the de- composition of various kinds of organic matter, which are exposed to atmospheric influences. These gasea are chiefly ammonia and carbonic acid, both of which are largely absorbed, by water, and consequently are contained in rain, snow, etc., which, as they enter the soil, give up these gases to the charcoal, and they there remain until required by plants. Even the air itself, in circulating through the soil, gives up fertilizing gases to the carbon, which it may contain, 3. Charcoal gives to the soil power to absorb moisture, because it is itself one of the best ab- How does charcoal in the soil affect the manures applied 1 Why does charcoal in thesoU cause it to appropriate the gaaea of the atmosphere J • • What fertilizing gases exist ia the atmosphere? How are they carried to the soil '( Does the carbon retain them after they reach the soil ? What can you say of the air circulating through the soil! How does carbon give the soil power to absorb moisture f 82 THE SOIL. sotbents in nature ; and it has been proved by ac- cui-ate experiment that peaty soils absorb moisture with greater rapidity, and part with it more slowly than any other kind. 4. Carbon in the soil renders it warmer, because it darkens its color. Black surfaces absorb more lieat than light ones, and a black coat, when worn in the sun, is warjner than one of a lighter color. By mixing carbon with the soil, we darken its color, and render it capable of' absorbing a greater- amount of heat from the sun's rays. It will be recollected that, when vegetable matter decomposes in the soil, it produces certain- gases (carbonic acid, etc.), which either escape into the atmosphere, or are retained in the soil for the use of plants. The production of these gases is always ac- companied by heatj which, though scarcely percep- tible to our senses, is perfectly so to the growing plant, and is of much practical importance. This will be examined more fully in speaking of manures. Another important part of the organic matter in the soil is that which contains nitrogen. This forms but a very small portion of the soil, but it is of the greatest importance to vegetables. As the nitrogen in food is of absolute necessity to the growth of y ^ How does it render it warmer ? Is the heat produced by the decomposition, of organic matter perceptible to our senses! ..Is it so to the growing plant! What is another impoi'tant part of the organic matter in tho soil ? THE SOIL. 83 animals, so the nitrogen in the soil is indispensable to the growth of cultivated plants. It is obtained by the soil in the form of ammonia (or nitric acid), from the atmosphere, or by the application of animal matter. In some cases, manures called niirates^^ are used ; and, in this manner, nitrogen is given to the soil. We have now learned that the organic matter in the soil performs the following offices : — - ' Organic matter thoroughly decomposed is carbon, and has the various effects ascribed to this sub- stance on p. 79. Organic matter in process of decay produces car- bonic acid, and sometimes ammonia in the soil ; also its decay causes heat. Organic matters containing nitrogen, such as animal substances, etc., furnish ammonia, and other nitrogenous substances to the roots of plants. * Nitrates are compounds of nitric acid (which consists of ni- trogen and oxygen), and alkaline substances. Thus nitrate of potash (saltpetre), is composed Of nitric acid and potash: nitrate )f soda (cubical nitre), of nitric acid and soda. Hoy is it obtained by the soil? What offices does the organic matter in the soil perform I 84 THE SOIL, CHAPTEK III. USKS OJF INORGANIC MATTES, The offices performed by the inorganic constituents of. the soil are many and important. These, as well as the different conditions in which the bodies exist, are necessary to be thoroughly studied.. Those parts which constitute the larger propor- tion of the soil, namely the clay, sand, and limey portions, are useful for purposes which have beeij named in the ^st part of this section, while the day^ has an additional effect in the absorption of ammonia. For this purpose, it is as effectual as charcoal, the gases escaping from matiures, as well as those existing in the atmosphere, and in rain-water, being arrested by clay as well as charcoal.* The more minute ingredients of the soil — those which enter into the construction of plants — exist in conditions which are more or leas favorable or in- * It is due to our country, as well as to Pro£ Mapes and otbers, who long ago explained this absorptiye power of clay and carbon, to say that the subject was perfectly understood and practically applied in America a number of years before Prof. Way published the discoTery in England as original. What effect has clay besides the one already named ! How does it compare with charcoal for this purpose ( THE BOIL. 65f JHiioife to vegetable growtli. The principal qondif. tion necessary to fertility is capacity/ to be dissolved, it being (so far as we have been able to ascertain) a fixed rule, as was stated in the first section, that no mineral substance can enter into the roots of a plant except it be dissolved in water. The alkalies potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, are in nearly all of their combinations in the soil sufficiently soluble for the purposes of growth.. The acids are, as will be recollected, sulphuric and phosphoric. These exist in the soil in combi- nation with the alkalies, as sulphates and phosphates, which are more or less soluble under natural circum- stances. Phosphoric acid in combination with lime as phosphate of lime is but slightly soluble ; but, when it exists in the compound known as Bitper- phosphate of lime, it is much more soluble, and con- sequently enters iiito the composition of plants with much greater facility. This matter wiU be more fuUy explained in the section on manures. The neutrals, silica, chlorine, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese, deserve a careful examination. Silica exists in the soil usually in the form of sand, in which it is, as is well known, perfectly insoluble ; and, before it can be used by plants, which often re- • What particular condition of inorganic matter is requisite fop fertility? What is the fixed rule with regard to this J What is the condition of the alkaliefi in most of their combina tions} Of the acids? What is said of phosphate of lime t 86 THE SOU.. quire it in large quantities, it must be made soluHe^ which is done by combining it with an alkali. For instance, if the silica in the soil is insolnblo, we must make an application of an alkali, such as potash, which will unite with the silica, and form the silicate of potash, which is in the exact condition to be dissolved and carried into the roots of plants. Chlorine in the soil is probably always in an available condition. Oxide of iron exists, as has been previously stated, usua,lly in the form of the peroxide (or red Oxide). Sometimes, however, it exists in the form of the protoxide (or black oxide), which is poisonous po plants, and renders the soil unfertile. By loosen- ing the soil in such a manner as to'admit air and water; this compound takes up more oxygenj which renders it a jpeiroxide, and makes it available for plants. The oxide of manganese is probably of little consequence. The usefulness of all of these matters in the soil depends on their exposure ; if they are in the interior of particles, they cannot be made use of; while, if the particles are so pulverized that their constituents are exposed, they become available, because water can immediately attack to dissolve, and carry them iiito roots. ' '——i ■ Eo-w may silica be rendered soluble I What is the condition of chlorine in the soil I Do peroxide and protoxide of iron affect plants in the same •vrayl How would yoil treat a soil containing protoxide of iron I f On what does the usefulness of all these matters in the soil depend? THE SOIL. 8t This is one of the gteki offices of plowing and. hoeing ; the lumps of soil being thereby more broken up and exposed to the action of atmospheric in- fluences, winch are often necessary to produce a fer- tile condition of soU, while the trituration of particles reduces them in size. StTBSOIL. The subsoil is usually of a different character from the surface soil, but this difference is more often the result of circumstances than of formation. The Rwface. soil from having been long cultiyated has been more opened to the influences of the air than is Xhs case with th§ subsoil, which has never been dis- turbed so as to allow the same actioij. Again the growth of plants has supplied the surface soil with roots, which by decaying have given it organic mat- ter, thus darkening its color, rendering it, warmer, and giving greater ability to absorb heat and moisture, an,d to retain manures. All of these effects render the surface soil of a more fertile character than it was before vegetable growth commenced ; apd, where frequent qultivation and manures have been applied, a still greater benefit has resulted. In most instances the subsoil may by the same means What is one of the chief offices of plowing and hoeing I Is the subsoil usually different from the surface soil ! What circumstances haTe occasioned the ; difference ? In what way J 88 'SSE BOIL, be gradually improved in condition until it. equal* the surface soil in fertility. The means of producing this result, also farther accounts of its advan^gfs, win be given under the head of GuUivation (Sect. IV.) impeovbment. From what has now been said of the character of the soil, it must be evident that, as we know the causes of fertility and bawenness, we may by the pro- per means improve the character of all soils which are not now in the highest state of fertility. Chemical analysis will tell lis the composition of a soil, and an examination, such as any farmef may make, will inform us of its deficiencies in unechaM' nical character, and we may at once resort to the proper means to secure fertility. In some instances the soil may contain every thing- that is requii'ed/' but not in the necessary condition. For instance, in some' parts of Massachusetts, there are nearly barren Soils which show by analysis precisely' the same chemical composition as the soil of the Miami valley of Ohio, one of the most 'fertile in the world. The cause of this great difference in their agricultural capabilities, is that the Miami soil has its particles — /the subsoil be made to resemble the surface soil? May all soils be brought to the highest state of fertility? On what examination must improvement be ba3e4? What is the difference between the soil of some parts of Massachusetts and that of the Miami valley? THE SOIL. 89 finely pulverized ; while in the Massachusetts soil the ingredients are combined within particles (such as pebbles, etc.), where they are out of the reach of roots. In other cases, we find two soils, which are equal- ly weU pulverized, and which appear to be of the same character, having very diiferent power to sup- port crops. Chemical analysis wiU show in these instances a difference of composition. , . All of these differences may be overcome by the use of the proper means. Sometimes it could be done at an expense which would be justified by the result ; and, at others, it might require too large an outlay to be profitable. It becomes a question of economy, not of ability, and science is able to estimate the cost. Soil caimot be cultivated understandingly until it -has been subjected to such an examination as will tell us exactly what is necessary to render it fertile. Even after fertility is perfectly restored it requires thought and care to maintain it. The ingredients of the soil must be returned in the form of manures as largely as they are removed by the crop, or the supply will eventually become too small for the purposes of vegetation. Why do soils of the same degree of fineness sometimes differ in fertility ? Can soils always be rendered fertile with profit? Can we determine the cost before commencing the work? ■ What must be done before a soil can be cnltiTated nnder- Btandingly ? What miist be done to keep np the cpality of the soil? SECTION TfflBD. MANURES SECTIOI THffiD. M A K U E E S CHAPTER I. CHABACTEB AND VARIETIES OF MA- NURES. To understand the science of manures is the most important branch of practical farming. No baker would be called a good- practical baker who kept his flour exposed to the sun and rain. No shoemaker would be called a good practical shoemaker, who used morocco for the soles of his shoes, and heavy leather for the uppers. No carpenter would be called a good practical carpenter, who tried to build a house without nails, or other fastenings. So with the farmer. He cannot be called a good practical farmer if he keeps the materials, from which he is to make plaints, in such a condition, that they will have their value 94 MANUBKS. destroyed, uses them, in tlie wrong places, or tries to put them together without having every thing pre- sent that is necessary. Before he can avoid faUures with certainty, he must know what manures are com- posed of, how they are to he preserved, where they ar? needed, and what kinds are required. Tnie, he may from ohservation and experience, guess at results, but he cannot hnow that he is right until he has learned the facts above named. In this section of our work we mean to convey some of the information necessarj to this branch of practical farming. We shall adopt a classification of the subject somewhat different from that found in most works on manures, but the facts are the same. The ac- tion of manures is either mechanical or chemical^ or a combination of both. For instance : some kinds of manure improve the mechanical character of the soil, such as those which loosen stiff clay soils, or others which render light sandy soils compaclr— these are called mechanical manures. Some again furnish food for plants — ^these are called chemical manures. Many mechanical manures produce their effects by means of chemical action. Thus potash combines chemically with sand in the soil. In so doing, it ^ ;:;!iJ What must a fanner know in order to avoid &iluresl Can this be learned entirely from observation f What kind of action have manures ! Give examples of each of these. May mechanical effects be produced by chemical action > EoTV does potash affect the soil I MANUEES. 96 roughens the surfaces of, the particles of sand, apd renders the soil less liable to be compacted by rains^ .In this manner, it acts as a mechanical manure. The compound of sand and potash,* as well as the potash alone, may ent«r into the composition of plants, and hence it is a chemical, manure. In other words, potash belongs to both classes described. It is important that this distinction should be well understood by the learner, as the words " mechani- ,pal" and ^ chemical " in connection with manures will be made use of throughout the following pages. There is another class of manures which we shall call absorbents. These comprise those substances which have the power of taking up fertilizing matters, and retaining them for the use of plants. For instancBj^ cAarcoaZ is an absorbent. As was stated in the section on soils, this substance is a retainer of all fertilizing gases and many minerals. Other matters made ' use of in agriculture have the same effect. These absorbents wiU be spoken of more fuUy in their proper places. TABLE. MECHANICAL Manures are those which improve the mechanical condition of soils. Chemical " are those which serve as food for plants, * Silicate of potash. What are absorbents? What kind of manure is charcoal T 96 MANURES. Absoebents are those substances which absorb and retain fertilizing matters. Manures may be divided into three classes, viz. : organicj-inorganic, and aiinospheric. Okganio manures conifrise all animal and vege- table matters which are used to fertilize the soil, such as dung, muck, etc. Inokganio manures are those which are of a purely mineral character, such as Hme, ashes, etc. Atmospheric manures consist of those organic manures which are in the form- of gases in the atmos- phere, and which are absorbed by rains and carried to the soil. These are of immense importance. The ammonia and carbonic acid in the air are atmos- pheric manures. CHAPTER II. exceembnts of animals. The first organic manure which we shall examine, is animal excrement, This is composed of those matters which have been eaten by the animal as food, and have been thrown off as sohd or liquid manure. In order that .Into what classes may manures be divided? Whnt are organic manures 1 lo'irganie! Atmosplierief MANURES. 97 we may know of what they consist, we must refer to the composition of food and examine the process of digestion. The food of animals, we have seen to consist of both organic and inorgEinic matter. The organic part may be divided into two classes, i. e., that por tion which contains nitrogen — such as gluten, albu- men, etc., and that which does not contain nitrogen —such as starch, sugar, oil, etc. The inorganic part of food may also be divided into aoliMe matter and insoluble matter. DIGESTION AND ITS PBODUCTS. Let us now suppose that we have a full-grown ox, which is not increasing in any of his parts, but only consumes food to keep up his respiration, and to sup- ply the natural wastes of his body. To this ox we will feed a ton of hay which contains organic matter, with and without nitrogen, and soluble and insoluble inorganic substances. Now let us try to follow it through its changes in the animal, and observe its destination. Liebig compares the consumption of food by animals to the imperfect burning of wood iu a stove, where a portion of the fuel is resolved into gases and ashes (that is, it is completely burned), and ' Of what is animal excrement composed ! Explain the composition of the food of animals. What does hay contain? To what does Liebig compare the consumption of food by ani mals, and why? 5 98 MANUKKS. another . portion, which is not thoroughly bilmed, ^passes off as soot. In the animal action in questioa, the food undergoes changes which are similar to this burning of wood. A part of the food is digested, and taken up hy the blood, while another portion remains undigested, and passes the bowels as solid dung — corresponding to soot. This part of the dung, then, we see is merely so niuch of the food as passes through the system without being materially changed. Its nature is easily understood. It contains organic and inorganic matter in nearly the same condition as they existed in the hay. They have been rendered finer and softer, but their chemical character is not ma- terially altered. The dung also contains small quantities of nitrogenous matter, which leaked out, as it were, from the stomach and intestines, The digested food, however, undergoes further changes which affect its character, and it escapes from the body in three ways — i. e., through the lung?, through the bladder, and through the bowels. It will be re- collected from the first section of this book, p. 22, that the carbon in the blood of animals, unites with the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and is thrown off in the breath as carbonic acid. The hy- drogen and oxygen unite to form a part of the water which cdnstitxxtes the moisture of the breath. Of what does ihat [jurt of dung consist which resembles soot! What else does the dung oonlain? In -what manuer does the digested part of food escape from th« body ! MANUBES. 99 That portion of the organic part of the hay which has heen taken up by the blood of the ox, and which does not contain nitrogen (corresponding to the first «lass of proximates, as described in Sect. I), is emitted through the lungs. It consists, as will be recollect- €d, of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and these as- sume, in respiration, the form of carbonic acid and water. The organic matter of the digested hay, in the blood, which contains nitrogen (corresponding to the lseco7ie?.classof proximates, described in Sect. I), goes to the Madder, where it assimies the form of urea — a constituent of urine or liquid manure. We have now disposed of the imperfectly di- gested food (dung), and of the organic matter which was taken up by the blood. All that remains to be examined is the inorganic or mineral matter in the blood, which would have become ashes, if the hay had been burned. The soluble part' of this inorganic matter passes iiito the bladder, and forms the iTior- ganic part of urine. The insoluble part passes the -Ijbwels, in connection with the dung. f» If any of the food taken up by the blood is not returned as above stated, it goes to form fat, mtiscle, hair, bones, or some other part of the animal, and as Ezglain the escape of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. What becomes of the nitrogenous parts ? - How is the soluble ash of the digested food parted with ! The insoluble ? If any portions of the food are not returned in the dung, how are they disposed of? 100 MAKTJRES. he is not growing (not increasing in weight) an equivalent amount of the body of the animal goes to the manure to take the place of the part retained.* We now have our subject in a form to be readily understood. We learn that when food is given to animals it is not pint out of existence, but is merely changed inform ; and that in the impurities of the breath, we have a large portion of those parts of the food which plants obtain from air and from water ; while the solid and liquid excrements contain all that was taken by the plants from the soil and manures. The Solid Ditng contains the undigested parts of the food, the insoluble parts of the ash, and the nitrogenous matters which have escap- ed from the digestive or- gans. *' Liquid Manure " the nitrogenous or second class of proximates of the digested food, and the solu- hle parts of the ash. * "Chia nooount of digestion is Bot, perhaps, strictly accurate in I. physiological point of view, but it is sufficiently so to give an »lementary understanding of the character of excrements, aa manures. . y ^ ! How is their place supplied ? Is food put out of existence wlien it is fed to animals f What (foes the solid dung contain! Liquid manure! Tha breath ! MANURES. 101 The Bbbath contains the first class of proximates, those which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, hut no nitrogen j^ OHAPTEE III. WASTE OF MANURE. The loss of manure is a subject which demands most serious attention. Until within a few .years, little was known about the true character of manures, and consequently, of the importance of protecting them against loss. The first causes of waste are evaporation and haching. EVAPORATION. Evaporation is the changiug of a solid or hquid body to a vapory form. Thus common smelling salts, a BoUd, if left exposed, passes into the atmosphere in * The excrements of animals contain more or less of sulphur, and sometimes small quantities of phosphorus. What are the first causes of loss of manure i What is evaporation I 102 MANURES. the form of a gas or vapor. Water, a liquid, eva^ porates, and becomes a vapor in the atmosphere. This is the case with very many substances, in or- ganic nature, both solid and liquid: they are liable to assume a gaseous form, and become. mixed with the atmosphere. They are not destroyed, but are ■ merely changed in form. As an instance of this action, suppose an animal to die and to decay on the surface of the earth. After a time, the flesh will entirely disappear, but is not lost. V It no longer exists as the flesh of an ani- mal, but its carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen/ still exist in the air. They have been liberated from the attractions which held them together, and have passed awky ; but (as we already know from what has been said in a former section) they are ready to be again taken up by plants, and pressed into the ser- vice of life. The evaporation of liquids may take place without the aid of any thing but heat ; but, in the case of solids, it is often assisted by decay and combustion, which break up the bonds that hold the constituents of bodies together, and thus enable them to return to the atmosphere, from which they were originally derived. It must be recollected that every thing, which has Name a solid body which evaporates. What takes place when a dead animal is exposed to the atmoa phere for a sufficient time ? What often assist the evaporation of solids J MANURES. 103 an odor (or can be smelled), is evaporating. The odor is caused by parts of tjie body floating in the air, and acting on the nerves of the nose. This is an invariable rule ; and, when we perceive an odor, we may be sure that parts of the material, from which it emanates, are escaping^ If we perceive the odor of an apple, it is because parts of the volatile oils of the apple enter the nose. The same is true when we smell hartshorn, cologne, etc. Manures made by animals have an offensive odor, simply because volatile parts of the manure escape into the air, and are therefore made perceptible. All organic parts in turn become volatile, assuming a gaseous form as they decompose. We do not see the gases rising, but there are many ways by which we can detect them. If we wave a feather over a manure heap, from which ammonia is escaping, the feather having been recent- ly dipped in mur. acid, white fumes will appear around the feather, being the muriate of ammonia formed by the union of the escaping gas with the muriatic acid. Not only ammonia, but also carbonic acid, and other gases which are useful to vegetation escape, and are given to the winds. Indeed it may be stated in few words that all of the organic part of plants (all that was obtained from the air, water, and ammonia). What is the cause of odor ? When we perceive an odor, what is taking place ? Why do manures give off offensive odorsl How may we detect anunonia escaping &om manure I 104 MANUBES. constituting more than nine tenths of their dry weight, may be evaporated by the assistance of decay or combustion. The organic part oi manures rany be lost in the same manner ; and, if the process of decomposition be contintied long enough, nothing but a mass of mineral matter will remain, except perhaps a small quantity of carbon which has not been resolved into carbonic acid. The proportion of solid manure lost by evapora- tion (made by the assistance of decay), is a very' large part of the whole. Manure cannot be kept a single day in its natural state without losing some- thing. It commences to give out an offensive odor immediately, and this odor is occasioned, as was before stated, by the loss, of rome of its fertilizing parts. Animal manure contains, as will be seen by re- ference to p. 100, all of the substances contained in plants, though not always in the correct re- lative proportions to each other. When decom- position commences, the carbon unites with the oxygen of the air, and passes off as carbonic acid ; the hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water (which evaporates), and the nitrogen is mostly re- solved into ammonia, which escapes into the atmos- phere. What remains after manure has been long exposed to decom- poeition ? What gaseous compounds are formed by the deoompositioili oi manures 2 MANtJfiES. 105 .If manure is thtown into heaps, it oftetx ferments 80 rapidly as to produce sufficient heat to set fire to some parts of the manure, and cause it to he thrown off with greater rapidity. This may he oh- eerved in nearly all heaps of animal excrement. When_ they have lain for some time in mild weather, gray •streaks of ashes are often to be seen in the centre of the pile. The organic part of the manure haying •been burned away, nothing but the ash remains,— this is called fire>-fanging. Manures kept in cellars without being . mixed with refuse matter are subject to the same losses. Wheb kept in the yard, they are stiU liable to be lost by evaporation. They are h^re often saturated with water, and this water in its evaporation carries away the ammonia, and carbonic acid which it has obta^lted from the rotting mass. The evaporation of the water is rapidly carried on, on account of the great extent of suxface. The whole mass is spongy, and soaks the liquids up from below (through hollow straws, etc.), to be evaporated at the surface on the same principle as causes the wick of a lamp to draw up the oil to supply fuel for the flame. Liquid Manure containing large quantities of nitrogen, and forming much ammonia, is also liable to lose all of its otganic part from evaporation (and Describe fir«i:'fa!igiDg. What takes place i^hen animal manure is exposed in an 6peq ythak does liquid manure lose by evaporation f 106 UAKOfiSB. fermentation), so that it is rendered as mucliless valuable as is the solid dung.** From theseremarkSjit may be justly inferred thata very large portion of the valtie of solid and liquid manure as ordinarily kept is lost by evaporation in a sufficient length of time, depending on circumstances, whether it be three months or several years. The wasting commences as soon as the manure is dropped, and continues, except in very cold weathei;, until- the destruction is complete. Hence we see that true economy requires that the manures of the stable, stye, and poultry-house, should be protected from evaporation (as will be hereafter described), as soon as possible after they are made. LEACHING. The subject of leaching is as important in con- sidering the inorganic parts of manures as evapora- tion is to the organic, while leaching also affects the organic gases, they being absorbed by water im a great degree. A good illustration of leaching is found in the manufacture of potash. When water is poured * It should be recollected that every bent straw may act as •yphoB, and occasion much loss of liquid manure. a When does the waste of exposed manure commence I What does economy of manure require f What is the effect of leaching? Giye an illustration of leaching. MANURES. 107 over wood-ashes, it dissolves their potash which it car- ries through in solution, makiog ley. If ley is boiled to dryness, it leaves the potash in a solid form^ proving that this substance had been dissolved by the water and removed from the insoluble parts of the ashes. In the same way water in passing through ma- nures takes up the soluble portions of the ash as fast as liberated by decomposition, and carries them into the soil below ; or, if the water runs off from the surface, they accompany it. In either case they are lost to tiie manure. There is but a small quantity of stsh exposed for leaching in recent manures ; but, as the decomposition of the organic part proceeds, it continues to develop© it more and more (in the same manner as burning would do, only slower), thus pre- parmg freab supplies to be carried off with each shower. In this way, while manure is largely in- jured by evaporation, the soluble inorganic parts are "femoved by water until but a small remnant of its original fertilizing properties remains. It is a singular fact concerning leaching, that water is able to carry no pdrt of the organic consti- tuents of vegetaldes more than about thirty-four inches below the surface in a fertile soil. They would probably be carried to an unlimited distance How does water affect decomposing manares! Does continued deec^position continue to prqyare material to be leached away i How far from the snrfaoe of the soil may OTganie constitttent? be otuaied by water? 108 MANURES. in pure sand, as it contains nothing which is capable of arresting them ; but, in most soils, the clay and carbon which they contain retain all of the ammonia ; also nearly all of the matters which go to form the in- organic constituents of plants within about the above named distance from the surface of the soil. If such were not the case, the fertility of the earth must soon be destroyed, as all of those elements which the soil must supply to growing plants would be carried down out of the reach of roots, and leave the wcrld a barren waste,, its surface having lost its elements of fertility, while the downward filtration of these would render the water of wells unfit for our use, Now, however, they are all retained near the surface of the soil, and the water issues from springs com- paratively pure. EvAPOEATiON removes from manure-— Carbon, in the form of carbonic acid. • Hydrogen, and oxygen, in the form of ■ water. Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia. Leaching removes from manure — The soluble and most valuable parts of the ash in solution im water,, besides carrying away some of the above named forms of organic matter. What arrests their ferther progress ? What would be the effect of allowing these matters to filte» downwards ? What does evaporation remove from manure ? Leaching J ^ MANUBE9. 109, CHAPTER IV. ABSORBENTS, Before considering farther the subject of animal excrement, it is nec6ssaiy to exaiaine a class of manures fenown as ahsorhents. These comprise all matters which have the power of absorbing, or soak- ing tip, as it were, the gaSes Which arise from the evaporation of sohd and liquid manures, and retaiii- ibg them until required by plants. The most important of these is ufldoilbtedly car- hon or charcoal. CHAfiCOAt. Ohafcocd, in an agricultural sense^ means all forms of carbouj whether as peat, muclj, charcoal dust from the spark-catchers of locomotives, charcoail •hearths, river and swamp deposits, leaf mould, de- : somposed spent tanbark or sftwdust, etc. In short, if any vegetable matter is decomposed with the par- tial exclusion of air (so that there shall not be oxygen enough supplied to unite with aU of the carbon), a What substances are called absorbents 8 yfi^t is the most important of these ? What substances are called charcoal in agriculture? How is vegetable matter rendered tiseful as charcoal ?. no MANURES. portion of its carbon remains in the exiact condition to serve the putposes of charcoaL The offices performed in the soil by carbonaceous matter were fully explained in a former section (p. 79, Sect. 2), and we will now examine merely its action with regard to manures. When properly applied to tianures, in compost, it has the following effects : 1. It absorbs and retains the fertilizing gasea evaporating from decomposing matters. 2. It acts as a divisor, thereby reducing the strength (or intensity) of powerful manures — ^thua rendering them less likely to injure the roots of plants J and also increases their bulk, so as to fXG' rent fire fanging in composts. 3. It in part prevents the leaching out of the soluble parts of the ash, 4. It keeps the compost moist. The first-named office of charcoal, i. e., absorbing and retaining gases, is one of the utmost importance. It is this q,uality that gives to it so high a positioa in the opinion of all who have used it. As was stated in the section on soils, carbonaceous matter, seems to be capable of absorbing every thing which may be of use to vegetation. It is a grand puri- fier, and while it prevents offensive odors from es- caping, it is at the same time storing its pores with food for the nourishment of plants. What is the first-named effect of charcoal? The geoondl Third! Fourth? Ejtplain the first action. MANtfSfiS. Ill 2d. In its capacity as a divisor for manuresj char* coal should be considered as excellent in all cases, leSpecially to nse with strongly concentrated (or heat- ing) anima,! manures. These, when applied in their natural state to the soil, are very apt to injure yoUng roots by the violence of their action. When mixed with a divisor, such manures are diluted^ made le* active, and consequently less iiyurious. In composts, manures are liable, as has been before stated, tp be- come burned by the resultant heat of decomposition ; this is called fire fanging^ and is prevented by the liberal use of divisors, because, by increasing the bulk, the heat being diffused through a larger mass, becomes less intense. The same principle is exhib- ited in the fact that it takes more fire to boil a cauldron of water than a tea-kettle fuU. 3d. Charcoal has much power to arrest the pas- sage of mineral matters in solution ; so much so, that compost heaps, well supplied with muck, are less af- fected by rains tfian those not so suppUed, AH composts, however, should be kept under cover. 4th. Charcoal keeps the. compost moist from the ease with which it absorbs water, and" its ability to withstand drought. With these advantages before us, we must see the importance of an understanding of the modes for Ejcplain its action as a divisor. How does charcoal protect composts against injurious action of rains ? How does it keep them moist ! 112 MAKtfiES. obtaining charcoal. Many farmers are so situated that they can obtain sufficient quantities of charcoal dust. Others have not equal facilities. Nearly all, however, can obtain muck^ and to this we will now turn our attention. MUCK, AND HbA iilMB AMD SAM MtX*tJfi«. By mucic, we mean the vegetable deposits of swamps and rivers, It consists of decayed organic substances, mixed with more or less earth. Its piifl* cipal constituent is carbon, in different degrees of development, which has remained after the deeottl* position of vegetable matter. Muck varies largely in its quality, according to the attiotint of carbon which it contains, and the perfection of its decompn^ sition. ' The best muck is usually foUnd in compara- tively dry locations, where the Water Which once caused the deposit has been removed. Muck which has been lotig in this condition, is usually better de* composed than that which is saturated with water. The muck from sWamps, hoWefer, rilay Soph be brought to the best condition. It should be throwii out, if possible, at least one year before it is required for use (a less time may suffice, except in vety cold ■I , i _ 1 ■ I IT-. What source of carbon is within the reach of most farinenl What do ■we mean by muck ! Of what does it consist f How does it differ in quality t MANUEES. 113 climates) and left, in small heaps or ridges, to the action of the weather, which will assist in ptdverizing it, while, from having its water removed, its decom- position goes on more rapidly. After the muck has remained in this condition a sufficient length of time, it may be removed to the barn-yard and composted with the lime and salt mix- ture (described on page 115) in the proportion of one cord of muck to four bushels of the mixture. This compost ought to be made under cover, lest the rain leach out the constituents of the mixture, and thus occasion loss ; at the- end of a month or more, the muck in the compost will have been rediiced to a fine pulverulent mass, nearly equal to charcoal dust for apphcation to animal excrement. When in this condition it is caReA prepared muck,, by which name it will be designated in the following pages.. Muck should not be used immediately after being taken from the swamp, a-s it is then almost always sour, and is liable to produce sorrel. Its sourness is due to acyids which it contains, and these must be rectified by the application of an alkali, or by long exposure to the weather, before the muck is suitable for use. What is the first step in preparing muck for decomposition ? "With what proportion of the lime and salt mixttoe should it be composted ? . Why should this compost be made under cover ? What is this called after decomposition ! Why should we not use muck immediately after taking it from the swamp ! 114 MANURES. LIME AND SALT MIXTURE. The lime and salt mixture, used in the decom- position of muck, is made in the following manner : Eecipb. — Take three bushels of shell lime, ^of from the hiln, or as fresh as possible, and slake it with watet in which one bushel of salt has been dis- solved. Care must be taken to use only so much water as is necessary to dissolve the salt; as it is difficult to induce the lime to absorb a larger quantity. In dissolving the salt, it is weU to hang it in a basket in the upper part of the water, as the salt water wiU immediately settle towards the bottom (being heavier), and allow the freshest water to be nearest to the salt. In this way, the salt may be all dissolved, and thus make the' brine used to slake the lime. It may be necessary to apply the brine at in- tervals of a day or two, and to stir the mass often, as the amount of water is too great to be readily absorbed. This mixture should be made under cover, as, if exposed, it would obtain moisture from rain or dew, which would prevent the use of all the brine. What proportions of lime and salt are required for the decom- posing mixture ! Explain the process of making it. Why should it be made under cover I MANUBES. 115 Another objection to its exposure to the weather is its great liability to be washed away by rains. It should be at least ten days old before being used, and would probably be improved by an age of three or four months, as the chemical changes it undergoes will require some time to be completed. The character of this mixture may be best de- scribed by the following diagram : — We have originally — Lime Salt . consisting of Chlorine and r Sodium. . Chloride of lime. ) Chloride , / Sodium. — Carbonic acid and ■; — Oxygen in the air. - Carbonate of Soda. The lime unites with the chlorine of the salt and forms chloride of lime. The sodium, after being freed from the chlorine, unites wifh the oxygen of the air and forms soda, * There is, undoubtedly, some of thislime'which does not unite with the chlorine ; this, however, is still as valuable as any lime. Explain the character of this mixture as represented in the diagram. (Black board.) 116 MANURES, which, combining with the carbonic acid of the at- mosphere, forms carbonate of soda. Chloride of lime and carbonate of, soda are better agents in the decomposition of muck than pure salt and lime ; and, as these compounds are the result of the mixture, much benefit ensues from the operar tion. When sTidl lime cannot be obtained, Thomaston, or any other very pure lime, will answer, though care must be taken that it do not contain much magnesia. LIME. Muck may be decomposed by the aid of other ma^ terials. Lime is very efficient, though not as much so as when combined with salt. The action of lime, when applied to the muck, depends very much on its condition. Air-slaked lime (carbonate of lime), and hydrate of lime,. slaked with water, have but a limited effect compared with lime freshly burned and applied in a caustic (or pure) form. When so used, however,'the compost should not be exposed to rains, as this would have a tendency to make mortar which would harden it. What effect has lime on muck ? On what doea the energy of this effect depend ? Why should a compost of muck and lime be protected from rain! MANUKES. 117 POTASH. Potash is a very active agent in decomposing vegetable matter, and may be used with great ad- vantage, especially where an analysis of the soil which is to be manured shows a deficiency of potash. Unleached wood ashes are generally the best source &om which to obtain this, and from five to twenty-five bushels of these mixed with one cord of muck wiU produce the desired result.* The sparlings (or refuse) of potash warehouses may often be purchased at Sufficiently low rates to be used for this purpose, and answer an excellent end. They may be applied at the rate of from twenty to one hundred pounds to each cord of muck. By any of the foregoing methods, muck may be •prepared for use in composting. * Leached ashes will not supply the place of these, as the leaching has deprived them of their potash. Is potash valuable for this use ! From what sources may potash be obtained ? In what proportion should ashes be applied to muck \ Spar - lings t 118 MANTJBES CHAPTBE V. COMPOSTING STABLE MANURE. In composting stable manure in the most economical manner, the evaporation of the organic parts and the leaching of the ashy (and other) portions must be avoided, while the condition of the mass is such as to admit of the perfect decomposition of the manure, Solid manures in their fresh state are of but very little use to plants. It is only as they are decom- posed, and have their nitrogen turned into ammonia, and their other ingredients resolved into the condip tion required by plants, that they are of much value as fertilizers. We have seenthat, if this decomposi- tion takes place without proper precautions being made, the most valuable parts of the manure would be lost. Nor would it be prudent to keep manures from decomposing untU they are applied to the soil, for then they are npt immediately ready for use, and time is lost. By composting, we aim to save every thing while we prepare the manures for immediate use. What principles should regulate us in composting f In -what condition is solid dung of value as a fertilizerf What do we aim to do in composting ? MANURES. 119 SHELTER. The first consideration in preparing for compost- ing, is to provide proper shelter. This ^may be done either by means of a shed or by arranging a cellar under the stables, or in any other manner that may be dictated by circumstances. It is no doubt better to have the manure shed enclosed so as to make it an effectual protection ; this however is not ab- solutely necessary if the' roof project far enough over ■the compost to shelter it from the sun's rays and from diiving rains. ' • The importance of some protection of this Mnd, is evident from what has already been said, and indeed it is impossible to make an economical use of ■manures without it. The trifling cost of building a flhed, or preparing a cellar, is amply repaid in the benefit xesulting from their uses. THE FLOOR. e, The floor or foundation on which to build the compost deserves some consideration. It may be of plank tightly -fitted, a hard bed of clay, or better, a cemented surface. Whatevej> material is used in its construction (and stiff clay mixed with water and What is the first consideration foi; composts ! Discribt !he arrangement of floor. 120 MANURES. beaten compactly down answers an excellent purpose), the floor must have such an inclination as will cause, it to discharge water only at one point. That is, one part of the edge must be lower than the rest of the floor, which must be so shaped that water will run towards this point from every part of it ; then — the floor being water-tight — aU of the liquids of the compost may be collected in a TANK. This tank used to • collect the liquids of the ma- nure may be made by sinking a barrel or hogshead (accoMing to the size of the. heap) in the ground at the point where it is required, or in any other con- venient manner. In the tank a pump of cheap construction may be placed, to raise the liquid to a sufficient height to be conveyed by a trough to the centre of the heap, and there distributed by means of a perforated hoard with raised edges, and long enough to reach across the heap in any direction. By altering the position of this board, the liquid may be carried evenly over the whole mass. The appearance of the apparatus required for com- posting, and the compost laid up, may be better shown by the following figure. How slioiild tlie tank be ivttachedi ^UlNTTBES. 121 Kg. 2. a, taiik ; &, pamp ; c&g, perforated board ; d, muck ; e, manure ; /, floor. The compost is made by laying on tbe floor ten or twelve inches of muck, and on that a few inches of uaanure, then another heavy layer of muck, and another of manure, continuing in this manner until thefteap is raised to thereqiiired height, always having a thick layer of muck at the top. After laying up the heap, the tank should be filled with liquid manure from the stables, slops from How is the compost made! 6 122 MANUBES. the house, soap-suds, or other water containing feN tilizing matter, to be pumped over the mass. There should be enough of the liquid to saturate the heap and filter through to fill the tank twice a week, at which intervals it should be again piunped up, thus continually being passed through the manure. This liquid should not be changed, as it contains much soluble manure. Should the liquid manures named above not be sufficient, the quantity may be in- creased by the use of rain-water. That falUng during the first ten minutes of a shower is the best, as it contains much ammonia. The effects produced by frequently watering the compost is one of the greatest advantages of this system. The soluble portions of the manure are equally diffused through every part of the heap. Should the heat of fermentation be too great, the watering will redupe it, When the compost is saturated with water, the air is driven out ; and, as the ■yrq.ter subsides, frexh air enters and takes its place. This fresh air con- tains oxygen, which assists in the decomposition of the manure. In short, the watering does all the worjk of fork- ing over by hand much better,and muchmoTe cheaply. What liquids are best for moistening the compost! How should they be applied ? What are tlie advantages'of (his moisteningt How does it cornoare wiLh forkinu' overl MANUBES. 123 At the end of a month or more, this compost will be ready for use. The layers in the manure will have disappeared, the whole mass having become of a uniform character, highly fertilizing, and ready to be immediately used by plants. f It may be applied to the soil, either as a top- diessing, or otherwise, without fear of loss, as the muck will retain all of the gases which would otherwise evaporate. ; The cost and trouble of the foregoing system of composting are trifling compared with its advantages. The quantity of the manure is much increased, and its quality improved. The health of the animals is secured by the retention of those gases, which, when allowed to escape, "render impure the air which they have to breathe. The cleanliness of ■ the stable and yard is much > advanced as the effete matters, which would other- wise litter them, are carefully removed to the compost, i As an instance of the profit of composting, it may be stated that Prof. Mapes has decomposed ninety- two cords of swamp muck, with four hundred bushels of the lime and salt mixture, and then composted it with eight cords oi fresh horse dung, making one hundred cords of manure fully equal to the same amount of stable-manure alone, which has lain one Why will the ammonia of manure thus made, not esonpe if it be used as a top dressing? What are the advantages of prepiiriiig manures in this manner? What is the profit attending it? 124 MANtTEES. year exposed to the weather. Indeed one coid of muck well decomposed, and containing the chlorina lime and soda of four bushels of the mixture, is of itself equal in value to the same amount of manure which has lain in an open barn-yard during the heat and rain of one season, and is then applied to the land in a raw or undeoomposed state. The foregoing system of composting is the best that has yet been suggested for making use of solid manures. Many other methods may be adopted when circumstances will not admit of so much at- tention. It is a common and excellent practice to throw prepared muck into the cellar under thestables^, to be mixed and turned over with the manure by swine. In other cases the manures are kept in the yard, and are covered with a thin layer of muck every morning. The principle which renders these systems beneficial is the absorbent power of charcoal LIQUID MATSfURB. Liquid manure, from animals may, also, be- made useful by the assistance of prepared muck. Where a tank is used in composting, the liquids from the stable may all be employed to supply moisture to the heap ; but where any system is adopted, not requir- In what other manners may muck be used in tbe preeervatioil of manures? How may liquid manure be made most useful f MANURES. 125 iflg liquids, the urine may be applied to muck heaps, and then allowed to ferment. Fermentation is ne- cessary in urine as weU as in solid dung, before it is very active as a manure. Urine, as wiU be recol- lected, contains nitrogen and forms ammonia on fer- mentation. It is a very gopd plan to dig out the bottoms of the stalls in a circular or gutter-like form, three or four feet deep in the middle, cement the ground, or make it nearly water-tight, by a plastering of stiff clay, and fill them up with prepared muck. The appearance of a cross section of the floor thus arranged would be as follows : Fig. 3. The prepared muck in the bottom of the stalls would absorb the urine as soon as voided, while yet warm with the animal heat, and receive heat from the^animal's body while lying down at night. This Describe .tbe manner of ^i^ging out the bottoms of stalls. 126 MANUBBS. heat will hasten the decomposition of the urea,* and if the muck be renewed, twice a month, and that which is removed composted under cover, it will be found a most prolific source of good manure. In Flanders, thp liquid manure of a cow is consider- ed worth $10 per-,year, and it is not less valuable here. As was stated in the early part of this sec- tion, the inorganic (or mineral) matter contained in urine, is soluble, and consequently is immediately useful as food for plants. By referring to the analysis of liquid and solid manure, in section V., their relative value may be seen. CHAPTER VI. DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANIMAL EXCRE- MENT. The manures of different animals are, of course, of different value, as fertilizers, varying according to the food, the age of the animals, etc. STABLE MANURE. By stable manure we mean, usually, that of the * The nitrogenous compound in the urine. MANURES. 127 horse, and that of horned cattle. The case describ- ed in chap. 2 (of tliis section), was one where the animal was not increasing in any of its parts, but returned, in the form of manure, and otherwise, the .equivalent of every thing eaten. This case is one of themost simple kind,'" and is subject to many modifi- cations. The growing animal is increasing in size, and as he derives his increase from his food, he does not re- turn in the form of manure as much as he eats. If his bones are growing, he is taking from his food phosphate of lime and nitrogenous matter ; conse- quently, the manure wiU be poorer in these ingre- dients. The same may be said of the formation of the muscles, in relation to nitrogen. Thsfaiting animal, if full grown, makes manure which is as good as that from animals that are not inoteasing in size, because the fat is taken from those parts of the food which are obtained by plants from the atmosphere, and from nature, (i. e. from the 1st class of proximates). Fat contains no nitrogen, and, consequently, does not lessen the amount of this ingredient in the manure. ^Milch Cows turn a part of their food to the for- Is the manure of full-grown animals of the same quality as that of other animals ! Why does that of the growing animal differ ! Why does not the formation of fat reduce the quality of ina> sure! What does rniih remove from the food! 128 MANUKESj. m^tiorv of milk, and coHaequaatly, they prodtKje' m»' nure of reduced valae. The solid manure c^ the horse is better than that of the ox, while the liq,uid maoiUTe of the ox is com- pa,ratively better than that of the hprse. The cause of tjhis is thftt the horse has poorer digestive organs than the ox,, and ooneequently passes, mose of ther ▼aluahle parts of his fopd^ m an undigested form, as dungj while the ox, from chewing th? cud and hav- ing more perfect organs, turns more of his Ibod intor wAslQ than the horse.. BECAPlTITLATIOliF. makig the h^aA maaureL Full GtBOWN animals not prodTJcing milk, and full grown, animals fat- tening GrBOTOiNG Animals reduce the valae of their manure, takir^ portions of their food to- form their bodies. Milch Oows reduce the valu& of th^- naanure by changing a part of their food into milk. The Ox makes poor dung and rich urine. The. H.OESE makes rich dung and poor urine.* * Comparatively. How do the solid and liquid manure of the horse ap.d, ox eoFOi pare ? What occasions these diffeEsucesi MANtJREa 129 man's mth. The heat manure witHn tite reach of the farmer is night soil, at human excrement. There has al- ways heen a false delicacy about mentioning this fer- tilizer, which has caused much w^stej and great loss of health, tTom the impure and offensive odors which it is allowed to send forth to taint the air. The value of the night soil yearly lost in the United States is, probably, about ^ty millions of dollars (50,000,000) j an amount nearly equal to the entire espenses of our Kational Government, Much of the iU health of our people is undoubtedly occasioned by neglecting the proper treatment of night soil. That which directly afiects aigricidtUTe, as treated of in this book, is the value of this substance as a fertilizer. The manure of man consists (as is th* case with that of other animals) of those parts of his food which are not retained in the increase of his body. If he be growing, his manure is poorer, as in the case of the ox, and it is subject to all the other modifications named in the early part of this chapter. His food is usually of a varied charac- ter, and is rich in nitrogen, the phosphates,' and What ia the moat valuable manure aoceesible to the farmer? What is the probable, value of the night soil yearly lost in th« trnited States? Of what does the manure of man conaist ? 6» 130 UANTTBEa. other inorganic constituents ; consequently, Ws ma» nure is made valuable by containing large quantitiei of these matters. As is the case with the ox, the dung contains the undigested food, the secretions (or leakings) of the digestive organs, and the insoluble parts of the ash of the digested food. The uriw, in like manner, contains a large proportion of the nitrogen and the soluble inorganic parts of the di- gested food. When we consider how much richer the/ooci of man is than that of homed- cattle, we shall see the superior value of his excrement. Night soil has been used as a manure, for ages, in China, which is, undoubtedly, one great secret of their success in supporting a dense population, foy so long a time, without impoverishing the soil. It has been found, in many instances, to increase the •productive power of the natural soil three-fold. That is, if a soil would produce ten bushels of wheat per acre, without manure, it would produce, thirty bushels if manured with night soil. Some have supposed that manuring with night soil would give disagreeable properties to plants : such is not the case ; their quality is invariably im- proved. The color and odor of the rose become richer and more delicate by the use of the most of- fensive night soil as manure. Describe this manure as compared with the ezcrements of other animals. Does the use of night soil produce disagreeable properties in plants? JTANtTBEB. 131 It is evident that this is the case from the fact that plants have it ica; their direct object to make over and put together the refuse organic matter, and the gases and the minerals found in nature, for the use of animals. If there were no natural means of rendering the excrement of animals available to plants, the earth must soon be shorn of its fertility, as the elements of growth when once consumed would be "essentially destroyed, and, no soil could survive the exhaustion. There is no reason why the manure of man should be rejected by vegetation more than that of any other animal ; and indeed it is not, for ample experience has proved that for most soils there is no better manure in existence. A single experiment will suffice to show that night soil may be so kept that there shall be no loss of its valuable gases, and consequently no offensive odor arising from it, while it may be removed and applied to crops without unpleasantness. All that is necessary to effect this wonderful change in night soil, and to turn it from its disagreeable character to one entirely inoffenave, is to mix with it a little char- coal dust, prepared muck, or any other good ab- sorbent — thus making what is called poudrette. The modeofdoiag this must depend on circum- stances. In many cases, it would be expedient to What is the direct object of plants ! What would result if this were not the case ? How may night soil be easily prepared for use, and its offensivs odor prevented? 132 MANURES. keep a barrel of the absorbent in the privy and ttrow down a small qua&tity every day. The effect on the odor of the hioiise would amply repay the trouble. The manure thus made is of the moat valuable character, and may be used under any circumstances with a certainty of obtaining a good crop. It shoul(J -not be used unmixed with some absorbent,- as it is of ^eh strength as to kill plants^ Eor an analysis- of human mantae, see Section V.- HOG MANtTEK.- Hog Marmre is very vakiabfe,, btft & sitrst ber used with care. It is so violent in its action that/ when applied in a pure forni to' eropsj- it often pro-' duces injurious resuitB-. It is liable to make cdbbages' dump'footed, a6d to induce a disease in turnip* called anibury (or fingers and toes)f. The only pre-' caution necessary is to stfppjy the stye with prepared^ muck, charcoal-dust, leaf-mouM, or any abaorbent ia plentifol quan-tities, often adding fresh supplies.- The hogs will work this ever with- the manure ; and,- when required for use, it will be found an excellent fertilizer. The absorbent will have overcome its in-* jurious tendency, aiHi it icKiy be safely appMed to any crop. From the variety and rich character of the food of this animal, his- manure is of a superior quality. Should pure night soil be used aa a manure ! What precaution is necessary in preparing hog manure for use t MASVum. 133 Stitchers' hogpen manure is one of the best fer- tiEsKiB kBown. It is made hj animals that liva almost entirely on blood aind other animal fefttse, and is very rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. It should be mixed ■with prepared muck, of its substitute^ to prere&t the loss of its ammonia, and as a pro* tection against its iajuilous effect os plants. roUi/TEf HOtTSE MAHtJEE, Kest ifl value to night soil, among domestic ina- fiures, are the excrements of poultry, pigeons, eta Birds live on the nice bits of creation, seeds, insects, etc., and they discharge their solid and Mquid excre- ments together. Potlltry-dung is nearly equal in value to guano (except thait it contains mote water), and it deserves to be carefully preserved and judi- ciously Used. ■ It is as well worth seventy-five cents per bushel as guano is worth fifty dollars a ton (at which price it is now sold). Potdtry-manure is liable to as much injurj' from evaporation and leaching as is afly other manure, and equal care should be taken (by the game means) to prevent such loss. Good shelter over the roosts, and daily sprinkling with prepared muck of charcoal- dust will be amply repaid by the increased value of Wbj is the manure from butchers' hog-pens veiy valuable? How does the value of poultry manure compare with that of guano} • How may it be protected against loss ? 134 MAKtJSES. the manure, and its better action, and greater dura- bility in the soil. The value of this manure should be taken into consideration in calculating the profit of keeping poultry (as indeed with all other stock). It has been observed by a gentleman of much ex- perience, in poultry raising, that the yearly manure of a hundred fowls applied to previously unmanured land would produce eodra corn enough to- keep them for a year. This is probably a large estimate, but it serves to show that this fertilizer is very valuable, and also that poultry may be kept with great profit, if their excrements are properly secured. The manure of pigeons has been- a favorite fer^ tilizer in some countries for more than 2000 years. Market gardeners attach much value to rabbit- manure SHEEP MANTJfiE. The manure of sheep is less valuable than it would be, if so large, a quantity of the nitrogen and mineral parts of the food were not employed in the formation of wool. This has a great effect on the richness of the excrements, but they are still a verjr good fertilizer, and should be protected from loss in the same way as stable manure. What can you say of the manure of sheep! UAI^tTKSS. 135 GtTANO. Guano as a manure has become world renowned. The worn-out tobacco lands of Virginia, and other fields in many parts of the country, which seemed to have yielded to the effect of an ignoraixt course of cultivation, and to have sunk to their final repose, have in many cases been revived to the 'production of excellent crops, and have had their value, multiplied many fold by the use of guano. Although an excellent manure, it should not cause us to lose sight of those valuable materials which exist on almost every farm. Every ton of guano imported into the United States is an addition to our national wealth, but every ton of stable-manure, or poultry-dung, or night soil evaporated or carried away in rivers, is equally a de- dudion from our riches. K the imported manure is to really benefit us, we must not allow it to occasion the neglect and consequent loss of our domestic fer- tilizers. The Peruvian guano (which is considered the best) is brought from islands near the coast of Peru. The birds which frequent these islands live almost entirely on fish, and drop their excrements here in a climate where rain is almost unknown, and where, from the dryness of the air, there is but little loss Should the use of guano induce us to disregard other manures I Where and in what manner is the best guano deposited? 136 MANtTBSS. sustained by the manure. It is Iwought to tliii country in large quantities, and is an excellent fer* tiUzer, superior even to night soU. It should be mixed with an absorbent before being used, unless it is plowed deeply under the soil, as it contains much ammonia which would be lost from evaporation. It would probably also injure plants, The best way to use guano, is in connection with sulphuric acid and bones, as will be described here- after. The composition of the . various kinds of guano may be found in the section on analysis. CHAPTEK VII. OTHEB ORGANIC MANTTHES, The number of organic manures is almost counts less. The most common of these have been de« scribed in the previous chapters on the excrements of animals. The more prominent of the remaining ones will now be considered. As a universal rule, it may be stated that all organic matter (every thing which has had vegetable or animal life) is capable of fertilizing plants. How should it be prepai'ed for use ? , MANUKES. ^SFI DEAD ANIMALS. The bodies of animals contain much mArogen, as well as valuable quantities, the pho^hates and other inorganic materials required in the growth of plants. On their decay, the nitrogen is resolved into ammonia,^ and the mineral matters become valuable as food for the inorganic parts of plants. If the decomposition of animal bodies takes place in exposed situations, and without proper precautions, the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, and much of the mineral portion is leached out by rains. The use of absorbents, such as charcoal-dust, prepared muck, etc., will entirely prevent evaporation, and will in a great measure serve as a protection against leaching. If a dead horse be cut in pieces and mixed with ten loads of muck, the whole mass will, in a single season, become a most valuable compost. Small animals, such as dogs, cats, etc., may be with ad- vantage buried by the roots of grape-vines or trees. * Und*" some ciroiimBtaiices, mtrie aeid is formed, wiiieh equally beneficial to vegetable growth. What are the chief fertilizing constituents of dead animals} "What becomes of these when exposed to the atmosphere t How may this be prevented! 138 MAKUBES. BONES. The hones of animals contain phosphate of lime and gelatine. The gelatine is a nitrogenous sub- stance, and produces ammonia on its decomposition. This subject wiU be spoken of niore fully under the head of ' phosphate of lime ' in the chapter on mineral manures, as the treatment of bones is more' directly with reference to the fertilizing value of their inor- ganic matter. FISH. In many locaUties near the sea-shore large quan- tities of fish are caught and applied to the soili These make excellent manure. They contain much nitrogen, which renders them strongly ammoniacal on decomposition. Their bones consist of phosphate and • carbonate of lime ; and, being naturally soft, they decompose in the soil with great facility, and become available to plants. The scales of fish con- tain valuable quantities of nitrogen, phosphate of lime, etc., all of which are highly useful. Refuse fishy matters from markets and from the house are well worth saving. These and fish caught for manure may be made into composl^ith prepared Of what do the bones of animals consist } What is gelatine! Describe the fertilizing qualities of fish. MANURES. 139 muck, etc. ; and, as they putrefy rapidly, they soon become ready for use. They may be added to the compost of stable manure with great advantage. Fish (like all other nitrogenous manures) should never be applied as a top dressing, unless previously mixed with a good absorbent of ammonia, but should when used alone be immediately plowed under to con- siderable depth, to prevent the evaporation — and corf- sequent' loss — of their fertilizing gases. WOOLLEN EAGS, ETC; Woollen rags, hmr, waste of woollen factories, etc., contain both nitrogen and phosphate of Hme ; and, like all other matters containing these ingredients, are excellent manures, but must be used in such a way as to prevent the escape of their fertilizing gases. They decompose slowly, and are therefore considered a lastifig. manure. Like all lasting manures, how- ever, they are slow in their effects, and the most ad- vantageous way to use them is to compost them with stable manure, or with some other rapidly ferment- ing substance, which will hasten their decomposition and render them sooner available. Eags, hair, etc., thus treated, will in a short time be reduced to such a condition that they may be immediat^y used by plants instead of lying in the Should these be applied as a top dressing to the soil 1 What are the fertilizing properties of woollen rags! What is the best way to use them i 140 MANUBB8, soil to be slowly taken, up. It is better in all cases to, have manures act quicMy and give an immediate return for their cost, than to lie for a long time in th^ soil before their influence is felt. A pound of woollen rags is worth, as a manure, twice as much as is paid for good linen shreds for paper making ; still, while the latter are always pre- served, the former are thrown away, although, con- sidered by good judges to be worth forty tunes as much as barn-yard manure. Old leather should not be thrown away. It de- composes very slowly, and consequently is of but a little value ; but, if put at the roots of young trees, it, will in time produce appreciable eflfeots. Tanners^ and curriers' refuse, and all other ani- mal offal, including that of the slaughter-honsej is well worth attention, as it contains more or less of those two most important ingredients of manures, nitrogen and phosphate of lime. It is unnecessary to add that, in common with all other animal manures, these substances must be either composted, or immediately plowed under the soil. Horn piths, and horn shavings, if decom- posed in compost, with substances which ferment rapidly, make very good manure, and are worth fully 'the price charged for them. ■What IB their yalne compared with that of farm-yard manure.' How should old leather be treated % Describe the manurial properties of tanners' refuse. How should they be treated % Are horn piths, etc. valuable i MAHimEB. 143l OfiGANIC MANURES OF VEGETABLE OBIGIN. Muck, the most important of the purely vegeta- ble manures^ has been already sufficiently described. It diould be particularly borne in mind that, when first taken from the swamp it is often mur, or cold, but that if exposed for a long time to the air, or if weU treated with lime, unleached ashes, the lime and salt mixture, or any other alkali, its acids will be neutralised (or overcome), and it becomes a good application to any soil, except peat or other soils al- ready containing large quantities Of organic matter. In applying muck to the soil (as has been before stated), it should be made a vehicle for carrying ammoniacal manures. SPENT TAN BAEK. JS^enf tan hark, if previously decomposed by the use of the lime and salt mixture, or potash, answers all the purposes of prepared muck, but is more dif- ficult of decomposition. The bark of trees contaips a larger proportion of inorganic matter than the wood, and much of this, on the decomposition of the bark, becomes available as manure. The chemical effect on the , bark, of Why is decomposed bai'K more fertilizing than that of ^decayed wood? 142 UANUBES. using it in the tanning of leather, is such as to red- der it difficult to be rotted by the ordinary means, but, by the use of the lime and salt mixture it may be reduced to the finest condition, and becomes a most excellent manure. It probably contains small quantities of nitrogen (obtained- from the leather), which adds to its value. Unless tan bark be com- posted with lime, or some other alkali, it may pro- duce injurious effects from the tannic acid which it is liable to contain. Alkaline substances will neutral- ize this acid, and prevent it from being injurious. One great benefit resulting from the use of spent tan bark, is due to its power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. For this reason it is very va- luable for mulching'* young trees and plants when first set out. SAWDUST. Sawdust in its natural state is of very Uttle va- lue to the land, but when decomposed, as may he done by the same method as was described for tan bark, it is of some importance, as it contains a large quantity of carbon. Its ash, too, which- becomes * See the glossary at the end of the book. How may bark be decomposed? Why should tan bark be composted with an alkali 1 Why,iaitgood for mulching! Is sawdust of iny value ! MANtJBES. 143 availatle, contains soluble inorganic matter, and in this way it acts as a direct iaanure. So far as con- cerns the value of the ash, however, the bark is su- perior to sawdust. Sawdust may be partially rotted by mixing it with strong manure (as hog manure), while it acts as a divisor, and prevents the too ra- pid action of this when applied to the soil. Some kinds of sawdust, such as that from beech wood, |brm acetic acid on their decomposition, and these should be treated with, at least, a sufficient quantity of lime to correct the acid. Soot is a good manure. It contains much carbon, and has, thus far, all of the beneficial effects of char- coal ,diist. The sulphur, which is one of its consti- tuents, not only serves as food for plants, but, from "its odor, is a good protection against some insects. By throwing a handful of soot on a melon vine, or young cabbage plant, it will keep away many in- sects. Soot contains some ammonia, and as this is in the form of a sulphate, it is not volatile, and conse- qiiently does not evaporate when the soot is applied as a top dressing, which is the almost universal cus- tom. Why is sawdust a good addition to the pigstye ? What is the pecnJiarity of sawdust from the befeoh, etc. ? What is a pecu'iarity of ^'oot* Why may soot be used as a top dressing without losing lit ammonia ? 144 UANtTRES. GREEN CEOPS. Oreen crops, to plough under, are in many places largely raised, and are always beneficial. The plants most used for this purpose, in our country, are clover, buckwheat, and peas. These plants have very long roots, which they send deep in the soil, to draw up mineral matter for their support. This mineral matter is deposited in the plant. The leaves and roots receive carbonic acid very largely from the air, and from water. In this manner they obtaui their carbon. When the crop is turned under the soil, it decomposes, and the carbon, as well as the mineral ingredients obtained from the subsoil, are deposited in the surface soil, and become of use to succeeding crops. The hollow stalks of the buck- wheat and pea, serve as tubes, in the soil, for the passage of air, and thus, in heavy soils, give a much needed circulation of atmospheric fertilizers. Although green crops are of great benefit, and are managed with little labor, there is no doubt but the same results may be more economically produced. A few loads of prepared muck will do more towards increasing the organic ^natter in the soil, than a very heavy crop of clover, while it would be ready for immediate cultivation, instead of having to He idle WliMt plni ts iire iiiiist used ;i8 green cops! Wimt. otti '.e is perfoi'med by tlie rootr of screen crops! How do siieli manui'i's increase the orj^anio matter of soils? MANXTEES. 145 during the year required in the production and do- composition of the green crop. The effect of the roots penetrating the subsoil is, as we have seen, to draw up 'inorganic matter, to he deposited "within reach of the roots of future crops. In the next sec- tion we shall show that this end may be much more efficiently attained by the use of the subsoil plow, which makes a passage for the roots into the subsoil, where they can obtain for themselves what would, in the other case, be brought up for them by the roots of the green crop. The offices of the hollow straws may be performed by a system of ridging and back furrowing, having previously covered the soil with leaves, or other refuse organic material. In high farming^ where the object of the cul- tivator is to make a profitable investment 9f la- bor, these last "named methods wiU be found most expedient ; but, if the farmer have a large quantity of land, and can afford but a limited amount of la- bor, the raising of green crops, to be plowed under in the fall, will probably be adopted. Before closing this chapter, it may be well to re- mark that there are various other fertilizers^ such as What office is performed by the stra-wr of the buckwheat and pea! What treatment may be substituted for the use of green crop?' Which course should be adopted in high farming? Why is the use of green crops preferable In ordinary cultiva- tion ? Name some other valuable manures. 146 MANUKES. the ammoniacal liquor of gas-houses, soapers' wastes, bleachers' lye, lees of old oil casks, etc., which we have not space to consider at length, but which are all .valuable as additions to the compost heap, or as applications, in a liquid form, to the soil. In many cases (when heavy manuring is prac- tised), it may be well to apply organic manures to the soil in a green state, turn them under, and allow theioi to undergo decomposition in the ground. The advantages of this system are, that the heat, result- ing from the chemical changes, will hasten the growth of plantsj by making the soil warmer ; the carbonic acid formed will be presented to the roots instead of escaping into the atmosphere ; and if the soil be heavy, the rising of the gases will tend to loosen it, aind the leaving vacant of the spaces occupied by the solid matters will, on their being resolved into gases, render the soil of a more porous character. As a geheral rule, hoyrever, in ordinary farming, where the , amount of manure applied is only sufficient for the supply of food to the crop, it is undoubtedly better to have it previously decomposed — cooked as it were, for the uses of the plants — as they can then obtain the required amount of nutriment as fast as needed "What are the advantages arising from burying manure iq itf green state ? Which is geneiaUy preferable, this course, or composting' WhyJ MANUHES. 147 ABSORPTION OF MOISTUKE. It is often convenient to know the relatite power of different manures to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, especially when we wish to manure lands that suffer from drought. The following re- sults are given by C. W. Johnson, in his essay on salt, (pp. 8 and 19). In these experiments the ani- mal manures were employed without any admixture of straw. PARTS 1000 parts of horse dung, dried in a tempera- ture of 100°, absorbed by expo- sure for three hours, to air saturated with moisture, of the temperature of 62° 145 1000 parts of cow dung, under the same cir- cumstances, absorbed 130 1000 Jjarts pig dung 120 1000 ' sheep " 81 1000 ' pigeon " 50 1000 ' ' rich alluvial soil 14 1000 ' fresh tanner's baA 115 1000 ' putrified " 145 1000 ' .refuse marine ^alt sold as manure 49^ 1000 ' ' soot 36 1000, ' ' burnt clay 29 1000 ' coal ashes 14 1000 ' ' lime 11 148 . MANURES. PARTS, 1000 parts sediment from salt pans 10 1000 " crushed rock salt 10 1000 " gypsum 9 1000 " salt 4» Muck is a most excellent absorbent of moisture, when thoroughly decomposed. DISTRIBUTION OF MANURES. The following' table from Johnson, on manures, will be found convenient in the distribution of man- nures. By its assistance the farmer wiU know how Baany loads of manure he requires, dividing each load into a stated number of heaps, and placing them at certain distances. In this manner manure may be applied evenly, and calculation may be made as to the amount, per acre, which a certain quantity will supply.f » ■Working Farmer, vol. 1, p. 55. f It is not necessary that this and the foregoing table should be learned by the scholar, but they will be found valuable for ref- erence by the farmer. MANURES. 149 - DBTANOE OF NUMBER OF HKAPS IN A lOAD. THX HEAPS. 1 2 3 4 fi 6 7 8 9 10 8 yards. . . 338 269 179 134 108 89* -77 67 60 54 34 do. . . 39S 168 132 99 79 66 56i 49-J 44 S9| 4 do. . . 303 151 101 I5i 60i 50i 4?i 37f 33i 30i 44 do. . . 239 120 79i 60 47i 39t 34i 30 26i 24 6 do. . . 194 97 6^ 48* 38f 32i 27f 24i 21i 19i Si do. . . 160 80 53i 40 32 26f 22f 20 171 -.6 6 do. . . 131 67 44f 33i 27 22i m 16t 15 134 6i do. . . 115 67i 38i 28} 23 19 16i 14i 124 114 1 do. . . 99 49i 33 24f 19f 16i 14 12i 11 10 7i do. . . 86 43 28f 21i I7i 14i 12i lOJ 94 84 8 do. . . T5J 37J 25i 19 15i 12i lOf 94 84 n 8i do. .. . 9* do. . . 67 s^ 22j 16f 13i Hi H H 74 64 60 30 20 13 12 10 8J 74 6f 6 9i do. . . 53i^ 26} 18 m lOi 9 7f 6f 6 5i 10 do. . . 48J 24i 16i 12 9f 8 7 6 54 44 Example 1. — Required, the number of loads necessary to ma- nure an acre of ground, dividing, each load into six heaps, and placing them at a distance of 4-4 yards from each other ! The an- swer by the table is 394. Example 2. — A farmer has a field containing 54 acres, over which he wishes to spread 82 loads of dung. Now 82 divided by 54, gives 15 loads per acre ; and by referring to the table, it will be seen that the desired object may be accomplished, by making 4 heaps of a load, and placing them 9 yards apart, or by 9 heaps at 6 yards, as may be thought advisable. OHAPTEK VIII. MINERAL MANURES. The second class of manures named in the gene- 150 MANUBES. ral dlvisbn of the subject, in the early part of this chapter, comprises those of a mineral character, or inorganic manures. These manures have four kinds of action when apphed to the boU. Ist. They furnish food for the inorganic part of plants. 2d. They prepare matters already in the soil, for assimilation by roots. ; 3d. They improve the mechanical condition of the soil. 4th. They absorb ammonia. Some of the mineral manures produce in the soil only one of these effects, and others are efficient in two or all of them. The principles to be considered in the use of mineral manures are essentially given in the first two sections of this book It may be well, however, to repeat them briefly in this connection, and to give the reasons why any of these manures are needed, from which we may learn what rules are to be ob- served in their application. 1st. Those which are used as food by plants. It will be recollected that the ash left after burning plants, and which formed a part of their structures, has a certain chemical composition; that is, it con- sists of alkahes, acids, and neutrals. It was also How many kinds of action have inorganic manures ! What is the first of these ? The second S Third ? Fourth ! Do all mineral manures possess all of tfiesc qualities ! MANURES. 151 stated that the ashes of plants of the same kind are always of about the same composition, while the ashes of different kinds of plants may vary materially. Different parts of the same plant too, as we learned, are supplied with different kinds of ash. For instance, dover, on being burned, leaves an ash containing liTne, as one of its principal in- gredients, while the ash of potatoes contains more of potash than of any thing else. In the second section (on soils), we learned that some soils contain every thing necessary to make the ashes of all plants, and in sufficient quantity to sup- ply what is required, while other soils are either entirely deficient in one or more ingredients, or con- tain so little of them that they are unfertile for cer- tain plants. From this, we see that we may pursue either one of two courses. After we know the exact composi- tion of the soil — ^which we can learn only from cor- rect analysis — we may manure it with a view either to making it fertile for all kinds of plants or only for one particular plant. For instance, we may find that a soil contains a jery little phosphoric acid, and no potash. If we wish to raise potatoes on such'a soil, we have only to apply potash (if the soil is good Belate what you know of the properties of vegetaljle aahes ? How does this relate to the fertility of the soil J According to what two rules may \^e apply mineral manures I What course yonld you purBu@ to raise potatoes on a soil con- taining a very little phosphoric acid and ho potash! 152 manures; in otherparticulars), which is largeliy reqxiired by this plant, though it needs hut little phosphoric acid ," while, if we^ wish to make it fertile for wheat, and all other plants, we must apply more phosphoric acid as well as postash. As a universal rule, it may be stated that to render a soil fertile for any par- ticular plant, we must supply it (unless it already contains them) with those matters which are neces- sary to make the ash of that plant ; and, if we would render it capable of producing;- all kinds of plants, it must be furnished with the materials required in the formation of all hinds of vegetable ashes. It is not absolutely necessary to have the soil' analyzed before it can be cultivated with success, but it is the chea/pest way. .We might proceed from an analysis of the plant required (which will be found in- Section V.), and apply to the soil in the form of manure every thing- that is necessary for the formation of the ash of that planet. This- would give a good crop on an'if soil that was in the proper meeAaTOca? condition, and contained' enough organic matter ; but a moment's- reflection will show that, if the^oil contained a large- aniount of potash, or of phosphate of lime, it would not be necessary to make an- application of more of these ingredients — at an expense of perhaps three times the cost of an analysis. It is true that, if the Would you manure it in the same way for, wheatt ■Why? MANtJnES. 153 CfOp is sold, and it ib desired to tnaintaih tihe fertility of the soil, the full amovnt of the ash must be applied, either before or after the crop is grown ; but, in the ordinary use of crops for feeding purposeSj a large part of the dsh will exist in the excrements of the animals j so that the judicious farmer will be able to manure his land with more economy than if he had to apply to each crop the whole amount and variety required for its ash. The best rule for pracitical manuring is probably to strengthen the soil in its weaker points, and prevent tJie stronger ones from becoining weaker. In this way, the soil may be raised to the highest state of fertility^ and be fully maintained in '^ts productive powers. 2d, Those manures which render available mat- ter already contained in the soil. Silica (or sand), it will be recollected, exists in all soils ; but, in its pure state, is not capable of being dissolved, and therefore cannot be used by plants. The alkalies (as has been stated), have the .power of combining with this silica, making com- pounds, . which are called silicates. These are readily dissolved by water, and are available in vege- table growth. Now, if a soil is deficient in tliese soluble silicates, it is well known that grain, etc., Ho-w is the fertility of the soil to be maintained, if the crops are told? What rule is given for general treatment ? Give an instance of matters in the soil that are to be rendered ATailable by mineral manures ! 7» iS4 UANtmia. grown on it, not being able to obtain the matetfed which gives them strength, will fall down or ladge; but, if such measures be taken, as wiU render the sand soluble, the straw will be strong and healthy. Alkalies Used for this purpose, come under the head of thosp manures which develope the natural resources of the Boil. Again, much of the mineral matter in the soil is combined within particles, and is therefore out of the reach of roots. Lime, among other thing, has the effect of causing these particles to crumble and ex- pose their constituents to the demand of roots. Therefore, lime has for one of its offices the develop- ment of the fertilizing ingredients of jihe soil. 3d. Those manures which improve the mechaai*^ cal condition of the soil. The alkalies, in combining with sand, commence their action on the surfaces of the particles, and roughen them-— j-ms^ them as if were. This roughen- ing of particles of the soil prevents them from moving among each other as easily as they do when they are smooth, and thus b^eps the soil from being com- pacted by heavy rains, as it is liable to be in its na- tural condition. In this way, the mechanical texture of the soil is improved. It has just been said that iime causes the pul- How may silica be developed ? How does lime afTeet soils oontaining coarse particles f How do mineral manures Bometimes improve the mechanical . textm'e of the soil I verization of the p^irticles of the soil ; ,^d thus, by making it finer, improves its mechanical condition. Some min,eral manures, as plaster and salt, hay;e the power of ahsorbing moisture from the atmosphere ; and this is a mechanical improvement to dry soil?. 4th. Those mineral manures which have the power of absorbing ammonia. Flayer, chloride of lime, alumina (clay), etc., are large absorbents of ammonia, whether arising from the fermentation of animal manures or washed down fiom the atmosphere by rains. The ammonia thus absorbed is of course very important in t^i,^ vegetation of crops. ' Having now explained the reasons why mineral manures are necessary, and the manner in whiqh they produce their ejects, we will proceed to examine ^e various deficiencies of soils and the character qf many Mnds of this class of fertilizers. GHAPTEE IX. DEPIOIENCIES OF SOILS, MEANS OJ EESTORATION, BTG, As will be seen by referring to the analyses of soils Name some minerd manures which a^iaarh aiamoiuaT 156 MANlTREa on p. 72, tt'ey may be deficient ill' certafn ingt^ dierits, which it is the object of Hiiaepal mamires tc supply. These we will take up in order, and endeo/' VOf to show in a simple manner the best means oi managing them in practical farming.- AliK ALIE s'.- POtASH'. Potash, is often deficient in the soU'. Its do' ficiency may have been caused in- two ways. Either it may not have existed largely in the rock from which the' soil Was fortoed, and coi^equeatly 'is equally absent from- the soil itself, or it roay havof once been present in sufficient qTiantities, and been carried away ia crDps, without being returned to ther soil in the form of manure, until tooMttle remains for the requirements of fertility. In either case,, its absence may be accurately de-' tected by a skilful chemist, and it may be supplied by the farmer in various ways. Potash^ as well a^ all of the other r&iUeral manures, is contained in the excrements of animals, but not (as is also the case with the others) in sufficient quantities to restore the proper balance to soils where it is largely Do all soils contain a sufficient amount of potash ? Ho-w may its deficiency have been ca;used ? How may its absence be detected ? Does barn-yard manure contain sufficient potash to supply itv deficiency in worn-out soils f aASfUftKs. 157 deficient, not even to make tip for what is yearly temoved with each crop, except that crop (or its equivalent) has beeiii fed to stich anifflals as return M of the fertiliaing constituents of their food in the form of manure, and this be all carefully preserved and appHed to the soil. In all other cases, it is ne- cessary to apply more potash than is contained in the elcrements of animals. Unleached, Wood ashes is geiiefally the most available source from which to obtain this alkali. The ashes of all kinds of wood contain potash (more or less according to the kind — see analysis section V.) If the ashes are leached^ the potash is removed j and, hence for the purpose of suplying it, they are Worthless ; but unleached ashes are an excellent Source from tt-hich to obtaii it. They Iflay be made into compost t?ith mUck, as directed in a previous chapter, or applied directly to the soil. In either dase the potash is available directly to the plant, or is Capable of uniting with the silica ill the soil to form silicate of potash. Neither potash nor any other alkali should ever be applied to animal manures Unless in compost with an absoAent, as they cause the ammoiiia to be thrown off and lost. Potash ipdrlings, or the refuse of potash ware* What is generally the most available source from wliioh to olj tarn this alkali 9 Will leached ashes answer the same purpose ? How may ashes be used? 15$ MAKCt.It£^. houses, is ah .excellent manure for lands (ieflcj^^tio this constituent. Potash.marli such as js found in I^ew Jeiisey, eoatains a lai'ge propottton of potash, and is an ex- cellent application to soils requiring it. Feldspar^ kaolin, and other miperals cantainipg potash, are, in some localities, to be obtained in suf- ficient quantities to be used for manurial purposes. Qranite contg,in8 potash, and if it can be crushed (as is the case with some of the spfter kinds,) it Bferves a very good purpose. SODA. Soda, the requirement of which is occasioned by the same causes as create a deficiency of potash, and all of the other ingredients of vegetable ashe^, may be veiy readily supplied by the use of common salt (chloride of sodium), TVhich. consists of about one half sodium (the base of soda). The best way to Use salt is in the lime and salt mixture, previously described, or as. a direct application to the soil. If too much salt be given to the soil it will kill any plant. In small quantities, however, it is highly beneficial, and if six bushels per acre be sown broad- cast over the land, to be carried in by rains and dews> From what other sources may potash be obtained ! How may we obtain soda ? In what quantities should pure salt be applied to the soil I te Will notsenly destr-oy many iasects (griibs, wormS) etc.), but will, after decomposing and beeomng chlorine and soda, prove an excellent manure. Salt, even in quantities large enough to denude the soil of all vegetation, is never permanently injurious. 4-fter the first year, it becomes resolved into its constitu- ents, affld furnishes chloriae and sod^a to planta,«dth« out injuriag them. One bmahel of salt in each cord erf compost will not only hasten the decomposition of the manures, but will kill all seeds and grubs — ^a very deairalDle effect. While small quantities of salt in a compost heap are beneficial, too much (as when applied to the soil) is positively injurious, as it ar- rests decomposition ; isMlY pickles the manureSj and jnevents them from rotting. : For asparagus^ which is a marine plant, salt is an excellent' manure, and may be applied in almost Unlimited quantities, while the plants are groioingy if used after they have gone to top, it is injurious. Salt has been applied to asparagus beds in siich quan- tities as to completely cover them, and with apparent benefit to the plants. Of course large doses of salt kiU all weeds, and thus save labor and the injury to the asparagus roots,, which would result/from their removal by hoeing. Salt may be used advantageoudy ■in any of the foregoing manners, but should always be applied with care. For ordinary farm purposes, If applied in laxge quantities will it produce, permanentlnjuryf In -what quantities should salt be applied ,U> eorapoatiieif To wpart^os ? 160 MAKOBSS. it is undoulbtedly most profitable to use the salt with lime, and make it perform the double duty of assist- ing' in the decoitipdsition of vegetable matter, and fertilizing the soil, Soda unites with the silica in the soil, and forma the valuable silicate of soda. Nitrate of soda, or cubical nitre, which is found in South America, consists of soda and nitric acid. It furnishes both soda and nitrogen to plants, and is an excellent manure. tlMfi. The subject of lime is one of most vital impor- tance to the farmer ; indeed, so varied are its modes of action and its effects, that some writers have given it credit for every thing good in the way of farmirig, and have gone so far as to say that all permanent improvement of agriculture must depend on the use of lime. Although this is far in excess of the truth (as liraft^annot plow, nor drain, nor supply any thing but lime to the soil), its many beneficial effects de- mand for it the closest attention. As food for plants, limef is of considerable impor- tance. All plants contain lime — some of them in large quantities. It is an important constituent of What is generally the best way to uae lalt ! What is nitrate of soda ? What plants contain lime t MANTTEES. 161 straw, meadow hay, leaves of fruit trees, peas, beans, and turnips. It constitutes more than one third of the ash of red claVer. Many soils contain lime enough for the use of plants, in others it is deficient, and must be supplied artificially before they can pro- duce good crops of those plants of which lime is au important ingredient. The only way in which the exact quantity of lime in the soil can be ascertained is by chemical analysis. However, the amount re- quired for, the mere feeding plants is not large, (much less than one per cent.), bpk lime is often necessary for other purposes ; and setting aside, for the present, its feeding action, we will examine its various effects on the mechanical and chemical con- dition of the soU. 1. It corrects acidity (sourness). 2. It hastens the decomposition of the organic matter in the soil. 3. It causes the mineral particles of the soil to crumble. 4. By producing the above effects, it prepares the constituents of the soil for assimilation by plants. 5. It is sixid to exhaust the soil, but it does so in a very desirable manner, the injurious effects of which may be easily avoided. 1. The decomposition of organic, matter in the Do aU soils contain enough lime for the use of plants! What amount is needed lor this purpose ? What is its firstnamed effect on the soil ? Its second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? How are acids produced in the soil > 162 MANUEES. soil, often produces acids which makes the land sowr^ and cause it to produce sorrel and other weeds, which interfere with the healthy growth of crops. Lime is an alkali, and if applied to soils suffering from sourness, it will unite with the acids, and neu- tralize them, so that they will no longer be inju- rious. 2. We have before stated that lime is a decom- posing agent, and hastens the rotting of muck and other organic matter. It has the same effect on the organic parts of the soil, and causes them to be re- solved into the gases and minerals of which they are formed. It has this effect, especially, on organip matters containing nitrogen, causing them to throw off ammonia ; consequently, it liberates this gas from the animal manures in the soil. 3. Various inorganic compounds in the soil are so affected by lime, that they lose their power of holding together, and crumble, or are reduced to finer particles, while some of their constituents are rendered soluble. One way in which this is accom- plished is by the action of the lime on the silica con- tained in these compounds, forming the silicate of lime. This crumbling effect improves the mechani- cal as well as the chemical condition of the soil. 4. We are now enabled to see how lime prepares the constituents of the soil for the use of plants. How does lime correct tham ? How does it affect auimal manures ia the Boilt . MANUKEB. 163 By its action on the roots, buried stubble, and other organic matter in the soil, it causes them to be decomposed, and.to give up many of their gaseous and inorganic constituents for the use of roots. In this manner the organic matter is prepared for use more rapidly than would be the case, if there were no lime present to hasten its decomposition. * By the decomposing action of lime on the mine- ral parts of tiie soil (3), they also are placed more rapidly in a useful condition than wou,ld be the case, if their preparation depended on the slow action of at mospheric influences. Thus, we see that lime, aside from its use directly as food for plants,, exetts a beneficial influence on both the organic and inorganic parts of the soil. 5. Many contend that lime exhausts the soil. If we examine the manner in which it does so, we shall see that this is no argument against its use. It exhausts the organic parts of the soil, by de- composing them, and resolving them into the gases and minerals of which they are composed. If the soil do not contain a sufficient quantity of absorbent matter, such as clay or charcoal, the gases arising from the organic matter are liable to escape ; but when there is a sufiicient amount of these substances present (as there always should be), these gases are . : ^ J Inorganic compounds? Ho-w does lime prepare the constituents of the soil for use! What can you jsay of the remark that line .es^apjl^ the orgapio vatter in the soil i 164 MANURES. all retained until required by the roots of plants, Hence, although the organic matter of manure and vegetable substances may be altered in form, by the use of lime, it can escape (except in very pooi soils) only as it is taken up by roots to feed the crop, and such exhaustion is certainly profitable ; still, in order that the fertility of the soil may be maintained, enough of organic manure should be applied, to make up for the amount taken from the soil by the crop, after liberation for its use by the action of the lime. This will be but a small propor- tion of the organic matter contained in the crop, as it obtains the larger part from the atmosphere. The only way in which lime can exhaust the in- organic part of the soil is, by altering its condition, so that plants can use it more readily. That is, it exposes it for solution in water. We have seen that fertilizing matter cannot be leached out of a good soU, in any material quantity, but can only be car- ried down to a depth of about thirty-four inches. Hence, we see that there can be no loss in this di- rection ; and, as inorganic matter cannot evaporate from the soil, the only way in which it can escape is through the structure of plants. If lime is applied to the -soil, and increases the amount of crops grown by furnishing a larger supply of inorganic matter, of course, the removal of inor- Ho-w can lime exhaust the mineral parts of the soil ! Must the matter taken away be retoned to the soil? Ma a ORES. 165 gjinic substances from the soil will be more rapid than when only a small amount of crop is grown, aad.the soil will be sooner exhausted-r-not by the Ume, but by the plants. In order to make up for this e^iaustion, it is necessary that a sufficient amount of inorganic matter be supplied to com- pensate for the increased quantity taken away by plants. i Thus we see, that it is hardly fair to accuse the lime of exhausting the soil, when it only improves its character, and increases the amount of its yield. It is the crop that takes away the fertility of the soil (the same as would be the case if no lime were used, only faster as the crop is larger), and in all judicious cultivation, this loss will be fully compensated by the application of manures, thereby preventing the ex- haustion of the soil. Kind of Ume to be used. The first consideration in prqcuring lime for manuring landj is to select that which contains but little, if any magnesia. Nearly all stone lime contains more or less of this, but some kinds contain more than others. When magnesia is applied to the soil, in too large quantities, it is positively injurious to plants, and great care is neces- Bary in making selection. As a general rule, it may If this course be pursued, will the soil suffer from the use of lime? Is it the lime, or its crop, thiit exhausts the soil? Is lime containing magnesia better than pure lime? What is the best kind of lime ? 166 MANUEES. be stated, that the best plastering lime makes the best manure. Such kinds only should be used as are known from experiment not to be injurious. Shell Ume is undoubtedly the best of all, for it contains no magnesia, and it does contain a small quantity of phosphate of Ume, In the vicinity of the sea-Goast, and near the lines of railroads, oyster shells, clam shells, etc., can be cheaply procured. These may be prepared for use in the same manner as stone lime.* The preparation of the Ivme is done by first burn- ing and then slaking, or by putting it directly on the land, in an unslaked condition, after its having been burned. Shells are sometimes ground, ahd used without burning ; this is hardly advisable, as they cannot be made so fine as by burning and slak- ing. As was stated in the first section of this book, lime usually exists in nature, in the form of carbon- ate of lime, as "iimestone, chalk, or marble (being lime and carbonic acid combined), and when this is burned, the carbonic acid is thrown off, leaving the lime in a pure or caustic form. This is called burn- ed lime, quick-lime, lime shells, hot Ume, etc. K * Mail is earth containing lime, but ita use is not to be recom- mended in this country, except where it can be obtained at little cost, as the expenses of carting the earth would often be more than the value of the time, la the purchase of marl to be recommended ? How is lime prepared for use ? (Note.) Describe the burning and slakine of liifie. MANUEES. 167 „ the proper quantity of water be poured on it, it is immediately taken up by the limej which falls into a dry powder, called slaked lime. If fmch-lime were left exposed . to the weather, it would absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and become what is termed air slaked. When slaked lime (consisting of lime and water) is exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs carbonic acid, and becomes carbonate of lime agajn ; but it is how in the form of a very fine powder, and is mueh more useful than when in the stone. If quick-lime is applied directly to the soil, it absorbs first moisture, and then carbonic acid, be- coming finally a powdered carbonate of lime. One ton of carbonate of Krm contains 11 J cwt. of lime ; the remainder is carbonic acid. One ton of slaked lime contains about 15 cwt. of lime ; the remainder is water. Hence we see that lime should be burned, and not slaked, before being transported^ as it would be unjprofitable to transport the large quantity of c'ar- bonia acid and water contained in carbonate of lime and slaked lime. The quick-lime may be elake'd. What is air slaking ? • If slated limete exposed to the air, what change does it un- tlferio ? What is the object of sliiking lime? How much carbonic iioid is contained in a ton of carbonate of lime! How tnnch lime does a ton of slaked lime contain? What is the most economical form for transportation! 168 MANURES. and carbonated after reaching its destination, either before or after being applied to the land. As has been before stated, much is gained by 'slaking lime with salt water, thus imitating the Hme and salt mixture. Indeed in many cases, it will be found profitable to use all lime in this way. Where a direct action on the inorganic matters contained in the soil is desired, it may be well tc apply the lime directly in the form of quick-lime ; but, where the decomposition of the vegetable and animal consti- tuents of the SOU is desired, the correction of sournmi^ or the supplying of lime to the crop, the mixture with salt would be advisable. The amount of lime required by plants is, as was before observed, usually small compared with the whole amount contained in the soil ; still it is not un- important. OF LIME. 25 bus. of wheat contain about 13 lbs. 25 " barley " lOJ ' 25. " oatf ■ " . 11 ' 2 tons of turnips " .12 ' 2 , " potatoes " 5 ' 2 " red clover " 77 ' 2 " rye grass '-' 30 ' ! * The 6traw produciag the gi'ain, and the tui'nip and potato- tops contain more lime than the grain and roots. Wli.it 18 ihi" best form for immediate action on the inorganic matter iii tlie soil? For most otiier purposes! MANURES. 169 The amount of lime required at each application, and the frequency of those "applications, must depend on the chemical and mechanical condition of the soil. No exact rule can be given, but probably the custonx of each jdistrict — ^regulated by long experience— is the best guide. Lime sinks in the so«7;;and therefore, when used alone, should always be applied as a top dressing to be carried into the soil by rains. The tendency of lime to settle is so great that, when cutting drains, it may often be observed in a whitish streak on the top of the subsoil. After heavy doses of lime hkve been given to the soU, and have settled so as to have apparently ceased from their action, they may be hrought up and mixed with the soil by deeper plowing. Lime should never be mixed with animal manures, unless in compost with muck, or some other good absorbent, as it is Kable to cause the escape of their ammonia. PLASTER OE PARIS. Plaster of Paris or Gypsum (sulphate of lime) is composed of sulphuric acid and lime in combina- tion. It is called ' plaster of Paris,' because it con- stitutes the rock underlying the city of Paris. What is the best guide concerning the quantity of lime to b« »pplied ? What is said of the sinking of lime in the soil! What ia plaster of Paris composed of ! Why is it called plaster of Paris I 8 lYO MAKtJEES, It is a constituent of many plants. It also fur- nishes them with sulphur — a constituent of the sul- phuric acid which it contains. It is an excellent absorbent of ammonia, and is very useful to sprinkle around stables, poultry houses, pig-styes, and privies, where it absorbs the escap- ing gases, saving them for the use of plants,, and purifying the air, thus rendering stables, etc., more healthy than when not so supplied. It has been observed that the extravagant use of plaster sometimes induces the growth of sorrel. This is probably the case only where the soil is deficient in lime. In such instances, the lime, re- quired by plants is obtained by the decomposition of the plaster. The lime, enters into the construction of the plant, and the sulphuric acid remains fret, rendering the soil sour, and therefore in condition to produce sorrel. In such a case, an application of lime win correct the acid by uniting with it and con- verting it into plaster. CHLOEIDE OF LIME. Chloride of lime is a compound of lime and chlorine. It furnishes both of these constituents to plants, and it is an excellent absorbent of ammonia Is it a constituent of plants ? What else does it furnish them? How does it affect manure ! How does it produce sorrel in the soil! Hbw may the acidity be overcome? MANUKES. 171 and other gases arising from decomposition^hence its usefulness in destroying bad odors, and in pre- serving fertilizing matters for the use of crops. It may be used like plaster, or in the decomposi- tion of organic matters, where it not only hggtens decay, but absorbs and retains the escaping gases. It win be recollected that chloride of lime is one of the products of the lime and salt mixture. Lime in combination with phosphoric acid forms the valuable phosphaie of lime, of which so large a portion of the ash of grain, and the bones of animals, is formed. This will be spoken of more at length under the head of 'phosphoric acid.' MAGNESIA. Magnesia is a constituent of vegetable ashes, and is almost always present in the soil in sufficient quantities. When analysis indicates that it is needed, it may be applied in the form of magnesian lime, or refuse epsom salts, which are composed of sulphuric acid and magnesia (sulphate of magnesia). The great care necessary concerning the use of magnesia is, not to apply too much of it, it being, What does chloride of lime supply t'l plants? How does it affect raauures? How may it be used? How may magnesia be supplied, when wanting ? What care is necessary concerning the use of magnesia? 172 MANURES. when in excess, as has been previously remarked^, in- jurious to the fertility of the soil. Some soils are hopelessly barren from the fact that they contain too much magnesia. ACIDS. SULPHUBIO ACID. Sulphuric acid is a very important constituent of vegetable ashes, especially of oats and the root- crops. It is often deficient in the soil, particularly whei-e potatoes have been long cultivated. One of the reasons why plaster (sulphate of lime) is so beneficial to the potato crop is undoubtedly that it supplies it with sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is commonly known by the name o?oil vitriol, and may be purchased for agricultural' purposes at a low price. It may be used in a very dilute form (weakened by mixing it with a large quantity of water) to the compost heap, where it will change the ammonia to a sulphate as soon as formed, and thus prevent its loss, as the sulphate' of ammonia is not volatile ; and, being soluble in water is useful to plants. Some idea of the value of this compound may be formed from the fact that manufac- What 13 sulphuric acid commonly called ? How may it be used ! How does it prevent the escape of ammonia f MANURES. 173 tnreis of manures are willing to pay seven cents per lb., or even more, for sulphate of ammonia, to insure the success of their -fertilizers. Notwithstanding this, many farmers persist in throwing away hundreds of pounds of ammonia every year, as a tax for their igno- rance (or indolence), while a small tax jn money — not more valuable, nor more necessary to their success — for the support of common schools, and the better ed- ugation of the young, is too often unwillingly paid. If a tumbler full of sulphuric acid (coating a few cents), be thrown into the tank of the compost heap once a month, the benefit to the manure would be very great. 1 Where a deficiency of sulphuric acid in the soil is ; indicated by analysis, it may be suppKed in this way, or by the use of plaster or refuse epsom salts. Care is necessary that too much sulphuric acid be not used, as.it would prevent the proper decom- ppsitioff of manures, and would induce a growth of Borrel in the soil by mating it sow. ■ In many instances, it will be found profitable to use sulphuric acid in the manufacture of super-phos- phate of Mme (as directed under the head of 'phos- phoric acid,') thus, making it perform the double purpose of preparing an available form of phosphate, and of supplying sulphur and sulphuric acid to the pknt. What is the effect of using too much sulphuric acid ? 174 MANTIEBS. PHOSPHOEIO ACID. We come now to the consideration of one of the most important of all subjects connected with agri- culture, that is, phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid, forming about one half of the ashes of wheat, rye, corn, buck-wheat, and oats ; nearly the same proportion of those of barley, peas, beans and linseed ; an important ingredient of the ashes of potatoes and turnips ; one quarter of the ash of milk and a large proportion of the bones of animals, often exists in the soil in the proportion of only about one or two pounds in a thousand. The cultivation of our. whole country has been such, as to take away the phosphoric acid from the soil without returning it, except in very minute quantities. Every hundred bushels of wheat sold contains (and removes perma- nently from the soil) about siody pounds of phospho- ric acid. Other grains, as well as the root crops and grasses, remove Ukewise a large quantity of it. It has been said by a cotemporary writer, that for each cow kept on a pasture through the' summer, there is carried off in veal, butter and cheese, not less than fifty lbs. of phosphate of lime (bone-earth) on an average. How large a part of the ashes of grain cousists of phosphoric acid? Of what other substances does it form a leading ingredientt How many pounds of sulphuric acid are contained in one hun- dred bushels of wheat! MANURES. 175 This would be one thousand lbs. for twenty cows ; and it shows clearly why old dairy pastures become so exhausted of this substance, that they will no longer produce those nutritious grasses, which are fevorable to butter and cheese-making. That this removal of the most valuable consti- tuent of the soil, has been the cause of more ex- haustion of farms, and more emigration, in search of fertile districts, than any other single effect of jij^udicious farming, is a fact which multiplied in- stances most clearly prove. It is stated that the G-enesee and Mohawk valleys, which once produced an average of thirty- five or forty bushels of wheat, per acre, have since been reduced, in their average production, nineteen and a ludf bushels. Hundreds of similar cases might be stated ; and in a large majority of these, „pould the cause of the impoverishment be ascertain- ed, it would be found to be the removal of the phos- , phoric acid from the soil. The evident tendency of cultivation being to ,iGontinue this murderous system, and to prey upon the vital strength of the country, it is necessary to take such measures as will arrest the outflow of this valuable material. This can never.be fully accom- plished until laws shall be made preventing the wastes How muoli phosphate of lime wUl twenty cows remove from a pasture during a summer! , ■ 3, ■ What has this removal of phosphate of lime occasioned ? How have the Genesee and Mohawk valleys been affected by this removal of phosphoric acid I 176 MANURES. of cities and towns. Such laws have existed for a long time in China, and have douhtlessly been the secret of the long subsistence and jiresent prosperity of the milhons of people inhabiting that country. We have, nevertheless, a means of restoring to fertility many of our worn-out lands, and preserving our fertile fields from so rapid impoverishment as they are now suffering. Many suppose that soils which produce good crops, year after year, are inex- haustible, but time will prove to the contrary. They may possess a sufficiently large stock of phosphoric acid, and other constituents of plants, to last a long time, but when that stock becomes so reduced, that there is not enough left for the uses of full crops, the productive power of the soil will yearly decrease, un- til it becomes worthless. It may last a long time, a century, or even more, but as long as the system is — to remove every thing, and return nothing, — the fate of the most fertile soil is evident. The source mentioned, from which to obtain phosphoric acid, is the bones of animals. These contain large quantities of phosphate of lime. They are the receptacles which collect neaily all of the phosphates in crops, which are fed to animals, and are not returned in their excrements. For the grain, etc., sent out of the. country, there is no way to be How may this devastation be arrested ? Is any soil inexhaustible ? What is usually the best source from which to obtain phosphoric •oid? MANtlfiES. 177 Wpaid escept by the importation of thi? material | bttt, all that is fed to animals, or to human beings, may, if a proper use be made of their excrement, and of their bones after death, be returned" to the soil. With the treatment of animal excrements we are al- ready familiarj and we will now turn our attention to the subject of Sones consist, when dried, of about one third or- ganic matter, and two thirds inorganic matter. The organic matter consists chiefly of gelatine—^ a compound containing nitrogen. The inorganic part is (M&Qy phosphate of Urm, ' Hence, we see that bones are excellent, both a8 organic and mineral manure. The organic part, eontaining nitrogen, forms ammonia, and the inor- ganic part supplies the mUch needed phosphoric acid to the soil. Liebig says that, as a producer of ammonia, 100 lbs. of dry bones are equivalent to 250 lbs. of human feme. Bones are applied to the soil in almost every con- ceivable form. Whole hones are often used in very Of what do dried bones consiat f What is the organic matter of bones ! The inorganic % What can you say of the use of whole bones t 8» 178 MANURES. large quantities ; their action, however, is extremely Blow, and it is never advisable, to Use bones in this form. Ten bushels of bones, finely ground, will produce larger results, during the current ten years after ap- plication, than would ensue from the use of one hundred bushels merely broken, not because the dust contains more fertilizing matter than the whole bones, but because that which it does contain is in a much more available condition. It ferments readily, and produces ammonia, while the ashy parts are ex- posed to the action of roots. Bone-blach If bones are burned in retorts^^ or otherwise protected from the atmospherfe, their or- ganic matter will all be driven off, except the carbon, which not being supplied with oxygen cannot escape. In this form bones are called ivory blacky or hone' black. It consists of the inorganic matter, and the carbon of the bones. The nitrogen having been ex- pelled it can make no ammonia, and thus far the original value of bones is reduced by burning ; that . is, one ton of bones contains more fertilizing mat- ter before, than after burning ; but one ton of bone black is more valuable than one ton of raw bones, as the carbon is retained in a good form to act as an How does the value of bone dust compare with that of broken bones ? What is the reason of the superiority of bone dust I How is bone-blacK made? Of what does it consist? MANTJBES. 179 absorbent in the soil, while the whole may be crush- j_ ed or ground much more easily than before being . burned. This means of pulverizing bones is adopted by manufacturers, who replace the ammonia in the . form of guano, or otherwise ; but it is not to be.re- cofwnended for the use of farmers, who should not . lose the ammonia, forining a part of bones, more than . that of other manure. Gomposting bones with ashes is a good means of securing their decomposition. They should be placed in a water-tight vessel (such as a cask) ; first, three or four inches of bones, then the same quantity of V, strong unleached wood ashes, continuing these alter- nate layers until the cask is fall, and keeping them Sulphate of lime. Sulphuric acid ) Super-phosphate of lime may be made from whole bones, bone dust, bone-black, or from the pure ashes of bones. The process of making it from whole bones is slow and troublesome, as it requires a long timefor the effect to diffuse itself through the whole mass of a large bone. When it is made in this way, the hones should be dry, and the acid should be diluted in many times its bulk of water, and should be ap- pEed to the bones (which may be placed in a suit- able cask, with a spiggot at the bottom), in quan- tities sufficient to coTer them, about once in ten days ; and at the end of that time, one half of the liquid should be drawn off by the spiggot. This Uquid is a solution of super-phosphatfe of lime, con^ taining sulphate of lime, and may be applied to the soil in a liquid form, or through the medium of a compost heap. The object of using so much water is to prevent an incrustation of sulphate of lime on Hovshould aulphnrio acid be applied to wKole bonea ! What is the necessity for so large an amount of water! 182 UAKtT&ES. the surfaces of the bones, this must be removed by stirring the mass, which allows the next applica* tion of acid to act directly on the phosphate remain- ing. The amount of acid required is about 60 or 60 lbs. to each 100 lbs. of bones. The gelatine will remain after the phosj)hate is all dissolved, and may be composted with muck,, or plowed under the soil, where it will form ammonia. Bone dust, or crushed bones, may be much more easily changed to the desired condition, as the surface exposed is much greater, and the acid can act more generally throughout the whole mass. The amount of acid required is the same as in the other case, but it may be used stronger, two or three times its bulk of water being sufficient, if the bones are finely ground or crushed— more or less water should be used according to the fineness of the bones. The time occupied will also be much less, and the result of the operation will be in better condition for manure. Bones may be made fine enough for this operation, either by grinding, etc., ot by boiling under pressure, as previously described ; indeed, by whatever method bones are pulverized^ they should always be treated with sulphuric acid before being applied to the soil, as this will more than double their value for im- mediate use. Bone-black is chiefly used by manufacturers of May lesa water be employed in making super-phoephate from bone dust or crushed bones ! 'Iti^er-phosphate of limej who treat it with acid the Same as has been directed above, only that they grind the black very finely before applying the acid. i. Bone ashes, or bones burned to whiteness, may be similarly treated. Indeed, iti all of the forms of bones here described, the phosphate of lime remains imaltered, as it is indestructible by heat ; the dif» ferences of composition are only in the admixture of organic constituents. The reason why super-phosphate of lime is so tnuch hdier than phosphate^ may be easily explained. The phosphate is very slowly soluble in water, and consequently furnishes food to plants slowly. A piece of bone as large as a pea may lie in the, -soil for years without being all consumed ; consequently, it will be years before , its value is returned, and it pays no interest on its cost while /lying there. The mper-phosphate dissolves very rapidly and furnishes fpod for plants with equal facility ; hence its much greater value as a manure. It is true thals.the phosphate is the most lasting manure ; but, once for all, let us caution farmers against considering this a virtue in niineral manures, or in organic manures either, when used on soils con- What other forms of bones may be used in making super-pho3> pbate of lime! Why is super- phosphate of lime a better fertilizer than pho* phateoflimef ' ' '^* ' " What can you say of t])^ lasting manures f 184 MANOBEB> taining the proper absorbents of ammonia. They are lasting, only in proportion as they are laxy. Manures are worthless unless they are in condition to be immediately used. The farmer who wishes his manures to last in the soil, and to lose their use, may be justly compared with the miser, who buries his gold and silver in the ground for the satisfaction of knowing that he owns it. It is an old and a true saying that " a nimble sixpence is better than a slow shilling.'' iMPEOVEt) SUPER-PHOSPHAM OF ttME. To show the manner in which sUper-phosphate of lime is perfected, and rendered the best manure for general uses, which has yet been made, contain- ing large quantities^ of phosphoric acid and a gOod supply of ammonia, — hereby covering the two lead- ing deficiencies in a majority of soils, it may be well to explain the composition of the improved sriper^ phosphate of lime invented by Prof. Mapes. This manure consists of the following ingredients in the proportions named : — 100 lbs. bone-black (phosphate of lime and carbon)! 56 " Sulphuric acid. 36 " guano. 20 " sulphate of ammonia. What are the ingredioDta of the improved euper-phosphate oi lime? MANURES. 185 The sulphuric acid has the before-mentioned effect on the boHe-black, arid fixes the ammonia of the guano by changing it to a sulphate. The twenty pounds of sulphate of ammonia added increase the amount, so as to furnish nitrogen to plants in suf- ficient quantities to give them energy, and induce them to take up the super-phosphate of lime in the manure more readily than would be done, were there not a sufficient supply of ammonia in the soil. The addition of the guano, which contains all of the elements of fertility, and many of them in con- siderable quantities, renders the manure of a more general character, and enables it to produce very large crops of almost any kind, while it assists in fortifjring the soil in what is usually its weakest point — ^phosphoric acid. 5 Prof. Mapes has more recently invented a new fertilizer called nitrogenized super-phosphate of lime, coriBposed of the improved superT-phosphate of lime and blood, dried and ground before mixture, in equal proportions. This manure, from its highly nitro- genous character, theoretically surpasses aU others, and probably will be found in practice to have great value ; its cost will be rather greater than guano. We understand its manufacture will shortly be commenced by a company now forming for that purpose. Esplam the uses of these different constituents. What is nitrogenized phosphate t 186 MANURES. Many farmers will find it expedient to purchase bones, or bone dust, and manufacture their own super-phosphate of lime ; others will prefer to pur- chase the prepared manure. In doing so, it should be obtained of men of known respectability, as ma- nures are easily adulterated with worthless matters ; and, as their price is so high, that such deception may occasion great loss. We would not recommend the application of any artificial manure, without first obtaining an analysis of the soil, and knowing to a certainty that the ma- nure is needed ; still, when no analysis has been pro- cured, it may be profitable to apply such manures as most generally produce good results — such as stable rhanure, night soil, the improved super- phosphate of lime ; or, if this cannot be procured, guano. NEUTB ALS. SILICA. Silica (or sand) always exists in the soil in suffi- cient quantities for the supply of food for plants ; but, as has been often stated in the preceding pages, not always in the proper condition. This subject has been so often explained to the student of this book, What should be learned before purchasing amendments for th« loil? What do you know of silicai? MANUEE3. 187 that it is only necessary to repeat here, that when the wealcness of the straw or stalk of plants grown on any soil indicates an inability in that soil to' supply the silicates req[uired for strength, not more sand should be added, but alkalies, to combine with the sand already contained in it, and make soluhle sili- cates which are available to roots. ^ Sand is often necessary to stiff clays, as a me- chanical manure, to loosen their texture and render them easier of cultivation, and more favorable to the distribution of roots, and to the circulation of air and water. CHLORINE. cy. Chlorine, a necessary constituent of plants, and often deficient in the soil (as indicated by analysis), may be applied in the form of salt (chloride of sodium), or chloride of lime. The former may be dissolved in the water used to slake lime, and the latter may, with much advantage, be sprinkled around stables and other places where fertilizing gases are escaping, and, after being saturated w;ith ammonia; applied to the soil, thus serving a double purpose. OXIDE OF IRON. Nearly all soils contain sufficient (jaantities of How may ohlorine be applied ! 188 MANUBES. oxide of iron, or iron rust, so that this substance can hardly he required as a manure. Some soils, however, contain the proifoxide of iron in such quantities as to be injurious to plants, — see page 86. When this is the case, it is neces- sary to plow the soil thoroughly, and use such other mechanical means as shall render it open to the ad- mission of air. The protoidde of iron wiU then take up more oxygen, and become the peroxide — which is not only inoffensive, but is absolutely necessary to fertility. OXIDE or MANGANESE. This can hardly be called an essential constituent of plants, and is never taken into consideration in manuring lands. VAEIOUS OTHER MINERAL MANURES. LEACHED ASHES. Among the mineral manures which have not yet been mentioned — not coining strictly under any of the preceding heads, is the one known as leached These are not without their benefits, though worth much Jess than unleached ashes, which, be- How may the protoxide of iron be changed to peroxide I MANtTEES. 189 sides the constituents of those which have been leached, contain much potash, soda, etc. Farmers have generally overrated the value of leached ashes, because they contain small quanti- ties of available- phosphate of lime, and soluble sili- cates, in which most old soils are deficient. While we witness the good results ensuing from their ap- plication, we should not forget that the fertilizing ingredients of thirty bushels of these ashes may be bought in a more convenient form for ten or fifte&n, cents, or for less than the cost of spreading the ashes on the soil. In many parts of Long Island farmers pay as much as eight or ten cents per bushel for this manure, and thousands of loads of leached ashes are taken to this locality from the river counties of New York, and even from the State of Maine, and are sold for many times their value, producing an effect which could be as well and much more cheaply obtained by the use of small quantities of super-phosphate of lime and potash. These ashes often contain a little charcoal (result- ing from the imperfect combustion of the wood),_ which acts as an absorbent of ammonia. It is sometimes^ observed that unleached ashes, Why are leached ashes inferior to those that have not been leached ( On what do the benefits of leaohed dshes depend ? Can these ingre'Ueuts be tncn-e cheaply obtaiged in another form ? Why do unleached ashes, applied in the spring, sometimes causa grain to lodge! 190 MANTTEES. when applied in the spring, cause grain to lodge. When this is. the case, as it seldom is, it may be in- ferred that the potash which they contain causes so rapid a growth, that the soil is not able to supply silicates as fast as they are required by the plants, but after the first year, the potash will have united with the silica in the soil, and overcome the diffi- culty. OLD MORTAR. Old mortar is a valuable manure, because it con- tains nitrate of potash and other compounds of nitric acid with alkalies. These are slowly formed in the mortar by the changing of the nitrogen of the hair (in the mortar) into nitric acid, and the union of this with the small, quantities oi potash, or with the lime of the plaster. Nitrogen, presented in other forms, as ammonia, for instance, may be transformed into nitric acid, by imiting with the oxygen of the air, and this nitric acid combines immediately with the alkalies of the mortar.* The lime contained in the mortar may be useful in the soil for the many purposes accomplished by other lime. * See Working Farmei', vol. 2, p. 278. What are the most fertilizing ingredients of old mortar ' MANUEES. 191 GAS HOUSE tiMB. The refuse lime of gas works, where it can be cheaply obtained, may be advantageously used as a manure. It consists, chiefly, of various compounds of sulphur and lime. It should be composted with earth or refuse matter, so as to expose it to the ac- tion of air. It should never be used fresh from the gas house. In a few months the sulphur wUl have united with the oxygen of the air, and become snlphuric acid, which unites with the lime and makes sulphate of lime (plaster), which form it must as- sume, before it is of much value. Having been used to purify gas made from coal, it contains a small quantity of ammonia, which adds to its value. It is considered a profitable manure in England, at the price there paid for it (forty cents a cartload), and, if of good quality, it may be worth double that' sum, especially for soils deficient in plaster, or for such crops as are much benefited by plaster. Its price must, of course, be regtilated somewhat by the price of lime, which constitutes a large proportion of its fertilizing parts. The offensive odor of this compound renders it a good protection against many insects. How may gas-liouse lime be prepared for use? Why shourd it not be used fresh from the gas house ! On what do iifi fertilizing properties depend ! What use raaj be made of its offensive odor I 1 92 MANURES. The refuse liquor of gas works contains enough ammonia to make it a valuable manure. SOAPEES LEY AND BLEACHERS LET. The refuse ley of soap factories and bleaching estab- lishments contains greater or less quantities of solu- ble silicates and alkalies (especially soda and potash), and is a good addition to the tank of the compost heap, or it may be used directly as a liquid applica- tion to the soil. The soapers' ley, especially, will be found a good manure for lauds on which grain lodges. Much of the benefit of this manure arises from the soluble silicates it contains, while its nitrogenous matter,* obtained from those parts of the fatty mat- ters which cannot be converted into soap, and con- sequently remains in this solution, forms a valuable addition. Heaps of soil saturated with this liquid in autumn, and subjected to the freezings of winter, form an admirable manure for spring use. Mr. Crane, near Newark (N. J.), has long used a mix- ture of spent ley and stable manure, applied in the fall to trenches plowed in the soil, and has been most successful in obtaining large crops. * Gl3'cerine, etc. Wliiit use mny be miule of the i-efuse ley of soap-makers and blciichers ? What peculiar qualiiies does aoapei-s' ley possess? MANtTEES. 1&3 lEBiaATION. Iwigution does not come strictly under the head ■ of inorganic manures, as it often supplies ammonia to the soil. Its chief value, however, in most cases, must depend on the amount of mineral matter "which it furnishes. The word "irrigation" means simply watering. In many districts water is in various ways made to overflow the land, and is removed when necessary for the purposes of cultivation. All river and spring water contains some impurities, many of which are beneficial to vegetation. These are derived from the earth over, or through which, the water has passed, and ammonia absorbed from the atmosphere. When water is made to cover the earth, especially if its ra- pid motion be arrested, much of this fertilizing mat- ter settles, and, is deposited on the soil. The watei which sinks into the soil carries its impurities to be retained for the uses of plants. When^ by the aid of under-drains, or in open soils, the water passes through the soil, its impurities are arrested, and be- come available in vegetable growth. It is, of course, impossible to say exactly what kind of mineral mat- ter is supplied by water, as that depends on the kind of rock or soil from which the impurities are derived ; On whut does the benefit arising from irrigation chiefly depend ? What kind of water is best for irrigation? How do under-drains increase the benefits of irrigation 8 194 MANUBES. but, whatever it may be, it is generally soluble and ready for immediate use by plants. Water whicb has run over the surface of the earth contains both ammonia and' mineral matter, while that which has arisen out of the earth, con- tains usually only mineral matter. The direct use of the water of inigation as a solvent for the min- eral ingredients of the soil, is one of its main bene- fits. To describe the many modes of irrigation would be too long a task for our limited space. It may be applied in any way in which it is possible to cover the land with water, at stated times. Care is neces- sary, however, that it do not wash more fertilizing matter from the soil than it deposits on it, as would often be the case, if a strong current of water were run over it. Brooks may be dammed up, and thus mg-de to cover a large quantity of land. In such a case the rapid current would be de^royed, and the fertilizing matter would settle ; but, if the course of the brook were turned, so that it would run in a current over any part of the soil, it might carry away more than it deposited, and thus prove injurious. Small streams turned on to land, from the washing of roads, or from elevated springs, are good means of irrigation, and produce increased fertihty, except What is the ilifFercnee bntwee!i water which only niiis ovevthe surface of the cartli, anU that which runs out of the eartli ? Why should strong current-' of water not be allowed to traveif* the soil f MANtTBES. 195 « where the soil is of such a character as to prevent the water from passing away, in which case it should be Tinder-drained. Irrigation was one of the oldest means of fer- tUity ever used by man, and still continues in great *avor wherever its effects have been witnessed. MIXING SOILS. The mixing of soils is often all that is necessajy to render them fertile, and to improve their mtchan- iofisZ condition. For instance, soils deficient in pot- ash, or any other constituent, may have that defi- ciency 'supplied, by mixing with them soil containing this constituent in excess. '->" It is very freq[uently' the ease, that such means of Aaprovement are easily availed of While these chemical effects are being produced, there may be an equal improvement in the mechanical character of the soU. Thus stiff clay soils are rendered light- er, and more easily workable, by an admixture of Hand, while light blowy sands are compacted, and made more retentive of manure, by a dressing of clay or of muck. Of course, this cannot be depended on as a sure means of chemical iuiprovemeiit, unless the soils are previously analyzed, so as to know their require- How are soils inipioved by mixing ? 196 MA1TUEE8. ments ; but, in a majority of cases, the soil will be benefited, by mixing witb it soil of a different char- acter. It is not always necessary to go to other locations to procure the soil to be applied, as the sub-soil is often very different from the surface soil, and simple deep plowing will suffice, in such cases, to produce the required admixture, by bringing up the earth from below to mingle it with that of a different character at the surface. In the foregoing remarks on the subject of min- eral manures, the writer has endeavored to point out such a course as would produce the "greatest good to the greatest number," and, consequently, has neglected much which might discourage the farmer with the idea, that the whole system of scieAl;ific agriculture is too expensive for his adoption. Still, while he has confined his remarks to the more simpje, improvements on the present system of management, he would say, briefly, that no r^anuring can be strictly economical that is not based on an analysis of the soil, and a knowledge of the best means of overcoming the deficiencies indicated, together with the most scrupulous care of every ounce of evaporating or sdluble manure. Why may the same effect sometimes be produced by deep plowing ? Wliat 19 absolutely neeossar}- to economical manufiBgl MANURES. 197' CHAPTER X. ATMOSPHERIC FERTILIZERS. It is not common to regard the gases in the atmos- phere in the light of manures, but thej are decidedly so. Indeed, they are almost the oiily organic ma- nure ever received by the uncultivated parts of the earth, as well as a large portion of that which is oc- cupied in the production of food for man. K these gases were not manures ; if there were no means by which they could be used by plants, th,e fertility of the soil would long since have ceased, and the earth would now be in an unfertile condition. That this must be true, will be proved by a few mo- ments' reflection on the facts stated in the first part of this book. The fertilizing gases in the atmos- phere being composed of the constituents of decayed plants and animals, it is as necessary that they should be again returned to the form of organized matter, as it is that constituents taken from the soil should not be put out of existence. AMMONIA. The ammonia in the atmosphere probably can- not be appropriated by the leaves of plants, and Are the gases in tlie atmosphere manures ? What ttrould be the result if they irere not sot 198 MANTTBES. must, therefore, enter the soil to be assimilated by roots. It reaches the soil in two ways. It is either arrested from the air circulating through the soil, or it is absorbed by rains in the atmosphere, and thus carried to the earth, where it is retained by clay and carbon, for the uses of pla;nts. In the soil, ammonia is the most important of all organic manures. In fact, the value of organic manure may be estimated, either by the amount of ammo- nia which it will yield, or by its power of absorbii^ ammonia from other sources. The most important action of ammonia in the sou is the supply of nitrogen to plants ; bui it has other offices which ai-e of consequence. It assists in some of the chemical changes necessary to prepare the matters in the soil for assimilation. Some argue that ammonia stimulates the roots of plants, and causes them to take up increased quantities of inor- ganic matter. The discussion of this question would be out of place here, and we will simply say, that it gives them such vigor that ^ey require increased amounts of ashy matter, and enables them to take this from the soil. Although, in the course of nature, the atmos- pheric fertilizers are plentifully supplied to the soil, trithout the immediate attention of the farmer, it is How is ammonia used by plants f How may it be carried to the soil ? How may the value: of organic manures be estimated I What effects haa ammonis beeide BupfilyiDg food to plantsl MANURES. 199 aot beyomd Ms power to manage them in such a manner as to arrest a greater quantity. The pre- cautions necessary have been repeatedly given in the preceding pages, but it may b6 well to name theni again in this chapter. , The condition of the soil is the main point to be considered. It must be such as to absorb and retain ammonia — ^to allow water to pass thtmtgh it^ and be disehar^d below the point to which the roots of CEops are searching for food — aaid to admit of a free circulation of air. The power of absorbing and retaining ammonia is not possessed by sand, but it is a prominent pro- perty of day, diarcoal, and some other matters named as absorbents. Hence, if the soil consist of nearly pure sand, it will not make use of the ammo- nia brou^t to it from the atmosphere, but will allow it to evaporate immediately after a shower. Soils in this condition require additions of absorbeat matters, to enable them to use the ammoaia received from the atmosphere, Soi]§ already containing a sufficient amount of clay or charcoal, are thus far prepared to receive benefit from this source. The next point is to cause the water of rains to pass through the soil. If it lies on the surface, or To ho-w .great a degree can the farmer control atnaoBjpheiik! fer- tiUzersS What should be the conation of the soil! What substances ate good absorbents in the soil t How 03^^ vmS^ s<^ He i&ade js^aEtti^tris of ta^moiaa t 200; ■ MANUKES. runs off without entering the soil, or even if it only enters to a slight depth, and comes in contact with hut a small quantity of the absorbents, it is not pro- bable that the fertilizing matters which it contains will all be abstracted. Some of them will undoubt- < edly return to the atmosphere on the evaporation of the water ; but, if the soil contains, a sufficient. ■ supply of absorbents, and wiU allow all rain water to. pass through it, the fertilizing gases will afl be re- • tained. They will be filtered (or raked) out of the water. This subject will be more fully treated in Section IV. in connection with under-draining. Besides the properties just described, the soil must possess the power of admitting a free circulatiott- of air. To effect this, it is necessary that the soil should be well pulverized to a great depth. If, in addition to this, the soil be such as to admit water to pass through, it will allow that circulation of air necessary to the greatest supply of ammonia. CAEBONIC ACI0. Carbonic acid is received from the atmosphere^ both by the leaves and roots of plants. If there is caustic lime in the soil, it unites with ' it, and makes it milder and finer. It is absorbed by Why does under-draining increase the absorptive power of th4' soil! How do plants obtain their oarbonie acid ? How does carbonic acid affect, caustic, lime in the- soil (> MANURES. 201 the water in the soilj and giveia it the powei' of dissolv- ing many more substances than it wonld do without the carbonic acid. This use is one of very great im- portance, as it is equivalent to making the min- erals themselves more soluble. Water dissolves cari bonate of lime, etc., exactly in proportion to the amount of carbonic acid which it «ontains. We should, therefore, strive to have as much carbonic acid as possible in the water in the soil ; and one way, in which to effect this, is to admit to the soil the largest possible quantity of atmospheric air, which contains this gas. The condition of soil necessary for this, is the same as is required for the deposit of ammonia by the samecireulation of air. OXYGEN. '■''•' Vxygen, thoughnot taken up by plants in its pure form, may justly be classed among manures, if we consider its effects bo^ chemical and mechanical in the soil. 1. By oxidizing or rusting some of the constit- uents of the soil, it prepares "them for the uses of plants. What ppwer does it give to water ? What condition of the soil is necessaiy for the reception of the largest quantity of carbonic acid i May oxygen be considered a manure I What is> the effect of the oxidation of the constituents of the aoilh-:' 9» 202 iCAStxssifl. 2. It unites with the prahsSa d iron, and cliangisB it to the perasi&e. 3. If there are adds in the soil, which nmfeit sour and unfertile, it may be opened to the circula- tion of the air, and the oxygen will prepare some of the mineral matters contained in the soil to unite with the acids and neutralize them. 4. Oxygen combines with the carbon of organic matters in the soil, and causes them to decay. The combination produces carbonic acid. 5. It combines with the nitrogen of decaying sub- stances and forms nitric acid, which is serviceable as food for plants. 6. It undoubtedly affects in some way the matter which is thrown out from the roots of plants. This, if allowed to accumulate, and remain unchanged, is often very injurious to plants ; but, probably, the oxygen and carbonic acid of the air in the soil change it to a form to be inoffensive, or even make it again useful to the plant. 7. It may also improve the mechanical condition of the soil, as it causes its particles to crumble, thus making it finer ; and it roughens the surfeces of par- ticles, making them less easy to move among each other. < - ■ I ■ How does it affect the protoxide of iron i How does.it.neutraliizetbej acids in tli»soil f How does it affect its organic pairtsi How does it form nitrloaddit Bow ma|;r it affect excnementitiotie matter of i^nts? What e&ct has it on the mechanical condition ai the soilt .:., T^ese properties of bxygeit daim feir it a k^k' place among the atmdspheric fertilizers. WATES. Waier may be considered an atmospheric ma- nure, as its chief supply to vegetaition is received from the air in the form of raia or dew. Its many effects are already too weH known to need farther comment. The means of supplying water to the soil by the deposit of dew wiU be fvdly esplamed ia Section I-V. CHAPTER XI. EEOAPITULATIOK. MANtnEtES have two distinct classes of action in th& soil, namely, chemical and mechaniccd. Ohemical manures are those which enter into the construction of plants, or produce such chemical effects on niatters in the soil as shall prepare them for use. MechaiihtiZ manures are t^ose which improve 'Why may water be considered an atlnospheric monttrel What classea of action ha<^e manurea ! What are chsmical mauurea i Meohaiiical I .'A 2(^. MAJSUBE8. the mechanical condition of the soil, sach as loosen- ing stiff clays, compacting light sands, pulverizing: large particles, etc. Manures are of three distinct kinds, namely. Orga- nic, mineral, and atmospheric. Organic manures comprise all vegetable and ani- mal matters (except ashes) which are used to fer- tilize the soil. Vegetahle manures supply carbonic acid, and inorganic matter to plants. Animal ma-- nures supply the same substances and ammonia. Mineral manures comprise ashes, salt, phosphate of Hme, plskster, etc. They supply plants with inor- ganic matter. Their usefulness depends on their solu- bility. Many of the organic and mineral manures hav« the power of absorbing ammonia arising from the de- composition of animal manures, as well as that which is brought to the soil by rains — ^these are called ab- sorbents. Atmospheric manures consist of ammonia, car- bonic acid, oxygen and water. Their greatest use- fulness reqLuires the soil to allow the water of rains to pass through it, t(r admit of a free circulation of ait among its particles, and to contain a suflScient, amount of absorbent matter to arrest and retain all ammonia and carbonic acid presented to it. Wh^t are the three Idnda of manures ? What are organic manures, and what are their uses ? Mineral! Atmospheric t MANUBES. 205 Manures should never be applied to the soil with- out regard to its requirements. Ammonia and carbon are almost always useful, but mineral manures become mere dirt when applied to soils not deficient of them. ^ The only true guide to the exact requirements of the soil is chemical analysis ; and this must always be obtained before farming can be carried on with true economy. ~ Organic manures must be protected against the escape of their ammonia and the leaching out of their soluble parts. One cord of stable manure properly preserved, is worth ten cords which have lost all of their ammonia by evaporation, and their soluble parts by leaching— as is the case with much of the manure kept exposed in open barn-yards. Atmospheric manures cost nothing, and are of great value when properly employed. In conse- quence of this, the soil which is enabled to make the largest appropriation of the atmospheric fertihzers, is worth many times as much as that which allows them to escape. What rule Bliould regulate the application of manures ? How must organic manures be managed ! Atmospheric f SECTION Foimm " MECHAOTCAL CULTIVATION. SECTIOI FOURTH MECHANICAL CULTIVATION CHAPTEE I. THE MECHANICAL CHAEACTEB OF SOILS. The mechanical character of the soil is weU un- derstood from preceding remarks, and the learner knows that there are many ofiSces to be performed hy the soil aside from the feeding of plants. 1. It admits the roots of plants, and holds them in their position. . v 2. By a sponge-like action, it holds water for the uses of the plant. 3. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere to supply the demands of plants. What is the first oflaee of the soil? How does it hold water for the uses of the plant! :Eow does it obtain a part of its moisture! 210 CULTIVATION. 4. It absorbs beat from tbe sun's rays to assist in tbe process of growth. 5. It admits air to circulate among roots, and supply tbem with a part of tbeir food, while the oxygen of that air renders available the minerals of the soil ; and its carbonic acid, being absorbed by the water in the soil, gives it the power of dissolving, and carrying into roots more inorganic matter than would be contained in purer water. 6. It allows the excrementitious matter thrown out by roots to be carried out of their reach. All of these actions the soil must be capable of performing, before it can be in its highest state of fertility. There are comparatively few soils now in this condition, but there are also few which could not be profitably rendered so, by a judicious application of the modes of cultivation to be described in the fol- lowing chapters. The three great objects to be accomplished are : — 1. To adopt such a system of drainage as wiU cause all of the water of rains to pass through the soil, instead of evaporating from the surfece. • 2. To pulveiize the soil to a considerable depth. 3. To darken its color, and render it capable of absorbing atmospheric fertilizers. How may it obtain heat ? What is the use of the air eireulating among its particles f Could most soils be brought to the highest state of fertility! What is the first thing to be done i Should its color be darkein^dS CULTIVATION. 211 ' The means used to secure these effects are under- draining, subsoil and surface-plowing, digging, ap- plying muck, etc. CHAPTER II. 0NDEE-DRAINING. The advantages of under-6xa,ms over open drains are very great. When open drains are used, much water passes into them immediately from the surface, and carries with it fertilizing parts of the soil, while their beds are often compacted by the running water and the heat of the sun, so that they become water tight, ind do not admit water from the lower parts of the soil. The sides of these drains are often covered with weeds, which spread their seeds throughout the whole field. Open drains are not only a great obsti^ction to the proper cultivation of the land, but they cause much waste of room, as we can rarely plow nearer than within six or eight feet of them. There are none of these objections to the use of under-drains, as these are completely covered, and Name some' of the means used to secure these effeetS; ^Wby are under-drains superior to open drainal 212 CULTIVATION. do not at all interfere with the cultivation of the surface. Under drains may be made with brush, stones, or tiles. Brush is a very poor material, and its use is hardly to be recommended. Small stones are better^ and if these be placed in the bottoms of the trenchesj' to a depth of eight or ten inches, and covered with sods turned upside down, having the earth packed well down on to them, they make very good drains. TILE DEAINING, The best under-drains are those made with tiles, or burnt clay pipes. The first form of these used was that called the horse-shoe tile, which was in two distinct pieces ; this was superseded by a round pipe, and we, have now what is called the sole tile, which is much better than either of the others. Fig. 4— Sole Tile. This tile is made (like the horse-shoe and pipe . tUe) of common brick clay, and is burned the same as bricks. It is about one half or three quarters of an inch thick, and. is go porous that water passes di- ■ With what materials may under-drains be constructed I Describe the tile. CULTIVATION. 213 rectly through it. It has a flat bottom on which to stand, and this enables it to retain its po- sition, while making the drain, better than would be done by the round pipe. The orifice through which the water passes is egg-shaped, having its fliaallest curve at the bottom. This shape is the one most easily kept clear, as any particles of dirt which get into the drain must fall immediately to the point where even the smallest stream of water runs, and are thus removed. An orifice of about two inches is sufficient for the smaller drains, while the main drains require larger tiles. These tiles are laid, so that their ends will touch each other, on the bottoms of the trenches, and are ■ kept in position by having the earth tightly packed, around them. Care must be taken that no space is left between the ends of the tHes, as dirt would be liable to get in and choke the drain. It is advisable to place a sod — ^grass side down — over each joint, before filling the trench, as this more effectually pro- tects them against the entrance of dirt. There is no dagger of keeping the water out by this operation, as it wiU readily pass through any part of the tiles. In digging the trenches it is not necessary (except in very stony ground) to dig out a place wide enough for a man to stand in, as thei;e are tools made ex- pressly for the purpose, by which a trench may be Why U the soIh tiW 8ii|ierior to tlio^e of previous eonstrnotion! How are these tiles laiili How ma}' the trenches be dug ? 214 CULTIVATION. dug six or seven inches wide, and to any required depth. One set of these implements consists of a long narrow spade and a hoe to coiTespond, such as are represented in the accompanying figure. Fig. 6. With these tools, and a long hght crowbar, for hard soils, trenches may be dug much more cheaply than with the common spade and pickaxe. Where there are large boulders in the soil, these draining tools may dig under them so that they will not have to be removed. When the trenches are dug to a sufficient depth, the bottoms- must be made perfectly smooth, with the required descent (from six inches to a few feet in one hundred feet). Then the tiles Spade and* ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ™' ^° *^^* ^^^^^ ^^^^ hoe. will correspond, be packed down, and the trenches filled up. Such a drain, if properly constructed, may last for ages. Unlike the stone drain, it is not liable to be frequented by rats, nor choked up by the soil working into it. The position of the tile may be best represented by a figure, also the mode of con.itructing stone drains. Upton tool. CTJLTIVATIO*r. 215 a — Tite drain trench. h — Stone drain trench, c — Sod laid on the stone. It will be seen that the tUe T^^s- 6. drain is made with much less labor than the stone drain, as it requires less digging, while the breaking up of the stone for the stone drain will be nearly, or quite as expensive as the tiles. Drains made with large stones are not nearly so good as with small ones, because they are more liable to be choked up by animals working in them.* The dgpth of the drains must depend on the dis- tances at which they are placed. If but twenty, feet apart, they need be but three feet deep ; while, if they are eighty feet apart, they must be Jive feet deep, to produce the same effect. The reason for this is, that the water in the drained soil is not level, but is higher midway between the drains, than at any other point. It is necessary that this highest point should be sufficiently far from the surface not to interfere with the roots of plants, consequently, as the water line between two drains is curved, the * It is probable that a composition of hydraulic cement and some soluble material will be invented, by which a continuous pipe may be laid in the bottoms of trenches, becoming porous as the soluble material is removeil bv water . Why are small stones better than large stones in the cimstrao- tion of drains I On what must the depth of under^dralns depend ! 216 CULTIVATION. most distant drains must be the deepest. This will be understood by referring to the following diagram. FlLT. 7. aa — 5 feet drains, 80 ft. apart. 3 feet drains, iO ft. apart. The curved line represents the position of the water. In most soUs it will be easier to dig one trench five feet deep, than four trenches three feet deep, and the deep trenches will be equally beneficial ; but where the soil is very hard below a depth of three feet, the shallow trenches will be the cheapest, and in such soils they will often be better, as the hard mass might not allow the water to pass down to en- ter the deeper drains. By following out these instructions, land may be cheaply, thoroughly, and permanently drained. Describe the principle which regulates these relative depths »nd distances. (Blackboard.) Wliioli is usually the cheaper plan of constructing drains? '1' <^LTiVATION. 217 CHAPTER III. VDVANTAGES OF UNDER-DEAIN-ING. jPhe advaatages of under-draiaing are lilaiiy and important. 1. It entirely prevents drought. 2. It furnishes an increased supply of atmos- pheric fertilizers. 3. It warms the lower portions of the soU. 4. It hastens' the decomposition- of roots and other organic matter. 5. It accelerates the disintegration of the min- eral matters in the soil. 6. It causes a more even distribiition of nutri- tious matters amobg those parts of soil traversed by roots. 7. It improves the mechanical texture of the soix. 8. It causes the poisonous excrementitious mat- ter of plants to be carried out of the reach of their roots. 9. It prevents grasses from running out. 10. It enables us to deepen the surface soil. By removing excess of water— 11. It renders soils earlier in the spring. 12. It prevents the throwing out of grain in winter. 10 218 CULTIVATION. 13. It allows us to work sooner after rains. 14. It keeps off the effects of cold weather lougei in the fall. 15. It prevents the formation of acetic and other organic acids, which induce the growth of sorrel and similar weeds. 16. It hastens the decay of vegetable matter, and the finer comminution of the earthy parts of the soil. 17. It prevents, in a great measure, the evapo- ration of water, and the consequent abstraction of heat from the soil. 18. It adniits fresh quantities of water from rains, etc., which are always more or less imbued with the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere, to be deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to the necessities of plants. 19. It prevents the formation of so hard a crust on the surface of the soU as is customary on heavy lands. 1. Under-draining prevents drougJit, because it gives a better circulation of air in the soil ; (it does so by making it more open). There is always the same amount of water in and about the surface of the earth. In winter, there is more in the soil than in summer, while in summer, that which has been dried How does unijer-di'ainiag pieveat drought! CULTIVATION. 219 out of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor. It is held in the vapory form by Tieat, which acts as braces to keep it distended. When vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently colder than itself, it gives up its heat — thus losing it's braces — contracts, and becomes liquid water. "This may be observed in hundreds of common operations. It is weU known that a cold pitcher in summer robs the vapor in the atmosphere of its heat, and causes it to be deposited on its own surface. It looks as though the pitcher were sweating, but the water all comes from the atmosphere, not, of course, through the sides of the pitcher. If we breathe on a knife-blade, it condenses in the same manner the moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a film of water. ■ Stone houses are damp in summer, because the iiiner surfaces of the walls, being cooler than the atmosphere, cause its moisture to be deposited in the manner described. By leaving a space, however, between the walls and the plaster, this moisture is prevented from being troublesome. Nearly every night in the summer season, the cold mm> . : : • '•^WTiy is there less water in the soil in summer tlian in -vrinter and where does it exist! Wliat holds it in its vapoi-y fonn? How is it affeuted by cold substances! 'describe the deposit of moisture on tlie outside of a pitcher id \Vhat other. insiviices of the same action ean be named! 220 CULTIVATION. earth receives moisture from the atmosphere' in the form of dew. A cabbage, which at night is very eold, con- denses water to the amount of a gill or more. The same operation takes place in the soil. When the air is allowed to circulate among its lower and eooler particles, they receive moisture from the same process of condensation. Therefore, when^ by the aid of under-'drains, the lower soil becomes sufficient- ly open to admit of a circulation of air, the deposit of atmospheric moisture will keep the soil supplied with water at a point easily accessible to the roots of plants. If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is pradi^ cally correct, we have only tO' prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil, one, five or six inches deep,: and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place them in the sun at mid-day in summer. The thinner soil will be completely dried, while the deeper' one, though it may have been perfectly dry at first, will soon accumulate a large amount of water on those particles which, being lower and more sheltered from the sun's heat than the particles of the thin soil, are made cooler. With an open condition of subsoil, then, such as may be secured by under-draining, we entirely over- come drought. How does this principle affect the soil? Explain the experiment -with the two boxea of soili ctTTdivATioJir, 221 2. UBder-draimng furnishes an miremsed supply eftctmt^herief&rtilii^rs, because it secures a change ofajr in the soil. This change is produced whenever the soil becomes filled with water, and then dried ; when the air above the earth is in rapid motion, and HkeiD^ the comparative temperature of the upper and fewer soils changes. It causes new quantities of the ammonia and carbonic acid which it contains to be jareaented to the absorbent parts of the soil. ■I 3. Under-draining' warms the lower parts of the KpU, because the deposit of moisture (1,) is necessarily aceompsmied by an abstraction of heat from the at- jpsspheric vapor, and because heat is withdrawn from the whole amount of air eirculating through the cooler soil. When rain falls on the parched surface soil, it ])ob& it of a portion of its heat, which is carried down to equalize the temperature for the whole depth. The heat of the rain-water itself is given up to the 80^^ leaving the water from one to ten degrees cooler, when it passes out of the drains, than when received by the earth. There is always a current of air passing from the lower to the upper end of a well constructed drain ; and this aar is always cooler in warm weather, when it issues from, than whea it eriters the drain. Its lost beat is imparted to the soil. How does under-draining supply to the soil an increased amount of atmospheric fertilizers? ^ How does it warm the lower parts of tht soili ^< ■., 222 CULTIVATION. This heating of the lower soil renders it more favorable to vegetation, partially by expanding the spongioles at the end of the roots, thus enabling them to absorb larger quantities of nutritious matters. 4. Under-draining hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic matters in the soil, by ad- mitting increased quantities of air, thus supplying oxygen, which is as essential in decay as it is in com- bustion. It also allows the resultant gases of decompo^ sition to pass away, leaving the air around the decay- ing substances, in a c&ndition to continue the process. This organic decay, besides its other benefits, pro- duces an amount of heat perfectly perceptible to the smaller roots of plants, though not so to us. 5. Draining accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in the soil, by admitting water and ' oxygen to keep up the process. This disintegrationls necessary to fertility, because the roots of plants can feed only on matters dissolved from surfaces ; and the more finely we pulverize the soil, the more sur- face we expose. For instance, the interior of a stone can furnish no food for plants ; while, if it were finely crushed, it might make a fertile soil. Any thing, tending to open the soil to exposure, facilitates the disintegration of its particles, and thereby increases its fertiUty. Ho\r does it hasten the decomposition of roots and other organic matter in the soil ? Hiw does it accelerate the disintegration of its mineral parts? V^y is tills disintegration necessary to fertility J CULTIVATION. 223 6. Draining causes a more even distribution of nii^ tritious matters among those parts of soil traversed by roots, because it increases the ease with which water travels around, descending by its own weight, moving sideways by a desire to find its level, or carried upward by attraction to supply the evapora- tion at the surface. By this continued motion of the watCT, soluble matter of one part of the soil may be carried to some other part ; and another constit- uent from this latter position may be carried back to the former. Thus the food of vegetables is con- tinually circulating around among their roots, ready for absorption at any point where it is needed, while the more open character of the soil enables roots to occupy larger portions, making a more even drain on ' the whole, and preventing the undue impoverishment of any part. 6. Tjnder-drains improve the mechanical teoatwre of the soil ; because, by the decomposition of its parts> as previously described (4 and 5), it is rendered of a character to be more easily worked ; while smooth round particles, which have a tendency to pack, are roughened by the oxidation of their sur- faces, and move less easily among each other. 8. Drains cause the exGrementitioua matter of How does under-draining equalize the distribution of the fer- tilizing parts of the soil? Why does this ^tributioH lessen the impoverishment of the soil I How does under-draining improve the mechanical texture of the soil? - , 1 . How do drains affect the excrementitious matter of plants I 224 CULTIVATION. plants to be carried out of the reach of their rootsi. Nearly all plants return to the soil tjjpse parts of tlieir food, which are not adapted to their Becessities, and usually irv a form that is poisonous to plants of the- same kind. In an open soil, this matter, may be carried by rains to a point where roots cannot reacht it^ and where it may undergo such changes as will fit it to be again taken up. 9. By under-draining, grasses are preeei^difrom running out, partly by preventing the accumula- tion of the poisonous excrementitious matter, and partly bec3.use these grasses usually coosist o£ tillering plants. These plants continually reproduce themselyes irt sprouts from the upper parts of their roots. These- sprouts become independent plants, and continue to> tiller (thus keeping the land supplied with a full growth), until the roots of tte stools (or clumps of tillers), come in contact witb an unooi>genial part o| the soil, when the tillering ceases ; the stools be- come extinct on the death of their plants, and the graces run out. The open and healthy coHditioa of soil- produced by draining prevents the tillering from being stopped,. ain,d thus keeps up a full growth of grass until th& nutriment of the soil is exhausted. 10. Draining enables us to deepen the ihtr/aee-soil^ because the admission of air and the decay of roots WJiy do tbsy prevent grasees from running au.lt fender the condition of the subsoil such that it may be brought up and mixed with the surface^soil, with-« out injuring its qtiality, . The second class of advantages of under-draining, ftriring in the removal of the eSceas of water in -the Boil, are quite as important as those just described^ 11. Soils are) thereby, rendered earlier in spring! f because the water, which tendered them cold, heavy, and imtillable, is earlier removed, leaving, then^ ear- lier in a growing condition. 12. I'/i€. thmjiiing out of gfain, in uHnier is pre- vented, because the water falling on the earth is immediately removed instead of remaining to throw Up the soil by freezing, as it always does from the upright position taken by the particles of ice. 13. W^e are enabled to Work sooner after rainSf " because the water descends, and is immediately re- moved instead of lying to be taken off by the slow process of evaporation, and sinking through a heavy soil. 14. The ^ecta of cold weather are kept off longer in the fall, because the excess erf water is remoyed, which Would produce an unfertile condition . on the first appearance of cold weather. The drains alsoj from causes already named (3), How does the temoval of w&tet render Boils earlier in spring ? ■Why does it preyent the throwing out of giain in winter t t^y does it enable ub to work sooner after rains? Why does it keep off the effects of eold weather looger H U>4 Mir 10* 226 CtTLTlVAT10». keep the soil warmer tlian before being drained, thttfl actually lengthening the season, by making the soil warm enough for vegetable growth earlier in spring, and later in autumn. • 15. Lands are prevented from becoming sour by the-formation of acetic acid, -etc., because these acids are produced in the soil only whei^ the decomposition of organic matter is arrested by the antiseptic (pre- serving) powers of water. If the water is removed, the decomposition of the organic matter assumes a healthy form, while the acids already produced are neutralized by atmospheric influences, and the soil is restored from sorrel to a condition in which it is fitted for the growth of more valuable plants. 16. The decay of roots, eto;, is allowed to proceed, because the preservative influence of too much water is removed. Wood, leaves, or other vegetable matter kept continually under water, will last for ages ; while, if exposed to the action of the weather, as in under-drained soils, they soon decay. The presence of too much water, by excluding the^oxygen of the air, prevents the comminution of matters necessary to fertility. 17. The evaporation of water, and the consequent abstraction of heat from the soil, is in a great tneasure prevented by draining the water out at the bottom of How does it prevent lands from becoming sour! Why does it hasten the decay of roots, and the comminution of mineral matters ! How docs it prevent the abstraotion of heat from the soil I CtJLTIVATlON. 227 tiie soil, instead of leaving it to be dried off from the igurface. ^aimilgt of this patronage, the actual wealth of the kingdom is being rapidly increased, while the farmers them- selves, can raise their farms to any desired state of fertility, without immediate investment. The best proof that the government has not acted injudiciously in this matter is, that private . eapitalists are fast employing, their money in the Bame manner, and loans on under-drains are con- sidered a very safe investment. ■ There is no doubt that we may soon have similar facilities for improying our farms, and when we do, we shall find that it is unnecessa:ry to move West to find good soil. The districts nearer market, where the expense of transportation is much less, may, by the aid of under-drains, and a judicious system of cultivation, be made equally fertile. One very important, though not strictly agricul- tural, effect of thorough drainage is its removal of certain local diseases, peculiar to the vicinity of marshy or low moist soils. The health-reports in several places in England, show that where /ever and agile Was once common, it has almost entirely dis- appeared since the general use of under-drains in those localities. ^ How does under-draining affect the healthfulnesa of marghy Countries i Describe the snb-goil plotTi , i32 cvhiiVAVios, CHAPTEE IV, StTB-SOlt, PtOWlNGt, The subsoil plow 18 an implement differingln figllM from the surface plow. It does not turn a furroWj but merely runs through the sub-soil like a mole- loosening and making it finer by lifting, but allowing it to fall back and occupy its former place. It usually follows the surface plow, entering the soil to the depth of ffom twelve to eighteen inches beloW the bottom of the surface furrow. The best pattern now made (the Mapes plow) is represented in the following figure. Kg. 8. The Mapea plo'nr and its mode at action, a— Shape of the foot of the plow. 2i— 'ItB effect on the 801L CULTIVATION. 2^f, The sub-soil plows first made raised the whole soil about eight inches, apd required very great power iij their use often six, eighty or even ten oxen. The Mapes plow, raising the soil but slightly, may be worked Fith much legs power,. ai|d produces equally good results. It may be run to its full depth in most sgils by a single yoke of oxen. , pf course a, motion in. the soil of but one and a half inches is very slight, but it is suffipient to move eacli particle from the one next to it which, in dry soils, is all- that is necessary. Whoever Jjas examined a pile (rf cannon-balls must have Qbsery^jd that a^ the points where they touch each other, there is a little rust. In the soil, the same is often the case. Where the par- ticles touch each other, theye is such a chemical change produced as renders them fit for the use of plants. While these particles remain in their first position, the changed portions are out of the reach of root^ ; but, if, by the aid of the sub-soil plow, their position is„ai|i§red, thesje parts are exposed for the uses of plants. If we hold in the hand a ball of dry clay, and press .it hard enough to produce the least motion among its particles, the whole mass becomes pul- verized. On the same principle, the sub-soil plow renders the compact lower soil sufficiently fine lor the requirements of fertility. DeBcribe the Mapes plow. Why is the motion in the soil of one and ahalf inches sufficient? Hovr does the oxydation of the partieli^ of the gpU resemble th« rnatiiig of cannon balls in a pile I 234 CULTIVATIOK. Notwithstanding its great benefits on land, which is sufficiently dry, sub-soiling cannot be recommended for wet lands ; for, in such case, the rains of a single season would often be sufficient to entirely overcome its effects by packing the subsoil down to its former hardness. On lands not overcharged with water, it is productive of the best results, it being often suf- ficient to turn the balance between a gaining and a losing business in farming. It increases nearly every effect of under-draining ; especially does it overcome drought, by loosening the soil, and admitting air to circulate among the particles of the sub-soil and deposit its moisture on the prin- ciple described in the chapter on under-draining. It deepens the surface-soil, because it admits roots into the sub-soil where they decay and leave carbon, while the circulation of air so affects the mineral parts, that they become of a fertilizing character. The deposit of carbon gives to the subsoil the power * of absorbing, and retaining the atmospheric fertilizers, which are more freely presented, owing to the facr that the air is allowed to circulate with greater freedom. As a majority of roots decay in the surface- soil, they there deposit much mineral niatter obtain- ed from the sub-soil. The retention of atmospheric manures is more Why are the benefits'of sub-soiling not permanent on wetlands Does eub-soiling overuome drought? How does it deepen the surface soil i CULTIVATION. 235 fhlly ensured by the better exposure of the clayey portions of the soil. ' Those manures which are artificially applied, by being plowed under to greater depths, are less liable to evaporation, as, from the greater amount of soil above them, their escape will more probably be arrested ; and, from the greater prevalence of roots, they are more liable to be taken up bv plants. The sub-soil often contains matters which are de- ficient in the surface-soil. By the use of the sub-soil plow, they are rendered available. Sub-soiling is similar to under-draining in con- tinuing the tillering of grasses, and. in getting rid of the poisonous excrementitious matter of plants. When the sub-soil is a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed (as in some plants of Cumberland Co. Maine), the sub-soil plow, by passing through it, opens a passage for water, and often affords a suf- ficient drainage. " If plants will grow better on a soil six inches deep than on one of three inches, there is no reason why they should not be benefited in proportion, by disturbing the soil'to the whole depth to which roots will travel — which is usually more than two feet. Why is the retention of atmospheric manures ensured by sub- soiling '. "Why are organic manures 'plowed deeply under the soil, less liable to evaporation than when deposited near the surface? How does snb-soiling resemble under-draining in relation to tha tillering of grasses? , , , "When the sub-soil consists of a thin layer of olay oa » sandy bed, what use maybe made of the sub-soil plow i 236 CULTIVATION. Tke minute rootlets of com and most other plants, will, if allowed by cultivation, occupy the soil to ther depth or thirty-four inches, having a fibre in nearly every cubic inch of the soil for the whole distance. There are very few cultivated plants whose roots would not travel to a depth of thirty inches or more. Even the onion sends its roots to the depth o* eighteen inches when the soil is well cultivated. The object of loosening the soil is to admit roots to a sufficient depth to hold the plant in its position — to obtain the nutriment necessary to its growth — ^to receive moisture from the lower portions of the soil — and, if it be a bulb, tuber, or tap, to assume the form requisite for its largest develop- ment. It must he evident that roots, penetrating the soil to a depth of two feet, anchor the plant with greater stability than those which a,re spread more thinly near the surface. * The roots of plants traversing the soil to such- great distances, and being located in nearly every part, absorb mineral and other food, in solution in water, only through the spongioles at their ends. Consequently, by having^these ends in e/oery part of the soil, it is. all brought under contribution, and To how great a depth will the roots of plants usually occupy the soil I What is the object of loosening the soil t How are tbese various effects better produced in deep than in (hallow soils I CtTLTlVATlOB'. 237 the ainoTlfit supplied is greater, while the demarad on any particnlar part may be less than when the whole requirements of plants hare to be supplied from a depth of a few inches. The ability of roots, to assume a natural shape in the soil, and grow to their largest sizes, fiiust depend on the condition of the soil. If it is finely pulverized to the whole depth to wMeh they ought to go, they will be fully developed ; while, if the soil be too hard for pefietratiooj they will be deformed or small. Thus a carrot may grow to the length of two and a half feet, and be of perfect shape, while, if it meet in its course at a depth of eight or teri inches a cold, hard sub-soil, its growth must be arrested, or its form injured. .Eoots are turned aside by a^ hard sub-soil, as they would be if received by the surface of a plate of glass. Add to this the fact that cold, impenetrable sub- soils are chemically uncongenial to vegetation, and we have sufficient evidence of the importance, and in many cases the absolute necessity of sub-soiling and imder-draining. It is unnecessary to urge the fact that a garden soil of two feet is more productive than a field soil of six inches ; and it is certain that proper attention to these two modes of cultivation will in a majority of cases make a garden of the field — more than doubling May garden soils be profitiibly imitated in field- culture;?' 238 CULTIVATION. its value in ease of working, increased produce, cer- tain security against drought, and more even distri- bution of the demands on the soil — while the outlay will be immediately repaid by an increase of crops. The sub-soil will be much improved in its charac- ter the first year, and a continual advancement- renders it in time equal to the original surface-soil, and extending to a depth of two feet or more. The sub-soil plow is coming rapidly into use. There are now in New Jersey more foundries casting sub-soil plows than there were sub-soil plows in the State six years ago. The implement has there, as well as in many other places, ceased to be a curiosity ; and the man who now objects to its use, is classed with him who shells his corn on a shovel over a half- bushel, instead of employing an improved machine, which will enable him to do more in a day than he can do in the " good old way " in a week. Had we space, we might give many instances of the success of sub-soihng, but the agricultural papers of the present day (at least one of which every farmer should take) have so repeatedly published its advan- tages, that we will not do so. In no case will its use be found any thing but satisfactory, except in occasional instances where there is some chemical difficulty in the sub-soil, which an analysis will tell us how to overcome. Is the use of the sub-soil plow increasing S Will its use ever injure crops ? CULTIVATION. 239 • As was before stated, its use on wet lands is not advisable until they We been under-drained, as excess of water prevents its effects from being per- manent. CHAPTEE V. PLOWING AND OTHER MODES OF PUL- VERIZING THE SOIL. The advantages of pulverizing the soil, and the rea- sons' why it is necessary, are now too well known to need remark. Few farmers; when they plow, dig, or harrow, are enabled to give substantial reasons for so' doing. If they will reflect on what has been said in the previous chapters, concerning the supply of mineral food to the plant by the soil, and the effect of air and moisture about roots, they will find more satisfaction in their labor than it can afford when applied without thought. PLOWING. The kind of plow iised in cultivating the surface- " May the satisfaction attending lalor be increased by an under gtanding of the natural laws which regulate our opei-ationa? On what depends the kind of plow to be used! 240 CUIiTIVATIOir. soil must be decided by the kind of soil. This ques- tion the practical, observing farmer will be able to solve. As a general rule, it raay be stated that the plow which runs the deepest, with the same amount of force, is the best. We might enter more fully into this matter but for want of space. The advantages of deep plowing caunot be too strongly urged. The statement that the deepe'r and the^reer the soil is rendered, the more productive it will become, is in every respect true, and which no single instance will contradict. It must not be inferred from this, that we would advise a farmer, who has always plowed his soil to the depth of only six inches, to double the depth at once. Such a practice in some soils would be highly injurious, as it would completely bury the more fer- tile and better cultivated soil, and bring to the. top one which contains no organic matter, and has ne- ver been subject to atmospheric influences. This would,. perhaps, be so little fitted for vegetation that it would scarcely sustain plants until their roots could reach the more fertile parts below. Such treatment of the soil (turning it upside down) is excellent in garden culture, where the great amount of manures What is a .ji'npi-ai ru!i' with leiianl to thi?? Should rleeri jilowing be iiimieiliiiiel}' ajiiptedf Why! Wliy is this course ot troatment advisable for garden culture ? CULTIVATION. 24l applied is sufficient to overcome the idraporary bar- renness of the Soil, hut it is not to he recommended for aO. field cultivation, where much less mianure is employed. The course to be pursued in such cases is to plow one inch deeper eadi year. By this naeans the soil rttay be gradually deepened to any desired extent. The amount of uncongenial soil which will thus be brought up, is slight, and will not interfere at all with the fertility of the soil, while the elevated portion will become, in one year, so altered by exposure, that it will equal the rest of the soil in fertility. * Often where lime has been used in es:cess, it has sunk to the sub-soil, where it remains inactive. The ^Hght deepening of the surface plowing would mi-g this Kme with the surface-soil, and render it again useful. When the soil is light and sanily, resting on a heavy clay sub-soil, or clay on gand, the bringing up of the mass from bdow will improve the texture of the soil. As an instance of the success of deep plowing, we call to mind the case of a farmer in New jfersey, \rho had a field which had yielded about twenty-live bushels of corn per acre. It had been cultivated at oMinary depths. After laying it out in eight step laids (24 feet), he plowed it at all depths from five How should field plowing- be oondnoted? How does such treatment affect soils, previously JiJBBd I How may it gOmetirfles improve sandy or clay soils ? IX 242 CULTIVATION. to ten inches, on the different lands, and sowed oats evenly over the whole field. The crop on the five inch soil was very poor, on the six inch rather better, on the seven inch better still, and on the ten inch soil it was as fine as ever grew in New Jersey ; it had stiff straw and broad leaves, while the grain was also much better than on the remainder of the field. There is an old anecdote of a man who died, leaving his sons with the information that he had buried a pot of gold for them, somewhere on the f0,rm. They commenced digging for the gold, and , dug over the whole farm to a great depth without finding the gold. The digging, however, so enriched the soil that they were fully compensated for their disappointment, and became wealthy from the in- creased produce of their farm. Farmers will find, on experiment, that they have gold buried in their soil, if they will but dig deep enough to obtain it. The law gives a man the own- ership of the soil for an indefinite distance from the surface, but few seem to realize that there is another farm below the one they are cultivating, which is quite as valuable as the one on the surface, if it were but properly worked. Fall plowing, especially for heavy ^and§, is a very good means of securing the action of the frosts of winter to pulverize the soil. If it be a stiff clay, it What kind of boUb are benefited by fall plowing ! CULTIVATION. 243 may be well M throw the soil up into ridges (by ridging and back furrowing), so as to expose the largest possible amount of surface to the freezing and thawing of winter. Sandy soils should not be plowed in the fall, as it renders them too light. DIGGING MACHINES. ' A recent invention has been made in England, known as the digging machine or rotary spade, which — although from having tpo much gearing .between the power and the part performing the labor, it is not adapted to general use-^has given such promise of future success, that Mr. Mechi (an agricultural writer of the highest standing) has said that ' ' the plow is doomed." This can hardly be true, for the vaiied uses to which it may be applied, will guarantee its continuance in the favor of the farmer. Already, in this country, Messrs. Gibbs & MapeSj have invented a digging machine of very simple con- ttxuction, which seems calculated to serve an excel- lent purpose, even in the hands of the farmer of Hm- ited means. Its friends assert that, with one pair of oxen, it will dig perfectly three feet wide, and for a depth of fifteen inches. An experiment with an unperfected machine, in the presence of the writer, seemed to justify their hope^. What is the digging machine? 244 CULTIVATION. This machine thoroughly ptdverizes the soil to & considerable depths and for smooth land must prove far superior to the plow. THE HAEKOW AND CUL*IVATOK. The harrow, an implement largely used in all parts of the world, to pulverize the soil, and break clods, has become so firmly rooted in the affections of farmers, that it must be a very long, time before they can be convinced that it is not the best imple-' ment for the use to which it is devoted. It is true that it pulverizes the soil for a depth of two or three inches, and thus much improves its appearance, bene- fiting it, without doubt, for the earliest stages of the growth of plants. Its action, however, is very defec- tive, because, from the w^dg6 shape of its teeth, it continually acts to pack the soil ; thus^-although fa- vorable for the germination of the seed-^-it is not cal- culated to benefit the plant during the later stages of its growth, when the roots require the soil to be pul- verized to a considerable depth. The cultivator may be considered an {fnproved harrow. The principal difference between them being, that while the teeth of the harrow are pointed at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped like a small double plow, being large at the bottom Why is the harro-w a defeetive implement I Why ia the cultivator superio; to the hairsv? CTOflVATION. 245 imd ^(wdag gmaJtor towards the top. They lift the earth up, instead of pressing it downwards, thus loos» ening iastead of compacting the soil. Many styles of cultiyators are now sold at agri- cultural warehouses. A very good one, for field use, may be made by substituting the cultivator teeth for the spikes in an old harrow frame. OHAPTEE VI. ROlLlNe, lIUiOBIN^J, WEEDING, ETg. JlQIjLING. BoUing the soil with a latge roller, arranged to be drawn by a team, is m many instances a good ac- cessory to cultivation. By its means, the foUoving results are obtained :— ' , . ■■ .x\ j. ' 1 The soil at the surface is pulvenzed- without the compacting of the lower parts, the area of con- tact being large. -2 The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of i}.^ scythe in mo wiug 3 The soil is compacted around seeds after sow- ing in sucha manner as to escludehght and totov^h ^^j^j^^^^J^^^ ^ of which are essential Name some of the benefits of roffing? 246 CULTIVATION. to their germination and to the healthfiilness of the plants. 4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented by grubs, etc., than when it is more loose. 5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface exposed for the evaporation oi water with its cooling effect. 6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are avoided. Although productive of these various effects, roll- ing should be adopted only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands, except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such cases would be to render them stiU more difficult of cultivation. Soils in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as it presses the surface-particles stiU more closely together, and prevents the free admission of the at- mosphere. If. well under-drained, a large majority of soils would doubtless he benefited by a judicious use of the roller.* * Field roUere should be made in sections, for ease of turning. Under what circumstances should the roller be used f CULTIVATION. 247 MULCHING. Mulching (called Gurneyism in England) consists in corering the soil witli salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other refuse matter. Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in other parts of the field. This improvement arises from various causes. 1. The evaporation of water from the soil is pre- vented during drought by the shade afforded by the mulch ; and it is therefore kept in better condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evapora- tion goes on more freely. This condition is well cal- culated to advance the chemical changes necessary to prepare the matters — both organic and mineral — in the soil for the use of plants. 2. By preventing evaporation, we partially pro- tect the soil from losing ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter. ; ' 3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from compacting the soU, as would be the result, were no such precaution taken. ^ 4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freez- ing as readily as when exposed, and thus keeps it »^-^— ^^— ^— ^— — — -; What is mulching! What are some of its benefits! 248 CULTIVATION. longer open for the admission of air and moisttrre. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen ; and all water falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface. 5. The throwing out of winter grain is often pre- vented, because this is due to the freezing of the surface-soil. 6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds^ ' because it removes from them the fostering heat of the sun. Many of the best nursery-nien keep the soil about the roots of young trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water for the uses of the roots, be- cause it keeps the soU cool, and causes a deposit of dew. 7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a crust. It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil. When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed under in the spring, they benefit Why does mulching take the place of artificial ■watei-ing ! "Why ia the late sowing of oats beneficial ! From wB'al arisea'lhe'cmef benefit of top dresBi-ng the soil witb- manure in autumn ? cotTiVAtwu. 249 the land tjr the mulching more thau by the addition ef fertUaaing matter^ because they give it the pro- teeting iafluenee of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of their manure by evapora- tion. The same mulching might be more cheaply done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure made available by compost- ing" with absorbents. It is an old and true saying that " snow is the poor man's manure." The reason why it is so bene- ficial is, ehiefly, that it , acts as a most excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain- water does ; and, were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat, and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the Sorth is partially compensated by the long duration of snow. It is a well feoown fact that when there is but little snow in cold countries, wheat is very liable to h^ winter killed. The same protection is afforded by fflftiflcial mulching. This treatment i» peculiarly applicablb to the cultivation of flowers^ both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, gttch as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the besi treatment for trees is to put stonea 250 CULTIVATIOlf. about their roots. This is simply mulching them, and might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of nature in forests ; * for, unless these stones be removed in spring, they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather. •WEEDING. If a farmer were asked — -what is the use of weeds f he might make out quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the following : — 1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the ground. 2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects, 3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and increase its organic matter. 4. They make us stir the soil, and thus increase its fertility. Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow. 1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops. * The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to the conclusion that it has other means of action than those men- tioned in this book. Future esperiments may lead to more kno'vr- tedge on this subject. What are some of the uses of weeds ? Their diaadvautaget I CtTLTIVATIOIT. 251 - -2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated olants, and thu« interfere with their growth. 3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them during the growing season thus depriving crops of their use. ' It is not necessary to argue the injury done by weeds. Every farmer is weH convinced that they should be destroyed, and the best means of accom- plishing this are of the greatest importance. In the first place, we should protect ourselves against their increase. This may be done : — By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby the seeds contained will be killed by the heat of fermentation ; or, if one bushel of salt be mixed through each cord of compost (as before recommend- ed), it will kill seeds as well as grubs, — By hOeing, or, otherwise, destroying growing weeds before they mature their seeds, and By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition. This last point is one of much importance. It is well known that soils deficient in potash, wiU naturally produce one kind of plants, while soils deficient in phosphoric acid will produqg plants of another species, etc. Many soils produce certain weeds which would not grow on them if they were made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It is also believed that those weeds, which naturally grow on How may we protect ourselvee against their inerea^e t Why is it especially importcuit for Haii purpose to maintain the b^ancfeofthesdil? 2^ ClJi^MVATIOSr. tbe most fertile soils, are the ones most easily des- troyed. There are exceptions (of which the Thistle is one), but this is given as a general rule. By careful attention to the foregoing points, weeds may be kept from increasing while those already in the soil may be eradicated in various ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, plowing, etc.* Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually sown broadcast over each acre of land, wUI destroy very many weeds as well as grubs and worms. The common hoe is a very imperfect tool for the purpose of removing weeds, as it prepares a better soil for, and replaints in a position to grow, nearly as many weeds as it de&ti;oys. The scuffle-hoe (or push-hoe) is much nrore effec- tive, as, when worked by a man walking backwards, and retiring as he works," it leaves nearly all of the w;€edfl on the surface of the soil to be killed by the sun. When used in this way, the ,earth is not * It is possible that the exoremeirtitious matter thrown out by some plants may be sufficiently destrnetire to other kinds to ex- terminate tUem from the soil — thus, farmers in Maine say that a singly or.c)p of turnips T^ill en^fily rid the soil of witch grass. This i^ undoubtedly, the effect of the excrementitious matter of the- turnips. This subject is one of practical importance, and demands close investigation by farmers, -which may lead to its being re- duced to a system. Haw much salt may be used with advantage f VFby ie the scuffle-B^e Bapeiior. tQ.tJb{^«oiainon hoef GWLTIVATIOK. 253 trodden on after being hoed—- as is the case when the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides "compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, and canses them to grow again. Much of the labor of weeding usually performed by men, might be more cheaply done by horses. There are various implements for this purpose, some of which are coming, in many parts of the country, into very general use.. One of the best of .these is the Langdon Horse Hoe, which is a shovel-shaped plow, to be run one or two inches deep. It has a wing oji. ^^^^ side to prevent the earth from, falling on to the plants in the rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of ral^e or comb, which allows the earth to pass through, while the weeds pass over the comb and fall on the surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the sun. It is a simple and cheap tool, ajid will perfonit the work of twenty men with lioes.. The hand hoe will be necessary only in the, rows. OtfLTlVATOE. The cultivator, which was described in the pre- ceding chapter, and of which there are various pat- terns in use, is excellent for weeding, and for loosen- ing the soil between the rows of com, etc. The How may much laboj he saved in rernqying ws^daj Wftat is "the •£angden-h«re6-hoe ! 'Deseribe the tmiveraal caltme^fif^ 254 CtTLTIVATIOir. one called the universal cultivator, having its side bars made of iran, curved so that at whatever dis- tance it is placed the teeth will point straight for- ward, is a much better tool than those of the older patterns, which had the teeth so arranged that when set for wide rows, they pointed towards the clevis. It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its place, while the " universal " is as difficult to move out of a straight line. IMPEOVED HOBSE-HOE. The improved horse-hoe is a combination of the " Langdon" horse hoe and the cultivator, and is the best implement, for many purposes, that has yet been made.* Fig. 9. * The improved horse-hoe is made and sold by Ruggles, Ifours & Mason, of Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston. ■■ ' ' . 1 LI What is the impe&fdi bcft-de-htfe I ootTiVAtios'. 255 HARVESTING MACHINES. Until within a comparatively short period, but little attention has been paid to the production of machines for harvesting the various crops. During the past few years, however, many valu- able inventions have appeared. Among these we notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and reaper, and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The latter machine gathers only the grain and seeds of the crop, leaving the straw to be plowed under the soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates, and increasing its amount of organic, matter. After taking the seed heads from the standing straw and grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the chaff, sepa- rates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges them into bags ready for market. It consists of a car containing the ' machinery ; to this may be at- tached any required number of horses. The inventor affirms that it has harvested the grain of two acres in one hour, performing the work with accuracy.* There is much truth in the following proverbs : " A garden that is well kept, is kept easily." " You must conquer weeds, or weeds wiU conquer 7QU." * Ttua machine is more fiilly noticed in the advertising pagea. 2S«I ovynvfAtloisf, It is almost impoasible to give a recapitulation of the matters treated in this section, as it is, it* self, but an outline of subjects which might occupy our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should understand every principle which it contains, as well as they understand the multiplication table ; and their application wiU be found, in every instance, to produce the best results. The two great rules of mechanical cultivation are— ■ Thorough undeS'Iiraining. Deep and frequent DisTtrEBANCfi ov thb BOIL, What are the two great fttles in meohaaical oultitatlon I SECnOK FIFTH. ANALYSIS. SECTION FIFTH. ANALYSIS CHAPTBE L Ai the present time, when such marked improve- ments have been, and are still being made, in the practice of agriculture, the farmer cannot be too strongly advised to procure an analysis of his soilj and for obvious reasons. It has been sufficiently proved that the plant draws from the soil certain kinds of mineral matter, in certain proportions ; also, that if the soil do not contain the constituents required, the plants cannot obtain .them, and consequently cannot grow. Fur- thermore, in proportion to the ability of the soil to supply these materials, in exactly the same propor- Wby does true practical economy require that the soil should be analyzed S 260 ANALYSIS. tion will it, when under good treatment, produce good and abundant crops. All admit the value and the necessity of ma- nures ; they are required to make up deficiencies in the soil, and consequently, they must supply to it the matters which are wanting. In order to know what is wanting, we must know the composition of the soil. This can he learned only by accurate chem-. ical analysis. Such an analysis every farmer must possess before he can conduct Ms operations with trtie practical economy. An important question now arises as to whether each farmer can make his own analyses: He cannot do so without long study and practice. The late Prof. Norton said that, at least two years' time would be necessary to enable a man to become compe- tent to make a reliable analysis. When we reflect that a farmer may never need more than five or six analyses, we shall see that the time necessary to learn the art would be much more valuable than the cost of the analyses (at $5 or $10 each), setting aside the cost of apparatus, and the fact that whUe practising in the laboratory, he must not use his hands for any labor that would unfit them- for the most delicate manipulations. Neither will travelling chemists be able to make aiialyses as accurately and as cheaply as those who Can each farmer make hia owh analyses I Wky will not travelling ejxemiftta answer tbii purgos© I How must an analysis oe used! AKAIiYStS. 261 Work in their own laboratories, where their apparatus is not liable to the many injuries consequent on frer quent removal. The cost of sending one hundred samples of soil to a distant chemist, would be much less than the expense of having his apparatus brought to the town where his services are required.. The ioay in which an afUklyeis should he used is a matter of mtich importance. To a man who know^ nothing of chemistry (be he ever so successful a far- taer), an analysis, as received from a chemist, would be as useless and unintelligible as though it were writ- ten in Chinese ; while, if a chemist who knew nothing of farmingj were to give him advice concerning the ap- plication of manures, he would be led equally astray, and his course would be any thing but praMioal. It is necessary that chemical and practical knowledge! should be combined, and then the value of analysis will be fitUy demonstrated. The amount of know- ledge required is not gteat, but it must be thorough. The itiforteation contained in this little book is suf- ficient, but it would be folly for a man to attempt toi use an analysis ' ii-om reading it once hurriedly over. It must be studied and thought on with great care, before it can be of material assistance. The even- ings of one winter, devoted to this subject, will en- able a farraet to understand the application of ana- lysis to practical farming, especially if other arid How may a farmer jttain flie requisite knowledge f Wlieri ord «&« S6rVi-*co«ooot-oaO(mcio«>0'-ipioa5 1 1 1 J • 1 Carbonate of Potash (Pearlash) . Bi-Oarbonate of Potash (Saleratu's) . Nitrate of Potash (Saltpetre) Silicate of Potash Carbonate of Soda Bi-Oarbonate of Soda (Common Soda)* Nitrate of Soda Sulphate of Soda (Glanber Salts)* ,;•- Silicate of Soda C4 .: Carbonate of Lime (Limestone) ?f j ; Sulphate of Lime (Plaster Paris)* -^ ^ Sulphate of Lime (Burned) {■'•', Phosphate of Lime Super-Phosphate of Lime S%c^te of Lime ^ Carbonate of Magnesia Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salts)* Silicate of Alumina Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)* 2|7^ ANALYSIS. 1 r 00M>O00(S<~tOrH to to Q0=»O Q O e--* ' lO THi-loqrH-!)(G!|i-lT-( t* OO CO GO is i:-ooiooii-*a5-5ti OOOOOCOCOCOOrHOS §1-5 OOJ~t-'ffliXK>»lCI - * ♦ * 00510rt » >ot-J;-i>(N«>'3 3 i s Amount of Ash left aftw-ttarmng-lOeO lbs. of various plants, ordinarily dry— Wiheat.' 20 Barley 30 Oats .40. ]^ye 20. Itadian-Oom, . 15. P^ft^ 30 Bean 30 Meadow Hay 50 to 100 Clover "■ 90 KyeGrassL^'^ 95 Potato 8 to 15 Turnip 5 to 8 Carrot 16 to; ap its straws 50 60 eo 40 60 50 Nq. xyin. M.ANtJEES. HOKSE- MAHXTSIU Sp]lid,Dnng — Combustible Matter 19.68 Ash 3.07 Water : 77.25 Composition of the A^h-^ IQiQOO Silica 62.40 Potash 11^30 Soda 1.98 Oxide of Iron 1;17 Lime .....: 4.63 Magnesia... 3.84 Oxide c^ Manganese- 2.13 Phosphbrio Acid ,.....,....,,.. 10.49 Sulphuric Acid. , ^ . . 1.89 ■ Ohldriiie. w ; i 1 0.03 Loss ;.;.;.;;/.;.. .;. .v. • •••!?•! o-i4 100.00 274 AlTALtStB. 2sro. XIX. NIOHI BOIl. - : , Solid (Ash)— Earthy Phosphates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100 Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8 Carhonate of Soda 8 Silica 16 Charcoal and Loss ' 18 150 Urine TJrea* 80.10 Uric Acid 1.00 Sal Ammoniac* , 1.60 Lactic Acid, etc 17.14 Mucus '. 32 Sulphate of Potash 8.71 Sulphate of Soda , 8.16 Phosphate of Ammonia* 1.65 Earthy Phosphates. 8.94 Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45 Silica 0.08 67.00 Water 988.00 1000.00 * Supply Ammoiila. ■ • No. XX. OOW MANUEE. Solid (Ash)— Phosphates 20.9 Peroxide of Iron 8.8 Lime. . . : ; ; .\ 1.5 Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1 Chloride of Potassimu trace Silica 63.7. Loss... 2.0 10D.0 ANALYSIS. ^ 275 No. xxr. OOSTi AEATIVB TALWE OF THB TTEINE OF MFFKBBNT AOTMAM. Solid Matter. ,,„»., Organla Inorganio. ^'"™' Man 23.4 7.6 81 florse 27. 83. 60 Cow 50. 20. 70 Pig 56. 18. 74 Sheep 28. 12. 40 No. xxn. GiUASO. Water 6.40 Ammonia 2.71 Uric Acid 34.70 Oxalic Acid, etc 26.79 Fixed Alkaline Salts. Sulphate of Soda 2.94 Phosphate of Soda .48 Ohlotide of Sodium (salt) 86 Earthy Salts. lOarbonate of Lime 1.36 ;&flosphates 19.24 Foreign Matter. Silicious grit and saad 4.52 100.00 For the analysi? of fertile and barren soils, see page 72. THE PRACTICAL FARMER. THE PRACTICAL FARMER. Who is the practical farmer ? Let us look at twe pictures and decide. Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinary condi- tion. It is owned and tiUed by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, employs one or two assist- ants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not produce an abundant income ; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase the best implements, or make other needed improvements ; besides, he don't ielieve in such things. His father was a good solid farmer ; so was his grandfather ; and so is he, or thinks he is. He is satisfied that ' the good old way ' is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning till night ; from spring till fall. In the winter, he rests, as much as his lessened duties will allow. During this time, he reads little, or nothing. Least of all does he read about farming. He don't want to learn how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book forming is nonsense. Many other similar ideas keep him isam agricultural readings His hcfuse is comfort- 280 THE PRACTICAL rAEMEB, able, and his bams are quite as good as his neigh- bors', while his farm gives him a living. . It is true that his soil does not produce as much as it did ten years ago ; but prices are better, and he is satisfied. Let us look at his premises, and see how his affairs are managed. First, examine the land. Well, it is good fair land. Some of it is a little springy, but is not to be called wei. It wiU produce a ton and a half of hay to the acre — it used to produce two tons.. There are some stones on the land, but not enoughjin his estimation, to do harrp. The plowed fields are pretty good ; they will produce 35 bushels of com, 13 bushels of wheat, or .30 bushels of oats per acre, when the season is not dry. His father, used to get more ; but, somehow, the weather is not ^ ?avorable as it was in old times. He has thought of raising root crops, but they take more labor than he can afford to hire. Over, in the back part of the land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of worthless land on the whole farm. Now, let us look at th? bams and barn-yard's, The stables are pretty good, , There are some wide cracks in the siding, but they help to ventilate, and' mak;e it healthier for the catt|e. The manure is thrown out of the back windows, and is left in piles, under the eaves on the sunny side of the bam. Th^ rain and sun make it nicer lo hg,ndle. The cattle have to go some distance for water ; and this gives tl^ei^ exercise. Al^^of the cattlf are,not kept-inthe THE PEACTICAL rAKMEB. 2M stable ; tlte fattening stopk a,re liept in the various fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack. The barnryard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered with their manure, which lies there until it is carted on to the l^n,^, In, the shed are t}ie tools o^ the farm, consisting of carts, plows — ^not deep plows, this farmer thinks it best, to have roots near the surface of the soil where they can have the benefit of the sun's heat, — a harrow, hoes, rakes, etc. These tools are all in good order ; and, unlike those of his legs prudent neighbor, they are protected from the weather. The crops are cultivated with the plow and hoe, as they have been since the land was cleared, and as they always wiU be. until this man dies. Here is the ' practical farmer ' of tl^e present day. H^rd jyorking, out of debt, and economical; — of doV lars and cents, if not of soil ^nd manures.- He is a better farmer than two thirds of the three million^ of farmers in the country. He is one of the best fa,rmers in his town-r-there are but few better in the county, not many in the State. He represents. thej better class of his profession. With aU this, he is, in matters relating to his, business, an unreading, unthinking man. He knows nothing of the first principles of farming, and is suc- cessful by the indulgence of nature, not because he understands her, and is able to make the most of her ftSBijBtance. 282 THE PRACTICAL FAKMER. This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which cannot be denied. We do not say this to disparage the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization of his position and of his power to improve it. But let us see where he is wrong. He is wrong in thinking that his land does not need draining. He is wrong in being satisfied with one and a half tons of hay to the acre when he might easily get two and a half He is wrong in not re- moving as far as possible every stone that can in- terfere with the deep and thorough cultivatioa of his soil. He is wrong in reaping less than his father did, when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing to the weather, and similar causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots, which his winter stock so much need, when they might be raised at a cost of less than one third of their value as -food. He is wrong in considering worthless a de- posit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if properly employed. He is wrong in ventilating his stables at tlie cost of heat. He is wrong in his treatment of his manures, for he loses more than one half of their value from evaporation, fermentation, and leaching. He is wrong in not having water at hand for his cattle — their exercise detracts from their accumula- tion of fat and their production of heat, and it ex- poses them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting his feittening stock from the cold of winter ; for, THE PEACTICAL FAEMEB. 283 under exposure to cold, the food, which would otherwise be used in the formation of faJt^ goes to the production-of the animal heat necessary to coun- teract the chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. He is wrong in allowing his manure to lie un- protected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not adding to his tools .the deep surface plow, the sub- soil plow, the cultivator, and many others of im- proved construction. He is wrong in cultivating with the plow and hoe, those crops which could be better or more cheaply managed with the cultivator, or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things more, as we shall see if we examine all of his yearly routine of work. He is right in a few things ; and but a few, as he himself would admit, had he that knowledge of his business which he could obtain in the leisure hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks himself a ipraidvcal farmer. In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our young men have the mental capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them - to the highest point of practical education, and to that point they are gradually but surely rising. Let us now place this same farm in the hands of an educated and understanding cultivator ; and, at the end of five years, look at it again. He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty acres. The money for which the other fifty were sold has been used in the improvement of the farm. The land has. all been under-drained, and shows the 284 THE PRACTICAL FARMER. many improvements consec^uent on sucli treatment, The stones and small rocks have been removed, leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under- dra,ins have more than doubled the productive power of the farm. Suflficient labor is employed to cul- tivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they invariably give a large yield. The grass land produces a yearly average of 2^ tons of hay per- acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30 bushels of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of the crops reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and put in the best possible condition, while it is yearly supplied with manures containing every thing taken away in the abund,ant crops. The analysis is never lost sight of in the regulation of crops and the appli- cation of manures. The viorthless muck bed was re- tained, and is made worth one dollar a Ipad to the compost heap, especially as the land requires an increase of organic matter. A new, barn has been built large enoijgh to store all of the hay produced on the farm. It has stables, which are tight and warm, and are well ventilated above the cattle. The stock being thus protected, from the loss of their heat, give more milk, and make more fat on a less amount of food, fljan they did under the old system. Water is near at haird, and thp animals are not obliged to over-exercise. The manure is carefully composted, eitl|.^r, u,n(ier; &, sh^d-, constrijcted ^r the purpose^, with; THE PKACTICAL FARMEB. 285 a tank fnd pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, wjiere the hogs, mix it with a large amount of muck, which has been carted in after being thoroughly de- composed by the lime and salt mixture. They are thus protected against all loss, and are prepared for the immediate use of crops. No ma- nures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard, but they are all early removed to the compost heap, where they are preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous matter. In the tool shed, we find deep surface- plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes, seed- drills, and many other valuable improvements. This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, from which he learns many new methods of cultiva- tion, while his knowledge of the reasons of various agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudi- cious suggestions of mere . booh farmers and unedu- cated dreamers. Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither description is over-drawn. The first is much more careful in his operations than the majority of our rural population. The second is no better than, many who may be found in America. We appeal to the common sense of the reader of this work to know which of the two is the practical farmer — ^let him imitate either as his judgment shall dictate. FINIS. EXPLAIfATIOlSr OF TERMa Absorb — to soak in a liquid or a gas. Abstract — to take from. AoiD — sour ; a sour substance. AgricuIturb — the art of Cultivating the soil. Alkali — the direct opposite of an acid, with which it has a ten- dency to unite. Alumina — the base of clay. Analysis — separating into its primary parts any compound sub- stance. Carbonate — a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali. Caustic — burning. Chloride — a compound containing chlorine. Clevis — that part of a plow by which the drawing power is at- tached. Decompose — to separate the constituents of a body from their com- binations, forming new kinds of compounds. Digestion — the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines of animals (agricultural). J)xw — deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold bodies. Excrement — the matter given out by the organs of plants and ani- mals, being those parts of their food which they are unable to assimilate. Fermentation — a kind of decomposition. Gas — air — aeriform matter. GuRNEYisM — see Mulching. Ingredient — component part. Inorganic — mineral, or earthy. MouLDBOAED— that part of a surface plow which turns the sod. 288 EXPLANATION OF TEEMS. MuLOHiNG — covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse matter. See p. 247. Neutkalizb — ^To overcome the characteristic properties of. Organic Mattee — that kind of matter which at times possesses an organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the atmosphere. Oxide — a conipoun<3 of oxygen with a metal. Phosphate — a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali. Pkoximate — an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc. ; a product of life. Pdngent — pricking. Putrefaction — rotting. Saturate — to fill the pores of any substance, as a sponge with wa- ter, or charcoal with ammonia. Silicate — a compound of silica with an alkali. Soluble — oap.ibie of being dissolved. Solution — a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it. Saturated Solution — one which contains as much of the foreign substance as it is capable of holding. Spongioi.es — the mouths at the ends of roots. Sulphate — a xjompound of sulphuric acid with an alkalL Vapor — gas.