■5fP President White Library Cornell University im — ^ DATE DUE Jfc^ HH ' inn H JL f\PR 1 T CORNELL UNIVERSrrY LIBRARY 924 081 260 469 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924081260469 THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, PEOPLE, INSTITUTIONS, AND RESOURCES. BARON VON HAXTHAUSEN, AUTHOK OF ' TRANSCAUCASIA,' ' TtfE TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS,' ETC. TRANSLATED BY ROBERT FARIE, Esq. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOLUME I. LONDON : CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 1856. 5 , i . i PEIKTED BT •JOHN EEWABD TATtOE, LITTLE QUEEN STKEBT, Lincoln's inn fields. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Baron Haxthausen's Work on Russia*, which now appears in an Enghsh dress, is already well known in this country, both through the original German and the French edition. The present translation has been exe- cuted entirely from the German. The original Work consists of three large volumes, and the reasons which have led to its abridgment may be briefly stated : the subjoined notef of the Author will, I think, partly show its necessity. The book not only contains much repeti- tion, but there is a general want of arrangement in it, which doubtless arose in a great measure from the Work being written at considerable intervals : this still partly * Tlie original title of this Work is ' Studien iiber die innern Zu- stande, das Volisleben, und insbesondere die landlioben Einrichtungen Eusslands.' The first two volumes appeared in 1847, the last in 1852. t This note is introduced in the third volume of the original to ex- plain how an anecdote is repeated which had already appeared in a previous part of the Work. " It only appeared during the printing of the Work that this characteristic anecdote had already been related. It could not be omitted here, sis a separate impression of this account of the Hussian army is to be published. In truth, repetitions fre- quently occur in this book ; they were often necessary to explain the different consequences of the principles laid down in the Work, the first and the last parts of which were composed at the somewhat dis- tant interval of eight years. It was only during the printing and cor- recting of the press that the repetitions caught the Author's eye, which is indeed but a poor excuse." VI TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. appears in the translation, but the omissions have, it is hoped, materially lessened the objection. Many details occur in the original Work which it was considered un- necessary to insert in the translation, being of local rather than general interest; for instance, it appeared super- fluous to give all the diflPerent minute modifications of the communal and agricultural systems prevailing in the various parts of the Empire, as a more general descrip- tion renders the leading facts and observations of the Author more obvious. Baron Haxthausen has given, in his Preface, a general idea of the character of his inquiries; and whatever opinion the Reader may form of his views, he cannot but be convinced of the earnest and impartial manner in which the Author pursued his investigations. It is scarcely necessary for me to allude more particularly to the high reputation which Baron Haxthausen enjoys in this country as well as on the Continent. This translation was commenced without any definite purpose, or expectation of its being made public. It seemed uncertain whether it would ever be completed, and doubtful whether any EngHsh publisher would un- dertake it. The book however appeared to give the only account of Russia from which any just idea can be formed of the actual state of the people of that coun- try, and the nature of their institutions and government ; and both for the purpose of obtaining a clearer con- ception of the subject myself, and communicating infor- mation to such of my friends as felt an interest in it, I continued the translation at my leisure until it was com- pleted. To facilitate the perusal of the Work to the TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. Vll Reader, the Russian values, weigMs, and measures have been reduced to their English equivalents;* an Index has likewise been appended. rinding from my friend Mr. John Edward Taylor f that he was in correspondence with the Author, I in- formed him of what I had done, and this he communi- cated to Baron Haxthausen, who approved of the prin- ciple adopted in the abridgment, and at the same time suggested the omission of certain portions of the Work which I had already determined to leave out. This was very satisfactory, and encouraged me to proceed with the publication of the book, and I have to give my best thanks to Mr. Taylor for the assistance he has afforded me during its passage through the press. Although the translation of this Work was commenced during the late war, and was first prompted by the inter- est recently excited in the state of Russia, it would be a great mistake to suppose that the book is indebted for its value or interest to the circumstances of the crisis. It was written and published long before any of these events could have been foreseen, and it is not of a cha- racter consonant with the heat and excitement of an international struggle. Its perusal will be much more useful when that excitement has ceased ; and, looking forward to its publication, I have often contemplated the * Tke Paper Rouble, wMoh has varied greatly in value at different times, has been reckoned by the Author as equal to 94 Prussian silber- groschen, or lid. English ; the Silver Rouble, 3s. ^^d. The Verst is equal to 3500 English feet ; the Dessetina, or Deoiatine, 3'7 acres ; the Arshine, 28 inches. The Tchetvert contains 5 76 bushels. t Mr. Taylor has recently published a translation of two Works by Baron Haxthausen, ' Transcaiioasia' and 'The Tribes of the Caucasus,' which may be considered as supplemental to this larger Work. Vm TRANSLATORS PREFACE. conclusion of the contest as a favourable opportunity for bringing it before the Public. Before reading Baron Haxthausen's work, I was completely at a loss to form any idea whatever of the Russians or their history. There appears to be no other book on the subject by any author possessed of sufficient information, authority, and correctness to give satisfactory value to his writings and opinions ; but it is impossible, I think, to read this without believing it to present a faithful picture of the Russian Empire, possessing ample intrinsic interest, in- dependent of the fact that we have been recently at war with its inhabitants. When we consider that the Russian territory in Europe is as large as all the other countries united, that Siberia is twenty times the size of France, and that a large proportion of this vast space is still a desert, but rapidly increasing in cultivation, it will be understood how extremely important is a know- ledge of the true character of its people and the real nature of their government. That the people, vdth all their faults, are not the barbarians, nor the Government the oppressive tyranny we have been accustomed to be- lieve them, is the earnest belief of Baron Haxthausen, and I leave the reader to form his own opinion of the value of his judgement from the materials now presented to him. My only object in giving the Work to the English Public is that an account, beheved to be the most authentic, of a country little known, but now pos- sessing increased interest for England, may be rendered generally accessible. R. E. London, April 25, 1856. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. The Author of this Work has devoted his attention for many years to the study of rural institutions, or, in other words, the different relations of the peasant class to the cultivation of the land, their families, the landowners, their Communes, and the State. He has endeavoured to study the life of the lower classes of the people by direct personal observation ; and, in pursuance of this object, he received a commission from the Prussian Go- vernment to prosecute his investigations through all the provinces of the Monarchy, and to draw up a detailed report on the state of the peasantry, which might serve as a basis for future legislation. For this purpose he tra- velled, from 1830 to 1838, throughout Prussia, as well as a large part of the neighbouring countries. On examining closely the rural institutions of West- ern Germany, the Author found some peculiarities not in character with the common features of German life. From the sixth to the twelfth century these countries, although originally German, were inhabited by a Sla- vonic population which afterwards disappeared, or be- AUTHOR S PREFACE. came Germanized, and he was thus naturally led to at- tribute the origin of such anomalous features to these extinct Slavonic races and their institutions. It there- fore became necessary, in the prosecution of his inquiries, to subject the popular life and institutions of these races to a more comprehensive examination, — a branch of study which he has never been satisfied to pursue merely from books and historical documents, vnthout the im- portant aid of close and direct observation of the life of the people : a subsequent study of books facilitated, but did not form the basis of, his information and opinions. He felt a strong desire to visit those countries which have always been, and still are, inhabited by Slavonic peoples, and where the national institutions have grown up intact and independent. In those parts of Prussia still peopled by Slaavs, the Kasubs, Masurs, Upper Silesians, and Poles, the original rural institutions have not been preserved in their inte- grity: so many German elements have been intermingled with them, that it is frequently impossible to decide what is German and what Slavonic. The southern parts of the Austrian monarchy, with Servia, Bulgaria, and above all Russia, could therefore alone engage his atten- tion. But an investigation of this kind was attended vdth great difficulties, and could only be undertaken vidth the special sanction of the respective Governments. The Author found in the Russian Government the greatest readiness to assist him in his inquiries; and the Em- peror not only ordered him to be recommended to the protection of all the authorities, but to have access to AUTHOR S PREFACE. XI the public archives for all the information necessary for his work. Having at St. Petersburg made the preparations ne- cessary for so important a journey, the Author took his departure from Moscow in the Spring of 1843. He travelled first to the north, traversed a part of the im- mense region of forests, and then returning to the Volga, penetrated eastward as far as Kazan, and southward to Saratof, visiting the rich corn districts of Penza, Tambof, Voronezh, and Kharkof, and then traversed the Steppes by Ekaterinoslaf to Kertch in the Crimea. Thence he made a short excursion into the southern countries of the Caucasus, at the conclusion of which he travelled over the Crimea, and, proceeding along the coast, arrived at Odessa. He then traversed Podoha and Volhvnia, reached Kief, and, passing through the Governments of Tchernigof, Orel, and Tula, returned to Moscow in the month of November. The following Work contains a portion of his observa- tions on Russia, the impressions he received, and the materials which he collected. In the investigations to which I invite the Reader's at- tention in this Work, we must bear in mind the fact, that the rural institutions of every people have a pecu- liar basis of nationality, and can only be rendered in- telligible when the importance of this fact is clearly un- derstood. DiflPerences and peculiarities are perceptible in all nations, but they are peculiarly prominent in the two great families of the Germanic and Romanic races. XU AUTHOR S PREFACE. which have also much in common, with many resem- blances and analogies. A manifold intermixture of man- ners, languages, and interests, and a mutual assimilation of national life, have prevailed among them for a thou- sand years ; and these circumstances, together with their common Church and the dissemination of the Roman law, have produced and established these similarities. This fusion is also stamped upon the languages ; all have words expressing one and the same thing : for instance the sense attached to the words Gemeinde or Commune, — Pdchter, iarmer, /ermier, indicates essentially the same social and legislative relations in each language, and is understood alike in all. It is otherwise among the Slavonic peoples. The Poles and Bohemians have for centuries been influenced by German manners and ideas ; their legislation has as- sumed the same character as that of the other nations of the West, and the original Slavonic institutions have been considerably modified ; but with regard to the Sla- vonic peoples who have either had no contact with the ideas and civilization of the other European nations, as the Servians, Bosnians, Bulgarians, or those with whom this contact has only taken place in modern times, and so that the higher classes alone have appropriated this civilization without sensibly modifying the social and legislative basis of the rural institutions, as among the Russians, the case is entirely different. In fact the social and legislative relations of the Sla- vonic nations who have not been affected by European culture differ so entirely, both in their first principles and their development, from those of other nations, that AUTHOR S PREFACE. XIH we have often in our language no terms fitted clearly to designate them. The ordinary and legislative meaning of the word Gemeinde, for instance, is in all European languages so clear and uniform, that it may be used in each without fear of being misunderstood. But how different is the meaning of the old Slavonic or Russian Commune! With the former nations this indicates an aggregate of individuals, whom chance has brought toge- ther, and whose relations have been regulated by govern- ment and legislation, as well as by the manners and cus- toms of the people ; whereas among the latter it was \ originally a simple extension of the patriarchal family, | which it still represents, with a chief or father at its head, i and based upon a community of property. -—-"^ In the case of those Slavonic peoples who have re- mained uninfluenced by modern civilization, such as the Servians, Bulgarians, etc., this is so evident, that Ranke and Cyprian Robert, in their works on the Servians and Slaavs, have not failed to remark it. In Russia it is not so evident : from an early time this country formed a political unity, having received at a remote period institutions from Constantinople, and even through German (Varangian) influences. Since the sixteenth cen- tury, when it threw off the Mongol yoke, it has come into direct contact with Western Europe, and has striven for a hundred and forty years to attain modern civiliza- tion. The higher classes have been educated and trained, and all the political institutions have been formed, upon the European model. Legislation has not only assumed the character, but even the forms, of other European States, the consequences of which however have been XIV AUTHOR S PREFACE. manifested only among the higher classes of the people :■ foreign civilization has not penetrated to the manners and customs of the lower classes ; family institutions, and those of the Communes and agriculture, have re- mained intact ; legislation and the Government adminis- tration have had little or no influence upon them. But this virant of homogeneity in the culture of the higher and lower classes has rendered the attainment of a knowledge of the national institutions extremely diffi- cult even by the former. Accustomed to foreign lan- guages and manners, and basing their education upon foreign jurisprudence and institutions, they have been accustomed to regard all their native institutions from a foreign point of view, and have sought to frame the latter upon the model of the former. More recently indeed national sentiments have begun to manifest themselves, and here as elsewhere Russian learned men are now devoting themselves to an earnest investigation of the origin and true nature of the social state of their father- land;* but the foreign civiUzation and cultivated lan- guage of the higher classes, which have impressed upon Russian words indicative of native institutions a bor. rowed meaning, interpose innumerable obstacles. When I say that even learned Russians, born in the country, have no longer a knowledge of its real con- dition and institutions,! — that they have not yet been * Some learned Germans may claim the honour of having given the first impulse in this direction. Men like Schlotzer, Miiller Ewers Georgi, Storch, etc., and in our day Reutz, have been the teachers of the younger Russian learned men, and have inspired them with a love of national institutions, and an ardour for investigating them. t A remarkable instance of this was presented in the case of Alex- AUTHOR S PREFACE. XV able to impart to their language the power of render- ing that condition intelligible, — that their poets are only now beginning to understand and describe their national and family life, with its manners and peculiarities, — this must, of course, be asserted in a much higher degree of the foreigners who have written on Russia. Whoever would travel in Russia, earnestly study the condition of the country, and observe its national life with unpre- judiced eyes, must first of all forget everything he has read in other countries upon the subject. Having passed little more than a year in Russia, I cannot pretend to understand the national life and con- dition of the country in all their bearings ; but I am at least assured by the conviction of having entered upon my investigation unprejudiced and with the profound veneration and love I have always felt for everything ge- nuine, natural, and simple, in the life of nations. More than twenty years of travel have sharpened my observa- tion to this kind of study ; and I therefore hope in this Work to have not only communicated much that was wholly unknown, but to some extent to have indicated a new mode of studying Russian life. I would however expressly disclaim any pretension to have given complete information. My book contains studies : it is not a cri- tical work, and cannot be supposed free from inaccu- racies ; but I hope to have indicated those points upon which any one must specially fix his attention who un- ander Tiirgenief. With a perfectly European cosmopolitan education, possessed of the deepest and most glowing love of his country, and a great knowledge of its external history, he knew little of the genuine national life. XVI AUTHOK S PREFACE. dertakes to describe the present social condition of Rus- sia, or who may occupy a position enabling him to de- velope it upon truly national principles. All I desire is that enlightened and philanthropic men may examine the results of my observations, which I would more par- ticularly impress upon the attention of the Russian Go- vernment. Let the opinions here stated be accepted or rejected, my object will have been attained, if my Work excites an earnest interest in the subjects of which it treats, and gives a new impulse to social progress. ^In order to make good my positions, I will here indi- cate some of the results of my observations. In their origin and development the other nations of Europe are feudal, whereas Russia is a patriarchal state. A crowd of consequences flow from this simple fact, which is almost sufRcient of itself to explain the whole social and poli- tical condition of Russia. The family is the national microcosm : in it reigns a perfect equality of rights ; so long as it remains united, the father is the head of the family ; on his death the eldest son succeeds, and has the entire disposal of all the property, and assigns arbitrarily the part which reverts to each member. The Commune is the family enlarged. The land belongs to the family or commune ; each indi- vidual has only a claim to usufruct, to which all persons born in the Commune have an equal right. The land therefore is equally divided among all who live upon it, to be temporarily occupied by them. No right of inhe- ritance exists in the children to the share of their father • each son claims an equal share with the rest, by vii-tue of his individual right as a member of the Commune. AUTHOR S PREFACE. XVU The Commune has its paternal relation in the Ancient, or Starosta, to whom implicit obedience is shown. According to the traditional conviction of the people, Russia belongs to the Nation, divided into Communes, as to a single family, under its chief or father, the Czar, who has the disposal of everything, and to whom implicit obedience is shown. The Russian people cannot imagine any limitation of the power of the Czar. " How can a father's authority be limited, otherwise than by the Di- vine law ?" say that class who constitute the heart of the nation at the present day, as they did 230 years ago on the accession of the Romanof Dynasty. All attempts to restrict the power of the Czar made then or subse- quently proved utterly abortive, before this deep tradi- tional belief of the people. The political position there- fore of the Czar in relation to the Russian Nation is quite different from that of every other monarch ; but as Em- peror of the Russian Monarchy, his position is the same as that of other sovereigns. As every Russian belongs to a Commune, and all the\ members are entitled to equal shares in the land, there are no hora. proletarians in Russia. In aU the other countries of Europe the originators of social revolution rise up in rebellion against wealth and property. Destruction of the right of inheritance, and an equal division of the land, are their shibboleth ! In Russia such a revolution is impossible, as this Utopia of the European revolutionists already exists here, fully incorporated with the national life. There is a large class of politicians in Europe who are anxious to obliterate every organic difference between VOL. I. b XVlll AUTHOR S PREFACE. town and country, to destroy the mediaeval institutions of guilds, trades, etc., and to disseminate universal freedom of industry. From the earliest times this state of things has existed in Russia, but it has destroyed all internal progress, and the Government has striven to counteract it by legislation, by creating and giving privileges to towns, by establishing guilds and incorporated trades, and has exerted itself, hitherto vidth little success, to create a real middle class. The nobility, an element which probably did not be- long originally to the Slavonic race, was not numerous before the time of Peter I. It has always ovred its in- fluence and importance more to the confidence of the sovereign than to its position in the nation. Peter I. created an official nobility, which has almost driven the old hereditary aristocracy into the background.* The course is free to all, and any man of the people may, on certain conditions and by service, acquire personal and afterwards hereditary nobility. This however has been found in practice by no means a thing to be admired, and the want of an efficient rural nobility is unquestion- able. Of late years Russia has made remarkable progress in the modern system of manufactures, and a large num- ber of the nobles have engaged in them. Moscow, the centre of industrial activity, has been transformed, from the residence of the nobility, into a manufacturing town: * In all other, and even constitutional, countries the rank of noble is acquired by tbe favour of the Prince. In autocratical Eussia the Emperor does not confer this rank of his own accord, but it is ac- quired by service and the law ; and still there is no vrorse nobihty than this. « AUTHOR S PREFACE. XIX it is very doubtful whether the result can be considered altogether advantageous. The wages of labour, partly in consequence of this circumstance, have risen im- mensely in Russia j and, in fact, taking everything into consideration, there is no country where they are so high. At the same time the price of the raw produce of the land in the interior, distant from the European markets and without means of communication, is very low. As wages are so high, it is evident that agriculture must be the least remunerative of all employments, and the rent of the land, if cultivated by hired labourers, would cease altogether. The consequence is that agri- culture in all its branches is prosecuted without energy, and retrogrades instead of advancing. This would be still more the case if in many districts serfage did not come to its aid. Manufacturing industry is consequently one of the greatest obstacles to the abolition of serfage, which however cannot be much longer delayed in Russia. From the earliest times there has existed in many parts of the Empire a system of manufacturing industry, based upon the Communal institutions, and forming a kind of national manufacturing association. This in fact represents what the St. Simonist theories have dreamt of as the model upon which the social reform of Europe is to be effected. Hitherto the Government, from par- tiality to the modern manufacturing system, has paid far too little attention to these national associative manu- factories. Russia, in her internal development, has the promise of a great future destiny. The political unity of the cduntry seems to have been intended by nature, which XX AUTHOR S PREFACE. has divided it into four colossal departments, not sepa- rately possessing the conditions of complete independ* ence, and only capable when united of constituting a powerful and independent State. The north is covered with forests, one continuous tract of which is larger than the whole of Spain. Then comes a district of moderate fertility, extending from the Ural to Smolensk, covering an area of 380,000 square miles, and containing a po- pulation of more than sixteen millions of inhabitants, exhibiting the most extensive and varied kinds of indus- trial activity, but the very existence of which depends entirely upon the forests of the north, and the districts of the south, or the region of the so-called black soil, which in fertility and extent has scarcely its equal in the world : the tract of humus is twice as large as the whole of France, and crops of wheat have succeeded each other for a century upon the same land, without the applica- tion of manure. This is rarely used anywhere ; in many places the land is not even ploughed, but is merely scratched as a preparation for the seed. Straw and ma- nure are used as fuel, there being no forests. To the south and south-east commence the immense Steppes, which have been overrun for thousands of years by nomadic tribes with their flocks and herds. These districts however are for the most part fertile, and are gradually being brought into cultivation by colonists from the interior, whose settlements form oases in the surrounding desert. If these countries which border the Black Sea should ever be wooded and sufficiently peopled, they would be among the most flourishing in Europe. AUTHOR S PREFACE. XXI This gigantic Empire, equal in extent to the rest of Europe, and bathed by four seas, is inhabited by a com- pletely homogeneous, healthy, and robust race of men. The Russians are divided into two branches — the Great Russians and Little Russians ; but in dialect these do not differ so much as Low Germans from High Germans. The thirty-four millions of Great Russians constitute the most numerous, compact, and homogeneous national mass in Europe. Between these races there is not the slightest trace of jealousy or desire for separation, but they have a feeling of national and religious unity, which is found in no other country. The Little Russians pre- sent only a slight contrast to the Great Russians, but they have at the same time a strong feeling of the unity of Russia. The higher classes in this country have received for a century past a European cultivation, which is neither of native origin nor of national character. In this respect therefore two different peoples may be said to exist in Russia. There is at present however a strong desire for intellectual improvement among the lower classes, caused by the extension of industrial activity; and it will be one of the greatest tasks of the Government to give the right direction to these tendencies and desires. The national Church can alone undertake this duty ; but the clergy themselves require a more practical education to qualify them for the task ; and exertions have only re- cently been made, at the suggestion of the Government, to supply this defect. When I declare the political unity and indivisibility of Russia to be a necessity of nature, I would at the same XXU AUTHOR S PEEFACE. time maintain that she cannot without injury to hersell be a conquering Power. She was obHged to make con- quests until she had thereby acquired a state of internal unity and independence, and a compact external posi- tion. Without the coasts of the Baltic and Black Seas she could never have become a compact, self-contained, and externally powerful State. But every additional conquest has only proved a burden rather than an ad- vantage to her. If it were consistent with her national dignity, it would be better to abandon all such con- quests. But every village which should be conquered now would be a mere increase to her burden and dimi- nution of her strength. Russia requires more than a century to develope her internal resources. Of what use to her would be a million of subjects in a conquered country, on whom she could not rely, and who would require to be watched by a large army, whilst by the development of her internal resources she could gain in a few years ten million faithful and homogeneous sub- jects ? CONTENTS OF VOL. I. CHAPTEE I. Page Leaving Berlia for St. Petersburg. — Differences of Temperature. — Breaking up of the Ice on tlie Neva. — Holy Week. — Churcli Music in Russia. — Easter. — Grand Parade before tbe Winter Palace. — ^Leave St. Petersburg. — Tbe Forest Institute at Lis- tziuo. — Novgorod. — Vuishni Volotohok. — Torzbok. — Leather Manufactories. — Tver. — Communal Organization. — ^Villages. — The Ishortzki. — Habitations of the Peasantry. — Enclosures. — National Costume. — Manners . 1 CHAPTER II. Moscow compared with St. Petersburg. — The Great Russians. — National Importance of Moscow. — Influence of Peter I. — As- pect of the City. — Architecture of the Streets and Churches. — The Kremlin. — Ivan Vasilievitoh. — The Kitaigorod. — Kussian Shopkeepers. — Position of Women. — Population of Moscow. — Change in its Character. — Houses of the Nobles. — Domestic ' Servauts. — Manufacturing Labourers. — Moscow a Centre of In- dustry. — Formation of a Citizen Class. — German Corporations and Russian Association. — Russian Artisans. — No Proletarians. — The Dvornik.— The Duboshnik.— The Plotnik ... 25 XXIV CONTENTS. CHAPTEE III. Page Leave Moscow. — Starlings' Nests. — Peasant Costumes. — The Mo- nastery of Troitza Lavra. — Professor Golubinski. — Belfiy. — Uspenski Cathedral. — Tombs of the Czars and Princes. — Church of the Trinity. — Curious Pictures. — Legends of Pictures of Christ. — The Doctrine of Purgatory. — St. Sophia and her Daughters. — Church. Treasure. — Pearls. — The Monk's Cell. — Eussian Monks. — The Eefectory. — The Hospital. — Library. — Old Slavonic Musical Signs. — ^Eussian Miniatures. — School for the Poor. — Theological Academy. — Beggars. — Pereslavl. — Stone and "Wooden Churches.— Monastery of St. Nikita. — Lake Plesh- tobesvo. — Monument of Ivan. — ViUages of Yaroslaf. — Eostof — Garden ViUages 70 CHAPTEE IV. Yaroslaf. — Eussian Inn, Caravansary, and Hotel. — The Samovar. — The Governor and his Wife. — Eussian Devotion. — Enormous Sturgeon. — M. Kamovitch.— Communal Meeting. — ^Description / of an Estate. — Interior of a Peasant's House. — A Peasant Fa- ,' mUy. — A Modern Farm. — Velikoye Selo. — Serfdom. — The No- '■ bles. — Linen Manufactory. — Division of tbe Land. — Nobles audi Serfs. — Count Eisselef — Legal Tribunals. — Tailors. — Eussianj Division of the Land in the Communes. — Obrok. — Tiaglo. — ^In-| crease of Population. — Importance of tbe Communal Institu-j tions. — St. Simonism. — Eesemblances and Contrasts with Eus-j' sian Social Condition. — Agriculture. — Village Pope. — ^Eibinsk. — ^Its Commercial Importance. — The Burlaki. — Eetum to Ya-' roslaf CHAPTEE V. Observations on the Government of Yaroslaf —Eace.— Manufac- tures.— Agriculture.— Large Estates. — Manufacturing Com- munes.— European Manufacturing System.— Effects of its In- troduction.— Statistics .—Deficiency of Corn.— Supply of Labour. —Travelling Artisans.— Artisan Communities.- Contractors.— EetaU Trading.— Fairs.— Salaries of Officials in the Town of Yaroslaf , / Troitza. — Visit to the Starosta at Pestovo. — Costumes. — Whit- suntide at the Monastery of Troitza. — Saints Ivan and Ste- phan. — The Syranes. — Polovnik Law 177 CHAPTEE VII. Yurievetz. — ^Appanage Village cf Diakonski. — People's School. — ) Artisan School. — Peasants' Houses. — Arrival at Nizhni Nov- gorod. — The Governor. — Imperial Palace. — The Guhanie. — Popular Amusements and Songs. — Russian Costumes. — ^Abund- ance of Pearls. — A Provincial Theatre. — Superstition. — Excur- sion to Arzamas. — Visit to a Convent. — Native Artists. — Manu- factures. — Village of Vizena and its Association of Shoemakers. — ^Village and Taxing Arrangements. — Return to Nizhni Nov- gorod. — Visit to the Prisons. — Benevolence to the Prisoners. — The Burlaks J . 220 CHAPTER VIII. Nizhni Novgorod. — Visit to a Church of the Yedinovertzi. — ^Rus- sian Sects. — The Morelstohiki, Skoptzi, Khlistovstchina, Bez- slovestnie, and Subotniki. — Sects arising from the Schism tmder the Patriarch Nikon. — The Starovertzi, their Character and Im- portance. — ^Religious Discussion in the Kremlin. — Three Sec- tions of Old Believers.— Their Doctrines and Worship. — Their Hospital at Moscow. — Sects since Peter I. — The Molokane and their Doctrines. — The Dukhobortzi and their Doctrines. — Visit to them on the Malotchnaya. — Village of Terpenie . . . 246 VOL. I. C XXVI CONTENTS. CHAPTEE IX. Page Leave Nizhni.— Second Visit to the Camp.— Caiitoniat Children.— The Maahina on the Volga.— Kosmodemiansk. — Toheremiss Village.— Tcheremiss Farmstead.— People of the Toheremiss.- Dress. — Dwellings. — Institutions. — Character. — Eeligious Cus- toms and Ideas. — Exiles on their way to Siberia. — Colonization in Siberia. — The Grold-washings. — The Tchuvash. — Character- istics, Eehgion and Superstition. — Arrival at Kazan . . . 302 CHAPTEE X. Kazan. — Conflagration in 1842. — State-Councillor Von Fuchs. — Migration of Vermin. — The University. — Eussian Switzerland. — The Tatars. — Divine Service of the Tatars. — House of two Tatar Merchants. — Household Arrangements. — Dress. — Physi- cal Conformation of the Tatars. — Intellectual Faculties. — Cha- racter and Mode of Life. — Capacity for Civilization, and Political Importance. — Their Conversion to Christianity. — Punishment of the Knout. — Its Abolition. — Productions of the Soil. — Climate. —Tatar Village of Yepan Ashino. — Position of Women. — ^Vil- lage Arrangements . . 317 CHAPTEE XI. ' L Leave Kazan. — Peasant Houses. — Herr Von Pirch. — National Character. — Agriculture. — Euins of Bolghari. — M. Molostof — Farming Arrangements. — Simbirsk. — La^g|!.^ Villages. — Tchu- vash Village. — Isthmus of the Volga. — Wihi^^: — Chain Trade. Samara. — The Mordvins. — Kurgani. — Padovka.— Fuel. — Bash- ku^s. — Nikolaievsk. — Colonization. — Kushum. — Eussian Eecep- tion. — Selzomayania. — German Colonies. — Division of the Land. — Orlovskoi.— Katharinenstadt. — Grain Trade.— LittleEussians. Salt in the Yelton Lake. — A Cossack. — Government of Saratof. — Former Inhabitants. — New Colonization. — Eobber Hordes. — / Increase of the Population,— Agriculture. — Fishing.-