J/D30/9 S3S& 'M Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013908813 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR BUREAU OF FISHERIES GEORGE M. BOWERS, tiommiseioner THE SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN -THE UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE UNITED STATES BV- H XJ G H M . S IVJK*i "T H Deputy U. S. Fish Commissioner Brtraoted froifl BULLETIN OF, THE BUBEAU OF FISHEBIES for 1904, Vol. X2OT. Pages 133 to 181 Plates I to V WASHINGTON GOVEf .58.0 "80.0 ''68.0 a 105. &8a.O Yen. 115.0 120.0 12s. 138.0 145.0 Yen. i Yen. 48.0 98.0 u 63. 105. ' Yen. Yen. 43.0 85.0 49.5 90.0 57.0 100.0 74. 5 110. 0. 65.0 113.0 1S99 1900 1901 '•55.0 u 73. ''63.11 usi',,0 It 80. ii SO. '•SO.O •115.0 125.0 130.0 i For exportation to Europe. b For exportation tu China. 144 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. FUNORI, OR SEAWEED GLUE. NATURE AND GENERAL IMPORTANCE. Fwnori is the name given to a kind of glue made from several species of algae which also are called funori. The word means "material for stiffening fabrics," referring to the most common use of the substance. The principal funori alga is Gloiopeltis ooliformis, but G. intricate/, (known as fukuro-funori) is probably just as satisfactory. There are, however, various other succulent algae, belonging to other genera, employed for this purpose, which do not yield so valuable a product as the funori algae proper. Gloiopeltis grows on rocks on all parts of the Japanese coast, but chiefly on the outer (or Pacific) shores of the warmer parts of the Empire. It is gathered at all seasons — in winter in some places, in summer in others^being taken from the rocks by long-handled hooks. According to Doctor Kishinouye, there is a limited cultivation of Gloiopeltis colifor- mis in the prefecture of Aomori. The method is quite primitive, consisting simply of throwing stones into the sea to afford a surface for the attachment and growth of the spores. As the stones of the mountains have rough, clean surfaces, they are pre- ferred to others. While the manufacture of funori is less extensive than that of kanten or kombu, it is nevertheless quite important, being car- ried on in over 100 establishments, each em- ploying from 15 to 20 persons, located in about 30 different prefectures, the most northern being Hokkaido and the most southern Kagoshima. The industry flour- ishes most in southern Japan, and Osaka is the principal center. Funori has been made in Japan since about the year 1673. THE PREPARATION AND APPLICATIONS OF FUNORI^ The process of converting the raw seaweed into the marketable product is much simpler than in the case of kanten or kombu. The dried algas, as received from the fishermen, are first sorted and cleaned, and then soaked in fresh water, after which they are usually placed in thin layers on large shallow trays with reed or bamboo bottom, and tightly packed by hand so as to fprm a loose sheet. The sheets are then turned out on pieces of matting by inverting the trays, and are left to bleach and dry. Sometimes, however, the sheets are made directly on the mats without the use of trays. A tendency to curl in drying is overcome by sprinkling with a watering pot or a wet broom. When bleaching has proceeded as far as desirable, the drying is completed and the funori sheets are gathered in bundles of various sizes. The sheets are loose meshed, thin, flexible, and of quite uniform thickness. The usual 1 Funori " ( Gloiopeltis coltformis) . Bull. U. S. B. F, 1904. Plate III. SPRINKLING THE SHEETS TO PREVENT CURLING. gathering the dried sheets for baling and shipment. The Manufacture of Funori, or Seaweed Glue. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF" JAPAN. 145 size is about 5 by 3 feet, but smaller sheets in neat packages are prepared for the retail trade. A favorite form of package for the wholesale trade is a roll 3 feet high and 6 or 7 inches in diameter, like Japanese matting. Funori is readily converted into a glue or paste by immersion in boiling fresh water, and in that form is extensively used in Japan, and small quantities are exported. The principal objects for which it is employed are the glazing and stiffen- ing of fabrics, its most common use being as a starch for clothing. Other uses are the stiffening and coating of papers, the cementing of walls and tiles, the stiffening A roll of funori (about one-eighth natural size). of threads, and the decorating of porcelain. The funori sent to Europe is for sizing textiles. Japanese women sometimes clean their hair with a thin solution, although the rationale of the operation is not evident. PRICKS AND OUTPUT. The price of funori varies with the quality. The purest grade sold (in I'M)?,) for 40 yen per in kwan, wholesale, or at the rate of 24 cents a pound; the medium quality brought IS yen per 10 kwan (11 cents a pound), and the poorest grades, made from substitutes for Gloinjkltk, were worth only 5 or 6 yen per 10 kwan (3 to 3.6 cents a pound). The production during recent years has been from -2 to 3 million pounds annually; in 1901 it was 2,1*43. 000 pounds. The following table shows the amount and value of the output between 1897 and 1901: Year. — - Quantity. Value, j ' 1897 Pounds. 1,429,111 987, 862 2,799,253 2,135,677 2, 913. 383 $53,857 ' 1 1898 41, 478 1899 1 45, 326 ! 1900 77, 033 1901 130,809 B.B F. 1904— 10 146 BULLETIN OF- THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. The exportation of funori is a small business, the shipments at the present time being valued at only $1,500, although they have at times reached $3,300. The countries supplied are Korea, China, Asiatic Russia, Russia, England, and France. KOMBU. NATURE AND GENERAL IMPORTANCE. Under the name of kombu the Japanese recognize various kinds of food made from kelps. This is one of the most important of the marine vegetable preparations, the annual sales in Japan and China being enormous and steadily increasing, espe- cially in China. Some of the products have occasionally been «ent to the East Indies and 'San Francisco; but the sales in America are reported to have been small, and it Kelps used in preparing kombu. Laminaria japonica. may be said that kombu is as yet unknown outside of Asia. Although not so valuable as kanten, it is really more important to the country, because of its comparative cheapness and the numerous ways in which it is used for food; furthermore the gathering of kelp gives employment to more people than does the gathering of Ge!i/lium, and the value of the raw products exceeds that of any other kind of seaweed. The manufacture of kombu dates back to about 1730. The present methods are very primitive, and differ but little from those of the eighteenth century. The principal centers are Osaka, Tokyo, and Hakodate, the leading place being Osaka, where in 1903 there were 45 small factories, each employing from 10 to 30 men] women, and children. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 147 THE RAW PRODUCTS. The seaweeds used in the manufacture of kombu are coarse, broad-fronded members of the kelp family (Laminariacea?), and are obtained almost entirely from Hokkaido, the most northern of the main islands of the Japanese archipelago. The kelps grow in abundance on all parts of that coast, but those of best quality — that is. with the widest and thickest fronds — are obtained from the northeastern coast, within the influence of the Arctic current. Those most used are of the numerically large genus Laminaria, and include the species jajxmim, wJiijioxit, ttitf/Kxtattt, JoHgixxhna, ochotensis, yezoensis, fragii '/*, diaholica. gi/rcto, and several others recently described by Professors Miyabe and Oshima. Other kelps which are utilized in kombu manu- facture are Arthrothamti us hif/hix and kurilenxix, Ahir'm -fixtuhmt. and various other species of Alarin. rthrot/uinittiiz bifidus. Alaria crassi/olia. Kelp* used in preparing kombu. The gathering of kelp begins in July and ends in October, and is engaged in by manv fishermen, among whom may be found some Ainus, the peculiar aboriginal inhabitants of Japan now confined to Hokkaido. The fishermen go to the kelp o-rounds in open boats, each boat with one to three men and a complement of hooks with which the kelp is torn or twisted from its strong attachment on the rocky bottom. The hooks are of various patterns; some are attached to long wooden handles, and some are weighted and dragged on the bottom by means of ropes while the boats are under way. When the boats return to shore the kelp is carefully spread on the beaches in the vicinity of the villages and there left until thoroughly dried, The curing !48 BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OP FISHEBIES. accomplished, the plants are taken indoors and prepared for shipment. " The stem is cut off, and at the same time the basal end of the frond is neatly trimmed Plants of the same size and quality are tied together into long flat bundles of rather uni- form size, and these bundles are sent by water to the kombu manufacturers. KOMBU PREPARATIONS. The forms in which kombu is made ready for consumption number a dozen or more, and illustrate the ingenuity of the Japanese in providing a varied regimen from a single article. Some of the preparations are not pleasing to the taste of Forms of hooks used in gathering kelp in Hokkaido. the average foreigner, but others are highly palatable and ought to prove very acceptable to Americans and Europeans. Shredded or sliced (Jcizami) or green-dyed (ao) kcmibu. — This is one of the most important preparations of kombu, being largely consumed at home and also exten- sively exported. The steps in the manufacture are as follows: (1) The dried kelp, as received in bundles from the Hokkaido fishermen, is immersed in large, covered, stationary iron kettles or vats containing a strong solu- tion of a dye in fresh water. A wood fire is kept under the kettles, and the solu- tion is maintained at a boiling temperature, the kelp being left therein for fifteen to twenty minutes and stirred from time to time. The dyeing imparts a uniform color to the prepared product as placed on the market, and thus serves the same purpose as the dyeing of canned French peas. Formerly a copper salt (carbonate or SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 149 sulphate) was employed, but the use of copper in this way has recently been pro- hibited by the government, and an aniline dye (malachite green) is now employed, although the latter is regarded with less favor by the manufacturers. The kelp is thoroughly cooked, and is saturated with the dye, which remains insoluble. (2) The dyed fronds are drained and then taken into the open air, where they are either spread on straw mats or suspended on poles to dry. In order to econo- mize space, a tier of horizontal poles covered with kelp may be placed between two upright poles, and in the yards of many of the kombu works the lines of freshly dyed kelp may be seen high in the air. (3) When the drying has proceeded to a point where the surface of the kelp is Kelp fishermen of Hokkaido. no longer wet, the fronds, taken one at a time and carefully spread, are rolled into wheel-shaped masses about 1 foot in diameter, in order to facilitate subsequent handling. The rolls are tied by ropes to keep them in shape, and then go to women, who unroll the fronds one by one and arrange them flat in wooden frames, making a pile 1£ feet high, 5 or 6 inches wide, and the full length of the fronds. Each pile is then tightly compressed by four transverse cords, and cut by means of a knife into four equal lengths, each held by a cord. (4) The cut pieces are then arranged by hand in a rectangular frame 4 to 5 feet square, its thickness corresponding to the length of the sections of seaweed. When the frame is filled by the evenly arranged pieces, which are sprinkled with water in order that they may pack more closely, the whole mass is highly compressed by 150 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. means of ropes, wedges, and levers. One of the side boards forming the frame is then removed, the frame is supported at a convenient height and tilted at a conven- ient angle, and the kelp is reduced to shreds by means of a hand plane, which cuts the fronds lengthwise along their edge. A factory has from 5 to 10 cutters, each with a separate press, and each using his plane in what to us seems an awkward manner— that is, he cuts by drawing the plane toward himself rather than by pushing it from him. Formerly the cutting was done with a knife held in the hand. The substitu- tion of a plane, by which shreds of more uniform thickness are obtained and the work done more expeditiously, is practically the only improvement in method in nearly two centuries. (5) The shredded kelp is spread on mats or on board platforms in the open air, Drying kelp on the beach in Hokkaido. and repeatedly turned to secure uniform drying. When the surface has become dry, but the interior still retains its moisture as shown by the pliability of the shreds the shavings are stored under cover and are ready for packing and shipment. The completed product resembles in color, shape, and feel the "Spanish moss" which festoons the trees in the Southern States. For local use it is put in paper packages, for export to China in wooden boxes. If dry it will keep for a year or longer without deterioration. Other komhi preparations.— Those species of kelp with the thickest and widest fronds are often dried with special care, so that they will lie flat and smooth, and are used in making kombu products for which the thin, narrow-fronded species are not well adapted. The different kinds of kombu now to be mentioned have been Bull. U. S. B. F. 1904. Plate IV. WOMEN ENGAGED IN SORTING THE CRUDE KELP. dyed kelp drying on poles; shredded kombu drying on mats and ready for baling. Views at an Osaka Kombu Factory. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OE JAPAN. 151 made for nearly two centuries, and the consumption at the present time is larger than ever before. The various grades, as will be seen, represent simply successive steps in the treatment of the kelp, one frond yielding a sample of each variety of kombu. («) The entire frond is dipped in vinegar until thoroughly soaked, then drained and dried in the open air. The vinegar used is of Japanese make and of the best quality, and is diluted with a very little water. The vinegar softens the frond and Gathering kelp with poles and drags. leaves it pliable; it also imparts a flavor and doubtless has a slight preserving effect. Its chief supposed or intended action, however, is to permit the special treatment which will be described. Fresh water would have the same softening effect, but would spoil the seaweed for the purpose in view. (b) With a raw-edged knife shaped like a mince-meat chopper, the Japanese artisan, holding the broad frond taut with hand and foot, scrapes the epidermis from both sides. This outer skin, which comes away in shreds, is the cheapest grade of 152 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. kombu, containing more or less grit or dirt. A second scraping brings away all of the remaining green covering, and leaves only the thick white core of the frond. This product is called kuro-tororo (black pulpy) kombu. (c) The scraping is continued with a raw-edged knife, and a hne, white, stringy mass results, which is known as shiro-tororo (white pulpy) kombu. (d) A sharp-edged knife may be used after the green coats are removed, and the scrapings then take the form of exceedingly thin and delicate filmy sheets of irregular sizes; this preparation is named oboro (filmy) kombu. (e) The remaining central band of the frond, now very thin and no longer Gathering kelp. workable in this way, is pressed into bundles with similar pieces, divided into equal lengths, and with a plane cut edgewise into shreds after the manner of the green- dyed kombu. The shavings resemble coarse hair, and the preparation has received a name {shirago kombu) which means white-hair kombu. (f) Fronds from which the outer green skin has been more or less completely scraped are often cut into small pieces of various shape — strips, squares, oblongs, circles, fans, etc. — which are then dried over a fire and made crisp; the long strips are frequently tied into peculiar loose knots. These pieces are placed on the market in this form, when they are known as hoiro (dried-on-the-fire) kombu; or they are coated with a hard white or pink icing and .called kwasld (sweet-cake) kombu. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 153 (g) The dried pieces just mentioned are sometimes pulverized and put through a fine wire sieve like a flour sieve, yielding a slightly greenish or grayish flour. A white and still finer powder is made from the deeper layers of the frond. The pow- dered preparations are named saimatsu (finely powdered) kombu. Such powders are sometimes compressed into small cakes of various shapes and coated with sugar. (h) A form of kombu known as cha (tea) kombu is prepared by taking fronds which have been subjected to the first scraping process, reducing them to shreds in the usual way by planing and, after drying, cutting the shreds into half-inch lengths comparable to the rolled leaves of green tea. FOOD QUALITIES OF KOMBU. Kombu enters into the dietary of every Japanese familj% and is one of the stand- ard foods of the country, the various preparations having different flavors and being used for different purposes. The green-dyed and shredded kombu is cooked with meats, soups, etc., and is also served as a vegetable. Strips of the dried untreated fronds are cooked with soups, fish, and vegetables, for the purpose of imparting a flavor. Fronds after being scraped once are cut in f-inch squares and boiled in soy- bean sauce, which treatment preserves them for a long time, and these pieces make an excellent relish, tasting like caviare or anchovy sauce. The Japanese name, txul-n- dani, means " boiled with soy-bean sauce. " The tea kombu and the green and white powdered kombu are used as tea, boiling water being poured on a small quantity of the preparation and a palatable drink resulting. In Osaka the pulpy or pasty residue is eaten. The powders are also used in sauces, in soups, and on rice, like curry powder. These are put on the market in bottles or tins holding about one-quarter of a pound. The kombu cut into small pieces and dried is very palatable, whether eaten dry or after immersion in hot water, having a nutty flavor. The crisp, sugared strips are excellent. Filmy sheet kombu is cooked with sauces, soups, and other dishes, like the dried, untreated strips, to impart flavor. The chemical composition of various species of seaweed used in the manu- facture of kombu is shown in the following table. The- specimens were collected in the Sea of Hokkaido, and the analyses were made by Prof. K. Oshima, of the Agricultural College of Sapporo. The figures are calculated for 100 parts of original samples of kombu: i Per cent. Laminaria angustata 22. S23 longissima in. 944 japonica 22. 968 ochotenais 23. 9.vi religiosa 22. 754 fragilis 23.100 Arthrothamnus bifidus 24. 443 Protein. Fat. Per cent. Per cent. 5.491 1.520 6.724 1.730 4.959 1.590 6.646 .860 4. 722 .X20 4.027 .654 5 822 .738 Per cent. 47.031 31.896. 47.493 41.924 42. 845 40.385 45. 572 Per cent. 4.549 6.415 5.834 6.026. 10.196 7. 152 6.437 Per cent. 18.680 27.290 17.156 20.308 18.633 24.662 16. 988 154 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. OUTPUT AND PRICES OF KOMBU. Official figures are available showing the quantity and value of the kelp gathered, dried, and sold by the fishermen during recent years. In 1901 the output was over 76,000,000 pounds, for which the fishermen received $464,000. Year. Pounds. Value. 1901 70,806,975 53,750,650 58,929,983 $464, 082 301, 389 417, 332 1900 1899 . There appear to be no statistics of the quantity and value of prepared kombu put on the maket, but the addition of 60 to 75 per cent to the cost of the raw materials would doubtless approximate the value of the manufactured article. In Osaka the output of green-dyed kombu in 1902 was as follows: For home con- sumption, 4,728,640 pounds; for export to China, 7,092,960 pounds; total, 11,821,600 pounds, valued at $132,968. The operations of one Osaka manufacturer in 1902 are represented by raw materials used, 9,900 bushels, costing $4,950; green -dyed kombu made, 600,000 pounds, valued at $8,550. Following are the average wholesale prices of the various kinds of kombu in Osaka in 1903: Green-dyed kombu, good quality, 5 yen per 100 kin (133 pounds); black pulpy kombu, from 0.35 yen for cheapest to 0.70 yen for best per kamme (8.28 pounds); white pulpy kombu, from 0.80 yen for cheapest to 1.10 yen for best per kamme; white hair kombu, from 0.50 yen for cheapest to 0.80 yen for best per kamme; finely powdered kombu, 2 yen per kamme; filnry kombu, from 0.60 yen for cheapest to 1.30 yen for best per kamme; tea kombu, 1.20 yen per kamme; kombu chips (dried on fire), from 1.80 yen to 2.40 yen per kamme; sweet cake kombu, from 1.50 yen to 1.80 yen per kamme; kombu chips in soy sauce, 1.10 yen per kamme. The powdered kombu sells at wholesale for 0.08 yen per quarter-pound tins, and 0.10 yen for quarter- pound bottles. A very large part of the supply of green-dyed kombu is exported to China. Official figures of the quantity and value of the exports for the eleven years ending in 1902 are here given. It appears that in 1901 the foreign trade was larger than in any previous year, the shipments exceeding 81,000,000 pounds. Year. Pounds. Value. Year. Pounds. Value. 1892 57,615,465 52,871,341 55,800,505 69, 773, 346 46,593,772 60,153,405 $497,313 469, 710 303,614 315, 146 304, 792 415, 732 1898 53, 031, 761 61,596,594 48, 054, 681 81,212,970 62,491,166 $355, 646 473, 041 441,864 774, 164 404, 744 1893 1899 1894 1900 1895 1901 1896 1902 1897 SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 155 AMANORI OR LAVER. THE SEAWEEDS AND THEIR CULTIVATION. The Japanese have from a very early period made use of the red laver (Por- phyra), formerly a popular food in the British Isles and sparingly eaten in the United States. The Japanese species is similar to or identical with that found in Europe and America (Por/ihyru laeini/ita or vulgaris), and grows abundantly in bays and near river mouths on all parts of the coast, but the supply is obtained almost exclusively from cultivated grounds. The local name for the seaweed is "Arnanori" or laver ( Porphyra lacuiicUa). ittiuxriori, while the prepared product is called axitkn-saiiori. The following descrip- tion of the species has been given: Fronds livid purple, gelatinous, but firm, membranaceous, composed of a single layer of brownish- red cell."; fronds 3 inches to 1J feet long, persistent throughout the year, at first linear, but becoming widely expanded and finally much lobed and laciniate; antheridia and spores forming a marginal zone, usually borne on different individuals, or when borne on the same individual not mixed, but on separate portions of the frond. Found in all parts of the world; abounds on rather smooth stones and pebbles, near low-water mark, and when the tide falls covers them with slimy films, which make walking over them difficult. (Farlow. ) The cultivation of Porphyra is one of the most important branches of the sea- weed industry, and gives to Japan a unique position, for, so far as known to the writer, in no other country is this form of aquiculture practiced. The financial results are quite remarkable, and are surpassed by but few branches of agriculture, comparing the average yield per acre. The date of the beginning of seaweed culture has not been determined, but the business is known to be very old and probably began in Tokyo Bay, which has long 156 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. had the most celebrated cultivated grounds. The next important point is Hiroshima, on the Inland Sea. The Japanese government collects very accurate statistics of this industry, and has furnished the accompanying data showing the area of the laver Preparing brush for laver cultivation. farms, the annual crop, etc. In 1901, the grounds under cultivation had an area of 2,242 acre.s. and the output was valued at $239,536, representing about 4,769,000 pounds of dried seaweed. Porphyra cultivation in 1901. Prefecture. Grounds. Number. Tokyo Kanagaw . Aichi Iwate Hiroshima. . Yamaguchi. Wakayama . Ehime Pukuoka Oita Kumamoto . Kagoshima . Total . . 1 12 14 846 6 2 2 7 2 2 8 4,395 Area (tsubo).o 1, 151, 314 7,120 221,800 185, 743 589,627 147, 800 43,027 600 147,800 3,600 74, 000 140, 000 2,712,431 Yield. Quantity (kamme)t>. 37,478 98 30,250 7,715 1*376,700 8,154 105, 000 350 485 <■ 78, 820 5,949 « A tsubo=4 square yards. a Fresh plants Value (yen). 297, 723 345 15, 527 • 7,465 126, 015 4,515 16,800 160 1,996 394 7,019 1,113 479,072 b A kamme=8.28 pounds. o Number of families of fishermen, e Number of sheets of prepared Porphyra. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 157 The following more detailed statistics show the extent of this industry in the Tokyo region during three years.- In 1901 the area of the planted grounds was 951.5 acres, and the value of the crop was $148,862, or about $156 per acre. It is reported that in 1903 the yield was valued at 600,000 yen ($300,000). Porphyra cult'uvtioii in Tokyo Bay. Year and district. 1899. Shiba Fukagawa Kyobashi Ebara Minami Katsushika . Nishitama Families of fish- ermen. 160 161 5 1,063 Area of grounds. Crop. Quantity Value. Tsubo. Total . Kanuur. 1,010 6,602 5 Li, 717 10,467 16 Yen. 6,600 39, 918 62 98,600 104,662 2,000 33, M 7 1900. Shiba Fukagawa Kyobashi Ebara Minami Katsuwhika . Total 153 113, s.'*i 6,670 161 •223, 500 2,986 9 10,000 40 3, 028 771,047 17,696 837 93,999 ft, 382 249,942 80,100 29,860 620 136. 79S 33, 641 251,019 1901. Shiba Fukagawa Kyobashi Ebara Minami Katsushika . Total 99 176 2,030 127, H00 123, OK! 15,900 781,9(15 102, 566 4,360 1.179 K10 12,336 15,489 26, 700 31, 132 7, 182 107, 940 123,809 37, 174 297,723 In October and November (in Tokyo Hay) the grounds are prepared for the sea- weed crop by sinking into the muddy bottom, in water up to 10 or 15 feet deep at high tide, numerous bundles of bamboo or brush. These bundles are prepared on shore and taken to the grounds in l>o;its at low tide, one or two men constituting a boat's crew. The bundles of brush are planted in regular lines, deep holes being made for them by means of an elongated conical wooden frame with two long, upright handles, which is forced into the mud by the weight of the fisherman. The object of these lines of brush is to intercept and afford a lodgment for the floating spores of Porjihijra. The spores become attached to the twigs and grow rap- idly, so that by the following January the plants have attained full size and are harvested from January to March, being cut from the brush as they grow. They die about the time of the vernal equinox, and the active business is at a standstill until the ensuing fall. During summer, however, the old brush is removed from the grounds, and fresh material is collected and prepared. The best grounds for growing Porphyra are in great demand, and the fishermen are often in conflict over them. The local Bundle of brush and conical frame used in planting brush on soft bottom. 158 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. governments lease the planting privileges. In Tokyo, where five classes of licenses are issued, de- pending on the yield of the grounds, the license tax is from 0.20 to 0.70 yen. It is reported that the quality of the cultivated Porphyra depends very much on the weather, and is best when frequent rains and falls of snow have ren- dered the shallow water more or less brackish. Too large a proportion of sweet water is unfavorable to the growth of the plant. A century or two ago ama- nori was gathered in large quantities at the mouth of the Sumidagawa, near Asa- Planting bundles of brush on which laver is to grow. i m 1 t a ji kusa in lokyo; but as the river carried down with it a large quantity of gravel, its mouth advanced more and more into the sea, and, the water near Asakusa becoming too fresh, the plant disap- peared. Owing to this circumstance, the above-described mode of cultivation was instituted. The plant has, however, pre- served its former name of Asakusa-nor! , PREPARATION* AND UTILIZATION OP POR- PHYRA. While small quantities of amanori are eaten fresh, most of the crop is sun-dried before reaching the consumer. When gathered from the twigs, the seaweeds con- tain sand, mud, and other foreign sub- stances, to remove which they are washed in tanks or barrels of fresh water. After being picked and sorted they are chopped fine with hand knives. The chopped fronds are then spread on small mats of fine bamboo splints and made into thin sheets, a uniform size being attained by moans of a frame ap- plied to the mats. The mats are first placed v/ jjia^Lu Washing laver prior to sorting and cutting. A-4f^X-^lL* ^i^S^^fci / W iWr^^m^frnMnm ssJZi/ __El^^Rl]Wv ^^?ffsfl?p isisi \wB5SS V^iuftrnT r#€y r '¥*T — /^Qii "i ii SffipMjjfe SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 159 in piles and later spread on inclined frames in the open air. Drying pro- ceeds quickly, and when completed the sheets are stripped from the mats and, after pressing to make them flat, are ar- ranged for market in bundles of ten. The sheets are about 10 by 14 inches, thin and flexible like writ- ing paper, and have a dark mottled brownish-purple color and a glossy surface. Before the dried Por- phyra is eaten it is put over a fire to make it crisp, its color changing to green under this treatment. It is then crushed between the hands and dropped into sauces, soups, or broths to impart flavor. Pieces dipped in s. culinary uses of this article, which Sorting and cutting laver. nice arc also eaten alo is found in every Japa Preparing laver sheets ne and there are various other nese kitchen. Recently it has been boiled with Japanese (soy bean) sauce and put up in tins. At railway stations, at street stands, and in the push carts of vendors, as well as in private families, a com- mon seaweed food article in all parts of Japan takes the place of a sandwich in Amer- ica, and is called Hunhi, On a sheet of amanori boiled rice is spread, and on the rice strips of meat or fish are placed; the whole is then made into a roll and cut into transverse slices. From the following analyses fur- nished by the Imperial Fish- eries Bureau it appears that amanori is rich in proteid matter and is a nutritious food: 160 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. Composition of Porphyra. Locality. Suna Do Fukagawa. Shinagawa Weight of 10 Water. Protein. Tat. Ash. sheets. Grams. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 41 14. 575 32.444 0.700 9.000 37 16. 395 35. 625 .500 9.340 32 20.415- 36.263 1.210 8.830 30 15.475 34. 350 .650 10.685 The preparation of Porphyra. From a Japanese print. SEAWEED IODINE. GENERAL INFORMATION. Although the manufacture of iodine from seaweeds is of comparatively recent origin in Japan, that country now supplies a considerable part of this commodity used in the world, supplanting Scotland, which formerly produced most of the iodine extracted from marine plants. Up to ten years ago the business was very profitable, but, owing in part to competition and in part, perhaps, to a scarcity of suitable raw material, it has become less remunerative. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. lfil The chief localities for the manufacture of iodine are in Hokkaido and the pre- fectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, Yamaguchi, and Shizuoka. No general .statistics arc available, and it is not known how extensive the business now is, but the following extract from the Yokohama Shimpo gives some idea of its importance (1903): Although the manufacture of iodine in Japan can not as yet be said to be carried on extensively, yet it is a matter for congratulation that it has been so far advanced as to put a complete stop to the importation of the foreign article, and the manufacturers in all parts of the country are making pretty good profits out of the business. The general tendency is that, with the increase of demand for the chemical, the business would become one of the most important industries in the Empire. In the case of Kanagawa prefecture, Mr. Sudzuki, of Hayama, near Yokohama, started the manufacture of iodine "Kajimo" (Ecklonin cava). "Arame" i Eckhuia lnri/rfix). at that place a few years ago with a small capital. The business has now proved so successful that lie has enlarged the business to such an extent as to enable him not only to meet the demand at home but also to export some of the product to foreign countries. Probably this is now the largest factory of the kind in Japan. It is said that, as a result of careful investigations, he lias now discovered that the residue left after extracting iodine from seaweed can be used as material for making nitrate of soda and chloride of sodium, and that he at present turns out some 12,000 yen worth of the latter article in a year. The difficulty, however, seems to be that it is no easy work to collect such a quantity of sea- weed as is required in the manufacture. THE ALG.E UTILIZED. Iodine exists in many species of marine algre, and in Japan is obtained from about ten species, representing three or four genera. In Hokkaido only "koinbu" (kelp) of various kinds is used, but in other sections the seaweeds in greatest favor B. B. F. 1901—11 162 BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF FISHERIES. are "kajime" {Ecklonia cava), "arame" {Ecklonia bicydis), and "ginbaso" [Sargas- sum). The following table, based on the analyses of the Imperial Fisheries Bureau, 'shows the proportion of iodine in different alga. It will be seen that the percentage of iodine in Sargassum is very small, while kelp (Laminaria) contains by far the largest percentage in a given quantity of ash and Ecklonia the largest percentage in the fresh weed. Analyses of seaweeds from which iodine is extracted. Japanese name. Scientific name. Locality. Iodine in raw weed. Ash in 100 parts weed. Iodine in 100 parts asb. Kajime Per cent. 0.232 .251 .271 .054 .029 .180 .173 .106 .188 Per cent. 54.828 47.223 50.904 52.042 51.941 18.686 27.290 17.156 20. 308 Per cent 0.424 .531 .531 .104 .057 .990 .634 .619 .922 do Yamaguchi Prefecture do Arame Ginbaso . . . do Kombu Do .... Do . Do Laminaria angustata do .do . .do The iodine salts are not uniformly distributed in the different parts of the plants, and moreover vary in quantity from month to month. These points are brought out in detail in the following interesting series of analyses of "kajime" (Ecklonia cava) from the Chiba coast, made by the Imperial Fisheries Bureau: Analysis of Ecklonia cava. March. April. May. June. July. August. Septem- ber. Young stalk: Iodine in 100 parts of material Ash in 100 parts of material 0.061 45.42 ;i34 .063 47.27 .134 .118 46.77 .252 .101 48.42 .209 0.067 46.78 .144 .060 45.75 .130 .118 44.64 .263 .114 43.64 .261 0.093 44.28 .209 .084 43.17 .195 .147 48.76 .302 .076 45.28 .167 0.177 45.63 .388 .143 48.90 .290 .267 45.07 .592 .592 43.89 .528 Young leaf: Iodine in 100 parts of material Ash in 100 parts of material Iodine in 100 parts of ash Old stalk: Iodine in 100 parts of material Ash in 100 parts of material 0.255 49.95 .507 .294 50.16 .586 0.216 42.95 .507 .294 41.00 .717 0.142 48.30 .346 .142 54.12 .262 Old leaf: Iodine in 100 parts of material Ash in 100 parts of material The seaweeds are gathered chiefly in summer, some from the shores where they have been washed, some from submerged rocks and small stones by means of a knife attached at right angles to a bamboo pole. It is reported that the supply of alga} most valuable for iodine manufacture is diminishing. TREATMENT OF THE ALG^E. The weeds are dried on the shores in the sun, then heaped and burned. The ?sh is collected and either sold to the manufacturers or treated by the fishermen them- selves. Following is an outline of the reducing process: SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 163 The ash is washed with fresh water, and the soluble parts are thus extracted. The extract is then evaporated in iron pans over a tire, and a concentrated brine is obtained. Besides iodine, this brine contains potassium chloride, sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium sulphate, which during further evaporation crys- tallize out, leaving magnesium and potassium iodides in solution. The extract is finally placed in aglass or porcelain retort with sulphuric acid and potassium per- manganate, and boiled," the iodine passing over and depositing in crystals. This product, however, is not strictly pure, and refining is necessary. Refining factories are located in Tokyo and Osaka. The fishermen send their ash to the manufacturers in straw bags like those, used for rice. As the ash is sold by weight, the fishermen are said to be not over careful to exclude sand and other foreign matter. The output of crude iodine in Hokkaido in litol was 12,405 pounds, valued at $15,866. OTHER JAPANESE ALG/E AND THEIR USES. The foregoing are the principal seaweeds and their applications in .lapan, but there are many other species utilized in various ways. Many alga; are not objects of trade, but are emplo3 7 ed for home purposes, and the annual consumption of these is very large. Some are used for making jellies, some as vegetables, some as salads, some as condiments, and some for decorative purposes. Large quantities are also used for fertilizers. In few countries is agriculture more thoroughly intensive than in Japan, and the need and demand for fertilizers are most pronounced. Among the minor species which are especially sought and are most used, the following may be mentioned. For the information concerning them the writer is chiefly indebted to Dr. K. Oku, chemist of the Imperial Fisheries Bureau, and to the paper by Ycndo on "Uses of Marine Alga? in Japan." "Ararae"(/!(fc/« biri/clis). — This alga, which is employed in the manufacture of iodine, is also used as food and fertilizer. It grows on reefs on the coast of various provinces, and is gathered from March to July. Its greatest length is about 2 feet. The chemical composition of the plant, as determined by Prof. Dr. Edward Kinch, formerly of the Agricultural College of Tokyo University, is water, VI. 17 per cent; protein, 8.99 per cent; carbohydrates, 4-5.0!' per cent; fiber, 7.40 per cent; and ash, '24.74 per cent. "Arame " is chiefly eaten as an ingredient of soups, as a salad, or mixed with soy-bean sauce. In localities where it grows abundantly it is sometimes spread on the land. The dried stem is very hard and may be used as handles for knives or other such implements. "Kajima" {Eckh>i\iu can/) is not used for food, but is extensively employed for the decoration of houses on festive occasions. ■• Hijiki" (Ci/xto/>lit/lhnii fitxiformc) grows on rocks that are exposed at low tide, and is gathered therefrom between % January and May. In January and February, when it is very small and tender, its quality is better than in other months; the largest size attained is 6 to S inches. This species is sun dried and is ready for use aftep boiling in fresh water or cooking with soy-bean sauce. Following is the chepiical composition, according to Doctor Kinch: Water 16.40 per cent, protein 8.42, carbohydrates 41.1*2, fiber 17.06, and ash 16.20. 164 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. " Wakame" ( Undaria pinnatifida) is dried and sold in bales, and is a common food article in parts of Japan. Before being used it is washed with fresh water, and then eaten as a salad, cooked with soy-bean sauce or put in soups. Yendo states that the peasants in northern Japan cut off the ripe' sporophyls (fronds bearing sacs) and press them into a slimy liquid which is eaten after mixing with boiled rice. In some places "wakame" is treated much like "ama-nori" before being eaten; that is, it is put in a basket or tray with a wire mesh bottom and parched over a slow char- coal fire. Another method of preparation, peculiar to the province of Shima, is to cut the dried weed into 1-inch lengths and put them in cans or other vessels with sugar. The thick root of "wakame," called "mehibi," is often dried, shaved, or cut into thin slices, and eaten with sauce (iniso). "Wakame" usually grows on rocks in currents or where the water is not sluggish, at depths of 20 to 40 feet. It is gathered in many provinces during winter by means of long poles terminating in a radiating cluster of long teeth or prongs, the weeds being torn from their attachment by a twisting motion. "Suizenji-nori" {Phylloderma sacrum). — This species derives its name from the place where it is prepared. Suizenji is a park in Higo Province near Kumamoto, belonging to an old lord of the famous Hosokawa family. In this park is a large fresh-water pond, and at the lower end of this pond is a small lake from which "suizenji-nori" is gathered, and on the shore of which it is dried. This product is ordinarily eaten with raw fish (sashimi); the dry weed is soaked in fresh water, and after it has swelled boiling water is sprinkled over it and then soy- bean sauce is added. In the time of the feudal system this preparation was regularly presented to the local daimyo. "Awo-nori" (Entermnorphacompressa, E. intestinalis, and E. linza) grows in river mouths where fresh and salt water mix, and is cropped from November to April, being preserved hy drying in the sun in sheets or bunches. Dr. O. Kellner gives the following analysis of dried E. compvessa: Water 13.60 per cent, protein 12.41, fat and carbohydrates 52.99, fiber 10.58, and ash 10.42. "Awo-nori" is eaten after being gently heated over a charcoal fire and crushed or powdered; it has a very good flavor, and is used chiefly as a condiment. The first two species are abundant on the United States coasts. "Aosa" ( ZHva lactuca), the well-known sea lettuce of the United States, is much used in Japan in the same way parsley and lettuce are often employed by Americans — that is, as a garnishment for meats, fish, and salads. "Mini" (Codiuin tomentosum, C. nnicvonatiim, 0. lindenbergii). — These species grow on rocks and stones along the shores of various provinces, and are cropped in April or May. After drying they are preserved in ash or salt. They are prepared for food by boiling or baking in water, and are put in soups; or, after washing, by mix- ing with soy-bean sauce and vinegar. "Haba-nori" (Phylliti* faxeia). — This plant is prepared for use after the manner of "awa-nori" (Purpliyra), principally by peasants of the provinces of Awa and Sagami. The young fronds are dried in the sun in sheet form and subsequently parched, powdered, and mixed with soy-bean sauce. "Matsuma" (Cliordarin (tbiiiinu). — This species, which resembles a spray of fir, abounds in northern Japan, and is consumed in large quantities by the peasantry. SEAWEED INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. 165 [t is preserved by packing in salt, and is cooked with soy-bean sauce. Yendo refers to an interesting use to which it is put, namely, the preservation of mushrooms. The mushrooms are washed in fresh water and then packed in tight barrels in layers alternating with layers of salted seaweed. " Mozuku " (Mesogloia decipiens) reaches a length of about 1 foot, and is gathered in April or May while young. It is preserved by salting, and is eaten after wash- ing out the salt and immersing in soy-bean sauce or vinegar. "Hondawara" (Sargassum e?ie/'ve) grows on reefs on the seacoasts, and is used as fertilizer after being piled on the shore and allowed to decompose. When the plant is young it is eaten in soup or with soy-bean sauce. It has a bright green color when dried, and has been employed from a very remote time, intertwined with Zaminaria, in New Year's Day celebrations. Numerous other species of S to 12 inches. It is generally preserved by simply drying, or by mixing with ash or salt, and is eaten in soup or after mixing with vinegar and soy-bean sauce. In some places " umi-zomen " (JV. hibrioum) is dried, bleached, and eaten like the foregoing species. "Tosaka-nori," meaning crest-like seaweed (Kail linen in dtnlw* for the purposes for which the latter is gathered. Among them are several species of Chomlnm found on the California coast; various species of Gracilaria, found from Key West to Cape Cod and also on the Pacific coast; Ewcheuma imforme, found in the Key West region: and Gigarthw. mamUlom and numerous other species of G/'gnrtena, which closely resemble Chmulrm and abound on our east and west coasts. The plant has from time to time been gathered on various parts of the New England coast, but at present is utilized at only a few localities in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, the principal place being Scituate, where it would seem the busi- ness has always been more important than at any other place on our coast. It is recorded (Wilcox, 1887) that prior to 1835 the small quantity of Irish moss used in this country was imported from Europe and sold here at one to two dollars a pound, and that in the year named Dr. J. V. C. Smith, at one time mayor of Boston, made it o-enerallv known that the "moss" which abounded on the Massachusetts shores lti'j 170 BULLETIN OK THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. was the same as that which was imported at such a high price. From that time to the present Irish moss has been prepared at Scituate, and in 1879 was the leading marine production. By 1853 the price, which in 1835 was $1 a pound, had dropped to 25 cents, and by 1880 to 3 or Si cents. About 1880 the average annual yield was 5,000 barrels of dried weed, averaging 90 pounds to the barrel. The methods of conducting the business have changed but little in many years, and the simple apparatus required remains the same as in the early days of the industry. ' Mr. T. M. Cogswell, of the Bureau of Fisheries, has furnished the data on which the following account is based. A small part of the crop is gathered by hand, but most of it is torn from the rocks by means of rakes used from boats. The rakes are made especially for the purpose, and. have a 15-foot handle and a head 12 to 15 inches wide, with 24 to 28 teeth 6 inches long and an eighth of an inch apart. The gathering season extends from May to September. If the rocks are not scraped too clean in the early part of the season, it is said to be possible to get two crops in some of the warm, sheltered coves, where the alga grows much faster than in the more exposed places. '.^ — ~-K!f-— j*v y4-^tt£^sr!Sra%<3S£ The output in recent 3 r ears has varied considerably, owing chiefly to the inclination or disinclination to engage in the business. Some years a large number of people seem moved by a desire to gather the weed, while other seasons only a few go into the business. Occasionally heavy storms do damage by tearing the plant from the rocks and scat- tering it along miles of beach. There is said to be a scarcity at times, owing, it is supposed, to too active gathering the previous season, the rockt being almost completely denuded. In the preparation and curing of Irish moss fair weather and much sunshine are prime requisites. When first brought ashore, the plants are washed in salt water and then spread upon the sandy beach to dry and bleach. After twenty-four hours in good weather they are raked up and again washed and again spread on the beach to dry. Three washings are usually sufficient for complete cleansing, curing, and bleaching, but as many as seven are sometimes given. After the final washing the plants are left in the sun, the entire process requiring about two weeks of good weather and warm sunshine. The plants gradually fade, and ,by the time the curing is finished they are white or straw colored. Two more weeks are then required to sort and prepare the product for shipping. Irish moss ( Chondrus crispus). UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE UNITED STATES. 171 Great care has to, be exercised in the curing to prevent the rain from spoiling the crop, and when a storm is impending the moss is hastily raked in piles and cov- ered with canvas. Should it chance to get wet in the last week of its curing, it is practically ruined. The moss is sent to market in barrels holding 100 pounds, and the first of the crop is usually shipped in August. The product has a wide distribution in the United States and Canada, a part of it going to druggists and grocers, but much the larger part to brewers and firms handling brewers' supplies. The wholesale price was 4 to ±i cents per pound in 1902, and 5 to 5£ cents in 1903. From information regarding this business recently gathered by the Bureau of Fisheries, it is seen that 136 men were employed in gathering this plant in 1902; the boats, rakes, and shore property used were valued at over $12,000; and the quantity of dried algae sold was 740,000 pounds, with a market value of $33,300. In 1898 the output was 770,000 pounds, valued at $24,825. Statistics of the Irish moss industry of A>/<> Jinf/hiud for 1902. Locality. Men. Boats. Rakus. Shore property. Product. Num- ber. Value. Num- ber. Vulue. Pounds. Value. Massachusetts: 100 5 10 15 6 15 12 14 81.M73 S:i75 S.Y OIK) 600,000 30,000 60,000 100,000 50,000 $22,500 1,350 2,700 4,500 2, 250 200 480 730 240 5 j 26 i 200 10 I 50 000 15 75 700 Plymouth Harbor and White New Hampshire: (', 30 1,500 136 54 3,523 111 555 8,000 740,000 33,300 Irish moss of excellent quality is now placed on the market in 1-pound and half- pound boxes, selling at retail for 45 cents and 25 cents, respectively; it is intended chiefly for making blanc mange, and is used as follows: Soak half a cup of dry moss in cold water for five minutes, tie irua cheese-cloth bag, place in a double boiler with a quart of milk and cook for half an hour; add half a teaspoonful of salt or loss, according to taste, strain, flavor with a teaspoonful of lemon or vanilla extract if desired, and pour into a mold or small cups, which have been wet with cold water; after hardening, eat with sugar and cream. To make a demulcent, for coughs, place moss in cold water and heat gently until the liquid is of a sirupy consistency, then strain and add sugar and lemon juice to suit taste. Other uses to which it has been put are the making of jellies and puddings, the clarifying of beers and the sizing of fabrics. VEGETABLE ISINGLASS FROM GELIDIUM CORNEUM. The identical species of alga from which the Japanese prepare their " kanten, : ' or vegetable isinglass, grows in abundance on our Pacific coast, and is also found at various places between Florida and Maine. Other species ( G. coulter/', G. cartila- qlimoit) exist on the coast of California and about the Philippine Islands. The high price of this product and the large consumption of it and fish isinglass in the United States warrant the belief that a profitable business could be established. 172 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. Isinglass made from Gelid! am is one form of agar-agar, now so extensively used in making culture media in bacteriological work. Other sources are the Australian and Asiatic plants, Eucheuma spinosum, Gracilaria lichenoides, G. tenax, and other related species, which yield the products known in commerce as agar-agar, agar-agar gum, agal-agal, Bengal isinglass, Bengal isinglass gum, Ceylon moss, Ceylon agar- agar, Chinese moss, etc. Vegetable isinglass is composed largely of gelose or pararabin, a substance remarkable for its gelatinizing properties, which exceed those of any other known product. It is insoluble in cold water, alcohol, dilute acids, and alkalies; its melting point is 90° F; it has eight times the gelatinizing power of ordinary gelatine and isinglass; and 1 part to 500 parts of boiling water forms a jelly on cooling. Gelose jelly keeps well, but owing to its high melting, point is not so well adapted for food preparations as some other jellies. dulse (Rhodymenia palmata) . The dulse is found along the shores of all the States from North Carolina to Maine, and is very abundant in New England. It is rough-dried in the sun, and eaten dry as a relish. It is met with in stores in the coastwise towns of the Eastern States, but is usually brought from the C?nadian provinces, and has not figured in recent statistical canvasses of the New England fish- eries. Other species of this genus grow on the west coast of the United States. Several other alga? known as dulse in Europe, and used in the same way as Rhodymenia, are represented by various species on the Pacific coast of America. In Ireland, dulse is eaten with butter and fish, and is also boiled in milk with rye flour (Simmonds, 1883). Some gentlemen in the Scotch Highlands known to Stanford (1884) are quoted as holding that "a dish of dulse boiled in milk is the best of all vegetables." Swan (1893) states that dulse is common on the northwest coast and is an article of diet among the Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte Island and other tribes, although not in general use. Like the green and purple laver used by the same Indians, it is dried and compressed into blocks, and as needed is sliced with a sharp knife, soaked in fresh water, and boiled. Swan partook of an Indian meal of dulse boiled with halibut and found it very palatable. Dulse (Rhodymenia palmata) . UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE UNITED STATES. 178 laver (Porphyra hic/niatii). This alga is found in abundance along the entire coast, but is not collected except sparingly by Chinese, who obtain most of their supply from Asia. It was recorded in 1876 by Farlow that laver was imported from China by the Chinese living in this country, even by those as far east as Massachusetts, although the plant is common on the Massachusetts shores. The considerable demand for Porpliyru among oriental people in the United States should be supplied from local sources, the algae being prepared after the Japanese method or by simple washing and drying. In Ireland, where it is called "sloke," laver is boiled and served with butter, pepper, and vinegar as a dressing for cold meat. GIANT KELP; GREAT BLADDER-WEED {JSerrnCt/xt i* luth'ana). This most remarkable plant, which attains an enormous length, grows on the Pacific coast from Monterey Bay northward. Swan (1893) writes as follows regard- ing it in the Puget Sound region: The Nereocystii of the northwest coast is said, when fully grown, to have a stem measuring 300 feet in length, which bears at its .summit an air bulb, from which a tuft of upward of 50 long, streamer-like leaves extend, each of which is from 30 to 40 feet in length. The stem, which anchors this floating mass, though no thicker than a common window cord, is of great strength and flexibility, and has for ages been used by the natives as fishing lines, being first cut of the required length, which is where the stem begins to expand into the hollow tube, and varies from 10 to 15 fathoms, then soaked in fresh water in a running brook until it is nearly bleached, then stretched, rubbed tn the required size, and dried in the smoke in the lodge. When dried it is very brittle, but when wet it is exceed- ingly strong, and equal to the best flax or cotton fishing lines of the white fishermen. These pieces, varying from 10 to 15 fathoms each, are knotted together to the required length of 80 fathoms, required in the deep-water fishing around the entrance to Fuca Strait, or 200 fathoms at Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, where the natives take the black cod at that profound depth. Until within a few years the coast Indians used the upper or hollow portion of these great kelp stems as recep- tacles for holding dog-fish oil, which, together with the paunches of seals and sea-lions and whale gut, properly prepared, were the utensils found in every house for hold- ing the family supplies of whale, seal, or salmon oil which are used as articles of food, or for dog-fish oil, which is used for trading purposes only. Sow, however, the Indians are using coal-oil cans, barrels, and other uten- sils easily procured from the white traders, and the use of kelp for holding oil is nearly abandoned. Among my collections for the National Museum in 1885 I received a number of specimens of Giant kelp i Xrreocystis liitkeana). 174 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. this kelp which had been used for dog-fish oil. I split one open and found that the oil had hard- ened the inside of the kelp tube to the consistency of leather. This specimen I washed with soap and water, then wiped it to remove the moisture, and then rubbed and manipulated it after the manner used by natives in dressing deer skins, and when perfectly dry by this process of continual rubbing, it was soft and flexible, presenting an appearance of wash leather, but if allowed to dry without manip- ulation it would be hard and brittle. A party of coast Indians were camped on the beach at Port Townsend, and, at my request, they showed me their method of preparing kelp for holding oil. The great stems of the Nereoci/rtis are covered with a thin coating of silex, which is carefully pealed off as one might peel the skin from an apple; only the hollow or upper part of the stem is used. When the skin is removed the tube is placed above the fire and smoke in the lodge, and, as it dries, the salt it contains exudes on the surface; this is carefully removed by rubbing, which also serves to soften the kelp and render it pliable. It is then again placed over the fire, and the process continued until the salt is removed; then the tube is blown up like a bladder and allowed to dry until it will retain its shape, and it is then filled with dog-fish oil and is ready for market. The rude and simple experiments I made with this giant kelp convinced me that it is capable of being converted into articles of commercial value, but as I had not the means of conducting experi- ments, or of procuring the machinery requisite to the manufacture of the kelp products on a scale of commercial importance, I have allowed the matter to rest until some one of enterprise and capital may be found ready to continue these investigations. ****** it During a residence of many years in the vicinity of Cape Flattery, at the entrance of Fuca Strait, I have had ample time and opportunity to observe the great masses of the giant kelp and other marine plants which are torn up by the roots every fall by the storms and piled by the waves along the beach at Neah Bay. I have frequently noticed, when a mass of this kelp has been thrown into a pool of fresh water, that in a few days it is covered with this slippery substance, which Stanford (1884) has named algin, and I think that the JVereon/slis is rich with this valuable ingredient. The supply of the raw material is practically unlimited, and if attention shall be directed to the valuable uses to which this plant and other algae may be put, I feel confident that a new and important industry will be developed. FOOD PREPARATIONS FROM THE KELPS. Numerous species of Laminar ta exist on the northern parts of both -coasts of the United States. The only use to which the plants are now put is for fertilizer. There is no question but that some of the Japanese "kombu" preparations would meet with ready sale, not only among Chinese and Japanese in the United States and its island possessions, but also among natives. The forms of "kombu" which are likely to prove most acceptable to the American palate are the powders, films, and dried sticks. It occurred to the writer that the crisp sticks might be broken into small pieces and serve as a breakfast dish, like oatmeal or other cereal. An Osaka manufacturer accordingly prepared some in the form of small rectangular flakes, which, when moistened with milk or hot water, formed a very wholesome and agree- able dish. KELP AND OTHER SEAWEEDS CONTAINING IODINE. Algse representing species identical with or similar to those used in Scotland, France, and Japan in the manufacture of iodine abound on the northern coasts of the United States, but are never used for this purpose. In view of the large con- sumption of iodine in the United States and the facility with which it may be prepared, in crude form, at many places on the New England and North Pacific UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE I'NITED STATES. 175 coasts, it is quite remarkable that no one has undertaken the manufacture of this product. Supplementary to the outline of the Japanese method of preparing iodine, it is therefore deemed advisable to give some account of the iodine industry in Scotland. Nearly all marine algse contain iodine, but a few have such a comparatively large quantity that they are utilized almost exclusivelj'. In the early days of iodine and soda manufacturing on the Scotch coasts, only " rockweeds'" or '• wrack," technically known as cut-weed kelp, were used; they represented three species — namely, Fun/x I'exiculoms, F. serratiis, and Ascophijlhun nodosum. Stanford (1884) gives an interesting historical account of this industry: This crude substance (kelp), which for many years made the Highland estates so valuable, was at first made as the principal source of carbonate of soda. At the beginning of the century it realized £20 to £22 per ton, and the Hebrides alone produced 20,000 tons per annum. The im- portation of barilla then began, and for the twenty-two years ending 1822, the average price was £10 10s. The duty was then taken off barilla, and the price of kelp fell to £8 10s.; and in 1823, on the removal of the salt duty, it fell to £3, and in 1831 to £2. It was used up to 1845 in the soap and glass factories of Glasgow, for the soda. Large chemical woTks were then existing in the island of Barra for the manufacture of soap from kelp, and a very large sum of money was lost there. In the meantime, soda was being largely made by the Le Blanc process, and superseded kelp, which was always a most expensive source, yielding only about 4 per cent, often less than 1 per cent. It must have cost the soap- makers what would be equal to £100 per ton for soda ash, the present price of which is £6. The manufacture of iodine and potash salts then began to assume some importance, but the kelp required was not the same, that which' contained the most soda containing the least iodine and potash. Chloride of potas- sium, the principal salt, was at one time worth £25 per ton. The discovery of the Stassfurt mineral speedily reduced this price to about a third, and the further discovery of bromine in this mineral also reduced the price of that element from 38s. per pound to Is. 3d., its present price. The amount of bromine in kelp is small, about a tenth of the iodine, and not now worth extracting. Large quantities are now produced in Germany and America. More recently, the manufacture of iodine from the caliche in Peru has attained large proportions, and has so far reduced the price of that article as to make its manufacture from kelp unremunerative. * * * The plants were cut at low tide, floated ashore, dried ami burnt. * * * This kelp, burnt into a dense fused slag, contained the most carbonate of soda, and was that variety which employed so many poor crofters and cotters, ami enriched so many Highland lairds. It is now worth- less, and the Fuci, which hang from the rocks at low water in luxurious festoons, are now entirely unutilized. Rock weed ( Fuctus vefiicuhsus) . 176 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. From the following table given by Stanford, showing the quantity of iodine in various seaweeds, the preponderating value of Laminaria for iodine manufacturing will be apparent: Ioiliiie in, ami-dried ncaweeiU. Species. Per cent. Pounds per ton. Species. Per cent. Pounds per ton. Laminaria dig! tata, "tangle;" stem... frond. stenophylla; stem frond saccharina, "sugar 0. 4535 .2946 .4028 .4777 .2794 .1966 .0572 10.158 6.599 9.021 10. 702 6.258 4.403 1.281 Fucus serratus, "black wrack" vesiculosus, ' ' bladder wrack ' ' . Halidrys siliquosa, ' ' sea oak " Hymanthalia lorea, "sea laces" Chordaria flagelliformis 0.0856 .0297 - .2131 .0892 . 7120 .2810 . 1200- Trace. Nil. 1.807 .665 4.773 1.998 1.594' 6.294 2.688 Chorda filum, "sea twine" Ascophyllum nodosum, "knobbed Chondrus crispus, ' ' Irish moss" Three methods of extracting iodine have been followed in Scotland, known as the kelp process, the char process, and the wet process. The following accounts of them are abridged from Stanford's report (1. a), and from Stanford's article in Thorpe (1899): Kelp process. — This, the primitive method, is similar to that pursued for the extraction of soda from rockweeds. It is unsatisfactory and wasteful, owing to the fact that a large part of the iodine is lost by evaporation and a large. part of the remaining substances are not utilized. One hundred tons of wet seaweed usually make 5 tons of dried kelp, and, as only half of this is soluble, 2£ tons are the actual product of the labor of cutting, carrying, drying, and burning 100 tons of raw weed. The fused mass of carbon and ash resulting from the burning of the dried weeds is lixiviated with water, and the solution is evaporated to remove the chlorides, sul- phates, and carbonates; the concentrated mother liquid is then treated with sulphuric acid, the resulting sulphur and sulphates are removed, and the remaining acid liquor is treated in a lead-lined retort with manganese dioxide, which, with the free sul- phuric acid, liberates iodine; the iodine passes off in vapor and is condensed in a series of earthenware receivers adapted to the retorts. The chemical reaction in this case is as follows: 2KI+ Mn0 8 -f 2H 8 S0 4 = K 2 S0 4 + MnS0 4 + 2H 2 0+ 21. Char -process. — This has for its object the prevention of loss of valuable material by volatilization and decomposition, and consists in heating dry seaweed in iron retorts or "brick ovens. The tangle swells in the retorts and is converted into a very porous charcoal, from which the salts are readily washed. , This charcoal is reported to be an efficient decolorizer and deodorizer. The superiority of the char process over the kelp process will be seen from the following comparison of the results of treating four tons by each process: 1 Item. Kelp j Char process. 1 process. Item. Kelp process Char process. Crude product pounds. . 1,500 1 3,000 18.7 i 37.5 657 i N77 13.27 , 29. 25 Loss of iodine do Loss of salts per ton of tangle, .do Loss of iodine per ton of tangle . . do 220 15.98 54 3.99 Salts recovered pounds.. UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE UNITED STATES. 177 Wet process.— Air-dried tangle is boiled with a solution of sodium carbonate, and the mass is filtered. The precipitate, is composed largely of cellulose, while the filtrate contains, besides the salts, a peculiar gummy substance, algin. When the Citrate is treated with sulphuric acid, algin is precipitated. The solution, after the removal of algin, is neutralized with calcium carbonate, evaporated, the easily crys- tallized salts are removed, and the mother liquor is treated for iodine in the usual manner. This process is the most economical, in that it increases the yield of salts and iodine and reduces the cost by the production of algin and cellulose. The compara- tive value of the three processes may be readily appreciated from the following table, the figures being on a basis of 100 tons of dry tangle: Items. Kcl| procc Dry weed utilized (per cunt) . Crude product { tons) Salts extracted (tons) Iodine extracted (pounds) . . Residuals (Ions): Kelp wasle (valueless) ... Charcoal Tar; ammonia Algin Cellulose Dextrin, etc is 'Si t'luiT Wei process. process. 311 70 :K "33 IS ■M lilllj 600 20 IS " Water extract. Writing of the Scotch iodine industry, Stanford (I, c.) noted that the "drift kelp", the only kind now used in making iodine, consists of two species of Lam!- ■mtrhi, which are always submerged and are torn up l>v the violent gales so common on the west coast. In Ireland the plants are sometimes cut under water with long-handled hooks. These plants are much damaged by rain or fresh water and are often, after drying, almost valueless, but if properly cured they contain ten times as much iodine as the rock weeds. OTHEK USES OF THE KELPS. The collateral substances produced during the extraction of iodine by the wet process deserve consideration on account of their prospective value in the arts. These substances are algin, cellulose, dextrin, and mannite, in addition to the various salts elsewhere referred to. The following account of algin and its com- pounds is adapted from Stanford (ISS-t), by whom this substance was discovered: If the long fronds of the iMmintiria [digitatci] be observed after exposure to rain, a tumid appear- ance will be noticed, and sacs of fluid are formed from the endosmosis of the water through the membrane, dissolving a peculiar glutinous principle. If the sacs be cut, a neutral, glairy, colorless fluid escapes. It may often be seen partially evaporated on the frond as a colorless jelly. This substance, which is then insoluble in water, is the remarkable body to which has been given the name of Algin. The natural liquid itself is miscible with water, but coagulated by alcohol and by mineral acids. It contains calcium, magnesium, and sodium, in combination with a new acid, which is called alginic acid. When this natural liquid is evaporated to dryness it becomes insoluble in water, but it is very soluble in alkalies. This new substance is so abundant in the plant that on maceration for twenty-four hours in sodium carbonate in the cold, the plant is- completely disintegrated. The mass B.B.F. 1904—12 178 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. thus obtained has great viscosity, and is difficult to deal with on that account. It consists of the cellulose of the plant mixed with sodium alginate. The cells are so small that they pass through many filters, but by cautiously heating it, the mass can be filtered through a rough linen filter bag, the cellulose beingjeft behind, and after the algin is removed, this is easily pressed. The solution contains dextrin and other extractive matter, and it is then precipitated by hydro- chloric or sulphuric acid; the alginic acid precipitates in light gray albuminous flocks, and is easily washed and pressed in an ordinary wooden screw press. It forms a compact cake, resembling new cheese, and has only to be stored in an ordinary cool drying room, where it can be kept any length of time. If desired, by adding a little bleach during the precipitation, it can be obtained perfectly white. The algin can be sent out in this state; it is only necessary to dissolve it in sodium carbonate in the cold for use. If, however, it be sent out as sodium alginate, it must be dissolved to saturation in sodium carbonate, the carbonic acid is disengaged, and sodium alginate is formed. If potassium or ammonium carbonate be used, the alginates of potassium or ammonium are formed, which are similar -to the soda-salt. The bicarbonates of these alkalies may also be used; but the caustic alkalies are not such good solvents. The sodium alginate forms a thick solution at 2 per cent; it can not be made above 5 per cent, and will not pour at that strength. Its viscosity is extraordinary. It was compared with well-boiled wheat starch, and with gum arabic in an ordinary viscometer tube; the strengths employed were as follows; it was found impossible to make the algin run at all over the strength employed: Gum arabic solution, 25 per cent, took 75 seconds=l in 3. Wheat starch solution, 1.5 per cent, took 25 seconds=l in 8. Algin solution, 1.25 per cent, took 140 seconds=l in 112. So that algin has 14 times the viscosity of starch, and 37 times that of gum arabic. The solution may be alkaline, or neutral, or acid, according to the degree of saturation; if alka- line, it may be made distinctly acid by the addition of hydrochloric acid, but any excess at once 1 coagulates it; a 2 per cent solution becomes semisolid on this addition. The evaporation is effected in a similar manner to that of gelatin, in thin layers on trays or slate shelves, in a drying room with a current of air, or on revolving cylinders heated internally by steam; high temperatures must be avoided. The solution keeps well. Thus obtained, the sodium alginate presents the form of thin, almost colorless, sheets, resembling gelatin, but very flexible. It has neveral remarkable properties which distinguish it from all other known substances. It is distinguished from albumen, which it most resembles, by not coagulating on heating, and from gelose by not gelatinizing on cooling, by containing nitrogen and by dissolving in weak alkaline solution, and being insoluble in boiling water; from gelatin, by giving no reaction with tannin; from starch, by giving no color with iodine; from dextrin, gum arabic, tragacanth, and pectin, by its insolubility in dilute alcohol and dilute mineral acids. , It is remarkable that it precipitates the salts of the alkaline earths, with the exception of magnesium, and also most of the metals, but it gives no precipitate with mercury bichloride nor potassium silicate. Alginic acid is insoluble in cold water, very slightly in boiling. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and glycerin. The' proportion of soda ash used is one-tenth of the weight of the weed, and the cake of alginic acid obtained is usually about the same weight as the weed. The quantity of dry alginic acid is given below : Algse. Water. Alginic acid. Cellu- lose. Alga'. Water. Alginic aeid. Cellu- ! lose. I Laminaria digitata: 37.04 44.00 34. BO 21.00 17.35 25.70 2R.20 11.00 11.27 Laminaria stenophylla: 40.02 43.28 40.10 24.06 17.95 12.22 15.06 11.15 12.22 Laminaria bulboaa Laminaria stenophylla: It is not necessary to extract the salts first with water ; it comes to the same thing to act on the seaweed at once with soda ash, and to recover the salts by evaporation of the solution, after the alginic acid has been precipitated. In this case chloride of calcium, or of aluminum, may be employed, the UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS IN THE UNITED STATES. 179 alginate of calcium or aluminum being precipitated. With either salt the alginate is thrown down instead of rising to the surface of the liquid, and the cakes are more compact and easily pressed. In addition to the cheapness with which it can be procured in almost any quantity, as a by-product in alkali works, now all thrown away, the calcium chloride has the advantage of throwing down the sulphates in the salts, and decomposing them into chlorides of potassium and sodium, which are easily separated, and do not require the tedious and expensive processes necessary in the lixiviatiou of kelp. The same remark applies to aluminum chloride, which can be cheaply obtained by dissolving bauxite in hydrochloric acid. Either salt can be decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and the calcium and aluminum chlorides recovered; or the salts can be decomposed by sodium carbonate. The calcium alginate, when dry, is very like bone, as the dry alginic acid is like horn. The aluminum alginate is soluble in caustic soda, forming a neutral solution, and giving, on evaporation, a substance like algin, but harder and making a stiffer finish ; it is also soluble in ammonia, the salt becoming an insoluble varnish on evaporation. The alginates of copper (blue), nickel (green), cobalt (red), chromium (green), and zinc are all soluble in ammonia, and form beautiful colored insoluble films on evaporation. So also do the alginates of platinum, uranium (yellow), and cadmium. The latter is exceed- ingly soluble in ammonia. The alginate of chromium is also soluble in cold water, and it is deposited on boiling the solution, becoming then insoluble. With bichrome, algin acts as gelatin, the mixture becoming insoluble under the influence of light. The silver alginate dark- ens very rapidly under exposure to light, and suggests applications in photography. Algin forms a singular compound with shellac, both being soluble in ammonia ; it is a tough sheet, which can he- rendered quite insoluble by passing it through an acid bath. Algin and its salts appear to have a wide range of usefulness. Some of these are indicated l>y Stanford (1. c). Thus, as a sizing- for fabrics, algin supplies the great desiderata of a soluble gum with marked elastic and flexible properties, and of a soluble substitute for albumen which can easily be rendered insoluble and used as a mordant. As a stiffening and filling agent, algin has an advantage over starch, in that it tills the cloth better, is tougher and more elastic, is transparent when dry, and is not acted on by acids. It imparts to fabrics a thick, elastic, clothy feeling, without the stiff- ness caused by starch. An additional advantage, pos- sessed by no other gum, is that algin becomes insoluble in the presence of dilute acids: and, furthermore, no other gum has anything like the viscosity of algin, . hence it is the most economical for making solutions for sizing. The alginate of aluminum in caustic soda makes a stiff dressing; in the crude unbleached state it is a cheap dressing for dark goods, and in the colorless state for finer fabrics. A glossy, insoluble surface results from the use of ammoniated alginate of aluminum. Sodium alginate has been used for fixing mordants, and is a substitute for the various salts now used in precipitating mordants previous to the dyeing of cottons and varus. For resolving and preventing the incrustation of boilers, sodium alginate has been pronounced by experts to be one of the best preparations, precipitating the lime salts in a state in which they can readily be blown off. Sea lettuce ( Viva httissima). 180 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP FISHERIES. The charcoal formed during the manufacture of iodine by the wet process, when combined with algin, has been largely used for covering- boilers, under the name of carbon cement. Three per cent of algin is sufficient to make the charcoal cohere, and a cool, light, and efficient covering is formed. As an article of food, algin has been suggested for thickening soups and puddings, and as a substitute for gum arable in making lozenges and jujubes. It contains about the same percentage of nitrogen as Dutch cheese, and has a faint, pleasant flavor best expressed by "marine." In pharmacy it has a place in the emulsifying of oils, as an excipient in pills, and for refining spirits. The cellulose obtained from the Zaminarise, as before described, bleaches easily and under pressure becomes very hard, so that it can be easily turned and polished. A good tough paper can also be made from it. 1 Badderlocks " U laria cscukmia) . ( Sehizymen lit edtdis) . Farlow (1876) records that the rough-dried stems of Linuuuir'ia mccarhina, L. hmg 'il*eu ednh'x, which occurs on the Oregon coast as well us in Europe and Japan, is a food product in Europe, being eaten like dulse, and known by that name in Great Britain. REFERENCES. Faklow, "W. G. 1873. List of the Seaweeds nr Marine Algie of the Snath Coast of New England. Report I ' S. Fish Commission 1872, pp. 281-294. 187li. List of the Principal Useful Seaweeds occurring mi the Tinted States Coast. In List of Marine Algiv of the United States. Report I*. S. Fish Commission 1874-75, pp. 691-718. 1882. The Marine Algie of New England. Report V. s. Fish Commission 1879, pp. 1-210, plates i to xv. SlMMONDS, P. L. 1883. The Commercial Products of the Sea. Third edition. Stanford, Edwaud ('. C. 1S84. On the Economic Applications of Seaweed. Journal.il' the Society of Arts, Vol. XXXII, 1883-84, pp. 717-732. | Quoted in part l>y Swan, " Notes on the Fisheries and Fishery Industries of Puget Sound," Bulletin V. S. Fish Commission 1893. ) 1886. Alginic Acid and its Compounds. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1886, pp. 21K et sei|. Swan, James G. 1893. On the Economic Value of the Giant Kelp and Other Seaweeds of the .Northwest Coast of North America. In Notes on the Fisheries and Fishery Industries of Puget Sound. Bulletin V. S. Fish Commission 1893, pp. 371-380. Thorpe, T. E. 1889. A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Article "Iodine." Wilcox, W. A. 1887. [Irish Moss Industry of Scituate.] Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section II, Geographical Review, pp. 219-220. ■ ; ' ■ . •